Nee AAI ran aE ae, Staten tennant AP Ahtnttnan ano MAIN Ags, cabin er OA rtne ea ed ea ee en = Ne eer erage tnt oe od ghia ee * Cot Nariman Sa eee * ry ery a ~~ a~ oe - Pan Nel Pm ee te ” ~ See aa \ ROL ntl 2 . -: i Ye ee ae “Ne SS Ortlie e a : ae eed ateleseied ae . gpg ae Aes oon “ne Pane OO ere, Renan a, dinate ch coe ee ir - lien ee Senne a ere ee . . retest, crn Anne Seat a . - . oa - . Settee ee Pret nan oe. iy Sue “« tel. neta en ” Net nh tien de, — ~ « eh etane Renee ating tg Seas Aine A 9maony PAPO me NE Me ee carey Pte et a a CT Wb ee heats nt areetietia tenn ne Pol aa a rn HSS nie ne — t tel ae ; Rh CEO: raver de 4 j i wi i j ‘ SRA ing as / 7 att ou q 4 o- NH : iO) \ bl “a x ‘ ie \ ; thy é i + Nea 4 if “ry, pl Bitar pn eran Dee f | Seirye an ¥ 1 my bi | a’ _ Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 49 DEAN F. MaRTIN Editor BARBARA B. MARTIN Co-Editor Published by the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC. Orlando, Florida 1986 The Florida Scientist continues the series formerly issued as the Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences. The Annual Program Issue is published independently of the journal and is issued as a separately paged Supplement. Copyright© by the FLorrpa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Inc. 1986 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49 NuMBER | A Comparison of Fatty Acids and Sterols in Two Significant Florida Marine Algae, Ptychodiscus brevis and Nangachlorissp: 2.2. 22.0... Abdelhamid Hamdy and Dean F. Martin Food and Young Juvenile Lemon Sharks, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey), Near Sand Key, Western Florida Bay LR AL DSSS I SSS SS eR ra a The Status of Calisto hysius batesi (Lepidoptera, Satyridae) with the Description of a New Species of Calisto from SUS Tey oe ee ere Juan Carlos Correa and Albert Schwartz A New Subspecies of Synapte malitiosa (Lepidoptera: Beeteae) trom Hispaniola ..2 62-0066 eee ee ees Albert Schwartz and William W. Sommer Social Organization and Biased Primary Sex Ratio of the Evening Bat, Nycticeius humeralis ee Ee ee James R. Bain and Stephen R. Humphrey Bryophytes from Mangroves and Adjacent Shoreline Plant mennaneeeee Sta av TIOTIGA ooo Sas ew ek eee ee D. TeStrake, R. B. Lassiter, J. A. Lassiter and D. A. Breil Proposed Soltuion-Hole Breccia Origin for the Carrefour EY tS 20) Donald W. Lovejoy Citrus Blight Assessment Using a Microcomputer: Quantifying Damage Using an Applie Computer to Solve Reflectance Spectra of Entire Trees........... Haven C. Sweet and George J. Edwards pt Sia SS oy os a Ge ee Dean F. Martin Notes and Comments on the Late Pleistocene Glyptodont, Glyptotherium floridanum from Florida ................000000 0 eeu David D. Gillette and Phillip M. Whisler ES a ra Kendall L. Carder ome (tap symposium Annoticement ...... 2.0.2.0. 002 ee ee ee eee peeeancmne prudent Paper Awardees, 1985 .......... 2.2.2.0. 22 2 eee see NuMBER 2 Length, Mass, and Calorific Relationship of Pyerelages Animals............... James A. Kushlan, Scott A. Voorhees, William F. Loftus, and Paula C. Frohring First Records of Three Clearwing Moths (Synanthedon Tabaniformis, Synanthedon Proxima and Synanthedon NER MRED oe ory 2 os A aE wo 2 ow es Larry N. Brown Do Land Characteristics Affect Heart and Gastrointestinal Death Rates Among Florida Counties? .............. Marion L. Jackson, Chang S Li, and Dean F. Martin Abnormal Hemoglobins in Tarpon Springs Blacks ME Ren ann asad ged con Bo a oS he Curtis W. Wienker Florida’s Freezes: An Analog of Short-Duration Nuclear uurmneieeaans SH CBE TORIES 03, 5 2... Seales ws ic, geo 8 Ronald L. Myers Response of Chicks to Two Drinking Water Sodium Levels Seemeteetteor Piece Ditterent Salts... 6 eck co ck ele ee ee ee B. L. Damron and W. L. Johnson Poultry Waste Lagoon Sediment as a Source of Calcium 2 SS ee R. D. Miles, D. R. Sloan, R. H. Marms, and J. E. Marion ~ 10 104 122 Burmannia Flava Mart, in Florida |, \.:.,. 7 See de es John Popenoe 126 Review 2... ee ii ne ba tes oa ee... 127 Obituary... cei ee be bee a eee en 128 NUMBER 3 Primary Production in Three Subtropical Seagrass Communities: A Comparison of Four Autotrophic Components fms |. oes do Paul R. Jensen and Robert A. Gibson 129 A Magnetic Anomaly Map of Polk County, Florida ... -“3Rgiiau ....... 0m Douglas L. Smith and Michael A. Graves 142 Biogeography of the Seashore Staphylinidae Cafius bistriatus and C. rufifrons (Insecta: Coleoptera) =: +)... .. «15 3 ee J. H. Frank, T. C. Carlysle, and J. R. Rey 148 Florida’s Right-to-Know Law ; ....:2ith hier eae Nicholas G. Alexiou 162 First Record of the Silver-Haired Bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans(_LeConte) imMionida’’...... 4cs. : 44.4. Larry N. Brown 167 Humpbacked Oyster Toadfish, Opsanus tau (Linnaeus), from North Carolina |... sss. 2. os Se ee Frank J. Schwartz 168 New Records for the Mole Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, in Penninsular Florida. . .. . (ami) oer James N. Layne, Timothy J. Walsh, and Peter Meylan 171 Succession in Florida Sandridge Vegetation: A Retrospective Study st". peers SP eee Patricia A. Peroni and Warren G. Abrahamson 176 Review ia 5 90". ete ae eee Dean F. Martin 191 NUMBER 4 The Fringe-Limbed Tree Frog, Hyla fimbrimembra (Anura: Hylidae) New Records from Costa Rica :..cesec .3.0srae ee Marc P. Hayes, J. Alan Pounds, and Douglas C. Robinson 193 Effects of the December 1983 and January 1985 Freezing Air Temperatures on Select Aquatic Poikilotherms and Plant Species of Merritt Island, Floriday: 2:72 4 a2 cso ee Mark J. Provancha, Paul A. Schmalzer, and Carlton R. Hall 199 The Relationship Between Hydrology and Vegetational Pattern Within the Floodplain Marsh of a Subtropical Florida Lake ............ Edgar F. Lowe 213 Periphytic Algal Growth in a Hypereutrophic Florida Lake Following a Winter Decline in Phytoplankton ..........5. 47.5 ee Lynn M. Hodgson, Stephen B. Linda, and Daniel E. Canfield, Jr. 234 Depositional History of Three Pleistocene Bluffs in Northeastern Blorida:. 20. su. 2505. ee Colette M. Kussel and Douglas S. Jones 242 Characterization of a Localized Jack Dempsey, Cichlasoma octofasciatum, Population in Alachua County, Florida soe; 6. 3.4.3 sqeeee be wc «, « payee ere Dawn P. Jennings 255 The Chadwick Beach Cotton Mouse (Rodentia: Peromyscus gossypinus restrictus) May be Extinebia® iain sae) ee Robert W. Repenning and Stephen R. Humphrey 209 Report of a New Bat (Chiroptera: Artibeus jamaicensis) in the United States isrroneous: ....<1 0.424. +2. e300) Oe Stephen R. Humphrey and Larry N. Brown 262 Review: uo: jn Soc os, eee alec oy Sot) Ache ene Daniel B. Ward 264 Acknowledgment of Reviewers: « a 2 268 Eirgata eure accicte ats s Soeygn ioera it Jo Rieger eee rene k= > 268 Index, Volumeé 49% ...22 Scns 2 & 5 5 ee es 269 AB fe ys : ee i = Uae * z : 7 > * - . , F r ct 4 ~ y vie >t -4590 098. oO aty a= . ~ > Ga, ~~ is “aie FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1986 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripa SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $15.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1985-86 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. RicHarp L. TURNER Biology Department Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, Florida 32901 President-Elect: Dr. PAN PAPACOSTA Physics Department Stetson University DeLand, Florida 32720 Secretary: Dr. PATRICK J. GLEASON 1131 North Palmway Lake Worth, Florida 33460 Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH 5636 Satel Drive Orlando, Florida 32810 Executive Secretary: Florida Academy of Sciences 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Program Chairman: Dr. Ernest D. EsTEvEz Mote Marine Laboratory 1600 City Island Park Sarasota, Florida 33577 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MartTIN, Co-Editor Volume 49 Winter, 1986 Number 1 Environmental Chemistry A COMPARISON OF FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS IN TWO SIGNIFICANT FLORIDA MARINE ALGAE, PTYCHODISCUS BREVIS AND NANNOCHLORIS SP. ABDELHAMID HAMDY AND DEAN F. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 U.S.A. Asstract: Packed cells from cultures of Ptychodiscus brevis and Nannochloris sp. were ana- lyzed for fatty acids and sterol composition by gas chromatography following conversion to the methyl ester and acetate derivatives, respectively, and comparison with authentic samples. Cho- lesterol was the major sterol in both algae (ca. 40% of total sterols) but ergosterol (7-dehydro- cholesterol) was specific for P. brevis. 23-Methylcholesta-5,22-dien-3B-ol and 4a-24-dimethyl- 5a-cholestan-3B-ol and dinostanol comprised the rest of the sterol mixture in P. brevis. Stigma- sterol and 28-isofucosterol constituted the remainder of sterols in Nannochloris sp. Nannochloris sp. was distinguished from P. brevis by having Co, C141, and C,s.4 fatty acids; P. brevis was unique in having a Cy.2 fatty acid. Both algae have relative high concentrations of Cs fatty acids: myristic and oleic for P. brevis and Nannochloris sp., respectively. The other fatty acid compositions are described. The significance of ergosterol in P. brevis to an understanding of the mechanism of lysis of P. brevis cells is considered. ALTHOUGH considerable information is available on the sterol content of a number of algae (Withers, 1983), and even more information is available on the fatty acid content of algae (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979), there are spe- cial reasons for being concerned about the content of these materials in Ptychodiscus brevis and Nannochloris sp. Specifically, the existence of ergosterol in P. brevis (Steidinger, 1979), the causative organism of west coast Florida red tides, is significant for its role in lysis induced by substance(s) elaborated by Nannochloris sp. (Hamdy et al., 1984). The fatty acids content of both organisms is of interest for comparative purposes be- cause of the role of these substances in cell membranes, as storage products, and as potential allelopathic agents. We report the analysis of two algae for principal sterol and fatty acid components. 2 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 MATERIALS AND MerHops—Culturing of the two algae has been described previously (Asai et al., 1982; Sakamoto et al., 1983; Hamdy et al., 1984). The lipid fraction was extracted as follows: packed cells were obtained from continuous cell centrifugation using a Szent-Gyorgi and Blum apparatus and a DuPont Sorvall SS-3 centrifuge (12,000 x g). The cells (ca. 300 mg) were sus- pended in 20 ml of chloroform-methanol (1:1) solution and refluxed for 3 hr. The solid was fil- tered off, and the filtrate was evaporated under reduced pressure at room temperature to give crude lipid fraction. This fraction was purified by desalting using dilute (0.008 % ) NaCl solution. The purified lipid fraction thus obtained was refluxed for 3 hr. in a saponification mixture (25 ml of 5% ethanolic KOH, 8 ml of benzene). The liquid was distilled, nearly to dryness, the residue was suspended in water, and then extracted with 5 x 10-ml portions of ether. Combined etherial extracts were washed with water (3 x 10-ml portions) and then dried (anhydrous Na,SQ,). Following distillation of the dried ether extracts, the residue was dried to a constant weight (un- saponifiable matter). Acylation was effected by dissolving the unsaponifiable matter in pyridine, and treating with acetic anhydride, working up the acetate derivative as before (Hamdy et al., 1984). Fatty acids were separated as follows. The saponified fraction was acidified with dilute HCl (1.7 M), and the liberated fatty acids were extracted into petroleum ether (40-60°; 3 x 50 ml). The combined extracts were washed with water, dried (anh. NagSO,), and solvent was evapo- rated under reduced pressure to yield the fatty acid fraction. Esterification of the fatty acid fraction was effected by dissolving the fraction in 20 ml of absolute methanol, adding 1.5 ml conc. sulfuric acid, and refluxing the mixture in a water bath for 1.5 hr. Upon cooling to room temperature, the mixture was diluted with 25 ml of distilled water, and extracted with petroleum ether (40-60°, 5 x 20 ml). Combined extracts were washed with water several times, dried (anh. Na,SO,), and then distilled under reduced pressure to pro- duce a residue (methy] ester fraction). A Perkin-Elmer Sigma 300 gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization detector was used in all analyses. Samples were dissolved in chloroform for injection. Two different col- umns were used for sterol acetates and fatty acid esters: (1) a 10 ft. x 0.125 in. stainless steel col- umn packed with a 10% OV-101 held at 280°C isothermal, and (2) a4 ft. x 0.125 in. stainless steel column packed with 10% carbowax held isothermally at 200°C. Helium carrier gas was ad- justed to 45 and 35 cm*/min, respectively, for the two columns. Retention times for sterol acetates and for methyl esters of fatty acids were compared with those for authentic samples obtained from Sigma Chemical, Aldrich, and other sources. Resutts—The data in Table 1 indicate that the two algae differed sig- nificantly with respect to lipid content. Nannochloris sp. contained about four times the amount of crude lipids and unsaponifiable fraction than did P. brevis; the difference in purified lipids was less, but still notable. The re- sults of our analyses for sterols and for fatty acids are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively, but three specific comments are pertinent. First, for the sterols, the results are presented in terms of relative reten- tion times, RR,, which is defined as the ratio of the retention time for a given sterol to the retention time for cholesterol under identical conditions. This is a conventional approach (Withers, 1983), and it permits comparison of re- sults by different workers. It may also permit identification of sterols that have been identified previously, but which are not commercially available; specificially, the last three sterols in Table 2. The values of RR, for ergosterol and the last three sterols listed in Table 2 had good precision; standard deviations were 0.01 or less for three analyses. Secondly, concentrations for sterols were determined by integration, and again the repeatability was good. For example, the relative standard devia- tions for concentrations of sterols in P. brevis ranged from 0.5% (cholesterol) to 4% (ergosterol). No. 1, 1986] HAMDY AND MARTIN — FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS 3 TABLE 1. Distribution of fractions in two algae Percentage of total dry weight! Fraction Nannochloris spp. P. brevis Crude lipids 42.63 13.11 Purified lipids 16.55 6.44 Unsaponifiable matter 12.74 3.33 'Dry weight 300 mg for each; obtained by continuous cell centrifugation, followed by drying in vacuum oven to constant weight. TABLE 2. Sterol composition of Nannochloris sp. and P. brevis (percentage to total sterols) Sterol Nannochloris sp. P. brevis R Rt observed reported! Cholesterol oo 42.0 1.00 1.00 Ergosterol — 14.0 1.18 BAY Isofucosterol 31.7 oo 1.85 1.84 Stigmasterol 8 — 1.42 0.00 23-Methyl cholesta- — 21.8 1.07 1.07 5,22-dien-36-ol 4q-24-dimethyl-5a -- 12.2 1.50 1.51 cholestan-36-ol Dinostanol — 10.0 1.80 1.81 ‘of. Withers (1983) Thirdly, the results for fatty acids are described, using a conventional symbolism, e.g. C,,..m:.. Here, n refers to the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid, and the other integers m and o describe the location of double bonds using the carboxylic moiety as the first carbon (cf. Pohl and Zurheide, 1979). Results in Table 2 show qualitative and quantitative differences in the sterol contents. Both algae have about the same cholesterol content (44.5 and 42.0% for Nannochloris sp. and P. brevis, respectively). On the other hand, Nannochloris sp. has 28-isofucosterol and stigmasterol (31.7 and 23.8% of total sterols, respectively) that were not detectable in P. brevis. In addition, 23-methylcholesta-5,22-dien-38-ol, ergosterol, 4-a-24-dimethyl-5a- cholestan-36-ol, and dinostanol were found in P. brevis, but not in Nanno- chloris sp. Table 3 shows qualitative and quantitative differences in the fatty acid content of the two algae. For example, Cio.0, C14.1, and Cis., appeared only in Nannochloris sp., whereas C2o.2 was noted in small concentrations in P. brevis. Generally palmitic acid (C,..0) constituted the major portion of the fatty acids mixture in the two algae. The Cy2, Cy4:2, Cie.2, Cre:3, Cis.3, and C9. acids are present in moderate concentrations in both algae. Discussion—The algae considered in this study are interesting because one is responsible for Florida red tide (P. brevis) and the other may be a red tide management organism (Martin, 1983). Thus, comparison of their lipid 4 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE 3. Fatty acid pattern of the two algae Percentage of Total Fatty Acids Fatty acid Nannochloris sp. P. brevis Cio 8.70 0.00 Cy 4.00 2.30 Ci 4.0 5.30 15.00 Cis 1.70 0.00 Cis 3.00 2.40 Ci6:0 24.00 31.20 Cy6:1 9.10 9.70 Ci6:2 2.20 1.20 Ci6:3 6.00 5.30 Ci8.0 3.00 5.40 Cys: 11.00 3.70 Cis.2 5.50 1.70 Cis.3 6.50 4.00 Cis.4 3.50 0.00 C20.0 6.50 5.40 C20.2 0.00 2.70 fractions may have practical significance, just as analysis of pigment content (Steidinger and Cox, 1980) contributed to an understanding (Barltrop et al., 1983) of the survival capability of P. brevis (e.g., absence of peridinin, a photosensitizer quencher). Additional implications for taxonomy are evident as are the implications for involvement in the food chain. The sterol distribution in the two algae differs from what we would have anticipated on the basis of observations reported by others. Though both have cholesterol, the observation of ergosterol as a major sterol has not been previously noted. This may be a further reflection of the uniqueness of P. brevis, which was indicated on analysis of pigments in this and other dino- flagellates (Steidinger and Cox, 1980). The presence of ergosterol is particularly significant in view of three per- tinent observations on the mechanism of cytholysis of aponin: First, ergosterol inhibited the cytolytic action of aponin, a natural product elaborated by Nannochloris sp. that causes cytolysis of P. brevis (Moon and Martin, 1980). Second, aponin and ergosterol (but not cholesterol) form an associated species (Barltrop and Martin, 1984). Third, the observation of ergosterol in P. brevis suggests that the mode of action of aponin is the for- mation of an associated species that disrupts the structural integrity of P. brevis membrane and affects the osmoregulatory capabilities of the cell (Hamdy et al., 1984). Other sterols found in dinoflagellates (e.g. the last three in Table 2) are also observed in P. brevis. The pattern for Nannochloris sp. is also different from what might be anticipated for a marine green alga in that 28-isofuco- sterol would typically be the most prominent sterol (Youngken and Soliman, 1979). In our study, it is second with respect to abundance in the sterol fraction. No. 1, 1986] HAMDY AND MARTIN — FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS 5 Although we have chosen to emphasize the differences in sterol content, we should also note the similarities with observations of other workers. For example, the chief sterol in the dinoflagellate was cholesterol (44.5%), which is similar to the observations of others. Alam and co-workers (1979) found cholesterol comprised 56 + 9% of the sterol fraction of five species of Gonyaulax with dinosterol the other major component. For G. diagenesis, the cholesterol content was lower (38.7%) and dinosterol was not one of the three major sterols (Alam et al., 1978). In contrast, most of our data on fatty acids are in agreement with data published for other algae (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979). The occurrence of im- portant 18-carbon fatty acids with 2 or 3 double bonds is important because such fatty acids are not synthesized by animals (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979). Our findings are in harmony with those of Jamison and Reid (1972) and Wagner and Pohl (1964) who reported that palmitic acid was the predomi- nant fatty acid in many Chlorophyta species. In addition to palmitic acid, the same authors found different amounts of C2, C,4, and C,s saturated fatty acids as well as Ci6, Cis, and C2» unsaturated ones. Conc.Lusions— The distribution of sterols in Florida algal species is sig- nificant. The observation of ergosterol as a major sterol in P. brevis may have taxonomic implications as well as aiding an understanding of the mechanism of cytolysis by aponin. Finally, a caveat should be added; the use of relative retention times is a good indication of compounds present, par- ticularly if authentic samples are available. In the absence of such samples, unequivocal positive identification of such complex molecules as sterols and fatty acids would require a more detailed study using GC-MS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— One of us (Abdelhamid Hamdy) is grateful to AMID-EAST for a Peace Fellowship, and both are grateful to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences for financial assistance through grant number: 5-RO1 ES02810-03. Helpful discussion with Edward Van Vleet, Department of Marine Science, and the cooperation of William E. Swartz, Jr., Department of Chemistry, and the useful comments of Richard H. Pierce, Mote Marine Laboratory, are gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we appreciate the helpful comments of Dr. Walter K. Taylor, University of Central Florida, who served as consulting editor. LITERATURE CITED ALAM, M., K. H. ScuraM, AND S. M. Ray. 1978. 24-Demethyldinosterol: an unusual sterol from the dioflagellate, Gonyaulax diagenesis. Tetrahedron Lett. 38:3517-3518. ALAM, M., T. B. Sansinc, E. L. Bussy, D. R. Martiniz, AND S. M. Ray. 1979. Dinoflagellate Sterols I: Sterol composition of the dinoglagellates of Gonyaulax species. Sterols 33: 197-203. Asal, S., J. J. KrzaNowsk1, W. H. ANperson, D. F. Martin, J. B. Poison, R. F. Lockey, S. C. BUKANTZ, AND A. SZENTIVANYI. 1982. Effects of the toxin of red tide, Ptychodiscus brevis, on canine tracheal smooth muscle (A possible new asthma-triggering mechanism). J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 69:418-428. Bar.trop, J. AND D. F. Martin. 1984. A spectroscopic technique for evaluating sterol-aponin interactions and implications for management of Ptychodiscus brevis red tides. Microbios 41:23-29. 6 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Barutrop, J., B. B. MARTIN, AND D. F. Martin. 1983. Ptychodiscus brevis as a model system for photodynamic action. Microbios Letters 37:95-103. Hampy, A., S. W. JAHopa, AND D. F. Martin. 1984. Evidence for the existence of ergosterol in the red tide organism Ptychodiscus brevis. Microbios Letters 27:19-23. Jamieson, G. R. anv E. H. Rew. 1972. Component fatty acids of some marine algal lipids. Phytochem. 11:1423-1432. Martin, D. F. 1983. Why don’t we have more red tides in Florida? J. Environ. Sci. Health A18:685-700. Moon, R. E. anv D. F. Martin. 1980. A comparative study of the polyene antibiotic Filipin and a red tide cytolytic agent aponin. Microbios Letters 10:115-119. PouL, P. AND F. ZuRHEIDE. 1979. Fatty acids and lipids of marine algae and the control of their biosynthesis by environmental factors. Pp. 473-523. In: Hoppe, H. A., T. LEvRING, AND Y. Tanaka (eds.) Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Walter de Gruyter, New York. SAKAMOTO, Y., J. J. KrzANowskI, R. F. Lockey, AND D. F. Martin. 1983. Effect of aponin (from cultures of the green alga Nannochloris sp.) on canine tracheal smooth muscle. J. Environ. Sci. Health A18:721-728. STEIDINGER, K. A. 1979. Collection, enumeration, and identification of free-living marine dino- flagellates. Pp. 435-442. In: Taytor, D. L. AND H. H. SEticeEr (eds.) Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, Elsevier-North Holland, New York. STEIDINGER, K. A. AND E. R. Cox. 1980. Free-living dinoflagellates. Pp. 407-423. In: Cox, E. R. (ed.) Phytoflagellates, Elsevier-North Holland, New York. Wacner, H. anp P. Pont. 1964. Zur kenntnis der polyenfattsauren meeresalgen. Naturwiss. 51:163-164. Wituers, N. 1983. Dinoflagellate sterols. Pp. 87-130. In: ScHEurr, P. J. (ed.) Marine Natural Products, vol. 5, Academic Press, New York. YOUNGKEN, H. W. anp F. M. Souimman. 1979. Microbial transformation of marine sterols: fucosterol, and isofucosterol. Pp. 609-628. In: Hoppe, H. A., T. LEvRING AND Y. TANAKA (eds.) Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Walter de Gruyter, New York. Florida Sci. 49(1):1-6. 1986. Accepted: January 14, 1985. Biological Sciences FOOD OF YOUNG JUVENILE LEMON SHARKS, NEGAPRION BREVIROSTRIS (POEY), NEAR SANDY KEY, WESTERN FLORIDA BAY THOMAS W. SCHMIDT National Park Service, South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida 33030 Asstract: The food habits of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris, were investigated by examining the stomach contents of juveniles between 58 and 100 cm in total length from shallow grass flats near Sandy Key in western Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Small demersal fish, mainly Opsanus beta and Lagodon rhomboides, and the commercially important pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, were the most common dietary items of N. brevirostris in the coastal marine waters. Small, fast-moving pelagic fishes were also found in the shark's diet. KNOWLEDGE of the feeding relations of component species in the food chain is essential to establish their trophic level in an ecosystem (Odum 1970). Fish food habit studies are useful in determining some of the higher trophic connections through the marine ecosystem. While the foods of many south Florida coastal fishes have been examined in detail (as summarized in Odum 1970), studies concerning the diet of lemon sharks are particularly lacking. Except for portions of studies cited below, there is limited qualitative and no quantitative information on the diet of lemon sharks, which as noted by Springer (1950), are particularly abundant off south Florida. Previous qualitative studies dealt primarily with the diet of the adults and are limited to five reports (Baughman and Springer 1950, Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Dahlberg and Heard 1969, Snelson and Williams 1981, and Springer 1950) of which only one, Springer, has provided general observations on their feeding preferences during the times they utilize the shallow grass flats. Gruber (1982) is currently addressing the role of the lemon shark as a tropical marine predator. The present paper examines semiquantitative and quantitative feeding data of N. brevirostris from inshore locations near Sandy Key in western Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Food information presented in this paper is based on 18 specimens collected dur- ing the course of a former investigation (Schmidt 1979). MeEtHops— Lemon sharks were obtained from monthly seine collections of fishes made at three sites in western Florida Bay, from May 1973 through June 1974. Twenty-eight specimens were seined from the western side of Sandy Key (25°02'N, 81°01'W) during May, July, August, September 1973, February, May and June 1974 with the largest number of individuals during June (3, 4, 4, 1, 1, 3, and 12, respectively, for the seven months). Two specimens were seined from two nearby localities, Man-O-War and Joe Kemp Keys, about 10 km east of Sandy Key dur- 8 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 ing October. Eighteen of these 30 specimens, all from Sandy Key except for one shark from Man- O-War Key, were found to contain food within the stomach and were used in this analysis. Based on eight monthly water quality determinations made when sharks were captured, means and ranges in physical water parameters were as follows: salinity, 36.8 ppt. (31.5-40.2 ppt); temperature, 27.6°C (20.6-31.4°C); turbidity, 1.3 ftu (0.5-3.3 ftu). Water depths ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 m with a mean depth of 0.7 m. A 15.2 x 1.2 m haul seine (6 mm mesh in the wings and 3 mm mesh in the bag) was used in sampling during the day (1100 to 1500 hrs) upon shallow grass flats adjacent to sandy beaches on incoming tides. Immediately after capture all specimens were allowed to suffocate, placed in 10 percent formalin (there was no regurgitation of stomach contents), and taken to the laboratory. Total length (straight-line) was recorded to the nearest mm and stomachs from specimens con- taining food were removed. Prey items were separated taxonomically and measured volumetrically by water displacement to the nearest 0.1 ml. Carapace length of pink shrimp prey were also recorded. Three methods were used to determine the contribution of different prey items to the shark’s diet: (1) the percentage of total individuals of all prey categories comprised by the individual prey category, (2) the percentage volume of a prey category for all individuals sampled to the total volume of the stomach contents of all sharks, and (3) the percentage of total stomachs containing food in which a prey category occurred. The stomach contents of all sharks were pooled for these analyses. The index of relative importance (IRI) was also used because it incorporates all three methods and yields a better assessment of the dietary importance of a prey category (Pinkas, et al., 1971). The index was calculated as IRI = (N+V)FO, where N = numerical percentage, V = volume percentage, and FO = percentage frequency of occurrence. Resu.ts — The diet for the entire sampling period is summarized in Table 1. A total of 10 prey taxa were observed in the stomachs. Pisces were by far the most important prey group, making up to 77.1% of the diet by number and 87.7% by volume. Pisces identification was often difficult due to partial digestion and this obscured the importance of some species. Pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides and gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta, had the two highest indicies of relative importance of the food items identified. Pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, constituted a substantial portion of the lemon shark diet, TABLE 1. Stomach contents of 18 Negaprion brevirostris, (57.7-99.9 cm TL) from the Sandy Key area, Florida Bay, Monroe County, Florida, captured during 1973-74. N = percentage of total number; V = percentage of total volume; FO = frequency of occurrence; IRI = index of relative importance (see text). Prey Item N‘, % VP 1% FO, % IRI Pisces total ee 87.7 94.4 15,557 Opsanus beta 8.3 12.0 16.6 337 Lagodon rhomboides 4.1 19.2 i 258 Eucinostomus gula 4.1 7.4 | 128 Haemulon sp. 2.0 16.6 5.6 104 Floridichthys carpio 4.1 1.4 11 61 Anchoa hepsetus 4.1] 1.3 11.1 60 Membras martinica 2.0 0.6 5.6 15 Unidentified 47.9 29.2 50.0 3,855 Crustacea Penaeus duorarum 22.9 12.0 38.9 1,358 Vascular plant Thalassia 0.0 0.2 8 | 2 Grand Total 100.0 100.0 * Total number of organisms— 48 » Total volume of food items— 270.7 ml. No. 1, 1986] SCHMIDT — FOOD OF JUVENILE LEMON SHARKS 9 accounting for 38.9% of the diet by frequency and 22.9% by number. Pink shrimp had the highest IRI of all identifiable prey. The size of pink shrimp ingested apparently was not related to predator size, as six sharks (58, 62, 65, 69, 70, and 82 cm TL) consumed 10 Penaeus with carapace lengths of 19, 4-5, 5-6, 21-22, 3, and 6 mm, respectively, for these sharks. Discussion — Small demersal fish and juvenile pink shrimp were the principal prey of young lemon sharks observed in this study. Because the literature on the diet of lemon sharks contains mostly random observations it is difficult to draw conclusions about the relative importance of specific items as food. Springer (1950) observed juveniles apparently feeding in schools of mullet. He also noted that crustaceans (mainly amphipods) were found in the stomachs of young sharks. In Georgia, Dahlberg and Heard (1969) observed that an adult (239 cm) contained two small stingrays (Dasyatis). Clark and von Schmidt (1965) working off the west central coast of Florida noted that mostly fishes, including catfish (Bagre marinus and Arius felis) and mullet (Mugil sp.), and octopods were consumed, but they did not give the number or size of sharks examined. In the Indian River, Florida, region Snelson and Williams (1981) found portunid crabs and fish (Dasyatis sp., Anguilla rostrata, Mugil sp., and Chilomycterus schoepfi) in the stomachs of three sharks (158-255 cm TL). Gruber (1982) verified the presence of fish and crustaceans in the diet of sharks collected in the Florida Keys. The diet of the small sharks probably reflects both the availability of the prey items in the habitat and some selectivity based on the size of prey the sharks can easily digest. O. beta, L. rhomboides, and P. duorarum their most important (based on the IRI method of stomach analysis) identifiable food sources, are numerical dominants in the grass beds from the vicinity of Sandy Key in western Florida Bay (Schmidt 1979). Negaprion fed on pink shrimp over a relatively wide size range which approximated the size range of juvenile Penaeus collected in the above study. The young sharks, from the results of the present study and prior studies, consumed two principal categories of fishes: slow-moving demersal species, non-schooling in nature, and fast-moving fishes of the surface or subsurface which tend to school over shallow, grass bed habitats. Young juveniles in this study derive their nourishment mostly from fish and shrimp which, in the context of energy flow, form the “middle” trophic groupings as classified by Odum (1970:122-23). Thus, it appears that young Sandy Key specimens are car- nivorous consumers near the top of the food chain with small fish and shrimp constituting the bulk of their diet. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS —I thank James Tilmant of the South Florida Research Center for critically reviewing the manuscript. To those who assisted in the field, particularly, Vivie Thue and Catherine Spadero, go my sincere appreciation. 10 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 LITERATURE CITED BAUGHMAN, J. L., AND S. SprincER. 1950. Biological and economic notes on the sharks of the Gulf of Mexico with special reference to those of Texas and with a key for their identifi- cation. Amer. Midl. Natur. 44:96-153. Cxiark, E., AND K. von ScHMipT. 1965. Sharks of the central gulf coast of Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. 15:15-83. DaAHLBERG, N. D., AND R. W. Hearn. 1969. Observations on elasmobranchs from Georgia. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 32:21-26. Gruser, S. H. 1982. Role of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey), as a predator in the tropical marine environment: A multidisciplinary study. Florida Sci. 45:46-75. Ovum, W. E. 1970. Pathways of energy flow in a south Florida estuary. Ph.D. dissert. Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. Pinkas, L., M. S. OLIPHANT, AND I.L.K. Iverson. 1971. Food habits of albacore, bluefin tuna, and bonito in California water. Calif. Fish. and Game, Fish Bull. 152:1-105. ScHMipT, T. W. 1979. Seasonal biomass estimates of marine and estuarine fishes within the western Florida Bay portion of Everglades National Park, May 1973-July 1974. Pp. 665- 673. In: Linn, R. (ed.). Proceedings of the First Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks. Vol. I (Transactions and Proceedings Series-NPS, No. 5). SPRINGER, S. 1950. Natural history notes on the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. Tex. Jour. Sci. 3:349-359. SNELSON, F. F., JR., AND S. E. WituraMs. 1981. Notes on the occurrence, distribution, and biol- ogy of elasmobranch fishes in the Indian River lagoon system, Florida. Estuaries 4:110- 120. Florida Sci. 49(1):7-10. 1986. Accepted: January 18, 1985. FROM THE EDITORS Acceptance dates are now listed at the end of each article. This practice will allow establishment of priority, should it become desirable. It may also allow readers to wonder about the difference in time between acceptance and publication. The delay may be the consequence of a quarterly publica- tion, or the page limitation (ten free pages per volume per author), delays in returning galley proof, or fit (shorter articles can sometimes be accom- modated more easily). We hope you agree with the policy. DFM, BBM Biological Sciences THE STATUS OF CALISTO HYSIUS BATESI (LEPIDOPTERA, SATYRIDAE) WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF CALISTO FROM HISPANIOLA ‘)JuAN CARLOS CorREA AND ‘?) ALBERT SCHWARTZ ‘5790 W. 17th Ave., Hialeah, FL 33012 and ‘Miami-Dade Community College, North Campus, Miami, FL 33167 Asstract: Study of long series of C. hysius hysius and C. hysius batesi from the north and south islands of Hispaniola demonstrates that the two taxa are more properly regarded as distinct species, C. hysius and C. batesi. The separation is reinforced by chromatic, morphological, and genitalic differences. A short series of large C. hysius-like specimens from the north island is named as a new species. MICHENER (1943) described the subspecies Calisto hysius batesi based on 11 males and 2 females from the Antillean island of Hispaniola. He stated that the species appears to be spread into two regions: southwest of the Cul de Sac plain and the Enriquillo Basin, where there is a larger subspecies (C. h. hysius), and a smaller subspecies (C. h. batesi) found northeast of that plain. In addition to size, he gave characteristics of color, UN (underside) lines and number of UNHW (underside hindwing) preocellar white dots, as well as other qualitative differences between the two taxa. Bates (1935) had previously discussed the usage of the name C. hysius Godart and had examined 6 males and 3 females, all of which are from localities south of the Cul de Sac plain and the Enriquillo Basin. Munroe (1950) accepted both subspecies and briefly diagnosed them, but he exam- ined only five specimens of C. h. hysius. The range given by Munroe for C. h. hysius (southern Cordillera of Hispaniola, 1800 to 7000 feet) is incorrect; there are now specimens of C. hysius from throughout the south island, and at lower elevations on the north island (for this usage, see Schwartz, 1980). Riley (1975) accepted both subspecies but reversed their characteristics; he still attributed C. h. batesi only to the central and northwestern Cordillera. We have examined 84 males and 46 females from the north island and 103 males and 47 females from the south island, a total of 280 specimens, far more than any previous workers. In general, this suite of specimens agrees with Michener’s diagnoses of the two subspecies. But of the 46 north island females, 3 do not have the same characteristics as the north island specimens (C. h. batesi) and are as large as south island C. h. hysius. Also, from the south island, 11 of 103 males and 8 of 47 females do not agree with the characteristics of the south island butterflies (C. h. hysius). This suggests that the two populations are distinct species, rather than subspecies. There are no specimens intergradient between the two populations, because the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain (“Enriquillo Basin”) is lowland desert and 12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 highly unsuitable for almost all species of Calisto, which are generally mesophilic. Absence of intergrades reinforces the presumption that the two populations are distinct species. MeErtuHops — The following data were taken on 120 specimens: 1) FW length, in mm, taken with a ruler from body to apex; 2) UNFW (underside forewing) ocellus, longitudinal diameter, in mm, taken with a calibrated micrometer under a binocular stereoscope; 3) UNHW ocellus, longitudinal diameter, in mm, taken with a calibrated micrometer under a binocular stereoscope; 4) UNFW ocellar dots (“pupils”), counted on both FW; 5) UNHW ocellar dots (“pupils”), counted on both HW; 6) number of preocellar white dots in spaces Rs-M1, M1-M2, and M2-M3, counted on both HW;; 7) Sex determined by observation of androconial patches, which are present in males only. All color designations are from Maerz and Paul (1950). ResuLts—1) The FW length of 45 C. h. hysius males varies between 14 and 18 (x = 16.1 + .26[ = twice standard error of mean]), and in 24 C. h. batesi males between 12 and 14 (13.0 + .25). In 14 females, C. h. hysius varies between 15 and 17 (15.6 + .33), and in 15 female C. h. batesi between 11 and 16 (14.1 + .58). The differences are statistically signifi- cant (non-overlap of twice standard errors of means). 2) UNFW ocellus length of 45 C. h. hysius males varies from 2.3 to 3.8 (2.9 + .11) andin 24 C. h. batesi males between 2.0 and 3.2 (2.5 + .11). In 14 female C. h. hysius, the diameter varies between 2.4 and 3.8 (3.1 + .15) and in 15 C. h. batesi females between 2.3 and 3.2 (2.8 + .11). 3) UNHW ocellus length in 45 male C. h. hysius varies between 1.2 and 2.8 (2.2 + .12) and in 24 C. h. batesi males between 1.6 and 2.3 (1.8 + .08). In 14 female C. h. hysius the longitudinal diameter varies between 1.8 and 2.5 (2.2 + .14), and in 15 female C. h. batesi be- tween 1.2 and 2.5 (2.2 + .28). 4) UNFW ocellar dots (“pupils”) in both sexes of both taxa are modally strongly 2, with a variation of 0 to 2. There is no difference in this character between the two populations. 5) UNHW ocellar dots (“pupils”) in C. h. hysius males vary between 1 and 6, with a mode of 5 (50 of 80 HW; 25 additional males have 5 or 6 ocellar dots or a vertical pale line within the ocellus). In C. h. batesi males, the UNHW ocellar dots vary between 0 and 2, with a mode of 1 (30 of 47 HW; only 11 specimens have 2 dots and 1 specimen has no dots). Female C. h. hysius have ocellar dots that vary between 3 and 5 (with a mode of 4; 6 females have 3 dots, and 6 have 5). In C. h. batesi females, the UNHW ocellar dots vary between | and 3, with a mode of 1 (6 specimens have 2 dots, and 2 specimens have 3 dots). Thus, combining data from both sexes, in C. h. hysius only 31% of the HW have 1-3 ocellar dots, and 69% have 4 or more dots (including lines), whereas in C. h. batesi, all specimens (100%) have 1-3 ocellar dots. The occurrence of multiple ocellar dots in C. hysius has not been mentioned by previous authors. Neither Bates (1935), nor Michener (1943) in his description of C. h. batesi, commented on this condition. Riley’s (1975) plate (Pl. 3, Figs. 7a-b) does not show the condition in both specimens of C. h. hysius from south island localities. None of the above should be faulted, however, since the | presence of multiple ocellar dots is ascertained primarily by microscopic examination. 6) UNHW preocellar white dots vary from 2 to 4 (mode 4 —76%) in C. h. hysius males. In C.} h. batesi males, preocellar white dots are 2 or 3 (mode 3 —66%). In female C. h. hysius.| preocellar white dots are 3 or 4 (mode 4 —85%), and in C. h. batesi females, there are 1 or ¢ (mode 3 —40%). Thus both sexes of C. h. hysius have modally 4 preocellar white dots (78%). whereas both sexes of C. h. batesi modally have 3 (72%). These two taxa differ from each othe!) in FW length, diameter of UNFW ocellus, number of “pupils” in UNHW ocellus, and UNHW) preocellar dot number. Since there are no intermediates, it would seem logical to consider thes: two taxa as different species, as C. hysius and C. batesi. Male genitalic differences will be note: | later. | | THE PropLtEM—Since C. hysius and C. batesi occur in differen geographic regions, what then is the status of the large specimens from th north island and of the small specimens from the south island? Let us turn first to the suite of small specimens from the south island, th, No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 13 known distribution of the much larger C. hysius. There is a possibility that these specimens are identical with C. batesi (north island), or differ from it in some ways. If the former is the case, this reinforces our contention that C. hysius and C. batesi are separate species. If the latter is true, the situation may be the same; our conclusion depends upon how much the small south island population has changed from its parent on the north island. The following data were taken on 11 Pedernales males and 8 Pedernales females. Fic. 1. Male genitalia of: A, C. hysius —AS 8271; B. C. batesi —AS 3078; C, C. batesi (south island) — AS 6200. 14 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 11 males: FW length 12-13 (x = 12.6 + .33); diameter UNFW ocellus 2.3-2.8 (2.4 + .10); diameter UNHW ocellus 1.6-2.0 (1.9 + .14); “pupils” UNFW ocellus 0-2 (mode 2 —78%); number of “pupils” UNHW ocellus 0-1 (mode 1 —89%); UNHW preocellar white dots 1-3 (mode 3 —45%). 8 females: FW length 15-18 (x = 15.9 + .52); diameter UNHW ocellus 2.4-3.2 (2.9 + .20); diameter UNHW ocellus 1.6-2.3 (2.1 + .21); “pupils” UNFW ocellus 1-2 (mode 2 —83%); “pupils’ UNHW ocellus 0-5 (mode 1 — 30%); UNHW preocellar white dots 0-3 (mode 0 —64%). The Pedernales males do not differ from C. batesi, and the females differ only in two ways: 15 C. batesi FW length x = 14.1 + .58, Pedernales x = 15.9 + .52; UNHW preocellar white dots, C. batesi mode = 3, Peder- nales mode = 0. The males from Pedernales do not differ from C. batesi, and the females from Pedernales differ in minor ways from C. batesi. The male genitalia (Fig. 1B and 1C) are very similar. The valvae are long and narrow, and the unci are short and separated by a deep and broad pretegumental groove from the tegumina, which are highly arched. These - conditions differ markedly from those in C. hysius (Fig. 1A). In that species, the valvae are broader posteriorly (less finger-like) and the uncus is more flat-topped than in C. batesi. Note also that the gnathos in C. hysius is long and thin, whereas in both C. batesi populations, the gnathoi are short and inconspicuous. Accordingly, we regard the Pedernales population as south island, slightly differentiated C. batesi. Calisto hysius occurs syntopically with C. batesi at two localities: Las Abejas and Los Arroyos. This likewise reinforces the status of the two taxa. It would seem logical, then, that the 3 north island large specimens are C. hysius. But these differ from the other females in various ways. For them we propose the name Calisto aleucosticha, new species. Diagnosis: Males: unknown. Females: FW length 15-17 mm (x = 16.3 mm); UPFW brown (PI. 7C11), somewhat darker basally; UPHW concolor with UPFW; UNFW_. ocellus from Rs-M1 to barely into or midway across M3-Cul, outlined by a yellow margin, with 2 white “pupils”, the anterior central on M1, the posterior eccentric on M2; FW ocellus diameter 3.2-4.2 (x = 3.6) mm; UNHW ocellus in M3-Cul, outlined by a yellow margin with 1 central white | “pupil”; preocellar white dots in M1-M2, M2-M3 (1 specimen with a small complete ocellus in Rs-M1l): HW ocellus diameter 1.2-2.4 mm (x = 1.8 mm); UN light brown (Pl. 13B7); UNFW with a red patch (Pl. 5L10) basally in cell, extending half way across cell and ending abruptly, not bounded marginally by a dark brown line; posterior to UNFW, a very small red patch’ between M3 and Cul; both FW and HW with a postdiscal and a pair of sub- No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 15 Fic. 2. C. aleucosticha, new species. Photograph of UN (female holotype). marginal dark lines; from postdiscal line basally, dark brown on FW and HW; postdiscal lines lack pale light tan marginally; postdiscal and sub- marginal lines converge at anal angle. HOLOTYPE FEMALE: REPUBLICA DOMINICANA: PROVINCIA DE LA VEGA: Buena Vista, 11 km NW Jarabacoa, 640 m, 31.xii.1980 (C. J. Jimenez), ex colln. A. Schwartz, now in Allyn Museum of Entomology, Florida State Museum. PARATYPES: Both from Republica Dominicana: Prov. de Santiago Rodriguez: 19 km SW Moncion, 610 m (AS —Albert Schwartz collection — 8777, 6833), 2 females, 13.viii.1982, 3.viii.1981, F. Gali. Comparisons: The FW length of C. batesi is much smaller (11-16; 14.0) than that of C. aleucosticha (15-17; 16.3). The diameter of the UNFW ocellus in C. batesi is 2.3-3.2 (2.8), whereas that of C. aleucosticha is 3.2-4.2, much larger than that of C. batesi. In both species, the number of “pupils” in the HW ocellus is modally 1, and in the FW ocellus modally 2. The number of preocellar white dots in 0-2 (mode 3) in C. batesi; in the 3 C. 16 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 aleucosticha, there are 1 to 3 dots, each specimen having a different count (no mode). Comparison with female C. hysius shows that that species and C. aleucosticha resemble each other in FW length (15-17 in C. aleucosticha, 14-18 in C. hysius; the means differ slightly (16.3 versus 16.1) but the short series of C. aleucosticha cannot be validly compared with the very long series of C. hysius. The diameter of the FW ocellus has a lower mean (2.9) in C. hysius than in C. aleucosticha (3.6), although the extremes overlap broadly (2.3-3.8 versus 3.2-4.2). Four characteristics differentiate the two species with ease: (1) UNHW ocellus with only 1 “pupil” in C. aleucosticha, with 3-6 (mode 4) in C. hysius; (2) FW cell red patch not truncated by a brown line across the cell distally in C. aleucosticha; cell red patch truncated by a brown transverse cell line in C. hysius; (3) submarginal and postdiscal lines converge at HW angle in C. aleucosticha, but do not converge in C. hysius; (4) postdiscal lines without pale lines marginally in C. aleucosticha; postdiscal lines with pale lines marginally in C. hysius. It is unfortunate that none of the C. aleucosticha is a male. We suspect that the male genitalia of C. aleucosticha are much like those of C. hysius rather than like those of syntopic C. batesi. Etymology: The name aleucosticha is derived from the Greek alpha privative, meaning “without”, “leukos” meaning “white”, and “stichos” meaning “line”, in reference to the absence of pale postdiscal white accom- panying lines in C. aleucosticha. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION — As our knowledge of Hispaniolan Calisto has increased, the number of species-taxa has increased proportionately. In- sofar as we now knov, there are no Calisto that the north and south islands have in common except C. pulchella Lathy, and that species appears to be a very recent arrival on the south island from the north. Certainly C. hysius and C. batesi are a pair, as are C. chrysaoros Bates and C. galii Schwartz (Schwartz, 1983). But the amount of differentiation, due to the length of time of separation of the populations of the two islands, is greater than one might suppose. The genitalic differences between C. batesi and C. hysius are more striking than are those between C. chrysaoros and C. galii; in both cases, however, there are chromatic details and pattern differences that sug- gest that each member of these species-pairs is a distinct biological entity (species). In the case of C. batesi, C. hysius, and C. aleucosticha, a logical scenario for this trio of species is that C. batesi evolved on the north island and C. hysius on the south island, the two populations separated by the interisland marine strait that is now the xeric Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain. However, C. hysius invaded the north island and differentiated there into C. aleucosticha. On the other hand, C. batesi has invaded the south island (probably relatively very recently) and has differentiated only very slightly No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 17 there, not even to a degree that might be recognized nomenclatorially at the subspecies level. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — We wish to thank Frank Gali for the loan of material in his collection and for the photograph of the holotype of C. aleucosticha. The junior author likewise is grateful for the field assistance of Frank Gali, Kurt M. Iketani, and Joel W. Raburn in the Republica Dominicana. Specimens examined: (all in the collection of Albert Schwartz, except those marked FG, in the collection of Frank Gali. M = male, F = female). C. batesi: Haiti: Nord: 5.9 km S Dondon, 366 m, M; 3.7 km W Plaisance, 305 m, F; l’Ar- tibonite: 1.6 km E Carrefour Marmelade, 854 m, 14 M, 5 F; Republica Dominicana: Dajabon: Los Cerezos, 12 km NW Rio Limpio, 580 m, F; La Estrelleta: 2 km NE Puesto Piramide 204, 1586 m, M; La Laguna, 10 km S Elias Pifia, 732 m, M; 15 km S Elias Pifa, 976 m, 2M, 2F; 21 km S Elias Pita, 1464 m, F; Santiago Rodriguez: Loma Leonor, 19 km SW Moncion, 610 m, 6 M; Loma Leonor, 18 km SW Moncion, 534 m, 3 M; La Vega; Giiaigiii, S La Vega, 336 m, 2 M, F; La Palma, 19 km W Jayaco, 1007 m, 5 M, 2 F; 10 km W Jayaco, 915 m, F; 1 km E El Rio, 1037 m, F; 11 km SE Constanza, 1586 m, F; 12 km NE Constanza, 1220 m, 10 M, 2 F; 10 km SSE Constanza, 1647 m, F; 6 km SSE Constanza, 1403 m, 3 M, F; 1 km S Constanza, 1098 m, 4 M, 4 F; Buena Vista, 11 km NE Jarabacoa, 640 m, 5 M, F; 10 km NW La Horma, 1496 m, F; Duarte: 10 km SE Tenares, 183 m, 5 M, 4 F; Samand: 10.2 km W Samana, 61 m, 2 M; 11.1 km NE Sanchez, 244 m, 2 M; 4.5 km E Samana, 2 M, F; El Seibo: 11 km NW Hato Mayor, 122 m, M, F; Distrito Nacional: 30 km NW Santo Domingo, 122 m, 2 M; Monte Plata: 8 km W Esperalvillo, 92m, M; 11 km NW Cambita Garabitas, 672 m, M; 6 km NW Cambita Garabitas, 488 m, 4M, F; Peravia: 6 km W La Horma, 1159 m, 3 F; Azua: 4 km S Peralta, 366 m, F; 5 km SW Monte Bonito, 702 m, M; Independencia: 14 km N Los Pinos, 1159 m, 4 M, 4 F; 21 km N Los Pinos, 1708 m, F; Pedernales: 0.6 km SE Los Arroyos, 1098 m, 7 M, F; 23 km NE Cabo Rojo, 488 m, M, F; Las Abejas, 11 lm NW Aceitillar, 1220 m, 3 M (1 FG), F (FG); Las Abejas, 12 km NW Acetillar, 1129 m, 5 F (3 FG). C. hysius: Haiti: l'Ouest: Boutilliers Rd., 854-915 m, 4 M, 2 F; Peneau, 1.1 km S Furcy, 1464 m, 5M, F; 0.3 km NE Obléon, 1678 m, 7 M, 5 F; 17.0 km S Dufort, new Jacmel Rd., 702 m, M; 1.6 km N Beloc, 702 m, 2M, 2 F; 1.6 km N Decouzé, 702 m, 2 M; 2.1 km S Decouzé, 640 m, M; Sud: 14.1 km N Cavaillon, 366 m, 6 M, F; 26.1 km N Cavaillon, 610-671 m, 5 M, 3 F; 40.0kmN Cavaillon, 580 m, M; 6.6 km SW Paillant, 793 m, M; 6.7 km SW Paillant, 854 m, M; Republica Dominicana: Pedernales: 0.6 km SE Los Arroyos, 1098 m, 7 M, 4 F; 1 km N Cabeza de Agua, 275 m, F (FG); El Mulito, 21 km N Pedernales, 275 m, 5 M; 1 km S La Altagracia, + 534m, M, 2 F (FG); Las Abejas, 12 km NW Aceitillar, 1129 m, 9 M (1 FG), 2 F (FG); Las Abejas, 11 km NW Aceitillar, 1220 m, 2 M; Barahona: Polo, 702 m, 8 M (2 FG), 2 F; 3km NNE Polo, 854 m, 2 M, 2 F; 20 km SE Cabral, 946 m, M (FG); 22 km SW Barahona, 1098 m, 4M, 2 F (1 FG); 12km SW Barahona, 427 m, M, 2 F; 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 4 M (1 FG); 9km NW Enriquillo, 671 m, 12M, 4F. LITERATURE CITED Bates, M. 1935. The satyrid genus Calisto. Occ. Papers Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 8:229-248. Maerz, A., AND M. R. Paut. 1950. A dictionary of color. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, pp. vii, 1-23, 137-208, 56 pls. Micuener, C. D. 1943. A review of the genus Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae). Amer. Mus. Novitates 1236:1-6. Munror, E. G. 1950. The systematics of Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae), with remarks on the evolutionary significance of the genus. J. New York. Entomol. Soc. 58(4):211-240. Ritry, N. D. 1975. A field guide to the butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book Co., pp. 1-224. 18 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 ScHwarTz, A. 1980. The herpetogeography of Hispaniola, West Indies. Stud. Fauna Curacao and Carib. Is. 61(189):86-127. . 1983. A new Hispaniolan Calisto (Satyridae). Bull. Allyn Mus. Entomol. 80:1-10. Florida Sci. 49(1):11-18. 1986. Accepted: September 14, 1984. Biological Sciences A NEW SUBSPECIES OF SYNAPTE MALITIOSA (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) FROM HISPANIOLA (1) ALBERT SCHWARTZ AND ‘?2)WILLIAM W. SOMMER ‘’Miami-Dade Community College, North Campus, Miami, FL 33167, and ‘?)215 Riverside Ave., Theresa, NY 13691 AssTRACT: A new subspecies of the skipper Synapte malitiosa is described, based on a series of 60 specimens from Hispaniola, West Indies. ScHWaRTZz and coworkers (1985) first reported the occurrence of the skip- per Synapte malitiosa Herrich-Schaffer (commonly called The Drab; Riley, 1975:181) on the Antillean island of Hispaniola. These workers studied seven No. 1, 1986] SCHWARTZ AND SOMMER — A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 19 specimens from three localities in the Republica Dominicana; two of these localities are in the Provincia de Barahona, and the other in the Provincia de la Altagracia, some 260 km to the east of the former. They stated, “We suspect that the Hispaniolan Synapte are an undescribed subspecies, endemic to that island” (Schwartz et al.) This conclusion was based on the fact that the new material did not agree with plates of Synapte malitiosa malitiosa in Brown and Heineman (1972) or in Riley (1975). The type- locality of the species is Cuba, and there are 5 subspecies on the continental mainland; S. m. malitiosa is known only from the islands of Cuba and Jamaica. Cuban specimens of this small, drab skipper are apparently rare in American collections. Bates (1935) cited only 6 specimens from the provinces of Oriente and Las Villas. We have been able to locate four of these (2 males, 2 females) in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har- vard University, and we have compared these Cuban topotypes with Hispaniolan material. As suspected, the latter differ from the former. Moreover, we now have many more Hispaniolan specimens (60 from 13 localities). Accordingly, we here propose that the Hispaniolan population be called Synapte malitiosa adoceta, new subspecies (Figs. 1 and 2). ! Fic. 1. Synapte m. adoceta, holotype female, UP. Diacnosis — Males: FW (forewing) length 13-16 mm (x = 14.0; N = 15); UPFW (upper side forewing) dark brown, with a blackish diagonal bar paralleling the costal margin and following the cell apically into the spaces from R1 to M3, where it is rather clearly defined, and basally to the body, its posterior margin in Cu2-2A; along its posterior margin, a paler (tan) area from Cul-Cu2 and filling Cu2-2A, but sharply contrasting along its anal edge with the dark brown UPFW scaling. UPHW (upper side hindwing) uniformly dark brown, concolor with 20 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49 Fic. 2. Synapte m. adoceta, holotype female, UN. UPFW scales. UNFW brown, with dark UPFW diagonal cell bar indicated but smudged, the UNFW between the bar and the costal margin overlaid heavily with ochraceous scales, and a small triangular patch of similarly colored scales in M3-Cul (apex of triangle) and Cul-Cu2 (base of triangle); UNHW (under side hindwing) with an ochraceous wash but without dark edges or any transverse markings, and thus unpatterned (one male with a very vague transverse brownish UNHW bar). Females: FW length 14-16 mm (x = 15.7; N = 12); UP like males, except one female has the costal edge of the UPFW similarly colored (tan) as the postcellular bar. UNHW like males and without pattern. HOLOTYPE. REPUBLICA DOMINICANA: PROVINCIA DE LA ALTAGRACIA: 16 km NE La Romana, 61 m, 17.vi.1981, female, W.W. Sommer (ex colln. W. W. Sommer, no. 683), now in the collection of the Allyn Museum of Entomology, Florida State Museum. PARATYPES (all from the Republica Dominicana and in the collection of Albert Schwartz [AS] unless otherwise indicated): La Altagracia: 6694, 16 km NE La Romana, 61 m, 1 male, 30.vii.1981, FG; Sanchez Ramirez: 12531, 1 km NE Las Lagunas, 183 m, 1 female, 3.iii.1984, RWW;; Santiago: 10861, Rio Bao, 8 km SE Montones Abajo, 488 m, 1 male, 1.viii.1983, AS; La Vega: 10990, Buena Vista, 11 km NE Jarabacoa, 640 m, 1 male, 1.viii.1983, JWR; Independen- cia: 10390, 10396, 10398, 10404, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519 m, 2 males, 2 females, 14.vii.1983, AS; 10435-38, 10444, 10446, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519 m, 3 males, 3 females, 15.vii.1983, AS; 11119-23, 4-7 km NE El Aguacate, 519-732 m, 11.viii.1983, AS; 11538-41, 4-7 km NE El Aguacate, 519-732 m, 3 males, 1 female, 11.x.1983, AS; 11660-11661, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519 m, 1 male, 1 female, 15.x.1983, AS; Barahona: 11189, El Limon, summit, Sierra Martin Garcia, 976-1037 m, 1 male, 13.viii.1983, PEA; 10335, west slope, Sierra Martin Garcia, 640 m, 1 female, 9.vii.1983, JWR; 11210A, west slope, Sierra Martin Garcia, 488-534 m, 1 female, 13.viii. 1983, PEA; 9655, Polo, 702 m, 1 female, 24.vii.1982, FG; FG 620, 12 km SW Barahona, 427 m, 1 male, 9.vii.1983, FG; 8401, 8403-04, FG 705-06, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 4 males, 1 female, 28.vii.1982, FG, AS; 11606-07, 11609-11, 11616-17, 11620, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 6 males, 2 females, 14.x.1983, JWR, AS; 13189, 18193-200, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 7 males, 2 females, 3.iv.1984, RWH, AS; 13283, 13285, 13291-92, 13296-97, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 5 males, 1 female, 6.iv.1984, AS; 10264, 9 km NW Enriquillo, 671 m, 1 female, 5.vii.1983, AS. COMPARISONS: Synapte m. adoceta primarily requires comparison with S. m. malitiosa from Cuba. (Brown and Heineman, 1972:396, listed the mainland subspecies as pecta Evans, puma Evans, pericles Méschler, equa Evans, and antistia Plétz; these all differ from S. m. No. 1, 1986] SCHWARTZ AND SOMMER — A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 21 malitiosa and S. m. adoceta in details of pattern and coloration, especially on the UNHW;; see Howe, 1975, Pl. 91, Fig. 37, and Pyle, 1981, Fig. 230.) Males of S. m. malitiosa and S. m. adoceta are similar, except that the Cuban males are much paler (tannish brown) dorsally, most probably due to fading (collected in 1930 and before). Male S. m. adoceta reach a FW length of 16 mm (14 mm in both Cuban males). Females of the two subspecies differ strikingly. Two Cuban females are uniform pale brown above and with no indication of pattern. The UN (under sides) are paler and patternless. Female S. m. adoceta are much darker and have the “male pat- tern” of the FW well expressed. Hispaniolan females average longer FW lengths (14-16 mm in 10 specimens; x = 15.7) in contrast to 14 and.15 mm in two female Cuban S. m. malitiosa, although the latter sample is very small and does not allow for better mensural comparison. EtymMo.ocy — The name adoceta is from the Greek for “unexpected;” the generic name Synapte is feminine and adoceta is a modifying adjective. REMARKS — There remains the problem of the difference between the Riley (1975) plate (Pl. 23, Fig. 11) of a specimen of S. m. malitiosa from Rio Cano, Cuba, and specimens from Cuba. The plate shows a male that is boldly and contrastingly marked on the UPFW, and quite boldly marked on the UN as well. The Cuban males we have examined are not contrastingly colored, and none shows the paler anal fold area on the UNHW that the Riley plate demonstrates. The ground color in the specimens likewise is more dull (matte) than that in the plate. Although all the Riley hesperiid plates are much too pale in ground colors, in the case of the Synapte illustration, the condition is reversed, and the plate is much too contrasting when compared directly with specimens. In fact, the Riley plate is much more different in color and boldness of pattern from S. m. adoceta than the two Cuban males examined. Riley (1975:181) also stated that “male only with a tapering dull fulvous stripe from middle of inner margin to base of space 3 [ = M3-Cul].” From this description, Hispaniolan skippers differ in that both sexes show the same UPFW pattern, and the markings ascribed by Riley to males only occur in both sexes of S. m. adoceta. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — We wish to acknowledge the loan of Dominican Synapte to us by Frank Gali, and we recognize once more the pleasure of his company in the field on Hispaniola. The figures in the present paper are likewise Gali’s work, and we thank him for his patience. In addi- tion to Gali, the senior author is in the debt of P. E. Amador, R. W. Henderson, J. W. Raburn, and R. W. Wisor, all of whom were not only competent field companions but also secured specimens of S. m. adoceta. Specimens of Cuban Synapte (as well as other comparative material) were lent to us through the courtesy of Alfred Newton and Scott E. Miller of the Museum of Comparative Zoology; without these rare specimens, the status of the Hispaniolan Synapte would have remained uncertain. SPECIMENS EXAMINED — (other than S. m. adoceta): Synapte m. malitiosa: Cuba: Provincia de Oriente: Turquino mass, east Cuba, 1067 m, (female); Sierra Maestra, east Cuba, 305 m, (female); “Cuba,” 2 males; S. m. pericles: Tobago I.: (3 males); Honduras: Rosario Mine (1 female). LITERATURE CITED Bates, M. 1935. The butterflies of Cuba. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 78(65):65-258. Brown, F. W., anp B. HEINEMAN. 1972. Jamaica and Its Butterflies. E. W. Classey, Ltd., Lon- don, pp. xv + 478. 22 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Howe, W. H. (ed.) 1975. The Butterflies of North America. Doubleday & Co., Inc., N.Y.: pp. xiii + 633. Pye, R. M. 1981. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A. A. Knopf, New York, pp. 916. Ritey, N. D. 1975. A Field Guide to the Butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book Co., New York, pp. 224. ScHwartz, A., W. W. SoMMER, AND F. Gatt. 1985. Synapte malitiosa (Lepidoptera, Hesperii- dae) on Hispaniola. Florida Sci. 48(1):xx. Florida Sci. 49(1):18-22. (1986). Accepted: November 13, 1984. Biological Science SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BIASED PRIMARY SEX RATIO OF THE EVENING BAT, NYCTICEIUS HUMERALIS (1) JAMes R. BAIN AND (2) STEPHEN R. HUMPHREY (1) Division of Medical Products, W. L. Gore & Associates, Inc. 1500 N. Fourth St., Flagstaff, AZ 86001 and (2) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Asstract: The social unit of Nycticeius humeralis is a group of philopatric females that mates with a smaller, stable group of males. Young males disperse from the natal roost. Nondispersal of young females leads to matrilineal recruitment. Nursery populations thus appear to be kin groups in which kin selection could occur. Neonatal sex ratio is biased toward males. The two sexes of adults differ in their investment in parental care and in the variation in their reproductive suc- cess. These patterns are consistent with a model of natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring. THE purpose of this paper is to present evidence (Bain 1981) for poly- gyny, female philopatry, and biased neonatal sex ratio in the evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis). Consistent female philopatry without apparent im- migration of unrelated females should result in matrilineal inheritance. Relatedness within nursery populations should establish demic microstruc- ture across the species’ range (Wright, 1931, 1978), which could favor the spread of behavioral traits favoring kin. Polygyny indicates that the sexes differ in life history patterns and are subject to different selective pressures; these differences could favor selection for an imbalanced sex ratio at birth (Trivers and Willard, 1973). No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 23 MATERIALS AND MerHops—Observations were made at two nursery roosts of N. humeralis. The main one, studied from 1976 through 1981, occupied vertical crevices in the rafters of a pole barn near Hague, Alachua County, Florida. The second was in a house attic and adjacent pole barn near Lee, Madison County, Florida. This population was exterminated shortly after we found it. Our results refer to the Hague population unless otherwise noted. Bats were captured by hand or by gently extracting them from crevices with long, blunt steel forceps. Captures were made in late afternoon. We measured postabsorptive mass with a triple- beam balance. Individuals were classified as juveniles or adults on the basis of size, pelage, and the degree of ossification of the phalangeal epiphyses. Bats were banded with numbered, aluminum #2A lipped bat bands (Gey Band and Tag Company, Norristown, Pennsylvania 19401) for individual identification in the hand and with size X3 plastic bands (A. C. Hughes, 1 High Street, Hampton Hill, Middlesex, TW12 1NA, England) covered with reflective tape for unobtrusive observation. Tape color and side of banding allowed recognition of sex and year- class of roosting and flying bats illuminated with a rechargeable mining lamp. Usually >90% of the bats were visible in the roost by this method. Resutts—The Hague roost was occupied by a population of approxi- mately 30 adult female N. humeralis for most of the year and was predictably vacant only in mid-April. Reproductive females arrived during late April and early May. Recaptures of pregnant adults that had been banded as juve- niles the previous year confirmed the female philopatry known in northern nurseries (Humphrey and Cope, 1970; Watkins and Shump, 1981). Mini- mum annual survival rates were comparable to those published by Hum- phrey and Cope (1970). Of the 33 adult females and 11 juvenile females banded at Hague in 1976, 52% and 48%, respectively, were recaptured there a year later. By 1978 the bats seemed wary and quickly flew when disturbed, often avoiding capture. Nevertheless, seven females were cap- tured in all 3 years from 1976 to 1978. Young evening bats were born synchronously in late May. All females sampled (n = 64) at the Hague nursery were reproductive. Palpation of preg- nant females indicated twins in every case. Hague females known to be 1 year old in 1977 and 1978 had litters of the same size as those of their elders, indicating no variation in age-specific natality. However, a Lee female gave birth to triplets shortly after capture, before palpation was attempted. Sex ratios of evening bats sampled within a few days after birth are sum- marized in Table 1. Samples of older juveniles were excluded from the table to preclude bias from differential preweaning mortality or dispersal of newly flying young. The tabulated samples showed a consistent bias towards male offspring (sign test). Deviation from the expected binomial distribution was significant for the pooled samples and one individual sample, and probabili- ties between 0.05 and 0.1 occurred for three other samples. In our only size- able sample of the body mass of neonates, examined at Lee on 21 May 1977, the mass of young females (X = 2.47 g) did not differ from mass of young males (X = 2.45, t=0.13, P>0.05, d.f. = 121). After about 3 weeks of rapid growth, the young began to fly. A sudden increase in routine counts of the evening flight was noted in the third week of June. Inclusion of newly flying young in the flights was obvious from their small size and lack of grace. For the next 3 weeks, foraging often took place 24 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49 TABLE 1. Sex ratio at or near birth in Nycticeius humeralis. The litters reported by Gates and Jones were born in captivity. Data are lacking from northern nurseries. Number Number of of Percent Sign Source Location Date males females females P* _ test** Hooper, 1939 Lee Co., 24 May 1938 53 39 42 0.06 + Alabama Gates, 1941 Rapides Parish, ca. 1-6 June 6 3 33 0.09 + Louisiana 1940 Jones, 1967 ‘Franklin Co., 25 May-4 June 16 12 43 0.17 + Mississippi 1965 This study Madison Co., 21 May 1977 71 56 44 0.08 + Florida This study Alachua Co., 27 May 1976 10 8 d4 0.24 ~ Florida This study Alachua Co., 24 May 1977 15 6 29 0.01 + Florida Totals 171 124 42 0.01 *Probability of as much or more deviation from 0.5 frequency of males in a binomial distribution with a sample size of n. **For the sign test, + =more males than females. in small groups, consisting of one large bat and one or two small bats. By the first week of July, flight counts showed that the population had diminished by nearly half, and it remained at this intermediate size of the rest of the summer. Juvenile males examined at Hague on 14 June 1977 had descended testes and epididymides swollen with stored sperm. These animals appeared to be reproductively mature at an age of less than one month. Soon after beginning to fly in late June, all juvenile males banded at Hague in 1976 and 1977 (n= 18) deserted the roost and were never seen again in the roost nor foraging nearby. Similarly, no recaptures at natal roosts occurred of juvenile males banded in other studies (Humphrey and Cope, 1970, n = 41); Easterla and Watkins, 1970, n=297). By contrast, juvenile females remained at Hague, foraging with their mothers after recruitment. They evidently con- tinued to nurse for about 3 weeks longer, since milk could be expressed fron} the mammae of captured adult females until mid-July. Most adult female N. humeralis showed little loss of condition (Table 2) during 3 weeks of lactation, the most expensive phase of mammalian repro- duction (e.g., Migula, 1969). The two mothers showing greatest weight loss in Table 2 looked emaciated on 5 November 1977, and their teeth were worn almost to the gums. During the same period, other Hague adult females had gained 10-20% in body mass. These two bats were never seen again. Their extreme tooth wear may have contributed to weight loss during lactation and failure to gain weight prior to winter torpor. The third female that lost much weight during lactation, however, subsequently regained 29% of her early summer weight by 5 November, survived the winter, and bore twins the next summer. No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 25 TABLE 2. Pair-matched observations of body mass (g) of adult female N. humeralis at Hague on 14 June (lactation) and 6 July (late lactation/postlactation) 1977. 14 June 6 July Percent change 10.44 10.85 + 3.93 10.45 10.80 + 3.35 11.78 12.15 + 3.14 11.00 11.21 + 1.91 10.50 10.67 + 1.62 11.14 11.27 - WT 11.35 11.45 + 0.88 10.55 10.62 + 0.66 10.21 10.20 — 0.01 10.26 10.24 — 0.19 10.17 9.80 — 3.64 10.55 9.81 — 7.01 11.05 10.13 — 8.33 10.47 9.25 — 11.65 X+SD 10.71 +0.48 10.60 + 0.77 - 1.01 In previous studies, adult male N. humeralis rarely have been found in the northern half of the species’ range, but they have been noted commonly in the southern half (see review of published data in Bain, 1981). Conse- quently, discovery of a single adult male (male A) roosting at the small Hague colony on 14 June 1977 aroused our interest. Five adult males were captured at Hague during the next several years. None had been marked as born at Hague. Each adult male roosted alone, never occurring among the cluster of females and juveniles. Male A was present sporadically from the time juvenile males were departing through early autumn. The other adult males were first noted at the roost in early October 1977. Presence of these other males at Hague depended on the absence of male A (Yates’ corrected G =4.95, 0.05 A ee Se! Be ~S 5 See --—-" ——_ ~ _w— =-— _—_ Fic. 3. Fragmentary right mandible, buccal (outer) view; bar scale = 5 cm. ischia, and are called “ischiosacral” vertebrae to distinguish them from more anterior ones. The posterior ischiosacral vertebra articulates with the first caudal vertebra. Both ischiosacral vertebrae are included in the new material. They are fragmentary, lacking the transverse processes, and for the penultimate ischiosacral, the dorsal spine, but are similar in all respects to those previously described from Florida and Texas. The transverse processes of the terminal vertebra are considerably larger than those of the penultimate vertebra. The position and degree of fusion of the transverse processes cannot be discerned. The centra are broken at their common articulation; it appears that they were incompletely ankylosed at this joint. As recognized by Gillette and Ray (1981) for taxonomic distinction in G. floridanum, the transverse processes of both vertebrae are almost perpendicularly oriented with respect to the long axis of the centrum, rather than obliquely downward as in the other species of Glyp- totherium. The only pertinent dimensions that can be taken for these two specimens are: inside dorsoven- 60 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 tral and transverse diameters of the neural arch of the anterior ischiosacral vertebra, 30.5 mm and 21.2 mm, respectively; and, dorsoventral and transverse diameters of the posterior facet of the centrum of the posterior ischiosacral vertebra, 55.1 mm and 82.1 mm, respectively. Caudal vertebrae — Caudal vertebrae of Glyptotherium floridanum were previously known only from two specimens from Texas and none have been described previously from eastern North America. The two elements (caudal no. 6 and the three fused terminal vertebrae) de- scribed below are the first from Florida, and with respect to the terminal vertebrae, this is the first such description for the species. The isolated caudal vertebra (Figure 4) appears to belong in serial position 5, 6, or 7; assign- ment to the 6th position seems to be the best fit. The element is complete except for the right metapophysis. Dimensions for this vertebra, following the measurements defined by Gillette and Ray (1981, Table 68), are (1) a-axis: anteroposterior diameter through centrum at base, 83 mm; (2) b-axis: maximum transverse diameter of centrum at anterior extremity, 58 mm; (3) c-axis: maximum dorsoventral diameter of centrum at anterior extremity, 55 mm; (4) d-axis: maximum transverse diameter of centrum at posterior extremity, 63 mm; (5) e-axis: maximum dorsoventral diameter of centrum at posterior extremity, 55 mm; (6) f-axis: maximum transverse diameter between angles of transverse processes, 148 mm; (7) g-axis: maximum transverse diameter of anterior xenarthral processes, 5 mm; (8) h-axis: maximum transverse diameter of posterior xenarthral pro- cesses, 25 mm. Fic. 4. Isolated caudal vertebra no. 5, 6, or 7; (a) dorsal; (b) anterior; and (c) left lateral aspects; bar scale =5 cm. No. 1, 1986] GILLETTE AND WHISLER — LATE PLEISTOCENE GLYPTODONT 61 Fic. 5. Three fused terminal caudal vertebrae; (a) anterior aspect of anterior — most vertebrae; (b) right lateral aspect; and (c) ventral aspect. Vertical lines indicate positions of fused joints; bar scale=5 cm. These dimensions are consistent with assignment to caudal position no. 5 or 6 for G. flori- danum, corresponding more closely to the Ingleside specimen than the Wolf City specimen for which the vertebral assignments by Gillette and Ray were tentative. The diameter between the extremities of the transverse processes (f-axis) indicates the inside diameter of the ring of caudal armor that encased this vertebra. The dimension recorded here (148 mm) is narrow compared to that of USNM 6071, position no. 6 (240 mm) and no. 7 (175 mm). If the position assignments for USNM 6071 are correct, it appears that in the Florida specimen the caudal vertebra and the caudal armor were comparatively light. Terminal caudal vertebrae, the last several in the caudal series that fit snugly into the tube of caudal armor which protected the tip of the tail, were previously unknown for G. floridanum. Until the new material came available for study, it was uncertain how many vertebrae were in- corporated into the caudal tube and whether it was more elaborate than in ancestral species (G. texanum and G. arizonae) in which it was simple. Indeed, North American glyptodonts have oc- casionally been reconstructed with a set of spines forming a mace at the tip of the caudal armor, like that in certain South American genera; with the new material from Florida for confirmation it is now possible to state that no known species of glyptodonts in North America possessed ter- minal spines on the caudal tube. The terminal caudal vertebrae consist of three elements, each firmly ankylosed to the next (Figure 5). Based on size comparisons and lack of reason to change position assignments of Gillette and Ray (1981), it appears that these three elements are caudal vertebrae nos. 11, 12, and 13. The last vertebra, no. 13, is incompletely developed, a condition like that found in both G. arizonae and G. texanum. Dimensions for these three elements are: anteroposterior length at centrum base, 80.2 mm (no. 11), 76.7 mm (no. 12), and 11.5 mm (no. 13); transverse diameter of the centrum, anterior facet: 38.5 mm (no. 11), and approximately 33.0 mm (no. 12); total length for the fused set: 177.7 mm. 62 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The anterior centrum for no. 11 remained unfused, although the articular surface is rugose and irregular, indicating little mobility at this joint. At the anterior position the neural spine, the zygapophyses, and the transverse processes are prominent. Their distal surfaces are rugose, in- dicating nearly ankylosed union with the underside of the caudal ring that encased the joint at this position. The neural canal is complete; its diameter is approximately 3.5 mm. The haemal canal is also complete, with slightly larger diameter, approximately 3.7 mm. It is housed by the chevron bones (haemal arches) that are prominent and solidly fused at the posterior third of the centrum. The caudal extremity of the paired chevron bones extends beyond the joint between vertebrae nos. 11 and 12. Total length for the chevron bones is 66.3 mm. Caudal vertebra no. 12 lacks the neural spine; consequently the neural canal was open from this position rearward. The zygapophyses and transverse processes are reduced. The haemal canal is enclosed by the chevron bones, which are 37.2 mm long. The articular surfaces at both ends are solidly ankylosed. The terminal vertebra (no. 13) is incompletely developed; if it were disarticulated there would be little hope of identifying it as a vertebral element. It is approximately 16 mm long, and possesses prominent tuberosities at its tip and on the right side. ConcLusions—The glyptodonts that occupied the Gulf Coast and the southeastern Coastal Plain during the Rancholabrean land mammal age all pertain to Glyptotherium floridanum. New specimens from peninsular Florida demonstrate fundamental identity of the Florida glyptodonts with the Texas glyptodonts of similar age. The postulated evolutionary sequence in North America that originated with G. texanum in the late Blancan, through G. arizonae in the Irvingto- nian, and culminating with G. floridanum in the Rancholabrean (Gillette and Ray, 1981) is strengthened by the new specimens. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Curtis McKinney assisted in the collection and transportation of the specimens for study. The Shuler Museum of Paleontology, Southern Methodist University; the New Mexico Museum of Natural History; and the Florida State Museum assisted in the research leading to this report. The illustrations were prepared by Linda Ashling, artist for the New Mexico Museum of Natural History. Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr., S. David Webb, and an anonymous reviewer critically read the manuscript and provided useful comments that have been incorporated into the text. LITERATURE CITED Giuuette, D. D., and C. E. Ray. 1981. Glyptodonts of North America. Smithsonian Contr. to Paleobiology. No. 40: vi + 255 pages. Hoimes, W. W. anv G. G. Simpson. 1931. Pleistocene exploration and fossil edentates in Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 59:383-418. Lunpe.ius, E. L., Jr. 1972. Fossil vertebrates from the Late Pleistocene Ingleside fauna, San Patricio County, Texas. Rept. of Investigation, The Univ. of Texas Bur. Econ. Geology. 77: vi+74 pages. Ray, C. E. 1965. A Glyptodont from South Carolina. Charleston Museum Leaflet 27, 12 pp. Simpson, G. G. 1929a. The extinct land mammals of Florida. Ann. Rept. Fla. Geol. Surv. p. 229-279. Simpson, G. G. 1929b. Pleistocene mammalian fauna of the Seminole Field, Pinellas County, Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56:561-599. Florida Sci. 49(1):55-62. 1986. Accepted: May 8, 1985. No. 1, 1986] CARDER — BOOK REVIEW 63 REVIEW G. A. Maul, Introduction to Satellite Oceanography, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1985. Pp. x + 600. THE increasing availability of ocean data collected by Earth-orbiting satellites provides added incentive for ocean scientists to understand the scientific principles relevant to making accurate ocean measurements from space. Now a text is available which details the pertinent orbital mechanics and electromagnetic theory from the visible to the microwave end of the spectrum, with the governing equations for a given application typically derived from Maxwell’s equations. The derivations can be followed by most readers with a math background including differential equations. The text should be especially interesting to physical oceanographers, for ocean wave and thermal measurements using both optical and passive microwave techniques are included, and active microwave determinations of wind speed, water vapor, and ocean surface topography are discussed. A signifi- cant portion of the book is devoted to the visible remote sensing of subsurface reflectance, whether from the bottom or from particle constituents such as phytoplankton or suspended sediments, and a brief discussion is presented of passive microwave measurements of first and multi-year ice concentrations. For the researcher, a sizable list of references is appended, but more documentation in the text would be helpful. One serious shortcoming for a book of this price is the poor quality of the graphics and printing. Several color plates lack the dynamic range necessary for the reader to perceive the features alluded to in the text. Nevertheless, the author makes a valuable contribution by providing in one text the fundamentals required by most oceanographers to critically read articles dealing with the remote assessment of ocean and certain atmospheric properties. — Kendall L. Carder, Depart- ment of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL 33701. STONE CRAB SYMPOSIUM A symposium on the biology and fishery of the commercially valuable stone crab (Menippe mercenaria), sponsored jointly by the Florida Depart- ment of Natural Resources, Florida Sea Grant Program, and Mote Marine Laboratory, will be held at Mote Marine Laboratory in Sarasota, Florida on April 24-25, 1986. The symposium coordinator, Theresa M. Bert, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Marine Research, 100 8th Ave. S.E., St. Petersburg, FL 33701, (813) 896-8626, may be contacted for fur- ther information. 64 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Saint Leo College — 2-4 May 1985 Agricultural Sciences— Robert E. Buresh, University of Florida. Influence of four antibiotics on the utilization of energy by turkey poults. Anthropological Sciences — Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida. Some alternative interpretations of Safety Harbor burial mounds. Atmospheric, Oceanographic, Physical and Space Sciences — Kevin M. Bull, Florida Institute of Technology. Early chemical diagenesis in Mid- Atlantic Ridge sediments. Biological Sciences— Debra L. Jennings, University of Tampa. Helminths of the Mediterranean gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus turcicus, from Tampa, Florida. Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida. Modulation of substrate-specific glutathione-S transferase activity in Daphnia magna with concomitant effects on toxicity tolerance. Suzanne Succop, University of Tampa. Fertilization and male fer- tility in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Lee A. Swain, University of South Florida. Metabolism of nonpro- tein amino acids in Calliandra tapirorum seedlings. Engineering — Timothy Rudolph, Florida Institute of Technology. Produc- tion of gasoline extenders derived from levulinic acid. Environmental Chemistry — Mark S. Castro, Florida Institute of Technol- ogy. Measurements of biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected Florida wetlands. Lawrence P. Pollack, Florida Institute of Technology. Hydrolysis and degradation of aldicarb sulfone in estuarine environments. Geology and Hydrology — Mark A. Culbreth, University of South Florida. Significance of lineaments in Florida. John W. Parker, University of South Florida. VLF resistivity signa- ture of a fingered plume in a karstic aquifer. - 5OTH ANNUAL MEETING Florida Scientist Program Issue ‘APR 7 185 BOTAN. po ROEN Volume 49 Supplement 1 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1985-1986 OFFICERS PYORTRGL . 43 2 . . Richard L. Turner, Florida Institute of Technology President-Elect . .. . Pangratios Papacosta, Stetson University Past-President. . .. . James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station og 1 Be . Patrick J. Gleason, So. Fla. Water Management District Treasurer .... . . . Anthony F. Walsh, Orlando Regional Medical Center Executive Secretary . . (Acting) Joyce E. Powers, Orlando Science Center Editor. ...... . . Dean F. Martin, University of South Florida Co-Editor ..... . . Barbara B. Martin, University of South Florida Program Chairman. . . . Ernest D. Estevez, Mote Marine Laboratory Local Arrangements. . . Leslie Sue Lieberman, University of Florida Jr. Academy Coordinator Dorothy Henley, Cardinal Gibbons High School he ae ae oe Oe Karen C. Steidinger, Fla. Dept. of Natural Resources Visiting Scientist Coordinator. . .. . . Bruce Winkler, University of Tampa Awards. . ..... . . James G. Potter, Florida Institute of Technology Councillors... . . . George M. Dooris, St. Leo College M. Yasar Iscan, Florida Atlantic University Charles J. Mott, St. Petersburg Jr. College Anthony Paredes, Florida State University Section Chairs Agricultural Sciences....... Peter J. Stoffella, IFAS, University of Florida Anthropological Sciences.... W. Jerald Kennedy, Florida Atlantic University Atmospheric and Oceanographic eS raat a ee eeeeeeeee ROMAld P. Reichard, Florida Institute of Technology Biological Sciences......... Edgar F. Lowe, St. Johns River Water Mgt. District Computer & Math Sciences.... Frederick B. Buoni, Florida Institute of Technology Engineering Sciences........ R.G. Barile, Florida Institute of Technology Environmental Chemistry..... William T. Cooper, Florida State University Endangered Biota........ .... Herbert W. Kale, II, Florida Audubon Society Geology & Hydrology......... Robert 0. Clark, University of South Florida Medical SciCRCOS. isc swndiwews Ann C. Vickery, University of South Florida Physical & Space Sciences... E. Ronald Kirkland, Orlando, Florida Science Teaching.....eee. .-.- Phillip Horton, Florida Institute of Technology SRGtAl SCICNGCESs cc tsenc cane Gordon Patterson, Florida Institute of Technology Urban & Regional Planning... Wayne E. Daltry, SW Fla. Regional Planning Council FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STATEMENT OF PURPOSE The purposes of the Florida Academy of Sciences are to promote scientific research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to encourage the diffusion of scientific knowledge, to sponsor good scientific teaching, to foster public and governmental understanding and appreciation of the sciences and the industries that apply them, to assist in the formulation of long-range plans together with a time sequence of priorities for the disposition of both natural and technical resources, to promote ethical application of the sciences to the service of humanity, to bring suitable recognition for scientific achievement, to arrange meetings for the presentation and exchange of scientific findings and to publish a journal together with such other scientific works as may further the purposes of the Academy. 1986 Supplement j Program Issue 1986 PROGRAM ISSUE THE FIFTIETH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in conjunction with the Florida Anthropological Society American Association of Physics Teachers (Florida Section) and the Florida Junior Academy of Sciences and Science Talent Search Featuring a Program on the History of Florida Sciences, Two Plenary Addresses "The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very Modern Marriage" by Dr. Melvin Kranzberg and "An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and the Origins of the Everglades" by Dr. Edward J. Petuch and A Symposium "Conserving Gene Pools of Florida's Endemic Plants” sponsored by Bok Tower Gardens and the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals J. WAYNE REITZ UNION UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA April 10-12, 1986 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Volume 49 Supplement 1 ISSN: 0098-4590 Price: $3.50 published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street, Orlando, Florida 32803 Florida Scientist ij Volume 49 TABLE OF CONTENTS SSO LG 6 Sree ere eer sage ele seats ae Inside Cover TUETS PAGE. cece ce scene cece cbeh oh aaa eb ey 50s 6 Mh weet ee ee eee i Meeting Information LOCRTION..casentvccvccdsveuebetestets renee oon hie ya aun eee iii NS TS tr ek GION 6 coc ew sic.c.s oe u'mie'a.wie s.0'> sien it 0 upeep si 7 apenas areas iii POOCANG cn a woe eoeesmencus Gus 6 od Seas ee aie ee Meee ota sa wera ate iii ae INE PC 1S sw n\n: cya in ties pe rte Gomera ee ee oiig aera to oeatenae iii SISTA TRUQS 5 ec ves wnteo a cae sap ee ae esas ee wae ae Seer PROC CINOT CS oo: nia w'siay mie is ahs Se minis eed tei spall sieleueedieigios eater a2 V History of Science Program. i... Shc. cee ree cv eshece ns ie, o's oie eee ee Syaposium on Plant Conservation... ov... (ou. . cscs csnevcccsmnseun . x PROGIAM SUMMON Ys. aia c5 occ cc eso ele cleats ee maleinie a tele ese sees eine oiets Ee x1 TS oa pum sale, sain o © wom wie ie bare Wiel o ohatioimial a tareie te lel alletetal alata ia atta teen X11 Program Florida Academy of Sciences Reritul tural ScTence’. <.. .wesce on cawies 6 eee aie een eee CAGR Donen at Anthropological Science. soso cette as eee ee doe nee wre eer : Atmospheric and Oceanographic Science......cceeee scaieieca eeu CAS. Biotogiéal ‘Setencet ss. 252.653 Pe Ts Lo bo Becee eoh oe bee ots ore (BIO). Computer Science and Mathematics....... re civ oae app eeh 4 ee (CSM). ERG TNEEPFIng SCTONCES «cos damn s cas aa Dee ee oben racy Tos Environmental ChemiStry. ..'....< cee nese ee ccs Se Me ee (ENV)... 20 Geological and Hydrological Sciences athe teas\et Setanean, Oe aca aenEeen (GHY)...29 Medical Science soo. Fossa fc tee ce one ob Bete he we Sat ete oe (MED). 2x 32 Physical and Space Sciences........ woe die o's uiale te, tie st Step ae mie (PSS) oe ote Rare and Endangered Biotalees fh. se. Pe Pe es. ote bccn cceccet eee ee SCIGNGe TEACHING. «sac es ve sce ce one een o's a e.ciamnelare'e cretera oreeean een Social Science... ..scssacewe oOU SSO ee +0 Sok: wa are ae ee Urban and Regional Planning...... sherotare erates clase ones mee whe o(URP)...042 American Association of Physics Teachers...... o SO Fy. BESS oSECAPT ) W483 1985 Student Paper Certificate Recipients.......... ccc cece ee ee ee 0 45 AWENOT “IMNUOK cioi5c co's wks 06 ce Sewn se eee cane reer ae a aeccmete © 6d) ararcreveletena aaa Entertainment....... ee Te eee ayiteie, waters hu heres Poe TT ee University of Florida.............. ckiwicheiethed 6 eae ereie bine « ERSTE aCe Ver 1986 Supplement iii Program Issue MEETING INFORMATION Registrants for meetings of the Senior Academy, Junior Academy, Florida Anthropological Society, and American Association of Physics Teachers are welcome to attend all sessions of all organizations. Meeting Location The University of Florida is located in Gainesville, approximately 2 miles east of Interstate 75, not far from the state's geographic center. The University was established in 1853 and awarded its first degree in 1882. The coeducational state university is Florida's largest, with a 1985 enrollment of 36,500. The Florida Academy of Sciences was established 50 years ago at the University of Florida. An organizational meeting in February 1936 and an inaugural meeting of the Academy in May 1936 were held at the Gainesville campus. Registration All participants are required to register. A Registration Desk for the Senior Academy, Junior Academy and the Anthropological Society will be operated in the West Gallery of the J. Wayne Reitz Union from 7:30 AM to 5:00 PM on Thursday, April 10, and from 7:30 AM to 3:00 PM on Friday, April a The Academy registration fee is $15.00 for members, $20.00 for non-members, and $5.00 for students. Members receive the Florida Scientist Program Issue by mail, as will others registered by March 3. A late registration fee of $2.00 will be assessed everyone except students registering after January 17. Extra programs cost $3.50. Lodging No reservations can be made through the Academy. The following hotels are within 2 miles of the University campus and require a credit card number or One night prepayment for reservations. Special conference rates are available at some hotels if you identify yourself with the Florida Academy of Sciences. Bambi Motel: 2119 SW 13th Street; 34 rooms; (904)376-2622. Best Western: 1900 SW 13th Street; 100 rooms; (904)372-1800. Casa Loma Lodge: 2000 SW 13th Street; 53 rooms; (904)372-3654. Econo Lodge: 2644 SW 13th Street; 53 rooms; (904)373-7816. Florida Motel: 2603 SW 13th Street; 20 rooms; (904)376-3742. Gainesville Hilton: 2900 SW 13th Street; 197 rooms; (904)377-4000. Holiday Inn - University Center: 1200 W. University Avenue; 167 rooms; (904)376-1661. Sands Motel: 2307 SW 13th Street; 20 rooms; (904)372-2045. University Inn: 1901 SW 13th Street; 100 rooms; (904)376-2222. Banquet and Meals A Golden Anniversary Reception for the Florida Academy of Sciences will be sponsored by the Florida State Museum on Thursday night, April 10th, at the Museum from 6:00-8:00 PM. All meeting participants are invited to attend. Tickets are $4.00 and may be purchased at registration or at the door. Beer, wine, soft drinks, stuffed croissants (tuna, chicken, shrimp), puffed shells, cheeses, nuts, and vegetables will be served. Florida Scientist iv Volume 49 The Academy Social and Banquet will be held on Friday evening (April 11) at the J. Wayne Reitz Union Hall. Dinner follows a cash bar with pretzels and includes rolls, tossed green salad, breast of chicken with apricot glaze and apple almond stuffing, roasted English potatoes, fresh broccoli, carrot cake, and wine, coffee, or tea. Guest speaker for the Banquet is Dr. Edward J. Petuch, Florida International University, whose presentation will be "An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and the Origin of the Everglades". All participants are invited. Tickets are $12.00. Only a few tickets may be available at registration, so order yours now by registering early. Morning Coffee Breaks Thursday through Saturday include coffee, tea, doughnuts, and fresh muffins. Other Meals are available at campus cafeterias and numerous restaurants in the campus area. Field Trips 1. DEVIL'S MILLHOPPER STATE GEOLOGICAL SITE (self-guided). The Devil's Millhopper is a deep, steep-walled sinkhole with sides supporting a lush growth of ferns and other plants uncommon to peninsular Florida. Small waterfalls and seeps trickle down the banks, flow across the level floor, and disappear into the upper levels of the Florida aquifer. The shade, moisture, and cool, stable temperature have permitted the survival of northern species in this location since the retreat of the full-glacial Wisconsin climatic depression. The Millhopper may be entered by a boardwalk stairway to the bottom. A trail through oak - pine woodland circles around the Hopper, beginning and ending at a small visitor's center where a ranger is on duty. The Millhopper is northwest of Gainesville, approximately 3.5 miles from the campus. From the campus, drive west on Florida 26 to 43rd Street, north one mile, then west (following roadside Signs) one-fourth mile. Parking is available. Trails and facilities are open from 9:00 AM until sundown daily. There is no charge. 2. SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK (Leader: Dr. Daniel B. Ward). The San Felasco State Preserve is a 6,300 acre tract of diversified forested land approximately 6 miles northwest of Gainesville. It is owned by the state of Florida and is held as a conservation preserve. It is the largest protected stand of climax mesic hammock in the state. Though a portion of the Hammock has been logged selectively in years past, a portion is still virgin. Several giant live oaks, among the largest in Florida, attest to the stature of the original’ forest. Twelve plant communities are recognized: mesic hammock, lowland oak hammock, longleaf pine - turkey oak sandhill, southern red oak forest, longleaf pine flatwoods, bayhead swamp, bald cypress - mixed hardwood swamp, water elm - pop ash swamp, freshwater marsh, ponds, cleared fields, and wooded pastures. The vascular flora consists of 590 species in 120 families including many rare and endangered plants. Wildlife is abundant, and armadillo, deer, otter, turkey, and wildcats, or their tracks, may be seen. A large turkey vulture and black vulture roosting area occupies part of a swampy basin. The diversity of the Hammock reflects the Karst topography of northwestern Alachua County, with rolling hills, bluffs, stream valleys, flat-bottomed prairies, and numerous sinkholes. In addition to its function as a conservation preserve, it serves aS a major aquifer recharge area and as a study area for numerous wildlife and natural area studies. Public access is restricted. Time of Meeting: Saturday, April 12, 8:30 AM. Place of Meeting: Paring lot south of the Reitz Union. Requirements: Some walking required; bring moisture-tolerant shoes and insect repellent. Transportation will be provided but extra cars may be needed. Anticipated duration: 3 hours. There is no charge. 1986 Supplement Vv Program Issue ANNOUNCEMENTS FAS Council Meeting There will be a meeting of the Academy Council on Wednesday morning, April 10, beginning at 9:30 AM in Reitz Union 337. All 1985-1986 Section Officers should attend. Florida Junior Academy of Sciences The Opening Session of the FJAS begins at 1:00 PM on Thursday, April 10, in the McCarty Hall Auditorium. McCarty Hall is adjacent to Reitz Union, behind the Constans Theatre. Judges will meet at 11:00 AM on Thursday in the Reitz Union "400" Room. Members of the Senior Academy are invited to serve aS judges. For more information contact Mrs. Dorothy Henley at (305)491-2900 or at the meeting. Symposium The Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals (FCREPA) and Bok Tower Gardens will cosponsor a symposium, “Conserving Gene Pools of Florida's Endemic Plants” on Friday, April 11, from 8:30 AM until noon, in Reitz Union 122-123. Jonathan Shaw, Bok Tower Gardens, will preside. Twelve presentations are planned. Plennary Sessions L. Academy History Program, Thursday, April 10, 1:30 PM in Reitz Union 361-363. Dr. Melvin Kranzberg, past president of Sigma Xi and Callaway Professor of the History of Technology at Georgia Institue of Technology, will give a special address, "The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very Modern Marriage’. This lecture will be open to the public. 2. Annual Business Meeting, Friday, April 11, 1:30 PM in the Reitz Union Auditorium (second floor). Dr. Richard L. Turner, 1985-1986 Academy President, will preside. Section officers and committees should prepare to report at this time. 3. Academy Banquet, Thursday, April 11, 7:00 PM. Dr. Richard L. Turner, president. The Academy Medal for 1986 will be awarded by Dr. Yngve Ohrn, 1984 Medalist, and a special banquet address will be given by Dr. Edward J. Petuch, "An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and the Origin of the Everglades". The banquet is open to all meeting participants. Tickets are available by mail and may be purchased at registration on Thursday. Sigma Xi Centennial The Centennial Anniversary of Sigma Xi in 1986 coincides with the Florida Academy's Golden Anniversary. The University of Florida Chapter of Sigma Xi plans to award a prize for the best graduate student paper presented at the FAS Annual Meeting. A cash prize and certificate will be presented at the Sigma Xi banquet. Florida Scientist vi Volume 49 Stand Ins and Cancellations If the author or a coauthor of a scheduled paper cannot present the paper due to illness, unforseen conflict, or other circumstance, the author should arrange for a colleague to read the abstracted paper. If a reader cannot be enlisted, the paper should be cancelled. The Academy should be notified concerning a reader or an an intent to cancel. Early notification will allow inclusion of the change in a program supplement and will spare the author of the cancelled paper the embarrassment of an apparent no-show. Contact (in preferred order): £.D. Estevez, Program Chair (813:388-4441); Joyce Powers at the Academy Office (305:896-7151); the appropriate Section Chair; or the presider of the session. Audio-Visual Aids Carousel slide projectors will be available in each session. Each Section Officer is asked to bring at least one carousel projector to the meeting. Overhead projectors are available on special request to the Local Arrangements Committee or appropriate section chair. Handicap Access All meeting rooms and areas are accessible by ramps or elevators. Every building is provided with passageways and facilities suitable for wheelchairs. Persons with special needs should contact Dr. Leslie Lieberman, Chairman of Local Arrangements (904:392-2031). Smoking Policy The University of Florida and the Florida Academy of Sciences prohibit smoking in all interior spaces. Parking Metered parking is available at the Reitz Union. Check with the Registration Staff to see if temporary parking passes are being distributed. These passes will enable holders to park on most lots during the Academy Meeting. Video/Science Research Drs. JoAnn Myer Valenti and Terry Snell of the University of Tampa will be videotaping portions of the meetings as part of a video/science research project. They are looking for volunteers from among those of you who are planning to present papers at the April 1986 Meeting. If you are interested in having a video record of your work included in a television series project, please contact Dr. Valenti at the University of Tampa, 401 West Kennedy Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33606, or phone (813)253-3333, Ext. 412. Local Arrangements Academy meeting arrangements at the University of Florida are coordinated by Dr. Leslie Sue Lieberman, Department of Anthropology, who may be consulted on special meeting needs by calling (904)392-2031. 1986 Supplement vii Program Issue Nominations for Academy Offices The Academy Nominating Committee invites recommendations for the 1986-1987 term of office for President-Elect, the 1986-1988 Councillor-at-Large, and the 1986-1989 Program Chairman. Duties of each office are described in the Academy Charter and Bylaws, last published in the 1985 Meeting Program Issue of the Florida Scientist (Volume 48 Supplement). Nominations should include the nominee's name, address, and telephone number, as well as a letter describing his or her scientific background, Academy involvement, other qualifications, and supporting information. Nominations should be sent to Carl Luer, FAS Nominating Committee Chairman, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 335/77. Executive Secretary Sought The FAS Executive Committee desires nominations for the non-salaried position of Executive Secretary. Responsibilities of the Executive Secretary shall be to facilitate the execution of the duties held by the Council and such other services as shall aid in the advancement of the Objectives of the Academy. In addition, the Executive Committee has proposed that another major duty of the Executive Secretary will be to supervise the operation of the main office of the Academy, which is located in Orlando at the present time. Candidates should have been active FAS members; scientists in good standing in an academic or other position; have demonstrated qualities of management; and be able to commute to Orlando on an irregular basis. Nominations should be sent to Pangratios Papacosta, Stetson University, Box 8342, Deland, FL 32720. Acknowledgements Production of the Program Issues for 1984-1986 were made possible by staff and material support from Mote Marine Laboratory. Artwork and indexing for the 1986 issue were provided by Greg Blanchard and Bruce Fortune. The Academy and Program Chairman extend special thanks to Laurie E. Fraser for expert text processing during the past three years. FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Florida Anthropological Society (FANS) meets in conjunction with the Florida Academy of Sciences in 1986. Registrations for the two organizations are separate, but FANS members are invited to attend the public lecture by Dr. Kranzberg, the Golden Jubilee Reception (both Thursday), and the Banquet (Friday). Tickets for the reception and banquet are available at registration. FANS members will be interested in the Banquet Address, "An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida, and the Origin of the Everglades", by Dr. E.J. Petuch. Other Academy activities of interest to FANS members include the Anthropological Science Sessions (on Friday) and Business Meeting (on Saturday); an educational exhibit on the cultural history of Marion County; and a special slide presentation on sinkholes in Florida. The FANS Council will meet in Reitz Union 349 on Friday, April 11, beginning at 3:00 PM. The FANS Board Meeting will begin at 5:00 PM in the same room. On Saturday, April 12, all FANS activities will take place in the Reitz Union Auditorium. Florida Scientist viii Volume 49 HISTORY OF SCIENCE PROGRAM Plenary Session, Thursday April 10 1:15 PM Reitz Union 361-363 P. Papacosta, Stetson University, presiding Introduction of Plenary Address, R.L. Turner, 1985-1986 FAS President "The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very Modern Marriage", by Dr. Melvin Kranzberg, Callaway Professor of the History of Technology, Georgia Institute of Technology. Contributed Papers and Exhibits Dr. Kranzberg's lecture will be followed by other speakers and exhibits. A Special presentation, "One Hundred Years of Agriculture", will be made by the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, which recently celebrated its Golden Anniversary at the University of Florida. Exhibits on Marion County's archaeology, history of the phosphate industry, and the state's programs of parks and recreations will be included. Golden Jubilee Reception, Thursday April 10 6:00 PM Florida State Museum The Academy's 50th Anniversary will be celebrated by a Golden Jubilee Reception hosted by the Florida State Museum from 6:00-8:00 PM on Thursday evening, April 10, at the Museum. All members are invited. The Museum's exhibit on Halley's Comet will be featured and food and drinks will be | served. Tickets cost $4.00 and may be purchased at registration. HONOR ROLL FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Charter Members (Since 1936) RUTH S. BREEN CHARLOTTE B. BUCKLAND T.D. CARR HoH. HOBBS, JR. W. LEE TANNER Twenty Five Year Members (Since 1961) Stanley S. Ballard Taylor R. Alexander Ruth S. Breen Frederick H. Berry Tape Carr Charlotte B. Buckland J.C. DiCkinsa@n. wit. Louella M. Dambaugh Margaret Gilbert Wilhelmina F. Dunning Keith L. Hansen eo Uey at tind James G. Houser Hot. HODDS. Jr. Alfred P. Mills James N. Layne Lewis D. Ober Harold L. Moody John S. Ross Richard C. Robins Claude E. Swindell, Jr. James Soule Dan A. Thomas W. Lee Tanner Ralph W. Yerger Druid Wilson 1986 Supplement ix Program Issue FIFTY YEARS AGO "Opportunities for Research in Florida” Address by Herman Kurz, Retiring President From Volume 1: Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1936. Conclusion Corporations, like Bell Telephone, Dupont, Eastman Kodak, Ford Motor Company, General Electric, General Motors, and the United States Steel Corporation, have on their scientific staffs certain men who are permitted to investigate within reason any problem or any phase of a problem that they wish to. Nothing is said or asked about the immediate application of such scientific data or discoveries. Their superiors feel that any basic information will some day be useful in some way. In support of the foregoing, I give the substance of a paragraph from a communication of Dr. Hawkins, Executive Engineer of General Electric Company. He states that although a study of oil films on water contributed to the flotation process in mining, opened up a new branch of chemistry and earned a Nobel prize, this oil film study brought nothing of direct consequence or utility to the General Electric Company. "However," he concludes, "we are not worried." So these men investigate fundamentals in a field out of sheer scientific curiosity. To the speaker it appears that institutions of learning in the State might encourage similar attacks on problems of a _ fundamental nature. A reasonable amount of work devoted to such problems would help to make more effective teachers and at the same time to blaze the trail for and be of assistance to the practical scientist who is expected to show results that can be measured in dollars. Problems of the type I have surveyed, have been made by scholars from other parts of the United States; visiting geologists, anthropologists, zoologists, botanists, ornithologists, and naturalists, have come, made discoveries, and incidentally taken away forever many valuable specimens and deposited them in museums far removed from here. There is nothing unethical in our accepting and using the contributions of outsiders. lt. 1S, however, to be regretted that we have not in turn been able to produce a more nearly commensurate amount of native research. Not only is it desirable, but from an ethical point of view, imperative that Florida reciprocate on a large scale in advancing the productive front of scientific investigation. Men concerned with fundamental scientific researches and those interested in industry and natural resources expect the institutions of learning of the State to participate, yes, even to lead in creative scholarship. Florida Scientist x 2} A SYMPOSIUM ON PLANT CONSERVATION Sponsored by the Bok Tower Gardens and the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals Organized by Robin B. Huck and Jonathan Shaw CONSERVING GENE POOLS OF FLORIDA'S ENDEMIC PLANTS Friday April 11, 1986 Reitz Union 122-123 University of Florida 8:30 AM Moderated by Jonathan Shaw, Bok Tower Gardens GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Francis R. Thibodeau E. Dennis Hardin N. Caire BIOLOGY AND HABITAT PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ROLES Elaine M,. Norman Michael L. Green Robin B. Huck Carol Lotspeich Lewis Yarlett David Martin A. Herndon Steve Gatewood Andre F. Clewell Henry O. Whittier Volume. 49 1986 Supplement xj Program Issue PROGRAM SUMMARY All rooms are in the J. Wayne Reitz Union unless otherwise noted. THURSDAY MORNING, APRIL 10, 1986 Foueenenears ia tion 060 ROO PM) Cote ec ccc csccesseccees West Gallery See PORGGy & HYATO1lOGY GAM .c.c.cac vetes seve nseedsesccese 357 mre OG EEE DU, oc: 0. ns 6 009 nei wiwio 0 o.0idi0e a0 00 a0 5:0 a0 337 Ta eAesGretice TEACHING A®..cccccccsccscscdevesvesscvves 356 Wiig Fans Wiites MECLING 2.2 ccc ssc setae scat cess cece. "400" Room THURSDAY AFTERNOON, APRIL 10, 1986 ee as OCT) SESSION «ax cc bua Pov ce cen awuskecesenne McCarty Auditorium Pee HE STOR PROGRAM cnc ccs ceis sae vee weicene hen eeeens 361-363 Pree BeOTOdy & HVGFONOGY Bewwcsestcccncvecshstswesseee 357 Medical. Science Business Meeting... ....06cseccsc'e 356 Urban & Regional Planning Business Meeting....... 305 THURSDAY EVENING, APRIL 10, 1986 er as LON JUETLEL RECEP PLUNs ose ccessscecepe sess Florida State Museum FRIDAY MORNING, APRIL 11, 1986 Tee east ration (1 3°00 PM) os ciccuscevecusceeeteces West Gallery eer RCI Wee eee edna vices sea ceteesees wee see ee 337 ee i ee CET OMONY vis ocd sc ness abc baste cnet s* Audi torium EnvAronnenial CHEMI SUlY Ak .cosicve ace vievevcesscee 347 eo SOS TUN. os s'aa kaa os'b+ os sea ees cet es 122-123 yee NOT Wa si seas a deh bw eee nc see cose ek si vente 361 MMe a gia ait tis sc ake wae ce eee oe eo ae eal B60 SL ls Ga era yl ae a SR eo a eae B65 oso mn Auospneric & Oceanograpiiic A*®.. ww wcccccccsccenecs 346 NAC MMII ME a wp esa eiems« 6.d\e.6 Kw wibee eave 0} die 0 eck 355 OS SE ROT TE | i a 337 FRIDAY AFTERNOON, APRIL 11, 1986 Ce Pee” use ae MEE | UNGe sce cwes sn cca ebewneccbaceus'e Audi tor ium eer ee wn. Paper SE@SSTON™ ... 2c ccccscacvecveccce i7—123 Zao ym Atmospheric & Oceanographic B.....cccscaccccccacs 346 Pawns we opace SCTANCES We .. fec cc csascsceveusces B71 rer MITC OOOO ec eich eee b oe ccs bessccdvececnestecve 361 eR Ne Cee ace coe suede Seto eae ess oases B65 ITN es te ME its ee aac hbo sae cece cea e ee B70 hia. wirtnropoTogical Society Counct) «0... cs cece eee 349 TNR ea bis wx ae eek ae eee eee see oe vee biwe B60 fr en Fla. Anthropological Society Board... c..ccccveves 349 FRIDAY EVENING, APRIL 11, 1986 mee Fi ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET. ....0% ccc cw ecccccccccee Ballroom SATURDAY, APRIL 12, 1986 eam wae) SessiOn A (BRUNCH) coca civic cece oscecdesee ces Cafeteria San Fetasce Hammock FIGld Trips... sisesesanccieccss South Lot** 9:00 AM Anthropology Business Meeting........eceee. Vwtetala'a% 361 FLORIDW ANTHROPOLOGICAL ‘SOGTETY... £..<.0.0 daieGisibie ciecls Audi tor ium eta AAP T BUSINESS MeOCING. «.. . onic « winleis'siele o0'e'e!s ath atthe 363 9:30 AM Computers & Mathematics Business Meeting.. 362 10:00 AM Computers & Mathematics A.....cccccccccccccccees - 362 PRE GS (ORME. . Tees ail thidie dav wre cris endian Atenas 363 a Sr ok ae ee a a ne 363 * Business meeting follows this session. **Parking lot immediately south of Reitz Union. Florida Scientist xii Volume 49 NOTES 1986 Supplement Program Issue AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE FRIDAY 8:00 AM Reitz 337 SESSION A R. MILES, University of Florida, presiding FAS ANS POSTER Enzyme Polymorphisms in Bananas and Plantains. ROBERT L. JARRET AND RICHARD E. LITZ, University of Florida,IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, 18905 SW 280th St., Homestead, FL 33031 8:00 AM AGR-1 Influence of Leafminer Ponulations om Seed Yield of Cowpea. R. C. BULLOCK AND ©. J. STOFFELLA, Univ. of Florida IFAS AREC, P. 0. Box 28, Ft. Pierce, FL 33454. The influence of several pvonulation levels of leafminer (Liriomyza sativa Blanchard) on seed yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) cv California blackeye #5 was evaluated during the 1985 spring season. “Your soray regimes of Trigard’* (cyromazine), providing a) full season control, (b) vrotec- tion up to flower bud initiation, (c) protection from flower bud to pod fill, (d) protection after attagk of dicot leaves by leafminer, were comparéd to a full season of Avermectin” and a non-sprayed control. These spray regimes were used to determine the growth nhase at which spraying for leafminer control can be re-= stricted to achieve an optimum crop yield. Regardless of leafminer population pressure and protection provided by the chemical treatments, seed yields were not significantly different. 8:15 AM AGR-2 Soil Compaction and Subsoiling: Is It Profitable For The Farmer? W.W. FIEBIG, B.T. FRENCH, AND E.C. FRENCH, Dept. of Agronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville. Tillage pans occur in many soils of the SE and usually decrease crop yields, especially in years with reduced rainfall. Many North Florida farmers are faced with tillage pans in their fields but due to horsepower requirements and cost of commercial equipment, subsoiling has not been an appropriate approach to the tillage pan problem for the small farmer. Some of the objectives of this interdis- ciplinary research are to develop low energy and low cost subsoiling equipment, to determine crop responses to in-row subsoiling, and to compare conventional tillage systems to subsoiling and slit-tillage systems in attempting to imcrease crop yields with minimal costs. Subsoiling equipment has been designed, built, and tested on-station and on-farm. Preliminary results show decreased horsepower requirements, low cost, and suitability of subsoiling the sandy soils of North Florida. Preliminary results with corn indicate significant yield increases due to in-row subsoiling systems. 8:30 AM AGR-3 Effect of winter supplementation and estrous synchronization on pregnancy in beef heifers. S.D. EUBANKS, P.C. GENHO, W.E. KUNKLE, D.L. PITZER AND A.C. WARNICK. Univ. of FL and Deseret Ranches of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Five hundred twenty-nine weanling crossbred beef heifers were randomly assigned to four winter nutritional treatments beginning in November 1984. Two estrous synchronization treatments using SMB Progestin implants (Ceva Labs) were given in March 1985. Heifers were artificially inseminated at the induced estrus. Pregnancy diagnosis was done /on June 28, to determine % and age of fetus. There were differences (P<.10) in winter nutrition treatments on pregnancy rate while there were no ‘significant effect of SMB treatment or implant infection on pregnancy rate. There was no significant effect of any treatment effect upon earliness of pregnancy. Florida Scientist oY Volume 49 8:45 AM AGR-4 Reaction of the Tropical Forage Legume Hairy Indigo Subjected to Water Stress. U.H. WINZER, S.L. ALBRECHT, AND J.M. BENNETT, Agronomy Dept., IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. In Florida, crops are often exposed to periods of drought during the growing season. In this experiment the drought tolerance of the forage legume Hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta L.) was investi- gated. Plants were drought stressed by withholding water and nitrogenase activi- ty, leaf water potentials and diffusive resistance were measured. Plants continued growth throughout the drought period and increased root:shoot ratio above that of well-watered plants. Diffusive resistance was more sensitve to drought than either leaf water potential or nitrogenase activity. Leaf water potentials in the stressed plants maintained control levels until the ninth day after withholding water and then declined to as low as -2.18 MPa. Nitrogenase activity decreased with declining leaf water potential. Results indicate that Hairy indigo was very tolerant to drought. The effects of plant water status on nitrogenase activity in water stressed plants will be discussed. 9:00 AM AGR-5 Production by a crossbred dairy herd in Sudan. MICHAEL E. MCGLOTHLEN, CHARLES J. WILCOX AND FAROUK M. EL AMIN. Dairy Sci. Dept., Univ. of FL, Gainesville 32611. Both reproductive performance and milk production have been recorded for a large dairy herd in the Nile valley. The herd was formed by obtaining Butana cows which were bred to imported British bulls. Some Butana and crossbred bulls have also been used, producing a herd in which the cows range from pure native to 95% exotic. Average milk production of the 5/8 to 3/4 exotic cows is more than twice that of the pure native cows. Days open tends to increase with exotic breeding, indicating a reproductive advantage for the native animals. The expected advantage of the Fl cows due both to selected sires and heterosis rs not observed. Falf Holstein and Guernsey cows have higher average milk production than half Ayrshire, and half Guernsey tend to be open longer, so Holstein may be the best exotic breed for crossbreeding. 9:15 AM AGR-6 Early Root Development of Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) DARLA J. FOUSEK and PETER J. STOFFELLA, University of Florida, IFAS/AREC, P.O. Box 248, Fe. Pierce, -F1"33454. Early root morphological characteristics were evaluated in four cowpea cultivars 'Elite', 'Mississippi Cream', ‘California Blackeye #5' and 'Crimson Purplehull'. Seeds were incubated for 9 days at 25°C on water saturated filter paper in closed petri dishes. Beginning at radical emergence, root variables were measured every 24 hours. Times of lateral, adventitious and tap root emergence were not significantly different among cultivars. Although all cultivars produced basically the same total number of roots, location of these roots on the root system varied. ‘California Blackeye #5' and 'Elite' produced a greater number of adventitious roots than 'Mississippi Cream' or ‘Crimson’. "Mississippi Cream’ had the fastest rate of tap root growth and the longest final tap root length. These results indicate early root morphological differences among cowpea cultivars. 9:30 AM AGR-7 The Effects of Energy Level, Fat Source, Vitamins and Protein Concentration on the Growth and Feed Efficiency of Broilers Fed Alternate Grains. D. E. BELL, J. E. MARION, R. D. MILES AND R. H. HARMS, University of Florida, IFAS Poultry Science Department, Gainesville, Florida 32611. A series of earlier trials has demonstrated that when broiler diets are properly balanced, triticale, wheat and milo can produce weight gains and feed conversions comparable to those from corn diets. This series of four trials was designed to further compare the perfor- mance of these feedstuffs and to investigate the cause of performance variations sometimes observed. Triticale performed as well as corn at both 20 and 23% protein levels in diets substituting triticale for 25, 50 or 100% of the corn. The use of higher levels of Vitamin E and Choline did not improve growth for birds fed either corn or triticale. The two feedstuffs performed equally. Broilers fed corn, tri- ticale, wheat or milo performed better with corn oil than with animal fat as a source of dietary fat. The birds fed triticale, wheat or milo grew as well or bet— ter than those fed corn. 1986 Supplement =2> Program Issue 9:45 AM AGR-8 Differences in Drought Resistance Among Soybean Cultivars. J.D. RAY, J.M. BENNETT, AND K.J. BOOTE, Agronomy Dept., IFAS, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Twenty-eight soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) cultivars from maturity groups V-VIII and representative of recent and old genetic material were grown in the field under well-watered and water deficit conditions. The objective of the study was to determine if differential responses to water stress existed among the various cultivars. Measurements of leaf stomatal resistance and leaf-air temperatures and ratings of leaf wilting collected during periods of water stress Suggested that a range of stress sensitivities existed among the cultivars studied. At maturity, measurements of seed yield and yield components also revealed signifi- cant differences in the responses of the cultivars to water stress. Seed yield re- ductions ranging from 7% to 44% among cultivars as a result of the imposed water stress were observed. Results from this study suggest that drought resistance dif- ferences among soybean cultivars exist and should be more fully examined in future research. FRIDAY 10:15 AM Reitz 337 SESSION B R. BULLOCK, University of Florida, presiding 10:15 AM AGR-9 Influence of Concentrated Tobacco Leaf Protein Extract in Broiler Diets. .R..D. MILES, D. R. CAMPBELL, C. E. WHITE AND J. R. RICH. Depts. of Poultry Sci. and Animal Sci., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Tobacco protein extract (TPE) was obtained from the AREC in Live Oak, Florida. Two experiments were conducted for 3 weeks each using day old broiler chicks housed in Petersime batteries. Dietary levels of TPE in exp. 1 were O, 5, 10 and 15%. In exp. 2 mari- gold petal extract served as a control pigment source and furnished 12, 18 and 24 mg xanthophyll/kg. TPE was added at levels to furnish the same xanthophyll con- centration. When TPE was added from 5-15% a sig. (P <.05) linear growth depression resulted. However, feed intake and conversion were not influenced. In experiment 2, TPE resulted in a growth depression and poorer feed conversion. Pigmentation data indicated that TPE was an acceptable pigment source when compared to marigold petal extract. 10:30 AM AGR-10 Effect of Boiling Time and Salt Concentration on the composition of Boiled Peanut Seed. VIJAYA B. MURUGESU and SHEIKH M. BASHA; Division of Agricultural Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307. Boiled peanuts were widely consumed by both the rural and urban population. However, little scientific infor- Mation is available on the effect of boiling conditions on the nutritional quality of peanut seed. This study examines the effect of varying boiling periods and salt con- centrations on the peanut seed composition. For this purpose 150 g of green peanuts (cv. Florunner) were boiled for various intervals (10 min. to 2 hr.) in the presence of 3% (w/v) salt. For the salt concentration study, peanuts were boiled in presence of 1% to 5% (w/v) salt for 50 min. Boiled peanuts were shelled, seeds were lyophi- lyzed and ground into a meal. The meals were defatted with hexane and are being analyzed for free sugars, free amino acids, total carbohydrates, protein content and composition and minerals. In addition, the boiled water is also being tested to identify the seed leachates. Supported by a grant from the USDA/SEA/CSRS. 10:45 AM AGR-11 ~—s Response to Oral Ivermectin in Equids When Administered as a ‘Drench or by Nasogastric Intubation. RICHARD ASQUITH AND JAN KIVIPELTO, Animal Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32617. A field trial to demonstrate efficacy and acceptability of oral ivermectin liquid when administered as a drench or by naso-gastric intubation produced no adverse re- actions. Of 120 horses on trial 2 were negative when the results were expressed aS eggs per gram (EPG) of feces on the day of treatment. On day 14 after treat- ment all 30 control animals had positive EPG counts. The 90 ivermectin treated horses all had zero EPG. Two treatment contrasts were each tested against controls (Friedman's test) and both were significant (P<.01). The oral drench formulation was well accepted by the animals and wastage was not a problem with this delivery system. Florida Scientist -4- Volume 49 11:00 AM AGR-12 Resistance Characteristics of Pigeonpea Cultivars to Selected Species and Races of Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) Nematode. K.M. MOORE, K.L. BUHR, AND J.R. RICH, Agronomy Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611, and Agricultural Research Center, Live Oak, 32060. Screenings conducted in a controlled greenhouse environment indicated several cultivars of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) to be resistant to two species of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica, amd M. incognita race 3. Three pigeonpea cultivars, each representing a different level of resistance, were evaluated to determine the rature of their resistance reaction. Seedlings of each cultivar were divided into two groups, one inoculated with M. javanica and the other inoculated with M. incognita, and were grown in a greenhouse. The mumber of nematodes present in the root systems at various intervals after the initial inoculation was used to measure the nematodes' ability to locate, penetrate, am establish feeding sites at various levels of plant resistance. The number of eggs per egg mass was determined in an effort to establish a possible resistance mechanism. 11:15 AM AGR-13 Observations on Development of Parasites in Foals Nursing Dams Treated with Ivermectin or Conventional Oral Anthelmintics. JAN KIVIPELTO AND RICHARD ASQUITH, Animal Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611. Pregnant mares were divided into two treatment groups (ivermectin and conventional oral anthelmintics) and treated at two month intervals. The first treatments were administered during the fourth month of gestation and the last prior to 12 weeks postparturition. Parasitic egg per gram counts (EPGs) were determined on the mares monthly and on the subsequent foals weekly. The final EPGs on mares and foals were determined when foals were 12 weeks old. When compared with foals of mares treated with conventional oral anthelmintics, foals of ivermectin treated mares showed fewer Strongyloides westeri and strongyle EPGs in all 12 weeks tested. 11:30 AM AGR-14 Effectiveness of Organic Addition in reducing P Adsorption on Ferric Hydroxide. G.W. EASTERWOOD AND J.B. SARTAIN, Soil Science Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Topsoil of an Orangeburg (fine, loamy, siliceous, thermic, Typic Paleudult) series possessing mineralogy of kaolinite, gibbsite, quartz, and a 14 A intergrade was used in a glasshouse experiment to determine the effectiveness of hydroponically grown clover in reducing P adsorption on freshly precipitated amorphous Fe(OH) 3 added to the soil. A 3%*3%*2 factorial experiment of 0; 7505 and (£00 meiKe=" BP; 07 395) and?7 Me ha~! dried and ground clover; and 0 and 5.6 g Kg Fe as Fe(OH)3, respectively, was prepared with 3 replications. The soil was limed to pH,6.3. Zea mays L. was grown for 53 days. On the iron treated soil at the 0 mg Kg’ P rate, organic addition did not increase maize dry matter yield, but a linear increase in yield of 250% compared to the control treatment was observed within the 50 and 100 mg Kea! P treatments with increasing organic addition. FRIDAY 11:45 PM Reitz 337 BUSINESS MEETING: Agricultural Science P.J. STOFELLA, University of Florida, presiding FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 1986 Supplement =§- Program Issue ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz 361 SESSION A: Archaeology and Ethnohistory B. SIGLER-EISENBERG, University of Florida, presiding 9:00 AM ANS-1 An Underwater Archeological Survey of Biscayne National Park. DAVID ALLEN FRANTZ, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32306. In 1984 the National Park Service Southeastern Archeological Center in conjunction with the Florida State University's Department of Anthropology and Marine Lab Academic Diving Program conducted an underwater archeological investigation of Biscayne National Park in an effort to inventory the historic shipwreck sites. This paper is designed to give a brief synoposis of the research objectives, survey methods and preliminary results of the 1984 field season. Particular attention will be paid to the survey method which was a three fold process and included the use of a Geometrics 866 proton precession Magnetometer and Furuno Compact LORAN navigation system. 9:20 AM ANS-2 Spanish Missions in La Florida: Apalachee versus Apalachicola. Judith E. Fandrich, Florida State University, Department of Anthropology, G-24 Bellamy, Tallahassee, 32306. The Spanish missionary effort in La Florida began in 1546. The Franciscan friars, who arrived in St. Augustine in 1573, successful- ly established a chain of missions in La Florida. The friars succeeded in convert- ing all the Apalachee to Christianity. They failed with the Apalachicola. The Apalachee and the Apalachicola shared many of the same traditions and were known to be trading at least until 1701. The missionaries' strategy in converting Indians was uniform. This paper examines theories that may explain why the re- sults of the missionaries' proselytizing were so different. 9:40 AM ANS-3 Archaeological Evidence of Early Sixteenth Century Contact between Spanish Explorers and Safety Harbor Indians. JEFFREY M. MITCHEM, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Archaeological research in west peninsular Florida has led to the discovery of a number of sites containing Spanish artifacts dating to the early sixteenth century (A.D. 1500-1560). These Sites are of special interest because written accounts of the expeditions of Narvaez (1528) and de Soto (1539) indicate that both groups of Spaniards passed through western peninsular Florida. Archaeological evidence will be summarized and evaluated in terms of whether actual contact or second-hand trade is most probable for each site. Ethnohistoric evidence will be compared to the archaeological data. 10:00 AM BREAK .0:20 AM ANS-4 Community Patterning in Seventeenth Century Spanish Mission Sites ROCHELLE A. MARRINAN, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2923. The Florida State University excavation program at the Seventeenth Century Franciscan mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Patale is in its third year. Broad-scale examination of community patterning has been one emphasis of the excavation program designed for this site. This paper presents the results of fieldwork and a review of ethnohistoric information related to the Mission community, particularly the West Florida mission system. Florida Scientist -6- Volume 49 10:40 AM ANS-5 The Development of Prehistoric Land-Use Patterns Within the Upper St. Johns River Basin. BRENDA SIGLER-EISENBERG, Department of Anthropology, Florida State Museum, Gainesville 32611. Almost 3000 years ago aboriginal groups, thought to be ancestral to the historic Ais, began fishing the sloughs, streams, lakes and marshes of the Upper St. Johns River basin. Following the initial Occupation an increase in rainfall, the primary source of water in the Upper Basin, appears to have created generally higher water conditions. Drawing on data from the Gauthier site (8Br193) and a recently completed regional settlement pattern Study, the internal dynamics of cultural development are examined within the ecological context of the evolving wetlands environment of central-east Florida. Emphasis is placed on changes in subsistence strategies and the economic, ecological, and social factors that influenced settlement patterns from the late Orange through Malabar II periods. 11:00 AM ANS-6 Islamic Slavery During the Age of Exploration. J.M. LEADER, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Misguided attempts to fit Islamic slavery within the constraints of Western Europe experience have greatly distorted the reality of slaverv in Islam. Islamic slavery is dissimilar to the system of slavery practiced in the West. This paper uses the Quran, Sunni Madhaib, and Hadith to examine the reality of Islamic slavery. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Charles H. Fairbanks, Dr. J. T. Milanich, Dr. T. H. Gaster, and Ms. Nawal Ammar. FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz 361 SESSION B: Cuitural and Physical Anthropology J.A. PAREDES, Florida State University, presiding 3:00 PM ANS-7 Fieldwork among the Mundurucu Indians: A Tale of Serendipity and Perserverance. S. BRIAN BURKHALTER. Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa 33620. Often beset with surprises, the anthropological fieldworker must make the best of what happens despite how disrupted original research plans may be. Much can be learned even in trying curcumstances. In my own In my own fieldwork among the Mundurucu Indians of the Brazilian Amazon, basic research directions were influenced by unforeseen events. Encounters with government agents, missionaries, a self-proclaimed Indian chief, the Brazilian army and air force, thieves, dishonest merchants, and malaria raised intriguing problems, but also yielded insights into reservation politics and needs. Dealing with the unexpected is not just an inconvenience, it is basic to the discipline-- for, if all could be anticipated, what purpose would fieldwork serve? 3:20 PM ANS-8 Dugout Canoes vs. Fiberglass Boats in St. Lucia's Fishing Industry. DONNA DAVIS, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306. The fishermen of St. Lucia, West Indies, have traditionally used dugout canoes made from the gommier tree. Environmental and economic pressures have begun to limit the use of these trees for boatbuilding. In addition, the government is promoting the adoption of fiberglass boats in an effort to modernize the St. Lucian fishing industry. An examination of existing canoe building practices suggests some of the reasons for resistance to fiberglass boats. 1986 Supplement = ia Program Issue 3:40 PM ANS-9 Folk Demography in St. Vincent, West Indies, JEAN GEARING, Dept. of Anthropology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. This paper discusses the folk perceptions of racial categories and sex ratios held by residents of St. Vincent, West Indies. Racial categories are surprisingly diverse for a total population of 100,G00 and reflect the importance of migration in the island's complex social history. Data was elicited using ethnosemantic techniques. Racial categories are based upon physical appearance, socioeconomic status, ethnic affiliation and family history. Socioeconomic variables can outweigh physical appearance in the assignation of individua!s to particular categories. Racial categories do net correspond to those of the Census of the West Indies. Data from recent censuses are used to illustrate some of the problems resulting from this discrepancy. Sex ratios have been distorted by heavy male outmigration between 1830 and 1945. Recent increases in female migration have restored the balance, but popular perceptions remain skewed. The influence of these folk perceptions on sexual behavior and mating patterns will be discussed briefly. 4:00 PM ANS-10 ~=Annual Changes in Skin Pigmentation. C.lW. WIENKER, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA, TAMPA, FL 33620. Skin pigmentation measurements were taken from 24 healthy adult Anglo-American males and 16 females, with an Evans EEL Model 90 reflectance spectrophotometer, from the inner aspect of the upper left arm and from the middle of the forehead. Measurements at each site were taken at approximate 4 to 5 week intervals during the course of a calendar year. At the arm site, males were not significantly different from females. This unexpected finding may be due to behavioral phenomena. The same factors may account for significant differences between the sexes at the forehead site. Systematic seasonal pattern changes are evident in both males and females. Biological and ecological factors may account for these patterns. FRIDAY 4:20 PM Reitz 361 ANTHROPOLOGY STUDENT PAPER AWARDS C.W. WIENKER, University of South Florida, presiding SATURDAY 9:00 AM Reitz 361 BUSINESS MEETING: Anthropological Science Wed. KENNEDY, Florida Atlantic University, presiding ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES FRIDAY 9:30 AM Reitz 346 SESSION A: Physical and Meterological F. MORRIS, South Florida Water Management District, presiding 9:30 AM AOS-1 Microseisms Observed During the Passage of Hurricane Gloria, 1985. KENT K. HATHAWAY, S.L. COSTA AND H.C. MILLER*, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901 (and* CERC-FRF, Duck, NC 27949). Simultaneous recordings of microseisms and ocean waves were made on 26- 27 Sept. 1985 as a hurricane passed the Coastal Engineering Researcn Center's Field Research Facility (CERC-FRF) at Duck, NC. Microseismic amplitude increased more than an order of magnitude between 1000 (EST) 26 Sept and 0800 27 Sept. The micro- seisms had periods of 4.5 to 5.5 seconds, approximately half that of the ocean Florida Scientist i Volume .49 waves. Maximum wave height and storm surge occurred about 0200 on the 27th. Max- imum microseismic activity was observed at least six hours later. This lag supports the concept of secondary microseisms produced by the non-linear interaction of ocean waves. Lona period primary microseisms (12 to 16 seconds) were observed in two records, both during high tidal elevations. The first two authors have found similar correlations between tide height and the production of primary microseisms in northern California and on the Atlantic coast of Florida. 9:45 AM AOS-2 Tidal Wave Propagation in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. VIRENDER K. BHOGAL AND S.L. COSTA, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The Indian River Lagoon is subjected to, and responds to, physical forces in ways that are still poorly under- stood. In order to better understand, monitor, and predict the effects of anthro- pogenic influences on this estuarine/lagoon system a thorough analysis of its hydrodynamics is mandatory. Ocean tides at inlets are important driving forces. Tidal propagation along the lagoon is modified by changes in width, depth, friction, and riverine flows. Tidal intrusion is evident from Sebastian Inlet at least as far north as the Melbourne causeway (35 km). Tidal phase lag and attenuation vary along the axis of the lagoon. Phase and amplitude changes demonstrate that most of the tidal energy is lost through the inlet and continuously degrades in a predictable fashion as the wave progresses upstream. The lagoon tide is highly asymmetric, as expected. Changes in freshwater discharge to the lagoon and wind stress appear to dominate tidal effects as distance from the inlet increases. 10:00 AM A0S-3 What is the cause of an inconsistent flow pattern/water level relationship in the Indian River lagoon? PATRICK A. PITTS, Harbor Branch Foundation, RR 1 Box 196, Fort Pierce FL 33450. A 224-day current meter record from the Indian River lagoon, Florida, was used to charaterize flow patterns along the Intracoastal Waterway near the Sebastian Inlet. Incon- Sistent flow occurred during the late fall when the current meter indicated a flow of water toward the north into the lagoon while corresponding lagoonal water levels dropped appreciably. Local rainfall, windstress, freshwater runoff, and evaporation rates were examined in order to determine a cause for this anomaly. Preliminary analysis indicates that the inflow is a partial com- pensation for reduced precipitation during the fall while water loss due to evaporation remained high throughout the study period. 10:15 AM AOS-4 Flushing Characteristics of Banana River Lagoon NED P. SMITH, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., R.R. 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, Florida 33450. Water level records and windstress data are combined with recording current meter data to determine the forcing mechanism most responsible for the exchange of water between Indian River lagoon and Banana River lagoon, and the time scales over which it occurs. Data from a 55-day study period in early 1983 are used to infer volume transport into and out of the lagoon. The water level record shows tidal variations as prominent features, explaining approximately half of the total variance. The displacement of water calculated from the long-channel component of the flow, however, reveals the tide as a minor perturbation of a predominantly wind-driven flow. A net outflow from the lagoon is interrupted every week or two, as the windstress vector reverses and drives Indian River lagoon water back past the study site. ' This process, coupled with the export of fresh water, is responsible for maintaining water quality in Banana River lagoon. 10:30 AM BREAK 1986 Supplement —— Program Issue 10:45 AM AOS-5 Lagoon Inlet Driving Forces, RONNAL P. REICHARD, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The primary hydrodynamic driving force for a lagoon inlet is the pressure gradient caused by tidal elevation differences between the inlet and the ocean. Tidal elevation data sets were collected near each end of three lagoon inlets, Ft. Pierce, St. Lucie, and Jupiter, located in East Central Florida. Bottom pressure sensors were used to measure the ocean tides, and water level recorders were used to measure the lagoon tides. The data sets were each analyzed for astronomical tide constituents. The differences in the constituents at either end of the inlets provided information on the inlet hydrodynamics. The astronomical tides were removed from the data sets to obtain residual tide heights, primarily caused by meteorlogical forces, including fresh water runoff. This data provided information on the effects of meteorlogical forces and fresh water runoff on the inlet hydrodynamics. Tidal elevation difference records were calculated and analyzed to indicate the temporal variations of inlet hydrodynamics. 11:00 AM AOS-6 Rainfall and Runoff for the St. Lucie Estuary Model, FREDERICK W. MORRIS, South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, FL, 33402. Rainfall data from 1936 to 1983 in five basins of the St. Lucie River, and discharge data for three tributary canals, were analyzed to develop daily runoff for calibration and verification of a longitudinal salinity model of the estuary. Normal, dry, and wet conditions were defined for each month of the year, enabling the effects of discharges from a large flood control canal to be evaluated for these conditions. Probability of exceedence of rainfall for dry, normal, and wet conditions was quantified. 11:15 AM AOS-7 An Analysis of the Impact of a Ten-Year Storm Event on the Population of the Clam Mercenaria mercenaria, Indian River. DIANE D. BARILE, WARREN F,. RATHJEN, PETER BARILE AND JOEL STEWART, Marine Resources Council, F.I1.T., 2915 Vassar St., Melbourne. A ten-year regional rainfall produced abnormal surface water runoff and flooding and large freshwater flows into the Indian River Lagoon. Control structures on major drainage systems were opened to alleviate flood conditions increasing peak flows from two major streams. A joint study has been designed to document the rainfall distribution during the storm, runoff patterns from the freshwater streams, salinity fluctuations in the lagoon during and following the storm and a limited analysis of water quality. Special emphasis is placed on the effects on clam Mercenaria mercenaria responses and related fishery. This paper describes the process for responding to research needs related to such episodic events. 11:30 AM AOS-8 An Analysis of Variances from the Traditional Summer Precipitation Patterns in the West Central Florida Region (1978-1984). DEWEY M STOWERS AND NEVA DUNCAN TABB, University of South Florida, Tampa 33620. The traditional precipitation pattern resulting from summer convectional thunderstorms over west central Florida as established by the Byers Report (1949) and other studies remained essentially intact until 1977. By 1978 this pattern showed definite signs of weakening and by 1980 significant variances were observed. The current study examines the precipitetion variances over the region from 1978-1984. An analysis of the meteorological causes for these anomalies is presented to illustrate the possible impact upon the climate of west central Florida. FRIDAY 11:45 AM Reitz 346 BUSINESS MEETING: Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences R.P. REICHARD, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding Florida Scientist =10- Volume 49 FRIDAY 2:45 PM Reitz 346 SESSION B: Geological and Chemical J. TREFRY, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 2:45 PM AOS-9 A geomorphic and stratigraphic history of the flood tidal delta at Sebastian Inlet, Florida. KAREN MONROE AND DONALD K. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Sebastian Inlet is a man-made inlet cut across the barrier island separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Indian River Lagoon, 72.4 km south of Cape Canaveral. The first attempt to open the inlet was made in 1886 but closed soon after. The first channel cut across the island in a northwesterly direction and opened and closed several times. A large flood tidal delta developed landward of this opening. In 1948 a new channel was dredged and reoriented into the present southwesterly orientation. An extensive flood tidal delta developed behind this channel also and has grown with the tidal flow ever since. These changes have been documented in several series of aerial photographs since 1943. Cores taken in the delta show a vertical distribution of changes between the finer grained estuarine and coarser tidally derived sands. Stratigraphic sequences also show the extent of of sand bypassing the sand trap area and previous dredging in the inlet channels. 3:00 PM AQS-10 Monitoring of an inlet sand bypass system, Sebastian Inlet, Florida. GEORGE de VASSAL AND DONALD K. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901.. Inlets along the Florida coast have been identified as a maior cause of interruption in tne longshore drift of sediment, resulting in erosion on the downdrift beaches. Sand bypass/beach nourishment projects have become a common practice for restoration of these badly eroded beaches to inhance recreational use and provide storm protection to upland property. In 1985, a sand vypass dredge and fill project began at Sebastian Inlet, on Florida's east coast, 72.4 km south of Cape Canaveral. The project consists of dredging of a sand trap near the inlet flood tidal delte, filling a holding basin on shore and trucking the fill to the oceanside beach. Major environmental concerns have been addressed on the impact of the project on the local Anastasia rock reef system starting within 30 m offshore, a habitat for numerous biological organisms. Monitoring of turbidity, fill grain size and beach profiles provides data on project impact and future inlet bypass project design. 3:15 PM AOS-11 Sediment grain size distribution in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. DAVID TIERNAN AND DONALD K. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FI. 32901. The Indian River is a narrow estuarine lagoon system extending 253 km along the east centrai Florida coast from Volusia to Palm Beach counties. The width varies from a few meters to 8.9 km and the depth from 0.3 m along the edges to 4 m in the Intracoastal Waterway. Potential sources for input of sediment into the lagoon are creeks, sewage outflow, construction and other surface runoff and inlets. Wind driven currents and causeways also influence the complexity of the sediment distribution. Grain size analysis of selected bottom sediment samples have been | done at a variety of locations within the lagoon to incorporate the different factors that may influence the sediment distribution. The grain size distribution in an estuary can act as an indicator of the depositional energy levels, circulation patterns and water flow velocites. Data from this study will have | universal application to the studies of processes in low energy coastal lagoons. | 4 —— lc oo ——— ——- -- 1986 Supplement —a— Program Issue 3:30 PM AOS-12 Marine Pollution in Florida: The Historical Perspective. JOHN G. WINDSOR, JR., Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. In this fiftieth year of the Florida Academy of Science, a review of major pollution concerns of the past will be presented. The state of Florida has always been home to many oceanographic researchers and some of the areas of research over the past fifty years which were related to specific pollution concerns will be reviewed. Some of the past practices, which are no longer of permitted will also be described, e.g., the disposal of waste motor oil by government organization on a river bank or to coastal waters. Although the perception of Florida coastal waters is of decreasing water quality, are there any estuarine or coastal waters which are less environmentally stressed than they were twenty-five years ago? With increasing populations in coastal areas, will it be possible to maintain the status quo? Some of the specific geographic areas which will be discussed include Escambia Bay, Tampa Bay, Biscayne Bay, St. Johns River and Indian River Lagoon. 3:45 PM BREAK 4:00 PM AOS-13 Tracking Sewage Effluents in Coastal Waters by Chemical Monitoring. STEWART HOLM AND JOHN G. WINDSOR, JR., Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. The discharge of sewage effluent to coastal waters contributes to eutrophication. Traditional methods of determining the areas impacted by sewage effluents, e.g., distribution of nutrients or coliform bacteria, sometimes yield confusing results in the typical, poorly flushed, southeastern coastal lagoon. Constitutents unique to sewage effluent would be useful as indicators of areas impacted by sewage. Secondarily-treated sewage effluent was collected at an outfall near Cocoa, Florida and chemically characterized. Receiving waters were then analyzed to determine which of the chemical components in the effluent would be suitable for tracking the effluent. The saturated hydrocarbon fraction and the sterol fraction of the extracts appeared to be of greatest utility in tracking the effluents and these fractions were determined for water, suspended matter and sediment. Concentration profiles decrease rapidly from the outfall. 4:15 PM AOS-14 Organic-Rich Sediments in Florida's Coastal Estuaries. MICHAEL A. SISLER, CLAUDIA J. GLASCOCK AND JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The accumulation of Organic and inorganic sediment in the Indian River Lagoon, east Central Florida, is accelerated by the activities of mankind. The resultant organic-rich sediment, some- times called “muck", originates from decaying plant debris and uncontrolled soil runoff. Muck layers vary in thickness from centimeters near Sebastian Inlet to meters near Crane Creek and are composed of fine-grained biogenic and alumino- Silicate components. The biogenic fraction of the muck gives the sediment a rich black color and is an indicator of high plant productivity, most often fertilized by sewage nutrients. The aluminosilicate contribution can result from poor soil reten- tion controls during construction, farming or other activities. The muck layer is not the natural bottom to many areas of the system and is underlain by sand and Shell fragments at most sites. Muck plays a role in the high turbidity of the lagoon and is a storage reservoir for pollutant Pb, Hg and Cu. 4:30 PM AOS-15 The Chemistry of Sediment Interstitial Water from the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. DEYU GU, Third Institute of Oceanography, National Bureau of Oceanography, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China, NENAD IRICANIN AND JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography & Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The chemistry of intersti- tial water provides a useful tool for determining the biogeochemical reactions and processes which occur in estuarine sediments. Study of an organic-rich deposit from Eau Gallie Harbor, a tributary of the Indian River Lagoon, Florida Scientist -12- Volume, 49 Florida, shows a classic picture of interstitial water chemistry in anoxic sediments. Interstitial water nitrate was depleted throughout the sediment column and complete sulfate reduction was observed by a depth of just 9 cm, showing highly reducing, anoxic conditions. Interstitial water chlorinity decreased sharply with depth suggesting subsurface occurrence or intrusion of groundwater. Dissolved sulfide concentrations were quite high and are believed to play a primary role in controlling interstitial water metal concentrations. 4:45 PM AOS-16 Red Tide Toxin Analysis from a Ptychodiscus brevis Bloom. J.R. KUCKLICK, R.C. BROWN, C. CANONICO and R.H. PIERCE. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. A 1985 bloom of red tide along the Gulf of Mexico and Sarasota Bay gave Mote Marine Laboratory scientists their first opportunity to collect toxins from water and air. Toxins were recovered from seawater using solvent extraction. Column chromatography utlizing XAD-2 resin was investigated as an alternate toxin collection method. Aerosols (airbone) toxins produced by surf action were collected on shore using a standard high volume airborne particulate sampling device. Identification and concentrations of the two major toxins, T-ALD and T-ALC, were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Seawater samples of the P. brevis bloom contained 63 + 27 ug/10° cells of the T-ALD and 7 + 2 ug/10° cells of the T-ALC. Both T-ALD and T-ALC were collected with XAD-2 resin cartridges. High volume air sampler collections of airborne toxins recovered the T-ALD and T-ALC in nearly equal concentrations (1:1); the ratio of T-ALD/T-ALC was approximately 9:1 in the surf during collection. FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz B60 SESSION A: Zoology J.M. LAWRENCE, University of South Florida, presiding 9:00 AM BIO-1 The effect of age on Male and Female Fertility in the Rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. M.J. CHILDRESS and T.W. SNELL, Division of Science, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. We examined the loss of fertility with age in both male and female rotifers. 100% of females hatching from resting eggs were susceptible to fertilization until age 4 hr. After 4 hr, female susceptibility to fertilization declined non-linearly for the remaining lifespan. A second-order polynomial provided the best fit to the data (R2 = 0.936, P = 0.004). The age at which 50% of the rotifers remained susceptible to fertilization was termed life- time fertility (LF59) and for females was 7.9 hr. Only 83% of newborn males were capable of fertilization. This capacity for fertilization was maintained until age 8 hr, after which it declined linearly (R2 = 0.861, P = 0.003). The LF5g for males was 18.8 hr. The mean number of motile sperm transferred in a single copulation was 2.3 + 0.35, a number closely corresponding to the mean number of resting eggs produced by a fertilized female. — 1986 Supplement =13- Program Issue 9:15 AM BIO-2 Biochemical Composition of Sexual and Asexual Eggs of the Rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. E.M. BOYER and T.W. SNELL, Division of Science, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. Sexual (resting) and asexual eggs produced by the rotifer B. plicatilis differ in number, composition, egg shell structure and capacity for dormancy. We compared the biochemical composition of these eggs using quantitative tests for total protein, lipid, carbohydrate and ash content. The protein content of resting eggs and asexual eggs was 0.183 and 0.179 ug/egg, res- pectively. Although these values are not significantly different (t = 0.24, P = 0.83), polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with silver stain for total protein revealed qualitative differences in one major band. The lipid content of resting eggs was 0.130 ug/egg, 1.7 times greater than that of asexual eggs (t = 2.56, P = 0.03). Thin-layer chromatography of the lipid fraction revealed no qualitative differences between egg types. The caloric cost of producing sexual vs. asexual eggs will be contrasted 9:30 AM BIO-3 The Occurrence of Seminal Receptacles in the Onuphia Polychaete Kinbergonuphis simoni. HWEY LIAN HSIEH AND JOSEPH L. SIMON, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Kinbergonuphis simoni, a common dioecious tube dwelling intertidal polychaete in Tampa Bay, releases fertilized eggs within the tube of the female parent where all of development takes place. Laboratory observations showed that isolated females continued to produce up to two successive broods of young, indicating that sperm storage organs must be pre- sent. Examination of histological sections revealed the presence of one pair of bi- or trifurcate seminal receptacles located in the dorsolateral body wall near the posterior margin of each genital segment adjacent to the nephridial openings. There is no indication of spermatophores and the method of sperm transfer is unknown. 9:45 AM BI0-4 Characterization of Multiple Glutathione S-Transferases in Daphnia magna. GERALD A. LEBLANC and BRUCE J. COCHRANE, Biology Dept., Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Several proteins exhibiting glutathione S-transferase activity were purified from the crustacean, Daphnia magna, using affinity chromatography. These proteins were represented by three bands on SDS-polyarcylamide gel elctrophoresis and had molecular weights ranging from 27,500 to 30,000 daltons. Electrophoretic separation of the proteins under nondenaturing conditions revealed six proteins. All 6 proteins exhibited glutathione S-transferase activity and had molecular weights ranging from 55,000 to 61,700 daltons. These results suggest that the six active glutathione S-transferases in D. magna are homo- or hetero-dimers formed from the three protein subunits. i? Competitive binding studies revealed that chlorinated phenolic compounds exhibited high binding affinity toward glutathione S-transferases 4, 5, and 6 but not toward 1, 2, and 3, suggesting functional diversity exists among these enzymes. 10:00 AM BIO-5 Organic and Inorganic Content of Emerita talpoida (Decapoda: An- omura) during Embryogenesis. Q-S.W. FONG and R.L. TURNER, Dept. Biol. Sci., Fla. Inst. Technol., Melbourne 32901. Studies of nutrient utilization during em bryogene- sis reveal 2 patterns based on habitat rather than systematic position of aquatic organisms: marine planktonic and freshwater eggs, which use protein for develop- ment; marine demersal eggs, which use lipid for embryonic development. This study determined if the mole crab, an intertidal brooder, uses lipid as an energy source | 4 embryogenesis, The content (pg/egg) of dry matter, ash, carbohydrate, lipid, _and protein was determined from oviposition to hatching. Dry weight remained con- stant, and ash increased during development. Carbohydrate and protein contents were unchanged for the first 3 embryonic stages and decreased in the newly hatched zoea. Lipid content decreased throughout development. Results show that embryonic mole crabs mainly use lipid as an energy source, comprising 58% of the weight reduction In measured organic components; protein contributes 33%. This pattern of utiliza- tion agrees with published studies on other decapods but not on cirripedes. Florida Scientist -14- Volume: 49 10:15 AM BI0-6 Annual Cycles of the Gonads and Pyloric Caeca of Luidia clathrata (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in Tampa Bay (1971-1985). J.M. LAWRENCE, P.F. DEHN, AND S.A. WATTS, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa. 33620. The gonads and pyloric caeca of L. clathrata usually undergo annual cycles. Maximal indices” (g wet organ weight/g wet body weight) were 6 for the gonad and 14 for the pyloric caeca. The pyloric caeca index did not always decrease during the period of increase in gonad index. Years in which there was no cycle in the pyloric caeca index were years in which the cycle in the gonad index was reduced. Variation in the temperature, salinity, and solutes (organic and inorganic) probably have a direct and an indirect control (food availability) of the gonad and pyloric caeca cycles. 10:30 AM BREAK 10:45 AM BIO-7 Velvet Ants: Adaptations of a Group of Professional Parasitoids. M. A. Deyrup, Archbold Biological Station, Box 2057, Lake Placid 33852. Velvet Ants (Mutillidae) seem to show adaptations correlated with exploitation of ground- burrowing, aggressive, highly dispersed hosts. The armored body protects the parasitoid during invasion of burrows of biting and stinging hosts; similar thick- ened exoskeleton occurs in some unrelated parasitoids of the same hosts. Wingless- ness in females occurs in mutillids and some unrelated parasitoids of subterranean hosts. Apterygyny appears to have led to phoretic copulation in at least 2 mutillid lineages. Phoretic copulation may have led to selection for large male size. Hosts are usually highly dispersed and individual hosts suitable for a short time; this requires protracted foraging in exposed sites, and may have selected for long life span and an extraordinary combination of defensesy including massive exoskel- eton, potent sting, alarm squeaking, membership in mimetic complexes, evasive tactics, and feigning death. 11:00 AM BI0-8 Early Stages in the Embryonic Development of the Clearnose Skate, Raja eglanteria. PATRICIA BLUM and CARL A. LUER. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. While the later phases of embryonic development have been observed for several species of elasmobranch fish, detailed descriptions of the early stages are rare. Unlike their shark relatives, the clearnose skate will breed in captivity and lay eggs which can be examined to characterize early post-fertilization changes. The skate egg is markedly telolecithal with cleavage being confined to a small cap of cytoplasm. This area develops into a distinct blastodisc which can be seen as early as one or two days after laying. The confluence of cells along one edge of the blastodisc is apparent by that time with a recognizable primitive streak visible by day four. The cells continue to migrate with clear differentiation into embryonic regions occurring over the next few days. By day ten only the middle third of the embryo is attached to the yolk mass; eye buds are visible; and movement is detectable, especially in the head region. 11:15 AM BIO-9 A Comparative Study of the Structure and Morphology of the Hyoid Bone with Special Regard to Marine Mammals. GRACE ROEGNER, A. BEULIG and G.W. PATTON, New College of the Univ. of South Florida, 5700 N. Tamiami Trail, Sarasota, FL 33580 and Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Though present in all vertebrates, the hyoid bone differs markedly in structure in each taxonomic group. A literature survey was performed to compare the specific | shapes, orientations, and functions of the hyoid in fish, amphibians, reptiles, | birds, and mammals. While giving insight into the evolution of this second visteral arch, the study suggested that the primary function of the apparatus was feeding, noting distinct differences in the structure of the hyoid in aquatic and terrestrial animals. This aspect was investigated in marine mammals by extensively describing and measuring the hyoid bones of the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps), a dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a manatee (Trichechus manatus). The | hypothesis that a possible secondary function in fish and some mammals could be acoustic transmission is discussed, 1986 Supplement a5- Program Issue | 11:30 AM BIO-10 A Model System to Test the Reactivity of Poly d, 1- lactide Microspheres in the Mouse Lung. Sylvia E. Coleman and C. Ian Hood, VA Medical Center, Gainesville, Florida 32602. In evaluating the reactivity of medically useful biomaterials, the granulomatous response in the lung to intravenously injected microspheres of the drug transporting agent poly d, l-lactide (45 to 53pm) has been com- pared with a model system using divinyl benzene copolymer beads (45 to 53pm). Time periods from 24 hours to 6 weeks were tested, and after 48 hours the mean area of granulomas formed around the poly d, l-lactide microspheres was 5244 pm 2 in comparison to 7501 pm2 for the copolymer beads. The difference in areas gradually decreased after this time. Ultrastructurally, more polymorphonuclear leukocytes remained in granulomas associated with the poly d, l-lactide. The results indicated a minimal inflammatory response to the microspheres. 11:45 AM BI0-11 Ultrastructural Changes within the Nephron Cells in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats.ALICIA A. ZUNIGA,Florida International Univ. ,Dept.Biol.Science, Miami,FL 33199.Streptozotocin-diabetic rats were employed to study the cellular chan- ges associated with diabetes mellitus.Six females and six males weighing 80-100 grs. were fasted overnight and injected in the tail vein with a fresh solution of strepto- zotocin in acetate buffer pH 4.5 to the amount of 6.5 mg/100 gr.Diabetic rats and un- injected controls with the same initial weight, were fed ad libitum until killed 4-6 weeks later.Urine was collected daily for measurement of glucose.Using Osmium-ferric- yanide to demonstrate glycogen,diabetic rats showed progressive infiltration of gly- cogen in proximal and distal tubules.Several facts were identified:1)presence of ro- und vesicles with double membranes containing glycogen,2) cytoplasmic regions protect- ing organelles as Golgy complex and mitochondria from glycogen invasion,3) perinuclear areas free of glycogen infiltration.The results indicate that the close association of membranes suggest either engulfment of glycogen or release of glycogen from mem- branes-bound compartments or vacuoles within the cytoplasmic matrix. FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz B65 SESSION B: Marine Ecology P. CARLSON, Florida Department of Natural Resources, presiding 9:00 AM BIO-12 A Comparison of Commercially Prepared Medias for the Elevated Temperature Coliform Plate Test (ETCP). Audrey Meyers, Michael Robbins, K.L. Kas- weck. Shellfish Testing Services Inc., Melbourne, FL 32901 and Department of Bio- logical Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. A study was conducted to determine the differences between Modified MacConkey Agar (Gibco) and Modified MacConkey Agar (BBL) for the detection of E. coli in water samples from shellfish waters. The method used was the same one used for shellfish testing. _ This method is the Elevated Temperature Coliform Plate method (ETCP) in the pres- ence and absence of glycine. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and flourescent trypo- nemal antibody (FTA) buffers were also used as variables. From the results ob- tained, Modified MacConkey Agar (Gibco) showed to be more efficient for the ETCP test. Results will be presented and discussed. Florida Scientist -16- Yolume 49 9:15 AM BI0-13 Vertical Behavior of Ptychodiscus brevis: Geotactic and Thermocl ine Responses. C. HEIL, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of So. Florida, 140 7th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Aspects of the vertical behavior of Ptychodiscus brevis were investigated in a series of large (1.4m) vertical and horizontal column experiments. Although P. brevis displays a daylight pattern in vertical columns suggestive of a typical dinoflagellate phototactic response, experimental data suggests the impor- tance of a geotactic component. AIIl vertical column populations displayed signifi- cant cell movement toward or away from the surface 1 hr prior to the start of the light and dark cycles respectively. Horizontal column populations, under identical light and temperature conditions, demonstrate a light cycle response away from The light source and a vertical response suggestive of geotaxis and large volume culture pattern formation rather than positive phototaxis. Homogenous column populations exposed to a 5°C thermocline initially demonstrate avoidance of the area of maximum temperature change. Populations were subsequently restricted to a shallow surface layer by the thermocline throughout the light cycle. 9:30 AM BI0-14 The Response of Chaetoceros socialis to Variations in Light and Salinity. G. A. VARGO, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of South Florida, 140 7th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Chaetoceros socialis is a minor component of the coastal and estuarine phytoplankton community in south Florida waters although this cosmo- politan, neritic species forms dense, prolonged blooms in temperate and polar re- gions. Its minor role in these sub-tropical estuaries does not conform to the responses of unialgal cultures which can achieve doubling rates of 3 day_j- Although growth was saturated at light intensities greater than 80yEm ‘s at _g4*, with a 12:12 photoperiod, division rates of 1.0 day were maintained at 3yuEm s _. Growth rates increased with increasing daylength but the efficiency of light utili- zation, expressed as growth and as yield per unit irradiance, was higher at shorter day lengths. Additionally, growth rates for populations that were adapted to or not adapted to salinities over a range of 10°/.», to 40°/,. were equivalent, falling within a range of 1.5 to 2.2 divisions day. Thus C. socialis can maintain high growth rates over a range of natural light and salinity conditions. 9:45 AM BI0-15 Distribution of Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars, and Heart Urchins off the Atlantic Coast of Florida. R.L. TURNER, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901(*), D.A. BRUZEK, Mote Marine Labo- ratory, Sarasota 33577, S.E. LOCHMANN*, and C.M. NORLUND*. Nearly 27,000 specimens of 25 species of echinoid echinoderm were collected by dredge or trawl at 356 sta- tions on the shelf and slope along the east coast of Florida during SEAMAP cruises of 1983-1985. The collections include 2 warm-temperate, 2 eurythermal wide-ranging, and 16 West Indian-Caribbean species of 38 shelf species listed by Serafy (1979: Hourglass Echinoidea) for the region but only 1 of 23 slope species. Additionally, the collections extend Serafy's ranges for four West Indian-Caribbean shelf species and one slope species. Bathymetric relationships described by Serafy for Gulf-coast echinoids generally hold for the Atlantic coast. The distributions of seven species and perhaps two others are disjunct at Cape Canaveral. The disjunct distributions are probably due to current-temperature patterns rather than substratum. Supported by Fla. DNR, F.I.T., Harbor Branch Found./Inst., Mote Mar. Lab., NMFS, Smithsonian. 10:00 AM BI0-16 Distribution and Abundance of Benthic Invertebrates in the Myakka River. J.K. CULTER. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Nineteen locations were sampled for benthic epifauna and infauna along a 40km section of the lower Myakka River during September 1985. Samples were collected by diver core, bucket dredge, trawl, and from incidental salt marsh collections. A total of 156 discrete taxa were identified, the majority of which were crustaceans (52), followed by molluscs (50), polychaetes (34), oligochaetes (5) and missellaneous groups (15). Faunal densities ranged from 247 to 14,890 organisms/m™ at five quantitatively sampled stations. Shannon Weaver Diversity (H') ranged from 1.17 to 3.00 (nats). Based upon the data collected for this study (analysis of fauna, mollusc remains and hydrographic data), as well as historical hydrographic data, the study region was found to be a dynamic area which may frequently exhibit pronounced alterations in benthic faunal structure due to salinity fluctuations. —— 1986 Supplement =i 7- Program Issue 10:15 AM BI0-17 The Effect of Power Plant Effluent on Oyster Associated Fauna Communities. JAY GORZELANY and JAY SPRINKEL, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. The oyster fauna from 9 stations in the vicinity of Florida Power Corporation's Crystal River Power Plant were examined in order to address thermal impacts of the once-through condenser cooling systems of Units 1, 2, and 3. Stations were established both in the area under direct influence of thermal effluent and also to the north and south as controls. Direct effects due to thermal effluent were a reduction in both abundance and diversity in oyster associated fauna, as well as a change in community composition. Although thermal effluent appears to have significantly altered the oyster communities, the effects do not appear to be widespread and are limited to the immediate vicinity of the power plant's discharge canal. 10:30 AM BREAK 10:45 AM BIO-18 Dispersed-Oil Effects on Three Florida Seagrasses. A. THORHAUG AND J. MARCUS, Greater Caribbean Energy and Environment Foundation, 1121 Crandon Blvd., Key Biscayne, Florida, 33149. The effects of several dispersants commonly used in Florida oil spill clean up planning have been laboratory tested on a major habitat from west and east Florida coasts: seagrasses. Variables were time and concentration. Results to date show the seagrasses Syringodium filiforme and Halodule wrightii, more sensitive to dispersed oil than Thalassia testudinum. Sensitivity for short-term exposure (10 hr) for Halodule and Syringodium was at 75 ppm, whereas Thalassia was 125 ppm. Differences and similarities between effects of several dispersants will be discussed. 11:00 AM BI0-19 Rheotaxic and Diel Behavioral Responses of Marsh Transient Species in East Central Florida. DEREK M. TREMAIN, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450. The rheotaxic and diel behavioral responses of three marsh transient fish species--snook, Centropomus undecimalis, striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, and white mullet, Mugil curema—and one portunid crab, Callinectes spp, were examined from 2020 collections taken at three impounded marsh study sites. Overall data show that Mugil curema migrations between the marsh and estuary occur primarily during the day and against the direction of current flow. Conversely, Callinectes spp migrations occur Pate at night and with the Current. Neither Centropomus nor Mugil cephalus show a significant difference in diel behavior; however, nightime migrations of Centropomus occurred primarily with the current, and daytime migra- tions of M. cephalus occurred primarily against current flow. Some variability in these trends occurred at the different study sites. 11:15 AM BI0-20 Faunal movement in a closed versus open impounded salt marsh. DOUGLAS M. SCHEIDT, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450. A two-year study was conducted on an impounded salt marsh in east central Florida. During the first year the water level in the impoundment was regulated from April-January by flapgates. During the second year the water level was only regulated from April-September. The effects of these different management strategies upon faunal movement were compared for both years over the same June-January period. There was a quantitative difference in faunal composition between the two years. Special emphasis was placed on fish species of commercial and sport value. The total number of snook (Centropomus undecimalis) collected increased the second year. Florida Scientist =18- Volume 49 11:30 AM BI0-21 Trophic analysis of six species of fishes collected from a subtropical salt marsh from east central Florida. J. L. FYFE, Harbor Branch Foundation, RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, FL 33450. Six species representing 3,366 specimens of salt marsh fishes (Cyprinodon variegatus, comiuete affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Mugil cephalus, M. curema and ETops 1983. ates Fis ties and quantitative analysis of the contents of the entire alimentary tract were conducted following dissection. Detrital algal conglomerates made up the major food items for the sheepshead minnow, mullets and sailfin molly. Copepods, insects and arthropods were the major food sources for the mosquitofish and ladyfish of less than 100 mm. Larger ladyfish became primarily piscivorous. As these fishes comprised 86.7% of the total biomass collected; these data provide a basis for estimation of the magnitude and pathways for trophic energy transfer in this ecosystem. FRIDAY 3:45 PM Reitz B60 SESSION C: Botany W.L. STERN, University of Florida, presiding 3:45 PM BIO-22 Effect of Volume and Seed Number in Radicle Elongation Bioassays. J. WEIDENHAMER, T. MORTON AND J. ROMEO, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of S. Fla., Tampa 33620. In phytotoxin bioassays, radicle growth inhibition depends on test solution volume and seed number. Cucumber seeds were germinated: 25 seeds/5 ml solution, 5 seeds/5 ml and 25 seeds/95 ml in modified Petri dishes. Ferulic acid concentra- tions ranged from 0 to 2.0 mM. For 2.0 mM ferulic acid, radicle lengths as Z of control after 48 hours were 71%, 49% and 48%, respectively. Ferulic acid remaining in solution was 8%, 49% and 91%. Similar trends, lesser in magnitude, were noted at lower concentrations. Similar results were obtained for mung bean with ferulic acid and for cucumber with vanillic acid, caffeic acid and juglone. Striking re- sults were seen with 0.1 mM juglone, where radicle lengths were 102% of control with 25 seeds/5 ml and 57% with 5 seeds/5 ml. These results show that solution volume and seed number are important factors in allelopathy bioassays. Lower phytco toxin concentrations may produce greater inhibitory effects if the amount available for uptake is greater. Possible implications to field studies will be discussed. 4:00 PM BI0-23 Character States of Systematic Value in Pacific Marchantiae. TERRI L. ROBERTS, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. The liverwort genus Marchantia has not been studied throughout its range in the Pacific Islands for over 50 years. Marchantiae from Hawaii, Micronesia, French Polynesia, Samoa, Fiji, Vanuatu and New Caledonia are under study. The species exhibit character states with limited ranges of variation. Median scale appendages, gemma cup margins, thallus margins, cell configurations and Other characters have proven useful for differentiating species. For example, among the known Hawaiian species are found the two subgenera of Marchantia. Marchantia antigua and M. marginata both show scale appendages that have widely ovate to orbicular shapes, serrate margins, and obtuse tips, placing them in subgenus Marchantia. Marchantia crenata, M. cuspidisquama and M. furciloba all have scale appendages with ovate shapes, entire margins, and acuminate tips which is characteristic of subgenus Chlamidium. (funded in part by N.S.F. grant BSR 8215056, H.A. Miller, principal investigator) 1986 Supplement =19- Program Issue 4:15 PM BI0-24 Unusual Bryophytes from Vanuatu. HARVEY A. MILLER, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando. Florida 32816. Two seasons of field work in the kepublic of Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides) in the southwest Pacific resulted in discovery of many bryophytes previously unknown from that region. Mosses most tolerant of volcanic ash belong to Epipterygium and ee Trematoden. The mostly South American genus Arachniopsis is represented by a single epecies previously known only from Borneo and West Irian. Several species of Telaranea, some new to science, have already been identified. Zoopsis, a strange thread-1ike thallose leafy liverwort, is represented by two species. Spiridens, the largest epiphytic moss in the world, is a conspicuous component of the veget- ation of the lower cloud forests. Pleurozia gigantea, an insectivorous leafy liverwort, Mastigophora diclados and several other genera of Hepaticae constitute the greatest part of the woody vegetation in old world tropical rain and cloud forests. (Sponsored by N.S.F. Grant BSR 8215056) 4:30 PM BI0-25 Localization of the mevalonic pathway in floral scent glands of Stanhopea anfracta (Orchidaceae). K. J. CURRY AND W. L. STERN, Dept. of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. The floral scent glands of Stanhopea produce a fragrance composed of terpenoids and aromatics which attract pollinators. The terpenoid component is composed of isoprene units synthesized via the mevalonic pathway. The localization technique employed involves the formation of an electron dense precipitate of uranyl ferrocyanide at the point in the mevalonic pathway where an acetyl group from acetyl CoA is transferred to acetoacetyl CoA. Using this technique on the osmophore of S. anfracta results in a precipitate between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, just outside the plasmalemma, and, to a lesser extent, between the inner and outer membranes and granal membranes of the amyloplasts. 4:45 PM BI0-26 Osmophores of Stanhopea (Orchidaceae). W. L. STERN AND K. J. CURRY, Dept. of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Species of the Neotropical orchid genus Stanhopea produce a fragrance of terpenoids and aromatics which attract euglossine bee pollinators. The secretory tissue, called an osmophore, is located in the adaxial, papillate region of a sac formed at the proximal portion of the flower’s lip. Osmophore cells are more densely cytoplasmic than those in the subtending tissue. The osmophore includes all the cells of the papillae and those directly below, gradually grading into ground parenchyma. Numerous amyloplasts and mitochondria are seen in these cells from the earliest bud stages we examined through anthesis. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum are abundant, but dictyosomes are uncommon. Mitochondria of osmophore cells appear to be randomly distributed during bud stages, but tend to be aligned near the plasmalemma at anthesis. Lipid droplets increase in number from bud through anthesis. The tissue is highly vacuolate at post-anthesis. FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading Florida Scientist -20- Yolume 49 FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz B65 SESSION D: Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecology P. DOORIS, Southwest Florida Water Management District, presiding 3:00 PM BIO-27 £Macrolichens as a Potential Indicator of Air Quality in Central Florida: A Baseline Study. HARRY V. NEAL JR., Dept. of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. Coal-fired power plants and other industries provide air pollution sources which have seriously impacted regional biotas. Con- struction of the Curtis H. Stanton Energy Center, a coal-fired power plant project- ed to go ‘on line’ in July 1987 in Central Florida, creates a new potential problem. Worldwide studies support the fact that air pollution can be monitored with lichen species. Taxa previously used as bioindicators and or taxa having this potential occur naturally in Central Florida. In the four counties most likely to be affected (Brevard, Orange, Osceola and Seminole) lichen monitoring sites have been selected for the collection of information reflecting species diversity, frequency and over- all vitality for baseline data and future analysis. The final objective is provi- sion of baseline data to anyone interested in monitoring effects of a pollution source on an area without previous documented pollution problems. 3:15 PM BI0O-28 "Corbicula manilensis, Potential Bio-indicator of Lead and Copper Pollution.'' C.G. ANNIS JR. AND T.V. BELANGER, Dept. of Environmental Science and Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. The potential of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula manilensis, as a bio-indicator of lead and copper was evaluated from cage experiments during an 11 month period in the upper and middle St. Johns River, FL. Copper showed the highest concentrations in the tissues, ranging from 20 to 62 ug/g, and had concentration factors on the order of 102. Lead concentrations were much lower in magnitude in the tissues (0.9 - 3.5 ug/g) and had concentration factors on the order of 104. The shells yielded very low concentrations of copper, however, and lead was below detectable limits (1 - 3 ug/g). Data from this study indicate that the tissues of the Asiatic clam may be a reliable short-term indicator of lead and copper pollution, whereas the shells may not. Corbicula growth rates were also computed from the cage experi- ments and the growth rates were compared with other data reported throughout the Uo 3:30 PM BI0-29 "Oxygen Budgets of the Everglades."' J.R. PLATKO II AND T.V. BELANGER, Dept. of Env. Science, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Three areas of Water Conservation Area 2A in the Florida Everglades were investigated in order to quantify the sources and sinks of dissolved oxygen. The northern section, characterized by nutrient rich water and dominated by cat- tails, exhibited different oxygen dynamics than pristine sawgrass stands and intermittent sloughs. It was found that community metabolism was generally negative for all sites as values ranged from 0.31 to -1.06 g 07'/m2-day. Sediment oxygen demand seemed to be the major 07 sink at all three sites. The primary source of oxygen was reaeration, as plankton production at both the cattail and Sawgrass sites was low. A thick benthic algal mat was primarily responsible for production within the slough, however. Diurnal 02 flux was greatest at the slough and minimal in the nutrient enriched waters of the cattail site. 3:45 PM BI0-30 Nutrient Release from Montverde Histosols in the Upper St. Johns River Basin. Joel S. Steward. St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka, 32078. Soluble N and P release rates were measured by leaching intact soil cores of virgin and cultivated histosols (peat) from the upper St. Johns River basin. Poten- tial annual losses of total soluble N and P from drained virgin peat were between 176 to 344 Kg N/ha/yr and 3.2 to 5.0 kg P/ha/yr. The potential losses from culti- vated muck were between 1560 to 2040 Kg N/hr/yr and 27 to 43 Kg P/ha/yr. The N and P in both drained virgin and cultivated histosols were released primarily as nitrate a 1986 Supplement ag Program Issue and ortho-P. Flooding the cultivated histosols decreased the apparent production rate of nitrate from 0.50 to 0.01 pg N/em of soil/day in 3 weeks or less. However, in 3 months or less ammonification and P solubilization rates increased an order of magnitude to nearly 0.10 wg/cm /day for NH, -N and P. The results of this study may be used to evaluate or develop water management strategies in reducing nutrient loading to receiving waters. 4:00 PM BIO-31 Effect of Sewage Effluent Removal on Water Quality in Lake Howell, Florida. PATRICIA L. SMITH AND JOHN A. OSBORNE. St. Johns River Water Management District, Orlando, Florida 32817; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. In April, 1983, sewage effluent discharge from the Maitland and Winter Park sewage treatment plants was diverted from Lake Howell, via the Iron Bridge sewage treatment plant. The sewage treatment plants for the cities of Winter Park and Maitland had been discharging into Lake Howell since 1927 and 1962, respectively. These point sources had contributed 95% of the total phosphorous and 69% of the total nitrogen budgets for Lake Howell. Physicochemical parameters were monitored monthly in Lake Howell from two years between January, 1983 through December, 1984. Annual mean values for chlorophyll , pH, visible light penetration and water temperature were found to be higher during the second year (1984). Annual mean values for alkalinity, dissolved oxygen and pheophytin (non-functional chlorophyll.) were higher during 1983. : 4:15 PM BI0-32 The effects of off-road vehicle (ORV) traffic on floodplain vege- tation of the Upper St. Johns River. DAVID L. GIRARDIN and EDGAR F. LOWE, St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka, FL 32078. The vegetational charac- teristics of well established trails used year after year, of recent trails, and of untraveled areas were examined to determine both the long-term and short-term effects of ORV traffic in the three major communities of the floodplain: maiden- Cane wet prairie, sawgrass wet prairie, and myrtle head island. In all three communities, both short-term and long-term traffic increased species diversity, as measured by species richness (total number of species) and species density (number of species/sample), and decreased the abundance of dominant species. In myrtle head island and sawgrass wet prairie, physiognomy was severely altered as a result of these compositional changes. These data indicate that ORV traffic has adversely affected landscape (gamma) diversity by progressively reducing the acreage of myrtle head island and sawgrass wet prairie. 4:30 PM BIO-33 Vegetation Pattern and Succession in Sub-tropical Coastal Ecosystems (John D. MacArthur Beach State Park), Palm Beach County, Florida. GRACE BLANCHARD IVERSON, Dept. of Biol. Sciences, Fla. Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, FL 33431. This study documents and interprets the vegetation pattern of the last known continuum of native ecosystems formerly characteristic of the high-energy coast of Florida within the sub-tropics. The 2.4 km transect from Atlantic Ocean to lagoon conditions of Lake Worth includes beach and strand, tropical hammock, oak-cabbage palm low hammock of different origins, former Florida scrub, fresh water swamp, and mangrove swamp. Extend- ing observations northward permitted a rare and final opportunity to enhance and support this interpretation, and to further document some of the last examples of the region's Florida scrub. FRIDAY 4:45 PM Reitz B65 BUSINESS MEETING: Biological Sciences E.F. LOWE, St. Johns River Water Management District, presiding Florida Scientist -22- Volume 49 COMPUTER SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS SATURDAY 9:30 AM Reitz 362 BUSINESS MEETING: Computer Science and Mathematics F.B. BUONI, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding SATURDAY 10:AM Reitz 362 SESSION A: Computer Science and Mathematics F.B. BUONI, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 10:00 AM CSM-1 Mathematical Principles of the Mind. DAVID LAWSON, Stetson University, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, DeLand 32724. There is reason to believe that Stephen Grossberg has discovered mathematical principles which underlie the brain's behavior. The proposed model is able to explain learning, memory and behavior. For example, a computer simulation of a brain using Grossberg's principles has been able to reproduced Hubel and Weisel's Nobel Prize winning research on the visual cortex of “the -eae- 10:15 AM CSM-2 Mind Design: A Computer Simulation of Grossberg's Equations. BARRY PEKIN AND MELISSA TITSHAW, students at Stetson University, DeLand 32724. An innovative research tool designed to further advance exploration into the frontiers of the mind. The set of programs allow the user to custom create neurological brain models to his own specifications and to examine, test, teach, and revise each model as his research continues. Simulation of previous research is possible; the user is also encouraged to design his own means of interconnection in hope of imitating the internal workings of the brain. The programs incorporate mathematical concepts set forth by Stephen Grossberg in Studies of the Mind and Brain and are available for use on, a.VAX 14/750; = 10:30 AM CSM-3 Mathematical Modeling of Underground Coal Gasification. L.V. FAUSETT, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. Modeling of the complex physical and chemical reactions involved in underground coal gasification leads to many varied mathematical problems. Models have been developed by researchers at the University of Wyoming, University of West Virginia, University of Texas, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The simplifying assumptions of the models differ, as do the mathematical difficulties encountered in the solution of the models. In one model the system of partial differential equations is simplified to a system of ordinary differential equations in a moving reference frame. These equations form a stiff boundary value problem which may be solved by the technique of multiple shooting. Difficulties in the matching of forward and reverse shooting solutions can be overcome by replacing the reverse shooting solution by an approximate analytical solution. 1986 Supplement =—2a> Program Issue 10:45 AM CSM-4 General Algorithm for the Development of Detailed Algorithms for the Extraction of Integer Roots. GEORGE K. KOSTOPOULOS, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida. The determination of roots has puzzled the mathematicians of all eras. The advent of computers, and especially microcomputers, has open new horizons to numerical analysis favoring algorithms of iterative nature rather than look-up tables. In this paper an original method for the design of root-computing algorithms is presented. The method is applicable to all numerical systems and leads to the design of algorithms for the extraction of any integer roots. It is simple and can be easily programmed into a loop where each iteration produces one digit of the sought-after root extending into the fractional part of the root. The method's iterative nature makes it practical for use in microcomputers eliminating the need for tables, or other approximate methods. Its hardware implementation in the binary system for the square and cube root is relatively simple allowing a high speed root derivation wherever this requirement is needed. 11:00 AM BREAK 11:15 AM CSM-5 Autonomous Navigation in a 2-D Maze. M.H. THURSBY Florida institute of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd. Melbourne, Fla. 32901. Navigation in an unknown environment is a multifacited problem, encompassing many disciplines inciuding exploration, data collection, map making, path analysis and optimal and achievable route determination. These elements are present in a two dimensional! maze in a form more easily analyzed than in three dimensional free space. The algorithrns discovered for 2-D maze solutions can be extended to problern with more cornplex spatial arrangements. The purpose of this paper to present work underway in the Autonomous Vehicle Laboratory at F.I.T. on the analysis of autonomous robot activities in a 2-D maze. The work presented here is the simulation of the maze and the evaluation of several exploration algorithms devised to create a map of the maze. The use of a desk top personal computer with strong graphics capabilities for this analysis allows for a more interractive synthesis of solutions to the maze navigation problem. 11:30 AM CSM-6 ~=Non-continuous inspection: Exponential Parameter Estimation and Impact on Availability Calculations. NATHAN HERER, Dept. of Mathematical Sciences and Computer Science, Fla. Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. This paper considers the problem of estimating the exponential parameter for the case of non-continuous inspection. The inspection is performed periodically with fixed or varied intervals of time between inspection and failures are detected only at the time of first inspection after occurrence. Existing methods for related problems are described and the method of maximum likelihood is applied in order to estimate the MIBF. The estimators for both fixed interval and varied interval cases are derived and are compared to results obtained by computer simulation. 11:45 AM CSM-7 Design As a Multiobjective Decision Process. FREDERICK B. BUONI, Dept. of Mathematical Sciences and Computer Science, Fla. Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. The process of design can be considered in the framework of a constrained multiobjective optimization formulation of a decision process. System specifications may be considered to establish the objectives, and constraints may be established by physical laws, financial considerations, interface requirements, and performance goal. It is shown how the methods of _ operations research can be applied to the design problem using this framework. Florida Scientist -24- Volume. 49 ENGINEERING SCIENCE FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz B70 SESSION A R.G. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 3:00 PM ENG-1 Tubular Flow Reactor Residence Time Distribution. J.N.Linsley, Department of Chemcial Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida 32901. To compliment the residence time distribution functions (RTD's) for the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), the laminar flow reactor (LFR), and the plug flow reactor (PFR), a new residence time distribution function for the turbulent flow reactor (TFR) is developed. A review of the best available turbulent velocity profile data and turbulent velocity ratio data for pipe flow is performed. These data are used to evaluate the constants in a new empirical tur- bulent velocity profile correlation. This new correlation is then used to derive a new turbulent flow reactor residence time distribution. Additional work on an older TFR RTD using an older turbulent velocity profile correlation is also performed. The results of this study augment the available tools for the analysis and design of chemical reactors experiencing deviations from ideal flow conditions. 3:15 PM ENG-2 Energy storage for Air Conditioning. Muserref Wiggins, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, Florida 32901. Ice or chilled water prepared during off-peak hours can be stored to use for air con- ditioning during on-peak hours of the day. This will help to reduce the electrical demand and offer a substantial amount of savings. The potential for short term load leveling in Florida for residential and commercial buildings has been in- vestigated. A computer program, called COLD, has been generated which can easily be used to study the different parameters involved in cold storage. The advantage of ice storage over chilled water storage is in aggreement with the previous results. The low demand services offer the highest savings overall and the savings for all Time-of Use (TOU) rates are linearly related to the cooling load. The author would like to thank the Florida Solar Energy Center for both technical and financial support of this work. 3:30 PM ENG-3 Operation of Evaporative Coolers at Close Approach. D.S. SCOTT and S.C. KRANC. College of Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620. While evaporative closed circuit coolers are widely used. in practice, there is only limited performance information available in the open literature. In particular, operation at the extreme of close approach is of interest in the present paper. A small test facility was constructed and operated under a variety of conditions. Data from these tests were analyzed and compared to existing models to assess performance predictions, particularly at close approach. In general the models examined were adequate for heat transfer to spray water from the process stream but failed to accurately predict heat transfer to the air stream. 3:45 PM BREAK 4:00 PM ENG-4 Electrochemical Impedance Corrosion Measurements of Reinforcing Bars in Concrete, and Aluminum Alloys. ALBERTO A. SAGUES, Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620. Reinforcing steel bars, imbedded in concrete, and Types 3003 and 5052 Aluminum were exposed for over 1800 h to simulated natural waters of controlled pH and electrical conductivity. A.C. electrode impedance measurements were conducted for all samples in the frequency range 5 mHz to 10 kHz. Low amplitude cyclic voltammetry measure- ments were also conducted for the reinforcing bar samples. Evaluations of corrosion rates based on model assumptions for each material are presented. 1986 Supplement =a5- Program Issue 4:15 PM ENG-5 A Method of Estimating the Mass Transfer Coefficient of Water Vapor in Lakes. Heck, H.H., P.A. Jennings, and G. Lagonikas, Florida Institute of Technology, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Melbourne, FL 32901. At present the method to determine the mass transfer coefficient is the energy budget method. This method usually requires time periods of a year. The evaporation rates obtained are plotted against the product of the wind speed and the vapor pressure driving force. The slope of best fitting line is the mass transfer coefficient (N) in the following equation: E=Nu(eg-eg). Extensive applica- tion of the Energy Budget Method enabled the direct correlation of lake area and the mass transfer coefficient (N). An alternative method for determining the mass transfer coefficient (N) is suggested, using the Thornwaite-Holzman equation, instead of the Energy Budget Method. Application of the Thornwaite-Holzman equa- tion requires one day. The present drawback is verifying the Thornwaite-Holzman equation so it can be used to calibrate the mass transfer coefficient. 4:30 PM ENG-6 Space Station Common Module Thermal Management. R.G. BARILE, Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida, and JAMES OWEN, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. A laboratory test bed representing the Space Station thermal removal system has been designed and computer simulated. Components of the test bed include a body-mounted radiator exterior loop, an interior loop servicing cabin air-conditioners and cold plates, interface heat exchangers to the central bus, and provisions for testing new advanced technologies, e.g. radiators, thermal storage, and refrigeration, as they are developed. Together, these components represent the thermal removal subsystem for a typical common module. The apparatus will be mounted in the Sunspot I Chamber at Marshall Space Flight Center, heated with lamps, and tested in vacuum with liquid-nitrogen cooled walls. In the computer simulation, key input variables were solar radiation and cold plate loads. Results indicate temperatures in the loops will be nominal when the radiation and other loads are in the 25 to 75Z range. Below 25%, radiator freezeup occurs, and above 75Z, cabin air temperature is excessive. Additional hardware is proposed. FRIDAY 4:45 PM Reitz B70 BUSINESS MEETING: Engineering R.G. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading Florida Scientist -26- Volume 49 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY FRIDAY 8:30 AM Reitz 347 SESSION A W.T. COOPER, Florida State University, presiding 8:30 AM ENV-1 Large Diameter Open Tubular Columns in Gas Chromatographic Analysis. MEHRZAD F. MEHRAN, Florida International University, Tamiami Campus, Miami, 33199. Large diameter open tubular columns provide the packed column chromatographer with a simple route to higher resolution gas chromatography. They can be operated in a high-flow (lower resolution) mode that permits their direct substitution for a packed column, or they can be operated in a low-flow (higher resolution) mode that maximizes separation at the cost of longer analysis times. Inlet design and column installation can influence both the chromatographic re- sults and quantitative reliability. Make-up gas is not required in the high-flow mode, and its benefits in the low-flow mode are restricted to enhanced detector sensitivity, provided the outlet end of the column resides in the detector jet (FID). The columns seem fully compatible with all common modes of detection. This research was supported in part by the Drinking Water Research Center, Florida International University and by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Grant No. R=811473-01-0., 8:45 AM ENV-2 Characterization of Geological Surfaces by Heterogeneous Gas-Solid Chromatography. SCOTT P. BOUDREAU and W.T. COOPER, Chemistry Dept., Fla. State Univ., Tallahassee, FL 32306. Any study of the fate of organic compounds, including pollutants, in the environment is complicated by the inherent heterogeneity of the surfaces onto which these compounds come into contact. A major goal of our research effort is the development of chromatographic methods which yield solute-surface interaction energies from which the nature and quantity of surface active sites of heterogeneous geological surfaces can be inferred. The technique, termed “heterogeneous gas-solid chromatography", involves chromatographic analysis of geologically important surface with solute probes capable of specific chemical interactions. The subsequent data analysis, in the form of energy distribution functions, readily leads to relative "polarity" scales that yield quantitative information about the specific chemistry of each surface. 9:00 AM ENY-3 Trace Metal and Synthetic Organic Concentrations in Selected Florida Bays and Estuaries. J.D. Ryan, K.C. Carman, F.G. Lewis, and F. Dobbs, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, 2600 Blair Stone Rd., Tallahassee, FL 32301. Concentrations of trace metals and synthetic organic compounds were examined from sediments of 13 major Florida bays and estuaries. Log-transformed metal-to-aluminum ratios were developed to distinguish natural versus anthropogenic metal inputs in both aluminosilicates (panhandle) and carbonate (peninsular) systems of the state. Consequently, a uniform approach for determining metal enrichment in Florida was established. While results indicated that most areas had levels close to natural values, some estuaries contained enriched concentrations. The highest metal and synthetic organic concentrations were found in the Miami River and Biscayne Bay. These contaminants enter the river and bay from numerous nonpoint sources originating from the City of Miami. - 1986 Supplement =2]- Program Issue 9:15 AM ENV-4 Determination of Copper, Chromium and Zinc in the Sediments of Canals Receiving Electronic Component Industry Effluent.L. ZEDIKER HOOPER AND M.L. SOHN, Environmental Science Dept. and Chemistry Dept., Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Copper, chromium and zinc levels in the sediments of tributaries of Turkey Creek, Palm Bay, FL, were determined by flame AAS. The canals investigated received metal contaminated effluent from a local electronic component manufacturer. Water samples from the discharge outfalls were also analyzed for metal levels. Several significant negative correlations were found between metal concentrations and distance from discharge sites. Significant positive correlations were established between all three metals and total organic carbon. Variations in the concentrations of Zn and Cu, and Zn and Cr, were positively correlated with eachother. 9:30 AM ENV-5 Nutrient Removal Aspects of a Wet Detention System for Treating Stormwater Runoff at a Single Family Residential Site. JEFFREY D. HOLLER, South Florida Water Management District, P.0. Box V, West Palm Beach, FL 33402. Water quality studies were conducted by the South Florida Water Management District at _ Springhill subdivision in suburban Lake Worth, Florida, for the purpose of assessing the effectiveness of a grassed swale/wet detention system to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in stormwater runoff. In addition to routine bi-weekly surface water monitoring, five discrete storm events were sampled from June through December 1985. Ortho-phosphorus, total phosphorus, and nitrite + nitrate nitrogen detention pond effluent concentrations were reduced 78, 68, and 89 percent, respect- ively from stormwater runoff influents for the combined events. Ammonium and total Kjeldahl nitrogen species present in detention pond effluents were 45 and 30 percent greater than influent concentrations. Comparisons are made between Springhill results and a previous District study conducted at Timbercreek in Boca Raton, as well as several regional studies presented in the National Urban Runoff Program. 9:45 AM BREAK 10:15 AM ENV-6 Behavior of Aldicarb and Related Compounds in Florida's Aquatic Environment. JOSEPH J. DELFINO, Dept. of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Aldicarb is a widely used pesticide in Florida and is an effective nematocide, especially for citrus and potato crops. In soil, aldicarb can be microbially oxidized to the sulfoxide and sulfone. If aldicarb enters groundwater prior to oxidation, hydrolysis to the oxime will occur but its rate is pH dependent. Should aldicarb, the sulfoxide and/or sulfone enter surface waters (as has been observed in the Caloosahatchee River), prior to further reaction (oxidation or hydrolysis), toxic effects can occur in the food chain (documented for zooplankton). Photochemical degradation reactions can ameliorate some of the toxicity toward aquatic organisms. Preliminary evidence indicates that photodegradation occurs relatively rapidly for aldicarb, but less so for the sulfoxide and least rapidly for aldicarb sulfone. 10:30 AM ENV-7 Solid-state !3c NMR Studies of Microbial (1-!3¢] Acetate Metabolism in the Presence of Phenol. ANN S. HEIMAN AND WILLIAM T. COOPER, Florida State University, Department of Chemistry, Tallahassee, FL 32306-3006. The presence of readily degradable, naturally occurring substrates in the environment can influence microbial biodegradation of organic pollutants. We have looked at the influences of natural versus organic pollutant substrate concentration on microbial uptake and metabolism by a pseudomonad soil isolate capable of utilizing either acetate or phenol as sole sources of carbon and energy. Solid state NMR analysis revealed that when [1-C(13)] acetate was present in five-fold excess it was preferentially metabolized. Acetate carbon was incorporated into a number of sites including carbonyl groups, peptide linkages, some aromatic carbon, carbohydrates, methylene ane methyl groups consistent with an operative glyoxylate pathway. Difference spectra revealed that phenol did not repress the glyoxylate nfs Sten Florida Scientist -28- Volume 49 10:45 AM ENV-8 Structure and Function of Red Tide Toxins Associated with Respi- ratory Problems. MIKIE J. PEREZ-CRUET, JOSEPH J. KRZANOWSKI, AND DEAN F. MARTIN. Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33620. The ability of the toxins of Ptychodiscus brevis to cause respiratory distress is of interest. A laboratory system has been used to measure canine tracheal smooth muscle contractile response to P. brevis toxins (PBTX). The neurological activity of crude red tide toxins have been en- hanced thru purification by carbon-18 high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) Other fractions have been separated from the crude toxin that do not have neurolog- ical activity. Three primary peaks are seen in the HPLC chromatogram: one has neurological activity and two do not. Also tachyphylaxis (rapidly developing tolerance) is observed with the active fraction at high concentrations. 11:00 AM ENV-9 Estimates of HF Fluxes from Phosphate Settling Ponds. Howard Moore. Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199. Phosphate ore in Central Florida contains approximately 3.8ZF as CaFz. It is released as HF by the acid treatment process and large portion of it was originally released directly to the atmosphere. Now it is scrubbed from the stack effluents and transported to settling ponds along with other waste by-products. These ponds contain 0.5 to 1.80 ZF and have pH values between 1 and 2. Thus they may act as a source of atmo- spheric HF. Theoretical estimates of HF fluxes from such ponds will be presented. The importance in understanding this source lies in the injurious effect flourida- tion can have on cattle (fluorosis) and plants (leaf necrosis). 11:15 AM ENV-10 Potential Management of Filamentous Algae by Photodynamic Action. BARBARA B. MARTIN AND DEAN F. MARTIN, CHEMS Center, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, 33620. Filamentous algae species comprised the sixth most abundant aquatic plants encountered in Florida in 1984. Lyngbya species may be the most troublesome because of the tenacity, resistance to herbicide treatment, and the tendency to evolve troublesome compounds. Preliminary experiments indicate the possibility of control of Lyngbya sp. by selective photodynamic action. Various dyestuffs are considered, and a mode of action is described. FRIDAY 11:30 AM Reitz 347 BUSINESS MEETING: Environmental Chemistry W.T. COOPER, Florida State University, presiding FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading 1986 Supplement =29= Program Issue GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES THURSDAY 8:15 AM Reitz 357 SESSION A wt? R.O. CLARK, University of South Florida, presiding 8:15 AM GHY-1 Florida Petroleum Production and Exploration by JACQUELINE M. LLOYD, Florida Geological Survey, 903 W. Tennessee St., Tallahassee, FL 32304 There are two oi] producing areas in Florida. One is the Sunniland trend area in south Florida. The Sunniland trend includes 13 oil fields in a northwest-soutn- east orientation in Lee, Hendry, Collier, and Dade counties. Production is princi- pally from rudistid reefs found in the upper Sunniland Fm. of Early Cretaceous age. Florida's other producing area is in the western panhandle in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties and includes four oil fields. Production is from Jurassic-age Smackover dolomites and limestones and liorphlet sands. The history and geology of typical oil fields for each of these areas is pre- sented. A summary of production data is presented and indicates the dominance of northwest Florida in the state's oil production. A discussion of historical and re- cent exploration in Florida indicates the greatest potential areas for new dis- coveries, are the offshore portion of the South Florida Basin and the areas in northwest Florida which are underlain by the Smackover Formation. 8:30 AM GHY-2 Okeechobee County Airport Landfill Study. JEFFRY W. HERR, South Florida Water Management District, P.O. Box V, West Palm Beach, FL 33402. The Okeechobee County Airport Landfill is a 40 acre unlined landfill that was in operation from 1960 to 1980. The landfill accepted a wide variety of wastes that were disposed of in trenches excavated below the water table. There are residential areas within a mile of the landfill, some of which are not connected to a public water supply system. The study of the landfill involved the installation of 14 single and cluster monitor wells, sampling and analyzing 21 monitor wells for organic and inorganic pollutants, measurement of groundwater levels, geologic descriptions of well cuttings, and soil resistivity surveys at 230 locations using Geonics EM-31 and EM-34 non-contacting terrain conductivity meters. Water quality analyses showed that benzene concentration exceeded the State of Florida primary drinking water standards in 10 of the 21 wells sampled. The chromium concentration also exceeded the primary standard in one of 21 monitor wells. Concentrations for total dissolved solids, iron, and manganese exceeded secondary drinking water standards in several samples. The data collected from the study shows the groundwater quality to be degraded in the vicinity of the landfill with a broad leachate plume moving to the southwest, south and southeast. 8:45 AM GHY-3 The lithostratigraphic relationships of the Chattahoochee, St. Marks and Torreya formations, eastern Florida panhandle by Thomas M. Scott, Florida Geological Survey, 903 W. Tennessee St., Tallahassee, FL 32304. The type locality of the Chattahoochee Formation occurs on the western flank of the Gulf Trough while the type locality of the St. Marks lies on the eastern flank. These units inter- finger over a broad area in Gadsden and Leon counties, Florida. The axis of the Gulf Trough is approximately conincident with the contact be- tween these formations. East of the axis, St. Marks lithologies dominate the sec- tion while Chattahoochee lithologies predominate to the west. The Torreya Formation of the Hawthorn Group overlies the Chattahoochee and St. Marks formations throughout much of the eastern Florida panhandle. | Lithologically, the Chattahoochee consists of silty to sandy dolomite. The St. “Marks consists of slightly sandy limestone. The overlying Torreya Formation con- -Sists of limestones, sands, and clays. The Torreya becomes less calcareous and is “More clastic-rich upsection. Florida Scientist -30- Volume 49 9:00 AM GHY-4 Carbonate Eolianites of San Salvador, Bahamas, E.R.BROWN AND A.F. RANDAZZO, Univ. of Fl. Dept. of Geol.,Gainesville 32611, Recognition of ancient carbonate eolianites is challenging because they can be readily confused with water- lain deposits. This study of carbonate eolianites from San Salvador, Bahamas evaluated those geologic features which best characterize the eolian environment. The effect of diagenesis on the preservation of these features was also addressed. Any lithologic feature considered individually might be ambiguous, but when a combi- nation of features is considered, along with information about facies relationships and deposit geometry the eolian nature of these sediments can be recognized. On San Salvador, the prominent occurrence of large-scale cross-stratification with well- developed subaerial or vadose indicators such as calcrete, rhizoliths, Cerion, and needle fiber, meniscus, and gravitational cements make identification of eolian deposits relatively effective. These same criteria can be used to recognize ancient eolianites in the rock record, if diagenesis is not too extreme. 9:15 AM GHY-5 Macrofaunal Changes Across the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary, Lowndes Co., Alabama. JONATHAN R. BRYAN, Dept.Geology, Univ. Florida. Florida State Museum, Museum Road, Gainesville,FL 32611. Recent paleomagnetic and micropaleontologic work indicate that the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary near Braggs,AL is one of the most com- plete and nearly transitional K-T sections in the world (Worsely,1974, Jones et al,1985). Most macrofaunal taxa are represented at Braggs, including, porifera,coelenterata, bryozoa,annelida,mollusca,arthropoda, echinodermata,and vertebrata. Many Cretaceous forms (ammonites, bac- ulites,some bivalves) do apparently become extinct, although some forms (some oysters, bryozoa,fish) go through the boundary. This selective removal of some species may be directly or indirectly re- lated to the late Cretaceous plankton collapse. Taphonomic and stratigraphic difficulties (poor preservation,facies changes,and degree of resolution) prohibit dogmatic conclusions. 9:30 AM BREAK 9:45 AM GHY-6 Background Radioactivity of Geologic Formations in North Florida. CHARLES BROWNING, and DOUGLAS SMITH, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. As part of a study of natural radioactivity in northern Florida, more than 150 samples from surface and near-surface formations were analyzed by gamma ray spectrometry to determine concentrations of the radioisotopes K-40, U-238, and Th-232. Baseline values are lowest in limestone formations, and the phosphatic member of the Hawthorn Formation exhibits the highest values. Characteristic concentrations of uranium are found in the Hawthorn Formation whereas thorium is detected in association with some post-Miocene sand deposits. Distinctive ranges of natural background radioactivity can be identified for surficial exposures of the various geologic formations present in north Florida. Recognition of these values contributes to assessments of the environmental effects of development and mining. 10:00 AM GHY-7 The origin of olivine-plagioclase coronas in the Gladesville gabbro, central Georgia Piedmont. ROBERT J. HOOPER, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Multilayered complex coronas containing two or sometimes three shells are ubiquitously developed in the Gladesville gabbro, Wherever olivine is in contact with plagioclase. Corona mineral paragenesis between olivine and plagioclase is; 1 - orthopyroxene, 2 - amphibole or amphibole-spinel symplectite, 3 - clinopyroxene-spinel symplectite. Corona opx is locally in 1986 Supplement =31- Program Issue symplectitic intergrowth with magnetite; symplectites embay and locally partially to totally replace olivine. Plagioclase, and primary opx and cpx are heavily clouded. All primary and corona minerals contain optical evidence for unrecovered strain. Shell thicknesses vary independently with respect to the size of the olivine nucleii. Mineral analyses confirm the general replacement of olivine by opx, and plagioclase by amphibole-spinel. The coronas are considered to be the product of syn-kinematic, sub-solidus, fluid driven reaction at elevated temperatures and pressures in the PT-regime that represents the cooling of the pluton. 10:15 AM GHY-8 In Search of the Base of the Kiaman Superchron in Western North America. G.J. MAGNUS AND N.D. OPDYKE, University of Florida, 1112 Turlington, Gainesville 32611. Samples for paleomagnetic study were collected from 55 sites within the Minturn Formation near Salida, Colorado in an attempt to locate the base of the Kiaman Superchron. Irving (1966) places the base of the interval at the Paterson Toscanite in the Upper Carboniferous section of the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Previous work in Western North America (Miller and Opdyke, 1985) suggests that the base of the interval is located within or below the Minturn section. Normal polarity zones, which mark the base of the Kiaman, were not found in this section after the samples were thermally demagnetized. Reversed polarities were consistent throughout the section studied. A conglomerate test was conducted to determine the acqusition time of magnetization, and the results are undiagnostic at present. These findings indicate that the base of the Kiaman does not exist Within the Minturn Formation at this site; therefore, it is important that stratigraphically lower sections be examined. 10:30 AM GHY-9 An Investigation of the Devonian of North America. W.C. HUTCHINGS AND N.D. OPDYKE, Geol. Dept., 1112 Turlington Hall, Univ. of Fla., Gainesville, FL 32611. Samples were studied from Devonian rocks from the Gaspe Peninsula of Canada, West Virginia (11 sites), and Wyoming (1 site). The Gaspe sites (31 sites) were taken from both igneous and sedimentary rocks. The paleomagnetic pole position for the Deyonian of Gaspe Peninsula is latitude 46.2°N and longitude 114.8°E (095 = 8.5). The pole positions for the Catskill and Beartoothe Butte formations are latitude 37.7°N, longitude 132.3°E (a95 = 5.6°) and latitude 22.9°N, longitude 91° (095 = 19.4°), respectively, Field tests indicate that the component is stable and of Devonian age. These results are consistent with the Kent and Opdyke hypothesis (1978) of left-lateral strike slip displacement of the New England- Canadian Maritime Province with respect to cratonic North America. 10:45 AM GHY-10 Morphology of the West Branch of the Sacandaga River, Upper New York State. DONALD W. LOVEJOY, Palm Beach Atlantic College, 1101 South Olive Avenue, West Palm Beach, FL 33401. The West Branch of the Sacandaga River follows a nearly circular course which encloses the Silver Lake Wilderness Area of the Adirondack Mountains. This study deals with the 18-kilometer segment of the West Branch from its lower falls to the junction with the main Sacandaga River south of Wells. In this segment the West Branch is a typical Adirondack stream---wide and shallow for the transportation of a coarse bedload. Channel width varies from a minimum of 4 m at the falls to a maximum of 59 m. The longitudinal profile is concave upward, the channel is gently sinuous with many bars, and the drainage density is exceedingly low. The stream stage is youthful, and terrace deposits suggest that the stream is "graded" below the falls. Historical records indicate that stream discharge increases more than one hundred fold during spring thaws and intense storms. Anomalous channel sections, where boulders are totally lacking, may owe their origin to the formation of giant whirlpools during these times of peak discharge. THURSDAY 11:00 AM Reitz 357 BUSINESS MEETING: Geology and Hydrology R.O. CLARK, University of South Florida. presiding Florida Scientist ~a2- Volume 49 THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 357 SESSION B: Sinkholes F.B. KUGAWA, University of Central Florida, presiding 4:00 PM GHY-1l1: Sinkholes in Florida: a geologic hazard. This 52 minute slide and tape presentation was produced by and can be borrowed or purchased from the Florida Sinkhole Research Institute, Orlando, FL. The show examines sinkhole damage and liability; limestone formation and dissolution; styles of sink formation in uncovered and covered areas of Florida; triggering of sinkholes by changes in the water table and artesian aquifers; a detailed analysis of the formation of a huge sinkhole at Winter Park in 1981, and the relation of sinkholes to lake level and management. MEDICAL SCIENCE THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 356 BUSINESS MEETING: Medical Science A.C. VICKERY, University of South Florida, presiding PHYSICAL AND SPACE SCIENCES FRIDAY 2:45 PM Reitz B71 SESSION A J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding 2:45 PM PSS-1 Mean Field Solutions for Lattice Gas Models. J. D. Patterson, Dept. of Physics and Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. The lattice gas model is closely linked to the Ising model. It was introduced by Yang and Lee in 1952. In more recent years it has been applied to the problem of calculating hydrogen concentrations at different sites in metal hydrides. In this paper, using the grand canonical ensemble, we summarize the calculation of hydrogen concentrations, Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies and other relevant thermodynamic quantities. As a check, by using a simple finite site model it is possible to obtain exact solutions and compare these to mean field solutions for the same case. 3:00 PM PSS-2 A Simple Formula for The Energy Levels of Negative Atomic Ions And Neutral Atoms. TAE S. SUH AND A.E.S. GREEN, Radiological Physics Group, Nuclear Engineering Sciences Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Recently we used a modified Morse potential eigenvalue formula to develop "Eigenvalue Formula for Short Range Potentials" (Phys. Rev. A in press) which applies to widely differ- ing shaped potentials. Here we adapt this result to the systematics of the energy levels of negative atomic ions. We accomplish this by transforming the modified Morse potential eigenvalue formula for potentials of fixed shaped but with varying strengths to potentials with varying shapes and varying strengths. Next we use this negative ion result to develop a universal approximate formula for the independent particle model energy levels of electrons in neutral atoms. For outer electronic excitation of any individual atom the formula is comparable to the well known Ryd- berg formula but only requires one adjusted parameter per atom whereas with the Ry- dberg formula uses separate screening constants for each angular momentum series. Our formula is also applicable to inner state excitation. 1986 Supplement -33- Program Issue 3:15 PM PSS-3 Analytic Electron Impact Cross Sections for Water Vapor. A.E.S. GREEN AND DAYASHANKAR, Radiological Physics Group, Dept. of Nuclear Engineering Sciences, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Water is the simplest natural tissue-like material and hence has been widely used as a surrogate in studies of the biological effects of radiation. In 1971 the University of Florida Radiological Physics Group assembled a detailed atomic cross section set for water vapor. This set has been widely used but frequently with individual group modifications. Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the results of energy degradation calculations of the various groups differ because of the differing bookkeeping procedures or the differing inputs. In the present work we propose a revised set of cross sections for electrons of energy from below 1 eV to 1 MeV using modified analytic forms which take on the proper behavior in the relativistic domain yet behave in a reaso- nable fashion all the way to threshold. Using these forms we reconcile the relati- vistic water vapor cross sections assembled by Martin Berger of the National Bureau of Standards with the Florida group cross sections below 10 keV. 3:30 PM PSS-4 Star Alignment and the North Temple Mound at the Crystal River State Archaeological Site, Crystal River, Fl, CHARLES J. MOTT, Division of Natural Sciences, St. Petersburg Junior College, 2465 Drew Street, Clearwater, Fl 33575. Viewed from a key location on the ramp, allignments over the north temple mound indicates the heliacal rising points of two stars at the times of the summer solstice and vernal equinox. The mound is a truncated pyramid with its long axis oriented NW-SE with a SW sloping ramp that is situated asymetrically and perpendicular to the long axis of the mound. The western edge of the mound, when viewed from the ramp, marks the position of the N celestial pole in 1300 AD; the eastern edge of the mound, when viewed from the same point, marks the summer solstice sunrise position. 3:45 PM BREAK 4:00 PM PSS-5 A Half-Century of Energy Use in Florida. RALPH A. LLEWELLYN, De- partment of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. The past fifty years have seen energy consumption in Florida rise to a level exceed- ing that of most countries. Although petroleum has been the dominant energy source over that period, several dramatic changes have occurred in the relative mix of primary fuels. Notable examples among these have been the wane and wax of solar energy and the rise of nuclear power. Changing patterns of end use consumption have made Florida the most electricity-dependent state in the nation. The 1986 installed capacity of the state's electric utility industry is more than double the total horsepower of all prime movers in the United States 100 years ago, when draft animals (a renewable source) provided half of the total. This paper traces patterns of energy end use consumption over the past 50 years. 4:15 PM PSS-6 Low Cost Diode Pumped Solid State Laser. TIM BENDY AND ROBERT IACOVAZZI, undrgrads, Univ. of Central Fla. Phys. Dept. Orlando, 32816. This paper describes the constsruction and operation of a low cost incoherent diode pumped Nd:Yag laser as a testbed for further research on diode pumped solid state systems. The system comprises a cooled radial array of thirtysix icoherent near infrared light emitting diodes radiating into a small, low gain Nd:Yag rod near the .810 microns Nd absorption maximum. Two flat mirrors having reflectivity maximums at 1.06 microns form an approximately thirteen centimeter long Fabry-Perot cavity. The diodes are operated in series from about one hundred milliamperes continuously to an approximately several microsecond wide pulse of a few hundred milliampers. Total infrared input is expected to be a few hundred milliWatts. We wish to express our gratitude to Litton Laser Systems and to Laser Photonics, Inc. whose assistance made this possible. Florida Scientist -34- Volume 49 4:30 PM PSS-7 Radioactivity in Particulate Aerosols: A Baseline Study. EDGAR R. VARGAS AND RALPH A. LLEWELLYN. Physics Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. A year-long study has been conducted to measure the pre- sence of radionuclides in particulate aerosols collected in eastern Orange County, Florida. The study was done as a part of a larger program designed to collect physical air quality baseline information in advance of industrial development planned for that area over the next decade. 4:45 PM PSS-8 A Technique for Measuring the Absorption Coefficients of Optical Fibers from 60K to Room Temperature. LAWRENCE A. WISE, HAROLD C. BASS, AND WAYNE SHEFFIELD, JR., Physics Department, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, FL, 32211. A cryostat has been completed for investigating the attenuation properties of optical fibers at temperatures from 60-300K. By using two optical fibers made of the same material with differing lengths, it is possible to determine the ab- sorption coefficient of that material. This technique will use both coherent and incoherent light sources in order to study a range of wavelengths. A working equa- tion will be derived and the experimental procedure discussed. This undergraduate research project was supported in part by a Bendix Award from the Society of Physics Students. FRIDAY 5:00 PM Reitz B71 BUSINESS MEETING: Physical and Space Sciences E.R. KIRKLAND, Winter Park High School, presiding FLORIDA COMMITTEE ON RARE AND ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS FRIDAY 8:30 AM Reitz 122-123 SESSION A: Symposium "Conserving Gene Pools of Florida's Endemic Plants" J. SHAW, Bok Tower Gardens, presiding Plant Conservation: An Overview of Goals and Objectives 8:45 AM REB-1 A National Strategy for Conserving Endangered Plants. FRANCIS R. THIBODEAU, The Center for Plant Conservation, 125 The Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. There are more than 3,000 native U.S. plant taxa at risk of extinction, 220 in Florida alone. These plants are one of our national treasures, and a po- tential source of new medicines, improved crops and other commercial products. Traditional approaches to their management stress habitat conservation which is and must remain a primary element of conservation strategy. Habitat conservation needs a complement that can move rapidly, one that brings plants together with re- searchers and the public. Ex situ conservation (i.e., in botanical gardens and seed banks) completes a full national strategy. Bok Tower Gardens and Fairchild Tropical Garden are joined with 16 other facilities nationwide, through The Center for Plant Conservation, to build together a full national collection of endangered plant species. 1986 Supplement -35- Program Issue 9:05 AM REB-2 Status report: Florida Endemic Plants. HARDIN, E.D. AND N. CAIRE, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 254 E. 6th Ave., Tallahassee, 32303. A list of Florida endemic terrestrial and freshwater vascular plant taxa was annotated with estimated abundance and distribution and with current legal status. Florida Natural Areas Inventory data files, recent plant manuals, taxonomic literature and experienced field botanists were consulted in developing the list. Endemic taxa, known only from within state boundaries, numbered 220 while nearly endemic taxa, with about 90% of their range in Florida, numbered 52. The list includes 64 plant families; those with high numbers were Asteraceae (46 taxa), Fabaceae (25 taxa), Poaceae (25 taxa), Lamiaceae (19 taxa) and Euphorbiaceae (18 taxa). Regions of endemism within the state can be identified from the list and include the Apalachicola River Basin, the Central Ridge, Tropical Florida and the Coast. The list is dynamic but can set conservation priorities, provide a base line for monitoring, and stimulate taxonomic, systematic and ecological research. Species Biology and Habitat Concerns: Key to Plant Conservation 9:20 AM REB-3 Deeringothamnus and Nemastylis: Two Paths towards Extinction. ELIANE M. NORMAN, Department of Biology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL 32720. Both species of Deeringothamnus, members of the Custard Apple Family, are extremely rare and are being proposed as endangered. One species occupies a small area of Volusia county flatwoods. The other is restricted to similar habitats in Charlotte and Lee counties. They rarely set mature fruits. These plants cannot be transplanted due to their stout tap root. The only way that they can be preserved is by land acquisition and management. Nemastylis floridana, a bulbous member of the Iris family inhabits a few areas of moist flatwoods from Flagler to Broward counties and has been considered threatened. Habitat destruction and succession are its chief enemies. It produces many flowers and a large quantity of seeds. It probably could be introduced into appropriate habitats from cultivation. 9:35 AM REB-4 Species Biology of Endangered Dicerandra (Labiatae): The Key to Conservation. ROBIN B. HUCK, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida. Three of the five species of Dicerandra in Florida are listed as endangered and threatened: D. cornutissima, D. frutescens and D. immaculata. An understanding of the species biology of these obligate outcrossers is essential to implementation of ad program to conserve them. The use of the life cycle model as proposed by Massey and Whitson (1980) aids in understanding the biological patterns of reproduction, dispersion, establishment and maintenance of Dicerandra. Apparent pollinators of Dicerandra are the Apidae of the Hymenoptera, yet in the southern part of the range, D. frutescens shows a shift to the Halictidae as well as the Bombyliidae. Dispersal Of nutlets, establishment of individuals and maintenance of populations are tied to ecological considerations of water relations, soil type, habitat and disturbance. 9:50 AM REB-5 Cutthroat grass Panicum obscissum Swallen. an endemic grass spe- cies of Central Florida. LEWIS L. YARLETT, Senior Scientist, Environmental Services & Permitting, Inc., P.O. Box 5489, Gainesville, FL 32602. Cutthroat grass is a distinct species of Panicum in the subfamily Festucoideae of the grass family Gramineae. Species within the genus are further characterized by practical external morphological criteria in the subgenus Eupanicum which does not produce autumnal or vernal growth forms or basal rosettes. Spikelets lack an extended bristle and are all fertile. Basic chromosome number is x = 9. Cutthroat grass was first collected by C.V. Piper in 1917 near the present Indian Lakes Estates in eastern Polk County. It is very site-specific, occurring only on moisture-receiving “seepy slopes" on the eastern and western slopes of the southern extension of the Central Florida ridge. Cutthroat grass is a dominant herbaceous species under a forest canopy of slash pine Florida Scientist <36- Volume 49 Pinus elliottii Englem. Associated grass species is creeping bluestem, Schizachy- rium stoloniferum (Nash) Hitchc. The sites upon which cutthroat occur have been drastically reduced by changes in land use, cultivation, and development activities. The only known protected stand of cutthroat is in the Highlands Hammock State Park. Cutthroat grass is a potentially threatened species and a gene pool of an endemic Florida grass. 10:05 AM BREAK 10:20 AM REB-6 Habitat Requirements of Endemic Plant Taxa in Southern Florida. A. HERNDON. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL 33030. Fifty-nine of the sixty-five endemic plant taxa in southern Florida inhabit sites characterized by high light levels. The greatest number of endemic taxa is found in the Miami Rock Ridge pinelands (32 in total, with 17 restricted to the pinelands). Ten additional endemic taxa are found in wet pinelands and Muhlenbergia prairies (none are restricted to prairies). These sites burn frequently and the endemics show many adaptations to fire. High light intensities at ground level are maintained in pineland by the fires, which remove overlying litter and kill the above-ground stems of hardwoods. Low-level human disturbances, including hiking and removal of plant debris from the ground surface, often have the same effect and are beneficial to the endemics. Without regular burning, the endemic species are shaded out and eventually eliminated. 10:35 AM REB-7 Preservation and restoration of Florida's pinelands and endemics. ANDRE F. CLEWELL. A. F. Clewell, Inc., 1345 University Parkway, Sarasota 34243. Pinelands, particularly longleaf pine sandhills, longleaf and slash pine flatwoods, and associated herb bogs, covered most of Florida in Territorial days. Hundreds of vascular plant species constituted these communities, many of them restricted to pinelands, including endemics. Pinelands have been maligned by land use without regulation. Most pinelands today have been modified, often irretrievably, from grazing, soil disturbance, and fire suppression. Restoration research has barely begun and is hampered by low reproductive capacity of dominant species in the undergrowth. Emphasis on saving our less "fragile" wetlands has diverted attention from preservation and good stewardship of Florida's rapidly vanishing pinelands. Sand pine scrub is being restored in experimental plots, but the cost may be prohibitive for large areas. Role of Public and Private Organizations in Plant Conservation 10:50 AM REB-8 Protecting Endemic Species. MICHAEL L. GREEN, The Nature Conservancy, 1331 Palmetto Ave. Suite 205, Winter Park, FL 32789. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a national non-profit organization dedicated solely to the protection of natural diversity. The Florida Chapter of TNC has acquired over 170,000 acres of Florida's natural heritage in over 76 projects. TNC concentrates on selecting, as precisely as possible, jeopardized areas of the greatest ecologi- cal value. TNC's State Natural Heritage Programs provide scientific information as to what species and communities are rare, where they exist, and what they need to survive, These facts enable TNC to set conservation priorities. The Florida Natural Areas Inventory, our state's Heritage program, has identified several areas of the state which are high in endemism. The major regions are: the Apalachicola River area, the Lake Wales Ridge area, the Florida Keys, cave and sinkhole systems, and the coastal areas of Florida. The acquisition dept. of the Florida State Office of TNC maintains a priority project list of sites often in areas identified high in endemism which help drive our conservation efforts. ~~ 1986 Supplement -37- Program Issue 11:00 AM REB-9. The Native Plant Society - Reaching Out. CAROL LOTSPEICH, Lotspeich and Associates (Title only). 11:10 AM REB-10. The Recovery Plan Process -- Citizen Involvement. DAVID MARTIN, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Title only). 11:20 AM REB-11. Role of the Department of Natural Resources. STEVE GATEWOOD, Florida Department of Natural Resources (Title only). 11:30 AM REB-12 Native Plant Gene Pool Conservation: Roles of Florida Universi- ties and Colleges. HENRY 0. WHITTIER, Department of Biological Sciences, Universi- ty of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. Florida habitat destruction acceler- ates reduction, degradation and potential extinction of unique species gene pools. The 450 mile north-south axis of the Florida peninsula, Gulf of Mexico and Gulf Stream moderation provide warm-temperate to tropical climatic regimes. Mid-Meiocene North Florida, mid-Florida ridge ancient islands, and successive post-glacial coast lines formed new habitats and pathways for immigration, evolution and adaptive radi- ation of 3500-4000 higher plants (300 native trees) with relatively high endemism. Fifteen to 20 tree and shrub species are ‘rare and local' in northwest Florida, 10- 15 in central Florida, and 20-25 for south Florida. Larger numbers of herbaceous species are similarly restricted. Conservation of habitat-threatened, rare or en- dangered plant gene pools must include coordinated support for the university and college botanical gardens, arboreta and environmental preserves representing thou- sands of acres of varied plant communities and habitat diversity distributed over FL FRIDAY 2:15 PM Reitz 122-123 SESSION B: Contributed Papers I.J. STOUT, University of Central Florida, presiding 2:15 PM REB-13 Invertebrates Characteristic of Florida Terrestrial Ecosystems. LINDA C. DUEVER, Florida Conservation Foundation, Rt. 1, Box 860, Micanopy, FL 32667. A synthesis of information assembled from literature and interviews for the author's forthcoming book, Natural Florida: A Guide to Ecosystems. Preliminary lists of abundant, endemic, and/or conspicuous invertebrates representative of coastal dunes, scrubs, sandhills, upland forests, flatwoods, and prairies will be presented for audience comment. Other ecosystem lists and similar plant, mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, and fish data will be available for discussion afterwards. 2:30 PM REB-14 Aerial Surveys for Manatees (Trichechus manatus) Between Anna Maria and Venice (Florida). G.W. PATTON, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Almost no manatees were believed to exist in the Bradenton to Venice portion of Florida's west coast for the first half of this century. Three aerial survey manatee programs conducted in the study area during the 1970's compiled non-winter sightings of only 20 animals. A study was undertaken to provide data for determination of the status of manatees and important sites. From Jan-Dec 1985, 25 flights (a total of 81 hrs) resulted in 138 sightings _ totalling 314 manatees in herds of 1-12 animals; 8% were calves. A distinct southward migration trend was evident for December. Five areas of regular or recurring non-winter use were identified: the southeast corner of Anna Maria sound; a large area "inside" Longboat Pass; the area between Coon Key and City Island; inside" Midnight Pass; and the Roberts Bay situated east of Siesta Key. Recommendations for protective measures are made. Florida Scientist -38- Volume 49 2:45 PM REB-15 Acoustic Communication by Panthera _igris. Harry Hollien, Inst. Advanced Study Comm. Processes, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, 32611. A series’ of calls of communicative function have been isolated, recorded and acoustically analyzed for four adult captive tigers. Procedure was to induce or observe a call resulting from a known or identifiable stimulus. A minimum of three equivalent repetitions of the S/R paradigm was required for validation; both intra and inter- Species responses were contrasted where relevant. The calls fall (roughly) into four classes: 1) recognition, 2) social intercourse, 3) mating and 4) stress/anger. In all, a repertoire of 10 communicative acts have been identified and acoustically specified. There probably are 2-4 more but these, as yet, have not been experi- mentally verified. Evidence of a signature pattern to an individual animal's call was sought but not found. The research was supported by the Wildlife Retirement Village, Walso, FL. The author also wishes to thank Gene and Rusty Schuler, Kevin Hollien, Mike Green and Tracy Gillis for their assistance. 3:00 PM REB-16 Demography of an isolated population of gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus. TERRY J. DOONAN AND I. JACK STOUT, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816. Development of a parcel of land in Seminole County provided an opportunity to conduct a census of gopher tortoises as part of a removal-relocation study. A complete ground survey of the 19.43 ha tract revealed 91 burrows. Among the burrows, 40 were judged to be active, 18 inactive, and 33 old. The Auffenberg-Frantz (1982) correction factor (.614) suggested 56 tortoises on the site or 2.88/ha. In fact, 46 tortoises were found on the site (2.37/ha). A line transect estimate was also obtained. The population structure was compared to data from south Florida (Kushlan and Mazzotti, 1984) and north Florida (Alford, 1980). Lastly, spacing of the tortoises and their distribution on the site was examined relative to size class and sex. This work was supported by a grant from Hardy/Leib Development Corporation. 3:15 PM REB-17 The Role of Juveniles and Subadults in the Ecologic Geography of Florida Loggerheads and Green Turtles: Evidence from the Central Region of the In- dian River. L.M. EHRHART AND B.E. WITHERINGTON, Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. Large-mesh nets were used to study loggerhead and green turtle populations in the Central Region of the Indian River in the summers of 1982-85. For 61 green turtles captured, mean straight-line carapace length (CLs) was 44.3 cm, the largest was 64 cm CLs and over 75% were smaller than 50 cm. Mean CLs for 118 loggerheads was 64.3 cm and over 95% were larger than 50 cm, These size structures are identical to those of loggerhead and green turtle populations known from the Norther Region of the system (Mosquito Lagoon) and further clarify our understanding of the structure of marine turtle populations in the system as a whole. Because recent evidence sug- gests similar growth rates in the two species, these results imply that loggerheads and green turtles are using the developmental habitats of the Indian River system at different life history stages. The stages appear to be differentiated by important milestones (migrations) in the species' ecologic geography. 3:30 PM REB-18 An Analysis of Reproductive Success in the Marine Turtle Nesting Aggregation at Melbourne Beach, Florida, 1985. B.E. WITHERINGTON AND L.M. EHRHART, Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. Results of a marine turtle nesting study undertaken in 1985 on a 21 km stretch of beach from Melbourne Beach to Sebastian Inlet, Fla. indicate that impressive nesting success accompanies unusually high nesting densities there. A complete census revealed 10,193 loggerhead, 281 green turtle and 2 leatherback nests. Clutches of 100 loggerhead and 27 green turtles were counted and monitored throughout their incubation. Hatchlings emerged from 84.3% of loggerhead and 80.0% of green turtle nests not affected by a severe Sept. storm. Mean emerging success (rate of hatchlings emerging) of these nests was 63.6% for loggerheads and 56.6% for green turtles. Loss of hatchlings post-emerg- ence was minimal except for clutches disoriented by beachfront lighting. A mid- Sept. storm destroyed @ 20% and 25% of the total loggerhead and green turtle nesting effort. Depredation of nests affected emerging success only moderately. Supported by the Fla. G&FWFC Nongame Wildlife Program, contract no. GRC-84-018. —_ <= 1986 Supplement =I Program Issue 3:45 PM REB-19 Cryogenic Preservation of Budgerigar Semen. TIM HARGROVE, oe). Atl. Univ., Biol. Sci. Dept., Boca Raton, FL 33431. Survival of many threatened and/or endangered avian species may depend on captive propagation and the maintenance of an adequate gene pool. Semen preservation can play a very important role in this type of endeavor. However, it has been mainly limited to domesticated species. Preservation of psittacine semen has not been accomplished until now. My results indicate that, for budaerigar semen, a diluting solution consisting of sodium glutamate, fructose, and magnesium and potassium acetate with a dilution ratio of 1:2, 10% DMSO (v/v), and holding and equilibration times of 30 or 45 minutes each provide the greatest number (up to 75%) of motile cells upon thawing. 4:00 PM REB-20 #£Florida Scrub Jay Population Changes at the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, WILLARD P. LEENHOUTS AND LARRY R. SALATA, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, P. O. Box 6504, Titusville, Florida. Fifteen 0.8 km transects were ramdomly established and censused along existing roads and firebreaks in 4 Florida scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens coerulescens ) habitat types in 1979. The 15 transects were identically censused again in 1985. The mean population for all 15 transects significantly decreased (Pé0.05) from 9.02 to 5.49 birds per transect. Mean populations in pineless flatwoods and pine flatwoods significantly decreased from 6.29 to 3.72 and 11.75 to 4.00 birds per transect respectively, but mean populations in coastal scrub and coastal strand habitat did not significantly change. Mean transect populations associated with severe or moderate wild or prescribed fire effects significantly decreased from 9.19 to 5.17 and 7.69 to 3.58 birds per transect respectively, but mean populations associated with little or no fire effects did not Significantly change. 4:15 PM REB-21 Status of the Wood Stork Population in North and Central Florida. J.A. Rodgers, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 4005 S. Main St., Gainesville, FL 32601. As part of a more comprehensive study on the reproductive success of the wood stork (Mycteria americana), data was collected on the population size/stability of 14 colonies in north and central Florida during 1981-1985. Individual colonies ranged in size from 29-456 pairs (X+SD= 126 .4+92.5 pairs), but exhibited considerable interyear-intracolony variation in size (coefficient of variability ranged from 11.3-158.9%). The total 14 colony population averaged 1768.8+303.6 pairs/year. While there was much interyear-intracolony variation during the 5-year period, the north-central Florida population appears relatively stable (coefficient of variability=17.2%). FRIDAY 4:30 PM Reitz 122-123 BUSINESS MEETING: Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals H.W. KALE, II, Florida Audubon Society, presiding FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET %.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding ATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION AN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP -B. WARD, University of Florida, leading Florida Scientist -40- Volume 49 SCIENCE TEACHING THURSDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 356 SESSION A P. HORTON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 10:00 AM TCH-1 Inservice Science Teacher Education: New Intiatives. BARBARA S. SPECTOR, Ph.D., Executive Director of the Florida Association for the Education of Teachers in Science, University of South Florida, College of Education EDU 308G, Tampa, 33620, AND DANIEL H. CLARK, Hernando County School District, 919 U.S. Highway 41 North, Brooksville, 33512. What have we learned about the post- baccalaureate education of teachers in science from the millions of dollars Florida invested under the 1983 Educational Reform Act, the 1984 Omnibus Act, their continuance in 1985, and the Title II federal dollars to institutions of higher education? A preliminary study comparing and contrasting the more than 100 diverse initiatives which were supported will be described. 10:15 AM TCH-2 Energy Systems and the Environment: Model Instructional Material for Secondary Schools. C. BERSOK and E. ODUM, Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Fla., Gainesville, 32611. The University of Florida and the Florida Solar Energy Center hosted an NSF funded institute for 22 Florida secondary science teachers. Teachers learned a systems approach to environmental education that infuses content from social sciences like economics and geography into traditional science courses. Through the use of symbols, diagrams, models, computer simulations and traditional laboratory and field experiences, systems ecology can be introduced into a variety of science classes. Examples of the systems "language,'' eco-system models and computer simulations will be presented. Examples of the instructional materials currently being field-tested will also be available. 10:30 AM TCH-3 The Medaka Embryo (Oryzias latipes) as an Indicator of Environ- mental Insults for Environmental Science (non-majors) Classes. E.L. RHAMSTINE AND D. GABBARD, Valencia Community College, 1800 S. Kirkman Rd. Orlando, 32811. The non-science major in Environmental Science courses is rarely provided first- hand observations of the teratogenic effects of common environmental insults. Large class size and other technical impediments thwart efforts to provide these students with this valuable experience. Use of the medaka embryo and a micro- scope-video projection system now permits this activity in large classes. The first phase of this effort at Valencia has been the production of an introduc- tory video tape to familarize the student with normal embryonic development and several selected teratogenic effects. A segment of this tape is demonstrated. (Supported in part by the Valencia Community College Foundation, Inc. and department resources.) 10:45 AM TCH-4 Shipboard Operations for the Motivation of Community College Students in the Natural Sciences. WILLIAM TRANTHAM, Florida Keys Community College, Key West, Florida 33040. This paper will discuss the utilization of the State Oceanographic Ship Bellows to familiarize students with surface, deep water and bottom sampling techniques under varying sea conditions in Dry Tortugas National Park and the Florida Straits. Research supported by the Florida Public Post Secondary Education Project Grant, Excellence in Math, Science and Computer Education. 1986 Supplement =41- Program Issue 11:00 AM TCH-5 Living and Working in an Undersea Classroom. WILLIAM TRANTHAM, Florida Keys Community College, Key West, Florida 33040. This paper will discuss the psychological aspects as well as the motivational benefits of faculty student interaction in an undersea laboratory. Research supported by the Florida Public Post Secondary Education Project Grant, Excellence in Math, Science and Computer Education. THURSDAY 11:30 AM Reitz 356 BUSINESS MEETING: Science Teaching P. HORTON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding THURSDAY 1:15 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM ACADEMY HISTORY PROGRAM P. PAPACOSTA, Stetson University, presiding THURSDAY 6:00 PM FLORIDA STATE MUSEUM FAS GOLDEN JUBILEE RECEPTION SOCIAL SCIENCE FRIDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 355 SESSION A G. PATTERSON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding 10:00 AM SOC-1 Solar Energy: Its Technical Potential and Social Implications. D.E. LAHART, Florida Solar Energy Center, 300 State Road 401, Cape Canaveral, 32920. The application of renewable energy technologies must be pre- ceeded by an educated citizenery that understands both the limita- tions and the potential of renewables and appreciates the social consequences of their use. This presentation examines the Florida potential of various renewable energy technologies including solar thermal applications, wind, biomass and photovoltaic electric sys- tems. The social and ethical implications of centralized vs. decen- tralized power production will be discussed. The key role social scientists play in fostering the transition to renewables will be emphasized throughout the presentation. 10:15 AM SOC-2 Psychology and History. GORDON PATTERSON, Fla. Inst. of Tech., Melbourne, 32901. This paper analyzes the work of Erik _ Erikson. Frikson began his psychoanalytic career as a student of Anna Freud. In the nineteen forties he pioneered the application of psychoanalytic theory to children's disorders. In 1950, he published Childhood and Society. In this book and his subsequent publications Erikson has developed an epigenetic theory of the human life cycle. Erikson argues that individuals pass through eight’ stages of Florida Scientist -42- Volume 49 development. Each stage contributes to the development of the individual's identity. Erikson's theories are particularly interesting to historians. This paper describes the development of Erikson's theories and assesses some of the problems involved in applying them to the study of history. 10:30 AM SOC-3 The Debt of Science to Literature.HORST FREYHOFER, Fla. Inst. of Tech., Melbourne, 32901. This paper presents an inquiry into the debt of science to literature, especially in the area of the formulation and verification of hypotheses Facts, it is argued, are not given before but determined by and during the process of hypothesis formulation. Understanding the principles guiding such formulation will enhance understanding of structure and function of hypotheses, facts, as well as their relationships. Facts emerge from undifferentiated experience and become objects of cognition and description primarily through analogies with facts known and described already. Such analogies can be classified according to the degree of precision, scope, coherence, and verifiability they can give to the description of facts and their shared attributes, i.e., hypotheses. Only four basic analogies qualify as adequate cognitive instruments for science: similarity, the machine, the organic process, and the historic event. By linking these analogies structurally to familiar figures of speech, the classic tropes, namely metaphor, metonomy, synec- doche, and irony, it can be argued that all knowledge ultimately is poetic. 10:45 AM SOC-4 "'Melancholy Streets'" the London of Thomas Dekker". RUDOLPH STOECKEL, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. Between 1500 and 1600 the population of London grew from 75,000 to 200,000. The effects of the urban- ization of many traditional crafts caused tensions between the entrepreneurial merchants and master craftsmen on the one hand, and the apprentices and journeymen on the other. Symptoms of these social conflicts appear in the works of Thomas Dekker (1572-1632) even in an apparently joyous romantic comedy such as The Shoemaker's Holiday. This paper will examine Dekker's use of language as it isolate and identifies the various groups within the world of Renaissance craft. I will suggest that Dekker's art differs from that of a satirist like Jonson's in that Dekker is more narrowly critical of social injustice while Jonson tends to satirize mankind. FRIDAY 11:00 AM Reitz 355 BUSINESS MEETING: Social Sciences G. PATTERSON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 355 BUSINESS MEETING: Urban and Regional Planning W.E. DALTRY, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, presiding 1986 Supplement -43- Program Issue AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS SATURDAY 8:30 AM Reitz Union SESSION A: Brunch SATURDAY 9:15 AM Reitz 363 BUSINESS MEETING: Florida Section, American Association of Physics Teachers E.R. KIRKLAND, Winter Park High School, presiding SATURDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 363 SESSION B J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding 10:00 AM APT-1 Involving Physics Students in Their Own Learning. BETTY VALE and MARIE AUFFANT, West Orange High School, 1625 S. Beulah Rd., Winter Garden, FL 32787, and MARY MELVIN, Colonial High School, 6100 Oleander Dr., Orlando, FL 32807. Learning strategies for improving comprehension will be explored and demonstrated. Examples and procedures used in a high school physics classroom will be presented. Handouts for each strategy will be distributed. 10:30 AM.APT-2 Certification Recommendations for High School Physics Teachers. J.J. BRENNAN, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816 AND, JANE S. BRAY, Boone High School, 2000 S. Mills, Orlando, 32806 AND, ALEXANDER K. DICKERSON, Seminole Community College, Sanford, 32771 AND, RONALD KIRKLAND, Winter Park High School, 2100 Summerfeld, Orlando, 32750. The recommendations of the Standards Committee of the Florida AAPT to the Florida Department of Education for high school physics certification will be discussed. I. For Teachers of A. P. Physics: The 1984 NSTA Standards for Physics Teachers. II. For teachers of Non-A.P. Physics courses: 1. 25 semester hours of physics courses, at least 50% of the contact hours are to be physics laboratory experiences. Two semesters of Calculus, one semester of Statistics, one semester of Computer Programming. 2. 15 semester hours of education: Classroom management; Teaching Analysis; Test Preparation and Evaluation; Educational Psychology and/or Learning Theories; a Physics Methods Course. 3. Practice teaching. 10:45 AM APT-3 Foundations of Physics - the Old Cavendish Laboratory. ROBERT G. CARSON, Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 32789. The Cavendish Laboratory was established at the University of Cambridge in England in response to a feeling that more practical (experimental) work should be available to complement the reading (theoretical study) done by students for a degree in physics. The Lab opened in 1874 with James Clerk Maxwell as its head. A new Cavendish Laboratory was built two miles from the campus and opened in 1974. Here we present a brief Overview of the impact the Old Cavendish had on fundamental physics (up to the Second World War) via its illustrious crew - professors, visiting scientists, and research students alike. Original equipment such as J. J. Thomson's e/m tube, Wilson's cloud chamber, Aston's mass spectrograph, and Chadwick's neutron chamber will be illustrated with slides taken by the author when he recently visited the Old Cavendish Museum. Some anecdotes about the great physicists of that era will also be shared. Those truly were the days of "string and sealing wax instruments" when compared with our modern computer-controlled lab equipment. ~11:00 AM BREAK Florida Scientist -44- Volume 49 11:15 AM APT-4 Constructing a Physics Problem Book via Microcomputer. ROBERT G. CARSON, Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 32789. Introductory physics courses for physical science majors and engineers necessarily require problem-solving skills which are evaluated with exams. Objective-type exams can cause security problems because of multiple-section courses, storehouses of older exams, etc. which can be offset if a simple-to-use source of similar problems exists allowing the construction of (nearly) equivalent exams. I am addressing this task by using a 512K Apple Macintosh microcomputer along with assorted software (BASIC, MacDraw, Filevision, etc.) to construct a book of model problems with many different data inputs and corresponding results (incorrect answer choices based on anticipated student errors as well as the correct answer). The use of computer drawing tools allows the design of accompanying diagrams which can easily be photo- copied from the problems book. Strategies used, stumbling blocks encountered, and progress made will be presented. 11:30 AM APT-5 A Formal Study Group Program in a Large Nonmajors Physics Course. Jay S. Bolemon, Department of Physics, and Sara M. Bennett*, Department of Psychology UCF, Orlando, FL 32816. As noted in a previous paper,** student performance in fresh man physics classes may be a function of class size. Students (and many instructors) feel large classes de-personalize the learning process and help to cause underachieve ment. In an attempt to rehumanize the learning process and improve student perform- ance in a large nonmajors physics course, the authors initiated a group-study program These groups were led by A or B students in the class, and meetings were scheduled prior to each exam. Another experiment is proceeding in the current semester. Study groups may replace to some extent the feeling of participation and personal attention real or imagined, that students feel they lose in large classes. We will present the measured and perceived results from the Fall semester. *Graduate student. xx "Experiences with Student and Instructor Performances as a Function of Class Size in Elementary Physics Courses", J.S. Bolemon and W.J. Wilson, AAPT Announcer 14, p. 7 11:45 AM APT-6 Progress Report of Video and Computer Graphics at Valencia Community College. BEN LYND, WILLIAM McCORD, LOWELL SEACAT, WILLIAM STILLWELL. Valencia Community College, Orlando, Florida 32802. Utilization of interfacing computer-graphics with video scenes in the production of physics instructional video-tapes is discussed. A tentative evaluation of our current progress and an outline of our future goal in this endeavor will be presented. 12:00 PM APT-7 Computerized Test Bank, LOWELL SEACAT AND WILLIAM STILLWELL. This presentation will explore the potential of microcomputers for the admin- istration of, the grading of, and the recording of test grades of students. The design of software that will embody the security of test questions, the random selection of test questions, and the weighting of test questions will be discussed. SATURDAY 2:45 PM Reitz 363 SESSION C J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding 2:45 PM APT-8 Microcomputer data collection and display for the physics laboratory or lecture. JAMES E. HOWARD, Winter Park High School, 2100 Summerfield Road, Winter Park 32792. This paper will consist of the use of the Apple Ile microcomputer in the collection of voltage, current, temperature and magnetic field strength both individually and in pairs. The collection in pairs allows the direct display of watts and joules as well as cy 1986 Supplement -45- Program Issue the above variables versus time. Experimental suggestions will be made as to heating, electrical,magnetic, diffraction, pressure, and resonance. Various possible data displays include real-time graphs, columns, and large digits on the monitor. The hardware/software used with the Apple Ile is the Educational Electronics Measurement Module currently available from Central Scientific Company. 3:00 PM APT-9 Use of Videotapes to help students learn physics. Alexander K. Dickison, Seminole Community College, Sanford, FL 32771. Often students who miss a lecture or problem session in University Physics find it extremely difficult to ferret out the important concepts or approaches from the textbook. Therefore, they fall behind which eventually may lead to withdrawal from the course. To try to help these students, an hour lecture and an hour problem session were videotaped for each unit in the course. These tapes are made available to students in the library for two-day use at home and in the open laboratory for use there. Our experiences and student reaction will be described. 3:15 PM APT-10 Index of Refraction by Graphical Extrapolation. JOHN fF. COENL, JR., Department of Physical and Mathematical Seiences, Barry University, “Miami Shores 33161. \ variation of the method used bv Poger Blickensderfer (Physics teacher 23, -e6eS5e(Dee. 1985) for find the emcex of refraction of water is presented, The nresent method doesn't relv on apparent denth estimation. A theoretical iustification of the extrapolation is given. el> RECIPIENTS OF OUTSTANDING STUDENT PAPER AWARDS 1985 Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences Agricultural Sciences: Robert £. Buresh, University of Florida: Influence of four antibiotics on the utilization of energy by turkey poults. Anthropological Sciences: Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida: Some alternative interpretations of Safety Harbor burial mounds. Atmospheric, Oceanographic, Physical and Space Sciences: Kevin M. Bull, Florida Institute of Technology: Early chemical diagenesis in Mid-Atlantic Ridge sediments. Biological Sciences: Debra L. Jennings, University of Tampa: Helminths of the Mediterranean gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus turcicus, from Tampa, Florida; Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida: Modulation of Substrate-specific glutathione-S transferase activity in Daphnia magna with concomitant effects on toxicity tolerance; Suzanne Succop, University of Tampa: Fertilization and male fertility in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Lee A. Swane, University of South Florida: Metabolism of nonprotein amino acids in Calliandra tapirorum seedlings. Engineering: Timothy Rudolph, Florida Institute of Technology: Production of gasoline extenders derived from levulinic acid. Environmental Chemistry: Mark S. Castro, Florida Institute of Technology: Measurements of biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected Florida wetlands; Lawrence P. Pollack, Florida Institute of Technology: Hydrolysis and jegradation of aldicarb sulfone-in estuarine environments. zeology and Hydrology: Mark A. Culbreth, University of South Florida: significance of lineaments in Florida; John W. Parker, University of South “lorida: VLF resistivity signature of a fingered plume in a karstic aquifer. Florida Scientist -46- AUTHOR INDEX Yolume 49 Authors of all invited and contributed papers are listed below. Section codes and paper numbers follow each entry. signifies a poster presentation. Albrecht SL Annis, Jr. CG Asquith R Asquith R Auffant M Barile D D Barile P Barile R G Basha S M Bass H C Belanger T V Belanger T V Bell DE Bendy T Bennett J M Bennett J M Bennett S M Bersok C Beulig A Bhogal V K Blum P Bolemon J S Boote K J Boudreau S P Boyer EM Bray JS Brennan J J Brown E R Brown RC Browning C Bruzek D A Bryan JR Buhr KL Bullock RC Buoni F B Burkhalter S B Caire N Campbell DR Canonico C Carman K C Carson R G Carson R G Childress M J Clewell A F Cochrane B J Coleman SE Cooper WT Cooper W T Costa SL Costa SL Culter JK Curry K J Curry K J AGR-4 BI0-28 AGR-13 AGR-11 APT-1 AOS-7 AOS-7 ENG-6 AGR-10 PSS-8 BI0-29 BI0-28 AGR-7 PSS-6 AGR-4 AGR-8 APT-5 TCH-2 BI0-9 A0S-2 BI0-8 APT-5 AGR-8 ENV-2 BI0-2 APT~-2 APT-2 GHY-4 AOS-16 GHY-6 BIO-15 GHY-5 AGR-12 AGR-1 CSM-7 ANS-7 REB-2 AGR-9 AOS-16 ENV-3 APT-4 APT=-3 BIO-1 REB-7 BI0-4 BI0-10 ENV=2 ENV-7 AOS-2 A0S-1 BIO-16 BI0-26 BI0-25 Davis D Dayashankar De Vassal G Dehn P F Delfino J J Deyrup M A Dickerson A K Dickison A K Dobbs F Doonan T J Duever LC Easterwood G W Ehrhart LM Ehrhart L M El Amin F M Eubanks S D Fia..Siak. Tse. Fandrich JE Fausett L VY Fiebig WW Fong Q S Fousek D J Frantz DA French BT French E C Freyhofer H Fyfe JL Gabbard D Gatewood § Gearing J Genho P C Girardin DL Glascock C J Goehl, Jr. J F Gorzelany J Green AE Green AE Green ML Gu D Hardin E D Hargrove T Harms RH Hathaway K K Heck H H Heil C Heiman A S Herer N Herndon A Herr JW Holler JD Hollien H Holm S Hood C I Lower case p 1986 Supplement = Program Issue Hooper R J GHY-7 Mott C J PSS-4 Hooper Z ENY-4 Murugesu V B AGR-10 Howard J E APT-8 Neal, Jr. H V BI0-27 Hsieh HL BI0-3 Norlund C M BIO-15 Huck R B REB-4 Norman E M REB-3 Hutchings W C GHY-9 Odum E TCH-2 Iacovazzi R PSS-6 Opdyke N D GHY-8 Iricanin N 7 AOS-15 Opdyke N D GHY-9 Iverson GB BI0-33 Osborne JA BI0-31 Jarret RL ANS-p Owen J ENG-6 Jennings P A ENG-5 Patterson G SOC=2 Kasweck K L BIO-12 Patterson J D PSS-1 Kirkland R APT-2 Patton G W BIO-9 Kivipelto J AGR-13 Patton G W REB-14 Kivipelto J AGR-11 Pekin B CSM-2 Kostopoulos G K CSM-4 Perez-Cruet M J ENV-8 Kranc S C ENG-3 Pierce RH AOS-16 Krzanowski J J ENY-8 Pitts PA AOS-3 Kucklick J R AOS-16 Pitzer DL AGR-3 Kunkle WE AGR-3 Platko II JR B10-29 Lagonikas G ENG-5 Randazzo A F GHY-4 Lahart DE 1 i | Rathjen W F AOS-7 Lawrence J M BI0-6 Ray JD AGR-8 Lawson D CSM-1 Reichard R P AOS-5 LeBlanc GA BI0O-4 Rhamstine E L TGH-3 Leader J M ANS-6 Rich JR AGR-12 Leenhouts W P REB-20 Rich JR AGR-9 Lewis F G ENV-3 Robbins M BI0-12 Linsley J N ENG-1 Roberts TL BI0-23 Litz RE ANS~p Rodgers JA REB-21 Llewellyn RA Ps5-5 Roegner G BIO-9 Liewellyn RA PSS-7 Romeo J BI0-22 Lloyd JM GHY-1 Ryan J D ENY-3 Lochmann S E BI0-15 Sagues A A ENG-4 Lotspeich C REB-9 Salata L R REB-20 Lovejoy D W GHY-10 Sartain J B AGR-14 Lowe E F BI0-32 Scheidt D M BI0-20 Luer C A B10-8 Scott D S ENG-3 Lynd B APT-6 Scott T M GHY-3 Magnus G J GHY-8 Seacat L APT-7 Marcus J BIO-18 Seacat L APT-6 Marion JE AGR-7 Sheffield, Jr. W PSS-8 Marrinan R A ANS-4 Sigler-Eisenberg B ANS-5 Martin BB ENV-10 Simon JL BIO-3 Martin D REB-10 Sisler MA AOS-14 Martin D F ENVY-10 Smith D GHY -6 Martin DF ENV-8 Smith N P AOS-4 McCord W APT-6 Smith P L BIO-31 McGlothlen ME AGR-5 Snell T W BIO-2 Mehran M ENV-1 Snell T W BIO-1 Melvin M APT-1 Sohn ML ENV-4 Meyers A BIO-12 Spector B S TCH-1 Miles R D AGR-7 Sprinkel J BI0-17 Miles R D AGR-9 Stauble D K AOS-9 Miller HA BI0-24 Stauble D K AOS-10 Miller H C AOS-1 Stauble D K AOS-11 Mitchem J M ANS-3 Stern WL BI0O-26 Monroe K AOS-9 Stern WL BI0-25 Moore H ENV-9 - Steward J S BIO-30 Moore K M AGR-12 Stewart J AOS-7 Morris F W AOS-6 Stillwell W APT-7 Morton T BI0O-22 Stillwell W APT-6 Florida Scientist Stoeckel R Stoffella P J Stoffella P J Stout I J Stowers DM Suh T §S Tabb N D Thibodeau F R Thorhaug A Thursby M H Tiernan D Titshaw M Trantham W Trantham W Trefry JH Trefry JH Tremain DM Turner RL Turner RL -48- Volume 49 SOC-4 Vale B APT-1 AGR-6 Vargas E R PSS-7 AGR-1 Vargo GA BIO-14 REB-16 Warnick AC AGR-3 AOS-8 Watts S A BI0-6 PSS-2 Weidenhamer J BI0-22 AOS-8 White CE AGR-9 REB-1 Whittier H 0 REB-12 BI0-18 Wienker C W ANS-10 CSM-5 Wiggins M ENG-2 AOS-11 Wilcox C J AGR-5 CSM-2 Windsor, Jr. JG AOS-13 TCH-4 Windsor, Jr. J G AOS-12 TCH=5 Winzer U H AGR-4 AOS~-15 Wise LA PSS-8 AOS-14 Witherington BE REB-18 BIO-19 Witherington BE REB-17 BIO-15 Yarlett LL REB-5 BIO-5 Zuniga A A BI0-11 ENTERTAINMENT These evening events on campus or in Gainesville are scheduled for April 10-12 and are open to the public. Tickets are available at the box offices or at the door. On Campus April April April April April April April April In Gainesville IZ, 745 : 00 : 00 > 30 45 : 30 715 off Ba April 10 & 11, April 12, 5:00 PM - University Jazz Band, University Auditorium & 9:30 PM - Film: Pink Floyd-The Wall, Reitz Union Auditorium & 9:30 PM - Film: Pink Floyd-The Wall, Reitz Union Auditorium PM-1:00 AM - Live Band: Kraz, Reitz Union/Orange & Brew PM - Play: Imaginary Invalid, Reitz Union/Constans Theater PM-1:00 AM - Live Band: Kraz, Reitz Union/Orange & Brew PM - Play: Imaginary Invalid, Reitz Union/Constans Theater PM - University Choir, University Auditorium 8:15 PM - Play: The Little Shop of Horrors, Hippodrome Theater, (25 SE 2nd Place, 377-4477). PM & 8:30 PM - Play: The Little Shop of Horrors, Hippodrome Theater April 10, 11, 12, 8:00 PM - Play: The Seven Year Itch, Gainesville Community Playhouse (4039 NW 16th Boulevard). ————— FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1986 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin. Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripa SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $15.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1985-86 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. RicHArRD L. TURNER Biology Department Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, Florida 32901 President-Elect: Dr. PAN PAPACOSTA Physics Department Stetson University DeLand, Florida 32720 Secretary: Dr. PATRICK J. GLEASON 1131 North Palmway Lake Worth, Florida 33460 Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH 5636 Satel Drive Orlando, Florida 32810 Executive Secretary: Florida Academy of Sciences 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Program Chairman: Dr. Ernest D. ESTEVEZ Mote Marine Laboratory 1600 City Island Park Sarasota, Florida 33577 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MaprtTIN, Co-Editor Volume 49 Spring, 1986 Number 2 Biological Sciences LENGTH, MASS, AND CALORIFIC RELATIONSHIPS OF EVERGLADES ANIMALS JAMes A. KusHLAN"’, Scott A. VoorHEES‘”’, WILLIAM F. Lorrus"?, AND PAULA C. FROHRING"’? ‘Department of Biology, East Texas State University, Commerce, Texas 75428, ‘2) American Home Products Corporation, 685 3rd Ave., New York, New York 10017, and ‘?)Everglades National Park, P.O. Box 279, Homestead, Florida 33030 AsstractT: Meristic and calorific relationships were determined for aquatic animals from southern Florida. The relationships derived included wet mass to length (52 species, 2 families), dry mass to length (17 species), dry mass to wet mass (17 species), and calorific value (44 taxa). The analyses we present are the first available for most of the species. Such relationships can be used in estimating standing stock and energy flow in aquatic systems. KNOWLEDGE of the energy dynamics of populations is fundamental to understanding how ecosystems function (Paine, 1971). However, energy flow and energy standing stock are expensive and usually impractical to measure directly in that each application would require extensive collections and calorimetic determines (Richman and Slobodkin, 1960) of the specific material under study. More commonly, studies approach the problem in- directly by converting some measured property of the specimens to calorific content using average caloric density of the study material or more typically, of similar material described in the literature (Cummins and Wuycheck 1971). The most useful measured property is dry mass, which eliminates variability owing to water content. Wet mass is often measured instead of dry mass because it is easier and faster. When sample sizes are large or weighing is impractical, linear measurements are usually taken. Linear measurement may be total length or length of some body part. In many studies, linear measurements are the only ones possible or practicable. As an example, partially digested food items found in stomach samples are not amendable to direct and accurate measurement of mass. Because of such cir- cumstances, mass-length regressions have proven to be convenient mechanisms for estimating mass. Once relationships among linear size, wet mass, dry mass, and caloric density are known, energetic relationships can then be explored. 66 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Mass-length relationships are available for some terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Rogers and coworkers (1976, 1977), Smock (1980), and Sage (1982) have provided data for invertebrates. Carlander (1969, 1977) has compiled available relationships for freshwater fishes. Most information for North American fishes is from temperate areas. It is expected that relation- ships between mass and length would be different in subtropical climates such as south Florida. In this paper, we present meristic and calorific rela- tionships for aquatic animals associated with the Everglades. Future studies can apply these relationships to estimate standing stock and energy flow in the Everglades, associated estuaries, and in other similar situations for which such relationships are not available. MeEtHops—Common and scientific names of the animals follow Robins et al. (1980), Collins et al. (1978), Usinger (1973), Pennak (1978), and Voss (1976). All specimens used in this study were collected in and near freshwater marshes and the estuaries of the southern Florida Everglades (Tabb et al., 1962, Loftus and Kushlan, 1985). Specimens were obtained during routine sampling programs and specific studies from 1977 to 1981 by using throw traps (Kushlan, 1981), rotenone, electrofishers, seines, cast nets, gill nets, and dip nets. Because of the diversity of trapping methods used and the extensive collecting ef- fort, it is expected that the sample size obtained for each species is a reflection of its relative population level in the Everglades. Thus, the largest samples are of species that are most common in the Everglades, and we generally have small sample sizes of species that are rare, even though we specifically attempted to collect adequate numbers. We preserved specimens in 10% formalin and stored them in 40% isopropanol prior to mea- suring. No linear shrinkage occurred in formalin of four test fish species (N = 20 per species). We measured lengths to the nearest 0.5 mm. We determined the standard length of all fishes, except we measured total length of Lepisosteus platyrhincus and Amia calva. We measured the snout-vent length of amphibians, the total length of insects, and total length of crustaceans from the anterior point of rostrum to the terminus of the uropod. We measured the longest axis of the operculum for snails and weighed the wet tissue mass excluding the shell. We also measured the lengths of selected insect and crustacean body parts that were commonly found in predator stomach samples and related these to the mass of entire specimens. We measured wet mass to the nearest 0.001 g on a Mettler H-30 balance after blotting specimens dry to remove excess liquid. We measured specimens having a mass greater than 160 g on a top loading Torsion PL-800 balance. We determined dry mass by weighing the specimen on the Mettler H-30 balance after drying at 50-60°C. for 24 hrs. We obtained calorific values in triplicate from a single sample of many individuals using a Parr adiabatic calorimeter, after drying to constant mass at 60°C. These values include ash components. Data TREATMENT— The mass-length relationshps of fishes (Ricker, 1975) and insects (Rogers et al., 1977; Smock, 1980) fit a parabolic or power curve (Eqn. 1). Y= -X (1) Where Y = mass, X = length, and By and B, are constants for a population. This relationship was linearized as log Y = log Bo + B; log X. We derived our relationships by the least squares (LS) regression method (Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978) using the SPSS statistical package (Nie et al., 1975) on a Univac 1100. We also generated scatter diagrams of length and weight data points for each species. Although not included in this paper, they are available from the authors. Ricker (1973) advocated use of the geometric mean functional regression (GMFR) method for mass-length applications. Jolicoeur (1975) and Sprent and Dolby (1980) provided convincing arguments against its use in favor of the standard LS method. If desirable, the GMF regression can be derived from the data and statistics we present in this paper (Ricker, 1973). Our symbolism follows Kleinbaum and Kupper (1978): Bo is the intercept; B, is the slope; N is the number of observations; Y is the dependent variable; Y is the predicted value of Y; X is the in- 67 KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS No. 2, 1986] 03 (PIE - 03'0 P89 68° Sk (3'9FZ-0'SS) cows Lelt ‘x p}DjOU Dinjhisuo0ss 68T (08'9S - £00'0 Cli 26'FI me (0°ET-0' 22) Oris. 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satoads 10 3x9} JO UOTOeS UOTSsNOsI] puke s}[Nsay 9aS, ‘SSBUU aNSST] JOM =*X pur ‘sseur AIp=*X ‘sseul JoM='4 :('X) ssep, "yBue] uNNoJedo =*y ‘yyBue] yUaA “nous = "x ‘yua] soedesvo =+yx ‘yBua] (melo) pedijayo=°y ‘yyZua] UawWOpge =*y ‘YyyBuaT xe104)="yX ‘YyyBuUET prey =*X ‘y}Sua] [e}0)}="y ‘yBua] prepurys='y :('y) yBuaT, a rp ee pe st eg ee OF pS 8T LI ial LT VOLOP oF a | GG GG (98h'F (690° TT a (S8'F19 (030° (99° TEE ( (631° FT a 9 (OI 6LS (99° IEE (99° TEE (SPF TT (OFL'€0T (OL8°€8 (99° IEE (Z9S'T (€66 FI - £00'0) - 160°0) - GhT'0) - SFT '0) ) ) ' 1 oo oD et xy So Sy) = “Gao"5. * SVG - 06S" T - 86L'T ' ' NAN © ZS, Ss oo ' x o> S = ' N ml S (=) = 8Ic'T VET’ L6G '0 [810 OT est €6S'°0 [69°F 1S6°9 00°¢ 0£9'€ 0€6'E 9¢9'T bS3'0 be erl CEE ES 9€6°SZ oe6'T LVL’ Fl C9E TP 8I°LS €6E°0 SS0'S 606 'T cos’ P OOF 0 8st'0 €S°88 LLS'0 I8h'0 [v0'€T OIL Cel L 006°9 GL8°S Gor 0 66°€0I 68°6 8ST €LL'0 600°2 Ch8'1Z 6L°0€ 6F6'0 690°S (0'9€ -0'F) (O°Sr -S'8) (0°61 -S'OT) (0°SE -0'9T) (0°F98-0'9T) (0°88T-00°2) (S°88 -0'0F) (1°08 -8°88) (0°38 -S'LE) (S°€8 -S'SP) (0'€9 -0°98) (O'EF -0'3S) (0°0L2-0'8T) (0°88T-S'L) (0°881-S'Z) (0'F0T-S'8) (0°SET-S'L) (0°881-S'93) (0°881-0°8T) (O'S -0'8) (0°99 -0'8) 08°8 6£°6 v6°G v8'P GP IGT cc’6I 6L'6 GF IT 99°€T Te*sT IZ'€T 6£°8 1v'9 bos 8ST1e 8S°SE IT1Z €6°96 O08 °TL 68°LE vO'ST tL UF L’cT £83 6° FI 8°16 6°LIT 0°9F eLi v'09 TL9 0°€9 66S 0'8P (8 3 L’ LT Tbr 9°0S O'1€ v'6E I'¥8 9°9L £96 L’vé x x io 4 (ajodpe}) njpydasouayds puny (ajodpe}) onhus puny (Q[npe) snyhud soy suaasap111a snujoyjidoj,0N DUNLAID] UALS SN} D118 SNYQuDLGOpnasg eiqiyduy s4sty uN,DINIDULLG DULOSD]YIID pinoshiyo pyjayp.0g saploquioys uoposn’] wanunjd uojnwany DIN snwojsouimny auLLofisnf DULOJsSOaYyIy saplowulpps snsajdosoy s4stFuns zs1uoda'] snjojound s1woda'T snydoposou s1u0daT snypuisipUu sruoda'T 70 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 dependent variable; Y is the mean of all inputed Y values; X is the mean of all inputed X values; S is any standard deviation; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed X values; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed Y values; Sp, is the standard error of the slope; SSE is residual sum of squares, L(Y;-Y;)*; SSY-SSE is sum of squares due to regression; Sy,x is the standard error of the estimate (SSE/(N-2))’*; MSE is the mean square error of the residuals, SSE/(N-2); r is the sample correlation coefficient; and F is the value of the F ratio of the sums of squares. We used a = 0.01, and all regressions were significant at that level. RESULTS AND Discussion—We derived allometric relationships for 52 species and 2 family groups of Everglades animals (Table 1). Sample size ex- ceeded 13,000 specimens for the most common species. For 6 other species, we had over 1000 specimens each. However, for some rare species, we had only a few specimens, and we urge caution in using the relationships derived from these data. The distribution and range of sizes for specimens are repre- sentative of the characteristic sizes of animals usually found in the Ever- glades and adjacent estuaries. The minimum and maximum sizes used in deriving the relationships (Table 1) should be considered by users. At either end of the size distribution error increases, so we do not advocate extrapolat- ing these relationships beyond the data used. Wet Mass—Length Relationships—We derived 63 wet mass (Y,) to length relationships for 53 species or higher taxa of Everglades animals (Table 2). Most are exceptionally good fits, and only one had a correlation coefficient below 0.90. As a result, estimates can be made of the wet mass of additional specimens having lengths within the ranges of those presented for each species in Table 1. Examination of plots of the residuals versus predicted values showed no substantial deviations from assumptions of homoscedasticity. Untransformed linear models in all cases gave poorer fits than log transformed ones. It should be noted that retransformation of the regression statistics must be done with caution (Beauchamp and Olson, 1973). The slope B, of a transformed length-mass curve is theoretically about 3.0 for animals (Carlander, 1977) to the extent that weight varies roughly as a cubic function of linear measurements. For our data, B,; ranges from 1.2 to 5.0 for fishes. This variability suggests that B, may be interpretable in some cases as a condition factor (LeCren, 1951; Zaret, 1980). In some studies, it is difficult to identify a fish to species. Therefore, we have derived relationships that combine certain similarly appearing species. “Lepomis” (n=1193) included Lepomis gulosus, L. macrochirus, L. microlophus, L. punctatus, and L. marginatus. “Sunfish” (n = 1527) in- cluded the above species plus Enneacanthus gloriosus. “Fish” included the common fishes of the Everglades (N = 44,724), i.e., the 6 species above, plus Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Cyprinodon variegatus, Fundulus con- fluentus, Jordanella floridae, Heterandria formosa, Lucania goodei, and Fundulus chrysotus. Mass-length relationships for most species that we examined have been unavailable previously. We know of published wet mass-length data for only 7 of our species: Ictalurus natalis (Carlander, 1969); Lepomis gulosus 71 KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS No. 2, 1986] 600'0 6L6'1 6hr'SS 160'0 8h0'0 €86'0 I 789° SSI'9- Z Z10'0 €86'P COP 'SZI LOT‘O r£0'0 186'0 I EFG's F06'S — I snjpdaiiva uopoursdhiy 9000°0 8Z0'0 SI'S GZ0'0 Sc0'0 G66'0 I 6IGE LE6r- I paiuax piuipy 8Z0'0 €0S'0 99S'F LOT‘0 9610 6r6'0 I 00S'S 69L'F - I pypjou panjhsuoss 0S0'0 GZP'6 918° FG GZS'0 EET 0 3S8'0 I 6h6'S LSS'p - I pjaq snupsdcC 900'0 60€'0 610'01 910'0 €10'0 G86'0 I L806 8F8'P- I snuLivu aisog 100'0 689'0 POE 6E 180'0 860'0 166'0 I 026'Z PPS Pb - I SNYID.1IDG SPL] 900'0 100 ShE'ZI rL0'0 390'0 866'0 I L¥6'S 6SS'h — I snuhd sninjon 900'0 160 GES'IZ 1L0°0 9S0'0 366'0 I Gse'sé «3909 - S 900'0 Gh6'0 0L9°S6 GL0'0 €20'0 S66'0 I 9F0'E 9EL'P- I syjpUu snanjpja] 300'0 Z10'0 Orel rr0'0 fer'G 966'0 I 9IE'€ £80'°9 - A 100'0 3L9'0 S81 'S9I 780'0 320'0 866'0 I GOS’ 9€s'S- I pyjaons uozhwi'y 300'0 820'0 PPP's €F0'0 €90'0 €66'0 I Crr's Org'g- I 1uossajad s1do.j0N I10'0 1620 G9c'é 9010 6910 196'0 I 600'E Pers S 900'0 G6r'0 66 '9E 910'°0 6£0'0 €66'0 I POIs PL6'F - I sponajoshio snuoswajoN r00'0 8r0'0 cro 990'0 £930 1S6'0 I €89'S 093° F - I snunos sdo,q 910'0 809°0 Pr9'0E GZI'0 1L0'0 066'0 Z 80F'S Pre 9- I snouryshyojd snajsosida'] 900'0 OIT'0 IPL rL0'0 €80'0 366'0 S 686'S IL6'F- I DAIDI DIWY S00'0 1610 VOL'T 3L0'0 LST'0 6r6'0 6 198° 19% - € psopnjod vaspwog F100 €8S'0 026'S 6IT'0 9LT'0 068'0 G F06'S 6L8°S - I €10'0 1S¢'0 91'S SIT‘0 L¥T'0 868'0 7 Iv6'T 9SL'I - I 3100 GOS'0 896'S OIT'0 3130 806'0 € S86°S «OGG I 800'0 PPre'0 6328'S 060'0 SET'0 0F6'0 3 OSh'S LE8°€ - I ‘ds pwojsojag 010'0 6SE'0 981°S 1010 Z91'0 1Z6'0 3 POE'S 189°€ - I (pereu) oeprnyjeqry 800'0 306'0 8S0'S 360'0 €12'0 r96'0 L OZes Eese'e- I aeproeydyiy r00'0 6LI'0 €9P'S 190'0 180°0 r86'0 3 Izee = LoS" - I snsopnpod sajauowan]Dg 60'0 60'S PLIST OLT'0 160'0 £160 9 F103 398'I - I 600'0 826'0 183° LI r60'0 r90'0 rL6'0 } €68'S 060° - I 100'0 I€L'0 SSP LT €80'0 390'0 086'0 : SITE 6e6'E- I €20'0 L3G L¥O' PSE 2ST 0 €20'0 0L6'0 3 926'S 190'°F - I 1ua]]D snLDquivd0dg X/A I } q . ' ASW ASS ASS-ASS S g 1 I S ¥ BO] uonenby 4 BO] | S[ewue sapesi0aq jo ‘urw ul ‘(y) YBue] 0} ‘3 UT ‘(X) sseuT jo drysuonepy *% ITAV |], [Vol. 49 FLORIDA SCIENTIST 100°0 €00°0 SLIP v00'0 13'0 €S8°66 L00°0 S€s'0 oIL 81 €00°0 S160 b06'F6 S00°0 oth 0 LO9'IG €00°0 600°0 cee’9 800°0 6ES'T 098°88 900°0 6r9'0 LS6'8T b00'0 669'T 8PhL'89 900°0 0340 06E°9 S00°0 Corl L90°IG T00°0 680°0 668 °F 600°0 890°0 b98'°S €10'0 661 OI 9S¢6 9IP 900°0 S86 CE 818 CrOl 8100 9IL'I1G vS9'Prl 600°0 VO6 CL 99L°L8S £100 OO LE css ‘06S 600°0 OT OdI LSO'066T F00'0 663'0 66S 'L b10'0 ves'ol 898°S66 L00°0 LOv'I9 089° O6IT o10'0 966'8 L8G‘ F63 800°0 61881 L96 'S8P 600'0 660'0 sT8°0 £00°0 $20'0 OLT'E G10'0 656° ST8°S vI0'0 666'8 969'6L1 910°0 6£0°6 889 COP 600°0 GEo'SE SPS SIFT 100°0 ¥60'0 S8o'¢ ASW ASS ASS-ASS 690'0 666°0 9€0°0 966°0 990°0 b66'0 LI0'0 S66'0 6F0'0 066°0 9L0°0 166°0 1¢g0°0 166°0 8S0'°0 b86'0 $d0°0 686'0 860°0 696'0 cr0'0 L96'0 €r0'0 666'0 S80°0 886'0 060°0 886'0 800°0 S860 6£0'°0 o€6'0 6100 €r6'0 910'0 0L6°0 900°0 1L6°0 890'°0 S86'0 960'0 $96'0 L00°0 $L6°0 6600 S86 '0 €10°0 186°0 OFT 0 L86'0 TOTO 886'0 9F0'0 €86'0 S30'0 826'0 10°0 686°0 800°0 686°0 vS0'0 L66°0 I g I S ee et ee SS HN SN Se Se RN RNR RNR NR NR SANA NR NR RNIN snydoposo1u sruoda'T snrypuisipu svumodaT snuryoo1ovu sruoda'T snsojn3 sruo0daT Snso11oj3 snyyuDoDaUUy 1apv]3.1a0a DULOSSD]'Y puyphiag pipuapyy snnooIs saysapiqn'T puuidyn) Dy1wa0g psowmsof DIupudsaja LY] suuyffo Disnquivsy paipd piuvon'] 1apood piupon’T appiopf Djjaupp.of syourmas snynpun.y sipudid snjnpuny snyuanjfuoo snynpuny snjoshsyo snjnpuny ordivo shyzYyo1p1410) 4 — I 4 BO] ponunuoy ‘% a1aVv 73 KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS No. 2, 1986] JU9A-}NOUS = vIO'0 L00°0 b00°0 £00°0 900°0 L00°0 100°0 v00'0 80 600°0 £00°0 600°0 600°0 b00'0 900°0 L00°0 900°0 L00°0 8y SyyBua] corded = 4y SYyyduUaT (MeID) podtfayo = °y ‘YyyBua] UsWIOpGe = *y ‘YyyBUET xBI0Y) = "y¥ ‘YyIBUa]T pRoy = *y ‘yBuUI] [e}O) = *y ‘Yy{ZU] prepuR}s = ly :! ‘sa11089}¥9 asay} UI papnyoul satoeds 107 4x9} JO UOTOVS UOISSNOSIC] PUB S}[NSAY 90S, ‘10'0 = 3® JuROTTUsIS ale suoNenbe ITY, ‘[enptsar jo arenbs uvaul = |S ‘serenbs jo uns [enpisoi = SS ‘uoissosda1 0} anp sarenbs Jo wins = BYSS-ASS saul] Uorssarse1 ay} Jo 10119 plepur}s = X/X ‘edo[s ay} JO 10119 prwpurRys = 'g ‘UATOIJJ90o UOTRIeII100 a]dures = 1 tse aNssy = *X ‘sseut Ap = *X ‘sseul yom = 'X 21 BOT ‘yua] wNynosado = %y ‘y{BuET BO], OSS'0 6LE°0 9S0°0 OF0'0 LLO'0 IIT 0 L¥O'0 €r0'0 €L3°699 TS0'0 0L0°0 1r0'0 660'0 vIe'0 v88'6 666'L 899°0 TSt"t O10'0€ 690 9T vel I O8L'0 £69 '€3 8S PV 69F'% 6180 CSE G60ET 6LL'T y96'1 OSZ'T ct0'T 8L6°CE O3L'STSI 666 '6€6 L6S'°68 ¥6G SOP OZT'O $80°0 6S0°0 6S0'0 080°0 980°0 vE0'0 990°0 LIZI'0 L¥0'0 ¢S0'0 €r0'0 9F0'0 690'0 080°0 680°0 820°0 180°0 €L0°0 $900 vOT'O OFT 'O 0SO'0 960°0 b90°0 L61'0 £00°0 b80°0 LIT'0 Idt0 8ST 0 S¢0'0 L00°0 800°0 660'0 €10°0 166°0 886'0 9L6°0 $26°0 866'0 886'0 066°0 bL6'0 9L6°0 986'0 €86°0 ¥86'0 066°0 S66°0 966°0 966°0— 966'0 966°0 OOOO a ee Ot HH ODDO ODO bee’ reo’ C6 °C 06E°S 8S0'¢ 68E°S 6166 OOL'S vids LLES 986°C 8o1'& svt bPS'E oI € 6ET'E 86h'E 666 € T€o'b - 698° — £06 — 9L9'°€ —- oat a ove ho PUR i A 6£6'F — tort — yLo Cre y — 989'S — £06 'S — oi k- 669° F — s¢6'S — LO8'? — Ce AO A ce BN ce ce ce ce ce ee ee ee ee ee Be ee ee | (ajodpe}) pjpydasouayds puny (ajodpe}) onhud puny Q[npe) snphud soy suagsapia snujpyzdojonN DUNLIID] UALS Sn}D11js SNYyIuDLgGopnasg ULNn,DINIDULIG DUWLOSD]YINYD pinoshayo vyjaip.sog e4St saploquioys uoposn'y warunjd uojnwuan yy pind snwojsou1ln gy auLsofisnf{ DULOJSOAYI 7 saprowjps snsajdosnny e4SHFUNS ~s2uodaT smgpjound srwuoda'T 74 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 (Carlander, 1977); Lepomis macrochirus (Carlander, 1977); Lepomis punc- tatus (Caldwell et al., 1957); Micropterus salmoides (Carlander, 1977; Beckman, 1945); Notemigonus crysoleucas (Carlander, 1977); and Haemulon pulmieri (Manooch, 1976). Herke (1959) studied several of these species in Florida. Eidman (1967) calculated regressions from Strongylura spp. specimens from the Everglades estuary, but S. notata, the species we analyzed, may have comprised only 20% of that sample (Roessler, 1970). Comparison of the slopes and intercepts of our equations with those previously available showed no consistently meaningful patterns. For the most part, unknown variability in sampling, habitat, and other factors make such comparisons of little value in the present context. Dry Mass—We generated a relationship between dry mass (Y:) and the length for 17 fish species (Table 1, 2). All regressions were significant and can be used with confidence to predict dry mass from the applicable linear measurement. It is often desirable to estimate dry mass from wet mass of a specimen, and we were able to derive such relationships for 17 Everglades fishes (Table 3). Sample sizes ranged to over 2000 individuals, but in several instances in- cluded only a few specimens. We again urge caution in the application of these latter equations. The relationship (Table 4) between wet and dry mass is linear; transformations did not improve the fit. For most species, length was a better estimator of dry mass than was wet mass, no doubt because of the variable water content of wet specimens. For the fishes Lucania goodei, Enneacanthus gloriosus, Lepomis gulosus, Lepomis marginatus, and Lepomis microlophus, wet mass was a better estimator of dry mass than was length. Calorific Content—The energy content of an animal can be estimated from dry weight by suitable conversion factors. We have determined the calorific content of 44 animal taxa from southern Florida (Table 5). We have also merged these into more encompassing taxa thereby providing values of general utility. Calorific values for most taxa ranged from 3 kcal/g of dry weight to 6 kcal/g of dry weight. Values for molluscs were lower because of the inclusion of shell material. Golley (1961) obtained similar results with crabs. Overall, the caloric content of animals measured was 4.95 kcal/g of dry weight, similar to the value generally used for animal material (Golley, 1961; Slobodkin, 1962). Conc.Lusions—From 1977 to 1981, over 70,000 aquatic animals were collected in the Everglades and estuarine habitats of southern Florida. The meristic and calorific relationships determined were based on large sample sizes for most of the 52 species. The strengths of the relationships presented are the most complete available for nearly all of the species and the only ones available for southern Florida. Use of the equations should be constrained by the size ranges of the specimens used. Equations for the new species with small sample sizes especially should be used cautiously, and their recalcula- tion using additional specimens is desirable. ive) t™~ KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS No. 2, 1986] IIT (PF II- Z00'0) 6661 €LL'0 (I88°0S - T10‘0) 6LS'8 F0S'€ snypjound srwuwodaT p (0L8°€8- 60'0) 39€ IP ChS'13 (99° T€€- 8sS'0) I8'€91 66'S8 snydoposou srumoda'T LE (39ST - 300'0) £6E'0 6FS'0 (L28°9 - 310'0) 6FL'T QLI'I snypuisipU s1woda'T G (LF0'9I- $Z0'0) 8L0'L 999'S (000°IL - T8T‘0) 9F8'0E S13 'SS snsojnd sruodaT ig (182'0 - S00'0) €90'0 oL0'°0 (ShS°I = 380'0) c9e"0 96F'0 snso1.oj3 snyyuDIDaUUT PL (390'0 - 300'0) F10'0 130'0 (6180 - 120'0) GLO'0 9FT'0 lapvjs.1aaa DULOSSD] A] SLL (LTL'0 - T00‘0) FIT'O 6L0°0 (8126'S -9900'0) C9r'0 6rE'0 puurdyp) 011990g I6TI (LF0'0 -1000'0) 900'0 800°0 (SLT'0 -€000°0) 8Z0'0 6£0'0 DSOWLOf DILpUDLaIA H PLL (FIFO -Z000'0) 1Z0'0 $Z0'0 (OFE°T -S000'0) 9010 Z0T'0 surf{p Disnquipy OFIT (F610 -€000'0) 1Z0'0 GZ0'0 (OLL'0 - 3000) 860'0 L310 apoosd piuvon’T LGL (939'0 -3000'0) 810°0 910°0 (06%'S - 300'0) cse'0 Clr'0 appi.o)f DjjauDp.so[ 291 (OOT'T - €00'0) Z61'0 PET'0 (eT€°9 - 910'0) 088'0 9r9'0 snjyuanjfuos snjnpuny 6SS (G0Z'T -Z000'0) SFO 680'0 (EFI'S -€000'0) 9EL'0 ISh'0 snjoshiyo snjnpuny ZIG (89€°0 -8000'0) Pr0'0 €£0'0 (SZ9°I - 300'0) 3120 O8T'0 snyo3ai.0a uopourdhy 09 (316° II- T10'0) 69F'S 6IL'T (088°09 - FOT‘O) GS9 ‘OT OPL'L sypD}DU SN4N}DjI] 8 (690°0 - S00‘0) €20'0 €20'0 (6L€°0 - 8€0'0) OZT'0 6ET'0 pyaons uozhwiy 8 (F9F'0 - 1Z0'0) 60T'0 ZST'0 (OFFI - OOT‘O) 26E'0 €09'0 sponajoshio snuod1wajoN A x. aZIS (xe-UI) ) (xey-UT\) ajdures (3) ssey Aq (3) ssey oh saroadg ‘sjeutue sopeysi0aq 10; sdrysuoneyes ‘3 ur ‘(x) sseut yom Aq ‘3 ur ‘(X) sseur Arp a}ye19Uas 0} pasn Be ‘¢ ATAV], [Vol. 49 FLORIDA SCIENTIST 76 ‘[enptser jo a1enbs uvaul = YS ‘sarenbs jo wins [enpisal = YS ‘Uuorssaise1 0} onp sarenbs Jo wins = YSS-ASS ‘eur] UoIssaiZe1 ay} JO 10119 prepueys = X/Ag ‘adoys ay} Jo 10119 prepue}s = 9 § {yUSTOTJJI00 UOTRA1I00 ajdures = 1 ‘(8) sseuI yom = X ‘(8) ssew AIP = J, 6£0'0 PHS GLI'90F L6I'0 Z00'0 C66'0 $66 0 cSI'I- snyojound srwoda'T 8£0'0 920'0 OIF SETS C6I'0 100°0 666'0 6S3'0 OfT'0- snydojposnu sumoda'T 100°0 €£0'0 oes's T€0°0 €00'0 L66'0 060 Sor’ — snypurdipu srwo0da'T 080°0 130 SET 003 €82'0 S00'0 666'0 6330 9IT'0- snsojnd sywuoda'T 1000'0 €10'0 8Zr'0 110°0 €00'0 ¢86'0 ILT'0 100°0- snsoLoj3 snyyuDovauUT 10000°0 6000'0 F10'0 £00'0 900'0 896'0 P81°0 Z000'0- lapvjd1aaa DULOSSD] 9000'0 80S'0 L0S'6 90'0 200'0 PL6'°0 6£3'0 £00°0 - puurdyon) 011990 10000°0 600'0 ££0'°0 €00'0 €00'0 188°0 88T'0 100°0- DSOULLO{ DLLpUDLaIa 90000°0 LST‘0 L68'T 800'0 100°0 1960 8h '0 100°0- swuyff{p pisnquory €0000°0 960'0 98r'0 900°0 Z00'0 c96'0 11Z'0 Z00'0- wapoos pyuvon’T €000°0 CPS'0 POE 810°0 Z00'0 €16'0 961'0 S00'0 - appi4ojf Djjaupp.o[ Z00'0 692'0 69'S 100 £00'0 LL6'0 €12'0 £00'0 - snjuanjfuoo snjnpuny 9000°0 Cre'0 OF6' TT GZ0'0 100°0 986'0 6610 100'0- snjoshiyo snjnpuny 2000°0 Z£0'0 PLEO Z10'0 £00'0 096'0 6610 Z00'0- snyodaispa uopoursdhy 9LT'0 SIZ‘ OI SE 6rE OF'0 S00'0 986'0 8220 6F0'0- SyD}DU sninjDjI] 10000°0 £0000'0 9£00'0 €00'0 800°0 £660 O6T'0 €00'0 - pyaons uozhwisy 100°0 LZ0'0 9620 Z60'0 910'°0 8S6'0 L930 600'0 - sponajoshia snuoswajz0N] ASW ass F ASS-ASS X/Ke Ig. : 5 - saiooak uonenby speultue sape[s10Aq Jo ‘(X) sseur yom 0} ‘3 ur ‘(X) sseur Arp jo sdrysuonepey ‘pf ATAV], =) a | No. 2, 1986] KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The data analyzed in this paper were collected by a number of field assistants including Scott Andree, Joanna Booser, Carol Hewes, Karen Kronner, Bill Phillips, Jef- fery Seib, David Tomey, and Dorothy Voorhees. Several people played key roles in performing preliminary analyses, in particular, Peter Schroeder, Dorothy Voorhees, Jeffery Seib, and Gary Novotny. We thank especially Perry Haaland, Paulette Johnson, and Duane Meeter for statistical guidance. Analyses were performed at the University of Miami Computer Center and the Southeast Regional Data Center at Florida International University. TABLE 5. Measured calorific values (kcal/g dry weight) for various Everglades animals (ash in- cluded), and mean values for groups. Calorific value Animals (Group Mean; S; N) Annelida Nereidae 3.15 Lumbricus sp. 3.15 All annelida (3.15; 0.00; 2) Arthropoda Araneida 5.31 Ligia sp. 5.30 Palaemonetes paludosus 4.70 Procambarus alleni 4.31 Uca sp. 3.62 Cardisoma guanhumi 2.82 Aratus pisonii 3.19 All Decapoda (3.73; 0.78; 5) All Crustacea (3.99; 0.95; 6) Diplopoda 4.00 Ephemeroptera 5.86 Odonata 5.00 Periplantia americana 5.00 Belostoma sp. 5.20 Lethocerus americanus 5.82 Ranatra buenoi 5.30 Pelocoris sp. 5.44 All Hemiptera (5.44; 0.27; 4) Dytiscus sp. (adult) 5.96 Dytiscus sp. (larva) 5.30 Tropisternus lateralis 5.30 Enochrus perplexus 5.80 Hydrophilus insularis 5.81 Neohydrophilus castus 5.30 Platynus floridanus 5.70 All Coleoptera (5.60; 0.29; 7) Tabanus sp. (larva) 5.28 Chrysops flavidus (larva) 5.28 All Diptera (5.28; 0.00; 2) All Insecta (5.46; 0.32; 16) Mollusca Pomacea paludosa 1.17 Helisoma sp. 1.61 Olivella sp. 1.10 Cerithidea sp. 1.10 Unionidae 1.50 All Gastropoda (1.25; 0.25; 4) All Mollusca (1.30; 0.24; 5) 78 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE 5. Continued Calorific value Animals (Group Mean; S; N) Osteichthys Cyprinodon variegatus 4.66 Fundulus chrysotus 5.16 Fundulus confluentus 5.04 Jordanella floridae 5.00 Lucania goodei 5.50 Rivulus marmoratus 5.00 Gambusia affinis 5.51 Heterandria formosa 5.50 Enneacanthus gloriosus 5.00 Lepomis gulosus 4.96 All Osteichthys (5.13; 0.28; 10) Amphibia Rana grylio 4.62 Notopthalmus viridescens 5.10 All Amphibia (4.95; 0.34; 2) Reptilia Anolis carolinensis 5.12 LITERATURE CITED BEAUCHAMP, J. J., AND J. S. Otson. 1973. Corrections for bias in regression estimates after logarithmic transformation. Ecology 54:1403-1407. BeckMAN, W. C. 1945. The length-weight relationship, factors for conversions between stan- dard and total lengths, and coefficients of condition for seven Michigan fishes. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 75:237-256. CaLpweELL, D. K., H. T. Opum, T. R. HELuier, JR., AND F. H. Berry. 1957. Populations of spotted sunfish and Florida largemouth bass in a constant temperature spring. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 85:120-134. CarLANDER, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology; Volume One. The Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. . 1977. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology; Volume Two. The Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. Cummins, K. W., ano J. C. WuycuHeck, 1971. Caloric equivalents for investigations in ecologi- cal energetics. M.H. int. Ver. Limnol. 18. Cotuns, J. T., J. E. Hucuey, J. L. Knicut, anp H. B. Smirn. 1978. Standard, common, and current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. Soc. Study of Amphib. and Reptiles Herpetol. Cir. 7. E1rpMAN, M. 1967. Contribution to the biology of needlefishes, Strongylura spp., in south Florida. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. Go. ey, F. B. 1961. Energy values of ecological material. Ecology 42:581-584. Herke, W. H. 1959. Comparison of the length-weight relationship of several species of fish from two different, but connected habitats. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Comm. 13:299-313. Joxicogur, P. 1975. Linear regressions in fisheries research: some comments. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:1491-1494. KLEINBAUM, D. G., AND L. L. Kupper. 1978. Applied regression analysis and other multivariate methods. Duxbury Press, North Scituate, Massachusetts. KusHLan, J. A. 1981. Sampling characteristics of enclosure fish traps. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 110:557-562. LeCren, E. D. 1951. The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and condition in the perch (Perca fluviatilis). J. Anim. Ecol. 20:201-219. Lorrus, W. F., anp J. A. KusHLan. 1985. The freshwater fishes of southern Florida. Bull. Florida State Mus. No. 2, 1986] KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS 79 Manoocu, C. S., III. 1976. Age, growth, and mortality of the white grunt Haemulon plumieri Lacepede (Pisces: Pomadasyidae) from North Carolina and South Carolina. Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 30:58-70. Ne, N. H., C. H. Hutt, J. G. JENkins, K. STEINBRENNER, AND D. H. BENT. 1975. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York. PaInE, R. T. 1971. The measurement and application of the calorie to ecological problems. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2:145-164. Pennak, R. W. 1978. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York. RICHMAN, S., AND B. SLospopkin. 1960. A micro-bomb colorimeter for ecology. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am. 41:88-89. Ricker, W. E. 1973. Linear regressions is fishery research. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30:409-434. . 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 191. Rosins, C. R., R. M. Battey, C. E. Bonn, S. R. Brooker, E. A. LACHNER, R. N. LEA, AND W. B. Scott. 1980. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada. 4th ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Special Publ. No. 12. Rorsster, M. A. 1970. Checklist of fishes in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park, Florida, and observations on the seasonal occurrence and life histories of selected species. Bull. Mar. Sci. 20:860-893. Rocers, L. E., R. L. BuscHBom, anp C. R. Watson. 1977. Length-weight relationships of shrub-steppe invertebrates. Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer. 70:51-53. , W. T. Hinps, ann R. L. BuscHBom. 1976. A general weight versus length rela- tionship for insects. Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer. 69:387-389. SacE, R. D. 1982. Wet and dry-weight estimates of insects and spiders based on length. Amer. Midl. Nat. 108:407-411. SLOBODKIN, L. B. 1962. Energy in animal ecology. Advan. Ecol. Res. 1:69-101. Smock, L. A. 1980. Relationships between body size and biomass of aquatic insects. Freshwater Biol. 10:22-28. SPRENT, P., AND G. R. Dotsy. 1980. Query: the geometric mean functional relationship. Bio- metrics 36:547-550. Tass, D. C., D. L. DuBrow, Anp R. B. MANNING. 1962. The ecology of northern Florida Bay and adjacent areas. Florida Bd. Conserv., Tech. Ser. 39. Usincer, R. L. 1973. Aquatic Insects of California. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, California. Voss, G. L. 1976. Seashore life of Florida and the Caribbean. E. A. Seeman Publ., Inc., Miami, Florida. ZareET, T. M. 1980. Life history and growth relationships of Cichla ocellaris, a predatory South American cichlid. Biotropica 12:144-157. Florida Sci. 49(2): 65-79. 1986. Accepted: April 22, 1985. 80 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 FIRST RECORDS OF THREE CLEARWING MOTHS (SYNANTHEDON TABANIFORMIS, SYNANTHEDON PROXIMA, AND SYNANTHEDON CASTANEAE) IN FLORIDA—Larry N. Brown, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Asstract: While sampling various plant communities in north Florida for clearwing moths (Family Sesiidae) in 1985, using sex-pheromone attractants, three new state records were cap- tured. These are the tree borers, Synanthedon tabaniformis, Synanthedon proxima and Synanthe- don castaneae. SEVERAL synthetic pheromones developed by Tumlinson and co-workers (1974) were used for sampling clearwing moths of the Family Sesiidae at nu- merous locations in northern Florida during the spring months of 1985. One hundred sticky traps were placed in trees at regular intervals in virtually all the habitat types available. A total of twenty-four species were recorded in- cluding three that represent new state records. The species new to Florida are as follows: Synanthedon tabaniformis (Rottemburg)—one specimen collected April 19, 1985 at Wakulla, Wakulla County, Florida, to the sex attractant EZ-3,13- octadecadienyl! alcohol in an area of dense second-growth hardwoods. Synan- thedon tabaniformis is a borer in Populus trees, previously collected by Solo- mon (1982) in west central Mississippi. Solomon’s records are the nearest published localities to Florida where this species has been taken. Neither Engelhardt (1946), nor Kimball (1965), nor Sharp and co-workers (1978) re- corded S. tabaniformis in Florida. Synanthedon proxima (Edwards)—one specimen collected May 1, 1985 on the Choctawhatchee Rivers east of Ebro, Bay County, Florida, to the sex at- tractant EZ-3,13-octodecadien-1l-ol acetate in an area of mature floodplain forest and willows. Synanthedon proxima is a borer in willows and has been recorded prior to this only as far south as the Macon area in central Georgia (J.W. Snow, pers. comm., U.S.D.A. Research Lab, Byron, Georgia). Synanthedon castaneae (Busck)—one specimen collected May 1, 1985 at Marianna, Jackson County, Florida, and one specimen collected May 2, 1985 near the Econfina River on State Highway 20, Bay County, Florida. Both specimens came to the sex attractant EZ-3,13-octadecadieny! alcohol in an area of mixed second-growth hardwoods. Synanthedon castaneae is known as the chestnut borer, and is considered one of the rarest of all sesiids because its primary food source, American chestnut, Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., was largely eliminated decades ago throughout Eastern North America by the chestnut blight (Engelhart, 1946). Since the Florida chinquapin (Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. occurs through- out the Florida Panhandle, and although planted Chinese chestnut and Euro- pean chestnut are not common, it seems probable that S. castaneae uses these trees of the same genus as substitute hosts. The chestnut borer was long thought to be extinct, but specimens have recently been taken by J.W. Snow and K. Scarborough (pers. comm.) using pheromones in Alabama, South Caro- lina, and North Carolina. The nearest of these localities to the two new Florida No. 2, 1986] BROWN—CLEARWING MOTHS 81 records is Troy in southeastern Alabama. Both Kimball (1965) and Sharp and co-workers (1978) failed to record S. castaneae as a Florida resident. Identification of the new clearwing records was confirmed by T.D. Eichlin, Division of Plant Industry, California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, California. These specimens were deposited in the author’s ento- mological collections, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, ‘Tampa. Additional field sampling using pheromones throughout northern Florida in coming years will hopefully expand the known state ranges of these interest- ing clearwing moths. LITERATURE CITED ENGELHARDT, G.P. 1946. The North American Clear-wing Moths of the Family Ageriidae. Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 190, 222 pp. KIMBALL, C.P. 1965. Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas, Vol. I, Lepidoptera. Fla. Dept. Agric., Div. Plant Industry, 363 pp. SHarp, J.L., J.R. McLAucuHuin, J. JAMEs, T.D. EICHLIN, AND J.H. TUMLINSON. 1978. Seasonal occurrence of male Sesiidae in north central Florida determined with pheromone trapping methods. Fla. Entomol. 61:245-50. Sotomon, J.D., F.L. Ouiveria, J.H. TUMLINSON, AND R.E. Doo.ittLe. 1982. Occurrence of clearwing borers (Sesiidae) in west central Mississippi. J. Ga. Entomol. 17:4-12. TuMLINSON, J.H., C.E. Yonce, R.E. Doouitrite, R.R. HEATH, C.R. GENTRY, AND E.R. MitcH- ELL. 1974. Sex-pheromones and reproductive isolation of the lesser peachtree borer and peachtree borer. Science, 185:614-616. Florida Sci. 49(2):80-81. 1986. Accepted: June 12, 1985. Environmental Chemistry DO LAND CHARACTERISTICS AFFECT HEART AND GASTROINTESTINAL CANCER DEATH RATES AMONG FLORIDA COUNTIES? l 2 3 MaRION L. JAcKson’’, CHANG S. Li’, AND DEAN F. Martin" ‘Department of Soil Science, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53706; (Director) Regional Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Chemistry, Academia Sinica, P.O. Box 934, Peking, China; and °’Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 U.S.A. AsstrRact: Inter-regional shipment of foods has generally been expected to erase geographical differences in mineral nutrients in the food chain. Gradually, iodine supply and then selenium (Se) have been recognized to vary geographically, with corresponding effects of deficiencies in livestock and human beings in different countries, states, and counties through epidemiological research. Such a study is reported herein for the 67 counties of Florida for the leading causes of death, namely, heart failure and stomach and colorectal cancer. The 1979-1982 average varia- tions between counties in age-adjusted heart death rates range more than 4-fold (155 to 639/ 100,000/y in Alachua and Pinellas counties, respectively). Corresponding variations for 1979- 1981 for deaths from stomach and colorectal cancer range over 13-fold (14 to 189/100,000/y for Columbia and Pinellas counties, respectively). A positive correlation (r = 0.73; p<0.001) occurs between the two causes of death in the various counties (even though basically “competitive”). This correlation suggests the involvement of land factors (soils, water, crops) causing the deaths may vary in a somewhat common pattern. The counties with lower rates occur where soil clay content, less porous limestone and topography hold back drainage water bearing Se and other trace elements originating from the sea through rainfall. In contrast, those counties with high death rates have more porous limestone and sandy quartzose bedrocks and soils low in clay with topography favorable to free leaching of groundwater to the sea under the high rainfall of Flor- ida. Mean blood Se (n= 10) in Jacksonville, FL is 188 ng/ml which is intermediate among 22 urban centers of 22 states, ranging from 120 to 265 ng/ml. Other countries with 270 to 290 ng/ml of blood Se have about one-fifth the digestive system cancer rates. There is an urgent need for more blood Se and other trace element analyses for individuals in various localities in Florida, with a view to potential need for supplementation. VARIABILITY in land, including the supply of various trace elements in soil, drainage, groundwater and rainfall are well known to geographers, soil scien- tists, and chemists. Corresponding effects on the trace element contents in the food-chain are also recognized. Although transshipment of foods has generally been expected to even out geographical differences in mineral nutrients for individuals, marked deficiencies in certain localities have long been reported for livestock in western United States (Schwarz and Foltz, 1957) and human beings in parts of China (Liu et al., 1981) and eastern Finland (Salonen et al., 1982, 1984). Selenium deficiencies in diets have been recognized as a cause of two im- portant disorders. Deficiency of selenium in people (“‘Keshan disease’’) causes heart death (cardiomyopathy) even in young persons 2 to 15 years of age No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 83 (Yang, et al. 1982). White muscle disease in animals can be used as a geochemi- cal indicator of a short supply of dietary selenium (Muth et al., 1959). The disorders may arise because the element Se is sparse (0.05 mg/kg) in the litho- sphere (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961), revised downward from 0.09 mg/kg (Goldschmidt, 1954) and because selenate (SeO, ) is soluble in calcareous soils, such as are common in Florida. Selenate is, therefore, subject to leaching, much as sulfate is. Relative to the trace amounts needed, selenate is supplied in appreciable amounts in rainfall, which can be picked up from ocean spray (Lag, 1984). Bioconcentration in the upper marine environment may involve uptake of selenium in unicellular marine algae which has been documented (Bottino et al., 1984) as has the importance of selenium-specific enzymes at low selenium levels. Variability in epidemiology of heart death rates (HDR) and digestive system cancer deaths (CDR) have been found between states (U.S.A.) and in provinces (China), as well as between counties of Wisconsin (Jackson et al., 1985). A comparison of an inland, cold temperate state (Wisconsin) with an oceanic mediterrean-subtropical state (Florida) appeared to be of interest. Differences between local areas in disease attack rates were successfully used in 1855 by J. Snow tracing cholera cases to a Broad Street water pump in London (Sauer, 1980). Geochemical depletion of nutrients is now playing out a corresponding area-related role in unfulfilled human requirements for traces of chemical elements essential for life. MetrHops—Population and death rates (Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitation Services, 1979-1982) for each county in Florida for each year 1979-1982 for heart deaths and 1979-1981 for stomach and colorectal cancer deaths were averaged, and the rates per 100,000 population in each county per year were derived. The correlation coefficient for the two data sets was calculated, and the histograms were plotted. The groups are arrayed for four rate ranges for the counties in Florida, with the two middle sets approximately mean +0.5 standard deviation with a slight adjustment for skewness toward the higher DR’s. A low rate set was obtained at a cut point approximately at —1.0 stand- ard deviation below the mean. The land characteristics such as coarseness, calcareous character, quartzosity, elevation and degree of drainage (leaching) were obtained from published maps and reports cited in the discus- sion. ResuLTS—Examining age-adjusted death rates for heart disease (1979-82) for 67 Florida counties (Fig. 1; Table 1) shows two extremes. First, the highest human heart death rates (HDR) occur in 23 counties (>410 deaths/100,000 persons/year), mainly across the south Florida peninsula (Palm Beach, map code 60-Fig. 1; Broward, 62; Sarasota, 48: Osceola, 45; Pasco, 42; Hernando, 38; Citrus, 37; Lake, 40; Volusia, 66) in much the same pattern that white muscle disease occurs in livestock (Kubota et al., 1967). The skewness to the high HDR side (Fig. 2a) is indicated by the fact that 23 counties (Fig. 1), one- third of all counties, range in age-adjusted HDR from 421 (Flagler, 33) to 639/ 100,000/y (Pinellas, 65). Secondly, lower HDR’s (< 250/100,000/y) occur in 9 counties of northwest- ern and northeastern Florida (e.g. Bradford, 2; Baker, 13; Nassau, 14) near Jacksonville for which reported bloodbank values (n= 10) of selenium is 188 84 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 FLORIDA Age-Adjusted Death Rate of Heart Disease, 1979=— 1982 10-5 y-1 250— 300 ITE NE a IN ND on ° Fic. 1. Geographic distribution of various heart death rates (HDR) among Florida counties. ng/ml (Allaway et al., 1968). While the value is limited, it is, nevertheless, above the median of a selenium range 120 to 260 ng Se/ml in 22 localities of the United States that was believed to run high enough to eliminate selenium deficiency (Levander, 1982). The lowest HDR group of the four sets of death rates (< 250/100,000/y) still is much above zero, and the lowest set contains 10 counties that have an appreciable HDR of 159 to 250/100,000/y (Table 1). A possible need for higher blood Se is indicated from other studies (vide infra). Cancer (stomach and colorectal) death rates (Table 1), though not available as age-adjusted rates, also showed a pattern that was similar to HDR’s. Specifi- cally, a skewness toward higher values (Fig. 2b), and the distribution by county was similar (Fig. 4). The distribution in various counties of gastrointestinal death rates (CDR, Fig. 4) was related to that of heart death rates (HDR, Fig. 1). A defining equation (Fig. 5) has a relative standard error of the slope (0.003) that is 1% of the slope. This, and the standard error of the estimate, S,, (28.2), is consistent with relatively slight scattering. The regression coefficient is 0.73 (p<0.001). No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 85 TABLE 1. Death Rates for heart failure and stomach-and-colorectal cancer for Florida coun- ties (continued). Death Rates, deaths/10° persons/year Map Stomach and Colorectal Age-Adjusted County Code Cancer, 1979-1981 Heart deaths, 1979-1982 Alachua 31 oa 154 Baker 13 65 225 Bay 16 63 279 Bradford 2 76 17 Brevard 46 99 293 Broward 42 143 459 Calhoun 17 118 383 Charlotte 55 176 637 Citrus 3 | 137 532 Clay 27 60 268 Collier 61 95 333 Columbia 2 14 257 Dade 64 109 sts De Soto 49 78 426 Dixie 29 125 279 Duval 26 9] 297 Escambia l 56 248 Flagler 33 100 421 Franklin 20 182 319 Gadsden 7 62 284 Gilchrist 30 68 323 Glades 56 121 349 Gulf 19 113 314 Hamilton ll 103 391 Hardee 49 66 324 Hendry 59 58 290 Hernando 38 148 473 Highlands 50 160 551 Hillsborough 43 98 299 Holmes 5 61 494 Indian River 47 145 394 Jackson 67 76 406 Jefferson 9 74 258 Lafayette 23 25 353 Lake 40 137 oY ps: Lee 58 134 431 Leon 8 43 159 Levy 34 94 ais Liberty 18 164 397 Madison 10 106 419 Manatee 48 178 537 Marion 35 113 348 Martin aw 147 465 Monroe 63 80 278 Nassau 14 69 197 Okaloosa 3 48 200 Okeechobee 51 106 358 Orange 41 85 286 Osceola 45 122 497 Palm Beach 60 126 556 Pasco 42 182 555 Pinellas 65 189 639 86 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE 1. Continued Death Rates, deaths/10° persons/year Map Stomach and Colorectal Age-Adjusted County Code Cancer, 1979-1981 Heart deaths, 1979-1982 Polk +4 94 353 Putnam 32 98 356 St. Johns 28 120 367 St. Lucie 52 120 427 Santa Rosa 25 4] 236 Sarasota 53 ivi 543 Seminole 36 76 235 Sumter 39 85 433 Suwannee 24 87 300 Taylor pA 90 310 Union 6 88 278 Volusia 66 154 546 Wakulla 21 54 248 Walton a 42 440 Washington 15 102 506 Mean+S.D. 101+42 369+115 N.B. Data for stomach-and-colorectal cancer are not age-adjusted values. The value of age-sex-race adjusted data for cancer deaths was recognized, but these were not available in this form at the time of the study. As a result of cancer registry law (1978) which created the Florida Cancer Data System, a sounder data base will be available. Hospitals are now required to report can- cer diagnoses to the State (1981—), and the first installment of the data base unit became available (King, 1985). DiscussIon—Some Factors: A number of factors, some interrelated, could be advanced to explain the variations observed for age-adjusted heart death rates and for cancer-death rates that we have noted. These include: age, nature of the population, eating habits, composition of aquifers and drinking water supply, and land factors. Age and the nature of Florida’s population should be considered together. Florida’s attractiveness for retirees is well known, and a considerable propor- tion of Florida’s population was born elsewhere. In 1985, perhaps some 40 persons per hour were moving to Florida. Considering the majority of cancers occur in the retirement age group and that the latency for many cancers is long (10-40 years), exposure may have occurred elsewhere. More than 85% of re- ported Florida cancer cases were for persons 55 and older, as compared with the national average of 76% for the same group. In any event, the HDRs are age adjusted, though it must be admitted that improvements in age-adjusted values are in order, considering the rapid increase in Florida’s population. When cancer rates that are age-sex-race adjusted are examined (King, 1985), high-rate counties appear similar to those that we identified (Figs. 1 and 4). Eating patterns may be significant, but these are beyond the scope of our consideration, though the complexity may be recognized: amounts consumed, No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES Middle of Number of Interval Counties 150 | (a) HDR 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 950 600 650 10°° oH 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 (b) CDR 0 2 10 Fic. 2. Histograms showing skewness toward higher (a) HDR and (b) CDR. Nh © 87 88 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 consumption of ethnic food, the tendency to prepare food versus eating out, the tendency to grow one’s food, and so on. While it might seem evident that home-grown food is more likely for rural counties than for urban ones, the source of fresh food for urban counties should not be overlooked. Water supply is an obvious factor to consider, and some data were summa- rized by Swihart and co-workers (1984). Considering five major aquifers and some 10 elements, chief variations are noted in the concentrations of arsenic, nitrogen, and fluoride. Little difference was noted in the mean concentrations of selenium in the Florida Aquifer, or the shallow sand aquifers of south cen- tral Florida, or the sand and gravel aquifer of the northwest counties. In addi- tion, no significant variation in selenium content of untreated public water supplies was observed for 12 counties (Bay, Brevard, Collier, Gulf, Hendry, Hillsborough, Lee, Manatee, Okeechobee, Palm Beach, Sarasota, and St. Johns). These counties seem to cover an equal distribution (four in each of the top three categories) of age-adjusted heart death rates (Fig. 1). Land factors and HDR’s: The highest group of HDR’s (>410/100,000/y) occurs for some 23 counties in south Florida peninsula. Vast areas of very permeable Pleistocene and Holocene sands are involved (Vernon and Puri, 1964). Increase in pH in calcareous soils favors mobility of Se (as selenate). : Hair Se Content \ ug kg"! \ Oo 30-59 \ Oo 60-79 \ = §0—99 \ © 100—199 e@ 200—400- DEATHS from Se Deficiency 4‘ Co HUMAN LIVESTOCK RIVER TERRACES <™,07 Fic. 3. Relationship among cardiomyopathy of livestock and humans, Se content in human hair, and geomorphology in Shaanxi Province, China. No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 89 Availability is enhanced, but danger of depletion is also enhanced in the high rainfall climate. Such high HDR counties as Holmes (5), Washington (15), and Citrus (37), involve the very coarse calcareous and sandy Crystal River and Williston (Eocene) and Chipola (Miocene) formations in western and central Gulf coast Florida (Vernon and Puri, 1964). The second group of low HDR’s (<250/100,000/y) generally occur in 9 counties of northwestern and northeastern Florida. An exception, a southern county (Seminole, 36) involves many lakes, which indicate that leaching is cut off from the Holocene and Pleistocene formations that have rapid drainage and leaching to the east (Vernon and Puri, 1964). The western panhandle counties (Escambia, 1; Santa Rosa, 25; Okaloosa, 3) lie mainly on the Plio- Pleistocene Citronelle formation plateau (Vernon and Puri, 1964). This forma- tion is somewhat clayey and is stabilized against erosion by sands and gravels. Two counties near Tallahassee (Leon, 8; Wakulla, 21) involve lakes in highland silty-clayey Miccosukee and argillaceous, marly Jackson Bluff formations of the upper Miocene. A somewhat more moderate area of HDR occurs in south central and ex- treme southern counties (Glades, 56; Hendry, 59; Monroe, 63; Collier, 61; Dade, 64). This area is known to have received substantial amounts of fine (5 micron diameter) dust from the Sahara (Prospero, 1981; Jackson et al., 1973), which may help geochemically (trace-element content) and geophysically (de- crease in permeability). Geographic co-variance of CDR and HDR: The distribution in various counties of gastrointestinal death rates (CDR, Fig. 4) relates to that of heart death rates (HDR, Fig. 1). The defining equation is statistically significant (Fig. 5), as noted earlier. Some land and food-chain characteristics that affect both CDR and HDR are indicated. For example, counties with more clayey marine bedrock (Vernon and Puri, 1964), as well as those with swampy re- gions, have lower HDR and CDR’s (e.g., Santa Rosa, 25; Okaloosa, 3; Colum- bia, 12; Baker, 13; and Nassau, 14) than those counties that have quartzose bedrock and that are low lying, but with ready runoff to the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean (e.g. Franklin, 20; Sarasota, 53; Palm Beach, 60; and Volu- sia, 66). Geography of cancer in Florida: High gastrointestinal cancer death rates (CDR) occur on both the Atlantic and Gulf coast counties of Florida (Fig. 4). The high permeability of the Pleistocene-Holocene, coarse calcareous and quartzose sands occurring in 19 counties along the coasts (Vernon and Puri, 1964) is conducive to selenate leaching, as discussed with high HDR above. Many high CDR counties on the Gulf border such as (Manatee, 48; Sarasota, 58; Pinellas, 65) are edged on the Gulf coast side by the porous, sandy overbur- den of Hawthorne formation, which is rich in clay and dolomite. Lower CDR counties occur in the central peninsular area (e.g. Alachua, 31; Sumter, 39; Hendry, 59), with two exceptions (Lake, 40; Highlands, 50) with the sandy Fort Preston formation (Miocene) and porous fresh water marls (Holocene and Pleistocene), respectively. The low CDR of 58/100,000/y in Hendry County (59) and nearby moderate rate counties to the south are associ- 90) FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 FLORIDA Stomach * . £ VXdY Cancer um 1979 — 1981 zz > 122 Ui 90 — 121 60 — 89 T < Fic. 4. Geographic distribution of various stomach and colorectal death rates (CDR) among Florida counties. ated with a moderately low HDR area to the south (Table 1; Fig. 1 and 4). The situation possibly can be explained by the higher clay content with limestone in the Caloosahatchee formation (Vernon and Puri, 1964) and the probable effect of aerosol dustfall received in the southernmost counties, as documented above for HDR. The phosphatic Bone Valley formation has lower CDR in inland counties (Hardee, 49; De Soto, 54). The prodeltaic influence of the Chattahoochee and St. Marks formations of the Tampa stage (Miocene) appear to provide some benefits of lowered CDR, 98 and 94/100,000/y (Table 1) in Hillsborough (43) and Polk (44) counties, respectively, among the 21 in this class of 90 to 121 CDR (Fig. 4). Comparisons of HDR and Se: Findings elsewhere of HDR and Se are of interest. Florida is intermediate among the states of USA in chronic ischemic HDR, with higher rates in the northern states east of the Mississippi River and lower rates in the great plains states (Li and Jackson, 1985). Unfortunately, few data on blood Se are available for Florida. In contrast, the relationship between HDR and Se has been worked out in China (Fig. 3). In an area of Shaanxi, deaths occur as a result of Se deficiency in livestock with white muscle disease and in young people with “Keshan No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 9] disease’ (Pathologic Research Group of Xian Medical College, 1965). Tradi- tionally, various materials—sulfur ore, plant ash, or crude salts which have a Se content of 0.7 mg/kg (evaporated water from a salt marsh of the Wei River valley plain)—when dissolved in drinking water, suppressed the endemic dis- ease (Li et al., 1972). Such Chinese traditional experiences and the successful prevention of white muscle disease of livestock by Se supplementation, both in the USA (Schwarz and Foltz, 1957) and China (Yang and Meng, 1963), en- couraged Chinese researchers to test Se supplementation on the human popula- tion in several Keshan disease areas, including Shaanxi (Liu, 1980). Supple- mentation with Se (at one mg/week as Na,SeO, alleviated Keshan disease for people treated (Xiu et al., 1982; Yang et al., 1982). The Se content of hair in rural China (Wang, 1982), shown in Fig. 3, is related to blood Se (n=410; r=0.94; p<0.001) as follows: (Blood Se, ng/ml) = 0.335 (Hair Se, ng/g) —9 (Li and Jackson, 1985). As a demonstration of the effects of geomorphology, people living on the Wei River terrace (Fig. 3) do not have Keshan disease, which is a very serious form of Se deficiency. The blood Se in Xian averaged (n=27) 160412 ng/ml. The eroded loessial hills grow Se-deficient food grain crops, with a result that the human blood Se content (n= 90) is only 8 to 24 ng/ml, and Keshan disease results (Li and Jackson, 1985). The available Se adsorbed on clay, Se in organic matter, and soluble Se were carried from the hills to the river terraces (Jackson and Lim, 1982). As seen from the Florida results, 160 ng/ml in blood of Xian, China residents is insufficient to eliminate Se as a factor in lifetime HDR. Other countries, e.g., Finland and New Zealand (Shamberger et al., 1978) have been concerned about low food intake of Se, low blood Se levels and high 200 150 100 50 Colorectal Death Rate 150 250 350 450 550 650 Heart Death Rate Fic. 5. Correlation of CDR with HDR in Florida counties (r=0.73; p<0.001), y =3.6+0.264x. Squares indicate overlapping points. 92 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 HDR. An elaborate longitudinal study during 1972-1979 in eastern Finland (Salonen et al., 1982) showed that having below 45 ng Se/ml serum (about 63 ng Se/ml blood; Robinson, 1982) was responsible for 22% of the HD in men and women aged 35 to 59, in two counties known to have high HDR. The level of Se in rainfall, as reflected by the Se concentration in the soil humus layer, was shown to decrease by a factor of two with distance from the North Sea in Norway and Sweden (Lag and Steinness, 1978). These soils are acid, which favors selenite adsorption, in contrast with the calcareous Plio-Pleistocene de- posits in coastal Florida (Vernon and Puri, 1964). Land characteristics, selenium, and death rates: The unusual biological circumstances that land characteristics might affect both of the two diseases that are most frequently the cause of human death (HD, CD) appears to have been elucidated in part. As noted earlier, the possible need for higher blood Se has been indicated, though the situation is complex. The need for Se is inverse to vitamin E intake within wide limits (Diplock, 1981). A daily intake of 400 I.U. of vitamin E is at the mid-safe range (U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1980). It seems appropriate to review briefly the involvement of Se and land char- acteristics. First, biogeochemistry and the biochemistry should be placed in context. Life appears to have originated in proximity of ocean water in the absence of free oxygen, but with photosynthesis, 3800 million years ago (Jack- son and Lim, 1982). Oxidization of Fe’* and S~ of the ocean had to be accom- plished before much free oxygen could accumulate in the atmosphere. Free atmospheric oxygen built up during the last 5 to 10% of the time life has existed. Land animals have developed only in the past 250 million years. Next, it is helpful to review pertinent aspects of the biochemistry. The basic structure of mammalian cell membranes, a lipid bilayer, which contains pro- teins, is subject to a variety of favorable and unfavorable reactions. For exam- ple, oxidation of red blood cell membranes causes cell collapse, leaving harm- ful low-density lipoprotein residues. Plaque build-up in arteries results as healing blood platelets are laid down. Cells of muscle, including heart muscle, are affected by Se deficiency (cardiomyopathy, necrotic spots, etc.). The en- zyme selenoglutathione peroxidase (Rotruck et al., 1973) supplemented by vi- tamin E is needed by animal cells to maintain a favorable degree of deoxida- tion. The prooxidant state promotes neoplastic tumors through DNA breakage (Cerutti, 1985). Many CD and HD toxins occur in foods (Ames, 1983) and operate through formation of oxygen radicals, thus requiring adequate deoxi- dation capacity in the human system. Blood Se may be implicated in the parallel CDR and HDR observed in Florida (Fig. 5), if patterns observed in Finland apply. Specifically, the associa- tion of HDR and blood Se was noted previously, and another study focused on CDR and blood Se. In eastern Finland, when 128 sets of 31- to 59-year-old men and women were paired for various characteristics, persons with less than 45 ng Se/ml of serum (about 70% blood Se; Robinson, 1982) had a relative cancer risk of 3.6 (p<0.01) times persons with 54 ng Se/ml. These CDR results were No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 93 based on 87 relatively young persons who developed cancer during the last four years of the brief 7-year period of the experiment (Salonen et al., 1984). The presence of adequate blood Se is more important for chemoprevention of cancer than for chemotherapy (Thompson, 1984). Such potential carcino- gens as benz(a)anthracene and benzo(c)phenanthrene require diols and an epoxy group to be converted into the actual carcinogen, a reaction that selenite has been found to prevent (Martin and Schillaci, 1984). Nitrosamine, the prod- uct of oxidized nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite), is a potent carcinogen which is ren- dered less potent by selenite (Thompson, 1984). Of course, reduction of the oxidized forms of nitrogen can be achieved by reductase, a metalloenzyme that requires molybdenum. This element has been found to be anticarcino- genic when applied to soils as ammonium molybdate in certain areas of China (Li et al., 1980). It is worth remembering that Se is one of some 13 trace elements essential to cell health of man (Mertz, 1981; Robinson, 1982). Florida land characteris- tics could affect the amounts and ratios of Se and other essential trace elements in the nutrition-chain. Calcareous soils, common in Florida (Vernon and Puri, 1964), are noted for fixation of Zn, Fe, Mn, and other trace elements (Peterson et al., 1971), so that these soils may decrease the amounts of these elements moving through the nutrition chain. Association of Cd with Zn in soils and food crops (Sandstead et al., 1974) has made it impossible to calculate, singu- larly, the Zn effects on health from expected Zn content of foods eaten, because the carcinicity of Cd would interfere. Even moderate zinc deficiency has been shown to have a negative effect on immune responses, particularly those mediated by T lymphocytes (active against infections, neoplasms, and autoimmunity) in human and animal exper- iments (Beach et al., 1982). Gestational Zn deficiency (60 to 70% of adequate) in mother mice resulted in persistence of immunodeficiency in offspring for three generations. The offspring were fed adequate Zn from birth through F 1, F2, and F3 generations. Use of multielement nutrient balance with Zn supple- mentation is the indicated best possibility for restoration and maintenance of immunocompetence. Finally, that depletion of Se—by plant uptake (which occurs though Se is not essential in plants) and selective erosion in clay-adsorbed forms—leads to inadequate levels for human health in the land-nutrition chain (Watkinson, 1974; Jackson and Lim, 1982) is becoming increasingly clear. Some biological functions of selenium cannot be completely replaced by vitamin E (Combs et al., 1975). Moreover, selenite has been found to exert a protective influence against toxicity of mercury (Parizek and Ostadalova, 1967; Ganther, 1980), and that of Cd and Ag as well through compounds such as CdSe. Micronutri- ent interactions are common (Levander and Cheng, 1980). While blood Se values for Florida are sparse, we may hope to compare results for other locations as a guide to adequate levels. Linear regression of —0.7 to —0.8 of blood Se with HDR and CDR (n= 19 to 27; p<0.001) have been reported for various states and countries (Schrauzer et al., 1977; Sham- 94 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 berger et al., 1978; Jackson and Lim, 1982). Blood Se in 22 USA cities and states ranged from 120 in Illinois to 256 ng/ml in Rapid City, SD, and gave a negative regression (r= —0.70; p<0.01) with chronic ischemic heart deaths (Li and Jackson, 1985). Mean values of 270 ng/ml occur in Japan and Puerto Rico and 290 in Taiwan. Breast cancer death rates in these areas are one-fifth of those in USA (Schrauzer et al., 1977). Extrapolation to zero breast cancer gives blood Se at 350 ng/ml, a value far below toxic levels. The data for urban areas in USA and China suggest that the scale for adequate blood Se should extend at least as high as 300 to 350 ng/ml. The importance of Se seems to be well documented, but there is an ever- present concern over toxic levels. As noted, these are far above so-called “‘ade- quate”’ levels. Slight toxicity at blood Se levels above 1000 ng/ml shows in the fingernails (Jaffe et al., 1972), and Se toxicity becomes appreciable above 3000 ng/ml (Levander, 1982). Selenium does not accumulate in humans, but it is excreted (n =53; r=0.77; p<0.001) at the intake rate and responds at a 10-day half-residence time to a lowered intake rate for USA persons on arrival in New Zealand (Griffiths and Thomson, 1974; Watkinson, 1974). In summary, land characteristics including adaptability for different food crops, variations in drinking water composition, food preferences by different people, and interregional shipment from land areas low in one or more trace elements may be among the causes of Florida county differences in HDR and CDR, as between Wisconsin counties (Jackson et al., 1985) and between vari- ous states (Jackson and Li, 1985). The fact that wide mortality differences occur on local land areas is a central finding which gives promise to further research for the causes for the differences. ConcLusions—The wide variation of land characteristics among Florida counties and in heart death rates and gastrointestinal cancer death rates offers clues for study of the operation of the many diverse immediate disease causa- tions. These two diseases lead to the majority (about 70%) of human deaths in Florida and the USA. Transshipment of food has normally been assumed to eliminate regional nutritional differences. The geographic variability found, however, suggests the importance of variations in essential trace elements that occur in soil and water supplies, arise from clay content, amounts of calcareous and quartzose sand, topography, permeability to year-round leaching under abundant rain- fall, proximity to the ocean salt spray, and possibly other land factors of impor- tance. The relationships found here indicate the need for a much wider use of accurate blood selenium and possibly other trace element concentration deter- minations for diagnostic purposes. The likelihood of deficiencies has led to availability and use of balanced trace nutrient element dietary supplements “over the counter,’ under the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1980) guide- lines of recommended daily allowances (RDA). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—At the time this work was done, S. C. Li was Honorary Fellow at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Earlier in the work M. L. Jackson, Franklin Hiram King Profes- | i! { i i No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 95 sor, was visiting scholar sponsored by Academia Sinica, in China. Special thanks are extended to Gregory Ruark for his valuable assistance with the statistical analyses. Sincere appreciation to Ms. C. M. Jackson for her efforts during the exchange of scholarships, and her editorial and typing assistance with the manuscript. Finally, we are grateful to Dr. James N. Layne, Archbold Biologi- cal Station, Lake Placid, FL, for serving as Consulting Editor. LITERATURE CITED Ames, B.N. 1983. Dietary carcinogens and anticarcinogens: oxygen radicals and degenerative diseases. Science. 221:1256-1264. Autaway, W.H., J. Kupota, F. LosEe, anp M. Rotu. 1968. Selenium, molybdenum, and vana- dium in human blood. Arch. Environ. Health. 16:342-348. Beacu, R.S., M.E. GrersHwin, AND L.S. Hurvey. 1982. Gestational zinc deprivation in mice: persistence of immunodeficiency for three generations. Science. 218:470-471. Bottino, N.R., C.H. Banks, K.J. IRcoic, P. Micxs, A.E. WHEELER, AND R.A. Z1INGARO. 1984. Selenium containing amino acids and proteins in marine algae. Phytochem. 23:2445-2452. CeruTTI, P.A. 1985. Prooxidant states and tumor promotion. Science. 227:375-38 1. Comes, G.F., Jr., T. 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Establishment of environmental quality model in Heilongjiang Province and its significance in Keshan disease study. Pp. 9-15. In: Environmental Geology and Health, Institute of Geochemistry (ed.), Science Press (in Chinese). Li, M., P. Li, AND B. Lr. 1980. Recent progress in research on esophageal cancer in China. Adv. Cancer Res. 33:173-249. Liu, Y.H. 1980. On natural zonation in the Shaanxi Province. Acta Geographica Sinica. 35:209- 218 (in Chinese). Liu, D.S., Z.C. Yu, Anp Z.Y. Yao. 1981. The model of environmental quality for Yunnan Prov- ince and Keshan disease. Geochimia. 2:142-150 (in Chinese). Martin, S.E. anp M. ScuiLiaci. 1984. Inhibitory effects of selenium on mutagenicity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32:426-433. Mertz, W. 1981. The essential trace elements. Science. 213:1332-1338. Muth, O.H., J.E. Ovprietp, J.R. ScHuBERT, AND L.F. ReEMMertT. 1959. White muscle disease (myopathy) in lambs and calves. VI. Effects of selenium and vitamin E on lambs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 20:23 1-234. 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(ed.), Clinical, Biochemical, and Nutritional Aspects of Trace Elements, Alan R. Liss, New York. Rorruck, J.T., A.L. Pope, H.E. GANTHER, A.B. Swanson, D.G. HAFEMAN, AND W.G. HoEk- sTRA. 1973. Selenium: biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. Science. 179:588-590. SALONEN, J.T., G. ALFTHAN, J.K. HuUTTUNEN, AND P. Puska. 1984. Association between serum selenium and the risk of cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 120:342-349. G. ALFTHAN, G.A.J. PIKKARAINEN, J.K. HUTTUNEN, AND H.P. Puska. 1982. Associa- tion between cardiovascular death and myocardial infarction and serum selenium in a matched-pair longitudinal study. Lancet, 1982-II:175-179. SANDSTEAD, H.H., W.H. ALLAway, R.G. Burau, W. FuLKrerson, H.A. LAITINEN, P.M. NEw- BERNE, J.O. Pierce, AND B.G. Wixson. 1974. Cadmium, zinc, and lead. Pp. 43-55. In: Cannon, H.L. anp H.P. Hopps (eds.), Geochemistry and the environment—I. Subcommit- tee on the Relation of Selected Trace Elements to Health and Disease, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Sauer, H.I. 1980. Geographical patterns in the risk of dying and associated factors ages 35-74 years. Series 3, No. 18, U.S. Dept. Health Human Services, Hyattsville, MD. ScHRAUZER, G.N., D.A. WHITE, AND C.J. SCHNEIDER. 1977. Cancer mortality correlation stud- ies—III: statistical associations with dietary selenium intakes. Bioinorg. Chem. 7:23-34. ScHWARZ, K. AND C.M. Fo.tz. 1957. Selenium as an integral part of factor 3 against dietary necrotic liver degeneration. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79:3292-3293. SHAMBERGER, R.J., M.S. Gunscu, C.E. WiLuis, AND L.J. McCormak. 1978. Selenium and heart disease II: Selenium and other trace metal intakes and heart disease in 25 countries. Pp. 48- 52. In: HEMPHILL, D.D. (ed.), Trace Substances in Environmental Health—12, University of Missouri-Columbia. Swinaert, T., J. HAND, D. Barker, L. BELL, J. CARNES, C. Cosper, R. 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J. 80:202-205. Xiu, G.L., W.L. Xrue, P-Y. ZHAnc, C.F. Fenc, S.Y. Huonc, anp W.S. Liane. 1982. Selenium status and dietary selenium content of populations in the endemic or non-endemic areas of Keshan disease. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. 4:183-190 (in Chinese). YANG, Z.J. AND X.Q. MENG. 1963. On prevention of white muscle disease in lambs. Chinese Vet. J. ]:12-13 (in Chinese). Yanc, G.Q., G.Y. Wane, T.A. Yin, S.Z. Sun, R.H. ZHou, R.Y. Man, FLY. Zuar, S.H. Guo, H.Z. WANG, AND D.Q. You. 1982. Relationship between the distribution of Keshan disease and selenium status. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. 4:191-199 (in Chinese). Florida Sci. 49(2):82-97. 1986. Accepted: July 15, 1985. Anthropology ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS IN TARPON SPRINGS BLACKS AND GREEKS Curtis W. WIENKER Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 Asstract: Tarpon Springs, Florida, consists of three major “enclaves”, blacks, Greeks, and non-Greek Anglo-Americans. Hemoglobin data for the first two groups are presented. For 284 blacks, Hb allele frequencies are: A = 0.938, S =0.051, C =0.011. For 70 Greeks, the frequency of the thalassemia allele is 0.036. These blacks fit well with the genetic patterns displayed by other black American groups. For Tarpon Springs Greeks the frequency of the thalassemia allele is considerably lower than one would expect from a group primarily derived from the Dodeca- nese Islands of the southern Aegean Sea. Redirected selection accounts for some of the difference. Age analysis generally documents redirected selection favoring normal hemoglobin genotypes in both Greeks and blacks. The Sewell Wright Effect and/or Founder’s Effect may account for the rest. Genetic data also document a lack of admixture between these groups in Tarpon Springs, but not in nearby Tampa. Two of the best-known hereditary diseases are sickle cell anemia (SCA) and beta thalassemia. Beta thalassemia occurs when the beta chain of hemoglobin is missing from the hemoglobin molecule; its absence is hereditary. SCA occurs when all red blood cells are sickle shaped; that abnormality is also hereditary. These two diseases have identical genetic patterns. Both are genetically co- dominant; each genotype yields a distinct phenotype. Individuals homozygous for the detrimental allele (Hb° in the case of SCA, Hb" in the case of beta thalassemia) inherit one of those alleles from each parent. Typically homozy- gotes die before completing the reproductive span. Heterozygous individuals inherit a normal allele (Hb* or simply A) from one parent and a deleterious allele (Hb’ or Hb", or simply S or Th) from the other parent. AS individuals are typically clinically normal (Lin-Fu, 1972); ATh individuals may manifest mild anemia (Rothwell, 1977). The “normal” genotype is Hb*Hb’, or more simply AA, for both SCA and beta thalassemia. Such individuals inherit an A allele from each parent. The S allele and another infrequent, yet not-rare variant, Hb or C are primarily confined to tropical African populations. Beta thalassemia alleles are primarily confined to cireum-Mediterranean populations. Of all the genetic polymorphisms known to exist in Homo sapiens, the abnormal hemoglobins have been the most widely studied from an evolution- ary perspective. Livingstone’s classic work (1958) revealed the evolutionary dynamics and anthropological correlates of the sickle cell allele. Similarly, the evolutionary dynamics of beta thalassemia are now well un- derstood. Cepellini’s (1955) work in Sardinia was among the first to document the relationship between beta thalassemia and holoendemic malaria in the No. 2, 1986] WIENKER— ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS 99 Mediterranean area. Fitness values of the beta thalassemia (Livingstone, 1969) and sickle cell genotypes (Cavalli-Sforza and Bodmer, 1971) have also been estimated. Livingstone’s (1967, 1973) two catalogs summarize the distribution of the abnormal hemoglobins in populations all over the world. However, there have been few published studies which focus on the fre- quency of the beta thalassemia allele in Americans of Mediterranean descent. The reason is that most Americans of Mediterranean descent frequently do not live in immediately identifiable enclaves in the United States. To be sure, there are some predominantly Mediterranean sections of major American cities, such as the Italian neighborhood in Brooklyn. Tarpon Springs, Florida, allows one to focus explicitly on culturally defin- able populations specifically delineated within a small community. The first Greeks arrived in Tarpon Springs in 1905; they were members of a sponging boat (Bernard, 1965). The early Greek spongers brought with them a method of obtaining sponges which revolutionized the sponging industry; it was the soft diving suit. The introduction of motorized boats in 1918 further improved the technology for obtaining sponges. The sponge industry prospered and more Greek sponging crews and their families were brought to Tarpon Springs from the same places from which their predecessors had come, the Dodecanese Is- lands of the southern Aegean Sea, where sponge diving was an old and tradi- tional economic pursuit. The Greek community was well established by 1920. Frantzis (1962) indi- cates that there were 3,500 Greeks in Tarpon Springs by 1935. Economic factors associated with gradual overharvesting of sponges in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, following ecological disasters coupled with the development of arti- ficial sponges, curtailed the sponge industry in the mid-20th century, but the Greek community continued to grow and maintain its ethnic identity through- out that period. In 1970, the population of Tarpon Springs was 7,081; 1,604 persons were foreign born; most of them were undoubtedly Greek. In 1974 the Chamber of Commerce of Greater Tarpon Springs (Slaight, 1974) estimated that its black population included 2,150 individuals; there were 2,413 people of Greek an- cestry within the city then. The community of Tarpon Springs continues to be predominantly Greek in cultural atmosphere. Buxbaum (1967) indicates that this Greek enclave is the most traditional in the United States. There is an annually celebrated Dodeca- nese Day, for instance. As well, the Greek Epiphany is annually celebrated; the Archbishop of the Greek Orthodox Church always attends. In fact, the Greek Orthodox Church is the predominant social institution within the Greek com- munity. Many of the businesses in the community are and have been owned by Greeks for more than two generations. The Greek community of Tarpon Springs also continues to maintain close ties with its Dodecanese Islands home- land. The black population of Tarpon Springs is also socioculturally distinct. Most blacks in Tarpon Springs reside in the same section of town and patronize the same business establishments (some of which are black-owned); they inter- 100 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 act socially with nonblack residents of the community infrequently. The black and Greek communities of Tarpon Springs are not only socioculturally iso- lated; available evidence to be discussed later indicates that they are also ge- netically isolated from each other. MerHops—The biological data were collected by the Pinellas County Health Department in 1974, as part of a genetic screening program focused on hemoglobinopathies. Two hundred eighty- four blacks and 70 Greeks participated in the screening program at the Tarpon Springs Clinic of the Pinellas County Health Department. Blood samples (5ml) were collected and were electropho- retically (starch-gel) and densitometrically analyzed using standard techniques (Briere et al., 1965) by the Pinellas County Health Department. Genotype, age, and sex of the participants were gleaned from health department records. The fact that the nonblack participants in the program were Greek was authenticated by checking individual surnames, or in the case of females, maiden names. ResuLts—The genotypic breakdowns of the two ethnic groups are shown in Table 1. For blacks, the frequency of the normal hemoglobin allele is 0.938; the frequency of the S allele is 0.051 and that of the C allele is 0.011. For Greeks, the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele is 0.036; the frequency of the normal allele is 0.964. Discussion—The abnormal hemoglobin configuration of the black popu- lation of Tarpon Springs is congruent with data gathered from other black American populations and summarized by Livingstone (1967, 1973); black American sickle cell allele frequencies fall within the range of two to six per- cent. The genetic configuration of Tarpon Springs Greeks at the beta thalassemia locus is consistent with the findings of Pearson and associates (1973) who studied Greeks living in New Haven, Connecticut. In another study, Pearson and associates (1975) focused on three Greek Orthodox parishes in Connecti- cut and found the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele to be 0.062. Bartso- cas (1976) suggests that the 1975 sample of Pearson and associates may have been derived from regions in Greece having the highest frequency of the beta thalassemia allele, including the Isle of Rhodes, which is by far the largest of the Dodecanese Islands. Data summarized by Livingstone (1973) indicate that the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele on the Isle of Rhodes ranges from seven to nearly 14 percent. Hence, the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele in Tarpon Springs Greeks appears to be exceptionally low, given their home- land. Four possible hypotheses exist to explain that fact. One is sampling error; this sample is exceptionally small, given the size of the Tarpon Springs Greek population. A second hypothesis is a considerable amount of non-Greek gene flow into the Tarpon Springs Greek gene pool. Although data do not exist which allow testing of that hypothesis, my ethno- graphic observations in Tarpon Springs and those of others (Bartsocas, 1976; Xenides, 1922) who studied other United States Greek populations, suggest that endogamy is virtually universal for Greek-American communities, includ- ing that of Tarpon Springs and others in the United States. Raptis (cited in Buxbaum (1967:266)) reports that 75 percent of Greek marriages in the United States are endogamous. Data from the Greek Orthodox Church in Tarpon No. 2, 1986] WIENKER— ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS 10] TaBLE 1. Age distribution of hemoglobin and thalassemia genotypes of Tarpon Springs blacks and Greeks. Greeks (N = 70) Genotype Age 0-14 15-45 45+ Total AA 33 32 ] 66 97.1 94.1 50.1 94.3 ATh 0 Z ] 3 0.0 5.9 50.0 4.3 ThTh ] 0 0 ] 2.9 0.0 0.0 1.4 Total 34 34 2 70 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Blacks (N = 284) AA 97 155 - 254 94.2 88.6 Bano 89.4 AS 3 12 + 19 2.9 6.9 66.7 6.7 AC ] 5 0 6 1.0 2.9 0.0 24 SS 2 3 0 5 1.9 Lg 0.0 1.8 Total 103 175 6 284 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 “First line = N, Second line = % of each entry. Springs (Buxbaum, 1967) show greater than 80 percent Greek endogamy for the years 1922-62. In fact, traditional arranged marriages still occur. A third possible hypothesis is that selection for beta thalassemia has been redirected in favor of the normal phenotype. An age analysis was performed on the genotypic data for Tarpon Springs Greeks (Table 1). It basically indi- cates that the frequency of the normal genotype has increased recently, when one considers the current reproductive generation (age 15-45 years) and the pre-reproductive generation (0-14 years). The same trend appears to character- ize the post-reproductive generation (age 45+ years) and reproductive genera- tion. However, the sample size of the former is too small to permit such a conclusion. It is generally acknowledged that redirected selection is partially responsible for the relatively low frequency of the sickle cell allele in black Americans (Workman et al., 1963). That fact is also demonstrable by an age analysis of the genotypic data from Tarpon Springs blacks shown in Table 1 (where sample sizes permit such a conclusion). However, given the high frequency of the beta thalassemia allele on the Isle of Rhodes, and the recent arrival of Greeks in Tarpon Springs, obviously redi- rected selection can only have impacted the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Greeks modestly—certainly not enough to account for the remarkably low frequency of the beta thalassemia allele in Tarpon Springs versus that of Do- decanese Islands Greeks. Although the current Greek population of Tarpon Springs is sufficiently 102 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol.°49 large to preclude the current operation of genetic drift, the initial settlements of handfuls of families in the early 20th century may have resulted in the operation of the founders effect or in the operation of the Sewall Wright effect. Those evolutionary mechanisms, in combination with redirected selection, would appear to more completely explain the relatively low prevalence of the beta thalassemia allele in the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Greeks. It is also interesting to note that the genetic profiles of both blacks and Greeks from Tarpon Springs document the lack of intermating between them. There is no evidence of hemoglobin S or hemoglobin C alleles in the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Greeks. There is also no evidence of the beta thalassemia allele in the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Blacks. In nearby Tampa, there is evidence of admixture between Greeks and blacks. Data from the Hillsborough County Health Department reported by Wienker (1984) did not include information on beta thalassemia in Tampa blacks. Of 14,161 Tampa blacks screened for hemoglobinopathies in the mid- 1970s, 18 were beta thalassemia trait carriers. The frequency of the beta tha- lassemia allele in the black Tampa gene pool is calculated to be 0.0013. Fre- quencies of the beta thalassemia allele in other black American groups summarized by Livingstone (1967, 1973) are also very low. The beta thalasse- mia profile of black Tampa residents is completely consistent with that of 12,000 Mississippi blacks screened for hemoglobinopathies (Thompson et al., 1965). Given the traditionally strong sanctions against intermating between blacks and “whites” in the American South, especially in the more rural areas (such as Tarpon Springs), it is not surprising to find stronger evidence for admixture in urban areas where such unions would be less readily detected. The data on the beta thalassemia configuration of Tarpon Springs Greeks and the data on the configuration of hemoglobinopathies of Tampa and Tar- pon Springs blacks indicate that sociocultural and historical factors have con- tributed significantly to ongoing human evolution in these two groups. The social and biological realms of humanity are inseparably intertwined. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The assistance of C. Labance in the collection of data is gratefully ac- knowledged, as are the comments of the anonymous reviewers. LITERATURE CITED Bartsocas, C.S. 1976. Thalassemia in Greek Americans. J. Pediat. 88:165. BERNARD, H. 1965. Greek Sponge Boats in Florida. Anthrop. Quart. 38:41-54. Briere, R., C. Timpron, AND J. Batsakis. 1965. Rapid qualitative and quantitative hemoglobin fractionation. Amer. J. Clin. Path. 44:695-701. BuxBauM, E. 1967. The Greek-American group of Tarpon Springs, Florida. University Micro- films, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI. CAVALLI-SFoRZA, L., AND D. BopMer. 1971. 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Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Pearson, H., R. O'BRIEN, AND S. McINnTosH. 1973. Screening for thalassemia trait by electronic measurement of mean corpuscular volume. New Engl. J. Med. 288:35 1-54. , D. Guitiotis, R. O’Brien, S$. McINTosH, AND G. AspNEs. 1975. Thalassemia in Greek Americans. J. Pediat. 86:917-18. RoTHWELL, N.V. 1977. Human Genetics. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. SLAIGHT, C.F. 1974. Personal communication. THOMPSON, R., R. WARRINGTON, R. Opom, J. BELL, AND W. BELL. 1965. Interaction between genes for delta thalassemia and hereditary persistence of foetal hemoglobin. Acta. Genet. Stat. Med. 15:190-200. WienkKerR, C.W. 1984. Some observations on abnormal hemoglobins in the Deep South. Florida Scient. 47:8 1-87. WorkMAN, P., AND A. Cooper. 1963. Selection, gene migration and polymorphic stability in a U.S. white and negro population. Amer. J. Hum. Gen. 15:429-37. XENIDES, J. 1922. The Greeks in America. J.H. Doran, New York, NY. Florida Sci. 49(2):98-103. 1986. Accepted: July 26, 1985. Atmospheric and Biological Sciences FLORIDA'S FREEZES: AN ANALOG OF SHORT-DURATION NUCLEAR WINTER EVENTS IN THE TROPICS RONALD L. Myers Archbold Biological Station, P.O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, FL 33852 Apstract: Recently developed scenarios of nuclear winter effects originating from a nuclear exchange in the north temperate zone point to localized periodic freezes reaching as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. The effects of freezes on Florida’s agriculture and natural ecosystems are assessed as analogs of what might occur at lower latitudes should freezing temperatures from a nuclear winter reach into the tropics. Vegetation damage, population fluctuations, restricted distributions, fish kills, and crop losses are recurrent features associated with freezes in Florida. However, Florida’s freezes can only serve as a partial analog because of bioclimatic dissimilarities between tropical regions and the Florida peninsula. Florida, itself, would suffer severe environ- mental consequences during a nuclear winter, yet certain features of its environment may permit a relatively rapid recovery. THE INTERNATIONAL scientific community was unprepared for the conclu- sions presented by Crutzen and Birks (1982). Far more ominous than the dev- astating effects of blast and radiation from a nuclear war would be the long- term biological consequences of a nuclear war-induced winter caused by the injection of large quantities of smoke and dust into the atmosphere. These findings have since been augmented by more sophisticated models and sub- jected to rigorous review, first by a panel of physicists and atmospheric scien- tists, then by a group of biologists (Turco et al., 1983; Ehrlich et al., 1983). In response to the sudden recognition of the nuclear winter problem, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and its Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) established the ENUWAR (Environ- mental Consequences of Nuclear War) Project. The ENUWAR Steering Com- mittee organized a series of workshops to identify critical issues relating to the impact of nuclear war and is compiling the results into a SCOPE report due out in June 1985. The report will draw on 1) global and ecosystem-level models on responses to nuclear war and 2) experimental data bases of stresses to ecological systems used as analogs to nuclear war stresses. The latter cate- gory includes the evaluation of such analogs as volcanic eruptions (particu- larly the 1815 Tambora eruption), periods of climatic stress present in the historical record (e.g. the Little Ice Age of the 17th Century A.D.), meteorite impacts, evidence from the paleoecological record, forest fires, the fire bomb- ing of Dresden in 1945, the nuclear bomb experiences of Nagasaki and Hiro- shima, Saharan dust storms, dust storms on Mars, and recent extreme climatic events. The possible use of recent extreme climatic events as analogs led to my participation in a SCOPE workshop on the effects of nuclear war on tropical No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 105 ecosystems held in Caracas, Venezuela, 10-12 April 1985. Several scenarios have been developed on the pattern that a nuclear winter might take in tropi- cal regions. Much depends on the size of the nuclear exchange, on the season of year, and on a number of climatic variables. Worse case scenarios point to below freezing temperatures in the tropics lasting from months to a year coup- led with drastically reduced rainfall and light intensities. The results would be devastating: a complete collapse of agriculture, total disruption of natural ecosystems, and massive extinctions. Less severe scenarios suggest periodic short-term freezes occurring in patches as the nuclear cloud breaks up over the tropics. In attempting to understand the consequences of the latter set of sce- narios, the periodic freezes that occur in Florida and other subtropical areas such as Brazil might serve as analogs. Drawing on the Florida experience, this paper assesses the appropriateness of these analogies. It was prepared at the request of SCOPE and was presented for discussion in a slightly different form at the Caracas SCOPE workshop. Florida’s Geography and Climate—The 640 km long Florida peninsula extends from a latitude of approximately 25° N to 31° N and separates the subtropical Atlantic Ocean from the Gulf of Mexico. No point in the state is more than 112 km from warm ocean waters, and no point on the peninsula is higher than 105 m above msl. Owing to the circum-global subtropical subsid- ence of hot dry air, most continental regions at the same latitude as Florida are deserts. Florida, on the other hand, because of its peninsular configuration enjoys a moist climate driven by a summer double sea-land breeze system that produces one of the highest thunderstorm frequencies in the world (Dohrenwend, 1976). Additional precipitation is contributed by winter frontal systems and summer and fall tropical storms. Because the Florida peninsula extends across 6 degrees of latitude its cli- mate is not uniform. It lies in the transition zone between the temperate and tropical circulation patterns. North Florida’s climate is controlled largely by the former, south Florida’s by the latter. The vegetation of Florida, which follows this climatic gradient, has been classified using several climate-based systems (Hela, 1952; Dohrenwend and Harris, 1975; and Greller, 1980). Al- though terminology and climatic parameters vary, each system generally di- vides the State into 3 or 4 bioclimatic regions. For example, Dohrenwend and Harris (1975), using the Holdridge Life Zone System (Holdridge, 1967), desig- nate the northern third of the peninsula as Warm Temperate Moist Forest, the southern third of the peninsula as Subtropical Moist Forest, and the central third as a transition zone between the two. The Florida Keys lie in the Subtrop- ical Dry Forest life zone (Figure 1). Florida’s Freezes—Florida’s relatively moderate winter temperatures pro- duce a strong incentive for growing citrus, tropical fruits, and sugar cane; for the planting of tropical ornamentals; for the production of winter vegetable crops to supply markets at higher latitudes; and for such commercial enter- prises as the tropical fish and foliage plant industries. Florida, however, lies outside the tropics and a large portion of the state experiences freezing temper- 106 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol.:49 atures every winter (Bradley, 1972). Frequency and severity of freezes dimin- ish from north to south. Freezes in the subtropical zone of southern Florida are relatively rare, but their impact when they do occur is quite severe. Freeze probabilities from four locations, each in a different bioclimatic zone—Key West, Homestead, Lake Alfred, and Lake City—illustrate the latitudinal distri- bution of freeze probabilities (Table 1). The latitudinal gradient is modified by such local effects as relative elevation, proximity to water bodies, and soil type. WARM AL TEMPERATE 22 MOIST FOREST ae #eg GULF OF MEXICO TRANSITION ZONE z D 49 WS SUBTROPICAL MOIST FOREST/: pelg SUBTROPICAL oy DRY FOREST | ea we oe — 25" Fic. 1. Bioclimatic life zones in Florida based on the Holdridge (1967) Life Zone System. Modified from Dohrenwend and Harris (1975). Two mechanisms produce the freezing conditions that occur in Florida: 1) radiation frosts and 2) advective freezes. The first occurs when air tempera- tures are at or above freezing. Radiative heat loss during still nights cools ground and plant surfaces below the freezing point. This not only causes ice crystals to form on these surfaces, provided the dew point is reached, but also extracts heat from the stagnant air layer near the ground. The downhill drift of this cold air concentrates more severe vegetation damage in low-lying areas. Minimum temperature differences of 10° C have been recorded between high and low ground at locations only several hundred meters apart (Johnson, 1970). Advective freezes occur when continental arctic or polar air masses move No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 107 across the Florida peninsula. Little or no temperature differentials between high and low lying areas occur, although the freezing conditions are exacer- bated by radiative cooling during the night. Advective freezes seldom last more than 2 or 3 days at a time, and it is extremely rare for temperatures to remain below freezing throughout the day at any place on the peninsula (Brad- ley, 1972). The first night of a cold wave is usually quite windy, allowing mixing and preventing temperature differentials from developing. By the sec- ond night winds subside, permitting radiative cooling and the development of marked temperature differentials mediated by a site’s elevation and proximity to water (Butson, 1967; Johnson, 1970). TaBLE 1. Probability that a given freezing temperature will be reached at four stations in Florida, each located in a different bioclimatic zone. Adapted from Bradley (1983). eFC —2°C —4°C —7°C —9°C Key West Subtropical 0 0 0 0 0 (QA. 33% Dry Homestead Subtropical 0.700 0.133 0 0) 0 (75> 530.9 Moist Lake Alfred Transition 0.967 0.700 0.200 0.033 0.033 (28° 06’) Lake City Warm 1.000 0.967 0.833 0.433 0.067 (30% Wt) Temperate Johnson (1970) provides a summary of freeze occurrences noted in histori- cal records. Prior to 1886, when a network of recording stations was estab- lished, most reports of freezes and freeze damage were confined to the popu- lated northern third of the state. Severe freezes occurred in January 1766, February 1835, January 1857, December 1870, December 1880, January 1886, December 1894, February 1895, January 1898, and February 1899. Probably the most severe freeze was in 1835 (Bradley 1972). Allegedly, this freeze killed all the tropical vegetation in Florida (Davis, 1940). The St. Johns River reportedly froze several meters outward from the shore, and tempera- tures in Jacksonville dropped to —13° C (Johnson, 1970). Although Key West has never officially recorded freezing temperatures, old-time residents assert that frosts have occurred, and the freeze of 1906 reportedly caused ice to form on standing water in Havana, Cuba, even though the official recorded temper- ature was 12° C (Harper, 1927). In the 20th century, severe freezes occurred in January 1905, December 1906, December 1909, February 1917, January 1928, December 1934, Janu- ary 1940, February 1947, the winter of 1957-58, December 1962, November 1970, January 1971, January 1977, January 1981, January 1982, December 1983, and January 1985. Cold winters with some freezing temperatures oc- curred interspersed among these severe freezes. Invariably, each severe freeze is labeled “‘the freeze of the century” by the technical and popular presses. 108 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 100 80 60 Y j j U 40 Yj Uj j —Y PRESENCE .(%2 20 VIL Warm Transition Subtropical Temperate LIFE ZONE Fic. 2. Presence of native temperate (open bars) and tropical (shaded bars) tree species in each of Florida’s bioclimatic life zones. Species distributions determined from Little (1978 — A recent series of back-to-back severe winter freezes has led to speculation that Florida’s climate is cooling. Dohrenwend and Harris (1975) conducted a climatic change impact analysis of peninsular Florida life zones which illus- trated broad vegetation shifts to the south during a long-term cooling trend. Although there has been a noticeable shift by the citrus industry to the south during the past few years (Small, 1985), recent freezes have been no more severe than those in the past, and there is some evidence of clumping of cold winters beyond that expected by random chance (Gerber, 1985). During the past few years, we have been in one of these clumps of cold winters, giving the appearance of a general cooling trend. Freeze Effects on Natural Vegetation—Plant species of tropical origin are found in Florida in each life zone; however, the number of tropical species No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 109 diminishes from the subtropical zone through the broad transition zone in the central part of the state (see Figure 1). Little (1978) lists 164 temperate tree species and 97 tropical tree species in the state. Of the latter, only four extend into the Warm Temperate Moist Forest life zone. They are Avicennia ger- minans, Forestiera acuminata, Sapindus saponaria, and Ximenia americana. Twenty-five more occur in the Transition Zone, although many are restricted to more moderate coastal areas or around inland water bodies. Restricted to the subtropical life zones are 67 species. Of these, 20 are confined to the Keys. There is a concomitant north-south decrease in the number of temperate tree species (Figure 2). Approximately 61% of the entire flora in subtropical south Florida has a tropical relationship, and almost all (91%) occur in the Caribbean area (Long and Lakela, 1971). These tropical affinities make the south Florida vegetation particularly susceptible to the relatively infrequent freezes. A destructive freeze in 1899 reportedly killed full-grown mahogany trees in the Cape Sable area. Craighead (1971) noted that in the Everglades the following tree species, listed in order of most severely damaged, are affected by chilling: Hippomane manchineel, Psidium guajava, Chrysobalanus icaco, Conocarpus erecta, Fi- cus sp., Metopium toxifera, Laguncularia racemosa, Bursera simaruba, Schinus terrebinthifolius, Ardisia escallonioides, and Rhizophora mangle. Freeze patterns at the southern tip of Florida effectively limit tree size and distribution, and cause the elimination of a number of tropical species only a few kilometers north or inland. Many tree-dominated communities are dwarfed by the periodic pruning caused by freezes, and many tropical species with a shrub habit in Florida are large trees at lower latitudes. An example is Trema micrantha, which is a pioneer rain forest tree of 30 m in Costa Rica, a small tree in the Florida Keys, and a shrub at its northern extension (northern Broward and Collier counties). Florida mangrove species follow this same pat- tern of reduced stature with increasing latitude. Most of the tropical woody species in Florida are wide-ranging colonizers or early successional species from tropical dry and moist forest regions. Such species are characterized by rapid growth, a high reproductive potential and dispersal ability, a dry season period of dormancy, and the ability to readily resprout from the root collar following damage. These traits permit them to recover and persist in south Florida in spite of periodic freezes. In contrast, species from less seasonal wet tropical environments are generally evergreen, lack resting terminal buds, and possess less sprouting ability (Ewel, 1977). The paucity of species in this category in Florida may be due in part to their inability to withstand chilling stress or to resprout following damage. Of the four mangrove species that occur in Florida, three find their most northerly extensions here. Mangroves do not normally tolerate temperature fluctuations exceeding 10° C or temperatures below freezing for any length of time. Laguncularia and Conocarpus are the most susceptible to damage, fol- lowed by Rhizophora. Avicennia is the most tolerant and extends into Texas and Louisiana (Odum et al., 1982). Several recorded freezes have killed all the 110 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 mangroves in some localities (Davis, 1940). Avicennia is maintained as a shrub at its higher latitudes, growing back from roots after freeze damage (Odum, et al., 1982). Lugo and Zucca (1977) conclude that mangroves growing under conditions of high-salinity stress are less tolerant of low temperatures, and that Avicennia growing at high latitudes is found on low-salinity sites normally occupied by other mangrove species at lower latitudes. Notwithstanding, Mc- Millan (1975) has shown that Avicennia from northerly sites is more tolerant of chilling than populations from tropical sites. Higher latitude populations show tolerance to chilling at 2-4° C. Individuals from lower latitude popula- tions are killed by these above-freezing temperatures. This suggests that freeze damage incurred by Florida mangroves, and by perhaps other species of tropi- cal origin, is less severe than what would occur to the same species during similar freezing temperatures, perhaps caused by a nuclear winter, at more tropical locations. Tropical marine grasses are also affected by cold waves, and “‘winter-kills”’ in Florida have followed sudden drops in temperature (Phillips, 1960). MceMil- lan (1979) tested the chill tolerance of populations of turtle grass (Thalassia testudium), manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme), and shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) from St. Croix and Jamaica through Florida and Texas. Populations from south Florida were intermediate in tolerance between plants from north Florida and Texas and those from St. Croix and Jamaica. This also points to possible severe damage to marine grasses should cold waves extend southward during a nuclear winter. Effects on Fauna—Since 1856, 16 cold-induced fish kills have been re- ported from Florida marine waters, averaging one per decade. A fish kill from a freeze in January 1977 in the Indian River Lagoon system along the central Atlantic coast of Florida affected 30 fish species (Snelson and Bradley, 1978). Similar fish kills have been reported at other locations during other freezes in Florida (Storey and Gudger, 1936; Storey, 1937; Miller, 1940; Galloway, 1941), in Georgia (Dahlberg and Smith, 1970), and in Texas (Gunter, 1941). Mortality seems to be concentrated among large fish species and among larger individuals within a species (Snelson and Bradley, 1978), thus affecting com- munity composition and population age structures. Fishes with tropical distri- butions are more seriously affected than those with temperate distributions (Storey and Gudger, 1936). The suddenness of the temperature drop seems to have a greater impact than the actual temperature reached (Storey and Gudger, 1936; Miller, 1940), and freezing air temperatures are not requisite (Galloway, 1941). Kills also seem to be more severe in shallow water areas, and are affected or modified by wind direction and velocity, and stage and range of tides (Storey and Gudger, 1936). Along the Texas coast, fish kills due to cold reportedly affected commercial fishing and up to three years were required to recover pre-freeze catch levels (Gunter, 1941). But in Florida, Snelson and Bradley (1978) point out that the effect of winter fish kills on commercial fisheries in Brevard County is impossible to distinguish from a general long- term decline in the fishery. Rinckey and Saloman (1964) maintain that fish kills in the Tampa Bay area have little effect on local fish populations. No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 111 Cold effects on coral reefs appear not to have been documented; however, Bullock and Smith (1979) described the impact of winter cold fronts on shal- low water reef communities off the coast of west-central Florida. Fish kills occurred. Cold damage to the corals themselves was not apparent, but they were damaged by heavy bottom surge during the passage of cold fronts. Hypothermic stunning and kills of marine turtles (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) were reported in the Indian River Lagoon system during the ‘Great Freeze of 1894-95” (Wilcox, 1896) and again in 198] (Ehrhart, 1983). Of Florida’s mammals, the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is probably the most severely impacted by cold. Manatees aggregate in warm- water refuges during Florida’s cold snaps. Numerous reports exist of manatee kills resulting from cold weather (Bangs, 1895; Cahn, 1940; Gunter, 1942; Moore, 1951; Layne, 1965). Cold-related mortality is concentrated at, but not restricted to, the northern limit of the manatee’s range in Florida, and it has been suggested that the discharge of warm water from power plants may cause manatees to winter in areas that they would normally avoid. During severe winters these artificial refuges become too cold and fatalities occur (Van Meter, 1982). The minimum temperature suitable for manatees is about 20° C. Feed- ing ceases at 10° C (Irvine, 1983). The cause of cold-induced mortality is not known, but deaths during cold snaps have occurred when the water tempera- ture dropped from 20° C to 8° C (Cahn, 1940). Terrestrial vertebrates seem to tolerate Florida freezes relatively well, possi- bly due to the fact that the mammals and herpetofauna are largely of temper- ate origin. Those of tropical origin are for the most part restricted to extreme southern Florida and the Keys. Although the south Florida avifauna is unaf- fected by the very brief and infrequent cold spells, insectivorous birds from central Florida northward suffer serious losses during freezes (Robertson and Kushlan, 1984). Freezes and Florida Agriculture—Although Florida agriculture is domi- nated by the citrus industry, the state is also a major source of winter vegeta- bles, strawberries, tropical fruits, cane sugar, cut flowers, nursery stock, and foliage plants. Beef production and dairy farming are also major agricultural activities, and Florida has some of the largest cattle ranches and dairy farms in the nation. Freeze damage is a continual problem faced by Florida agriculture. The Florida citrus industry’s technical journals are replete with references such as “arctic air blasts citrus belt—again”’. Anecdotal references to freezes and freeze damage abound. Actual freeze damage is dependent on a number of factors including lowest temperature reached, duration of below-freezing tem- perature, phenological state of the trees, state of dormancy of the trees, and whether the cold temperatures follow a warm period or are preceded by a period of relative cold. Even during severe freezes, damage may be quite local. Florida’s agriculture industry has had to deal with five major freezes in the past eight years: January 1977, January 1981, January 1982, the infamous Christmas freeze of 1983, and the January 20-22, 1985 freeze. i? FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The freeze on January 13, 1981, particularly affected west-central Florida (Stowers and LeVasseur, 1983). The lowest temperature was —13° C and the longest hourly duration below —2° C was 14 hours. Although temperature levels varied throughout the state, 48 of Florida’s 67 counties reported freeze damage. The USDA estimated a $572,083,444 agricultural loss with the great- est amount due to damage to the citrus groves. Most of the freeze-related damage resulted from the duration of temperature at —2° C or below for more than 4 hours. Long-term production decline was expected from trees with cold injury, the damaged trees taking 3-5 years to recover. Other major effects were a huge loss to vegetable crops and strawberries, a 7% loss of poultry, a loss of improved pasture that required supplemental feeding of livestock, a large loss to ornamental nursery stock, and a 75% to 100% loss of tropical fish stocks. The 1983 Christmas freeze, although not as widespread as other freezes, severely affected the northern half of the citrus belt. An arctic air mass moved into Florida so rapidly that grove operators were given less than 12 hours notice that freezing temperatures were imminent. On December 26, much of central Florida recorded temperatures below —7° C (Penchansky, 1984). Groves in Marion and Lake counties were devastated and the industry there may not recover (Hardy, 1984). The southern citrus belt counties, Hardee, Highlands, De Soto, St. Lucie, Martin, and Indian River, escaped serious dam- age. What was so unusual about this freeze was that a very warm period prior to the freezing temperatures did not permit sufficient winter hardening of the trees. This sudden onset of freezing temperatures preceded by warm weather is also blamed for the first recorded cold damage to native sand live oaks (Quer- cus geminata) in the state (Perry, 1984). In general, evergreen species in the warm temperate zone can tolerate freezing to —10° C to —15° C without incurring damage (Sakai, 1980), but temperatures in north Florida reached this threshold range on December 26 with Lake City reporting —13° C, Jack- sonville —11° C, and Gainesville —9° C. This year’s freeze (1985) set back groves that were recovering from the damage incurred the previous year. Not since the winter of 1894-95 has the citrus industry suffered the effects of back-to-back freezes of this magnitude (Hardy, 1985). ConcLusion—Florida’s periodic freezes adequately demonstrate the re- sponse of native tropical species and agricultural and horticultural crops to chilling temperatures. For several reasons, however, the situation in Florida cannot be used as a precise analog of what might occur in tropical regions should cold air masses move into low latitude areas in response to the onset of a nuclear winter. First, the native flora and fauna of Florida consists of many temperate species which, if cold-hardened or acclimated, can withstand low temperatures. Second, extant populations of tropical species, although suffer- ing acute damage during freezes, have withstood the test of time and main- tained viable populations. Third, these populations may have a greater toler- ance to cold than more southerly populations of the same species. Fourth, the major impact of freezes especially to agriculture, occurs in the bioclimatic Transition Zone not in the more analogous Subtropical Zone. Last, Florida No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA’S FREEZES 113 agriculture is finely tuned to deal with freezes. Cold hardy varieties have been selected. Farmers rely on state-of-the-art freeze forecasting. Horticultural ac- tivities are aggressively pursued that favor a gradual development of cold hardiness during the winter. When a freeze is impending, Florida farmers can use several defensive techniques such as irrigation, forcing air movement with wind machines, smudge pots, and actual heating of the groves. None of these measures would be readily available in the tropics. The damage to both natu- ral ecosystems and agroecosystems in the tropics, even from a short Florida- type freeze, would be far worse than anything we have experienced. Florida, itself, would suffer horrendous consequences following a nuclear exchange. Most likely, military installations in the state are targeted, and those areas would be subjected to blast and acute radiation effects. The state’s agri- culture would be destroyed by the ensuing nuclear winter. Its natural ecosys- tems, however, may have the capacity to fare better than those of its tropical neighbors during the nuclear winter, although much depends on the time, extent, intensity, and duration of the extreme climatic events. Florida, at the close of the Pleistocene, was cooler and dryer than at present (Watts, 1983, Delcourt and Delcourt, 1983). Many extant species were present during that period and may retain a high degree of resistance to drought and freezing temperatures. Present-day biotic communities are subjected to recurring eco- system-level stresses (e.g. fire, drought, flooding, freezes, hurricanes), and their component species are adapted to these stresses. The effect of a prolonged nuclear winter-induced freeze may be ameliorated by the ability of many plant species to resprout following fire. The fossorial habit of many animals may offer them some protection. The persistent soil seed banks formed by many marsh species may aid the recovery of wetlands. Even some of the “‘weedy”’ tropical species may be able to reinvade, provided sources remain. The poten- tial exists for ecosystem reassemblage, albeit in a much impoverished condi- tion. These attributes of resilience, however, offer little solace for the tragedy that would be wrought by such an event. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—I thank SCOPE for providing funds to attend the Caracas workshop, Archbold Biological Station for providing the time to prepare this review, and Fred Lohrer for his assistance in obtaining library materials. Larry Battoe, Dorothy Carter, James Layne, Fred Lohrer, Holly Tuck, and Petra Wood helped with useful criticism. LITERATURE CITED Banos, O. 1895. 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Natural resources of southern Florida. 18th Annual Report, Florida State Geological Survey, Tallahassee, FL. He a, I. 1952. Remarks on the climate of southern Florida. Bull. Marine Sci. 2:438-447. Ho prince, L.R. 1967. Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center, San Jose, Costa Rica. IrvINE, A.B. 1983. Manatee metabolism and its influence on distribution in Florida. Biol. Con- serv. 25:315-334. JouHNnson, W.O. 1970. Minimum temperatures in the agricultural areas of peninsular Florida: Summary of 30 winter seasons—1937-67. IFAS Publication No. 9, Univ. Florida, Gaines- ville, FL. Litt.e, E.L., Jr. 1978. Atlas of the United States trees: Volume 5. Florida. Miscellaneous Publica- tion No. 1361, USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Layne, J.N. 1965. Observations on marine mammals in Florida waters. Bull. Florida State Mu- seum, Biological Sciences. 9:133-181. Lone, R.W. anv O. Laketa. 1971. A flora of tropical Florida. Univ. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Pi: Luco, A.E. anv C.P. Zucca. 1977. The impact of low temperature stress on mangrove structure and growth. Tropical Ecology. 18:149-161. McMittan, C. 1975. Adaptive differentiation to chilling in mangrove populations. Pp. 62-68 In Watsu, G.E., S.C. SNEDAKER, AND H.J. Teas (eds.), Proceedings of the International Sym- posium on the Biology and Management of Mangroves. IFAS, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, FL. . 1979. Differentiation in response to chilling temperatures among populations of three marine spermatophytes. Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, and Halodule wrightii. Am. J. Bot. 66:810-819. MILLER, E.M. 1940. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the southeast coast of Florida, 1940. Ecology. 21:420-421. Moore, J.C. 1951. The range of the Florida manatee. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 14:1-19. Ovum, W.E., C.C. Mclvor, T.J. SmitH. 1982. The ecology of the mangroves of south Florida: a community profile. USFWS, Washington, D.C. No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 115 PENCHANSKY, J. 1984. Development of the Christmas freeze. The Citrus Industry. 65:40-41. Perry, L. 1984. 1983 freeze claims an unlikely victim: live oaks dying in north Florida. Plant Industry News. 25:6. Puiturrs, R.C. 1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of Florida seagrasses. Florida Board of Conservation Prof. Pap. Ser. No. 2. Rinckey, G.R. anp C.H. Satoman. 1964. Effect of reduced water temperature on fishes of Tampa Bay, Florida. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 27:9-16. Rosertson, W.B., JR. AND J.A. KusHLAN. 1984. The southern Florida avifauna. Pp. 219-257 in: P. J. Gleason, (ed.), Environments of south Florida: present and past II. Miami Geol. Soc., Coral Gables, FL. Sakal, A. 1980. Freezing resistance of broad-leaved evergreen trees in the warm-temperate zone. Low Temp. Sci. 38:1-14. SMALL, R. 1985. Impact of recent freezes on acreage, production, and industry relocation. The Citrus Industry. 66:19-21. SNELSON, F.F. AnD W.K. Brapb.ey. 1978. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the east coast of Florida, January 1977. Florida Scient. 41:1-12. Storey, M. 1937. The relation between normal range and mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida. Ecology. 18:10-26. AND E.W. Gupcer. 1936. Mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, 1886-1936. Ecology. 17:640-648. Stowers, D.M., JR. AND M. LeVassevur. 1983. The Florida freeze of 13 January 1981: an impact study of west-central Florida. Florida Scient. 46:72-82. Turco, R.P., O.B. Toon, T.P. ACKERMAN, J.B. PoLLAck, AND C. Sacan. 1983. Nuclear winter: Global consequences of multiple nuclear explosions. Science. 222:1283-1291. VAN Meter, V.B. 1982. The West Indian manatee in Florida. Applied Biology, Inc. Atlanta, GA. Watts, W.A. 1983. Vegetational history of the eastern United States 25,000 to 10,000 years ago. Pp. 294-310 In Wricnt, H.E., JR. AND S.C. Porrer (eds.), Late-Quaternary Environments of the United States: Volume 1. The Late Pleistocene. Univ. of Minnesota Press, Minneapo- lis, MN. Witcox, W.A. 1896. Commercial fisheries of Indian River, Florida. Report on U.S. Commercial Fisheries. 22:249-262. Florida Sci. 49(2):104-115. 1986. Accepted: June 20, 1985. Agricultural Science RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO TWO DRINKING WATER SODIUM LEVELS SUPPLIED FROM THREE DIFFERENT SALTS B. L. Damron’ AND W. L. JOHNSON” (1) Department of Poultry Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, and (2) Spring Valley Farms, 611 Jay St., Oxford, AL 36203 ABSTRACT: Two 21-day experiments were conducted to examine the response of chicks to low- level sodium supplementation in drinking water using sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium acetate. Birds receiving each of the sources exhibited body weight responses from 25 and 75 ppm levels of sodium supplementation. The growth increase was statistically significant for the 75 ppm treatments in chloride or bicarbonate form. Daily feed and water consumption increased in concert with sodium supplementation. AN IMPORTANT factor affecting the bird’s salt balance is the level of sodium present in the drinking water. Kare and Biely (1948) found that the toxic ef- fects of low-concentration sodium chloride given in drinking water were ap- proximately equal to those of an equivalent intake in the diet. Sibbald and co- workers (1962) stated that when a corn, soy, wheat-type diet contained no salt, chicks up to 4 weeks of age required saline solutions between 2500 ppm and 5000 ppm sodium chloride to perform satisfactorily. A level of 2000 ppm sodium chloride in the water was sufficient for birds 5 to 7 weeks of age. They also concluded that chicks could tolerate water containing up to 5000 ppm sodium chloride even when their feed contained an equal amount. Ross (1979) investigated the effects of supplying sodium chloride in the drinking water of broiler chicks. When the feed contained no added sodium, levels of 50 to 100 ppm sodium in the drinking water supported body weight gains equal to those provided by 0.05 and 0.10% sodium in the feed, respec- tively. For this reason, Ross (1979) suggested that sodium in drinking water was utilized more effectively by chicks than sodium in the feed. Pfander (1973) stated that few water sources supply mean concentrations of elements that meet even 10% of daily requirements. Only water with sodium chloride, mag- nesium, and iodine in maximum concentration was mentioned as providing over 100% of some species’ daily dietary need of the elements. The National Research Council (1984) indicated that 0.15% sodium is re- quired by most all classes of poultry. In work done by Ross (1977a), a signifi- cant growth response was achieved with the addition of 0.2% sodium as so- dium chloride or as a combination of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate to diets which contained 0.13 or 0.14% sodium. A level of only 3 ppm sodium in the drinking water was thought to be contributory to this deficient state. Because the sodium level present in research water supplies is believed to be an important variable for research involving sodium, the current experiments No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM ELT were designed to determine the response of chicks to low-level sodium supple- mentation of water with three different compounds. MerHops—In duplicate experiments, day-old Hubbard feather-sexed broiler chicks were housed in electrically heated Petersime battery brooders. Brooding temperature was maintained at 35°C for the first week and decreased 2.8°C per week thereafter until ambient temperature was reached. Four males and four females were placed in each of 3 replicate pens and started on one of 16 experimental treatments. Diets consisted of a standard broiler starter corn-soy basal (Table 1), with feed-grade sodium chloride added at levels of 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20% of the diet. In a 2 x 5 factorial design, these diets were provided with either tap or deionized drinking water. Six additional treatments arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial design consisted of feeding the basal diet with no added sodium chloride and supplying deionized drinking water with either 25 or 75 ppm sodium added from sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate or sodium acetate. Drinking water was given continuously and consumption was measured using a variation of the method described by Ross (1977b). Individual watering cups were attached to each pen and connected by plastic tubing to 20 L plastic jugs supported on a platform above the batteries. Gravity flow of water was adequate to operate the watering cups. The containers were vented to allow water flow, but caps were left on to minimize evaporation. The weight of the jug plus water was recorded at the beginning and end of the experiment with consumption determined by the difference in weight. Leaks were adjusted for on a bird-day basis using values from other pens on the same treatment. At the end of the 21-day experiment, group body weights, and water and feed intake were taken for each pen. Mortality was recorded on a daily basis throughout the experiment. Upon termination of the study, fresh manure was allowed to collect on clean battery paper placed under each pen for a 24-hour period. A large composite sample was then taken from each tray, homoge- nized with a wooden spatula, and a subsample placed into an aluminum boat for weighing and drying in a 105°C oven for 24 hours. Samples of each experimental diet, along with samples of tap water were analyzed for sodium using a Perkin-Elmer model 306 atomic absorption spectrophotometer (1976). Feed samples were dried, ashed in a muffle furnace at 550°C for 8 hours, and were dissolved in hydrochloric acid. All data were subjected to analysis of variance as described by Snedecor (1956) with significant treatment differences determined by using Duncan’s multiple range test (1955). TaBLE 1. Basal diet composition’. Ingredient Percentage Yellow corn 54.60 Soybean meal (48.5% protein) 35.25 Limestone (38 % Ca) 1.06 Dicalcium phosphate (18.5% P; 22% Ca) 1.85 Microingredient mix” 0.50 DL-methionine 0.25 Animal fat 4.74 Sodium chloride or filler’ L735 ‘Calculated to contain: 21.9% protein, 3080 Kcal/kg ME, 0.92% Ca, 0.71% P, 0.95% S.A.A., 1.12% lysine, and 0.11% sodium. *Supplied per kilogram of diet: 6600 I.U. vitamin A, 2200 I.C.U. vitamin D,, 500 mg choline chloride, 40 mg niacin, 4.4 mg riboflavin, 13 mg pantothenic acid, 22 meg vitamin B, >, 125 mg ethoxyquin, 20 mg iron, 2 me hi 200 mcg cobalt, 1.1 mg iodine, 100 meg zinc, 71 mg manganese, and 2.2 mg menadione sodium isulfite. Sodium chloride added at levels of 0 to 1.75% in increments of 0.25%. Washed builders’ sand used in combination with sodium chloride to fill 1.75% of each diet. RESULTS AND Discussion—Analysis of water samples during the experi- ments indicated an average sodium content of 9 ppm. This level of sodium in the drinking water is low; however, the design of this study was to determine if this level did, in fact, have an effect on chick performance. 118 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The sodium content of the diets can be seen in Table 2. Each value is an average of two determinations. Addition of 0.05% sodium chloride to the diet was equivalent to 196 ppm sodium. Analytical results generally agreed with calculated values, both in amount and progression. Determinations for the basal diet of Experiment 2 was lower than either calculated or Experiment 1 determinations; however, this is considered an anomaly since subsequent addi- tions of sodium chloride to this basal resulted in sodium levels close to those calculated. TABLE 2. Sodium analysis of feeds containing graded levels of sodium chloride. ee ea Calculated sodium Sodium by analysis Sodium (ppm) (ppm) Chloride ve . ve (%) Supplemental Total Experiment | Experiment 2 0 0 213 202 105 0.05 196 409 456 362 0.10 392 605 677 584 0.15 588 801 923 812 0.20 784 997 942 956 ‘Calculations based on National Research Council (1984) published values. There were significant differences between sexes in performance parame- ters, but since no sex x treatment interaction was detected, only the combined average body weights have been statistically evaluated (Tables 3 and 4). Treat- ment x experiment interactions associated with some parameters prevented the consolidation of experiments. A significant body weight difference resulted from the addition of sodium chloride to the diet, regardless of water source (Tables 3 and 4). Birds that received 0, 0.05, or 0.10% sodium chloride were greatly reduced in size, but were active and exhibited classic gross signs of sodium chloride deficiency by pursuing any object placed close to the cage opening. Feathering was somewhat retarded and ruffled with shanks appear- ing dehydrated. Water source had an effect only at the 0.15% sodium chloride level in Experiment | (Table 3), where birds receiving tap water were significantly larger than those on deionized water. Birds receiving 25 or 75 ppm sodium from sodium acetate in the drinking water were numerically larger than birds being fed no supplemental sodium chloride and deionized or tap water, while those getting 75 ppm from sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate were signif- icantly larger. There were no significant differences of body weight between levels or sources of sodium in the water; however, birds which received 75 ppm sodium were larger than those getting 25 ppm. Daily feed, water, and sodium intakes were significantly increased in asso- ciation with supplemental dietary sodium chloride. In Experiment 1, the source of water did not alter this effect when the same dietary treatment was given, and only in one instance in Experiment 2 (0.10% sodium chloride) was water intake difference significant. The authors have no explanation for this 119 No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM TABLE 3. Body weights, daily feed intake, daily water intake, daily sodium intake, moisture content of manure, and mortality of chicks fed graded levels of dietary sodium chloride or various sodium sources in the drinking water (Experiment 1).' Supplemental Average daily Average daily aa Final body weight feed intake water intake sodium (8) Mi ES, : ee (g) chloride, Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap (%) water water water water water water 0 104.2" 105.6" 11.88°° 11.16" 15.65" 14.68° 0.05 208.8° 208.8° 20.72° 20.22° 96.73" 27.99° 0.10 288.3" 294.7° 25.28° 24.98" 38.67° 40.67" 0.15 405.1° 440.7! 31.63° 3235 49.94° 55.32" 0.20 479.7° 485.8° 32.58° 33.53° 63.02' 58.55" Sodium source in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm water’ Na Na Na Na Na Na NaCl 122.4” 141.7” wT 511" ie) 9 aa NaHCO, 110.3°” 139.6” mis 14.88” 13.60° 18.65°"° NaOAc 5.7" 136.8°” (27° 473° 51° 1945" 'Mean values for the same parameter without common letters are significantly different (P <0.05) according to Duncan’s multiple range test. ?ll treatments supplying sodium in drinking water were receiving no supplemental dietary salt. Average daily sodium intake Fecal moisture Mortality a (mg) (%) (number) sodium Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap chloride, water water water water water water (%) 0 13 12 65.07" 67.20" 4 2 0.05 27 26 as 6 ome 2 0 0.10 38 37 72.95" 24T" 0 l 0.15 53 55 75.71° 76.90° 0 0 0.20 61 63 77.77° 75.43% l 0 Sodium source in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm water Na Na Na Na Na Na NaCl 16 18 64.93" 66.85°"° 3 2 NaHCO, 13 18 67.07°"° 63.95° 2 l NaOAc 17 18 68:31°" 65.19*° 3 2 120 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE 4. Body weights, daily feed intake, daily water intake, daily sodium intake, moisture content of manure, and mortality of chicks fed graded levels of dietary sodium chloride or various sodium sources in the drinking water (Experiment 2).' Average daily water intake Average daily Supplemental feed intake dietary Final body weight sodium (g) eres: ARERR (g) chloride, Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap (%) water water water water water water 0 91.9" 97.2" 10.60" 10.62" 13:88" 13.69" 0.05 i739" 184.6" 18.88" rer po-5 7" 23.56" 0.10 218:8" 952-7 19.68" 22.00° 23.84" 33.84° 0.15 394.5° 391.g° 29.14° 26.29° 44.98" 88: 17" 0.20 443.6" 436.2" 28.89° 28.76° 43.17'8 48.39* Sodium source in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm water? Na Na Na Na Na Na NaCl 106.6" Ia. 1:14" 72" wile" gi = NaHCO, 107.3" 135.5° yess 16.64" i597" 19.50°¢ NaOAc O39" 1304" 12.39° ws7” 14.92°” ior 'Mean values for the same parameter without common letters are significantly different (P <0.05) according to Duncan’s multiple range test. *All treatments supplying sodium in drinking water were receiving no supplemental dietary salt. Average daily sodium intake Fecal moisture Mortality Supp ements (mg) (%) (number) sodium Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap chloride, water water water water water water (%) 0 £. 12 50.45" 60.63” 5 4 0.05 25 22 68.967" 63.59" 3 5 0.10 29 33 68.42°" 68.462" 3 5 0.15 49 44 fe ao i73< l 2 0.20 54 54 Reses 78.46° l l Sodium source in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm water Na Na Na Na Na Na NaCl 15 21 60.24°” 64.90?" 4 2 NaHCO, 15 20 62.54° 63.41" l 3 NaOAc 14 22 56.54" Gur 4 2 No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM 121 effect but feel that it is an anomaly. Except when supplying 25 ppm sodium from sodium bicarbonate during Experiment |, the addition of sodium to the drinking water, regardless of source, was associated with a numerical increase of daily feed intake over the basal and deionized or tap water. These intake improvements were statistically significant in association with the 75 ppm treatments of the second experiment. Drinking water sodium had no significant effect on water intake when compared in treatments with no supplemental sodium chloride and deionized or tap water. There was, however, a numerical increase in water consumption for those birds that received 75 ppm sodium from any one of the waterborne sodium sources. As a result of this increased consumption and greater concen- tration, the 75 ppm treatments were also associated with increased daily so- dium intake. Fecal moisture (Tables 3 and 4) increased as the level of sodium chloride in the diet increased. Birds fed the same diet showed no differences when receiv- ing either deionized or tap water. Source or level of sodium supplied in the drinking water had no significant effect on moisture content of manure in Experiment |. Moisture percentages associated with 75 ppm treatments of the second experiment did differ statistically from the control. Mortality was higher in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1, as can be seen in Tables 3 and 4. Decreased feed consumption and resulting reductions of sodium intake may have affected mortality and hampered critical physiologi- cal systems, especially for birds receiving the lower level of sodium chloride supplementation. ConcLusions—From these data it is evident that feed and water consump- tion of chicks are greatly influenced by sodium levels at or below the dietary requirement. The use of low-sodium (9 ppm) tap water such as that available through the Gainesville Regional Utilities system was not related to any im- proved performance over that noted with deionized water and does not appear to be an important variable in practical experiments. Sodium supplied from reagent sources in moderate amounts through the drinking water is available for use by chicks and the fact that all three sources tested responded well indicates that chloride level was not a limiting factor. ACKNOWLEDGMENT— This paper is University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Jour- nal Series No. 6473. LITERATURE CITED Duncan, D.B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 1 1: 1-42. Kare, M.R., AND J. Brety. 1948. The toxicity of sodium chloride and its relation to water intake in baby chicks. Poultry Sci. 27:751-758. NATIONAL RESEARCH CouncIiL. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 8th ed. National Acad- emy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. PERKIN-ELMER. 1976. Analytical Methods for Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Perkin- Elmer Corp., Norwalk, CT. PFraNper, W.H. 1973. Toxic substances in water. An. Nutr. Health 28(6):4-7. 122 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Ross, E. 1977a. Apparent inadequacy of sodium requirement in broiler chickens. Poultry Sci. 56:1153-1157. _____. 1977b. An improved method for providing various solutions to individual pens in a chick battery. Poultry Sci. 56:1273-1274. __. 1979. The effect of water sodium on the chick requirement for dietary sodium. Poultry Sci. 58:626-630. SipBALD, I.R., W.F. Pepper, AND S.J. SLINGER. 1962. Sodium chloride in the feed and drinking water of chicks. Poultry Sci. 41:541-545. SnNepEcor, G.W. 1956. Statistical Methods, 5th ed. lowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA. Florida Sci. 49(2):1 16-122. 1986. Accepted: August 12, 1985. POULTRY WASTE LAGOON SEDIMENT AS A SOURCE OF CALUCIOM FOR LAYING HENS'—R. D. Miles, D. R. Sloan’, R. H. Harms, and J. E. Marion, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to determine if calcium in the sediment, which accumulates in poultry waste lagoons, could be used in laying hen diets as a source of calcium for egg production. The sediment used for this study was obtained from two locations within a lagoon, located on a layer farm in central Florida. The farm had been operational for approxi- mately 10 years. Two hundred laying hens, in peak production, were fed either a corn-soybean meal basal diet or the basal diet supplemented with the lagoon sediment. Based on the sediment’s nutrient analysis it was added to the diet at a level to furnish approximately 50% of the total calcium. No significant differences were observed between treatments in egg production, feed consumption, feed efficiency, egg weight, or egg specific gravity. Thus, it was concluded that poultry lagoon sediment can furnish calcium for laying hen feeds. THE need for supplemental calcium in the diet of commercial, egg produc- ing hens has been known. At the beginning of the 20th century it was a com- mon practice to add calcium to layer feeds in order to maintain optimum eggshell strength (Collier, 1892; Buckner and Martin, 1920; Halpin and Hayes, 1922). Of the many calcium sources the major calcium supplement used today is ground limestone. Ground or granular oyster shells as well as dicalcium and defluorinated phosphates also furnish calcium to the hen. Miles et al. (1982) reported that a native Florida product, coquina shells, could serve as an ade- quate calcium supplement for commercial laying hens. Although calcium availability from organic feedstuffs vary, most of the inorganic calcium sup- plements used in today’s poultry industry are satisfactory sources for available calcium. Miller and Sunde (1975) reported that limestone, ground oyster shell, screened pullet and hen size oyster shell, and screened coarse limestone were suitable calcium sources for eggshell formation. Roland (1980) reviewed the literature concerning calcium source, particle size, and requirement for the laying hen. He concluded that the inclusion of large particle size calcium sources such as hen or pullet size oyster shell or limestone, will result in im- proved eggshell quality only if hens have an inadequate daily calcium intake. ‘Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations Journal Series No. 6689. “Present address: Tampa Farm Service, P.O. Box 600, Dover, Florida 33527. No. 2, 1986] MILES, ET AL.—CALCIUM FOR LAYING HENS h23 There are approximately 12 million commercial laying hens in Florida. These hens produce approximately 2.4 million pounds of wet excreta daily. With good management this excreta can be converted into a valuable resource. Layer waste contains mostly excreta plus some other organic materials such as feathers, broken eggs, and waste feed. The waste usually accumulates under cages or is rotovated to insure that the moisture level is kept as low as possible. Another method of handling poultry waste is to flush the fresh excreta into an open lagoon. Bacterial action reduces the organic wastes to a smaller vol- ume and the minerals accumulate at the bottom of the lagoon. We wanted to determine if the inorganic sediment that accumulates in lagoons can be used by the laying hen as a source of calcium. MATERIALS AND MeTHops—The mineral sediment used for this experiment was obtained from a lagoon on a Florida poultry farm that had been operational for about 10 years. Sediment was obtained from two locations within the lagoon. When dried, the two samples were different colors. One was dark gray (Sample 1), while the other was a lighter shade of gray (Sample 2). The two samples were analyzed by a commercial laboratory; and the composition is shown in Table 1. Sample | contained mostly calcium carbonate and sand (330 and 670 g/kg, respectively). Sample 2 consisted of approximately 750 g/kg calcium carbonate and 250 g/kg sand, respectively. The variability in the two samples was probably due to the location from which each was collected in the lagoon. The protein content of the two samples was similar (13.7 vs. 14.3) for samples 1 and 2, respectively. Since crude protein was determined by the Kjeldahl method (%N x 6.25) it is not known what percent of the nitrogen was from nonprotein nitrogen, since the major nitrogenous metabolite of hens is uric acid. An experiment was conducted for two, 28-day periods with a total of 200 White Leghorn hens that had been in production for approximately 24 weeks. Hens were individually caged and fed a commercial-type, corn-soybean meal basal diet. The supplemental calcium and phosphorus sources in the basal diet were ground limestone and dicalcium phosphate, respectively (Table 2). Before the mineral sediment was added to the diet, both sources were mixed (50/50) by weight. The sediment mixture was then added at a level to furnish approximately 17 of the 34 g/kg total calcium in the diet. Diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Poultry oil was used to maintain isocaloric diets, because the calcium content of the sediment mixture was only 19.4%. The lime- stone that it replaced contained 38% calcium. During the entire experiment, feed and water were offered ad libitum. Water was furnished to the hens by a continual flow-through system for 15 minutes every 90 minutes. Natural and artifi- cial lighting was used in open-type houses to furnish a 15 hr period of continuous light. All eggs laid on day 14 of each 2-week period during the experimental period were collected for determina- tion of egg weights and specific gravity. RESULTS AND Discussilon— Adding the lagoon sediment to the diet did not significantly influence any parameter during the experimental period (Table 3). Hens fed the sediment in the diet had numerically higher feed consumption and egg production. Feed efficiency (kg feed per dozen eggs) and egg weights (grams) were essentially the same for each treatment. The data collected in this study indicate that the laying hen can utilize the calcium in lagoon sediment for egg production and maintenance of adequate eggshell quality. Before lagoon sediment or any feed ingredient is added to the diet, the nutrient analysis is needed so the diet can be balanced to meet the hen’s nutrient requirements. 124 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE |. Composition of dried lagoon mineral sediment used in laying hen study. Air Dried Sample l 2 Analysis (light gray) (dark gray) g/kg Crude protein’ 13.7 14.3 Moisture 76.0 86 Calcium 123.0° 266° Phosphorus 4.] 6.7 Sodium 0.3 0.5 Potassium 0.6 0.4 Chloride 0.14 0.04 Copper 0.01 0.02 Iron 0.9 1.0 Magnesium he 3.6 Manganese 0.06 0.11 Zine 0.06 0.14 SiO, (sand) 574 198 'Pe -rcent nitrogen times 6.25 (Kjeldahl procedure). *As calcium carbonate. TABLE 2. Composition of experimental diets used in lagoon sediment layer experiment. Diets, g/kg Ingredient Control Lagoon Ground yellow corn TH 627.4 Dehulled soybean meal (48.5% crude protein) 187.4 ge Bh Ground limestone 84.0 42.0 Dicalcium phosphate 6.5 6.5 lodized salt 4.0 4.0 Microingredients' 5.0 5.0 Poultry on Oe Oe eS ee ee ea ee 32.0 DL-methionine 1.0 1.0 V4g0o0n sediment? °°)? 2° POS ee ee ee ee eee 86.4 Total 1000 1000 Calculated analysis: MEn, kcal/kg 2841 2841 Protein, g/kg 153.5 153.5 Methionine + cystine, g/kg 6.2 6.2 Lysine, g/kg vg 7.7 Calcium, g/kg 34 34 Total phosphorus, g/kg 4.5 4.5 ‘Supplied per kilogram of diet: 6600 IU vitamin A; 2200 IU vitamin D3; 2.2 mg menadione dimethylpyrimidinol bisulfite; 4.14 mg riboflavin; 13.2 mg pantothenic acid; 39.6 mg niacin; 22 yg vitamin B),; 125 mg ethoxy- , quin, 60 mg manganese; 50 mg iron; 6 mg copper, 1.1 mg iodine; 35 mg zinc. *Consisted of a 50/50 mixture by weight of each sediment source. No. 2, 1986] MILES, ET AL.—CALCIUM FOR LAYING HENS 25 TABLE 3. Performance of laying hens fed a corn-soybean meal control diet and one containing lagoon sediment. Feed Egg Feed Egg Egg Consumption Production Efficiency Specific Weight Treatment (gm/hen/day) (%) (kg/doz) Gravity (g) Control 98.9 81.9 1.43 1.0792 63.6 Lagoon 100.9 84.0 1.44 1.0775 63.1 'No significant differences were found due to treatment. LITERATURE CITED Buckner, G.D., AND J.H. Martin. 1920. Effects of calcium on the composition of the eggs and carcass of laying hens. J. Biol. Chem. 41:195. Cour, P. 1892. Oyster shells as food for laying hens. New York Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 38:1-10. Ha.pin, J.G., AND J.B. Hayes. 1922. Feeding for eggs. Wisc. Ext. Sta. Circular. 141:7. Mites, R.D., O.M. JUNQuEIRA, AND R.H. Harms. 1982. Coquina shells as a supplemental cal- cium source in layer hen diets. Florida Scient. 45(2): 142-144. MILLER, P.C., AND M.L. SuNbeE. 1975. The effect of various particle sizes of oyster shell and limestone on performance of laying leghorn pullets. Poultry Sci. 54:1422-1432. Rouanp, D.A., Sr. 1980. Calcium source, particle size, and requirement for the laying hen. Proc. Florida Nutrition Conf. Pp. 85-92. Florida Sci. 49(2):122-125. 1986. Accepted: September 25, 1985. 126 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 BURMANNIA FLAVA MART. IN FLORIDA—John Popenoe, Fairchild Tropical Garden, 10901 Old Cutler Road, Miami, FL 33156. Asstract: Burmannia flava Mart. has been found for a third time in Southwestern Florida. THE yellow burmannia, Burmannia flava Mart. is considered a rare species in Florida. According to Ward (1978), it has only been found twice. The first collection was made in 1916 by Jeannette Park Stanley in Lee County near Fort Myers. The second collection was made in January 1946 by Leonard J. Brass (#15874) in the Fakahatchee Strand west of Miles City in Collier County. This species is also known from Cuba and Central America. On November 11, 1984, I found a new station for this species in the Big Cypress area of Collier County just east of Kissimmee Billy Strand and a little north of Alligator Alley. It was in an area where | had previously seen Burman- nia capitata (Walt.) Mart. The colony occupied 2 or 3 m’ and was in a meadow which gradually sloped down to a marsh with standing water. Not far away were pines (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) and palmettos (Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small). The plants of B. flava were in various stages of development and some had open flowers. They were growing among grasses and sedges about 20-cm tall, and were not visible until standing directly over them. They could not be positively identified until the grass was parted to see what was underneath because the plants of B. flava are so small. Other plants in this association included B. capitata, Utricularia simulans Pilger, U. subulata L., and Xyris spp. In nearby areas that were more open there were plants of Drosera capil- laris Poir and Utricularia cornuta Michx. This new station for B. flava is some 30 km east of Fakahatchee Strand and much farther from Fort Myers. The potential habitat for this species thus includes perhaps 3000 km’ in Collier, Hendry, and Lee counties. There are certainly many sites where it could occur. Like other species of Burmannia it apparently develops in moist places after the high waters of summer have receded, so it may be found only under certain moisture conditions and per- haps for only a few weeks out of the year. I predict that with diligent searching and some luck it eventually will be found in many places in this potential habitat. A specimen (Popenoe #2394) is on deposit at Fairchild Tropical Garden and duplicates have been sent to herbaria at the University of Florida, the University of South Florida, and the University of North Carolina. The collec- tion was made with Juanita and Jennifer Popenoe, as well as Nixon Smiley. LITERATURE CITED Warp, D.B., editor. 1979. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol. 5, Plants. Univer. Presses Florida, Gainesville. Florida Sci. 49(2):126. 1986. Accepted: August 8, 1985. No. 2, 1986] DOORIS—REVIEW 127 REVIEW Katherine Carter Ewel and Howard T. Odum, eds. Cypress Swamps, Uni- versity Presses of Florida, Gainesville, 1985. Pp. xviii+ 472. Price: $25.00. Any individual whose work involves aspects of the ecology of Florida will want his or her own copy of Cypress Swamps. In one volume, the editors have compiled 40 papers which provide as complete a picture as has ever been drawn of this important community as it exists in Florida and in certain other localities of the United States. Included in the book are descriptions of cypress swamps from the physical, chemical, and biological standpoints. Soils are discussed by Coultas and Duever who make the important point that several different types of soils support the development of cypress communities. Soils ranging in pH from less than 4.0 to greater than 8.0 and varying considerably in organic content and cation exchange capacity can be expected in cypress swamps, possibly explain- ing why all cypress ponds do not react identically to stresses (eg., drying out) placed upon them. Also germane to the question of stress response is the discus- sion of the geohydrology of cypress swamps which is to be found primarily in two papers, one by Spangler and the other by Heimburg. There appears to be somewhat more uniformity with respect to the geohydrologic processes con- tributing to the establishment of cypress swamps and which, in turn, control their functioning. Although differences do exist with respect to the actual pres- ence and the thickness of sands, clays, and dolomite beneath the cypress pond basins, one common feature of cypress ponds is an organic layer of variable thickness. This layer is important in providing a root-support matrix and, very likely, in maintaining appropriate root moisture conditions during drought periods. The geology and topography of cypress ponds are important factors to the understanding of the role of these wetlands in local hydrology and in ex- plaining the differences in stress responses among cypress ponds. From the physiologic standpoint, excellent discussions are provided on the cypress tree itself. In a total of four papers, subjects such as seed viability, seedling survival, post-fire regeneration, and morphology are well covered. In addition, throughout many of the other papers; further information in the characteristics of Taxodium sp. is available to the careful reader. The function of the cypress swamp as animal habitat is discussed. Verte- brate species characteristic of cypress swamps are described by Harris and Vickers and much needed data on cypress pond invertebrates is found in two papers by Brightman, McMahon and Davis. From these papers, two important points are clear. The first is that cypress ponds are extremely vital aquatic communities, and the second point is that cypress ponds function in wildlife population maintenance for several reasons, not the least of which is their characteristic island-like occurrence among Florida’s flatwoods. This know]- edge is of particular significance in our state as vast areas of flatwoods are undergoing residential development at a rapid pace. 128 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 As expected, much of the book is devoted to the subject of wastewater disposal to wetlands. Compilation of data on this matter is quite timely as the Department of Environmental Regulation will soon finalize specific rules gov- erning such disposal facilities. Large-scale wastewater disposal to wetlands hz implications for Florida, and it may turn out that this book and the research in it represents what will be considered the pivotal factors in the decisions on this issue. Because of the treatment of this subject, Cypress Swamps will be of particular interest to biologists in regulatory agencies and consulting firms. There is no doubt that the book is a milestone in wetland ecology. Let us hope that there will be additional volumes on this subject in the future.— Patricia M. Dooris, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooks- ville. OBI UARY DAN MORSE, M.D., Research Associate in Physical Anthropology, the Florida State University, died October 19, 1985, after a lengthy illness at his home in Panacea, Florida. Born October 1, 1906, in Cleveland, Ohio, Dr. Morse re- ceived his bachelor’s degree from Miami University of Ohio in 1928 and his medical degree from Western Reserve University (now Case-Western) in 1932. After serving in the army, he became medical director and superintendent of the Peoria (Illinois) Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium, a post he held until his retirement in 1971. In the same year he joined the Department of Anthropol- ogy regularly teaching courses in palaeopathology and later developing a pro- gram and publishing extensively in forensic anthropology. He was a consultant to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, a Diplomat of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, a member of the American Medical Associa- tion, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.—R.C. Dailey and J.A. Paredes, The Florida State University, Tallahassee. gegen. ae FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1986 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripa SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $15.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1986-87 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. PAN PAPACOSTA Secretary: Dr. Patrick J. GLEASON Physics Department 1131 North Palmway Stetson University Lake Worth, Florida 33460 DeLand, Florida 32720 President-Elect: Dr. Lesuie S. L1EBERMAN Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH Department of Anthropology 5636 Satel Drive University of Florida Orlando, Florida 32810 Gainesville, FL 32611 Executive Secretary: Florida Academy of Sciences 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. Martin, Co-Editor Volume 49 Summer, 1986 Number 3 Biological Sciences PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THREE SUBTROPICAL SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES: A COMPARISON OF FOUR AUTOTROPHIC COMPONENTS PauL R. JENSEN AND ROBERT A. GIBSON Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, FL 33450 ABsTRACT: A one-year study was conducted in which seagrass communities in Tampa Bay, the Indian River Lagoon, and the Little Bahama Bank were monitored quarterly for primary pro- duction, standing stock biomass, and nutrient concentrations. Primary production rates were measured in situ for the following four community autotrophic components: seagrasses, their associated epiphytic flora, phytoplankton and microbenthic algae. Photosynthetic rates were compared both within and between locations to determine the relative significance of the pri- mary producers, and the contribution by each to areal, i.e., community production (mg C mh"). In general, all species of seagrasses, their associated epiphytic flora and microbenthic algae produced at similar rates at all locations. The Indian River Lagoon had phytoplankton primary production rates that were greater than both seagrass and microbenthic algal production rates. Phytoplankton in Tampa Bay had primary production rates greater than all other commu- nity photosynthetic components, and primary production rates by all photosynthetic components in the nutrient-deplete Bahama Banks were similar. Therefore, the majority of the community primary production, i.e., the production base, in Tampa Bay and the Indian River Lagoon is contributed by phytoplankton. These areas are characterized by anthropogenic perturbations and associated high nutrient concentrations. Historical data indicate that phytoplankton, turtle grass and microbenthic algae were, at one time, equally productive in Tampa Bay. Increased phytoplankton production has reduced the relative importance of seagrasses and microbenthic algae to community production in this area. It is suggested that the relative contributions by the components of the photosynthetic community are affected by nutrient availability. Nutrient en- richment may induce a shift in the production base from benthic plants to phytoplankton. A shift of this type may be interpreted as an ecological indicator of either eutrophication or environmen- tal stress in a coastal marine environment. SEAGRASS meadows are a common component of the world’s coastal ecosys- tems. Since Petersen’s pioneering work in 1913, a great deal of information has accumulated on various aspects of primary production in the seagrass commu- nity. These works have established that seagrass meadows are among the most productive marine ecosystems, supporting rich communities of both plant and animal life (McRoy, 1974; Thayer et al., 1975; Jacobs, 1979). 130 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 It is generally accepted that seagrass meadows generate large quantities of organic material (Thayer et al., 1975) which ultimately enter the detrital food web. This high organic production can lead to the intuitive assumption that seagrasses, being visually the most conspicuous autotrophic component in the seagrass meadow, are the major contributors to primary production in these systems. Seagrasses have been cited as being the major contributor to primary production in certain seagrass meadows (Goering and Parker, 1972; Congdon and McComb, 1979; Jacobs, 1979) but, nonetheless, it should not be con- cluded a priori that seagrasses are the major contributors to primary produc- tion in all seagrass meadows. The quantification of all autotrophic compo- nents must be made to fully estimate the magnitude of each component to the total productivity of the system. The objectives of this research were to quantify seagrass community pri- mary production rates from three geographically distinct locations, and to examine these rates in terms of: (1) within and between location differences, (2) relative contributions to community primary production, and (3) relationships to local nutrient regimes. MATERIALS AND METHOpDs—Seagrass beds were chosen as study sites from three locations: (1) Indian Cay, the Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas, (2) Link Port, the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, and (3) Lassing Park, Tampa Bay, Florida (Fig. 1). These areas are on approximately the same latitude (27-28 °N) yet exemplify distinct environments representing a range of nutrient regimes and varying degrees of human interference. Tampa Bay is an industrialized estuarine system, altered by dredge and fill operations, harbor and channel construction, and effluents from domes- tic and industrial waste waters (Wilkens, 1979). The Indian River is a long narrow coastal lagoon, experiencing variable flushing rates and mixing with oceanic waters. Increased organic load and turbidity can be attributed to canal dredging and drainage from land development projects (John- son, 1983). The effects of industrialization are less than in Tampa Bay. The Little Bahama Bank is a broad shallow-shelf lagoon. It is a pristine environment, well flushed by oceanic waters, with low nutrient concentrations and few anthropogenic influences. During a one-year period each location was sampled quarterly to measure: primary production rates of four selected autotrophic components, standing stock biomass, and physical and chemical parameters. The community autotrophic components monitored were: (1) the three most abundant seagrass species (Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig, Syringodium filiforme Kiitzing and Halo- dule wrightii Asherson), (2) associated epiphytic flora, (3) phytoplankton, and (4) microbenthic algae. The communities were all in ca. 1 m water depth and therefore were spatially defined as | m° of water overlying 1 m* of seagrass meadow. The only major autotrophic components not considered were the macroalgae, which are found either attached or free-floating, and the emer- gent wetland vegetation. Primary Production Measurements—Triplicate measurements were made between 0900 and 1400 hours of each sampling period to determine primary production rates of the selected compo- nents. All primary production measurements were made at the collection sites using in situ radio- isotope tracer techniques with 1 ml NaH'*CO, (Amersham Corp.) at concentrations between 8-14 pCi/ml and incubation periods of 0.5 h. Equations 1-3 were used to calculate primary production: phytoplankton production (mg C m°h”) = ('*C assimilated) x ('*C available) x (1.05) ('*C added) x (time) x (volume filtered/chamber volume) seagrass and epiphyte production (mg C m*h') = No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 131 ATLANTIC OCEAN FLORIDA Fic. 1. Locations of seagrass meadow sampling sites. 132 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 ('*C assimilated) x ('*C available) x (1.05) x (areal dry weight) ('*C added) x (time) x (sample dry weight) x (area) microbenthic algal production (mg C m*h") = ('*C assimilated) x ('*C available) x (1.05) ('*C added) x (time) x (area of core) Separate Plexiglas chambers were used for the in situ incubation of (1) seagrass blades plus epiphytes and (2) microbenthic algae; phytoplankton were incubated in glass boiling flasks. The seagrass-epiphyte chamber allows for the insertion of a seagrass blade, plus associated epiphytic flora, into the chamber without removing the plant from the sediment. Chambers were filled with filtered seawater prior to short shoot insertion and, after insertion, inoculated with carbon-14 to allow isotopic uptake by both the seagrass and the associated epiphytes. Microbenthic algal photo- synthetic rates were determined for the upper 2.5 cm of sediment using a 2.0 cm inner diameter Plexiglas corer which also acted as the incubation chamber. Carbon-14 was added to the chamber and the intact sediment core; the chamber was then sealed and returned to the sediment for incubation. These chambers were designed to minimize disturbance of the sample population (see Heffernan and Gibson, 1983, for detailed description of apparatus). Incubation procedures and sample processing for seagrasses, epiphytes and microbenthic algae were performed as described by Heffernan and Gibson (1983), with the substitution of 0.5 h for 3.0 h incubation periods. Following incubation periods, seagrass samples were rinsed with filtered seawater to remove unincorporated carbon-14, and the epiphytes were separated from the seagrass blades using the freeze-drying and scraping technique of Penhale (1977) under the low magnifica- tion of a dissecting microscope. Macrofaunal components of the epiphyte population were re- moved and discarded. Seagrass and epiphyte samples were solubilized for liquid scintillation counting using a modification of the methods of Gange et al. (1979). Microbenthic algal photosyn- thetic production was determined using a modification of previous methods (Van Raalte et al., 1974) as follows: unincorporated carbon-14 was removed from the sediment by washing with 2 M HCl. Sediment was centrifuged (12,000 g) and the supernatant discarded. The sample was then digested for 12 h with 10 ml of 16 M HNO, . After a second centrifugation (12,000 g), 1 ml of supernatant was buffered with 9 ml of 0.75 M tris buffer, then 1 ml of the buffered sample was counted. Microbenthic algal productivity measurements were not made in the Bahamas due to the high carbonate content of the sediment which inhibited the use of the acid hydrolysis portion of the technique. Phytoplankton production was determined by filtering 250-ml volumes of water onto 47 mm diameter 0.4 um pore size polycarbonate filters (Nuclepore Corp.). Filters were fumed over 6 M HCl for 0.5 h to remove unincorporated carbon-14, dissolved with 1 ml NCS tissue solubilizer (Amersham Corp.) and counted in 10 ml of liquid scintillation cocktail (ACS:toluene:water; 7:3: 1). The carbon-14 activity of all samples was measured using a Searle Analytic Mark III liquid scintil- lation counter at counting efficiencies of 75-85%. Counts were corrected for background using the external standards channels ratio method. Light intensities within the chambers, as measured with a Biospherical Instruments PSL-10 light meter, were reduced by up to 15%. Similar reductions in production rates were not made considering the high light levels associated with the sampling sites; e.g., Tampa Bay (July, 1982) averaged 711+76 yE m’s’ at incubation depth during the sampling period. This light intensity corresponds to light-saturated photosynthetic rates in seagrasses (McRoy, 1974; Buesa, 1975; Penhale, 1977; Drew, 1979; and Williams and McRoy, 1982) and light levels above saturation have been shown to bring about only minor changes in seagrass photosynthetic rates (Williams and McRoy, 1982). Standing Stock—Seagrass standing stock biomass samples were taken using a modified post- hole digger (Young, 1974-75). Three replicate seagrass plugs (225 cm’) were taken for each sea- grass species from an area dominated by that species. The photosynthetic portion of the blades from the species for which the sample was representative were separated, lyophilized and weighed. Averages were taken to provide a yearly estimate of combined seagrass plus epiphyte standing stock per square meter at each location. Individual seagrass and epiphyte standing stocks were No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 133 estimated using the percent seagrass and percent epiphyte of total seagrass plus epiphyte dry weights as recorded during the freeze-drying and scraping process of the seagrass photosynthetic rate determinations. Seagrass and epiphyte primary production rates per square meter were calculated by multiply- ing seagrass biomass by weight specific production rates. Species composition at each location was considered in the estimation of combined areal production by the three seagrass species. Estimates for Tampa Bay indicate that Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme are responsible for 40, 40, and 20% of the seagrass cover respectively in this area (Lewis et al., in press). Seagrass meadows in the Indian River are a mixture of 2.7% T. testudinum, 46% H. wrightii, and 47% S. filiforme (Thompson, 1978). Areal photography coupled with ground sam- pling was used to estimate the seagrass composition of the Little Bahama Bank to be 83% T. testudinum, 7% H. wrightii, and 9% S. filiforme. The percent composition of each seagrass species was multiplied by the areal primary production rate (mg C mh’) for that species. The resulting areal production rates for each species were then summed within each location, yielding one primary production value for each location representing the contributions by the three sea- grass species. Water samples for nutrient analysis were filtered through 0.45 um pore size membrane filters, preserved with mercuric chloride and frozen. Samples were analyzed in duplicate for ammonia, phosphate, silicate, and nitrate + nitrite using a modified Technicon technique on a Autoanalyzer II (Zimmermann et al., 1977). Peak heights of samples and standards were corrected for synthetic seawater and turbidity blanks prior to sample concentration calculation. Nutrient data were not available for certain sampling periods. ResuLts— There was no seasonal variability between the quarterly weight- specific photosynthetic carbon uptake rates as measured for the three seagrass species and their associated epiphytic flora (Fig. 2). This is due, in part, to the within-season variability measured for each species. Yearly mean seagrass and epiphyte weight-specific production rates were compared both within and be- tween locations usinga Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric one-way analysis of var- iance. The only statistically significant (P <0.05) results were: (1) the epiphytes found on Halodule wrightii in Tampa Bay incorporated carbon at a greater rate than the epiphytes on H. wrightii in the Bahamas, (2) the epiphytes on Thalassia testudinum and Syringodium filiforme in the Bahamas produced at a greater rate than the epiphytes on H. wrightii, and (3) the seagrass S. fili- forme in the Bahamas produced at a lesser rate than its associated epiphytes. In general, seagrasses and their associated epiphytes had statistically similar yearly mean weight-specific production rates—independent of species and lo- cation. The yearly weight-specific carbon uptake rate for all epiphytic flora was 1.80+ 1.21 mg C gm dry wt'h’. This was higher than the mean seagrass car- bon uptake rate for all species which was 0.40+0.28. Considering the total seagrass plus epiphyte uptake, seagrasses accounted for 11 to 61% (X=22%) of the total. Photosynthetic carbon uptake rates for the seagrass communities are pre- sented (Fig. 3) in terms of areal production (mg C mh’ or mh’). The conver- sion of seagrass and epiphyte weight specific carbon uptake rates to areal carbon uptake rates is a function of biomass per unit area (Table 1). This conversion was made for comparison with phytoplankton and microbenthic algal production, allowing one number to represent the contribution by the three seagrass species and one number for their associated epiphytic flora at 134 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TaBLe 1. Yearly average standing stock biomass (g dry wt m” for seagrass species and associ- ated epiphytic flora (IR = Indian River, TB = Tampa Bay). Standing stock (g dry wt m”) Species Location seagrass epiphyte Reference Thalassia testudinum Florida 325 - Phillips, 1960 Florida (TB) 8] - Pomeroy, 1960* Florida (IR) 48.4 21.9 Jensen and Gibson, This work Florida (TB) 48.8 18.7 ee Bahamas 5:0 - Patriquin, 1972 Bahamas 200 - Capone et al., 1979** Bahamas 75.4 iT-3 Jensen and Gibson, This work Syringodium filiforme Texas 45 ~ McMahan, 1968 Florida (IR) 6.0 jt | Jensen and Gibson, This work Florida (TB) 20.9 6.4 , This work Bahamas 7.6 0.8 2) ee eee Halodule beaudettei N. Carolina 200 _ Brylinski, 1971 H. wrightii Florida (IR) A it | 8.8 Jensen and Gibson, This work Florida (TB) 18.7 6.3 , This work Bahamas 5.9 Be ee Zostera marina Alaska 180 = McRoy, 1966 N. Carolina 80 Zo Penhale, 1977 Denmark - ae Borum, 1980 *40% of this standing stock is leaf material, actual standing stock = 32.4. **Standing stock includes epiphytes. each location (see Materials and Methods). The conversion results in a range of quarterly rates from 7.01 to 30.2 (X=18.37) mg C m‘h’ for seagrasses and 10.5 to 27.1 (X=17.82) for epiphytes. There were no statistically significant differences between the four seasons, with seagrasses accounting for 51% of the total seagrass-epiphyte production. Seagrasses had a higher biomass per unit area than epiphytes, accounting for their higher percent contribution to total seagrass-epiphyte areal production as opposed to weight-specific produc- tion. The significant (P<0.05) results of a nonparametric analysis of variance comparing mean yearly areal production rates (Fig. 3) are: (1) phytoplankton in Tampa Bay incorporate carbon at a greater rate than the other three auto- trophic components, (2) phytoplankton in the Indian River Lagoon incorpo- rate carbon at a greater rate than either microbenthic algae or seagrasses, and (3) phytoplankton in Tampa Bay incorporate carbon at a greater rate than phytoplankton on the Little Bahama Bank. The total primary production in a cubic meter of seagrass bed, i.e., com- munity production, and the percent of total production contributed by each of the four autotrophic components is described in Table 2. Total production was greatest in Tampa Bay and lowest on the Little Bahama Bank. Photosynthetic carbon uptake by phytoplankton was greater than all other components in Tampa Bay, and was greater than seagrasses and microbenthic algae in the Indian River Lagoon. 135 JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION No. 3, 1986] (al) SAS SO aS O'Cr 0°97 78/L0 3 = % = OLE 0°62 78/SO 0) Gal (al) 6'0 1'9¢ 9°62 18/Ol Seuleyeg (A DS 9'| b'6L 0°97 0'8Z 78/L0 = = c * 0'O0' OLE Z8/S0 om Cv bl 8°62 Oe? O'r~ 78/Z0 £0 9'| 9'0 761 0'O€ S'6l 18/01 JOATY UeTpUy 6.0 bP b' rl 6 0s O'SZ O'SZ 78/L0 = i = = O'r~ 0'8Z 78/S0 b'0 |e Zoe I'8 O'8Z 061 78/Z0 9'°0 8 gel 6'1 0°92 O42 [8/01 Avg edurey, Ww Ww Ww (WwW) (dd) 4 (ry,) 27eq uol]eI0'T £OnN+2ON SHIN >’ Od fOIS AVulypes oinyeiroduiay, ‘suolRoo]| Apnjs 10} SuOTyesyUOUOD JUSTAVNU pue ‘oinjyetodura) Aue —"¢E ATAVT, Zhe Z'8S : 9° L'0€ — seUTeYRG 8'SI OL Ts CCL L001 JOATY Bel pUy ZS OLT 101 LLs 6 LL1 Aeg edurey, (%) (%) (%) (%) (YU, WD Bur) uoB00T ayAydidy SSeIdeIS ovs[e OryUaqoIO uojyueldoyAyg [BIOL ‘syuouoduioo orydo.sjoj0yd Ayunuruto0s Aq poynqisjuos UoKONnpold Areurtid [e}0} Jo JUDIOg =*Z AAV], 136 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 THAL EPI SYR EPI HAL EPI 8.0 Oo O Oo “a — Ae = TAMPA BAY if ape 3a 8.0 0 0 1@)) 6.0 a 4.0 > 20 x - Zz 0.0 O = INDIAN RIVER LAGOON = 3.0 = e 5 - rn 2.0 o D > 4 1.0 0.0 BAHAMAS Fic. 2. Weight specific photosynthetic carbon uptake rates (mg C g dry wt ‘h') for seagrasses (THAL = Thalassia testudinum, SYR = Syringodium filiforme, HAL = Halodule wrightii) and asso- ciated epiphytic flora (EPI). Each box represents a quarterly carbon uptake rate; the symbol X represents the yearly mean. A description of the three locations in terms of temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations (Table 3) indicates that the Little Bahama Bank is well flushed with oceanic water and that Tampa Bay and the Indian River Lagoon are brackish water environments, with Tampa Bay receiving the greatest amount of freshwater input. The Indian River Lagoon is highest in SiO, and NO,+NO,, and Tampa Bay is highest in PO,, probably due to the occurrence of natural phosphate deposits and industrial runoff from local phosphate min- ing operations. The Little Bahama Bank location had the lowest concentration of all nutrients. No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION a7 PHYTO MBA SG EPI O 120.0 Oo P 80.0 oO O CO 40.0 _ = x x a | 0.0 : = “ TAMPA BAY c 160.0 O O et zo.0 £ 80.0 5 Z 40.0 0 a 0.0 = eS ae ra INDIAN RIVER LAGOON O 60.0 0 8 ae 40.0 20.0 x O w 0.0 BAHAMAS Fic. 3. Areal photosynthetic carbon uptake rates (mg C m~ h' or m® h') for community photosynthetic components (PHYTO =phytoplankton, MBA=microbenthic algae, SG =sea- grasses, EPI = associated epiphytic flora). Each box represents a quarterly carbon uptake rate; the symbol X represents the yearly mean. Primary production measurements were made using the carbon-14 tech- nique of Steeman Nielsen (1952). This technique has the advantage of high sensitivity, requires only short incubation periods, and is applicable to the four autotrophic components in question. The major criticisms of the technique for seagrasses are that labeled carbon can be released from the leaves (Sonder- gaard, 1981), translocated to other areas of the plant or internally recycled (Bittaker and Iverson, 1976) or exchanged between leaves and epiphytes (Harlin, 1975), all leading to the underestimation of photosynthetic carbon incorporation. In support of the technique, Penhale and Smith (1977) and 138 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49 Brylinski (1977) have independently shown the release of labeled dissolved organic carbon to be low (1 to 4%) in comparison to total carbon incorpo- rated. Brylinski (1971) found linear carbon-14 uptake by Thalassia testu- dinum and Halodule wrightii for 0.5 h to 2.0 h incubation periods. Short incubation periods (i.e., 0.5 h) minimize the loss of labeled carbon via respira- tion, translocation, recycling and exchange, and therefore approximate a rate of total carbon uptake between net and gross. Discuss1oN— Yearly means of carbon-14 uptake rates were, in general, sta- tistically similar for seagrasses, epiphytes, and microbenthic algae at all three locations. This similarity of means is, in part, attributed to the variability measured both within and between the quarterly production rates. Those means which were not statistically similar reveal that phytoplankton produc- tion in the Indian River Lagoon was greater than seagrass and microbenthic algal production, and that phytoplankton production in Tampa Bay was greater than all other components, resulting in this area having the highest total community primary production per cubic meter. The Little Bahama Bank location exhibited the lowest total community primary production of any area. Pomeroy (1960), working in the Boca Ciega Bay portion of Tampa Bay, in water less than 2 m deep, found phytoplankton, turtle grass, and microbenthic algae to be equally productive. Two decades later, the relative contribution by phytoplankton to the Tampa Bay system has increased, reducing the relative importance of seagrasses and microphytobenthos in community production. This shift in production base towards phytoplankton is largely attributed to an 81% reduction of seagrass cover in Tampa Bay (Lewis et al., in press). Seagrass meadows have been physically destroyed (e.g., dredge and fill operations) or reduced via competitive interactions with micro- and macroalgae for the di- minished irradiances experienced in an eutrophic environment. Though no historical data are available for the Indian River Lagoon, it is speculated that a similar shift in the production base has occurred in this area—also spurred by reduced seagrass populations and the eutrophication process. Biomass measurements indicate Thalassia testudinum beds have the high- est standing stock (g dry wt m’). This is in agreement with other available data that indicate Thalassia and Zostera are the genera that attain the highest bio- mass (McRoy and McMillan, 1977). The yearly standing stock estimates are lower than many reported in the literature with possible explanations being: (1) lyophilization was used to obtain dry weights as opposed to oven drying, (2) epiphytes were not included in the measurements, (3) only the above-ground photosynthetic portion of the blades were considered, and (4) location depen- dent density differentials. The sampling strategy was not designed to discern seasonal trends in standing stocks though others have found them to exist (Sand-Jensen, 1975; Aioi, 1980). Epiphyte biomass, which comprised as much as 36% of the total standing stock, supports the work of Capone and co-workers (1979) who found epi- phytes to contribute 27-44% of the total biomass in the Bahamas. Tampa Bay No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON— PRIMARY PRODUCTION 139 and the Indian River Lagoon had the highest epiphytic biomass; this conforms to the correlation found between high epiphyte biomass and areas of high nutrient concentration (Phillips et al., 1978; Borum and Wium-Andersen, 1980). Epiphyte and microbenthic algal production rates corroborate the im- portance of these components as primary producers in the seagrass community (Jones, 1968; Penhale, 1977; Borum and Wium-Andersen, 1980; Cattaneo and Kalff, 1980). Seagrass weight specific production rates are lower than those recorded by others (Buesa, 1975; Capone et al., 1979; Williams and McRoy, 1982), and can possibly be attributed to the separate consideration of epiphyte and seagrass production. An overestimation of seagrass standing stock and primary production rates may result from not considering these components separately. Seagrass areal production rates (mg C m‘h’) also are lower than those reported in the literature (Phillips, 1960; Pomeroy, 1960; McRoy, 1966; Capone et al., 1979; Dillon, 1971; Penhale, 1977) and are attributed to the standing stock estimates of which the production calculation is a direct func- tion. Macroalgae, at times, are visually the dominant autotrophic component in the Indian River Lagoon. They occur in the form of seasonal aggregates of drift algae which can obtain an average biomass of 164 g dry wt m™ over a 0.15 km’ seagrass meadow (Virnstein and Carbonara, in press). Quantifying the contribution of this component is a difficult task, but one which needs to be addressed for a comprehensive assessment of primary production in the Indian River Lagoon. A comparison of seagrass community primary production rates was made between three locations in the Indian River Lagoon (Heffernan and Gibson, 1984). This study recorded large variabilities in primary production rates both temporally and spatially within the lagoon. The location referred to as Link Port was in closest proximity to the Indian River Lagoon site sampled by our study. Comparison of the primary production rates measured between the two studies, and within each study, for this location, indicates high variability and necessitates the use of caution in defining relationships between seagrass com- munity primary producers. Investigations on coastal marine primary production have indicated sea- grasses to be the major contributor to community primary production in some areas (Jacobs, 1979; Cogdon, 1979; Goering and Parker, 1972). The presence of seagrasses in a community should not lead, a priori, to the conclusion that seagrasses are the major contributors to primary production in that commu- nity. We emphasize the importance of examining all autotrophic components in ascertaining the importance of any one as a primary producer in the sea- grass community. In areas where seagrasses do not contribute significantly to total primary production, they still provide many valuable community func- tions, i.e., as substrata for epiphytic organisms which are a food source for grazers (Fry, 1984), in reducing water currents and inducing sedimentation, and in increasing sediment stability and promoting nutrient cycling (den Har- tog, 1977; Zieman and Wetzel, 1980). It is suggested that monitoring community primary production, both abso- 140 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 lute and relative, provides important ecological data which may be inter- preted as an environmental indicator of community “health.” Disturbances within a community may be associated with nutrient enrichments, resulting in increased phytoplankton populations, reduced water column light transmit- tance, and the inhibited growth of benthic macrophytes. The loss of benthic plant cover, and its associated function in sediment stability, further increases water column turbidity—hastening the eutrophication process. The response of the photosynthetic community to this type of stress may be observed as a shift in the production base, e.g., from seagrasses to phytoplankton. Documen- tation regarding the magnitude or type of shift in primary production rates may lend insight into the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on the coastal marine environment. LITERATURE CITED Aro1, K. 1980. Seasonal change in the standing crop of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in Odawa Bay, central Japan. Aquat. Bot. §:343-354. Bittraker, H.F., AND R.L. Iverson. 1976. Thalassia testudinum productivity: A field comparison of measurement methods. Marine Biol. 37:39-46. BorumM, J., AND S. WiuM-ANDERSEN. 1980. Biomass and production of epiphytes on eelgrass (Zos- tera marina L.) in the Oresund, Denmark. Ophelia, Suppl. 1:57-64. BryLinski, M. 1971. Release of dissolved organic matter by marine macrophytes. Ph.D. Dissert., Univ. of Georgia, Athens. 90 pp. . 1977. Release of dissolved organic matter by some marine macrophytes. Marine Biology. 39:213-220. Buesa, R.J. 1975. Population biomass and metabolic rates of marine angiosperms on the north- western Cuban shelf. Aquat. Bot. 1:11-23. Capone, D.G., P.A. PENHALE, R.S. OREMLAND, AND B.F. Taytor. 1979. Relationship between productivity and N,(C,H,) fixation in a Thalassia testudinum community. Limnol. Oceanogr. 24:117-125. CaTTANEO, A., AND J. KALFF. 1980. The relative contribution of aquatic macrophytes and their epiphytes to the production of macrophyte beds. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25:280-289. Conopon, R.A., AND A.J. McComs. 1979. Productivity of Ruppia: seasonal changes and depen- dence on light in an Australian estuary. Aquat. Bot. 6:121-132. Ditton, C.R. 1971. A comparative study of the primary productivity of estuarine phytoplankton and macrobenthic plants. Ph.D. Dissert., Dept. Botany, Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 112 Pp. Drew, E.A. 1979. Physiological aspects of primary production in seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 7:139- 150. Fry, B. 1984. '°C/'*C ratios and the trophic importance of algae in Florida Syringodium filiforme seagrass meadows. Marine Biol. 79:11-19. GANGE, J.A., J. LAROCHELLE, AND A. CARDINAL. 1979. A solubilization technique to prepare algal tissues for liquid scintillation counting, with reference to Fucus vesiculosus L. Phycologia. 18:168-170. GoERING, J.J., AND P.L. Parker. 1972. Nitrogen fixation by epiphytes on seagrasses. Limnol. Oceanogr. 17:320-323. Hartoc, C. pen. 1977. Structure, function, and classification in seagrass communities. Pp. 89- 121. In: McRoy, C.P., AND C. HELFFERICH (eds.), Seagrass Ecosystems: A Scientific Per- spective. Marcel Dekker, New York. Harun, M.H. 1975. Epiphyte-host relations in seagrass communities. Aquat. Bot. 1:125-131. HEFFERNAN, J.J., AND R.A. Gipson. 1983. A comparison of primary production rates in Indian River, Florida seagrass systems. Florida Scient. 45:124-132. Jacoss, R.P.W.M. 1979. Distribution and aspects of the production and biomass of eelgrass, Zostera marina L., at Roscoff, France. Aquat. Bot. 7:151-172. Jounson, L.T. 1983. Perspectives on the future of the Indian River System. Florida Scient. 46:132-134. No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 14] Jones, J.A. 1968. Primary productivity by the tropical marine turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum Konig, and its epiphytes. Ph.D. Dissert. Univ. Miami, Coral Gables. 196 Pp. Lewis, R.R., M.J. Durako, M.D. MorF_er, AND R.C. Puiuuips. In press. Seagrass meadows of Tampa Bay—a review. Proc. of the Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information Symposium (BASIS). May, 1982. McMaunan, C.A. 1968. Biomass and salinity tolerance of shoalgrass and manateegrass in lower Laguna Madre, Texas. Wild]. Manage. 32:501-506. McRoy, C.P. 1966. Standing stock and ecology of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Washington. 138 Pp. . 1974. Seagrass productivity: carbon uptake experiments in eelgrass, Zostera marina. Aquaculture. 4:131-137. , AND C. McMILxan. 1977. Production ecology and physiology of seagrasses. Pp. 53- 87. In: McRoy, C.P., AND C. HELFFERICH (eds.), Seagrass Ecosystems, A Scientific perspec- tive. Marcel Dekker, New York. Patriguin, D.G. 1972. The origin of nitrogen and phosphorus for growth of the marine angio- sperm Thalassia testudinum. Marine Biol. 15:35-46. PENHALE, P.A. 1977. Macrophyte-epiphyte biomass and productivity in an eelgrass (Zostera ma- rina L.) community. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 26:211-224. , AND W.O. Smirtu, Jr. 1977. Excretion of dissolved organic carbon by eelgrass (Zos- tera marina) and its epiphytes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:400-407. PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1913. Om baendeltangens (Zostera marina) aarsproduktion i de Danske Far- vande. Mindeskrift Hapetus Steenstrup. Cophenhagen. Puiuurs, G.L., D. EmMinson, AND B. Moss. 1978. A mechanism to account for macrophyte decline in progressively eutrophicated freshwaters. Aquat. Bot. 4:103-126. Puiiuips, R.C. 1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of the Florida seagrasses. Prof. Papers Series No. 2, Florida State Board of Conservation. 72 Pp. Pomeroy, L. R. 1960. Primary production of Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean. 10(1):1-10. SAND-JENSEN, K. 1975. Biomass, net production and growth dynamics in an eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) population in Vellerup Vig, Denmark. Ophelia. 14:185-201. SONDERGAARD, M. 1981. Kinetics of extracellular release of '*C-labelled organic carbon by sub- merged macrophytes. Oikos. 36:33 1-347. STEEMAN NIELSEN, E. 1952. The use of radioactive carbon (C'*) for measuring organic production in the sea. J. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 18:117-140. THayer, G.W., D.A. WoLFE, AND R.B. WituiaMs. 1975. The impact of man on seagrass systems. American Scient. 63:288-296. THompson, M.J. 1978. Species composition and distribution of seagrass beds in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Florida Scient. 41:90-96. Van Raa.te, C., W.C. Stewart, AND I. VaLiELA. 1974. A '*C technique for measuring algal productivity in salt marsh muds. Bot. Mar. 27:180-183. VIRNSTEIN, B., AND P.A. CarBonara. In press. Seasonal abundance and distribution of drift algae and seagrasses in the mid-Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Aquat. Bot. Wikens, R.G. 1979. Environmental quality Hillsborough County, Florida. Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission, Tampa, Florida. Pp. 225. WituraMs, S.L., AND C.P. McRoy. 1982. Seagrass productivity: The effect of light on carbon uptake. Aquat. Bot. 12:321-344. Younc, D.K. 1974-1975. Indian River Coastal Zone Study Annual Report, Harbor Branch Con- sortium. Compass Publications, Virginia. 1:92-93. ZIEMAN, J.C., AND R.G. WerzeL. 1980. Productivity in seagrasses: Methods and rates. Pp. 87- 116. In: Puiturrs, R.C., anv C.P. McRoy (eds.), Handbook of Seagrass Biology: An Ecosys- tem Perspective, Garland Press, New York. ZIMMERMANN, C.F., M. PricE, AND J. MONTGOMERY. 1977. Operations, methods and quality control of Technicon Autoanalyzer II systems for nutrient determinations in sea water. Harbor Branch Foundation, Techn. Rept. No. 11. Florida Sci. 49(3): 129-141. 1986. Accepted: August 9, 1985. Earth Sciences A MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP OF POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA DoucLas L. SMITH AND MICHAEL A. GRAVES Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Asstract: One hundred forty-five measurements of the earth’s magnetic intensity field in Polk County, Florida, yielded residual anomalies ranging from —300 to +200 nanoTeslas. A strong, northwest-trending negative anomaly is flanked on both sides by positive anomalies. The contrast in magnetic patterns is attributed to magnetic effects from the truncated southern boundary of the granitic Avalon Complex in the Florida basement. This boundary, and the magnetic lineations associated with it, may be evidence of a major and presently inactive trans- peninsular fault. VALUES of the magnetic field in Florida as measured in a series of east-west traverses across the Florida peninsula were first presented by Lee and co- workers (1945). King (1959) compiled those and other data in a regional verti- cal component magnetic map of Florida with a contour interval of 100 nano- Teslas (1 nT=1 gamma=10° Gauss). The anomalies, based on an arbitrary datum, ranged from 400 to 1700 nT. A composite magnetic anomaly map of the United Siates (Zeitz, 1982) incorporates newer aeromagnetic data with King’s (1959) data for Florida and has a 200 nT contour. The two versions of the magnetic anomaly patterns for Florida are similar and illustrate (Fig. 1) the more prominent regional anoma- lies which characterize both the magnetic and gravity fields (Oglesby et al., 1973) of Florida. The northern part of the Florida peninsula is distinguished by northeasterly trending anomalies, and northwesterly trending patterns are dominant in southern peninsular Florida. Because the thick sedimentary rock sequence which forms the Florida peninsula is nonmagnetic and the gravity and magnetic anomaly patterns are similar, the anomalies are attributed to sources in the underlying basement. This report describes a detailed investigation of the magnetic field and anomalies in Polk County, Florida. Based on existing magnetic anomaly maps and other evidence, the basement under this region may consist of an abrupt transition between contrasting structural or rock types. The results of this investigation thus contribute to the delineation of geologic boundaries within the Florida basement. SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY—Applin’s (1951) early description of the basement rocks in Florida recognized a granitic mass located in the center of the Florida peninsula and at depths of approximately 2 km. Later accounts of the Florida basement (e.g., Barnett, 1975; Smith, 1982) included reports of additional boreholes and proposed a general configuration of a Cambrian granitic batho- lith (Avalon Complex) underlying the central part of the peninsula (Fig. 1). The northern boundary of the granitic basement is described by Smith (1982) as an onlap by Ordovician and Silurian sedimentary rocks of the Suwannee Basin. No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 143 84° s2*° 8 0° miles Fic. 1. Regional magnetic map of Florida (after King, 1959). Contour interval 200 nT. Polk County is depicted with heavy lines and the subsurface extent of the Avalon Complex is shown by heavy dashed lines. 144 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The southern boundary, however, is portrayed as a truncated margin with Mesozoic volcanic rocks with both basaltic and rhyolitic compositions. Barnett (1975) proposed a major right-lateral fault which extended north- westward to the panhandle for the southern boundary of the batholoid. The fault was later repositioned and named the Jay Fault by Smith (1983). Klitgord and co-workers (1984) described the transition as a lithospheric transform fault during the Jurassic Era. The proposed boundary, regardless of its origin, marks the general juxtapo- sition of the northwesterly trending anomalies with those trending northeast- erly. The location is poorly resolved, although it is usually extended through Polk County because the magnetic and gravity anomaly patterns appear to be bounded there. Basement rocks in southern Lake County (north of Polk County) are granitic (Applin, 1951) and core samples from adjacent (eastward) Osceola County are also granitic (Barnett, 1975). A single deep well in south- ern Polk County yielded altered diabase (Barnett, 1975) at a depth of 2.9 km. MeEtrHops—Some 145 measurements of the magnetic field in Polk County were made in March and April, 1981, with a Geomagnetics G-816 portable proton precession magnetometer. Measure- ment locations were selected to avoid magnetic interference from pipelines, powerlines, fences, and other metallic structures. A centrally located base station was established and a general pat- tern of four field stations per township was followed to obtain maximum coverage. The Avon Park Bombing Range in the extreme southeastern portion of the county and certain swampy or other- wise restricted areas were inaccessible and, thus, avoided. Field station measurements taken each day were preceded and followed by base station mea- surements. Several measurements at each site were taken until five consecutive instrument read- ings (+1 nT) were obtained. All measurements were corrected for diurnal variations based on a variation curve constructed with base station measurements. Secular variations were considered negligible because the duration of the survey was relatively short. Large fluctuations (greater than 100 nT) were evident in measurements for one day and were attributed to a magnetic storm. Those measurements were repeated. REesuLTs—Corrected values of the total field within the survey area at the time of the survey ranged from 48,914 nT to 50,165 nT. A computer-derived isomagnetic map (Fig. 2) was constructed with a SURFACE II graphics pro- gram (Sampson, 1978). This map illustrates the total intensity of the earth’s magnetic field within the study area without removal of a regional gradient. A well-defined southeast-northwest trend is apparent (Fig. 2) with a re- gional gradient of about 8 nT/mile. This trend is flanked to the north and the south by relatively higher values. The north-trending positive anomaly in the extreme northwestern corner of the county (Area A, Fig. 2) exceeds 50,150 nT and probably extends northward into Sumter and Lake counties. A positive anomaly in the southern portion of the county extends to the west-central extremity (Area B). A zone of relatively low magnetic field values in the central portion of the county is labeled Area C. A residual anomaly map (Fig. 3) was developed with a SYMAP computer graphics program (Dougenik and Sheehan, 1975) by identifying and removing first- and second-order trend surfaces from the isomagnetic intensity map. The coefficient of correlation exceeded 85%. This map is representative of anoma- lous magnetic sources from the basement and is only minimally subject to secular variations. No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 145 ISOMAGNETIC INTENSITY MAP POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA ~ 2 0 4 SCALE IN MILES Fic. 2. Isomagnetic intensity map of Polk County as derived from computer contouring. Areas “A,” “B’”’ and “‘C”’ are discussed in the text. Values are in hundreds of nanoTeslas (contour interval: 50 nT). Three well-defined positive anomalies are recognized. A positive anomaly (Area A, Fig. 3) in the northwest portion of the county exceeds + 200 nT and probably extends northward. A composite feature containing the other two positive anomalies extends from the east-central portion of the county (Area B) to the southwest portion (Area C). This feature is divided by the northwest- trending negative anomaly (-— 300 nT) (Area D) in the central portion of the county. The anomaly shapes and trends in Fig. 3 are consistent with those pre- sented by King (1959) and Zeitz (1982), but provide greater detail and clarity to the character of the magnetic field. The marked contrast between generally positive anomalies in the northern and eastern portions (Areas A and B, Fig. 3) of the county from the lower values in the southern portion is exaggerated by the negative anomaly (Area D). This zone probably represents the boundary between the truncated granitic rocks of the Avalon Complex to the north and the deeper volcanic basement rocks underlying south Florida. 146 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The most significant magnetic property of rocks is their susceptibility. In general, the susceptibility of granitic rocks is much less than that of basaltic rocks. Thus, if the identified linear zone is simply a fault boundary between granitic and basaltic rocks, one would expect larger positive anomalies to the south. Other factors, such as depth of the anomaly sources and direction (an- gle) of magnetic polarization are also pertinent and could contribute to the observed results. If the boundary was at one time a transform fault (Klitgord et al., 1984), then different lithospheric blocks with potentially vastly different magnetic characters would now be adjacent. A corresponding diversity in the magnetic field would then be observed. SUMMARY— This investigation of the magnetic field within Polk County, Florida, has yielded, through individual field measurements of the total field intensity, an isomagnetic contour map and a residual magnetic anomaly map. The magnetic anomalies range from + 200 nT to — 300 nT and are dominated by a northwest-trending linear feature across the central part of the county. RESIDUAL MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP FROM SECOND-ORDER TREND SURFACE POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA + ln | SCALE IN MILES AVON PARK \ aS \ BOMBING RANGE Fic. 3. Residual magnetic anomaly map of Polk County. Areas “A” to “D”’ are discussed in the text. Values are in nanoTeslas (contour interval: 50 nT). No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 147 The prominent contrast in magnetic patterns is attributed to the abrupt truncated southern boundary of the granitic Avalon Complex within the Flor- ida basement. The configuration of the major anomaly patterns is considered to be evidence of a proposed major transpeninsular fault (Barnett, 1975; Smith, 1982; Klitgord et al., 1984). LITERATURE CITED AppLin, P.L. 1951. Preliminary report on buried pre-Mesozoic rocks in Florida and adjacent states. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 91, 28 Pp. BarNETT, R.S. 1975. Basement structure of Florida and its tectonic implications. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 25:122-142. DouceEnIk, J., AND E.E. SHEEHAN. 1975. SYMAP User’s Reference Manual. Harvard College, Cambridge, MA. Kinc, E.R. 1959. Regional magnetic map of Florida. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 43:2844- 2854. Kurtcorp, K.D., P. PopENoE, AND H. ScHouTEN. 1984. Florida: A Jurassic transform plate bound- ary. J. Geophys. Res. 89:7753-7772. Lee, F.W., J.H. Schwartz, AND S.J. HEMBERGER. 1945. Magnetic survey of the Florida peninsula. U.S. Bur. Mines Rpt. 3810. Oc.essy, W.R., M.M. BALL, ANDS. Cuakt. 1973. Bouguer anomaly map of the Florida peninsula and adjoining continental shelves. Fla. Bur. Geol. Map Ser. 57. SAMPSON, R.J. 1978. Surface II reference manual. Kansas Geol. Surv. Lawrence, KS. SmitH, D.L. 1982. Review of the tectonic history of the Florida basement. Tectonophysics. 88:1- poR SmitH, D.L. 1983. Basement model for the panhandle of Florida. Trans. Gulf. Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 33:203-208. Ze1tz, I. 1982. Composite magnetic anomaly map of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. Map GP- 954A. Florida Sci. 49(3): 142-147. 1986. Accepted: September 16, 1985. Biological Sciences BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE CAFIUS BISTRIATUS AND C. RUFIFRONS (INSECTA: COLEOPTERA): J. H. Frank", T. C. Cartyste” anp J. R. Rey” ‘"Entomology and Nematology Department, 3103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, ‘Insect Attractants, Behavior & Basic Biology Laboratory, USDA-ARS, P.O. Box 14565, Gainesville, Florida 32604; Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, 200 9th St. SE, Vero Beach, Florida 32962 AsBsTRACT: A taxonomic and biogeographic analysis was made of populations of two Cafius species from the coasts of the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic North America. Cafius bilineatus (Erichson), whose type locality is St. John’s, Antigua, is a synonym of C. bistriatus (Erichson), whose type locality is Long Island, New York. Two subspecies of C. bistriatus are recognized: C. b. bistriatus [new status] from the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic North America, and C. b. fulgens Frank [new subspecies] from the coasts of the Gulf of California, Baja California, and the Salton Sea. The typical subspecies has two disjunct populations: a northern population from Virginia northwards at least to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and a southern popu- lation in the Caribbean, the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico, and lower peninsular Florida. The principal habitat of C. bistriatus is stranded macrophytic algae. Distribution of this species appears to be determined by the distribution of such algae, for they form the basal material of the food chain in which Cafius adults and larvae exist as predators. Cafius rufifrons Bierig, whose type locality is Havana, Cuba, is restricted to part of Cuba and extreme southern Florida; adults differ in color and structure from those of C. bistriatus and are of smaller average size. Cafius rufifrons and C. bistriatus occur in the same habitats in extreme southern Florida and the reason for the very restricted distribution of C. rufifrons is not clear. Carius is a genus of halophilous beetles found on sea beaches. About 50 species have been described and some of them have been assigned to inade- quately delimited subgenera. Seven subgeneric names stand in the literature. One of the subgenera, Remus, has been treated by some authors (e.g., Coiffait, 1974) as a separate genus, but evidence for this separation will not be clear until a modern revision of all the species is completed. Koch (1936) published a partial revision of the world’s species. Black- welder (1943) revised the species of the West Indies, Coiffait (1974) those of Europe and northern Africa, and Orth and Moore (1980) those of the Pacific coast of North America. There has been no revision of the Cafius species of the Atlantic coast of North America, nor has there been any comprehensive con- sideration of distribution and ecology. Two closely related species—C. bistriatus (Erichson) and C. rufifrons Bierig—are sympatric in Cuba and southern Florida. The similar appearance of the adults has contributed to lack of understanding of their distributions. This paper presents the taxonomy and biogeography of these two species and considers the conditions of existence in their habitat. MATERIALS AND METHODS—A journey was made in August 1981 from northern New Jersey to Florida, with frequent stops at sea beaches to collect adult Cafius. The beetles were sieved from 'University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Journal Series no. 6452. No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 149 organic debris on the beaches and were found in and under such materials only when the materials contained macrophytic algae. Type specimens and other Cafius from the West Indies, North and South America, were exam- ined from the following collections: AMNH (American Museum of Natural History, New York), CNC (Canadian National Collection, Ottawa), FMNH (Field Museum of Natural History, Chi- cago), JHFC (J. H. Frank Collection), and ZMHU (Zoologisches Museum der Humboldt Universi- tat, Berlin). Sex and size of all specimens were recorded. Two measurements were made in ocular units of a stereoscopic microscope (where | unit=0.025 mm): maximal head width and maximal pronotal length. Multiplied together, these two measurements were used as an indicator of size for each specimen. Total length of specimens was not measured because of the probability of variable contraction in length after death. For each locality from which males were available, the aedeagus was dissected from at least one male. Using a stereoscopic dissecting microscope, the structure of the median lobe was noted and the distribution of peg setae (Hammond, 1972) on the paramere was recorded. Reddish color of the head was used as a diagnostic character of C. rufifrons by Orth and Moore (1980) and microsculpture of the head and pronotum was used similarly by Bierig (1934) and Blackwelder (1943), so special note was made of these characters. Specimens from all locali- ties were compared in an attempt to find discontinuous variation or geographical trends in other structures such as punctation, setation, and relative lengths of legs, antennae and mouthparts. Specimens were sputter-coated with gold-palladium and examined at high magnification under a Cambridge scanning electron microscope for resolution of details of microsculpture of the head and aedeagal structure. Key To Cafius or FLoripa, THE CARIBBEAN, AND GULF OF Mexico— With recognition of the presence of C. subtilis Cameron and C. caribeanus Bierig in southern Florida (Frank, 1985), the same four species are known to occur on the coasts of Florida as in the West Indies. Their adults may be distinguished as follows: 1. Head with deeply impressed median line anteriorly...................... C. caribeanus teed Whol tupressed menian line anteriorly . 2°... ......--.5--2. sae ee dae ese, 2 2. Pronotum, laterally to impunctate median longitudinal line, covered with + evenly spaced TULL UTES te A: OS ESR Se eae eee, eee A ee C. subtilis 2’. Pronotum with impunctate median longitudinal line bordered on each side with a longitudi- nal line of punctures separated narrowly from area of lateral punctures............... 3 3. Aedeagal apex straight in lateral view (Fig. 1d); head not darker than pronotum (but in pale specimens with dark band); microsculpture of head obsolescent (Fig. 3d)... .... C. rufifrons 3’. Aedeagal apex recurved in lateral view (Fig. 1b); head darker than pronotum; microsculpture EEE INE eg kk ek wk ek eB whee ds Bee wes C. bistriatus bistriatus Another species, C. aguayoi Bierig, was described from Massachusetts (Bierig, 1934) and is re- corded from Connecticut (Orth and Moore, 1980), but we have not studied it. Orth and Moore (1980) found specimens of C. subtilis and C. aguayoi very similar, and they are not differentiated in the key above. In other respects, the key will serve to identify Cafius adults from all parts of the Atlantic coast of North America. There are no records of Cafius from the Atlantic coast of South America. Cafius bistriatus (ERICHSON)—Partial synonymy is as follows: 1. Philonthus bistriatus Erich- son 1840: 502; Philonthus bistriatus Erichson, Schwarz 1878: 441; Cafius bistriatus (Erichson), Horn 1884: 237; Wickham 1895: 293; Koch 1936: 187; Blackwelder 1943: 438; Orth and Moore 1980: 195, 199; Frank 1985:61. 2. Philonthus bilineatus Erichson 1840: 503; Cafius bilineatus (Erichson), Koch 1936: 187 [as synonym of C. bistriatus]; Blackwelder 1943: 438; Orth and Moore 1980: 195, 199. Type specimens and type locality—The holotype female of C. bistriatus, in ZMHU, is labelled: /6152/Bistriatus Typus Er. p. 502 [red paper]/Long Isld. Zimmermann l.g. [green paper]/ = bili- neatus Er. sec. Fauvel/bistriatus Er. [green paper]/, with type locality Long Is., New York. Holo- type female of C. bilineatus, in ZMHU, labelled: /6155/bilineatus Typus Er. p. 503 [red paper]/ Antigua Moritz |.g. [green paper]/Philonthus bilineatus Er./ = bistriatus Er./, with type locality St. John’s, Antigua (not St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands as supposed by previous authors). Description of adult—Head black, body rufocastaneous; teneral specimens paler but head in all specimens examined darker than pronotum. Head quadrate, not enlarged behind eyes; basal angles moderately rounded; eyes separated from base by 1.3X their length; without median longi- 150 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 tudinal impression; surface covered with moderate umbilicate punctures except for hour-glass- shaped area formed (anteriorly) by frons and (posteriorly) by vertex; entire surface covered with granular (pebbled) microsculpture. Pronotum longer than broad, broadest at anterior angles, slightly sinuate laterally; posterior angles rounded; with impunctate median longitudinal line bor- dered on each side with a longitudinal row of punctures separated narrowly from area of lateral punctures; punctures umbilicate; microsculpture as on head but less pronounced. Elytra 0.25- 0.3X longer than broad; densely, finely punctate; punctures with short, outstanding pubescence. Winged. Abdomen punctate as elytra, but less densely. Tibiae setose and with stout spines; with ctenidium at interior side of apex; the spines of mesotibiae in distinct double row along external margin; anterior tarsi with articles I-IV expanded in both sexes. Apex of sternite VIII of male with rounded emargination wider than deep and bordered with translucent membrane. Length about 5- 7mm. Aedeagus with median lobe and paramere broad (Fig. la, b). Distal third of median lobe pitted with pores and apex recurved. Apex of paramere with spinous setae, and with side appressed against the median lobe broadly furrowed longitudinally and with two rows of peg setae (Fig. 2). Most specimens with peg setae totaling 6, 7, or 8, but some with 5. Peg setae arranged in combina- tions (number in each row) 2-3, 3-3, 3-4, 4-4 (Fig. 2), or 5-3. No evidence of N-S or E-W geographi- cal variation in number of peg setae. There was some evidence that peg setae varied with size of individual as suggested in some Neobisnius species (Frank, 1981). But, when size of 10 specimens with 6 peg setae each was compared with size of 7 others with 8 peg setae each (the 17 specimens from 14 localities), the difference was not significant (t= 1.62, P >0.05). la Fic. 1. Shape of aedeagus: la. C. bistriatus (dorsal view); 1b. C. bistriatus (lateral view, showing recurved apex); lc. C. rufifrons (dorsal view); 1d. C. rufifrons (lateral view, showing straight apex). Scale line =0.75 mm. Note: for ontogenetic reasons, the dorsal side is considered to be that which bears the paramere, though this side is rotated through 90° when at rest in the abdomen. No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 15] C. bistriatus bistriatus (ERICHSON), NEw Status—Vertex of head dull at low magnification; microsculpture appearing granular at 70X, polygonal at 1750X (Fig. 3). Female C. b. bistriatus examined (n= 298, mean= 1473 + 189 SD) significantly larger than males (n=281, mean = 1322 + 179 SD, t=9.88, P < <0.001). No apparent N-S or E-W size trend (Fig. 4). Largest male from Maine, smallest from Virginia. Largest and smallest females from Florida. “t <7@ Va (ZB iS G. \ eae oN Fic. 2. Apex of aedeagal paramere of C. bistriatus highly magnified, showing peg setae in a broad longitudinal furrow of the surface facing the median lobe. Four pairs are shown, but the number shows intraspecific variation. All specimens of C. rufifrons examined had three pairs of peg setae. Specimens examined— Atlantic coast localities from Quebec south to Virginia are lettered (a-q) to identify them in Fig. 4. CANADA, QUEBEC, Gaspe-Ouest Co., 4 mi. S. of Riviere-a-~Claude, 18- VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (3: CNC, a), Gaspe-Est Co., Ste. Adelaide, 0.5 mi. W. of Sandy Beach Station, 21-VIII-1953, E. L. Bousfield (1: CNC, b); NEW BRUNSWICK, Restigouche Co., River Charlo, 24-VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (1: CNC, c); NOVA SCOTIA, Cape Breton Co., Big Bras d’Or, 25-VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (40: CNC, d), Point Anconi, 13-VIII-1972, J. M. and B. A. Campbell (103: CNC, e); NEW BRUNSWICK, Charlotte Co., Passamaquoddy Bay, Pottery Beach, 29-VII-1976, M. J. Dadswell (2: CNC, f); U.S.A., MAINE, Cumberland Co., Portland, 23-VII- 1966, E. J. Kiteley (1: CNC, g); MASSACHUSETTS, Barnstable Co., Cape Cod, 3-VII-1975, E. J. Kiteley (2: CNC, h), Plymouth Co., Marion, ? date, F. C. Bowditch (1: ZMHU, i); NEW YORK, Long Is., ? date, C. C. A. Zimmermann (1: ZMHU, j), Staten Is., 11-IV-1911, C. L. Pollard (1: CNC, k); NEW JERSEY, Monmouth Co., Sandy Hook, 11-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (27: JHFC, 1), Ocean Co., Surf City, 11-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (8: JHFC, m), Cape May Co., Cape May, 12-VIII- 1981, J. H. Frank (29: JHFC, n); MARYLAND, Worcester Co., Ocean City, 12-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (3: JHFC, o); VIRGINIA, ? loc. date and collector (1: FMNH, p), Northampton Co., Smith Beach nr. Eastville, 13-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (22: JHFC, q). Localities in the Caribbean, Florida and Gulf of Mexico follow east-west and are lettered (a-s) to identify them in Fig. 4. ANTIGUA, St. John’s, ? date, J. W. K. Moritz (1: ZMHU, a); U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS, ST. THOMAS, ? date, L. W. Schaufuss (1: ZMHU, b), O. Staudinger (1: FMNH, b); VENEZUELA, FALCON, Chichiriviche, 15-VIII-1983, J. H. Frank (3: JHFC, c); JAMAICA, ST. THOMAS PARISH, Prospect, 19-V-1971 and 16-XII-1971 (3: JHFC, d); CLAREN- DON PARISH, Jackson’s Bay, 29-IX-1969 and 12-XII-1971, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, e); U.S.A., 152 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Fic. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of microsculpture of the vertex of the head: 3a. C. b. bistriatus X 70 (vertex of head appears granular), 3b. C. b. bistriatus X 1750 (vertex of head with polygonal microsculpture), 3c. C. rufifrons X 80 (vertex of head appears smooth), 3d. C. rufifrons X 1750 (microsculpture of vertex is obsolescent). Scale line: 3a, 3c =0.5 mm; 3b, 3d=0.01 mm. No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL. — BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 153 FLORIDA, Indian River Co., Vero Beach, 19-VIII-1978, J. H. Frank (8: JHFC, f), St. Lucie Co., 4 mi. N. of Fort Pierce, 8-I-1973, J. H. Frank (33: JHFC, g), Martin Co., E. shore of Indian River nr. House of Refuge, 30-III-1975, J. H. Frank (12: JHFC, h), Dade Co., Cape Florida, 18-IV-1983, J. H. Frank (33: JHFC, i), Monroe Co., Matecumbe Key, Caloosa Bay, 7-I-1973, J. H. Frank (5: JHFC, j), Little Duck Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (108: JHFC, k), Summerland Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (1: JHFC, 1), Dry Tortugas, Garden Key, 7-13-VI-1895, H. F. Wickham (1: AMNH, m), Dry Tortugas, Loggerhead Key, 30-VI-1983, S. R. Sims (49: JHFC, m), Lee Co., S. end of Cape Coral Bridge, 14-IV-1975, J. H. Frank (24: JHFC, n), Manatee Co., Palmetto, 19-II-1975, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, o), Taylor Co., Keaton Beach, 20-I-1980, M. C. Thomas (1: JHFC, p); MEXICO, QUIN- TANA ROO, 70 km N. of Tulum, Punta Bete, 28-VII-1982, J. H. Frank (18: JHFC, gq); CAM- PECHE, near Sebaplaya, 23-IV-1966, G. E. Ball and D. R. Whitehead (17: JHFC, r); U.S.A., TEXAS, Kleberg Co., Padre Island National Seashore, 19-VII-1966, J. and W. Ivie, and 20-VI- 1975, R. Ortiz (8: AMNH, s). Specimens reported by Blackwelder (1943) from the Bahamas and most of the larger West Indian islands from Cuba to Trinidad were not re-examined. They are housed in the collections of the U.S. National Museum of Natural History. Additional records from Florida are: Volusia and St. Lucie Cos. (Schwarz, 1878), Palm Beach Co. (Hamilton, 1894), Dry Tortugas (Wickham, 1895a), and Key West (Frank, 1985). Records from the Bahamas and Newfoundland were given by Wickham (1895b) and Smetana (1965) respectively. Comments—Although the distribution of C. b. bistriatus appears to be disjunct (Fig. 5), no consistent morphological differences were found between northern and southern examples. C. bistriatus fulgens FRANK, NEw Supspecies— Vertex of head glossy at low magnification; microsculpture obsolescently granular at magnification of 70X. The epithet fulgens was selected because of the glossy vertex of the head. Female C. b. fulgens (n=7) examined were slightly but not significantly (t= 2.32, P=0.06) smaller than females of C. b. bistriatus (n= 298). Male C. b. fulgens (n=7) were very similar (t = 0.33, P=0.76) in size to male C. b. bistriatus (n= 281). Specimens examined—Collection localities are lettered (a-b) to identify them in Fig. 4. U.S.A., CALIFORNIA, Imperial Co., Red Hill Marina, 28/29-VI-1978, C. v. Nidek (4: CNC, a); MEXICO, BAJA CALIFORNIA SUR, Mulege, 3-X-1966, J. Klink (10: CNC, b). Specimens reported from U.S.A. (California) and Mexico (Baja California Norte, Baja Califor- nia Sur, and Sonora) by Orth and Moore (1980) were not re-examined. They are housed in the collections of the University of California at Riverside. Comments—The specimens from Mulege, Baja California Sur (7 females, 7 males) are desig- nated the type series, and the largest male is designated holotype. The known distribution is shown in Fig. 5 and includes an inland saline lake (the Salton Sea). Cafius rufifrons Breric—The synonymy is as follows: Cafius rufifrons Bierig 1934: 68; Cafius rufifrons Bierig, Koch 1936: 187; Blackwelder 1943: 438 [as synonym of Cafius bistriatus (Erich- son)]; Orth and Moore 1980: 198 [removed from synonymy]. Type specimens and type locality—The type series of C. rufifrons, in FMNH, consists of one specimen labelled: /Playa Marianao 8.IX.1929 Cuba/Taster dunkel/Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 1966. A. Bierig Colln. Acc. Z-13812/ (male, dissected by a previous investigator, and the aedeagus in a genitalia vial); one specimen with two labels as above (male, lacking the label “Taster dunkel’); and three specimens labelled: /Playa Marianao 2.XI.29 Habana Cuba/Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 1966. A. Bierig Colln. Acc. Z-13812/ (two males and one female, the larger of the two males dissected, and aedeagus mounted on the specimen card). It is not clear whether other specimens exist and whether one of them may have been designated holotype. The type locality is Playa Marianao, Havana Province, Cuba. Description—Very similar to C. bistriatus except in the following respects. Head not darker than pronotum: in most specimens head, thorax and abdomen rufous; in one specimen head, thorax and abdomen unicolorously piceous. Rufous specimens have a more or less obvious infus- cate transverse band across the vertex, producing a color pattern similar to that of Neobisnius parcepunctatus Bernhauer (see Frank, 1981). Vertex of head glossy at low magnification, with microsculpture appearing obsolescently granular at magnification of 80X, obsolescently polygo- nal at magnification of 1750X (Fig. 3). Microsculpture of pronotum more strigulose and less granular than in C. bistriatus. Aedeagus with median lobe and paramere relatively narrow (Fig. lc, d). Distal third of median lobe pitted with pores, and apex straight. Apex of paramere with spinous setae, and with side appressed against median lobe broadly furrowed longitudinally and with two parallel rows of peg setae as in C. bistriatus (Fig. 2), but with 6 peg setae in all specimens examined (3 in each row). Female C. rufifrons examined (n=5, mean=1278+117 SD) were significantly larger than males (n= 16, mean= 1054+ 90 SD, t=3.92, P=0.011), and significantly smaller than female C. FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 154 ‘SGOH.LAW ANY STVIHALLYW 29S JuowWoiInseow ozIs Jo UOlVeUR|dxo 10,4 ‘suoLfifns *D pu snzD119481q *q ‘FD AO] (So|eUe} 10] soul] [PJUOZIIOY USYO1) SoyBU 10] SUBIUT [[P1BAO MOYS SOUT] [BJUOZLIOY SNONUTUOT ‘GS MOYS Sieg [BOIVIVA puR ‘AjI[BOO] VUO WO] (SO[BUL JO 9ZIS UAL SoyBOIpUT JOP B) So[BWaJ JO 9ZIS URBU SayeOIpPUT apoI10 YOR ‘(}XO} 9S) SOLIPBIO] UOID9][OO 9}eOIPUI SIxe-x BUOTe S19}jo'] ‘PpourUTexo sy[Npe snyfMD Ul UOBLIPA 9ZIS “pf “OI SNOdSIANG SALVIYLSIE re ee ee a re a vanod Sidi LSAM OL 1LSV35 HiINOS OL HLHYON /VdIyO1d -OVd 4ATNDS 8 NVASEHVO LSVOO OILLNVILV joapoqe qe sibdouw;y!!ybyapoqe bDdouw;s;yfiybyapoge i? oa a gl a ak lie tanec ws eadla lg )-slenle Vo wld = cle hoe al faa hile oda alia ts ln wileelae lesa cle al HoH | t-@7 Ld 2) T= as : ' T 5 ° eo : ap | | 0 RB iss ! Sel ee o. | i zi ae eee ; | | | | O a A ® m 1 Tt tai it 7 a | 0 O | bie HE +) ae vole te a a vi Z 1 ae eset ae oe ; mln mn! alle leit! = 2 = era ves es a Sees eaters Shel se Sie mie ele = ie hag a oe en aa ies a o) (oes Eee i | ae aye | els JL + | ak ! O L | O ai oO AL ! 1 nm Si nevsacneca’ ecces : agus iN es Fy Meee) ee Os eae No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 155 b. bistriatus females (n=298, t=3.63, P=0.022). Male C. rufifrons (n=16) were significantly smaller than male C. b. bistriatus (n= 281, t= 10.72, P < <0.001). On average and when individ- uals of the same sex were compared, adult C. rufifrons were smaller than adult C. b. bistriatus Fig. 4), even when only sympatric C. b. bistriatus were used in comparison. Specimens examined—Collection localities are lettered (a-f) to identify them in Fig. 4. U.S.A., FLORIDA, Dade Co., Miami, VI/VIII-1936, A. Bierig (5: FMNH, a), Monroe Co., Key Largo, 14- V-1977, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, b), Matecumbe Key, Caloosa Bay, 7-I-1973, J. H. Frank (3: JHFC, c), Little Duck Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (4: JHFC, d), Summerland Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, e); CUBA, HAVANA PROVINCE, Havana, Playa Marianao, IX/XI-1929, A. Bierig (5: FMNH, 6). Comments— Apparently restricted to NW Cuba and extreme SE Florida (Fig. 5), and there sympatric with C. b. bistriatus. Adults share with those of C. b. fulgens the distinctively glossy vertex of the head. HaBITAT AND CoMMUNITY—The sorts of plant litter found stranded on ocean shores are discussed by Perkins (1974). Among the litter of marine and estuarine origin are seaweeds (wrack, kelp, and other macrophytic algae), sea- grasses (Zostera and other genera, Zosteraceae), and cord-grasses or marsh- grasses (Spartina, Gramineae). Such materials are absent, or occur sparsely or in drifted piles with seasonal, local, regional, and latitudinal variation. They are less frequent on tropical than on temperate shores (Perkins, 1974). They may be found dry and above the high tide mark, in deep and wetly decompos- ing piles at or above the high tide mark, at or close to the high tide mark and kept moist by tides and sea spray, or in the intertidal zone where they are @ Salton Sea Fic. 5. Map showing known distribution of C. bistriatus bistriatus (areas with oblique shad- ing), C. bistriatus fulgens (areas with coarse stippling) and C. rufifrons (area with fine stippling). 156 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 subject to movement by each tide. Rates of decomposition vary: algae break down rapidly, Spartina slowly, and Zosteraceae very slowly (Perkins, 1974; Josselyn and Mathieson, 1980). Associated with wet, decomposing algae are bacteria and Actinomycetes (Frankland, 1974), annelids, amphipods, mites and Collembola (Backlund, 1945), Diptera of several families but especially Anthomyiidae and Coelopidae whose numbers sometimes reach epidemic proportions (Backlund, 1945, Oldroyd, 1964; Dobson, 1976), and Coleoptera of several families but espe- cially Hydrophilidae and Staphylinidae (Backlund, 1945; Doyen, 1976; Moore and Legner, 1976). Predominant among the Staphylinidae are members of the genus Cafius, whose adults and larvae are predatory upon dipterous maggots, amphipods, and other members of the seaweed community (Egglishaw, 1965, Evans, 1980). It has been conjectured that their feeding limits populations of seaweed flies so that Cafius might conceivably be employed as biological con- trol agents to prevent fly epidemics (Orth et al., 1978). Evans (1980) reported that Pacific coast C. seminitens Horn scavenges occasionally on dead fish, and C. bistriatus has also been found in fish carrion (Orth and Moore, 1980) and in gull carrion (the specimen from Portland, Maine, examined); it may have been dipterous larvae in the carrion which provided food. Drifts of the brown algae Fucus and Laminaria have a rich and varied fauna, but red algae are poisonous to most wrack animals, green algae form only small and unimportant drifts, and the fauna of drifted Zosteraceae is sparse (Remmert, 1965). Spartina, like Zosteraceae, has a sparse fauna (J. H. Frank observations), and this may be a consequence of resistance of these grasses to decomposition (Perkins, 1974). In 1981, Cafius was not found in drifted Spartina and was found only on one occasion in drifted Zosteraceae, when the Zosteraceae piles contained a scanty admixture of green algae. In contrast, drifted piles of decaying brown algae seldom lacked Cafius adults and larvae. Even thinly scattered, recently deposited strands of algae partially buried in sand by wave action were found on occasion to harbor Cafius adults. As a consequence of this association with algae, the apparent distribution and abundance of the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico Cafius are closely linked to the occurrence of drifted seaweed. The Cafius/seaweed habitat association appears analogous to that between predatory staphylinids normally inhabiting dung or bark and their respective habitats (e.g., Valiela, 1974), and suggests the possibility of chemical attrac- tion to the insects to the habitat. Populations of seaweed flies and Cafius are harbored by drifted piles of Fucus and Laminaria which have a pungent and distinctive seaweed odor. Piles of the alga Sargassum fluitans Borgessen found abundantly in Gulf, Bay, and Walton Cos. of western Florida in September 1983 lacked a seaweed odor and lacked seaweed flies and Cafius (J. H. Frank observations). However, it may be that Cafius adults occasionally take refuge in other materials when suitable algae are not available. In this context, Evans (1980) recorded the Pacific coast C. seminitens and C. luteipennis Horn as inhabitants of drifted seaweed, yet the latter was on one occasion found nu- No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 157 merously under lumber stranded on a British Columbia beach (J. H. Frank observation). Finally, the habitat of most Cafius species is inadequately re- ported, so it may not yet be inferred that algae provide the principal habitat for all of them. ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT—An important attribute for seashore in- sects is the ability to avoid drowning. It was shown by Backlund (1944) that adults of the European C. xantholoma (Gravenhorst) are extraordinarily resis- tant to wetting. Adults shaken during 58 seconds each minute for an hour in a bottle partially filled with water were able to surface whenever shaking stopped. While shaking continued, the body was curved into an S-shape, trap- ping two bubbles of air providing buoyancy and probably oxygen. Adults of C. bistriatus behave similarly (J. R. Rey observation). Backlund (1944) also recorded the ability of C. xantholoma adults take to flight from the water surface. Detection and colonization of piles of seaweed requires special abilities and poses risks. The ability to fly permits encounter with seaweed piles. Adults of both C. bistriatus and C. rufifrons are winged. On the Pacific seashore, mass flights of beetles including C. luteipennis have been observed and generally are in a direction parallel to the shore (Leech and Moore, 1971; Evans, 1980). Such flights presumably allow dispersal but pose risks, analogous to those facing insular insects, in that the insects may be blown off course by wind, to areas where seaweed is not present, or to sparse accumulations of seaweed high on the beach and liable to desiccation. Is the risk of leaving a deep pile of decomposing seaweed worthwhile, as- suming that such a pile is the site in which the insects developed and in which more individuals could develop? In other insects, brachyptery is believed to have arisen as a response to lack of advantage in leaving a favorable habitat (McCoy and Rey, 1981). Visible flights surely are evidence that populations have increased to high levels in favorable habitats, so that the individuals dispersing may be expended against the possibility of discovery of unoccupied habitat. Dispersal may relieve population pressure, if such occurs, in densely occupied piles of seaweed as well as spread the risk of calamitous events. Further, it may be that piles of seaweed which have been occupied for consid- erable time are loaded with spores of Laboulbenia cafii Thaxter (Fungi, Asco- mycetes), the only parasite recorded for Cafius (Frank, 1982), so that dispersal reduces the risk of parasitism. In those areas where seaweed piles are of tempo- rary occurrence, migration is necessary as it is for occupants of other tempo- rary habitats (Southwood, 1962). The habitat of Cafius may be considered as a mosaic of piles of stranded seaweed, some existing almost permanently due to continued strandings at a single locality, and others transient. To take maximal advantage of transient piles, the ability of immature stages to develop rapidly would be advanta- geous, as would multivoltinism. If larvae develop rapidly as in almost all other Staphylinidae, observations of occurrence of C. xantholoma larvae through- out the year by Backlund (1945) and Egglishaw (1965) suggest that multivoltinism does occur. 158 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The larva described by Moore (1975) as that of C. sulcicollis, but which was stated by Orth and Moore (1980) to belong to C. bistriatus, probably is of C. b. fulgens. BIOGEOGRAPHIC CoNCLusIoNs— Three capes (Fig. 5) on the Atlantic coast of North America mark boundaries of biotic provinces (Stephenson and Stephen- son, 1954). A warm-temperate (Carolinian) province extends from Cape Canaveral (Florida) to Cape Hatteras (North Carolina). North of Cape Cod (Massachusetts) is a cold water (Acadian) province, whereas the area between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras is a zone of overlap between the Acadian and Carolinian provinces. The capes mark boundaries of distributions of algae, molluscs, and other invertebrates (Pielou, 1979). A result of latitudinal shifts in boundaries during geological time is that the littoral biota of the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico closely resembles that in the same latitude in the Atlantic, though separated by the tip of peninsular Florida which now has a tropical biota (Stephenson and Stephenson, 1950; Pielou, 1979). Strandings of plant litter on shores depend in part upon the supply and in part upon ocean currents, with litter accumulating on shores where tidal tur- bulence is reduced (Perkins, 1974). In the Great Bay estuary of New Hamp- shire and Maine, stranded seaweed occurs throughout the year (Josselyn and Mathieson, 1980). In the Florida Keys, stranded seaweed has been encoun- tered at each of four visits (January 1973, May 1974, May 1977, May 1984) whereas northward to Cape Canaveral seaweed has been found after storms but is often absent from long stretches of beach (J. H. Frank observation). In August 1981, stranded seaweed was found quite abundantly on New Jersey shores, but was progressively sparser through Maryland and Virginia with increasing admixture of sea-grasses, and the sea-grasses in turn became re- placed on the coasts of North and South Carolina and Georgia by cordgrass without any seaweed (J. H. Frank observation). The presence of Cafius on the coast from New Jersey to Florida was found to match the distribution of drifted seaweed. Published information on the occurrence of drifted seaweed in the Carolin- ian province seems to be lacking except for a short paper by Blomquist and Pyron (1943) who recorded the sudden appearance of seaweed on beaches in the vicinity of Beaufort, South Carolina, after a hurricane in August 1943. Published information on drifted seaweed on the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico seems lacking, and no C. bistriatus specimens have been available from that area: the closest collections were from the eastern (Taylor Co., Flor- ida) and western (Padre Island, Texas) shores. Of the 17 collections of C. bistriatus made in the West Indies by Blackwelder (1943) 16 were reported as ‘‘under seaweed” and one as “‘under rubbish.” Present evidence suggests that a barrier to the northward dispersal of C. bistriatus may begin approximately in the vicinity of Cape Canaveral as a consequence of the apparent rarity of drifted seaweed in the Carolinian prov- ince. Ocean currents off Cape Canaveral (Pielou, 1979) would tend to carry seaweed which had drifted up from the south out to sea. Likewise, ocean cur- rents off Cape Hatteras (Pielou, 1979) would tend to carry seaweed which had No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 159 drifted down from the north out to sea. If these two capes are barriers to the stranding of seaweed and to the dispersal of C. bistriatus, then opportunities for gene flow between northern populations (Virginia and northward) and southern populations (southern Florida, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico) must be limited. Yet, there is no evidence of morphological differentiation between these populations. In contrast, specimens of C. b. fulgens from the Pacific coast are differenti- ated in structure from C. b. bistriatus. Here, barriers to gene flow must be even greater. The Atlantic marine fauna is younger than that of the Pacific (Pielou, 1979), and more Cafius species are known from the Pacific than At- lantic coasts of the Americas. It may be that populations ancestral to C. b. bistriatus and C. b. fulgens inhabited the Pacific coast, that some individual(s) migrated to the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean giving rise to C. b. bistriatus, while nonmigrating individuals gave rise to C. b. fulgens (Fig. 6). A vicariance hypothesis also is plausible. C. rufifrons is known only from Cuba and extreme southern Florida. Its populations are small and do not extend northward to Cape Canaveral, so it evidently is more restricted in habitat than is C. b. bistriatus. Its range, at least in Florida, is likely to be restricted further with growth of the human population accompanied by physical alteration of the coastline and use of beach-sweeping machines to provide sand of pristine appearance. Beach- Fic. 6. Suggested evolutionary pathway of C. rufifrons (R), C. bistriatus fulgens (BF), and C. bistriatus bistriatus (BB1—north Atlantic populations, BB2—Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Flor- ida populations): 1. The common ancestor of C. rufifrons and C. bistriatus existed on the Pacific coast; 2. Individual(s) migrated to the Caribbean, and differentiated in isolation, giving rise to C. rufifrons; 3. The common ancestor of the two subspecies of C. bistriatus existed on the Pacific coast; 4. Individual(s) migrated to the Caribbean and differentiated in isolation, giving rise to C. b. bistriatus; 5. Populations remaining on the Pacific coast gave rise to C. b. fulgens; 6. Individual(s) of C. b. bistriatus migrated to the north Atlantic but have not yet differentiated in structure; 7. Populations remaining in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Florida have not yet differentiated in structure. 160 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 sweeping machines are recognized to threaten eggs of marine turtles (Bloch, 1983) but effects on invertebrates have been ignored. Populations of C. rufi- frons may represent descendants of an immigrant from the Pacific yet older than the ancestor of C. b. bistriatus, having evolved in longer isolation in the Caribbean. Occurrence of C. rufifrons together with C. b. bistriatus in southern Flor- ida and Cuba provides an opportunity for comparisons of phenology and be- havior in a single locality. Such studies would be even more worthwhile if they can elucidate the reason for the very limited distribution of C. rufifrons. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We are indebted to Manfred Uhlig (ZMHU, Berlin) for lending type spec- imens of C. bistriatus and C. bilineatus, to Larry Watrous (FMNH, Chicago) for lending type specimens of C. rufifrons, and to Milton Campbell (CNC, Ottawa) and Lee Herman (AMNH, New York) for lending series of specimens of C. bistriatus. Dennis Hanisak (Fort Pierce) identified samples of Sargassum fluitans, and S. R. Sims (Homestead) and M. C. Thomas (Gainesville) gave specimens of C. bistriatus. Manuscript reviews were kindly made by Alés Smetana (Ottawa), Milton Campbell, and Lee Herman. National Science Foundation grant NSF-INT-8212581 to J. H. Frank for an unrelated project made possible the collection of C. b. bistriatus specimens in Vene- zuela. REFERENCES CITED BACKLUND, H. O. 1944. The ability of the shore beetle Cafius xantholoma Grav. to evade sea drift. Kungl. Fysiograf. Sallskapets Lund Forhandl. 14:179-185. . 1945. Wrack fauna of Sweden and Finland; ecology and chorology. Opusc. Ent. Suppl. 5:1-237, pl. 1-6. Breric, A. 1934. Neues aus der Staphyliniden-Gattung Cafius (Col.) nebst Beschreibung neuer Arten aus Kuba und Nordamerika. Revta Ent., Rio de J. 4:65-70. BLACKWELDER, R. E. 1943. Monograph of the West Indian beetles of the family Staphylinidae. U.S. Natn. Mus. Bull. 182:i-vii, 1-658. Biocn, J. 1983. Alliance hopes best-laid plans will save turtle eggs. Miami Herald, 7 January 1983, p. lb. Biomguist, H. L., AND J. H. Pyron. 1943. Drifting ‘seaweed’ at Beaufort, North Carolina. Amer. J. Bot. 30:28-32. Corrrait, H. 1974. Coléoptéres Staphylinidae de la région paléarctique occidentale. II. Sous famille Staphylininae, tribus Philonthini et Staphylinini. Nouv. Rev. Ent. 4 (suppl.): 1-593. Dosson, T. 1976. Seaweed flies (Diptera: Coelopidae, etc.). Pp. 447-463. In: CueEnce, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York. Doyen, J. T. 1976. Marine beetles (Coleoptera, excluding Staphylinidae). Pp. 497-519. In: CHENG, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York. Ecc.LisHAW, H. J. 1965. Observations on the fauna of wrack beds. Trans. Soc. Brit. Ent. 16:189- Z16. Evans, W. G. 1980. Insecta, Chilopoda, and Arachnida: insects and allies. Pp. 641-658. In: Morais, R. H., D. P. ABBotr, AND E. C. HApDERLIE (eds.), Intertidal Invertebrates of Cali- fornia. Stanford Univ. Press, Palo Alto, Calif. FRANK, J. H. 1981. A revision of the New World species of the genus Neobisnius (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Staphylininae). Occas. Papers Florida State Colln. Arthropods 1:i-vii, 1-60. . 1982. The parasites of the Staphylinidae (Coleoptera). A contribution towards an encyclopedia of the Staphylinidae. Univ. Florida, Agr. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 824:1-vii, 1- 118. . 1985. Cafius caribeanus and C. subtilis in Florida and Venezuela (Coleoptera: Staphy- linidae). Ent. News 96:6 1-62. FRANKLAND, J. C. 1974. Decomposition of lower plants. Pp. 3-36. In: Dickinson, C. H., AND G. J. F. Pucu (eds.), Biology of Plant Litter Decomposition. Academic Press, London, vol. 1. HaMILTON, J. 1894. Coleoptera taken at Lake Worth, Florida. Can. Ent. 26:250-256. HAMMoNpD, P. M. 1972. The micro-structure, distribution and possible function of peg-like setae in male Coleoptera. Ent. Scand. 3:40-54. No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 161 Horn, G. H. 1884. Synopsis of the Philonthi of boreal America. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 11:177- 244. JossELYN, M. N., AND A. C. Martuieson. 1980. Seasonal influx and decomposition of autochtho- nous macrophyte litter in a north temperate estuary. Hydrobiologia 71:197-208. Kocu, C. 1936. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der entomologischen Expeditionen Seiner Durch- laucht des Fiirsten Alessandro C. della Torre e Tasso nach Aegypten und auf die Halbinsel Sinai. XIII. Staphylinidae. Pubbl. Mus. Ent. Pietro Rossi, Duino 1:1 15-232. Leecn, H. B., anp I. Moore. 1971. Nearctic records of flights of Cafius and some related beetles at the seashore (Col., Staphylinidae and Hydrophilidae). Wasmann J. Biol. 29:65-70. McCoy, E. D., ANp J. R. Rey. 1981. Patterns of abundance, distribution, and alary polymor- phism among the salt marsh Delphacidae (Homoptera: Fulgoroidea) of northwest Florida. Ecol. Ent. 6:285-291. Moore, I. 1975. The larva of Cafius sulcicollis LeConte (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Pan-Pacific Ent. 51:140-142. , AND E. F. Lecner. 1976. Intertidal rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Pp. 521- 552. In: CuEenc, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York. O.proyp, H. 1964. The Natural History of Flies. Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London. Ortu, R. E., ANDI. Moore. 1980. A revision of the species of Cafius Curtis from the west coast of North America with notes of the east coast species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 19:181-211. , AND T. W. FisHer. 1978. Year-round survey of Staphylinidae of a sandy beach in southern California (Coleoptera). Wasmann J. Biol. 35:169-195. Perkins, E. J. 1974. The marine environment. Pp. 683-721. In: Dickinson, C. H., ann G. J. F. Pucu (eds.), Biology of Plant Litter Decomposition. Academic Press, London, vol. 2. PreLou, E. C. 1979. Biogeography. Wiley-Interscience, New York. RemMenrtT, H. 1965. Distribution and the ecological factors controlling distribution of the Euro- pean wrack fauna. Acta Bot. Gothoburgensia 3:179-184. ScHwarz, E. A. 1878. The Coleoptera of Florida. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 17:353-472. Smetana, A. 1965. Staphylinini und Quediini (Col., Staphylinidae) von Newfoundland, Siidost- Labrador und Nova Scotia. Acta Ent. Fennica 20:1-60. SoutHwoop, T. R. E. 1962. Migration—an evolutionary necessity for denizens of temporary habitats. Proc. 11th Int. Congr. Ent. (Vienna, 1960) 3:54-57. STEPHENSON, T. A., AND A. STEPHENSON. 1950. Life between tide marks in North America. I. The Florida Keys. J. Ecol. 38:354-402. . 1954. Life between tide marks in North America. IIIB. Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island: the geographical features of the region. J. Ecol. 42:46-70. VALIELA, I. 1974. Composition, food webs and population limitation in dung arthropod com- munities during invasion and succession. Amer. Midland Nat. 92:370-385. WickHaM, H. F. 1895a. A note on the insects of the Tortugas. Ent. News 6:210-212. . 1895b. Notes on a trip to the Bahama Islands. Can. Ent. 291-296. Florida Sci. 49(3):148-161. 1986. Accepted: August 28, 1985. Medical Sciences FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW NICHOLAS G. ALEXIOU Department of Comprehensive Medicine, College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Box 41, 12901 North 30th Street, Tampa, Florida 33612 Asstract: Florida’s Right To Know Law is a landmark piece of 1985 legislation for its poten- tial for prevention of accidents and illness that may be work related. For some scientists the law will be an imposition on a free investigative spirit. For others, the law will merely reassure the worker that he/she is practicing good health and laboratory safety for himself and those for whom he/she is responsible. The best way to determine the steps needed to be compliant, is to review the law itself at least once and then have a copy available for periodic referral purposes. The law intent is to protect the health and safety of the worker through informed consent. Workplace exposures to toxic and hazardous substance may cause disease or aggravate existing disease, and should be taken seriously. THE FLoripA Legislature recognized (Florida Statutes, 1985) that the work environment is potentially hazardous to a wide variety of occupations and professions by reason of exposure to hundreds of toxic and hazardous sub- stances. The enactment of the law and the publication of the toxic substances list assures the worker and the employer that the likelihood of acute or chronic exposure will be minimized and the risk to workers from inhalation, absorp- tion, ingestion, or from explosions, dangerous interactions of chemicals, fire, and combustion, will be reduced. The law gives greater specificity to the gen- eral mandate found in the Federal Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (Federal Statutes, 1970), which required that employers provide a safe and healthy workplace environment. The law intended that each exposed worker be given sufficient information about his or her exposure to enable them to decide on the advisability of ac- cepting employment and continuation of employment and its inherent risks. Workers, the law stated, had a “‘Right to Know” and to decide on the personal costs involved in a particular workplace. Further, the law stated the workplace could serve as an early warning function for the effects of release of the toxic substances inthe environment. | THE LAW AND THE FLorIDA SCIENTIST— Science and scientists explore the unknown and as such, scientists are particularly exposed to potential risks. The best protection against accidents and toxic substance absorption is knowledge, as imprecise as it may be. It is true that a particular scientist may be knowI- edgeable in one area and layman in another. All scientists however, assume the risks of their workplace substances and toxic chemicals, whether bottled on the workbench shelf, arising from their procedures, stored in the supply cabinet in bulk quantity for later use, and even in the methods of disposal. According to the law, the employer has the responsibility to notify all workers. If the scien- tist is an employee, his employer and/or supervisor is responsible for seeing to No. 3, 1986] ALEXIOU—FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW 163 it that the scientist is provided the pertinent information needed to insure respect for the toxicity or hazardous nature of the materials that are found in the work environment. The scientist may be the employer or supervisor, in which case, that respon- sibility becomes his/hers, for those workers, collaborators, or assistants in the laboratories as well as those individuals, usually unseen, who clean and pre- pare the laboratories for the next days work. The person who collects and disposes the waste of the day must also be informed and protected. The person who receives the waste is not usually thought of as falling under the responsi- bility of the laboratory scientists, but even that person needs to be informed by someone. STEPS TO COMPLIANCE— The first mandate of the law, now in effect, is for the employer to post a notice in a conspicuous place where notices are usually placed, notifying the employers of their right to know. Posters are available for each workplace from the Department of Labor and Employment Security, the agency charged with the protection of workers in Florida. The second step is to develop an inventory of toxic chemicals and sub- stances purchased, used, and/or stored in the workplace. A quick check of the list derived can identify which of the substances is included in the Florida Toxic Substances List—also available from the Department of Labor and Em- ployment Security. An important detail here is the definition of mixture. If the concentration of the substance meets the law requirement in a 1% or greater concentration, the law applies as to the duty of the employer. Having identified the existence of the substance in the workplace, those workers most likely to encounter the substance must be informed of their possi- ble exposure. The recommended method of notification is to draw on the infor- mation contained on the Material Safety Data Sheets that have been developed and must be supplied by the producer or distributor of the substance. The accuracy, content, and completeness of the information on those Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) varies and may have no meaning to those with no background or poor education. Here the law is specific. The necessary infor- mation must be given, in terms the employee can understand. It does not suffice to wave an MSDS sheet in front of the employee saying, “‘if you want to know, here it is’. Indeed, a review of the law readily shows that the employer is supposed to satisfy himself that the worker does know and signs that he has been informed. To believe otherwise is to work with a false security that an injured employee will not accuse the employer at some later date that he was uninformed. Better to be safe and do what is necessary in education and rec- ords maintenance to insure ones ability to dispose of false claims of neglect as an employer. Finally, the employer must inform the Community Emergency Services personnel of the type, amount, and location of toxic substances in case of emergency so that if needed, those responding will be prepared for an appro- priate response in the correct location with the protective clothing, air supply, and neutralizing chemicals needed to detoxify in case of spills or for fire con- trol. 164 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 After that, there is the responsibility for continuing education, proper su- pervisory vigilance, and periodic review of new substances coming into use, training in safety procedures, in response to emergencies and spills, and in maintenance of records. The usual cautions against smoking and eating in the laboratories needs periodic reminding. Hoods, face masks, ventilation systems, and laundry are part of any laboratory environmental maintenance program, and should be properly managed. It makes good sense to designate a coordina- tor of the entire health and safety program for a laboratory if possible, so that one person can be expected to supervise the entire operation and ensure com- pliance with this and other laws affecting the scientist in his workplace. “Obtain a copy of the original paper”’ that is, the law, known as Florida Right-To-Know Law, Chapter 442 Florida Statutes, January 1985. Personal familiarity with the law or availability for reference purposes will save time and help settle disputes. Other important implications of the law include the following: (a) The possibility that the Florida Law might be superseded by a single Federal state applying to all states for purposes of uniformity. That possibility was a consideration given thought by the framers of the legislation. The Fed- eral legislation now pending, and being contested, is known as Hazard Com- munication; Final Rule, Published in the Federal Register (OSHA, 1983), and due to go into effect in steps on November 25, 1985, and May 25, 1986. The news media will carry the outcome of the court proceedings and whether or not the Florida Law will be superseded. Realizing this, however, the state legislature included a very broad spectrum of workplaces and industries as affected by the law—not restricted only to the manufacturing industry under the Standard Industries Classification Codes (SIC) 20-39. (b) The phrase which is part of the law suggests that the workplace could “serve as an early warning function for the effect of release of toxic substance in the environment,” is a worrisome afterthought. Hopefully, workers are not to be thought of as canaries to be watched for early signs of mine gas accumu- lation and as a warning system for miners to evacuate or as a biological warn- ing system to the community of a pending disaster. There are recorded environmental disasters that affect populations outside the workplace where workers in the plant or industry are not necessarily af- fected. One may recall the mercury poisoning in Minamata Bay, Japan and the Bhopal, India release of methy] isocyanate gas. Rather it is hoped that environ- mental monitoring devices will be added to the work environment to protect and warn workers of build up of toxic concentrations, leaks, or spills that might present a hazard to health and safety workers. One hopes that monitoring the health of toxic substance exposed workers will help develop a factual data base for cause and effect relationship to expo- sures particularly if dose (concentration x time) can be established. That in- formation base could then serve as a source of information for use in case of a community spills or disasters. That leads to consideration of the need for health surveillance of workers exposed to particular toxic substances and therefore, the need for baseline and No. 3, 1986] ALEXIOU—FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW 165 periodic health assessments. These considerations are thought of in major pri- vate industries and are almost totally ignored by educational, governmental, and small industries. There is no current data base for work-related illnesses in Florida because there is no reporting, as is commonplace with work-related injuries and accidents. The courts have shown that work-related illnesses are as compensable as injuries, if they can be established causally. (Does anyone know the life expectancy of a bench organic chemist?) (c) Establishing cause and effect relationship requires meeting the follow- ing criteria: 1. has a disease condition been clearly established? 2. has it been shown that the disease results from the suspected agent(s)? 3. has exposure to the agent been demonstrated? 4. has the exposure to the agent been of sufficient degree and/or duration to result in the condition? 5. have all non-occupational exposures to the agent been ruled out as caus- ative? 6. have all special circumstances been weighed? CLINICAL REFERRAL CAsEs— Two cases demonstrate the difficulty in estab- lishing cause and effect relationship. Case 1: A worker in a boat manufacturing plant was suddenly overcome by his exposure to the solvents and paints while he was working in the hull of a boat. He became dizzy, staggered, had cough from pulmonary irritation and congestion, lost his concentration ability and memory, his handwriting deterio- rated and he could no longer drive his car. Removal of the patient from the source of exposure led to gradual restoration of function and abilities. While work-related exposure seemed evident the toxic substance causality was less certain. Other contributing causative factors or aggravating factors could have included heat stroke or cerebrovascular accident, plus his own hobby of maintaining his own boat and the use of paints and solvents in his avocation. Case 2: A corrections officer used muriatic acid instead of bleach on a mop he was using to clean the work floor. He was overcome by the resulting vapors and sought compensation for his pulmonary symptoms and headaches ostensi- bly from his work exposure. More than 13 years of cigarette smoking, work dissatisfaction, and stress, were factors that had to be weighed in establishing a diagnosis, cause, and effect relationship. EARLY COMPLIANCE— When the law went into effect initially, the Depart- ment of Labor and Employment Security began receiving up to 50 telephone calls a day inquiring mostly about terms of the law. The Department had established a toll-free phone number (1-800-367-4378) to respond to inquiries about toxic substances and their health effects on exposed workers. One month later, the number of calls had dropped to about 30 a day. Still the nature of the calls suggested concern with industries trying to learn the terms of the law and whether the law applied to them. Up to the time of printing there have been no calls objecting to the Toxic Substance list as published and no recommenda- tions for deletions or additions to the list. 166 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 A by-product of the law has been the emergence of a number of companies who offer their services to help business and industries achieve compliance as full time or part-time consultants. Publishers of Material Safety Data Sheets (Keith and Walters, 1985) have begun extensive marketing on the completeness of their lists for use by industries. Most industries have already posted the Right-To-Know official poster to be placed in a conspicuous designated notices area of the workplace. The degree of statewide compliance beyond that post- ing of notice will only be determined, if a survey is conducted at some point, in the near future, hopefully. Many workplaces with organized labor representa- tion were in compliance even prior to the law. Non-unionized and smaller industries will probably be slower to achieve compliance. In the nature of things a number of workplaces will probably wait and see if there will be enforcement of the law. SUMMARY: For some scientists any required task is onerous and ways might be sought to circumvent compliance. Prudence, safety, and health suggest that if nothing is done, someone sooner or later will be injured. Compliance with this reasonable law is best in the long run (Table 1). If the assimilation of all the terms of the law are too much to manage at once, then by all means do the easiest things first, taking one bite at a time and working toward complete adherence over some planned program to achieve compliance. Reporting of work-related illnesses and injuries for scientists will improve the data base and establish baseline levels for their occupational risks. TABLE 1. ‘Twenty Steps to Compliance 1. Determine who will oversee the program. 2. Select a person who has an understanding of the Right To Know Legislative Requirements. Select a person with knowledge or information on existing training programs in his/her organization. 4. If help is needed here, call a professional consultant in health and safety. 5. Obtain inventory of substances or agents used in the workplace. 6. Match substances in the workplace with Florida’s Toxic Substances List. 7 8 9 Se . Identify locations where toxic substances are used and stored. . Identify workers who use or might use the substances. . Establish a training course on the substances based on MSDS or equivalent information sheet. 10. Use up supplies that do not provide MSDS information and order NO MORE. 11. Purchase only substances from suppliers that will provide good MSDS information for you. 12. Try an educational program—schedule a pilot test to see what complications arise. 13. You may want help from professional health and safety consultants. 14. Post the Notice of Right To Know Law. 15. Start the training with new employees, then old employees. 16. Have employees sign-off on completion of training and keep a record of instructors, dates, times, and material used and signatures of trainees; get ready for next year. 17. Keep records to show inspectors. 18. Notify community resources (Fire Department). 19. Check program with your insurance carrier. 20. Develop a written company policy statement on Worker’s Right To Know for all workers to see, No. 3, 1986] BROW N—SILVER-HAIRED BAT 167 LITERATURE CITED FLoripa STATUTES. 1985. Florida Right To Know Law. Occupational Health and Safety, Chapter 442. FEDERAL STATUTES. 1970. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. PL 91-596. FEDERAL RecisTer. Friday, November 25, 1983. Part IV, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Hazard Communication; Final Rule. KeitH, L. H., aNp D. B. Watters (Eds.). 1985. ““The Compendium of Safety Sheets for Research and Industrial Chemicals’, VCH Publishers, Deerfield Beach, Florida. Florida Sci. 49(3):162-167. 1986. Accepted: November 27, 1985. FIRST RECORD OF THE SILVER-HAIRED BAT, LASIONYCTERIS NOC- TIVAGANS (LeConte) IN FLORIDA—Larry N. Brown, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620. Asstract: The first specimen of the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans, ever taken in Florida was recorded near the Escambia River, 5 miles west of Jay in Santa Rosa County on September 6, 1985. It is a young adult female taken in a mist net, and extends the known geographical range of Lasionycteris noctivagans southward about 110 miles into a new state. THE KNOWN geographical range of the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noc- tivagans (Le Conte), Family Vespertilionidae, covers most of the northern two- thirds of the United States, but excludes Florida. It is a migratory forest-dwell- ing species, often associated with coniferous forests in the northern parts of its range (Barbour and Davis, 1969). On September 6, 1985, a young adult fe- male silver-haired bat was captured while I was collecting bats with a mist net. The location was near the Escambia River, approximately 5 miles west of Jay, Santa Rosa County, Florida. The habitat consisted of river floodplain hard- woods with pine-oak forest on the surrounding uplands, bordering State Road 4. The specimen (skin and skull; #LNB-1716) is presently deposited in the University of South Florida Zoological Collections. Its linear measurements were as follows: Total length-93 mm, Tail length 39mm, Hindfoot-9 mm, Ear length-15 mm. In Georgia, Golley (1962) recorded the southern marginal records for L. noctivagans to be Lamar and Jefferson Counties. In Alabama, the southern- most locality for the silver-haired bat is reported by LaVal (1967) to be near Autaugavulle in Autauga County. The new Florida record extends the known range of L. noctivagans southward approximately 110 air miles. Other species of bats collected at the same location and date were the yellow bat (Lasiurus intermedius), seminole bat (Lasiurus seminolus), red bat (Lasiurus borealis), and evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis). 168 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 The northern fringes of Hurricane Elena passed through the Florida Pan- handle a few days prior to the collection date, but caused little damage to the study area. It is not clear whether a large storm of this type would have any affect on migratory movements or flight patterns of L. noctivagans, but that possibility exists. More extensive bat sampling in the Florida Panhandle is needed on a seasonal basis to define more clearly the habits of the bat fauna living there. LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W. ano W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky., 286 pp. Go. ey, F. B. 1962. Mammals of Georgia. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 218 pp. LaVaL, R. K. 1967. Records of bats from the southeastern United States, J. Mamm., 48:645-648. Florida Sci. 49(3):167-168. 1986. Accepted: November 6, 1985. HUMPBACKED OYSTER TOADFISH, OPSANUS TAU (LINNAEUS), FROM NORTH CAROLINA—Frankx J. ScHwartz, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina, Morehead City, North Carolina 28557. Asstract: A humpbacked oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, is reported from North Carolina. Although normal when captured in 1984, a severe dorsal and lateral spinal curvature developed during retention in an artificial concrete tank. A six month interval elapsed between tank clean- ing in January 1985 and the development of the deformity. Speculation suggests the deformity was a response to drops in water temperatures following severe cold snaps in January and Febru- ary 1985. ANNUALLY thousands of the aglomerular oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau (Linnaeus) that range from Maine to Cape Sable, Florida, serve as experimen- tal subjects for behavior, movement, sound production, physiology, endocrine analyses, insulin and diabetes investigations, and a host of other researches (Hoar and Randall, 1969; Robinson, 1961; Robinson and Schwartz, 1965; Schwartz and Bright, 1982). Surprisingly, while humpback deformities are known for several species of fishes (Hansen, 1939; Hoff, 1970; Kroger and Guthrie, 1973; Musick and Hoff, 1968), to date no deformed or humpbacked oyster toadfish has been reported (Dawson, 1964, 1966, 1971; Dawson and Heal, 1976). I, therefore, report on a humpbacked spinally deformed oyster toadfish and suggest a possible answer to how it developed. A 238 mm standard length (285 mm TL) oyster toadfish, exhibiting a humpback condition (Fig. 1) was first noticed 15 July 1985 while seining for the two dozen toadfish, that had been captured during the summer of 1984 No. 3, 1986] SCHWARTZ—HUMPBACKED OYSTER TOADFISH Fic. 1. Lateral X-ray view of humpbacked oyster toadfish illustrating humpback vertebral deflections. Dense objects by head are props to keep fish upright. Fic. 2. Dorsal X-ray view of spinal deformity. 170 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 and held in the Institute of Marine Sciences outdoor 125 x 10° 1 and 608 x 912 x 76 cm deep concrete tank. Unpolluted and unfiltered saline waters (18- 34 ppt) were constantly pumped from the adjacent Bogue Sound into the pond where they were warmed or cooled seasonally by ambient air temperatures. X-ray examination established that the humpback was not the result of an abnormal internal growth but a dorsal and lateral spinal curvature deformity (Fig. 2). The upward spinal curvature, anterior to the dorsal fin, had pushed the large dorsal body muscles upward into a hump 24 mm high (Fig. 1). To further complicate matters, this condition had to have developed be- tween 1] January 1985 and the seine date for the concrete holding tank was completely drained and cleaned on 11 January 1985. No shelters were placed in the tank following cleaning. All two dozen toadfish, of various sizes, ap- peared normal prior to refilling the cleaned tank. Thus, all toadfish had been held together under the same environmental conditions prior to January and up to July 1985, yet only one developed the humpback condition. The only explanation of how the humpback condition developed is speculation that it developed during the severe cold snaps of 20-23 January or 16 February 1985, when naturally cooled tank waters plunged from 5-0°C. This seems unlikely for throughout its range, oyster toadfish naturally tolerate 0-35°C waters, succumbing only to waters of —1.5°C (personal observation). Likewise, simi- lar annual pond draining and cleaning practices failed to produce hump- backed toadfish. DiscussioN— Moore and Hixson (1977) noted that spinal deformities in humpback white perch, Morone americana (Gmelin), were most likely caused by responses to the environment rather than a result of genetics. Normal Tila- pia melanotheron (Riippell) (= macrocephala) reared for two years in aquaria, have developed pugheadedness following exposure to poor water conditions (S. H. Vernick, pers. comm.). Perhaps malnutrition may have been an indirect causal agent. The true cause remains unknown. LITERATURE CITED Dawson, C. E. 1964. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Gulf Res. Repts. 1(6):1-399. . 1966. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 1. Gulf Res. Repts. 2(2):169- 176. . 1971. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 2. Gulf Res. Repts. 3(2):215- 239. , AND E. HEA. 1976. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 3. Gulf Res. Repts. 5(2):35-41. Hansen, D. J. 1939. Vertebral anomaly in Micropogon undulatus. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 31(3):207-208. Hoar, W. S., AND D. J. RANDALL (eds.). 1969. Fish Physiology, Vol. 1. Excretion, Ionic Regulation and Metabolism. Academic Press, N. Y. 465 p. Horr, J. G. 1970. Vertebral anomalies in a humpbacked specimen of Atlantic silverside, Menidia menidia. Chesapeake Sci. 1 1(1):64-65. Krocer, R. L., anp J. F. Gururie. 1973. Additional anomalous menhaden and other fishes. Chesapeake Sci. 14(2):112-116. Moore, C. J., AND J. H. Hixson. 1977. Incidence of crooked vertebral columns in adult Potomac River white perch, Morone americana. Copeia 1977(2):384-387. No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE 171 Musick, J. A., AND J. G. Horr. 1968. Vertebral anomalies in humpbacked specimens of menha- den, Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 97(3):277-287. Rosinson, P. F. 1961. A bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau. Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Solomons, Md., Contr. 183, 9 p. , AND F. J. Schwartz. 1965. A revised bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau. Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Solomons, Md., Contr. 284, 18 p. ScHwakrtz, F. J., AND B. B. Bricut. 1982. A bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, 1965 through April 1982. Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ. North Carolina Spec. Publ., 33 p. Florida Sci. 49(3):168-171. 1986. Accepted: November 2, 1985. Biological Sciences | NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE, LAMPROPELTIS CALLIGASTER, IN PENINSULAR FLORIDA James N. Layne, Trimotny J. WALSH’, AND PETER MEYLAN” ‘“ Archbold Biological Station, P.O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, FL 33852; 13032 N. W. 35th Avenue, Okeechobee, FL 33472: and ° Florida State Museum, Gainesville, FL 32611 (Present address: Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024) AssTRACT: Two additional specimens of the mole snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, and reports of 2 other individuals confirm the occurrence of this wide-ranging species in peninsular Florida. Circumstances of capture and meristic data from the available specimens indicate that these records represent native populations. THE MOLE SNAKE, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata, is known from only a few records in Florida, and its distribution in the state is not well- established. Carr (1940) reported a specimen in the Carnegie Museum (CM 1952) collected in 1899 from the “St. Johns River”, presumably northeast Florida, and another in the University of Michigan collection (UM 77481) from Leesburg, Lake County, in the central peninsula. Carr and Goin (1955) gave the range as northern Florida southward in the peninsula to Lake County. The range map of Wright and Wright (1957) shows the species as occurring only in the panhandle, although northcentral Florida is included in the narra- tive range description. Conant (1975) mapped the range as including extreme PZ FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 northeast Florida but mentioned only the panhandle in the description. The range was stated by Stevenson (1976) as including northwestern Florida east to Liberty County. Price (1977) indicated that the species is found throughout the panhandle and northern peninsular Florida as far south as Alachua or Marion counties. In addition, he cited 2 specimens in the Field Museum of Natural History collection (FMNH 48265 and 48266) collected in Okeechobee County, Florida, in May 1942 by Reid Paulk and suggested that these specimens might represent an undescribed subspecies. Means (1978) cited records from Bay, Calhoun, Liberty, and Walton counties in the panhandle and included the isolated Lake County record in his distribution map. Blaney (1979), however, questioned the Lake County record. Most recently, Ashton and Ashton (1981) listed museum specimens from Bay, Calhoun, Gulf, and Madison counties but did not cite either the northeast Florida, Lake County, or Okeechobee records. Thus, the occurrence of Lampropeltis calligaster in the panhandle of Florida from Liberty County west is well-documented, whereas its status in the penin- sula is less certain. It is now possible to confirm the occurrence of native populations in peninsular Florida. Two specimens of Lampropeltis calligaster have been collected and 2 other individuals reported in peninsular Florida in recent years. One specimen was collected on Merritt Island, Brevard County, by Scott Maness on 8 May 1980. The snake was found dead on State Road 402 near Oak Hammock Trail, Mer- ritt Island National Wildlife Refuge. This specimen, now in the Florida State Museum (UF 48182), is a male with a total length of 735 mm (640 mm SVL). Scale rows are 21, 21, 19. It has a total of 75 dorsal blotches, 61 on the body and 14 on the tail. The blotches are roughly rectangular, 1!/2 to 21/2 scales long, and about 8 scales wide. There are 8 upper labials, with numbers 4 and 5 entering the orbits (both sides), and 9 lower labials. Ventrals and subcaudals number 213 and 46, respectively. The ground color after preservation is gray- brown; the dorsal blotches are clearly outlined in black middorsally but less distinctly outlined laterally. The elongate blotches on the neck extend from the parietals across 13 rows of dorsal scales. The second specimen was collected on 16 April 1985 by T. J. Walsh in Okeechobee County in the Basswood Estates subdivision (section 5, range 35E, township 37S) 4.8 km NW of the junction of U.S. 441 and State Route 70 in the city of Okeechobee. The snake was captured at 1730 EST on the grassy shoul- der of a paved road after it was observed crawling out of a shallow ditch that contained a small amount of water from a recent rain. The weather was clear and air temperature was 26°C. The presettlement vegetation of the area was probably native prairie with interspersed marshes ahd cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto)—live oak (Quercus virginiana) hammocks. The snake was found in a part of the subdivision with few houses and extensive grassy fields with scattered trees and shrubs. The habitats in the immediate vicinity of the cap- ture site included a low, moist vacant lot with tall grass and clumps of wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), and cab- bage palms and a house lot with mowed lawn and shrubbery. Means (1978) noted that specimens in the panhandle of Florida have been collected on roads No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE L73 at dusk during late spring, early summer, and November in drier pine wood- lands, early stage regenerating pine stands, and old-field habitats. The specimen was a female with a total length of 660 mm and weight of 80 g. It had 21 dorsal scale rows, middorsal blotches with slightly convex to straight (but not concave) anterior and posterior borders, and upper lateral spots that tended to be vertically elongate. The ground color of the dorsum was gray. The middorsal blotches, lateral blotches, and the elongate blotches on the neck were dark chocolate-brown margined with black and outlined with a light tan border about the same width as the black. Individual scales in the spaces between the blotches were narrowly margined with light tan. Most of the middorsal blotches were about 2 scales long and 9-10 scales wide. The elongate blotches on the neck originated on the parietals and extended poste- riorly over 12 scale rows. The expanded middle portion covered 4 scale rows and the narrower posterior portion, 2 rows. A dark stripe extended along the upper edge of the upper labials from slightly anterior to the eye to the rear edge of the gape. These descriptive notes are based on examination of the live specimen on 23 April, color slides made on that date, and portions of a shed skin preserved in the Florida State Museum (UF 61053). The snake was kept for observation at the Walsh home until 15 May, when it was discovered missing from its cage in an unlocked garage attached to the house. Evidence indicated that it had been stolen during the day while the family was away. As so little is known about the life history and behavior of the species in the southeast, it seems worthwhile to record observations made on the snake in captivity. It was housed in a glass-fronted wooden cage (43 cm Fic. 1. Mole Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata, captured in Okeechobee County, Florida, 16 April 1985. Photograph by Zed Postles. 174 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 high x 77 cm long x 43 cm wide) with an 8-cm layer of sand on the floor. Water was continuously supplied in a small plastic dish, although the snake was never observed drinking. During the day, the snake spent most of the time resting under a plastic fern plant placed in the corner of the cage. It occasion- ally retreated into a nearby short tunnel it had dug or coiled around a small L- shaped piece of dead wood. At night it usually lay on the surface of the sand stretched out along the front of the cage against the glass. On 2 occasions it was found lying on the top edge of the cage under the lid, indicating some tendency to climb. It ate an adult green anole, Anolis carolinensis, 2 days after capture and on 13 May attempted to eat an adult white mouse. It seized the mouse by the head and constricted it by wrapping coils around its body. After the mouse was dead, it tried to swallow it head first, but the mouse apparently was too large for it to handle and the snake eventually abandoned it. The snake shed on 14 May, using rocks and pieces of wood to aid removal of the skin. Some of the pieces of the skin were found in the tunnel mentioned above. Paul Williams informed us (pers. comm.) of 2 additional records of mole snakes from the Okeechobee area. He is the owner of a garden and pet supply store in Okeechobee and has a good knowledge of Florida snakes. In spring 1984, he captured a specimen about 900 mm total length in the vicinity of the North Elementary School in Okeechobee, approximately 3 km from the site at which the specimen described above was collected. The snake was being har- assed by a mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) as it was crossing a paved road about 0730 EST in a residential area surrounded by extensive open pasture- land. The second specimen, about 460 mm total length, was found crawling on a paved parking lot in front of a convenience store in town in the early morning in summer 1984 and was brought to him for identification. There appears to be little question that the 3 L. calligaster from Okeecho- bee County reported here and the 2 cited by Price (1977) are from a natural population. The characteristics of the Walsh specimen agree with those of the eastern subspecies rhombomaculata, which, because of its secretiveness and apparent rarity in Florida and elsewhere in the southeast, seldom finds its way into captivity. In addition, 2 of the 3 recent Okeechobee records and, appar- ently, the Merritt Island specimen came from undeveloped or thinly-settled areas with extensive natural habitat. Further evidence that the Merritt Island and southcentral Florida speci- mens represent native populations is that they exhibit counts for meristic char- acters that would be predicted based on clinal variation known to exist in L. calligaster along the east coast. Price (1977) gave average ventral counts of 198 in the Washington, D.C. area and 207 in the piedmont of North Carolina; whereas ventral counts for the Merritt Island (UF 48182) and the 2 FMNH Okeechobee specimens (48265 and 48266) are 213, 211, and 209, respectively. Similarly, total blotch counts for the 3 southcentral Florida specimens (75 for the Merritt Island specimen and 73 and 80 for the Okeechobee specimens) are higher than the averages given by Price (1977) for any of the 4 more northern populations for which he provided data. Christman (1980) also noted that a common trend in the 15 Florida snake species examined by him (not including No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE 175 L. calligaster) was an increase in ventral scale counts and number of blotches from north to south. Because of the paucity of records, the distribution of the mole snake in Florida remains poorly understood. However, present evidence suggests that the peninsular populations are localized and disjunct from one another and from those in the panhandle. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank John Wood of the Okeechobee office of the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission for aid in measuring and weighing the specimen, Paul Williams for providing information oneother mole snakes captured in Okeechobee County, and Zed Postles for allowing use of the photograph. We also thank Paul E. Moler for helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED AsHTON, R. E., JR., AND P. S. ASHTON. 1981. Handbook of Reptiles and Amphibians of Florida. Part 1. The Snakes. Windward Publishing Inc., Miami, Florida. Buaney, R. M. 1978. Lampropeltis calligaster. Cat. Amer. Amphibs. Rept. 229: 1-2. Carr, A. F., Jr. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. Univ. Fla. Publ. Biol. Sci. Ser. 3:1-118. Carr, A., AND C. J. Goin. 1955. Guide to the reptiles, amphibians and fresh-water fishes of Florida. Univ. Fla. Press, Gainesville. CurisTMAN, S. P. 1980. Patterns of geographic variation in Florida snakes. Bull. Fla. Sta. Mus. Biol. Sci. 25:157-256. Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Means, D. B. 1978. Mole snake, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata (Holbrook). Pp. 58-60 in McDiarmid, R. W. (ed.) Amphibians and Reptiles. Vol. 3. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville: Price, R. M. 1977. Systematics of the colubrid snake Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan). Masters thesis, New York University. STEVENSON, H. M. 1976. Vertebrates of Florida. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville. WricHT, A. H., anp A. A. WricuT. 1957. Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Comstock Publishing Assoc., Ithaca, New York. Florida Sci. 49(3):171-175. 1986. Accepted: November 28, 1985. Biological Sciences SUCCESSION IN FLORIDA SANDRIDGE VEGETATION: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY PATRICIA A. PERONI AND WARREN G. ABRAHAMSON* Department of Biology, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837 Asstract: Aerial photography (1944-1981), field studies (1976-1983), survey records (1855- 1920), and timber cruise reports (1921-1922) provided information on past and present southern Lake Wales Ridge vegetation at eight study sites which each included mesic and xeric vegetation associations. Three findings were linked to reduced fire frequencies: 1) expansion of mesic broad- leaved evergreen bayhead vegetation into adjacent flatwoods and some seasonal ponds, 2) sub- stantial slash pine regeneration in flatwoods, and 3) increased growth of scrub oaks and hickory in xeric sandhills accompanied by low slash and longleaf pine regeneration. Other xeric associa- tions (i.e., scrubby flatwoods and sand pine and rosemary scrubs) remained relatively stable with only one possible instance of sand pine loss due to a prolonged absence of fire. However, repeated burns were responsible for losses of sand pine at two other sites. Successional changes in swales and most seasonal ponds were minor and appeared to be controlled more by water levels than fire. A NUMBER Of studies address the effects of fire suppression on succession in Florida sandridge vegetation (Laessle, 1958a, b, 1967; Monk, 1960, 1968; Veno, 1976: Givens and co-workers, 1984; Abrahamson and co-workers, 1984b). However, these investigations are limited both by the long time peri- ods necessary to document successional changes in such communities, and because they were conducted under conditions of complete fire exclusion, a situation rarely encountered outside of nature preserves. Also, with the excep- tions of Givens et al. (1984) and Abrahamson et al. (1984b), little attention has been devoted to the Lake Wales Ridge. This ridge constitutes a distinctive floristic area within the Florida sandridge system (Abrahamson, 1984a). The research presented here concentrates on the southern end of the Lake Wales Ridge and provides successional information for a 40 year time period. Increased human settlement, which began during the 1920’s, has drasti- cally altered fire regimes on the southern Lake Wales Ridge. While certain protected areas have remained fire free for over 50 years, the effects of human activities on fire patterns are usually more complex. Human presence has in- creased the number of fires ignited each year, but the net effect of land devel- opment on this region’s fire regimes has been to limit the area burned per fire (Peroni, 1983). This stems from both direct suppression efforts and cultural barriers to fire (e.g., roads, citrus groves, housing projects), and means that any given parcel of undeveloped land probably burns less frequently now than during the first 20 to 30 years of this century. In addition, human activities have created a second fire season during the dry winter portion of the year in *To whom correspondence should be addressed. No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION in gi addition to the natural summer wet season fires that originate from lightning strikes (Abrahamson, 1984a). In order to ascertain any long-term successional patterns occurring under these altered fire patterns, our study used remote sensing, field investigations, General Land Office Survey Records, and timber-cruise reports to trace vege- tational changes of selected sites on the southern Lake Wales Ridge in High- lands County, Florida. Since most of the study sites have not been completely protected from fire during the past half century, a more realistic interpretation of the effects of post-settlement fire regimes on succession is possible. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA—The Lake Wales Ridge (Figure 1) is an an- cient coastline formed during the Yarmouth and Sangamon inter-glacial stages of the Pleistocene (MacNeil, 1950). The bedrock is largely limestone, and a mixture of limestone, clays, gravel, marls, and sand, referred to as the Citro- Lake 1 ° Jackson Lake Josephine Pes Lake GH Ce} June - in-Winter £2 Lake Placid Fic. 1. Map of Highlands County, Florida showing the Lake Wales Ridge and locations of study sites. Numbered sites were mapped in detail, but since only one site (#7) included the turkey oak phase of southern ridge sandhills, we examined an additional 5 locations (lettered A-E) con- taining turkey oak ridges or sandhills. Inset outline of Florida shows the relative location of High- lands County. 178 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 nelle formation, forms the underlying material which is covered with thick layers of sand. The topography is a mosaic of ridges and valleys with soil and vegetation patterns also displaying this mosaic. The presence of numerous endemic and 14 sensitive (i.e., endangered, threatened, or rare) plant species as well as the unique features of several vegetation associations distinguish the southern portion of the Lake Wales Ridge from the more northerly sandridges (Ward, 1978; Johnson, 1981; Abra- hamson et al., 1984b). The transition between the two areas occurs between the towns of Avon Park and Sebring, Florida. For the purposes of this study, the 30 m contour is used to delimit the eastern and western extremes of the study area, while the Highlands/Polk County boundary and the Highlands/Glades County line mark the northern and southern limits, respectively (Figure 1). The climate is warm, with a mean annual temperature of 22.3°C. The highest monthly mean, August, is 27.5°C, while the lowest, 16.0°C, occurs in January. Sixty-one percent (83 cm) of the annual precipitation (136 cm) falls during the summer wet season from June through September (Abrahamson, et al., 1984b). Vegetation associations recognized in this study are those of Abrahamson et al. (1984a) and Abrahamson (1984a, b). They include: southern ridge sand- hills, sand pine and rosemary scrubs, scrubby flatwoods, flatwoods, swales, bayheads, and seasonal ponds. Abrahamson (1984a, b) cites acid sands, fire, and winter dry seasons as the major environmental factors affecting the evolu- tion and ecology of southern Lake Wales Ridge plant species. Modal fire frequencies vary greatly among these vegetation associations with swales > flatwoods > southern ridge sandhills > seasonal ponds > scrubby flatwoods > rosemary scrubs > sand pine scrubs > bayheads (Abra- hamson et al., 1984b). Plant communities associated with higher fire frequen- cies such as swales, flatwoods, and southern ridge sandhills tend to recover rapidly after burns due to resprouting of shrubs and grasses and the survival of south Florida slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa; Abrahamson, 1984a, b). The scrub associations, however, are noted for longer intervals between fires, as the dominant species, Florida rosemary (Ceratiola ericoides) and sand pine (Pinus clausa), neither survive nor resprout after burns. Scrubs recover more slowly from fires since these two species must reestablish themselves from seeds (Johnson, 1982; Abrahamson et al., 1984b). MetTHops—The approach used in this study is similar to that followed by Richardson (1977) who determined the effects of drainage on vegetation in Palm Beach County, Florida. We selected 8 study sites using the following criteria: presence of natural vegetation, juxtaposition of several different plant associations, availability of historical information, lack of major human distur- bances, and systematic distribution of these sites over the southern Lake Wales Ridge. Site locations are shown in Fig. 1. Stereo pairs of aerial photographs flown in February, 1981 (Florida Department of Transporta- tion, 1981) were used to tentatively map each site’s present vegetation. Extensive ground checks of study sites conducted between February and May, 1983 allowed verification and refinement of photographic interpretation and provided details not detected from aerial photographs. Field work for sites 6 and 7, the Archbold Biological Station (ABS) locations, was less intensive since a current, detailed vegetation map was available (Abrahamson et al., 1984a). No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 179 The 1981 photography and ground observations were compared with stereo coverage from flights in March, April, or October, 1944 (USDA, 1944), December, 1957 or January, 1958 (USDA, 1957/1958), and November, 1970 (Florida Department of Transportation, 1970). Stereo coverage from the 1944 flight was available for only a portion of site 2 and was supplemented with photog- raphy flown in April, 1952 (USDA, 1952a). For sites 6 and 7 additional photography flown in February, 1940 (USDA, 1940) and April, 1952 (USDA, 1952b) was also examined. We particularly looked for changes in boundaries of associations or major community components such as canopy, shrub layers, and ground cover. We drafted pairs of maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation for each site. In the interest of clarity, we omitted most cultural features (roads, drainage lines, etc.) from these maps. In some cases, certain association boundaries were not apparent in either 1944 or 1981 aerial photographs (e.g., some scrubs and more xeric flatwoods) while in a few other situations, mapping of 1944 vegetation patterns was complicated by the occurrence of fires just prior to the photography (e.g., it was often difficult to accurately determine boundaries between young rosemary scrubs and recently sprouted scrubby flatwoods). Since the 1944 photographs could not be field checked, our approach in such instances was conservative, and, unless historical evidence (i.e., surveyors’ notes, timber cruise reports, tree cores, aging of rosemary shrubs, 1957/1958 and 1970 aerial photo- graphs) indicated otherwise, we assumed that these boundaries had remained stable during the study period. In addition, some corrections were made for distortion present in the 1944 aerial photographs because the quality of stereo coverage was often less than that of more recent photog- raphy. Such modifications were slight and were made only after carefully comparing relative locations of landmarks and contours of association boundaries represented in 1944 photographs with those present in 1981 photography. A timber cruise conducted by A. E. Little in 1921 and 1922 included study sites 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8. Cruise reports provide counts of south Florida slash pine or longleaf pine (P. palustris) measuring 20 cm or more in diameter for 16-ha parcels within 1.6 km square sections. In addition, schematic maps noting locations of scrubs, scrubby areas, lakes, creeks, major ponds, turkey oak sandhills, roads, rail lines, cultivated land, and buildings accompany timber stand data. General Land Office surveys of the region were conducted in all study sites between 1859 and 1920 (Jackson, 1859/1860; Childs, 1870; Tannehill, 1871; Kimmell, 1917; Brown, 1920). Survey- ors’ instructions required notations of vegetation changes along lines and general descriptions at the end of each 1.6 km section line. As such, these records provide general, systematic descriptions of each site’s vegetation prior to intensive human habitation and often record precise locations of smaller, easily identified associations such as scrubs, seasonal ponds, and bayheads encountered along section lines. The only turkey oak phase of southern ridge sandhills included in the 8 original study sites was located at site 7. Since site 7 had been completely protected from fire for nearly 60 years and, unlike most areas in the region, had never been subjected to intensive logging, historical records were scanned for notations of additional sandhills communities. Five locations noted in timber cruise reports (Little, 1921/1922) as turkey oak ridges or sandhills were selected. These areas were designated as sites A-E, and each was visited, described, and photographed. Descriptions of these sites are provided by Peroni (1983) and their locations are recorded (Fig. 1). Resutts—Bayheads—In 1944, bayhead vegetation was present in or im- mediately adjacent to 7 of the 8 original study sites. In all of these instances, the bayhead species invaded contiguous flatwoods between 1944 and 1983. This expansion was more pronounced at sites 1, 2, 3, and 8 than at sites 4, 5, and 6 (Fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Data from survey records (Childs, 1870) and timber cruise reports (Little, 1921/1922) for sites 3 and 8 (Fig. 3 and 5) indicate that the most rapid invasion of flatwoods by bayhead vegetation has occurred within this century, particularly since 1920. Older portions of bayheads were dominated by red bay (Persea borbonia), sweet bay (Magnolia virginica), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), dahoon holly (Ilex cassine), and often wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) with understories composed primarily of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) and cinnamon fern (Os- munda cinnamonea). South Florida slash pine was rare in these older bay- 180 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 1944 TIGER BRANCH CREEK FL LITTLE CHARLIE ) BOWLEGS CREEK ra ® t— 250 BH N SITE" HIGHLANDS HAMMOCK STATE PARK Y PRESS SWAMP. LITTLE CHARLIE BOWLEGS CREEK Fic. 2. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 1, Highlands Hammock State Park (T 34S, R 28 E, Sec. 31, 32, 33, and T 35 S, R 28 E, Sec. 4, 5, and 6). Abbreviations as follows: SSo = oak understory phase of sand pine scrub, SF = scrubby flatwoods, FL = flat- woods, BH = bayhead, P = seasonal pond, and M = man-modified. No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 18] SITE 4 LAKE PLACID 1 250m Fic. 3. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 2, Leisure Lakes (T 36 S, R 29 E, Sec. 18), site 3, Lake June-in-Winter (T 36 S, R 29 E, Sec. 28), and site 4, Lake Placid (T 37 on R 29E, Sec. 26). Abbreviations as in Fig. 2 plus SSr = rosemary scrub and SW = swale. 182 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 STE S BEAR POINT T seegeceeeeaa he on, BSS ER EBEMERERCREEE AH ‘4a. i. ease coo aa NT BH cecnercccccescescs Bits HAMMOCK SITE 6 ABS-INTRARIDGE VALLEY Fic. 4. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 5, Bear Point (T 37 S, R 30 E, Sec. 29), and site 6, Archbold Biological Station-Intraridge Valley (T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7). Abbreviations as in Figs. 1-3 plus RSh = hickory phase southern ridge sandhills and RR = rail- road right-of-way. heads, and the few that were present usually fell into the larger size classes. No pine regeneration was observed. Younger portions of bayheads, recently invading flatwoods, usually dis- played well developed south Florida slash pine canopies with bay species present in the canopy, sub-canopy, and shrub layers. Sweet bay, red bay, and loblolly bay seedlings were abundant, but south Florida slash pine seedlings and saplings were rare. Bay species also invaded two seasonal ponds at site 6 (Fig. 4), the only site where seasonal ponds were present in large numbers, and a freshwater marsh at site | (Fig. 2). No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 183 The rate and extent of bayhead expansion showed a negative correlation with fire frequency. Aerial photographs of flatwoods which burned infre- quently (i.e., two fires or fewer) between 1944 and 1981 (sites 1, 3, 5, and 8) show rapid invasion by bay species. This process was considerably slower at site 2 where the flatwoods/bayhead area in the northeast quarter section sus- tained repeated burns during the study period. The invasion of bay species into the marsh at site 1 (Fig. 2) represents the only exception. Here, construction of a drainage channel in the early 1930’s and the resulting drop in water levels, not the reduced fire frequency, accounts for this bay invasion. PERC N SITE 8 HENDRIE RANCH SCALE Fic. 5. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 7, Archbold Biological Station-Red Hill (T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 8), and site 8, Hendrie Ranch (T 39 S, R 30 E, Sec. 10). Abbreviations as in Figs. 1-4 plus RSt = turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhills. 184 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Although bayhead expansion was most rapid when fire was completely absent, bayhead species can resprout after low intensity burns. At sites 1, 2, 4, and 6 all or portions of bayheads burned at least once between 1944 and 1983, and, judging from aerial photographs, regenerated rapidly (within 10 yr or less), presumably by resprouting. Flatwoods— Aerial photographs of flatwoods in sites 1, 3, 4, and 6 show substantial increases in south Florida slash pine densities. At sites 1 and 3 (Figs. 2 and 3) this development preceded expansion of bayhead vegetation into flatwoods. Stenberg’s 1982 census of the south Florida slash pine at the Archbold Biological Station quantifies this increase for site 6, recording 186% more south Florida slash pine over 20 cm DBH at this site than Little’s cruise in 1921 which occurred prior to logging of this stand. Only a cluster of 3 small, 16 ha parcels at this site had lower pine counts in 1982 than in 1921, and these are located in a particularly xeric area that is known to have burned twice from naturally-caused fires during the period 1967-1977 (Abrahamson, 1981). Southern Ridge Sandhills— Major changes in southern ridge sandhills asso- ciations were related to community structure and relative species abundance rather than species composition per se. The understory of the turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhill observed at site 7 (Fig. 5) in 1983 differed radically in appearance from ground-level photographs of that area taken in the early 1930’s and Kimmell’s description of this site’s southern boundary in his 1917 survey notes. These early records indicated a low, open understory with even wire grass cover (Aristida stricta), palmettos, scattered small oaks, and a south Florida slash pine canopy. Harper’s (1927) and Small’s (1921) early descrip- tions of the study area’s vegetation indicate that this rather open understory was the typical structure for these associations at that time. However, Harper (1927) did note that the sandhills vegetation in this region was somewhat more scrubby in appearance (i.e., more and larger oaks present) than similar associ- ations found on the northern portion of the Lake Wales Ridge. In contrast to this open, grassy understory shown in 1930 photographs, our 1983 field investigation of the southern ridge sandhill at site 7 found an under- story with a tall (up to 3m), dense shrub layer of myrtle oak (Q. myrtifolia), sand live oak (Q. geminata), Chapman’s oak (Q. chapmanii), turkey oak (Q. laevis), scrub hickory (Carya floridana), and palmettos with only scattered patches of wiregrass. This growth of turkey and scrub oaks (and in some cases scrub hickory) and the loss of wiregrass and herbs was even more pronounced at the additional turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhills sites, with turkey oaks reaching heights of up to 5 m at sites A and E. These associations also had considerably less dense south Florida slash and longleaf pine canopies than the sandhill at site 7 that was not logged during the 1920’s and 1930’s when sites A-E were cut. Present south Florida slash and longleaf pine densities at sites A-E are lower than pre-logging conditions (Little, 1921/1922), and regeneration ap- pears poor. Although Myers’ (1985) study of the pines at site 7 indicates better No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 185 south Florida slash pine regeneration than that observed at sites A-E, distribu- tion of that recruitment appears to be limited to only a few open areas. Although many descriptions of the southern Lake Wales Ridge vegetation note the absence of longleaf pine, particularly in sandhills, (Harper, 1927; Small, 1921; Laessle, 1958a), we found this species present at low densities in five of the six associations studied (site 7 and sites A, B, D, and E). Stenberg’s 1982 timber cruise of the Archbold Biological Station also records occasional individual longleaf pine or small groves of these trees on or near hickory phase southern ridge sandhills. Scrubs—Sand pine and rosemary shrubs showed no consistent successional patterns. At sites 1, 3, 6, 7, and 8 (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) the boundaries of these associations remained particularly stable, with the exception of some sand pine invasion of the adjoining southern ridge sandhill at site 7 and a rosemary scrub at site 3 (Fig. 3). Results from site 5 (Fig. 4), Bear Point, are more difficult to interpret. A portion of this site currently is covered with scrub hickory, sand live oak, myrtle oak, Chapman’s oak, and silk bay (Persea humilis), 3-5 m in height. Laessle described this association as a hickory “hammock”’ when he studied the site in the early 1960’s and speculated that it was an example of sand pine scrub which had succeeded to xeric hammock due to fire suppression (Laessle, 1961, 1967). However, evidence of sand pine at this site is limited to recollec- tions of longtime area residents (Devane, pers. comm.; Edgemon, pers. comm.), and, even assuming that sand pine was present at some earlier time, more information on this species density would be necessary to conclude that sand pine scrub best described this site’s vegetation. Notes from Childs’ and Kimmell’s surveys in 1870 and 1917 suggest that sand pine was not abundant in the vicinity of this site. The current hickory ““hammock”’ situation also could have developed from a stand similar to a hickory phase southern ridge sandhill. In two instances repeated fires led to reductions in sand pine densities. At site 2 (Fig. 3), the young sand pine scrub present south of the bayhead/flat- woods area in 1944 failed to regenerate after a fire which occurred sometime between 1944 and 1952. As a result, an area toward the middle of the scrub is presently dominated by south Florida slash pine and is best described as a scrubby flatwoods. At site 4 (Fig. 3), the scrubby flatwoods which currently surrounds the rosemary scrub may have been another young sand pine scrub in 1944. Sand pine densities never recovered to levels shown in 1944 aerial photographs after a burn that occurred just prior to the 1957 photography. Seasonal Ponds—Except for the development of two bayhead associations at site 6 (Fig. 4), changes observed in seasonal ponds were limited to invasion by south Florida slash pine. This pine invasion did not correspond with known fire histories at site 6 (Abrahamson, 1981), but a survey of 41 ponds indicated that such developments tended to occur in ponds with lower water tables. Swales—Swale vegetation was present only at site 4 (Figure 3) and re- mained particularly stable during the study period. Aerial photographs and field checks indicated no invasion by south Florida slash pine or palmettos. 186 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Boundaries with flatwoods remained relatively intact, but appear more sharply in 1981 photographs, probably due to increased growth of palmettoes in flatwoods. Discuss1onN—Ecologists have generally viewed fire as a disturbance which serves to slow or set back succession, and in cases where such disturbances occur frequently, prevent vegetational succession altogether (Odum, 1983). Abrahamson’s (1984a, b) five year study of fire recovery in southern ridge sandhills (scrub hickory phase), scrubby flatwoods, flatwoods, swales, and sea- sonal ponds on the southern Lake Wales Ridge clearly indicates that fire is not a succession initiating disturbance in the classical Clementsian sense for these vegetation associations. However, total exclusion of fire, or as is more com- monly the case, reductions in burning frequencies may favor certain succes- sional patterns. Within associations, species may respond differently to release from fire, and changes in relative species abundance and community structure may result. Less frequent burning could allow invasion of an association by plant species less adapted to fire but better able to tolerate shading. In particu- lar, species from adjoining associations may be able to invade in such situa- tions if past fire patterns represent the primary environmental factor responsi- ble for separating these plant communities. Under these circumstances one would predict that such changes would occur most rapidly in those plant communities that have been historically associated with high fire frequencies, including flatwoods, southern ridge sandhills, and swales. Extreme instances of fire exclusion could also affect the composition of communities associated with long fire-free intervals, such as scrubs, since the obligate seeding species, sand pine and rosemary, require intense, but infrequent burns to regenerate in dense stands (Abrahamson et al., 1984b). The expansion of bayhead vegetation into contiguous, mesic flatwoods is this study’s most consistent finding. This pattern includes: (1) growth of dense south Florida slash pine canopies with (2) subsequent loss of pine recruitment and the invasion and growth of red bay, sweet bay, loblolly bay, and dahoon holly and associated species from adjoining bayheads. As the south Florida slash pine die, they are replaced by bay species; thus, these associations eventu- ally take on the appearance of a broad leaved evergreen forest. Abrahamson’s (1984b) analysis of south Florida slash pine fire mortality plus coincidence of areas of lower pine densities with repeated fires in sites 2 and 6 suggest that reduced fire frequencies permit increased south Florida slash pine recruitment leading to the development of these dense canopies. Individuals of the more shade tolerant bayhead species, such as red bay, sweet bay, loblolly bay, and dahoon holly are able to exploit this environment and eventually replace flatwoods vegetation. Since several of the bayheads investigated sustained burns during the study period and recovered relatively rapidly, without passing through preliminary flatwoods phases, total fire suppression may not be as important to the devel- opment of bayhead vegetation in flatwoods as reduced fire frequencies. Although some critical period of fire suppression may be necessary for transi- tion from flatwoods to bayhead, infrequent subsequent burns are possible. No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 187 Our observations of bayhead vegetation invading mesic flatwoods on the southern Lake Wales Ridge are consistent with findings reported for similar areas located elsewhere in the southeastern United States. Hartman (1949) cited encroachment of bayhead vegetation into pine flatwoods as one justifica- tion for prescribed burning in the South. Laessle (1958b) made similar obser- vations in wetter, fire protected pine flatwoods of the Welaka Preserve in north- ern Florida, while Monk (1968) predicted a variety of developmental possibilities for Florida’s flatwoods, including succession to bayheads. The most marked changes occurring in turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhills during this century are those of community structure and relative species abundance. Most notable is the growth and expansion of oaks at the expense of wiregrass and herbs, lending these associations appearances of in- cipient xeric hammocks. Losses from south Florida slash or longleaf pine cano- pies at sites A-E were much greater than those observed at the turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhill at site 7, which has long been protected from both fire and logging. These losses probably resulted from intensive logging and a subse- quent lack of regeneration at sites A-E. Laessle (1967) maintained that fire suppression would allow scrub species to invade sandhills, but with eventual development into some type of evergreen hardwood association, or hammock as such communities are referred to throughout the southeastern United States. Monk (1960, 1968) and Veno (1976) made similar predictions or observations. The turkey oak phase south- ern ridge sandhills examined in this study do appear to be developing struc- tures similar to those of hardwood hammocks, a trend that will continue under conditions of low fire frequencies. The effects of fire on these present southern ridge sandhills are unknown at this time. We might expect that a single burn would not be sufficient to return these communities to their pre-settlement conditions. Scrub hickories and ever- green oaks have established extensive root systems that would allow these plants to sprout rapidly after a burn, and, with the exception of the sandhill at site 7, seed sources for south Florida slash and longleaf pine are not abundant. In addition, wiregrass and herb populations may be too depleted to become well established in these associations even after a fire. Myers (1985) speculates that a fire in a southern ridge sandhills such as the one at site 7 would allow regeneration of sand pine which have already invaded from adjoining scrubs. Virtually no changes in swales were detected by this study. Association boundaries, especially of surrounding flatwoods, remained stable, and no ap- preciable invasion by south Florida slash pine or saw palmetto was noted. These observations suggest that the periodic high water tables and frequent conditions of standing water in swales, even in the absence of frequent fire, play important roles in maintaining this association and excluding species such as south Florida slash pine and saw palmetto. Abrahamson (1984a, b), however, noted short-lived increases in species diversity after fires in swales due to increased densities of many herb and forb species. His data suggest that reduced fire frequencies in swale associations may lead to decreases in diver- 188 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 sity by allowing establishment and growth of extensive cover by cutthroat grass and shrubs such as Lyonia lucida. | Bayheads expanded into portions of two poorly drained seasonal ponds, a development that is probably related to reduced fire frequencies, but not total fire exclusion. Invasion of several seasonal ponds by south Florida slash pine is the only other change in these associations detected in this study. Restriction of such invasion to drier ponds suggests that drainage and soil characteristics may regulate this phenomenon to a greater degree than fire. Abrahamson’s (unpublished data) monitoring of south Florida slash pine in several seasonal ponds at Archbold Biological Station clearly shows that high water tables can kill slash pine seedlings and saplings during prolonged wet periods. In drier ponds with dense grass cover, however, Abrahamson’s data (unpublished) sug- gests that fire plays a large role in limiting invasion by south Florida slash pine. In scrub associations we predict extirpation of the dominants, sand pine and rosemary, after long periods without fire on the basis of an observed lack of regeneration. Laessle (1958a, b, 1967), Monk (1968), and Veno (1976) all predicted eventual succession of scrubs to xeric hammocks with sufficient fire suppression. Many of the scrubs encountered in this study regenerated after fires that occurred approximately 40-60 years ago. As such, the time interval we can reliably comment on (ca. 1920-1983) does not deviate greatly from estimates of this association’s typical range of fire frequency, 30-80 years (Web- ber, 1935; Richardson, 1977). Extirpation of sand pine with subsequent development of xeric hammock vegetation may have occurred at site 5, but the data are inconclusive. Even if sand pine scrub vegetation had been present there at some earlier time, devel- opment of the current vegetation may reflect an extreme situation at this site. The peninsular location of site 5 greatly reduces the chances of fires burning into this area, and, early agricultural development of land adjoining the point (ca. 1920) probably served to further protect it from fire. To make broad gener- alizations for all southern Lake Wales Ridge scrubs from the unclear develop- ment_.and unique situation at site 5 is unwise. In fact, the question of total fire exclusion in most scrub communities may be largely academic. Even with fire protection, the chance of a fire occurring in an area increases over time (an observation also made by Veno, 1976), and although fire frequencies for the study area may be relatively low at present, it probably takes only one good burn in 80 years to regenerate and maintain scrub vegetation. A similar argu- ment may explain the absence of major successional developments in the scrubby flatwoods studied. Richardson (1977) found that frequent burning rather than an absence of fire resulted in the loss of sand pine from scrubs. Our observations from sites 2 and 4 support this idea, since sand pine regenerated poorly after fires in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Johnson (1982) has made a similar argument for rosemary scrubs, noting that fire frequencies of less than 10-15 years would preclude rosemary regeneration since these shrubs do not reach reproductive maturity before that time. No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 189 ConcLusion—Succession in southern Lake Wales Ridge sandhills and mesic flatwoods is controlled primarily by fire regimes. In both associations, less frequent burning during the past 40 to 60 years has led to a loss of south Florida slash pine and an increase in hardwoods, although in flatwoods this development was preceded by the growth of dense south Florida slash pine canopies. These findings are consistent with predictions based on data from more northerly Florida sandridges and other areas in the state (Laessle, 1958b; Monk, 1960, 1968; Veno, 1976). However, the species composition of these communities is not presently (and may never be) identical to that found in similar associations in northern Florida, possibly due to a lack of sufficiently proximate seed sources for species such as laurel oak, Quercus hemisphaerica, and Magnolia grandiflora. In contrast, water regimes appear to prevent invasion of swales by south Florida slash pine even under conditions of infrequent fire. Evidence from seasonal ponds suggests that south Florida slash pine invasion is dependent upon both low water tables and reduced fire frequencies. Little change was detected in the scrub and scrubby flatwoods associations. Although the life histories of the scrub dominants, sand pine and rosemary, clearly indicate that fire is necessary to maintain these communities, the time intervals necessary to directly test this hypothesis apparently are greater than those used in this study. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was supported by the Biology Department of Bucknell Uni- versity and Archbold Biological Station. We thank Ann Johnson and Ron Myers for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. LITERATURE CITED ABRAHAMSON, W. G. 1981. A 14-year fire history of Archbold Biological Station 1967-1980. Unpublished manuscript. Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, FL. . 1984a. Post-fire recovery of the Lake Wales Ridge vegetation in south-central Florida: a five-year study. Amer. J. Bot. 71:9-21. . 1984b. Species responses to fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge: a five-year study. Amer. J. Bot. 71:35-43. , A. F. JoHNson, AND J. N. Layne. 1984a. Archbold Biological Station vegetation map. Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, FL. , A. F. Jounson, J. N. Layne, anv P. A. Peroni. 1984b. Vegetation of the Archbold Biological Station, Florida: an example of the southern Lake Wales Ridge. Florida Scient. 47:209-250. Brown, A. W. 1920. U.S. survey notes and plats for T 37 S, R 29 E, Sec. 26; T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7 and 8. Florida Dept. Natural Resources, Tallahassee. Cuixps, J. W. 1870. U.S. survey notes and plats for T 36 S, R 29 E, Sec. 18 and 28; T 37S, R 29E, Sec. 26; T 37 S, R 30 E, Sec. 29; T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7 and 8. Florida Dept. Natural Resources, Tallahassee. FLoripa DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. 1970. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers KA 891-2-14, -2-15, -5-13, -5-14, -5-15, -6-10, -6-11, -6-12, -6-13, -8-8, -8-9, -9-9, -9-10, -9-12, -12-2, -12-3, -12-4, -13-2, -13-3, -13-4. Florida State Topographic Bureau, Tallahassee. 190 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 . 1981. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers PD-2686-1-26, -2-27, -2- 28, -2-29, -4-19, -4-20, -5-22, -5-23, -6-14, -6-15, -7-12, -7-13, -7-14, -7-15, -8-06, -8-07. Florida State Topographic Bureau, Tallahassee. Givens, K. T., J. N. Layne, W. G. ABRAHAMSON, AND S. C. WuITE-SCHULER. 1984. Structural changes and successional relationships of five Florida Lake Wales Ridge plant communi- ties. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 111:8-18. Harper, R. M. 1927. Natural Resources of Southern Florida. 18th Annual Report, Fla. State Geol. Surv., Pp. 27-206. Hartman, A. W. 1949. Fire as a tool in southern pine. Pp. 517-527. In: Yearbook of Agriculture. United States Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Jackson, J. 1859/1860. U.S. survey notes for T 37 S, R 29 E, Sec. 26; T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7 and 8; T 39S, R 30E, Sec. 10. Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, Tallahassee. Jounson, A. F. 1981. Scrub endemics of the Central Ridge, Florida. Unpublished collection of tables and maps prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Washington, DC. . 1982. Some demographic characteristics of the Florida rosemary, Ceratiola ericoides Michx. Amer. Midl. Nat. 108:170-174. KIMMELL, A. N. 1917. U.S. survey notes and plats for T 37 S, R 29 E, Sec. 26; T 37 S, R 30 E, Sec. 29; T 38 S, R 30, Sec. 7 and 8; T 39 S, R 30 E, Sec. 10. Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, Tallahassee. LarssLeE, A. M. 1958a. The origin and successional relationship of sandhill vegetation and sand- pine scrub. Ecol. Monogr. 28:361-387. . 1958b. A report on succession studies of selected plant communities on the University of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Florida. Q. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 2:101-112. . 1961. Field notes for Bear Point, Highlands County, Florida. Florida Natural Re- sources Inventory, Tallahassee. . 1967. Relation of sand pine scrub to former shorelines. Q. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 30:269- 286. LitT.e, A. E. 1921/1922. Timber cruise reports for T 36 S, R 29 E, Sec. 18 and 28; T 37S, R 29 E, Sec. 26; T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7 and 8; T 39 S, R 30 E, Sec. 10. Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, FL. MacNEIL, F. S. 1950. Pleistocene shorelines in Florida and Georgia. U.S. Geologic Survey Prof. Paper 221-F. Monk, C. D. 1960. A preliminary study on the relationships between the vegetation of a mesic hammock community and a sandhill community. Q. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 23:1-12. . 1968. Successional and environmental relationships of the forest vegetation of north central Florida. Amer. Midl. Nat. 79:441-457. Myers, R. L. 1985. Fire and the dynamic relationship between Florida sandhill and sand pine scrub vegetation. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 112:241-252. Ovum, E. P. 1983. Basic Ecology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. Peroni, P. A. 1983. Vegetation history of the southern Lake Wales Ridge, Highlands County, Florida. MS thesis. Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA. RicHarpson, D. R. 1977. Vegetation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of Palm Beach County, Florida. Florida Scient. 40:28 1-330. SMALL, J. K. 1921. Old trails and new discoveries. J. New York Bot. Gard. 22:25-40. STENBERG, J. R. 1982. Report and notes of timber cruise of the Archbold Biological Station, December, 1982. Unpublished manuscript. Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, FL. TANNEHILL, J. D. 1871. U.S. survey notes and plat for T 39 S, R 30 E, Sec. 10. Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, Tallahassee. USDA, Sort ConsERVATION SERVICE. 1940. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CFJ 2-33, 2-34, 2-35. . 1944. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CY W-3C-164, -3C-165, -3C-166, -3C-168, -3C-169, -4C-76, -4C-77, -4C-78, -6C-22, -6C-102, -6C-103, -6C-104, -6C-168, -6C-169, -6C-170, -7C-22, -7C-23, -7C-24, -7C-25, -7C-51, -7C-52, -7C-53, -7C- 104, -7C-105, -7C-106. . 1952a. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CYW-1H-35, -1H-36, -1H-37, -2H-24, -2H-25. . 1952b. Florida: Highlands Soil Conservation District, Highlands County, physical land conditions. . 1957/1958. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CYW-1V-23, -1V- 24, -1V-25, -1V-26, -1V-27, -1V-68, -1V-69, 1-V-70, -1V-136, -1V-137, -1V-138, -1V-167, No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 19] -1V-168, -1V-169, -1V-170, -1V-171, -1V-172, -2V-83, -2V-84, -2V-85, -2V-132, -2V-133, -2V-188, -2V-189, -2V-190. VeNo, P. A. 1976. Successional relationships of five Florida plant communities. Ecology 57:498- 508. Warp, D. B., ed. 1978. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida: Vol. 5: Plants. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Wesser, H. J. 1935. The Florida scrub, a fire-fighting association. Amer. J. Bot. 22:344-361. Florida Sci. 49(3):176-191. 1986. Accepted: November 19, 1985. REVIEW Lawrence H. Keith and Douglas B. Walters (Editors), Compendium of Safety Data Sheets for Research and Industrial Chemicals, VCH Publishers, Inc., Deerfield, Florida, 1985. Pp. 1862 (in three volumes). Price $270.00. MATERIAL Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a term that will become increas- ingly familiar to all of us for several reasons. This Compendium provides the necessary pertinent information clearly, usefully, accurately, and conveniently for some 867 compounds. The need for a MSDS arises from a logical sequence of circumstances. According to the National Occupational Hazards survey, about 25 million workers, or about | of every 4, are potentially exposed to about 8,000 hazards (as defined and identified by the National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety). 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Basically, then, this Compendium is designed to provide the detailed infor- mation that is required for preparation of a MSDS. The Compendium consists of well-organized presentation of information for each of the 867 chemicals 192 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 covered (two pages per chemical). Provided is: chemical names, synonyms, Chemical Abstract Services registry number, NIOSH registry number, molecu- lar and structural formula, Wiswesser line notation, molecular weight, physi- cal description, melting point, boiling point, density, flammability, stability, flashpoint, upper and lower explosive limits, permissible exposure limits, threshold limit values, short-term exposure limits, and Department of Trans- portation shipping regulations. In addition, safe usage and storage suggestions, emergency first-aid instructions, spill cleanup recommendations, and appro- priate glove materials for personal use are provided. 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MartTIN, Co-Editor Volume 49 Autumn, 1986 Number 4 Biological Sciences THEFRINGE-LIMBEDYREE FROG, HYLA FAMBRIMEMBRA (ANURA: HYLIDAE): NEW RECORDS FROM COSTA RICA (3) Marc P./Hayes |, J. ALAN Pounps”’ AND Douc.as C\ ROBINSON "Department of|Biology, P.O. Box 249118, University of Miami, Coral Galles, FL 33124 USA; Department of Zoology, University of Flprida, Gainesville, FL 3261 USA; and ’Esduela de Biologia, Universidad d¢ Cgs frog, Hyla fimbrimembra, are reported. The first report of JoJors in life are provided for one of these specimens, a juvenile female from near Monteverd osta Rica; this includes a distinct brown-green metachrosis of its lichen-like color-pattern. marized are morphometric data on the four known metamorphosed individuals, all femalefyfvhich range in body size from a 30.5- mm juvenile to an 86.5.mm adult. Available data sug that the species is a|nocturnally active, cloud forest form. THE fringe-limbed\treefrogs of the World tropics ar¢ among the most infrequently encounteréd and least uggérstood anurans (Savage, 1981; Wilson et al., 1985). Hyla fimbrimembraflaylor, a species in thi distinctive assem- blage, was previously known from only two individuals/taken from the for- ested slopes of Volcan Poas (Quellman, 1970), although Savage (1981) recently allocated a tadpole from the same region to this specig¢s/Data on the color and pattern of these individuals in life are limited. In this paper, we report on two additional specimens from Costa Rtsa,_one for-whick substantial data on color in life exist. One specimen, a juvenile female (CRE 4643), was found by Kaius He- lenurn along the Pantaposo Trail in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in the Cordillera de TilaratX\. Provincia de Pintarenas, whereas the other (UCR 5976), an adult female, wastaken-trom the southern slopes of Cerro Turt in the Cordillera Central, Provincia de Heredia. These localities are approxi- mately 70 km west and 25 km southeast, respectively, of the only known rec- ords from Poas. 194 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 CRE 4643 was found on 8 February 1984 at 1500 h sitting on an epiphyte 1.2 m above the ground in a posture similar to the water-conserving posture described for Hyla chrysoscelis (Ralin, 1981). The weather was cloudy, but without the mist often present locally during the dry season (November-April). UCR 5976 was found at 1030 h 2 m above the ground on a branch in a patch of forest surrounded by pasture (Federico Valverde, pers. comm.). The Pantanoso locality is on the continental divide, whereas the Cerro Turt locality is on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Central. Both localities lie within the Lower Montane Rainforest life zone of Holdridge (Hartshorn, 1983). The vegetation at the former locality consists of a wind-influenced asso- ciation termed Windward Cloud Forest (Lawton and Dryer, 1980). This forest rarely exceeds 20 m in height, and epiphytes are a prominent feature. The previously reported H. fimbrimembra, including the tadpole (Savage, 1981), also were found in cloud forest near Isla Bonita (hereafter referred to as IB), Provincia de Alajuela, Costa Rica (Table 1), also in the Lower Montane Rain- forest life zone. Morphological features of CRE 4643 and UCR 5976 match the four char- acteristics that, according to Duellman (1970), differentiate H. fimbrimembra from other fringe-limbed hylids: a curved fold above the tympanum, skin folds below the cloaca, and sharply scalloped fringes and narrow dark transverse bands on the limbs. Taylor (1948) described the first two known specimens of H. fimbrimem- bra as different species, H. richardi (Field Museum of Natural History [FM] 191783) and H. fimbrimembra (FM 191784). He based that assessment on co- ossification of the skull, pustular skin and dark-colored digital disks of the larger individual. The smaller individual lacked these three characteristics, but possessed distinctly tuberculate skin. However, Duellman (1970) synony- mized the larger (H. richardi Taylor) with H. fimbrimembra because ontoge- netic variation in the related H. valancifer suggested that tuberculation dimin- ishes as individuals attain larger size and because increasing co-ossification is a known ontogenetic trait among frogs possessing this condition. CRE 4643 supports Duellman’s interpretation of an ontogenetic transition. Intermediate in size between the juvenile and adult specimens from IB (Table 1), it is also intermediate in tuberculation and co-ossification. Tubercules are restricted to the flanks instead of being scattered over the entire dorsum as in the IB juvenile (see Taylor, 1948: Fig. 2); co-ossification is poorly developed in the frontoparie- tal region in contrast to the well-developed condition of the IB adult. However, CRE 4643 possesses darkened digital disks and pustular skin as described for the IB adult. The pustular skin condition of this specimen is most pronounced in the head region. The IB juvenile also differs from the adult in having more conspicuous bands on the limbs, small dark flecks on the flanks, and pale-colored edges on the upper lip and chin (Taylor, 1948; Duellman, 1970). Again, CRE 4643 appears intermediate, possessing moderately conspicuous bands on the limbs and only a few dark flecks on the flanks, though it approaches the IB adult in the latter characteristic, being dark-colored along the upper and lower lips. No. 4, 1986] HAYES ET AL—TREE FROG 195 UCR 5976 does not differ significantly from the IB adult in any of the afore- mentioned features. In life, CRE 4643 has a lichen-like color pattern consisting of a melange of yellows, greens and browns and exhibits metachrosis. A diffuse reticulum of green and brown was present over the body to varying degrees depending on the color phase. In the paler phase, the predominant color was yellow-cream to beige, and the reticulum was restricted to the back of the head and upper dorsum. More green was present anteriorly, whereas more brown was present on the lower back and upper surfaces of the hind limbs. In the darker color phase, the overall impression was that of a green frog with a more lichen-like pattern because the reticulum expanded, obscuring much of the paler ground color. Duellman (1960) described similar metachrosis in a juvenile of the re- lated H. valancifer. UCR 5976 was recorded as being “‘yellowish-white”’ in life. Comparison of our color notes with those of Taylor (1948) is difficult, in part because Taylor provided few details, but also because evaluation of hues is subjective. Were it not that Taylor specified that some of his color descriptions were from life, we would suspect them to be based on preserved individuals because the lavender-brown to blue-black hues noted by Taylor are the pre- dominant colors we observed in CRE 4643 after its preservation in alcohol. In the following comparison, color descriptions of Taylor which parallel ours are indicated by parentheses. The diffuse reticulum of CRE 4643 in life is more suggestive of Taylor’s description of the IB adult (nearly uniform laven- der brown with very indistinct darker markings) than that of the IB juvenile (brownish gray above, the extremities more ashen gray). The dark upper sur- faces of the digital disks, dark edging to the upper and lower lips, mottled throat, and lavender brown [in alcohol] venter and undersides of the thighs also more closely resemble the IB adult (disks on all fingers and toes blue- black; edge of the lower jaw bluish-black; a narrow line of black on edge of upper lip; throat yellow-brown with fine purple reticulation; venter and under- sides of thighs lavender brown with cream marks) than the IB juvenile (chin and venter white with strong lavender reticulations on chin [in life]; dorsal surface of disks cream [in alcohol]). CRE 4643 approaches the IB juvenile in color of the vent region. Taylor indicated that the juvenile had “*. . . a pure white mark with two small black spots above. . .” around the vent, but noted the IB adult lacked the light mark at the vent. Taylor’s white mark probably refers to the anal ornamentation of white guanine which Duellman (1970) found in many hylid frogs. In CRE 4643, a thin, white, transverse line is present just above the vent. Below the vent, vertically oriented anal folds are also heavily guanified. Ornamentation extends laterally from the edges of the folds and expands sharply at about half their length, placing the darker areas to each side of the folds in sharp contrast. CRE 4643 also possesses guanine on the heels, limb fringes, and tibiae. The posterior surface of the heels are capped with guanine, a condition which probably corresponds to Taylor’s (1948) “‘tip of heel white” for the IB juvenile, a feature he did not mention for the IB adult. Taylor also made no mention of 196 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 white on the limb fringes of the IB specimens. However, his description for the adult, after preservation, states, “*. . . fringe on the limbs colored like body. . .’, which suggests they were not guanified in life. The leg fringes of CRE 4643 are dotted with guanine so that the tips of the fringe serrations appear white. In contrast, the forelimb fringes have more ornamentation; the forearm fringe appears as an irregular white line that becomes discontinuous on the outer manus. The posterior half of each tibia possesses a few (three or four) small, guanified tubercles, a condition not mentioned by Taylor for the IB specimens. TaBLE 1. Measurements in mm of known specimens allocated to Hyla fimbrimembra. Values in italics beneath body measurements are ratios of the respective measurements to SVL. Left (L) and right (R) tibia and foot measurements are given; the measurement of the right element is used in calculation of ratios. Taylor's (1948) measurements are in parentheses; the side of his symmetric measurements was unspecified. Taylor listed his foot measurements as “‘foot’’ and “‘foot and toe” for the Isla Bonita adult and juvenile, respectively; their dimensions suggest both correspond to the foot (heel to the tip of the fourth toe) measurement used here. Head length, foot and SVL were measured to the nearest 0.5 mm with a 15 cm rule; tibia and head width were measured to the nearest 0.1 mm with dial calipers. Collection symbolic codes are FM (Field Museum of Natural History), CRE (Costa Rica Expeditions: University of Miami) and UCR (Universidad de Costa Rica). Head Head Specimen Sex SVL Tibia Foot Width Length FM 191783 F 71.0 ay (4B 54.0L 27.0 23.5 36.7R 55.0R (71) (37) (53) (28) (23) Cay 0.775 0.380 0.330 FM 191784 F 30.5 16.8L 24.0L 11.3 11.0 16.5R 24.5R (31) (17) (24.6) (12.5) (11) 0.541 0.803 0.370 0.361 CRE 4643 F 47.5 Zi UL; 37.01 19.9 iss 26.8R 37.5R 0.564 0.789 0.419 0.326 UCR 5976 F 86.5 46.4L 66.3L 33:5 27.0 46.0R 66.6R 0.532 0.770 0.387 0.312 CRE 7015 Tadpole 3 : : f We doubt that Taylor overlooked similar guanification in his specimens, but because guanine may disappear with preservation (Starrett and Savage, 1973), an assessment of ontogenetic change in its distribution awaits acquisition of additional living material. Previous authors have not given descriptions of the eyes of H. fimbrimem- bra. CRE 4643 had a horizontal pupil that in bright light was asymmetrically diamond-shaped. In life, the iris was red-orange. Typically, adults of other fringe-limbed hylids have an iris which is brown (H. thysanota Duellman), No. 4, 1986] HAYES ET AL—TREE FROG 197 dark brown (H. valancifer Firschein and Smith), dark brown with gold fleck- ing (H. salvaje Wilson, McCranie and Williams), gold with brown reticula- tions (H. minera Wilson, McCranie and Williams) or bronze with reddish- brown reticulations (H. miliaria [Cope]; Duellman, 1970; Wilson et al., 1985). Only in H. valancifer has iris color been reported in a juvenile, where it is reddish-brown. These data suggest an ontogenetic change in iris color among fringe-limbed hylids. Morphometric data for known specimens of H. fimbrimembra are given in Table 1. Some of the tibia- and head width-to-body length ratios vary in a fashion inconsistent with increasing body size among the four metamorphosed individuals, indicating considerable variation. Partial dissection of metamor- phosed H. fimbrimembra indicates that all are females and that CRE 4643 is prereproductive. Data on the ecology of H. fimbrimembra are limited to collection circum- stances of the four known individuals. The juvenile reported by Taylor (1952) was found at night, clinging to a small plant in the spray of a waterfall, whereas the adult he reported was found during the day beneath the bark of a standing dead tree (Duellman, 1970). Parallel data for the Cerro Turt frog are unavailable. These observations and the inactive condition of CRE 4643 at time of collection suggest the species is nocturnal. The only known tadpole (Savage, 1981) was collected in a small borrow-pit ditch (Norman Scott, pers. comm.). CRE 4643 is deposited in the Costa Rica Expeditions (CRE) collections at the University of Miami, whereas UCR 5976 is in the herpetological collection of the Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica. Color slides of the former individual are in the possession of the senior author. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Steve Adolph, Douglas Futuyma, Kaius Helenurn and members of Orga- nization for Tropical Studies course 84-1 generously provided slides or supplementary information on CRE 4643. Wilfred Guindon (Tropical Science Center) gave permission to take the frog, Nor- man J. Scott (USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico) provided information on the tadpole collection site, Harold K. Voris (Field Museum, Chicago) allowed us to examine the types of H. fimbrimem- bra and H. richardi, and gave permission to confirm the sex of the IB juvenile by dissection, and Federico Valverde assisted us in obtaining data on the UCR specimen. Judith L. Bronstein, Craig Guyer, David M. Hillis, Anne E. Mahler, and Jay M. Savage kindly reviewed the manuscript. MPH was supported by a Maytag fellowship and JAP by a research assistantship from the Universities of Miami and Florida, respectively. This is contribution No. 188 from the Program in Tropical Biol- ogy, Ecology and Behavior at the University of Miami. LITERATURE CITED Duettman, W. E. 1960. Redescription of Hyla valancifer. Studies of American hylid frogs, III. Herpetologica 16:55-57. . 1970. The hylid frogs of Middle America. Vol. 1. Monogr. Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas No. 1. HartsHorn, G. S. 1983. Chapter 7: Plants: Introduction, Pp. 118-183. In D. H. JANZEN (ed.). Costa Rican Natural History. Univ. Chicago Press. Lawton, R. O. anp V. Dryer. 1980. The vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. Brenesia. 18:101-116. 198 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Rauin, D. B. 1981. Ecophysiological adaptation in a diploid-tetraploid complex of treefrogs (Hyli- dae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. (A) 68:175-179. SavacE, J. M. 1974. Type localities for species of amphibians and reptiles described from Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 22:71-122. . 1981. The tadpole of the Costa Rican fringe-limbed tree-frog, Hyla fimbrimembra. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 93:1177-1183. SrarrETT, P. H. anv J. M. Savace. 1973. The systematic status and distribution of Costa Rican glass-frogs, genus Centrolenella (family Centrolenidae) with description of a new species. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 72:57-78. Taytor, E. H. 1948. Two new hylid frogs from Costa Rica. Copeia 1948:233-238. . 1952. A review of the frogs and toads of Costa Rica. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 35:577- 942. Wixson, L. D., J. R. McCranie anp K. L. Witiiams. 1985. Two new species of fringe-limbed hylid frogs from Nuclear Middle America. Herpetologica 41:141-150. Florida Sci.49(4):193-198. 1986. Accepted: October 30, 1985. APPENDIX-— List of specimens examined. Localities are listed alphabetically by province and locality specifics, respectively. Collection symbolic codes are those used in Table 1. Elevations in meters are in parentheses. Elevations for the two types follow Savage (1974). COSTA RICA: Alajuela: Volcan Poas, Isla Bonita—FM 191783 (1200 m) [Type of H. richardi], 3.2 km w Isla Bonita—FM 191784 (1300 m)[Type of H. fimbrimembra], La Cinchona area [vicinity of Isla Bonita]—CRE 7015 (1360m)[tadpole], Heredia: s Cerro Turt, ca. 5 km nne San Isidro de Heredia—UCR 5976 (1600 m), Puntarenas: Reserva de Monteverde, Sendero Pantanoso—CRE 4643 (1550 m). While this manuscript was in press, Craig Guyer (Univ. Miami) collected two adult specimens of Hyla fimbrimembra during a survey of Braulio Carrillo National Park in Costa Rica. He kindly allowed us to comment on these specimens. Both individuals possessed dark brown irises with a reddish-copper hue, supporting our suggestion that iris color changes ontogenetically. Addition- ally, neither adult possessed guanine on the heels, limb fringes, and tibiae, suggesting that guanine ornamentation is lost during ontogeny. Biological Sciences EFFECTS OF THE DECEMBER 1983 AND JANUARY 1985 FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES ON SELECT AQUATIC POIKILOTHERMS AND PLANT SPECIES OF MERRITT ISLAND, FLORIDA Mark J. PROVANCHA, PAUL A. SCHMALZER AND CARLTON R. HALL The Bionetics Corporation, Mail Code BIO-2, John F. Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899 ABsTRACT: Freezing air temperatures during the periods 25-26 December 1983 and 20-23 January 1985 resulted in hypothermal stress and mortality of several aquatic poikilotherms in the upper Indian River lagoon system, Brevard County, Florida. Twenty-three species of fish repre- senting 15 families were found stressed or dead in the 1983 freeze and nine species representing 8 families were observed in the 1985 freeze. One hundred and fifty-two sea turtles were rescued from lagoonal waters in January 1985 of which 145 were Chelonia mydas (green turtle), and 7 were adult Caretta caretta (Atlantic loggerhead). Numerous indigenous plant species of tropical and subtropical origin were extensively damaged. These included Avicennia germinans, Laguncu- laria racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle. Exotic plant species such as Schinus terebinthifolius, Casuarina equisetifolia, and Melaleuca quinquenervia were also damaged. CONSECUTIVE yearly freezes severe enough to induce hypothermal stress and mortality among aquatic poikilotherms and to simultaneously cause sub- stantial damage to numerous native and exotic plant species are unprece- dented for the central east coast of peninsular Florida. On 25 December 1983, just past midnight, a massive cold front moved across the Merritt Island region of central coastal Brevard County. Early morning air temperatures on 26 De- cember reached a low of —5.5°C. Nearly 13 months later, between 20-23 January 1985, another intense freeze dropped air temperatures to a low of —6.6°C. This paper addresses the impacts of these two freeze events on aquatic poikilotherms and plant species of Merritt Island, Florida. Historically, most documentation of the effects of freezing and subfreezing temperatures on the biota of coastal peninsular Florida have concentrated on describing those effects on the aquatic fauna inhabiting the waters of the Gulf coast and the Florida Keys (Packard, 1871; Willcox, 1887; Finch, 1917; Sto- rey and Gudger, 1936; Miller, 1940; Galloway, 1941; Rinckey and Saloman, 1964). The effects of freezing air temperatures on the aquatic fauna in Brevard County have been addressed (Bangs, 1895; Snelson and Bradley, 1978; Ehrhart, 1979). Finch (1917) stated that both coasts of Florida were affected by the cold wave of 2-4 February 1917, but mentioned general localities only for the west coast. Snelson and Bradley (1978), via personal communications with Brevard County residents, indicated that some fish were apparently af- fected by the cold winter of 1957-58 and that a substantial number were adversely affected in the 1962 cold wave as were sea turtles (pers. comm. Dr. L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida). 200 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Climate is known to control the distribution of organisms through average conditions or through periodic extremes such as freezes (Walter, 1979) and is probably most evident in transition zones between two different climatic re- gions. Briggs (1974) identified the fauna of the Indian River lagoon system, adjacent to Merritt Island, as characteristic of a transition zone between a subtemperate and a subtropical zone. Gilmore and co-workers (1978) identi- fied stenothermic tropical Caribbean fishes as being sympatric with euryther- mic temperate Carolinian species in some of Florida’s estuaries including Tampa Bay, Sanibel Island and the Indian River lagoon. Stenothermic tropical and subtropical fishes were identified as the heaviest impacted species during the January 1977 freeze (Gilmore et al., 1978). Storey (1937) reviewed the ranges of fish that were adversely affected by freezing temperatures and identi- fied species of tropical origin as “always hurt”’’ in the proximity of Sanibel Island. Ehrhart (1979 and pers. comm.) identified the tropical green turtle as always impacted by hard freezes and prolonged periods of low air tempera- tures as documented for 1962, 1977, 1978, 1981, and 1985. Rinckey and Saloman (1964) suggested that the quick drop in water temperature in Tampa Bay had the greatest impact on tropical and subtropical fish species. Greller (1980) mapped Merritt Island as a transition zone between a Tem- perate Broad-leaved Evergreen Forest and a Tropical Forest. Previous botani- cal studies of Merritt Island (Sweet, 1976; Poppleton et al., 1977; Sweet et al., 1979; Stout, 1980) have indicated the presence of species of tropical and sub- tropical distribution. The transitional characteristics of the terrestrial vegeta- tion are illustrated by the distribution of tree species. Species reaching their northern limits of distribution on the coast between Merritt Island and St. Augustine include Avicennia germinans (black mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove), Myrcianthes fragans (nakedwood) and Rhi- zophora mangle (red mangrove) (Little, 1978). Certain introduced species in- cluding Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian pine), Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper) and Melaleuca quinquenervia (melaleuca) originate from tropical and subtropical areas and are cold sensitive. Few papers have discussed effects of freezing temperatures on flora while describing faunal responses for any given locality in coastal peninsular Flor- ida. Storey and Gudger (1936) briefly described firsthand accounts of the de- struction of vegetation, principally mangroves, on Sanibel Island with the as- sistance of reliable, long time residents. Miller (1940) briefly noted that obvious damage was done to native trees and introduced tropical plants from Miami to Key West. His discussion included key mahogany, royal palm, guava and red mangrove. Gilmore and co-workers (1978) mentioned the devastating effects of the freeze on red mangrove in the vicinity of Fort Pierce. Snelson and Bradley (1978) indicated that numerous subtropical components of the biota were affected but provided specific information only on fish. Stowers and LeVasseur (1983) noted damage to citrus, vegetable crops and mangroves but not fauna in west-central Florida from the January 1981 freeze. Caprio and Taylor (1984) noted freeze damage to certain forbs and graminoids in the Everglades from the January 1981 freeze but not to other components of the No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 201 biota. The 1894-95 freeze caused extensive mortality to mangroves throughout the Indian River area (Bangs, 1895; Davis, 1940). MATERIALS AND METHops— This work was conducted to document, in part, natural changes in Merritt Island ecosystems as part of the long term environmental monitoring and research pro- gram at the John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) (NASA, 1982). A reconnaissance survey on 27 December 1983 revealed that a moderate fish-kill occurred following the passage of an intense cold front. Surveys were made along the northern shorelines of NASA Causeway and Highway 528, both of which span the Banana River (Fig. 1). In addition, observations were made at Banana Creek and Kennedy Parkway, the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) Turning Basin, and a boat ramp located 2.8 km east of the VAB Turning Basin. All three sites have been dredged (3-9 m) and are havens and sometimes “death traps” (Tabb, 1966; Moore, 1976; Gilmore et al., 1978; Snelson and Bradley, 1978) for fish seeking refuge from abnormally cold water temperatures. Representative specimens of each species impacted were collected, if possible, and were identi- fied, measured and weighed. Water temperature was measured using a Yellow Springs Instrument (YSI) Model 33. Surveys for the January 1985 freeze were conducted at the same locations as identified for 1983 with additional observations made along NASA Causeway and the Indian River, numerous deep drainage ditches, mosquito control impoundments and open water areas of the upper Banana River. Search and rescue missions for stressed lagoonal sea turtles were conducted by personnel of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) at the Merritt Island National Wildlife Ref- uge. Water temperature, salinity and conductivity were measured using YSI Models 33 and 51B. Continuous (0.5 h interval) measurements of water temperatures were made at two locations using Hydrolab 2020 series data sondes. One site was an impounded lagoon, typically less than 0.5 m in depth. The second site was a small, somewhat protected lagoon located at the northern terminus of the Banana River. Both instruments were immersed approximately 15 cm beneath the water’s surface. ‘Water temperature data were reduced to depict a profile beginning on 20 January at midnight and continuing through 24 January 1985. Meteorological data were collected at a Per- manent Air Monitoring Station (PAMS) located on KSC (Fig. 1). Effects of the two freezes on terrestrial vegetation were evaluated during fieldwork for on- going long term vegetation studies. No attempt was made to quantify vegetation damage from these events; however, various communities including dunes, strand, hammocks, scrub, cattail marshes, sand cordgrass marshes and mangrove swamps were examined after each freeze event. Resutts—Meteorological and Hydrographic Data: Yearly climatological data for KSC and Cape Canaveral have been collected since 1957. A monthly summary of data for December, January, and February is presented in Table | (Eastern Space and Missile Center, 1982). A comparative statistical summary of ambient air temperatures for December 1983 and Janu- ary 1985 respectively, are as follows; extreme maximum 32.2 and 26.6°C, mean maximum 23.7 and 19.1°C, overall mean 16.3 and 12.2°C, mean minimum 11.6 and 6.1°C and extreme mini- mum —5.5°C and —6.6°C. Daily air temperatures for December 1983 and December 1984 through January 1985 are presented (Fig. 2, 3, and 4). TABLE 1. Historical air temperature data for John F. Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 1957-1982.* Temperatures, °C Extreme Mean Overall Mean Extreme Month Maximum Maximum Mean Minimum Minimum Dec. 29.4 4 | 16.7 L7 =—o0 Jan. 28.9 20.7 15.6 11.1 aay fey Feb. 30.6 20.6 15.6 10.6 =o “Source: Eastern Space and Missile Center, 1982. 202 FLORIDA SCIENTIST TITUSVILLE a4 Naa SAS BANANA CREEK SF 0 he ~. GNU ERR EERE Fic. 1. Map of the John F Kennedy Space Center and vicinity. No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 203 TEMPERATURE (°C) fea es by OS) 45 4547 19 2123.25 27 29 31 DAY OF MONTH Fic. 2. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida for December 1983. bs 30 20 20 15 10 TEMPERATURE (°C) eee toe 98) 1 15085\.17 149) 21.25, 25.27.29 31 DAY OF MONTH Fic. 3. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida for December 1984. 204 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TEMPERATURE (°C) —— MEAN ---- MAXIMUM MINIMUM 1-325 27 69 41 4G5.d7 19 21085 25 27 eon DAY OF MONTH Fic. 4. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida for January 1985. Water temperatures were recorded at three general locations on 27 December 1983. These were the NASA Causeway Bridge and the Banana River, (9.0°C surface and 10.0°C at 5 m), the VAB Turning Basin, (13.0°C surface and 14.5°C at 4 m) and Banana Creek and Kennedy Parkway, (8.0-8.5°C surface). Surface temperatures recorded on 29 December at these same three locations were 13.0°C, 17.0°C and 18.0°C, respectively. Surface water temperatures in the VAB Turning Basin approximately one week prior to the freeze measured 20.0°C. On 20 January 1985, water temperatures at the NASA Causeway bridge and the Banana River measured 15.0°C at the surface as well as at 5 m. Salinity measured 16.5 ppt. Surface water temperatures on 22 January 1985 along the north and south sides of NASA Causeway and Banana River measured 4.0°C and 2.8°C, respectively. Water depths at these two sites were 0.5 m and salinities measured 17.0 ppt. At the NASA Causeway bridge, water temperatures were 8.0°C surface and 9.0°C at 5 m. Water temperature recorded for the Indian River along the north side of NASA Causeway was 4.5°C and salinity measured 22 ppt. At Banana Creek surface and bottom (2 m) temperatures were 8.0 and 7.5°C, respectively. Impounded water north of Launch Complex 39B reached a low of 2.8°C at 1000 h on 22 January (Fig. 5). Water temperature at this same location two days earlier was 15.0°C. The effects of rapid cooling were not nearly as dramatic at the open lagoonal station where a minimum temperature of 8.0°C was reached on 23 January. Three days earlier readings were near 14.5°C. FisHEs: A total of 23 species of fishes representing 15 families were observed and/or collected during field surveys following these two freezes. All have been previously documented from this region (Snelson, 1983). Listed below are those species affected by the December 1983 and January 1985 freezes. Notes on location, the freeze in which they were observed and length-weights are presented. DASYATIDAE Dasyatis sayi (bluntnose sting ray). What appeared to be either a large juvenile or adult speci- men was observed motionless in approximately six centimeters of water adjacent to the northwest shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River. This specimen was not collected and therefore an accurate account of its condition could not be determined. Typically, large juveniles No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 205 25 5 TEMPERATURE (°C) ---- IMPOUNDMENT 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 HOURS Fic. 5. Water temperature profile of a lagoonal station at the northern terminus of the Banana River and a shallow water mosquito impoundment for January 1985. and adults are found in water deeper than 2.0 m (Snelson and Williams, 1981) and the occurrence of one in water just a few centimeters deep was unusual. Observed in the 1983 freeze, this speci- men was the only cartilagenous species encountered during either freeze event. ELOPIDAE Elops saurus (ladyfish). One specimen (25.7 cm SL; 184 g) was collected along the north shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in December 1983. Several dead individuals of the same approximate size were observed in the general vicinity. Snelson and Bradley (1978) described this species as possessing tropical and subtropical affinities and recorded a few dead, ranging between 18-41 cm SL, in the January 1977 cold spell. ALBULIDAE Albula vulpes (bonefish). This species is of tropical-subtropical distribution and is rare in the upper Indian River lagoon system. One specimen (12.6 cm SL; 31 g) was collected in the 1983 freeze along the northwest shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River. This represents only the third specimen documented from this area. This particular fish was observed dead on top of a floating mat of seagrass. CLUPEIDAE Brevoortia spp. (menhaden). One adult individual was observed along NASA Causeway and the Banana River in the 1983 freeze but was not retrievable. ARIIDAE Arius felis (sea catfish). In 1983, thousands of dead juveniles were observed floating in Banana Creek near Kennedy Parkway. No specimens were collected but the size class appeared extremely homogeneous (approximately 15 cm TL). Dead adults were observed along the northwest shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in the proximity of the Canaveral Barge Canal several days following the freeze. Approximately 95% or more of the estimated 200,000 fish that floated to the surface were sea catfish (pers. comm. Mike Willard, Brevard County Biologist). In 1985, both moribund and dead specimens were collected at Banana Creek as well as the north shoreline of NASA Causeway and the Indian River. Specimens collected from the Indian River 206 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 measured between 26.7-32.5 cm TL and weighed from 113-276 g. Individuals collected from Banana Creek revealed a mixture of size classes measuring between 10.5-34.0 cm TL and weigh- ing between | 1-341 g. This species was observed in fewer numbers in the 1977 freeze (Snelson and Bradley, 1978). Bagre marinus (gafftopsail catfish). One specimen (17.2 cm SL; 84 g) was collected along NASA Causeway and the Banana River in 1983 and another (20.5 cm TL; 62 g) along NASA Causeway and the Indian River in 1985. Contrastingly, Snelson and Bradley (1978) identified this species as the second most abundant fish killed in the VAB Turning Basin with the predominant size class measuring between 20-25 cm SL. BELONIDAE Strongylura spp. (needlefish). One dead specimen was observed in Banana Creek in 1983. It appeared to be about 25 cm TL. Snelson and Bradley (1978) described Strongylura notata as moderately impacted by the 1977 freeze. CENTROPOMIDAE Centropomus undecimalis (snook). Observed only in December 1983, this tropical-subtropical species was modestly impacted. One dead individual was observed along the northern shoreline of Highway 528 Causeway near the Canaveral Barge Canal. Approximately 20 specimens, measur- ing 76 cm TL or greater (pers. comm. Mike Willard, Brevard County Biologist), were observed dead in the Canaveral Barge Canal several days following the freeze. CARANGIDAE Caranx spp. (jack). A single specimen, estimated at 30 cm TL, was observed dead in Banana Creek at Kennedy Parkway in December 1983. In January 1985, dead specimens of Caranx hippos (jack crevalle) were commonly found, but only at Banana Creek. Individuals ranged from 30.3- 41.3 cm TL and weighed between 337-675 g. Chloroscombrus chrysurus (Atlantic bumper). One dead specimen (17 cm SL; 91 g) was col- lected in 1983 on the northern shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River. Trachinotus falcatus (permit). Moribund or dead specimens were common along the NASA Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. Moribund individuals exhibited a severe loss of equilib- rium. Sixteen specimens were collected. Body lengths ranged from 20.4-37.5 cm SL and weights ranged between 319-1844 g. Snelson and Bradley (1978) found dead permit to be very abundant in the VAB Turning Basin. GERREIDAE Eucinostomus harengulus (spotfin mojarra). Eleven specimens (7.2-11.8 cm SL; 17-50 g) were collected in 1983 along the northeast shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in extremely shallow water. Some individuals were observed floating on seagrass mats while others were actu- ally entangled within the mats. Eucinostomus gula (silver jenny). One dead specimen (9.2 cm SL; 328 g) was collected in 1983 at the northeast shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River. Diapterus olisthostomus (Irish pompano). Seventeen dead specimens (4.6-10.7 cm SL; 5-47 g) were collected along the north shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. These individuals were associated with mats of uprooted and broken seagrass. Diapterus plumieri (striped mojarra). Several dead adult individuals were observed in very shallow water along the northwest shoreline of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. Specimens were not collected; however, they appeared to be approximately 20 cm TL. A single specimen, measuring 30.5 cm TL and weighing 430 g, was collected from Banana Creek in January 1985. SCIAENIDAE Cynoscion nebulosus (spotted seatrout). One dead specimen'‘(approximately 30 cm TL) was seen along the north shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. In 1985, a dead individual (30.5 cm TL; 243 g) was collected along NASA Causeway and the Indian River. Bairdiella chrysoura (silver perch). This species was observed in 1983 along Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River. All specimens were dead and estimated to be about 10 cm TL. EPHIPPIDAE Chaetodipterus faber (spadefish). This species was observed in the Banana River during both freezes. Individuals were observed both dead or with impaired swimming. In 1983, individuals ranged from 11.1-26.8 cm SL and weighed from 93-1012 g. Those collected in 1985 ranged from 15.6-38.2 cm TL and weighed from 112-1275 g. No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 207 MUGILIDAE Mugil cephalus (striped mullet). A single dead specimen was observed along the north shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. This specimen was not collected but was associated with numerous other species affected by the freeze. BALISTIDAE Aluterus schoepfi (orange filefish). One dead individual was collected in 1983 along NASA Causeway and the Banana River approximately one kilometer east of the bridge. This specimen measured 36.1 cm SL and weighed 869 g. Monacanthus hispidus (planehead filefish). This species was commonly observed along the north shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in the 1983 freeze. All individuals encoun- tered were dead. Five specimens were collected that ranged from 16.2-24.8 cm SL and weighed between 149-542 g. In 1985, a single specimen (21.5 em TL; and 159 g) was collected dead at the same location as those in the 1983 freeze. TETRAODONTIDAE Sphoeroides nephelus (southern puffer). Specimens collected in 1983 ranged from 16.8-17.7 cm SL and weighed between 162-217 g. In 1985, individuals collected measured between 20-27 cm TL and weighed between 140-370 g. This species was observed frequently along NASA Cause- way and the Banana River. Individuals were encountered moribund or dead during both freezes. DIODONTIDAE Chilomycterus schoepfi (striped burrfish). In 1983, five individuals collected along NASA Causeway and the Banana River ranged from 16-18.9 cm SL and weighed between 239-326 g. In 1985, individuals measured from 15.6-26.5 cm TL and weighed between | 1 2-487 g. SEA TurTLEs: Stunned sea turtles were observed on 22 January 1985. A total of 145 Chelonia mydas (green turtle) were collected by members of the USFWS. Fourteen were “dead on arrival.” Eleven of the 145, described as large juveniles, were released into a nearby power plant thermal discharge. One hundred and twenty small juveniles were transported to Sea World, Inc. in Or- lando, Florida where they were maintained until lagoonal water temperatures were above lethal limits. Seven adult Caretta caretta (Atlantic loggerhead) were also rescued and released in the power plant discharge (pers. comm. Dr. L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida). VEGETATION: Vegetation damage from the 25-26 December 1983 freeze was extensive. Along roadsides, dikes and groves, Brazilian pepper and Australian pine were damaged; extensive defo- liation occurred and small to large branches on many trees were killed. Many individuals re- sprouted in spring and summer from the larger branches or trunks. Melaleuca was similarly damaged. These species suffered comparable damage during the January 1985 freeze. Black, white and red mangroves fringing the Banana River, Banana Creek, Indian River and Mosquito Lagoon were adversely affected by the 1983 freeze. Leaves and small to large branches were killed. Some individuals resprouted while others were entirely destroyed by the freeze. Dam- age from the 1985 freeze was similar. Much of the regrowth which followed the 1983 freeze was killed as were some branches previously unaffected. In some places, branches near the water survived while those higher on the plant were killed indicating microclimatic amelioration of the freezing temperatures near the water. In the coastal dune and coastal strand vegetation, Coccoloba uvifera (sea grape), Chrysobala- nus icaco (coco-plum), Scaevola plumieri (beachberry), Hymenocallis latifolia (spider lily), Rapa- nea punctata (rapanea) and Ipomoea pes-caprae (railroad vine) were affected by the 1983 freeze. Sea grape, beachberry and coco-plum were generally killed back to the large stems or to ground level. Leaves of the spider lily and railroad vine were frozen. Rapanea suffered less severe but still obvious leaf damage. All species resprouted after the freeze. Carissa grandiflora (natal plum), an introduced African species present in some disturbed areas of coastal strand, was damaged. Dam- age from the 1985 freeze effected these same species in dune and strand communities. In addition, Helianthus debilis (beach sunflower) and Heterotheca subaxillaris (camphorweed) suffered some leaf damage from this freeze. Hammock species affected by the 1983 freeze included Nectandra coriacea (lancewood), rapa- nea, Ardisia escallonioides (marlberry) and Psychotria nervosa and P. sulzneri (wild coffee). Typi- cally, leaves and small stems of the sensitive species were killed but they later resprouted from the larger stems or from ground level. Nephrolepis cordifolia (Boston fern), common in the understory of hammocks, was partially defoliated by the freeze but resprouted from the rhizomes. Regrowth of these species was killed back by the 1985 freeze; however, new regrowth has occurred. 208 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Other species affected by the 1983 and 1985 freezes included Acrostichum danaeifolium (leather fern), common in brackish marshes on Merritt Island. Leaves of this fern were killed but it resprouted from the rhizomes. The 1985 freeze caused extensive die back of Typha domingensis and T. latifolia (cattail) which occupy numerous marshes on Merritt Island as well as drainage canals. The cattails have since resprouted from their rhizomes. Such damage was not noted after the 1983 freeze. Damage to a number of herbaceous species was noted after the 1985 freeze; these included Bidens alba (beggar’s tick), Hydrocotyle sp. (pennywort), Phytolacca americana (pokeweed), Ri- vina humilis (rouge plant) and Vigna luteola (cowpea). The introduced grass, Arundo donax (giant reed), was killed back by the freeze but has since resprouted. During mild winters these species continue growing. Freeze-damaged leaves were observed on the shrubs Iva frutescens (marsh elder), Lantana camara (shrub lantana) and Mentzelia floridana (poorman’s patch). Citrus groves on Merritt Island were also affected by the 1983 freeze. Those north of Haulover Canal appeared to be more damaged than those in the central or southern part of the island. The 1985 freeze produced a similar pattern of damage; greater defoliation of citrus was evident in the northern part of Merritt Island. Discussion—The ecological effects of the December 1983 and January 1985 freeze indicate the importance of such events in regulating species and community distributions associated with both aquatic and terrestrial systems. Hard freezes do not occur every year on Merritt Island. As a result, cold sensi- tive species generally have a period of recovery between freeze events. To our knowledge, two consecutive hard freezes like those observed the past two win- ters are unprecedented for east coastal peninsular Florida. Snelson and Brad- ley (1978), upon reviewing historical data from peninsular Florida, indicated that intervals between winters harsh enough to cause substantial mortality among fish populations ranged from 3 to 18 years and averaged 10 years between episodes. However, the upper Indian River lagoon has experienced three major freeze events (January 1977, December 1983, and January 1985) in the past eight years. The 1983 freeze broke a 27-year record of —3.9°C with a low of —5.5°C on 26 December. The January 1985 freeze produced a low of —6.6°C. The 1983 event appeared to have been more acute in rapidity of temperature de- cline. Temperatures declined from a daytime high of 20.0°C on 24 December at 1400 h to 0.0°C on the 25th at 0300 h. Storey and Gudger (1936) indicated that in the 1928 freeze, overnight temperatures dropped from 21.0°C to 0.0°C resulting in an extensive amount of damage. The severity of impact of a single cold spell on estuarine organisms or on terrestrial flora may vary with one or a combination of several factors including the minimum temperature obtained, the duration of this temperature and the rapidity of the temperature drop (Snelson and Bradley, 1978). The two successive freezes differed in some of these factors. Given this, it is difficult to determine ‘which freeze was more severe. Open lagoonal water temperatures were several degrees higher in 1983 than observed in 1977. Snelson and Bradley (1978) suggested that most open lagoonal organisms were subjected to water temperatures of 4-6°C for at least 48 h. The lowest lagoonal water temperature observed for December 1983 was 9.0°C and we believed that this was maintained for no longer than 36 h. Based on the recorded water temperature data as well as specific point readings No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL. —FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 209 along the causeways, we feel that water temperature was maintained between 5-10°C for at least 48 h in 1985. The “refuge death trap” (Tabb, 1966; Moore, 1976; Gilmore et al., 1978; Snelson and Bradley, 1978) was only evident in 1983 at the Canaveral Barge Canal and at Banana Creek and Kennedy Parkway. Apparently, thousands of young sea catfish became trapped in a dredged section near the bridge span- ning Banana Creek. Evidence of the phenomenon at the Canaveral Barge Canal was not obvious until a few days after the freeze when water tempera- tures began to rise and dead fish appeared at the surface. Of the 23 species of fish affected by the two freezes, all but five (Dasyatis sayi, Albula vulpes, Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Chaetodipterus faber and Aluterus schoepfi) were recorded in the 1977 freeze. Nine species, Arius felis, Chilomycterus schoepfi, Caranx hippos, Sphoeroides nephelus, Chaetodip- terus faber, Monacanthus hispidus, Bagre marinus, Cynoscion nebulosus and Diapterus plumieri, were encountered during both freezes. Storey (1937) iden- tified the first two of these nine species as “‘always hurt.” We found Arius felis, Chilomycterus schoepfi and Sphoeroides nephelus to have the greatest num- ber of individuals affected during each freeze. Our observations concur with previous authors in describing fish affected by hypothermia. Species such as Trachinotus falcatus and Monacanthus hispi- dus were commonly seen at the surface swimming on their sides while Chilo- mycterus schoepfi and Sphoeroides nephelus were typically in an upright posi- tion floating near the surface with relatively little fin movement. Other species maintained an upright position while swimming but appeared very lethargic. We believe that many of these individuals could have survived had they not washed up on the northern shoreline of the causeways or became stranded in extremely shallow water. Some species such as Eucinostomus gula, E. harengulus and Diapterus olisthostomos became entangled or washed up onto floating mats of seagrass while in this condition and apparently suffocated as a result. Predation by birds was also observed to produce high mortality of stressed and stranded individuals. The occurrence of stunned sea turtles in the Indian River lagoon system is not uncommon during extreme cold periods. In fact, cold-water stunning of lagoonal sea turtles may occur, to some degree, every winter (Ehrhart, 1979). Previous cold stunnings of sea turtles in the upper Indian River lagoon oc- curred in 1962, January 1977, January 1978, and January 1981 (Snelson and Bradley, 1978; Ehrhart 1979 and pers. comm.). In 1977, a massive rescue operation, orchestrated by Dr. L.M. Ehrhart of the University of Central Flor- ida, resulted in the collection of 100 greens, 1 Lepidochelys kempi (Kemp’s ridley) and 41 loggerheads. Water temperatures dropped from 11.5°C on 13 January 1977 to 4°C on 20 January. Between 15 and 21 January 1978, 5 greens were rescued as was | loggerhead. Water temperatures ranged between 8-10°C (Ehrhart, 1979). On 13 January 1981 water temperatures surveyed at Haulover Canal measured 3.5°C. By 20 January, a total of 163 turtles had been collected. Of the 88 greens captured, 76 survived. Seventy of the 74 loggerheads collected survived as did 1 Kemp’s ridley (pers. comm. Bill 210 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Leenhouts, USFWS and Dr. L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida). Data strongly indicate that the tropical green turtle is more cold sensitive than the loggerhead (Ehrhart, 1979). Though the December 1983 freeze may be re- garded as a hard freeze, its impact on lagoonal turtles was not apparent. We believe that this was due to two main reasons: 1) the freeze was not preceded by enough cold weather (Fig. 2) as observed in January 1985 (Fig. 4) and 2) that the freeze was immediately followed by a significant warming trend (Fig. 2). As a result, lagoonal sea turtles were not approaching a state of hypother- mia when the freeze occurred in 1983 as they probably were in 1985. The effects of periodic freezes on Merritt Island is clearly evident when viewing particular plant species such as red and black mangrove. These spe- cies reach large tree status in certain areas in southern Florida (Davis, 1940; Tomlinson, 1980) but are shrubs in the northern limits of their ranges due to periodic freezes. The extent of damage to mangrove vegetation produced by the 1983 freeze suggested that several years would be required for the mangroves to return to their pre-freeze stature and distribution. The 1985 freeze killed much of the 1984 regrowth, increasing the time required for recovery to pre-1983 condi- tions. Mortality to mangroves on Merritt Island due to hard freezes is not unprecedented. Davis (1940) indicated that extensive mortality to mangroves on the island occurred from the 1894-95 freeze when air temperatures reached —5°C. Mangroves occupy approximately 1530 ha (3780 ac) on KSC and are important in providing rookery sites for wading birds as well as good habitat for numerous fish species. The two successive freezes have substantially, though probably temporarily, affected these communities, reducing cover and biomass production until recovery occurs. Most plant species adversely affected by the freeze have resprouted from undamaged parts such as large stems, roots and rhizomes. Even where some individuals were killed others in the population survived. Stout (1980) noted that the 1976-77 freeze damaged Ardisia and Psychotria in hammocks on Canaveral National Seashore in Volusia County and that these species recov- ered by sprouting. However, for cold-sensitive plant species at the margin of their range and present in small populations, a single freeze or the cumulative effect of a number of freezes may result in the elimination of such plant spe- cies. Poppleton (1981) reported that the 1977 freeze killed the population of Tournefortia gnaphalodes (sea lavender) which occurred on a dune north of Playalinda Beach on Canaveral National Seashore. The December 1983 and January 1985 freezes were severe enough to cause substantial damage to local terrestrial vegetation, especially of tropical and subtropical distributions. Some of these plants will require years without se- vere freezes to regain their pre-freeze status. Fish, however, did not seem to be as severely affected as observed in January 1977. At that time, a greater num- ber of individuals covering a much larger portion of the Indian River lagoonal system were affected. The impact to the lagoonal sea turtle population was as dramatic as in 1977 and 1981. No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL. —FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES Ad ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was conducted through NASA Contract No. NAS10-10285 under the direction of Dr. William M. Knott, III, Biological Sciences Officer and Dr. Albert M. Koller, Jr., Chief Environmental Sciences Operation and Research Branch, The Biomedical Office, John F. Kennedy Space Center. We thank Dr. Ross Hinkle, Director, Environmental Monitoring/ Research Program and Jane A. Provancha who initiated post-freeze investigations and Lee A. Maull who assisted in terrestrial vegetation sampling. Atmospheric data was provided by John H. Drese. We gratefully acknowledge Alice Hudson and Tami Skidmore for typing this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Bancs, O. 1895. The present standing of the Florida Manatee, Trichecus latirostris (Harlan), in Indian River waters. Amer. Natur. 29:783-787. Briccs, J. C. 1974. Marine Zoogeography. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York. 425p. Caprio, A. C. and D. L. Taytor. 1984. Effects of frost on a subtropical Muhlenbergia prairie in south Florida. Florida Scient. 47:27-32. Davis, J. H. 1940. The ecologic and geologic role of mangroves in Florida. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 517. Papers from Tortugas Lab 32:303-412. EASTERN SPACE AND MIssILE CENTER. 1982. Weather Meteorological Handbook ESMC Pamphlet 105-1. Department of the Air Force, Eastern Space and Missile Center, Patrick Air Force Base, Florida. Exruart, L. M. 1979. A continuation of base-line studies for environmental monitoring Space Transportation Systems (STS) at John F. Kennedy Space Center. Vol. IV: Threatened and Endangered Species of Kennedy Space Center Part 1: Marine Turtle Studies. NASA Contract No. NAS 10-8986. Fincn, R. H. 1917. Fish killed by the cold wave of February 2-4, in Florida. Monthly Weather Rev. 45:171-172. GatLoway, J. C. 1941. Lethal effects of the cold winter of 1939-1940 on marine fishes at Key West, Florida. Copeia 1941:118-119. Giumorsg, R. G., L. H. BuLLocK, AND F. H. Berry. 1978. Hypothermal mortality in marine fishes of south-central Florida January, 1977. Northeast Gulf Sci. 2:77-97. GreLLER, A. M. 1980. Correlation of some climatic statistics with distribution of broadleaved forest zones in Florida, U.S.A. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 107:189-219. LITTLE, Jr., E. L. 1978. Atlas of United States trees. Vol. 5. Florida. USDA Misc. Pub. No. 1361. Washington, D.C. MIL.er, E. M. 1940. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the south east Florida coast, 1940. Ecology 21:420-421. Moore, R. H. 1976. Observations on fishes killed by cold at Port Aranzas, Texas, 11-12 January 1973. Southwest Nat. 20:46 1-466. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION. 1982. Long-term environmental monitoring plan for the John F. Kennedy Space Center. NASA, KSC Biomedical Office, MD-LTP-1, December. PACKARD, JR., A. S. 1871. An account of a recent trip to Key West and the Tortugas, Florida. Bull. Essex (Mass.) Inst. 2:44. PoppLeTON, J. 1981. The occurrence and ecology of potentially endangered, threatened and rare plants on Merritt Island, St. John’s and Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge. Part I, Status reports. Part II. Plant communities and checklist. Unpublished report. , A. G. SHuEy AND H. A. Sweet. 1977. Vegetation of Central Florida’s east coast: a checklist of the vascular plants. Florida Scient. 40:362-389. Rinckey, G. R. anp C. H. SALoman. 1964. Effect of reduced water temperature on fishes of Tampa Bay, Florida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 27:9-16. SNELSON, Jr., F. F. 1983. Ichthyofauna of the northern part of the Indian River lagoon system, Florida. Florida Scient. 46:187-206. , AND S. E. WiuuiaMs. 1981. Notes on the occurrence, distribution, and biology of elasmobranch fishes in the Indian River lagoon, Florida. Estuaries 4:1 10-120. , AND W. K. Brap ey, Jr. 1978. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the east coast of Florida, January, 1977. Florida Scient. 41:1-12. Storey, M. 1937. The relation between normal range and mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida. Ecology 18:10-26. 212 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 , AND E. W. Gupcer. 1936. Mortality of fishes due to the cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, 1886-1936. Ecology 17:640-648. Srout, I. J. 1980. A continuation of base-line studies for environmentally monitoring Space Trans- portation Systems (STS) at John F. Kennedy Space Center. Vol. I. Terrestrial Community Ecology. NASA Contract No. NAS10-8986. Stowers, Jr., D. M., AND M. LeVasseur. 1983. The Florida freeze of 13 January 1981: An impact study of west-central Florida. Florida Scient. 46:72-82. Sweet, H. C. 1976. A study of a diverse coastal ecosystem of the Atlantic coast of Florida: Botanical studies of Merritt Island. Final report to NASA/KSC. 258 pp. , J. E. Poppteron, A. G. SHuEY AND T. O. PEopLEs. 1979. Vegetation of central Flor- ida’s east coast: The distribution of six vegetation complexes on Merritt Island and Cape Canaveral Peninsula. Remote Sensing of Environment 9:93-108. Tass, D. C. 1966. The estuary as a habitat for spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus. Amer. Fish Soc. Spec. Publ., No. 3:59-67. ToMLuinson, P. B. 1980. The biology of trees native to tropical Florida. Harvard University Print- ing Office. Allston, Massachusetts. 488 pp. Wa ter, H. 1979. Vegetation of the earth and ecological system of the geo-biosphere, edition 2, Springer-Verlag, New York. 274 pp. Wiiticox, J. 1887. Fish killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 6:123. Florida Sci. 49(4): 199-212. 1986. Accepted: November 15, 1985. Biological Sciences THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATIONAL PATTERN WITHIN THE FLOODPLAIN MARSH OF A SUBTROPICAL, FLORIDA LAKE Epcar F. Lowe Department of Water Resources, St. Johns River Water Management District, P.O. Box 1429, Palatka, Florida 32078-1429 Asstract—The floodplain marsh of Blue Cypress Lake, in east-central Florida, was exam- ined to determine the spatial pattern of the vegetation and its relationship to hydrologic condi- tions. Visual observation and direct gradient analysis of shoreline vegetation indicated six floristic zones. The sequences of biomass maxima of common species and their distributional limits with respect to elevation suggested that this zonation was a result of a complex-gradient in long-term hydrologic factors caused by topographic relief. Beyond the lake shore, on the marsh flat, the zoned pattern was replaced by a mozaic of communities similar to those of large areas of the Everglades. That portion of the mozaic accounted for by communities dominated by Cladium jamaicense (sawgrass) and Panicum hemitomon (maidencane) apparently did not result from hydrologic factors. This was suggested by the sharp borders typically found between these two communities and by the low topographic relief, and consequent uniformity of hydrologic condi- tions, of the marsh flat. Fire may be the major effector of pattern for these communities by the following mechanism. Maidencane, and it’s associated species, rapidly colonize areas where dense stands of sawgrass were destroyed by intense fire and then inhibit establishment of sawgrass seedlings. Sawgrass reclaims these areas, through vegetative reproduction, as a slowly moving front which monopolizes space and light. WETLANDS protection has recently come to the forefront of environmental concern (Horwitz, 1978; McCormick, 1978), particularly in those states, such as Florida, where the rate of anthropogenic alteration of wetlands has been high (Frayer et al., 1983). The primary problem to be addressed by such con- cern is the destruction of wetlands through drainage. A secondary problem is disruption of the natural functions of wetlands through more subtle alteration of the surface water hydrology. This problem is secondary in that the effects of changes in the hydrologic regime are much less severe than those of drainage. Nevertheless, alteration of the hydrologic regime as, for example, through re- duction of the water budget or stablization of water levels, has figured promi- nently in the ecological decline of many undrained Florida wetlands. Most notable of these is the Everglades. There, alteration of the hydrology caused broad changes in the distribution and species composition of plant communi- ties (Alexander, 1971; Alexander and Crook, 1974); a reduction in the abun- dance of endangered species, such as the snail kite (Sykes, 1983) and wood stork (Kushlan et al., 1975; Ogden et al., 1978); and a general decline in wading bird populations (Robertson and Kushlan, 1974; Kushlan and White, 1977). Such observations make it clear that in order to protect wetland func- tions we must not only prevent wetland destruction but also scientifically man- 214 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 age wetlands, particularly with respect to surface water levels and flow rates, in all but the most pristine circumstances. Several salient and beneficial ecological functions of wetlands—primary production, water quality maintenance, and provision of fish and wildlife hab- itat—are largely implemented by the vegetation (Gaudet, 1974; Good et al., 1978; Greeson et al., 1979). The character of the vegetation, in turn, is primar- ily determined by the hydrologic characteristics of a wetland (Rumberg and Sawyer, 1965; Odum, 1978; Gosselink and Turner, 1978; van der Valk and Bliss, 1971; van der Valk and Davis, 1976; Sjoberg and Danell, 1983; Tallis, 1983). A detailed understanding of the relationship between hydrology and the species composition and community structure of wetlands vegetation, there- fore, appears to be essential to sound wetland management. In a management context our understanding of the ecological effects of hydrology is still coarse. In fact, as pointed out by Gosselink and Turner (1978), “solid quantitative information about the hydrodynamic characteris- tics of different wetlands is surprisingly difficult to find’’ Wetland ecologists have typically inferred hydrology, by measuring either the distance of a site from the permanent water body (Mandossian and McIntosh, 1960; Beschel and Webber, 1962) or the elevation (or depth, a transformation of elevation) of the site (Nicholson and Aroyo, 1975; van der Valk and Davis, 1976; Barnes, 1978; Menges and Waller, 1983), or they have reduced hydrology to a class variable (eg. permanetly flooded vs. periodically flooded—Sjoberg and Danell, 1983; flooded vs. drawndown—van der Valk, 1981; controlled flooding vs. permanently flooded vs. natural flooding—Conner et al., 1981). When hydrol- ogy is inferred, the ecological information obtained is not easily applied to the management of other wetlands since there is considerable variation among wetlands in the relationship between ecologically potent hydrologic parame- ters, such as mean depth and hydroperiod, and their topographic correlates, distance and elevation. When hydrologic conditions are broadly classified, many wetlands will lie wholly, or largely, within one of the classes utilized. Their management will be little improved by the information obtained. For these reasons, wetland management is often poorly supported by ecological understanding. In order to refine our understanding of the importance of hydrologic fac- tors in shaping wetland structure and function, wetland ecologists must com- bine the techniques of quantitative ecology with those of the hydrologist. As suggested by Gosselink and Turner (1978), “‘we should pay much more atten- tion to the hydrologic regime.’ In this study I use a simple analysis of hydro- logic data in order to elucidate the basis for the spatial pattern of vegetation on the floodplain of Blue Cypress Lake, in east-central Florida (Fig. 1). I believe the work is illustrative of a type of research required as a basis for sound wetland management. Blue Cypress Lake was selected for the study because it will soon be af- fected by a regional water management plan and because daily records of surface water elevations are available from 1956 to the present. It is a shallow, subtropical (sensu Beaver, Crisman, and Bays, 1981) lake which lies in a region No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION yy ~ VOLUSIA \. < VS > ae » z L. Horney = . SEMINOLE / OSCEOLA BLUE CYPRESS OKEECHOBEE ot ¢* 10 Miles UPPER ST. JOHNS RIVER BASIN Fic. 1. The Upper Basin of the St. Johns River. bo Ot 216 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 8 O—O MEDIAN O---O MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM Oo” of Top AEE - 7.5 Ry eee © = z 7 i ° — $ Ww ay Ww 6.5 6 = Me JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MONTH Fic. 2. Variation in the median, maximum, and minimum water elevation (above mean sea level) of Blue Cypress Lake by month. Based upon elevation records from April 1956-January 1982. of seasonal rainfall. Average annual rainfall is 130 cm and because approxi- mately 66 percent of the rainfall occurs during June-October (St. Johns River Water Management District, 1980) the water elevation of the lake fluctuates approximately | m in a typical year. Annual minimum elevations have ranged from 5.6-7.1 m above mean sea level and usually occur in May or June while annual maximums have ranged from 7.0-8.]1 m and generally occur in Septem- ber or October (Fig. 2). The lake lies within an extensive, floodplain marsh. Most of the floodplain marsh lies between 6.7-7.3 m and, therefore, experi- ences both inundation and drawndown during a typical year. Variation in hydroperiod (days inundated per year) in the marsh is considerable ranging from continuous inundation below 5.6 m, to approximately 300 days at 6.7 m, to about 90 days at 7.3 m. When this study was initiated, I suspected that this spatial variation in hydrologic conditions, caused by topographic relief, largely accounted for the pattern of the floodplain vegetation. It seems, how- ever, that disturbance, probably due to fire, is the primary cause of pattern for a major portion of the floodplain. Metruops—The vegetational pattern was characterized through both extensive and intensive sampling of the floodplain marsh of Blue Cypress Lake (23°43'36”N, 80°45'12” W; Fig. 1). Extensive data were provided by color infra-red aerial photographs obtained and intrepreted by No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION yi fs ELEVATION (M) 0) 25 50 75 100 §6€61250—Ci«I55—sd175)=— 200 «=62250=«— 250) Ss 275 DISTANCE (M) Fic. 3. Variation in median ground elevation with distance along the belt transect. Boxes indicate the ranges of distance and elevation encompassed by samples for each station. Circles indicate the median distance and elevation of samples in each station. the remote sensing department of the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT). Aerial tran- sects of the marsh were flown at 6,000 feet elevation on March 20, 1981. Photographs were obtained with a Zeiss RMK camera (certified by the National Bureau of Standards) loaded with Kodak type 2443 color aerial infra-red film. Stereo pair transparencies at a scale of 1:12,000 were examined with a stereo viewer to delineate vegetation and land-use signatures. The interpreted photographs were then digitized and polyconic projections of the area surveyed were plotted through use of the Intergraph Interactive Computer Graphics System. The areal extent of each signature was also determined via Intergraph software. Finally, the signatures were color-coded to excentuate vegetational patterns. The color-coded map is available for examination at the St. Johns River Water Management District headquarters in Palatka, Florida. In order to verify FDOT’s interpretation of the vegetation signatures, several examples of the most prevalent communities were examined during November 9-11. At each site, the most com- mon species were listed and dominance was assessed through subjective estimates of cover. In addition, five measurements of water depth were obtained. Land elevation was obtained by sub- tracting water depth from the elevation of the lake’s surface, which was measured by a continuous recorder (described below). Intensive data were obtained from a belt transect which extended approximately 270 m into the marsh from the southeastern shore of the lake. The transect consisted of five contiguous sta- tions and a sixth station approximately 200 m into the marsh beyond the fifth station. All stations except station 2, which measured 20 m x 20 m, had dimensions of 10 m by 40 m and each station lay within or spanned a visually distinct zone of vegetation. Sampling locations within each station were determined by considering the two dimensions of each station to be x and y coordinates marked at meter intervals. Random number pairs indicating locations on the coordinate grid were generated by a computer program which utilized the random number generator of Prime (Prime Computer, Inc. 1977). These procedures yielded a stratified random sampling design; a design highly recommended for studies of aquatic plant biomass (Nichols, 1982). 218 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 INUNDATION (%) FREQUENCY OF 5.5 6 6.5 Es ELEVATION (M) Fic. 4. Percentage of days (frequency of inundation) that the ground elevations of the samples were equaled or exceeded by water elevations of the lake during October 1, 1971-September 30, 1981. TABLE |. Mean percentage of the total above-ground dry biomass for the fifteen species most common on the transect. STATION SPECIES l 2 3 - 5 6 Cladium jamaicense 0.0 5.0 6.6 1% 40.0 90.9 Osmunda regalis 0.0 0.0 16.4 11.1 51.8 “Be Panicum hemitomon 99.2 36.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 Kosteletzyka virginica 0.0 0.0 0.4 18.5 0.2 0.0 Polygonum punctatum 0.0 SZ 0.7 G5 0.1 0.0 Ipomoea alba 0.0 5 32.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 Eupatorium capillifolium 0.5 29.5 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 Amaranthus australis 0.0 12.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cephalanthus occidentalis 0.0 0.0 v6 0.1 0.0 4.9 Calystegia sepium 0.0 0.0 °*29:8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ludwigia alata 0.0 ee, 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 Peltandra virginica 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 Boehmeria cylindrica 0.0 0.0 0.0 ces, 0.0 0.0 Blechnum serrulatum 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 is 0.0 Lachnanthes caroliniana 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 219 Because of variation in size and density of vegetation among the stations, samples were ob- tained using quadrats of differing sizes and shapes. For station 1, a 0.25-m diameter circle was sampled; for station 2, a 0.50-m diameter circle was sampled; and for station 3-6, a square measur- ing 0.50 m on each side was sampled. A square quadrat was used for stations 3-6 so that a three- sided sampler could be inserted into the dense vegetation at ground level and the fourth side be added after the sampler was in place. Within each quadrat, all macrovegetation was removed to ground level and placed in plastic bags for transport to the laboratory. The elevation of the ground surface within each quadrat was determined by standard surveying techniques using the lake elevation indicated by a staff gauge at Middleton’s Fish Camp as the reference elevation. Depend- ing on the variability and density of the vegetation, 10-20 locations were sampled within each station. Samples were collected between June 25, 1981 and February 12, 1982. Due to a drought, water level was low (5.7 m) when sampling began. Water level reached a minimum of 5.6 m on July 16 and a maximum of 7.1 m on November 13. Ninety-one samples were taken, spanning an elevational range of 5.6-7.1 m (Fig. 3). In the laboratory, samples were sorted by species and desiccated in an oven at 100° C for 24-48 h to determine dry weight biomass. For large samples, subsamples were desiccated to determine coefficients for converting wet weight totals to dry weights. Species identifications were according to Godfrey and Wooten (1979, 1981) for monocots and dicots, Lakela and Long (1976) for ferns, and Radford, Ahles, and Bell (1968) for gymnosperms. Data from the transect were analyzed on two levels. First, the data were segregated by station to provide baseline descriptions of community structure for each vegetational zone. In this analy- sis, means and variances for dry biomass and percentage of the total dry biomass (relative biomass) were calculated for each species for each station. Second, the entire data set was used to perform a direct gradient analysis using relative frequency of inundation (percent of time an elevation was equaled or exceeded by the lake elevation) as the environmental gradient. Relative frequency of inundation is a parameter which is commonly used by surface water hydrologists and engineers. It was selected as a simple indicator of variation in a variety of hydro- logic parameters such as mean depth, mean annual maximum depth, and hydroperiod. In addi- tion, because annual maximum depths are typically shallow (<1 m) for most of the floodplain marsh it was felt that spatial variation in the duration of inundation was the best measure of the most potent ecological effect of inundation, the creation of anaerobic soil conditions (Ponnam- peruma, 1972; Wharton et al., 1982). The samples obtained in this study spanned a range of frequency of inundation of 46-100 percent (Fig. 4.). The progression of plant associations along the environmental gradient (the coenocline) was examined through construction of an association table in which samples were sorted by elevation and species by their median elevation of occurrence. The distributions of species along the coeno- cline were examined more closely by a graphical examination of the relationship between fre- quency of inundation and dry biomass. In this portion of the gradient analysis, the median biomass of a selected species, determined for data grouped over one percent intervals of frequency of inundation, was plotted against frequency of inundation. Before plotting, each series of medians was smoothed using running medians according to the 4253H, twice procedure of Velleman and Hoaglin (1981). Values between the smoothed points were interpolated by a local procedure (Akima, 1970). Lake elevation data utilized for gradient analyses were those obtained by a contin- uous recorder (USGS #02231400) located at the lakeward end of the canal extending from Middle- ton’s Fish Camp. Only those data for the previous ten years (October 1971-September 1981) were used to insure that the time-scale of the hydrologic data would be pertinent to existing spatial patterns in the vegetation. REsuLTs—Station 1, the lowest and most lakeward station (Fig. 3), was strongly dominated by Panicum hemitomon Schultes (hereafter maidencane) which exhibited a mean relative biomass of 99% (Table 1), a high frequency of occurrence (85%; Table 2) and a high mean biomass (284 g dry wt./m’; Table 3). Station 2, which was higher than station 1, was also dominated by maiden- cane; but its dominance, as indicated by mean biomass (179 g dry wt./m’), mean relative biomass (36%), and frequency of occurrence (65%), was lower than in station |. In addition to maidencane, station 2 contained substantial amounts of Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small, Amaranthus australis (Gray) Sauer., and Polygonum punctatum E11. E. capillifolium and A. aus- [Vol. 49 FLORIDA SCIENTIST AN OOl ‘(jue010d) uoepunut! jo Aduanbaty 0} yoodser ym Joasuey oY} UO satoads jo (seaie pauayoR]q) saouaIINDIQ ‘¢ ‘OL (%) NOILVGNNNI se 08 G2 JO AONSNOSYS OL 9 09 SS OS Sv ‘ds psodsoyouhyy ‘dS 8D8IDIB0AI SO{OHOHS DIUSId ‘ds = $140YI0a/F7 DUDIUIJOIDID SAay{UDUYIOT Dyoslguo, o14044I60S5 ‘ds snount snjos0po snsadAp vowojlway wngziudd ‘dS aD3IID0d ‘ds pDYydAL Djojo olbimpn7z wnigns 1397 SWOUSND snyjuosOW Pp wnyopijido2 wnisojyoonz wnjoygund wnuobAjod oyoymyjoy si40yII0g DI4puiyjAd disawysog wnojnssas wnuy2e/g DIIVIBIIA D4IPUD{/ad Dg/0 pDeowod) DIIUIBIIA DAYZ{a/34{SOY sijo6a/s opunuiso DUDIUIJOIDI xI/DS asue2viowol wnipo/2 D{o0p4s09 odI4apa{uod syjpjuepi720 snyjuojoydagZ wnunguawo wnulsg wnides pIba{sAjo9 Dioyjaquin afAjoI01pAH S3ldsdS No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION Oot tralis were present because water levels were low due to the intense drought. Once water levels returned to normal these species, and the vines which domi- nated station 3, were eliminated. Station 3 spanned the berm of the lake and had the highest median elevation. There, the herbaceous vines Ipomoea alba L. and Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Brown accounted for the greatest portion of the biomass (117 g dry wt./m’, 62%) and, through the exclusion of light, were killing understory species such as Cladium jamaicense Crantz (hereafter saw- grass). During the study, the height of sawgrass in station 3 declined as it died and collapsed under the weight of the vines. By the time normal water levels eliminated the vines, most culms of sawgrass in station 3 appeared dead. Sta- tion 4 lay behind the lake’s berm and at a lower elevation than station 3. Sawgrass dominated station 4, exhibiting a mean biomass of 798 g dry wt./m° and mean relative biomass of 52%. Station 5 had a median elevation only slightly higher than that for station 4. Sawgrass probably dominated (sensu Hurlbert, 1971) station 5 but Osmunda regalis (Willd.) Gray had the highest mean relative biomass (52%). Station 6, which was farthest from the lake’s shore, was a nearly monospecific stand of sawgrass with a relatively high mean biomass (492 g dry wt./m’) and high mean percentage of the total bio- mass (91 %) and fregency of occurrence (100%). The distribution of species with respect to elevation and frequency of inun- dation (Fig. 5) indicates that the shoreline zonation represented by the stations reflected a hydrologic gradient caused by topographic relief. The minimum elevation supporting maidencane (5.9 m) marked the lakeward border of emergent vegetation and corresponded to an inundation frequency of 96 per- cent. From 5.9 m to approximately 6.4 m (91% inundation) only maidenance was represented in the samples. This corresponds to the nearly monotypic stand of station 1. The landward edge of the maidencane monoculture corre- sponded closely to the mean annual minimum elevation of the lake (6.5 m); above this point species density (number of species per unit area) increased markedly. Over the elevational range of station 2, 6.4-6.7 m (91-81% inunda- tion), an additional 18 species occurred. The addition of species caused me- dian species density to increase over the same range of elevation from | to >4 (Fig. 6). Some of this increase may reflect the increase in sample area, but the use of a larger quadrat within station 1 would have yielded very few, if any, additional species due to the extremely monotypic nature of the stand. Station 3 was centered about the berm of the lake, which had a mean elevation ap- proximately equal to the mean annual elevation of the lake (7.0 m; 61% inun- dation frequency). Together, the first three stations formed a coencoline along the moderate slope of the shore to the lake’s berm. Zones 4-6 lay behind the berm, where wave action would be negligible, and were dominated by saw- grass. Before the drought sawgrass probably also dominated station 3, but the mortality which resulted from the profuse growth of vines allowed by the drought may result in its density in this zone being low for a considerable time. Sawgrass was distributed from approximately 6.7 m (80% inundation) to the maximum elevation sampled (7.1 m, 46% inundation). Coincident with the appearance of sawgrass the species assemblage changed rather abruptly. Of 222 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 HEMITOMON —"=C. JAMAICENSE . ALBA —-—0O. REGALIS e . SEPIUM 0 ” a Hh s < = ‘ ° ' © \ z \ 2 if : [ 3 ° @ > a a z < a WwW = — SMOOTHED CURVE 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 (9) SSVWOIG AYO WLOL 250 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 FREQUENCY OF 60 INUNDATION (%) (c) > = 7) z W ra) n Ww Oo W a. 7) z < ra Ww > 3 ? é WwW > 4 2 oO a WJ x - ° Oo ¥ ” ALISN3G §3193dS 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 INUNDATION (%) 60 FREQUENCY OF (d) 224 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 TABLE 2. Frequency of occurrence (percent) for the fifteen species most common on the transect. STATION SPECIES ] 2 3 4 5 6 Cladium jamaicense 0 5 100 90 80 100 Osmunda regalis 0 0 90 90 80 45 Panicum hemitomon 85 65 0 25 0 0 Kosteletzyka virginica 0 0 40 60 50 9 Polygonum punctatum 0 55 10 25 10 0 Ipomoea alba 0 30 90 IS 0 0 Eupatorium capillifolium 10 55 20 10 0 0 Amaranthus australis 0 70 0 0 0 0 Cephalanthus occidentalis 0 0 30 10 30 36 Calystegia sepium 0 0 70 0 0 0 Ludwigia alata 0 30 0 0 10 0 Peltandra virginica 0 0 10 20 0 9 Boehmeria cylindrica 0 0 0 30 0 0 Blechnum serrulatum 0 0 0 20 10 0 Lachnanthes caroliniana 0 25 0 0 0 0 TABLE 3. Mean above-ground dry biomass (g/m?) for the fifteen species most common on the transect and for all species combined. STATION SPECIES ] 2 3 4 5 6 Cladium jamaicense 0.0 20.9 24.3 797.9 182.4 492.2 Osmunda regalis 0.0 0.0 472 48.8 104.2 Li:3 Panicum hemitomon 284.2 178.8 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 Kosteletzyka virginica 0.0 0.0 22 138.2 0.8 0.0 Polygonum punctatum 0.02% 39.7 1.4 4.6 0.2 0.0 Ipomoea alba 0.0 2.2 59.9 1.3 0.0 0.0 Eupatorium capillifolium 2.12462 0.0 11.4 0.0 0.0 Amaranthus australis OO » i322 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cephalanthus occidentalis 0.0 0.0 56.0 2.0 0.0 29.2 Calystegia sepium 0.0 0.0 56.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ludwigia alata 0.0 6.9 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 Peltandra virginica 0.0 0.0 9.5 0.0 0.5 Boehmeria cylindrica 0.0 0.0 0.0 53.9 0.0 0.0 Blechnum serrulatum 0.0 0.0 0.0 = 10.6 0.0 Lachnanthes caroliniana 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 All Species 288.6 498.8 1204.9 2083.2 1124.0 3160.1 the 20 species recorded from 5.9-6.7 m, only 7 remained at 6.9 m (75% inun- dation) and the distributions of none extended to 7.0 m (61% inundation). The disappearance of these species from higher elevations was probably due to monopolization of space and light by sawgrass. Species which occurred with sawgrass were either able to grow above it (eg. Kosteletzkya virginica (L.) Presl.) or tolerate shading (eg. O. regalis). They were prevalent in stations 4 and 5, where sawgrass grew as large, widely spaced tussocks; but were virtu- No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 295 ally absent in station 6, where sawgrass density was so great that there was little space for other species. The increasing dominance of sawgrass, due to changing growth form, probably accounted for the decline in species density from approximately 6.9 m (75% inundation) to 7.1 m (46% inundation). Data for a continuous variable, such as biomass, are superior to presence- absence data in delineating the distribution of a species in that they indicate not only distributional limits but also distributional optima, the optima being those points where maxima are attained. In this work, for each species ade- quately sampled the distribution of biomass was roughly Gaussian and indi- cated a marked optimum with respect to frequency of inundation (Fig. 6). Proceeding down the inundation gradient, successive optima occured for Ludwigea alata Ell. (88%), maidencane (87%), P. punctatum and E. capillifo- lium (84%), O. regalis (77%), I. alba (70%), C. sepium (72%), and sawgrass (<60%). Total biomass reached a broad maximum from 80-85% inundation and showed a smaller peak at approximately 73% inundation. The overall maximum for total biomass indicated for less than 60% inundation was due to two large samples of sawgrass and, owing to the small number of samples in this range, should be considered very tentative. Sincock (1958) did find, how- ever, that sawgrass attained its highest frequency of occurrence in the basin at elevations with a frequency of inundation of approximately 45%. Aerial photographs showed that the zonation of the lake shore was re- placed on the marsh flat by a mozaic primarily comprised of five communi- ties: 1) wet prairie, 2) dense sawgrass, 3) myrtle head, 4) sawgrass/willow association and 5) slough (Fig. 7). These communities covered 9,653 ha (92%) of the marsh. Wet prairie was the most abundant community of the marsh (3,894 ha, 37% of marsh area). In most areas, maidencane was the dominant species in terms of relative cover. In some areas other common species, such as Sagittaria lancifolia L. and Cephalanthus occidentalis L., shared dominance with maidencane. Other species which were commonly observed in wet prairie were Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth, Crinum americanum L., Lachnanthes caroliniana (Lam.) Dandy, Erianthus strictus Baldwin., Pontederia cordata L., P. punctatum, Nymphaea odorata Aiton, Bidens mitis (Michaux) Sherff., Cy- perus haspan L., and Pluchea longifolia Nash. This community is apparently quite similar to the wet prairies dominated by maidencane which occupy large areas of the northern Everglades (Loveless, 1959; Goodrick, 1974). As has been observed in the Everglades, the transition between wet prairie and the next community discussed, dense sawgrass, was typically abrupt. The dense sawgrass community, which consisted of almost pure stands of Sawgrass, was second to wet prairie in its areal extent (2,402 ha, 23% of the marsh). No emergent macrophyte other than sawgrass was abundant but some species, such as S. lancifolia, P. virginica, O. regalis, S. caroliniana, and C. occidentalis, occurred with low densities. This community was examined in detail on the transect (station 6). It commonly exhibited a broad, graded transi- _ tion to the sawgrass/willow association apparently correlated with increasing _ frequency and depth of inundation. 996 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49 Ny YANN YN NN > NR AS wv RS = ~ WAnsigs WET PRAIRI E SONS Ss NSN AASAASY WS Saasses | MYRTLE HEAD YY DENSE SAWGRASS Rm SHORELINE ZONES y 2 QSAWGRASS/WILLOW uciiege a : 1 3 0 1 KILOMETERS Fic. 7. Distribution of floodplain plant communities of the St. Johns Marsh adjacent to the southeast shore of Blue Cypress Lake. Modified from infra-red, aerial photographs obtained and interpreted by the Florida Department of Transportation. Photographs taken from an altitude of 6,000 feet on March 20, 1981. No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 227 Sawgrass usually dominated the sawgrass/willow association which cov- ered 13% of the marsh (1,363 ha). In this community, sawgrass was typically taller and more clumped in its distribution than in the dense sawgrass commu- nity. The clumped distribution left open areas between the large tussocks which allowed a greater variety of species than in dense sawgrass. Species which commonly occurred in addition to those found in dense sawgrass stands included S. caroliniana, K. virginica, Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Swartz, Blechnum serrulatum L. C. Rich, Ludwigia alata Ell., and Acer rubrum L. This community is represented by stations 4 and 5 of the transect. It exhibited a smooth transition to myrtle head which appearently corresponded to a gradi- ent of decreasing depth and frequency of inundation. Sawgrass was common in the myrtle head community but did not domi- nate due to the presence of larger, woody species. This community, typically dominated by some combination of Myrica cerifera L., S. caroliniana, C. occidentalis, and A. rubrum, accounted for 15% of the marsh (3917 acres) and was associated with raised areas, transitional areas from marsh to forest, and disturbed areas such as the borders of canals. There was a gentle decline in elevation of the marsh from west to east. As a result, mean depth and hydroperiod probably also increased in this direction. This was probably the basis for the replacement of typical marsh flat com- munities by the slough community on the east side of the marsh. The slough community, typically domianted by Nymphaea odorata Aiton and Utricularia spp., was distributed over 4% (409 ha) of the marsh. Other species which commonly occurred in the slough community were S. lancifolia, maidencane and Limnobium spongia (Bosc.) Steudel. DiscussioNn—The seminal premise of this work was that the spatial hetero- geneity of vegetation in the upper St. Johns Marsh is largely determined by spatial variation in hydrologic conditions due to topographic relief. This sup- position is supported by the relationships between frequency of inundation, elevation and vegetation observed on the shore of the lake. Numbers and kinds of species varied continuously with both elevation and frequency of inunda- tion as did the above-ground biomass of individual species. This resulted in a zoned pattern in the vegetation correlated with hydrologic features of the lake shore. An implication of these relationships is that modification of the hydrol- ogy of the marsh would alter the spatial pattern of the vegetation. This conclu- sion is supported by studies in other areas, including long-term observations of the effects of hydrologic changes in the Everglades (Craighead, 1971; Alexan- der and Crook, 1974) and quantitative sampling of a wetland coencoline in lowa before and after a change in water levels (van der Valk and Davis, 1976). If hydrologic conditions do determine much of the spatial pattern of wet- land vegetation, then the relationship between pattern and hydrology is partic- ularly important in large wetlands, such as the St. Johns Marsh, where most acreage lies within the narrow range of elevation of the marsh flat (6.7-7.3 m in the area studied). The movement of species into or out of this elevational range, or a change in dominance within this range, would result in vegeta- 228 FLORIDA SCIENTIST Pyvalt 49 tional changes over thousands of acres. Considering the central role of vegeta- tion in the implementation of wetland functions, this would be expected to have profound ecological effects. Conclusions regarding the importance of hydrology in shaping vegetation patterns, however, must be tempered by three major considerations. First, the distribution of a species reflects spatial variation in both the abiotic and biotic environment. Because of the importance of variation in the competitive balance among species, alteration of the species assemblage would modify the distributions of individual species. For example, the prevalence of maidencane over large areas of the marsh flat shows that its ecological ampli- tude is broader than was indicated by its distribution on the shore and suggests that maidencane was absent in areas with low frequencies of inundation on the shore due to competitive exclusion by sawgrass. Apparently, maidencane be- comes established in these drier areas if competition with sawgrass can be avoided as, for instance, in areas where fire has eliminated sawgrass. Due to species interactions such as this, much additional work is necessary to rigor- ously delineate the distributions of species along the hydrologic gradient. Second, the suite of environmental factors which is most important in shap- ing vegetation patterns probably varies both within and among species. In this context, frequency of inundation is an indicator of a variety of environmental factors. A gradient in frequency of inundation is, thus, a complex gradient (sensu Whittaker, 1967), along which many factors vary together, as opposed to a factor-gradient, along which a single factor varies. The lakeward distribu- tion of maidencane, for example, may be primarily determined by depth or wave action rather than frequency of inundation, per se. In the absence of wave action, sawgrass may be capable of extending its distribution to areas with higher frequencies of inundation and supplanting maidencane as the dominant species. Last, although the distributions of vegetatively reproducing perennials, such as maidencane and sawgrass, probably reflect long-term hydrologic pa- rameters, such as hydroperiod or mean depth, the distributions of other species may depend upon extreme events of relatively short duration. This is particu- larly true for species which cannot survive both soil exposure and inundation as adults. For these species, hydrologic conditions act as an “environmental sieve’ (van der Valk, 1981). As fluctuation between the alternative states of exposure and inundation occurs, the nature of the sieve changes and species enter, or are eliminated from the wetland environment. Hydrologic conditions thus determine the suite of species present in a wetland at any given time. As emphasizd by van der Valk (1981), species which can not survive both inunda- tion and drawdown rely on seed banks or seed dispersal for maintenance of their populations. For many of these species (eg. E. capillifolium, A. australis) the influence of hydrology on temporal patterns of abundance is probably more important than its influence on spatial patterns. Long-term hydrology may, however, cause spatial gradients in seed bank density and viability which are later expressed in the spatial patterns of adult populations. The fact that No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 229 the landward limit of the maidencane monoculture corresponded with the mean annual minimum elevation of the lake, and that the heavy growth of vines of station 3 was centered about the berm of the lake, strongly suggests a spatial structuring of the seed bank. Despite these caveats, I believe that the distributions of species on the shore indicate a major role for long-term hydrologic factors in the control of spatial pattern. The relative importance of hydrology in determination of vegeta- tional patterns, however, would be expected to decline as the depth and dura- tion of inundation decline and the physiological stresses caused by inundation become less severe. Thus, as one moves away from the shore and up the elevational gradient onto the marsh flat, the relative importance of hydrology in shaping vegetational patterns would probably diminish. More importantly, hydrology can not account for spatial patterns perpendicular to hydrologic gradients. Because topographic relief is very slight on the marsh flat, the vege- tational pattern is nearly perpendicular to hydrologic gradients except in areas where topographic relief is greater than that which is typical as, for example, near levees, tree islands, and the lake shore. These considerations suggest that on most of the marsh flat hydrologic factors could explain only broad, graded patterns in the vegetation, such as the gradual west to east transition in domi- nance from emergent to floating-leaved species. Hydrologic factors, therefore, provide an unlikely basis for much of the mosaic of the marsh flat where transitions between communities, especially between dense sawgrass and wet prairie, were often abrupt. The importance of non-hydrologic factors on the flat is further indicated by the fact that the distributions of many species over- lapped broadly with respect to frequency of inundation, but showed little, or no overlap spatially. This was especially true for maidencane and sawgrass, which were nearly mutually exclusive. For these reasons, it appears that the mosaic formed by dense sawgrass and wet prairie was caused by non-hydrologic factors. Variation in soils apparently did not cause this pattern because all areas sampled had deep peat soils. A more likely cause is fire. Although there are no data on the frequency with which the St. Johns Marsh near Blue Cypress Lake has burned, it did burn as recently as 1959 (Herke, 1959). Given the strong similarity between the St. Johns marsh and the Everglades, where fire is a frequent and ecologically potent event (Wade et al., 1980; Taylor, 1981), it is reasonable to assume that fire has been a significant factor in development of vegetational patterns in the marsh. Fire may be particularly important for maidencane and other species of the wet prairie which apparently exist in the marsh primarily where competition with sawgrass can be avoided. On the lake shore, wave action may prevent colonization by sawgrass whereas on the marsh flat severe fire may be re- quired to eliminate sawgrass from an area and allow prairie species access to it. It seems likely that prairie species rapidly colonize severely burned areas and then inhibit the establishment of sawgrass seedlings. Sawgrass would re- claim these areas slowly, through vegetative propagation, as a moving front which monopolizes space and light. 230 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 This explanation for development of the mosaic of sawgrass and prairie communities is supported by several lines of evidence: 1) Although sawgrass is morphologically adapted to withstand fire (Forthman, 1973) and in some ar- eas may require fire to maintain its dominance (Wade et al., 1980), severe burns can kill the meristems and thus eliminate it from an area. Fire has, in fact, been a major factor in reduction of sawgrass populations in the Ever- glades (Craighead, 1971) and in the Upper Basin of the St. Johns River (per- sonal observation). 2) Maidencane is well adapted to survive fire. In the Ever- glades, Loveless (1959) observed rapid resprouting of maidencane only 3-4 days after burning and Tilmant (1975, in Wade et al., 1980) found that six months after a fire the total cover in a maidencane marsh was 77 percent, compared to only 27 percent in an adjacent stand of sawgrass. Perhaps more importantly, maidencane prairies are less likely to be severely burned than are sawgrass communities. During the 1971 drought in the Everglades, wet prai- ries did not burn at the same time there were intense fires in stands of sawgrass (Goodrick, 1974). Goodrick (1974) suggested this was due to the low fuel con- tent of wet prairies and pointed out their importance as fire breaks and refu- gia. The prescribed fires studied by Forthman (1973) also “‘stopped (without suppression) when they reached areas without heavy sawgrass fuel’’. The jux- taposition of unburned prairies with severly burned areas would promote rapid colonization of the burned area by prairie species. 3) The very low densi- ties of sawgrass in prairies indicate that seed dispersal is a largely ineffective means for colonization of the prairie by sawgrass. Studies in the Everglades have, in fact, directly demonstrated that sawgrass does not typically rely on seed dispersal (Alexander, 1971). Moreover, when seedlings of sawgrass do become established on newly burned areas, they frequently die during the next dry season (Craighead, 1971). 4) Field observations indicate that the elevations of maidencane prairies are often slightly lower (1 to several inches) than the elevations of adjacent sawgrass stands. This would be expected if sawgrass was eliminated from the area by a fire sufficiently severe to burn the peat. The sharp borders between sawgrass stands and wet prairie communities and the slight difference in their elevations have also been observed in the Everglades (Wade et al., 1980: Olmstead et al., 1980). If fire is, indeed, the primary effector of the distributional pattern formed by maidencane prairie and sawgrass communities, it would account for a large portion (ca. 50%) of the spatial heterogeneity of the marsh flat. It should be remembered, however, that the frequency and intensity of fire, and the suite of species upon which it acts, are largely determined by hydrologic conditions. Moreover, it can not yet be discounted that the small difference in hydroperiod implied by elevational differences between the two communities is the primary cause of the mozaic. The conclusions which can be drawn from this work regarding the relative roles of fire and hydrology in shaping vegetational patterns must be tentative. Additional work is needed to adequately delineate the ecological amplitudes and optima of the species sampled and conclusions regarding fire were largely hypothetical. The scientific literature provides little help in more rigorously No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 231 defining the effects of fire or hydrology on spatial patterns. Of the few other studies which have examined the effects of hydrology on the vegetational pat- terns of Florida wetlands, only two (Sincock, 1958; Pesnell and Brown, 1977) directly addressed the problem via gradient analysis. Quantitative, synecologi- cal study of the effects of fire in Florida wetlands is equally rudimentary (Wright and Bailey, 1982; Hall, 1983). Because the ecological values of wet- lands are largely based upon their vegetation it is extremely important that managers of wetlands better understand the factors which regulate species distributions. Investigation of the nature and causes of vegetation pattern, therefore, remains an area of research vital to sound management of the wet- land resources of Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—David Girardin, Joel Steward, Marvin Williams and Palmer Kinser as- sisted in the field. Palmer Kinser and David Girardin also helped in species identifications. Wayne King and Joe Woodard helped develop FORTRAN programs for generation of random number pairs and interpolation of serial data. Figure 7 was digitized and plotted by Marvin Williams and Greeneville Hall. All other figures were prepared by Bruce Ford. Drafts of the manuscript were critically read by Jerry Brooks, Greeneville Hall, Palmer Kinser, Dr. Theodore Rochow, and an anonymous reviewer. Their comments significantly contributed to its improvement. To all of these individuals I extend my sincere thanks. LITERATURE CITED AkIMA, H., 1970. A new method of interpolation and smooth curve fitting based on local proce- dures. J. Assoc. 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Succession in wetlands: A Gleasonian approach. Ecology. 62(3):688- 696. AND L. C. Buss, 1971. Hydrarch succession and net primary production of oxbow lakes in central Alberta. Can. J. Bot., 49:1177-1199. AND C. B. Davis, 1976. Changes in the composition, structure and production of plant communities along a perturbed wetland coenocline. Vegetatio, 32(2):87-96. VELLEMAN, P. F. anp D. C. Hoac.in, 1981. Applications, Basics and Computing of Exploratory Data Analysis. Duxbury Press, Boston, MA, 354 pp. Wane, D., J. Ewei, AND R. Horsterrer, 1980. Fire in south Florida ecosystems. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, General Technical Report SE-17, Southeast For. Exp. Stn., Asheville, NC, 125 pp. Wuaerrton, C. H., W. M. KitcHENs, AND E. C. PENDLETON, 1982. The ecology of bottomland hardwood swamps of the southeast: a community profile. National Coastal Ecosystems Team, Biol. Services Program, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C., 133 pp. Wuirraker, R. H., 1967. Gradient analysis of vegetation. Biol. Rev., 49:207-264. Wricnt, H. A. AND A. W. Baley, 1982. Fire Ecology, United States and Southern Canada, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 501, pp. Florida Sci. 49(4):213-233. 1986. Accepted: December 13, 1985. Biological Sciences PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH INA YPERBUTROrnn. FLORIDA LAKE FOLLOWING A WINTER DECLINE IN PHYTOPLANKTON Lynn M. Hopcson", STEPHEN B. LINDA”, AND DANIEL E.. CANFIELD, Jr.” Dept. of Natural Sciences, Northern State College, Aberdeen, $.D. 57401") Center for Aquatic Weeds, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 3261 1!) Asstract: Lake Wauberg, Florida, has a long history of blue-green algal dominance through- out the year, with annual mean Secchi depths of 0.5 m. Growth of periphytic algal species on submersed glass slides was negligible in winter under the usual bloom conditions. In February, 1981, the phytoplankton population drastically decreased in biomass. Secchi depth rose to 3.0 m, and periphytic algal standing crops on glass slides dramatically increased. As the phytoplankton populations recovered, periphytic algal standing crop decreased. A succession of green algae in February, green algae and cryptomonad in March, and blue-green algae by April, 1982, was observed as the phytoplankton recovered pre-collapse densities. The periphyton succession was dominated by green algae in March, green algae and diatoms in April-May, and by blue-green algae in June and July. Phytoplankton diversity decreased during the recovery period, and was negatively correlated with total biovolume. Periphyton diversity increased as the phytoplankton recovered and periphyton biovolume decreased to annual mean levels. THE RELATIONSHIP between planktonic and periphytic algal communities in lakes is unclear. In most studies which include both communities (e.g., Fitzgerald 1969, Cattaneo and Kalff 1980, Moss 1981), it is difficult to inter- pret interactions between phytoplankton and periphyton apart from the effects of submersed macrophytes. However, in a study of epiphyte seasonality, Jorgensen (1957) noted that maxima of epiphytes on Phragmites spp. never coincided with those of phytoplankton, and suggested that phytoplankton in- hibited epiphytes. Conversely, Moss (1976) noted the epiphyte biomass per unit biomass of macrophyte substrate remained unchanged as phytoplankton con- centration increased. Lake Wauberg is a hypereutrophic, phytoplankton-dominated Florida lake virtually free from submersed macrophytes, but with a fringe of emergent vegetation. Annual mean Secchi disc depths are 0.5 m to 0.9 m (Carr 1934, Canfield 1981) and annual mean chlorophyll a concentrations exceed 37 mg/ m’ (Canfield 1981). In February, 1981, the phytoplankton disappeared and resulted in a mean Secchi disc depth of 3.0 m. This major phytoplankton decline presented an opportunity to examine the concomitant responses of periphyton, phytoplankton, and water chemistry. Stupy Sire—Lake Wauberg (29° 32’N, 82°18’W) is a naturally hypereutrophic, soft water lake in Alachua County. The lake has an area of 101 ha, and a mean depth of 3.8 m, with a central depth of about 4.5 m. The lake bottom is a loosely consolidated organic muck, and seems to have changed little in the last 50 years (Carr, 1934). Direct rainfall and surface/subsurface flows which have passed through slightly calcareous, phosphatic sands are the major sources of water No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 235 (Canfield, 1981). The only surface outlet is a slough on the east shore which empties into a large sawegrass pond. Canfield (1981) reported a mean pH of 7.8, alkalinity of 21 mg/l as CaCOs, total hardness of 22.1 mg/l as CaCO3, nitrogen of 2109 mg/m, phosphorus of 79.9 mg/m, and chloro- phyll a of 110 mg/m. Lake Wauberg has a narrow fringe of floating-leaved and emergent macrophytes, mainly Nuphar luteum, Panicum spp. and Typha spp.; but has virtually no submersed macrophytes. Carr (1934) recorded Secchi disc depths ranging from 0.1 to 1.45 m, and consistent blue-green domi- nance of the phytoplankton. Similarly, Canfield (1981) reported an annual mean Secchi disc depth of 0.4 m and Hodgson and Linda (1982) found the phytoplankton to be dominated by filamentous blue-green algae in both summer and winter. MATERIALS AND MeEtTHops—Phytoplankton and periphytic algae were sampled in February, 1980, and January of 1981, prior to the phytoplankton collapse. Subsequent to the collapse, weekly sampling of phytoplankton, periphytic algae, and water chemistry was initiated on Feb. 26, 1981, and continued to May 6, 1981, when sampling frequency was reduced to biweekly. Sampling continued until July 15, 1981. Three to five subsurface water samples (0.5 m) were taken on each sampling date for chemical analyses and phytoplankton quantification. Chemical analyses were performed on unfiltered wa- ter, except where otherwise noted. Total phosphorus concentrations were determined using the procedures of Murphy and Riley (1962) after persulfate digestion (Menzel and Corwin, 1965). Total nitrogen concentrations were determined using a modified Kjeldahl technique (Nelson and Sommers, 1975). An Orion model 601A pH meter was used to measure pH. Specific conductance was measured by use of a Yellow Springs Instrument Company model 31 conductivity meter. Total and phenolphthalein alkalinity were determined by titration with 0.02 N sulfuric acid (A.P.H.A. 1976). Color determination was made by use of the platinum cobalt method and Nessler tubes (A.P.H.A. 1976) on water filtered through a Gelman type A-E glass fiber filter. Chlorophyll a concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically (A.P.H.A. 1976), and calculated by the use of equations in Lind (1974). Corrections for phaeophytin had no effect on results and are not reported: here. Cell counts were performed to determine phytoplankton taxonomic composition and abundance. Samples preserved with Lugol’s solution were concentrated, as needed, by low speed (7000 rpm) centrifugation and subsamples placed in a Palmer cell. At least 20 haphazard microscopic fields, or fields sufficient to count at least 100 cells, whichever was greater, were examined per sample. A Nikon phase contrast microscope at 400 x was used to identify algae to genus, and to determine cell dimensions. Biovolumes were calculated by approximation to the nearest geometrical shape (Edler, 1979). Relative abundances were then calculated based on biovolume (rather than cell counts). A modified Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H) was calcu- lated (Smith, 1980). Glass slide periphyton samplers (Wildco, Saginaw, MI) were used to collect periphyton for estimates of standing crop and productivity. Four samplers consisting of eight 76.2 mm x 25.4 mm microscope slides were placed in the lake, approximately 30 m from shore. Samplers were suspended in the top 10 cm of water. Two sets of samples were set out at overlapping two week intervals so that 2 samplers were collected each week; thus each sampler was in the water 14 days. Chlorophyll a concentrations on slides were determined as a measure of periphyton biomass. Three pairs of glass slides from each sampler were placed in 90% acetone with 1 g MgCO,, sonicated for 1 min (80% power on a Fisher Sonic Dismembrator, Model 300), and incubated in a freezer overnight. Chlorophyll a concentrations were then determined spectrophotometrically (A.P.H.A. 1976 & Lind 1974). Direct cell counts were performed on the remaining two slides to determine taxonomic composition and abundance. Slides were cleaned on one side, and placed directly under the microscope. At least 100 cells were counted on each of two slides for each station. Quantification was based on the number of microscope fields, of known area, counted. Algae were identified to genus, and cell dimensions determined. Biovolume determination and community analyses were performed as for phytoplankton. For ease in comparing our data to those of others, please note that on our biovolume figures, 10!3 um3 x m-3 = 104 ul x m-3 = 10 uh xc.-1 -1, Data were analyzed by use of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Inc.) and comput- ing facilities of the Northeast Regional Data Center (University of Florida). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION—A negative relationship between planktonic and attached algae is shown by graphs of phytoplankton and periphyton chloro- phyll a (Fig. 1). The February decline in phytoplankton was accompanied by a 936 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Sard 20 % ol a < : sali Ins 4 15 © = [e) S x 2 = ~> ® c a a S 100 10 = — ® ~ c Qa oe: 50 5 0 0 FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Fic. 1: Phytoplankton (A) chlorophyll a (mg x m3) and 14-day periphyton (O) chlorophyll a (mg x m~?) for each collecting date in 1981. Vertical standard error bars are added if larger than the symbol size. *mean value from Canfield (1981) for 2-21-80. ten-fold increase in periphytic algae. Phytoplankton rapidly recovered during March, reached a peak in April, then dropped to normal levels. Phytoplankton and periphytic algal biovolume also indicated a negative relationship between these two communities (Fig. 2). On Feb. 4, before the phytoplankton collapse, virtually no algal cells were observed growing on glass slides. Later in Febru- ary, as phytoplankton biovolume decreased by 2 orders of magnitude, periphy- tic algal biovolume showed its highest value (1.3 x 10’? um* x m~’). Through March and April, periphytic algal biovolume decreased as phytoplankton increased. The chlorophyll a peak of April 1 (Fig. 3) was comprised of small-celled Cryptomonas spp. and Actinastrum spp., and was not reflected in a major biovolume peak. The biovolume peak of May 20 corresponded to a smaller chlorophyll a peak. On this date, the large-celled blue-green alga, Anacystis sp., accounted for 93% by volume of the phytoplankton. Although there was no statistically significant negative correlation between planktonic and periphytic algal chlorophyll values, there was a significant negative correla- tion between phytoplankton and periphytic algal biovolume values (r= — 0.54; No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL. —PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH SE | P<0.05; Fig. 2). Periphyton and phytoplankton communities were distinct, with few taxa in common (Hodgson & Linda, 1982). Prior to the February collapse, phytoplankton were dominated by the fila- mentous blue-green Aphanizomenon sp. (probably A. americanum) with much smaller volumes of Cryptomonas spp., and Sphaerocystis sp. (Fig. 4). During the February collapse, the remnant phytoplankton community was dominated by green algae, primarily Coelastrum spp. and Oocystis spp., with smaller volumes of diatoms and colonial and filamentous blue-green algae. In March, as the phytoplankton recovered, blooms of green algae, including Sch- roederia setigera, small green coccoids, and cryptomonads occurred. It was not until April that blue-green algae regained their dominance; with Anacystis spp. becoming abundant. By mid-July, when sampling ended, the filamentous blue-greens Anabaenopsis philipinensis and Lyngbya spp. had also become abundant, but the previous dominant, Aphanizomenon sp., had not reap- peared. During the phytoplankton collapse in February, and during its recovery, periphytic algae were dominated by the filamentous green algae Stigeoclo- nium stagnatile and Coleochaete spp., palmelloid green coccoids, and a pen- nate diatom Gomphonema sp. (Fig. 5). By the end of May, however, attached 135 120 105 Periphyton biovolume (0) Phytoplankton biovolume (4) MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Fic. 2: Phytoplanktic algae (A) biovolume (um? x 10! x m~3) and periphyton (O) biovolume (um? x 10!3 x m~?) for each collecting date. Data are presented as in Fig. 1. 238 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Biovolume (4) 200 175 ISOUKRe ol 25 = ~ t= a Weel ° Ve O 75 50 25 FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Fic. 3: Phytoplankton biovolume (A) (um? x 10!3 x m~-3) and chlorophyll a (O) (mg x m-3) for each collecting date. Data are presented as in Fig. 1. filamentous blue-green algae, primarily Calothrix spp. and Lyngbya spp., had become important and dominated the periphyton from mid-June through July. There was no significant correlation of total phytoplankton biovolume or periphyton chlorophyll a@ with any measured water chemistry parameter. There was a significant correlation (r= 0.65; p<0.05) between phytoplankton chlorophyll a and total nitrogen, as expected from many studies including those of Canfield (1981). The only parameter significantly correlated with periphyton biovolume was color (r=0.71; p<0.05). Correlation coefficients of the relative abundance of a given phylum (and the biovolume of that phylum) with water chemistry values were calculated in order to detect significant relationships of water chemistry parameters with the observed succession. The only measured parameter with which phyto- — plankton composition was significantly correlated was, again, color. Green | algae were positively correlated with color (r=0.76; p<0.01), while blue- green algae were negatively correlated (r= — 0.64; p<0.05). The relative abundance of green algae in the periphyton was correlated with color (r=0.88; p<0.01) as was the phytoplankton. The relative abun- dance of blue-green algae, however, was positively correlated with specific No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 239 100 80 60 Phytoplankton relative abundance (%) FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Fic. 4: Relative abundances of phyla (%) in the phytoplankton for each collecting date. g=greens (Chlorophyta), b=blue-greens (Cyanobacteria), c=cryptomonads (Cryptophyta); d= diatoms (Bacillariophyta). conductance (r=0.91; p<0.01) and negatively correlated with total nitrogen (r= —0.64, p<0.05). Diatom relative abundance was negatively correlated with pH (r= —0.91, p<0.05). The biovolumes of these phyla were signifi- cantly correlated with the same parameters as their relative abundances. Winter color values for Lake Wauberg, as reported by Canfield (1981), were low (15 mg/] Pt). Color increased following the phytoplankton collapse, ranging from 20 to 25 mg/1 Pt. in March and early April. Also at that time, an increased relative abundance of cryptomonads, an algal group thought to in- crease as dissolved organic materials increase (Schwartz et al., 1981), was observed. Color values decreased as the phytoplankton recovered, and by June again averaged 15 mg/I Pt. If increased color can be caused by the decomposi- tion of algae, the correlation of color with the composition of the phyto- plankton community and with periphytic algal biovolume may simply be re- 240 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 100 80 60 40 20 Periphyton relative abundance (%) FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Fic. 5: Relative abundances of phyla (%) in the periphytic algae for each collecting date. Data are presented as in Fig. 4. lated to the correlation of color with post-collapse date (r=0.75, p<0.01). Statewide, color is correlated with both algal biomass and Secchi disc depths (Canfield and Hodgson, 1981). For both periphyton and phytoplankton communities, Shannon-Weaver (H) diversity was lowest when biovolumes were highest. However, this relation- ship was statistically significant only for phytoplankton (r=0.82, p<0.0001). Biovolume peaks in phytoplankton were due to blooms of a single genus, Ana- cystis spp., in April and May. Peaks in periphytic algal biovolume were due to several genera of green algae, primarily the filamentous Stigeoclonium stagnatile or the cluster-forming coccoid, Askenasyella sp. Because of the limited nature of this data, we can reach no conclusions of cause and effect. We present these correlations primarily to suggest hypotheses for further research on the relationship of water chemistry parameters to the composition of algal communities. No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 241 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Funding for this project was provided in part by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, ARS Cooperative Agreement No. 58-7B30-0-177. This paper is Journal Series no. 7071 of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. The authors express their thanks to Drs. W. T. Haller and K. A. Langeland for their advice and criticisms, and to Denise Guerin and Mary Rutter for assistance in the field and laboratory. LITERATURE CITED: AMERICAN PuBLic HEALTH AssociATION. 1976. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Washington, D.C. 1193 pp. CANFIELD, D. E., Jr. 1981. Chemical and trophic state characteristics of Florida lakes in relation to regional geology. Final Report, Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Univ. Flor- ida, Gainesville, FL. 444 pp. CANFIELD, D. E., JR. AND L. M. Hopcson. 1981. Prediction of Secchi disc depths in Florida lakes: Impact of algal biomass and organic color. Hydrobiologia. 99:5 1-60. Carr, A. F. 1934. The plankton and carbon dioxide-oxygen cycle in Lake Wauberg, Florida. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida. CATTANEO, A. AND J. Karr. 1980. The relative contribution of aquatic macrophytes and their epiphytes to the production of macrophyte beds. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25:280-289. Exper, L. 1979. Recommednations for marine biological studies in the Baltic Sea: phyto- plankton and chlorophyll. The Baltic Marine Biologists Publ. #5. 38 pp. FITZGERALD, G. P. 1969. Some factors in the competition or antagonism among bacteria, algae, and aquatic weeds. J. Phycol. 5:351-359. Hopcson, L. M. Anp S. B. Linpa. 1982. Interactions among phytoplankton, periphyton, and submersed macrophyte communities. Final report, U.S.D.A., December, 1982. JorcENSEN, E. G. 1957. Diatom periodicity and silicon assimilation. Dansk. Bot. Ark. 18:1-54. Linp, O. T. 1974. Handbook of Common Methods in Limnology. Mosby Co. St. Louis. 154 pp. MENZEL, D. W., AND N. Corwin. 1965. The measurement of total phosphorus in seawater based onthe liberation of organically bound fractions by persulfate oxidation. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10:280-232. Moss, B. 1976. The effects of fertilization and fish on community structure and biomass of aquatic macrophytes and epiphytic algal populations: an ecosystem experiment. J. Ecol. 64:313-342. Moss, B. 1981. The composition and ecology of periphyton communities in freshwaters. II. Inter- relationships between water chemistry, phytoplankton populations and periphyton popula- tions in a shallow lake and associated experimental reservoirs (““Lund Tubes’’). Br. Phycol. J. 16:59-76. Muprpny, J. AND J. P. Ritey. 1962. A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta. 27:31-36. Netson, D. W. Anp L. E. Sommers. 1975. Determination of total nitrogen in natural waters. J. Environ. Qual. 4:465-468. ScHwartz, S. S., D. W. BLINN, AND G. JoHNsON. 1981. The physico-chemical and planktonic response of an algicide-treated shallow mountain lake in Arizona. Int. Revue Ges. Hydro- biol. 66:249-262. SmiTH, R. L. 1980. Ecology and Field Biology. Harper & Row, N.Y. 835 pp. Florida Sci. 49(4):234-241. 1986. Accepted: December 3, 1985 Geological Sciences DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THREE PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS IN NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA Co.etTTE M. KussE" AND Douc as S. JONES” (1) Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, (2) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Asstract: Three bluffs exposing Pleistocene sediments occur along the Bells and St. Marys rivers in northeasternmost Florida. These are of close proximity and similar elevation, but possess different sedimentary features. To reconstruct the paleoenvironment of deposition represented by these exposures, detailed studies of the sediment characteristics, sedimentary structures, and fossil assemblages at each site were undertaken. The results suggest deposition occurred in a marine to marginal marine setting with sedimentation proceeding along a prograding shoreline during marine regression. The sedimentary sequences are interpreted to represent an ancient barrier island complex. Trace fossils, particularly Ophiomorpha nodosa, and sedimentary structures per- mit the recognition of barrier island, tidal inlet, and salt marsh paleoenvironments. The marine terrace elevations have potential significance for better interpreting the sea level and tectonic history of Florida. THREE bluffs exposing Pleistocene sediments occur along the Bells and St. Marys rivers in the northeastern corner of Nassau County, Florida (Fig. 1). They are in close proximity and of similar elevation, but exhibit different sedimentary features. Bells Bluff is characterized by offshore, shoreface, fore- shore, and backshore biogenic and sedimentary structures. It has been the subject of intensive study by geologists from the University of Georgia and it has been described as representing a complete marine regressive sequence (Ho- ward and Scott, 1983). Northwest of Bells Bluff (0.4 km) is the southern expo- sure of Roses Bluff. This exposure contains sand and clay units with biogenic structures including Ophiomorpha nodosa, Thallasinoides, and escape struc- tures. The southern exposure of Roses Bluff extends approximately 0.8 km along Bells River and is separated from the northern exposure of Roses Bluff by an area of low-lying land. Northern Roses Bluff consists of three Ophiomorpha units separated by two cross-bedded units. Reids Bluff is west of Roses Bluff (2.5 km). It consists of a lower flaser bedded, burrowed unit and an upper clay unit containing the bivalved mollusks Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria. The purpose of this investigation is to describe in detail the sedimentary sequence at each of these notable exposures. The descriptions are assembled into a unified depositional model to permit reconstruction of the paleoenviron- mental conditions responsible for the formation of the various sedimentary units exposed in these Pleistocene sediments. ; GroLocic Settinc—The study area (Fig. 1) is situated east of a 9-15 m | scarp which forms the eastern edge of the Duval Upland. To the west of the — Duval Upland lies Trail Ridge and the Northern Highland, respectively. Trail No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES— PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS Reids Bluff jJjJN|q Sasoy Atlantic BELLS RIVER c = © = = ° z v c ) =< oa = kilometers 243 -enholoway and Pamlico barrier islands after Hovt (1969), 'stigated in this study, Nassau County, Florida, Land south of the Florida Location map of Pleistocene exposures inve l. Fig, Georgia border is managed by ITT Ravonier, Inc. Inset shows Wicomico, I 244 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Ridge is believed to be a relict barrier or spit that may have formed at the crest of a marine transgression from erosion of the Northern Highland (Pirkle et al., 1974). The age of Trail Ridge has been debated. Proposed ages include Miocene (Alt and Brooks, 1965; Alt, 1974), no older than Pliocene (Pirkle and Yoho, 1970; Pirkle et al., 1970) and Pleistocene (Cooke, 1939). The recent discovery of shallow marine fossils in Trail Ridge, however, indicates that it is no older than late Pliocene or Pleistocene (Pirkle and Czel, 1983). East of Trail Ridge are a series of marine terraces which become succes- sively lower to the east. Trail Ridge represents a Wicomico shoreline (29-31 m). Five other ancient shorelines present in Florida include: Penholoway (21-23 m), Talbot (12-14 m), Pamlico (7 m), Princess Anne (4 m), and Silver Bluff (1.5 m) (Hoyt, 1969). The highest shoreline is believed to be the oldest, with subse- quent terraces formed by progressive lowering of the sea level through the Pleistocene (Hoyt, 1969). The total height of the bluffs in the study area varies between 15-17 m above sea level, with former sea level stands thought to correspond to a Pamlico shoreline. The present coastline is characterized by barrier islands broken by tidal inlets. These islands, termed the Sea Islands, extend from North Carolina to Talbot Island, Florida. Behind the barriers lie protected salt-marshes and tidal flats. The general coastal region is dominated by semidiurnal tides with an average range of 2 m. A southerly longshore current predominates. METHOops—The exposures at South Roses, North Roses and Reids Bluff were visited from land and by boat on several occasions during 1983-84 (Kussel, 1984). The sedimentary sequence at each exposure was photographed, measured and described. Sediment and fossil samples were collected and studied from each unit. The results were compared with the Bells Bluff sequence previously described by Howard and Scott (1983). To determine the direction of the paleocurrent, the azimuth reading of the maximum dip of the crossbedding was measured. One measurement was taken on each set within a crossbedded unit using a Brunton Compass. The data were plotted on an equal area circular diagram. A vector mean was computed for each unit following the procedure of Potter and Pettijohn (1977). ResuLts—Depositional History—Observations at Roses, Reids, and Bells Bluffs suggest several different but closely related environments of deposition. Open marine, tidal inlet, and salt-marsh paleoenvironments were identified. These are associated with an ancient barrier island complex. Modern analogs to these paleoenvironments can be observed along the present Florida and Georgia coastlines. BELLS BLUFF—The authors concur with Howard and Scott’s (1983) conclu- sion that Bells Bluff represents a regressive sequence. Comparison of the sedi- mentary structures and fossil fauna with the adjacent modern marine environ- ment reveals a complete sequence from offshore through backshore facies (Fig. 2). Results of the present study show that Roses and Reids Bluffs also express a regressional sequence of a prograding shoreline. NortH Roses Biurr—The north Roses Bluff exposure is located 1.6 km directly north of Bells Bluff (Fig. 1), following the north-south trend of the 245 KUSSEL AND JONES— PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS No. 4, 1986] (€86 | ) 09S pue pleMopH Joye ST UOLOVS JIN] | S{[Pa $2198) payeqinyoiq $919e) peyeulwe| pue pajeqinjoiq saioej payeulwe;| pue PpaMmoiing o saide) pay eulwey Le $a1de) payeqinjoiq. pue pejeulwe| $aldej pajyjow JJ91E SIG $319e) pamoiing pue payeqinjoiq payeuiwe| jeyuozioy $919e} pues Pue j|j9y4s saioe) PaPpaqssoio 0} sainjoniys adeosa YIM | $a19e) pamosing saioe) aaissew 0} payeulwe| JIN] G S280y YInos peppeqssoio JaMO} P2 ppeqssoid saddn saline; pamoiing A\jasieds jase|} Aejo Saline) pamoiing Ajasuap sa1oe} pamoiing saioe; 413}SAo -Aejo saioej SMO1JINQ aSieds YIM SAlIe4 pappeqssoi9s 0} 4eue;d saiosey jeunp sajoe, jeunp Ppeppeq aaissew peppeg aaissew JJN[G S9Soy y p10" ‘UOTESISOAUL SI] UL passnostp soinsodxoa ay} JO YoRa IO} SULN]OS oIYdeIBVeIYS *Z “OY TSW L Z € v S 9 ae o ZL o = g = =] 6 = A OL ® id LL Alt LE vl St 9L Zt JIMA SPLOY 246 FLORIDA SCIENTIST (Vol. 49 present coastline. It might be expected that the same sequence of facies would be found at Roses Bluff. In fact, the sequence is much different (Fig. 2), even though both the Bells Bluff and Roses Bluff exposures probably formed along the same paleoshoreline. Bells Bluff represents an open marine paleoenviron- ment, while the sequence of facies at Roses Bluff is interpreted as a southerly migrating tidel channel. The following units are recognized at north Roses Bluff: Densely Burrowed Facies—Present within this unit is the trace fossil Ophiomorpha nodosa, typically 3-4 cm in diameter and up to | m in length (Fig. 3). Specimens exhibit the characteristic knobby exterior and have hori- zontal! bifurcations. The burrows stand out in relief from the surrounding sand unit. This is probably a result of the replacement by iron of the original collo- phane believed to have cemented the burrows. The burrows are sand filled and dark in color, due to differential iron staining. Along the Georgia and Florida coasts, the burrow of the marine decapod Callianassa major, is believed to be the modern analog of the Ophiomorpha trace (Weimer and Hoyt, 1964). Callianassa major burrows have generally been accepted as shoreline indicators. Their primary occurrence is in the sandy, open marine littoral to shallow neritic environment. The highest con- centration of burrows is at mean sea level. However, these burrows are not restricted to this type of environment. They have been reported on protected Fic. 3. Ophiomorpha nodosa (burrow width typically 3-4 cm) in burrowed facies at north Roses Bluff. No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 247 beaches, sandy tidal flats and shoals (Frey, 1970), tidal deltas (Warme, 1971), and offshore bars (Weimer and Hoyt, 1964). The lowermost unit lacks any bedding structures. This is due to the density of Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows. Burrow densities as high as 96/m’ have been encountered and modern populations of Callianassa have been shown to over- turn 17% of the upper meter of sediment each year (Hill and Hunter, 1976). Although no sedimentary structures are present, a relatively shallow marine paleoenvironment can be implied by the presence of these trace fossils. Also present within this unit are lenses of granule size quartz grains and clay rip-up clasts. Deposits such as these form from storm activity or higher energy currents. Clay rip-up clasts imply the proximity of a clay source area. Lower Crossbedded Facies—This facies consists of large-scale trough crossbedded sand. Crossbedded sets are up to 60 cm thick. The crossbedding has a dominant southern paleocurrent direction with a vector range from 126° to 221° and a mean of 195°. Bed form and larger grain sizes in this unit indicate a high energy environment. Present-day longshore transport is also to the south along the Atlantic coast of Florida. A similar system is likely to have formed the bedding structure of the lower crossbedded facies. Longshore currents provide the velocity and di- rection necessary to produce large-scale crossbedding. Longshore unidirec- tional crossbedding in such settings has been reported by many investigators (e.g. Davidson-Arnott and Greenwood, 1976; 1974; Hoyt and Henry, 1967; Howard and Reineck, 1981). Fossils of small bivalve shells are found in alternating beds in this unit. The single convex-up valves are extremely weathered with no original shell mate- rial remaining and are present as friable, iron concentration casts. Identifica- tion is difficult because of poor preservation. The casts range in size from 1-2 cm. These small shell casts may represent the coquina clam, Donax, or possi- bly Mulinia. Both are shallow burrowing forms characteristic of a shallow marine, soft substrate environment. Burrowed Facies—This unit is very similar to the densely burrowed facies. Bedding structures have been destroyed by the burrowing of Callianassa ma- jor. The burrow density is less than the lower densely burrowed facies, averag- ing 32 burrows/m’. It contains no clay clasts, or lenses of granule size quartz. These three lowest units at north Roses Bluff represent an offshore to shoreface paleoenvironment. Upper Crossbedded Facies—The upper crossbedded facies consists of trough crossbedded sands containing shells similar to the lower crossbedded facies. Sets range from 60-120 cm in thickness. The paleocurrent direction of this unit shows a dominant southern component, with a vector range from 97° to 242° and a mean of 176°. From its position in the stratigraphic sequence, its paleocurrent direction, and bedding, a shoreface environment is implied for this unit. The shoreface region is the area that is always submerged and usually made up of longshore bars and troughs. Currents parallel the shoreline in the direction of the long- shore current. Longshore currents with velocities as great as 1 m/sec, form 248 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 large-scale crossbedded sands. The size and direction of the beds in this unit indicate formation by longshore transport. Planar to Crossbedded Facies—The bedding in this unit ranges from hori- zontal laminated, to herringbone, to trough crossbedded. The unit is inter- preted as representing the foreshore to backshore region of the beach. The foreshore is the area between mean low water and mean high water and is dominated by wave processes. Sedimentary structures are formed by breaking waves, swash, and backwash. Laminated low-angle bedding, crossbedding, and megaripple bedding have been reported in the foreshore (Thompson, 1937; McKee, 1957; Hoyt and Weimer, 1963; Hoyt and Henry, 1967; Howard and Reineck, 1981). The backshore is the flatlying region seaward of the dune and landward of the berm crest, the swash limit. Sediment in this area is transported by wind and washover. Horizontal and low-angle crossbedding characterize the backshore. Dune Facies—This facies lacks sedimentary structures and fossils. From its position in the stratigraphic column and geomorphic expression, it is believed to represent a Pleistocene dune. Howard and Scott (1983) report a Pleistocene dune overlain by a Holocene dune at Bells Bluff. This may also be the case at Roses Bluff. SouTH Roses BLurF—Closely associated with the north Roses Bluff tidal inlet migrational sequence is the south Roses Bluff sequence. Located approxi- mately 0.5 km south of north Roses Bluff (Fig. 1), this exposure contains very different facies. The lower units of the sequence are believed to be of an inlet- fill origin as evidenced by the upwardly increasing clay concentration. The overlying sandy units represent a return to typical barrier island shoreface, foreshore, and dune deposition. Shell and Sand Facies—The lower unit has no preserved bedding struc- tures. It contains a large concentration of unoriented shells. The bivalves Diwaricella dentata, an unidentified mactrid, and the gastropods Terebra dis- locata, and an unidentified naticid are all present. These are small, delicate, shallow marine forms, moderately well preserved and largely unbroken, im- plying only minor transport. Crassostrea virginica is also present, but valves are typically broken, implying substantial transportation, perhaps from an adjacent estuary. Bioturbated Burrowed Facies—This unit overlies the shell and sand facies. It is extremely bioturbated and contains a high percentage of clay, with clay content increasing upward. Thallasinoides type burrows are present through- out this unit. These are 2-4 cm in diameter and 0.5-1 m in length. This type of burrow occurs in units with a considerable amount of clay. Due to the size similarity between these burrows and those of Ophiomorpha and to the prox- imity of the Ophiomorpha burrows, these structures probably also represent burrows of Callianassa sp. Differences in burrow structures, such as the lack of a knobby exterior, may reflect the substrate in which the burrow was con- structed. Elevation (as measured in meters above the adjacent sea level datum) and characteristics of this unit are equivalent to the bioturbated and laminated facies at Bells Bluff (Howard and Scott, 1983). No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 249 Clay Facies—The clay facies is a thin homogeneous bed of clay. The unit is 0.3 m thick and thinly laminated. X-ray diffraction analysis indicates it is composed of kaolinite, montmorillonite, and palygorskite. This combination of clay minerals suggests a mixture of terrestrial and marine components, per- haps in an estuarine setting. No biogenic structures or fossils are present. Laminated to Crossbedded Facies—The shoreface region of the beach is comprised of horizontal to low-angle bedded sands and trough crossbedded sands. Bioturbation is reduced or absent, and no burrows are present. Burrowed Facies—This is a sandy unit with no distinguishable bedding. It has a high content of Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows, which accounts for the lack of physical sedimentary structures. The presence of Ophiomorpha no- dosa and its stratigraphic position identify this as the foreshore. Trace fossils resembling escape structures of some unknown invertebrate animal are present at the top of the unit and appear as downward pointed “‘nested cones” (Fig. 4). The structures are 15-20 cm across at the top, and 15-20 cm in depth. The surrounding sediment laminae are flexed downward. This implies rapid depo- sition and probably records a catastrophic event such as a major storm. Laminated to Massive Facies—Backshore to dunal regions are represented in the laminated to massive facies. Horizontal bedding to small scale crossbed- ding characterize the backshore of the beach. Crossbedding sets here are 10-20 cm in thickness. This type of bedding is found in the lower part of the unit. The Fic. 4. Escape structure (arrow) in burrowed facies at south Roses Bluff. Note hammer for scale. 250 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 upper unit has no bedding structure and probably represents the overlying dune. Reins BLurF—Reids Bluff is located directly west of Roses Bluff (Fig. 1). This is landward of Roses Bluff and is interpreted as an estuarine paleoenviron- ment inland of the ancient barrier island complex. The following facies can be identified: Clay Flaser Sparsely Burrowed Facies—The lower unit at Reids Bluff rep- resents a tidal flat/tidal creek paleoenvironment. Flaser bedding is formed in such regions (Howard and Frey, 1973; Reineck and Singh, 1975). The bedding seen here is simple flaser bedding; clay flasers are concave-up and isolated within the sand. Structures of this type are formed by alternation of current activity with periods of quiescence. The biogenic structures in this facies in- clude Callianassa major burrows and Skolithos. Chamberlain (1978) de- scribed the Skolithos trace as “‘any simple, even width vertical tube. Diameter varies from 2-10 mm. Walls are usually smooth, but may be segmented or striated.” The diameter of these burrows in the study area ranges from 2-5 mm. Polychaete worms represent the most probable organism to have formed these structures. Howard and Frey (1973) report Callianassa major inhabiting the channel side of point bars in Georgia estuaries. Vertical polycheate-type bur- rows and Callianassa burrows represent the Skolithos ichnofacies, a nonma- rine to marginal marine shallow water environment (Seilacher, 1967). Clay-Oyster Facies—The presence of the bivalves Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria suggests an estuarine paleoenvironment. These forms occur presently in salt-marsh/tidal flat environments. The accumulation of parallel laminated clay and silt also indicates a lower energy environment than the previous unit. The sequence at this exposure indicates shallowing water by migration and/or regression of a salt marsh. Dunal Facies—This unit has no identifiable physical evidence of biogenic sedimentary structures. Once again on the basis of stratigraphic position and geomorphic expression, it is interpreted as an ancient dune. CORRESPONDENCE OF ELEVATION—Comparison of the stratigraphic col- umns of the four exposures (Fig. 2) illustrated a correspondence of unit eleva- tions. It is most obvious at 2.5 m, 5.0 m, and 8.7 m. This may suggest deposi- tion at the same water depth and, therefore, also at the same time. Assuming a similar tidal range as is present today (2 m), a sea level stand of approximately 7.5 m above modern mean sea level is indicated by the exposures. No structures were found in the upper unit of Reids Bluff and therefore no correlation could be made between Reids Bluff and the other three bluffs at the 8.7 m elevation. ConcLusions—The marine to marginal marine environment can be very complex, containing numerous subenvironments. In addition to the dune-to- offshore regions, longshore bars, spits, tidal inlets, tidal deltas, and river deltas may be present. Identification of these subenvironments in ancient sediments is difficult. While formulating a model, several alternative depositional environments No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 251 were considered. Longshore bars and tidal deltas are relatively small, transient features of the marine environment. This reduces the possibility of their preser- vation. Even if they were present in ancient sediments, their identification would be difficult. During and after formation, barrier islands and spits are exposed to similar processes. Distinguishing between these two features also poses problems as both contain similar sedimentary structures and organisms. A model focused upon deltaic sedimentation was considered. This type of sedimentary regime is usually associated with relatively rapid deposition. However, the high concentration of Callianassa burrows is not compatible with this type of deposition. Vertical dwelling burrows are generally found in eroding or stable sedimentary environments. The depositional model proposed is that of a barrier island complex, com- prised of barrier island, tidal inlet, and tidal flat/salt-marsh deposits (Fig. 5). The sequence at the exposures probably represents sedimentation along a pro- grading shoreline during marine regression. A littoral to shallow sublittoral environment is indicated by the presence of Callianassa major burrows. Bar- rier island sedimentation is represented at north Roses and Bells Bluffs. Bells Bluff exhibits a characteristic barrier island regressional sequence. North Roses Bluff is a remnant of a tidal inlet that has migrated southward. Paleocur- rent direction is predominantly to the south with directions ranging from 90 to 270° (Kussel, 1984). This large variation indicates a southerly longshore cur- rent influenced by strong ebb and flood tidal currents. Crossbedding current directions paralleling the shoreline along tidal inlets have been reported by Hayt and Henry (1967), who, in a study of Sapelo Island, Georgia, found crossbedding to dip in the direction of island migration. South Roses Bluff represents an inlet fill sequence formed in response to sea level lowering. This is observed in the increasing clay content upward in the lower units. Interbedded sand and clay have been interpreted as precluding inlet fill (Carter, 1978). The overlying units return to barrier island deposition, with foreshore, shoreface, backshore, and dunes represented. Reids Bluff possesses the characteristic sedimentary structures and faunal assemblages of the tidal flat/salt-marsh of the barrier complex. The occurrence of dune sediments at a lower elevation than at the other exposures may be explained in one of two ways. If this is purely a regressional sequence, dune sands may have been blown in from the barrier island to the east. Conversely, the dune sands may have been deposited from a landward migrating barrier island during a previous trangression. The sequence of facies at the exposures was formed at a sea level stand significantly higher than present. Based on the highest occurrence of Cal- lianassa major burrows, a sea level of 7.5 m above present mean sea level is indicated. Hails and Hoyt (1972) suggested a date of 110,000 years B.P. for Bells Bluff based on regional correlation. This age corresponds roughly with the last interglacial, 125,000 years B.P. Sea level elevation for the last intergla- cial probably did not exceed 2-9 m above present sea level (Williams et al., 1981). Most of the six shorelines in Florida are at elevations higher than the esti- (Vol. 49 FLORIDA SCIENTIST yong Siled JIG Sprod JING SISOY YINOS JMG S9SOY YON d Vv juUgmUOTIAUG [RUOIjIsOdag sjusWwIpag uMOUyxU/) jauueys) [ePLL yey (EPIL a0YysSJJO ow, af OO 0 hy S Oe os X Manat ‘poayepNuUNIe yoda. SIU ul possnosip sytun Ae UU pos oy YorymM ul sjUNUIUOILAUdO] ed JO UOTONAISUOIVY “S$ “OI JIBJIIOYS | d1OYS HIB a aung saloveg NOILVNV 1d X4 No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES— PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 253 mated sea level for the Plio-Pleistocene. As shown by Winker and Howard (1977), these ancient shorelines show different amounts of warping. Anoma- lous elevation and warping of the shorelines indicates some vertical tectonism has taken place in northeast Florida after deposition. Vertical tectonism has been suggested by many investigators. The deep-sea oxygen isotope record (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1976) and coastal plain paleoenvironmental records (Cronin et al., 1976) indicate sea level alone is not responsible for the elevation of the ancient shorelines. Several mechanisms for uplift have been proposed including lithospheric flexure from sediment loading and hydroisostasy. Recently, it has been sug- gested that the northern Florida peninsula has undergone uplift as a result of the formation of karst terrains (Opdyke et al., 1984). Although ancient sea level stands recorded in the bluffs of the study area are within the accepted range of sea levels for the late Pleistocene, they still may be useful in interpret- ing and timing the rate of tectonism in this region of Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We thank Mr. H. T. Belcher and Mr. A. Crews for field assistance and ITT Rayonier for permission to conduct this study along the St. Marys and Bells rivers. Mr. Kurt Auffenburg of the Florida State Museum helped identify some of the shell material and Drs. R. Lindquist and E. C. Pirkle kindly reviewed an earlier version of the manuscript. This study was funded in part by a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research (to C. M. K.) and formed the basis for a thesis submitted to the Department of Geology, University of Florida, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the M.S. degree. LITERATURE CITED Aut, D. 1974. Arid climate control of Miocene sedimentation and origin of modern drainage, southeastern United States. Pp. 21-29. In: Oaks, R. Q., Dubar, J. R. (eds.). Post-Miocene Stratigraphy, Central and Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain. Utah State Univ. Press, Logan. ___, AND H.. K.. Brooks. 1965. Age of the Florida marine terraces. J. Geol. 73:406-411. Carter, C. H. 1978. A regressive barrier and barrier-protected deposit: Depositional environ- ments and geographic settings of the Tertiary Cohansey Sand. J. Sed. Petrol. 48:933-950. CHAMBERLAIN, C. K. 1978. Recognition of trace fossils in cores. Pp. 119-166. In: Basan, P. B. (ed.). Trace Fossil Concepts (SEPM Short Course no. 5). Soc. of Econ. Paleontolog. and Mineralog. Tulsa. Cooke, C. W. 1939. Scenery of Florida interpreted by a geologist. Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 17. Cronin. T. M., B. J. Szaso, T. A. Acer, J. E. HazeL, AND J. P. Owens. 1981. Quaternary climates and sea levels of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain. Science. 211:233-239. Davipson-ArnotTT, R. G. D., AND B. GREENWoop. 1976. Facies relationships on a barred coast, Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. Pp. 149-168. In: Davis, R.A. Jr., and R. L. Ethington (eds.). Beach and Nearshore sedimentation (SEPM) Spec. Pub. 24. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa. . 1974. Bedforms and structures associated with bar topography in the shallow-water wave environment, Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Can. J. Sed. Petrol. 24:698-704. Fo.k, R. L. 1980. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Hemphill Publishing Co., Austin. Frey, R. W. 1970. Environmental significance of recent marine lebenspuren near Beaufort, North Carolina. J. Paleontol. 44:507-519. Hats, J. E., anp J. H. Hoyr. 1972. The nature and occurrence of heavy minerals in Pleistocene and Holocene sediments of the lower Georgia Coastal Plain. J. Sed. Petrol. 42:646-660. Hint, G. W., anv R. E. Hunter, 1976, Interaction of biological and geological processes in the beach and nearshore environment, Northern Padre Island, Texas. Pp. 169-187. In: Davis, R. A. Jk., AND R. L. ETHINGTON (eds.). Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation (SEPM Spec. Pub. 24). Soc. of Econ. Paleontolog. Mineralog., Tulsa. 254 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 Howarp, J. D., AND R. W. Frey. 1973. Charteristic physical and biogenic sedimentary structures in Georgia estuaries. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 57:1 169-1184. AND H. E. Retneck. 1981. Depositional facies of high energy beach-to-offshore se- quences: Comparison with low energy sequences. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 65:807- 830. AND R. M. Scott. 1983. Comparison of Pleistocene and Holocene barrier island beach- to-offshore sequences, Georgia, and northeast Florida coasts, U.S.A. Sediment. Geol. 34:167-183. Hoyt, J. H. 1969. Late Cenozoic structural movements, northern Florida. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. Trans. 19:1-9. AND V. J. Henry. 1967. Influence of island migration on barrier island sedimentation. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 78:77-86. AND R. J. Wermer. 1963. Comparison of modern and ancient beaches, Central Georgia coast. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 47:529-531. KusseL, C. M. 1984. Depositional history of three Pleistocene bluffs in northeast Florida. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. McKer, E. D. 1957. Primary structures in some recent sediments. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 41:1704-1714. OppykE, N. D., D. P. SPANGLER, D. L. Situ, D. S. Jones, R. C. Linpguist. 1984. Origin of the epeirogenic uplift of Pliocene-Pleistocene beach ridges in Florida and development of the Florida karst. Geology. 12:226-228. Pirke, F. L., anv L. J. Czev. 1983. Marine fossils from region of Trail Ridge, a Georgia-Florida landform. Southeastern Geol. 24:31-38. Pinkie, E. C., W. A. PirKLE, AND W. H. Youo. 1974. The Green Cove Springs and Boulougne heavy-mineral sand deposits of Florida. Econ. Geol. 69:1129-1137. AND W. H. Youo. 1970. The heavy mineral ore body of Trail Ridge, Florida. Econ. Geol. 65:17-30. W. H. Youo, AND C. W. HEenpry. 1970. Ancient sea level stands in Florida. Florida Bureau Geol. Bull. 52. Potter, P. E., AND F. J. PerryjoHn. 1977. Paleocurrents and Basin Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York. ReEINECK, H. E., anv I. StncH, 1975, Depositional Sedimentary Environments. Springer-Verlag, New York. SEILACHER, A. 1967. Bathymetry of trace fossils. Mar. Geol. 5:413-428. SHACKLETON, N. J., AND.N. D. OppyKe. 1976. Oxygen isotope and paleomagnetic stratigraphy of Pacific core V28-239 late Pliocene to latest Pleistocene. Pp. 449-464. In: CLINE, R. M., AND J. D. Hay (eds.). Investigation of Late Quaternary Paleoceanography and Paleoclima- tology. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 145. THompson, W. O. 1937. Original structures of beaches, bars, and dunes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 48:723-752. WarMmeE, J. E. 1971. Paleoecological Aspects of a Modern Coastal Lagoon. University of California Publication in Geological Sciences, v. 87, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. Weimer, R. J., AND J. H. Hoyt. 1964. Burrows of Callianassa major Say, geological indicators of littoral and shallow neritic environments. J. Paleontol. 38:76 1-767. Wiuurams, D. F., W. S. Moore, AnD R. H. Fitton. 1981. Role of glacial Arctic Ocean ice sheets in Pleistocene oxygen isotope and sea level record. Earth and Planet. Sci. Letters. 56:157- 166. Winker, C. C., AND J. D. Howarp. 1977. Correlation of tectonically deformed shorelines on the southern Atlantic Coastal Plain. Geology. 5:124-127. Florida Sci. 49(4):242-254. 1986. Accepted: April 15, 1986 Biological Sciences CHARACTERIZATION OF A LOCALIZED JACK DEMPSEY, CICHLASOMA OCTOFASCIATUM, POPULATION IN ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA Dawn P. JENNINGS National Fishery Research Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 7920 N.W. 71st Street, Gainesville, Florida 32606 ABSTRACT: The Jack Dempsey, Cichlasoma octofasciatum, native to southern Mexico, Gua- temala, Yucatan and Honduras, is reportedly established in Dade, Hillsborough and Brevard counties, Florida. In 1982, a population was found in a creek on the University of Florida cam- pus, Alachua County, Florida. Collections and observations during 1982-1985 document this population’s status and provide information on the biology of this species. This population repre- sents the northernmost distribution known for Cichlasoma species in Florida. THE Jack Dempsey, Cichlasoma octofasciatum (=C. biocellatum), is an exotic cichlid endemic to the Atlantic slope drainages from Rio Paso San Juan, Veracruz, Mexico, and the Yucatan Peninsula, to the Rio Ulua basin in north- western Honduras (Miller 1966). Within its native range, it inhabits pools, backwaters, margins of rivers and streams, limestone sinkholes, coastal marshes, ditches, and isolated lowland lakes (R. R. Miller, unpublished data, cited in Courtenay et al. 1981). Reproducing populations have been reported in three Florida counties: in Black Creek and Snapper Creek, Dade County (Courtenay et al. 1974; Hogg 1976a,b); in a roadside ditch near effluent from a tropical fish farm in Ruskin, Hillsborough County (Courtenay et al. 1974); and in canals from Satellite Beach to Canova Beach, Brevard County (Dial and Wainright 1983). An iso- lated population of Jack Dempseys was eradicated in 1977 by biologists of the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission from a rockpit in southern Levy County (Levine et al. 1979). This was then the northernmost record (29.19 N, 82.40 W) for the species. In July 1982, however, a population of Jack Dempseys was discovered in an unnamed creek on the University of Florida campus, Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida (Shafland 1982). The popula- tion was monitored from July 1982 through July 1985 to document winter survival and to obtain information on certain life history characteristics. Srupy ArEA—The creek, 1.1 km long, originates from a drainage field on the northeast side of the University campus and meanders southwest, eventually emptying into Lake Alice, a 16.2 hectare University wildlife sanctuary. About 0.3 km of the upper reaches is characterized by a substrate of solid limerock and large rubble, and includes many large rocks that divert water to form small pools. Canopy cover is extensive and emergent aquatic vegetation is scarce or lacking. The slope in this section averages about 3%, and the water velocity is 3 to 5 cm/second in the channel and about 19 cm/second in riffles. The width ranges from 0.5 to 4.0 m, and the depth varies from 6 to 20 cm in the channel to 50 cm in the pools. Downstream, for the remaining 0.8 km, the creek gradient is flat and flow is less than 3 cm/second. Canopy cover is reduced and 256 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 riparian-zone and emergent vegetation is extensive. About 0.4 km of this section has a substrate of sand and small rubble. The width is 1.5 to 8.0 m., and the depth varies from 5 to 30 cm. Below this section, the creek widens to an average of about 12 m where it receives effluent from the Univer- sity’s heating plant and sewage treatment lagoon, then narrows to about 6 m before reaching Lake Alice. The depth in this section is about 0.6 to 2.0 m. Sampling was limited to 0.7 km of the upper reaches of the creek; the lower reaches were not suitable for wading and were not accessible by boat. MetrHops—The distribution of the Jack Dempsey was determined by visual observation and collection with a backpack electrofisher. The electroshocking unit was most effective at 0.8 amp and a frequency of 75 pulses per second. Electrofishing and visual observations were conducted seasonally to document the presence of Jack Dempseys in the creek before and after periods of low water temperature. Samples were collected in 1982 on 8 July, 22 September, 30 November, and 2 and 4 December; in 1983 on 19 January and 25 May; in 1984 on 28 June, 24 July and 4 October; and in 1985 on 18 June and 26 July. Visual observations were conducted more frequently, particu- larly in the sections of the creek not sampled by electrofishing. Specimens collected were measured (total length, mm), marked (by clipping the right pelvic fin in 1982 and the left pelvic fin in subsequent years), and released. A length-frequency distribution was developed for each sampling period by plotting numbers of fish caught by 10-mm length groups. Stomach and intestinal contents of 30 specimens collected in September, 1982 were preserved in 95% ethanol and examined under compound and dissecting microscopes. Percent frequency of occurrence of each food item was obtained by dividing the number of fish containing a specific item by the total number of fish examined. Food organisms were identified to the lowest taxon feasible. Water temperature was measured at times of collection with a hand-held thermometer and periodically during winter with a maximum-minimum thermometer. REsSULTs—Sampling and visual observations indicated that Jack Dempseys were distributed throughout the creek. Most specimens were collected in the deeper pools or in areas with undercut banks, characterized by a combination of limerock, sand, and rubble substrate. Associated species collected in these areas included Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Xiphophorus variatus, Lepomis gulosus and Heterandria formosa. A total of 147 Jack Dempseys (46-137 mm) were collected and released in 1982. Eighteen live fish were collected in January 1983, when minimum wa- ter temperature in the sampling area was 10-11°C. Fourteen of these fish, including 2 recaptures, appeared to be normal; 4 others, however, showed signs of stress (such as swimming on the side or moribund behavior) and had infected or partly missing fins. Three others were found that had recently died—probably victims of thermal stress. In May 1983, five Jack Dempseys (74-91 mm) were collected, indicating that at least a part of the population survived through the winter. In 1984, a total of 264 Jack Dempseys (37-154 mm) including 8 recaptures from 1984 and | from 1982, were collected. In 1985, 156 fish (42-155 mm) were collected, including 1 recapture from 1985 and | from 1984. Length- frequency distributions for collections during 1984 revealed only one size group in June ranging from 75 to 145 mm. In July and October, however, bimodal distributions were observed. Size groups ranged from 45 to 65 mm and 75 to 155 mm in July and from 35 to 65 mm and 85 to 125 mm in October. A similar biomodal distribution was observed during July 1985; size groups ranged from 45 to 65 mm and 85 to 145 mm. Stomach and intestinal contents of 6 large (112-135 mm) and 24 small (44- No. 4, 1986] JENNINGS— JACK DEMPSEY POPULATION 257 TABLE 1. Percent frequency of occurrence of stomach and intestinal contents in 6 large and 24 small Jack Dempseys from Gainesville, Florida, September 1982. (The guts of 3 small fish were empty). Item Size Group 112-135 mm 44-68 mm Insecta Diptera larvae _ 25 Diptera adults 33 04 Trichoptera larvae ~ 04 Coleoptera larvae — 08 Coleoptera adults 17 04 Hymenoptera adults 50 29 Unidentified _ 25 Fish Gambusia affinis 17 — Unidentified — 08 Crustacea Decapoda 17 — Miscellaneous Plant material 33 13 Gravel 33 38 Debris 33 39 68 mm) Jack Dempseys indicated that fish of both sizes fed predominantly on adult ants (Hymenoptera) that had fallen into the creek (Table 1). The small fish also ate larvae of Diptera (principally Chironomidae), Coleoptera, and Trichoptera. Large Jack Dempseys fed secondarily on adult Diptera and Colep- tera. Both size groups fed on fish, but only large Jack Dempseys ate crayfish. Plant material (primarily algae) was found in the diet of both size groups, and gravel and debris was common. Guts of 3 of the 24 small fish examined were empty. Discuss1on— Winter survival of Jack Dempseys in the creek was evidenced by recaptures of marked fish over successive years, and collections of fish of different size groups, which presumably represent different year classes. Re- production and recruitment were also evidenced by the occurrence of another size group (45-65 mm) in the July 1984 and July 1985 collections. The absence of these small fish prior to July may indicate that spawning occurred during the spring. Axelrod and Schultz (1978) reported the optimum spawning tem- perature for the Jack Dempsey as 25.6°C, which concurs with recorded water temperatures in the creek during May and June. Results of the food habits analysis indicated that the Jack Dempsey was omnivorous, and fed opportunistically on invertebrates, fish, and vegetation. This observation agrees with the feeding behavior of this species in its native habitat (Barlow 1974), as well as in Florida. Hogg (1976a) found that stomach contents from Jack Dempseys collected in Dade County, Florida, included al- gae, crayfish exoskeletons, mollusk shell fragments, and various unidentified material. Levine et al. (1979) found a predominance of animal matter in the diet of Jack Dempseys taken from a rock pit in Levy County. Adults ate primar- 258 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 ily snails, whereas shrimp and midges constituted 80 percent of the volume of the stomach contents of juveniles. The omnivorous, opportunistic feeding be- havior of the Jack Dempsey should enhance its survival in areas where it is introduced. Range expansion of the Jack Dempsey in Florida is perhaps limited most by temperature. Shafland and Pestrak (1982) reported that reduced feeding oc- curred at 16°C, feeding ceased at 13.2°C, and equilibrium was lost at 9°C. The mean lower lethal limit for the Jack Dempsey was 8°C. In January 1983, dead and moribund fish were observed when the creek temperature was 10-11°C and minimum air temperature was —2.2°C. Sources of warmer water, however, were at the head of the creek and at an underground drain from the University’s heating plant, near the sewage treat- ment lagoon. Although minimum water temperatures were not measured in 1984 and 1985, minimum air temperatures were —2.8°C and — 12.2°C, re- spectively (Gainesville Regional Airport Flight Service Station surface weather observations). The January 1985 temperature is considered as a record-low for the Gainesville area. Although the ultimate lower incipient lethal temperature—the lowest tem- perature that can be survived indefinitely (Fry 1947)—for the Jack Dempsey is unknown, it has survived in this creek for at least 3 years during this study. The effects of diurnal temperature fluctuations may reduce thermal stress during short periods of cold weather, or the fish may seek thermal refuge in warm- water effluent from underground drains. Since this system is relatively small and isolated, the status of the Jack Dempsey population should be classified as localized, according to the introduced species terminology by Shafland and Lewis (1984). This population now represents the northernmost (29.40 N, 82.20 W) distribution known for Cichlasoma species in Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—|I thank Joseph A. Boccardy, Richard L. Cailteux, Matthew A. Clemons, Michael L. Jennings, James A. McCann, Scott A. McCann, Jerry D. Wiechman, and Alexander V. Zale for their assistance in the field, and James P. Clugston, Harold L. Schramm, Jr. and Paul L. Shafland for critically reviewing the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED AXELROD, H. R., AND L. P. Scuuttz. 1978. Handbook of tropical aquarium fishes. Tropical Fish Hobbyist Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey. 718 p. Bartow, G. W. 1974. Contrasts in social behavior between Central American cichlid fishes and coral reef surgeon fishes. Am. Zoolog. 1 1:9-34. Courtenay, W. R., Jr., H. F. SAHLMAN, W. W. Mitey II, anp D. J. HerreMa. 1974. Exotic fishes in fresh and brackish waters of Florida. Biol. Conserv. 6(4):29 1-302. , J. N. Tayior, R. S. Diar, S. C. WarnricHT, AND J. A. McCann. 1981. Status and impact of exotic fish presently established in U. S. waters. Inhouse report, Nat. Fish. Res. Lab., Gainesville, FI. Dia R. S., anv S. C. WarnricuTt. 1983. New distributional records for non-native fishes in Florida. Florida Scient. 46(1):1-8. Fry, F. E. J. 1947. Effects of the environment on animal activity. Univ. Toronto Studies Biol. Ser. 55:1-62. Hocc, R. G. 1976a. Ecology of fishes of the family Cichlidae introduced into the freshwaters of Dade County, Florida. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables. 142 p. No. 4, 1986] JENNINGS— JACK DEMPSEY POPULATION 259 , 1976b. Established exotic fishes in Dade County, Florida. Florida Scient. 39(2):97-103. Levine, D. S., J. T. KRuMMricu, AND P. L. SHAFLAND. 1979. Renovation of a borrow pit in Levy County, Florida containing Jack Dempseys (Cichlasoma octofasciatum). Non-Native Fish Res. Lab., Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Boca Raton, Florida. Contribution No. 21, 6p. Miter, R. R. 1966. Geographical distribution of Central American freshwater fishes. Copeia 1966(4):773-802. SHAFLAND, P. L. 1982. Non-Native Fish Res. Lab., Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm.., Boca Raton, Florida, personal communication. , AND J. M. Pestrak. 1982. Lower lethal temperatures for fourteen non-native fishes in Florida. Environ. Biol. Fish. 7(2):149-156. , AND W. M. Lewis. 1984. Terminology associated with introduced organisms. Fisheries (Bethesda) (4):17-18. Florida Sci. 49(4)255-259. 1986. Accepted: April 21, 1986 THE CHADWICK BEACH COTTON MOUSE (Rodentia: Peromyscus gossypinus restrictus) MAY BE EXTINCT—Robert W. Repenning” and Stephen R. Humphrey,® (1) Florida Department of Natural Resources, Pine Island Sound Aquatic Preserve, P.O. Box 591, Bokeelia, FL 33922 and (2) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Asstract: The Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appears to be extinct. The known specimens were from the coastal forest and adjacent grasslands of Manasota Key. This habitat has been heavily impacted by construction of human residences. However, a mechanism that would have made the remaining woodlots uninhabitable for cotton mice has not been demonstrated. THE Chadwick Beach cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus restrictus) was described on the basis of 15 specimens taken at Chadwick Beach, near Englewood, Sarasota County (Howell 1939). They occurred in the sea oats (Uniola paniculata) along the beach and in the adjacent cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) forest. No specimens of the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appear to have been collected since the type series was taken (Layne et al. 1977). The purpose of this project was to determine the population status and distribution of the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse. Concern about this mam- mal was justified by its restricted distribution, genetic uniqueness, and conver- sion of its habitat to human uses. The subspecies is listed as a Species of Special Concern by the State of Florida (Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commis- sion 1985) and is being considered for possible listing under the federal Endan- gered Species act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1985). MeErTHops—Sampling for the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse was conducted on Manasota Key in Sarasota and Charlotte counties, Florida, during 1-19 October 1984 and 16-23 March 1985. Sherman livetraps were placed in lines or grids with an inter-trap distance of 10 m. Rolled oats was used as bait. Captures were expressed in terms of adjusted trapnights, computed as total trapnights 260 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 minus one-half the number of traps found sprung in the morning, under the assumption that the average trap was sprung midway through the night. Eight sites (Fig. 1) were sampled along the Key from a city park in Venice (Site A) south to Englewood Beach (Site K). Other public lands sampled were Casperson Beach County Park (Site B) and Blind Pass Beach County Park (Site I). Three mainland sites (Sites C-E) also were trapped to obtain comparative data. RESULTS AND DiscusstoN—During the first sampling period, a total of 980 adjusted trapnights on the Key resulted in no captures of Peromyscus gossy- pinus, though three other species of rodents were captured (Table 1). On the mainland, two of the three sites yielded P. gossypinus. During the second sam- pling period, an additional 741 trapnights on the Key, distributed among Sites G, I, and J, resulted in capture of only a single spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius). Based on these results, the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appears to be extinct. The primary need for further research is additional survey work in the GULF OF MEXICO Kilometers Fic. 1. Distribution of trapping sites on Manasota Key and the adjacent mainland, Sarasota County, Florida. No. 4, 1986] REPENNING AND HUMPHREY—COTTON MOUSE EXTINCT? 261 TABLE 1. Rodents captured on Manasota Key (sites A-B, F-K) and the adjacent mainland (sites C-E), 1-19 October 1984 and 16-23 March 1985. Adjusted trap Mus Rattus Sigmodon Oryzomys Peromyscus Spilogale Trap Site nights musculus rattus hispidus palustris gossypinus putorius success A 127 0 0 4 0 0 0 0.03 B Zt 0 0 6 0 0 0 0.05 C 90 0 0 2 0 l 0 0.03 D 46 0 0 8 4 ] 0 0.28 E be? 0 0 12 3 0 0 0.12 F 122 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 G E72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 H 120 3 3 0 0 0 0 0.05 ] 318 2 0 0 0 0 l 0.01 J 638 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 K 104 ] 0 2 0 0 0 0.03 Total 1980 6 3 34 i Z ] 0.03 hope of reversing this conclusion. A taxonomic review of this population might be interesteing in view of the qualitative nature of the comparisons in the type description. Because so few specimens of this subspecies are available, such a review would require a major statistical comparison with other subspecies in the region. In view of the apparent extinction of the population, such an exer- cise would be strictly academic. The place name ““‘Chadwick Beach”’ no longer occurs on maps, but conver- sation with local residents and real estate businessmen revealed its location to be near the southern end of the Key in Englewood Beach. Manasota Key is a peninsula, not an island. However, the primary habitat of this subspecies is essentially insular, because the coastal forest is very narrow at the neck of the peninsula. The maritime forest is a very narrow strip at the northern end of Manasota Key, becoming wider southward. The forest edge is affected by the harsh coastal environment and is composed only of cabbage palms, which are relatively tolerant of salt and wind. At Site A, only this narrow association occurs. Where the forest widens farther south, its interior reflects a succes- sional history and is dominated by live oaks (Quercus virginiana) and south- ern red cedar (Juniperus silvicola). The greatest tree-species and structural diversity now occurs at the southern end of Sarasota County, at and near Site J. The sea oats strip along Manasota Bay has been reduced to a few remnants, mostly in publicly owned parks dedicated to beach recreation. Landward, numerous remnants of the coastal forest remain, divided into many, small, privately owned parcels developed for residences and vacation homes. Some of the larger lots in Sarasota County were developed by clearing vegetation for house sites but leaving forest to buffer neighboring properties. The southern- most portion of forest, in Charlotte County, has been completely destroyed by human construction. Despite the substantial loss of habitat, we judged that remnant woodlots in Sarasota County could support populations of cotton mice. Hence the final mechanism of extinction has not been documented. Pos- 262 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 sibly predation by the large number of house cats (Felis catus) associated with the continuously-distributed human residences may render the remaining woodlots uninhabitable by cotton mice. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was funded by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and admin- istered through the Florida Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. We are grateful for leadership by David J. Wesley and Michael Bentzein and facilitation by H. Franklin Percival. We also appreciate the cooperation and interest of Don A. Wood of the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Mark E. Ludlow ably assisted with field work. LITERATURE CITED FLormpA GAME AND FRESH WATER FiIsH Commission. 1985. Official lists of endangered and poten- tially endangered fauna and flora in Florida. Tallahassee. 21 p. Howe tt, A. H. 1939. Descriptions of five new mammals from Florida. J. Mammal. 20:363-365. Layneg, J. N., J. A. Sratycup, G. E. WooLFeNDEN, M. N. McCau_ey, anp D. J. Wor ey. 1977. Fish and wildlife inventory of the seven-county region included in the central Florida phos- phate industry areawide environmental impact study. Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, Florida. 1279 p. U.S. FisH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; review of vertebrate wildlife; notice of review. Fed. Reg. 50:37958-37967. Florida Sci. 49(4):259-262. 1986. Accepted: April 4, 1986. REPORT OF A NEW BAT (CHIROPTERA: ARTIBEUS JAMAICENSIS) IN THE UNITED STATES IS ERRONEOUS—Stephen R. Humphrey! and Larry N. Brown?,—''Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 and ?’Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. * Asstract: The report of a resident population of the Jamaican fig-eating bat (Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae: Artibeus jamaicensis) in Florida by Lazell and Koopman (1985) is unsubstanti- ated. The photograph on which this report is based is of a phyllostomid bat, but it cannot be identified. No population has been found. LAZELL AND KoopMAN (1985) reported the occurrence of a resident popu- lation of the Jamaican fig-eating bat (Artibeus jamaicensis) in Key West, Mon- roe County, Florida. This report is erroneous in two respects. First, the species is misidentified. The photograph on which the record is based is not of A. jamaicensis nor any other member of the subfamily Steno- derminae. It does appear to be a member of the family Phyllostomidae, but its identity can not be determined. These judgments are based on several charac- teristics visible in the published photograph. (1) Contrary to the statement of Lazell and Koopman (1985), it is not clear from the photo that a tail is absent. It shows what may be either a short tail or a fold of the interfemoral mem- brane. A. jamaicensis is tailless. (2) the rostrum is not foreshortened, as in A. *Present address: Environmental Studies, Inc., RO. Box 14244, Tallahassee, FL 32317. No. 4, 1986] HUMPHREY AND BROWN— WRONG BAT 263 jamaicensis, which is specialized for eating figs and other fruits of similar size and shape (Bonaccorso 1979). (3) The two white stripes on the crown, charac- teristic of Artibeus, appear to be absent. This evidence is not foolproof alone, because these marks are indistinct on a small minority of specimens. (4) As noted by Lazell and Koopman, the 61-mm estimate of forearm length taken from the photograph is slightly large for A. jamaicensis, although it is in the documented range of variation. (5) The elongate rostrum, lack of crown- stripes, estimated length of the forearm, unspecialized ears, possible presence of a short tail, and overall appearance of the animal suggest a number of the primitive subfamily Phyllostominae, but any identification is speculative with- out a specimen to examine. Second, no substantial evidence of a resident population exists. Such evi- dence should demonstrate the presence of more than one animal on some regu- lar basis, such as breeding or overwintering. Instead, the record is of a single animal of uncertain tenure. Year-round residence of A. jamaicensis is highly unlikely, given its relatively specialized dietary requirements (Fleming et al. 1972, Gardner 1977, Bonaccorso 1979, Bonaccorso and Humphrey 1985) and the implications of the highly seasonal climate of the Lower Keys (Thomas 1974) for fruit availability. The possibility of year-round residence is less re- mote (though still unlikely) for a phyllostomine species, because the more om- nivorous diet of that subfamily favors opportunism (Fleming et al. 1972, Gardner 1977, Bonaccorso 1979, Humphrey et al. 1983). The most parsimonious interpretation is that this animal was an unidenti- fied member of the family Phyllostomidae and that it recently had immigrated from the Neotropics or flown off a passing ship. We thank Hecter T. Arita, Robert J. Baker, Frank J. Bonaccorso, and Merlin D. Tuttle for discussing this question with us. LITERATURE CITED Bonaccorso, F. J. 1979. Foraging and reproductive ecology in a Panamanian bat community. Bull. Florida State Museum, Biol. Sci. 24:359-408. , AND S. R. Humpurey. 1985. Fruit bat niche dynamics: their role in maintaining tropical forest diversity. Pp. 169-183 in A. C. Chadwick and S. L. Sutton (eds.), Tropical Rain Forest: The Leeds Symposium. Leeds Phil. Lit. Soc., United Kingdom. FLEMING, T. H., E. T. Hooper, anp D. E. Witson. 1972. Three Central American bat communi- ties: structure, reproductive cycles, and movement patterns. Ecology, 53:555-569. Garpn_er, A. L. 1977. Feeding habits, Pp. 293-350 in Baxer, R. J., J. K. Jones, JR., AND C. D. Carter (eds.), Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllostomatidae. Part II. Texas Tech Univ., Lubbock, The Museum, Spec. Publ. No. 13, 364 p. Humpuetry, S. R., F. J. Bonaccorso, anp T. L. Zinn. 1983. Guild structure of surface-gleaning bats in Panama. Ecology. 64:284-294. LazeELL, J. D., JR. AND K. F. Koopman 1985. Notes on bats of Florida’s Lower Keys. Florida Scient. 48:37-41. Tuomas, T. M. 1974. A detailed analysis of climatological and hydrological records of South Florida with reference to man’s influence upon ecosystem evolution. Pp. 82-122 in GLEa- son, P. J. (ed.), Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2, Miami Geol. Soc., 452 p. Florida Sci. 49(4):262-263 1986. Accepted: February 18, 1986. 264 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 REVIEW Andre F. Clewell, Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Florida Panhandle, University Presses of Florida, Gainesville, 1985. Pp. 605. Price: $30. THE Flora of Florida—the book—is yet to be written. The flora of Flor- ida—the subject—remains imperfectly known and incompletely documented. Florida’s approximately 3500 native and naturalized vascular species, the largest number to be found in any state east of the Mississippi River (with nearly 10% of that number endemic), and the minimal level of published floristic wisdom available for transfer from adjacent states and the West In- dies, have left Florida underrepresented on the list of publications by which a state’s plants may be identified. The need for such studies, coupled with the elongate geography of Florida and the floristic disparity to be found from one end of the state to the other, has encouraged the preparation of local or district ‘floras’ or guides which, step by step, are bringing the knowledge of Florida’s ““flora’’ (the plants, that is) to the level of completeness and accuracy that is already met in many other states. Each successive publication in this process attains a higher level of preci- sion and user satisfaction. First, Long and Lakela’s 1971 A Flora of Tropical Florida, though hurriedly written and wholly lacking in creditable distribu- tional information, addressed the southernmost three counties of the Florida peninsula. Then Wunderlin’s 1982 tidy but overly brief Guide to the Vascular Plants of Central Florida extended coverage through 30 additional counties of the peninsula. And now, Andre F. Clewell has given us an eminently respect- able and satisfying treatment of the plants of the Florida panhandle. Clewell includes within his coverage 2359 species in 181 families. He gives an introduction that contains a helpful discussion of the many distinctive Flor- ida habitats such as steepheads, hammocks, shell middens, flatwoods, and scrub. He provides a conventional glossary and accompanies it with ten pages of diagnostic illustrations especially useful to the novice. Though the species are not illustrated or mapped, a number of the difficult genera and families (e.g., Xyris, Compositae, Gramineae) are provided with additional diagnostic drawings. The body of Clewell’s Guide is clearly an extension of the tried and true format previously employed in Wunderlin’s Guide—a product of the same Press—but with welcome additions and modifications. Families are arranged alphabetically within pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocots, and dicots. Each family is given a brief description—lacking in Wunderlin. The keys are stepped, making them easier to follow than the space-saving bracketed keys of Wunderlin. The species of each genus are then listed in alphabetical sequence, with each accompanied by a common name, habitat and range, and synon- ymy, as appropriate. Among the more interesting novelties is Clewell’s practice of prefacing the treatment of many genera with one or more recent references. There is, how- No. 4, 1986] WARD— BOOK REVIEW 265 ever, no indication of the extent to which these cited studies have been con- sulted or followed. At times, as in Galactia, Ilex, Rhexia, and Xyris, the refer- ence is seemingly provided only as background, while in other cases, as in Asimina, Cenchrus, and Eleocharis, Clewell’s treatment is a close paraphras- ing of the cited reference. Clewell has followed Wunderlin in providing an index to families on the rear endleaf, a simple but convenient touch. He has also continued the practice of a general index to scientific names in which authorities are given. The book is well bound, compact, and highly legible with boldfaced scientific names and clear type. A few species have crept into this compilation that do not occur in the state. Vitis cinerea, reported for two mid-panhandle counties, seems not to be native, the plants in Florida herbaria so named being V. vulpina. Viola cucul- lata, reported in an appended “Additional Taxa” and previously not known south of northernmost Georgia, is included upon the authority of an annotator of three specimens that lack the characteristic clavate haris on the lateral petals of that species and are better placed under V. affinis. One may occasionally disagree with Clewell’s recognition of species. Frax- inus pauciflora is surely indistinguishable at the specific level from F. caroli- niana, while Vaccinium elliottii is sharply distinct in the field from V. corym- bosum, s. l. Portulaca amilis, a newly introduced purslane with rose-colored flowers, will be misidentified by Clewell’s key that requires it to have yellow petals. Very few misprints have evaded the editorial and review process. One which materialized in a final stage of revision is especially worth noting since it occurs in a species to which Dr. Clewell and the present reviewer have devoted much recent joint study. It appears to credit the West Florida Cham- aecyparis thyoides var. henryae to Linnaeus, rather than to the 1962 publisher of the taxon, Dr. Hui-Lin Li. When confronted with this lapsus, Dr. Clewell wryly suggested that “L.” was perhaps not an error, for how else could one abbreviate Li? Dr. Clewell is second only to Robert K. Godfrey in his qualifications to write a book such as this. Indeed, they were colleagues for sixteen years at Florida State University and shared many of the same collections and conclu- sions as to species characteristics and distribution. It is thus appropriate that this excellent summation of the plants of Florida’s panhandle has been dedi- cated to “Dr. Bob.” Completion of a definitive “‘flora’”’ of Florida’s entire flora is still an inde- terminate number of years in the future. But publication of Clewell’s panhan- dle Guide moves us a giant step along the path toward that goal.—Daniel B. Ward, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 3261 1.' 'This paper is Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. e117. 266 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF REVIEWERS It is a pleasure to acknowledge the service and cooperation of the following persons who gave generously of their time and expertise in reviewing manuscripts for Volume 48 of the Florida Scientist. Warren Abrahamson Jay N. Allen, Jr. J]. S. Ashe Monnie Beach Ronnie C. Best S.C. Bloch Larry C. Brown Bruce C. Cowell C. J. Dawes Marion T. Doig, III Patricia M. Dooris Theodore Fleming David C. Hartnett Harold J. Humm Stephen R. Humphrey J.-E. Jones John M. Lawrence James N. Layne James D. Lazell Roy Leep Leslie S. Lieberman Edgar F. Lowe Kumar Mahadavan Barbara B. Martin David J. Martsolf George A. Maul Russ Mizell Paul E. Moler Ralph E. Moon Henry R. Mushinsky Ronald L. Myers Norman L. Oleson John Osborne Theodore F. Rochow Harold L. Schramm, Jr. Paul Shafland Warren S. Silver Joseph L. Simon D. R. Sloan J. D. Soloman Wilton W. Sturgess, III William H. Taft Walter K. Taylor Diane TeStrake Sam B. Upchurch Richard P. Wain Ian Watson David S. Webb Curtis W. Wienker Charles A. Woods Richard C. Wunderlin No. 4, 1986] WARD— BOOK REVIEW 267 Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida—10-12 April 1986 Agricultural Sciences—W. W. Fiebig, University of Florida, Soil Compaction and Subsoiling: Is it Profitable for the Farmer? Anthropological Sciences—Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida, Archae- ological Evidence of Early 16th Century Contact Between Spanish Explor- ers and Safety Harbor Indians. Biological Sciences—Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida, Charac- terization of Multiple Glutathione S-Transferases in Daphnia magna. Environmental Chemistry—Mikie Perez-Cruet, University of South Florida, Structure and Function of Red Tide Toxins Associated with Respiratory Problems. Geology and Hydrology Science—Eric R. Brown, University of Florida, Car- bonate Eolianites of San Salvador, Bahamas. Mathematics and Computer Sciences—Nathan Herer, Florida Institute of Technology, Non-continuous Inspection; Exponential Parameter Estima- tion and Impact on Availability Calculations. Physical and Space Science—Lawrence A. Wise, Jacksonville University, A Technique for Measuring the Absorption Coefficients of Optical Fibers from 60 K to Room Temperature. Sigma Xi Graduate Student Award—Gerald A. LeBlanc (Biological Sciences) American Association for the Advancement of Science Awards—(1) Eric R. Brown (Geology and Hydrology Science); (2) M. J. Perez-Cruet (Environ- mental Chemistry) 268 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49 CITATION FOR E. DWIGHT ADAMS The 1986 Florida Academy of Sciences Medalist is Dr. E. Dwight Adams, Professor of Physics, University of Florida. In his letter reporting the decision of the Honors Committee, Professor Yngve Ohrn, the Chairman, noted the “long and distinguished research activ- ity of Professor Adams in experimental low temperature physics. His work which enjoys worldwide recognition, has been crucial to the uncovering of new phenomena at the subatomic level which has led to our current under- standing of the strange behavior of some materials close to the absolute zero of temperature.” ERRATA Kushlan, J.A., S. A. Voorhees, W. F. Loftus, and P. C. Frohring. 1986. Length, mass, and calorific relationships of Everglades animals. Florida Scient. 49(2) 65-79. Inadvertently several errors were made, and we regret any inconven- ience that may have been caused. P. 76. TABLE 4. Relationship of dry mass (Y) in g, to wet mass (X) of Everglades animals described by the equation Y = B, + B,X' P. 76. Second column is B, and third column is B, P. 66. caps and bars were omitted from symbols in the Data Treatment section that should read: Data TREATMENT— The mass-length relationship of fishes (Ricker, 1975) and insects (Rogers et al., 1977; Smock, 1980) fit a parabolic or power curve (Egn. 1): A B, = 1 52 : Our symbolism follows Kleinbaum and Kupper (1978): Bo is the intercept; B, is the slope; N is the number of observations; Y is the dependent variable; Yi is the predicted value of Y; X is the in- dependent variable; Y is the mean of all inputed Y values; X is the mean of all inputed X values; S is any standard deviation; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed X values; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed Y values; S,, is the standard error of the slope; SSE is residual sum of squares, £(Y,-Y,)?; SSY-SSE is sum ‘of squares due to regression; Sy,x is the standard error of the estimate (SSE/(N- 2)”; MSE is the mean square error of the residuals, SSE/(N-2); r is the sample correlation coefficient; and F is the value of the F ratio of the sums of squares. We used a = 0.01, and all regressions were significant at that level. | yt ng Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 50 DEAN F. MARTIN Editor BARBARA B. MARTIN Co-Editor Published by the FLoripA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC. Orlando, Florida 1987 The Florida Scientist continues the series formerly issued as the Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences. The Annual Program Issue is published independently of the journal and is issued as a separately paged Supplement. Copyright© by the Florina AcADEMy OF SCIENCES, INc. 1987 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 NUMBER 1 Possible Establishment of the Mayan Cichlid, Cichlasoma urophyhalmus (Giinther) (Pisces: Cichlidae), in Everglades National Park, 2 OEE SER a ae ete de pe William F. Loftus The Invasion of Schinus into Saline Communities in Everglades National oT, SE gy ee ee Linda Mytinger and G. Bruce Williamson La St ee Ge re ee Dean F. Martin The Seasonality and Spatial Patterns of Juvenile Surf Zone Fishes of the Peoria Vast Coast ..... 2x. ois. anne Dennis J. Peters and Walter G. Nelson The Geochemistry of Interstitial Water for a Sediment Core from the NR APENINII TANIA, 5 n= onc dijol's ano aio no ain ne fn ess sian sce aa 0 Deyu Gu, Nenad Iricanin and John H. Trefry Plant Communities Along an Edaphic Continuum in a Florida RRR Rt ey 22 Rd cot nd ohn a ne wn eres Robin B. Huck NUMBER 3 Radioactive Fallout in Central Florida from the Chernobyl eas.) Nuetear Power Plant Accident ~. . 2... 2.5.6 2:5 else ode ce ane Ralph A. Llewellyn and Edgar R. Vargas Archaeological Investigation of the Nebot Site (SPB219) Palm Beach __ I ae a aS ss W. Jerald Kennedy and M. Yasar Iscan Osteological Analysis of Human Remains from the Nebot Site ............ M. Yasar Iscan and W. Jerald Kennedy Measurement of Airborne Fallout in North Florida from the Chernobyl] EN aN es Saher Age aM ia nla giahe wd eveiduon a bn ae D. M. Headly, S. L. Tabor, J. W. Nelson, K. W. Kemper R. Leonard, R. K. Sheline and J. Graham 99 111 129 136 147 156 Scorpion, Pseudoscorpion, and Opilionid Faunas in Three Central Florida Plant Communities ........% David T. Corey and Walter Kingsley Taylor Preparation of Sterile Seawater Through Photodynamic Action. Preliminary Serecning Studies. ...5c ise ete eae Dean F. Martin and M. J. Perez-Cruet An Investigation of the Variances from the Traditional Summer Precipitation in the West-Central Florida Region (1978-1985) .......... Dewey M. Stowers and Neva Duncan Tabb OODICUALY 5 Fonsi ops asin, os op ain brenn toasts pee ee og Prescribed Burning of the Sand Pine Scrub Community: Yamato Serub,'a Test Case i 3.. tees eae ee Robert F. Doren, Donald R. Richardson, and Richard E. Roberts NUMBER 4 The History and Impact of the Florida Energy Efficiency and ConservationiAct of 1980) «.:6. no scchiyass Ges eras esac eee Ree eee Barney L. Capehart and and Lynne C. Capehart Nesting Activity of Sea Turtles in Florida, 1979-1985 .................... Walter J. Conley and Barbara A. Hoffman Recruitment of Stocked Largemouth Bass Fingerlings into a Central Florida Fishery. 5c oo. aioe 4, sede ree ee ee ee Steve Crawford and Anton M. Wicker Flower and Fruit Production in Three North Florida EXCOSYSUGMIIS! 245.8 soi53,4 siaci.r058 Sos stand aut cat cicero) oe oe, er ace 08 olaste ei eet oa Katherine C. Ewel and Sumaryoto Atmosoedirdjo Patterns of Relative Fecundity inSnakes ................ John B. Iverson History of the Freeranging Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta) Of Silver Sprin@s:.3¢ acc. stogsio eS teas 2 oe Ae a ro ©) cial) nn Pr ree wr Me aerate MnN LS Giana Bad coc Se ons A New Species of Calisto (Satyridae) from Hispaniola ................... Citation for Larry 1.-Henel 2s.) oc, oer an ee ee ce Genesis of Dioctahedral Chlorite-like Clays in Terra Rossa Soils in'South Florida. ‘0.02 25) cee tee ee Richard N. Strom and Jonathan J. Kim Relationship of Gopher Tortoise Body Size to Burrow Size in a Southcentral Florida Population 3.5.2... as ai er ee ee Paige L. Martin and James N. Layne Outstanding Student Paper Awardees; 1987 «0... 2s ee Acknowledgment of Reviewers {20.02.20 ,. 0000s fooe sn: oe en Oe eee Index, Volume’ 50 oo. ee ee ee eee eee 162 168 177 183 184 193 201 211 216 223 234 245 246 252 253 264 268 268 269 ys ISSN: 0098-4590 Florida Scientis Volume 50 Winter, 1987 Number 1 CONTENTS Possible Establishment of the Mayan Cichlid, Cichlasoma urophyhalmus (Giinther) (Pisces: Cichlidae), in Everglades MEE AT OTIC Aa eccc cscs oc dvesisW ove seed euebwees William F. Loftus 1 The Invasion of Schinus into Saline Communities of Everglades MR MME ee opiate aie ba cs dia EA osc aig a wk ge wrte bee Linda Mytinger and G. Bruce Williamson t TR es hob 6 55s aes p oe lee bee baa Dean F. Martin 12 Pelletization of Pine and Oak Seeds: Implications for Land MEU oi 5 Geen ence bay ted wk pds eoed ea am Gawd 4 hibee wes Guillermo A. Almagro, Dean F. Martin, and M. J. Perez-Cruet 13 Birds of the Cay Sal Bank and Ragged Islands, Bahamas........... Donald W. Buden 21 RE en cite Kp ee ass We we ae eee Dean F. Martin 33 Occurrence of Larval Snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch), in IRN O MARAIS 160). (else oik a 6 -dn wig ack avn eo ev bears bah MVS ATO PUNY css et es aes eee PE Re a a ee ee Dean F. Martin and Barbara B. Martin 39 Longevity Record for the Florida Mouse, Peromysus floridanus ..... M.H. Keim and I. J. Stout 4] Wetland Plant Responses to Clearcutting of Adjacent Flatwoods .... L. F. Conde, Benee F. Swindel, and Joel E. Smith 42 An Introduction to the Tides of Florida’s Indian River Lagoon. Ee er il aug Wiel vd dae eee ee doer A Ned. P. Smith 49 ee Pag aa. al al ex) ve hie aloe o wes Patricia M. Dooris 62 aS ale Se Carole F. Hendry 63 a SSS QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLorIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1986 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. MartIN Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripA SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $20.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1986-87 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. PAN PAPACOSTA Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH Physics Department 5636 Satel Drive Stetson University Orlando, Florida 32810 DeLand, Florida 32720 Executive Secretary: President-Elect: Dr. LesLie Suz L1EBERMAN Dr. Alexander Dickison Department of Anthropology Department of Physical Sciences University of Florida Seminole Community College Gainesville, Florida 3261 1 Sanford, FL 32771 Secretary: Dr. Patrick J. GLEASON Program Chairs: Dr. Georce M. Dooris 1131 North Palmway Dr. Patricia M. Dooris Lake Worth, Florida 33460 P.O. Box 2378 St. Leo, Florida 33574 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor Barpara B. MartTIn, Co-Editor Volume 50 Winter, 1987 Number | Biological Sciences POSSIBLE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MAYAN CICHLID, CICHLASOMA UROPHTHALMUS (GUNTHER) (PISCES:CICHLIDAE), IN EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK, FLORIDA WILLIAM F. Lortrus National Park Service, South Florida Research Center Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida 33030 Asstract: The first United States collections of the Mayan cichlid (Cichlasoma uroph- thalmus), a native of Central America, were made in January 1983 in Everglades National Park, Florida. Subsequent surveys have shown that its distribution is limited to two areas in the Taylor Slough drainage basin. Several dozen specimens, both juveniles and adults, ranging from 54.0 mm to 191.0 mm S.L., were collected and observed from 1983 to 1985. The larger population inhabits an estuarine creek system where spawning was observed in 1984 and 1985 at salinities of 26 %o. and 10 %o, respectively. A smaller population occurs in a strictly freshwater habitat subject to seasonally-fluctuating water levels. Establishment of the Mayan cichlid is indicated by obser- vations of spawning activity, the wide range of specimen lengths, and its persistence for three years in park waters. The potential for range expansion is enhanced by its exceptional tolerance of changes in salinity and water levels and its ability to colonize varied habitats. These data suggest that the Mayan cichlid may become a permanent member of Florida’s ichthyofauna. The source of the introduction remains unknown. THE FRESH waters of southern Florida may host the greatest diversity of non-native fish species of any comparably-sized region on earth. Metzger and Shafland (1984) recognized seventeen species of established exotic fishes in Florida, of which thirteen belonged to the Cichlidae. That family is the most speciose of exotic fish groups in extreme southern Florida, where Loftus and Kushlan (1986) found ten to twelve non-native established species to be cich- lids. An established fish is an introduced species with a permanent population; it is unlikely to be eliminated by human activities or natural events (Shafland and Lewis, 1982). In addition to those species known to be established, many other exotic fishes of undetermined status have been collected in southern Flor- ida (Loftus and Kushlan, 1986; Courtenay and Robins, 1973). The concentra- tion of tropical fish farms, importers, and aquarists in proximity to vast areas of interconnected waterways, and the subtropical climate that permits sur- D) FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 vival and reproduction of many fishes in the pet trade, are among the reasons for the abundance of established exotic fishes in southern Florida (Courtenay and Robins, 1973). Fishes that have become established are those able to toler- ate wide flunctuations in such environmental parameters as water tempera- ture, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and other habitat characteristics (Shafland and Pestrak, 1982; Loftus and Kushlan, 1986). In this paper, I document the presence of yet another non-native species, the Mayan cichlid (Cichlasoma urophthalmus) (Fig. 1), that seems to have be- come established recently in Everglades National Park. The records presented here are the first for this species from United States waters. I shall discuss its natural range, collection history, and distribution in southern Florida, and I shall present reasons for considering it to be established. Cichlasoma urophthalmus was described by Giinther (1862, 1869) from freshwater specimens collected in Guatemala. Regan (1905) assigned the spe- cies to the Parapetenia section of genus Cichlasoma. Hubbs (1936) later recog- nized nine subspecies from material available to him from Yucatan and else- where in Central America. The natural range of C. urophthalmus extends southward along the Atlantic slope of Central America from southern Vera- cruz in Mexico to Nicaragua, including the entire Yucatan peninsula and its major offshore islands (Miller, 1966). On the Yucatan peninsula, the Mayan Fic. 1. Cichlasoma urophthalmus from Snook Creek, Everglades National Park. Top-Female, 141.5 mm S.L.; Bottom-Male, 173.0 mm S.L. No. 1, 1987] LOFTUS— MAYAN CICHLID 3 cichlid is widespread and locally abundant. It inhabits a range of habitats including freshwater pools and marshes, brackish and saline mangrove swamps, and other coastal habitats (Hubbs, 1936; Loftus, 1984). Little has been published about its reproductive or feeding ecology. MetrHops—Exploratory sampling to determine the extent of the range of the Mayan cichlid in extreme southern Florida was conducted periodically from fall 1983 to summer 1985. Sixteen locations were sampled, some repeatedly, using a combination of techniques: electrofishing, ro- tenone, seines, hook-and-line, and sight observations. Only two locales, Snook Creek and Anhinga Trail ponds, both in Everglades National Park (Fig. 2), produced specimens of the Mayan cichlid. Water temperatures at times of sampling ranged from 17°C to 30°C. Snook Creek is an estuarine site, consisting of a series of large, shallow ponds connected by deeper channels. The shores are bordered by dense red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle). Sub- strates in the pools are soft and consist of a combination of mud, marl, and shell. Samples were taken on 26 January 1983, 7 May and 31 July 1984, and 9 April 1985. Salinities ranged from 0 %o on 31 July 1984 to 26%. on7 May 1984. The ponds at Anhinga Trail are old, established borrow ponds that lie near the upper reaches of Taylor Slough (Fig. 2). The ponds hold fresh water throughout the year and serve as refugia for aquatic animals from the surrounding marshes when water levels fall in the dry season. Water levels in the ponds may fluctuate nearly 1 m during the year. Submerged aquatic vegetation densities are seasonally variable, and fish predators are abundant in winter and spring. Collections and observations were made on 22 November 1983, 1 November 1984, 3 January 1985, 12 June 1985, 27 November 1985, 17 January 1986. All specimens were preserved in 10% buffered formalin, after an incision was made in the abdominal wall. They were transferred to 50% ethanol after one week. Meristic counts were made using a dissecting microscope, and morphometric measurements made with a dial caliper. Stom- achs were excised and contents washed into a petri dish for sorting and identification to lowest possible taxon under a dissecting microscope. Food items were enumerated and their volumetric displacement measured. Frequency of occurrence of food items in the sample of fishes was calcu- lated. Microscopic assessment of gonadal state was made to determine sex and stage of maturity. Resutts—The first Florida specimens were taken in January 1983, from traps set in Snook Creek, a mangrove-lined tributary of Joe Bay in northeastern Florida Bay, Everglades National Park (W. A. Dunson, 1983) (Fig. 2). Later that year, I collected several specimens at a second locale, the Anhinga Trail ponds in Everglades National Park, 10 km NWof the Snook Creek site (Fig. 2). Both collection locales lie within the drainage basin of Taylor Slough. Re- peated visits to these sites have produced additional specimens. Surveys of surrounding fresh- and brackish-water habitats (Fig. 2) have produced no specimens, indicating either that there exist two disjunct populations in the drainage basin or that populations at intervening locales are small and have escaped detection. At Snook Creek, nine Mayan cichlids, ranging from 70.0 mm to 191.0 mm S.L., were saved for examination. These specimens have been deposited at several museums (UMMZ 212535, 212537; UF 42826; Everglades N.P. Mu- seum 6883). Several dozen additional specimens were observed, and all fish occurred in the pond habitat. Major stomach contents of the Snook Creek fish (n= 8), consisted of Cerithium sp. and other snails (100% occurrence, 48% by volume), and Chara sp. (67% occurrence, 50% by volume). Cohabiting fishes were typically euryhaline species, notably Menidia sp., Cyprinodon variega- tus, Lucania parva, Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Lophogobius cypri- noides, and Microgobius gulosus. [ Vol. 50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST ? ADg 0P!s0| 4 “3°N ‘snwpoyzydoin °F jo UOLNLySIp yUasoid YAM ‘eplIO]f U9YINOS auIAI}xXo UT soyIs But;dures Jo suolqeoo’T "7 ‘OL og DJa POW @y07 Wjdd uaAas eae BE cee W» SI mol s Oo eS A ‘4 / ys / (7 «] \ uSnois 40) OL ay TIWNOILVN S30V19Y3A3 WHS bv 2 sauoo3ay ONO) GINHOID NVAVW@® SLINSSY ONIIdNYS No. 1, 1987] LOFTUS—MAYAN CICHLID 5 At Snook Creek on 7 May 1984, I observed a group of 20-25 large Mayan cichlids using shallow depressions in a mud-bottomed cove as spawning beds, and I collected three from this group. All showed brilliant spawning colors and had ripe gonads (29, 1 6). The salinity measured 26%.. A trip in July 1984 to the same location produced no evidence of continued spawning, although one female collected then had ripe ovaries. I returned on 9 April 1985 to again find numerous nests at this site. At Anhinga Trail, I collected seven Mayan cichlids, ranging from 53.0 mm to 139.0 mm S.L., which were deposited in museums (UF 42825; Everglades N.P. Museum 6888). Four of the seven had empty stomachs, while the stom- achs of the remainder contained small quantities of detritus and algae, fish remains, and a few larval dipterans. All of the specimens were juveniles, ex- cept the 139.0 mm S.L. female with unripe ovaries in the January collection. I observed spawning in the ponds on several occasions in 1984 and 1985, most recently on 12 June 1985, when a large pair nested in a 35 cm deep cavity in the limestone bank of the ponds. Activity at the spawning site lasted for two weeks. Again, more than two dozen additional specimens have been observed during periodic visits to this locale. Twenty-eight species of cohabiting native and exotic species have been collected at Anhinga Trail (Loftus and Kushlan, 1986). Discussion—The origin of the southern Florida population of C. uroph- thalmus is a mystery. Many non-native fish introductions in Florida have been made by fish farmers and hobbyists, or by government agencies for purposes of sport or aquatic weed control (Courtenay and Robins, 1973). The Mayan cich- lid is not imported or cultured by Florida fish farmers (Ross Socolof, 1985), nor have I found evidence for its introduction by any governmental or private agency. Loftus and Kushlan (1986) did not collect the Mayan Cichlid at An- hinga Trail during a series of collections from 1976-1981, indicating a more recent date of introduction at this locale. Unfortunately, unless more substanti- ative data become available, the origin and date of introduction of C. uroph- thalmus will never be known. The major criteria to indicate the establishment of a non-native fish are its persistence through reproduction, and the fact that its presence is unlikely to be threatened by human or natural factors. C. urophthalmus has been known from Everglades National Park by numerous specimens and observations for over three years. During that time, the population has persisted at both known locales in spite of such adverse environmental conditions as severe cold spells (1984 and 1985), a drought (1985) and a flood year (1983), and wide annual salinity flunctuations. That this persistence is the result of reproduction is sup- ported by the presence of reproductively-active adults, observations of spawn- ing activity, and the size-structure of specimens captured and observed. At- tempts to control or eradicate the Mayan cichlid would not be feasible because of the characteristics of the Everglades habitats in which it occurs. Evidence for recruitment and persistence, and the difficulty of eradication of Mayan cichlids in southern Florida indicate that it probably should be considered established. 6 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 The colonization of Everglades habitats by the Mayan cichlid has likely been aided by the similarity of the habitats and climate of those of its native Yucatan. Its ability to inhabit varied aquatic habitats and to feed upon a vari- ety of items is apparent in Florida as well as in Yucatan. Spawning records from Florida show a spring-early summer spawning period, similar to the spawning season in Yucatan (Loftus, 1984). Therefore, the characteristics of the south Florida environment should allow the Mayan cichlid to persist. Be- cause the areas in which this species presently occurs are continuous with vast areas of fresh water and saline wetlands, it is likely that C. urophthalmus will expand its range in southern Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: I wish to thank W. A. Dunson, The Pennsylvania State University, and R. Dawson, Everglades N. P., who first brought the presence of this fish to my attention. I greatly appreciate the help of the following Everglades N. P. employees in surveying and sampling: E. R. Rutherford, O. L. Bass, J. D. Chapman, L. Gunderson, R. Rehrer, and R. Conrow. R. R. Miller, University of Michigan, kindly consented to examine the first specimens and confirmed their identity. I also thank W. B. Robertson, Jr., Everglades N. P., and Paul L. Shafland, Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, for their comments on the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED CourTENAY, W. R., JR., AND C. R. Rosins. 1973. Exotic aquatic organisms in Florida with emphasis on fishes: a review and recommendations. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102:1-12. Dunson, W. A. 1983. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania: personal communication. GunTueER, A. 1862. Catalogue of the Acanthopterygii, Pharyngognathi, and Anacanthini in the collection of the British Museum, vol. 4:1-534. 1869. An account of the fishes of the states of Central America, based on collections made by Capt. J. M. Dow, F Godman, Esq., and O. Salvin, Esq. Trans. Zool. Soc. (London) 6:377-494. Huss, C. L. 1936. Fishes of the Yucatan Peninsula. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 457:157-287. Lorrus, W. F. 1984. Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida: personal observations and collections of Cichlasoma urophthalmus during field work in Quintana Roo, Mexico. , AND J. A. KusHLAN. 1986. Freshwater fishes of southern Florida. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci.: in press. Metzcer, R. J., AND P. L. SHAFLAND. 1984. Possible establishment of Geophagus surinamensis (Cichlidae) in Florida. Florida Sceint. 47:201-203. Miter, R. R. 1966. Geographical distribution of Central America freshwater fishes. Copeia. 1966:773-802. Recan, C. T. 1905. A revision of the fishes of the American cichlid genus Cichlosoma and of the allied genera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 7:60-77; 225-243; 316-340; 433-445. SHAFLAND, P. L., AND W. M. Lewis. 1982. Introduced species terminology. Exotic Fish Section, Am. Fish. Soc., Newsletter 3:1-7. , AND J. M. Pestrak. 1982. Lower lethal temperatures for fourteen non-native fishes in Florida. Env. Biol. Fish. 7:149-156. Soco tor, R. 1985. Socolof Enterprises, Bradenton, Florida: personal communication. Florida Sci. 50(1): 1-6. 1987. Accepted: February 28, 1986. Biological Sciences THE INVASION OF SCHINUS INTO SALINE COMMUNITIES OF EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK LinpA MyTINGER' AND G. Bruce WILLIAMSON Department of Botany, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 Asstract: The tolerance of Schinus terebinthifolius to saline conditions was investigated in order to determine its ability to invade and establish in coastal communities of the Everglades National Park. Viability of seed soaked in salt solutions for 72 hours declined as salinity increased, although 60 % of the seeds were viable after soaking in 40 ppt salt solution. Germination rates in petri dishes declined more sharply with salinity increases, with only 12% germination at 20 ppt salt solution. On native soils treated with salt solutions, germination never occurred at salinities higher than 5 ppt. Survival of seedlings transplanted into field sites occurred only where soil salinities were 5 ppt or less. The findings suggest that Schinus is a potential threat to halophytic plant communities only where freshwater has replaced the higher salinity waters that initially fostered the salt tolerant plants. SCHINUS TEREBINTHIFOLIUS Raddi, a native of Brazil, Argentina and Para- guay, has successfully naturalized in over 20 counties and now occurs in two sub-tropical belts (15-30° N and S) around the globe (Ewel et al., 1982). Intro- duced into south Florida at least by the 1890’s (Morton, 1978; Workman, 1979; Ewel et al., 1982), Schinus is considered a pest rivaling Melaleuca and Casuarina (Morton, 1976, 1978). In the Everglades National Park (ENP) it occurs in nearly pure stands in the previously farmed Hole-in-the-Donut area (Loope and Dunevitz, 198la, 1981b; Ewel et al., 1982). Reports of Schinus invading salt-tolerant plant communities, particularly mangroves, raised alarm among researchers at the ENP (Hilsenbeck, 1972, 1976; Olmsted et al., 1981). The study presented here was undertaken to determine the tolerance of Schinus to saline conditions and its invasion potential of saline communities. Experiments were designed to determine (a) seed viability in salt solutions, (b) germination in salt solutions in sterile plates, (c) germination in salt solutions on soils of the ENP, and (d) germination of seeds and growth and survival of seedlings transplanted into coastal communities of the ENP. MATERIALS AND METHODs—To test viability under saline conditions drupes were collected in equal weight from 15 trees selected randomly from the Hole-in-the-Donut of the ENP. Seed lots were thoroughly mixed and then divided into two treatment groups, scarified and unscarified. Preliminary tests in freshwater had determined that drupes scarified by hand rubbing over a metal sieve under running tap water exhibited significantly greater germination than unscarified drupes. !Present address: Florida Institute of Oceanography University of South Florida, 830 First Street South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701 8 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 Scarification may approximate the treatment by natural avian dispersal agents. Fifty seeds of each scarification treatment were placed in two replicate bottles containing 150 ml of 0, 15, 30 or 40 ppt salt solutions, prepared from distilled water dilutions of freshly collected sea water (4 salinities x 2 scarifications x 2 replicates). Additional seeds were cut on the edge, through the seedcoat and into the endosperm and then placed 50 to a bottle in two replicates of 0, 15, and 30 ppt salt solutions (3 salinites x 2 scarifications x 2 replicates). Seeds were soaked for 72 hours in the dark, then removed from the solutions, and placed in a 0.1% tetrazolium chloride solution for viability tests (Iseley, 1952). After twelve hours, seeds with pink endosperm were scored as potentially viable and seeds with brown endosperm were recorded as nonviable. Germination of seeds from the same collection was tested by adding 25 scarified seeds into petri plates lined with filter paper. Solutions (10 mL) of 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 ppt saltwater were added to individual plates (6 salinities x 4 replicates). Volume and salinity of the solutions were maintained through additions of distilled water or seawater for the duration of the test, 20 days. Germinating seeds were removed from the plates daily. To test germination under different salinities and under different watering regimes on soils of the coastal communities of ENP, both peat and mar! soils were collected in ENP and placed in aluminum trays (15-cm wide by 25-cm long) to a depth of 3 cm. The trays, which had drainage holes in the bottom, were placed in large aluminum pans (20-cm wide by 32-cm long) containing 0, 15, 30 and 40 ppt salt solutions. Volumes of solutions added initially were 100, 250 and 500 ml. The 3 solution volumes produced 3 watering regimes: (a) ““dry’’ where the soil was moist after addition of solution but dry at the surface within 24 hours, (b) “mesic” where the soil was always moist but never saturated and (c) ““wet’’ where the solution level was adjusted to the top of the soil surface. One hundred scarified seeds were added to each of three replicate trays for each of the 24 treatments (2 soils x 4 salinities x 3 water levels). Germinating seeds were removed and recorded daily for 25 days. Solution volumes were restored every 3 days, and soil salinities were monitored and adjusted weekly and never varied more than +5 ppt from initial concentrations. The above experiment was repeated with a new seed crop and the following modifications: 50 seeds per pan and salinity treatments of 0,5, 10 and 15 ppt. Both experiments were conducted in greenhouses near the ENP. Three sites were chosen in the southwestern part of the ENP to test seed germination and seedling growth and survival in the field. Each site consisted of a mangrove association, an adja- cent herbaceous association and the ecotone between the two associations. Vegetation was sampled ona | by 30 m belt transect from inside the mangrove to inside the herbaceous association in order to objectively determine the location of the ecotone. At all three sites the ecotone contained a mixture of plant species from the adjacent two communities, but no new species. The three sites were located in the ENP at (1) Coastal Prairie Trail which grades from black mangrove (Avicennia germinans L.) and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) to saltwort (Batis maritima L.) and glasswort (Salicornia sp.), (2) Snake Bight which grades from buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus L.) to saltwort, and (3) Cape Sable which grades from red mangrove and white mangrove (Laguncula- ria racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f.) to a graminoid beach ridge. Soil salinities were determined at each site by mixing | part soil to 2 parts distilled water and reading the salinity of the supernatent with a refractometer. At each site, six plots, 1 m?, were located in the mangrove association, the herbaceous associa- tion and the ecotone. In three of the six plots the existing rooted vegetation was removed, and in the other three the existing vegetation was undisturbed (3 sites x 3 vegetation types x 2 vegetation treatments x 3 replicates). Fifty scarified Schinus seeds were placed in the middle of each plot in loose nylon bags. Nine Schinus seedlings, 8-10 cm tall, were transplanted into each plot from Model #100A Todd Planter Flats in which they had been growing. The flats have individual cells, so the seedlings suffered no root loss in the transplanting. Seed germination and number of leaves per seedling transplanted were counted after 4 months and after 9 months; seedling dry weights were determined after 9 months. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION— Viability of seeds soaked in salt solutions for 72 hours generally declined as salinity increased, although fully 60% of seeds were viable after soaking in the 40 ppt solution (Fig. 1). A 3-factor (salinity, scarification and cutting) analysis of variance with interaction terms revealed the following significant effects: unscarified seeds suffered less loss of viability than scarified seeds (p = 0.02) for the seeds cut after soaking; seeds cut into the No. 1, 1987] MYTINGER AND WILLIAMSON— INVASION OF SCHINUS 9 VIABILITY (%) 0 15 30 40 SALINITY (ppt) Fic. 1. Percent viability (mean + standard deviation) based on 2 replicates of 50 seeds after soaking 72 hours in sea water solutions of different salinities: unscarified seeds (circles) and scari- fied seeds (squares); seeds cut after soaking (solid symbols) and seeds cut prior to soaking (open symbols). endosperm prior to soaking in the solutions exhibited less loss in viability than seeds cut after soaking (p=0.001); and viability decreased with increasing salinity (p= 0.001). Germination rate of scarified seeds in petri dishes was correlated nega- tively with salinity (Fig. 2). Germination was 80% in 0 ppt but declined lin- early with increasing salinity (r= — 0.87, p=0.0001). The percent reduction in germination is clearly greater than the reduction in viability measured above. Nevertheless, even at 20 ppt salt solution, 12% of the Schinus seeds germi- nated. The first test of seed germination on peat and mar] soils, under the wet, mesic and dry water levels, produced no germination in any of the 54 pans containing 15, 30, or 40 ppt salinity. Germination did occur in 14 of the 18 freshwater pans—a significantly higher frequency than in the saline treat- ments. The experiment was repeated because the germination rate in the fresh- water pans was only 1.5 +1.5% (mean + standard deviation). In the second experiment germination occurred in 17 of the 18 freshwater treatments and averaged 24 +17%. No germination occurred in the 54 pans containing, 5, 10, and 15 ppt salinity in the second trial. These results strongly suggest that seed germination on soils in ENP will not occur at salinities of 5 ppt or greater. A 2-factor (soil type and watering regime) analysis of variance of germination 10 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 GERMINATION (%) nN a 0 A 8 12 16 20 SALINITY (ppt) Fic. 2. Percent germination (mean + standard deviation) based on 4 replicates of 25 seeds in each of 5 solutions of different salinities. Diagonal line, a least-squares linear regression equation from the 20 samples (percent germination = 78-(3.7 x salinity)). in freshwater in the second trial showed significantly higher germination (p=0.0002) on marl (36+16%) than on peat (13+9%) and significantly higher germination (p=0.0002) under the “‘mesic’’ watering regime (37 + 19%) than under the “dry” regime (20 + 11%) or under the “‘wet”’ regime (16 +14%). The seed germination tests in the field were disrupted by animals at Snake Bight and Coastal Prairie Trail. At Cape Sable after four months there was germination only at the ecotone, 50% (75/150) in the disturbed plots and 13% (20/150) in the undisturbed plots. As soil salinities at the Cape Sable ecotone were 2-5 ppt (Table 1), germination of seeds in the field was consistent with results of the laboratory and greenhouse tests. Repeated attemps to transplant seedlings into Coastal Prairie Trail were unsuccessful, as all plants died (Table 1). At Snake Bight seedlings survived after nine months only in the buttonwood mangrove; 56% (15/27) survived in the disturbed plots and 70% (19/27) in the undisturbed plots (Table 1). At Cape Sable seedlings were alive after nine months in both the herbaceous association and in the ecotone, although survival in the former was only 7% (2/27) in disturbed plots and 11% (3/27) in undisturbed plots whereas survival in the latter was 89% (24/27) in the disturbed plots and 63% (17/27) in the undis- turbed plots (Table 1). Differences in seedling survival between disturbed and undisturbed plots were not evident (X? tests, p >0.05). Seedling survival of the field transplants was limited to the three locations with soil salinities of 5 ppt or less (Table 1). Survival was lowest at the Cape No. 1, 1987] MYTINGER AND WILLIAMSON— INVASION OF SCHINUS ll TABLE 1. Percent survival of 27 Schinus seedlings in disturbed and undisturbed plots and soil salinities (ppt) in three associations at three coastal sites in Everglades National Park 9 months after transplanting. Coastal Prarie Trail Snake Bight Cape Sable Dist. Undist. ppt. Dist. Undist. ppt. Dist. Undist. ppt. Mangrove 0 0 8-15 56 70 2-5 0 0 8-15 Ecotone 0 0 4-15 0 0 3-8 89 63 2-5 Herbaceous 0 0 6-10 0 0 5-12 7 1] 0-5 Sable herbaceous association, a beach ridge, probably because the soil was very dry. At the other two locations, there was higher survival as well as in- creases in the number of leaves in over half the seedlings. Survival rates in the field transplants parallel the results of greenhouse and laboratory germination tests in that salinities greater than 5-10 ppt precluded establishment of Schinus. Although seeds only suffered modest loss in viability in 30 ppt salinity, germination was reduced linearly with increasing salinity, and it never occurred in experiments on soils of ENP in salinities of 5 ppt or higher in the lab and greenhouse tests. These findings may appear contradictory to the present occurrence of re- productive Schinus in association with salt tolerant plants in ENP (Olmsted et al., 1981). However, it is well known that soil salinities in ENP may change rapidly when water courses and drainage patterns shift after hurricanes, fires, and seasonal high tides (Craighead, 1971); such changes often leave halophy- tes in relatively fresh water for many years until displaced by natural succes- sion to non-halophytes. We have never encountered adult Schinus in soil salini- ties over 8 ppt in the field, even when it is associated with halophytes. That observation and the results of the present study lead us to conclude that Schinus is not a threat to saline plant communities where saline conditions exist. If salinity declines, however, saline communities can be invaded by Schinus as well as by native plants of the fresh water associations of ENP. As Schinus has exceptional colonizing abilities (Ewel et al., 1982), we expect it to be the first and most prevalent invader where salinity has been reduced. ACKNOWLEDGMENT— The senior author was supported by the Everglades National Park and by a grant from Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society, during this study. Greenhouse facilities were provided by the University of Florida’s Agriculture Research and Education Center (AREC) in Homestead. LITERATURE CITED CRAIGHEAD, Sr., F. C. 1971. The Trees of South Florida. Univ. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida. 212 pp. Ewe, J. J., D. S. Oya, D. A. Kari, ano W. F. DeBusk. 1982. Schinus in successional ecosys- tems of Everglades National Park. South Florida Research Center Report T-676. 141 pp. 12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 HivsenBeck, C. E. 1972. An investigation of Schinus terebinthifolius in Everglades National Park. Unpublished report on file in Everglades National Park References Library. . 1976. An investigation of old field succession in Everglades National Park, First Interm Report. Everglades National Park. 63 pp. IsELEY, D. 1952. Employment of tetrazolium chloride for determining viability of small grain seed. Proc. Assoc. Offic. Seed Analysts 42:143-155. Looper, L. L. anv V. L. Dunevirz. 198 1a. Investigations of early plant succession on abandoned farmland in Everglades National Park. National Park Service, South Florida Research Cen- ter Report 1-644. U.S. National Park Service, Homestead, FL. . 1981b. Impact of fire exclusion and invasion of Schninus terebinthifolius on limestone rockland pine forests of southeastern Florida. South Florida Research Center Report T-645. U. S. National Park Service, Homestead, FL. 30 pp. Morton, J. F. 1976. Pestiferous spread of many ornamental and fruit species in south Florida. Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 189:348-353. . 1978. Brazilian pepper—its impact on people, animals and the environment. Econ. Bot. 32:353-359. O.mstepD, I. C., L. L. Looper, ann R. P. Russet. 1981. Vegetation of the southern coastal region of Everglades National Park between Flamingo and Joe Bay. South Florida Research Center Report 1-620. 18 pp. WorkMan, R. W. 1979. History of Schinus in Florida. Pp. 5-6 in Schinus. Technical Proc. of Techniques for control of Schinus in South Florida: a workshop for area managers. The Sanibel-Captiva Conser. Found., Inc., Sanibel, FL. Florida Sci. 50(1):7-12. 1987. Accepted: February 12, 1986. REVIEW David Pressman, Patent It Yourself, Nolo Press, Berkeley, CA, 1985. Pp. xi + 421, 8!/2 x 11 (soft). Price: $24.95. ACCORDING to a popular saying, “He who serves as his own attorney has a fool for a client and for a lawyer.’ Why then would one recommend a do-it- yourself book for patents to scientists? At least two reasons: time and money. With this book, a patent applicant is given the detailed information that would save the valuable and expensive time of a patent attorney. In addition, the author provides information on pitfalls to be avoided that again could save time and money. The book was written by a patent attorney in private practice, who served as a patent examiner in the U.S. Patent Office for more than 18 years. This book has several useful features. It apparently contains all of the forms needed to obtain a patent. Step-by-step details are given. It is written in a lively, entertaining, yet informative manner, and has pertinent comments, ad- vice, useful charts, and even hilarious cartoons. It should be useful to would-be inventors, but it can also be recommended to those who teach courses in the use of the literature as well as to all scientists who wish to be better informed about patents, and other forms of protection (e.g., copyright, trademark, and trade secret laws).—Dean F. Martin, University of South Florida, Tampa. Environmental Chemistry PELLETIZATION OF PINE AND OAK SEEDS: IMPLICATIONS FOR LAND RECLAMATION GUILLERMO A. ALMAGRO, DEAN F. MarrIN, AND M. J. PEREZ-CRUET Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 Asstract: Planting of tree seedlings on reclaimed strip mined lands in Florida is subject to low survival rate and high expense. Oak or pine tree seeds, coated with growing medium contain- ing nutrients, were successfully grown in open sun, provided the coated seeds were mulched. The growing medium or coating was also given a final coat of either Plaster of Paris or foamable polyurethane polymer in order to prevent its disintegration by the elements. This study is con- cerned with comparision of polymer coatings (including foamable hydrophilic polyurethane) with other coatings. PLANTING tree seedlings is a commonly used practice in reforestation. It is laborious, expensive, and subject to high mortality rates, especially in a long drought. Attempts to reforest land reclaimed from phosphate mining by plant- ing sand pine seedlings and scrub species have been unsatisfactory. The sur- vival rate was low owing to moisture stress and wind damage. Furthermore, lack of adaptability of seedlings to soil nutrients and moisture content in re- claimed land affected growth of trees (IMCC, 1981). Other reforestation pro- jects have involved planting various species of trees on wetlands with or with- out topsoil (Robertson, 1983). While direct seeding of sand pine and slash pine on sand tailings did not result in germination (Wadsworth, 1983), success was obtained using seedlings of slash pine and loblolly pine (as well as eucalptus and red cedar seedlings) on overburden soil in Polk County, Florida. Sand-clay mixture near Brewster mines (Polk County) provided better seedling growth than did sand tailings and overburden. Polymer coated seeds could enhance germination and survival rates of many tree species. Damage from rodents or pests could be minimized by incor- porating rodent repellants or pesticides in the coating composition. Problems of planting in nutrient-poor soil could be reduced by incorporating nutrients in the coating composition. Also, a beneficial fungus (Pisolithus tinctorius) has increased root size of pine and oak trees (Wolf et al., 1982), and incorporation of this fungus in seed coatings could enhance seedling survival. A hard durable shell, added after the seed is coated, would help maintain the integrity of the coating. Our research attempts to develop and evaluate methods of coating hard- wood seeds and to determine optimized coating composition for enhancement of seed growth and survival. 14 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 MaTERIALS AND Meruops—Seed collections and sources. Acorns of live oak (Quercus virgi- niana) and laurel oak (Q. laurifolia) were collected in the St. Petersburg, Florida area during October-December 1983, before the study began in January 1984. Seeds of slash pine (Pinus elliottii), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvania lanceolata), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L), and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) were purchased from International Forest Seed Co. Seed preparation. Germination rates were determined by taking 100 seeds of each species and soaking them overnight. All seeds that floated were discarded. Acceptable seeds were planted in topsoil and kept moist by misting daily. Germination rate was evaluated by counting the maxi- mum number of seedlings in a given period (cf. Table 1). Oak acorns were first soaked overnight in water containing Malathion (3 g/L) and Captan 50 (3 g/L) to control pests. Acorns were then stored in the refrigerator at 4°C until needed. Seeds of other species were stored in a cool, dry place. Seed coating composition. Physico-chemical properties of seed coatings are summarized in Table 2. Topsoil was preferred over organic peat or potting soil because of lower costs. Commercial clay powder (Paragon, Huber Corp.) was used, though dried, milled phosphatic clay from settling ponds could be used. Vermiculite and peat moss, though expensive, were used because these mate- rials provide good medium for P. tinctorius (Marx et al., 1977), the spores of which were purchased from International Forest Seed Co. A solution containing 3 g of Captan 50/liter of water was added to the seed-coating mixture. The treatment was intended to prevent damping-off disease without seriously affecting growth of P. tinctorius. The pH of the coating mixture was adjusted to about 6.5 using powdered lime. Pellet coatings were prepared from two materials: commercial plaster of Paris, a foamable hypdrophilic polyurethane (Hypol FHP 3000, pre-polymer, W. R. Grace, Organic Chemicals Div.) diluted with acetone 1:4. TABLE |. Per cent germination of seed. Species % Germination 21-26°C 6:.62G Laurel Oak 96 95 Live Oak 95 96 Sweet Gum 0 ] Slash Pine 63 — Sycamore 4 5 Green Ash 8 12 Seed coating process. A dry mixture of seed coating was mixed in proper proportions in a pan, and water was added, then mixed until a soft dough-like consistency was obtained. [Materials could have been loaded into a screw extruder in which the aperture is varied according to the size of the seed (Fig. 1)]. For slash pine and smaller seeds, a 2.6-cm diameter rod of coating was satisfactory; for larger seeds (oak acorns), 3.8-c, diameter was preferable. The dough was extruded in the form of a rod that was cut into desired lengths. A conical hole was made into the extruded material with a pointed wood dowel. The number of seeds placed in the cavity depended upon the species: one for oak acorns, and two for pine seeds. (Multiple seeds were used when percentage of germination was 50%). The cavity was closed by pressing the dough coating. The coating was placed in a glass jar that was placed on parallel rollers through which the speed of tumbling could be controlled. As soon as the dough-coated seed assumed a rounded shape, pellet-coating material was added. The coating procedure varied a little with the material selected. Plaster of Paris powder was sprinkled on the inside wall of the tumbling jars as soon as the seed assumed a rounded shape and while it was tumbling. With urethane polymer, the diluted polymer was applied on the inside wall. The polymer reacted with moisture to form 1-2 mm thick coat of foam. Coating was done at 23- 25°C; at lower temperatures, the reaction rate was slower. Seed coating should contain about 60% moisture; much above this value, the dough balls would stick together and it would take longer for the polymer to cure. Coated seeds were removed from the jar and cured for 6 hours before plant- ing. No. 1, 1987] ALMAGRO ET AL.—PELLETIZATION OF SEEDS 15 Feed Aperture priote plunger Seed loader 2 EIEI i { aa E xtruder a Seed coat | _molder Fic. 1. Flowsheet of seed-coating process. Plot studies. Soil was obtained from Kingsford K-6 mine (International Minerals Corp., near Bradley, FL). The soil consisted mainly of overburden (5-15 cm) capped over sand tailings. About two cubic yards of soil sample were transported to the USF Botanical Gardens site. Appropriate microplots of excavated, retrofilled ditches were prepared, (10 x 75 x 180 cm). Three groups of plantings were made: Group 1: Seeds were planted directly on the soil, and the only source of water was rainfall or dew; Group 2: Seeds were planted on K-6 mine soil, but they were covered with cypress bark mulch (3 cm thick). These seeds were watered for two weeks when rainfall was absent during any week. Once the first set of leaves appeared, watering was discontinued; Group 3: Seeds were treated with 1 mg of P. tinctorius spores and planted in a separate microplot to prevent contamination of untreated seeds. Two sub-treatments were used: unmulched in open sun, and mulched/watered in open sun. Pertinent determinations: Soil samples, obtained from 8 points in the 0.8-ha sites, were taken by digging holes 15 cm deep, and removing a slice of 500 mL of soil from each point. Combined samples were cleaned of trash and weeds, and air dried. Piled samples were quartered repeatedly until the last quarter was of suitable volume, approximately 1 L. A portion was analyzed by the University of Florida IFAS soil laboratory for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, pH, and lime (cf. Table 3). Moisture was determined by difference following drying at 105°C to constant weight. Particle size was analyzed by sieves (cf. Hawkins, 1983; Butler, 1979). Trace elements were deter- mined by atomic absorption spectroscopy using standard procedures and NaOH fusion (Energlyn et al., 1971; Shapiro et al., 1956). Procedures for soluble calcium, iron, maganese involved treat- ment of soil samples with | N acid solution (Jackson, 1973) prior to determination using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Total CHN analysis was obtained using a Carlo-Erba model 1106 elemental analyzer by personnel at the USF Department of Marine Science. 16 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 TABLE 2. Physico-chemical properties of seed-coating composition. Composition, Parts by Volume Batch Number Moss culite lizer Mix ture, % 43-1 5 0 0 0 ei 1.0 4.5 61 Firm 43-2 y ye 0 0 0.18 1.3 4.5 65 Crumbles 43-3 3.0 1.0 1.0 0 0.18 114 4.5 63 Crumbles 43-4 3.0 1.0 eS 0.5 0.14 1.14.45 62 Firm 43-5 3.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 i: 14 1.0 4.5 58 Firm 44-] 5.0 0 0 0 O» 1.0 4.25 63 Firm 44-2 3 l 0.5 0.5 1.0 = ie 60 Firm 44-3 3 0.5 1.0 0.5 OQ» 1.0 4.5 58 Firm 45-] 5 0 0 0 0» 1.0 6.5¢ 62 Firm 45-24 3 l 0.5 0.5 OQ» 1.0 6.5° 60 Firm 45-3 3 OS 1.0 0.5 OQ» 1.0 6.5¢ 60 Firm @Turfbuilder, 2 1-3-3. bPeters 20-20-20 (1 g/liter) and Captan 50 (3 g/L) added to water. ‘adjusted with lime. dSeed coating composition optimized for firmness and cost. TABLE 3. Selected properties of Kingsford K-6 Mine soil. Constituent or Composition, % Trace Composition, Property Constituents ppm Moisture 11.0 MgO 36 Na,O 0.019 PO; 200 K,O 0.0017 K,O 8 CaO 0.079 Organic nitrogen ND Fe,O, 0.0040 MnO, 0.00027 Organic carbon ND Al,O; SOK SiO; 96.33 Particle size Sand 62 Silt 27 Clay 1] pH=5.1. ND, not detected. RESULTS AND DiscussION—Soil on reclaimed land in Kingsford Mine area near Bradley may be characterized as sandy with levels of calcium, magne- sium, and phosphorus adequate for plant growth (Table 3). Levels of potassium are low, but not exceptionally so for natural soil in Florida. Our analyses indicated that organic nitrogen was deficient and organic carbon was present in trace or non-detectable amounts. Some trace elements were present in levels adequate for plant growth (e.g., iron and manganese, Table 3). Given this soil, it is possible that pelletization has useful potential implica- tions because the seed coating composition could be designed to contain useful Top Soil Peat Vermi- Clay Ferti- H,O: pH Mois- Remarks No. 1, 1987] ALMAGRO ET AL.—PELLETIZATION OF SEEDS ‘7 materials, including moisture, nutrients, rodent/insect protection chemicals, and perhaps growth-beneficial fungus spores. Some of the factors were exam- ined during the present study, and the findings may be reviewed in order. Moisture content in the seed coating should range between 30 and 60%. High moisture resulted in dough-balls that stuck together when tumbled and required more plaster of Paris to form a shell. Beyond the upper moisture limit, coating with a polyurethane polymer becomes difficult, as the setting time increases. Too low a moisture content, however, produced moisture stress on the seed. Use of starch gel polymer (SGP) in seed coating composition caused failure of seed to germinate. The polymer inhibited respiration of the seed embryo. For germination to occur, oxygen supply to developing embryo is needed (Hartman and Kester, 1983), which is one reason earlier experiments in seed coating were failures. The SGP apparently sealed the pores completely. In later seed coatings, containing foamable polymers or gypsum, the seed embryo was able to respire, and this 0, interchange broke seed dormacy. The pH of the coating composition material is also critical. Germination of seeds was inhibited below pH 4.5, relative to germination at pH 5.5-6.5. Ad- justment with lime corrected the pH problem. When an ammonium-based fertilizer is used as a nutrient, the pH should not exceed 7 because ammonia may be liberated with loss of nitrogen. Also, calcium will reduce the phosphate solubility and availability at a pH above 7.5. Use of fungus spores introduced complications in the coating composition. Vermiculite-peat moss was found to enhance growth of the spores (Marx and Bryan, 1975). When the volume of peat moss was over 20% of the total dry mix volume, the resulting dough ball crumbled. Therefore, clay was incorpo- rated in the mixture so that the seed coating would be firm. The coating com- position that proved optimum for symbiont P. tinctorius is given in Table 2. Fertilizer composition could be studied at length and could be uniquely adjusted to the particular environment. It seemed more cost effective to study other aspects in the present project. One fertilizer, Peters 20-20-20, did not cause fertilizer burn when applied at a concentration of | g/liter. Other additives that were considered included anti-pest agents. Captan 50, a fungicide, (Taylor, 1980), known to be effective in controlling damping-off fungus, which attacks young oak embryos in a humid environment. Captan 50 has been found to enhance ectomycorrhizal growth without decreasing estab- lishment of pine seedlings (Marx et al., 1985). Other pesticides were tested for their effect on seed germination. Of those tested REPEL (an effective rodent repellent) and ant killer (Rida-Bug' Amdro'™, chlorodane) seemed to have no adverse effect relative to control seeds when soaked overnight. Given an optimum coating composition, coating the seeds becomes the next consideration. Placing seeds in extruded material and cutting into desired sizes was superior to the tumbling method. Spraying seeds with water while being tumbled in clay or soil resulted in formation of smaller-sized balls. The tumbling method seemed less efficient and uneconomical inasmuch as the 18 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 smaller-sized balls used up proportionally more raw material. Coating less dense and flat or elongated seeds (e.g. green ash, sweet gum, sycamore) pre- sented problems that will require additional time to solve. In addition to the low germination rates, their geometry may prove troublesome in the process of loading into preformed balls in mass production. Seed coatings must have a protective coating to prevent premature decom- position or loss of moisture. Three materials were used as coating: urethane polymer, plaster of Paris, and calcined phosphogypsum. Urethane polymer was used because of its hydrophilic nature, though it was also recognized that a synthetic material would add to cost of seed pelletization. Plaster of Paris is cheaper than polyurethane. Finally, calcined phosphogypsum (with pH ad- justed to a pH of 5.5 or 6.5 using lime prior to calcination) is available as a by- product of phosphate operations. All three coatings were effective. Coated seeds were subjected to three treatments (Groups 1-3, Methods). Seeds placed in test plots and in the open sun and unmulched failed to germi- nate, owing to the low rainfall during most of the summer and fall season (1984). In 1984, the observed rainfall for St. Petersburg was about 9.8 in. (25 cm), as compared to the annual average of 22 in. (55 cm) reported by the National Weather Service for Albert Whited Airport, St. Petersburg. Coated seeds that were covered with mulch (2.5 cm) and watered for the first two weeks germinated and the survival rates were high (Table 4), despite water withdrawal after the first set of leaves appeared. A limited statistical analysis was performed using ANOVA, and several observations seem evident from this treatment (Table 4). First, mulching was essential as revealed by some 12 studies (not listed) for which the survival rate was zero, irrespective of the coating, use of spore, or shell coat. No effect of the spores of P. tinctorius was observed (mulched pine seeds, either of two shells). Seeds treated with spores of the fungus were barely two months old, and some believe that at least two seasons are required to observe beneficial effects of P. tinctorius (Kormanik et al., 1977). With seeds covered with a plaster of Paris shell, two results were obtained for comparison of germination for coated seeds versus non-coated seeds (all samples mulched): (1) Coating was effective for pine seeds (P ca. 0.01) but not for oak seeds. (2) the nature of the shell coat (Plaster of Paris vs. Polymer coat, Table 4) was important for pine seeds, but not for oak seed. Pine seeds had a greater germination rate for various treat- ments with a polymer shell around the coating (Wilcoxon’s signed rank test). The shell seemed less important with oak seeds. The impact of seed coating is ultimately limited, and it is evident that ground moisture and mulching are, not surprisingly, important factors. Never- theless, the contribution to survival and minimization of transplant shock should not be minimized. CoNncLusions—A useful protocol and useful composition was developed for coating seeds of oak and pine. Certain seeds, owing to geometry or size, still pose problems, but these should be solvable with additional study. Three coat- ings were tested, and all were effective, although economic factors could favor No. 1, 1987] ALMAGRO ET AL.—PELLETIZATION OF SEEDS 19 TABLE 4. Germination rates of slash pine and laurel oak with two different shells under various conditions Study Seed coat Treatment? Seeds % Survival no. compn? Seeds Mulched Spores planted Plaster Polymer of Paris Shell 13 A Pine + - 10 70 93 14 B Pine + 8 88 86 ii) C Pine + - 10 70 75 16 A Pine + + 4 50 iS 17 B Pine ~ ~ 5 40 100 18 C Pine + + 5 40 f3 19 A Oak ~ - 5 60 100 20 B Oak ~ ~ 3 100 100 21 C Oak ~ - 3 100 75 22 A Oak ~ - 3 100 90 23 B Oak ~ ~ 2 100 100 24 C Oak + ~ 3 100 100 25 — Pine - - 30 0 0 26 _ Pine - ~ 30 0 0 27 _ Oak - - 20 0 0 28 — Oak - - 20 0 0 29 — Pine ~ - 30 50 50 30 — Pine - ~ 30 47 47 31 — Oak + - 20 95 95 gL 5 ~ Oak ~ + 20 95 95 aSeed Coat Composition: A, 45-1, Table 2; B, 45-2, Table 2; C, 45-3, Table 2. b—, unmulched, no treatment with spores of P. tinctorius; +, seeds were mulched or treated with spores (1 mg/ seed). calcined phosphogypsum or plaster of Paris. The importance of irrigation and mulching was indicated with test plots and with limited field tests using re- claimed soil and reclaimed land, respectively. The incorporation of pesticides and rodenticides was studied and no adverse effect on germination was ob- served; the effectiveness of the treatment under field conditions awaits addi- tional testing. Enhancement of survivability of seeds by means of seed coatings is indicated, given reasonable conditions of rainfall and temperature. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The authors are indebted to Jay Allen and Robert Goodrich, Interna- tional Minerals Corp. for their cooperation and support in setting aside experimental test plots in Kingsford K-6 mine. We are grateful for the benefit of helpful discussions with David P. Borris and David J. Robertson, Florida Institute of Phosphate Research. We appreciate the cooperation of Frederick B. Essig, Director of the Botanical Gardens. We are grateful to Walter K. Taylor for serving as consulting Editor. This material is based upon work supported by the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research under Award No. 83-03-040. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations ex- pressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research. LITERATURE CITED Butter, O. C. 1979. An Introductory Soils Laboratory Handbook, Ist ed., Exposition Press, Pompano, FL. ENERGLYN, THE Lorp AND L. BrEALEy. 1971. Analytical Geochemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Pp. 89-100. 20 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 HARTMAN, W. T. AND D. E. Kester. 1983. Plant Propogation, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Hawkins, W. H. 1983. Agricultural uses of reclaimed land. Pp. 428-453. In: Rosertson, D. J. (ed.) Proc. Symp., Reclamation and the Phosphate Industry. Fla. Inst. Phosphate Res. Bar- tow, FL. INTERNATIONAL MINERALS AND CHEMICALS CORPORATION. 1981. The Feasibility of Restoring Xeric Forest Ecosystems on Mined Lands. Report prepared by EcoImpact, Inc. Jackson, M. L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis: An Advanced Course. 2nd rev. ed., Madison, Wis. KorMANIK, P., W. BryYAN, AND R. C. Scuutz. 1977. Influence of Endomycorrhizae on growth of sweetgum seedlings from eight mother trees. Forest Sci. 23:500-505. Marx, D., anp W. Bryan. 1975. Growth and ectomyrrhized development of loblolly pine seed- lings in fumigated soil infested with the fungal symbiont Pisolithus tinctorius. Forest Sci. 21:245-254. .W. BryAN, AND C. E. Corpeti. 1977. Survival and growth of pine seedlings with Pisolithus ectomycorrhizae after two years of reforestation sites in North Carolina and Florida. Forest Sci., 23:363-373. , K. Jari, J. L. RuEHLE, AND W. BELL. 1985. Development of Pisolithus tinctorius Ectomycorrhizae on pine seedlings using basidiospore-encapsulated seeds. Forest Sci., 30(4):897-907. Rosertson, D. J. 1983. Reclamation and the Phosphate Industry. Symposium Proceedings, Fla. Inst. Phsophate Res. Bartow. 525 pp. SHAPIRO, L. AND BRANNOoCK, W. W. 1956. “Rapid analysis of silicate rocks,’ USGS BULL: 1036-C: 19-34. Tay Lor, G. G. 1980. Establishing plants by pelleted seeds. Canadian Patent No. 1,069,332: Janu- ary 8. WapswortH, C. A. 1983. The development of techniques for the use of trees in the reclamation of phosphate lands—A project overview. In: RoBertson, D. J. (ed.), Reclamation and the Phosphate Industry. Pp. 390-394. Symposium Proceedings. Fla. Inst. Phosphate Research, Bartow, FL. Wo tr, H., C. E. CorpELL, AND S. M. KELLER. 1982. Fungus speeds mine reclamation. Coal Age. September, Pp. 62-64. Florida Sci. 50(1):13-20. 1987. Accepted: December 5, 1985. Biological Sciences BIRDS OF THE CAY SAL BANK AND RAGGED ISLANDS, BAHAMAS DONALD W. BUDEN Worcester Science Center, Harrington Way, Worcester, Massachusetts 01604 Asstract: The distribution and status of the 84 species of birds from the Cay Sal Bank islands (8 recorded for the first time) and 42 from the Ragged Islands (13 recorded for the first time) are discussed. The 137 new locality records for these 2 groups of Bahama Islands are based largely on unpublished materials from the Paul Bartsch Expedition of 1930. The 24 species that probably breed (or bred formerly) on the Cal Sal Bank include 10 seabirds and 9 land birds; 11 seabirds and 13 land birds are among the 31 that probably breed in the Raggeds. The resident birds in both areas are species generally widespread in the Bahaman-Antillean region. THE BAHAMA archipelago is comprised of about 30 major islands and thousands of smaller cays. Many of the far-flung islets remain poorly known faunistically, the coverage based largely on brief visits by wide-ranging expedi- tions and the ornithological data at times obtained adjunct to other studies. This report contributes numerous locality and breeding records of birds from the Cay Sal Bank and Ragged Islands and is based largely on unpublished results of the Paul Bartsch Expedition of 1930. Bartsch’s journal, several cop- ies of which are at the National Museum of Natural History, (USNM), is the only mid-summer report on the birds of these islands and contains more breed- ing records than do all other reports combined. From mid-June to the end of September 1930, Bartsch (a malacologist at the USNM) and 3 associates ex- plored the Bahamas, islands off the southern coast of Cuba, and the Cayman Islands collecting invertebrates and vertebrates for the USNM (Bartsch, 1931). They were on the Cay Sal Bank 17-23 June and in the Ragged Islands 26 June- 3 July. The ornithological results of this expedition have never been published although Bond (1956) incorporated several records into his check-list of West Indian birds. THE ISLANDS AND ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS— These low-lying, lime- stone islands range from barren rocks to scrub-covered or partially wooded cays (some with mangroves) seldom more than a few square kilometers in area. The largest is Great Ragged Island (ca. 7 km long, 0.5-3 km wide, 8 km’). Cay Sal Bank—Many cays dot the western, northern, and eastern sides of the Cay Sal Bank, which is ca. 65 km north of Cuba, 100 km southeast of the Florida Keys, and 150 km southwest of Andros Island, Bahamas (Figs. 1 and 2). A lighthouse maintenance crew resided on North Elbow Cay and a “‘settle- ment”’ was being started on Cotton Cay when Bartsch visited the islands, but only Cay Sal has been inhabited in recent years. I follow the U. S. Hydro- graphic Office (1927) in using the name North Elbow Cay for the island with 22 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 the lighthouse (known also as Elbow Cay, Double Headed Shot Key, and the Cay Sal Light) and South Elbow Cay (=Elbow Cay in Bartsch’s journal) for one or more of the islets immediately to the south. Different charts and maps show from 4 to more than a dozen islets in the Damas Cays area and I am unable to identify specifically those visited by Bartsch who referred to the third one [counting north to south] as the largest of 5 “bleak rocks.” The main islands in the Anguilla Cays group are Anguilla Cay and Cotton Cay; Goldberg (1983) refers to these as north Anguilla Cay and south Anguilla Cay, respectively and proposes names for other islands on the bank. The names Little Corn Cay and Cotton Cay Rock are from Bartsch’s journal and a British Admiralty chart hand-labeled presumably by the late William Clench, a mala- cologist at the Museum of Comparative Zoology who worked with Bartsch’s collections from this and other expeditions. Bartsch’s notes indicate Cotton Cay is, or was, the most densely wooded island on the bank and Wilson (1909) stated the vegetation at the southern end of the Anguillas was far more lux- urient than in the north. Part of Bartsch’s journal entry for 23 June reads ““We inspected the little settlement [on Cotton Cay] that is being started... The com- pany has cut a path from the plain to the north coast through the surprisingly splendid forest which is far finer than anything we have seen in the entire Cay Sal group, some of the Gumbo Limbo trees going considerably beyond a foot in diameter, and there being many other kinds of trees of a goodly size.’ Few biologists have visited the Cay Sal Bank. Birds collected there by C. S. Winch in May 1891 were reported by Cory (1891). They include 10 species from the Anguilla Cays and 14 from Cay Sal, nearly all passage migrants or vagrants. In his summary of West Indian bird distributions, Cory (1892) in- cluded Cay Sal among the islands whence Calliphlox evelynae was recorded, but provided no explanation as to the source of this record, which was not mentioned in his 1891 paper. On 20 May 1893, a primarily marine biological expedition led by C. C. Nutting spent ca. 3 hrs on Water Cay. Nutting (1895) reported “‘countless seabirds, particularly man o’ war birds, bridled and noddy terns. Both the latter species were remarkedly tame...eggs of both spe- cies were secured.” Bonhote (1903) reported on 11 species collected by J. S. Solomon at the Cay Sal Light during March, April, and December 1901, and February 1902; all but Sterna fuscata apparently migrants that struck the lighthouse. Riley (1905) listed all the bird species recorded in the Bahamas with localities for each. The source of his records of Porzana carolina, Calidris minutilla, and Calidris pusilla on Cay Sal is unknown to me. Bartsch visited the islands in 1930. Birds I saw and collected on Cay Sal 18-24 April 1968 were reported by Buden and Schwartz (1968). Recent breeding records of Sterna antillarum, S. anaethe- tus, S. fuscata, and Anous stolidus on the bank, presumably all based on observations by C. Petrovic ca. 1978, were reported by Sprunt (1984). Ragged Islands—The Ragged Islands span ca. 130 km from off the western coast of Long Island, Bahamas southward to ca. 130 km off the northern coast of Cuba (Figs. 1 and 3). Small settlements are on some of the larger islands at No. 1, 1987] BUDEN—BAHAMaA BIRDS 23 ! ! I I \ Cay Sal Bank Cay Sal Little Corn Cay __* Anguilla Cay “\ Cotton Cay Ws . Cotton Cay / | Ee. _Rock - a \ Fic. 2. Map of the Cay Sal Bank. Broken line approximates the 100 fathom contour. were Dendrocygna arborea as the only other Tree-Duck in the Bahamas is D. bicolor, a relatively recent arrival to the West Indies first recorded in Cuba in 1943 (Bond, 1964). Bartsch visited the Raggeds in 1930. Bond (1958) listed the species ob- served (some specimens collected) on Great Ragged Island by Robert Hanlon, presumably all during early September 1957. They are Phaethon lepturus, Casmerodius albus, Butorides striatus, Nycticorax violaceus, Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, Larus atricilla, Coccyzus americanus, Crotophaga ani, Tyto alba, Chordeiles sp. (listed under minor, but probably gundlachii), Calliphlox evelynae, Tyrannus dominicensis, Progne subis, Polioptila caerulea, Mimus gundlachii, Vireo crassirostris, Seiurus motacilla, Coereba flaveola, and Tiaris bicolor. The only other records of birds from the Raggeds are in a review of Bahaman seabird colonies by Sprunt (1984) who included locality records (but unspecified as to source) for Phaethon lepturus, Larus atricilla, Sterna sandvicensis, S. antillarum, and Anous stolidus. Birps SEEN AND COLLECTED DURING THE BARTSCH EXPEDITION Codes and conventions—CSB = Cay Sal Bank; RIS = Ragged Islands; * =first record, though re- cords for islands in the Double Headed Shot Cays, the Damas Cays, or the Anguilla Cays are not reported as new if the species has been previously recorded anywhere in the island group; quotes pertaining to status and distribution are from Bartsch’s field journal; bird names and sequence follow American Ornithologists’ Union (1983); specimen = study skin, USNM. No. 1, 1987] BUDEN—BAHAMA BIRDS Water Cay Flamingo Cay 4%, RAGGED . ISLANDS 10 km Jamaica Cays__¢4 ” _ Seal Cay South Channel oe Frog Cay Knife Cay Nurse Cay ae Buena Vista Cay G Racoon Cay i Pimlico Cay TR Sa Johnson [a Loggerhead Cay ___"_-~-—*4. Double Breasted fee a ae Margaret Cay Hog Cay Salt Cay Great Ragged Island Little Ragged Island 25 Fic. 3. Map of the Ragged Islands. Broken line approximates the 100 fathom contour. 26 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 AUDUBON’S SHEARWATER Puffinus lherminieri CSB: South Elbow Cay (“breeding abundantly in the dark recesses of the honeycombed lime- stone,’ 20 specimens ranging in age from downy young to adult, collected 18-19 June), 1st Damas Cay* (“young...in caverns,” 21 June), Anguilla Cays* (one landed on vessel anchored offshore, night of 22-23 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (“‘breeding...evidenced by the presence of young.’ 26 June), Frog Cay* and two unnamed islands to the west* and northwest* (“breeding,’ 28 June), Nurse Cay* (heard calling at night, 28 June), Pimlico Cay* (reported as breeding by the villagers on Racoon Cay— fide Bartsch) WHITE-TAILED TROPICBIRD Phaethon lepturus RIS: Seal Cay* (“‘appeared to be breeding,’ 27 June, 2 specimens), Frog Cay* (28 June, specimen). BROWN Boosy Sula leucogaster CSB: South Elbow Cay* (ca. 40 seen, 19 June). Remarks—Sula leucogaster probably occurs in the Raggeds, at least occasionally, as it breeds on several of the small cays to the south and southeast. But the only record (Cory, 1892) possibly is based on misreading of Bryant’s (1859) statement ““My first visit to one of their breeding-places was made on the 10th of April, at St. Domingo Kay, which lies thirty-three miles south of Great Ragged Island...and is probably never visited, except occasionally by people from Ragged Is- land...’ Bryant made no further reference to the Raggeds in his discussion on Sula fiber (=leuco- gaster), and, in their reviews of ornithological explorations and studies in the Bahamas, neither Cory (1892) nor Riley (1905) indicated that anyone other than Bryant (in 1859) had been to the Raggeds. BROWN PELICAN Pelecanus occidentalis CSB: South Elbow Cay (one found dead, 19 June). MAGNIFICENT FRIGATEBIRD Fregata magnificens CSB: Cay Sal (17 June), 3rd Damas Cay* (21 June), Little Corn Cay* (22 June), Anguilla Cay* (21 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (26 June), Seal Cay (27 June), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), Racoon Cay* (2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (2 July). GreAT BLUE HERON Ardea herodias CSB: Cay Sal (one seen, 17 June). GREEN-BACKED HERON Butorides striatus RIS: Nurse Cay* (29 June, specimen, B. s. bahamensis). YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT-HERON Nycticorax violaceus CSB: Anguilla Cay* (22 June), Cotton Cay* (22 June). RIS: cay west of Frog Cay* (28 June), Nurse Cay* (28 June), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June). WiIxson’s PLOVER Charadrius wilsonia RIS: Nurse Cay* (29 June), Buena Vista Cay* (29 June, specimen), Racoon Cay* (30 June), John- son Cay* (2 July). AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHER Haematopus palliatus RIS: Jamaica Cays* (pair seen, 26 June), South Channel Cay* (pair seen, 28 June). BLACK-NECKED STILT Himantopus mexicanus CSB: Cay Sal (‘‘several pairs...showed by their actions that eggs or young should be present,” 17 June, specimen). SPOTTED SANDPIPER Actitis macularia CSB: Cay Sal (one seen, 17 June—an unexpected mid-summer record). No. 1, 1987] BUDEN—BAHAMA BIRDS 27 LAUGHING GULL Larus atricilla CSB: Cay Sal (breeding “‘in numbers,’ eggs present, 17 June, 2 specimens), South Elbow Cay* (19 June), Water Cay* (ca. 25 pairs, “some had eggs and others young,” 20 June), 1st Damas Cay* (“breeding,’ 21 June), 3rd Damas Cay* (21 June), Anguilla Cay* (21-22 June), Cotton Cay* (23 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (“‘A” Cay, 26 June, specimen), South Channel Cay* (28 June), Racoon Cay* (2 July), Loggerhead Cay* (“‘breeding,” 2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (ca. 100 pairs “breeding,” 2 July). RoyAL TERN Sterna maxima CSB: Cay Sal (ca. 12 seen, 17 June), Water Cay* (ca. 200, “some still having eggs, while others had young a week or more old,” 20 June), Anguilla Cay* (21-22 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (26 June), South Channel Cay* (‘‘breeding,” 28 June, 2 specimens), Double Breasted Cay (“‘breeding,’” 2 July). SANDWICH TERN Sterna sandvicensis RIS: Jamaica Cays* (““H” Cay, many eggs, 1 per clutch, 27 June; “‘A’’ Cay, 3 specimens, 26-27 June), Seal Cay* (27 June), South Channel Cay (“‘large rookery,’ many eggs, 28 June, specimen). RosEATE TERN Sterna dougallii CSB: Anguilla Cay* (21 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (“‘H’’ Cay, many eggs, mainly | [ocassionally 2] per clutch, 27 June; ““A” Cay, specimen, 26 June), Seal Cay* (27 June), South Channel Cay* (28 June). CoMMON TERN Sterna hirundo CIS: 3rd Damas Cay* (21 June), 4th Damas Cay* (‘‘nesting”’ at southern end, 21 June), Anguilla Cay* (2:1 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (26 June), Knife Cay* (““breeding,”’ 28 June). Remarks—These sight records are questionable. There are no confirmed breeding records for the Bahamas, but Bond (1978) reported unconfirmed nesting on Stocking Island, Exumas. Bond (1982, 1984) suggested many sighting of Sterna hirundo in the West Indies have been based on misidentified S. dougallii. Least TERN Sterna antillarum CSB: Anguilla Cay* (“colony breeding on the sand flat,’ 21 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (“‘A’”’ Cay, 27 June, specimen), Seal Cay* (27 June). BRIDLED TERN Sterna anaethetus CSB: South Elbow Cay (19 June), North Elbow Cay (“‘breeding,” 18 June, 2 specimens), Water Cay (“breeding,;’ 20 June), Little Corn Cay* (“breeding,’ 22 June), Anguilla Cay* (“‘breeding,’ in mixed colony consisting of many more Sooty Terns, 23 June), Cotton Cay Rock* (22 June). RIS: Jamaica Cay* (26 June), Seal Cay* (27 June), Frog Cay* (28 June), cay northwest of Frog Cay* (“breeding,’ 28 June), cay west of Frog Cay* (28 June), Knife Cay* (28 June), Double Breasted Cay* (“‘breeding,’ 2 July). Sooty TERN Sterna fuscata CSB: South Elbow Cay (19 June), North Elbow Cay (most numerous of the 3 nesting tern species [S. anaethetus, S. fuscata, A. stolidus] during Bartsch’s visit, “‘“many eggs...also young, the latter just hatched,’ 18-19 June, specimen), Water Cay (“‘breeding;’ 20 June), 3rd Damas Cay (21 June), Little Corn Cay* (*breeding,’ 22 June), Anguilla Cay* (21-22 June), Cotton Cay* (‘‘breeding,’ 23 June), Cotton Cay Rock* (22 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (26 June), Seal Cay* (27 June), South Channel Cay* (28 June), Frog Cay* (28 June), 2 unnamed cays northwest* and west* of Frog Cay (“‘breeding,’ 28 June), Knife Cay* (“breeding,’ 28 June), Nurse Cay* (28 June), Racoon Cay* (2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (2 July). Brown Noppy Anous stolidus CSB: South Elbow Cay (19 June, specimen), North Elbow Cay (“‘many eggs...also young, the latter just hatched,’ 18-19 June, specimen), Water Cay (‘‘breeding,’ 20 June), 3rd Damas Cay (21 June), Cotton Cay Rock* (22 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (26 June), Seal Cay* (27 June), South Channel Cay* (28 June), Frog Cay* (28 28 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 June), cay northwest of Frog Cay* (““breeding,” 28 June), cay west of Frog Cay* (28 June), Nurse Cay* (28 June), Double Breasted Cay* (“‘breeding,” 2 July). WHITE-CROWNED PIGEON Columba leucocephala CSB: Cay Sal* (“present in great abundance...breeding...eggs and young,’ 17 June, specimen). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (heard “booming” on the main cay, 26 June), Nurse Cay* (29 June), Buena Vista Cay (29 June), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), Johnson Cay* (2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (2 July): ZENAIDA DOVE Zenaida aurita CSB: Cotton Cay (one seen, 23 June). RIS: Buena Vista Cay* (29 June, 2 specimens), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), Racoon Cay* (30 June), Loggerhead Cay* (2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (2 July). MourNING Dove Zenaida macroura CSB: Cotton Cay* (“‘small flock,’ 23 June). CoMMON GrRouUND-DovE Columbina passerina CSB: Cay Sal (“‘small numbers,” 17 June, specimen, C. p. bahamensis). SMOOTH-BILLED ANI Crotophaga ani CSB: Anguilla Cay* (2 seen, 22 June). Identified only as “‘anis” in Bartsch’s journal, but doubtless this species. ANTILLEAN NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles gundlachii CSB: Cay Sal (one seen, 17 June). RIS: Jamaica Cays* (‘A pair of Bahama Night Hawks was seen on island A,” 26 June). Remarks—Despite lack of confirmation by specimens or voice, these mid-summer records of “Night Hawks” almost certainly pertain to the West Indies species and not to Ch. minor though both have been recorded together on Cay Sal in April 1968 (Buden and Schwartz, 1968). Autumn migrants of minor usually do not occur in the West Indies until after mid-September (Norton, 1984). BAHAMA WoobDsTAR Calliphlox evelynae RIS: Nurse Cay* (28 June, 2 specimens, C. e. evelynae), Salt Cay* (3 July). Gray KINGBIRD Tyrannus dominicensis CSB: Cay Sal (one seen, 17 June). RIS: Nurse Cay* (28-29 June), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), Racoon Cay* (30 June), Johnson Cay* (2 July, specimen), Loggerhead Cay* (2 July), Margaret Cay* (2 July), Hog Cay* (3 July, specimen). BAHAMA MOCKINGBIRD Mimus gundlachii RIS: Jamaica Cays* (“‘A” Cay, 26 June, 3 specimens), Buena Vista Cay* (29 June, 2 specimens). Remarks—Bartsch reported “‘Mockingbirds” elsewhere in the Raggeds on Nurse Cay, Racoon Cay, Johnson Cay, Loggerhead Cay, Margaret Cay, and Hog Cay, but he did not distinguish be- tween M. polyglottos and M. gundlachii. However, as the only mockingbirds collected in the Raggeds by the Bartsch Expedition are M. gundlachii, and as this species was among those seen by Hanlon on Great Ragged (Bond, 1958) and collected by Chapman on Little Ragged, these other records of mockingbirds in the Raggeds probably also are M. gundlachii. THICK-BILLED VIREO Vireo crassirostris RIS: Jamaica Cays* (““common,’ at least on the main cay, 26 June, specimen), Nurse Cay* (29 June, specimen), Buena Vista Cay* (“‘heard everywhere,’ 29 June), Racoon Cay* (30 June), Hog Cay* (3 July, specimen). YELLOW WARBLER Dendroica petechia RIS: Nurse Cay* (29 June). BANANAQUIT Coereba flaveola RIS: Jamaica Cays* (““common,’ at least on the main cay, 26 June), cay west of Frog Cay* (28 No. 1, 1987] BUDEN—BAHAMA BIRDS 29 June), Nurse Cay* (29 June, specimen), Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), 3rd island south of Buena Vista Cay* (29 June), Racoon Cay* (30 June, 2 July), Double Breasted Cay* (2 July), Margaret Cay* (2 July), Hog Cay* (3 July). BLACK-FACED GRASSQUIT Tiaris bicolor RIS: Hog Cay* (3 July, specimen). TABLE |. List of birds recorded from the Cay Sal Bank (CSB) and Ragged Islands (RIS), Baha- mas. B=breeding confirmed; B* =breeding reported by Bartsch, but evidence not stated; (B) = Breeding not confirmed but probable; FB = former breeder (referring in some cases to individ- ual islands and not entire region); + =nonbreeder (winter visitor, passage migrant or accidental). A query (?) questions status not occurrence; brackets enclose questionable records; a slash (/) indicates occurrence of both breeders and nonbreeders. Superscripts indicate breeding records as follows: a= Bryant (1859), b=Cory (1891), c= Nutting (1895), d=Bartsch (unpublished journal), e = Sprunt (1984). Name CSB RIS Name CSB. RIS Puffinus lherminieri Be Be Chordeiles gundlachii (B) —_(B) Phaethon lepturus Bade Caprimulgus Sula leucogaster (B) [+?] carolinensis ~ Pelecanus occidentalis ? Chaetura pelagica ~ Fregata magnificens (B) FB4(B) Calliphlox evelynae ? (B) Ardea herodias +? Ceryle alcyon - Casmerodius albus ? Sphyrapicus varius + Egretta thula ? Tyrannus dominicensis (B) (B) Bubulcus ibis (B) Progne subis - Butorides striatus (B)/+ (B) Tachycineta Nycticorax violaceus (B) —_(B) cyaneoviridis - Eudocimus albus - Riparia riparia ~ Dendrocygna arborea +? Hirundo rustica ~ Anas discors ~ Polioptila caerulea +? +? Pandion haliaetus ~ Ba Catharus minimus ~ Falco sparverius - Dumetella carolinensis - F. columbarius = Mimus polyglottos e Rallus longirostris (B) M. gundlachii 2 (B) Porzana carolina + Vireo crassirostris (B) (B) Porphyrula martinica ~ V. olivaceus ~ Pluvialis squatarola ~ V. altiloquus (B) Charadrius wilsonia (B) Vermivora bachmani - Ch. semipalmatus ~ V. peregrina + Haematopus palliatus (B) Parula americana - Himantopus mexicanus (B) Dendroica petechia (B) Catoptrophorus D. tigrina - semipalmatus (B) —_(B) D. caerulescens 7 Actitis macularia - D. coronata - Arenaria interpres + D. pinus + Calidris alba ~ D. discolor ~ C. pusilla - D. palmarum - C. minutilla - D. striata - Gallinago gallinago + Mniotilta varia + Larus atricilla Bd Bee Setophaga ruticilla + Sterna maxima Bd B* Helmitheros vermivorus - S. sandvicensis Bd Limnothlypis swainsonii - S. dougallii (B) Bd Seiurus aurocapillus - S. hirundo [B*] [B*] S. noveboracensis + S. antillarum Bren, He S. motacilla ~ S. anaethetus Bede B* Oporornis agilis - S. fuscata Be: - 3D” Geothlypis trichas - ~ Anous stolidus Be Bfte Wilsonia citrina ~ 30 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 TABLE 1. continued Columba leucocephala FB¢ Ba Coereba flaveola (B) Zenaida aurita (B) — (B) Piranga olivacea + Z. macroura (B) Passerina cyanea + Columbina passerina (B) P. ciris ~ Coccyzus americanus + + Tiaris bicolor (B) Crotophaga ani (B) —(B) Ammodramus savannarum ~ - Tyto alba (B) Dolichonyx oryzivorus + Athene cunicularia FB> Agelaius phoeniceus - Chordeiles minor 7 l Icterus spurius ~ 'Bond (1958) listed Hanlon’s record under Chordeiles minor, but this was before Antillean and continental populations were generally considered 2 different species. The record probably pertains to Ch. gundlachii, but the possibility of minor in passage then (presumably early September) is not excluded. Discussilon—Of 84 bird species recorded from the Cay Sal Bank (Table 1), 24 probably breed there, or did within the past 100 years. Ten (42%) of the breeders are seabirds, 9 (37%) are land birds (pigeons to passerines), and the other 21% are herons (3) and shorebirds (2). Of the 42 species recorded in the Ragged Islands (Table 1), 31 probably breed there: 11 (34%) seabirds, 13 (42%) land birds, and the remaining 23% comprised of an Osprey, a rail, 2 herons, and 3 shorebirds. The questionable breeding records of the Common Tern, Sterna hirundo (see species account), are excluded. I consider the Yellow- billed Cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus, a nonbreeder in the Bahamas and tenta- tively include The Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Polioptila caerulea, among non- breeders in the Cay Sal and Ragged regions. P. caerulea usually is conspicuous where it occurs in the Bahamas and I believe Bartsch would have mentioned this species had he encountered it. Seabirds are the most numerous birds on these islands, at least during the breeding season; the Sooty Tern, Sterna fuscata, is the most abundant (‘‘tens of thousands”’ seen during a recent survey on the Cay Sal Bank—Petrovic fide Sprunt, 1984). The large frigatebird colony on Seal Cay, Ragged Islands re- ported by Bryant (1859) apparently was extirpated by overhunting (Chapman, 1908) and the current status of some of the seabird colonies reported by Bartsch is unknown. But many of these remote islands continue to be impor- tant breeding grounds and doubtless are becoming increasingly more impor- tant as habitats closer to and modified by human activity become less suitable. Excluding the Osprey, Pandion haliaetus, which is known to breed in the Raggeds (Water Cay—Bryant, 1859), there are no hawks resident on these islands. The apparent absence of resident P. haliaetus on the Cay Sal Bank is unexpected as it is widespread and generally common on Bahaman coasts, being most numerous in the southern islands. Migrant hawks probably are more numerous than records indicate. The lighthouse keeper at the Cay Sal Light informed Bartsch that “‘hawks during the winter months are...so abun- dant as to make poultry raising practically impossible,’ and the persons living on Cay Sal during my visit in 1968 occasionally saw “hawks and owls” there apparently in passage. The Burrowing Owl, Athene cunicularia, was reported “‘resident and not uncommon” on Cay Sal by Cory (1891), but probably has been extirpated there. I saw none in April 1968 and the Commissioner and other residents No. 1, 1987] BUDEN—BAHAMaA BIRDS 31 could not confirm breeding. The Barn Owl, Tyto alba, was seen on Great Ragged Island by Hanlon in 1957 (Bond, 1958) and I consider it a probable breeder there. T. alba occurs throughout the Bahamas, nesting on islands as small as the Biminis (Mayr, 1953). The Gray Kingbird, Tyrannus dominicensis, a common summer breeding visitor in the Bahamas, is one of the most common land birds in the Cay Sal and Ragged groups. It is the only one recorded during each of the 3 surveys on Cay Sal (1891, 1930, 1968) and the 3 in the Raggeds (1907, 1930, 1957). Some of the birds may be transients, but Bartsch’s mid-June to early July re- cords for Cay Sal and 7 islands in the Raggeds suggest T. dominicensis breeds widely there. The Thick-billed Vireo, Vireo crassirostris, is well-established and fairly common in the Raggeds—recorded from 7 cays during 3 surveys in 1908, 1930, and 1957. It was common on Cay Sal in 1968 (pers. obs.), but whether a recent arrival there or overlooked earlier is unknown. The Bahama Mockingbird, Mimus gundlachii, is known from at least 4 different islands in the Raggeds and the mockingbirds seen on 6 others probably were M. gundla- chii (see species account), thus making it one of the most common land birds in the Raggeds. Its status on the Cay Sal Bank, however, where only one has been recorded (Buden and Schwartz, 1968), is unknown. The apparent absence of the Northern Mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos, in the Raggeds, and only one record for the Cay Sal Bank (Buden and Schwartz, 1968), is somewhat surpris- ing as it occurs in sparse, coastal scrub and in settlements elsewhere in the Bahamas. Recorded in both groups of islands, and probably breeding, are the Antil- lean Nighthawk, Chordeiles gundlachii (probably more numerous than rec- ords indicate), the Zenaida Dove, Zenaida aurita (present during the 2 sur- veys of the Anguilla Cays, 1891 and 1930, and on 5 of the Ragged Islands, 1930), and the Smooth-billed Ani, Crotophaga ani. The White-crowned Pi- geon, Columba leucocephala, has been recorded breeding in both regions, but the Cay Sal population may have been extirpated; none was seen during my visit in 1968 and the inhabitants could not confirm breeding though they saw “bald pigeons” from time to time. The Bahama Woodstar, Calliphlox evelynae, Black-whiskered Vireo, Vireo altiloquus, Yellow Warbler, Dendroica petechia, Bananaquit, Coereba fla- veola, and the Black-faced Grassquit, Tiaris bicolor, all recorded in the Rag- geds and probably breeding there, and all common in the Bahamas generally, are unknown or of uncertain status on the Cay Sal Bank. Cory (1892) included Cay Sal within the range of C. evelynae, but the source of this record is unknown to me. The Mourning Dove, Zenaida macroura, and the Common Ground-Dove, Columbina passerina, probably breed on the Cay Sal Bank, but they are unknown in the Raggeds. The absence of C. passerina in the Raggeds, if real, is unexpected as it is one of the most ubiquitous birds in the Bahamas. A male Z. macroura from Cay Sal identified as the “‘Antillean subspecies” Z. m. macroura by Buden and Schwartz (1968) resembles the nominate race in its short wing length (140 mm), but it is as pale as many carolinensis from the 32 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 eastern U.S. and Bermuda. The Mangrove Cuckoo, Coccyzus minor, Stripe- headed Tanager, Spindalis zena, and Greater Antillean Bullfinch, Loxigilla violacea are widespread in the Bahamas generally, but unrecorded from the Cay Sal Bank or the Raggeds. Whether these absences are real, possibly due to insufficient habitat, or are the result of sampling biases is unknown. Artifacts of sampling notwithstanding, the larger number of land bird spe- cies in the Ragged chain compared with the Cay Sal Bank probably is due in large measure to more wooded habitat and many closely juxtaposed islands there. The proximity of these islands to each other facilitates recruitment in the event of local decimations or extirpations, which doubtless occur from time to time. During the Pleistocene, the Raggeds (but not the Cay Sal Bank) were part of a large island that was the emergent Great Bahama Bank; however, their avifauna does not include any of the Great Bank endemics. The land birds resident in the Raggeds and on the Cay Sal Bank tend to be “weedy species”’ widespread in lowlands in the Bahamas and Greater Antilles; all have been recorded in southern Florida, many of them breeding there (Robertson and Kushlan, 1977). Few additional resident bird species are likely to be recorded from these 2 groups of islands, but additional surveys can shed much light on the distributions and status of those already known to occur. Summary of records—The species reported from the Cay Sal Bank for the first time are Puffinus lherminieri, Sula leucogaster, Nycticorax violaceus, Sterna dougallii, S. hirundo, Columba leucocephala, Columbina passerina, and Crotophaga ani. Those reported from the Ragged Islands for the first time are Puffinus lherminieri, Charadrius wilsonia, Haematopus palliatus, Sterna maxima, S. hirundo, S. anaethetus, S. fuscata, Zenaida aurita, Vireo altilo- quus, Dendroica petechia, Geothlypis trichas and Ammodramus savan- narum. Acknowledgments—I thank John Barber, Charles Meister, Storrs Olson, and Richard Zusi for assistance during a visit to the National Museum of Natural History, when photocopies of pages from Bartsch’s journal and the USNM bird catalogue were obtained, and | thank S. Olson also for reexamining some of Bartsch’s specimens and furnishing data from museum labels. I am grateful to Wesley E. Lanyon for information on Chapman’s specimens at the American Museum of Natu- ral History, and to David Backus, Kenneth Boss, and Ruth Turner for access to maps in the Mollusk Department, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS UNION. 1983. Check-list of North American birds, 6th edition. Amer. Ornith. Union, Washington, D.C. BartscnH, P. 1931. Further explorations for mollusks in the West Indies. In Explorations and Fieldwork of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930. Smith. Inst. Publ. 3111:91-102. Bonp, J. 1956. Check-list of birds of the West Indies. 4th ed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. . 1958, 1964, 1978, 1982, and 1984. Supplements 3, 9, 22, 24, and 25, respectively to the Check-list of Birds of the West Indies (1956). Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. BonuoteE, J. L. 1903. Bird migration at some of the Bahama lighthouses. Auk. 20:169-179. Bryant, H. 1859. A list of birds seen at the Bahamas, from Jan. 20th to May 14th, 1859, with descriptions of new or little known species. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 7:102-134. Bupen, D. W., AND A. ScHwartz. 1968. Reptiles and birds of the Cay Sal Bank, Bahama Islands. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 31:290-320. CHAPMAN, F. M. 1908. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. D. Appleton and Co., New York. No. 1, 1987] MARTIN-REVIEW 33 Cory, C. B. 1891. On a collection of birds made on the islands of Anguilla and Cay Sal or Salt Cay, Bahama Islands, by Mr. Cyrus S. Winch, during May, 1891. Auk 8:352. . 1892. Catalogue of West Indian birds. Privately published by the author. Alfred Mudge and Son, Printers, Boston. Goxpperc, W. M. 1983. Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas: a biologically impoverished, physically con- trolled environment. Atoll Res. Bull. 271:1-19+ 12 figs. Mayr, E. 1953. Additional notes on the birds of Bimini, Bahamas. Auk 70:499-501. Norton, R. L. 1984. West Indies region. Amer. Birds 38:251-253. Nuttinc, C. C. 1895. Narrative and preliminary report of Bahama Expedition. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa 3:1-251. Ritey, J. H. 1905. Birds of the Bahama Islands. Pp. 347-368 In SHattuck, G. B., (ed.) The Bahama Islands. Geograph. Soc. Baltimore and Johns Hopkins Press. Baltimore and Maryland. Rosertson, W. B., AND J. A. KusHLAN. 1974. The southern Florida avifauna. Pp. 414-452 In GLEason, P. J., (ed.). Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2. Miami Geological Society. Miami, Florida. SpruNT, A. 1984. The status and conservation of seabirds of the Bahama Islands. Pp. 157-168 In Croxall, J. PR, PR G. H. Evans, and R. W. Schreiber, (eds.). Status and Conservation of World’s Seabirds. Intern. Coun. Bird Pres. Tech. Publ. No. 2. U. S. Hyprocrapuic OrFice. 1927. West Indies Pilot. Vol. 1. 5th edition. U.S. Government Print- ing Office, Washington, D.C. Wixson, P. 1909. Report on the botanical exploration of the islands of the Salt Key Bank, Baha- mas. J. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 10:173-176. Florida Sci. 50(1): 21-33. 1987. Accepted: February 21, 1986. REVIEW Edward N. Nelson and Richard W. Couch, Aquatic Plants of Oklahoma I: Submersed, Floating-leaved, and Selected Emergent Macrophytes, Nat. Sci. Dept., Oral Roberts U., Tulsa, OK, 1985, Pp. 113,5 x 81/2 (soft). $5.00. One aim of this handbook is “‘to make it possible for the non-specialist to identify aquatic macrophytes...’ And to this non-specialist, it would appear that the authors have succeeded. One may question how serious a problem is represented by the growth of nuisance weeds in Oklahoma. About a million acres of that state are covered with water, mostly in man-made impoundments, and few of 77 counties in Oklahoma are not represented in this handbook. [The 1984 Florida Aquatic Plant Survey* looked at a total of 1.4 million acres of fresh water]. Oklahoma has abundant populations of certain aquatic plants that fortunately are lesser problems in Florida, e.g., members of the water milfoil family (Myriophyllum spicatum L. is a serious problem aquatic plant in Oklahoma, but about 29th in abundance in the Florida survey*). Illinois pondweed (Potamogeton illinoensis Morong) is an abundant aquatic plant in both states (fourth in Florida*), but Oklahoma seems to be comparatively free 34 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 of hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata Royle, the most abundant aquatic plant in Florida®*). The authors have dedicated much time and effort to this handbook, and it shows. The text is well organized and clearly written. For each family, appro- priate identifying characteristics are provided and pertinent information is given for each species that was encountered. A black and white picture is given for each species, and distribution is indicated on a small map with each spe- cies. In some instances the authors provided information on distribution in North America or manner of introduction when appropriate. A glossary and an index are provided. This handbook is recommended to those who are faced with problems of identification of aquatic macrophytes and wish to add a useful and inexpen- sive handbook to their library.—Dean F. Martin, University of South Florida, Tampa. *Schardt, J. D. 1985. 1984 Florida Aquatic Plant Survey, Fla. Dept. Nat. Res., Tallahassee. OCCURRENCE OF LARVAL SNOOK, CENTROPOMUS UNDECIMALIS (BLOCH), IN NAPLES BAY, FLORIDA S.G. To.Liey, E. T. DOHNER, AND E. B. PEEBLES Department of Marine Science, University of South Florida, 140 7th Avenue South, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 ABSTRACT: An extensive ichthyoplankton sampling program was conducted in Naples Bay, Florida during the period of June 1983 to January 1985. Fourteen larval snook, Centropomus undecimalis, were collected during the course of sampling. Larvae ranged from 4.4-7.0 mm standard length and all exhibited complete notochord flexion. All larvae were taken during two 24 h periods in July of 1983 and 1984. Snook larvae were collected on a flood tide within five days of a full moon, and 86% were associated with the bottom. A significant relationship was found between larval size and the salinity of capture (r=-0.67; P=0.01; N=13), indicating the occur- rence of larger larvae in waters of lower salinity. The Centropomus larvae collected did not comprise a significant portion of the ichthyoplankton of the area, contributing less than 0.05 % to the total number of fish larvae taken from Naples Bay. THE common snook, Centropomus undecimalis, is an estuarine-depen- dent marine species capable of living in freshwater as well as estuarine and marine habitats. While the species has been reported from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, it is common only in the Caribbean and in the coastal waters of southern Florida and southern Texas (Rivas, 1962; Merriner et al., 1970; Fraser, 1978). Four species of Centropomus oc- cur in southern Florida waters (Briggs, 1958), with C. undecimalis being the most abundant (Rivas, 1962). Evidence of a drastic decline in the adult popu- lation in the Naples-Marco Island area (Bruger, 1981), the snook’s historical No. 1, 1987] TOLLEY ET AL.—OCCURRENCE OF LARVAL SNOOK 35 NAPLES BAY Fic. 1. Stations sampled within the Naples Bay estuary (regular monthly sampling, circles; aperiodic sampling, triangles; stations where Centropomus larvae were collected, solid symbols). 36 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 center of abundance in Florida, has led to increasing concern over the future of the species in the state. Previous investigations concerning Florida populations of C. undecimalis have examined various aspects of the biology of juveniles and adults (Mar- shall, 1958; Volpe, 1959; Harrington and Harrington, 1961; Fore and Schmidt, 1973; Gilmore et al., 1983). Although the larval development of laboratory-reared snook has been described (Lau and Shafland, 1982), at- tempts to collect wild larvae have met with minimal success (Gilmore et al., 1983). The present study reports new data obtained from wild C. undecima- lis larvae collected from Naples Bay, Florida. MATERIALS AND MerHops— During the period of June 1983 through January 1985, an exten- sive ichthyoplankton sampling program was conducted in Naples Bay, Florida. Stations selected along the salinity gradient within Naples Bay included: one near Gordon Pass, another at the mouth of the Gordon River, and a third location intermediate to the previous two (Fig. 1). Stations were sampled monthly, with biweekly collections carried out during the summer, the peak spawning period for the snook. Additional locations were sampled aperiodically throughout the summer in order to increase the heterogeneity of habitats sampled (triangles, Fig. 1). Sam- pling gear consisted of 0.5 m diameter, 505 ym mesh, conical plankton nets towed both at the surface and just above the bottom when attached to a sled. Tows were made in duplicate at each depth and sampling was conducted at night in an attempt to reduce net avoidance. A digital flowmeter was mounted in the mouth of each net in order to estimate volumes filtered. Nets were towed for a period of 5 min at velocities approximating 2 meters per second. Ichthyoplankton samples were preserved in 4% formalin buffered with sodium borate, and were subsequently transferred to 40% isopropanol. Centropomus undecimalis larvae were identified using Lau and Shafland’s (1982) description of laboratory-reared specimens. Five specimens of larval snook were cleared and double stained using methods modified from Dingerkus and Uhler (1977). Meristics and measurements were obtained utilizing a dissecting stereomicroscope equipped with an ocular micrometer. ResuLTs—Fourteen specimens of larval snook, Centropomus undecima- lis, were collected from Naples Bay, Florida during the period of June 1983 to January 1985. Snook larvae were taken from four locations within Naples Bay (Fig. 1), and were all collected within two 24 h periods. Twelve larvae were collected on 25-26 July 1983 and two additional specimens were taken on 18 July 1984. In both years, larvae were collected on flood tides within five days of a full moon. Associated water temperatures ranged from 28.7 - 31.4°C, while salinities varied from 14.8 - 33.5°/o0. Dissolved oxygen values varied from 4.6 - 6.9 mg 1”. A significant relationship was observed between larval size and the salinity of capture (r=-0.67, P=0.01; N=13), indicating the occurrence of larger larvae in waters of lower salinity. Eighty-six percent of all snook larvae collected were taken in association with the bottom. Lar- val densities (per plankton net tow yielding snook larvae) ranged from 14-93 individuals per 1000 m*. Centropomus larvae ranged in size from 4.4-7.0 mm standard length (x=6.0 mm), and exhibited complete notochord flexion (Fig. 2). Meristic elements obtained from cleared and stained specimens are given as follows: first dorsal fin VI-VII; second dorsal fin I,10; anal fin II,7-8; pectoral fin 17. Vertebrae numbered 23 and were at least partially ossified in each specimen. Although all larvae possessed a well developed dentition, the specimens dissected for food-habit analysis exhibited empty stomachs. No. 1, 1987] TOLLEY ET AL.— OCCURRENCE OF LARVAL SNOOK 37 Fic. 2. Centropomus undecimalis larva collected from Naples Bay, Florida measuring 6.3 mm standard length. Discussion— While the Naples-Marco Island area has historically been considered the center of abundance for the common snook in the state of Florida, this study is the first to document the occurrence of snook larvae in the area. The only Centropomus larvae previously reported from Florida waters were taken from the Indian River lagoon on the state’s east coast (Gilmore et al., 1983). Only two larvae were identified from this area, both of which were larger than those collected in the present study. All snook larvae captured during the period of June 1983 to January 1985 were taken within five days of a full moon. Based on growth estimates obtained from laboratory-reared individuals (Lau and Shafland, 1982), the snook larvae collected from Naples Bay were probably 2-3 weeks of age. Back calculation based on this age estimate predicts spawning to occur within a few days on either side of a new moon. This estimate of spawning time, however, should be viewed with caution owing to the small sample size involved, and the fact that laboratory estimates of larval growth rates are likely to be lower than those occurring under natural conditions. On a seasonal basis, evidence from larval recruitment from 1983 and 1984 suggests that peak spawning activity for Centropomus undecimalis occurs during the early summer. A significant negative correlation exists between larval size and salinity (r=-0.67; P=0.01; N=13). This is to be expected for a species that appar- ently spawns near the outside of the estuary (Volpe, 1959; Bruger, 1981), and whose larvae subsequently migrate into the estuary’s upper reaches for fur- ther development (Fore and Schmidt, 1974; Gilmore et al., 1983). Gilmore and coworkers (1983) reported a positive correlation between size and salin- ity for juvenile and adult snook, indicating a trend opposite to that occurring during larval development. Approximately 86% of the larvae collected were taken near the bottom. It is therefore possible that young snook take advan- tage of a two-layered estuarine circulation system for transport into the upper reaches of the estuary (Norcross and Shaw, 1984). Comparison of cleared and stained wild caught specimens with a descrip- tion of laboratory-reared individuals (Lau and Shafland, 1982) indicates no appreciable meristic difference. Pigmentation of preserved wild larvae was 38 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 similar to that observed in laboratory-reared specimens (Lau and Shafland, 1982). However, the presence of pigmentation at the base of the developing first and second dorsal fins of wild larvae was highly variable. Due to the absence of stomach contents in the specimens examined, the feeding habits of wild larvae remain undescribed. The low densities calculated for snook lar- vae from Naples Bay, coupled with the extremely low total number of Cen- tropomus larvae collected, indicate that these larvae do not comprise a signif- icant portion of the ichthyoplankton of this estuary. In fact, snook larvae contributed less than 0.05% to the total number of fish larvae collected from Naples Bay during the study. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank John C. Briggs for reviewing the manuscript, and for his guidance while the work was in progress. We also thank Susan Harris, Maurizio Mangini, and Richard Daly for their help in the field and in the laboratory, and Diane Peebles for preparing the figures. Most importantly, however, we are indebted to James K. Kessler and the Conservancy, Inc. of Naples, Florida for their valuable assistance, financial and otherwise. LITERATURE CITED Briccs, J. C. 1958. A list of Florida fishes and their distribution. Bull. Fla. State Mus. 2:223-318. Brucer, G. E. 1981. Overview of snook population dynamics. Proc. Snook Symposium Fla. Dept. Nat. Res. and Internat. Game Fish Assoc. p. 2. BruBAKER, J.M., AND R.A. ANncus. 1984. A procedure for staining fish with alizarin without causing exfoliation of scales. Copeia. 1984:989-990. Dincerkus, G., AND L. O. UH ter. 1977. Enzyme clearing of Alcian Blue stained whole small vertebrates for demonstration of cartilage. Stain Technol. 52:229-232. Fore, P. L., AnD T. W. Scumipt. 1973. Biology of juvenile and adult snook, Centropomus undeci- malis, in the Ten Thousand islands, Florida, p. 1-18. In: Ecosystem analysis of the Big Cypress swamps and estuaries. U.S. EPA. Fraser, T. H. 1978. Centropomidae. In: FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes: western central Atlantic. W. Fischer (ed.). Food Agric. Organ., United Nations, Rome. Gitmorg, R. G., C. J. DONOHOE, AND D. W. Cooke. 1983. Observations on the distribution and biology of east-central Florida populations of the common snook, Centropomus undeci- malis (Bloch). Florida Scient. 46:313-336. HarrincTon, R. W., AND E. S. HarrincTon. 1961. Food selection among fishes invading a high subtropical salt marsh: from the onset of flooding through the progress of a mosquito brood. Ecology. 42:646-666. Lau, S. R., AND P. L. SHAFLAND. 1982. Larval development of snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Pisces: Centropomidae). Copeia. 1982:618-627. MarsHALL, A.R. 1958. A survey of the snook fishery of Florida, with studies of the biology of the principal species, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Fla. St. Brd. Conserv. Tech. Ser. No. 22:1-39. MenRINER, J.V., W.T. HocartH, AND W. A. Foster. 1970. Occurence of the common snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch) (Pisces: Centropomidae), in North Carolina waters. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 86:194-195. Norcross, B. L. AnD R. F. SHaw. 1984. Oceanic and estaurine transport of fish eggs and larvae: A review. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 113:153-165. Rivas, L. R. 1962. The Florida fishes of the genus Centropomus, commonly known as snooks. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 25:53-64. Votre, A.V. 1959. Aspects of the biology of the common snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch), of southwest Florida. Fla. St. Brd. Conserv. Ser. No. 31:1-37. Florida Sci. 50(1) 34-38. 1987. Accepted: June 27, 1987. No. 1, 1987] MARTIN AND MARTIN—HISTORY OF EDITORS 39 NOW WE ARE FIFTY—A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE EDITORS OF THE FLORIDA SCIENTIST—Dean F. Martin and Barbara B. Martin, Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center, Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Asstract: A brief summary of the Florida Scientist and the predecessor volumes is given. Three changes in name have occurred, and there have been 13 editors in fifty years. TuE Florida Academy of Sciences celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 1986, which occasioned much celebration at the annual meeting held at the University of Florida April 10-12th. The fiftieth anniversary was also com- memorated in a golden cover for all four issues of the Florida Scientist. This Journal actually celebrates the fiftieth anniversary volume in 1987, and it appears timely to review our roots, as well as our past. Both can be summarized in a few lines: 1936-1944: Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Volumes 1-7; 1945-1972: Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Volumes 8-35; 1973- Florida Scientist, Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Volume 36- We are out of phase by one year: the volume numbers don’t match the age of the Florida Academy of Sciences for two reasons. The first volume was published for 1936 (but appeared the following year), which put us ahead by a year. But during World War II, there was a printing lapse from August 1941 (Vol. 5) to March, 1943 (Vol. 6), which lost two years. Many will remember that in addition to obvious personnel disruptions during World War II, there were also paper shortages that led to restrictions in printing. TABLE 1. Roster of Editors Year(s) Editor Affiliation 1936 Theodore H. Hubbell Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Florida 1937 H. Harold Hume Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Florida 1938-1943 Lucien Y. Dyrenforth Pathology Dept., St. Luke’s Hospital, Jacksonville. 1943-1945 Theodore H. Hubbell Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Florida 1946-1948 Frank Y. Young Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Florida (Irving J. Cantrall, Asst. Ed.) 1948-1954 Howard K. Wallace* Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Florida 1955-1962 Joshua C. Dickinson, Jr. Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Florida 1963-1972 Pierce Brodkorb Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Florida 1973-1977 Harvey A. Miller* Dept. of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Central Florida. 1978-1985 Walter K. Taylor Dept. of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Henry O. Whittier Central Florida 1985- Dean F. Martin CHEMS Center, Dept. of Chemistry, Barbara B. Martin, Co-Editor Univ. of South Florida *J.C. Dickinson, Jr., D. R. Dyer, and J. W. Flowers served as Section Editors, 1952-54; J. D. Kilby served as Assoc. Editor, 1955-56; Walter Taylor and Henry Whittier served as Associate Editors in 1977. 40 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 We have had our share of editors. An even dozen or bakers dozen, de- pending upon how you count them, plus some associate editors, an assistant editor, and three section editors (Table 1). It is a tribute to something that there were not more editors. At the start, the editorship changed every year, then became stabilized as Dr. L. Y. Dyrenforth assumed the leadership for a longer term. The present term (sentence ?) is five years. Dr. Pierce Brodkorb holds the record of a decade of service as editor. Editors have come in all shapes and sizes. Mostly, they were male biolo- gists. We are the first chemists, and Barbara Martin is exceptional for another reason. The institutional affiliations of these editors (Table 1) show the com- mitment of the faculty from the biological sciences at the University of Flor- ida. One would like to know more about past editors, but that information seems never to have been included in any of the volumes. A couple of refer- ences exist to change of editorship (Miller, 1973; Martin and Martin, 1984) in the form of a brief note of respect to the previous editor. Happily most of the editors were still alive in August, 1986, including the founding editor, who was still an active scholar at 89. Some things have changed over the years, apart from the titles. The for- mat that we presently use was designed by Dr. H. A. Miller in 1973. The Florida Scientist is much less personal than were the volumes of the Proceed- ings. Some things haven’t changed, though we wish they would. One editor noted costs have increased, that the distribution of papers was less broad than he would have wished, that he was constantly seeking good papers and that they would appear as promptly as one may expect in a quarterly journal (Miller, 1977). Perhaps some things can’t change. Now is the time to work toward the diamond anniversary. We hope to see that volume; we just don’t plan to edit it. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We appreciate the helpful review and comments of Dr. James N. Layne, who served as Consulting Editor. LITERATURE CITED Martin, D. F. aNDB. B. Martin. 1984. From the editors. Florida Scient. 47(4): 267. MILter, H. A. 1973. Editorial. Florida Scient. 36(1): 1. MIL.er, H. A. 1977. The state of things. Florida Scient. 40(1): 1-3. Florida Sci. 50(1) 39-40. 1987. Accepted: August 25, 1986. No. 1, 1987] KEIM AND STOUT— MOUSE LONGEVITY 4] LONGEVITY RECORD FOR THE FLORIDA MOUSE, PEROMYSCUS FLORIDANUS—M. H. Keim! and I.J. Stout, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. Asstract: A captive Florida mouse, Peromyscus floridanus, lived 7 years, 4 months, and 2 days. This individual was captured at an estimated age of 3 weeks. This is the longest life span reported for this species. Loncevity of free ranging individuals of the genus Peromyscus is gener- ally less than two years (Terman, 1968; Layne, 1974; Stout, 1976; Wolfe and Linzey, 1977; Keim, 1979), but field “longevity” usually does not separate emigration losses from mortality losses. Records for captive individual longevities are considerably longer. Dice (1933) reported a life span of 8 years, 4 months for a male Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis. This is only one month less than the record for North American cricetine rodents, a female Ochrotomys nuttalli (Linzey and Packard, 1977). Longevity records for P. floridanus have not been reported previously. We report a longevity record for a male Peromyscus floridanus that lived 7 years, 4 months, 2 days after capture from its burrow in a sand pine scrub on the University of Central Florida campus, Orlando, Orange County, Flor- ida on January 8, 1977. Based on the appearance of its pelage and the timing of its post-juvenal molt (Layne, 1968), its age at the date of capture was approximately 3 weeks. This is the longest life span reported for this species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— We thank J. N. Layne for his comments on the manuscript. Randy Snyder helped with the capture and care of the P. floridanus. This is Merritt Island Ecosystems contribution no. 38 and was funded in part by NASA Contract No. NAS 10-8986 to I. J. Stout. LITERATURE CITED Dice, L. R. 1933. Longevity in Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis. J. Mammal. 14: 147-148. Keim, M. H. 1979. Small mammal population dynamics and community structure in three east central Florida communities. M. S. thesis. Univ. Central Florida, Orlando, Florida. Layne, J. N. 1968. Ontogeny. Pages 148-253 in J.A. King, ed. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Amer. Soc. Mammal., Spec. Publ. 2, Stillwater, Okla. . 1974. Ecology of small mammals in a flatwoods habitat in north-central Florida with emphasis on the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus). Amer. Mus. Nov. 2544: 1-48. Linzey, D. W. anv R. L. Pacxarp. 1977. Ochrotomys nuttalli. Mamm. Spec. 75: 1-6. Stout, I. J. 1976. Response of small mammals in a scrub community to supplementary food. Florida Scient. 39 (Supplement 1): 8. TeRMAN, C. R. 1968. Population dynamics. Pages 412-450 in J. A. King, ed. Biology of Peromys- cus (Rodentia). Amer. Soc. Mammal. Spec. Publ. 2, Stillwater, Okla. Wo tre, J.L. anp A.V. Linzey. 1977. Peromyscus gossypinus. MAMM. Species 70: 1-5. Fiorina Scr. 50(1): 41. 1987. ACCEPTED: DECEMBER 20, 1985. 1Current address: Biological Sciences Department, Seminole Community College, Sanford, Florida 32771. Biological Sciences WETLAND PLANT RESPONSES TO CLEARCUTTING OF ADJACENT FLATWOODS! Louis F. CoNDE”” , BENEE F. SWINDEL”, AND JOEL E. SMITH”) (Forest Ecology Consultant, Kalamazoo, MI 49009; °) USDA Forest Service, Gainesville, FL 32611; and “School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 AssTrACcT: Harvesting, site preparation and planting in slash pine flatwoods affect the herbaceous vegetation of the included wetlands in proportion to the amount of planting site disturbance. Short-term effects of management in the pinelands are not detectable in the woody components of the wetlands. Studies by other workers have indicated long-term impacts on woody species, suggesting more research is needed to determine the response of all components of the included wetlands. THE slash pine (Pinus elliottii) flatwoods of the southeastern coastal plain comprise a mosaic of open pine woodlands with included hardwood forests, cypress strands, bay heads, prairies, and marshes (Davis 1967). Flatwoods are among the most intensively managed forest types in the world. Over half of such forests have been converted to plantations (Sheffield et al., 1983). Because of the economic importance and extensive distribution of such plan- tations, there have been a number of studies of the effects of slash pine plant- ing on flatwoods flora (Ball et al., 1981; Moore et al., 1982; Conde et al., 1983a, b; Gholz et al., 1985), fauna (Buckner 1983; Rowse and Marion, 1980; O’Meara et al., 1985), and soils and hydrology (Swindel et al., 1982; Morris and Pritchett, 1983; Riekerk, 1985). There have been fewer studies of the indirect effects that operations in the flatwoods might have on adjacent wetland communities (Harris and Smith 1978; Marois and Ewel 1983; O’Meara et al., 1985; Vickers, et al., 1985). This paper describes vegetation changes in cypress strands and bay heads following conversion of surrounding flatwoods to slash pine plantations. Strupy S1rE—The study site consists of three contiguous watersheds (WS-1, WS-2, WS-3) of 67, 49, and 140 hectares, respectively, in Bradford County, Florida (Fig. 1). The area is typically flat with elevations over the three watersheds ranging only from 43 to 45.5 m above sea level. Normal annual rainfall is 145 cm, largely as convective spring and summer showers. Soils range from moderately well-drained on the higher sites to very poorly drained in the cypress and bay swamps. Pinelands on the study site (from which fire and cattle had long been excluded) were mature (ca. 35 yr.), second growth stands (predominantly slash pine) with basal areas of 16,17, and 21 m2/ha on watersheds 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Cypress strands and bay heads comprised 51,25, and 52 percent of watersheds 1, 2, 3, respectively. Pretreatment overstory in the wetlands (Conde et al., 1983a,b) varied from nearly pure cy- press (Taxodium distichum) to mixed slash pine, cypress, blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), and sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana). Shrub layers were dominated by 1Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 7177. 2Deceased No. 1, 1987] CONDE ET AL.— WETLAND PLANT RESPONSES 43 Typical transect cluster REO, pebersescs 243, remedsured ~ Th erg Br yO Sh fags OC Mans Gat ey e area nly Fic. 1. Forest type configuration in experimental watersheds in Bradford County, Florida, with one of many (=7) equally-spaced access transects depicted in each watershed, and a magni- fied view of a typical transect cluster. fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), greenbrier (Smilax spp.), and myrtle- leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia). Common herbaceous plants were chain ferns (Woodwardia spp.), beakrushes (Rhynchospora spp.), pipeworts (Eriocaulon spp.), and yellow-eyed grass (Xyris spp.). MetrHops—Following hydrologic isolation of the three watersheds by perimeter roads and ditches in 1977, a square grid with 100-m? cells was delineated and marked on each watershed to allow access and relocation of permanent transects (Fig. 1). In the summer of 1977, crown cover was conventionally measured (Brown, 1954, p. 63) by species (or species group, e.g., Rhynchos- pora spp.) along vertical projections of three line transects 10-m-long beginning 10 m from ran- domly-selected grid points. In this initial survey, one of four orientations at 45° from the access line was randomly discarded; measurement transects were installed and surveyed in the remain- ing three directions (Fig. 1). From November of 1978 to November of 1979 pinelands of WS-1 and WS-2 were concur- rently clearcut, site-prepared, and planted. WS-1 was treated so as to minimize destruction of residual vegetation and displacement of soil and litter, yet permit machine planting of tree seed- lings. Specifically, merchantable pine trees were felled, delimbed, and sectioned with chain saws, stacked by hand, and transported from the woods with a small hauler. Logging debris and residual understory were chopped twice with a roller drum chopper. Conventional bedding with a bedding plow and machine planting completed this treatment. 44 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 Conversely, WS-2 was treated to maximize destruction of residual vegetation and displace- ment of soil and litter. Specifically, merchantable pine trees were felled and stacked with tops intact by heavy equipment with hydraulic shears, skidded to centrally-located delimbing gates, and loaded tree length on tractor trailers. Resin-soaked stumps were mechanically excavated and removed. Logging debris and residual vegetation were burned and then pushed by shearing blades into parallel windrows. Interwindrow spaces were disked, and then bedded and planted as on WS-1. The control, WS-3, was not disturbed. Additionally, wetlands were not intentionally sub- jected to disturbance in either treated watershed. Intrusions of equipment, however, occasionally occurred at the boundaries of wetlands during logging, site preparation, or planting. In the summer of 1982, 3 years after planting, cover was remeasured on those transects that were not directly disturbed by harvesting operations; transects that were obviously directly dis- turbed were not remeasured (Fig. 1). Each remeasured transect was subjectively assigned to one of two types during the field phase: bay head, which was dominated by a relatively closed overstory of bay and typically had a heavy shrub layer; and cypress strand, which had a more open overstory and shrub layer and a more extensive herbaceous layer. In order to compare post-treatment wetland plant communities to pretreatment communi- ties, a modified version of Sorensen’s Similarity Index (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974, p. 219) was computed for each temporal transect pair, using crown cover as the measure of each species’ abundance (Eqn. 1): 200 LY min (Chis C,i) (1) i Lait c,; i i SS= where SS is Sorensen’s similarity, c,; is measured crown cover of the it plant species before treatment (in 1977), and c,; is measured cover of the it* species after treatment (in 1982). SS was chosen because it is the most widely used of such indices (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). ResuLts— Dissimilarity of vegetation in the control watershed, WS-3, in- dicates the importance of experimental error due to measurement error and vegetational changes not attributable to treatments (Table 1). Also, there was no significant difference in the mean similarity before and after treatment of vegetation in bay heads, cypress strands, or flatwoods in the control water- shed. Within each of the two treatment watersheds, however, mean temporal similarity of cypress strand transects was significantly lower than that of bay head transects: cypress strand vegetation responded more than bay head veg- etation to forest operations in the adjacent flatwoods. Only the cypress strands in the maximally disturbed WS-2 had significantly lower temporal similarity than the corresponding vegetation in the control WS-3. Neither bay heads nor cypress strands in the minimally disturbed WS- 1 had significantly lower similarity than the control over the 5-year interval. Mean temporal similarity of bay heads in WS-1, however, was significantly lower than that for bay heads in WS-2. An explanation for the lower temporal similarity in cypress strands com- pared to bay heads within treatment watersheds is indicated by a physi- ognomic segregation of the data. Figure 2 plots temporal similarity for tran- sects in WS-2 (which had the largest range in values) against herbaceous cover and also against cover of shrubs and bay trees. There is significant (P<0.05) tendency for temporal similarity to decrease as herb cover in- creases, and to increase as shrub and bay tree cover increases. Transects with No. 1, 1987] CONDE ET AL.— WETLAND PLANT RESPONSES 45 Bay and shrub cover (%) 60 I20 Iso 240 0 O Oo O mS O @ Similarity index 20 30 60 90 120 Herbaceous cover (%) Fic. 2. Sorensen’s temporal similarity for each remeasured transect in Watershed 2 plotted against shrub plus bay cover (@), and against herbaceous cover (O). a large herb component and a small shrub and bay tree component will change more rapidly than will transects with few herbs and many shrubs and bay trees. The significantly lower temporal similarity (Table 1) observed for bay heads in WS 1 as compared to bay heads in WS 2 may be due to the fact that bay heads in WS 1 had higher herb cover than those of WS 2. Within each TABLE 1. Sample size (number of transects remeasured) and mean Sorensen similarity (3 years post harvest vs. preharvest) in unharvested areas of treated and control watersheds. Means in columns with the same uppercase letters or in rows with the same lowercase letters are not significantly different at the 0.05 level (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test). Vegetation Watershed 1 Watershed 2 Watershed 3 type (minimum (maximum (control) treatment) treatment) Bay head (7) 53.1 Aa (4) 69.5 Ab (20) 59.5 A ab Cypress strand (4) 42.6 Bab (6) 32.7 Bb (11) 51.9 Aa Flatwoods (14) 62.7 A 46 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 watershed, cypress strands had substantially more herb cover and less shrub and bay tree cover than the bay heads and therefore tended to have lower temporal similarity (Fig. 1 and Table 1). There is an important exception, however. The most change did not occur on cypress transects that had the highest herb cover; the greatest change occurred on cypress transects of the maximum treatment watershed which had the most pineland disturbance. Table 2 presents average herb cover and shrub plus bay tree cover for bay heads and cypress strands in all three watersheds. Temporal changes in collec- tive abundance of crown cover (and in species richness) could not be attribut- able to treatments. Thus, both total crown cover and species counts declined in both bay heads and cypress strands on both treated watersheds in the second survey. But a similar decline in these responses on the undisturbed control watershed suggests these declines are attributable to annual variation in weather, rather than to treatments. TABLE 2. Crown cover by life form in two wetland forest types. Cover can exceed 100 percent due to overtopping of one species by others. Life form Watershed 1 Watershed 2 Watershed 3 and forest type % crown cover Herbs Bay head 16.9 9.5 14.7 Cypress strand 92.3 68.2 61.5 Shrubs and Bay Trees Bay head 213.7 170.5 173.8 Cypress strand 76.8 49.6 68.8 DIscussION AND CONCLUSIONS—A previous report (Swindel et al., 1982) of the early hydrologic responses of these watersheds showed that harvesting and site preparation in the pinelands reduced evapotranspiration and in- creased the runoff from both watersheds, and the increase in runoff was larger on the maximally-treated WS-2. Thus, runoff into and through the wetlands of the two treatment watersheds was initially increased, especially in the maximally-treated WS-2. Even though runoff on both treatment wa- tersheds returned to pre-harvest levels within a year of planting (Swindel et al., 1982), vegetation in the cypress strands of the treated watersheds was still significantly altered from pretreatment composition 3 years after planting. This paper shows that early wetland plant responses to altered hydrologic conditions attending pine regeneration occur primarily in herbaceous vegeta- tion, and that in areas where there is little herbaceous cover early vegeta- tional changes are not readily detectable. Rochow (1985) also reported signif- icant changes in herbaceous vegetation in cypress wetlands associated with a lowering of water levels over a 6-year period due to well field pumping. No No. 1, 1987] CONDE ET AL.— WETLAND PLANT RESPONSES 47 apparent effort was made to monitor woody species. By separating out com- munities less likely to show short-term change (bay heads) from those more likely to show short-term change (cypress strands) responses that likely would not be apparent by monitoring the wetland vegetation as a whole can be detected. Although short-term effects of hydrologic changes in wetlands are shown primarily by herbaceous vegetation, long-term effects can alter woody vege- tation. Marois and Ewel (1983) reported vegetation changes associated with hydrologic changes in cypress strands resulting from ditching and berming activities 15 to 20 years prior to measurement. The altered cypress domes in their study generally were drier than the unaltered cypress domes and showed higher bay and shrub densities, lower cypress importance values, and adverse effects on cypress regeneration. Vickers et al. (1985) showed that cypress strand ditching altered the composition of herpetofaunal (amphibian and reptile) communities and reduced herpetofaunal species richness in dry weather. However, no annual differences in mean density, species richness, nor species diversity was detected. Management practices studied by Marois and Ewel (1983) and by Vickers et al. (1985) were expressly designed to alter hydrologic conditions to favor the slash pine plantings surrounding cypress strands. Our results indicate that even in the absence of any direct attempts to alter hydrologic conditions in wetlands, short-term vegetation changes occur in wetlands following harvest and conversion of adjacent flatwoods to plantations. We do not know what long-term effects conversion of second growth flatwoods to plantations might have on hydrologic conditions or the woody vegetation of included wetlands. We do know that herbaceous vegetation shows changes—especially where management practices have been intensive—2 years after surface water run- off has returned to pretreatment levels. Short-term monitoring of the more responsive herbaceous vegetation indicates immediate effects of manage- ment, and may provide an early assessment of off-site responses to pineland disturbance. Vegetation monitoring should be continued in order to detect any longer-term effects on the entire plant community, and on wildlife habi- tat. LITERATURE CITED BALL, M. J., D. H. HuNTER, AND B. F. Swinvev. 1981. Understory biomass response to microsite and age of bedded slash pine plantations. J. Range Manage. 34(1):38-42. Brown, D. 1954. Methods of Surveying and Measuring Vegetation. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. 223 pp. Buckner, J. L. 1983. Wildlife concerns in the managed slash pine ecosystem. Pp. 369-374. In: StonE, E. L. (ed), The Managed Slash Pine Ecosystem. Symposium Proc., June 9-11, 1981, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. Conpe, L. F., B. F. SwinbEL, AND J. E. Smitu. 1983a. Plant species cover, frequency, and bio- mass: Early responses to clearcutting, chopping, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods. For. Ecol. Manage. 6: 307-317. 48 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 . 1983b. Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods. For. Ecol. Man- age. 6:319-331. Davis, J. H. 1967. General map of natural vegetation of Florida. Cir. S-178. Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Institute Food Agric. Sci., Univ. Florida, Gainesville. 1 pp. Guotz, H. L., C. S. Perry, W. P. Cropper, JR., AND L. C. HeNnpry. 1985. Litterfall, decomposi- tion, and nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics in a chronosequence of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) plantations. Forest Sci. 31(2): 463-478. Harris, L. D., AND W. H. Smirn. 1978. Relations of forest practices to non-timber resources and adjacent ecosystems. Pp. 28-53. In: Tippen, T. (ed), Proc. Symp. Principles of Maintaining Productivity on Prepared Sites. So. For. Exp. Sta., New Orleans, LA. Marois, K. C., AND K. C. Ewer. 1983. Natural and management-related variation in cypress domes. Forest Sci. 29:627-640. Moore, W. H., B. F. SwiInDEL, AND W. S. Terry. 1982. Vegetative response to clearcutting and chopping in a north Florida flatwoods forest. J. Range Manage. 35(2): 214-218. Morris, L. A. AND W. L. PritcHertt. 1983. Effects of site preparation on Pinus elliottii- P. palus- tris flatwoods forest soil properties. Pp. 243-251. In: BALLARD, R., AND S. P. GEssEL, (tech. eds.) IUFRO Symposium on Forest Site and Continuous Productivity. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW 163. Portland, OR. MuELLER-Domsois, D., AND H. ELLENBERG. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley. New York. 547 pp. O’Meara, T. E., L. A. Rowse, W. R. Marion, AND L. D. Harris. 1985. Numerical responses of flatwoods avifauna to clearcutting. Florida Scient. 48:208-219. Rrexerk, H. 1985. Water quality effects of pine flatwoods silviculture. J. Soil Water Conser. 40(3): 306-309. Rocuow, T. F. 1985. Hydrologic and vegetational changes resulting from underground pumping at the Cypress Creek Well Field, Pasco County, Florida. Florida Scient. 48:65-80. Rowse, L. A. AND W. R. Marion. 1980. Effects of silvicultural practices on birds in a north Florida flatwoods. Pp. 349-357. In: Proc. Southern Silvicultural Research Conference, Atlanta, Ga. SHEFFIELD, R. M., H. A. KNIGHT, AND J. P. McCuure. 1983. The slash pine resource. Pp. 4-23. In: E.L. Stone (ed), The Managed Slash Pine Ecosystem. Symp. Proc. June 9-11, 1981. Univ. Florida, Gainesville. SwINDEL, B. F., C. J. Lasstrer, AND H. Riexerk. 1982. Effects of clearcutting and site preparation on water yields from slash pine forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 4:101-113. Vickers, C. R., L. D. Harris AND B. F. SwinpbEL. 1985. Changes in herpetofauna resulting from ditching of cypress ponds in coastal plains flatwoods. For. Ecol. Manage. 11: 17-29. Florida Sci. 50(1) 42-48. 1987. Accepted: April 18, 1986. Oceanographic Sciences AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TIDES OF FLORIDAS INDIAN RIVER LAGOON. I. WATER LEVELS NEp P. SMITH HARBOR BRANCH FOouNDATION, INC. R.R. 1, Box 196 Fort Pierce, FL 33450 Asstract: Water level data collected over a 25-year period of time, and from 23 locations, are used to characterize the tides of Florida’s Indian River lagoon. Diurnal and semi-diurnal tidal constituent amplitudes decrease rapidly with distance from each of three inlets. Beyond a point 25 km north of Sebastian Inlet, all diurnal and semi-diurnal constituent amplitudes are 1 cm or less, and tidal period water level variations account for less than 5 % of the total variance. South of Sebastian Inlet, and especially south of Fort Pierce Inlet, tidal amplitudes increase, and the variance of tidal period water level variations is approximately equal to that of long-period fluctuations. Fortnightly and monthly constituent amplitudes are all a few centimeters or less. Semi-annual constituents show considerable variability in amplitude and phase because the data are from different time periods. The amplitude of the annual variation is consistently about twice that of the semi-annual variation, however. A CAREFULLY positioned array of tide gauges in a coastal lagoon will gen- erally reveal patterns which exhibit considerable spatial and temporal varia- bility. Tidal amplitudes characteristically decrease quickly as the wave form leaves the immediate vicinity of an inlet. The spatial decay of tidal motions arises in response to the constricting effect inlets and jettied passes have upon estuarine shelf exchanges, and to the frictional resistance to movement in shallow lagoonal waters. As tides are progressively damped in the interior of the lagoon, the ratio of tidal period variance to total variance in the record decreases. Temporal variability arises from the interaction of individual tidal constituents and occurs over a wide range of time scales. Diurnal and semi- diurnal constituents combine to produce mixed tides; diurnal constituents or semi-diurnal constituents combine with each other to produce beat frequen- cies, especially at frequencies of one cycle per fortnight. Indian River lagoon, lying along Florida’s Atlantic coast, exemplifies coastal lagoons found in many parts of the world. It extends 195 km south- ward from the Cape Canaveral area (Fig. 1). Along most of its length, the lagoon is 2-4 km wide and 1-2 meters deep. Only three jettied inlets connect the lagoon with the inner shelf, and all three lie in the southern part of the lagoon. The northern and southern inlets tend to accumulate sediments to such an extent that all but the smallest boats may be affected by the shallow water. As a result, the exchange of water is reduced measurably. The lagoon is microtidal. Except in the immediate vicinity of the inlets, amplitudes are characteristically less than 10 cm. Tidal prisms of Sebastian Inlet, Fort Pierce Inlet and St. Lucie Inlet have been estimated to be 1.5, 2.6 and 1.1 x 10’m’, respectively (Costa, 1985). 50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 ee O 10 20 30 40 S50Km Kp Ojc oleate AMPLITUDE, cm Fic. 1. Map of water level recorder stations in Indian River lagoon, and amplitude-distance plots for the principal semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents. Water level studies of Indian River lagoon have been conducted in a largely piecemeal fashion over the past 25 years. Data have been assembled by a number of investigators and used for a variety of applications, ranging from the natural flooding and draining of mosquito impoundments (Provost, 1976) to investigations of the intertidal zone (Smith, 1986). A compilation of available data to characterize tidal conditions along the length of the lagoon, and to determine the relative importance of tidal and low-frequency water level variations does not exist. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of tidal period water level variations in Florida’s Indian River lagoon, and to attempt to put this in perspective by comparing the variance of tidal and low frequency fluctua- tions. Resul s show tidal period water level variations to be most prominent in the southern half of the lagoon. In the northern half, the rise and fall of the No. 1, 1987] SMITH— INDIAN RIVER TIDES 51 tide decreases to insignificant levels, and water level variations are domi- nated by the longer-period response to meteorological forcing and the sea- sonal cycle in water level. Tue OssERvATIONS— Water level data compiled for this study were obtained from three sources. A 22-year time series (1959-1980) of week-long analog records with only minor interrup- tions was recorded at the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory (the station labeled Olso in Fig. 1). This data base was used to establish multi-annual mean conditions. A second collection of water level records was assembled by the National Ocean Service between 1968 and 1972. Their stations were established along the entire length of Indian River lagoon and maintained for periods of time ranging from approximately one month to over a year. These time series were used to determine amplitudes and local phase angles (kappa, as defined by Schureman, 1958) for the principal semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents. In addition, they provided information on shallow-water constituents and on fortnightly, monthly, semi-annual and annual constituents when the record was of sufficient length. A third collection of water level records has been accumulating since 1977 in Harbor Branch Foundation studies, primarily at and south of Sebas- tian Inlet. Water level data from several sources and from several different types of water level recorders will not be consistent in precision and quality. Furthermore, accurate leveling to establish an acceptable and consistent datum is the exception, rather than the rule. This study is restricted to characterizing tidal period variations about the mean, however. Thus the determination of even a local datum is of secondary importance. Of greater importance are the accuracy and precision of the data. Tide staff measurements used to calibrate the Harbor Branch analog records suggest that the precision of the hourly values is approximately +0.5 cm. This was used to guide decisions regarding which computed amplitudes and phase angles to believe and which to ignore. MeEtHops— Analysis of hourly water level data to determine harmonic constants of the princi- pal tidal constituents involved either of two computer programs, depending on the record length. For time series from one to several months long, amplitudes and local phase angles were quanti- fied in 29-day segments using the computer program described by Dennis and Long (1971). In practice, several overlapping segments were analyzed, and individual pairs of harmonic con- stants were vector averaged, as suggested by Haurwitz and Cowley (1975), to obtain values which represented the entire sampling period better. In the process, the standard deviation of the scatter about the vector average was determined. In this study, when the standard deviation exceeded 50% of the vector-averaged amplitude, the constituent was judged to be insignificant or otherwise questionable at that location, and it was not considered any further. The few time series that were a year in length or longer were analyzed using the least squares harmonic analysis described by Schureman (1958). The results of these analyses were harmonic constants representative of the entire time series, but there was no accompanying measure of the scatter about the mean. A measure of the relative importance of tidal and nontidal water level variations at a given location was obtained by calculating the variance of the record before and after it had been smoothed by the 241-weight low-pass filter (“120i913”) described by Thompson (1983). The difference between the total and the subtidal frequency variance will be dominated by the tidal period contribution, however other frequencies near or higher than tidal frequencies will be removed by the filtering operation as well. Thus, the difference between the total and subtidal frequency variances may overestimate the importance of tidal water level variations. ResuLts— Results of the analysis are divided into three sub-sections. First, shelf tides are described to provide a background for the study. Then, semi- diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents within the lagoon are presented and described. At no station did any of the shallow-water overtides or compound tides have amplitudes which were both statistically significant and physically important. Finally, long-period tidal constituents, with fortnightly to annual periodicities, are described. 52 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 Shelf Tides Although the study was focused in a geographical sense upon the Indian River lagoon itself, an appropriate starting point is the description of the shelf tides which provide the driving force for lagoon-shelf exchanges and, indi- rectly, for tidal motions within the lagoon. Table 1 contains harmonic con- stants computed from bottom pressures recorded in 103 meters of water at the shelf break—32 kilometers east-northeast of Ft. Pierce Inlet (see map, Fig. 1). This location is 46 km from St. Lucie Inlet and 61 km from Sebastian Inlet. The pressure record covered the 75-day period from June 22 through Septem- ber 4, 1978. Because of the relatively short record length, only diurnal, semi- diurnal and shorter period tidal constituents can be determined with confi- dence. Dominating the six tidal constituents listed in Table 1 is the M, tide, with an amplitude of 0.51 decibars. Assuming a mean water column density of 1.030 gm/cm*, this corresponds to an amplitude of 51 cm. The S, constituent is considerably smaller with an amplitude of approximately 8 cm. In a similar way, the K, constituent dominates the diurnal tidal constituents. A measure of the relative importance of semi-diurnal constituents is obtained by divid- ing the sum of the amplitudes of the M, and S, constituents by the sum of the K, and 0, constituent amplitudes. For the outer shelf bottom pressures, this quotient, known as the form number, is 0.94, indicating a near equality of diurnal and semi-diurnal fluctuations. The modification of the tidal wave form as it moves across the continental shelf may be significant (Clarke and Battisti, 1981), but a more substantial modification occurs in the immediate vicinity of inlets. Smith (1980) has doc- umented differences in harmonic constants at and near Fort Pierce Inlet in particular. Once in the inlet, the M, constituent drops to 62% of its value over the inner shelf, and the local phase angle lags by 11°. The damping of ampli- tude and lagging in phase angle continues as the wave form enters and spreads out within the lagoon. Semi-diurnal and Diurnal Tidal Constituents Table 2 summarizes amplitudes and local phase angles of the five princi- pal semi-diurnal and diurnal constituents from all locations in Indian River TABLE 1. Harmonic constants of principal tidal constituents computed from bottom pressures recorded at the outer shelf station shown on Figure 1, June 22 through September 1, 1978. Amplitudes in decibars; local phase angles in degrees. Values are vector averages from seven 29- day harmonic analyses, starting every seven days. Tidal constituent Amplitude Phase Angle M, 0.51 211 S. 0.08 238 Nz 0.12 192 K, 0.62 181 O; 0.01 131 P; 0.21 181 No. 1, 1987] SMITH—INDIAN RIVER TIDES 53 TABLE 2. Harmonic constants of principal semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents for Indian River lagoon. Amplitudes (7) in cm; local phase angles (x) in degrees. Station Location Constituent N W M, S. N, K, O; Oak Hill 2B a2 80°50.0’ n 1.1 0.2 0.4 1.0 0.5 9 TAS 4S OSE °> 2a 254 Scottsmoor 28° 46.0’ 80°50.7’ n 0.3 0.4 0.1 1.8 0.5 x Int 4. 267 asm. SiG... O73 Haulover Canal 28° 44.0’ 80°45.4’ 7 ya | 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 °° (059) -7105;-. 063° v°255. 276 Titusville res eT 80°48.0’ n 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 x Si. ia . O14)... DAZ aes Williams Point 28°26.7’ 80° 45.6’ n 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.9 0.5 e OT! 479: 040)?" 166: 306 Eau Gallie 28°08.0' 80°37.5’ n 1.6 0.2 0.4 1:5 0.5 ih Sel A . ae iS. «DOT Melbourne 28°06.0’ 80°36.7’ n 1.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 m Wy S45 > 383! 342") 2Bbo 2 Palm Bay 28°02.5’ 80° 34.8’ 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 Hs gad - da 290 , 296. B19 Micco 7 as 80°19.8’ n | 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.9 is Saas ROSS BIS GAY BT Miner’s Marina 27°52.3’ 80° 20.6’ n 2.6 0.5 1.3 1.0 0.8 x 255 266 258 166 #£4x24147 Sebastian Inlet A ads) od 80° 26.9’ n 7.7 1.0 1.9 yy i me) TRAD ies 21 160 189 Wabasso 27° 45.3’ 80° 25.5’ n 4.9 0.7 1.1 igs LD x 303 319 23 #2179 '~= 170 Jungle Trail 27° 44.0’ 80° 23.6’ n 6.4 0.8 Mel 1.9 1.5 ¢ SAB! S56 o8986') (2050 210 Vero Beach 27° 38.0’ 80° 22.5’ n 9.8 L2 1.9 2.9 2.3 | is <1 eS | a Oslo 27° 30.6 80°21.4’ n 9.6 7 1.9 25 ya 0 4D S080? 206s \- 2188S Link Port 27°32. 0 80° 20.6’ n 9.9 L2 1.8 2.8 2.6 Nee oO > ee’ See 7a2 - Joe Fort Pierce Inlet 27°28 2 80°17.3’ "7 ©@«18.1 2.7 3.6 5.0 4.0 a> BAO aT in Bab 162 Ts Fort Pierce Marina 27° 27.0’ 80°19.4’ n 16.9 2.3 3.2 4.3 3.4 x 2g fio Ol 157 ~=—:1170 Ankona i gor A OS 80° 16.4’ n 13.4 | ins 2.5 4.1] 2.9 ne OER eae | MERA 188 995 Nettles Island 2fA17.F 80° 14.0’ 9. 13.6 1.3 2.7 4.9 2.9 t. Mh « aa 28, Dl 190 Jensen Beach rf ia og 80°11.2’ n 10.3 | yoy 3.8 3.1 F eI DRS SAR GRA. 198... 192 St. Lucie Inlet 27°08:3' 80° 10.2’ n 16.0 2.2 3:2 Bl 3.5 ha GAs. Di, . 294... 1G) 165 lagoon at which water level records are available. Spatial variations in ampli- tude are depicted graphically (Fig. 1). The pattern is consistent with condi- tions characteristic of coastal lagoons: Tidal amplitudes are largest at and just inside each of the three inlets. At interior stations, especially north of Sebas- tian Inlet, both diurnal and semi-diurnal constituent amplitudes are reduced measurably, with amplitudes 10 cm and less. 54 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 Indian River lagoon can be sub-divided into three segments defined by the three inlets which connect the lagoon with the inner shelf. The northern segment, north of Sebastian Inlet, is 113 km in length. The central segment is 45 km in length and includes the portion of the lagoon lying between Sebas- tian and Fort Pierce Inlets. The southern segment extends 37 km south of Fort Pierce Inlet to St. Lucie inlet. In the northern 100 km of the lagoon, all the semi-diurnal and diurnal constituent amplitudes listed in Table 2 are either statistically insignificant or of such low amplitude as to be of only marginal practical importance. Non- tidal, low-frequency variance constitutes anywhere from 92% to 99% of the total. The slight increase in amplitudes in the northern extreme of the lagoon may reflect tidal motions originating at Ponce de Leon Inlet and moving southward through Mosquito Lagoon. That area lies outside the intended scope of this paper in a geographical sense. South of approximately Mel- bourne, the amplitude of the M, constituent increases from about 2 cm to 8 cm at Sebastian Inlet. Form numbers, calculated from the Micco and Se- bastian Inlet station data, were 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. The decrease in form number from the value near unity calculated from the outer shelf pres- sure data indicates the role inlets play in preferentially filtering shorter-pe- riod semi-diurnal tidal constituents. The form number from the Miner’s Ma- rina data is an anomalously high 1.7, however the relatively short record length did not permit a vector averaging of harmonic constants determined from multiple analyses. In the central segment of Indian River lagoon, semi-diurnal and diurnal period tidal constituents reach a relative minimum approximately 12 km south of Sebastian Inlet. The exact spot at which lowest amplitudes occur cannot be resolved precisely with the available data. The M, constituent de- creases to 5 cm, then increases again to reach another relative maximum at Fort Pierce Inlet. Form numbers are all approximately 0.5. The low-fre- quency non-tidal variances decreases dramatically in importance south of Sebastian Inlet. At the inlet, low-frequency water level variations make up over 97 % of the total. This decreases to 62% at Wabasso, and to 45% at Vero Beach. Through the rest of this segment, nontidal variance constitutes 40- 60 % of the total. Both the central and southern segments of the lagoon are of particular interest because tide records at any given location may contain a response to lagoon-shelf exchanges through either inlet. Tidal constituent waves enter from both ends of the segment and converge toward the middle. A water level record from the interior will therefore contain the additive effects of two related, but independently damped and time-lagged wave forms. The southern segment of the lagoon, lying between Fort Pierce and St. Lucie Inlets, has the largest tidal amplitudes. The minimum amplitude of the M, constituent occurs well to the south of the midpoint segment. This may be due to the fact that two causeways in the vicinity of Jensen Beach restrict the longitudinal flow of water and impede the northward propagation of tidal No. 1, 1987] SMITH— INDIAN RIVER TIDES 55 wave forms. Thus, in the central portion of this segment, the tide appears to be primarily a response to exchanges through Ft. Pierce Inlet, with relatively minor modifications by tidal wave forms moving north from St. Lucie Inlet. Again, form numbers vary little from a value of 0.5. The low-frequency nontidal variance constitutes between 40% and 60% of the total. Local phase angles, listed with the amplitudes of the principal tidal con- stituents in Table 2, are shown in Figure 2. Phase angles for the interior stations lag those from inlet stations by as much as 90°. For a given constitu- ent, phase angles at any two locations may be compared to the station separa- tion to determine the speed of propagation of the tidal wave form. North of Sebastian Inlet, the M, constituent at Palm Bay lags that at Micco by 62°, indicating a phase speed through that 20 km length of the lagoon of just over 9 km/hr. Similarly, phase angles from the central segment of the lagoon sug- gest that M, crests move south from Sebastian Inlet and north from Fort Pierce inlet at approximately 4 km/hr and 5 km/hr, respectively. In the south- ern segment of the lagoon, wave forms of the M, constituent converge from the north and south at speeds of just under and just over 6 km/hr, respectively. It is noteworthy that propagation speeds of 5-10 km/hr are predicted by the shallow-water equation for progressive waves in water depths of from 0.7 to 2.8 m. An unbroken, year-long (1974) water level record from the Oslo station (see Fig. 1 for location) was used to calculate harmonic constants for six tidal constituents, and from each of the 12 months. The scatter of the vectors quantifies the uncertainty associated with individual 29-day harmonic analy- ses. Results are depicted graphically for the M, constituent in particular in Figure 3. The vector-averaged amplitude and phase angle are 9.2 cm and 341°, respectively, but there is significant scatter about the mean. The No- vember and December phase angles, for example, deviate by about 60° from the center of the cluster. The standard deviation about the vector average translates into an uncertainty of 2.5 cm in amplitude and 20° in phase angle. In general, as the amplitude of a tidal constituent decreases, it becomes increasingly difficult to determine the exact crest of the sine wave represent- ing it, i.e., the local phase angle. Thus, for the S, constituent, the 1.0 cm vector-averaged amplitude computed from the same 12-month water level record has a standard deviation about the mean which translates into 0.6 cm in amplitude and 44° in phase angle. Similarly, for the N, constituent, the standard deviation about the mean phase angle is 27°. Standard deviations will vary both from one station to the next and from one constituent to the next (Smith 1978), and thus they must be quantified individually and repeat- edly wherever possible. In every case, they serve to characterize the deviation which may occur from single 29-day harmonic analyses. Such calculations are therefore useful for interpreting Figures 1 and 2 to determine whether a given point represents a deviation from, or a feature of the general pattern. ‘QOUSPIFUOS YIM POUTUIa}ep oq JOUULO sarsue aseyd ‘atTey NeW JO YON “suUOTVOO] UOHR}S IOF [ AINSIY 99g “syU9Nz}sUOO [epH [euINIp pue [euinp-rutes fedroursd ay} 107 aoueysIp ysureZe payoyd sajsue aseyd [e007] *% ‘oI 9/buYy aSeYd |B207 O9€ O08! O O9t Os! O O9E O8! O OE Osl O OSE Os! O A —— 32Iu] 21907 4S Puels| S21}}ON CUE DIA 44 ~— youl] DA 3A ee) ydeog OA weap aj6unr —— }o|u) UeISeqaS 2 Keg wie W ayjeg Nez *N No. 1, 1987] SMITH— INDIAN RIVER TIDES 57 Long-period Tidal Constituents Relatively few of the available water-level records extend over a long enough period of time to resolve fortnightly and longer period tidal constitu- ents. Table 3 summarizes results from five time series which exceed 8,000 hours in length. Variability well in excess of 100% occurs in the semi-annual and annual constituents. This is somewhat surprising, although significant differences should be expected when only one or two complete cycles are available for analysis. Year-to-year differences in precipitation and seasonal wind patterns can perturb results significantly. The annual Sa constituent was found to be 13.8 cm in amplitude at the Oslo tide gage in 1974, but it was only 8.2 at Link Port, 6 km to the south, ten years later. This difference should be thought of in terms of the temporal separation of two time series, rather than in terms of the spatial separation of the study sites. The semi- annual Ssa constituent amplitudes computed for Oslo and Link Port are a little more than 1 cm different, but this may be fortuitous. Table 3 shows that even the monthly Mm constituent can differ significantly from one-year long sampling period to the next. The fortnightly Mf and MSf constituent ampli- tudes at both locations were comparable to the precision of the data and thus were not listed. The multi-year water level record from the Oslo Station provides an op- portunity to investigate year-to-year variability in the annual cycle, and thus the representativeness of a single year in establishing the Sa amplitude and phase angle for a given location. Fig. 4 is a harmonic dial on which ampli- tudes and phase angles (scaled in terms of 365 days, rather than 360°) from 22 harmonic analyses have been entered. For these analyses, monthly mean high tide and low tide levels, and the twelve monthly means for each year were used to determine the amplitude and phase angles of the fundamental harmonic (Panofsky and Brier, 1963). In view of the fact that there are only 58-60 high and low levels occurring in an average month, this method in- volves far less effort than the alternative of calculating the Sa constituent amplitude and phase angle from 365 days of hourly water levels. TABLE 3. Harmonic constants of fortnightly, monthly, semi-annual and annual tidal constitu- ents for Indian River lagoon. Amplitudes (n) in centimeters; local phase angles (x) in degrees. Station Start Hours Constituent Mm Ssa Sa Eau Gallie Aug. 69 8,016 n 1.0 10.3 18.6 x 053° 193° 095° Sebastian Inlet Aug. 69 8,760 n 1.4 8.2 20.3 x 359° 1 Ee 056° Oslo Jan. 75 8,760 n IF 5.8 13.2 x 044° 057° 187° Link Port Mar. 83 8,760 rT 4.3 4.5 8.2 x 009° 048° 208° Fort Pierce Marina Aug. 69 8,760 7 1.0 8.2 17.9 x 359° 112° 143° 58 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 - 'SCpe | aun) M ? ae Aug = eJun al 7 rd " f v / / / Va / ‘ & / ® Nov : *Dec / | | | | 2cm 8 4 O Fic. 3. Fourth quadrant of a harmonic dial, showing amplitudes (cm) and local phase angles from monthly calculations of the M, constituent at Oslo, 1974. It was first necessary to compare the amplitudes and angles determined using these two techniques. Thus, harmonic constants from the 12 monthly means for 1974 were compared with the Sa constituent harmonic constants determined from hourly data (see Table 3). The amplitude of the 12 monthly means was found to be 13.2 cm; the amplitude of the analysis of the hourly data was 13.8 cm. The 187° value for the local phase angle (kappa, as de- fined by Schureman 1958) differed by only 2° from the 253° phase angle obtained from the harmonic analysis of the monthly mean water levels. [In comparing phase angles, one must take into account the fact that the mean January water level represents January 15th, while the hourly data begins January Ist. Also, Panofsky and Brier (1963) use a sine function, while Schureman (1985) used a cosine function]. Having established the similarity of harmonic constants for one year in particular and thus the validity of this simplified approach, amplitudes and phase angles quantified using the estimated monthly means from all 22 years No. 1, 1987] SMITH—INDIAN RIVER TIDES 59 of the Oslo record were used to test the representativeness of any single year. The scatter of the points shown in Figure 4 indicates that maximum water levels associated with the annual period variation can occur as early as ap- proximately mid September, or as late as early December. Most of the points fall between early and late October. Amplitudes are somewhat more varia- ble, ranging from 6 cm to nearly 16 cm. The standard deviation of the scatter of the points about the vector average corresponds to 1.8 cm in the amplitude and 17° in phase. If this multi-year record is representative of Indian River lagoon as a whole, and for the Sa constituent in particular, the annual varia- tion in water level—given by the vector average of the 22 points shown in Fig. 4—should reach a maximum of just over 10 cm during the last half of October. Discussion—The collections of amplitudes and phase angles assembled for Figures 1 and 2, respectively, show the general patterns nicely, but they a ! ~ ie Bi. i A exces pt! Sethe van \ we H / Nov -* | A Feb \ ‘ ! / / \ / \ Ta = lO =. / \ / Me \U- / \ S. / 7 | iia \ ~/ e xf | a re / . \ 1 / r gt. ~ e 4 % / \ A aig gi ee xX Mar G x a, x ei; ~ “a Y a \ é eo. \ | / ‘ 7 co) 4 Ke Seriy 7 a ee; if “’N\ i) e & ‘ ‘ | / Pa ! ! @ See \ \ ' eo) pS Se a ee a ee See See : 7 \ ' A; eet j I ! | J es p i x sw ae y, | \ a, ; C \ a Py / ™e / Pp gt "ee =— x >< Apr aes / | ‘ Py ed \ \ / | ’ b if ies”: ae \ Ay | \- os \ a ns a / Vv / | iq / *% / a \ 4 Aug ./ \- May ~ yy a a 8 ——--—-4------ vA — Fic. 4. Harmonic dial, showing amplitudes (cm) and local phase angles (scaled in months) of the annual variation in water level for Oslo, 1959-1980. 60 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 also indicate irregularities to some extent when considered in detail. Such inconsistencies in the spatial variations in amplitude and phase angle should be expected, however. Nontidal water level variations, often of meteorologi- cal origin, can contaminate the tidal signal. The infrequent dredging of inlets may explain some of the deviations as well: Water level records from dis- tinctly different time periods—when both tidal and low-frequency exchanges were influenced to a different extent by the cross-sectional area of the inlet— will show correspondingly different tidal amplitudes. Also, harmonic con- stants of a given constituent may appear to vary at a particular location if the water level record is too short to distinguish between two constituents with similar periodicities. In four of the five constituents presented in Fig. 2, the phase angle computed at the Vero Beach station is distinctly but unexplain- ably lower than that at either the Jungle Trail or Oslo stations. One certainly cannot rule out the possibility of timing errors in one or more of the time series. Whatever the cause, perturbations will tend to confuse the general pattern. As long as Fig. 1 and 2 are not interpreted too literally, they serve a useful purpose for characterizing tidal conditions in the lagoon. The convergence of wave forms, as indicated by the spatial distribution of phase angles (Fig. 2), suggests that the harmonic constants calculated for the interior of the central and southern segments of the lagoon should be inter- preted in terms of two interacting waves, rather than as a single, phase- lagged tidal wave. The influence of a second wave could be substantial in perturbing both amplitude and phase angle, depending upon the extent to which the interacting waves have been damped as they pass through a given location. It is impossible to utilize the existing data base to examine in detail the interaction of converging tidal waves in the interior of the lagoon. A more thorough investigation, involving a two-dimensional numerical model, would be a helpful follow-up to the overview presented here. The relatively low-amplitude semi-diurnal and diurnal tides characteris- tic of coastal lagoons in general, and found in Indian River lagoon in particu- lar, make the longer-period, nontidal variations more important by default. Processes such as flushing, which depend upon lagoon-shelf exchanges, be- come correspondingly shifted from tidal periodicities to the longer time scales. Measurements made over just a few tidal cycles become increasingly inadequate to characterize the temporal variability within the lagoon, and considerably longer time series are needed to put tidal motions into a proper perspective. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—A substantial fraction of the water level data used in this study was provided by the National Ocean Service and by the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory in Vero Beach. Special thanks to Elizabeth Smith, who performed the many, many harmonic analy- ses of the water-level records. Partial support for this study was provided by the Florida Depart- ment of Environmental Regulation through Contract Number CM 118. Harbor Branch Founda- tion, Inc., Contribution No. 513. No. 1, 1987] SMITH— INDIAN RIVER TIDES 61 LITERATURE CITED Cuiark, A. AND D. Battisti. 1981. The effect of continental shelves on tides. Deep-Sea Res. 28:665-682 Costa, S. L. 1985. Pers. commun. Fla Inst. Tech., Melbourne Dennis, R. E. anp E. E. Lone. 1971. A user’s guide to a computer program for harmonic analysis of data at tidal frequencies. NOAA Tech. Rept. NOS 41, U.S. Dept. Comm., Rockville, MD, 31 pp. Haurwitz, B. AND A. D. Cow.ey. 1975. The barometric tides at Ziirich and on the summit of Santis. Pageoph. 113:355-364. Panorsky, H. AND G. Brier. 1963. Some Applications of Statistics to Meterology, (1st ed.)., Penn. State Univ., University Park, PA. 224 pages. Provost, M. 1976. Tidal datum planes circumscribing salt marshes. Bulletin of Marine Science 26:558-563. SCHUREMAN, P. 1958. Manual of harmonic analysis and predictions of tides. Spec. Publication No. 98, rev. ed., U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 317 pp. SmiTH, N. P. 1978. Intracoastal tides of upper Laguna Madre, Texas. Texas J. Sci. 30:85-95. . 1980. A comparison of tidal harmonic constants computed at and near an inlet. Estuar. Coastal Mar. Sci. 10:383-391. . 1986. The rise and fall of the estuarine intertidal zone. Estuaries. 9:95-101. . (in press) The Laguna Madre of Texas: Hydrography of a hypersaline lagoon. In: Kjerfve, B.J. (ed.)., Hydrodynamics of Estuaries. CRC Press, Boca Raton. THompson, R.O.R.Y. 1983. Low-pass filters to suppress inertial and tidal frequencies. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 13:1077-1083. Florida Sci. 50(1) 49-61. 1987. Accepted: April 28, 1986. 62 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 REVIEW G.D. Cooke, E.B. Welch, S. A. Peterson, and P. R. Newroth. Lake and Reservoir Restoration, Butterworth Publisher, Boston, 1986. Pp. viii+ 392. $39.95. THE objective of this volume, as stated in the book’s Conclusion, is to present a current review and analysis of the methods now employed to pro- tect and improve eutrophic lakes and impoundments. Much to the authors’ credit, they have more than accomplished their goal. In a refreshingly concise style, the authors explore the major techniques of lake restoration today, giv- ing thorough descriptions which include the specific applications and draw- backs of each method. In some cases, the costs of particular projects are also provided. Further, the discussions are balanced, that is, most of the major factors involved in restoration decision-making are covered equally well: wa- ter chemistry, engineering, and biology. Omitted from the book is mention of the social aspects associated with the choice and implementation of a restora- tion method or combination of methods. However, the book is not intended to address such issues. The restoration methods described include chemical, physical, and bio- logical techniques. Specifically mentioned are: nutrient diversion and inacti- vation; dilution and flushing; circulation/aeration; sediment removal; drastic drawdown; and aquatic weed control by means of harvesting, phytophagous animals, shading, and plant pathogens. All of these topics, as already indi- cated, are thoroughly treated and well referenced. Therefore, individuals who are concerned with any of these methods of lake manipulation would benefit substantially from reading the book and from having available the extensive bibliography provided at the end of most chapters. If the book has a weakness, it is one obvious only to those familiar with the large body of literature on Florida’s lakes. Much of the information in the book is based upon studies done elsewhere in the United States or in the world. Florida lakes are well represented only in discussions of drawdown and biological control of aquatic weeds; however, the remainder of the book does not rely heavily on data collected on the hundreds of lakes in our State. Nevertheless, the book is still extremely useful to those doing work on Florida lakes, and it can be recommended without reservation to professional biolo- gists, engineers, and planners throughout the State.—Patricia M. Dooris, HDR Infrastructure, Inc., 5100 W. Kennedy Blvd., Suite 225, Tampa, Flor- ida, 33609. No. 1, 1987] REVIEW 63 REVIEW Larry Kettelkamp, The Human Brain, Enslow Publishers, Inc. 1986 pp. 96. $12.95. The author introduces the reader to brain anatomy and nervous system functions in this brief book. Topics include the nerve impulse, chemical mes- sengers, sensory system, right and left brain function, hormones and drugs, and memory. Most of the illustrations are excellent and well explained. The chapter on right and left brain function has some interesting examples. Sexual differences in brain function are not explored. The book is designed for grades 5 through 12 and includes a discussion of the professions that are concerned with studying and treating problems of the brain and emotions. — Carole F. Hendry, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida. SUVA VUUIYUO™TIUIYIY 133 ‘Florida Scientis Volume 50 Spring, 1987 Number 2 CONTENTS Gaseous Fluoride Emissions from Gypsum Settling and NE Howard E. Moore 65 Needs Assessment of Cuban and Haitian Refugees in Tampa........ Christine R. Geiser and E. Lee Husting 19 I ae eg oie ee ks sh ake hod de see Dean F. Martin 84 The Seasonality and Spatial Patterns of Juvenile Surf Zone Fishes of i EE ect ey ioc paiinn esa kee anne es Dennis J. Peters and Walter G. Nelson 85 The Geochemistry of Interstitial Water for a Sediment Core from ne ewe CROW. FROTIOR ok cia ew ese ce ws dae nees Deyu Gu, Nenad Iricanin and John H. Trefry 99 Plant Communities Along an Edaphic Continuum ina I Pe ee Robin B. Huck 111 BOTANICAL GARDER eas § TU VIVAL GARDEN QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1987 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin’ Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE F.oripa SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $20.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1987-88 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. LESLIE SUE LIEBERMAN Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH Department of Anthropology 5636 Satel Drive University of Florida Orlando, Florida 32810 Gainesville, Florida 32611 Executive Secretary: President-Elect: Dr. MARvIN L. IvEy Dr. ALEXANDER DICKISON Department of Natural Sciences Department of Physical Sciences St. Petersburg Junior College Seminole Community College P.O. Box 13489 Sanford, FL 32771 St. Petersburg, FL 33733 Program Chairs: Dr. GzorcE M. Dooris Secretary: Dr. Patrick J. GLEASON Dr. Patricia M. Dooris 1131 North Palmway P.O. Box 2378 Lake Worth, Florida 33460 St. Leo, Florida 33574 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MaprrtIn, Associate Editor Volume 50 Spring, 1987 Number 2 Environmental Chemistry GASEOUS FLUORIDE EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM SETTLING AND COOLING PONDS Howard E. Moore Department of Chemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199 AssTRACT: Previous estimates of hydrogen fluoride fluxes from cooling and gypsum settling ponds associated with the manufacture of phosphate fertilizer are reviewed and a theoretical estimate based on vapor pressures of HF-H,0 solutions is presented. The latter yields fluxes from 122 to 195 kg HF /day for a 450 metric ton P,O;/day plant. Sixty percent or more of the total plant release of HF is due to the ponds. Derived atmospheric residence times for HF (1 to 5 hr.) indicate that fluoride is dispersed throughout Central Florida at ppb levels in the particulate form and may be an environmental hazard to adjacent agricultural industry. THE primary purpose of this paper is to give a brief review of the literature relating to the emission of fluorides, i.e., hydrogen fluoride and silicon tetra- fluoride, from gypsum settling ponds and cooling ponds associated with phos- phate fertilizer production in Central Florida (Fig. 1). A theoretical estimate of these emissions is presented for comparison to experimentally determined values. An excellent review of atmospheric fluoride emissions and the effect of fluoride on plants and animals was compiled by the National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1971). A study of emission control practices in the phosphate industry was published by the Department of Health Education and Welfare (Crane et al., 1970). Based upon data ob- tained by Crane and coworkers (1970), the National Academy of Science study group (NAS, 1971) stated that vaporization from the ponds may consti- tute 90% or more of the total fluoride emissions to the atmosphere. In 1972, emission control regulations were promulgated in Florida for all phosphate production operations except the ponds (State of Florida, 1985). As a conse- quence of recognition by the industry that fluorides are hazardous to workers and in response to these regulations, fluorides that were formerly allowed to escape to the atmosphere in the operations are now efficiently trapped and conveyed to the settling and cooling ponds, where their ultimate fate is largely unknown (State of Florida, 1983). It now appears probable that these ponds contribute a large majority of the overall fluoride emissions from the phosphate industry to the atmosphere . The fate of fluorides in the atmo- 66 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 PHOSPHORIC PRODUCTS COMPLEX EFFLUENT 160 ACRES 100 ACRES COOLING POND GYPSUM POND Fic. 1.Schematic diagram of the ponds associated with phosphate fertilizer production. sphere is poorly known. They may have injurious effects on the various agri- cultural industries adjacent to phosphate mining areas. This is discussed fur- ther below. PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER PRoDUCTION—Sauchelli (1960) stated that, despite the more-than-a-century period in which superphospate has been manufac- tured in all parts of the world, the chemistry of the acidulation reaction is still not precisely known. This is still true to some extent today. The composition of Florida pebble phosphate is given in Table 1 (Sauchelli, 1960). The main component in the phosphate ore is fluorapatite, 3[Ca,(PO,),]*CaF,. The ore appears to contain excess fluoride as CaF, or as fluorosilicates. The important reactions in the process appear to be as follows (Sauchelli, 1960): 3[Ca,(PO,),|¢CaF, + 10H,SO,—6H,PO, + 10CaSO,+ 2HF ( H.SO,+ CaF,— CaSO,+ 2HF ( 4HF + SiO,—SiF, + 2H,O ( 4H,PO, + Ca,(PO,),— 3Ca(H,PO,), ( From these reactions, it appears most of the fluoride is released as SiF,. This is passed through scrubbers and converted to a fluosilicic acid, H,SiF, (Waggaman, 1969), (Egn. 5). 3SiF, + 4H,O — SiO,¢2H,O + 2H,SiF, (5) A portion of the fluoride remains with the superphosphate. This amount varies with the strength of the sulfuric acid used and is from 25 to 50 percent No. 2, 1987] MOORE—EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 67 of the fluoride originally present (Sauchelli, 1960; Waggaman, 1969; Crane et al., 1970). The remainder of the fluoride is transferred to the gypsum settling ponds. State of Florida (1985) emission standards, which apply to the various steps in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers, allow for a total emission of 0.21 kg of fluoride per metric ton of P,O; produced. While there is probably no such thing as a typical phosphate complex, a model plant is assumed (Cross and Ross, 1969) that produces 450 metric tons of P,O; per day and thus is allowed to discharge to the atmosphere 95 kg of fluoride (State of Florida, TABLE 1. Composition of Florida Pebble Phosphate Percent Cal 46-50 P.0; 30-36 CO, 1.5-4.4 F 3.3-4.0 SiO, 7.3-9.8 Other Oxides | ys By H,O 0.3-2.6 1985). As mentioned above, these regulations do not cover emissions from the settling and cooling ponds. The model plant above has associated with it 65 ha of settling ponds and 40 ha of cooling ponds. Measurements by Schiff and coworkers (1981) show both types of ponds have similar fluoride contents. Sauchelli (1960) states that under certain conditions the fluosilicicic acid may decompose. Thus, the ponds may appear to be be in a quasi-equilibrium of the type: 2HF(aq)+SiF,(aq) = H,SiF;,(aq) ( H,SiF,(aq) == H*(aq) + HSiF;(aq) ( HF(aq) = HF(g) ( SiF,(aq) = SiF.(g) ( This is in accord with the fact that HF and SiF, are found in the vapor state over solutions of fluosilicic acid (Jacobson, 1923) and that fluosilicic acid cannot be isolated in the pure state (Colton, 1958). The ratio of HF to SiF, in the gaseous state increases with a decrease in fluosilicic acid concentration (Baur, 1903). The concentrations of soluble fluoride in the ponds range from 4,000 to 14,000 ppm with values over 10,000 ppm being quite common (Cross and Ross, 1969; Crane, 1970; Tatera, 1971. Schiff et al., 1981). Most of the measured fluoride must exist as HF. Pond water analyses are usually performed with a fluoride specific electrode on samples that are ei- ther made basic or are highly diluted with water thus raising the pH. Fluo- ride electrodes are not sensitive to combined fluoride such as HF or SiF,, but are sensitive to OH at pH greater than 8 (Skoog, 1985). Also, the ponds generally have pH values between 1.2 and 1.8 (Schiff et al, 1981). For a pond 68 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 with 10,000 ppm soluble fluoride and pH of 1.5, 98% of the fluoride exists as HF rather than F (K, for HF =7.2 x 10% at 25°C; Weast, 1979). This analyti- cal technique and calculation gives no indication as to the concentration or volatility of SiF,. “Surveillance is advisible (Crane et al., 1970)” as, “the fate of the material is largely unknown (State of Florida, 1983).” FLuoRwE FLux Estrimates—Three previous estimates of flouride emis- sions from ponds, which are based on experimental measurements of atmo- spheric HF over ponds, have been made. Cross and Ross (1969) installed a “greenhouse” with a stack and exhaust fan directly on a settling pond. They then pulled air through the assembly at a rate which gave concentration values in the enclosure equal to those on the bank adjacent to the pond. They then estimated the emission rate to be 11.8 kg/day for a 65 ha pond. The 40 ha cooling pond would be expected to add 7.3 kg/day for a total of 19.1 kg/ day. Cross and Ross stated that they thought these to be minimum emission values. Crane and coworkers (1970) reported on a similar experiment in which air was drawn at a known rate through an enclosure over a twenty foot long air, gypsum-pond water interface. The values obtained were shown to be temperature dependent and ranged from 0.56 kg/ha day at 50°C to approxi- mately 2.8 kg/ha day at 80°C. For the example above these would lead to 59 to 294 kg/day. Crane and coworkers (1970) state that they do not believe the air reached its ultimate saturation value and that the values are low. The water as it enters the pond may be at somewhat higher temperatures initially, thus fluxes may be much higher initially than over the pond as a whole. Tatera (1970) made measurements on pond water that was transported to a laboratory where studies were conducted in a wind tunnel. He also could vary wind speed and temperature. He determined emission rates could vary from 0.36 to 20.5 kg/ha day, the actual emission rate being very dependent on temperature and wind speed and less dependent on fluoride content of the pond water. He also stated that other mechanisms such as perculation and photochemical reactions must account for additional emissions of flourides to the atmosphere. Measurements by Tatera (1970) yielded 12.1 kg/ha day for a typical pond. this would result in 1270 kg/day emission from the ponds in the example above. Grant (1964) stated that about 100 kg of fluoride are produced per metric ton of P,O,. Thus for a 450 metric ton/day plant, 45,000 kg of fluoride would be produced and 1270 kg would be only a 2.8% release to the atmosphere. These authors believe their fluxes to be minimums and because they vary so widely, an independent method of estimation seems appropriate. Very approximate estimates of the fluoride flux from gypsum ponds can be made on the basis of HF vapor pressures over HF-H,O solutions and H,O evaporation rates along with a consideration of atmospheric conditions. The use of HF vapor pressures from HF solutions rather than fluorisilicic acid solutions appears as the concentration of HF in the pond waters is measured by the fluoride specific electrode as mentioned above. No. 2, 1987] MOORE—EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 69 50 H5O 10 ro ec fe) = 430 oO re) HF all 0.1 0.02 0 0.1 GO.2 MOLE FRACTION Fic. 2. Vapor pressure of the components in the HF-H,O system as given by Brosheer et al., 1947. The upper curve in each set is at 40°C and the lower curve is at 25°C. 70 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 22 20 18 16 a a a oO Le) = PRESSURE HF, TORR x 102 [o0) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 MOLE FRACTION x 102 Fic. 3. Vapor pressure of HF solutions at low concentrations. The upper curve is at 40°C and the lower curve is at 25°C. No. 2, 1987] MOORE— EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 71 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HyDROGEN FLUORIDE SOLUTIONS—The vapor pressure of water and hydrogen fluoride over pure hydrogen fluoride solutions has been measured by Fredenhagen and Wellman (1932); Khaidukou and cowor- kers (1936); Brosheer and coworkers (1947) and Munter and coworkers (1949). The best data at lower concentrations appear to be those given by Brosheer and coworkers (1947). These data are given in Fig. 2 and 3 for temperatures of 25°C. Tatera (1971) also has given data, but his values ap- pear low. Waters in the settling and cooling ponds are saturated with several cal- cium salts and hence are not pure HF-H,O solutions. However considering them as pure solutions the mole fraction of HF corresponding to 10,000 ppm fluoriden is 0.010. Addition of other solutes will tend to reduce the mole fraction of HF, but to what extent is not certain. More important may be the nature of the solutes and the pH of solutions. As mentioned above, at a pH of 2 or below most of the fluoride will be in the form of HF and not F-. Molecu- lar HF is volatile while F is not. Other solutes in the pond may cause a salting-out effect and increase the vapor pressure of HF over the ponds. Field measurements of the vapor pressure of HF over the actual cooling and settling ponds need to be made. The vapor pressure of water above the cooling and settling ponds will be effected by the same factors as for hydrogen fluoride. The biggest variable in determining both vapor pressures may be temperature as shown (Fig. 2 and 3). WATER EVAPORATION RATES—The flux of hydrogen fluoride to the atmo- sphere can be estimated from the evaporation rate of water and the vapor pressures of hydrogen fluoride and water (MacKay and Walkoff, 1973). The estimation of evaporation rates is not an easy task (Chow, 1964). The evapo- ration rate of water depends on the temperature of the water and air, wind velocity, atmospheric pressure, chemical purity of the water, and the depth of the water body. Evaporation rates can be estimated in several ways. The two most com- mon methods are from averages of evaporation as determined by evaporation pans and from evaporation equations based on modifications of Dalton’s law. The most commonly used pan is the U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Pan (Chow, 1964). Evaporation rates using this pan have been published by the Weather Bureau (Kohler et al., 1955). True evaporation rates for open ponds and shallow lakes are generally about 0.70 of the pan value. Evapora- tion rates depend upon the depth of the pond or lake. Deeper lakes have lower evaporation rates. Also the evaporation rate decreases as the salinity increases. About 1 percent decrease in the evaporation rate occurs with 1 percent increase in specific gravity. The evaporation rate of ocean water is thus 2-3 percent lower than fresh water. This may have a decided effect on estimates of evaporation from settling ponds, but may be offset by the shal- low depth of these ponds. Evaporation rates derived from pan measurements are 152-165 cm/yr for yo FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Central Florida. Actual measurements on lakes are given as 122-132 cm/yr. The 0.70 factor applied to the pan values yields 114 cm/yr or 0.31 cm/day. No correction is made for the salinity of the ponds. Evaporation rates for shallow ponds and lakes can also be determined from a Dalton’s law type equaiton given by Rohwer (1933): E = 1.958{(1.465-0.0186B) (0.44 + 0.190W) [exp (Py/P,)]} (10) where B is the barometric pressure, W is the wind velocity, and Py and P, are the saturation and actual water vapor pressures. B, Py, and P, are in Torr, W is in km/hr, and E in cm/da. Schiff and coworkers (1981) give a wind speed of 19.6 km/hr, an air tem- perature of 85°C and a relative humidity of 95 percent during the times when they were sampling. Using these values (Eqn. 10) gives an evaporation rate of 0.174 cm/da or about half of that estimated from pan values. The flux of gaseous HF to the atmosphere from the pond may not follow the evaporation rate of water exactly. If equilibrium for both HF and H,0O is reached and the air mass over the pond is exchanged with surrounding air, the replacement air may have a high humidity, thus suppressing the evapora- tion rate of water, but be void of HF. Under these conditions the HF would continue to escape to the atmosphere and the HF flux would be greater than estimated from the evaporation rate of water. Since no information is avail- able, the calculations which follow do not consider salinity or exchange of air over the pond with high humidity air which is void of HF. ATMOSPHERIC FLUXES OF HyDROGEN FLUoRIDE—The flux of HF from the surface of the pond, F, is given by: F=E[(P M)ur/(P M)w] (11) where E is the evaporation rate of water. P and M are the saturation vapor pressures and molecular weights of HF and water. The vapor pressures are both temperature and concentration dependent as shown above in Figures 2 and 3. However, the ratio of vapor pressures is less dependent on tempera- tures, so the effect of temperature on the flux is largely governed by the change in evaporation rate with temperature. Using a value of 10,000 ppm HF for a gypsum settling pond (Schiff et al., 1981), the vapor pressures of water and hydrogen fluoride are 23.48 and TABLE 2. Summary of HF Flux Data for a 105 Hectare Pond HF, kg/day | Cross and Ross (1969) 19 Crane et al. (1970) 59-294 Tatera (1970) 38-2140 Present Estimate 123-195 No. 2, 1987] MOORE— EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 73 0.024 Torr at 25°C. Introducing the evaporation rates calculated above leads to fluxes of 2.1 x 10*g/m* min (pan evaporation) and 1.3 x 10% g/m’ min (Dalton’s law equation). Using vapor pressure values at 40°C gives similar values. A summary of flux values is given in Table 2. ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATIONS OF HF—Surface air concentrations may be related to the flux by (Crank, 1956): C=F/(Dey)!? (12) where D is the turbulent diffusion coefficient and is the removal rate of HF from the atmosphere. The mean residence time or the time to remove 1/e of a species from the atmosphere is given by T,=1/A. Eqn. 12 assumes a uniform flux over an infinite horizontal plane. This may not be applicable in the strict sense as the ponds have finite areas and replacement air may be void of HF as mentioned above. However, Eqn. 12 should provide some insight into the residence time of HF as related to air concentrations near the settling ponds. Values of D vary with altitude and generally range from zero at the ground to 1200 m?’/min in the open troposphere (Jacobi and Andre, 1963; Ikebe and Shimo, 1972). with a wind speed of 20 km/hr over open land at 1 m altitude, D has an approximate value of 12 m’/min. TABLE 3. Calculated Atmospheric Residence Times for Gaseous HF F; g/m? min D; m2/min C; ug/m% T,; min Pan 2,1 x10 12 50 0.5 1200 50 Dalton 1.3 x 10-4 12 50 13 1200 130 The value of the atmospheric residence time for HF has not been deter- mined. It must be very short as HF is a very reactive gas and will undergo deposition on plant and other surfaces including aerosols in the atmosphere. An estimate of the value of T. can be obtained from measured values of HF near the ponds through the use of Eqn 12. Schiff et al. (1981) found atmo- spheric concentrations ranging from 20 to 60 ppb. Earlier values ranged from 0 to 170 ppb (Hendrickson, 1961; Huffstutler and Starnes, 1970). If a value of 60 ppb (50 ug/m* is assumed, calculated values for T, range from 0.5 min to 2.2 hr. Data on gaseous HNO,, a similar compound, is available for comparison. Parrish and coworkers (1986) measured particulate NO; along with gaseous HNO,, NO, and NO, in a non-urban site west of Boulder, CO. Based on their measurements, they concluded that most of the gaseous HNO, is removed by deposition rather than by attachment to aerosols and subsequent rainout or washout. A T, for gaseous HNO, was estimated to be between 17.5 and 8.8 hr for the winter and summer months, respectively. The shorter residence time corresponds to more humid conditions in the Rocky Mountains. 74 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Jacob and coworkers (1986) studied the H,SO,-HNO,-NH, system at high humidities and in fogs. They concluded that the residence time of gaseous HNO, was less than 12 hr. They developed a stirred-tank model to explain their experimental values and adopted a deposition velocity for gaseous HNO, of 3 cm/s. Measurements of the deposition velocity in clear air over a grass field in Central Illinois yielded a mean value of 2.5% +0.9 cm/s (Huebert and Robert, 1985). Deposition velocity is related to residence time by 1/T,=(v/h) +, +k, (13) where v is the deposition velocity, h is the atmospheric mixing height, \, is the removal rate by aerosol attachment and k, is the removal rate by chemical processes. The latter is important for HNO,, but not for HF as gaseous HNO, undergoes photolysis while HF does not. Residence times calculated from deposition velocities are very dependent on the atmospheric mixing height. Parrish and coworkers (1986) assumed a mixing height of 1100 m, while Jacob and coworkers (1986) assumed 400 m. These appear to be typical values except under extremely stable conditions when the mixing height may be on the order of 100 m (Wallace and Hobbs, 1977). Values of 300 and 1000 m for the mixing height combined with the data of Huebert and Robert (1985) yield 3.3 and 11 hr, respectively, for T, for gaseous HNO,. Aerosol attachment should result in even shorter residence times as indicated by Egn 13. Attachment reactions for ions to particles in the atmosphere with diame- ters less than 0.1 um is quite rapid. For Rn-222 daughters the attachment rate has a T, corresponding to 0.33 to 1.85 min. (Porstendorfer and Mercer, 1980). Once formed, aerosol particles undergo coagulation until they reach a radius of approximately 0.1 um radius (Burgmeier et al., 1973). This process ap- pears to take approximately an hour (Nakatani, 1980). The attachment of HF to aerosols may be somewhat slower as attachment in the case of HF depends upon having sufficient NH, to partially neutralize the acid. HF would not be expected to attach to a highly acidic sulfate particle; however, if attachment rates are similar to deposition rates then T, for HF, assuming it is similar to HNO,, would vary from 1.2 to 5.5 hours. Best estimates of T, for gaseous HF thus appear to be on the order of 1 to 5 hours. Once attached to aerosols, fluoride will have a residence time correspond- ing to the residence time of the aerosols. Based on Rn-222 daughter measure- ments, Moore and coworkers (1973; 1980) calculated mean residence time for atmospheric aerosols of about 5 days. Based on a long range transport model for sulfate over the Eastern United States, Kleinman (1983) estimated a resi- dence time of 4.4 days. In the same model calculation, Kleinman (1983) found the average distance from source to receptor for sulfate to be 583 km. Thus it appears most of the gaseous HF will be confined to the region of emission, but particulate fluoride may be spread throughout Central Florida. In Sarasota County, FL a mean of 0.14 ppb gaseous fluoride has been deter- No. 2, 1987] MOORE—EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 15 mined in ambient air samples for the years 1980-1985; however, no data on particulate fluoride are available for comparison (Sarasota County, 1985). The above discussion gives no insight into the flux or fate of SiF, in the atmosphere. It is a less reactive gas which should have a longer residence time and be transported over greater distances before reaction. This should be investigated further. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FLUORIDE ExposurE—In plants, exposure to ele- vated fluoride concentrations is most evidenced by the development of leaf margin and tip necrosis. Injury to plants at lower fluoride levels may result in decreased plant dry weight, vigor, leaf size and fruit quality and quantity. The threshold levels at which these symptoms become evident is difficult to ascertain accurately. Possible effects on citrus become of interest in Florida. While citrus, like other species, exhibits a range of tolerances, threshold levels for growth effects appear to be in the range of 50-100 ppm (dry weight) on the leaves. Concentration on the leaves of plants can be related to atmospheric pres- sure concentrations by: Aig ROT (14) where AL is the increase in fluoride concentration on leaves above normal background levels due to an atmospheric concentration, C, maintained for time, T. K is the apparent accumulation rate factor. Accumulation is not constant as implied by the equation but appears to decrease with time. Thus exposure to high concentrations for short periods of time may not have the same effect as exposures to lower concentrations over longer periods of time. This is illustrated by the work of McCune (1969) on citrus which indicates that exposure to 1-10 ppb fluoride for 10-12 months will produce foliar mark- ings as readily as exposure to 5000-10000 ppb fluoride for 1 hour. McCune suggests an ambient exposure limit of 1 ppb to prevent damage to citrus. Data by Brewer and coworkers (1969) support these findings. Also of interest is data on plants used as forage for cattle. Data on orchard grass appears typical of other forage crops tested. The work of Benedict and coworkers (1965) indicates a value of K equal to 1.1 for orchard grass at fumigation levels of 0.6 to 0.9 ppb and times ranging from 21 to 120 days. Thus orchard grass would accumulate 50 ppm fluoride in a month at ambient fluoride levels of 1.5 ppb. Crippling skeletal fluorosis has been observed in cattle exposed to high levels of fluoride (McClure, 1970). A concentration of 40 ppm has been cited as an official allowable maximum of fluoride on plants which are used as forage for cattle (Lewis, 1975). State of Florida (1978) analyses on grass sam- ples from Polk, Hillsborough, and Manatee counties in Florida during the years 1976-78 show mean levels of 9 to 117 ppm for monthly samples. These levels must accumulate from airborne fluoride. The Peace River, which flows 76 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 through Polk, Hardee and Desoto Counties, FL was found to contain 46 ppm fluoride in 1961 (Waldbott, 1978). More recent samples run in the author’s laboratory showed 4.2 ppm at Bowling Green, FL and from 30.5 to 48.5 ppm (11 samples) in the remainder of the river down to Arcadia, FL. While these levels are equal to or above those considered injurious to cattle, only two cases of crippling fluorosis in cattle have been reported in Florida in recent years (State of Florida, 1986). Ambient concentrations of atmospheric fluorides remote from the phos- phate production operations do not appear to be at levels which would be injurious to humans at the present time. The 1 ppb level proposed by Mc- Cune (1969) to protect citrus would be adequate for both livestock and hu- mans. The State of Florida does not presently have a standard regulation on ambient fluoride levels in the atmosphere. Some insight into what the level should be for the protection of humans can be gained by comparison to levels for other atmospheric pollutants. Limits for human exposure to several air contaminants are given in Table 4 (Weast, 1979) along with the State of Flor- ida ambient standards. The exposure limits are concentrations above which “exposures..... shall be avoided, or protective equipment shall be provided and used.” By comparison proposed ambient standards for protection of hu- mans would be in the range of (1) 0.3 ppm for 3 hours; (2) 0.06 ppm for 24 hours; and (3) 0.03 ppm annual mean. These regulations should apply to a combined total of gaseous and particulate fluoride as they appear to be equally injurious. TABLE 4. Atmospheric Pollutant Standards Chemical Maximum Exposure Florida Ambient Species Limits Standards SO, 5 ppm 0.5 ppm, 1 hr 0.01 ppm, 24 hr CO 50 ppm 35 ppm, 1 hr 9 ppm, 8 hr O; 0.1 ppm 0.12 ppm 1 da per yr NO, 5 ppm 0.05 annual mean HF 3 ppm _— F- dust 2.5 mg/m3 — 1.Weast, 1979 2.State of Florida, 1985. ConcLusions—Based on the evidence above, settling and cooling ponds associated with phosphate fertilizer production account for 60% or more of the total fluorides released to the atmosphere in the process. The HF is rap- idly attached to aerosol particles and may be dispersed throughout Central Florida in the particulate form. These low levels of fluoride can result in accumulations which may be injurious to plants and animals. Several awards were given to farmers in suits brought against aluminum refining plants for damage due to fluoride emission during the time period 1950-1962 (Waldbott et al., 1978). Waldbott and coworkers also suggest that the decline in the No. 2, 1987] MOORE—EMISSIONS FROM GYPSUM PONDS 77 cattle industry in Florida from 1954 to 1965 was due to fluoride emissions from phosphate plants. More information is needed on the airborne concentrations of gaseous and particulate fluorides in Central Florida. More information should be gained on the chemistry of the ponds with the objective of seeking a suitable way to lower fluoride fluxes. Liming is one obvious way to lower fluxes but is too costly. Understanding the chemistry may aid in developing less costly control methodology. LITERATURE CITED Baur, E. 1903. Uber die distillation der dieselflussuare. Dent. Chem. Gesell. Ber. 36:4209-4214. BenepicT, H. M., J.M. Rossanp, AND R. H. Wape. 1965. Some responses of vegetation to atmo- spheric fluorides. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 15:253-255. Brewer, R. F., F. H. SUTHERLAND, AND F. B. Gum_L_LeMet. 1969. 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Geopys. Res. 91:1073-1088. Jacosi, W. anv K. Anore. 1963. The vertical distribution of radon 222, radon 220 and their decay products in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 68:3799-3814. Jacosson, C. A. 1923. Fluosilicic acid II. J. Phys. Chem. 27:762-770. Kuaipukou, N., Z. LinerskaAyA, AND A. BocGNovarov. 1929. Vapor pressures of HF, SiF, and water over the system of HF-H,SiF,-H,SO,-water. J. Applied Chem. (USSR) 9:439-445. KLEINMAN, L. I. 1983. A regional scale modeling study of the sulfur oxides with a comparison to ambient and wet deposition monitoring data. Atmos. Environ. 17:1107-1121. Kou_er, M. A., T. J. NORDENSON, AND W. E. Fox. 1955. Evaporation from Pans and Lakes. U. S. Weather Bureau Res. Paper No. 38. Washington, D.C. Lewis, H. R. 1965. With Every Breath You Take. Crown Publishers, Inc. New York, N.Y. MacKay, D. ann A. W. Wotkorr. 1973. Rate of evaporation of low-solubility contaminants from water to the atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Tech. 7:611-614. McCuvre, F. J. 1970. Water Fluoridation—The Search and Victory. HEW 20.3402:F67. Wash- ington, D.C. 78 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 McCune, D. C. 1969. Establishment of Air Quality Criteria, with Reference to the Effects of Atmospheric Fluoride on Vegetation. Air Qual. Monograph 1969, No. 693. Moore, H. E., S. E. Poer, AND E. A. MARTELL. 1973. 722Rn, 2!°Pb, 2!°Bi, and 2!°Po profiles and aerosol residence times versus altitude. J. Geophys. Res. 78:7065-7075. . 1980. Size distribution and origin of lead-210, bismuth-210, and polonium-210 on airborne particles in the troposphere. Jn Natural Radiation Environment III. Vol. 1 Pp. 415-429. Gesell, T. F. and W. M. Lowder (eds.). TIC USDOE CONF-780422. Munter, P. A., O. T. AEpLi, AND R. A. Kossatz. 1949. Partial pressure measurements on the system hydrogen fluoride-water. Ind. Engr. Chem. 41:1504-1508. NakaTANI, S. 1980. The mean size among the particles of short-lived radon daughter products in the atmosphere. In Radiation Environment III Vol. 1:294-307. Eds. T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder. TIC/USDOE CONF-780422. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1971. Biological Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants: Fluorides. NAS. Washington, D.C. ParrisH, D. D., R. B. Norton, M.J. BOLLINGER, S.C. Liu, P. C. Murpny, D. L. ALBritton, F. C. FEHSENFELD, AND B. J. HueBert. 1986. Measurements of HNO, and NO; particulates at a rural site in the Colorado mountains. J. Geophys. Res. 91:5379-5393. PoRSTENDORFER, J. AND T. T. Mercer. 1980. Diffusion coefficient of radon decay products and their attachment rate to the atmospheric aerosol. Pp. 281-283. In GesELL, T. F. anp W. M. Lowoper (eds.) Radiation Environment III. Vol. 1. TIC/USDOE CONF-780422, Washington, D.C. Rouwer, C. 1933. Evaporation from salt solutions and from oil-covered water surfaces. J. Agr. Res. 46:715-729. SARASOTA County. 1985. Annual Report. Department of Environmental Resources. Sarasota, Fil, SAUCHELLI, V. 1960. Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers. Reinhold Publishing Co. New York Nae ScuiFF, H., D. Bause, J. FirzcerRALD, M. McCase, D. MONTANARO, AND V. SHORTELL. 1981. Correlation of Remote and Wet Chemical Sampling Techniques for Hydrogren Fluoride from Gypsum Ponds. USEPA Report No. GCA-TR-80-76-G. Washington, D.C. Sxooc, D. A. 1985. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. 3rd ed. Saunder College Publishing. New York. p. 616. STATE OF FLoripa. 1978. Department of Environmental Regulation. Air Quality Data Report. Fluoride: Vegetation. 1976-1978. Tallahassee, FL. . 1983. Annual Report, Florida Institute of Phosphate Research. Bartow, FL. . 1985. Dept. Environ. Reg., Pollution Control Regulations, Chap. 17-2 Air Pollution. Tallahassee, FL. ______. 1986. Dept. Environ. Reg. Private Communication. TaTERA, B. S. 1970. Parameters which Influence Fluoride Emissions from Gypsum Ponds. Ph. D. Dissertation. Univ. Florida. Gainesville. (Diss. Ab. 3992-B, 1971). WaccaMaNn, W. H. 1969. Phosphoric Acid, Phosphates and Phosphatic Fertilizers. ACS Mono- graph Series. Hafner Publishing Co. New York, N. Y. Wa.psott, G. L., A. W. BurcsTAHLER, AND H. L. McKinney. 1978. Fluoridation; The Great Dilemma. Coronado Press, Inc. Lawrence, Kansas. Wa. ace, J. M. AND P. V. Hosss. 1977. Atmospheric Science. An Introductory Survey. Academic Press. New York. pp 440-441. Weast, R. C. 1979. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 60th ed. Chemical Rubber Co. Boca Raton, FL. pp D123-128. Florida Sci. 50(2):65-78. 1987. Accepted: August 20, 1986. Social Sciences NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF CUBAN AND HAITIAN REFUGEES IN TAMPA “Christine R. Geiser and °E. Lee Husting (College of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 and College of Medicine, Department of Comprehensive Medicine, MDC Box 41, University of South Florida, 12901 North 30th Street, Tampa, Florida 33612 AssTRACT: A needs assessment of Cuban and Haitian refugees living in Tampa was conducted from November 1982 through May 1983 by using key informant interviews and by surveying 57 community leaders who had been involved with refugee resettlement. Forty-one (72 % ) respon- dents completed and returned a mailed questionnaire. The results yielded a priority ranking of refugee home management needs. The top-ranked needs were learning to speak English (35 responses), learning how to look for a job (31 responses), and medical care (26 responses). Social service agencies in Tampa have tended to give top priority to these needs. THE migration of tens of thousands of Cuban and Haitian refugees to Florida during the 1970s and 1980s strained the capacity of social service agencies to provide services. In response, many agencies expanded their refu- gee resettlement programs. The purpose of this needs assessment was to pro- vide Catholic Social Services, Tampa, with the documentation of refugee needs that it needed to evaluate its existing refugee services and to plan its new refugee home management program. Catholic Social Services, Tampa, is a nonprofit social service agency that was founded in 1944. It serves Hillsborough, Pasco, Hernando, Citrus, Har- dee, and DeSoto Counties. The Agency began to assist refugees in 1960 when it provided foster care to unaccompanied Cuban children. In 1980, there was another surge in the number of Cuban refugees entering the United States when over 120,000 arrived, most of them in Florida (Bienia, et al., 1982). According to U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) records, the number of Haitian entrants entering south Florida increased from 4,449 in 1979 to almost 25,000 in 1980 (Florida Mission to Haiti, 1981). Catholic Social Services began serving Haitian refugees in 1981. They were usually brought to the Agency by other Haitians who were already settled in the community and who had resident status with the INS. Catholic Social Services provided food, clothing, shelter, job counseling, English as a Second Language classes, and referrals to other agencies for medical care and other services. Typically, staff members who worked with refugees were bilingual; some were of the same cultural background as their clients, and in some cases, had originally come to the United States as refu- gees. In this paper, “needs” refers specifically to home management needs, i.e. any needs that relate to domestic activities as perceived by refugees, advo- cates, service providers, or other community leaders. Many individuals acted 80 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 in more than one of these roles, and, for simplicity, all will be referred to here as “service providers.” The term refugee will be used here in its broadest sense and may include persons whose legal status is either “refugee” or “entrant.” The Refugee Act of 1980 provides a statutory definition of “refugee” as any person who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of origin “because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, national- ity, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion” (United States Congress, 1981). “Entrant” refers to “Cuban/Haitian entrants (status pending),” a legal designation granted by the President to the Cubans who entered the United States between April 21, 1980, and June 19, 1980, and to Haitians who were involved in INS proceeding as of June 19, 1980 (Gordon and Rosenfield, 1982). Information has been published on the health problems of Cuban and Haitian refugees (Korcok, 1980); the American health care system’s response to the arrival of over 120,000 Cuban refugees during the spring of 1980 (Bienia, et al., 1982); the nutritional status of Cuban refugees processed at Opa Locka, Florida (Gordon, 1982); the legal problems of Haitian refugees under United States immigration law (Stepick, 1982a); the political and eco- nomic contexts of emigration from Cuba (Ward, 1978) and from Haiti (Ste- pick, 1982b); and, more recently, family patterns among Haitians migrating to south Florida (Fjellman and Gladwin, 1985). The Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service (1979) has published a general description of refugee needs and resettlement. A computer search of the Social Scisearch (January 1972-November 1982) and Medline (January 1980-November 1982) data- bases and a manual search produced no citations on the resettlement and needs of Cuban and Haitian refugees. MetHops—From November 1982 through May 1983, a descriptive survey of Cuban and Haitian refugee needs was conducted in Tampa. First, service providers who had been involved in refugee resettlement were interviewed. Second, a survey questionaire based on the interview data was mailed to 57 service providers. Initially, Catholic Social Services provided the names of 29 people who had worked with refugees. A majority of them were contacted by telephone, and they suggested other individuals to contact. This process continued until March 10, 1983, when a list of 73 names had been generated. By this time, many of the suggested names were already on the list. Some individuals could not be reached by telephone because they had changed jobs, were no longer serving on the Hillsborough County Refugee Task Force, had moved away, or for other reasons. The selection process probably biased the sample towards individuals who had telephones and permanent addresses, spoke English, and worked with social service agencies. With one exception, all of the participants provided names, telephone numbers, addresses, and organizational affiliations of additional people to contact. Nine service providers, whose names were mentioned frequently in connection with refugee resettlement in Tampa, provided in-depth, key informant interviews. They were selected from different organizations to maximize the variety of perspectives obtained. Four of the interviews were tape recorded. Briefer, informal interviews by telephone and in person were conducted whenever the opportunity arose. No one refused a request to be interviewed. All interview data were treated confidentially. No. 2, 1987] GEISER AND HUSTING—NEEDS OF REFUGEES 81 A survey questionnaire was mailed out to the 57 people on the list for whom addresses were available. The questionnaire was based on key issues and refugee needs identified in the inter- views. Its main purpose was to develop a priority list of refugee needs as perceived by service providers. It also sought information on how service providers thought refugees would rank their needs, and on the general characteristics of service providers. The questionnaire was typed on both sides of a single sheet of legal size paper, and a self-addressed, stamped envelope was en- closed to facilitate responses. It contained 8 questions and allowed for both close-ended and open- ended responses. The questionnaire respondents were anonymous. The interview data, including field notes and transcriptions of the 4 tape-recorded key in- formant interviews, were analyzed, and issues concerning refugee needs were identified and incorporated into the survey questionnaire. Responses to the close-ended questions in the ques- tionnaire were tabulated; response to open-ended questions were compiled verbatim. A priority ranking of refugee needs was developed from the questionnaire responses. TABLE 1. Priorities assigned to refugee needs by the questionnaire respondents. ! Service Provider's Perceptions How Providers How Refugees Rank Needs Would Rank Needs Needs Rank Order (No. of Responses) Speaking English 1 (35) 2 (21) How to look for a job 2 (31) 1 (33) Medical Care 3 (26) 4 (18) Transportation 4 ( 7) 5 (15) How to purchase foods 5 ( 6) 9 ( 2) How to manage money 6 ( 5) 9 ( 2) Hygiene 7.5 ( 4) 11 ( 1) Public assistance/services 7.5 ( 4) 3 (19) How to use appliances/plumbing 10 ( 1) 6.5 ( 3) How to dress appropriately 10 ( 1) 9 ( 2) Daycare 10 ( 1) 6.5 ( 3) In=41 REesuLts— The questionnaire data were used to produce the two rankings of refugee needs shown in Table 1. Respondents gave top priority to learning to speak English, learning how to look for a job, and medical care. Respon- dents thought refugees would give a high priority to these needs as well, but would also give the need for transportation, and information on how to ob- tain public assistance and services a high ranking. Seventy-two percent of the 57 people surveyed completed and returned the questionnaire. Demographic characteristics of the respondents were as follows: 59% were males, 37% were females, and 5% did not answer the question. Fifty-four percent of the respondents were under 40 years of age, 12% were over 60, none were under 20, and 5% did not answer the question. Respondents indicated that their knowledge of refugee needs was based on providing direct services (61%), personal contact in the refugee commu- nity (61%), administrating service programs (59%), the news media (24%), personal experience as a refugee (7%), and other sources (24%). One (2%) did not answer the question. 82 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Sixty-eight percent of the respondents spoke Spanish, 27% spoke French, 27% spoke Haitian Creole, and 95% spoke English. One (2%) did not re- spond. During the interviews, the lack of INS records by city or county, the variations between the record-keeping systems of social service agencies, and refugee migration patterns were cited as obstacles to identifying the Cuban and Haitian refugee population in Tampa. The Haitians comprised a fairly fluid migrant population which followed the crops to North Carolina and back during the summer and remained here during the winter. A relatively small number of Cubans went to Texas and back, but most remained here permanently. Interviewees were asked how they determined refugee needs. One indi- vidual said she contacted community organizations such as Ser-Job’s For Pro- gress, the State Employment Service, Tampa United Methodist Church, and the Hillsborough Task Force. Several others also mentioned using this ap- proach. One individual stated that it is difficult to do a needs assessment on people who have only been here a short time because “their lack of information is so vast that they can’t identify what they don’t know,” and so “... we still find out much more accurately what the needs of the clients are through the workers rather than the clients themselves.” Bilingual outreach workers were familiar with their clients’ needs and could communicate them to other agency staff members. Refugee needs mentioned less frequently during the interviews included spiritual counseling, emotional support to help refugees cope with the psy- chological stresses of adapting to a new culture, and home visits and counsel- ing to encourage refugees to get further education that would enable them to advance beyond minimum-wage jobs. All nine key informants agreed that there was a need for a refugee home management program. Several individuals summarized refugee needs by saying that refugees needed to learn “the American way.’ One, a native of Cuba who worked for a local community radio station, said: “I say they have to learn a little bit more of English and they have to learn, perhaps not even the American way, but the blend that has developed... The Cuban-American way in which, for example, myself, I can swim on both waters.” Discussion AND CoNcLusIONs— Service providers thought refugees would give the need for information on how to apply for public assistance and sery- ices much higher priority than they themselves would as shown in Table 1. One possible explanation for this difference is that procedures for obtaining services are familiar to service providers but may appear formidable to peo- ple who do not speak English, are unfamiliar with filling out forms, and urgently need the services. Table 1 indicates that the respondents thought the refugees would rank learning to speak English much lower than they themselves would. The inter- No. 2, 1987] GEISER AND HUSTING— NEEDS OF REFUGEES 83 view data suggested that service providers were concerned that refugees un- derstand that learning to speak English would improve their ability to get jobs (or better paying jobs) and give them better access to transportation, education, medical care, and other needed goods and services. Bilingual serv- ice providers who can communicate with refugees in their own language may be better able to identify refugee needs than the refugees themselves who, being unfamiliar with American culture, may not know what information they need to have in order to adapt. Those involved in refugee resettlement generally agreed that jobs, learn- ing English, and medical care should be given the highest priority. As one individual said: “The refugee need varies according to area, age, educational level; however the need for English, jobs and medical care are present in most cases.” The Agency has expanded its services in these areas. For example, in 1983, subsequent to the needs assessment, the Agency established an evening class in English as a Second Language in addition to one already offered during the day, and it has supplemented its transportation services by engag- ing the services of a van. The results suggest that there are differences between the perceptions of service providers and refugees regarding needs. In order to evaluate these differences and their potential implications for improving refugee services, it might be useful for researchers who are fluent in Spanish and Haitian Creole to use ethnographic methods (Spradley, 1979) to conduct a needs assessment by working directly with refugees. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The authors thank Alejandra Brania, Catholic Social Services, for her assistance with the needs assessment. LITERATURE CITED BreniA, R. A., J. D. VANDERDECKER, AND B. H. Brenta. 1982. Cuban Refugee Health-Care Responses of the American Health-Care System to the Unexpected Arrival of 125,000 Immigrants. Am. J. Pub. Health. 72(6):594-596. FJELLMAN, S. M., AND H. Giapwin. 1985. Haitian Family Patterns of Migration to South Flor- ida. Human Organiz. 44(4):301-312. FLoripa Mission To Haiti. 1981. Report of the Florida Mission to Haiti. Lieutenant Governor Wayne Mixson of Florida, Mission Leader. November, 1981. Gorpon, Jr., A. M. 1982. Nutritional Status of Cuban Refugees: A Field Study on the Health and Nutriture of Refugees Processed at Opa Locka, Florida. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35(3):582-590. Gorpon, C., AND H. N. RosEnFIELD. 1982. Immigration Law and Procedure. Volume 1. Immi- gration. Matthew Bender, New York. Korcox, M. 1980. The Haitian and Cuban Refugees: Dealing with Imported Disease. Canad. Med. Assoc. J. 123(3):213-220. LUTHERAN IMMIGRATION AND REFUGEE SERVICE. 1979. Face to Face: The Ministry of Refugee Resettlement. LIRS Orientation Manual for Congregations. Lutheran Council in the U.S.A., New York, 16 pp. SPRADLEY, J. P. 1979. The Ethnographic Interview. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Stepick, A. 1982a. Haitian Boat People: A Study in the Conflicting Forces Shaping U.S. Immi- gration Policy. J. Law and Contemp. Problems 45(2):163-196. . 1982b. Haitian Refugees in the U.S. Rep. No. 52. Minority Rights Group, London, 20 pp. 84 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Unitep States Concress. 1981. Refugee Act of 1980. United States Statutes at Large (1980). Volume 94. Part 1. Public Law 96-212. 96th Congress. Enacted March 17, 1980. U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D.C. Warp, F. 1978. Inside Cuba Today. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. Florida Sci. 50(2):79-84. 1987. Accepted: June 11, 1986. REVIEW Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Connecticut, 1983. 197 pp. $34 (postage paid). A Stupy by W. Cleveland found that 30% of some 377 graphs published in Science during a three-month period in 1980 contained at least one error, and that even in graphs containing no factual errors, we do a pretty poor job of communicating (Dolbear, 1986). Considering the enthusiasm with which many scientists prepare graphs, this observation is startling at first glance. Upon further thought, perhaps, one realizes that few scientists obtain formal training in presenting visual displays of information. This book can overcome that lack of training. The author is Professor of Political Science and Statistics at Yale and he has taught in the Department of Design. His book is divided into two parts: Graphical Practice (with chapters dealing with graphical ex- cellence, integrity, and sources of integrity sophistication) and Theory of Data Graphics. The first section looks at 75 examples of the finest graphical work from 1700 to 1982, some of which are improved in a step-by-step pre- sentation. Subsequently, the author deals with detection and avoidance of graphical deception, aesthetics and techniques in data graphical design, and considers a significant malady of our time: “Chartjunk’, as well as how to minimize it. This is a remarkable book that is well worth the investment. Avoiding a single example of chartjunk in one’s published work is surely well worth the price. Buy a copy; I did.—Dean F. Martin, University of South Florida, Tampa. cf. G. E. Dolbear, 1986. Heartcut, CHEMTECH 16:518. Biological Sciences THE SEASONALITY AND SPATIAL PATTERNS OF JUVENILE SURF ZONE FISHES OF THE FLORIDA EAST COAST Dennis J. Peters ' and Walter G. Nelson Department of Oceanography & Ocean Engineering Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida 32901 Asstract: Spatial and temporal patterns of variability were examined (April 1982 - June 1983) for 61 species of surf zone fishes (6,611) at beaches in Melbourne and Sebastian, Florida. The three numerically dominant species, Harengula jaguana, Anchoa lyolepis, and Trachinotus carolinus, comprised over 70% of all individuals. Temporal and spatial variability at several scales were important aspects of the structure of this fish assemblage. Fishes were most abundant seasonally during spring, summer, and fall (2,659) and least abundant during winter (6). Small scale spatial variability was found on beaches adjacent to the jetties at Sebastian Inlet. Both total number of individuals and species significantly decreased (p<0.05) with increasing distance from the jetty structures. Differences in subtidal habitat heterogeneity between Melbourne Beach and the beaches immediately south of Sebastian Inlet may account for the fact that twenty species were collected at the Sebastian sites which were not found at the Melbourne site. THE SAND beach surf zone habitat of Melbourne and Sebastian, Florida is one of the higher wave-energy environments along either the south Atlantic or Gulf coasts of the state (Galvin and Seelig, 1969). Turbulent wave condi- tions would appear to result in a harsh environment, yet it has been suggested that the surf zone provides a vital habitat for the development of juvenile fishes (Daly, 1970); and indeed most fishes of the surf zones are juveniles (Modde and Ross, 1981). Although the subtidal area of the sand beach gener- ally affords little habitat heterogeneity (Springer and Woodburn 1960), the ichthyofaunal diversity of exposed beaches has been found to be relatively high (Cupka, 1972; Anderson et al., 1977; Modde and Ross, 1981; Gilmore et al., 1981; Applied Biology, 1981). The majority of surf zone fishes demonstrate strong variability in their spatial and temporal association with a particular beach habitat (Tagatz and Dudley, 1961; Modde, 1980; Modde and Ross, 1981). The present survey was conducted to document the ichthyofauna of this high energy surf zone to examine the various levels of spatio-temporal variation in species composition and abundance of the primarily juvenile fishes from several exposed beach habitats. Prior to this study the only systematic survey of the surf zones fishes from the Florida east coast was documented in an unpublished technical report by Applied Biology Inc. (1981). The main temporal factor examined 1Fish Biology Department, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Inc., 5600 Old Dixie Highway, Fort Pierce, Florida, 33450. 86 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 was season, although tidal cycle and time of day were examined to a lesser extent. Spatial variability was assessed by long term sampling at two loca- tions differing in their bottom topography and composition. Short term sam- pling was carried out to investigate whether the presence of jetty structures alters community composition of surf zone fishes. 80°00 CAPE CANAVERAL ATLANTIC OCEAN SEBASTIAN INLET a FT. PIERCE INLET Fic. 1. Sampling locations at Melbourne (R-140) and Sebastian (R-4 and R-7) Beaches, Flor- ida. No. 2, 1987] PETERS AND NELSON—PATTERNS OF FISHES 87 MerHops—The surf zone habitats of three sandy beach locations on the east central coast of Florida were selected as sampling sites. The primary site for monitoring the seasonal variations of surf zone fishes was located at marker R-140 (Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, coastal con- struction control line marker) just south of Melbourne Beach (Fig. 1). The subtidal habitat con- sisted of a uniform sand bottom. Water temperature and salinity ranged from 14.5 to 29.5°C and 34.5 to 35.5 ppt, respectively. Two sites were chosen at Sebastian Beach, approximately 1219 m (marker R-4) and 2133 m (marker R-7) south of Sebastian Inlet (Fig. 1). These two sites share similar habitat characteristics but are very different from the Melbourne (R-140) site. Both sites are influenced by water from the Indian River Lagoon while the rock jetties on either side of the inlet add structural diversity to the adjacent beaches. Furthermore, a series of outcropping co- quina reef and sabellariid worm rock structures add structural heterogeneity to the benthic to- pography throughout the Sebastian Beach area. The Sebastian sites are similar to the Melbourne sites in water temperature and salinity, ranging from 17.5 to 30.0°C and 32.5 to 35.0 ppt, respectively. Collections were made approximately monthly for 15 months (April 1982 to June 1983) at Melbourne and 14 months (May 1982 to June 1983) at Sebastian site (Peters, 1984). Samples consisted of three hauls using a 4.75 m x 1.22 m seine and three hauls using a 9.14 x 1.22 m seine, both with 6.35 mm Ace mesh. Each haul was pulled approximately 15 m offshore straight into the beach. Due to statistically significant differences (p<0.05, one-way analysis of variance) in the mean number of individuals and species collected with each of the two seines used, results will be reported separately. All fishes captured were initially placed in a 10% buffered formalin solution for preservation. An abdominal incision was made on all fishes greater than 50 mm to allow the formalin to penetrate the gut cavity. Approximately 24 hours later, the fishes were rinsed in tap water and placed in 70% ethanol for storage. All fishes collected were identified to species (Hoese and Moore, 1977; Fischer, 1978; Jones et al., 1978; Dahlberg, 1980), weighed on an electronic bal- ance to the nearest 0.01 g (wet weight) and measured to the nearest 1.0 mm (standard length). The high wave energy and steep beach slope of the Melbourne Beach site made sampling at high tide impossible and this site was therefore sampled at low tide. Seining at the two Sebastian sites (R-4 & R-7) was not effective during low tide due to exposed coquina rock structures in the shallow subtidal region of these sites. Therefore all Sebastian samples were collected at high tide. ed reefs at the Sebastian sites diminished surf action sufficiently to allow sampling at high tide. To evaluate the importance of sampling on different tides, a 24 hour sampling survey was conducted at both Melbourne (R-140) and Sebastian (R-4) to determine whether significant dif- ferences in fish species composition and abundance might result from the differences in tidal level sampled (Peters, 1984). Sampling of the 24 hour surveys were conducted during mild weather conditions to allow for effective seining at all tides. Six hauls using the 9.14 m x 1.22 m seine were done at each of the high, low, and mid-tides for a 24-hour period (48 total hauls). Preliminary results from the Melbourne site showed a significantly greater (p >0.05) number of individuals (421 vs. 189) but not species were collected in the high tide samples as compared with the low tide samples. No significant differences in either number of individuals or number of species were seen at the Sebastian site. The increased abundance in the high tide samples at Melbourne was due almost entirely to a single species, Harengula jaguana. We therefore believe the difference in tidal level sampled is of minor importance in a general comparison of data from Melbourne and Sebastian. Due to obvious habitat differences (specifically bottom structural heterogeneity) be- tween the Melbourne and Sebastian sites, no statistical comparisons were made. Three equi-distant (50 m) transects immediately north and south of the Sebastian Inlet jetties were sampled to determine if composition and abundance of surf zone fishes were influenced by the structural habitat diversity of the inlet and jetties. The subtidal area adjacent to the north jetty has a uniform sand bottom, whereas immediately south of the inlet subtidal rock outcrop- pings exist. Three hauls using the 9.14 m x 1.22 m seine were undertaken in June of 1983 at each of the six additional transect sites. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the Wilcoxon two-sample test, and the T’-method of paired comparisons (Sokal and Rohlf, 1981) were used to analyze the data. Pearson product- moment correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the degree of association between both water temperature and salinity and the mean number of species and individuals collected over the durations of the study at both the Melbourne and Sebastian sites. 88 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 ResuLts—Species Comparison—During the seasonality study, a total of 41 species and 2,665 individuals were collected (Table 1). The surf zones of all three sites were dominated by four families in terms of total abundance: Carangidae, Clupeidae, Engraulidae, and Sciaenidae. These groups com- prised over 90% of all fishes captured. Sebastian (R-4) had the greatest num- ber of species (32), whereas Melbourne had the greatest total abundance (1082) (May 1982 through June 1983, inclusive). The most abundant species from the Melbourne site was Anchoa lyolepis (dusky anchovy, Engraulidae) which totaled less than 11% at either of the two Sebastian sites. Harengula jaguana (scaled sardine, Clupeidae) was the most abundant species from both the Sebastian sites (Table 1). The most frequently occurring species from all three sites was Trachinotus carolinus (Florida pompano, Carangidae). The three additional species of carangids collected never exceeded 2% of the total abundance of any site, and their occurrence was sporadic. Menticirrhus lit- toralis (gulf kingfish, Sciaenidae) had the highest frequency of occurrence among sciaenids at both Sebastian sites. Seasonality—Variations in abundance of regularly occurring species and in the total number of all fishes provided evidence for district seasonal trends at all three sites. The mean number of fish per seine haul generally peaked during the warmer months. Fish abundance was significantly higher (p<0.05) from April-October than from November-March at all three sites. Peaks in abundance of fish occurred in June-August, 1982 and April-June, 1983 (Fig. 2). Nearly 90% of all fishes captured were collected during April- July at all three sites. A slight rise in abundance occurred during September and October at the Melbourne and Sebastian (R-7) sites. No fish were cap- tured in the November and January samples at any of the three sites. Maxima for mean number of species per seine haul were less pronounced (Fig. 3). The greatest number of species were found at the Sebastian sites (particularly site R-4) during June and July, 1982. As with the number of individuals, a significantly greater number of species (P<0.05) were found in the surf zone during April-October than in November-March at all three sites; however, species numbers (unlike abundance) remained relatively high into the September-October period. Temperature and total number of individuals were significantly corre- lated at R-4 and R-7 (R-4, r=0.695 and R-7, r=0.739; P<0.05). Water tem- perature and total number of species were also significantly correlated (R-140, r=0.543; R-4, r=0.594; R-7, r=0.575; p<0.05) in all cases. No significant correlations were found among salinity and the abundance of in- dividuals and species. Local Spatial Variability—A total of 1064 individuals of 21 species was collected from the north and south beaches in the area adjacent to the jetties at Sebastian Inlet (Table 2). A significantly greater (p<0.05, Wilcoxon two- No. 2, 1987] PETERS AND NELSON— PATTERNS OF FISHES 89 754 457m x 1.22m Seine 50 22 80 60 40 20 _—_=———_e-—. 30 20 10 914m x 122m Seine 100 75 50 25 MEAN NUMBER OF FISH/ HAUL 60 40 20 _— ————2- 60 40 20 ARS MEM) se OS DUNG ID gor MAM FJ 1982 SAMPLING INTERVAL 1983 Fic. 2. Mean number of fish/haul (4.57 m x 1.22 m and 9.14 m x 1.22 m seines) collected each month from April, 1982 through June, 1983 from Melbourne (R-140) and Sebastian (R-4 and R- 7) Beaches. Vertical bars are standard errors. 90 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 4.57m x 1.22m Seine MEAN NUMBER OF SPECIES/HAUL 1982 1983 SAMPLING INTERVAL Fic. 3. Mean number of species/haul (4.57 m x 1.22 m and 9.14 m x 1.22 m seines) collected each month from April, 1982 through June, 1983 from Melbourne (R-140) and Sebastian (R-4 and R-7) Beaches. Vertical bars are standard errors. Numbers above error bars indicate total number of species collected. 91 PETERS AND NELSON— PATTERNS OF FISHES No. 2, 1987] oe 680l [BIOL —_ ke ¢ | °°... 2. ere eee 9 6 Zz apoosd snjouryoouy, snyoa]of snpouryoDdAT, SNUIJOLDI SNJOULYIDAT apuvisino] snyzousuhs X11JD]]DS SNULOJDULOG pwaino pany snyoydao pany snpidsiy snyzuvapuop G SYUDXDS SNYLUIYUaW|W G3 yi 3 € S S1D.10}41] SNYLUOyUaW ‘ds snupln'T SISUDULDULINS $2J0GO'T snypiospfiun snydupy.sodhyy pupngol pjndua.w yy ‘ds snjaydamdgq avAIL] oeprlodnyy 1LYIWW DOYIUYy sidajoh] poyouy snjasday poyouy yojapnay sniajnjy syyoxps {npfapnqy fol NOL AVW Ud¥V UYVW dad NVL AON LOO das oOnv tof nol aAWwW wav SaIOAdS OFT-Y ‘youog ousnoqpey (vy —e—_=—«ss0>»06—p0awqOoOpaaypenmnmaamaamnma9m@MmamaaaBa9aSS ee €86T ounf pure Zg6q [dy ueemjoq epruopy ‘2-y ‘yowog uensegas (5 pue ‘p-y :yovog uensegas (gq ‘OPT-Y ‘Yorog ouinoqjeyy (y Jo souoz JANS 94} WOLF pa}oa][09 saysty Jo UoTIsodur09 satoeds pure soouvpunge [e}0], ‘[ ATaV], if I OIG it G L I OF LE L 9T ial OL SI € ra od ~ wn N _— iP) rm 00 Ta) O3T OT OI 96S [Vol. 50 SHA OO HH HO DOH HHH RR HHH RRR KR HOR HOMA AI ~ FLORIDA SCIENTIST 92 T£6 TeIOL OT me al I 6 OL $ap10L09 DULLQUL-) I sn.injda] snin1yo.4y, 1apoos snjouryadi] snyoa) pf snzouryoo4y, I SNUIJOLDI SNZOULYIDAT, I apunisino] snyyousuhs syjpa.og puapshyds X11]D}]DS SNULOJDUWLOT snwauojz0 snjhyopphjog Vv I Dulaino pany I snjpydao panyw snjJala snyyuDIDUOPy $1]D10}}4 SNYyLUIYUayy SNUDILIAWD SNYLUIYUAPW it ‘ds snupljn'T snyoiospfiun snydupysodhy 6S v6r OST 6ST I pupnapl pjnsuaioy I isauol snuojsourgn yz I DIN snwojsoulomn yz I ‘ds snjaydauidq I 1yOOLq]OY snpojdiq v purqos syphspq if snyjou uovsouhy OI 8L avAIL] seprlodnyy I G o soddiy xupivy if pinshsyo Dyjaip.0g I SISUDWDULINS SNUALZOSIUY G I I yptyo}W DOYIUY 3 sidajoh] poyouy ST &@ Te G snjasday poyouy Vv sadjna pjnq|y T syuoxps {npfapnqy T30, NOL AVW UYd¥V YVAN aaa Nvf AON LOO daS OAV Tol Nol AWW «dv SALOAdS P-Y ‘yoweg uensegas (q =H Ne) om | ro mH ee aa aN — SANS eS ao oH CO AN a4 ce ore e - 00 ioe) penunuor) ‘[ aTaVv], 93 PETERS AND NELSON—PATTERNS OF FISHES No. 2, 1987] ‘97ep STY} UO payduues jou a1em /-Y pu F-Y UBNSeQas, oxo ioe) jop) No) = a “all ¢ hi € € 4 I (6% 6 SNULJOLDI SNZOULYIDAT, € apuvisino] snyzousuhs ¢ snjaydau saprosazoyds T 1auoa auajag X11]D}]DS SNULOJDWLOT I snwauoz90 snjhyopphjog Duan pany I snpidsiy snyzuvopuopy ¢ G I i S1]D10}7Y sny.uoyuayy I ‘ds snuvynT I saploquoy. uoposnT snyorospfiun snydwoysodhy 291 puopnaol pjnsua.vyy I Snajuas.p snuojsoulgn |] 96 dBAIL] seprodnyy I sodd1y xupi05 LG I 1ytYyoj1wW DoYIUYy sidajoh] poyouy 9 9T if 9 LI snjasday voyouy 8 sadjna pjnqiy Lapubvjos unighooyjuv9y if 1 ee ss Ee T30L ~=Noaf XVW Yd¥V YYW daa NVf AON LOO das Onv Inf Naf AWW .YaV SAID adS LY ‘yorag uensegas (D 8—=«—090owooooo eee eee penunuo’y ‘| aTaVy, | — N TH TDR NANT MNT MNMOMrON = eH N x o NAN ml ~~ Lomi — oom V9G 66 G G oO 4 N rei CO [= OC TON Lom = io,@) 50% water by weight or >70% water by volume. This interstitial water (or pore water) plays an important role as a medium for chemical exchange between sediments and the overlying water. Study of estuarine interstitial water can help assess a number of important environmental concerns including: 1. The redox state (oxic-suboxic-anoxic) in estuarine sediments. 2. Storage of nutrients and potentially toxic species and their release to the overlying water. 1Permanent address: Third Institute of Oceanography, National Bureau of Oceanography, P.O. Box 70, Xiamen, Fujian, People’s Republic of China. 100 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 3. Reactions which control mineral formation in sediments. 4. The chemical environment in contact with benthic ecosystems. One of the most interesting and well-studied reactions in estuarine sedi- ments is the oxidation or decomposition of organic matter (Richards and Cline, 1965; Goldhaber et al., 1977). As this decomposition occurs, a variety of products including inorganic nutrients, metals, and inorganic and organic carbon species are released into solution. Microorganisms play a primary role in mediating this process. Under oxic conditions, organic molecules are de- composed in the interstitial water when bacteria use available oxygen (Table 1, Eqn. 1). If organic matter concentrations in the sediment are high, dis- TABLE 1. Interstitial water reactions which lead to the oxidation of sedimentary organic matter.? (1) (CH,0),96(NH3),6H3PO, + 138 O, = 106 CO, + 16 HNO, +H,PO, + 122 HO (2) (CHO) so¢(NH3);6H3PO, + 94.4 HNO, = 106 CO, + 55.2 N, + H,PO, + 177.2 H,O (3a) (CH,O) 196(NH;) gH PO, + 236 MnO, + 472 H+ = 106 CO, +8 N, + H,PO, + 236 Mn?+ + 366 H,O (3b) (CHO) ;96(NH,);¢H;PO, + 212 MnO, + 424 H+ = 106 CO, + 16 NH, +H,PO, +212 Mn?2+ +318 H,O (4) (CHO) jo6(NH3);sH3PO, + 212 Fe,O; (or 424 FeOOH) + 848H+ = 106 CO, + 16 NH; + H,PO, + 424 Fe2+ +530 H,O (or 742 H,O) (5) (CHO) o6(NH3) 6H PO, + 53 SO} = 106 CO, + 16 NH; + H,PO, +53 S* + 106 H,O (6) (CHO) 1o6(NH3) HPO, + 53 CO, = 106 CO, + 16 NH; + H;PO, +53 CH, aAfter Froelich et al., 1979. solved oxygen may become depleted in the pore water. When this happens, oxidation of organic matter is facilitated by reduction of nitrate, manganese oxides, iron oxides, sulfate, or carbon dioxide as shown in Eqns. 2-6 (Table 1). Froelich and co-workers (1979) note that reactions 2-4 occur in suboxic envi- ronments and that reactions 5 and 6 occur under anoxic conditions. Sediment interstitial water thus develops a chemical composition that records the sum of many ongoing reactions. Dramatic changes in the chemistry of interstitial water can occur as oxic sediments become suboxic or anoxic. The formation of an anoxic sedimentary environment is promoted by large inputs of organic matter. Because estuaries are especially prone to high loadings of nutrients and organic matter, decom- position reactions lead to oxygen depletion in sediments and sometimes in the water column. When oxygen depletion occurs in the water column it may result in hypoxia and fish kills. The Indian River Lagoon, on the east coast of Florida, is typical of many coastal estuaries where nutrient and organic mat- ter loading are producing an environmental stress. This paper provides a preliminary view of chemical reactions in Indian River Lagoon sediments and how interstitial water studies can be applied to these systems. No. 2, 1987] GU, ET AL—GEOCHEMISTRY OF INTERSTITIAL WATER 101 Stupy S1re—The Indian River Lagoon is a bar-built estuary that extends 200 km along the east coast of Florida. The lagoon has an average water depth of about 1 m with depths of 3 m or greater in the intracoastal waterway where dredging has taken place. Just three inlets connect the lagoon with the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, portions of the system are prone to water stagnation and are susceptible to the cumulative effects of nutrients and other species. Our sampling was carried out in the Eau Gallie River Basin (28° 07.4’N, 80° 37.6’W), located more than 30 km from the nearest inlet and further isolated by its location between two causeways across the lagoon. Pre- vious work suggests that the area has been impacted by anthropogenic inputs (Trefry et al., 1983). Sampling for this study was designed to collect organic-rich sediment now found in many areas of the lagoon. Water depths in the immediate study area are ~0.6-2 m. The salinity of the overlying water at this site ranges from 14-20°/,.. Tidal ranges in the Eau Gallie area are <2 cm. MeEtHops—Sediment was sampled using a stainless steel box corer with dimensions of 50 x 50 x 40 cm. Two subsamples were carefully obtained from the box corer using 7.6-cm diameter plastic tubes. Interstitial water was obtained by using Teflon squeezers similar to those described by Reeburgh (1967). Samples were processed in a nitrogen-filled glove box and filtered through 0.4 um pore size Nuclepore filters. Squeezers, filters, and sample bottles were washed with dilute HCl. Interstitial water was obtained from 0.5, 1, and 2-cm thick sections of the core, with the sample interval increasing downcore. Water samples were stored at 4°C prior to analysis. Eh and pH were measured at selected depths along a separate subsample by inserting the respective probes into the sediment through pre-drilled holes in the plastic liner. These holes were taped during sampling. Concentrations of sulfide, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, silica, manganese, iron, sul- fate and chloride were determined for each sample. Sulfide was measured using the methylene blue method (Fonselius, 1976) combined with potentiometric standardization. Ammonia deter- minations were made by the sodium hypobromite procedure (Guo and Gu, 1983) and dissolved silica was measured with the silica-molybdate blue technique (Koroleff, 1976). Nitrite, nitrate and phosphate were determined using standard colorimetric methods (Rand et al., 1975). Sulfate concentrations were obtained with the turbidimetric method (Rand et al., 1975). Alkalinity was determined with the pH technique (N.B.0., 1975) which was modified by standardizing the dilute HC1 with a borax titration. After aliquots were drawn for the above measurements, the remaining unaltered interstitial water was acidified with 100 ul of concentrated, redistilled HNO,. Manganese and iron determinations were made by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, using flame and flameless techniques. The analytical precisions (coefficient of variation) for this study are as follows: sulfide (5%), sulfate (2%), alkalinity (3%), dissolved silica (3%), ammonia (1%), phosphate (2%), chlorinity (1%) and manganese (1%). RESULTS AND Discussion—The cores obtained from our study site in the Indian River Lagoon were composed of fine-grained, black, organic-rich sed- iment. During sampling, a strong H,S odor was detected throughout the core and no burrowing animal tubes were found within the sediment. The proc- essed interstitial water had a slight yellow color suggesting high levels of dissolved organic matter. In many estuaries, interstitial water chlorinity profiles record seasonal changes in the salinity of the overlying water. For example, in Chesapeake Bay, Matisoff and co-workers (1975) found an annual range of chlorinities in surficial sediment layers of 6-10.5 g/kg. At depths greater than 20 cm, the chlorinity was relatively constant near 10.5 g/kg, except at a shallow water station where chloride concentrations decreased downcore to as low as 2 g/ kg. The observed seasonal differences in chloride values for surficial sedi- ments (6-10.5 g/kg) could be related to variations in freshwater runoff to the bay and subsequent exchange between the interstitial and overlying waters. 102 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 The one decreasing chloride gradient observed was explained by seepage from a freshwater aquifer (Matisoff et al., 1975). At our study site in the Indian River Lagoon, interstitial water chlorinity decreased linearly from 10.7-3.5 g/kg over the length of the core (Fig. 1). This decrease suggests that groundwater may be seeping through these sedi- ments from below or that the water table is quite shallow at this location. Tidal pumping is not a significant variable at this location because the tidal range is <2 cm. The chlorinity of lagoonal waters in this area is 8-11 g/kg (Trefry et al., 1983), values consistent with those for near-surface interstitial water. Conservative mixing of estuarine water and freshwater throughout the sediment column is a likely explanation for the observed chlorinity trend downcore. The chlorinity distribution at this site suggests that groundwater may play a role in controlling the salinity of these lagoonal waters. Interstitial water pH was measured throughout the core and varied only slightly at 7.09 +0.06. This value is consistent with calculations by Nissen- baum and co-workers (1972) which show that a pH of 7.0 should result when the products of marine organic matter decomposition equilibrate in seawater. The redox potential (Eh) was also measured throughout the sediment col- umn and values ranged from a high of -1 mV at 4 cm to -131 mV at 33.5 cm. A sharp drop in potential occurred over the 7-12 cm interval (Fig. 1). In natural water systems, the redox potential is often unstable and thus theoreti- cal interpretation of Eh is difficult (Presley and Trefry, 1980). Nevertheless, a step-by-step chemical reduction sequence is often predicted from the range in potential over which a particular species can or cannot be oxidized (Stumm and Morgan, 1981). Several investigators have reported the disappearance of oxygen at Eh values below about +250 mV, and that nitrate and manganese oxides begin to be chemically reduced (Eqn. 2 and 3) at slightly lower values (in Presley and Trefry, 1980). Iron oxides can be reduced (Eqn. 4) below +100 mV and sulfate reduction occurs at substantially lower values. Matisoff and co-workers (1975) observed a similar Eh profile in Chesapeake Bay to that shown for the Indian River Lagoon (Fig. 1) and found the onset of sulfate reduction occurred along a sharp Eh 0 to -100 mV gradient. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations were below detection limits (<0.2uM) throughout the sediment column at our Indian River location. This depletion indicates that bacterial decay of organic matter was being carried out under suboxic or anoxic conditions and that the decomposition reaction had already shifted to Eqn. 3b or 4 in the surficial sediments. This condition results from high organic matter inputs to the sediments. Under reducing conditions, nitrogen is regenerated as N, and NH,*. At our study site, dissolved ammonia concentrations were found to increase from 1.1 mM at 0.5 cm to 5.3 mM at 39 cm (Fig. 1) with an average of 3.4 +1.7 mM. Dissolved ammonia gradients were largest in the top 12 cm where sulfate reduction was most active (Fig. 1). Below 12 cm, complete sulfate reduction had occurred with a concurrent decrease in the ammonia gradient. Ammonia concentrations for our Indian River study site are comparable with No. 2, 1987] GU, ET AL—GEOCHEMISTRY OF INTERSTITIAL WATER 103 interstitial Chloride (g/kg)(e) Interstitial NHJ (mM) (4) Oi <2 6 lO 14 oR es 3 5 f peat = a = C = a o QO O c D E E Oo a) = a 0.2 0.6 l.O 1.4 4 2 2O 28 Interstitial SiO, (mM) (Q) Interstitial Alkalinity (meq/!) (™) Interstitial SOF. (mM) (O) Interstitial Mn (pM) (e) Se 6 lO \4 Orr 6 lO i4 — E oO = = = a a ® ® oO Theoretical O = Sulfate i @ ® e E a) ao) ® © 7) n Ped 6 lO |4 120°. =B0 -40 O interstitial S™ (mM) (@) Eh (mV) (©) Fic 1. Vertical profiles showing interstitial water concentrations of chloride, silica, ammonia, alkalinity, sulfate, sulfide, theoretical sulfate, manganese, and Eh vs depth in the sediment col- umn. [Vol. 50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST 104 ‘OS6I J9IIV *LLEI “Te 39 JeqeyploDp "GLOT *'T2 39 JJOSHEW ‘ApNys STY.Lq ‘QLEI ‘HETOION ‘ESET ‘URPPEIML pue yunH-AquinOe 00¢-0T 006-007 L¥9 100 (7) asoursueyy Cr-F OF-S G81 v'S ({/beur) AyuryexTy 3 6'0-S'0 SOFIT 10 (UU) BoTTIS E10 9-1 LIFPVe G00'0 (UW) eruowUry €'0-10'0 8'0-1'0 10780 Z00'0 (Wu) ayeydsoyg p(punos purys] 3u0’T) (Avg ayvadesay)) q(Uoose'T] IOATYy UeIpuy) Joye [eNYSI9}U] Ja}eA\ [eNYS19}U] Jaye (A [Xe Qts19}U] eld}EMBIS yusuodul0‘) 0 ———eEEEEE—————eEEEEEEEEEEE————————— nana ‘Toye M [eNYSIoyUr SUIIVN}SI PUB IOJEMBOS UI S}JUSN}FI}SUOD Pa}VIJeS FO SUOT}JEIVUDOUOL) *Z ATAVE No. 2, 1987] GU, ET AL—GEOCHEMISTRY OF INTERSTITIAL WATER 105 those measured for the highly reducing sediments of Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound (Table 2). The alkalinity of interstitial water increases as CO, is released from de- caying organic matter. At our study site, alkalinity increased from 7.8 meq/ liter in the top 0.5 cm to 23 meq/liter at 12-14 cm. The average pore water alkalinity for these sediments was 18 +5 meq/liter, about 8 times higher than normal seawater, yet comparable with other estuarine interstitial waters (Ta- ble 2). At pore water pH, the primary component of the alkalinity is HCO,. In the top 6 samples (0-9 cm) the ammonia vs alkalinity relationship is a straight line (r=0.98) with a slope of 6.1. Following the classic scheme for decomposition of organic matter (Richards and Cline, 1965), the ratio of inorganic carbon to ammonia is 6.6 (Eqn. 4), in reasonable agreement with the results of this study. No increase in alkalinity is observed below 13 cm; however, ammonia concentrations gradually increase downcore. This obser- vation suggests that decomposition of organic matter is still proceeding, but the mechanism has changed. If so, methane generation via reduction of CO, (Table 1, Eqn. 6) is the most likely pathway. Methane generation is common in estuarine sediments after sulfate has been appreciably reduced (Kipphut and Martens, 1982). Although methane was not measured, the ammonia and alkalinity relationships and the absence of sulfate (Fig. 1) are consistent with the reduction of CO, to CH, as shown in Eqn. 6. Accompanying each of the possible reaction pathways for organic matter decomposition is regeneration of inorganic phosphate from organic phos- phorus. In the Indian River Lagoon, pore water phosphate concentrations ranged from 0.66-0.97 mM and averaged 0.76+0.12 mM. These values are 10-100 times higher than observed in estuarine waters, but are comparable with values from highly reducing estuarine sediments. Controls on interstitial phosphate concentrations are complex and may result from several reactions which control phosphate release to and removal from the interstitial water, including formation of an iron phosphate phase or adsorption of phosphate on sediment solid phases (Matisoff et al., 1980). Dissolved silica concentrations in pore water can be enriched by the disso- lution of biogenic silica as well as by release of dissolved silica from various silicate minerals. Silica concentrations are influenced by temperature, water composition, pH, sediment composition, and particle size (Fanning and Pilson, 1971; Matisoff et al., 1975). At our study site, dissolved silica values increase sharply in the top 2 cm and continue to increase gradually downcore to 1.4 mM at 39 cm (Fig. 1). The mean dissolved silica value for our core is very high at 1.1+0.2 mM. This value is much higher than commonly found in estuarine waters, somewhat higher than observed in estuarine interstitial water (Table 2), yet lower than the solubility of about 2 mM for amorphous silica. Decreases in interstitial water sulfate concentrations are a good indicator of reducing conditions in estuarine sediments. The production of hydrogen sulfide during sulfate reduction is one of the more noxious and obvious results 106 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 of organic matter decomposition. At our study site, pore water sulfate con- centrations decreased from 10.6 mM at the top of the core to essentially zero below 9 cm (Fig. 1). Throughout the core, including the top 1 cm, sulfate concentrations are much lower than those predicted from the {SO,7/C1} ratio for normal estuarine waters (0.140). At the top of the core, about one third of the sulfate has been reduced, as shown by comparing the theoretical sulfate profile (for the case where no sulfate reduction has occurred) with the ob- served sulfate distribution (Fig. 1). Sulfate reduction leads to sulfide production. Interstitial sulfide concen- trations at our study site increase from undetectable levels in the top centi- meter to 1.7 mM at 13cm. The sulfide produced is highly reactive and thus is not a reliable indicator of the extent of sulfate reduction. Sulfide can diffuse from the sediment column as H,S and contribute to the odor so commonly complained about along the Indian River; or it can precipitate in the sedi- ments with metal ions, especially iron. Thus, we note that the moles of sulfate reduced are much higher than the moles of sulfide measured. Diffusion of sulfide downcore or possible influx of groundwater sulfide is evident in Fig. 1 since sulfide levels extend almost 30 cm deeper in the sediment column than the point of zero sulfate. Metals such as Mn and Fe are usually present in the water column as oxides and hydrous oxides which exist as colloids or as surface coatings on particles (Stumm and Morgan, 1981). Under reducing (suboxic or anoxic) conditions, these metals can be changed to a lower oxidation state and be- come more soluble. Manganese is especially susceptible to reduction and dis- solution in environments such as the organic-rich, reducing sediments at our study site. In our core, oxygen and nitrate were depleted in the top layers of the sediment and thus manganese oxide was used immediately as an oxidizing agent for organic decay. As a result, a maximum interstitial Mn concentration is reached in the top 0.5 cm with a steep decrease in Mn levels from 16-1 »M over a 6-7 cm interval. Below 9 cm, a relatively constant but 50 times lower concentration of 0.3+0.1 uM is observed. These values are all higher than normal seawater, but they are not especially high relative to other estuarine interstitial waters (Table 2). Such lower relative values for Mn in Indian River pore water most likely result from sediment Mn phases present and chemical reactions controlling interstitial Mn concentrations. As concentrations of the various products of organic matter decomposi- tion increase in the interstitial water, a series of second generation chemical reactions can occur. These reactions sometimes include formation of selected solid phases. Trace metals such as Mn or Fe, which are released to the pore water, may react to form solid phases such as oxides, carbonates, phosphates or sulfides. The presence of several solid phases has been identified or implied for various estuarine and marine sediments. Bricker and Troup (1975) give evi- dence for the presence of an iron phosphate phase (vivianite) in Chesapeake No. 2, 1987] GU, ET AL—GEOCHEMISTRY OF INTERSTITIAL WATER 107 Bay sediments. Similar studies, based on thermodynamic calculations, sup- port the occurrence of a manganese phosphate phase in Lake Erie sediments (Matisoff et al., 1980). A manganese carbonate phase has also been postu- lated to form in anoxic marine sediments (Pedersen and Price, 1982). In an- oxic sediments with high dissolved sulfide loading and higher Mn than Fe concentrations, Mn may precipitate as a manganese sulfide phase (Suess, 1979; Aller, 1980). In our Indian River Lagoon pore water, Fe concentrations were <0.5 uM. Based on observed high sulfide levels of 0.01-1.7 mM and the solubility product for iron monosulfides, we predict an interstitial water Fe concentra- tion of <10° uM. This is certainly consistent with our measured Fe values. To identify possible controls on interstitial water Mn values, a saturation index (SI) was calculated for three possible Mn phases: SI =log (IAP/K,,) (7) where IAP is the calculated ion activity product for the species of interest and K,, is the corresponding solubility product. A negative SI value indicates that the pore water is undersaturated with respect to a particular solid phase, whereas a positive value shows oversaturation. The three solid phases consid- ered for Mn, along with their respective log K,, values are as follows: MnCO,, -10.4 (Morgan, 1967); MnS, -17.8 (Aller, 1980); and Mn,(PO,),, -34.6 (Nriagu and Dell, 1974). All activity coefficients were corrected for changes in salin- ity and pH and are as follows: phosphate, 2.46-30.6 x 10° (Martens et al., 1978); carbonate, 0.053-0.74 (Pytkowicz, 1975); sulfide, 0.11-0.29 (Ri- chards, 1965); and manganese, 0.29-0.40 (Morgan, 1967). Calculated SI values for our study site (Fig. 2) suggest that the interstitial water is greatly undersaturated with respect to manganese carbonate and phosphate and that these solid phases would not be expected to form. In fact, the SI values for the carbonate and phosphate phases are always less than -1, suggesting that the Indian River Lagoon pore waters are at least 10 times undersaturated with respect to these phases. In contrast, our calculations support the formation of a Mn sulfide phase in the top 2-8 cm of the sediment column where SI values range from -0.2 to 0.5 (Fig. 2). Because the Indian River sediments were rich in sulfide and interstitial Fe concentrations were undetectable, the unusual prediction that manganese levels may be con- trolled by a sulfide phase is reasonable. It is certainly consistent with the work of Suess (1979) and Aller (1980). The presence of high dissolved sulfide concentrations in lagoonal pore waters leads to precipitation of metal sulfides and the observed low intersti- tial water Fe concentrations of <0.5 uM. A similar trend of very low concen- trations of elements such as Cd, Cu and Hg in the pore water is also predicted based on similar results by Elderfield et al. (1981) in Narragansett Bay. Thus the probability of metal release from such sediments is low and the sediments are an effective sink. Previous studies of interstitial water chemistry in the Indian River Lagoon (Carlson et al., 1983; Montgomery et al., 1983) focused on sediments in fring- 108 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Saturation Indices Sediment Depth (cm) Fic. 2. Plot of saturation for manganese phosphate (A , Manganese carbonate (@), and manganese sulfide (@ ) vs sediment depth. Saturation index (SI) =log [Ion activity product/ solubility product]. No. 2, 1987] GU, ET AL—GEOCHEMISTRY OF INTERSTITIAL WATER 109 ing mangroves and grass beds in the Fort Pierce area. In the mangrove and seagrass environments, dissolved ammonia and phosphate concentrations were 8 to >50 times lower than observed in the organic-rich sediments we studied. Interactions among pore water, sediment, and vegetation bring about a somewhat different picture for these mangrove and grass bed sedi- ments than found in the more classic anoxic, non-vegetated sediments of the Eau Gallie basin. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank Diane Quimby and Jack Morton for assistance with sam- pling. Financial support was obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion and The Asia Foundation. LITERATURE CITED ALLER, R. C. 1980. Diagenetic processes near the sediment-water interface of Long Island Sound II. Fe and Mn. Pp. 351-415. In Satrzman, B. (ed.). Advances in Geophysics, Vol. 22. Academic Press, New York. Bricker, O. P. III anv B. N. Troup. 1975. Sediment-water exchange in Chesapeake Bay. Pp. 3-27. In Cronin, L. E. (ed.) Estuarine Research, Vol. 1., Academic Press, New York. Carson, P. R., L. A. YARBRO, C. F. ZIMMERMANN, AND J. R. Montcomery. 1983. Pore water chemistry of an overwash mangrove island. Florida Scient. 46:239-249. ELDERFIELD, H., R. J. Mccarrrey, N. LuUEDTKE, M. BENDER, AND V. W. TRUESDALE. 1981. Chemi- cal diagenesis in Narragansett Bay sediments. Am. J. Sci. 281:1021-1055. FANNING, K. A. ANDM. E. Q. Pitson. 1971. Interstitial silica and pH in marine sediments: Some effects of sampling procedures. Science. 173:1228-1231. Fonse.ius, S. H. 1976. Determination of hydrogen sulfide. Pp. 71-78. In Grassuorr, K. (ed.). Methods of Seawater Analysis. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim. FROELICH, P. N., G. P. KLINKHAMMER, M. L. BENpDer, N. A. LuEDTKE, G. R. HEATH, D. CULLEN, P. DaupHin, D. HaMmMonp, B. HarTMAN, AND V. Maynarp. 1979. Early oxidation of organic matter in pelagic sediments of the eastern equatorial Atlantic: suboxic diagenesis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 43:1075-1090. GoLpHABER, M. B., R. C. Auer, J. K. Cocuran, J. K. ROSENFELD, C. S. MARTENS, AND R. A. BERNER. 1977. Sulfate reduction, diffusion, and bioturbation in Long Island Sound sedi- ments: Report of the FOAM group. Am. J. Sci. 277:193-237. Guo, S. H. anp D. Gu. 1983. Determination of ammonia nitrogen in seawater by sodium hypo- bromite. Taiwan Strait 2:37-41. KippHuT, G. W., AND C. S. Martens. 1982. Biogeochemical cycling in organic rich coastal ma- rine basin - 3. Dissolved gas transport in methane-saturated sediments. Geochim. Cosmo- chim. Acta. 46:2049-2060. KorouerF, F. 1976. Determination of silicon, and determination of ammonia. Pp. 145-181. In GrassHorFF, K. (ed.). Methods of Seawater Analysis. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim. Martens, C. S., R. A. BERNER, AND J. K. RosENFELD. 1978. Interstitial water chemistry of anoxic Long Island Sound sediments. 2. Nutrient regeneration and phosphate removal. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23:605-617. MatisorF, G., O. P. Bricker III, G. R. Houpren, Jr., AND P. Karrk. 1975. Spatial and temporal variation in the interstitial water chemistry of Chesapeake Bay sediments. Pp. 343-363. In Cuurcu, T. M. (ed.). Marine Chemistry in the Coastal Environment. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, D. C. Matisorr, G., A. H. Linpsay, S. Matis, AND F. M. Soster. 1980. Trace metal mineral equilibria in Lake Erie sediments. J. Great Lakes Res. 6:353-366. Montcome_nry, J. R., C. ZIMMERMAN, G. PETERSON, AND M. Price. 1983. Diel variations of dis- solved ammonia and phosphate in estuarine sediment pore water. Florida Scient. 46:407- 414. Morcan, J. 1967. Chemical equilibria and kinetic properties of manganese in natural waters. Pp. 561-624. In Faust, S. D., AND J. V. HunTEr (eds.). Principles and Applications of Water Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 110 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 NATIONAL BuREAU OF OCEANOGRAPHY (NBO), Cuina. 1975. Water chemistry. Section III. Specifi- cation for marine survey. Marine Press. Beijing, China. NIssENBAUM, A., B. J. PRESLEY, AND I. R. KapLan. 1972. Early diagenesis in a reducing fjord. Saanich Inlet, British Columbia - I. Chemical and isotopic changes in major components of interstitial water. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 36:1007-1027. Nriacu, J., AND C. I. Detu. 1974. Diagenetic formation of iron phosphate in recent lake sedi- ments. Am. Mineralogist. 59:934-946. PEDERSEN, T. F. AND N. B. Price. 1982. The geochemistry of manganese carbonate in Panama Basin sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 46:59-68. Prestey, B. J. AND J. H. Trerry. 1980. Sediment-water interactions and the geochemistry of interstitial waters. Pp. 187-232. In Outausson, E. anv I. Caro (eds.). Chemistry and Biogeochemistry of Estuaries. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York. Pytkowicz, R. M. 1975. Activity coefficients of bicarbonates and carbonates in seawater. Lim- nol. Oceanogr. 20:971-975. QuinBy-Hunrt, M. S., AND K. K. Turek1An. 1983. Distribution of elements in sea water. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 64:130-131. Ranp, M. (ed.). 1975. Standard Methods for Water and Wastewater Analysis. Am. Public Health Assoc., Washington, D. C. REEBURGH, W. S. 1967. An improved interstitial water sampler. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12:163-165. Ricuarps, F. A. 1965. Anoxic basins and fjords. Pp. 611-645. In Ritey, J. P. anp G. Skirrow (eds.). Chemical Oceanography. Academic Press, New York. Ricuarps, F. A., AND J. D. Ciine. 1965. Some consequences of the decomposition of organic matter in Lake Nitinat and anoxic fjords. Limnol. Oceanogr. Suppl.: R185-201. Suess, E. 1979. Mineral phases formed in anoxic sediments by microbial decomposition of or- ganic matter. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 43:339-352. StumM, W., AND J. J. Morcan. 1981. Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd Ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. TreFry, J. H., M. Sapoucui, M. D. Sutuivan, J. S. SrewarpD, AND S. BarBer. 1983. Trace metals in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida: The copper story. Florida Scient. 46:415-427. Florida Sci. 50(2):99-110. 1987. Accepted: August 26, 1986. ADDENDUM Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville—10-12 April 1986 FCREPA—Blair E. Witherington, University of Central Florida, An Analysis of Reproductive Success in the Marine Turtle Nesting Aggregation at Melbourne Beach, Florida Biological Sciences PLANT COMMUNITIES ALONG AN EDAPHIC CONTINUUM IN A CENTRAL FLORIDA WATERSHED RoBIN B. Huck Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611 Asstract: In the Bull Creek Watershed, Osceola County, Florida, vegetation patterns were analyzed in ecological series along three, 2 km-long transects in a 10,522 ha pine flatwoods region. The most common vegetation unit was a sclerophyllous palmaceous, ericoid and quercine shrub association with an occasional canopy of Pinus palustris or Quercus geminata. Across the continua, vegetation changed with topography, moisture regimes and soils. Six out of the ten soil orders in the United States were found: Alfisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and Spodosols. A correlation between soil types and vegetation was evident. Upland oak scrub and sand pine dunes, palmetto prairies and savannahs were found over quartzipsamments, haplohu- mods and haplaquods. Hypericum-grass sinks, cypress domes and ash-cypress-maple swamp for- ests were located on medisaprists, glossaqualfs, ochraqualfs and argiaquolls. Excessively drained upland soils were low in nutrients while very poorly drained lowland and soils were high in nutri- ents. Establishment of Spodosols as the most prevalent soil type with concomitant flushing of bases (minerals containing calcium and magnesium) from uplands to lowlands may have coin- cided with the establishment of the modern pine flora in 5000 BP. The radiation of plant com- munities, which included the appearance of Gordonia bayheads and Taxodium swamp forests at that time as hypothesized by Watts (1971, 1975), must have been accompanied by the develop- ment of new edaphic niches. Key Words: ecological series, edaphic continuum, Florida, hapla- quod, pine flatwoods, Spodosol, swamp forest, watershed. In FLoriwa, pine flatwoods are characterized by scattered pines rising above a shrub layer of saw palmetto, ericoid shrubs and scrub oaks and a diverse herb layer of grasses and other perennials (Harper, 1921; Davis, 1943; Laessle, 1942; Edmisten, 1963). This vegetation occurs on flat areas with poorly drained soils which generally have a hardpan (Edmisten, 1963; Monk and Brown, 1965; Swindel et al, 1983). Fire is also important in the evolution of pineland flora (Garren, 1943; Komarek 1962; Vogl, 1972; Abrahamson, 1984). Pine flatwoods occur throughout the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region of the United States (Braun, 1950) and cover as much as fifty percent of the Florida peninsula (Edmisten, 1963). Flatwoods, however, are ecologically diverse. Harper (1921) placed cy- press ponds, low hammocks, scrub, swamps and marshes within his Peninsu- lar Flatwoods, Eastern Division. Davis (1967) included small hardwood for- ests, many kinds of cypress swamps, prairies, marshes and bay tree swamps in his Flatwoods Region. Edmisten (1963) described flatwoods as a matrix which holds many community types together. Flatwoods and allied communities are compressed into a small area within Bull Creek Watershed in Florida. I investigated the community diver- sity of this Flatwoods Region by qualitatively sampling its vegetation along an ecological series. The objective was to ascertain the relationships between soils and vegetation along an environmental continuum. FLORIDA SCIENTIST Fic. 1. Map of Bull Creek Watershed Study Area, Osceola County, Florida. Billy Lake Tran- sect = 1, Crabgrass Creek Transect = 2, Bull Creek Transect = 3. Stupy AREA—Bull Creek Watershed, an area of 10,522 ha, is in east-central Florida (approxi- mately 28°00’N and 80°55’W), on the eastern edge of Osceola County, 30 miles west of Mel- bourne and 35 miles west of the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1). Most of the watershed is owned by the State of Florida and is known as the Bull Creek Management Area. Since the early 1900’s it has been lumbered, diked, grazed and hunted (Huck, 1979). Tracts of long leaf yellow pine and cypress were extensive at one time (Johnston, ca. 1916). Bull Creek Watershed lies at the extreme eastern edge of the Osceola Plain which is a true terrace bordered by the Lake Wales Ridge to the west and the Eastern Valley to the east (White, 1970). To the east this Plain is bounded by an outward facing, persistent scarp called the Pamlico (White, 1958). Elevation varies little here, from 7.6 to 24.4 m above seal level (Readle, 1979). Rainfall and runoff water is channelled via drainage sloughs and minor tributaries into the two major wide creeks of the Bull Creek Watershed, Bull and Crabgrass. These two creeks penetrate the Bull Creek Watershed like huge crab claws, and at the scarp line join to form Jane Green Creek, a tributary of the St. John’s River (Fig. 1). In the Plain, solution of underlying limestone has formed many depressions (Fig. 1), known locally as sinks, sloughs and cypress domes (sensu Vernon, 1947). Geological studies in adjacent Brevard County indicate Ocala calcium carbonate limestone at 38 m (Brown et al, 1962). This limestone is covered by the impervious marly and clayey Hawthorne formation at 26 m, then a stratum of unconsolidated beds of fine sand, shells, calcareous clay and, ultimately, a stratum of the late and unconsolidated sand mantle (Brown et al, 1962). Parental soil materials are a cover of unsorted, uncemented quartz sands which contain seams of clay (Puri and Vernon, 1959). No. 2, 1987] HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES 113 (23) 20 CUBIC FEET PER SECOND (THOUSANDS) © JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Fic. 2. Average monthly water discharge rate in cubic ft per second at Jane Green Creek, Osceola County, Florida. (Based on data from U.S. Dept. of Int., 1975) Precipitation is seasonal, ranging from a mean of 4.09 cm in December to 20.8 cm in Septem- ber and with the heaviest rainfall occuring in June through September (NOAA, 1976). Thunder- storms take place an average of 80 days a year (U.S. Dept. of Int., 1970), primarily in summer. Temperature rises slowly from a mean of 16.5°C in January to 27.6°C in August (NOAA, 1976). Average monthly water discharge rates at Jane Green Creek (U.S. Dept. of Int., 1975), indi- cate a minor hydrological cycle beginning in December, reaching its highest point in March, and ending in May (Fig. 2). The major cycle consists of minimum discharge in May, a rapid increase in discharge beginning in June and a maximum discharge in October which exceeds 20,000 cubic ft per second. Discharge rates then taper off in December (Fig 2). The water table for many soils at Bull Creek is within 0.3-0.0 m of the surface during the summer months (Readle, 1979). METHops— Vegetation patterns were identified by analysis of environmental patterns follow- ing the methodology of Mueller-Dombois (1964). This procedure is referred to as deriving an ecological series and results from grouping habitat or community samples taken along specific environmental transects (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). Reconnaissance of the area was through reference to aerial photographs obtained from the County Tax Assessors office and infra- red satellite imagery obtained from Earth Resources Observations Systems Data Systems, United States Department of Interior. On the aerial photographs, three ca. 2 km transects were drawn (Fig. 1) and stations were established at abrupt changes in water regimes, topography, soil types, physiognomy and vegetation. Named for the major stream beds they cross, these transects were Billy Lake (Fig. 3), Crabgrass Creek (Fig. 4) and Bull Creek (Fig. 5), abbreviated to BL, CC and BC in this report. Elevations at each site were interpolated from USGS topographic maps. At each station, species dominance in canopy, subcanopy, shrub and herb layers was deter- mined by releves according to the methodology of Braun Blanquet as adapted by Radford et al (1974). Naming of plant assemblages followed Radford and co-workers (1981). Community cover class is a generic combination of a common botanical term and general habitat feature while community type is a specific biotic assemblage with a uniform microclimate and edaphic situation based on field data (Radford et al, 1981). Tree heights were determined by a clino- meter. 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Sates sfere es ; Se a es — fs | | ~ ° : i BS hs | : a oA Ae ° |= : ae a * oO ed 0 ay a 2 ls ce] x . ° © |o :0 e: E 8 3 : ; oe : OSSDGDM DJDIAIY ~ poomysDd aaqoud jabuisog DUO DY HOA 98SSO0DJON aassoooioy OL 00b COOOL OB SISATIVNV 10S ponbo|dpy jjonbossoj9 jjOnbodiys0 |}onboibay = juanbowwosg ponbo\doy ponbpo\dby pownyo|ddDH pownyojddH salias puD SIV dluauy OW O1dAL 91pods Od AL olay ou 91U3 dNOYOENS 0S 1O0SOd0dS TOSI 41 TOSIATW TOSI TIOW TOSILNS TOSOCOdS WOSOdOdS WOSOdOdS 710SOd0dS Y¥30NO 10S pauloup peuloip pauloup pauloup pauloup pauloup paulnsp pauloup Aj4ood — paulbup Ajs0od awibay Ajaood A\sood Ajsood A\s400d Kuan A\s00d Ajs00d A\s00d }DYMaWOS JDUMOWOS auNsiow = = im Te — HWOC)WI'6 | kis of Vw | | | | \ e A see A ae ae Nod TR (OS) We'sI Wes SA 1 Beir WY CA —F 4 chm J. py : S : O50 CAR, i tif. i Bo So Ce Y CY - nia Ae Mt ke 5S ZX WARSA ote LSE am = vr S/ ae , VY ot f ly AN, - a Tv tal , Un SER GPa sessdib 1g squay /senisseib SQ49Y Pexi|A) -SUDJ} OJ JaW|Dd'S SOul/A /ODSOAJBU DILJOYOASG -049}1490 DIA) /veulbn 984 suso4 saaissoib /DuDIUI|ODD ~=/AdouDogns paxil) DJS DIUOAy /SQnsys pexip -SUD4} O}JaW|Dd 'S snuiduiod = /DIJOJIUND] "= © squay paexiw Sq4ay paxiW Dpisluy DJOId4S -SyDO qnioS /SPOOMPIDY paxil -D4aj}l499 DIUAW fJunagns wad =-- ON yIODUAyS ~~suadas DOUBIaS 7daqojb xa}| /Dplon; D1IUOA] DPlySlay -suedai DOUaIeS 701Q90|6 Dung /Adouvoqns paxil -DdWONbD DAUDD JDquwopinbiq /ojyewjod |pqos -suadai DOUaIES -b1qoj|6 xa}| /SYDO qnsos /0\oulwab JdAL -DIJOJLUND] sndseNny /OWEW|Dd |OQDS -O}jawjDd jOQDS -wWNAqns sady /Sl4jsnjod snulg /SldjSN|Od snuly -Suadai DOUaIAaS -suades DOUAIaS sndsenh ALINNWWOO 1S3u04 QNVLS dWVMS SSV19 MOOWWVH GQNVLS SNNIDGYVD GOOMGYVH SGOOMLV14 SGOOMLV14 3lwIVud 3NNQ YMOOWWVH Y3A09 GOOMGYVH C3SXiWN W1Vd -W1Vd GSXIW SANid L3A3SMS JNld OLLSW1Vd OLLSW1Vd VO SNYOS ALINNWWOS Xl IIA IIA IA A Al Hl Il | NOILVLS FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 116 DJBIAIY j]Onbosso|9 dluaay 10SIS1V peuioup A\s00d sqniys pexiw /O1OJlUND| SNdsaNH -wnugni 1307 -DUDIUI|OIDD SNuIxDJ4 LS3YO4 dWVYMS HSV-3 1dVW xl ‘a[eos 0} OU ‘WY CZ ‘epIOT,y ‘AJUNOZ e[OVdS_ ‘jOasSUBIL, YBEID [[Ng ‘sasAyeue sTIos pue UOT}BJeBaQ “G “OI MD}}IN DIBIALY 9] ||ASWOPY jjonboibay s/onbpsso|9 juawWwDdsdiz,s0NH DIdA | diuay oinby 10OSITIOW 10S1I41V TOSILNA pauldsp pauloup peuloup Ajsood Kuan A\4ood A\s00d jOYMaWOS 4 WU Wh \ | l | es AY, y seaissesbsuds} sabpas poompsdy pexiw /sbul|paes wnuqniy /SPOOMPJDY paxil /SPOOMPIDY paxiw PUD DuUDIUI|OUDD SnUIxD44 puUD WNigni 4307 1S$34yY034 1S34O4 dWYMS HSV dWVMS J 1dVW IA IA Diaj14a9 DIUAW /04jawjod |DqDS -DolWeDYydsimay snouand GQNV 1G00M W1Vd-xVvO 1A Dy DAW ponbo|dDH dluaay 10SOd0dS peuloup Aj400d sessoib pup sebpas pexiw 7SYDO Qn4sOS - spiuoA -SU8das DOUBIES /Siaysnjod snuid SGOOMLV14 SNid A PI9Did jdanbowny aidAy OSILd39NI Ppauioip Ajsood Asan suja} pud sabpas fwinaqns 1307 -SuapuadsD wnipoxo) HONO1S SS3YdAD Al weet (ote es tees ees sets saa, oo ees SOOO — all|ASWOPYy JUBWWOSGIZ} JON oinby TOSILNS peuloup A\szood jOyUMaWOS sabpes pud sassosb paxiw 70sg0j|6 xa}| - SDIUOAy -$uadas DOUaIaS ANOZ OLLIW1Vd DUO 39|D4O Wy} ponbo|doy ponbo;do}H OIdAy diuaay 10SOdO0dS 10SO00dS pauloup peuioup A\s00d Ajsood sabpas pud sessoib pexiw 7SYOO QnsoS -spIuoA -SU8de1 DOUBLES squey pud sasspib pexiw SlwIVud HVNNVAVS O1LSW1Vd Hd OL 00% 0002 08 SISATVNV 110S $2148 pud dNOYOENS 10S Y¥3q0uO 10S awibay Sunjsiow (402) WI9 (Ob) el adAl ALINNWWOD ssv19 Y3SA09 A LINQWWO9 NOILVLS 117 HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES No. 2, 1987] P!IID\d jdenbowny dIdA TOSILdSONI Ppeuldup Ajzood (ian DJO}|JIG DSSAN -SUaPUs9SD WINIPOxD| QNOd SS3udAD AIX aa|DyOWW| ponbo\dpy diuauy 10SO00dS pauldup K\400d snoiuibsia uobodoupuy -SIWJOJIDIdS Dplysiuy 7Opion| DIUCAy -Suadas DOUaIaS alwivad OLLAW1Vd IX ‘gTeOs 0} JOU ‘WY (C'S ‘BPlopy ‘AyUNOD eIOV0SQ ‘JoasuRIL, Y9EID [[Ng ‘sasAyTeuR sTIOs puv UOT}e}EBA,A (*}U0D) ‘Cc ‘OI osspqnM 02 OOb 0002 O08 DyOwWo] OSSDGDM jsLUudDSIPa; ponbojdoy ponbo|doy D449 SIV SIV TOSOLSIH 10SOG0dS 10SOd0dS pauldup peuiDup pauldup Aj4ood Kian A\s00d Kiaood ee =, Fy, \)) \. ere Ig Al?) ® =~ x 7 f . \ i ) Atal SS ie ¢ i a - y | ee ¥ u Sq49y paxil su4a} pud sabpas 7wN\DAOGO wNusNg!A /D04O|JIG DSSAN sebpas -Suadei DOUdIaS -SU@PU2ISD WNIPOXD] SWOd SS3uYdA9d IX /suadai DOUBIaS /DOIJaDYydsiWaY SNdueNhH ANOZ OLLIW1Vd MVS IX QNV1G00M VO X SISAIVNV 10S SalJaS PUD dNOYSENS WOS Y3GYO 10S awibay BINJSIOW AdAL A LINNWWOD Ssvi19d Y3A09 A LINQNWWOD NOILVLS 118 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Plant taxonomy and nomenclature followed that used by Godfrey and Wooten (1979, 1981) for wetland species, Kurz and Godfrey (1962) for upland trees and shrubs, and Wunderlin (1982) for species not included in those two works. Vouchers are at NCU. Soils, as defined by Soil Survey of Osceola County (Readle, 1979), were sampled at each station. Each member horizon in the soil profile was dried, described according to its depth, width, color and texture, and tested for pH using LaMotte chemical indicators (Huck, 1979). A composite, representative soil for chemical analyses was prepared by mixing soil horizons in units proportional to their depths or volumes as represented in the soil profile to 152.4 cm. In cases where the soil horizon members were approximately equal in density as in Spodosols and Enti- sols, individual members of the horizon were mixed proportionally by weight. In cases where the individual members were different in density as in an argiaquoll, which has a light layer of peat over a layer of very heavy clay, the soils were apportioned by volume. Tests for calcium and magnesium were performed by the Soil Testing Laboratory, IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville, using the Double Acid Method (Agronomic Division, 1976). Percent organic matter was ascertained by the Ignition at Low Temperature method (Jackson, 1958). Soil taxonomy, nomenclature and descriptions followed Soil Survey Staff (1975), Readle (1979) and Steila (1976). Spodosols (haplohumods, haplaquods) were recognized by the presence of a spodic layer (hardpan) which is a black or reddish band of varying width and depth within the soil profile. Entisols (quartzipsamments, psammaquents) were recognized by their high min- eral content and lack of a spodic horizon. Inceptisols (humaquepts) had weak, undeveloped horizons. Mollisols (argiaquolls) were recognized by dark, humic, soft surface mineral layers and were high in cations. Alfisols (glossaqualfs, ochraqualfs) had thick clay (argillic) lenses and high base saturation. Histosols (medisaprists) were soils consisting almost completely of decomposed plant remains in areas where ground water level fluctuated with the soil. Pertinent soil orders, subgroups and series are included in Figs. 3, 4 and 5. ResuLts—Some 25 community cover classes and 35 community types, and 9 soil great groups were recognized along the three studied transects at Bull Creek Watershed (Figs. 3, 4, 5). Six out of the ten soil orders in the United States were found: Alfisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and Spodosols. At Bull Creek, Spodosols were the most prevalent. The most common vegetation unit was a sclerophyllous, palmaceous, eri- coid and quercine shrub association (ca. 1 m tall) (Table 1, 1b) with occa- sional stands of pines (12-18 m tall) or scrub oaks (11 m tall) in the canopy (Table 1, la). In terms of constancy and percent coverage, Serenoa repens was the most common plant in this association and in the Bull Creek Water- shed in general. This shrub had a coverage of at least 5.0% in 21 of the 35 releves studied and of at least 25.0% in 18 releves (Table 1, 1b). The herb layer in this association was composed mainly of perennial herbs and grasses (Table 1, 1c). At 9 sites, swamp forest hardwood and cypress trees (ca 26 m tall) with occasional stands of Sabal palmetto (18 m tall) occurred (Table 1, 2a). A subcanopy of the same species composition was repeated in the second stra- tum (Table 1, 2b). The shrub layer was sparse. The herb layer was composed generally of sedges and ferns (Table 1, 2c). In the 5 seasonably wet solution depressions, domes, sloughs and ponds, cypress trees (12 m tall), bay trees (4.5 m tall) and Hypericum fasciculatum and grasses (0.5 m tall) were present (Table 1, BC IV, XII, XIV, BL IV, III). At the highest topographic areas (18 m), on excessively drained to some- what poorly drained sites, Sand Pine, Scrub Oak and Palmetto Dune commu- nity cover classes occurred over quartzipsamment, haplohumod and hapla- 119 HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES No. 2, 1987] BuepluOT}, *4eA euedTJaWe SnwTy eTTO}TuNeT Snosany BuOT4Iq eSsskN Sueubeuy Snyyuetoshw euqns snsow euetutbutaA etToubew euetut[oued Snutxes4 euetut~oued snutduey eotzenbe ekse4 wnuqns Jaoy Suapuadse wntpoxey 2 O}JowTed Teges ll (21) Y3AVT 3341 er a ee Stuysnyted snutq #8 6: iG ejeutwab snosany b esne[o snutd esOTJIpuesh ettoubey snyjuetsey etuopsoy eTTO}TZ4AW Snoduany eotyenbe ets}tpat9 euqetb eAuey eotzenbe eKue4 en,ytoevAys sequeptnbdty edtsaeydstway snouanf euetutbutA snouany eueptuOT} *“4seA euedTsawe Snwth eyOTJ1q essky euetul[Osed Snutxes 4 O},JawTed TeGes Suapuadse wNTpoxe] eTTOJTuneyT snosany wnuqns J9ady MONI TAS LTE XT OLIN LIE LA x XT AL ALIA. XOX DL DEAT Fa OA AAT ON DE OTA TA (LL) Y3AVT 99ML Te Dee oe edie a) rd DD) 1Wa-08 0808 0a 8 Je OT TE S999), Sede Te 1899, 299999189 18: 74 "yoesueu) yaas) [[Ng = Jq *}OeSUes] yaau) SSesbqeuy = 99) SzOaSuesy aye] ATTIg = 19 “WL xX WL Squay SwG x WG sqnsys *wOL x WoL Adoueoqns ‘woz x woz Adouey :sazts anatay “papntout you ase (%G) Z vey} SSaT S4an0) “%OOOL - 0°0G 49407 = G $%0°04 - 0°42 = 4 4aN09 *40°S2 - G°Z2L JaN0J = ¢ = S4HG"ZL - 0°S 4OAOD = Z YOTYM UT PaYySsazeM yaeI) TING je SzIaSUes} BuoTe SuoTj{e}S je UOTJeJOHAA jo SaAaTay “1 aTqe) FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 120 ett eeth Pie Ny Ll TIN ORL IN XM AL DONSX TXSTT TEDYTTIN 11 SNJETNIT}9I 4saysy wnutTtnbe wntptuajzg POTUTDITA ETPYeMPOOM ayouoTaeweud wnotued STW4IOJTOTUS epTystuy wnoneth *uea snotutbutA uobodoupuy TTFPOTLT TA eTpoeTeo SNOTUTBUTA *yeA SNotuTbstA uohodospuy B}JITIFS eptysty (H) Y3AV1 94H y, wnzeAogo wnusngty SaAtssasbsues} euetut[osed Snutxed4 7) SaAtssaubsues} eueptuoT} “eA euedTsawe snwtTy Cee Santssaubsues} OZowTed Teges Z euty,[edoo snuy Z eTlwnd snouvany Z Ttuewdeyd snouant 2 eSOAJaU eTIOYDASY 2 "Sues} entytoesAzS sequeptnbty Z 2 edTUIBIIA baz] wnzetnotose} wnotsadhy Santssaubsues} wnuqns sady eautbnsuay etuoky TIXNeyotw etuedT] ET[OJTPUNJOI STITA TTMOJUeP WHTUTIIeA Sa}tutsuAw wntutooe, Bua}Tsao edTIAW eTTOyt AW Ssnodsang ejyeutwab snosang ewlutw snouang euge{b xaqT] esootjnsy etuoky eptony etuok 4 Suaday eoudas LSETASIA (S) YIAVT GNYdHs J é é é é CoS 4 I JJ Jee ese “doe de (es ed We 6999) 09 989 (Ppanutzuos) "1 age} 121 HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES No. 2, 1987] xooaeud wntedseg snnusad snununes uowo} Way wnoTuUeY snjyeutbuew snounr sdadue wndtueg eyetNotusod euodsoyouAyy Sbul[paas wnuqns sady STSUdUT[OUeD Bupuoydtg sokyoeysktod snsadhy SuaosaoneTbh xaue4 eajuebtbh xauey wnyeTNssas wnuyosatg snjzeouny sndouoxy suadau eT Tay} TW ejydnisajzut stsazdhTouy eaoet{ tw evodsoyoucyy SURITPes UOSPUaPOITXO| St[tqgezoads yen stytebou epunuwsy 2 wnadejas wnytedseg 2 eye[Notune xXeTIwWS 2 wn{nptbty wnotueg 4 eawoweuutd epunwsy 2 snyesawotb uohodoupuy 2 e}e[NIT}as euTWISY ¢ etnuagnd sttAystsqut 4 2 eje}Texa stsdayouyday 4 STue[Notosey esodsoyokuyy Z 2 asuaotewel wntpet) 2 edueosotehaw euodsoyoukyy 4 shul[paes ezyeutwah snosang Z WNTTOJT[[Ided wntyozedn3 ¢ TISsueaa etuopey) 2 Tasem ST[A}Sog{ng 2 2 eaptodstos euastny 2 euelotAopnyt stsaydokug ADSACK DEX TN TEI XT GTIASTIIA LIN XI TA XOX LATA DD TTA a ee a ee le NOW, Dal TUNETA “INOD (H) Y3AV1 9Y3H Vd 3d 08 98-18 09 - 99 “98 9) 98-9918 18-3e° 3898 JG. 9d. “Ihe ae Te 39.9) -OadsIe 1899, 3999987999 7-18 (panutzuoo) *, atqel [Vol. 50 poureip Aj100d AI9A 0} Aj100d poureip Aj100d AI9A 0} ATI00d poeureip Aj100d Ee ie i Z a) S poureip Aj100d N < Q g a poureip Aj100d 0} poureip AAAIssaoxy sasuey dUIIBOY 9IN{sIOW S'39-S'F 3'S-0'F 9€E-S2 Cae: O'8-L'S SPI-ZE O8-€L' 0'9-0'S 01-9 O1'8-€L" €°S-0'F ze-9 So T-LT r'S-9'F 9-¢ WW 310 % Hd 3 wdg sosuery UOLIINN S966-O08F bP99-9GPFT 8PP-O1G 919-GOT Gol -OOT ey widg (0'0F) sydenbeumy (0’09) systadestpour (c’°ZT) Jjenbezyoo (6) Toupee ny (‘0¢) JTenbessoys (0'0¢) ponbeydey- (0'Qg) JUouIWIesdIz}AeNb (1°) quourwresdizz1enb (1°2) }enbeumny (¢°cT) Juenbewuresd (Z°69) ponbe|dey (0'0Z) ponbeydey (0'0F) pournyoydey (0' OF) JUeWIUTesdIz}AeNb sase[quiasse sse]o I9A00 A}TUNUTUIOO YIM 9oUIsIINI00 JUsOIJEd pue dnoiyg Yearly [10S sheg SUIS pue sysno|s ‘spuog ‘sautog ssa1dAy yso10,7 duieMs poompze yy paxiyy-ssordAcy spueys wed pue snuldiey-wyeg SPUB [POM YVO-wyeg pure yVeO YeUUBARS SpooMye] yf SUT OMS SpOOM}ELJ OUI SouOZ pue allel g OWOW]eg sung oyewyeg yoourwe yy pure SUNT AE OS aunq surg purs sase|quiossy SSB] IOAOFD APIUNUIWIOZ) ‘payss9}yeAA Yoo [[Ng 38 sesue1 oUIIse1 o1N}sIOW pue sosuRI JUSTIZNU ‘sdnoIs }yeaIS [IOs ‘sasse[O JaAOO AyUNUIULOS YURI JofeU Jo UONPIeIIO00 AIeUIUINS *% ATAV], 122 No. 2, 1987] HUCK— PLANT COMMUNITIES 123 quod soils (Table 2). Dominants were Pinus clausa, Quercus geminata, Serenoa repens and Lyonia spp. (Fig. 3, BLI, VI, VII; Fig. 4, CC I, II). Soil nutrient levels were minimal, the lowest of any stations sampled (Table 2) and profiles were characterized by extensively leached layers of fine white sand (Huck, 1979). Long Leaf Pine-Turkey Oak Sandhills community cover class, dominated by Pinus palustris and Quercus laevis, were found on similar edaphic situations at Bull Creek (Huck, 1979). At lower elevations (15-17 m), on poorly drained sites, assemblages domi- nated by Pinus palustris, Serenoa repens, Ilex glabra, Lyonia spp. and mixed herbs and grasses occurred (Figs. 3, 4, 5). These assemblages formed the Palmetto Prairie (Fig. 3, BL II, V, VIII, Fig. 5, BC I, XIII), Pine Flatwoods (Fig. 3, BL XI; Fig. 4, CC IV; Fig. 5, BC V), Sweet Pine Flatwoods (Fig. 4, CC V), Pine-Sweetgum-Serenoa Zone (Fig. 4, CC X), Saw Palmetto Zone (Fig. 5, BC III, XI) and Savannah (Fig. 5, BC II). Soils were mainly hapla- quods (Table 2) which are Spodosols of wet places with fluctuating water tables (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Nutrient levels were low and pH acidic (Ta- ble 2). Spodic layers of soil profiles fell at 25-91 cm (Huck, 1979). At still lower elevations (6-10 m), in and adjacent to the stream beds of Crabgrass Creek and Billy Lake, several community cover classes were delin- eated: Cypress-Hardwood and Mixed Hardwood Swamp Forests (Fig. 3, BL IX, X; Fig. 4, CC VI), Ash Swamp Forest (Fig. 5, BC VIII), Maple and Ash Swamp Forest (Fig. 5, BC VII, IX), Palm-Carpinus and Palm Stands (Fig. 4, CC VII, VIII). The primary species of these communities were Quercus laurifolia, Fraxinus caroliniana, Acer rubrum, Liquidambar styraciflua, Nyssa biflora, Ulmus americana var. floridana and Taxodium ascendens (Ta- ble 1, 2a), with Sabal palmetto occurring on hummocks (Fig. 4, CC VII, VIII). The soils of these riverine swamps were glossaqualfs, ochraqualfs and argiaquolls (Table 2). The base saturation was exceptionally high on these poorly to very poorly drained sites. Calcium concentrations rose as high as 6644 ppm with pH at 8.0. (Table 2). Calcium nodules and marl were present in the soils of Sabal palmetto stands (Huck, 1979). Seasonably wet, often circular, solution depressions known as sinks, sloughs and cypress domes were encountered in the pineland at 6-16 m. These areas were dominated by Taxodium ascendens with Nyssa biflora and Acer rubrum codominant (Fig. 5, BC IV, XII, XIV). The soils of cypress domes had significantly higher nutrient concentrations than the surrounding pine- land (Fig. 5, BC XII cf BC XI and BC XIII). In the soil of the cypress dome at BC XII (Fig. 5), and in other deep peat soils, such as those dominated by Hypericum fasciculatum, Panicum hemitomon and Gordonia lasianthus (Fig. 3, BL III, IV), the magnesium concentration was especially high. At one location, Hypericum-grass Sink (Fig. 3, BL IV), the magnesium concen- tration rose to 258 ppm and calcium to 1553 ppm while pH was 4.0. Organic matter ranged from 4.5-62.5% in the medisaprist soils of these sinks and in the humaquept soils of other pond cypress communities (Table 2). Transitional or ecotonal plant communities occurred where the hapla- 124 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 quod soils of the palmetto prairie and pinelands abutted high-basic histic, alfic and mollic soils of the ash-cypress-maple riverine swamp forests, sinks and cypress domes. Sweet Pine Flatwoods (Fig. 4, CC V), Palmetto Zones (Fig. 5, BC III, XI) and Oak-Palm and Oak Woodlands (Fig. 5, BC VI, X) were found on “hybrid” soil subgroups such as alfic haplaquods, spodic psam- maquents and aquic quartzipsamments. Nutrient and pH levels in stations such as Oak and Palm-Oak Woodlands were equivalent to those of the adja- cent palmetto prairie and pineland (Table 2). Liquidambar styraciflua, Sabal palmetto, Quercus hemisphaerica, Viburnum obovatum and the blue-leaved variant of Serenoa repens were important members of these ecotonal areas at Bull Creek (Huck, 1979). (The term Sweet Pine Flatwoods is used by soil survey teams to distinguish this community from more acidic Pine Flat- woods—Pers. Comm. White, 1978). DiscussIoN—Bull Creek plant communities differentiate in response to changing topography, moisture regimes and soil types across continua. This flatwoods forest type is ecologically diverse as suggested by Harper (1921) and Davis (1967) and is comparable in diversity to those areas of the south- eastern Coastal Plain as described by Wells (1942). A predictive relationship among topography, moisture regimes, soil types and plant communities emerged from this study. Bull Creek plant communi- ties can be divided into two major groups: 1) those which occurred on exces- sively or somewhat poorly drained upland dunes and poorly drained prairies where the soils were low in bases (minerals containing calcium and magne- sium) and 2) those on poorly to very poorly drained, nearly level lowland drainageways and solution depresssions, with soils high in bases. The soil- plant relationships are generalized, of course, and exceptions occur. The terms “uplands” and “lowlands” are relative ones on this nearly level plain. In the first major group are those plant communities which occurred on haplaquods, haplohumods and quartzipsamments. On sloped, excessively drained dunes of quartzipsamments were Turkey Oak Sandhills and Sand Pine Dunes, while on lower dunes of haplohumods were Scrub Oak Dune communities. Palmetto Prairie, Pine Flatwoods and Savannahs were associ- ated with the haplaquods. Evergreen species such as Pinus palustris, P. clausa and the scrub oaks, e.g. Quercus geminata and Q. myrtifolia, were dominant on higher topographic areas. In low-nutrient sites evergreenness has selective advantages over deciduousness as a conservation mechanism (Monk, 1965, 1966). The second major group consists of plant communities of riverine areas and solution depressions. Sabal palmetto and Palm-Carpinus Stands are situ- ated in riverine swamps on hummocks with ochraqualfs and glossaqualfs. Mixed Swamp Hardwood Forest communities consisting of assemblages of deciduous species such as Acer rubrum, Fraxinus caroliniana, Quercus lauri- folia and Taxodium ascendens occurred over these soils and argiaquolls. Cy- press Domes, Ponds and Hypericum-Grass Sink communities were found on No. 2, 1987] HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES 125 humaquepts and the highly organic medisaprists. Although high in bases, medisaprist soils were low in pH and thus have a low cation exchange capac- ity (Monk and Brown, 1965; Schlesinger, 1978). These soil-plant relationships, which have been explored in Florida by others (Laessle, 1942; Davis, 1943; Monk, 1960, 1965; Monk and Brown, 1965; Coultas and Calhoun, 1976), and the patterns of evergreenness versus deciduousness which have been discussed by Monk (1966), suggest a long evolutionary history for the landscape. Over time, the cyclical leaching of the sandy flatwoods system and the flushing of bases from higher topographic areas to lower have created extremes of habitats for an adaptive flora. Furthermore, the transitional or ecotonal areas, identified in this study as the marginal areas where basic soils abut Spodosols, contribute to the ecologi- cal diversity of the flatwoods system. Ecotonal communities such as the Palm-Oak Woodlands, Palmetto Zones and Sweet Pine Flatwoods, associated with soils in which the spodic layer could not form or was disrupted, were found on aquic quartzipsamments, spodic psammaquents and, rarely, alfic haplaquods. The chemical antagonism which exists between a spodic pan and calcereous matter (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) apparently prevented the formation of Spodosols at these junctures. The key to understanding the ecological diversity of the flatwoods may be found in the chemical nature of the Spodosol. This flatwoods soil type, a haplaquod, is the dominant soil of Florida (Smith et al, 1967). In order for the spodic layer to form in the soil profile, exchangeable bases attached to layer-lattice clays must be displaced and leached from the upper part of the solum by hydrogen ions (Stobbe and Wright, 1959; Steila, 1976). In a fluctu- ating water table and a humid climate, bases are flushed from the soil profile by acids which develop from the breakdown of overlying leaf litter of pines and other acidophilous plants. An association is formed between organic matter and iron and aluminum by chelation and electrostatic bonding (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Through this process Spodosols can form in as little as 100 years (Soil Survey Staff, 1975), but some Spodosols are 4000 years old (Beville, 1981). Conversely, Spodosols may be destroyed quickly by the appli- cation of lime (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). The modern pineland of Florida evolved around 5000 BP (Watts, 1969, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1983). From pollen stratigraphy work at Lake Louise, Scott Lake and Mud Lake in Georgia and Florida and, subsequently, at Lake Annie in Florida, Watts (1971, 1975) hypothesized that a landscape of sclerophyllous oak woodland and herbaceous communities of grasses with eutrophic lakes existed in the Southeast 8500 radiocarbon years ago. By 5000 BP, this homogeneous picture gave way to modern, varied vegetation of to- day, consisting of pine forests with Serenoa, bayheads and cypress swamps. This diversification of vegetation at 5000 BP must have been accompa- nied by a concomitant radiation of soil types making new habitats available for plant species. This shift to modern pine flora may have coincided with the establishment of the Spodosol as the dominant soil, triggering the pattern of 126 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 leaching and pooling of base nutrients indicated in this study. Acid leaching in these spodic flatwood communities is self-perpetuating and once it is estab- lished, acid soils will select for acid-tolerant species such as pines which in turn produce acid litter. Conservation of bases may have evolved in the sandy flatwoods forest soil system in response to a significant reduction in weathera- ble supplies due to acid leaching over the millenia (Riekerk et al, 1979). While continuing interactions of fire and soil biota are important in the pod- zolization process, the initial extreme edaphic conditions imposed by Spodo- sol soils are fundamental to a holistic understanding of the Florida flatwoods system. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Horace O. White confirmed the soil determinations in this study and his assistance is gratefully acknowledged. Portions of this paper were submitted to the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. LITERATURE CITED ABRAHAMSON, W.G. 1984. Species responses to fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge. Amer. J. Bot. 71: 35-43. AGRONOMIC Division. 1976. Determination of Phosphorous, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sodium in Soils by The Double Acid Method. N.C. Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh. (Mimeograph copy), March 31. BEvILLE, B.C. 1981. Relationships of Ground Water and Spodic Horizons in Selected Hapla- quods. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. (Reprint, 1974). The Free Press, New York. Brown, D.W., W.E. KENNER, J.W. Crooks, AND J.B. Foster. 1962. Water resources of Brevard County, Florida. Florida Geol. Surv., Rept. Investig. 28: 1-104. Couttas, C. L., AND F. G. CaLHoun. 1976. A toposequence of soils in and adjoining a cypress dome in North Florida. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Florida Proc. 35: 186-195. Davis, J. H., Jr. 1943. The natural features of southern Florida especially the vegetation, and the everglades. Florida Geol. Surv., Geol. Bull. 25: 1-311. 1967. General map of natural vegetation of Florida. Agric. Exper. Sta., IFAS, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. EpmistTEN, J.A. 1963. The Ecology of the Florida Pine Flatwoods. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Garren, K. 1943. Effects of fire on the vegetation of the southeastern United States. Bot. Rev. 9: 617-654. Goprrey, R. K., AND J.W. WoorTEN. 1979. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United States. Monocotyledons. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens. 1981. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United States. Dicotyledons. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens. Harper, R. 1921. Geography of Central Florida. Florida Geol. Surv., 13th Ann. Rept. pp 71- 307. Huck, R. B. 1979. Flora, Vegetation and Soils of the Bull Creek Watershed, Osceola County, Florida. Master’s Thesis, Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Jackson, M.L. 1958. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs. Jounston, B.F. ca. 1916. Map of Hopkins land and surroundings in Osceola and Brevard Coun- ties. Melbourne, Florida. (manuscript) Kurz, H., aNp R. Goprrey. 1962. Trees of Northern Florida. Univ. Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. No. 2, 1987] HUCK—PLANT COMMUNITIES 1 KomareEK, E.V. 1962. Fire ecology. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 1: 95-107. LaessLE, A. M. 1942. The plant communities of the Welaka Area. Univ. Florida Publ. Biol. Sci. Ser. 4:1-143. Monk, C. D. 1960. A preliminary study on the relationship between the vegetation of mesic hammock community and sandhill community. Quar. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 23: 1-12. 1965. Southern mixed hardwood forest of northcentral Florida. Ecol. Monog. 35:335- 354. . 1966. An ecological significance of evergreenness. Ecology 47: 504-505. AND T.W. Brown. 1965. Ecological consideration of cypress heads in northcentral Florida. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 74: 126-140. MuE.LeR-Domsois, D. 1964. The forest habitat types in southeastern Manitoba and their appli- cation to forest management. Canad. J. Bot. 42: 1417-1444. AND H. ELLeNBERG. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. NOAA. 1976. Climatological Data, Annual Summary, Dept. of Commerce, U.S.A., Florida 80 (13): 2 and 4. Puri, H.S., AND R.O. VERNON. 1959. Summary of the geology of Florida and a guide book to the classic exposures. Florida Geol. Surv., Spec. Publ. 5: 1-255. Raprorp, A.E., W. C. Dickison, J.R. MAssEY AND C.R. BELL. 1974. Vascular Plant Systematics. Harper and Row, New York. , D.K.S. Orre, L. J. Orre, J.R. Massey AND P.D. Wuirtson. 1981. Natural Heritage Classification, Inventory and Information. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. READLE, E. 1979. Soil Survey of Osceola County Area. Florida Soil Conservation Service, U.S.D.A. State Agric. Exper. Sta. Tallahassee. RrexerK, H., S.A. Jones, L.A. Morris, AND D.A. Pratt. 1979. Hydrology and water quality of three small lower coastal plain forested watersheds. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Florida 38: 105- Ley. SCHLESINGER, W. H. 1978. Community structure, dynamics and nutrient cycling in the Okefeno- kee Cypress Swamp-Forest. Ecol. Monog. 48: 43-65. SMITH, F. B., R. G. LeiGuT Ly, R. E. CALDWELL, V. W. CARLISLE, L. G. THOMPSON, JR. AND T. C. MatTuHeEws. 1967. Principal soil areas of Florida: a supplement to the general soils map. Florida Agric. Exper. Sta. Bull. 717. Soix Survey StaFF. 1975. Soil Taxonomy. U.S.D.A., Agric. Handbook No. 36. SteiLa, D. 1976. The Geography of Soils, Formation, Distribution and Management. Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs. StosBE, P.C., AND J.R. Wricut. 1959. Modern concepts of the genesis of podzols. Soil Sci. Soc. Proc. 1959: 161-164. SWINDEL, B. F., L.F. ConpbE ANp J.E. Smirn. 1983. Plant cover and biomass response to clear- cutting, site preparation, and planting in Pinus elliottii flatwoods. Science 219: 1421- 1422. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR. 1970. The National Atlas of the United States of America. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington. . 1975. Water Resources Data for Florida, Part I, Surface Water Records, Vol. 1, Streams, Northern and Central Florida 1974. U.S. Geol. Surv. Tallahassee. VERNON, R.O. 1947. Cypress domes. Science 105: 97-99. VocL, R.J. 1972. Fire in the southeastern grasslands. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 11:175- 198. Watts, W.A. 1969. A pollen diagram from Mud Lake, Marion County, north-central Florida. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 80: 631-632. . 1971. Postglacial and interglacial vegetation history of southern Georgia and central Florida. Ecology 52: 676-690. . 1975. A late Quaternary record of vegetation from Lake Annie, south-central Flor- ida. Geology 3: 344-346. . 1981. Late Wisconsin climate of North Florida and the origin of the species. Science 210: 325-327. . 1983. Vegetation history of the eastern United States 25,000 to 10,000 years ago, Pp. 294-310. In Porter, S.C., (ed.). Late-Quaternary Environments of the United States, vol 1, The Late Pleistocene. Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. WEL s, B.W. 1942. Ecological problems of the southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain. Bot. Rev. 8: 533- 561. 128 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 White, H.O. 1978. Personal Communication. White, W.A. 1958. Some geomorphic features of peninsular Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. 41: 1- 92. . 1970. The Geomorphology of the Florida Peninsula. Florida Dept. Nat. Resources, Geol. Bull. 51: 1-164. WUNDERLIN, R. P. 1982. Guide to the Vascular Plants of Central Florida. Univ. South Florida Press, Tampa. Florida Sci. 50(2):111-128. 1987. Accepted: August 8, 1986. 3 Florida Scientist Volume 50 Summer, 1987 Number 3 CONTENTS Radioactive Fallout in Central Florida from the Chernobyl i) ee.) asclear Power Plant Accident ....-...............+- Ralph A. Llewellyn and Edgar R. Vargas 129 Archaeological Investigation of the Nebot Site (8PB219) Palm Beach ni i Aare Sa sw din dine ae ee x die pe ease ew es Oelae | W. Jerald Kennedy arid M. Yasar Iscan 136 Osteological Analysis of Human Remains from the Nebot Site ..... M. Yasar Iscan and W. Jerald Kennedy 147 Measurement of Airborne Fallout in North Florida from the NO ne D. M. Headly, S. L. Tabor, J. W. Nelson, K. W. Kemper R. Leonard, R. K. Sheline and J. Graham 156 Scorpion, Pseudoscorpion, and Opilionid Faunas in Three Central Ee David T. Corey and Walter Kingsley Taylor 162 Preparation of Sterile Seawater Through Photodynamic Action. ee ec) |, i a Dean F. Martin and M. J. Perez-Cruet 168 An Investigation of the Variances from the Traditional Summer Pre- cipitation in the West-Central Florida Region (1978-1985) ....... Dewey M. Stowers and Neva Duncan Tabb 177 Prescribed Burning of the Sand Pine Scrub Community: I I I ah So ai dr ot a eI ew Robert F. Doren, Donald R. Richardson, and Richard E. Roberts 184 LIBRAR DEC 4 4 1097 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OPSCTENGRSAL Gap, FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1986 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripa ScIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa SciEntTIsT. Direct subscription is avail- able at $20.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1986-87 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. PAN PAPACOSTA Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH Physics Department 5636 Satel Drive Stetson University Orlando, Florida 32810 DeLand, Florida 32720 Executive Secretary: President-Elect: Dr. Leste Sue LiEBERMAN Dr. Alexander Dickison Department of Anthropology Department of Physical Sciences University of Florida Seminole Community College Gainesville, Florida 3261 1 Sanford, FL 32771 Secretary: Dr. PATRICK I: GLEASON Program Chairs: Dr. GeorcE M. Dooris 1131 North Palmway Dr. Patricia M. Dooris Lake Worth, Florida 33460 P.O. Box 2378 St. Leo, Florida 33574 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MartTIN, Co-Editor Volume 50 Summer, 1987 Number 3 Atmospheric Sciences RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT IN CENTRAL FLORIDA FROM THE CHERNOBYL (U.S.S.R.) NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ACCIDENT RALPH A. LLEWELLYN AND EDGAR R. VARGAS Department of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816 Asstract: Following the April 26, 1986, accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station, atmospheric particulate samples collected in east Orange County, Florida, were examined for evidence of radioisotopes released to the environment by the accident. Passage of the radioactive debris cloud was observed by monitoring gamma rays emitted by three isotopes that would be expected to form a substantial part of the reactor’s fission by-product inventory. Activities mea- sured would have resulted in whole-body exposures to individuals in the Central Florida popula- tion of only about 0.004% of the yearly maximum permissible levels recommended by national and international authorities. In the early morning of April 26, 1986, an accident occurred at Unit 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power station about 120 km north of Kiev in the Soviet Union. Unit 4 was a 1000 megawatt graphite-moderated reactor and, according to reports (Pravda, 1986), was operating at low power at the time of the accident. The accident resulted in the release of a considerable amount of radioactive debris to the atmosphere, evidence of which was detected within a few hours in Sweden and subsequently throughout much of eastern and northern Europe. Normal atmospheric circulation caused portions of the radioactive cloud to drift over the United States, arriving first over the Pacific Northwest ap- proximately ten days after the accident. In the expectation that fallout from the cloud would occur over Central Florida within a few days after that, high volume air samplers that form part of an atmospheric particulate sampling network in Orange County, Florida, were mobilized to provide particulate samples for gamma ray spectroscopy. The atmospheric particulate sampling network consists of six high volume samplers (Model 20, BGI, Inc.) located at five sites (Fig. 1). This area, ap- proximately 130,000 hectares, is not covered by the Orange County Environ- 130 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 mental Protection Department, the agency responsible for monitoring air quality in the county. The samplers are routinely run on the U. S. Environ- mental Protection Agency’s (EPA) 6-day schedule and are calibrated accord- ing to EPA standards (CFR, 1972). As per those standards, the samplers are located between 2 meters and 15 meters of the ground surface. The network has operated since June, 1985, primarily for the purpose of collecting baseline particulate data in advance of industrial and commercial development that is expected to occur in the area over the next decade. Particulate concentrations in the atmosphere are measured at all sites. In addition, sulfate (SO,7) and nitrate (NO,) concentrations are currently measured at two sites (UCF and Moss Park) and particulate radioactivity levels are measured in three gamma ray energy ranges. A detailed report of the results of the first year of the baseline study is in preparation for publication. Beginning May 2, 1986, the dual samplers at the UCF site were operated to provide 24-hour particulate samples every second day. A particulate sam- ple was also available for April 26, the day of the accident, having been collected as a part of the regular sampling program. The alternate day sam- pling was continued through May 18, 1986, the objective being to collect particulate samples in advance of the expected arrival of the radioactive de- bris cloud, during the period of the cloud’s transit over Central Florida, and for a period after the passage of the cloud. Measurement of the gamma ray spectra of the samples thus collected would provide environmental radioac- tivity data before, during, and after the cloud’s passage. If radioactivity par- ticulates were detected, the information necessary to determine the activity per cubic meter of air near the Earth’s surface and to estimate the exposure that would be received by individuals in the population would thus be avail- able. Three of the several radioisotopes that were injected into the atmosphere during the Chernoby] accident provided the best candidates for detection of what was expected to be an extremely low concentration. They were “I, 14Cs, and "Cs. The approximate relative abundances of these isotopes in the debris cloud were assumed to be similar to those in the normal reactor inven- tory (Nero, 1972). These are given in Table 1 together with their correspond- ing half-lives and the energies of their principal gamma rays. A number of other radioactive isotopes were also emitted into the atmosphere during the accident, but were not searched for in this study due to low abundances, short half-lives, or the absence of energetic gamma rays. It should be noted that some potentially important contributors to the activity in the fallout were thus ignored, in particular, °Sr whose concentration in the fallout was likely as significant as that of Cs. Together, the isotopes included in the study represent approximately 1/3 of the reactor inventory of radioisotopes with half-lives greater than about 5 days. METHops—Samples were collected on standard fiberglas filters, then dried and weighed ac- | cording to.EPA protocols. Each filter was folded and placed in an 8.8 cm diameter acrylic _ container. The gamma ray spectrum of the sample was measured with a NalI(T1) scintillation 131 LLEWELLYN AND VARGAS—-CENTRAL FLORIDA FALLOUT No. 3, 1987] ‘ZuIplIng yuoujIedag UoNoa}org [eyUaWIUOTAUY AQUNOD adueIO-Cda ‘Wodiry [euoneuisyu] opur[IQ-AOHop] ‘Ae SsOP-Ssopy ‘UONRIS OILY] SPUNSTIYD-SAD ‘VPHOpy [eQUeD Jo AysIaATU-FON ‘seYs Ja[dures oyBolpul sexog *yxLOMJeU rajdures ayepnonied ary “[ lf ALNNOSD VW1039SO SSOW 2 AOODOW mn O Ke 2 > 3NI1 3398 fe) O NOILVLS 5°77 ee ral ONILVYANSD t-4 OGNV1HO c NOLNVLS io —— ‘ ad3 o z AINNOD JIONINGS 132 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Net Counts/24 hr 15,000 10,000 5,000 , S$ Days After Accident Fic. 2. 87Cs in Chernoby] fallout in Central Florida at the UCF site. TABLE 1. Principal gamma-emmitting isotopes in Chernoby] fallout Radioisotope Half-life Reactor Inventory Gamma Energy (x 106 Ci) (kev) 131] 8.0 days 71.9 364 14Cs 2.0 yrs 19.0 605, 800 137Cs 30.0 yrs 9.92 662 TABLE 2. Net gamma radioactivity and radiation dose Sample Days After Gamma Activity Radiation Dose No. Accident (pCi/m) (ID) (mrem/d) 1 0 0 0 2 6 0 0 3 10 0 0 4 12 0 0 5 14 1.88 0.0014 6 16 1.36 0.0010 7 18 1.36 0.0010 8 20 0.22 0.0002 9 22 0.13 0.0001 No. 3, 1987] LLEWELLYN AND VARGAS—CENTRAL FLORIDA FALLOUT 133 counter for at least 24 hours. The detector was shielded with a minimum of 10 cm of Pb. Only a single detector was available to the study. Its resolution was 6.8%. The gamma spectra thus measured were recorded and processed by an Apple IIE microcomputer configured as a 1024- channel multichannel analyzer. Background measurements were made before, after, and periodi- cally during the study. Background counting rates were typically of the same order of magnitude as net counts in the photopeaks. Very long (24 to 72 hours) background measurements were made in order to reduce the statistical error of the data in view of the relatively low resolution of the detector used. The overall efficiency of the detection/analyzing system was 0.59% as measured with a calibrated !°’Cs source. ResuLts— The arrival of the radioactive debris cloud over Central Flor- ida was readily observable (Fig. 2) in the net counts data (i.e., total counts— background counts) recorded in the energy range of the “Cs 662 kev photo- peak at the UCF site as a function of the number of days following the Chernoby] accident. Graphs of the net gamma count for the 605 kev and 800 kev photopeaks in the “Cs spectrum and the 364 kev photopeak in the ™I spectrum also show the substantial increase in activity on day 14 after the accident. Each of the data sets also shows the return of the activity to approx- imately the background level by day 22. Air flow and particulate mass data for each of the filters enabled the calculation of the activity per cubic meter of air for each of the samples (Malissa, 1978). The total activity, summed for the four gamma rays listed in Table 1, is tabulated in Table 2. The largest contributor to the total gamma activity in each of samples 5 through 9 was ‘I, which is also the isotope that decays the most rapidly of those included in the study. Its 364 kev gamma accounted for 85% of the activity in sample 5, declining to 41% of that in sample 9. This decline was to be expected, of course, in view of the 8.0 day half-life of ‘I. DiscussIoN AND ConcLusions—The net total gamma radioactivity given in Table 2 makes possible the calculation of the exposure received by individ- uals in the Central Florida population, both on a daily basis and cumulative, as a consequence of the passage of the radioactive debris cloud that resulted from the Chernobyl! accident. The daily individual whole body radiation dose (ID) received by people in the general population was computed (Eqn. 1, Stong, et al, 1977; USNRC, 1979): (ID) = 24xCx(DF) (1) where (ID) is the radiation dose to individuals in mrem/day, 24 is the hours in one day, C is the radioactivity in pCi/m*, and (DF) is the dose factor for total body immersion in mrem/hr per pCi/m*. The whole body radiation dose to individuals in the Central Florida pop- ulation due to the radioactive debris cloud resulting from the Chernoby] acci- dent is given (Table 2; Fig 3). Based on the measurement of “I, ‘Cs, and '7Cs, the radiation dose to individuals accumulated over the ten-day period from May 8, 1986, through May 18, 1986, was found to be 0.0072 mrem. This amount corresponds to 0.4% of the average dose received by individuals during that same period due to naturally occurring background radiation in 134 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 2.00 ID (x10 °mrem/day) "ed TS OH OF 0) 6 8 10° 2 14 16 18 20° _22 “24 Days After Accident Fic. 3. Whole body dose from Chernoby] fallout in Central Florida at the UCF site. the environment (NAS/NRC, 1972). By way of comparison, it amounts to less than 0.5% of the average cumulative dose received by individuals within a 50-mile radius of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station following the accident which occurred there on March 28, 1979 (USNRC, 1979). It is of approximately the same order of magnitude as the exposure to individuals that resulted from the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted by the People’s Republic of China in 1976-78 (Llewellyn, et al, 1978; Smith, et al, 1978). While there is no generally recognized absolutely safe dose (threshold) for low-level radiation, the report of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) (NAS/NRC, 1972) recommended that the yearly whole-body dose to individuals in the average population not exceed 170 mrem, exclusive of background and deliberate medical exposure. The total dose to individuals in the Central Florida population resulting from the Chernobyl accident, No. 3, 1987] LLEWELLYN AND VARGAS—CENTRAL FLORIDA FALLOUT 135 0.0072 mrem, was approximately 0.004% of that amount, and as a conse- quence did not present a significant health hazard. ACKNOWLEDGMENTs-the authors wish to thank the UCF Office of Sponsored Research for providing partial support for this project. LITERATURE CITED Cope OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS. 1972. 121:0105-121:0107. LLEWELLYN, R. A., M. J. LLEWELLYN, AND R. C. Cook. 1978. Preliminary assessment of fallout from the 1976-78 nuclear weapons tests of the People’s Republic of China. Proceed. Ind. Acad. Sci. 88:321-325. Mauissa, H. 1978. Analysis of Airborne Particles by Physical Methods. CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES/NATIONAL RESEARCH CounciL. 1972. The Effects on Population of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. NAS/NRC, Washington, D. C. Nero, A. V. 1979. A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, CA. Pravpa. 23 July 1986. SmiTH, J.M., J. A. BRoaDway, AND A.B. Stronc. 1978. United States population dose estimates for 131] in the thyroid after the Chinese atmospheric nuclear weapons tests. Science, 200:44-46. STRONG, A.B., J. M. SMITH, AND R.H. JoHNson. 1977. EPA Assessment of Fallout in the United States. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency 52/5-77-002, Washington, D. C. U.S. NucLear REGULATORY Commission. 1979. Population Dose and Health Impact of the Acci- dent at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Station. NRC (NUREG-0558), Washington, D. C. Florida Sci. 50(3):129-135. 1987. Accepted: September 24, 1986. Anthropology ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE NEBOT SITE (8PB219) PALM BEACH, FLORIDA W. JERALD KENNEDY AND M. Yasar IscaN Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431-0991 AssTtractT: Archaeologically, portions of south Florida are still poorly known. A salvage ar- chaeology excavation of a burial mound at the Nebot site (8Pb219) in Palm Beach establishes a Glades IIIc (A.D.1513-1700) occupation with several unique artifacts. Analysis of decorated bone pins and a projectile point presumed associated with two burials give insights into local mortuary practices as well as the use of metal alloy in decoration. Data are also presented sug- gesting cultural patterns common to other cultural areas in Florida. From a prehistoric cultural perspective the northern boundaries of south Florida run approximately from Cape Canaveral on the east coast to Char- lotte Harbor on the west. Based on differences observed in the cultures, this extensive geographical area has been divided into three cultural subareas: the Caloosahatchee, Okeechobee Basin and Circum-Glades (Milanich and Fair- banks, 1980). This region is far from being fully understood archaeologically. Broad regional surveys in much of the Glades culture area are still desperately needed despite recent studies within the Circum-Glades (Furey, 1972; Carr, 1981), the Caloosahatchee (Ehrenhard, 1978, 1980; Kennedy, 1978; Taylor, 1983; Marquardt, 1984; Milanich et al., 1984) and Okeechobee (Sears, 1982) subareas. This lack of broad areal research is particularly obvious in Palm Beach County (in the north-eastern portion of the Circum-Glades subarea) and is one of many factors responsible for the seemingly sparse distribution of archaeological sites there. Therefore, all new excavations are important whether they prompt major revisions of former views or add more modest insights into the culture history within each subarea. For example, recent Paleoindian finds in Dade County were “C dated at 9,760+120 B.P. (Carr, 1986). Thus the initial settling of this region is now considerably earlier than previously thought. Although most of the Nebot site was destroyed over the years by develop- ment of the area, what remained provides new evidence of post-contact occu- pation. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present the results of an archaeological salvage project at this site in Palm Beach, Florida, which lies within the Circum-Glades region. MATERIALS AND MerHops—The Nebot site (8Pb219) was discovered when human bones were found by construction crews cutting a trench adjacent to an existing sidewalk in the City of Palm Beach, Palm Beach County, Florida, in May 1985 (Fig. 1). The authors took charge of the site at the request of the Palm Beach County Medical Examiner’s office. Initial examination established that the well-preserved bones found lying in a considerably disturbed burial mound belonged to 137 KENNEDY AND ISCAN—NEBOT SITE ARCHAEOLOGY No. 3, 1987] Tew Sey = a & Lie la ePHOLy ‘AyuNOr) Yowog weg Ul ( 6134d8) OS JOGaN JO UOTVOT ‘TL 138 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 American Indians and were accompanied by somewhat unique artifacts. Furthermore, although the site was severely disturbed it had not been previously recorded. A preliminary assessment including a visual survey, gathering information from the construc- tion crew, preparation of a sketch map, and determination of the overall size and general eleva- tions was made. The site itself is 100m west of the Atlantic coastal beachline, situated on a sand dune ridge 4.0m above sea level. Sandy soil belongs to the Palm Beach Series (PbB) (McCollum, 1978). House | 7/ Construction Trench i, Utilities yi Foundation Wa// 7. a i; Bees Fic. 2. Excavated trench and grid at Nebot site (all grids without diagonals were screened and excavated in 20cm intervals). (Lower Left) Soil profile of grid El, south wall beneath sidewalk. Sidewalk cap to organic soil is 9.0em. BU1 and BU2 designate the location of burials. Controlled excavations were initiated to look for additional evidence of in situ burials and associated artifacts. A study of trench profiles and exposed cuts along the western and eastern portions of the property indicated a former sand mound of considerable size (ca. 10m x 15 m) and height (1.2 m). Several elaborately decorated artifacts and a number of fragmented human bones were un- earthed by the construction crew in what is referred to as Burial 1 (BU1). The location of this burial was only approximate because mechanical earthmoving equipment cutting the east-west trench for utility lines dislodged most of the skeletal material. However, information furnished by the construction crews’ project engineer, equipment operator and medical examiner suggested that BU1 was situated in the southeastern portion of grid C2 at depth of 75 cm (see units C2 and El, Fig. 2). It contained a nearly complete, albeit fragmentary, human skeleton in a highly disturbed context. Initially the field crew screened the back fill with a 1/16” wire mesh sifter. While no addi- tional artifacts were found, a significant amount of fragmentary human bone was recovered. This suggested the presence of another burial. Therefore, a datum point was established, and a 12x4m area divided into 2x2m grids, running parallel to the construction trench (where skeletal material was originally encountered) was laid out and excavated at 20-cm levels. All grids, except the two western-most (Al, A2), F2 and the northern and western quadrants of grid B2 were screened with the same gauge wire mesh. Since the skeletal material was found at a depth of 75 cm, excavation was continued to 1.0m, a point clearly beneath the bottom of the burial mound. All information gathered suggested that the bones and artifacts came from a very local- ized area within the trench. No. 3, 1987] KENNEDY AND ISCAN—NEBOT SITE ARCHAEOLOGY 139 Burial 2 (BU2) was found within the northwest corner of grid E1 at a depth of 75cm (Fig. 2). The bones of the lower extremity had been removed from their context by mechanical earthmov- ing equipment. The remaining bones clearly marked a burial in primary context. The in situ position of BU2 was that of an articulated, undisturbed skeleton in a tightly flexed position lying on its left side along a north-south axis (Fig. 3). The skull rested at the south end of the grave facing west in a slightly elevated position. No grave goods were found in association with this burial. Only unworked shark teeth and two broken shells were found nearby at the 0.73cm level. The only undisturbed area of this site was that portion beneath the sidewalk. Repeated con- struction and the presence of concrete block retaining walls less than 11m north, east and west of the exposed burial, along with sidewalks, and other subterranean utility pipes even closer, sug- gested that the remaining portions of the original site had been totally destroyed. This was borne out with subsequent excavations. ow o a Steet ~ te eee BURIAL 2 ay ; Sies i = tit | TT ssteavalaraTeatalaaelreteneahian ; ulna Fic. 4. Decorated bone knife and flat pin. Fig. 4a shows bone knife, interior surface; (4b), bone knife, exterior surface; (4c), bone knife, detail of carving, engraving and inlay work on interior surface, (1.5X actual size); (4d), flat bone pin and (4e), close-up of engraved “deer” head (2.5X actual size). No. 3, 1987] KENNEDY AND ISCAN—NEBOT SITE ARCHAEOLOGY 141 niques which include carving, engraving and inlay mosaic work. Decoration was primarily on the inner surface of the bone, the exterior was unadorned but polished to a sheen and carved along the longitudinal edges of the bone for a distance of 8.9cm. The inner surface was engraved with two parallel curvilinear lines extending 10.0 cm on each edge forming a border for the inlay. There were 22 mosaics consisting of thin sheets of metal, cold hammered and cut into rectangular, diamond and possibly triangular shapes measuring between 4.0mm by 3.0mm and 5.0mm by 2.0mm. These geometric insets alternate to form the central design along the longitudinal plane extending for 10.3 cm from the top of the pin. A series of smaller (2.4mm) square- shaped mosiacs flanks each side of the diamond pattern. The curvilinear en- graved designs with inlay work complement the carving along each side. This configuration, combined with inlay and engraved lines most likely represents a snake symbol. The inlay mosaics were initially suspected of being copper which has a long history of use in pre-Columbian North America, including Florida (Wil- ley, 1949b). However, examination with the Ortec EEDS II energy dispersive x-ray analyzer revealed that the metal inlay work was actually brass, a cop- per-zine alloy (Table 1). Further metallurgical analysis was of limited value as the corrosion process selectively removes much of the metal. Besides, where iron might be a consituent of the original copper it could also be a residual of soluble iron present in Florida ground water (Leader, 1986). Nev- ertheless, while brass artifacts have great antiquity in the Old World, going back at least to Roman times, they do not appear in the New World until after European contact. Thus, this artifact serves as a reliable time marker for the historic period. It is well established that Indians in the southwest reworked gold, silver, and brass obtained from Spanish wrecks and other European sources into varied artifacts (Goggin, 1940:25-26, Milanich and Fairbanks, 1980; Willey, 1949a). Flat Bone Pin (Fig. 4d, e): This decorated pin was 12.4cm long, 1.45 cm wide and 1.5mm thick. It was made from the shaft of an animal long bone, probably a deer, and polished on both sides. The upper portion of the pin was TABLE 1. Results of energy dispersive x-ray analysis of the metal in the bone pin. Weight Atomic Intensity Element Percent Percent (CPS) Si KA 1.40 2.87 4.54 P’ KA 2.61 4.83 9.64 Ca KA 7.28 10.43 29.77 Fe KA 1.57 1.62 2.87 Zn KA 17.75 15.58 9.95 Cu KA 66.59 60.15 50.68 Cl KA 2.79 4.52 12.02 142 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 iidaad | € hesdheel bp | ; HTT | Fic. 5. Decorated and undecorated artifacts from the Nebot site. Fig. 5a shows decorated bone pin; (5b), close-up of carved and engraved “human” head on bone pin (2X actual size); (5c), bone scraper; (5d), Marion type projectile point. No. 3, 1987] KENNEDY AND ISCAN—NEBOT SITE ARCHAEOLOGY 143 carved, depicting an animal head in profile. It was 2.5cm in length with an engraved eye consisting of two concentric circles, a mouth, nose, and ears. The artistic representation suggested a stylized deer. This motif, although uncommon, has been found in northern Florida. The only decoration on the other side was a single engraved line running the entire width of the pin 2.5 cm below the top. Bone Pin (Fig. 5a, b): The second artifact was made from the ulnar por- tion of the antebrachium of a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). This decorated pin measured 12.3 cm in length and 2.8cm at the widest part. To modify the bone, the proximal end had been cut so that the tuber olecrani was removed. A square configuration was created by a lateral cut from the proximal to the anconaeus process. The pin exhibited a sheen, especially along its edges. It is uncertain whether a polishing or merely normal use best explains its appearance. A red stain on the upper portion of the pin might be residue from purposeful painting or merely accidental stain from red ochre found in the immediate vicinity of Burial 1. A crude, but clearly recognizable human face (measuring 1.8 cm long and 0.5 cm wide) with chevron-shaped eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth and possible beard is engraved in profile on both sides of the bone. It is interesting to note that the carver worked the bone in its actual anatomical orientation. The proximal end was carved with the human head while its distal end formed the point. Bone Scraper (Fig. 5c): This undecorated artifact was modified from a portion of scapula, most likely deer, and measured 6.0cm x 2.0 cm. Signs of use along one longitudal plane suggest a strictly utilitarian function. Projectile Point (Fig 5d): This stemmed projectile point of agatized coral was stylistically reminiscent of the Archaic Period. More specifically it was most similar in style to Middle Archaic (5000-3000 B.C.) Marion points found primarily in northern Florida (cf. Milanich and Fairbanks, 1980, Fig. 13 c,d,e). It measured 5.6cm in length and 3.0cm in width at its widest part. White patination and encrusted marine organisms were visible over much of the surface. The action of water and sand over the years smoothed both surfaces and diminished important criteria for differentiating manufacturing techniques. Sharks Teeth: Four teeth from a Lemon Shark (Negaprion brevirostris) were found in grid D1 during sifting operations in the general vicinity of both burials. No evidence of modification or use was detected under 10x magnifi- cation. Shell Fragments: Shells including a lightning whelk (Busycon contra- rium) and common cockle (Trachycardium muricatum) were unearthed in the northeast corner of grid D2 at a depth of 0.75m. There was no evidence that these shells were modified or utilized. Discussion— The archaeological evidence from the Nebot burial mound indicates that this site was occupied during the historic period. The presence 144 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 of a bone knife decorated with brass mosaic work enables the authors to state with some confidence that a Glades IIIc (A.D. 1513-1700) placement is rea- sonable. (Table 2 presents the cultural sequence for south Florida.) Although few artifacts were recovered, the excavation provides signifi- cant information regarding burial practices during this time period. The presence of an Archaic Period projectile point was unexpected in apparent association with a burial from the historic period. Furthermore, it seemed unusual that a projectile point would be interred with a female, given that TABLE 2. Chronology of the Glades Culture Area.* Dates Period A.D. 1800 Seminole A.D. 1700-1513 Glades IIIc A.D. 1513-1400 Glades IIIb A.D. 1400-1200 Glades IIIa A.D. 1200-1000 Glades IIc A.D. 1000- 900 Glades IIb A.D. 900- 750 Glades IIa A.D. 750- 500 Glades I Late A.D. 500- 500B.C. Glades I Early 500 B.C.-1000 B.C. fiber tempered pottery 1000 B.C.-6500 B.C. Archaic 6500 B.C.-12000 B.C. Paleoindian aModified from Milanich and Fairbanks (1980) and revised to reflect recent Archaic and Paleoindian finds (Carr, 1986) hunting is typically a male pursuit. Assuming this artifact was associated with one of the burials, its function within a mortuary complex may best be understood by looking at the Ft. Center site in the Belle Glade area. Sears noted that among the stone artifacts found in Mound A was an Archaic Period stemmed projectile point of the Marion type (Sears, 1982:76, Fig. 6.2, D). Mound A was occupied during Periods 2 (A.D. 200-600) and 3 (A.D. 600-1400), some 3000 years later than the Middle Archaic. Secondly, Sears felt that Mound A was used to house ceremonial specialists including “religious functionaries, probably the equivalent of the Choctaw Buzzard Men, and their families, who cleaned bones from decomposed bodies” (Sears, 1982:175). This suggests that the projectile point found at the Nebot site may have had a ceremonial function, and thus, in this context, might be viewed as a sacred heirloom. The significance of this apparently anachronistic artifact as a funerary retainer might point to a more widespread practice of this type of mortuary ritual than previously suspected. Furthermore, analysis of designs on the Nebot artifacts reveals both unique motifs as well as others encoun- tered elsewhere in Florida. Interestingly, many of these patterns most closely resemble those found in north Florida. Such motifs are closely associated with No. 3, 1987] KENNEDY AND ISCAN—NEBOT SITE ARCHAEOLOGY 145 the Southern Cult in southeastern prehistory. The authors noticed that cer- tain elements of the design on the bone knife (Fig. 4a, c) corresponded to Willey’s “rattlesnake patterns” on metal artifacts (Willey, 1949b). This opin- ion is shared by archaeologists at the Florida State Museum (Leader, 1986). Artifactual similarities were also noted between the bone pin from the Nebot site (Fig. 5a, b) and one from the Grenada site (8Dall) in Miami. Both showed evidence of pigment and were manufactured by similar techniques (Richardson and Pohl, 1985:124). However, the bone artifacts from the Ne- bot site differed from other Florida sites in their form and degree of decora- tive elaboration. It is important to point out that these relatively few artifacts recovered from the Nebot site have added significant new data to what was previously known about south Florida culture history. The authors observed both simi- larities and differences to artifacts in other parts of the state. Variety in bone pins and knives commonly found in south Florida has been established (Wil- ley, 1949; Purdy, 1973; Williams and Mower, 1979; Milanich and Fairbanks, 1980; Richardson and Pohl, 1985). The Nebot specimens provide evidence of additional variation in these categories of decorated artifacts. The unique inlay on the bone knife (Fig. 4a, c) expands our knowledge of the metallurgi- cal skills of Indians in this region. More data are necessary to judge the extent to which the commonalities express shared beliefs, direct or indirect contact. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— The excavation of this site would not have been possible without the efforts of Florida Atlantic University students A. Neff, S. R. Loth, P. Miller-Shaivitz, J. Giacobbe, C. Georgoff, M. Klass, M. Wilkov, K. Arnold, J. O'Donnell. We are especially in- debted to Palm Beach and Broward County Archaeological Society members D. and J. Tanzer, R. Thomas, E. Dumas, G. Graves and G. Brown for their assistance. We thank Dr. J. T. Milanich and J. Leader, of the Florida State Museum, for their most helpful suggestions concerning design elements and metallurgy. We thank Dr. S. Smith, Department of Ocean Engineering, Florida Atlantic University for his expertise in analysis of the metallurgical content of the artifact and S. R. Loth for her editorial comments and assistance. Finally, without the interest, cooperation and concern shown by Mr. Bernard Nebot, the property owner and his construction crew, this project would have never been initiated. LITERATURE CITED Carr, R. S. 1981. Dade County Historic Survey: The Archaeological Survey. On file at the Metro-Dade Historic Preservation Division, Miami. . 1986. Preliminary report on excavations at the Cutler Fossil site in southern Florida. Paper presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Florida Anthropological Society, Gainesville. EHRENHARD, J. E., R. S. CARR AND R. C. Taytor. 1978. The Archaeological Survey of the Big Cypress National Preserve: Phase I. National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Cen- ter, Tallahassee. . 1979. The Big Cypress National Preserve: Archaeological Survey Season 2. National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center, Tallahassee. , AND R. C. Taytor. 1980. The Big Cypress National Preserve: Archaeological Survey Season 3. National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center, Tallahassee. Furey, J. 1972. The Spanish River Complex. M.A. thesis, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Ra- ton, Florida. Gocein, J. M. 1940. Silverwork of the Florida Seminole. E] Palacio, Vol. 47, No. 2, Santa Fe. 146 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 GriFFIN, J. W., S. B. RicHarpson, M. Pout, C. D. McMurray, C. M. Scarry, S. K. Fisn, E. S. Wine, L. J. Loucks AND M. K. Wetcu. 1985. Excavations at the Grenada Site: Archaeol- ogy and History of the Grenada Site. Vol. I, Division of Archives, History and Records ; Management, Florida Dept. State, Tallahassee. Iscan, M. Y. AND W. J. KENNeEpy. (1987). Osteological analysis of human remains from the Nebot site. Florida Scient. 50:00-00. KENNEDY, W. J. 1978. A Cultural Resource Reconnaissance of the J. N. “Ding” Darling National Wildlife Refuge, Sanibel Island, Florida. Vol. 1: Cultural Resource Survey. Heritage Con- servation and Recreation Service, Atlanta. Leaper, J. 1986. Florida State Museum, Gainesville. Personal Correspondence. Marquarpt, W. H. 1984. The Josslyn Island Mound and Its Role in the Investigation of South- west Florida’s Past. Misc. Project Report Series No. 22. Florida State Museum, Gaines- ville. McCo.uium, S. H., O. Cruz, L. Stem, W. Wittstruck, R. Forp, Aanp F. Watts. 1978. Soil Survey of Palm Beach County Area, Florida. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Soil Conserv. Service. MILanicu, J. T. AND C. H. Farrsanks. 1980. Florida Archaeology. Academic Press, New York. , J. CHAPMAN, A. CorbELL, H. S. HALE, AND R. A. MERRINAN. 1984. Prehistoric devel- opment of Calusa society in southwest Florida: Excavations on Useppa Island. Pp. 258- 314. In: D. D. Davis, (ed.). Perspectives on Gulf Coast Prehistory, Univ. Presses of Flor- ida, Gainesville. Purpy, B. A. 1973. The Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Bone Points in the State of Florida. Florida Anthropol., 26:143-152. RICHARDSON, S. B. AND M. PouHu. 1985. The bone tool industry from the Grenada site. In: Excavations at the Grenada Site: Archaeology and History of the Grenada Site. Vol. I, Division of Archives, History and Records Management, Florida Dept. State, Tallahassee, 1:83-142. Sears, W. H. 1982. Fort Center: An Archaeological Site in the Lake Okeechobee Basin. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville. Wiper, R. J. 1974. A Survey and Assessment of Archaeological Resources on Marco Island, Collier City, Florida. Division of Archives, History, and Records Management, Misc. Projects Reports 19. Tallahassee. WituraMs, W. AND B. Mowers. 1979. Bishops Hammock, Broward County, Florida. Florida Anthropol. 32:17-32. WI.tey, G. R. 1949a. Excavations in Southeast Florida. Yale Univ. Publ. Anthropology, No. 42. . 1949b. Archeology of the Florida Gulf Coast. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. No. 113. Florida Sci. 50(3): 136-146. 1987. Accepted: August 19, 1986. Anthropology OSTEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NEBOT SITE M. YASAR IscaN AND W. JERALD KENNEDY Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431-0991 Asstract: The present study was undertaken to analyze skeletal remains unearthed during a construction project at the Nebot site in Palm Beach, Florida. Based on the artifacts, the site was dated as Glades IIIc indicating contact period with Europeans. The partially fragmented re- mains were those of two females approximately 16-17, and 35-39 years of age. The older individ- ual was taller and more robust. Metrical and morphological analysis of the crania indicated that these individuals may have belonged to genetically different families or groups. While their general health was relatively good, both showed evidence of dental abscesses, caries and moder- ate attrition. The older individual also exhibited signs of degenerative arthritis along the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and inflammatory swelling of the right tibia. Osteometric comparisons between these individuals and prehistoric Florida populations indicate that the Nebot skeletons most closely resembled Indians from the east coast of the state. THE antiquity of human settlement in Florida is supported by archaeolog- ical evidence (Swanton, 1946; Willey, 1949; Milanich and Fairbanks, 1980). However, the physical characteristics and health status of these Indian popu- lations have not been thoroughly researched (Iscan and Miller-Shaivitz, 1983). The most notable early works describing physical characteristics were carried out by Allen (1896), Moore (1902), Hrdlicka (1917, 1922, 1940), and Stewart (1946). Recently, more detailed studies were conducted on skeletal remains along with an assessment of health (Snow, 1962; Saunders; 1972; Iscan, 1983; Carr et al., 1984: Dailey and Morse, 1984; Shaivitz, 1986). The few attempts at paleopathology of specific diseases included research on tre- ponemiasis (Iscan and Miller-Shaivitz, 1985; Bullen, 1972) and dental pa- thology (Isler et al., 1985a). To gain more insight into the many questions that remain unanswered, it is essential to continue building up descriptive studies of skeletal samples obtained from carefully controlled archaeological excavations. Important data can be gleaned from even a small scale find such as that at the Nebot site on Palm Beach. The present study analyzes the two skeletons unearthed at this location. MATERIALS AND MErHops— The Nebot site (8Pb219) is located in the northern section of the City of Palm Beach, about 100 meters from the Atlantic Ocean. The burial mound dates from the historic Glades IIIc period during which the natives were in cultural contact with European settlers (Kennedy and Iscan, 1987). This date was based on evidence of brass, an alloy not made in the pre-Columbian New World, on a decorated bone pin. This project was initiated in May of 1985 when most of the skeletal remains of two individuals were unearthed during the construction of a building (Kennedy and Iscan, 1987). Burials 1 and 2 (BU1 and BU2) appeared to be adjacent to each other but the only commingling involved some foot bones (probably as a result of bulldozing). With the exception of the skull (damaged by 148 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 construction equipment) the remains of BU1 were better preserved and nearly all the major bones were found intact. The upper half of the second individual (BU2) was found in situ in a primary burial and consisted of a well preserved skull, fragmented bones of the upper extremities (exclud- ing the forearms and hands), thorax, and pelvis. The rest of BU2 had been disturbed previously when telephone cables, wires, and several large pipe lines were installed. Paleodemographic and osteometric analyses were carried out according to procedures out- lined by Krogman and Iscan (1986). Overall, there was little doubt as to age, sex, racial affinity, and approximate stature. Osteopathological diagnoses were made using sources by Morse (1978), and Ortner and Putschar (1981). Dental health was assessed by following criteria used for other skeletal finds in Florida (Isler et al., 1985a). To gain a better perspective of their relationship to the prehistoric Indians of Florida, these two individuals were compared with skeletons from Margate-Blount (near Ft. Lauderdale) (Is- can, 1983), and Bayshore Homes (near St. Petersburg) (Snow, 1962). The Margate-Blount site was occupied as early as 500 B.C. and used continually until European colonization (Williams, 1983). However, most of the skeletons were associated with the Glades II period. The skeletal material from the Bayshore Homes site (Mound B) was dated at about early Weeden Island II (ca. A.D. 800) (Sears, 1960). TABLE 1. Selected cranial dimensions (in mm) of the skeletal remains (both females) found at the Nebot Site and comparative data from other prehistoric Florida populations. Nebot Margate? Bayshore? Specimens Blount Homes Female Male Female Male Female Variables BUI BU2 N- 7x N: “x NY x Nozze Maximum Length 180? 176 2 182 4 170 11 178 18 170 Maximum breadth 159 140 2 140 4 136 13 145 19 140 Basion-bregma ht. ~ 140 2 147 3 140 7 143 7 138 Basion-nasion 1. - 102 2 104 3 101 6 104 7 101 Basion-prosthion 1. - 98 1 296 3 106 4 101 5 100 Minimum frontal br. 93? 90 2 98 4 92 14 97 18 93 Horizontal circ. ~ 498 2 onl 4 487 8 508 16 492 Transverse arc 350 317 2 325 4 308 10 326 16 317 Bizygomatic br. - 127 1 140 2 128 11 147 15 138 Orbit height ~ 36 15 339 2. 36 7 36 14 35 Orbit breadth ~ 34 1 45 2. 38 8 45 14 44 Biorbital br. ~ 100 1103 2 94 6 104 10 100 Interorbital br. - 22 | a S42 2, 22 7°23 12 21 Nasal height ~ 48 bie 5S 2 49 6 55 12,52 Nasal breadth ~ 24 ieMe2s 2 24 6 28 Ii 25 Nasion-prosthion ht. - 68 Pas aa | 6 76 12 73 Nasion-menton ht. - 112 1 124 2 116 - ~ Foramen magnum 1. - 38 2 39 3 35 ~ ~ Foramen magnum br. - 28 2 31 3029 - - Bigonial br. 102 93 1 110 ie 5 116 14 104 Bicondylar br. 120 113 2 123 3 118 - - Gonion-symphysion 1. 75 80 2 86 Shin Bl - ~ aModified from Iscan (1983). Statistical means (x) are calculated for the present study bModified from Snow (1962) (left sides only were applicable) REsuLTs—Metrical and morphological criteria indicated that both skele- tons were female. With the exception of the medial clavicle and some epiphy- seal gap in late maturing bones like the iliac crest and proximal humerus, all bones were in their final stage of epiphyseal union. The fourth rib was an early Phase 2 and third molars were also erupted. All of these indicators pointed to an age of about 16-17 years. The second individual’s age, esti- No. 3, 1987] ISCAN AND KENNEDY—NEBOT SITE HUMAN REMAINS 149 TABLE 2. Descriptive statistics of left mesiodistal (MD) and buccolingual (BL) dimensions (in mm) in three Florida populations (females only). Nebot Site Highland Beach? Bayshore Homes? MD BL MD BL MD BL MD BL Teeth BUI BU2 N ye No ix N x x Il 8.9 7.8 25 8.31 I2 7.5 5.5 24 6.91 C 8.1 7:2 28: T.81 4 8.5 8.2 Pl 6.3 8.6 6.8 63. 30: 6:92 1-30. . 9:21 2 8.2 9.5 P2 8.1 8.6 6.9 90° -25 . 6.69 2 . 9:05 - ~ - Ml 10:5 11.9 9.5 9.4 26 10.55 27 11.98 Me LLG 12.2 M2 10.0. 11.6 Se) hsb, 31 - 9:95 Sh P32 S105" 11-5 M3 8.5 9.9 O56 obk2- 623" 8:93-9:23» 10.16 - ~ - Il 5.6 3.7 20 ~=5.03 I2 6.5 5.4 24 5.92 C 6.7 6.8 ol 1 i30 1 fei. 8.0 Pl eis 7.4 6.5 CA5%33 .“O2f2.. 34 T.53 ] 7.0 8.0 PZ 7.5 8.1 7.2 8.4 34 698 34 8.00 - - - Ml poe Os... LOT MeO £3). ches 23h 18 S09 e) EG M2 eae ion ~~ 10:6> “Wi 33 1818: 3) - 10.71 S 1 kCi) whose release to the atmosphere was estimated at >1%. ‘Te also emits y-rays but its half- life (t,.=78 hours) is too short to allow much to reach Florida. MATERIALS AND MeTHops— Air samples in Tallahassee were collected starting April 30, 1986. For y-ray detection, samples were collected on Nuclepore filters with an active area of 132.7 mm® and 0.4 um pore size, which are generally regarded as totally retentive for atmospheric particu- No. 3, 1987] HEADLY ET AL—NORTH FLORIDA FALLOUT 157 TaBLE 1. Estimated radiation releases >1% of inventory from Windscale, October 9, 1957 (taken from APS Study, 1985) Isotope tis Decay Modes a ae d a ¥ (364 5 keV) 131 —3¥ .5 ke 132Te 3.25d G—; y (many energies) ae 5.25 d B-; no 137Cs 30.17 yr B-; y(661.7 keV) late matter. A rotary air sampler of F.S.U. design was employed to put new filters in place automatically every eight hours. While this time resolution was not desired, it was used to pre- vent clogging of the filter membrane by particles other than those due to the fallout. Air was drawn through the filter paper by a diaphragm pump at the rate of 4 liters/min or 1.9 m° air/ filter. Three such filters constituted 1 day of sampling, from 9 AM to 9 AM Eastern Standard Time, taken on the seventh floor balcony of the Keen Building at Florida State University with the exposed filter surface pointing downward. Sample counting was done using an Ortec lithium-drifted germanium detector (Ge(Li)) with an active volume of 125 cm and efficiency rating of 25.6% at 1332 keV relative to NaI. Each day, three filters were taped to the front face of the detector (except on weekends when two days of samples were collected) and counted for 24 hours. The detector was placed in an array of 10 cm thick lead bricks, surrounding and in front of it, to reduce a relatively large room background due to 22Th, #38U and *°K y-rays. Energy and efficiency calibrations were made using a Eu source and a 1.18yCi !°’Cs source, respectively. All energy spectra were measured using a 4096- channel analyzer. Net counts for !5!I and !5"Cs were obtained starting May 4. Room background was measured May 17 and May 19; the May 9 sample was recounted May 22 for comparison. Total 6 activity was measured on one 8-cm? active area filter paper per day. Here the flow rate was 20 m3/day and the air was collected atop the Tallahassee Office of Radiation Control build- ing. Each sample was counted in a gas proportional chamber 5 hours after it was removed. This was done to allow the radon daughters to decay out. A “Sr source was used for efficiency calibra- tion. Samples counted on Mondays corresponded to 3-day averages. RESULTS AND Discussion— Figure 1 shows y-ray activities for ‘“I and '“Cs measured in Tallahassee. "I peaked May 9 at 0.7+0.1 pCi/m*(1pCi=10™” Curies). The next two days’ samples were counted together. Figure 2 shows portions of y-ray spectra showing ‘I and '“Cs May 10-11, as well as “Cs in room background; the other peaks come from room background and corres- pond to the natural radioactive decay series *°Th and **U, present in the masonry walls. Figure 3 shows Orlando I y-ray data (Office of Radiation Control, De- partment of HRS). Activity peaked May 13-14 at 1.1 pCi/m® and reappeared May 21. Although not shown in Figure 1, I may have reappeared in Talla- hassee May 16 in very small amounts (<0.2 pCi/m*) which would follow the Orlando pattern. However, even though the Tallahassee and Orlando peaks occurred 2-3 days apart, this should not be used to represent the gross move- ment of airborn radionuclides. Local weather variations are probably what determine the time at which the peak activity will occur at a given altitude. Air samples from Jacksonville also showed ‘I, detected at 0.55 pCi/m* May 11 (Environmental Protection Agency Report, May, 1986). Compared to the sudden appearance and gradual disappearance of 'I, identification of the “Cs activity as fallout is not certain due to the constant 158 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 TALLAHASSEE- F.S.U. o 131) ACTIVINY (Gaiam 9 4°. 6.8 S40" 42) 44. ee Ge eee DATE (MAY ,1986) Fic. 1. y-ray activities for }4I and !87Cs measured in Tallahassee. Zero levels for }!I are marked every other day although monitored daily. The horizontal dashed lines for !5’Cs represent one or 2 days collection, from 9 AM to 9 AM. Error bars shown represent all single day data points. The !37Cs room background is shown on 5/12/86 with no horizontal bar. room background present, probably due to atmospheric test residues from the 1950’s and 1960’s. Figure 4 shows total 6 activity in Tallahassee, and this should be com- pared with Figure 1. While total 8 activity peaked May 13, 1 day after "Cs and 3 to 4 days after ‘I, no conclusion can be drawn from this as to the source of increased activity. The wildly varying 6 activity data merely indi- cates the necessity of y-ray analysis when monitoring for changes in environ- mental radiation levels for particular nuclei. CoMPARISON WITH OTHER U.S. Ciries—"'I was reported in many loca- tions during May. To compare amounts with Florida’s data, as of May 19, 1986, levels in air reached a reported relative high of 1.6 pCi/m* May 12 in Phoenix, Arizona (EPA, 1986). As stated above, I and Cs were looked for using past results as a guide. To ascertain what other isotopes could have reached Florida and warrant monitoring, Table 2 shows a list of radionu- clides other than I along with locations, dates and amounts measured (EPA, 1986). Besides *Te already mentioned, “Ru, ™Cs and “Mo were also re- 290 (92 2327, OI 2327p 238(, oo DS oh 1OO9 miCs 662 327, \727s 64 2 D0 SNe S fe 128 64 Background O I86 368 Do) o> CHANNEL NUMBER Fic. 2. The upper spectrum shows a portion of the y-ray activity of air samples May 10-11, 1986, showing !°7Cs and peak 13!I concentration. The lower spectrum shows !3’Cs present in the room background along with “Th and 8U decay series y-rays. Note the absence of the 364 keV 131] line in the bottom spectrum. 160 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 leased at Windscale. Neither '‘’Ru nor “Mo were seen in Tallahassee, but ‘4Cs, with 2 y rays at 605 and 796 keV, may have been present because both energies correspond to unknown peaks on certain days of analysis. Table 2 indicates that substantially more radioactivity was detected in Idaho and New Mexico. Some stations employed charcoal to collect airborne iodine. It has been suggested that this substrate retains two or more times as much of the volatile iodine than do filter papers. ORLANDO” 'J PICO CURIES / CUBIC METER ee Ge. TGs See Nae or ae SC WE. oo oct & 6 8 10 12 14 16 13......20..... 22.2. 24> 26, 222 ee MAY ,1986 - DAILY READINGS Fic. 3. Orlando !1I y-ray data (furnished courtesy of HRS, Tallahassee, FL). The activity peaked May 13 at 1.1 pCi/m’ and again on May 22 at 0.14 pCi/m%. Data points for May 19 and May 26 are 72-hour averages. TALLAHASSEE AIR MONITORING 3, x aa) aD L 5 1. UO fal. ~~ =) Y 0.6 5 = 0.0L 30 5 10 5 20 25 30 5 APRIL THRU JUNE 1986 DAILY READINGS Fic. 4. Total 6 activity in Tallahassee (furnished courtesy of HRS, Tallahassee, FL). The peak activity of 2.9pCi/m3 observed on May 13 may or may not have been due to Chernoby] fallout. Data points on May 5, 12, 19, and June 2 are 72-hour averages; that for May 27 is a 96-hour average. No. 3, 1987] HEADLY ET AL—NORTH FLORIDA FALLOUT 161 TABLE 2. Radionuclides detected in air (unless otherwise noted) at particular U.S. monitoring cities. }5!J not included (from EPA Reports, May 1986) Location Isotope Activity Date (pCi/m?) (1986) Phoenix, Arizona 134,137Cs 0.015, 0.28 May 8 Denver, Colorado 134Cs 0.0002 May 6 Idaho Falls, Idaho Mo 130 pCi/I* May 8 Santa Fe, New Mexico 13Ru 28 pCi/1* May 9 E] Paso, Texas 140Ba 0.021. May 10 137Cs 0.059 Richland, Washington ite 0.02 May 8 103Ru 0.02 137Cs 0.028 *Rainwater. CoNncLusions—It appears that graphite-moderated nuclear reactor type radiation releases are best observed by monitoring airborne ‘I levels. Al- though several radionuclides were detected at different sites, iodine is by far the most often reported. This is probably due to a combination of factors. First, a large amount of iodine is released from the source. Second, iodine has a long enough half-life to allow it to be transported considerable distances without its activity severely decreasing. Finally, the volatile nature of this element may be important to the transportation mechanism. Concern in Florida for exposure to fallout is due to its biological effects if taken internally. I in the human body has an effective t,, of 7.6 days, the critical organ being the thyroid from its chemical need for iodine as a mineral (critical organ is that organ considered to suffer greatest radiation damage). 157Cs has an effective t,,. of 70 days with the whole body (bone marrow, or- gans) considered critical (Choppin, 1985). The Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services in Florida (1985) defines exposure limits for the gen- eral public to concentrations in air of soluble plus insoluble “I (Cs) as 1.01 x 10* pCi/m® (2.5 x 10°). The detected values in Florida were thus 10,000 to 100,000 times below these standards and presented no danger to public health. The recommended protective action guideline for milk levels of ‘I is 15,000 pCi/1. A maximum of 30 pCi/1 was found in Florida milk and again presented no danger to public health. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This work was supported by the State of Florida and the National Sci- ence Foundation. LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN PHysIcaL Society Stupy Group. 1985. Rev. Mod. Phys. 57, No. 3 part II. Cuoprin, G., AND J. RypBerc. 1985. Nuclear Chemistry, Theory and Applications. Pergammon Press, New York: 353. DHRS 1985. Controt oF RapiaTIoN Hazarp REGULATIONS. Department of Health and Rehabili- tation Services, State of Florida: 99. 162 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. Tallahassee 1986. Task Force Reports on Soviet Nuclear Accident. May 9th, May 16th and May 22nd. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION. 1986. Office of Radiation Control, Depart. HRS, Tallahassee, Flor- ida 32399-0700. Florida Sci. 50(3):156-162. 1987. Accepted: November 12, 1986. Biological Sciences SCORPION, PSEUDOSCORPION, AND OPILIONID FAUNAS IN THREE CENTRAL FLORIDA PLANT COMMUNITIES Davip T. CoREY AND WALTER KINGSLEY TAYLOR Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816 Asstract: Ground surface populations of scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and opilionids were studied for one year using pitfall traps set in pond pine, sand pine scrub, and flatwoods communi- ties in central Florida. Forty-two scorpions (1 species), 41 pseudoscorpions (5 families and 6 species), and 248 opilionids (2 families and 3 species) were collected. Very little research has been done on scorpion, pseudoscorpion, and opi- lionid populations in central Florida. Rey and McCoy (1983) included pseudoscorpions in their study of spiders in northwest Florida. Muma (1973) did a study on spiders in Winter Haven, but he did not include other arach- nids. Findings on the ground faunas of scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and opi- lionids in three central Florida plant communities; pond pine, sand pine scrub, and flatwoods are reported. Not only were we interested in species composition and abundance, but also we wanted to determine if seasonal differences exist in the arachnid faunas within a plant community and be- tween the three plant communities. Stupy Sires—The study sites were located in the eastern part of the University of Central Florida campus, located approximately 17 km east of Orlando in Orange County (S10 R31E T22S) (Fig. 1). Plant cover of the pond pine community consisted of trees, shrubs, tree seedlings, grasses, herbs, and vines. Pond pine (Pinus serotina) was the dominant tree followed by two bays (Gordo- nia lasianthus and Magnolia virginiana), a holly (Ilex cassine), and black gum (Nyssa sylvatica). Other plants include saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), the grasses Andropogon sp. and Aristida sp., and fetterbush (Lyonia lucida). The ground surface was covered with a large amount of leaf litter. No. 3, 1987] COREY AND TAYLOR—SCORPION AND OTHER FAUNAS 163 Plants of the sand pine scrub community consisted mainly of two shrubs (Quercus myrtifolia and Lyonia ferruginea) and sand pine (Pinus clausa) the dominant tree. Quercus geminata, Q. chapmanii, and Serenoa repens were common. Rosemary (Ceratiola ericoides) grew throughout the study site. The ground surface was covered with small amounts of leaf litter. The flatwoods cover consisted mainly of saw palmetto (S. repens), long-leaf pine (P. palus- tris), and two grasses, Aristida spiciformis and A. stricta. Some leaf litter was present, but most of the ground surface was covered with the two Aristida grasses and saw palmettos. Fic. 1. Map of the three plant communities: 1. pond pine collecting sites, 2. sand pine scrub collecting sites, 3. flatwoods collecting sites. CD (cypress dome) and BD (Biology building). 164 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 MATERIALS AND MerHops—Pitfall traps were the only collecting device used. A one-gallon plastic jar inserted into a five-gallon bucket constituted a pitfall trap. The bucket had holes drilled in the bottom for water drainage. A piece of 40.6 x 40.6 x 0.64 cm plywood with a 10.2- cm hole cut into its center was placed over the bucket. The hole was centered over the opening of the jar and the plywood extended 5.08 cm around the bucket. The plywood was covered with 2.5 cm of soil flush with the ground, but sloping toward the 10.2 cm hole. A plywood lid (30.5 x 30.5 x 0.5 em) with 3.8-cm legs was placed over the 10.2-cm hole. The lid prevented rain, leaves, large animals, and other debris from entering the trap. Each trap contained a 0.47-liter mixture of ethylene glycol, 95% ethanol, and water in a ratio of 2:1:2. Ninety pitfall traps were erected. Ten traps each were placed in three sites within each plant community (Fig. 1). Traps were set at least 10 m apart in a line. Each line was spaced 20-50 m apart. A total of 540 pitfall collections was made. Traps remained open for 14 days during each collecting period. All material collected per trap was placed in a baby food jar containing 70% ethanol and returned to the laboratory for sorting. The three plant communities were sampled in May, July, September, November, January, and March, starting in 1983 and ending in 1984. Scorpions were identified by Dr. Oscar Francke, Texas Tech University; opilionids by Dr. Jonathan Coddington, Smithsonian Institution; and pseudoscorpions by Dr. William Muchmore, University of Rochester. RESULTS AND DiscussIoN—Species composition and total number of indi- viduals trapped in the three communities are in Table 1. Forty-two scorpions of one species, Centruroides hentzi (Banks), were collected. One female was collected in pond pine; 3 males, 22 females, and 7 juveniles in sand pine scrub; and 2 males, 6 females, and 1 juvenile in flatwoods. Females, many of which were pregnant, dominated the population. The reason for a greater preponderance of females over males is unknown. However, the small num- ber of juveniles may be a result of their spending more time on vegetation off the ground or being less mobile than the adult (Francke, pers. comm.). All juveniles were collected in September. Juveniles mount the backs of their mother soon after birth and remain there until after their first molt (Gertsch 1979). With all the juveniles being collected in September and with 86% of the females, many of which were pregnant, collected in July and September it appears that this is their mating season in the plant communities studied. Scorpions occurred most frequently in sand pine scrub (79%), followed by flatwoods (19%) and pond pine (2%). Fifty-five percent and 31% of the total scorpion population sampled were taken in September and July, respec- tively. Forty-one pseudoscorpions representing 5 families and 6 species were col- lected. Five pseudoscorpions representing 4 species and 4 families were col- lected in pond pine: 1 male Parachernes sp. (Chernetidae), 1 female Microbi- sium paravulum Banks (Neobisiidae), 1 nymph Novohorus obscurus Banks (Olpiidae), and 2 Kewochthonius sp. (1 male and 1 female) of Chthoniidae. Twenty-one pseudoscorpions representing 3 species and 2 families were collected in sand pine scrub: 1 male Luvicherifer cribratus (Chamberlin) of Cheliferidae, 1 male Planctolpium peninsulae Muchmore (Olpiidae), and 7 males, 10 females, and 2 nymphs Novohorus obscurus. 165 COREY AND TAYLOR—SCORPION AND OTHER FAUNAS No. 3, 1987] € oT 0€ t 9 G L | 06 Gl DS» 10F OT (Se! él £6 €% sTe3QL G Ol 66 3 9 a Ol $I 9 6€ LE Ol at tT 8 Ol 6G DIDULO SUDULAA aepousory I o ‘ds snunqoupoy] ZS sipudid snuNqgoLpDd}] ovprisuvleyd suor[ido I 9 I 14 ‘ds snruoyzyoomay eepHuoyYO GC I I ZS I 9 I Ol SNANISGO SNLOYOAON I apjnsuiuad wnidjojoun) g aepttdio I wnjnaipd unis1qoL1y 9BPIISIqooN I snyoigi4o safyaynaa'T eBPHesTsqO I ‘ds sausayooivg aepnourey) suotd10osopnosg I G G a 8I |i) I I 2j,UdY SApJOINnszUuar) seprqang suoldi00g ee ee ee ee a ee ee eee ae oe Te Hees. eee, ee Ce ds sk A oe OM a tr ee Se thie BS aa ck at |S SHIOAdS WVW Nvi AON das Tal AVW —_—_—_—_—_——ee nnn ‘(q) Spoomaeyy pue ‘(S) qnaos outd purs ‘(q) ourd puog *ye}Iqey pur yUOW uoroaT[00 Aq sdeay [[eytd yWM poyoo]]oo suorido pue ‘suordsoosopnasd ‘suotds09¢ *T ATAVI, 166 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Fifteen pseudoscorpions representing 2 species and 2 families were col- lected in flatwoods: 3 females, 2 males, and 2 nymphs of N. obscurus; and 6 females and 2 males of Kewochthonius sp. Novohorus obscurus was the most common pseudoscorpion collected and represented 64.3% of the total pseudoscorpion population. The species was collected in all three communities, but occurred most frequently in sand pine scrub. Over one-half of all pseudoscorpions collected were females. Pseudoscor- pions occurred most frequently in sand pine scrub (21), followed by flat- woods (15), and then pond pine (5). Thirty-nine percent and 32% of the total pseudoscorpion population were caught in May and July, respectively. The greater abundance of both scorpions and pseudoscorpions in sand pine scrub is probably correlated with these species’ preference for drier habitats. Rey and McCoy (1983) collected 3 species and 2 families of pseudoscor- pions in northwest Florida. None of these species were found in our study, but both families were present. A total of 248 opilionids representing 3 species and 2 families was col- lected in the traps. Vernones ornata Say (Cosmetidae) was found in all three communities. There were 119 individuals of that species collected in pond pine, 90 in sand pine scrub, and 34 in flatwoods. Two phalangiids species (Phalangiidae) were taken: 2 Hadrobunus grandis (Say) in pond pine and 3 Hadrobunus sp. (2 in pond pine, and 1 in sand pine scrub). Most opilionid individuals (123) were collected in pond pine, followed by sand pine scrub (91), and flatwoods (34). Opilionid individuals were col- lected, in decreasing order, in the following months: September, July, May, March, November, and January. Many opilionids were still alive in some of the traps when checked. This suggests that they may not be affected by the ethylene glycol mixture as quickly as other arachnids and may have had a better chance of escaping from the traps. Opilionids are known to hibernate in the south during winter (Comstock 1948) accounting for their small numbers in January. Opilionids lay their eggs in the ground in fall and they do not hatch until spring (Comstock 1948). Vernones ornata follows this pattern because the largest numbers were found at the beginning of fall (September) and again in spring (March) when the juveniles would hatch. Vernones ornata was common in all three communities. Of the habitats studied, Vernones ornata was the least habitat selective, followed by N. obs- curus. C. hentzi appears to be the most selective species caught. SuMMARY—Centruroides hentzi was the only scorpion collected in the three communities. The species occurred most frequently in the sand pine scrub. Most individuals were collected in July and September. Pseudoscorpions were primarily found in sand pine scrub and in early summer. Novohorus obscurus was the most common pseudoscorpion. No. 3, 1987] COREY AND TAYLOR—SCORPION AND OTHER FAUNAS 167 Scorpions and pseudoscorpions were more common in sand pine scrub than in pond pine and flatwoods. This suggests that they prefer drier commu- nities. Most opilionids were collected in pond pine and in July and September. Vernones ornata was the most frequent opilionid found in all communities. V. ornata differed from all other arachnids collected because it was common in all three communities and occurred in every collection month. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We express our appreciation to Drs. J. Coddington, O. Francke, and W. Muchmore for identifying specimens. We thank Drs. I. Jack Stout, D. Vickers, and H. Whit- tier for their comments and assistance. Special thanks are due Debbie Collins for preparing Figure 1. Al Fliss helped construct the pitfall traps and Mike Albig assisted in field collections. Financial support for this study was generously provided by the Exline-Frizzell Fund for Arach- nological Research, Grant no. 8. LITERATURE CITED Comstock, J. H. 1948. The Spider Book. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Company. FRANKE, O. F. 1984. Personal communication, Texas Tech Univ., Lubbock, Tx. Gertscu, W. J. 1979. American Spiders. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Muma, M. H. 1973. Comparison of ground surface spiders in four central Florida ecosystems. Florida Ent. 56(3): 173-196. Rey, J. R. anp E. D. McCoy. 1983. Terrestrial arthropods of northwest Florida salt marshes: Araneae and Pseudoscorpions (Arachnida). Florida Ent. 66(4):498-503. Florida Sci. 50(3): 162-167. 1987. Accepted: October 31, 1986. Environmental Chemistry PREPARATION OF STERILE SEAWATER THROUGH PHOTODYNAMIC ACTION. PRELIMINARY SCREENING STUDIES DEAN F. MARTIN AND M. J. PEREZ-CRUET Chemical and Environmental Management Services(;CHEMS) Center, Department of Chemis- try, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 ABsTRACT: Large quantities of inexpensive, sterile seawater are needed for a variety of scien- tific applications. A dozen organic compounds have been identified that possess the necessary properties (nontoxicity, persistence in seawater, high extinction coefficients, appropriate spectra) to exploit photodynamic action and destroy toxigenic bacteria and viruses found in seawater. These compounds were evaluated to determine their absorption by a clam (Mercenaria merce- naria) and their effectiveness toward Escherichia coli through photodynamic action. As a result of preliminary evaluation, 5 compounds expressed suitable characteristics warranting further study. These compounds killed E. coli, but did not appear to injure M. mercenaria nor were they absorbed intact by the clams. Further testing is required to establish the limits of effectiveness in sterilizing seawater through photodynamic action. THERE is a need for large quantities of sterile seawater. Several criteria for the sterilizing system include but are not limited to the following: The system must be relatively cheap and foolproof. [The limitations of chlorine were considered by Bond and co-workers (1979), though the system has been popu- lar in France.| The system must function with turbid water [Bond et al. (1979); turbidity can be a significant deterrent to ultraviolet light disinfection system; sources containing high concentrations of organic molecules were not satisfactorily disinfected in several previous studies cited.] The treatment should have minimum technical demands. [This may be limitation to several chemical treatments, chlorinations or ozonation, to the extent that carefully monitoring might be required. ] Electricity costs should be minimal. [The cost of energy may become increasingly significant as time passes, and may limit the application of ozone generation or UV disinfection (cf. Blogoslawski et al., 1975). ] Photodynamic action refers to the lethal effect that certain colored or- ganic molecules have upon organisms in the presence of light and oxygen. The phenomenon, which has been extensively reviewed (Spikes, 1975; Barltrop et al., 1980), is now considered to depend upon the conversion of ordinary oxygen (ground triplet °L,) into an electronically excited singlet state (‘A,) known as singlet oxygen. The presence of colored substances called sensitizers permits more effi- cient production of singlet oxygen. The sensitizer absorbs a photon and the ground singlet state (‘S.) is thereby converted into an excited singlet state (‘S*) which upon collision, transfers its excitation energy to an oxygen mole- cule. The latter is thereby promoted to “singlet oxygen” ('A,). Alternatively, the excited singlet state of the sensitizer (‘S*) by electronic spin inversion is No. 3, 1987] MARTIN AND PEREZ-CRUET—STERILE SEAWATER 169 converted into its excited triplet state (S*) which can also transfer its energy to ground state oxygen. Diagrammatically (Eqn 1): hy 1§_ —— -» '* + 0,(°D,) ———>S*_ + 0,('A,) (1) 8S* + 0,(°L,)————>'S*_ + O,('A,) The factors controlling the rates and efficiency of these and related processes are well understood by photochemists. Summarizing, the function of the sensitizer is to capture the energy of a photon and to transfer some part of its energy to ground state oxygen. The singlet oxygen, so produced, is a violent oxidizing agent, capable of effi- ciently oxidizing a large range of organic molecules, including, of course, cellular constituents. Thus, a cell exposed to light, a sensitizer, and oxygen, will die unless its repair mechanisms can operate at a rate greater than the ‘rate at which singlet oxygen can destroy/inactivate cellular components. A virus, isolated from the host, should also be subject to the lethal effects of photodynamic action. Barltrop and co-workers (1980, 1986) have called attention to some of the attractive features of photodynamic action (PDA). No organism thus far in- vestigated is immune to damage or destruction by PDA. A species-dependent selectivity is often observed. For unicellular organisms, variation in the struc- ture of the dye causes binding to occur at different locations in the cell so that the site of PDA is subject to control. With more complex organisms, the dyestuffs may be selective, being concentrated in specific organs. Finally, it should be observed that in the context of studies such as the present one, where the sensitizer is present in an aqueous environment, the mechanism of PDA ensures that microorganisms will be particularly affected, because their surface/volume ratio is orders of magnitude greater than that of the nontarget shellfish. The present study examines the suitability of sensitizers for the prepara- tion of sterile seawater. Of particular concern was the tendency of a nontarget species, e.g., clams, to become colored by the sensitizer and whether differential toxicity could be observed for a model organism, Es- cherichia coli. MATERIALS AND METHODS—Dyes were obtained commercially, chiefly from Aldrich Chemi- cal; other dyes were described previously (Barltrop et al., 1983). Seawater was prepared by dissolving Marine Mix (Utility Chemical Co., Paterson, N.J.) in an appropriate amount of deionized water to achieve a salinity of 28 ppt. Salinity was determined using a Bausch and Lomb hand-held refractometer. Ultraviolet absorption spectra were recorded on an IBM spectrophotometer (Model 9420). Clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) (~13 cm diameter) retrieved from New Pass, Sarasota County, Florida were placed in natural seawater, aerated, and taken to the laboratory where they were washed thoroughly and placed in an aquarium containing an undergravel-filter system and aerated artificial seawater (28 ppt) at room temperature. Circulation was provided by a submersible pump (model 1-A, Little Giant Pump Co.). Clams were fed concentrated green 170 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 algae (Nannochloris sp.). Every 1-2 weeks, 1/3 of the aquarium water was replaced with fresh artificial seawater (28 ppt). Dye Absorption Tests: Clams were placed in aerated 3-liter containers (one per container) in dilute dye solutions at 25°C. The samples studied were: original (2-4 uM dye, stored in the dark at 0-4°C), non-aerated and aerated dye solutions (blanks without clams), and an aerated dye group solution with clams. After 24 hours, clams were removed from the dye samples and placed in the freezer (-17°C). After another 24 hr., the clams were then removed from the freezer, thawed, and opened. The meat was removed and weighed, macerated in a Waring Blender (whip, 5 min) and extracted three times with butanol (1-50 mL, 2-25 mL portions). After addi- tion of each aliquot of butanol, the mixture was mixed thoroughly, placed in centrifuge tubes, and centrifuged 1100 x g for 5 min. The butanol phase was removed and dried with anhydrous MgSO,. The optical absorption of the combined butanol extracts was then measured over the visible range. Absorbances of uM dye solution in artificial seawater were measured over the visible range in order to prepare samples that had an absorbance of about 1.0 to assure a linear Beer’s law response. Determination of Desorption: A clam that was not exposed to dye (control blank) was sacri- ficed, and the meat was extracted with butanol as previously described. The (clam control blank) butanol extract was placed in the reference cell of a spectrophotometer (IBM, Model 9420) and the butanol extract from an experimental clam was placed in the sample cell. This procedure was designed to eliminate the absorption due to the clam extract alone and reveal the absorption due to the dye extracted from the clam. Photodegradation of Dyes: Stock dye solutions (1 x 10-4M) in seawater were diluted to achieve an absorbance of about | at X,,,,. Some 200 ml of the dye solution was then placed in 10 25-ml stoppered flasks, and bubbled with air or nitrogen for approximately 5 minutes and then divided into two groups. A control group was placed in the dark at room temperature (28°C). The test group flasks were inverted and placed in a Phytotron at 30°C and illuminated at 300 pEs/m?/sec. Samples (25 ml flasks) from each group were collected at known intervals of time, and the absorption was measured on a UV-visible spectrophotometer (IBM model 9420). PDA-Bacterial Measurements: Four groups of nutrient agar (Difco Labs.) were prepared (4 replicates each): the first group was made by dissolving (with heating) 5.75 g of dehydrated agar in 250 ml of distilled water. The second, third, and fourth groups were prepared by dissolving (with heating) 5.75 g of agar in 250 ml of 1 x 10*M, 1 x 105M, and 1 x 10-§M (dye) solutions, respectively. All solutions were autoclaved at 120°C and 15 psi for 15 minutes. Heated solutions were poured into sterilized petri dishes and allowed to solidify overnight in a cool, dark location. Petri dishes (4 from each group) were inoculated with E. coli using a quadrant streaking method (Finegold and Baron, 1986). Duplicate test samples were placed under fluorescent lamps with illumination of 75 wEs/m2/sec at room temperature, and duplicate control samples were kept in the dark at room temperature. After 24 hours, the E. coli growth on each petri dish was observed with an illuminated grid. The number of blocks filled with E. coli colonies was noted in a grid made up of 9 blocks of equal area 10 mm by 10 mm. The E. coli growth was noted on four different areas of the petri dish inoculated by quadrant streaking (Finegold and Baron, 1986). ResuLts—Several dyes were tested for their tendency to be absorbed by clams (Mercenaria mercenaria), and we were interested in whether the clam flesh would be visibly colored. In a preliminary series of experiments, we verified that there was no statistically significant difference in absorbance of dye solutions for different controls (i.e., stored 0-4°C in the dark versus aera- tion at room temperature and laboratory lighting). Significant difference in absorption of dye solutions was observed (24 hours) for solutions with (test) and without clams (control). Particularly significant were methylene blue and hematoporphyrin (Table 1). The first dye was precipitated on surface of the clam shells, and the second precipitated from solution. Even when it seemed evident that dye was being removed inside the clam, no coloring of the clam flesh was detected. In addition, the clams were sacrificed and were macerated with butanol to extract the readily-extractable dyes. While some No. 3, 1987] MARTIN AND PEREZ-CRUET—STERILE SEAWATER 171 TABLE 1. Apparent uptake of selected dyes by M. mercenaria in seawater after 24 hr. Dye Concentration Sample \max Calc. Conc. 10+6&M nm 10+6M Acridine 4.0 Control? 492.0 4.4 +0.5 Orange Test 490.4 tg ee 8 Alphazurine 2.0 Control 636.8 1.97+0.06 A Test 638.8 Ser 00 Eosin 2.0 Control 515.2 1.97+0.06 Yellowish Test 516.0 1.9 +0:0 Erythrosine 2.0 Control 526.4 1.90+0.10 Test 525.6 1.75 +0.07 Rose Bengal 8.0 Control 543.2 7.5 +0.4 Test 542.4+ 6.6 +0.8 2.0 Control <6 1.93+0.11 Test-1> 542.0 1.5 +0.0 Test-2 542.0 Lie Oul Zinc 2.0 Control 667.2 1.83+0.15 phthalocyanine- tetrasulfonate Test 667.2 1.8 +0.0 aControl: dye in seawater. Test: dye in seawater with clams. bTest-1 groups: clams replaced in fresh water seawater for 24 hr; Test-2 groups: clams analyzed placed in freezer directly from dye solutions for 24 hr. yellowish color could be discerned in the butanol extracts, the same results were obtained by extracting clams that had not been placed in dye solution. Additional experiments were done by placing the clam extract in the sample cell and placing butanol extracts of a nontreated (control blank) clam in the reference cell. Under these conditions, essentially baseline values were ob- tained indicating no dye absorption. Granted that there was a decrease in the concentration of some dyes in the presence of clams, the fate of the dye was of especial interest. Subsequent experiments verified that photodegradation occurred under more intense lighting (Table 2), but photodegradation was not a factor under the condi- tions of the clam experiments as indicated by the results of the control experi- ments. In addition, no detectable concentration of dye could be extracted into butanol (though the procedure was effective using clam-free solutions). The rates of photodegradation of dilute solutions of dyes in seawater (28 ppt) were measured spectrophotometrically. From the data, —log.(A,—Ajo) as a function of time, the slopes of the linear relationship were obtained by a least-squares treatment. Here, A, and A, are the absorbance at time ¢ and after several days, respectively. The slopes and standard deviations were ob- tained (Table 2), together with the linear correlation coefficient, for which F- statistic was tested for statistical significance. For control experiments, at room temperature with flasks kept in the dark, no degradation occurred, i.e., the slopes were in no instance statistically different from zero. Of the dyes studied, rose bengal was the most subject to photodegradation. 172 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 TABLE 2. Specific rate constants, k, for first-order degradation of selected dyes in seawater. Conc., Dye 10°M Conditions*- k, hr-} Acridine Orange 50 Nitrogen 0.14+0.02 50 Air 0.18+0.01 Alizarine 100 Nitrogen —0.0010 + 0.005 Violet 100 Air -0.006 + 0.004 Eosin Yellowish 5 Nitrogen 0.435+0.02 5 Air 0.495+0.01 Erythrosine 20 Nitrogen 0.83+0.04 20 Air 0.86+ 0.045 Methylene 10 Nitrogen 0.048 + 0.009 blue 10 Air 0.055 + 0.006 Rose Bengal 10 Nitrogen 0.23 + 0.006 10 Air 0.28+0.02 Rosolic Acid 10 Nitrogen -0.003 + 0.002 10 Air -0.005 + 0.003 Zinc 10 Nitrogen 0.096 + 0.009 Phthalocyanine- tetrasulfonate 10 Air 0.081 + 0.009 «Temperature, 30°C; light, 300 »Es/m?2/sec; dye concentrations, as indicated absorbance = 1; sea- water (28 ppt). >Air and nitrogen controls (dark) had specific rate constants of zero within experimental error. The third series of screening experiments was concerned with the effec- tiveness of photodynamic activity on E. coli (Table 3). Two concentrations are involved: organisms and dye. The concentration dependence is indicated (Fig. 1) as plot of relative density of E. coli as a function of four different concentrations of E. coli (obtained as a result of the quadrant streaking method). Four different concentrations of rose bengal (control plus 10°, 10°, 10% M) were used. The plot (Fig. 1) indicates that after 24 hours of exposure to light at room temperature, all colonies of E. coli were destroyed (corres- ponding experiments conducted in the dark showed no statistically significant differences between control and test). In addition, at 10° M dye, the highest E. coli densities (first streak) were unaffected relative to control but three lower concentrations (streaks 2,3,4) were affected. Table 3 compares rose bengal with 11 other dyes at 10*M using two differ- ent intensities of light. Controls were unaffected by light intensities, but the arrangement of the dyes shows a decreasing order of effectiveness, as well as the effect of E. coli concentration. At the concentration used (10*M), rose bengal was effective against four different relative concentrations of E. coli, as was erythrosine, eosin yellowish, ZPS, acridine orange, and methylene blue. Alcian blue was effective against only the two lowest concentrations of bacteria. Hematoporphyrin and alizarine S showed no significant effect against any concentration of bacteria studied. Discussion—In the initial phase of this study, a dozen dyes were selected that represented a range of potentially suitable sensitizers and they included No. 3, 1987] MARTIN AND PEREZ-CRUET—STERILE SEAWATER js the range of charge types (anions, cations, neutral species) as well as a range of costs (available cheaply on bulk scale to probably too expensive), but sev- eral were eliminated as unsuitable. Methylene blue stuck to the clam shells, hematoporphyrin precipitated from seawater, zinc phthalocyanine tetra- sulfonate was an inadequate sensitizer but was useful for comparative pur- poses, acridine orange had questionable biochemical properties (being a DNA intercalating agent) and four had unfavorable solubilities in seawater. Five reasonable candidates remained for further study. None of the dyes colored clam flesh but erythrosine and rose bengal did disappear from the synthetic seawater in which the clams were held. We TABLE 3. Order of effectiveness of dyes at 10-* M concentration on E. coli after 24 hours exposure to light at room temperature Light Intensity E. Coli colony coverage in quadrant areas*?, mean+SD Dye pEm-sec!) 1 2 3 4 Control 75> 8.7+0.5 8.0+1.1 4.5+2.0 0.8+0.4 Control 300° 9.0+0.5 9.0+0.5 6.6+0.9 1:2+0.4 Rose Bengal 75 0 0 0 0 300 0 0 0 0 Erythrosine 75 7.0+1.4 0 0 0 300 0 0 0 0 Eosin Yellowish 75 6.0+2.8 0.5 +0:7 0 0 300 1,040.5 0 0 0 Zine 75 7.0+1.4 4.0+4.2 0 0 Phthalocyanine- tetrasulfonate 300 Acridine Orange 75 8.0+0.5 Lotu.7 0.5+0.7 0 300 5.523.595 0.5+0.7 0 0 Methylene Blue 75 9.0+0.5 4.5+0.7 E0055 300 Fluorescein 19 9:0+0.5 TBeO.7 3.5+0.7 O3£0 1 Sodium Salt 300 8.5+0.7 2.042:8 0 0 Alphazurine A 75 9.0+0.5 7.542.1 Lo+0:7 0 300 9.0+0.5 8.5+0.7 4.5+2.1 0.5+0.7 Rosolic Acid 15 9.0+0.5 6:0% 2.8 2.0+1.4 0 300 Alcian Blue 75 9.0+0.5 fe 0:7 2.0+1.4 0.5+0.7 300 Hematoporphyrin 75 9.0+0.5 8.5+0.7 4.5+3.5 Loe 2o 300 3205050 8.5+0.7 4.5+0.7 0.8+0.4 Alizarine 75 9.0+0.5 9.0+0.5 4.5+2.] 0.8+0.4 S Monohydrate 300 9.0+0.5 9.0+0.5 5.0+1.4 1.0+0.5 aStreaked areas: 1, first streak; 2, streaks from first streak; 3, streaks from second streak; 4, streaks from third streaks. >Temperature, 25°C. ‘Temperature, 28°C. ‘(anbruyoe} yueIpenb) pasn a1aM 1709 “J JO SUOTYEIYUIOUOO [eIPUT JUIIOFFIP INO ‘TeBuaq aso1 JO SUOTJBIQUBOUOD JUSIAFFIP INOJ pue 1YBI] 07 onsodxa 19978 BULATAINS SatuoToo 1/09 “q JO JequINU sATL9I 94} BuLMOYs doRJINs asuOdsay *[ “SI WH ‘uoljeujueou0D eAq Fal OO OL L 0 (SNOU v7 JAlJy) AYISUEG SAHVEISYH HOD “J No. 3, 1987] MARTIN AND PEREZ-CRUET—STERILE SEAWATER 175 believe that the amount that disappeared should have been extracted in buta- nol and would have been detected. It is possible that the dye was metabolized by the clams, or that it underwent photodegradation. Granted that five dyes do not affect the nontarget species, what is their effect on a model target species, E. coli? The results (Table 3, Fig. 1) indicate that this species or one with similar characteristics is managed by photody- namic action, i.e., in the presence of sensitizers, no effect was obtained in the dark and disappearance of the colonies was noted in the light. The data indicate that rose bengal could be effective at ~M concentrations of dye, depending upon the relative concentration of the model bacteria and light intensity. Erythrosine and eosine yellowish, though structually related, were less effective at a given concentration of dye. The order of effectiveness of three xanthene derivatives (rose bengal, erythrosine, eosine yellowish) against E. coli is consistent with previous observations for other systems. The order listed was observed for effectiveness against Ptychodiscus brevis (Barltrop et al., 1983). A similar order was ob- served for xanthene-dye induced toxicity against the adult face fly (Musca autumnalis) by Fondren and Heitz (1978). All these results are consistent with the known quantum yields of the oxygen transfer reaction in oxygen-saturated methanol (rose bengal, 0.76; erthyrosine, 0.6; eosine yellowish, 0.4) as reported by Gollnick and Schenck (1964). The results of a screening study indicate that about half of the dyes stud- ied have desirable characteristics that warrant further study against other target species. One, Vibrio cholera, has been implicated in problems associ- ated with shellfish taken from contaminated nearshore waters on the coast of Florida and elsewhere (Kaper et al., 1979; Hood et al., 1981; Rodrick et al., 1982; Tamplin et al., 1982). Gerba and coworkers (1979) indicated the im- portance of another target species, viruses. Previous work (Gerba et al., 1977; Wallis and Melnick, 1963, 1964, 1965; Hobbs et al., 1977) has demonstrated that viruses can be controlled by photodynamic action. The dyes that we used had reasonable solubilities in seawater, did not color clam flesh, and were active against a model bacterium, E. coli. The potential utility in depuration appears supported by the data obtained, though it is clear that specific studies against other target species are needed, and that economic aspects must be addressed. A foundation for economic studies has been provided by other workers, however (Huntley and Hammerstrom, 1971; Neilson et al., 1978; Williams et al., 1980). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We are grateful for the financial support of the Florida Sea Grant Col- lege, Project R/LR-0-11. Dr. Susan Bell, USF Department of Biology, kindly identified the species of clams, and Mrs. Louise B. Worrell assisted in preparing the manuscript. We thank Dr. John Barltrop for his helpful discussions. LITERATURE CITED Bar_Trop, J., B. B. MARTIN, AND D. F. Martin. 1980. Potential management of the Florida red tide through photodynamic action. J. Environ. Sci. Health. Al15:163-171. 176 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 . 1983. Ptychodiscus brevis as a model system for photodynamic action. Microbios. 37:95-103. . 1986. PDA: The not so new approach to aquatic weed control. Aquatics. March, pp. 5,8. BLocosLawskl, W. J., C. Brown, E. W. RHopEs, AND M. BroapuursT. 1975. Ozone disinfection of a seawater supply system. Proc. First Intl. Symp. on Ozone for Water and Wastewater Treatment, Int. Ozine Inst., 674-687. Bonp, M. T., D. D. Truax, E. W. Cake, Jr., AND D. W. Cook. 1979. Environmental, legal, and management aspects of proposed oyster depuration facility; Part 2, oyster depuration facility. NOAA. NA 79AA-D-0049. FINEGOLD, S. M. AND E. J. Baron. 1986. Using steak plates to isolate and enumerate growth of pathogens. Pp. 101-102. In: Carson, D. C., E. Roven, AaNp M. EspPENSCHIED (eds.), Bai- ley and Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology. Seventh ed., St. Louis, Missouri, C. V. Mosby Company. FonpreEN, J. E., JR. AND J. R. Herntz. 1978. Xanthene dye induced toxicity in the adult face fly Musca autumnalis. Environ. Entomol. 7:843-846. GersBa, C. P., S. M. Goya, R. L. LABE.LLE, I. CecH, anp G. F. Bopcan. 1979. Failure of indicator bacteria to reflect the occurrence of enteroviruses in marine waters. Am. J. Public Health. 69:1116—1119. Gerpa, C. P., C. WALLIS, AND J. L. MELNick. 1977. Application oxidation to the disinfection of tapwater, seawater, and sewage contaminated with poliovirus. Photochem. Photobiol. 26:499-504. GOoLLNICK, K. AND G. O. SCHENCK. 1964. Mechanism and stereoselectivity of the photosensitized oxygen transfer reactions. Pure Appl. Chem. 9:507-525. Hosss, M. F., C. P. Gerpa, C. Wats, J. L. MELNICK, AND J. S. LENNon. 1977. Photodynamic inactivation of infectious agents. J. Environ. Eng. Div. ASCE. 103:459-472. Hoop, M. A., G. Ness, AND G. E. Roprick. 1981. Isolation of Vibrio cholerae serotype 01 from the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:91-103. Hunt Ley, E. B. AND R. J. HAMMERSTROM. 1971. An experimental depuration plant; operation and evaluation. Chesapeak Sci. 12:231-239. Kaper, J., H. Lockman, R. R. CowELt, AND S. E. JosepH. 1979. Ecology, serology, and entero- toxin production in Vibrio cholerae in Chesapeak Bay. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:91- 103. Neitson, B. J., D. S. Haven, F. O. Perkins, R. Morates-ALAMO, AND M. W. Ruopes. 1978. Bacterial depuration by the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) under controlled con- ditions, Vol. II, Practical considerations and plant design, Special Scientific Report No. 88, Virginia Institute of Marine Science Glouster Point, VA, 48 p. Roprick, G. E., M. A. Hoop, AnD N. J. Biake. 1982. Human Vibrio infections. Pp. 83-92. In:SopERMAN, W. A., Jr. (ed.), Medical Clinics of North America, Vol. 66. Academic Press, New York. TAMPLIN, M. L., G. E. Roprick, N. J. BLAKE, AND T. Cusa. 1982. Isolation and characterization of V. vulnificus from two Florida estuaries. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 44:1466-1470. Spikes, J. D. 1975. Porphyrins and related compounds as photodynamic sensitizers. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 244:496-508. Wauus, C. AND J. L. MELNick, 1963. Photodynamic inactivation of poliovirus. Virology. 21:332- 341. . 1964. Irreversible photosensitization of viruses. Virology. 23:520-527. . 1965. Photodynamic action of enteroviruses. J. Bact. 89:41-46. Wi.uiaMs, Jr., D. C., D. J. Erzoip, anv E. Nissan. 1980. Oyster depuration facility: economic assessment, Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Program MASGP-79-011. Florida Sci. 50(3):168-176. 1987. Accepted: October 15, 1986. Atmospheric Sciences (Climatology) AN INVESTIGATION OF THE VARIANCES FROM THE TRADITIONAL SUMMER PRECIPITATION IN THE WEST-CENTRAL FLORIDA REGION (1978-1985) Dewey M. STOWERS AND NEvA DUNCAN TABB Department of Geography, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620-8100 Asstract: The traditional precipitation pattern resulting from summer convectional thun- derstorms over west central Florida as established by the Byers Report (1948) and other studies remained essentially intact until 1977. By 1978 this pattern showed definite signs of weakening and by 1980 significant variances were observed. The current study examines the precipitation variances over the regions from 1978-1985. An analysis of the meteorological causes for these anomalies is presented to illustrate the possible impact upon the climate of west central Florida. One of peninsular Florida’s climatic enigmas is the seasonal occurrence of violent thunderstorms during the summer months. This phenomenon is par- ticularly intense over the central part of the state during the months of June, July, and August. While the arrival of these storms is seasonably predictable, the resultant amounts and distribution of precipitation over any selected site is noticeably variable. The summer convectional thunderstorm is a thermodynamic machine which may assume various sizes and intensities. It may occur as a single cell or as a squall line in which scores of cells are imbedded. The vertical develop- ment may vary from less than a kilometer to over 16 km and the resultant precipitation from a few tenths of a centimeter to over five centimeters an hour. The accompanying electrical discharges may range from simple inter- cloud discharges to massive cloud-to-ground bolts which occur in an array of colors. The erratic nature of this machine is due to the many individual causes which combine to form complex patterns. Prior to 1949, it was generally accepted that the causes of summer thun- derstorms over central Florida were the presence of abundant moisture and thermal convection produced by high surface temperatures (Byers and Ro- denbush, 1948). An investigation of summer thunderstorms over central Flor- ida by Horace R. Byers and Harriet R. Rodenbush (1948) resulted in a rejec- tion of this simple explanation. Using the Bellamy “triangle method” (Byers, 1948) applied to balloon stations, they concluded that low-level horizontal convergence caused by afternoon sea breezes on both sides of the peninsula was a more rational explanation. This explanation in conjunction with in- tense surface heating and an abundant moisture supply has maintained a general acceptance. An unpublished ten-year study (1958-1968) made by the senior author on the causes and distribution of summer precipitation in west-central Florida 178 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 confirmed the findings of Byers and Rodenbush (1948) as to the causes of summer thunderstorms. Due to the geographical position of the west-central region, two additional factors were found that influenced the distribution of summer thunderstorm precipitation. These factors are: (1) the unique geo- graphical configuration of the Tampa Bay area; and (2) the “heat island” effect due to the increased expansion of the metropolitan area of Tampa and St. Petersburg. BackKGROUND— Until the late 1970s, the movement of summer convectional thunderstorms had been from east to west across the central part of the state (Byers, 1948). As the storms approached the eastern border of Hillsborough County, they were confronted by the predictable afternoon sea breeze. This sea breeze, which flows from a general west-southwest direction over Old Tampa Bay, is relatively unobstructed. While the sea breeze may vary diurnally in both windspeed and vertical extension, it has been an important factor in determining the future directional movement of the storms. This flow, in conjunction with the upper level divergence resulting from the heat island effect, commonly caused the storms to shift to a northwesterly direction toward the northern boundaries of the county with a smaller number being diverted to the southwest, approaching Manatee County. This change in the directional movement may be seen in the distribution patterns of the precipitation (Fig. 1). The amount of deflection of these storms did vary somewhat as a result of the strength and vertical extension of the sea breeze. Occasionally, the sea breeze extended as far inland as Lakeland. On other dates the sea breeze flow was weak, allowing the storms to continue their initial western movement. In 1978 a variance in this traditional pattern was observed. Rainfall records indicated that the Pinellas County peninsula was experiencing an increase in precipitation relative to the other stations throughout in the Tampa Bay area. This increase was followed by a relative decrease in eastern Hillsborough County precipitation. By the early 1980s, highest rainfall concentrations had shifted to the northwestern regions of Pinellas and Hillsborough Counties. During this time there were major changes in the large-scale meteorological processes over the west-central Flor- ida region—changes capable of producing substantial variances in the traditional summer rain- fall pattern. Discussion—In the early 1980s two major changes occurred in the meteorological processes affecting summer rainfall distribution in west-central Florida (Seiler, 1985). The first change concerned a strengthening of a long-wave trough over west-central Texas. The second change involved an increase in the sea surface temperatures of both the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Examination of each process reveals the physical phenomena produced by these changes. The most influential factor affecting the distribution of precipitation over the region appears to be the strengthening of a long wave trough which is commonly found over west-central Texas during the summer months. The presence of this low pressure trough can be observed through the 300 mb level (approximately 9180 m) and has become noticeably stronger at the 850-700 mb levels (approximately 1460-3000 m). This decrease in upper-level pressure has been responsible for the development of a fairly steep pressure gradient over the Great Plains region. The pressure gradient over Florida, however, has evolved into a broad plateau. The next isobar gradient does not form until off the east coast and the pressure gradient between Jacksonville and Miami, which normally was 5 mb, has dropped to 2 mb for the past four to five years. Overall, the pressure gradient over the state has decreased 1 to 2 mb since 1980 as compared to the time period 1950-1980. (Seiler, 1985). One of the effects of this alteration in the pressure gradient has been a significant change in the flow from the Bermuda High. In the period between 1958-1970, the central pressure in the Bermuda High was generally in the range of 1030 mb. However, since the early 1980s the system has often disintegrated into several small, poorly-organized centers of high pressure (Seiler, 1985). Commonly, a weak ridge forms over the state and persists for approximately two days before retreating. With this relaxation of the Bermuda High flow, the convectional thunderstorm cells which form over the center of the state lack a guiding flow to propel them westward, leaving the precipitation distribution of west-central Florida vulnerable to other influences. One of these influences, which can also be attributed to the strengthening long-wave trough over Texas, is a south-westerly flow from the Gulf of Mexico. This flow is particularly effective in the absence of a strong easterly Bermuda High Flow and, in addition, is strengthened by the No. 3, 1987] STOWERS AND TABB—PRECIPITATION VARIANCES 179 =~ : \SUMTER CO. 7 LAKE ¢o. ~~ \ pe mR» 00 ra A ! \ © , 1S a ao _ a l ! wi LUBUS_ £9. K : — t----- 4 = - ! — | | pr NA Oy S bd las bn set ge a5 | HERYVANDO CO. _ | | ! 1 J ~PASCQ LO, ee aS a ‘1’ SPRINGS T93dasp | ; 78.60 ' © HAMNER ' C’WATER , ' . | AYE ng, ns : ' eTPA 9) ' ‘ *VALRICO he SoS ! r 4 i : = \ . ' NAA) st. P’Burs : J 60.83 ; 66.51 : ! 67.60 *HURRAH ‘ y ' *BROWN rs NA 1 y, ® RUSKIN \ 4 Ur---’ /CHILESBQROUGH CO, _! ogee 72.05 eas © PARRISH cf o AVERAGE TOTAL Vy soot SUMMER PRECIPITATION BRADENTON 1958-1968 JUNE - AUGUST AANATEE CQ. ~““—-- EXPRESSED IN Cm. \, \ -------J Fic. 1. Distribution of average total summer precipitation for the years 1958-1968, indicating highest rainfall totals in the eastern portion of the study region. usual afternoon southwesterly sea breeze. The final result is a three to five knot southwesterly flow which brings rain onshore from the Gulf of Mexico during the morning hours in place of the easterly flow which guided showers from the east and central parts of the state to the west during the afternoon. This morning rainfall normally evaporates quickly, leaving little available for plant use. A second factor responsible for affecting the development of the Bermuda High can be de- duced from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data on sea surface 180 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 Pe T LAKE ¢o. Jot coco ceo - -- - -- ' ' i} L / , ‘ u pAP OPER NER ecg . T'SPRINGS ST. P’ BURG 46.74° 1 45.25 © BROWN 55.94 6 y, e RUSKIN Wy---" _f-HIULESBQROUGH CO, _) 53.85 e HURRAH AVERAGE TOTAL | | \ SUMMER PRECIPITATION 6 4 : ; BRADENTON ' 1978 -1980 | JUNE - AUGUST ! EXPRESSED IN Cm. i) ' { \MANATEE CQ. NS \ Fic. 2. Distribution of average total summer precipitation for the years 1978-1980, showing a breakdown in the eastern dominance in rainfall totals. -------J temperatures for both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. These data reveal a 3.6°C rise in sea temperatures since the early 1980s (Seiler, 1985). This rise decreases the temperature con- trast between land and water, resulting in a further weakening of the Bermuda High. MeEtHops—Precipitation records obtained from NOAA, Southwest Florida Water Manage- ment District, and the Division of Forestry for the summer months of June through August for the years 1978 through 1985 were used to discern the above patterns. Data were examined from 12 No. 3, 1987] STOWERS AND TABB—PRECIPITATION VARIANCES 181 =~ i] \SUMTER CO. ' LAKE CO. ~ \ 4 L} i] i] HERNANDO.CO, | , CI OSS Or Sn OS Soe Soa a | 65.69 e ST, LEO mP ASSO £0, T’ SPRINGS aoa e HRSP e HAMNER i] i C’WATER | 0 ,. ! p 62.20 e TPA 69,55 ; e VALRICO 1 46.96 ¢ HURRAH 59.64 7) F e RUSKIN Wr--- _f-HIULESBQROUGH CO, __| AVERAGE TOTAL SUMMER PRECIPITATION 1981-1985 JUNE - AUGUST EXPRESSED INCm, e BRADENTON L<-\MANATEE COQ. \ V meee i ie iia i -------J Fic. 3. Distribution of average total summer precipitation for the years 1981-1985. Highest rainfall totals have shifted westward. stations: St. Leo (Pasco County); Tarpon Springs, Clearwater, and St. Petersburg (Pinellas County); Hamner, Tampa, Hillsborough River State Park, Valrico, Hurrah, Brown, and Ruskin (Hillsborough County); and Bradenton (Manatee County). Once plotted, the resulting precipita- tion distribution was compared with that of earlier studies and the change in the pattern became apparent. 182 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 ResuLts—Analysis of maps representing summer rainfall distribution over the study region reveals the developing pattern. Rainfall data for the summer of 1978 first showed an increase along the Pinellas peninsula. The increase was not as strong in 1979 but by 1980 rainfall throughout Pinellas County had begun to rise sharply in comparison with other stations in the study region (Fig. 2). Analysis of this transition period from 1978-1980 re- veals a general decrease in the strong precipitation contrasts among different stations that was so apparent in the 1958-1968 study. Data from 1981 continued to show a decrease in the discrepancy that had formerly existed between the stations in eastern Hillsborough County and those further to the west (Fig. 3). The summers of 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 experienced an almost total breakdown of the 1958-1968 pattern. Precipita- tion increased at Tampa International Airport in comparison with other sta- tions while rainfall at Hillsborough River State Park showed a relative de- cline, indicating a reverse of the former pattern. Another eastern Hillsborough station, the Hurrah tower, also showed a decline. Precipitation in Pinellas County, particularly the northern region, remained high in com- parison to the earlier study. Certain stations, notably Valrico and Hamner towers, remained in the main precipitation pathways throughout both time periods. In summary, a significant change in precipitation distribution was found when comparing the rainfall totals throughout northern Pinellas County and in north central Hillsborough County with those of the eastern Hillsborough region, with the concentration shifting from east to west. This pattern established itself well during the years 1981-1985. The above-mentioned patterns can be shown statistically by means of a t- test. Two stations were chosen in the northwestern region of the study region: Tarpon Springs and Hamner. Hurrah and Valrico were selected to represent the southeastern portion; a nearby station (5 miles), Haynesworth, was used in the 1984-85 data due to the unavailability of Hurrah data for those years. An analysis of the difference in total average summer precipitation between the two areas in the transition period (1978-1980) shows no significant differ- ence at the .05 level. However, a comparison of the total average summer precipitation between the two areas for the years 1981-1985 yields a statisti- cally significant difference at the .05 level (t=3.15; for 8 degrees of freedom, a t of 2.206 is required). ConcLusions—Comparison of the current data for the years 1978-1985 with that of earlier studies reveals a significant deviation in the rainfall distri- bution over the west-central Florida region. The heaviest concentration in precipitation has moved from the eastern Hillsborough County region to the northern Pinellas County and northwestern Hillsborough County area. In analyzing the changes in the large-scale flow over the state, it appears that much of the dislocation of the distribution pattern may be attributed to a wind shift from easterly to southwesterly, bringing morning thunderstorms to the west coast. Whether this change in the distribution pattern is a short-term No. 3, 1987] STOWERS AND TABB— PRECIPITATION VARIANCES 183 cycle or represents a major, long-term displacement of the summer wind patterns is speculative. However, if this shift in precipitation continues, it will have a decided effect upon the region, particularly in relation to the agricul- tural economy. An investigation of these effects could provide the basis for additional study. LITERATURE CITED Byers, H. R. AND H. RopeNnsusH. 1948. Causes of Thunderstorms of the Florida Peninsula. U.S. Government Publication. FLoripA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND CONSUMER SERVICES. 1985. Daily Rainfall records, 1978-1984. Division of Forestry. Lakeland, Florida. SEILER, W. 1985. United States Weather Service, Ruskin, Florida. Interview, 29 November. SouTHWEsT FLoripA WATER MANAGEMENT District. 1978-1985. Monthly Climatic Data. June- August, 1978-1985. Brooksville, Florida. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF CoMMERCE. 1978-1984. Monthly Climatic Data. June-August, 1978-1984. National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE. 1978-1984. Daily Weather Rec- ords, June-August, 1978-1984. Tampa Bay Area (Ruskin), Fla. Florida Sci. 50(3):177-183. 1987. Accepted: December 15, 1986. Conservation PRESCRIBED BURNING OF THE SAND PINE SCRUB COMMUNITY: YAMATO SCRUB, A TEST CASE. “ROBERT F. Doren, * DONALD R. RICHARDSON, AND °) RICHARD E. ROBERTS (‘)Everglades National Park, P.O. Box 279, Homestead, Fl. 33030; ‘Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620; “Florida Park Service, P.O. Box 1246 Hobe Sound, Florida 33455 AssTrRACT: Sand pine scrub tends to burn only under extreme fire-weather conditions, thus exhibiting extreme (uncontrollable and unpredictable) fire behavior. The objective of this study was to develop a prescription to burn sand pine scrub under controlled conditions. A modified fuel model was developed to represent the sand pine scrub community. Using a fire spread model to predict fire behavior, a prescription for burning this fuel type was written and tested on two fires, in the Yamato Scrub. The results of the burns suggest that an effective, safe means exists to burn sand pine scrub under controlled conditions. Fire plays a significant role in shaping the structure and dynamics of many natural communities. Fire has historically been viewed as an external agent causing successional setbacks within communities and initiating a series of species replacements toward some climax association (Clements, 1916; Odum et al., 1974). Most terrestrial communities (i.e., sandhill, sand pine scrub, pine flatwoods, prairies and marshes) in the Florida peninsula are significantly affected by fire (Abrahamson, 1984; Harper, 1927; Laessle, 1958; Wade et al., 1980). Of particular interest is the relationship of fire— under both natural and maintained conditions—to the sand pine scrub com- munity. In Florida and portions of southeastern Alabama, dry sandy ridges of relict shorelines support the sand pine scrub community (Laessle, 1958, 1967). Mature sand pine scrub is dominated by a canopy of sand pine, Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Sarg., with a dense understory of evergreen oaks and little or no herbaceous ground cover. Webber (1935) described the sand pine scrub as a “fire-fighting association,’ because fires burning in adjacent vegetation (pine flatwoods and sandhill) rarely penetrated the scrub. From a functional veiwpoint, the sand pine (Pinus clausa var. clausa) is best described as a mature-die response type (St. John, 1980), where the pines are killed in the fire but reproduce abundantly shortly afterwards. Ahlgren’s (1974) classification system describes this response type as species that are adapted to fire periodicity of only once per generation. Maintenance of sand pine forests fits this general classification scheme where high intensity crown fires occur only once in the lifetime of sand pine or about every 30-60 years (Harper, 1915, 1927; Webber, 1935; Laessle, 1958, 1967; Christensen, 1981) and have virtually defied man’s control efforts (Jo- hansen and Cooper, 1965; Hough, 1973). Plow-lines are ineffective and actions of people, equipment and tools on the ground are usually futile. Due to the potential devastation of these types of wildfires, attempts at fire sup- No. 3, 1987] DOREN ET AL—PRESCRIBED BURNING 185 pression have been the norm in Florida for more than 30 years. The unpre- dictable nature of these fires, their infrequent occurrence, and the lack of information on conditions favorable for planned ignition in scrub habitats, have not allowed for the application of prescription burning. Except where sites were totally mechanically prepared and treated as slash burns as in the Ocala National Forest, to date, there are only a few examples of prescribed management fires that imitate a control crown fire in sand pine scrub communities (Cooper, 1972) (which are found in central and southern Florida and are dominated by Pinus clausa var. clausa). Winter prescribed fires have been used extensively with much success in the Choc- tawhatchee sand pine communities (which are found in northern Florida and are dominated by Pinus clausa var. immuginata), as the understory fuels associated with this community are light and produce low intensity fires at this time of the year (Cooper, 1972). However, wildfires continue to be the rule and literature on prescribed burning in sand pine scrub is virtually non- existent. No fuel models or prescriptions have been developed or previously tested in Florida sand pine scrub communities. Fuel models are sets of numerical values describing fuel types for the mathematical model (fire spread model) that predicts rates of spread and intensity (Rothermel, 1972, 1983). Environ- mental parameters are used, along with the fuel model, as inputs, to obtain fire behavior predictions. These inputs include such variables as relative hu- midity (Rh), temperature (°F), etc. (Albini, 1976). When different parame- ters, such as Rh, temp., etc., are combined as a set of delimiting factors, in order to establish an acceptable predicted fire behavior, these dissimilar pa- rameters taken as a whole, are a prescription. The fire spread model, being a set of equations developed from a theoreti- cal base (Frandsen, 1971; Rothermel, 1972), has certain assumptions and limitations: 1) the model describes fire behavior only at the flaming front and does not consider burnout (the continued burning of fuels after passage of the flaming front), 2) the model only considers surface fires in a single layer contiguous to the ground, 3) the model assumes homogenous fuel bed, 4) it assumes a quasi steady-state fire that carries itself and is not affected by ignition source and is not spreading by spotting, and 5) it assumes uniform weather and topography. Although limited, through proper application, these models have proven to be effective in field use to resolve management problems involving fire. Here, we present the results of using a modified fuel model to develop an effective prescription for burning sand pine scrub under controlled condi- tions. Srupy ArEA—Study site-experimental test plots for prescription burning of scrub were estab- lished in a portion of the sand pine scrub community known as the Yamato Scrub, Boca Raton, Florida (Fig. 1) which represents one of the last vestiges of this community along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The 8.13 ha test plot (Site 1) on the north side of Clint Moore Road, approximately 250 m west of Interstate 95 (Fig. 1) is bordered on the north by the L-40 canal, on the east by a dirt road a) a re Linda D. Wolfe and Elizabeth H. Peters 234 I ar Eos oa ne vin ae ns as eee ee oe 245 A New Species of Calisto (Satyridae) from Hispaniola ............. Albert Schwartz 246 CME, MENON Sa ec ke kh ect a ba venneescnses 252 Genesis of Dioctahedral Chlorite-like Clays in Terra Rossa IN sb a os ck dale cu we ee e's wes Richard N. Strom and Jonathan J. Kim 253 Relationship of Gopher Tortoise Body Size to Burrow Size in a Southcentral Florida Population ....................0000% Paige L. Martin and James N. Layne 264 Outstanding Student Paper Awardees, 1987 ...............02005. 268 MmIMUUNCUNOTISCRIL OE FLCVIEWETS 02. 5 wk cee ee ete ee 268 aD lecela' seu obGels Hes ooo 269 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1987 Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center Department of Chemistry University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 THE FLoripDA SCIENTIST is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is avail- able at $20.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sci- ences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions are accepted only from members of the Academy and so papers submitted by non-members will be accepted only after the authors join the Academy. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1987-88 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. LESLIE SUE LIEBERMAN Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH Department of Anthropology 5636 Satel Drive University of Florida Orlando, Florida 32810 Gainesville, Florida 32611 Executive Secretary: President-Elect: Dr. Marvin L. Ivey Dr. ALEXANDER DICKISON Department of Natural Sciences Department of Physical Sciences St. Petersburg Junior College Seminole Community College P.O. Box 13489 Sanford, FL 32771 St. Petersburg, FL 33733 Program Chairs: Dr. GeorcE M. Dooris Secretary: Dr. PATRICK J. GLEASON Dr. Patricia M. Dooris 1131 North Palmway P.O. Box 2378 Lake Worth, Florida 33460 St. Leo, Florida 33574 a ee ee Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida 32602 Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MarTIN, Co-Editor Volume 50 Autumn, 1987 Number 4 Engineering Sciences THE HISTORY AND IMPACT OF THE FLORIDA ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION ACT OF 1980 BARNEY L. CAPEHART”) AND LYNNE C. CAPEHART” ()Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, )Legal Research & Writing Department, Holland Law Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Asstract: In 1980, the Florida legislature enacted the Florida Energy Efficiency and Conser- vation Act in recognition of the importance energy conservation plays in solving the energy problems facing the state. The act required the Florida Public Service Commission (FPSC) to set two statewide goals: one, to reduce the growth rate of both electric energy consumption and weather-sensitive peak electric demand, and two, to reduce the level of oil consumption in elec- tric power plants. With the passage of this act Florida became one of the first states in the nation to have a legislatively-mandated electrical energy conservation policy. After a series of public hearings at which testimony was offered by Florida utilities, the FPSC staff, and a number of state and national expert witnesses, the FPSC adopted a set of conservation goals for Florida’s electric utilities. Following adoption of these goals, there has been a substantial reduction in the growth rate of electrical use in Florida and a marked reduction in oil use in power plants. More stringent goals were proposed, but the FPSC judged that a lack of Florida-specific conservation program evaluation data prevented it from adopting higher goals. This paper describes the Flor- ida Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act (FEECA), discusses the FPSC goals and the goal- setting process, and presents the results of the first five years of the FEECA goals operation. ENERGY studies conducted in the late 1970’s demonstrated that energy conservation could play a major role in alleviating the dependence of the United States on imported petroleum. For example, the report of the Council on Environmental Quality (1979), the Harvard Business School study (Sto- baugh and Yergin, 1979), the report of the Committee on Nuclear and Alter- native Energy Systems (National Academy of Sciences, 1980), and the report of the Solar Energy Research Institute (1980) all strongly recommended ag- gressive energy conservation programs as cost-effective ways to improve the efficiency of energy use. In spite of these studies, by 1980 very few state governments had officially considered a policy to promote conservation pro- grams as a part of the solution to existing energy problems. However, the Florida legislature adopted such a policy when it enacted the 1980 Florida Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act (FEECA) (Florida Statutes, 1980). The impetus for FEECA came from a growing sense of urgency over Florida’s energy situation. The state was highly dependent on foreign oil for power generation. In 1980, approximately 60% of the state’s electricity was 194 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 generated using oil and gas (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group, 1982). Approximately 90% of the oil used came from foreign sources, while all of the gas and the remainder of the oil was imported from other states (Florida Public Service Commission, 1981). Thus, Florida was subject to en- ergy shortfalls through disruption in domestic, as well as foreign, supplies. In addition to the tightening of petroleum supplies, Florida’s energy situation was aggravated by growth in both population and per capita electric con- sumption. The Florida Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act of 1980 was the Florida legislature’s attempt to cope with the twin problems of reducing con- sumption and demand of electricity and conserving petroleum fuels. The legislature directed the Florida Public Service Commission (FPSC) to adopt statewide goals for reducing the growth rates of electric energy use and weather sensitive peak demand, and to reduce the consumption of oil in electric power plants by 25% in 1985. In conjunction with these statewide goals, all of the state’s electric and natural gas utilities were required to sub- mit plans to the FPSC for increasing energy efficiency and conservation within their service areas. FEECA AND THE GOAL SETTING Process—The Florida legislature assigned the responsibility for setting conservation goals to the FPSC and the responsi- bility for meeting conservation goals to the state’s investor-owned and large municipal electric and gas utilities. The actual goal adoption effort was a two-step process. The FPSC was required to adopt a set of initial goals by September 1, 1980 and to adopt a set of final goals by November 1, 1980. Throughout the month of August, 1980, the FPSC conducted workshops and hearings to develop initial goals. The utilities presented testimony about their ongoing conservation activities and their ability to engage in further programs. Witnesses from around the country testified about conservation strategies and impacts in other states. One of the witnesses was a TVA repre- sentative who provided cost-benefit information about TVA’s residential, commercial and industrial energy conservation programs (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1980). Successful results for the home insulation and weatheriza- tion program, the solar water heating program and the heat pump program were presented. The TVA witness also provided data on their commercial and industrial energy conservation program, emphasizing comprehensive en- ergy management surveys for any commercial or industrial customer, and promoting development of cogeneration systems. The TVA energy conserva- tion programs provided one of the most comprehensive and credible examples of the successes that could be achieved with an aggressive program. The TVA representative stated that Florida utilities could expect similar, although not identical, results from conservation programs they might elect to initiate. On September 2, 1980, the FPSC adopted its initial set of goals to achieve reduction in growth rates of consumption and demand of electricity and use of petroleum. The initial goals adopted by the FPSC were “to develop and begin to implement programs on a utility by utility system basis by January 1, No. 4, 1987] CAPEHART AND CAPEHART—F'LORIDA ENERGY ACT OF 1980 195 1981, which will reduce the growth rates of end-use weather-sensitive peak kilowatt (KW) demand and kilowatt-hour (KWH) consumption to an aver- age of 72.25% and 75%, respectively, of the average annual growth rate in the number of residential customers for the 1980-89 period” (Florida Admin- istrative Code, 1980a). These initial goals required reducing the peak de- mand growth from an annual rate of 4.54% to 2.31%, and reducing the electric energy consumption annual growth from 4.45% to 2.8%. These re- duced growth rates were expected to lessen the need for new power plant capacity in the time frame of 1985-1989, although the reduction was not expected to affect the construction of the power plants already certified for construction before 1985. Representatives of a number of state agencies felt that the initial FPSC goals were relatively easy to achieve, and represented only a fraction of the conservation potential from programs and technology available at that time. These individuals formed an Inter-Agency Work Group (IAWG) to develop an independent set of conservation goals for presentation at the final rule hearing. The IAWG was composed of staff members of the Governor’s En- ergy Office, the Department of Environmental Regulation, the Department of Community Affairs, the Public Counsel’s Office, faculty members from several Florida universities, and several interested citizens. The demonstrated success of the TVA conservation programs provided much of the incentive for the IAWG proposing more stringent goals to the FPSC. At the final hearing in October, 1980 the Inter-Agency Work Group pre- sented expert testimony in support of a set of goals which would require an actual reduction in existing levels of consumption and demand rather than a reduction in the rate of increase in consumption and demand (Blackburn, et al., 1980). The IAWG proposal called for a 1985 goal of reducing per capita energy consumption by 11.4% from the 1980 consumption level. In addition, a 1985 reduction in per capita electrical demand of 13.1% from 1980 de- mand levels was proposed. A program to accomplish these goals was de- scribed in the testimony of the senior author, serving as an expert witness for the Inter-Agency Work Group (Capehart, 1980). The proposed goals were quite stringent and achieving them would have required a substantial com- mitment on the part of the state’s electric utilities. However, the testimony described how these goals could be achieved in the given time frame through implementation of a series of cost-effective programs. In contrast, other witnesses expressed concern over the lack of actual Flor- ida data demonstrating the results of various conservation programs. They also questioned the extent of conservation programs that could be imple- mented in the time frame of the goals, and the magnitude of the costs in- volved. Furthermore, some questioned the propriety of the utility industry being required to promote aggressive programs designed to reduce sales of their product. The FPSC decided to adopt its initial goals as its final goals rather than adopt the stringent goals proposed by the IAWG (Florida Administrative 196 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 30 a 29 28 : 27 z S 26 2 < = 25 z Owes oro ees : ras j 52 23 2 WO zh . sd ange! | = S 20 === s | 19 ACTUAL WEATHER— | 18 ADJUSTED PEAK a7 ‘ 16 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 YEAR Oo TYSP FORECAST + FPSC GOAL © IAWG GOAL Fic. 1. Electrical demand forecast and goals for Ten-Year Site Plan (TYSP), Florida Public Service Commission (FPSC), and Inter-Agency Work Group (IAWG). 150 140 130 120 ENERGY IN GIGIWATT HOURS (Thousands) 100 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 YEAR GO TYSP FORECAST te FPSC GOAL © IAWG GOAL Fic. 2. Electrical energy forecast and goals (see Fig. 1 captions for abbreviations). No. 4, 1987] CAPEHART AND CAPEHART— FLORIDA ENERGY ACT OF 1980 197 Code, 1980b). The FPSC said that the IAWG goals were based on asserted conservation potentials rather than factually-demonstrated conservation pro- grams already being implemented in the state of Florida. This lack of demon- strated, Florida-specific energy conservation savings resulted in the FPSC labelling the IAWG goals as speculative rather than reasonably achievable. ANALYSIS OF FPSC anp IAWG Goats—Prior to the passage of FEECA, the Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group had prepared a ten-year site plan (TYSP) forecast for electric energy and peak demands in the state start- ing with 1980 (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group, 1980). This TYSP forecast of demand is shown (Fig. 1) and the energy forecast is shown (Fig. 2). Based on this original TYSP forecast of growth rate in the electric peak demand, a total of 7637 Megawatts (MW) of new capacity had been anticipated in 1989 (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group, 1980). These original forecasts were made before the enactment of FEECA and thus provided the base data against which FEECA was to provide reductions. The FPSC goals in terms of yearly forecasts are also shown (Figs. 1 and 2). Com- paring thé FPSC goals and forecast with the original TYSP forecast shows the FPSC goals called for a peak demand reduction of about 5000 MW in 1989. The numerical values of the [AWG proposed goals are also shown (Figs. 1 and yy Comparison with the FPSC goals shows that the IAWG proposed goals would have had a much greater impact on the expansion plans undertaken by a. 50 ay Y Yr anise eras ee oe eee oe “ ] GOD Jz Fic. 3. Generation by oil 1980-1985 in comparison with Florida Energy Efficiency and Con- servation Act (FECCA) oil goal. PERCENT GENERATION BY OIL 198 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 the state’s utilities. The 1989 peak demand allowed under the IAWG goals was only 16,833 MW, well under the actual 1980 demand of 19,480 MW. This difference amounted to an additional 7000 MW reduction in peak de- mand in 1989 over and above the 5000 MW reduction called for by the FPSC goal. The total difference between the original 1980 TYSP forecast and the IAWG goal for 1989 was a 12,000 MW reduction. Thus, the adoption of the IAWG goals would have resulted in eliminating the need for any of the plants proposed for 1985-1989, eliminating the need for any of the coal plants that were then under construction, and even allowing the phase-out of some exist- ing oil plants. FEECASS Five-YEAR Resutts—The FPSC initial goals were adopted as final goals, and went into effect January 1, 1981. Florida’s investor-owned utilities and large municipal utilities immediately began to develop and im- plement programs to achieve their portion of the goals. The first five years of experience with FEECA have shown dramatic savings in the electric utility sector. The oil reduction goal of 25% decrease in 1985 was achieved in 1982, and oil use was down 79% in 1985 (Fig. 3). Coal use which was only 20% of net generation in 1980 was 44% in 1985 (Fig. 4). The 1983/84 winter peak demand goal of 22,905 MW was easily achieved by the actual 19,179 MW weather-adjusted winter peak (See Fig. 1). The 1984 NEL (net energy for load) goal of 110,921 Gigi-Watt Hours (GWH) was also achieved with an actual NEL of 108,835 GWH (See Fig. 2). These results can also be compared to the forecasts from the 1980 Ten Year Site Plan prepared by the Florida 45 40 35 30 25 20 PERCENT GENERATION BY COAL Fic. 4. Generation by coal 1980-1985. No. 4, 1987] CAPEHART AND CAPEHART— FLORIDA ENERGY ACT OF 1980 199 TaBLe 1.FEECA goal results. 1980 TYSP FPSC Goal Actual IAWG Goal Results 1983/84 Winter Peak (MW) 23,733 22,905 19,179 20,293 1984 Net Energy for Load (GWH) 113,373 110,921 108,835 103,327 Electric Power Coordinating Group as shown in Table 1. Table 1 and Fig. 1 show that in addition to meeting the FPSC FEECA goal the 1985 weather- adjusted winter peak was actually lower than the IAWG goal. The 1985 NEL was not as low as the IAWG goal, but it was well under the FPSC FEECA goal number. Thus, the FPSC FEECA goals have been met, and the potential for meeting both of the IAWG goals appears to be realistic. FEECA Goats REvis1on— Until late 1985 no weather-adjusted data were available for analyzing the FEECA goal performance of state utilities, and this was data for 1984 only. Several attempts by the FPSC to review the FEECA goals fell short from this lack of evaluative data. As this data finally becomes available, conceivably the FPSC could materially tighten the FEECA goal for winter peak demand. The state utilities believe that they should be exempt from energy goals if they meet their demand goals. They feel that the demand goals prevent the building of unnecessary power plants, and that they should be allowed to generate an unrestricted amount of energy from their authorized power plants. These positions will be aired in future FPSC Annual Hearings. In terms of revising the FEECA goals to make them more stringent, the authors believe that the cost-effective electrical conservation potential for Florida is still 30-40% greater than required by the FEECA goals. Energy efficiency technology has made rapid progress in the last five years. Energy consumption can still be reduced about 50% between average appliances in use today and the most efficient appliances that are widely available. For example in 1980, the most efficient 17 ft* refrigerator used about 900 KWH while the average model used about 1800-2000 (Capehart, et. al, 1982). In 1986 the most efficient 17 ft® model uses 750 KWH, while the average model uses about 1500-1600 KWH (American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, 1986). Similar comparisons exist for air conditioners, freezers, lights, and space heaters. Thus, even though present (1986) appliances are more efficient than in 1980, an aggressive conservation program which em- phasized purchase of the highest efficiency models could still result in in- creased savings. CoNncLusIoN—FEECA has contributed substantially to dramatic savings in the electric utility sector of Florida. State residents have saved money, have a cleaner environment, and have greater energy security because of this legis- lation. FEECA will produce greater benefits in the next five years as the effect of its percentage nature is felt. The possibility of the FEECA goals being tightened offers an even greater future savings effect for Florida. 200 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN COUNCIL FOR AN ENERGY EFFICIENT Economy. 1986. The Most Energy Efficient Appli- ances. Washington, DC. BLAckBurN, J. H., R. MESSENGER AND B. L. CapeHart. 1980. Testimony on behalf of the Inter- Agency Work Group. Florida Public Service Commission Docket Number 800522. CapEHART, B. L. 1980. Direct Testimony for Inter-Agency Work Group. Florida Public Service Commission Docket Number 800522. ., J. F. ALEXANDER, AND L. C. Capenart. 1982. Florida’s Electric Future. Florida Conservation Foundation. Winter Park, FL. CouNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL Qua .ity. 1979. The Good News About Energy. Washington, D.C. FLorIDA ADMINISTRATIVE Cope. 1980a. Chapter 25-ER-80-9 through 80-14, Conservation Goals. Florida Public Service Commission Docket Number 800522. September. . 1980b. Chapter 25-17.01 through 17.05, Conservation Goals. Florida Public Service Commission Docket Number 800522. November. FLoripA ELEcTRIC PowER CoorRDINATING Group. 1980. 1980 Ten-Year Plan, State of Florida. Tampa, FL. . 1982. 1982 Ten-Year Plan, State of Florida. Tampa, FL. FLoripa PuBLic SERVICE COMMISSION. 1981. Personal Communication with Mr. Tom Fox, FPSC Engineering Department. April. Fioripa STaTuTEs. 1980. Section 366.82(1)-(4). (Florida Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act of 1980). NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SciENCES. 1980. Energy in Transition: 1985-2010. Final Report of the Committee on Nuclear and Alternative Energy Systems. Washington, D.C. SoLAR ENercy RESEARCH InstiTuTE. 1980. Building a Sustainable Energy Future. Golden, Co. STOBAUGH, R. AND D. Yercin. 1979. Energy Future—Report of the Energy Project at the Har- vard Business School. Random House, New York, N.Y. TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY. 1980. Conservation Program Summary. Division of Energy Con- servation and Rates. Chattanooga, TN. Florida Sci. 50(4):193-200. 1987. Accepted: January 23, 1987. Biological Sciences NESTING ACTIVITY OF SEA TURTLES IN FLORIDA, 1979-1985 WALTER J. CONLEY AND BARBARA A. HOFFMAN Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Marine Research, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701-5095 Asstract: A program to monitor sea turtle nesting activity was initiated by the Florida Department of Natural Resources (FDNR) in 1979. The total number of nests counted has in- creased each year; however, the length of beach surveyed has also increased. Analysis of nest density (number of nests/km) and data from beaches surveyed consistently over a number of years suggest that loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting activ- ity remained fairly stable during the seven year period while green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nesting activity increased markedly during the 1985 season. FLoripa’s beaches have long been recognized as nesting habitat for sea turtles (Catesby, 1731-43; True, 1884). The first detailed account of a logger- head (Caretta caretta) nesting in Florida (Loggerhead Key, Monroe County, 11 July 1910) was prepared by Mast (1911). The first recorded leatherback nest (Dermochelys coriacea) in Florida was on Flagler Beach, Flagler County, on 6 June 1947 (Carr, 1952). Although Catesby (1731-43) alluded to green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nesting activity in Florida, a direct observation of a green turtle nest was not reported until 11 July 1957 and occurred in the area of Vero Beach, Indian River County (Carr and Ingle, 1959). Two years later, a hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricatae) nest was found near Juno, Palm Beach County, Florida (Carr el at., 1966). Florida is recognized as an impor- tant nesting site for many sea turtles; in fact, Florida’s southeast coast is one of the four major loggerhead rookeries in the world with greater than 20,000 loggerhead nests per year. Approximately 90% of all loggerhead nesting in the United States occurs in Florida Statewide assessment of nesting activity was initiated via a cooperative state and federal permitting process for sea turtle work. The program has been successfully implemented and, although not all beaches are monitored, more beach area is included each year. MetHops—Each monitored area consists of a beach of variable length, width, and develop- ment. Length of beach was determined by the permit holder and depends either on that person’s (or group’s) limitations or on beach suitability. Ideal monitoring includes inspection of the entire beach on a daily basis to count nests and false crawls (non-nesting emergences). Not all permit holders are able to do this. Some are only able to inspect their beaches three days per week; some islands and keys are visited even less frequently. In addition to counting nests and false crawls, permit holders often relocate nests threatened by inundation, predation, and competing human uses. Nest relocation is approved by FDNR if relocation is undertaken only when absolutely necessary and the permit holder follows the guide- lines of WATS (Pritchard et al., 1983). When protection from inundation is necessary, FDNR encourages that nests be reburied at a different site on the beach. Placement of flat hardware cloth (mesh size > 5.25 cm) over nests to protect them from predators is also endorsed by FDNR. In cases where on-site relocation is not practical, nests are placed in artificial containers for off- site incubation. 202 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Each year, following the sea turtle nesting season, FDNR requests that permit holders fill out summary forms. Data from these summary forms are compiled to assess a yearly status of sea turtle nesting activity throughout the state. TABLE 1. Total number of reported nests, beach lengths, and nest densities from 1979 through 1985. Total Total Nests Total Beach Average Nest Year Nests With Reported Length, Density, Beach Length* (km) Nests/km LOGGERHEADS 1979 7450 7118 199.5 35.7 1980 12055 12055 298.6 40.4 1981 13757 13757 361.2 38.1 1982 19491 19481 317.1 61.4 1983 22897 22860 449.2 50.9 1984 22225 22182 456.9 48.5 1985 26050 25998 549.8 47.3 GREEN TURTLES 1979 59 59 128.5 0.5 1980 316 316 192.1 1. 1981 89 89 199.2 0.4 1982 216 216 139.3 IG 1983 273 273 176.0 1.6 1984 172 172 223.1 0.8 1985 746 736 217.6 3.4 LEATHERBACKS 1979 18 18 41.9 0.4 1980 9 9 29:7 0.3 1981 42 42 106.5 0.4 1982 45 45 96.4 0.5 1983 38 38 116.3 0.3 1984 42 42 122.9 0.3 1985 89 87 167.7 0.5 HAWKSBILLS 1981 Z - — _— 1985 1 - _ — UNKNOWN 1981 1 - _— _ 1982 2 y) Ol 10.0 1984 3 3 0.8 3.8 1985 262.5% 262 44.4 35.2 *Total nests reported by permit holders who also reported the length of beach patrolled **Probably Lonsemieads ResuLts—Data from the Sea Turtle Summary Report forms were com- bined to yield total nesting in Florida, by year, for each species. The state was divided into four regions based on zoogeographic and physiographic consid- erations. The northeast region includes Nassau through Volusia Counties; southeast includes Brevard through Monroe Counties; southwest, Collier through Pinellas Counties; and northwest, Pasco through Escambia Coun- ties. Most nesting (94.4%), for all species combined, was concentrated in the southeast region of the state followed by the southwest region (2.9%), the northeast region (2.9%), and the northwest region (0.2%). No. 4, 1987] CONLEY AND HOFFMAN—SEA TURTLE NESTING 203 The number of loggerhead nests counted on Florida beaches increased from 7,450 in 1979 to 26,050 in 1985 (Table 1). Green turtle nest counts increased from 59 in 1979 to 746 in 1985. Only 18 leatherback nests were counted in 1979, but 89 were reported in 1985. Since more beaches were monitored each year (Table 1), these data do not indicate a nesting increase. Approximately 176% more beach length was monitored in 1985 than when the program was initiated in 1979, with most of the increase occurring in the northern part of the state (Table 2). TABLE 2. Length (km) of beach patrolled for four regions of Florida. Northeast Northwest Southeast Southwest Total 1979 26.6 ihe 109.3 52s 199.5 1980 8.8 11.3 DAN lav 66.8 298.6 1981 36.4 44.8 203.6 76.4 361.2 1982 40.4 25.8 162.4 88.5 3 hr | 1983 88.8 67.0 186.2 TOT-2 449.2 1984 92.7 36.2 221-6 100.4 456.9 1985 144.2 56.4 243.8 105.4 549.8 % Increase 442 399 123 102 176 Because the length of beach surveyed has increased consistently since 1979, nesting density (nests/km surveyed) yields a better indication of nesting trends. Loggerhead nesting density throughout the state has fluctuated be- tween 35.7 and 61.4 nests/km (Table 1), with a steady decrease from a peak of 61.4 nests/km in 1982. Unlike loggerheads, green turtles exhibited a marked increase in nesting density during the 1985 season, from a previous high of 1.7 nests/km to 3.2 nests/km (Table 1). Leatherback nesting density along the Florida coast has remained fairly stable, fluctuating between 0.3 and 0.5 nests/km (Table 1) for same period. Because the addition of high density nesting beaches (e.g. Melbourne Beach in 1981) can have a significant effect on reported statewide nesting densities, information regarding nesting trends may be examined from data collected and reported consistently over a period of time. Several beaches [Hutchinson Island, Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge (N.W.R.), south Juno Beach, Boca Raton Public Beach, Broward County Beaches, and J.U. Lloyd State Recreation Area (S.R.A)] have been monitored consistently since 1979. The combined data for loggerhead nests (Fig. 1) are similar to the results of statewide nesting density analysis, exhibiting a slow increase from 1979 to 1983, with a slight decline thereafter. Seven-year survey results for green turtles also follow the trend exhibited by statewide green turtle nesting densities (Fig. 2). Nesting activity by green turtles was low during 1979 through 1981, increased in 1982 and 1983, declined slightly during the 1984 season, and reached a record high in 1985. [Vol. 50 8637 FLORIDA SCIENTIST 1984 1982 1983 1984 4985 YEAR 1980 1979 204 NUMBER OF NESTS 10, 000 9000 3) S} SRK KAKA KAKA AKAL PO WO 2 eee aeteaetneetneaetesnettesnereneeteneeeteeeets TO ROSSI IHR IRR RICKY 1D 1 KIN ererarerete ener err ernrnrnrennrennennnenee > PHN IY NS RSS R RRR KK RR KK KKK KKK Z D P9995 995 5858585. 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O.O. 0.0. 0.0.0.0. 0.0.0.0. 0.00.0 OO ry 552550555255. 5305. 5.255500. 252 0550504 es . -§ @F— 8 > Behance RRR RRRK ae) ° OOO OOOO OOO OOOO OOO OOOO OOOO OOO OO i i oe “linn ae ae OG Ei pee ds", tas" ts", ys” os,” sss sls” CD RRR RRR RRR KKK Cy OC 6] BRR RK RK KOK INN PRR KKK KKK KKK KKK 4 ap KOO IV IV D) PRK KRKKK KKK KOKOMO KK OK Dt c 5255525505255 05 2550555505555 Tt PRR KRRKRR RK KK KKK KKK KKK KY OF LW S HD KS DD PRESS tS a SE eee eee OOOO NOOO: RRR RK RK KKK RKO K KKK © esestetstetetetetetetetctetctetetetetetetetetetes DOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOORO QOOOOOOOOS ae) PQQ POO) La 2) PASS i Wo OO OY SS SY oe warererereretetetererer eee reerenee ‘a NOOOOLOrOrerey: D BKK KOK ooooro revered aD og eeseetetetetetete TRESS I--I Sa FS RRR WD RSE RRR RK et RRR SSSR RI ICRC he Worereteretereres 0,%,%,%,%,%,%,9,%, 9, 9,9, 9,9, 9, 9,4, 9,%,%,%,%,%,%,: ve wararererete® $24 4 LA AAA AAAAAAA OOOO OOOOGD PG GO OO OO OO OD BERRRRRRRE g seaataaneanneenneneeneseees pte 000.040.0000 00 TE 590525252525 2525 252525250 DY 5525252525555 5054 o Z PR R555 525255255524 rorererereretereteres o "ererererereee er eeee’ OOOOOOOOOOS a etereterereretereereees el © a —— D0 0.0: 0:0°0,0:0.0,0,0°0,0:0-0- 00:0 errr B84 50 EX NO D) POOQOVOOOOOOOO OO «OF io) OOOO RT RRR RRS IRIS RL = werereteteteres Warerereteretererererereeeenee ep) wt RSLS Dal orererererereereeee eee Md 6 TRESS LD ‘ Bll roretetatererererererereeree e.mail > ae 550505050509 SSO D uw) ereteretetetete | ra eS elt I: — ae ~ ee — et — ee — = LG oO Oo oO Spoeee es 8S Ss Z St B = B one" oOo fs =< mow oS a a so a : Lu eae: fon t =) op) ve pan Fic. 2. Number of green turtle nests per year for beaches that were surveyed consistently since 1979. 205 CONLEY AND HOFFMAN—SEA TURTLE NESTING No. 4, 1987] apiny YyoRqsoyyea] = 02901109 shjayoousag] = OC] ‘A}j1N} udeI3 = spphu DwoJayD = WO ‘aAN} peays9B90] = 0779109 DAL =DO, pS I1d 9016 O€ v6 688 LG €ST 00L6 86 VET OOT6 G3 sisi OZ0L [BOL 0 0 € 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 v 0 0 OI “YM 'N 2U90UuT A JUTeS 4 I 8P I 0 98 0 0 6S 0 0 99 0 0 OS BIPIA 9U0d YINOS a L Isl I 0 eSe L a 19€ € e OOF € € GLE yorag ounf yyNog I ge eIs 0 e v69 0 CT 169 0 G L8S 0 G L6G “V'U'S 22/4] VeNseqes 0 0 8ol 0 0 vel 0 0 66 0 0 OL 0 0 GL pussy eqruys G 0 ee 0 0 gt I 0 OF G 0 81 I 0 Va sol0us Youve Wied I 6 v9 I 9 69 0 G S8 0 I g9 0 I 0€ soyoved Boly WBINY 0 0 ee 0 0 0€ 0 0 96 0 0 66 0 0 06 YON Aoy yeoqsuoT 0 0 6 0 0 eT 0 0 03 0 0 VG 0 0 aT Pusys] 204/EL SAI 0 0 bP 0 0 OS 0 0 ve 0 0 oe 0 G 6€ auAvosig Aoy 9 6ET 0 6 ia | 0 OI 6LI 0 EE 60T 0 0 9eT ‘V'H'S PAOTT “1 Uyof 81 b9 O68P 61 bP [66h 8 LV ESLy 03 89 L69F II OI STIE ‘ON PuBysy Wosuryo ny G 0€ LEeT Pp 6 estit 0 a | LSCI I 9 SPST e 8 80IT “UMN punos eqoey 0 0 LI 0 I 9¢ 0 I 13 0 0 1G 0 0 96 V'U'S [Ul] Sorel “tH 0 0 9 0 0 él 0 0 P 0 0 3 0 I 6 ‘'V'H'S Yorag s9[se[ 4 0 0 LOT 0 0 v6 0 0 OdI 0 0 €8 0 0 cP Kay Aasea 8I 8P oLIT v 81 COrl 4 9€ c9ST 0 ce 91ST 9 81 e6IT sayovag Ayunor preMmoig 0 ji COE 0 4 OFE L 91 V8G G 8 Cle I 8 OLE Youed of[qnd woywy Boog 0 0 6L 0 0 L8 0 0 GL 0 0 vs 0 G LS ‘'V'H'S BPHOpy ede “g “_ 0 0 0 0 0 G 0 0 at 0 0 I 0 0 G "V'U'S Blseqjseuy Od WO 0DOO O16 a 2 RR 1 | dl © NO? OD Od KO. vo Od WO WOO Uo}B00'T S86I v86l e861 6861 [861 ‘GS6T Y8No1YY [SGT Wor eyep JUI}SISUOD Y}IM SaYyOVa JO SUOT}BOOT PUB S}UNOD SAN] "E ATAVT, [Vol. 50 9700 FLORIDA SCIENTIST AAS} AAAAA A? KAA AAA AA AAAAN PSX) KXXKXKK KRKKK NOK SSRIS SORRY BOSS RIOR ROKR RY LD BROKER KK ne seeegecececteteegce Co RRR RORY ORR SSOKY SH ORSAY BSS OS SSR ORRRRN DI BORSORRQRQRLRLOKG SSRIS SRR SOROS BR RRR RRR RK PRR RRR RRR RY [A AAAA A? pocananececones 2585 D SRE RER DP ROR HD RESELL SRK RS ROSS eres LAA AAA? \7 —AAA/ RK RRS KK 55 Son DOYYL QOL? >, DOVOYL Meatacatacet acatacatnnstenstenets RK SOR RRR KKK Wenetatenacatenataretacatenataretaceneracanetaconeretanet CX X> eC OOOO COCO OOOO COCOONS ‘es 65 es © x ~ rom ‘es © ree ‘es © roe ‘es © Xx ‘es © & 5 ‘es ®, ree xs oe oe ° wa" DDD JOP PD JP POPPA P POPP PIPPI PSP ps2 aconetacatonecarotonscaconenaconeteraconsteraceneteres eee COCOONS COCO OOOOCCOCOCCCOCCCCOOOCCN etstetehetatetanctestetatctetctstetstetctetelgtstee DS KBR G ONIN TITY = PSL SOR RGOR TS BSCR KRONOR vooerork oN S525 b SOK KRM 2 9000 8000 1983 1984 1985 YEAR 1982 1981 206 NUMBER OF NESTS 10, 000 Fic. 3. Number of loggerhead nests per year for beaches that were surveyed consistently since 1981. Individual beaches that were surveyed consistently for seven years re- vealed marked variation in nesting density among years. For example, Hobe Sound N.W.R. observers recorded their highest loggerhead nesting density during the 1985 season while south Juno Beach observers recorded their low- est loggerhead nesting density for the same year. Broward County Beaches and J.U. Lloyd S.R.A. exhibited the general trend indicated by the combined statewide totals for loggerheads (Fig. 1). Hutchinson Island and Hobe Sound N.W.R. showed fairly consistent nesting density, with slight declines during the 1980 and 1981 nesting seasons. Boca Raton Public Beach and south Juno Beach exhibited sharp declines for the 1980 and 1985 seasons, respectively. Sebastian Inlet S.R.A. and Bill Baggs Cape Florida S.R.A. have been monitored since 1980. Nesting density on both beaches increased from 1980 to 1984, with a slight decline thereafter. Analysis of trends from beaches that were monitored consistently since 1981 yielded mixed results. Data for north Highland Beach, Palm Beach Shores, and Lantana indicated a general de- increase in loggerhead nesting, while those at north Canaveral National Sea- shore reported that nesting activity remained fairly stable over the five year crease in loggerhead nesting density. Melbourne Beach observers recorded an period. Twenty beaches have been monitored consistently for sea turtle nests since 1981 (Table 3). According to these data there were 317 more loggerhead nests in 1985 than in 1984 (Fig. 3); however, the total number of loggerhead nests 207 SAV2VP0 20782 V2 KKK KKK Me CONLEY AND HOFFMAN-—SEA TURTLE NESTING No. 4, 1987] observed for statewide nesting densities which indicated low nesting activity during 1981, increased nesting activity during 1982 and 1983, and a decline in nesting activity during 1984. The five-year trend for green turtles (Table 3; back turtles have remained stable since 1979 (Table 1), results from beaches that have been monitored consistently during the past five years (Table 3; nesting activity during 1985. Although statewide nesting densities for leather- Fig. 5) revealed a slight increase during the 1985 nesting season. for 1983 (9,700) exceeded that for 1985 by 594 nests. The same trend was Fig. 4) is similar to the loggerhead trend, except for the marked increase in Number of Nests 250 200 150 100 1983 1984 1985 YEAR 1982 1981 Fic. 4. Number of green turtle nests per year for beaches that were surveyed consistently since 1981. Discussion— The data summarized in this report were collected by indi- viduals with various levels of experience. Presumably, each beach surveyor could accurately distinguish species by the crawl tracks and recognize a true nest from a false crawl (non-nesting emergence). In addition, beaches were monitored at various levels of intensity; some beaches were patrolled daily, while other areas were visited sporadically throughout the season. Although the methods of data collection preclude statistical analyses, the total area surveyed is large enough to allow general trends to be recognized. A cursory look at Table 1, Column 1, may lead to the conclusion that sea turtle nesting activity in Florida has increased dramatically. Unfortunately, because the length of beach surveyed has increased also (Table 1, Column 3), this is not the case. Nesting density (nests/km) should, therefore, provide a 208 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Number of Nests 60 LKKKKK B5252505 50 40 SKK? S82 SX 30 x XY oO , i oe e, 88285 ROSS 20 (XX 8 (XX xX? xX) BERS SLX cies XK 5 rs ° 10 x) % 286, XK KK KK e 5 TX £5 o, e. o, o, Me", e, OQYY? POV OPP B55 050505 rs 20 Fic. 5. Number of leatherback nests per year for beaches that were surveyed consistently since 1981. better indication of nesting trends in Florida. Although these data suggest that loggerhead nesting activity has remained fairly stable, drawing conclu- sions from short-term fluctuations in nesting density is difficult. Long term (17-year) tag recoveries from loggerheads nesting in southeastern U.S. have revealed return migrations of nesting female loggerheads from one to six years, with an average remigration period of 2.5 years (Richardson and Richardson, 1981). In addition, the inclusion of nest counts from areas of high activity (e.g. Melbourne Beach with 133-485 nests/km) has had a signifi- cant effect upon statewide nesting density calculations. Green turtle nesting density increased markedly during the 1985 season (Table 1). The documented increase in green turtle nesting is related possibly to the fruition of headstart programs initiated by FDNR (formerly the Flor- ida Board of Conservation) in 1959, but an alternative explanation has been suggested by Ehrhart (1985; personal communication). Because green turtles also exhibit cyclic nesting frequencies (Carr et al., 1978), the nesting peaks of two populations of green turtles may have overlapped during the 1985 sea- son, resulting in unusually high nesting activity. Dodd (1982) suggested that green turtle nesting activity was increasing along the Florida coast and intro- duced five possible causes for the observed increase: better surveillance, greater public awareness, protective legislation, the Hutchinson Island Head- start Program, and immigration from Caribbean populations. The latter was considered unlikely because Caribbean green turtle populations have de- No. 4, 1987] CONLEY AND HOFFMAN—SEA TURTLE NESTING 209 creased since the turn of the century. Protective legislation, in combination with strict enforcement, has certainly aided in green turtle recovery. Analysis of loggerhead nesting density at index beaches (Table 3) was restricted to those beaches where nesting density was greater than 10/km. Most beaches that were surveyed consistently for several years were surveyed with the same effort each year. However, while Hobe Sound N.W.R. was monitored 7 days/week most years, the beach was monitored 6 days/week in 1983 and between 6 and 7 days/week in 1984. Hutchinson Island was sur- veyed 5 days/week in 1979 and 1980 at 9 sample sites (Williams-Walls et al., 1983) and 7 days/week for the entire beach length thereafter. The data from index beaches would reflect nesting trends if all sea turtles exhibited nest site tenacity; however, most loggerheads return to the same general area, not necessarily the same specific site (Bell and Richardson, 1978). Nesting activity, therefore, can be shifted should rookery conditions change (Caldwell, 1962; Talbert et al., 1980), or for other unknown reasons. Observed irregularities in the data from individual beaches (Table 3) could have been caused by shifts in nesting preference, especially in areas where excessive beach erosion has occurred. South Juno Beach was severely eroded during 1985 (Fletcher, 1985; personal communication). The observed de- crease in nesting activity on south Juno Beach during 1985 may have been a result of erosion. Conc.usions— Although sea turtle nesting populations certainly have de- clined during the past hundred years and many problems are still encoun- tered on beaches used for nesting, loggerhead and leatherback nesting activ- ity appears to have remained stable over the past seven years. Whether the increase in green turtle nesting activity is indicative of an increase in the number of nesting females is uncertain; nesting activity by this species during the 1986 season and beyond should help clarify this point. Sea turtles still encounter many problems despite their protected status. Beach erosion, beach lighting, and predation by domestic and feral animals continue to impede successful recruitment of hatchlings into the sea. In- creased public education and awareness is imperative to promote the impor- tance of local regulations to protect sea turtles and their nests. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We would like to thank J. Alan Huff and P. Ross Witham for initiating and coordinating the Florida Department of Natural Resource’s sea turtle nesting survey program and for their review of the manuscript. Vivien Smith and Jan Vorhees also reviewed the manu- script. We would especially like to thank and acknowledge the many volunteers who have dedi- cated thousands of hours to patrolling the Florida coast in order to count sea turtle nests and exploratory crawls. LITERATURE CITED BELL, R. AND J. I. RicHarpson. 1978. An analysis of tag recoveries from loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting on Little Cumberland Island, Georgia. Pp 20-24. In HENDERson, G. E. (ed.), Proc. Florida and Interregional Conference on Sea Turtles, 24-25 July 1976, Jensen Beach, Florida. Florida Marine Research Publication 33. 210 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 CALDWELL, D.K. 1962. Comments on nesting behavior of Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles, based primarily on tagging returns. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 25:287-302. Carr, A. 1952. Handbook of Turtles. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y. 542 pp. , M. H. Carr anp A. B. MeEyLANn. 1978. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles, 7. The West Caribbean green turtle colony. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 162:1-46. , H. Hirru, anv L. Ocren. 1966. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles, 6. The hawksbill turtle in the Caribbean Sea. Am. Mus. Novit. No. 2248:1-29. AND R. M. INGLE. 1959. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas mydas) in Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. 9:315-320. Catessy, M. 1730-1748. The natural history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. Author, London. Dopp, C.K. Jr. 1982. Nesting of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas (L.), in Florida: Historic review and present trends. Brimleyana. 7:39-54. Enruart, L.M. 1985. Pers. Comm. Department of Biological Science. Univ. of Central Florida. Orlando, Florida. FLETCHER, E. 1985. Pers. Comm. Children’s Museum of Juno Beach, Inc. 1111 Ocean Drive. Juno, Florida. Mast, S. O. 1911. Behavior of the loggerhead turtle in depositing its eggs. Pap. Tortugas Lab. 3:65-67. PRITCHARD, P., P. Bacon, F. Berry, A. Carr, J. FLETEMEYER, R. GALLAGHER, S. Hopkins, R. LANKFORD, R. MARQUEZ, L. OGREN, W. PRINGLE, JR., H. REICHART AND R. WitHam. 1983. Manual of sea turtle research and conservation techniques, ed. 2. K. A. BjoRNDAL AND G. H. Bauazs (eds.), Center for Environmental Education, Washington, D.C. RICHARDSON, J. L. AND T. H. RicHarpson. 1981. An experimental population model for the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). Pp. 165-176. In Byornpat, K. A. (ed.), Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Proc. World Conference on Sea Turtle Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. TALBERT, O.R. Jr., S. E. Stancyx, J. M. DEAN AND J. H. Witt. 1980. Nesting activity of the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) in South Carolina. I: A rookery in transition. Copeia. 4:709-718. True, F. W. 1884. The useful aquatic reptiles and batrachians of the United States. Pp. 141-162 Part II, Sect. I: The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, U.S. Comm. Fish Fish., Washington. WiuuiaMs-WALLs, N., J. O'Hara, R. M. GALLAGHER, D. F. Wortn, B. D. PEEry Anp J. R. Witcox. 1983. Spatial and temporal trends of sea turtle nesting on Hutchinson Island, Florida, 1971-1979. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33:55-66. Florida Sci. 50(4):201-210. 1987. Accepted: January 21, 1987. Biological Sciences RECRUITMENT OF STOCKED LARGEMOUTH BASS FINGERLINGS INTO A CENTRAL FLORIDA FISHERY STEVE CRAWFORD” AND ANTON M. WICKER” ()Fisheries Research Lab., Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Eustis, Florida 32727-1903: ‘Department of Zoology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7617 Asstract: Trout Lake (Lake County, Florida) was stocked on August 8, 1979 with 1,620 (38/ hectare) marked advanced fingerling (100-134 mm) Florida largemouth bass (Micropterus sal- moides floridanus) to determine if the harvestable size bass population could be increased. The percentage of stocked largemouth bass in young-of-the-year (y-o-y) samples remained relatively constant at an average of 21% through November 1979. An estimated 1.4% of the stocked largemouth bass recruited to harvestable size. The largemouth bass population of Trout Lake, which had successful reproduction and adequate survival of naturally produced y-o-y during our investigation, did not significantly increase in number due to supplemental stocking of advanced fingerling largemouth bass. Stocking of such systems was found to be cost prohibitive. THERE is strong public sentiment that supplemental stocking of large- mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) will increase catch rates for any large- mouth bass fishery. Several counties in Florida have stocked largemouth bass fingerlings on an annual basis but the results were not monitored. Research has indicated that early survival of young-of-the-year (y-o-y) largemouth bass is low. Timmons and coworkers (1981) found that 5.88% of the y-o-y in West Point Lake, Alabama survived three months after brood dispersal. Early mortality may be due to predation (Mullan and Applegate 1967), or inadequate food supply (Eipper 1975; Johnson and coworkers 1983). Fingerling (25-76 mm) largemouth bass were experimentally stocked an- nually (X stocking density = 242 bass/ha) into Trout lake from May 1975 to May 1978 in an attempt to increase harvestable (= 242 mm) size bass densi- ties. No significant increase in population density was observed (Crumpton and coworkers 1979). Weaver (1979) did not observe a significant increase in year class strength by stocking largemouth bass (X TL=51mm) during spring into Lake Blackshear, Georgia. Loska (1982a) reviewed the literature on sup- plemental stocking of largemouth bass and concluded that such programs had little value. Johnson and coworkers (1983) found that June and July were critical mortality periods for y-o-y largemouth bass in Lake Dora, Florida. The objective of this study was to determine if larger (advanced) fingerling largemouth bass stocked at a later date would subsequently increase the har- vestable size largemouth bass population. MeEtHops— Trout Lake (43 ha) is a small oval-shaped eutrophic lake (0.56-1.00 mg/1 total phosphorus) located within the city limits of Eustis (Lake County), Florida. Approximately half of the shoreline is rimmed by a dense narrow band of cattails (Typha latifolia) and the remainder is either flooded bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), brush banks, or consists of yard edge and 212 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 boat docks. There is no submergent vegetation. Average water depth is 2.1 m and maximum depth is 3.7 m. Advanced fingerling Florida largemouth bass were obtained from the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission’s (FGFWFC) Richloam Hatchery (Sumter County). From a 20% subsample, mean total length of these fingerlings was 108 mm (range= 100-134 mm). All finger- lings were given a left pelvic fin clip, treated with an antibiotic (Combiotic) and held in a raceway for 24 hours prior to stocking. A total of 1,620 (38/ha) were stocked in Trout Lake on August 8, 1979. A subsample of 200 fingerlings, that had been withheld from stocking, was put in a 0.25 hatchery pond to serve as a control group for mark retention. The pond was subsequently drained every two months so that the controls could be collected and examined for fin-clip regeneration. The largemouth bass population of Trout Lake was sampled with electrofishing gear twice monthly during August 1979-February 1980. Additional electrofishing and seining were used to increase the number of y-o-y sampled. Sampled largemouth were weighed, measured, and exam- ined for fin-clips. The number of naturally produced y-o-y that were present at the time of stocking was back-calculated using Peterson estimates (Ricker 1975) derived from the ratios of marked and unmarked y-o-y collected during each of the sampling periods. A mean of these populations was then calculated. During February through April 1981 (18 to 20 months after stocking), the entire shoreline was sampled by pulsed D.C. electrofishing. An average of 2 samples was made a week which re- sulted in 11 sampling trips. All harvestable size largemouth bass collected (n=466) were weighed, measured and marked by clipping the upper lobe of the caudal fin. Before release, each fish was examined for a left pelvic fin-clip. The population of harvestable size (=>242 mm) largemouth bass was estimated by the modified Schnabel mark and recapture method with confi- dence limits determined from the Poisson distribution (Ricker 1975). RESULTS AND DiscussIon—Of 1,890 y-o-y fin-clipped largemouth bass, 36 (1.9%) died during the 24 hour observation period following marking. Infec- tion or physical impairment resulting from fin-clipping was never observed. The maximum total fin regeneration of control largemouth bass occurred in August 1980, with 6.7% (2 of 30) of the surviving controls showing no mark retention. By March 1981, 19 months after marking, one of 27 (3.7 %) control largemouth bass had 100% fin regeneration. This reduction in percent was a result of mortality of several controls including one that showed no mark. Age samples, using otoliths, verified that all control fish were age 2 and did not include progeny. The high control stocking density (800/ha) and the peri- odic control pond draining resulted in some fish being stranded out of water until they could be collected and undoubtedly increased control mortality rate. Y-O-Y sampling—Monthly samples used to calculate the mean Peterson y- o-y population estimate were taken August through November 1979. There- after, overlap in length frequency distribution of 0+ and 1+ year classes made it impossible to determine whether unmarked largemouth bass in monthly samples were actually y-o-y fish or older. Therefore, even though the pelvic fin had not regenerated on stocked largemouth bass, monthly y-o-y samples taken after November could not be used in the y-o-y population estimate. The mean Peterson estimate for y-o-y largemouth bass immediately after stocking in Trout Lake was 7,947 (186/ha) with 95% confidence intervals of 6902 (162/ha) and 8992 (210/ha). Since the hatchery-reared largemouth bass No. 4, 1987] CRAWFORD AND WICKER—LARGEMOUTH BASS FINGERLINGS 213 were stocked at a rate of 38/ha, the estimated standing crop of indigenous y- o-y was 148 largemouth bass/ha. Our estimate is similar to that of Shirley and Andrews (1977) who found 100 indigenous y-o-y/ha in Lake Carl Blackwell, Oklahoma. Johnson and coworkers (1983) found 310 y-o-y per vegetated hectare in Lake Dora, Florida in August 1981 and August 1982. Schramm and coworkers (1983) reported that y-o-y bass (80-119 mm) in vegetated areas of Orange Lake, Florida ranged from 74-271 fish/ha. The percentage of fin-clipped largemouth bass in y-o-y samples remained relatively constant: 25.0% in August, 18.8% in September, 20.0% in Octo- ber, and 18.5% in November. This indicated that fingerlings stocked in Trout Lake suffered mortality at a rate approximately the same as naturally pro- duced y-o-y. Mean total lengths for sampled stocked fish and naturally produced y-o-y largemouth bass in Trout Lake were 112 and 109 mm in August; 127 and 126 mm in September; 134 and 120 mm in October; and 135 and 139 mm in November, respectively. It is apparent that stocked and native y-o-y large- mouth bass grew at similar rates and would probably recruit into the harvest- able population at similar rates. Length frequency—Electrofishing samples in 1981 resulted in the capture of 466 harvestable largemouth bass with the mode at the 305-330 mm size group. Only nine largemouth bass (1.9%) had recognizable fin-clips. Marked largemouth bass ranged in total length from 268 mm to 351 mm, and mean total length was 310 mm. Therefore, all surviving stocked fish should have been harvestable size by the 1981 sample period. Since all marked bass sampled in 1981 ranged from 257-351 mm TL, the percentage of this size class was compared to a spring population estimate calculated from unpublished FGFWFC data collected by this project. This size class comprised a mean of 56% +8.2% (2SE) of the harvestable size largemouth bass in 1979 and 50.5% +5.9% (2SE) in 1981. These overlapping confidence intervals indicate no significant difference (P=.05) in the per- centage of bass sampled in this size class in 1979 and 1981. Population estimate—The estimated harvestable largemouth bass popu- lation of Trout Lake during February to April 1981 was 1130 (26/ha) with lower and upper 95% confidence limits of 950-1355. The 1979 estimate of harvestable largemouth bass prior to stocking was 852 (20/ha) with a 95% confidence limit of 564-1550. The confidence limits of the 1979 and 1981 estimates overlapped indicating no significant difference in population num- bers. These population densities were similar to those of Lawson and Davies (1977) who estimated 22 harvestable largemouth bass/ha in Lee County Lake, Alabama after 6 years of stocking. A comparison of unstocked Florida lakes indicated that the number of harvestable size largemouth bass in Trout Lake was relatively low. Porak and coworkers (1986) reported the harvest- able size largemouth bass population of Starke Lake, Florida averaged 37 fish/ha. Wegener and Williams (1974) found 54 largemouth bass/ha in spring 214 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 littoral blocknet samples of Lake Tohopekaliga, Florida prior to a lake draw- down. Survival—A survival estimate can be calculated for the stocked fish using the 1981 population estimate and the ratio of control largemouth bass retaining pelvic fin-clips to those sampled during the population estimate not exhibiting pelvic fin-clips. The February-April 1981 electrofishing sample size of harvest- able bass was 466, which was 41% of the estimated population size of 1130 harvestable size largemouth bass in Trout Lake at that time. Only 9 of the 466 largemouth bass sampled were pelvic fin-clipped, indicating they had been stocked in August 1979. We estimated the number of pelvic fin-clipped fish remaining in the lake at that time by expanding 9 into the population (9/ .41= 22). To account for the number of largemouth bass stocked in August 1979 with unrecognizable fin-clips we increased the estimate of 22 by 6.7 % (the maximum rate of fin regeneration observed in the hatchery pond). This results in approximately 23 largemouth bass in February-April 1981 that sur- vived from the 1979 stocking. The 95% confidence limit about this survival estimate extends from 19-28, representing 1.4% (1.2% to 1.7%) of the 1620 advanced fingerlings stocked. Conversely, the estimated mortality of stocked largemouth bass was 98.6% from August 1979 to April 1981. Loska (1982b) reported an average return of 11.7% following stocking of intermediate-size largemouth bass in various study lakes although one study reported a return of 1.4%. Conc usions—A fisheries manager must determine if a stocking program is cost effective. Based upon the results of this study, at a survival rate of 1.4% it would be necessary to stock 71 advanced fingerlings per hectare to achieve 1 adult per hectare. The approximate cost to the state of producing an ad- vanced fingerling (100-134 mm) largemouth bass was $0.60. This resulted in each recruited fish having cost the state approximately $42.60. Comparative costs from private hatcheries could have run as high as $461 for each re- cruited fish, although some approximated the state costs (personal communi- cation with hatchery managers). We consider this cost too high and the stock- ing of a system such as Trout Lake cost prohibitive and wasteful. These findings should not be construed to negate all stocking practices. For example, populations that exhibit spawning complications may respond favorably to stocking programs with increased survival and recruitment. Largemouth bass fingerlings were stocked at 221/ha in 1976 and 65/ha in 1977 into eutrophic Lake Parker, Florida, where several year classes of large- mouth bass were missing (Langford and coworkers, 1979). Results indicated that stocking increased the largemouth bass population and contributed to successful reproduction the following year. In summary, the attempt to increase recruitment of largemouth bass into harvestable size classes by stocking larger fingerlings at a later date proved ineffective. This may be attributed to high mortality (98.6%) of stocked bass and the large number of naturally produced y-o-y (148/ha) at the time of the No. 4, 1987] CRAWFORD AND WICKER— LARGEMOUTH BASS FINGERLINGS 215 stocking. Stocking lakes which contain successfully reproducing largemouth bass populations is considered cost prohibitive and wasteful. Acknowledgments— We gratefully acknowledge the work of Joe Crumpton, Joe Jenkins, Wil- liam Coleman. Charles Mesing, Wes Porak, Marty Hale and Scott Hardin who provided helpful criticism and meaningful solutions. Grateful appreciation is also extended to Sally Turner, Judy Chadwick and Pauline Metzger for hours spent typing. This study was partially funded by Dingell-Johnson Federal Aid Project F-24. LITERATURE CITED Crumpton, J. E., C. Mesinc AND M. Wicker. 1979. Final Report. Dingell-Johnson Federal Aid Project F-24. Investigations of methods for increasing largemouth bass populations. Flor- ida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahassee, Florida. 52 pp. Erprer, A. W. 1975. Environmental influences on the mortality of bass embryos and larvae. Pp. 295-305. In Stroup, R. H. AnD H. Cuepper, (Eds.) Black Bass Biology and Management. Sport Fishing Inst., Washington, D. C. Jounson, W. E., L. J. Jenkins, J. Birrer, L. Prevatt, S. TurNer. 1983. Final Report. Investiga- tions of year-class strength of largemouth bass in the Oklawaha chain of lakes. Dingell- Johnson Federal Aid Project F-30. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahas- see, Florida. 28 pp. LANGForD, F., D. J. Moxey AND K. Denson. 1979. South Florida Region Annual Report. Flor- ida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahassee, Florida. 101 pp. Lawson, W. anv W. D. Davies. 1977. Effects of bass stocking and rates of fishing on a large- mouth bass population. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 31:493-497. Loska, P. M. 1982a. A literature Review on the Stocking of Black Basses (Micropterus spp.) in Reservoirs and streams. Georgia Dep. Nat. Res., Game and Fish Division, Atlanta, Geor- gia. 18 pp. . 1982b. Stocking Bass to Improve Your Fishing—Is It The Key To Better Fishing? Bass Research Foundation Special Report. 4 pp. MuLLan, J. W. anp R. L. AppiecaTe. 1967. Centrarchid food habits in a new and old reservoir during and following bass spawning. Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 21:332-342. Porak, W., S. CRAWFORD AND J. Estes. 1986. Dingell-Johnson Federal Aid Project F-24. Trophy Bass Investigations. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahassee, Florida. 15 pp. Ricker, W. E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bulletin 91, Ottawa, Canada. SCHRAMM, H. L., Jr., M. V. Hoyer, anv K. J. Jirxa. 1983. Relative ecological value of common aquatic plants. Center for Aquatic Weeds, Inst. Food Ag. Sci., Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida. 201 pp. SHIRLEY, K. AND A. ANDREWS. 1977. Growth, production, and mortality of largemouth bass during the first year of life in Lake Carl Blackwell, Oklahoma. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 106(6):590-595. Timmons, T. J., W. L. SHELTON, AND W. D. Davies. 1981. Early growth and mortality of large- mouth bass in West Point Reservoir, Alabama, Georgia. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 110(4):489-494. Weaver, O.R. 1979. Evaluation of stocking largemouth bass fingerlings in Lake Blackshear. Final Report. Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division, Atlanta, Georgia. 52 pp. WEcENER, W. AND V. WiuuiaMs. 1974. Fish population responses to improved lake habitat utiliz- ing an extreme drawdown. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 28:144-161. Florida Sci. 50(4):211-215. 1987. Accepted: January 27, 1987. Biological Sciences FLOWER AND FRUIT PRODUCTION IN THREE NORTH FLORIDA ECOSYSTEMS KATHERINE C,. EWEL AND SUMARYOTO ATMOSOEDIRDJO! School of Forest Resources and Conservation University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 AsstractT: A floodplain forest in north Florida produced more flower and fruit biomass in annual litter fall than did a pine plantation or a cypress dome during the same year. This suggests that, although all three ecosystems were common in the north Florida landscape, floodplain forests were the most important to frugivorous wildlife. In all three ecosystems, fruit availability was greatest in spring and fall. THE VALUE of wetlands in general to wildlife is well-recognized, although it is also clear that individual wetlands vary considerably in their relative importance. The State of Florida has one of the highest densities of wetlands in the United States, and many of these wetlands, such as the Everglades, are renowned for their wildlife populations. Smaller wetlands are less likely to have large concentrations of wildlife, but nonetheless may be important in supporting part of several species’ daily or seasonal requirements. However, the relative importance of individual wetlands may change throughout a year because of the seasonality imposed by their characteristic flooding regimes. Commercial forest land occupies 42% of Florida’s land area; 28% of this is wetlands (Dippon, 1983). Consequently, a mosaic of pine plantations, hardwood swamps, and cypress swamps dominates the north Florida land- scape. These ecosystems form a moisture spectrum: pine plantations may be poorly drained and occasionally flooded; hardwood swamps that occur along blackwater streams are often inundated for short periods during the summer and winter; and cypress swamps, especially small, isolated “domes,” may have standing water from 6 mo. to 1 yr. It is widely accepted that no wildlife species is endemic to any one of these ecosystems, and that many will range freely among them. Although the significance to wildlife of these individual ecosystems in the Southeast has been at least partially documented (e.g., Johnson and Landers, 1978; Wharton et al., 1982; Harris and Vickers, 1984), the relative impor- tance of the components of this landscape in providing food throughout the year has never been examined. The objective of this study was to compare the potential importance of these three common north Florida ecosystems to wildlife. We selected fruit production for comparison because it represents a common resource to all three ecosystems and it is an important aspect of wildlife habitat. We included flower production in our sampling to reduce possibility of missing fruit production between sampling times. \Present address of Atmosoedirdjo: J1. Letda Kajeng 23A, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. No. 4, 1987] EWEL AND ATMOSOEDIRDJO— FLOWER AND FRUIT PRODUCTION 217 MATERIALS AND MErHops—Two 0.5-ha plots were established in ecosystems in the Austin Cary Memorial Forest in Alachua County, Florida: a floodplain forest, a large cypress dome, and an adjacent pine plantation that had been established in the 1940’s on a flatwoods site. In order to establish the water regime for each ecosystem, water depth was recorded each month at 10-m intervals along a 100-m transect through the center of each plot. We measured litter production in all three ecosystems so that we could compare net primary production with similar sites in the area and determine whether or not our sites were representa- tive. We placed ten 0.25-m? litter baskets at random locations within each plot, and litter was collected monthly for one year except for December, when it was collected at two-week intervals. To estimate flower and fruit production, contents of each litter basket were separated into two components: flowers and fruits, and foliage and branches. Each subsample was oven-dried at 60° C until constant weight was achieved. Analysis of variance and Duncan’s multiple range test were used to distinguish significant differences among litter production rates in the three ecosys- tems. Each month, the species that contributed the most bulk to the flower and fruit component of the litter in each ecosystem was noted. Species were recorded that were fruiting and flowering in each 10-m interval within a band extending 10 m on both sides of the transect line itself. A list of all plant species along the transect was also made. Species represented in only one or two of the 20 10-m intervals were classified as rare, species occurring in three to nine of the intervals were classified as common, and species in 10-20 intervals were classified as abundant. Similarity among the species lists was determined by the total number of species found at the sites. RESULTS AND Discussilon—Characteristics of the Ecosystem—In spite of a drought during the study year (rainfall was 63% of the 70-year average), distinct differences among hydroperiods of the three ecosystems were evi- dent. No standing water was recorded in the pine plantations; the floodplain forest had standing water in September and from January to March; and water was present in the cypress dome from September to May. Similar dif- ferences in hydroperiods have been reported for a nearby floodplain forest and for several cypress domes (Brown 1981). A total of 69 species of plants was identified on the transects in the three ecosystems (Table 1). Over half of these occurred in only one ecosystem: 16 were restricted to the floodplain forest, 15 to the cypress dome, and eight to the pine plantation. Although several tree and understory species were com- mon to more than one ecosystem, overall similarity levels were low: 0.28 for the floodplain forest and the pine plantation and 0.35 for the cypress dome and each of the other two ecosystems. Only four of the ten species in the pine plantation and five of the eight species in the cypress dome were considered common or abundant, in con- trast to 11 of the 13 species in the floodplain forest. Among the trees, only black gum (scientific names are given in Table 1) was abundant in two ecosys- tems, and, among the shrubs, fetterbush and sparkleberry were common or abundant in all three ecosystems. Total litter production was highest in the floodplain forest (693+ 34.8 g/ m’; x + SE), intermediate in the pine plantation (599 + 39 g/m’), and lowest in the cypress dome (448 + 18.8 g/m’). The differences among these ecosys- tems were significant (P < 0.05). The amounts are consistent with data from other ecosystems in Alachua County (pine plantation: Burger, 1979, Gholz et al., 1985; floodplain forest: Brown, 1981, Richardson et al., 1983; cypress 218 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 TaBLe 1. Plant species found on transects in 3 north Florida ecosystems (A= abundant, C =common, R= Rare) Pine Floodplain Plant Species Trees: Pinus taeda Loblolly pine P. elliottii Slash pine Taxodium distichum Cypress Myrica cerifera Wax myrtle Carpinus caroliniana Ironwood Quercus pumila Running oak Q. laurifolia Laurel oak Q. nigra Water oak Magnolia virginiana Sweet bay Hamamelis virginiana Witch hazel Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet gum Ilex cassine Dahoon holly I. myrtifolia Myrtle dahoon Acer rubrum Red maple Persea borbonia Red bay Nyssa biflora Black gum Fraxinus caroliniana Pop ash Shrubs: Sabal palmetto Cabbage palm Serenoa repens Saw palmetto Asimina parviflora Small-fruited paw-paw Itea virginica Virginia willow Rubus sp. Black raspberry Aronia arbutifolia Red chokeberry Sebastiania fruticosa Sebastian bush Cyrilla racemiflora Titi Ilex glabra Gallberry I. coriacea Sweet gallberry Hypericum sp. St. John’s-wort H. fasciculatum Sandweed H. hypericoides St. Andrew’s-cross Rhododendron serrulatum Swamp honeysuckle Lyonia lucida Fetterbush — L. ferruginea Staggerbush Gaylussacia frondosa Dangleberry Vaccinium arboreum Sparkleberry V. myrsinites Scrub blueberry Callicarpa americana French mulberry Cephalanthus occidentalis Buttonbush Viburnum nudum Possum haw V. rufidulum Rusty haw Plantation > ol Oe (A mh! ie Gay ‘er: Forest Q aS (Gl Ghee 3 ee Me Clee, Tie 2 Dro ma Cypress Dome (PPnmn > © No. 4, 1987] EWEL AND ATMOSOEDIRDJO— FLOWER AND FRUIT PRODUCTION 219 TaBLeE 1—Continued Pine Floodplain Cypress Plant Species Plantation Forest Dome Vines: ‘@) Smilax sp. Greenbrier Galactia elliottii White milk-pea Rhus radicans Poison ivy Vitis rotundifolia Scuppernong Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine 1 p> Boi G20) Be (eof too} 1) Herbs: Woodwardia areolata Netted chain fern R A Pteridium aquilinum Bracken fern C R Osmunda regalis Royal fern - O. cinnamomea Cinnamon fern - Sagittaria sp. Arrowhead - mC)! S. lancifolia Lanceleaf arrowhead - - Andropogon virginicus Broomgrass R - Panicum virgatum Switchgrass - C P. aciculare Narrowleaf panicum - - P. acuminatum Woody panicum - - ee ao le P. clandestinum Deer tongue panicum R C Rynchospora cephalantha Headed beakrush : = Cladium jamaicense Sawgrass - - Scleria sp. Nut-rush - R Cyperus sp. Sedge - C Qmnnm mm: Xyris sp. Yellow-eyed-grass - - Eriocaulon decangulare Common pipewort - - Sarracenia sp. Pitcher plant - = Sabatia brevifolia Narrow-leaved sebatia - - Bigelowia nudata Rayless goldenrod - - Aster sp. Aster - - Aster dumosus Bushy aster - : Pluchea foetida White fleabane - R (WO Www Bw dome: Deghi et al., 1980, Brown, 1981), suggesting that net productivity rates at our sites were typical. Flower and Fruit Production—Flowers and fruits formed a more substan- tial proportion of total litter fall (9% by weight) in the floodplain forest than in the other two ecosystems (1% in each)(Fig. 1). However, only in Septem- ber, January, and February was flower and fruit production greater (P < 0.01) than in the other two ecosystems. Peak production in all three ecosys- tems was in autumn and spring. Floodplain forest was clearly the most important of the three ecosystems to frugivorous wildlife. The canopy included several mast-producing species, and only in two winter months did floodplain forest not demonstrate a signif- icantly higher biomass of flowers and fruits than the other two ecosystems. This synchrony among the three ecosystems conflicts with a commonly en- 220 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Pine Plantation =) NM Fruitsand Flowers in Litter (g/m Floodplain Forest Rafe “Cy. 2 Cypress Dome S O N Do-d F ° MeeereMecniaeetaees I980 I98| Fic. 1. Biomass of fruits and flowers in litter fall in three north Florida ecosystems. countered generalization that peak mast production occurs at different times in adjacent lowland and upland ecosystems in southeastern forests (e.g., Harris et al., 1979). The percentage of species exhibiting reproduction activity (Fig. 2) was usually highest either before or after a peak in flower and fruit litter fall, suggesting that a few species provided much of the fruit biomass in each ecosystem. Both biomass of flowers and fruits in the litter fall and percent of species demonstrating reproductive activity were low in January and Febru- ary in all three ecosystems. In spite of synchrony at the ecosystem level, reproduction patterns of individual species were extremely variable between ecosystems. Some spe- cies, such as myrtle dahoon, red maple, red bay, staggerbush, and scupper- nong, produced fruit only in the pine plantation; others, such as wax myrtle No. 4, 1987] EWEL AND ATMOSOEDIRDJO— FLOWER AND FRUIT PRODUCTION 221 Pine Plantation 30 20 n 2 oo 10 oS © O a : 5 Floodplain Forest Pie 3O Tp Fs fens ge alia ee eno oS oa & am Cypress Dome 30 20 1O ao tel Net Da he FO MS Aa WJ JA I980 I98l Fic. 2. Reproduction activity patterns in three north Florida ecosystems. and sparkleberry, produced fruit in pine planation and the cypress dome, but not in floodplain forest. Foster (1980) found year-to-year heterogeneity of fruiting patterns among tropical species particularly when comparing forests in low-nutrient soils with forests that are flooded at irregular intervals. It is notable that in our study there was no overlap in dominant fruit-producing species between the ecosystems, and both pine plantations and cypress domes are considered nu- trient-poor ecosystems (Gholz and Fisher, 1982; Dierberg and Brezonik, 1984). Consequently, it appears that heterogeneity in the timing of fruit pro- duction may be characteristic of individual species among ecosystems but that this variability is insignificant in comparison of ecosystems within a landscape. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank L. D. Harris for useful suggestions at the beginning of the study, J. Stenberg for field assistance, and the University of Florida Herbarium for assistance with identification. This is University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 4418. 222 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 LITERATURE CITED Brown, S. L. 1981. A comparison of the structure, productivity, and transpiration of cypress ecosystems in Florida. Ecol. Monogr., 51: 403-427. Burcer, J. A. 1979. The effects of harvest and site preparation on the nutrient budget of an intensively managed southern pine forest ecosystem. Ph.D. Dissert., Univ. Florida, Gainesville. 185 p. Decui, G. S., K. C. Ewet, anp W. J. Mitscu. 1980. Effects of sewage effluent application on litter fall and litter decomposition in cypress swamps. J. Appl. Ecol., 17:397-408. Dierserc, F. E. anp P. L. Brezonix. 1984. Water chemistry of a Florida cypress dome Pp. 34-50. In: Ewex, K. C. anp H. T. Opum (eds.). Cypress Swamps. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. Dippon, D. 1983. Florida’s wetland hardwood resource, Pp. 1-11. In: FLincuum, D. M., G. B. Doo.itTLe, AND K. R. Munson (eds.). Appraisal of Florida’s Wetland Hardwood Re- source. Proc. 1983 SAF-SFRC Annual Spring Symposium, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. Foster, R. B. 1980. Heterogeneity and disturbance in tropical vegetation. Pp. 75-92. In: SouLE, M. E. anp B. A. Witcox (eds.). Conservation Biology. Sinauer Assoc. Inc., Sunderland Mass. Guouz, H. L. anv R. F. Fisuer. 1982. Organic matter production and distribution in slash pine (Pinus elliottii) plantations. Ecology. 63:1827-1837. , C. S. Perry, W. P. Cropper, Jr., AND L. C. Henpry. 1985. Litterfall, decomposition and nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics for a chronosequence of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) plantations. For. Sci. 31:463-478. Harris, L. D., D. H. Hirt, anp W. R. Marton. 1979. The development of silvicultural systems for wildlife. Pp. 65-81. In: The 28th Annual Forestry Symp., La. State Univ., Baton Rounge. , AND C. R. Vickers. 1984. Some faunal community characteristics of cypress ponds and the changes induced by perturbations. Pp. 171-185. In: Ewex, K. C. anp H. T. Opum (eds.). Cypress Swamps, University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. Jounson, A. S. AnD J. L. LANpers. 1978. Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia. J. Wildl. Manage., 42:606-613. RICHARDSON, J., P. A. Srraus, K. C. Ewei, anp H. T. Opum. 1983. Sulfate-enriched water effects on a floodplain forest in Florida. Environ. Manage., 7:321-326. Wuarton, C. H., W. M. KircHEeNns, AND T. W. Sire. 1982. The ecology of bottomland and hardwood swamps of the Southeast: a community profile. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol. Serv. Program, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-81/37. 133 pp. b Florida Sci. 50(4): 216-222. 1987. Accepted: February 6, 1987. Biological Sciences PATTERNS OF RELATIVE FECUNDITY IN SNAKES JOHN B. Iverson Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, IN 47374, and Research Associate, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611 USA Asstract: Interspecific brood size-body length comparisons for snakes indicate that the two variables are positively correlated. Three factors (reproductive mode, taxonomic group, and habitat type) are identified as significant correlates of relative fecundity (brood size/body length). Snakes with the highest relative fecundities are typically viviparous, tend to be from certain taxonomic (phylogenetic?) categories (primarily the Natricinae, Xenodontinae, and Viperinae), and/or are most often aquatic, semi-aquatic, or semi-fossorial. REPTILIAN reproductive strategies have received considerable attention in the past decade. Most of that work has focused on lizards (Tinkle, 1969; Tinkle, et al., 1970; Tinkle and Hadley, 1975; Vitt and Congdon, 1978). Few comparable studies of turtles are available (Moll, 1975; Iverson, 1977), and snakes have also received relatively little attention until recently (Seigel and Fitch, 1984; Seigel et al., 1986; Dunham and Miles, 1985), except in studies of viviparity (Packard et al., 1977; Tinkle and Gibbons, 1977; Shine and Berry, 1978; Shine and Bull, 1979). This is in some ways surprising because snakes generally produce only a single annual brood (Fitch, 1970), whereas lizards and turtles often produce multiple annual broods (Fitch, 1970; Iver- son, 1977; Moll, 1979), complicating our understanding of reproductive strategies. Perhaps the most important reason that snakes have been slighted in reproductive comparisons is the paucity of demographic data (but see Clark, 1970; Fitch, 1975; Vial et al., 1977; Parker and Brown, 1980; Brown and Parker, 1984; Plummer, 1985) that would permit meaningful evolution- ary and ecological explanations of observed patterns. However, the general reproductive literature is sufficient to permit preliminary analyses of repro- ductive strategies of snakes. Fitch (1970) described general trends in snake reproduction, Seigel and Fitch (1984) and Seigel et al. (1986) discussed pat- terns in relative clutch mass in snakes, Dunham and Miles (1985) examined the effect of size and phylogeny on life history traits in lizards and snakes combined, and here I examine patterns in relative fecundity in snakes. MeErHops—Brood size and body size data for snakes were obtained from the literature (Ap- pendix 1), and a relative fecundity ratio (RF) for each species was calculated as mean brood or clutch size/mean total length (cm). Because of interspecific morphological variation (especially in sexual dimorphism and tail length: body length and body length: body weight proportions), popu- lation age structure variation, and collecting bias, values of body length and fecundity from the literature should be considered estimates. However, refinement of those values with future study should not significantly alter the RF values (or the patterns) presented here. Failure of a few species to reproduce every year (see Bull and Shine, 1979) could also cloud the analysis; but so few species in this analysis (seven) usually exhibit this pattern (and those that do are characterized by low RF ratios anyway), that conclusions drawn here should be conservative. Patterns of fecundity relative to taxonomy, reproductive mode and habitat were investigated. 224 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Taxonomy follows Dowling and Duellman (1978). Taxonomic groups include the boids (boas and pythons), colubrines (Holarctic terrestrial and arboreal snakes), lycodontines (Old World swamp snakes), natricines (water snakes), xenodontines (neotropical snakes, including hognose, mud, ringneck, and worm snakes), crotalines (pit vipers), viperines (Old World vipers, asps, and ad- ders) and elapids (cobras, coral snakes, and sea snakes). Reproductive mode was classified as viviparous (not here distinguished from ovoviviparous) or oviparous after Fitch (1970). Each snake species was also classified under one (or in some cases two) of the following habitat descrip- tors: aquatic, semi-aquatic (marshes, wet prairies, streamsides), fossorial, semi-fossorial (combin- ing terrestrial and fossorial habits), terrestrial, and arboreal. Statistical analyses employed the Biomedical Computer Programs (BMDP; Dixon and Brown, 1979). Means are followed by + one standard deviation. TABLE 1. Least squares regressions of brood size (y) on body length (x) for higher taxa of snakes (Appendix 1). Regression equation, y=axt+b Group N r a b Viperinae 12 0.883** 0.355 — 4,828 Crotaline 20 0.574** 0.173 -— 1.959 Xenodontinae 11 0.944** 0.312 — 3.267 Natricinae 29 0.745** 0.325 — 3.708 Lycodontinae 4 0.597 0.096 + 4.446 Colubrinae 27 0.398* 0.018 + 7.353 Elapidae fi 0.573 0.093 + 9.053 Boidae 9 0.858** 0.062 +5.410 All taxa 119 0.528** 0.059 + 9.160 ‘significant at 5% level **significant at 1% level RESULTS AND Discussion—Body Size-Fecundity Relationships—Least squares linear regression of brood size on body length (Table 1) reveals a significant positive relationship for all data combined, and within most of the taxonomic groups represented; only for two groups with small sample sizes (<7) is the relationship not significant. The within-taxon regressions for three groups (viperines, natricines, and xenodontines) have much steeper slopes (2 to 18 times) than those for the other taxa. A significant positive relationship between brood size and body length has been well documented within many species of snakes (Fitch, 1970); but the same trend across species has only recently been demonstrated by Dunham and Miles (1985), based on data from only 19 species. My more inclusive analysis confirms that relationship, and suggests that body size may limit fecundity in snakes as it does in lizards (Tinkle, et al, 1970). Oviparity versus Viviparity—RF for viviparous species is significantly higher than for oviparous species (F = 24.759; p<0.0001; Table 2). However, although RF values are greater in viviparous than oviparous members of each higher taxon (except the Crotalinae), they are statistically different only in the Colubrinae. The pattern of higher RF in viviparous forms holds to vari- ous degrees of significance within genera. For example, within the genus No. 4, 1987] IVERSON—SNAKE FECUNDITY DAS Elaphe, one viviparous member (E. rufodorsata) has a significantly higher RF ratio (0.286) than the six other oviparous members (mean=0.074; t=6.65; p=0.002). However, an apparent exception to this trend seems to be the genus Agkistrodon, where the viviparous members (contortrix, pis- civorus, and halys) are less fecund (mean RF =0.092; and at least the former two reproduce biennially) than the oviparous species (rhodostoma and acu- tus; mean RF =0.266; t=4.07; p=0.025). It has been suggested (e.g., Tinkle and Gibbons, 1977) and substantiated (Shine, 1980) that viviparous reptiles are more vulnerable to predation while carrying their young than oviparous species. Possibly reflecting predation, relative clutch mass of viviparous snakes is significantly lower than that of oviparous snakes (Seigel and Fitch, 1984; Seigel et al., 1986). Thus not only does the average viviparous snake produce a smaller relative clutch mass, but as shown above, that mass is partitioned among many more, necessarily much smaller offspring. Clutch size data for lizards do not seem to reflect this pattern (Fitch, 1970; Ballinger 1978). Tinkle et al. (1970) found that brood size was not significantly higher in viviparous than in oviparous species. However, as they also showed, clutch size in lizards is positively correlated with body size, so any difference in average clutch size may simply reflect a body size differ- ence. RF ratios for lizards (excluding Phrynosoma) in Tinkle et al. (1970) are significantly higher in viviparous than oviparous species (0.099 +0.051, N= 10 versus 0.054+0.029; range, N=29; t= 2.66; 0.015%) Taxonomic Overall Oviparous Viviparous t-test Group mean N_ Mean Range N Mean Range p Viperinae vnx 0.273 2 0.231 0.200-0.262 10 0.282 0.132-0.443 0.52 Natricinae vnx 0.261 5 0.189 0.133-0.286 24 0.276 0.150-0.500 0.09 Xenodontinae vnxel 0.234 9 0.221 0.128-0.3388 2 0.293 0.232-0.353 0.31 Elapidae xelecb 0.156 4 0.123 0.075-0.167 3 0.202 0.117-0.250 0.13 Lycodontinae xelccb 0.151 2 0.090 0.066-0.113 2 0.213 0.183-0.243 0.08 Crotalinae xelecb 0.151 3 0.199 0.066-0.307 17 0.142 0.066-0.346 0.31 Colubrinae elecb 0.099 25 0.088 0.033-0.161 2 0.237 0.188-0.286 0.00 Boidae elecb 0.087 4 0.077 0.054-0.115 5 0.096 0.057-0.120 0.64 Overall 0.182 54 0.133 0.033-0.338 65 0.222 0.057-0.500 0.00 Taxonomic Relationships—RF varies significantly across taxonomic group (ANOVA: F=12.927; p<0.0001). RF in natricines, xenodontines, and vi- 226 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 perines is significantly higher (0.258+0.100, N=52 versus 0.122+0.071, N =67; Table 2) than in boids, colubrines, lycodontines, crotalines, and ela- pids. Thus, in agreement with Dunham and Miles (1985), these results sug- gest that phylogeny may impose important constraints on fecundity in snakes. However, because of a relatively poor and inadequately studied fossil record (Auffenberg, 1963, and Rage, 1978) and because of disagreement about phy- logenetic relationships even among snake systematists (cf. Underwood, 1967; Dowling and Duellman, 1978; Savitzky, 1979, 1980; and Cadle and Savich, 1981), our present knowledge of relationships does not provide a sufficient basis for critical analysis of the relationship of phylogeny to fecundity. TABLE 3. Comparison of relative fecundity (RF) of snakes by habitat. Habitat codes are aquatic (A), semiaquatic (SA), fossorial (F), semifossorial (SF), terrestrial (T), or arboreal (H). The same species may be included under more than one habitat type. Vertical columns of lower case letters connect means that do not differ significantly (t-tests; 5% level). Habitat N Mean+S.D. Range A 20 assf 0.255+0.105 0.071-0.475 SA 10 assf 0.231+0.110 0.057-0.475 SF fi assf 0.218+0.130 0.073-0.500 F 8 assfth 0:17720:077 0.110-0.326 T 73 fth 0.155 +0.095 0.033-0.475 H 6 fth 0.091 +0.022 0.061-0.120 Habitat relationships—RF varies significantly across snake habitat (F=5.221; p=0.0002; Table 3); aquatic, semiaquatic, and semifossorial snakes (mean RF =0.237+0.114; N =47) have significantly higher ratios than fossorial, terrestrial, and arboreal snakes (mean=0.152+0.089; N=87; t=4.68; p=0.0001). The data are inconclusive, however, within subfamilies, in part because not all habitats are represented by each taxon. Within the Colubrinae and Xenodontinae the general pattern of high relative fecundity in aquatic, semiaquatic, and semifossorial species and lower fecundity in fossorial, terrestrial, and arboreal species holds reasonably well. However, within the Natricinae and Boidae (each with reasonable cross-habitat repre- sentation), the pattern is not at all evident. Natricines of all habitats have relatively high RFs, and the lowest values are among aquatic and semi- aquatic forms. Similarly, all boids have relatively low RFs and the semi- aquatic anaconda (Eunectes) has one of the lowest values of all snakes (0.057). In addition, the only aquatic crotaline (Agkistrodon piscivorous) has one of the lowest values (0.071; as well as being a biennal breeder; Fitch, 1970). Thus the pattern of variation in relative fecundity across snake habitat is not as clear as for taxon or reproductive mode, even though it is still statisti- cally significant. The relationship of RF to habitat is very difficult to interpret. The higher RFs in aquatic, semi-aquatic, and semi-fossorial species may be due to higher predation or prey abundance/availability in those habitats, or it may be be- cause these species have been more successful in those habitats for other rea- No. 4, 1987] IVERSON—SNAKE FECUNDITY O27 sons. For example, heavy-bodied snakes (presumably with higher fecundity) may be more buoyant and stable in aquatic habitats, and slender (less fe- cund) snakes are probably preadapted to an arboreal existence (cf. Vitt and Congdon, 1978). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— The comments of Henry S. Fitch, J. Whitfield Gibbons, Dale R. Jack- son, Richard Seigel, and several anonymous reviewers of the manuscript are greatly appreciated. I thank the Florida State Museum for support during the early phases of this research and Earlham College for support during its later development. Cory Etchberger assisted with com- puter analyses. 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SS SS SS GT ¥g0'0 OSE 61 O I BIyeljsny SNULJSTYJOULD SISDV'T ¢ LS0'0 O19 ce A VS BOLIOWIY *S SNULINUL SaJ9aUNT g 790°0 LSP 6G O iE eIpuy sninjouw J 6 €20°0 cc V A AS/L ay Sa) ap}}0q DULLDY’) G SL0°0 O19 OF O Ai BISY snyvjngyal J O'S OTTO 16 OI A A adoing SLDYUL “FT 9° SIT‘0 OOF OF O AP Boll apgas uoyshg 01'S 8IT‘0 OL 6 A A adoinyq snnool xhaq ¢ OZT'O 0SZ O€ A H/L BOLIOUIY *S L0JI1LJSUOD DOT eeplog GT &20°0 006 cT O rT BITeQSNYy snypjjajnas snupinhxo 9°¢ 60°0 SOT 9T O 7 BOLIFY ‘S syjoosiu vipN CLs ZTiKo OST eT A .? elpeaysny snonishiydiod s1ysapnasg poem — = = =| buy — omg f — =, a SpqNa © = 9@iqeu> > @fueq 7). > Gs ae ecm [B10L yoanyD aanonpoidey orydeis004) uray pooig urs A a a ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee eee ee a ee oO wee oem. eo *penuQuor) ‘| xXIaqNdddy Social Sciences HISTORY OF THE FREERANGING RHESUS MONKEYS (MACACA MULATTA) OF SILVER SPRINGS LINDA D. WoLFE” AND ELIZABETH H. PETErs”® ()Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 and )Department of Anthropology, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 Asstract: This paper describes the introduction of Asian rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta, subfamily Cercopithecinae) into the area in and around Silver Springs, Florida, in 1938 and the subsequent history of the monkeys. LocaTeEp in Marion County at 29°N latitude and 82° W longitude (9.6 km east of the City of Ocala), Silver Springs is a large limestone artesian spring formation with one of the largest average flow rates of any freshwater spring in Florida and possibly the United States (Rosenau et al., 1977). The output from the springs forms the headwater of the Silver River, a 11.2 km winding watercouse that empties into the Oklawaha River (Fig. 1). The area adjacent to the river is a corridor of relatively undisturbed floodplain swamp domi- nated by bald cypress, pumpkin ash, red maple, Florida elm, cabbage palm and blackgum (Gatewood, 1984, 1985). Indigenous fauna inhabit this corri- dor (Martin, 1966; Peters, 1983). It is also the home of freeranging Asian rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) (Figs. 2 and 3). Silver Springs has been a tourist attraction for more than a century and has been recognized as a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Depart- ment of the Interior. Between 1924 and 1962, the propery which is associated with the Silver Springs tourist facility was administered by Carl Ray, Sr. and W. M. Davidson. Each of the various concessions such as the Glass Bottom boat rides and Jungle Cruise tours was individually owned. In 1962, Ameri- can Broadcasting Companies, Inc. acquired the Silver Springs tourist facility and 1578 ha of land along the Silver River and consolidated the concessions. Today the Silver Springs tourist facility is owned by Florida Leisure Attrac- tions, Inc., and most of the 1578 ha of land along the Silver River is owned by the State of Florida. The University of Florida owns 22 ha around the head- waters of the Silver River and leases this land to Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc. In addition, the Silver River is an open waterway and private boats are allowed on the river. No written records document the date and circumstances of the release of the rhesus monkeys along the Silver River. Local folklore suggests that the monkeys were descended from animals released during the filming of a Tar- zan movie. Martin (1966) stated that six Tarzan movies were produced at Silver Springs by MGM. However, Anthony Slide (coordinator of the Na- No. 4, 1987] WOLFE AND PETERS— SILVER SPRINGS MONKEYS 935 tional Film Information System of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) stated that “the only Tarzan film shot at Silver Springs, Florida, was ‘Tarzan Finds a Son,” which was released in 1939 (Slide, personal communi- cation). Moreover, there is no footage of rhesus monkeys in “Tarzan Finds a Son.” In order to obtain information concerning the origin of the rhesus mon- keys of Silver Springs, the Ocala Banner, a daily newspaper that reported the news of Silver Springs, was searched for information and people were inter- viewed who worked at the Silver Springs facility during this period. Since a “Colonel Tooey” was widely reported to manage the Jungle Cruise boat ride at that time, information about him was sought. The first reference to Colonel Tooey in the Ocala Banner is in the Decem- ber 3, 1937 issue and the first reference to a Jungle Cruise tourboat ride is in the May 27, 1938 edition. The first reference to the monkeys of Silver Springs was in the November 11, 1938, edition in which it was reported that a soli- tary male monkey by the name of Sourpuss had been shot and killed in the nearby town of Anthony, Florida. The story stated that Sourpuss was the well known “head monkey” of Silver Springs and that he left behind a family of five. The Banner also makes reference to “Tarzan Finds a Son,’ stating that it was filmed at the springs in March 1939. If this is indeed the only Tarzan movie filmed at Silver Springs, then monkeys were present in the area several months before the “Tarzan” film crews arrived. An alternative explanation for the origin of the Silver Springs rhesus col- ony has been provided by friends and employees of the late Colonel Tooey during the period of interest. Believing that a wildlife exhibit of monkeys would improve his earnings, Tooey released a small number of rhesus mon- <<< lo Ocala Highway 40 KEY A SPRINGS AND HEADWATER B FORT KING WATERWAY AND ROUTE OF JUNGLE CRUISE RIDE CURRENTLY C LOCATION OF SOUTHSIDE TROOP D LOCATION OF M-TROOP AND C-TROOP E LOCATION OF 1938 RELEASE OF THE MONKEYS F OKLAWAHA RIVER G PUBLIC BOAT BASIN H H LOCATION OF OCALA NATIONAL FOREST MONKEYS Not Drawn to Scale Fic. 1. Location of significant features of the study site. Fic. 2. Adult Male: Adult Body Weight 11.49+2.19 kg (Bourne, 1975). This monkey’s name is Edward. He is one of the monkeys stolen from the S-troop in December, 1986 and identified from Marion County Sheriff's Office photographs. Fic. 3. Adult Female: Adult Body Weight 7.55 + 0.89 kg (Bourne, 1975). No. 4, 1987] WOLFE AND PETERS—SILVER SPRINGS MONKEYS 237 keys on an island in the Silver River (Fig. 1). Since Tooey had been told that monkeys cannot swim, he believed that the animals would be isolated by the surrounding river. However, rhesus monkeys are very good swimmers and were indeed off the island and onto the banks of the Silver River before Tooey was back in his boat. Despite this unexpected development, the Jungle Cruise boat drivers were able to lure the monkeys near the river’s edge and keep them within viewing distance by frequent feeding from the boats. Inquiries have been made about subsequent releases and it was reported that because the monkeys were not breeding as well as Tooey had hoped, he obtained six more rhesus monkeys from a supply house in New York. Those monkeys were released on the north side of the river sometime around 1948. Originally, the Jungle Cruise ride began at the headwaters of the Silver River and ended near the island where the monkeys were released. Over the years, the Jungle Cruise ride was shortened until the 1960’s when the current termination point was established. As the Jungle Cruise ride shortened, some of the monkeys remained near the island where they had been released and others followed the Jungle Cruise ride. The descendents of the monkeys who stayed near the island are the monkeys who today inhabit the Ocala National Forest. Those monkeys who followed the Jungle Cruise ride up the Silver River are today located at the end point of the ride which now is located near the head waters and are known as the Silver Springs monkeys (Fig. 1). MerHops— The first scientific investigation of the rhesus monkeys of Silver Springs was con- ducted in 1971 by William R. Maples and his student, Michael Hutchins, both of the University of Florida. At that time the monkeys were receiving regular provisions (i.e., monkey chow and vegetables) from the Silver Springs tourist facility and the colony seemed well established. A 1968 census indicated a total of about 78 monkeys living among north and south banks of the Silver River (Maples et al., 1976). In 1976, Maples and several students, including Elizabeth Peters, began a long-term study of a single group of monkeys located on the south side of the river. The monkeys of the Southside troop, as it was called, were named and the collection of genealogical data was begun. In August, 1977, Peters assumed primary responsibility for maintaining regular observations on the Southside troop (hereafter S-troop). In addition to collecting general infor- mation about group composition, foraging habits, troop movements and social behavior, she began in April 1978 to investigate the vocal communication system in this monkey group. This investigation continued through May 1979 and included approximately 770 contact hours with the monkeys. In an attempt to learn more about the number, size and distribution of monkeys located on the north side of the Silver River, in March 1981 Peters organized a survey of the undeveloped land bounded by the Silver River, Highway 40 and the Oklawaha river. Two large troops (each in excess of 50 animals) and several solitary males were sighted by the survey teams (Peters et al., n.d.). In September 1980, Linda D. Wolfe began making weekly observations of the S-troop mon- keys. In the spring of 1983, with a grant from the University of Florida, Wolfe obtained a boat and began to make daily observations to determine the number of monkeys and troops on the north side of the river. After January, 1985, weekly censuses have been maintained on the mon- keys on both sides of the river. Resutts—The social system of the rhesus monkeys of Silver Springs is similar to that described for other freeranging rhesus monkeys (Lindburg, 1971; Mukherjee and Gupta, 1965; Sade, et al. 1985; Neville, 1968). Each troop has a defined home range and is composed of matrifocal units (i.e., 238 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 groups of females each related through a common female ancestor), and non- natal immigrant males arranged in a dominance hierarchy based on rank. Mating is opportunistic and paternity is unknown. Females spend their lives in their troop of birth and do not change troops although occasionally troops will fission. A male, however, usually leaves his natal troop at puberty (i.e., around four years of age). For example, 11 males were born in the S-troop between 1979 and 1982 and followed from birth until 1986. The average age at which the 11] natal males emigrated from the S-troop was 4.23 years (mode=4 years, range 3.5-5.5 years). The male offspring of high-ranking females remained in their troop of birth longer than the male offspring of low-ranking females. The average age at which the male offspring of the high-ranking females emigrated was 4.5 years compared to 3.9 years for the offspring of low-ranking females. In general, the males emigrated during the late spring and early summer towards the end of the birth season (Wolfe, 1986a). Some of the pubescent males from the S-troop migrated to the north side of the river and eventually joined a north side troop. Likewise, pubescent males from the north side of the river migrate to the south side of the river and join S-troop. On the other hand, some males remain solitary. During the breeding season (October-February), solitary males follow either the S-troop or a north side troop and mate with its females on the periphery of the troop. During the non-breeding season (February-October), the solitary males are nomadic. Inbreeding avoidance and the maintenance of genetic and behav- ioral heterogeneity is the adaptive significance of male migration (Duggleby, 1977; Itani, 1972; Kurland, 1977; Ripley, 1980). Intratroop social networks and special male-female friendships which are similar to those reported by Smuts (1985) for baboons also exist and they are under current investigation (Wolfe, 1985). The vocal communication system of the rhesus monkeys of Silver Springs is complex and similar to reports on other groups of macaques (Peters, in press). Wolfe (1986b) reported on the population dynamics of the S-troop. Among the females in this troop the reproductive rate over a three year pe- riod was 82% . Sixty-three per cent of females had their first birth at the age of four and 37% at the age of five. The mean interbirth interval was 14.27 months and the generation length 8.16 years. Wolfe (1986b) argued that the reproductive rate of the S-troop is faster than that of nonprovisioned troops. In addition to the food provided by the wildife caretakers of the Silver Springs tourist facility, the monkeys also forage on natural foods. For exam- ple, of 504 feeding bouts observed between August 1977 and December 1978, 94% involved plants, 5% soil, and 1% insects. All told, 48 species of plants were eaten by the monkeys. This included the full range of plant parts such as mature and new leaves, petioles, stems, twigs, bark, fruit, buds, flowers, roots and the seedheads and blades of grasses. The tip of the cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) fronds was one of the most commonly utilized plants. The eating of insects is probably higher than the 1 % reported here as the monkeys also appear to be ingesting insects when they consume mature leaves and No. 4, 1987] WOLFE AND PETERS—SILVER SPRINGS MONKEYS 239 some fruits (Sarris, 1980). On only one occasion was a lizard (Anolis caro- lenensis) taken as prey and there is the possibility that it was dead when the monkey picked it up. While the lizard was bitten, it was discarded and not eaten. The monkeys have been presented with chicken meat and hen’s eggs (both cracked and uncracked) which the monkeys ignored and did not eat. Studies of wild rhesus monkeys in India indicate that these primates do not engage in vertebrate predation (Mukherjee and Gupta, 1965; Neville, 1966; Puget, 1971; Lindburg, 1971). For example, Lindburg (1971) reports that in his study of rhesus monkeys in northern India rhesus monkeys were observed eating plant foods and insects. He did not observe rhesus monkeys eating “fledglings or small game of any kind.” He also presented the monkeys with hen eggs which they did not eat. He states “the abundant population of pea- fowl and red jungle fowl at Asarori is indirect evidence that eggs are not a part of the monkeys’ diet” (Lindburg, 1978). In June, 1984, three distinct troops were associated with the Silver Springs tourist facility and were part of the Jungle Cruise ride. 1. The S-troop. This troop is usually located within 0.8 km up and down the river from the southside feeding trough (Fig. 1). 2. The M-troop. This troop’s range centered on the north side feeding trough (Fig. 1). 3. The C-troop. This troop shared the area on the north side of the Silver River with M-troop (Fig. 1). The C-troop presumably fissioned from the M-troop sometime in the recent past. Prior to 1984, a feeding trough existed on each side of river (Fig. 1) in which the wildlife caretakers of the Silver Springs tourist facility left monkey chow, fruits, and vegetables. The S-troop had access to the provisions left in the feeding trough on the south side of the river. Likewise M-troop and C- troop shared access to the north side feeding trough. The Jungle Cruise tour boats stopped briefly at the sites of the feeding troughs. We do not have accurate counts on the monkeys who inhabit the Ocala National Forest. Except for the food provided by private boaters, the mon- keys of the Ocala National Forest survive by eating the products of the forest adjacent to the river. One troop which was identified as the L-troop lived on the north side of the river about 3 km down river from the S-troop. The other troop(s) of the Ocala National Forest have not been named or the monkeys identified. Since 1984 the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (FGFWFC) has permitted individuals to remove monkeys from the Ocala National Forest. To date we have been unable to learn how monkeys have been removed, where they were removed from, or the fate of the monkeys. The removal of monkeys continues so that it is unlikely that an accurate count or an understanding of the ecology of the monkeys of the Ocala National Forest will ever be possible. South-side Monkeys—The composition of the S-troop as of September 1, 1986 is presented in Table 1. In 1976 when there were 31 monkeys in the S- troop a troop fission occurred which left 22 monkeys in the troop. In Septem- 240 TABLE 1. Troop Composition FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 S-troop M-troop C-troop 9/1/86 6/29/84 6/29/84 Post-reproductive females 1( 1%) 0 0 Adult females 25 (25%) :* (31%) 7 (35%) Pubescent females 6 ( 6%) 3 ( 5%) 1 ( 5%) Juvenile males and females 36 (36%) 17 (26%) 3 (15%) Infants 21 (21%) _ (27%) 7 (35%) Adult immigrant males 7 (7%) 6 ( 9%) 2 (10%) Subadult natal males 4( 4%) 1 ( 2%) 0 Totals 100 65 20 ber 1986 there were a total of 100 monkeys in the S-troop which represents a four-fold increase in the size of the troop since 1977. Between 1976 and 1986, 118 monkeys have been born into the S-troop. Of the 118 monkeys, eight died shortly after birth. Twenty-three males disappeared as adolescents and are presumed to have emigrated. That is, of the monkeys born into the S-troop between 1976 and 1986, 26% have disappeared through death and emigra- tion. Since 1976, eight subadult and adult females, some of whom were born before 1976, have disappeared and are presumed dead. All of the adult males in the troop (N=11, or 11%) are immigrants from either the north side of the Silver River or the Ocala National Forest. The adult sex ratio in September 1986 was one male to 2.36 females and 57% (N=57) of the population was sexually immature. Because of concerns regarding the increasing size of the monkey population, five adult females were sterilized in early December 1986. Also in early December, 1986, 59 monkeys were removed from this troop without the permission of the Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc., the owners of the Silver Springs tourist facility. The case of the stolen monkeys is currently under investigation by the Marion County Sheriff's office. Because of the ambiguous legal standing of the monkeys, it is unlikely that the men who stole the monkeys will be prosecuted (Campbell, 1987). L-Troop—in 1976 seven monkeys of the S-troop fissioned from the main body of the troop (Peters, 1983). From 1980 until 1982, this group was regu- larly observed on the peninsula which separates the Silver River from Fort King Waterway, a human-made channel which parallels the Silver River a short distance (Fig. 1). After 1982, L-troop moved downstream and only rarely returned to the south side feeding trough. In 1986 there were at least 20 monkeys in this troop and they appeared to be in good health despite the lack of provisioning. However, their numbers do not seem to have grown as rapidly as the monkeys that inhabit the areas around the feeding trough (i.e., the S-troop). In the spring of 1985 most of this group was removed by men permitted to trap monkeys by the FGFWFC. We have not been able to ascer- tain the fate of these monkeys from the FGFWFC. North-side Monkeys— Between May 1 and June 29, 1984, at the insistence of the FGFWFC, Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc. began trapping No. 4, 1987] WOLFE AND PETERS—SILVER SPRINGS MONKEYS 241 the monkeys that inhabited the north side of the river. According to the state- ments by T. Cavanaugh, president of Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc., 217 monkeys were trapped and sold to the Buckshire Corporation, an animal supply company. Before the spring 1984 trapping began, M-troop ranged from the north side of Highway 40 to the north side feeding trough and downstream about 3.2 km on property that was owned by Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc. Since the 1984 removal of the 217 monkeys, they have not been observed crossing Highway 40. Because of the large number of monkeys that were in that troop and the fact that not all of them consistently came to the river, it was not possible to identify all of these monkeys before the trapping began. It was estimated that M-troop was composed of approximately 250 monkeys— 50 reproducing females, 180 infants, juveniles and subadults and 20 adult males. When the trapping stopped on June 29, 1984, due to the intervention of Holly Jensen and other animal rights activists, the composition of the M- troop was as listed in Table 1. Because of the indiscriminate trapping of monkeys, there were seven yearlings left in the troop without close relatives. Usually in an intact troop, yearlings are protected by their mothers or other close relatives from the displaced aggression of non-relatives. Without their relatives, the group of seven yearlings had no protection from adult aggression. Thus, the group of seven yearlings became a peripheral group and are usually with the young peripheral males rather than the main part of the troop where they normally would be. Moreover, the highest ranking or alpha female was trapped. She was a strong alpha female and worked well with the alpha male to control aggression and lead the troop. One of the younger, inexperienced daughters of the alpha female became the new alpha female. The alpha male was not trapped although the rest of the central males were trapped. In an attempt to move the monkeys from the north side of the river to the south side, about half of the remaining M-troop monkeys were trapped dur- ing the summer of 1985 and held in two cages on the south side of the river. In the fall of 1985 when the monkeys were released they returned to the north side of the river. Most of these monkeys were re-trapped during the summer of 1986 and along with some C-troop members (see below) sent in October 1986 to a drive-through zoological park in Springfield, Mo. Before the beginning of trapping in May, 1984, C-troop was composed of 32 monkeys. The adult sex ratio was 1 male to 1.7 females and 50% of the troop was sexually immature. The composition of the troop after trapping stopped (June 29, 1984) is listed in Table 1. In the summer of 1986, most of the remaining C-troop members were trapped and removed (see above). There remains a small group of monkeys on the north side of the river that is composed of the surviving M-troop and C-troop monkeys. Discuss1on—Although rhesus monkeys lack claws, males (but not the fe- males) have large canine teeth capable of inflicting damaging bites. An offi- 242 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 cial report of monkey bites was requested by the FGFWFC in 1982. In that report it is stated that between January 1, 1977, and July 20, 1982, 6 monkey bites and/or scratches occurred in the Silver Springs Attraction area. No one tested positive for rabies and in all cases the bite incidents were provoked (document produced by the Marion County Health Department). In a 1984 document produced by Major Kyle Hill of the FGFWFC, 17 other monkey- human incidents were reported to have occurred along the Silver and Okla- waha Rivers between 1976 and 1984 in which six monkeys were destroyed. These 17 incidents did not result in human injury and as noted in the FGFWEC report “in most instances macaques respond to the approach of humans by fleeing.” While there is the possibility that the monkeys might carry diseases which could be transmitted to humans, there is no evidence that anyone who has had contact with the monkeys in the last 47 years has contracted a disease. At least 70 monkeys have now been tested for TB and all have been negative. Moreover, the Centers for Disease Control have no re- ports of rabies in unvaccinated monkeys in the United States and they con- sider primates to be physiologically incapable of serving as a reservoir species (Humane Society Report, nd). Our studies of the Silver Springs rhesus monkeys indicates that they are not, except for eating insects, carnivorous. These observations correspond to reports of wild rhesus monkeys in India. Roonwal and Mohnot (1977) report that the diet of rhesus monkeys in Asia is “largely vegetarian. Its diet includes leaves, flowers, fruits, berries, and seeds of many species of plants, grass and grains, and algae from ponds. It also eats insects and spiders. It is not known to eat small birds, lizards, or similar small animals...(p.101)” Thus, it seems unlikely that the Silver Springs rhesus monkeys prey on native species of ver- tebrates or domestic animals. Competition for plant resources with native species is minimized by the wide range of plant species consumed by the monkeys (Sarris, 1980) and the role of human provisioning plays in providing the monkeys with food. Because rhesus monkeys forage in trees and do not have the complex digestive system of deer, it is improbable that they compete with deer for food. Moreover, the monkeys may actually benefit the local eco- system. That is, there is evidence which suggests that seeds which pass through the digestive systems of primates germinate better than seeds which do not (Garber, 1986). Rhesus monkeys are small-to-medium sized, intelligent, complex, social primates. The diversity of physical and social challenges presented to the Silver Springs colony elicits behavior that is not found in caged animals. The access to these monkeys provided by commercial boatrides and private boats makes it possible for ordinary people to view a broad range of their behav- iors. While comparable viewing opportunities have been developed in coun- tries where primates are indigenous (e.g., Japan and Kenya), the Silver Springs monkey colony is uniquely accessible to American tourists and has made a substantial contribution to the financial well-being of Marion County. Widespread interest in the monkeys became apparent when the 1984 No. 4, 1987] WOLFE AND PETERS— SILVER SPRINGS MONKEYS 243 trapping generated enough public controversy to temporarily stop removal and resulted in a documentary produced by CBS and aired on national televi- sion on August 10, 1984. The five-decade-long residency of the Silver Springs rhesus colony is a colorful part of Florida’s history which continues to attract public attention. The monkeys are important scientifically for many of the same reasons that they represent an educational resource: professional observations on freeranging primates yield a more accurate picture of their social behavior, resourcefulness and lifestyle. The Silver Springs rhesus colony provides a unique combination of accessibility and behavioral complexity. Moreover, the genealogy and birth records on the S-troop have been collected for the last ten years. Such data provide an important basis upon which to begin testing hypotheses about kin bias in behavior and noting long-term demographic patterns. For example, analysis of data on the S-troop is currently under way which explores the relationship between female rank and reproductive suc- cess. The monkeys have also proved to be useful for training graduate stu- dents in the observation methods of primatology before they carry out expen- sive field studies in countries where primates are indigenous. To date one dissertation has been produced (Peters, 1983), several papers have been pub- lished, and at least seven papers have been read at various professional meet- ings. In conclusion, while it is not appropriate to rule out all possibility of environmental or human hazard, there is no reason to believe that the present problems are grave or unmanageable. The rhesus monkeys of Silver Springs could, however, prove to be troublesome in the future if their numbers grow unchecked. It is for this reason that we favor continuous monitoring of this colony and population management via selective sterilization. Such manage- ment could provide interesting data regarding changes in the reproductive behavior of the monkeys and the duration of the mating season. Florida’s native alligators pose a more immediate physical threat to humans and rac- coons are known carriers of rabies. In contrast, the greatest hazard posed by the monkeys is a direct result of their attractiveness and the tendancy of human observers to encourage close contact. Educating the public about ap- propriate behavior in the presence of wildlife is generally considered more desirable than reducing natural complexity in order to provide a perfectly benign but necessarily bland environment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We are grateful to the University of Florida for providing funds to study the monkeys of Silver Springs and to Florida Leisure Attractions, Inc. for providing space for the boat at their dock and allowing us use of their waterways. The Southern Regional Education Board also provided funding in 1981-82. We also thank Russ Bernard, chair of the University of Florida, Department of Anthropology, for his encouragement and William R. Maples of the Florida State Museum for sharing his data with us. LITERATURE CITED BournE, G. H. 1975. The Rhesus Monkey: Anatomy and Physiology, Volume 1. Academic Press, New York. 244 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 CAMPBELL, R. 1987. Monkey Business Baffles Authorities. Orlando Sentinel, April 5. Ducc.esy, C. R. 1977. Blood Group Antigens and the Population Genetics of Macaca mulatta on Cayo Santiago. II. Effects of Social Group Division. Pp. 263-271. In: Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 1976. Buerrner-JANusCcH, J. (ed.), American Association of Physical An- thropologists, Washington, D.C. Garber, P. A. 1986. The Ecology of Seed Dispersal in Two Species of Callitrichid Primates (Sa- quinus mystax and Saquinus fuscicollis). Am. J. Primat., 10(2):155-170. Gatewoop, S. 1984. Silver River Project Assessment for the Conservation and Recreation Lands Program. Dept. Nat. Res. Florida Natural Areas Inventory. . 1985. Silver River Project Assessment for the Conservation and Recreation Lands Program. Dept. Nat. Res. Florida Natural Areas Inventory. HuMANE Society Report, n.d. Proposal for the Control and Management of rhesus macaques at Silver Springs. Presented to the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, July 13, 1984. Irani, J. 1972. A Preliminary Essay on the Relationship Between Social Organization and Incest Avoidance in Nonhuman Primates. Pp. 165-171. In: Primates Socialization. Pomrirr, F. E. (ed.), New York: Ramdon House. KuRLAND, J. A. 1977. Kin Selection in the Japanese Monkey. Basel: Karger. Linpsurc, D. C. 1971. The Rhesus Monkey in North India: An Ecological and Behavioral Study. Pp. 1-106. In: Primate Behavior: Developments in Field and Laboratory Research, Vol- ume 2. RosEMBLUM, L. A. (ed.), Academic Press, New York. 1978. Dietary Habits of Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in an Indian Forest. J. of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. , 73:261-269. Map es, W. R., A. B. Brown, AND P. M. Hutcnins. 1976. Introduced Monkey Populations at Silver Springs, Florida. Florida Anthrop. 29(4):133-136. Maatin, R. 1966. The Eternal Spring. Great Outdoors Press, St. Petersburg, Florida. MUKHERJEE, A. K., AND S. Gupta. 1965. Habits of the Rhesus Macaque, Macaca mulatta (Zim- merman), in the Sunderbans, 24—-Parganas, West Bengal. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 62:145-146. NeEvILLE, M. K. 1968. Ecology and activity of Himalayan foothill rhesus monkeys (Macaca mu- latta). Ecology, 49:110-123. Prerers, E. H., W. R. Mapes, L. D. WoLFeE, AND F. G. Rosinson. n.d. A Survey of Northside Monkeys at Silver Springs, Florida. Report presented to the management of ABC Scenic and Wildlife Attractions, 1981. Peters, E. H. 1983. Vocal Communication in an Introduced Colony of Feral Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta). PhD Dissertation, Univer. Florida, Gainesville. Peters, E. H. In press. Grading in the Vocal Repertoire of Silver Springs rhesus monkeys. In: Primate Ontogeny, Cognition and Social Behavior, ELsE, J., AND P. LEE (eds.). Cambridge Univer. Press, Cambridge. Pucet, A. 1971. Observations sur le Macaque Rhesus, Macaca mulatta (Zimmerman 1780), en Afganistan. Mammalia, 35:114-115. Rip.ey, S. 1980. Infanticide in Langurs and Man: Adaptive Advantage or Social Pathology? Pp. 349-390. In: Biosocial Mechanisms of Population Regulation. CoHEen, M. N., R. S. MAaALpass, AND H. G. KLEIN (eds.), Yale Univers. Press, New Haven. RoonwaL, M. L., AnD S. M. Mounot. Primates of South Asia. Harvard University Press, Cam- bridge, MA: 421 pp. RosENAu, J. C., G. L. FAULKNER, C. W. HENpry, JR., AND R. W. Hutt. 1977. Springs of Florida. Bulletin No. 1 (revised). Tallahassee: State of Florida, Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology. SavE, D. S., D. B. CHEPKo-SaADE, J. M. SCHNEIDER, S. S. ROBERTS, AND J. T. RICHSMEIER. Basic Demographic Observations on Free-ranging Rhesus Monkeys. New Haven: Human Rela- tions Area Files, 1985. Sarris, E. 1980. Aspects and Implications of Supplemental Foraging Among Provisioned Mon- keys. Florida Scient., 43(3): 160-164. Smuts, B. B. 1985. Sex and Friendship in Baboons. Aldine Publishing Company, New York: 303 pp. No. 4, 1987] OBITUARY 245 Wo tre, L. D. 1985. Detection of Social Networks in Rhesus Monkeys. Presented at the 85th annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association. 1986a. Male Migration within the Silver Springs, Florida, Rhesus Monkey Colony. To be published as symposium papers by the National Social Science Association. 1986b. Reproductive Biology of Rhesus and Japanese Macaques. Primates, 27(1): 95-101. Florida Sci. 50(4): 234-245. 1987. Accepted: April 17, 1987. OBITUARY JouHN F. Baxter, Jr., Ph.D. Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus at the University of Florida and an internationally renowned authority on chemical education, died of cancer at his home in Gainesville, Florida on March 15, 1987. Born in New Castle, Pennsylvania on December 11, 1909, John re- ceived the A.B. degree (1932) and an honorary Sc.D. (1960) from Bethany College (Bethany, W. VA), and a Ph.D. (1942) from the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. He taught high school science in Illinois and Ohio and chemistry at Johns Hopkins; Loyola College, Baltimore; Gettysburg College; and Wash- ington and Lee University before becoming Coordinator of General Chemis- try in 1952 at the University of Florida, from which he retired in 1978. An early pioneer in television education, John was selected by the National Broadcasting Company to prepare 160 half-hour color tapes and kinescope recordings, which were broadcast coast-to-coast Monday through Friday for 34 weeks (September through May, 1959-60 and 1960-61) at 6:00 or 6:30 A.M. local time as “Modern Chemistry” on NBC-TV’s “Continental Class- room.” The series, which featured 31 guest lecturers, including 10 Nobel lau- reates, was watched by 620,000 persons (200,000 of them teenagers), making the tall, handsome professor with the snow-white crewcut a familiar figure in America’s kitchens and earning him the American Chemical Society’s (ACS) prestigious James T. Grady Award for Interpreting Chemistry for the Public (1962). An organizer and teacher of the early NSF teacher training institutes and a popular consultant, his awards and honors include the Scholastic Teacher’s 12th Annual National Film & Filmstrip Award (1961), the Manu- facturing Chemists Association College Chemistry Teacher Award (1962), the Florida Award of the ACS Florida Section (1969), and the President’s Medal- lion of the University of Florida (1978). Active in the ACS, he held offices in the Florida Section, was a member of the Board of Publications of the Divi- sion of Chemical Education, a 5-time National tour speaker, and a director or member of numerous committees. He is survived by his wife Bonnie (nee Elledge), two sons, a daughter, and six grandchildren. He will be sorely missed. —George B. Kauffman, California State University, Fresno, CA. Biological Sciences A NEW SPECIES OF CALISTO (SATYRIDAE) FROM HISPANIOLA ALBERT SCHWARTZ! Miami-Dade Community College, North Campus, Miami, FL 33167 ABSTRACT: A new species of the satyrid butterfly genus Calisto is described from the interface between the Dominican Sierra de Yamasa and the karst regions to the east of that range. The new species is apparently allied with other small lowland Calisto (hysia, confusa, batesi) and perhaps also with C. debarriera from the distal portion of the Haitian Tiburon Peninsula. As has been becoming increasingly apparent (Schwartz, 1983a; Schwartz and Gali, 1984; Gali, 1985), the roster of species of the endemic Antillean satyrid genus Calisto is far from complete. Most (but not all) of the new species described from Hispaniola have come either from remote, generally inaccessible areas, or from xeric regions that seem unsuitable for these deli- cate butterflies. Two taxa that have been regarded as subspecies (C. hysia batesi Michener, and C. galii choneupsilon Schwartz) are presently regarded as separate species (Correa and Schwartz, 1986; Gonzalez and Schwartz, in press) on the basis of male genitalia. The list of species on Hispaniola has now been increased to 29, one of which (C. pulchella Lathy) has an upland sub- species in the highlands of the Dominican Cordillera Central (Wisor and Schwartz, 1985). The new species described herein is remarkable in that it has not only very recently (1985) been taken but also that its only locality of collection is not remote and is close to the capital city of the Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo). Throughout much of the Hispaniolan north island, there are three wide- spread species: C. batesi Michener, C. confusa Lathy, and C. obscura Mi- chener (Schwartz, in press). Although C. batesi is very poorly known from the northern Haitian portion of the north island (Schwartz, 1983b), it none- theless occurs there. Calisto batesi is replaced on the south island (south of the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain) by C. hysia Godart. Still, as Correa and Schwartz (1986) pointed out, there are isolated populations on that land mass that resemble north island C. batesi in color and pattern and are quite smaller in male genitalia. Gonzalez and Schwartz (in press) suggested that south island C. batesi might be most properly regarded as a distinct species in its own right but did not make that nomenclatural change. The purpose of the above brief summary is to indicate that there is usu- ally, in the lowlands of Hispaniola, a suite of three species that one normally encounters. Except for the xeric regions, these trios of mesophilic lowland species are what one expects below about 800 m. 1Adjunct Curator, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, FL. No. 4, 1987] SCHWARTZ—NEW SPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 247 The Dominican Sierra de Yamasa lies about 45 km north-northwest of Santo Domingo and is easily reached by road from the latter city. The range, which reaches a maximum elevation of 856 m, is poorly known, despite its proximity to the Dominican capital. The range is separated from the high Cordillera Central to the west by a valley, through which the major north- south artery (the Carretera Duarte) travels between Santo Domingo and San- tiago. To the north and east, the Sierra de Yamasa blends almost impercepti- bly into the karst topography haitises region, which is likewise poorly known faunistically, and thence into the Cordillera Oriental. Thus, the Sierra de Yamasa is an eastern segregate of the Cordillera Central (Nufiez Molina, 1968), separate from that range (and of much lesser elevation), which in turn blends into the karst regions to the east. What the complete distribution of this species is remains to be deter- mined: it may be limited to the Sierra de Yamasa or to the haitises region; the sole locality is obviously intermediate between these two topographical types (but see comments beyond on specimens from La Palma in the Cordillera Central). It is worth noting that karst topographies in the West Indies (Valle de Vinales on Cuba; Cockpit Country on Jamaica; Pepino Hills on Puerto Rico) invariably support faunas that are distinctive, including Lepidoptera. It has been suggested (Brown and Heineman, 1972:192) that at least the Jamaican member of the genus Atlantea is most abundant in karst areas, and in Jamaica, Aphrissa hartonia Butler is known only from the Cockpit Coun- try (Brown and Heineman, 1972:315). This new species of Calisto may well be still another example of a karst area endemic. For the new species of Calisto, I propose, in honor of Fernando L. Gonza- lez who discovered it, the name Calisto gonzalezi, new species DescriPpTION— Males: FW (forewing) length 14-17 mm (x =15.3; N=8); UP (upperside) ground color dark brown (Pl. 48H12; all color designations from Maerz and Paul, 1950) without distinct markings and without a dark ocellus remnant on anal lobe; androconial patch present, obscure, its outer margin more or less paralleling the FW margin and extending posteriorly to the inner margin; UN (underside) brown (PI. 48L1), paler than UP; UNHW (hindwing) with a large ocellus (diameter [all measurements in millimeters] 2.9-3.4; x =3.2), in M1-M3 and extending into R5-M1, ringed with buffy, its central portion black with two distinctly blue (Pl. 33J1) “pu- pils,” the more anterior displaced anteriad from center of ocellus, the more posterior close to the pale ocellar ring, and both “pupils” in the more basal half of the ocellus than in the more marginal half; UNFW margin with a pair of dark submarginal lines, the area between them slightly paler than the UNFW ground color, giving a relatively prominent submarginal band; entire cell brick red (Pl. 8L8), the color extending into adjacent spaces marginally; lying between the marginal red and the inner edge of the ocellus, a prominent pale tan and slightly bowed line, accompanied by a basal black line, which extends as far posteriorly as about Cul; UNHW slightly darker brown than UNFW (PI. 48H3); a tan basal line, outlined medially with very dark brown to.almost black; a postdiscal tan line, outlined medially with black, from the outer one- third of the coastal margin to just above the anal angle, this line more or less paralleled by one of two jagged submarginal lines and both expanding in Cul-Cu2 to accommodate a large ocellus in that space, these two lines then coverging just above the anal angle; the space between these two lines pale tan (palest near the anal angle), with a large ocellus (2.1-2.7; x =2.4) in Cul-Cu2, this ocellus with 1 to 5 blue “pupils” arranged in a vertical line, the most anterior displaced basally toward the buffy ocellar ring, and discrete white dots regularly in M1-M2, M2-M3, and M3-Cul, and occasionally also in Rs-M1; a supernumerary ocellus present in two specimens in Cu2-2A; an 248 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Fic. 1. Calisto gonzalezi, female holotype, UN. outer dark brown and rather indistinct submarginal line, made extremely jagged because of its displacement at all the HW veins. Females: FW 16-17 (N=2); UP color like males; UNFW patterned like males but pale band between submarginal lines somewhat more conspicuous; ocellus large (4.0; this and all further measurements based only on the holotype; the female paratype is in very poor condition); with two blue “pupils” positioned as in males; UNHW patterned like males; UNHW ocellus 2.8, with 2 pale blue “pupils;” no supernumerary UNHW ocelli; area enclosed by postdiscal and innermost of submarginal bands in Rs-M1 to M3-Cul violet (Pl. 47E7), with a distinct white dot in each of these spaces; area enclosed by two submarginal lines, as well as the area in M3-Cul just basal of the innermost of the submarginal lines, contrasting pale tan, so that in effect the UNHW anterior to M3 is “dark,” whereas that posterior to M3 is contrastingly banded with pale tan. HOLOTYPE female: REPUBLICA DOMINICANA: PROVINCIA DE SANCHEZ RAMIREZ: 1 km NE Las Lagunas, 600 ft. (183 m), 27.vi.1985 (F. L. Gonzalez), ex colln. A. Schwartz (original no. AS 14291), now in the collection of the Allyn Museum of Entomology, Florida State Museum. PARATYPES: 7 males, all with the same data as the holotype (FLG [collection of F. L. Gonzalez] 311-12, FLG 334-336, AS 14289-90); 1 male (FLG 2655), 1 female (AS 17877), same locality as holotype, collected by F. L. Gonzalez, 7.vi.1986. Discussion—Comparisons: Calisto gonzalezi requires comparison with those species with which it is sympatric and snytopic (c. confusa, c. obscura) and with C. batesi, which has not been taken in this immediate region. Ca- listo gonzalezi can easily be differentiated from the latter in that it lacks the UNFW postocellar red blush that distinguishes C. batesi. From C. confusa, C. gonzalezi differs in lacking a dark ocellar remnant on both surfaces at the HW anal angle. Calisto obscura is smaller (FW 12-16 in each sex; Schwartz, in press), and the UN color is pale tan with little contrast between the ground and the various UNHW linear elements (Riley’s [1975] Pl. 3, figs. 4a, 4b, No. 4, 1987] SCHWARTZ—NEW SPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 249 Fic. 2. Calisto gonzalezi, male genitalia (FLG 312). show the UN of C. obscura much more contrastingly patterned than almost all fresh specimens). None of these species has multiple “pupils” in the UNHW ocellus, and none has the “pupils” so vividly blue as does C. gonza- lezi. Of the Hispaniolan Calisto, only three other species are known to have multiple “pupils” in the UNHW ocelli: C. debarriera Clench, C. hysia, and C. batesi from the south island (Correa and Schwartz, 1986). All of these populations are far removed geographically from the known range of C. gonzalezi; all are on the south island, the first at moderate elevations (950- 1220 m; Schwartz, in press) in the Massif de la Hotte on the extreme western tip of the Tiburon Peninsula in Haiti, C. batesi at high elevations in the Massif de la Selle and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Republica Dominicana, and C. hysia widely distributed from 153 m to 1910 m. South island C. batesi, like north island C. batesi, are small butterflies and have a distinct postocellar red blush on the UNFW, a character that is absent in C. gonzalezi. In addition, C. batesi on the south island are dis- tinctly pale (tan) in contrast to the deep rich brown of the UP of C. gonzalezi. The FW length in male south island C. batesi is 12-13, in females 15-18. Calisto hysia is larger than C. gonzalezi (FW males 14-18, females 15-17). It, like C. batesi, regularly has a UNFW postocellar red blush. The “pupils” in the UNHW ocellus vary between 1 and 6, with a mode of 5, many more “pupils” than have been recorded in C. gonzalezi. 250 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 In many ways, C. gonzalezi is rather like the much farther geographically removed C. debarriera; both are very dark above. Although C. debarriera is somewhat smaller than C. gonzalezi (males 13-15, females 14-15), the two species are rather comparable in size. In C. debarriera the UN light lines are obscure and the red in the FW cell is dark (Pl. 6L11). As in C. gonzalezi, there is no dark ocellar remnant on the HW anal lobe. There are 1-3 pale “pupils” in the UNHW ocellus. Although these “pupils” and those in the UNHW ocellus are bluish, they are not so bright as are those in similar sites in C. gonzalezi. It does not seem likely that C. gonzalezi is closely related to (=a sub- species of) either of these two populations. Calisto gonzalezi bears the same “relationship” to C. confusa as does C. debarriera. The latter has been con- sidered only a higher elevation form of the former, but both have been taken syntopically at moderate elevations in the Massif de la Hotte. If the south island C. batesi are recognized nomenclaturally (as a species distinct from C. batesi), it is possible that C. gonzalezi should be regarded as a subspecies of true (north island) C. batesi (note that that species has not been taken synto- pically with C. gonzalezi). However, the hallmark of C. batesi (the reddish postocellar blush on the UNFW) is absent in C. gonzalezi, thus rendering such a subspecific relationship very unlikely, since that character occurs very regularly in C. batesi, in both north and south island populations. It is also perhaps pertinent to point out the following. On 17 July 1985, we collected two female Calisto (FLG 892, FLG 896) at La Palma, 19 km W Jayaco, La Vega Province, R. D., at an elevation of 1007 m. This locality is within the Cordillera Central and is about 400 km ENE of Las Lagunas. These two butterflies resemble C. gonzalezi superficially, and they are as large as the holotypic female C. gonzalezi. They do not agree completely with any species known from La Palma, and they may represent either an undescribed subspecies of C. gonzalezi, or still another Cordillera Central endemic. The locality for these specimens does not negate the distribution of C. gonzalezi as here suggested. Genitalia—Gonzalez and Schwartz (in press) have discussed the male genitalia of the Hispaniolan Calisto; in general they followed the schema originally proposed by Bates (1935) and elaborated upon by Munroe (1950). According to the latter’s analysis, the genus is divided into two major sections based primarily on the FW venation (Rs not stalked with Rl = primitive; Rs stalked with Rl = advanced). The second section includes the majority of His- paniolan Calisto. Gonzalez and Schwartz (in press) recognized five groups within this section, two of which are non-Hispaniolan. Of the three remain- ing groups, the hysia-group includes most of the Hispaniolan species. Calisto gonzalezi falls in this group, and additionally in Subgroup B, Series B, which includes C. confusa, C. obscura, and C. hysia (see Gonzalez and Schwartz, in press, Fig. 3). The male genitalia of C. gonzalezi (Fig. 2) resemble those of C. confusa and C. hysia much more closely than those of C. obscura; despite the associa- No. 4, 1987] SCHWARTZ—NEW SPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 251 tion of these three species (four including C. gonzalezi), the male genitalia of C. obscura are the most distinctive, and those of C. confusa, C. hysia, and C. gonzalezi are rather similar. Gonzalez and Schwartz (in press) pointed out that there is remarkable uniformity and similarity among and between mem- bers of the hysia -group male genitalia, despite often striking morphological differences (UN pattern and color). In C. gonzalezi, the penis is only slightly sinuate (much less so than in C. confusa and C. hysia), and more stout than in C. hysia, in which species the penis is swollen basally but tapers distally. Gnathoi are reduced in all three species, and the uncus is set off from the tegumen by a deep pretegumental groove. In C. hysia, the uncus is flattened dorsally, and more elongate, whereas in C. confusa the uncus is slightly more arched posteriorly and dis- tinctly more elongate-tapering anteriorly. The uncus in C. gonzalezi is more like the condition in C. confusa than in C. hysia but is somewhat intermedi- ate between the two. In C. confusa, the tegumen is highly arched, whereas in C. hysia and C. gonzalezi, the tegumina are more flattened. The uncus in C. gonzalezi is about one-half the length of the tegumen. The vincula in all three species are comparable, and the sacci are similar, although that of C. gonza- lezi is slightly more swollen than the almost lineate sacci of C. confusa and C. hysia. The valvae of C. hysia are long and bowed ventrally, whereas those of C. confusa are relatively unbowed and straight ventrally. In C. gonzalezi, the valvae are strongly bowed ventrally. All the above comparisons suggest that, once again, the main “style” of male genitalia, widespread among Hispaniolan Calisto, occurs in C. gonza- lezi. Among most members of the genus on Hispaniola, male genitalia follow a very similar pattern and differ only in what appear to be minor details. Calisto gonzalezi is no exception. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— It is indeed a pleasure to recognize the competent and enthusiastic assis- tance rendered me by Fernando L. Gonzalez in the field in 1985 and 1986 by naming this undescribed species of Calisto for him. The photograph of male genitalia is likewise Gonzalez’s work; that of the ventral view of the holotype was taken by Lewis D. Ober, to whom I also tender my thanks. LITERATURE CITED Bates, M. 1935. The satyrid genus Calisto. Occ. Papers Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 8:229-248. Brown, F. M., AND B. HEINEMAN. 1972. Jamaica and Its Butterflies. E. W. Classey, Ltd., Lon- don: 478 pp. Correa, J. C., AND A. ScHwartz. 1986. The status of Calisto hysius batesi (Lepidoptera, Satyri- dae) with the description of a new species from Hispaniola. Florida Scient. 49(1):11-18. Gaul, F. 1985. Five new species of Calisto from Hispaniola. Milwaukee Public Mus. Contr. Biol. Geol., 63:1-16. GonzZALEz, F. L., AND A. ScHwartz. (in press). The unity and diversity of Hispaniolan Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyridae). Caribaea, in press. Maerz, A., AND M. R. Pau. 1950. A Dictionary of Color. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York: 208 pp., 56 pls. MunpoE, E. G. 1950. The systematics of Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae), with remarks on the evolution and zoogeographic significance of the genus. J. New York Entom. Soc. 58(4):211-241. 952 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Nunez Molina, L. N. 1968. El Territorio Dominicano. ;Ahora!, Santo Domingo: 187 pp. Rixey, N. D. 1975. A Field Guide to the Butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book Co., New York: 224 pp. ScHwartz, A. 1983a. A New Hispaniolan Calisto (Satyridae). Bull. Allyn Mus. Entom. 80:1-10. 1983b. Haitian butterflies. Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat. Santo Domingo, Editora Taller: 69 pp. . (in press). The Butterflies of Hispaniola. Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat. Santo Domingo. AND F. Gaur. 1984. Five new species of Calisto (Satyridae) from Hispaniola. Bull. Allyn Mus. Entom. 85:1-18. Wisor, R. W., AND A. ScHwartz. 1985. Status of Calisto pulchella darlingtoni Clench (Lepidop- tera; Satyridae). Florida Scient., 48(1):7-13. Florida Sci. 50(4): 246-252. 1987. Accepted: April 14, 1987. CITATION FOR LARRY L. HENCH The 1987 Florida Academy of Sciences Medalist is Larry L. Hench, Graduate Research Professor of Material Sciences and Engineering, Director of the Bioglass Research Center, and Co-Director of the Advanced Materials Re- search Center at the University of Florida. Dr. Hench is the inventor of Bioglass® , the first man-made material that bonds to living tissue. It has been used in bone implantation, tooth replace- ment and as a coating for prosthetic devices. Bioglass® has also been used to immobilize high radioactive waste. Dr. Hench has been involved in the devel- opment of a new class of sol-gel derived materials for the production of ultra- high quality, ultrahomogeneous optical materials for research, defense and possible space station applications. Dr. Hench has received numerous honors including: Florida Scientist of the Year (1984), Faculty Teacher-Scholar of the Year (1983), Morey Award for Excellence in Glass Research from the American Ceramic Society, Clemson Award for Basic Research in Biomaterials from the Society for Biomaterials. Bioglass® is a revolutionary invention with a wide range of applications for the betterment of human life. Geological Sciences GENESIS OF DIOCTAHEDRAL CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS IN TERRA ROSSA SOILS IN SOUTH FLORIDA RICHARD N. STROM AND JONATHAN J. Kim’ Department of Geology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 Asstract: During an investigation of terra rossa in south Florida, a chlorite-like mineral was found to be the sole clay mineral present in the soils. The clay has accumulated and/or formed in the porous, well-drained oolitic facies portions of the Miami Limestone, especially on the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. This clay mineral is an aluminous, dioctathedral variety that shows x-ray diffrac- tion characteristics indicative of a pedogenic origin. Previous theories that have been proposed for formation of pedogenic chlorite-like clays are not applicable to this occurrence. Therefore an alternative model, based on carbonate inhibition of gibbsite precipition, is proposed for hydroxy- interlayering of clays in carbonate-rich soils and for the formation of chlorite-like clay minerals in terra rossa. TERRA ROSSAE or “red earth” soils are red to brownish, iron oxide stained soils that develop on karstic limestone and appear to be unconformable on the limestone surface (Hunt, 1972). They differ from laterites in their high cal- cium and/or magnesium content and their generally neutral to basic soil pH values. They are typical of the Adriatic region but are also reported from many other areas that have pronounced wet and dry seasons, such as south- ern Europe (Joffe, 1949), Australia (Norrish and Rogers, 1956), Bermuda (Ruhe et al., 1961), the Yucatan Penninsula (Isphording, 1978), and Carib- bean islands. In south Florida, the undisturbed terra rossa on the Atlantic Coastal Ridge (Fig. 1) is classified as an Inceptisol and mapped as the Rockdale- Limestone complex. It is known locally as “red land” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1958). The terra rossa is best developed on the western flank of the ridge. The soil is found primarily in shallow solution channels and vugs in the underlying limestone, and appears to be unconformable with the lime- stone. The pH of the soil is slightly basic—about 7.4. In a reconnaissance investigation of these soils, we found a well-devel- oped, 14 A chlorite-like clay to be the only clay-mineral component (Fig. 2). Barnhisel (1977) reports that the occurrences of chlorite and chlorite-like clay minerals as soil components are relatively uncommon—in part due to the insta- bility of chlorite in the weathering environment, and in part to the difficulty in recognizing chlorite-like clays in the presence of other 14 A clay minerals. Where chlorites have been reported in soils, they are generally residual pri- mary minerals inherited from metamorphic-rock parent material or from de- trital sediments containing chlorite-group minerals. On the other hand, chlo- rite-like clay minerals may form in soil environments either by the 1Present address: Western Geophysical, P.O. Box 2469, Houston, Texas 77252. 254 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 N GUEF OF MEXICO STUDY AREA =» ie 0 50 a ee eeeeedl be as km OOLITIC FACIES BRYOZOAN FACIES os KEY LARGO eed LIMESTONE Fic. 1. The Atlantic Coastal Ridge, outlined in the figure by a dashed line, is underlain by the oolitic facies of the Miami Limestone. Terra rossa commonly develops on this physiographic feature. The oolitic facies is underlain throughout much of the area by bryozoan facies materials (after Hoffmeister et al., 1967). degradation of true chlorites (Stephen, 1952) or by the incorporation of alu- minum, iron, or magnesium hydroxides between layers in expansible-layer minerals such as vermiculite or smectite. Rich (1968) reviewed the occur- rences of soil-formed, hydroxy-interlayered clays. In most instances, the in- terlayered, chlorite-like clays are either intimately mixed with other clay minerals, or are intermediate in character between chlorites and the precur- sor minerals, usually vermiculite or smectite. The chlorite occurrence in the terra rossa in south Florida is unusual enough, both in the monomineralic nature of the clay and in its well devel- oped crystallinity, that a further investigation was undertaken. The purpose of the investigation was to determine whether the chlorite-like clay mineral in the terra rossa is a weathering residuum of limestone containing normal, marine-derived chlorite or a product of the weathering and/or soil-forming processes. MeETHops— Samples of limestone were collected from cores contributed by the Kaiser Transit Co., the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey in Miami, the Miami/Dade Water and Sewer Authority in Miami, and the South Florida Water Management District and from outcrops. The <2yum fractions of 55 samples of limestone, two samples of laminated cal- No. 4, 1987] STROM AND KIM—CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS 255 TERRA ROSSA 14.0 <2um FRACTION d-SPACING IN ANGSTROMS 3.34 4.74 550°C 30 25 20 15 10 5 2 DEGREES 2 THETA Fic. 2. X-ray diffraction pattern of the <2 um sized components of the terra rossa. Amor- phous iron and aluminum have been removed by CDB treatment (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). B=Boehmite, Q=quartz, Gly=after glycolation, 350°C=after heating one hour at 350°C, 550°C after heating one hour at 550°C. Cu Ka radiation. 256 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 crete crust of recent origin (Multer and Hoffmeister, 1968; Robbin and Stipp, 1979) from the Florida Keys, and terra rossa from the Atlantic Coastal Ridge were examined by x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The analytical techniques used in this investigation are detailed in Kim (1984). Preparation of the clays for XRD analysis involved partial acid digestion of carbonates in 0.5 M acetic acid, separation of the <2um fraction by sedimentation, and dithionite treatment (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) to remove iron oxyhyroxides. Parallel orientation XRD slides were prepared by filter-transfer (Drever, 1973), air dried, and X-rayed with monchromatic Cu Ka radiation. Diagnostic tests included Mg-saturation, glycola- tion, K-saturation, and heat treatments. Because kaolinite is difficult to detect in the presence of chlorite in X-ray diffraction, two procedures were used to attempt to make the distinction. Nei- ther the slow scan technique of Biscaye (1964) nor Li-dimethylsulfoxide intercalation procedures (Abdel-Kader et al., 1977; Jackson and Abdel-Kader, 1978) indicated the presence of kaolinite. Randomly oriented samples for XRD analysis were prepared by crushing air-dried cakes of the <2um fraction to a coarse powder. The powder was then packed in aluminum holders with the edge of a spatula to avoid parallel orientation of the materials. Samples of NH,* saturated clays were prepared for chemical analysis by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) by their ignition at 900°C and digestion in Parr bombs with hydro- fluoric acid by the procedures of Bernas (1968). Silica and phosphorus were determined on NaOH fused samples by colorometric techniques. Cation exchange capacities were determined at pH 7 by exchange of Na+ on Na-saturated clays by NH,* and analysis of the sodium in the resulting supernatant solutions. TABLE 1. Chemical analyses (weight percent) of the <2um fractions of dithionite treated, NHj-saturated clay. Sample ()° @) @) SiO, 39.64 38.44 41.66 TiO, 1.43 2.12 1.65 Al,O; 29.98 26.92 27.12 Fe,O; 3.99 9.98 6.51 MgO 1.40 1.36 2.40 CaO 0.38 0.47 0.55 Na,O 0.27 0.13 0.13 K,O 0.36 0.58 1.18 P.O; 0.91 1.14 1.07 H,O+ 20.8 18.9 18.8 SUM 99.16 100.04 101.07 C.EXG. 37.1 37.5 29.7 *(1) Terra rossa from the Atlantic Coastal Ridge (Figure 2). (2) Chlorite from pore-lining materials in the Oolitic Facies (Fig. 3). (3) Sample from illuvial zone near transition from oolitic facies to bryozoan facies (Fig. 4). Resutts—X-ray Powder Diffraction and Chemical Characteristics: The chlorite-like material examined during this investigation was found to be an aluminous, dioctahedral clay. Representative XRD patterns of several sam- ples are shown in Figures 2 to 4 and chemical analyses in Table 1. The most notable XRD characteristic of the clay samples is the collapse to an intermedi- ate d-spacing between 10 and 14 A as a result of heating. This suggests the presence of incomplete interlayer hydroxide sheets in the chlorite structure. Heating to 350°C results in a small collapse in the 001 d-spacings coupled with a reduction in intensities. Heating to 550°C causes a further decrease in 001 d-spacing and disappearance of the 002 and 003 reflections. Some of the No. 4, 1987] STROM AND KIM—CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS 257 PORE-FILLING CLAYS OOLITIC FACIES <2um FRACTION d-SPACING IN ANGSTROMS DEGREES 2 THETA Fic. 3. X-ray diffraction pattern of the <2 um sized components recovered from pore filling in the oolitic limestone underlying the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. Amorphous iron and aluminum have been removed by CDB treatment (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). B= Boehmite, Q = quartz, Gly = after glycolation, 350°C = after heating one hour at 350°C, 550°C = after heating one hour at 550° C. Cu Ka radiation. ILLUVIAL ZONE TRANSITION TO BRYOZOAN FACIES hall <2um FRACTION d-SPACING IN ANGSTROMS 14.0 3.34 4.74 74 10.0 AS |S GLY 550°C : | | 30 25 20 15 10 5 DEGREES 2 THETA Fic. 4. X-ray diffraction pattern of the <2 um sized components recovered from an illuvial accumulation near the oolitic-bryozoan facies boundary under the Atlantic Coast Ridge. In this zone, both chlorite-like and intergrade clays have accumulated just above the permeability boundary between the two facies. Amorphous iron and aluminum have been removed by CDB treatment (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). B=Boehmite, Q=quartz, Gly=after glycolation, ee heating one hour at 350°C, 550°C =after heating one hour at 550°C. Cu Ka radiation. No. 4, 1987] STROM AND KIM—CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS 259 XRD patterns of chlorite-rich samples exhibit a broad shoulder in the range of 10 to 15A, suggesting an intergrade phase (see Fig. 4). These particular samples have higher potassium concentrations (Table 1). Collapse of expansi- ble layers as a result of heating sharpens the 10 A peaks. Saturation with 1 N KCl, followed by mild heat treatment, however, fails to collapse the expansi- ble layers. From these characteristics we conclude that the intergrade phase contains both illitic and smectitic layers. Evidence for the dioctahedral nature of the chlorite-like clay structure comes from random powder XRD, which shows that the 060 peak corres- ponds to a 1.50 A d-spacing, and from the chemical analyses (Table 1). The analyses indicate the clay mineral to be aluminum-rich with lesser amounts of iron and magnesium. From the red coloration of the soils and the rapid and complete oxidation of the organics, it can be inferred that the iron is in the ferric form and that magnesium is the sole divalent cation in the clay structure. It is concluded therefore that the clay has a di,dioctahedral struc- ture. NOMENCLATURE: There does not appear to be any consensus in the litera- ture concerning an appropriate term or name for the type of chlorite-like clay structures described above. A variety of names have been given to clays with similar XRD characteristics. Barnhisel (1977) listed some 15 terms that are more or less synonymous including “intergrade” (Dixon and Jackson, 1962), “chloritized expansible layer silicate” (Glenn and Nash, 1964), and “2:1-2:2 intergrade” (Malcolm et al., 1968). The terms “dioctahedral chlorite” as used by Brydon and co-workers (1961) and by Glenn and Nash (1964), “Al-chlo- rite” as used by Jackson (1963), or simply “chlorite-like clay” appear to ade- quately and conveniently describe the structure of the mineral from south Florida. OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CLAY MINERALS: Chlorite-like material is common in the recent laminated calcrete crusts from the Florida Keys and is the principal component of the terra rossa (Fig. 2). Clay minerals were also detected in about one half of the Miami Limestone samples that were tested. The <2ym fractions from the bryozoan facies of the limestone contain either smectite or a mixture of clays including smectite, chlorite, kaolinite, and illite. Samples from the oolitic facies contain chlorite-like clay (e.g. Fig. 3) and occasionally, traces of smectite. The chlorite-like clay is accompanied by goethite, quartz, and frequently by boehmite, and is found primarily at shal- low depths within secondary, karstic solution features in the oolitic limestone on, or adjacent to, the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. Petrographic studies of the limestone (Kim, 1984) show that the chlorite-like clay and/or its precursor materials illuviated into the limestone following the development of second- ary, vadoze-zone porosity. This mineral has evidently formed subsequent to deposition of the limestones and any marine diagenesis that may have oc- curred. Furthermore, it has formed during the present weathering cycle as evidenced by: 260 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 (1) It occurs in laminated crusts of recent origin. (2) It occupies pore spaces formed during the vadose diagenesis of the Sangamon-age Miami oolite facies. (3) The terra rossa is found only on the well-drained portions of the At- lantic Coastal Ridge and not on the adjacent portions of the Miami Lime- stone that have been flooded by rising water tables during the recent eustatic sea-level rise. Within the karstic limestones, the chlorite-like clay occurs as unaligned plates coated with amorphous and sub-acicular iron oxyhydroxides. Well de- veloped goethite rods were observed within solution feature in the limestone by scanning electron microscopy. The clay plates are generally ragged and show no evidence of edge growth (Fig. 5). DiscusslIon—The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the origin of the chlorite-like clay in the terra rossa on the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The evidence described above suggests that the chlorite-like clay in the terra rossa has a recent pedogenic origin. Its aluminous composition and XRD characteristics are similar to pedogenic “chlorites” such as those de- Fic. 5. S.E.M. photograph of pore-filling clays from the oolitic facies of the Miami limestone (see X-ray diffraction pattern, Figure 3, and Table 1). The clay plates have been extensively corroded along the margins during weathering. None of these chlorite-like clay mineral grains show evidence of edge growth or hexagonal plates, therefore chloritization takes place entirely by precipitation of Al-interlayers between the expansible layers of the corroded clay plates. No. 4, 1987] STROM AND KIM—CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS 261 scribed by MacEwan (1950), Brydon and co-workers (1961), and Glenn and Nash (1964). In the three studies cited above, the formation of chlorite-like clay ap- pears to take place by incorporation of incomplete interlayer Al, Fe, or Mg hydroxide sheets into interlayer positions in expansible-layer clays. The in- complete hydroxy-interlayers form “pillars” (Dixon and Jackson, 1962) that prop open smectite or vermiculite-like structures producing the intergrade clays and/or chlorite-like structures. Several explanations have been offered for this hydroxy-interlayering process in soil development including “steric pinching” (Jackson, 1960) and the “anti-gibbsite effect” (Jackson, 1963). According to these theories, chlo- ritization proceeds at low soil pH values when aluminum polymers are pre- dominantly positively charged and may enter the interlayer position of ex- pansible clays by cation exchange (Glenn and Nash, 1964). At higher pH values— greater than 5.0—the approximate isoelectric pH of gibbsite (Parks, 1965), the principal forms of aluminum ions are negatively charged, repulsed by the negatively charged clays, and gibbsite forms externally to the clays. Rich (1968) concludes that the interlayering process is favored by (1) moderately active weathering to supply aluminum ions, (2) moderately acidic conditions, (3) low organic content, and (4) frequent wetting and dry- ing of the soil. A moderately low pH value is a central condition for hydroxy interlayering in the studies reviewed. This condition is not met in the terra rossas due to carbonate buffering nor within the karstic limestones examined during this study. Both ground-water and soil pH values near the Atlantic Coastal ridge are neutral to slightly basic. Hydroxy interlayering through the “anti-gibbsite effect” should not occur under these conditions. An alternative model, based on formation of Al-carbonate gels and car- bonate inhibition of gibbsite crystallization, is proposed here for hydroxy interlayering in the clays of the terra rossa and of the underlying limestones. Bardossy and White (1979) presented evidence from studies of both phar- maceutical antacids and the immature bauxite deposits that carbonate in- hibits the crystalization of gibbsite. Infra-red spectroscopy indicates that Al(OH), gels incorporate CO; into their structures when precipitated in the presence of HCO, or CO;. These carbonate-containing gels do not recrystal- lize to stable forms even after several years of aging. We believe that during the development of terra rossa on the exposed limestones in south Florida, insoluble residuum, including feldspar, quartz, and detrital clay components, accumulates at the surface as underlying lime- stone is dissolved. Hydrolysis of these materials liberates ions such as alumi- num, iron, and potassium, and eluviation of these constituents downward through the developing karst channels takes place. Iron and aluminum pre- cipitates accumulate on pore linings, at porosity boundaries, and at the water table. Examples of these types of accumulations are especially evident in the oolitic facies of the Miami Limestone. The initial precipitates include amor- phous Fe-oxyhydroxides and, in carbonate-rich waters, carbonate containing 962 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Al-gels. Upon maturation, the Fe-oxyhydroxides recrystallize as goethite, however the carbonate-containing Al-gels should remain unrecrystallized be- cause of gibbsite inhibition as described by Bardossy and White (1979). As the interlayer space of expansible-layer clays is a carbonate-free micro environment created by the anion repulsion of the clays, Al**, Al(OH)**, or polymeric forms, can migrate into this interlayer space where gibbsite is free to precipitate. That is, so long as gibbsite is inhibited by carbonate from precipitating in the exterior environment, gibbsite precipitation in the inter- layer spaces would be a thermodynamically favored reaction, forming first intergrade clays and ultimately dioctahedral chlorite-like clay. The migration of aluminum to interlayer spaces would continue until either all available interlayer sites are occupied or blocked, until the exterior supply of alumi- num carbonate gels is exhausted, or until the materials are sealed by vadose cements, as for example, in the laminated crusts on the Florida Keys. Conditions suitable to hydroxy interlayering via the Al-carbonate gel model include: (1) well-drained soils essentially devoid of Al-chelating organic ligands; (2) abundant carbonate in the soil and vadose zone to neutralize acids and form Al-hydroxycarbonate precipitates; (3) the presence of expansible-layer clays within the soil or underlying limestones; and (4) unstable, aluminum-bearing minerals to provide the aluminum sup- ply during weathering. (5) Progressive lowering of the limestone surface and accumulation of the insoluble residuum and illuviation products eventually lead to the formation of the chlorite and goethite-rich terra rossa observed in south Florida. LITERATURE CITED ABDEL-Kaper, F. H., M. L. Jackson, AND G. B. Lee. 1977. Soil kaolinite, vermiculite, and chlorite identification by an improved lithium DMSO X-ray diffraction test. Agronomy Abs; J. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. p.194. Barpossy, G., AND J. L. Wuire. 1979. Carbonate inhibits the crystallization of aluminum hy- droxide in bauxite. Science. 206:355-356. BARNHISEL, H. I. 1977. Chlorites and hydroxy interlayered vermiculite and smectite. Pp. 351- 356. In: Dixon, J. B., AnD S. B. Weep (eds.), Minerals in Soil Environments, Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Inc., Madison, WI. BeRNAS, B. 1968. A new method for decomposition and comprehensive analysis of silicates by atomic absorption spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 40:1682-1686. BiscaYE, P.E. 1964. Distinction between kaolinite and chlorite in recent sediments by X-ray diffraction. Am. Miner. 49:1281-1289. Brybon, J.E., J.S. CLARK, AND V. OsBorNE. 1961. Dioctahedral chlorite. Canadian Miner. 6:595- 609 Dixon, J.B., AnD M. L. Jackson. 1962. Properties of intergradient chlorite-expansible layer silicates of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 26:358-362. Drever, J. I. 1973. The preparation of oriented clay mineral specimens for X-ray diffraction analysis by a filter membrane peel technique. Am. Miner. 58:553-554. GLENN, R. C., AND V. E. Nasu. 1964. Weathering relationships between gibbsite, kaolinite, chlorite, and expansible layer silicates in selected soils from the lower Mississippi coastal plain. Clay and Clay Minerals. Proc. 12th Natl. Conf. on Clays and Clay Minerals. 529- 548. No. 4, 1987] STROM AND KIM—CHLORITE-LIKE CLAYS 263 HoFrMEIsTeEr, J. E., K. W. StockMAN, AND H. G. Mutter. 1967. Miami Limestone of Florida and its recent Bahamian counterpart. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 78:175-190. Hunt, C. B. 1972. Geology of Soils. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA. 344 Pp. IspHORDING, W. C. 1978. Mineralogical and physical properties of Gulf Coast limestone soils. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 28:201-213. Jackson, M. L. 1960. Structural role of hydronium in layer silicates during soil genesis. Trans. 7th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. 2:445-455. 1963. Interlayering of expansible layer silicates in soils by chemical weathering. Proc. 11th Natl. Conf. on Clays and Clay Minerals, Pp. 29-46. AND F. H. Aspet-Kaper. 1978. Kaolinite intercalation procedure for all sizes with x- ray diffraction spacing distinctive from other phyllosilicates. Clay Clay Miner. 26:81-87. Jorre, J. S. 1949. Pedology (2nd ed.). Pedology Publications. New Brunswick, NJ. Ki, J. J. 1984. Genesis of dioctahedral chlorites in the Miami Formation. M.S. thesis. Univ. South Florida. Tampa, FL. MacEwan, D. M. C. 1950. Some notes on the recording and interpretation of X-ray diagrams of soil clay. J. Soil Sci. 1:90-103. Matcomtm, R. L., W. D. NerrLeron, AND R. J. McCracken. 1968. Pedogenic formation of montmorillite from a 2:1-2:2 intergrade clay mineral. Clays Clay Miner. 16:405-414. Men,a, O. P., AND M. L. Jackson. 1960. Iron oxide removal from soils and clays by a dithionite- citrate system buffered by Na-bicarbonate. Proc. 7th Natl. Conf. on Clays and Clay Minerals. 317-327. Mutter, H. G. anp J. E. HorrMetster. 1968. Subaerial laminated crusts of the Florida Keys. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 79:182-192. NorrisH, K., AND L. E. R. Rocrrs. 1956. The mineralogy of some terra rossas and rendzinas of south Australia. J. Soil Sci. 7:295-301. Parks, G. A. 1965. The isoelectric points of solid oxides, solid hydroxides, and aqueous hydroxo complex systems. Chem. Rev. 65:172-198. Ricn, C. I. 1968. Hydroxy interlayers in expansible layer silicates. Clays Clay Miner. 16:15-30. Rossin, D. M. Anp J. J. Stipp. 1979. Depositional rate of laminated soilstone crusts, Florida Keys. Jour. Sed. Petro. 49:175-180. Rune, R. V., J. G. Capy, AND R. S. Gomez. 1961. Paleosols of Bermuda. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 72:1121-1141. STEPHEN, I., AnD D. M. C. MacEwan. 1951. Some chloritic clay minerals of unusual type. Clay Miner. Bull. 1:157-162. 1952. A study of rock weathering with reference to the soils of the Malvern Hills II. Weathering of appinite and “ivy-scar rock.” Jour. Soil. Sci. 3:219-237. U.S. Derr. Acricu. 1958. Soil survey (detailed reconnaissance) of Dade County, Florida, Series 1947. no. 4. 56 Pp. Florida Sci. 50(4):253-263. 1987. Accepted: June 12, 1987. Biological Sciences RELATIONSHIP OF GOPHER TORTOISE BODY SIZE TO BURROW SIZE IN A SOUTHCENTRAL FLORIDA POPULATION Paice L. MARTIN AND JAMES N. LAYNE Archbold Biological Station, P.O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, Florida 33852 AssTract: In a study on the Archbold Biological Station in southcentral Florida, body weight and carapace and plastron measurements of 37 gopher tortoises were strongly correlated (r = 0.77 to 0.88) with widths of their burrows at three depths (20, 50, 70 cm). There were no significant differences (P>0.05) between r values in any of the comparisons. Correlation coefficients be- tween carapace length and burrow width in this and two previous studies in northern Florida were not significantly different, providing further evidence that tortoise size estimates based on burrow width are comparable across habitats and geographic locations. THE conspicuous and persistent burrows of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) provide a convenient means of determining the presence and relative abundance of the species, and the general observation (Carr, 1952; Hallinan, 1923) that the size of the burrow reflects the size of the occupant offers a potential tool for assessing the size distribution of a population by means of burrow sizes. The quantitative relationship of tortoise size to bur- row size has been examined in two studies in northern peninsular Florida. Hansen (1963) obtained measurements of 13 burrows and the tortoises inhab- iting them in longleaf pine-turkey oak and sand pine scrub associations and found a strong correlation between burrow length and tortoise size. Using Hansen’s data and additional measurements of burrows and their occupants in longleaf pine-turkey oak and ruderal habitats, Alford (1980) calculated a regression equation for the relation between burrow width and carapace length which he then used to estimate the size distribution of the population from burrow dimensions. Kushlan and Mazzotti (1982) also used Alford’s regression equation to determine the size structure of a tortoise population on Cape Sable, Monroe County. In view of the potential value of this technique for estimating the size distribution of a given tortoise population relatively quickly and with mini- mal effort compared to actually capturing an adequate sample of tortoises, additional data on the degree of correlation between tortoise size and burrow dimensions are desirable to determine the extent to which size distributions obtained from burrow measurements can be compared across habitats and localities. The objectives of this study were: 1) to further test the relationship between size of tortoises and their burrows in another part of the range and in additional habitats and soil types, 2) to compare the degree of correlation between burrow size and body weight and other linear measurements in addition to carapace length, and 3) to determine the effect of burrow width No. 4, 1987] MARTIN AND LAYNE—TORTOISE BODY SIZE 265 measurements at different depths on correlations with various size measure- ments. DESCRIPTION OF Stupy AREA— The study was conducted on the Archbold Biological Station, 12 km south of Lake Placid, Highlands County, in southcentral Florida. The station is located near the southern end of the Lake Wales Ridge. The burrows and tortoises sampled occurred in four major habitat types: sand pine scrub, southern ridge sandhills (slash pine-turkey oak), scrubby flatwoods, flatwoods, and oldfield. The first three habitats were comparatively xeric, occurring on excessively well-drained to moderately well-drained soils (Astatula, Lake, Paola, Archbold), whereas flatwoods were more mesic, especially in wet periods, and occurred on poorly drained soils (Pompano, Immokalee). The study area had been unburned for 59 years, and all of the natural habitats had a dense shrubby understory. In these habitats, tortoise burrows tended to be located near firelanes, jeep trails, or foot trails. Further details on the environments of the study area are given in Abrahamson et al. (1984). METHops— Tortoises were captured from their burrows either by luring them to the entrance where they could be caught by patting on the mound to imitate another individual or by blocking the entrance with a National mammal live trap. Some individuals encountered while foraging were trailed to their burrows and caught just before they entered. Weight (kg) and four shell measurements (mm), including carapace length (CL), plastron length (PL), carapace width (CW), and plastron width (PW), were recorded for each tortoise; and burrow width (BW) was measured at distances of 20, 50, and 70 cm from the entrance. BW measurements were taken to the nearest millimeter with a pair of calipers constructed from two 106-cm pieces of wooden lath hinged together with a bolt 50 cm from the end which was inserted into the burrow. With the calipers positioned at the proper depth in the burrow, the width was measured across the oppo- site arms at a point 50 cm from the hinge. -REsuLts— Measurements were obtained for 37 tortoises and their respec- tive burrows. Tortoises ranged from 98 to 362 mm (mean = 237) CL. Correla- tion coefficients (r) calculated by linear regression between BWs at three depths and tortoise weights and measurements ranged from 0.77 to 0.88 (Ta- ble 1). All correlation coefficients were significantly different from 0 (P<0.05), but none of the differences between correlation coefficients was significant (P>0.05). Correlation coefficients between a selected shell mea- surement, CL, and BW at each depth calculated using power, exponential, and logarithmic models gave r values ranging from 0.81 to 0.91, which did not differ significantly from corresponding values derived from the linear model. The linear regression equation relating carapace length (Y, in mm) to burrow width (X, in mm) is: Y = 67.4+0.67X. To determine whether the degree of correlation between body size and burrow width varied with tortoise size (CL), correlation coefficients were TABLE 1. Correlation coefficients (r) and 95% confidence intervals (in parentheses) between burrow widths measured at three depths and body mass and selected shell measurements of associated tortoises. Depth (cm) of burrow width measurement Measurement 20 50 70 Weight 0.78 (0.88-0.61) 0.84 (0.92-0.71) 0.79 (0.89-0.63) Carapace length 0.83 (0.91-0.69) 0.88 (0.93-0.78) 0.85 (0.92-0.73) Plastron length 0.77 (0.88-0.59) 0.82 (0.90-0.68) 0.79 (0.89-0.63) Carapace width 0.82 (0.90-0.68) 0.83 (0.91-0.69) 0.86 (0.93-0.74) Plastron width 0.84 (0.71-0.92) 0.82 (0.68-0.90) 0.80 (0.64-0.89) 266 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 50 calculated separately for tortoises ranging from 98 to 175 mm (N=10), 176 to 275 mm (N=15), and 275 to 303 mm (N = 12). Correlation coefficients were 0.84, 0.56, and 0.26 for the smallest, middle, and largest size class, respec- tively. The largest and middle groups differed significantly (P<0.05) from the smallest, but the difference in r values of the middle and largest groups was not significant (P >0.05). Of the 37 sets of burrow measurements, the largest measurement was at 20 cm in 23 (62%) cases, at 50 cm in 6 (16%), and at 70 cm in 8 (22%). In burrows with greatest width at 20 cm, measurements at that depth were an average of 16% larger than at 50 cm and 24% larger than at 70 cm. In burrows with greatest width at 50 cm, widths at 50 cm were an average of 5% larger than at 20 cm and 6% greater than at 70 cm. Burrows with largest width measurements at 70 cm averaged 7% larger at that depth than at 20 cm and 8% larger than at 50 cm. Discussion— Hansen (1963) presented measurements of CL, CW, and BW at the entrance and depth of 2 feet (61 cm) for 13 tortoises. Correlation coefficients calculated from his data range from 0.86 for CW versus BW at 61 cm to 0.89 for CL versus BW at the entrance, with none of the differences between r values being significant (P>0.05). None of the correlation coeffi- cients based on Hansen’s measurements differed significantly from those for corresponding shell measurements and BW at different depths in this study (P>0.05). CL is the only tortoise size dimension whose correlation with BW can be compared across all three studies (Table 2). Although r is highest in Alford’s (1980) study, it is not significantly different (P >0.05) from the values in the other two studies. Alford calculated r from log transformed measurements, which he stated produced the best fitting regression line. However, he did not indicate whether the difference was statistically significant. Log transforma- tion of our carapace and burrow measurements resulted in only a marginal, and not significant, increase in r (0.90 compared with 0.88, P>0.05). The results of this study provide further evidence of a sufficiently strong correlation between body size and burrow size in the gopher tortoise to allow TABLE 2. Comparison of correlation coefficients (r) between gopher tortoise carapace lengths and burrow widths in different studies. Range of 95 % Sample carapace Depth of Correl. confidence Study size length(mm) = meas.(cm) coeff. interval Hansen (1963) 13 145-277 entrance 0.89 0.71-0.96 61 0.88 0.68-0.96 Alford (1980) 45} 78-295 70 0.95 0.84-0.95 This Study 37 98-362 20 0.83 0.69-0.91 50 0.88 0.78-0.93 70 0.85 0.73-0.92 1Included 13 specimens and burrows measured by Hansen (1963) No. 4, 1987] MARTIN AND LAYNE—TORTOISE BODY SIZE 267 a reasonably reliable prediction of the size of an inhabitant of a burrow from the width of the burrow. Based on the present data, any size dimension, including weight, can be estimated within the same limits of accuracy from burrow width, and the depth at which width is measured is not critical. Although Hansen’s (1963) study showed no difference in the correlation be- tween CL and BW using burrow measurements at the entrance and at 61 cm, it is not advisable to use BW at the entrance to estimate tortoise size. The entrances to gopher tortoise burrows are frequently enlarged, partly col- lapsed, or otherwise disturbed so that they cannot be accurately measured or their size is not a good indication of the burrow width. In this study burrow measurements at 20 cm were consistently larger than those at 50 or 70 cm. While the difference was not statistically significant, it suggests that measure- ment at 50 or 70 cm would tend to give a more accurate indication of burrow width. As there was little difference in variability of measurements at 50 and 70 cm, r values ranked higher at 50 than at 70 cm, and measurements are easier to make at 50 than 70 cm, we recommend 50 cm as a standard depth for burrow measurement for purposes of tortoise size estimation. The better correlation between body size and burrow size in smaller size classes than among larger tortoises observed in this study may reflect a greater incidence of burrow shifting among larger tortoises. In addition, larger tortoises taking over another burrow may be less particular about the “fit” as long as the burrow is not too large in relation to their size. LITERATURE CITED ABRAHAMSON, W. G., A. F. JoHNsoN, J. N. Layne, AND P. A. Peroni. 1984. Vegetation of the Archbold Biological Station, Florida: An example of the southern Lake Wales Ridge. Florida Scient. 47:209-250. Atrorp, R. A. 1980. Population structure of Gopherus polyphemus in northern Florida. J. Her- petol. 14:177-182. Carr, A. F. 1952. Handbook of Turtles. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y. 542 pp. HA.uinAN, T. 1923. Observations made in Duval County, northern Florida, on the gopher tor- toise (Gopherus polyphemus). Copeia 1923:11-20. Hansen, K. L. 1963. The burrow of the gopher tortoise. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 26:353-360. KusHLAN, J. A., AND F. J. Mazzotti. 1982. Status of the gopher tortoise in Everglades National Park. Nat. Park. Serv. South Florida Res. Center Rept. T-669:1-15. Florida Sci. 50(4):264-267. 1987. Accepted: June 15, 1987. 268 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 50 Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida—March, 1987 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES— Rubin A. Ortiz, University of Florida, Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilization in a Rye/Soybean Double Cropping System. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCES—David A. Muncher, Florida State University, An in situ Method for Determining Decomposition Rates of Shipwreck Sites. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, Graduate Student Paper—Maurizio A. Mangini, University of South Florida, Cloning of Snook Mitochondrial DNA and Its Application to Fish Popula- tion Genetics. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, Undergraduate Student Paper—Marion Meyer, Eckerd College, Size Selective Predation by the Snowy Egret, Leucophoyx thula. COMPUTER SCIENCES AND MATHEMATICS—William Giltinan, New College of the Uni- versity of South Florida, New College Modula: A Revision of Modula-2 Providing a Supe- rior Tool for Large Program and Systems Development. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY—Jill C. Tiller, Florida Institute of Technology, Acid Neu- tralization in the Sediments of Selected Softwater Lakes in Central Florida. FLORIDA COMMITTEE FOR RARE AND ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS— Todd G. Gipe, Florida Institute of Technology, Effects of Prescribed Burning on the suit- ability of Habitat for the Florida Scrub Jay, Aphelocoma C. coerulescens. MEDICAL SCIENCES—S. Sazesh, University of Central Florida, Analysis of Immune Enhanc- ing Effects of Interleukin-2 (IL-2). PHYSICAL SCIENCES—Sherry Mommens, University of Central Florida, Thermal Lenring Spectroscopy in Liquids. SIGMA XI, Graduate Student Award—Maurizio A. Mangini, University of Florida (Biological Sciences). AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE AWARD—Sherry Mommens, University of Central Florida (Physical Sciences). Todd G. Gipe, Florida Insti- tute of Technology, (Florida Committee for Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals). EXPLORERS CLUB AWARD—Arnold Haverlee Award, Central Florida Chapter—Jeffrey Mitchem, University of Florida (Anthropological Sciences). ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF REVIEWERS It is a pleasure to acknowledge the service, dedication, and cooperation of the following persons who gave generously of their time and expertise in reviewing manuscripts for Volume 50 of the Florida Scientist. Some reviewed more than one manuscript. David E. Baker H. David Baggett Oren Bass Robert S. Braman John C. Briggs Larry N. Brown Bruce C. Cowell Clinton J. Dawes George M. Dooris O. F. Francke Jack W. Frankel Grant Gilmore J. Henderson Gertrude W. Hinsch Robert J. Hoage Mark Hoyer Robin B. Huck Harold J. Humm Marion L. Jackson John L. Lawrence James N. Layne William Loftus Edgar Lowe Dean F. Martin Earl D. McCoy Ralph E. Moon Henry R. Mushinsky Ronald L. Myers Eugene D. Olsen George M. Padilla Louis A. Penner M. J. Perez-Cruet Richard H. Pierce J. Reiskind Theodore F. Rochow Harold L. Schramm, Jr. William Seaman, Jr. William Seiler Paul Shafland Joseph L. Simon Euclid O. Smith William A. Smith James L. Sullivan William H. Taft Walter K. Taylor Diane TeStrake Barry Wharton Curtis W. Wienker Ross Witham Richard P. Wunderlin ‘sade 4a it lid epsaeity ae wt a0 3NN¢ eA, sa sian § #7 Papen’. 4 wy, ‘ory s Peestr’s. i. awiteg 9 Pr (sa re a, it Oar els ne thidcnmenadal 4 = é oa J ay. x 7h a aR : mo | aa oe modes : uh = ak a ty ‘t ' we Seca Porn ae | ses ‘4 abet ws a ; ecm ik tin 0 bi ie ; teed LIA eid D 1) bn i] plan by Le Se rm ton ngmienys be ah0? MEA UA Se eer: Poets ce s Machi A As ahaa? La Trg ae @ oe benes Tabak 7 AWS TAL & ‘) - cy? 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