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^
FOLK-LORE
A QUARTERLY REVIEW MYTH, TRADITION. INSTITUTION, &• CUSTC
The Traksactions of the Folk-Lore Society
And itKorporating The ARCHiCOLOGiCAL Review and The Folk-Lore Journal
.j, VOL. XIL— igoi.
DAVID NUTT, 55—57, LONG ACRE 1901.
[XLvm.]
PRnrTBD BT J. B. NIOHOLS AND BONK,
PARLIAMBKT MANSIONS,
OBCHABD ST., YIOTORIA ST., ^W.
», ^ *
, • • • •
*
i 54933
CONTENTS.
I. — (March, 1901.)
PAGE
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, November 28th, 1900 . i
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, December 19th, 1900 3
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, January 1 6th, 1 90 1 . . 3
Annual Report of the Council . . . . .5
Presidential Address. E. Sidney Hartland . . -15
Old Irish Tabus or Geasa. Eleanor Hull « . •41
II. — (June, 1901.)
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, February 20th, 1901 . .129
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, March 20th, 1901 . . 131
Games of the Red-men of Guiana. Everard F. im Thurn 132
The Folklore of Lincolnshire. Mabel Peacock . .161
III. — (September, 1901.)
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, April 17th, 190 1 '257
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, May isth, 1901 . . 259
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, June 19th, 1901 . .260
Persian Folklore. Ella C. Sykes . . . .261
The Ancient and Modem Game of Astragals. E. Lovett . 280
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians. F. C. Conybeare . 293
IV. — (December, 1901.)
Notes and Queries on Totemism ..... 385
Garland Day at Castleton. S. O. Addy . . . 394
The Silver Bough in Irish L^end Eleanor Hull . -431
Collectanea : —
A Buddhist Wheel of Life from Japan. N. W. Thomas 67
Stray Notes on Japanese Folklore. N. W. Thomas . . 69
iv Contents.
.1
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts. John Folktales from the iEgean, XV.-XVII. W. R. Cropping Animals' Ears. N. W. Thomas Stories and other Notes from the Upper Congo. Animal Superstitions. N. W. Thomas Vine-graftirtg in Southern France. Catharine Folk-tales from the JEgezn, XVIII.-XXII. W. Cropping Animals' Ears. N. W. Thomas, W. 1 A Hertfordshire St. George. W. B. Gerish . " Grateful Fr^jus." Evelyn M. Jones Midsummer in the Pyrenees. Jean C. G. Spea Folktales from the ^gean, XXIII.-XXV. W. ] The Kraal Family System among the Amandebek Stories from Upper Egypt. C. S. Myers Rhymes, English and Hindu. Kate Lee, Ma
S. O. Addy, M. N. Venkataswami . The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti. S. P. Lan A Survival of Tree-worship. Mary Lovett Cai Rice Harvest in Ceylon. R. J. Drummond Stories and other Notes from the Upper Conj
TV lULlvd • * • • •
Supernatural Changes of Sites. Edward Peaco<
Correspondence : —
Weathercocks. J. P. Emslie .
Alphabet used in Consecrating a Church. A. Ni
Husband and Wife. W. R. Paton
Head of Corpse between the Thighs. S. O. Add
The Divining Rod in U. S. A. A. R. Wright
The Bumble-bee in Magic. Edith F. Carey .
Customs in the Building Trade. W. Henry Jew
Irish Burial Custom. John Cooke
Sacrifice to avert Shipwreck. W. H. D. Rouse
Spectral Light in Corsica. Edward Peacock
StoneK:atching Game. £. Lemke
Primitive Orientation. W. H. R. Rivers
Husband and Wife Story. E. Sidney Hartland
Japanese Notes : Corrigenda et Addenda. N. W.
Cutting off the Head of a Corpse. Madi Braitm
Stone-catching Games. F. A. Milne .
A Berwickshire Kirn -Dolly. Alice B. Gomme
Sun Charms. N. W. Thomas
Rain Charm in Asia Minor. W. R. Paton
Sacrifice at York, 1648. Edward Peacock
Contents.
PAOl
Blacksmiths' Festival. Charlotte S. Burne .218
The Mill of the Twelve Apostles. S. O. Addv . .218
History, Tradition, and Historic Myths. Alfred Nutt . 3.^6 Customs relating to Iron, H. Collev March . . 340
The Transition from Totemism to Ancestor Worship. N. W.
Thomas ....... 343
Spectral Lights. A. Lang ..... 343
Miss Weston's Guingamor. A. Nun .... 344
Blacksmiths' Festival. T. W. E. Higgens, W. Percy
Merrick ....... 344
The Golden Bough : Moab or Edom ? Jessie L. Weston . 347 The Luck of Mycenae. W. H. D. Rouse . 347
Horses' Heads. Florence Grove .... 348
New Year Customs in Herefordshire. J. G. Frazer . . 349
Whitsuntide Fate and Mock Burials. M. F. Johnston,
Christabel Coleridge, Alice A. Kearv . . • 351
• Border Marriages. F. A. Milne . -352
The Power of Speech. M. le Dr. Chervin . . . 353
History, Tradition, and Historic Myth. W. H D. Rouse . 466
The Ethnological Significance of Burial and Cremation.
N. W. Thomas . . . .468
Myths of Greece, Geo. St. Clair .... 469 The Transition from Totemism to Ancestor Worship. E.
Sidney Hartland . . . -471
Customs relating to Iron. Mabel Peacock, Katherine
Carson, C. S. Burne . . . -472
King Solomon and the Blacksmith. M. Gaster -475
Moab or Edom? M. Gaster. .... 476
Ship Processions. N. W. Thomas ... 476 A " Nabby " Colt. M. Peacock -477
Early-Rising Jest. W. Henry Jewitt . -477
Dr. Feilberg's Seventieth Birthday. Marian Roalfe Cox,
E. W. Brabrook . -477
Rainbow Magic. Frederic J. Cheshire . 479
Bell-lore. E. Farrer ...... 480
Reviews : —
Carl Lumholtz's Symbolism of the Huichol Indians, E. Sidney Hartland ....... 107
Emile Durkheim's L Annie Sociologique, E. Sidney Hartland no AndxG^f IjSing^^ The Making of Religion . .112
John Rhys's Celtic Folklorey Welsh and Manx . . .114
Jessie L. Weston's Guingamor^ Lanval^ Tyoltty The Werewolf Eleanor Hull . . . . . .116
Contents.
PACK
.ug. Gitt^e's Curiositks de la Vie Enfantine. E. Sidney Hartland . . . .120
^opular Studies in Mythology^ Romance^ and Folklore^ Nos. 1-7. 121 fan^ Nos. i and 2 . . . . . 122
skar Kallas's Achtzig Mdrchen der Ljutziner JSsten. W.- F. KiRBY . . . . . .124
.¥. Abbott's Songs 0/ Modem Greece . . . • ^25
G. Frazer's TAe Golden Bough, E. W. Brabrook, G. Laurence Gomme, M. Gaster, A. C. Haddon, F. B. Jevons, Andrew Lang, Alfred Nutt, Charlotte S.
BURNE . . . . . .219
;. W. de Visser's De Grcecorum diis nan referentibus speciem humanum. E. Sidney Hartland .... 243
. H. D. Rouse's The Jdtaka, E. V. Arnold's The Rig-Veda, S. P. Rice's Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, W. Crooke ....... 245
K. Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black's Encyclopedia Biblica, W. Crooke . . . . . . 247
seph Wright's The English Dialect Dictionary .248
Ichele Marchiano's DOrigine delta Favola Greca . 250
rginia Frazer Boyle's Devil Tales. John Abercromby . 251 .ul S^billot's Cuentos Bretones, E. Sidney Hartland . 252 idrew Lang's Magic and Religion. 354
. Ridgeway^s The Early Age of Greece . 360
Jorge St. Clair's Myths of Greece .... 362
A. Wiedemann's The Realms of the Egyptian Dead. A. H. Sayce ....... 364
Lvid Prescott Barrows's TTie Ethno-Botany of the Coahuilla Indians of Southern California. E. Sidney Hartland . 366 ice C. Fletcher's Indian Story and Song from North America. E. Sidney Hartland ..... 368
ul S^billot's Contes des Landes et des Grives, Les Coquillages de Mer, and Le Folk-Lore des P^cheurs. E. Sidney Hartland 370 idolfo Nenicci's Tradizioni Popolari Pistoiesi, E. Sidney Hartland ....... 372
H. Maynadier's The Wife of BatlCs Tale. Jessie L. Weston 373 tra L. Thompson and E. E. Speight's The Junior Temple Reader 37*;
sie L. Weston's The Romance Cycle of Charlemagne and his eers • . • . • •'Itc
fie Durkheim's LAnnke Sociologigue^ 1899- 1900. E. Sidney
ARTLANVP . . ... . , j^gj
e L. IVeston's The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac. Walter Greg ...... ^36
Contents. vii
PAOB
F, Uoyd Griffith's Stories of the High-Priests of Memphis.
A. H. Sayce ...... 497
Caspanis Albers's De diis in lads editis cultis apud Gracos.
E. Sidney Hartland ..... 500
W. Skeafs Fables and Folk- tales from an Eastern Forest . 502
Ramaswami Raju's Indian Fables .... 503
Records of Women^s Conference on the Home Life of Chinese
Women, E. Sidney Hartland .... 504
Obituary : —
H.M. Queen Victoria. E. W. Brabrook .98
Bibliography .126, 253, 376, 506
Index . -5^3
Rules and List of Members.
Index of ARCHiEOLOciCAL Papers published 1899. v.s^cx.w'^ ^ ^^ <^
List of Plates : —
I. A Buddhist Wheel of Life from Japan . Frontispiece
2 o face page 99
136
137 138 138 138 258
9)
II. Weathercocks
III. Macusi Games .
IV. Ibid. V. Ibid.
VI. Ibid. VII. Ibid. VIII. Graveyard at Sahnck
Showing Pipes on Graves. IX. Wedding Dance Mask, County Mayo „ 258
X. Tomb in Brent Pelham Church, Herts,
1901 ... „ 303
XI. Castleton Church, the Garland on the
Tower, 1901 ... „ 410
XII. The Frame of the Garland „ 412
XIII. The King and Garland . „ 413
XIV. The Queen, 1901 „ 414 XV. Papa-Ita Performing the Fire Walk at
Honolulu .... „ 454
viii Contents.
ERRATA.
Page 127, line 5 from bottom, for 1900 read 1901.
Page 195, line 7, for revee read rivee.
Page 129, line 25, for V allure read h r allure.
Page 195, line 30, for la sort conduise read le sort y conduise.
Page 195, note 4, ^or par la, xoaAparla,
Page 196, line 5, for Vaudrez-vaus read Voudriez-vaus.
Page 196, line 6, insert et before le vin.
Page 216, last line but one, for Myndus read Myndos.
Page 236, line 16, for Fraser read Frazer.
Page 243, title of review, for humanum read humanatn.
Pages 254, 378, for Bureau of Ethnology lead Bureau of
American Ethnology, Page 348, line 8 from bottom, for head read heads. Page 349, line 3, delete comma after May, Page 378, line s» for 2 read 2, 3. Page 380, line 3, for Humanite read Humanite Page 381, line 19, for Customs read Costumes*
.t
» •
«
m
JfolftsXore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLKLORE SOCIETY,
Vol. XII.] MARCH, 1901. [No. I.
WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 28th, 1900. The President (Mr. E. Sidney Hartland) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of the following new members was announced : Mrs. M. E. Price, Mr. G. O. Howell, Mr. A. C. Garrett, Miss M. C. B. Howitt, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr. R. R. Marett, Mr. T. Lee, Mr. W. H. Tozer, Mr, H. Ling Roth, Mr. Walter W. Skeat, Mr. C. W. Duncan, Miss K. Hamilton, and Mr. W. H. P. Gibson.
Tiie following resignations were also announced : Mr. G. H. Kinahan, Miss Wardrop, Mr. G. Simmons, Mr. P. H. Emerson, Mr. Clive Holland, Miss Schlesinger.
Mr. N. W. Thomas exhibited and explained (i) a photo- graph of squeezes of moulds for cakes which it is the custom to make in certain parts of Austria on St. Nicholas Day (December 6th), one mould representing a deer, the other a cock ; and (2) a Buddhist Wheel of Life from Japan [see Frontispiece and p. 67] , the latter of which he presented to the Society.
The Secretary exhibited a " Reaping Maiden '* from Argyllshire, presented to the Society by the Rev. Malcolm MacPhail, and read a descriptive note thereon.
Votes of thanks were accorded to Mr. Thomas and Mr. MacPhail for their gifts.
VOL. xn. B
•• • •
• • •
• • •,
Minutes of Meeting.
v..
Mr.'-Ofhomas read some Notes on Jc
[see^C'69], upon which Mr. Nutt and the
soipe observations.
.••.^Rfiss Eleanor Hull then read a paper on
.'•vtBeasa)/' [p- 41] and in the discussioi
•••/•Mr. Mescal, Mr. Nutt, and the President t
The Meeting terminated with a hearty Miss Hull for her paper.
The following books, which had been Society since the last Meeting, were lai( I. Mieo leh vat thon thu (collected Thamphunga, Lushais), by Major Shakesp the Assam Government. 2. The Americ vol. xxii., presented by the Smithsonia Madras Government Museum Publicatio {Anthropology) y presented by the Mad 4. An Old Indian Village^ by Johan Au sented by the Smithsonian Institution. logical Reports, 1898 and 1899, append of the Minister of Education, Ontario, by presented by the Author. 7. The MSS Lambeth Palace, received in exchange Antiquarian Society. 8. The Journa logical Institute^ vol. xxix., Nos 3 and 4, from the Anthropological Institute. 9 Mexican Study of the Native Langui on the Ethnography of S. Mexico Cochitiy New Mexico, all by Profess the Author. 12. Lud^ Organ Towan we Lwowie, vol. vi.. Parts 2, 3, 4. j BitanUi by John H. Weeks, present An Outline Grammar of the DaJ Hamilton, presented by the Govern
Minutes of Meeting. 3
WBDNE8DAT, DBCEKBBB 19th, 1900.
The President (Mr. E. Sidney Hartland) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and con- firmed.
The election of Mrs. Wallis and Miss Riicker as members of the Society was announced.
The death of Mr. S. C. Southam was also announced.
The President exhibited (i) a photogfraph of magic stones from the Manning River Tribe in New South Wales, presented by Mr, Andrew Lang to the Society, and (2) a pipe from the gp'aveyard at Salruck in the west of Ireland, sent by Mr. J. Cooke, and read Mr. Cooke's note thereon [p. 104]. Dr. Gaster exhibited some popular illustrated broadsides sent him from Madrid, and known as Spanish Alleluias.
The Secretary read a paper entitled " Folk-Lore Notes from South- West Wilts," by Mr. J. U. Powell [p. 71].
Mrs. von Oelrichs read a paper entitled " Lincolnshire Folklore," by Miss Mabel Peacock, and in the discussion which followed Miss Burne, Mr. Gomme, Mr. Thomas, Mr. Bowen, Mr. Kirby, and the President took part.
The Meeting terminated with hearty votes of thanks to those who had sent objects for exhibition, to Mr. Powell and Miss Mabel Peacock for their papers, and to Mrs. von .Oelrichs for reading Miss Peacock's paper in the unavoid- able absence of the writer.
WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 16th, 1901. The 23rd Annual Meeting.
The President (Mr. E. Sidney Hartland) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Annual Report, Statement of Accounts, and Balance Sheet for the year 1900 were duly presented, and upon the
B 2
4 Minutes of Meeting.
motion of Mr. Brabrook, seconded by Mr. Nutt, it was resolved that the same be received and adopted.
Balloting papers for the election of President, Vice- Presidents, Council, and Officers for the year 1901 having been distributed, Mr. Kirby and the Secretary were, on the motion of Mr. Nutt, seconded by Mr. Ordish, appointed scrutineers for the ballot.
The President delivered his Presidential Address, the subject being " Some Problems of Early Religion in the light of South African Folklore."
The result of the ballot was then, at the request of the President, announced by the Secretary, and the following ladies and gentlemen, who had been nominated by the Council, were declared to have been duly elected, viz. :
As President : Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
As Vice-Presidents : The Hon. J. Abercromby, the Right Hon. Lord Avebury, Miss C. S. Bume, Mr. Edward Clodd, Mr. G. Laurence Gomme. Mr. E. Sidney Hartland, Mr. Andrew Lang, Mr. Alfred Nutt, Professor F. York Powell, Professor J. Rhys, the Rev. Professor A. H. Sayce, and Professor E. B. Tylor.
As Members of Council: Mr. H. Courthope Bowen, Miss Lucy Broadwood, Mr. E. K. Chambers, Mr. F. C. Conybeare, Mr. J. E. Crombie, Mr. F. T. Elworthy, Dr. J. G. Frazer, Dr. Gaster, Miss Florence Grove, Professor A. C. Haddon, Miss Eleanor Hull, Mr. E. im Thum, Mr. Albany F. Major, Mr. R. R. Marett, Mr. J. L. Myres, Mr. S. E. Bouverie-Pusey, Mr. T. F. Ordish, Mr. C. G. Seligmann, Professor B. C. A. Windle, and Mr. A. R. Wright.
As Hon. Treasurer : Mr. Edward Clodd.
As Hon. Auditors : Mr. F. G. Green and Mr. N. W. Thomas.
As Secretary : Mr. F. A. Milne.
Upon the declaration of the resnk of the ballot Mr.
Annual Report of the Council. 5
Hartland vacated the chair, which was thereupon taken by Mr. Brabrook who briefly returned thanks for his election.
Upon the motion of Professor York Powell, seconded by Mr. Gomme, a vote of thanks was accorded to the outgoing President for his Address, and upon the motion of Mr. Gomme, seconded by Mr. Nutt, a further vote of thanks was accorded to him for the invaluable work he had done for the Society during his term of office.
On the motion of Mr. Ordish, seconded by Mr. Nutt, it was resolved that a vote of thanks be accorded to the out- going Members of the Council, viz. : Mr. W. Crooke, Mr. T. Gowland, Mr. T. W. E. Higgens, Dr. F. B. Jevons, Professor W. P. Ker, and Mr. W. H. D. Rouse.
TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
COUNCIL.
1 6th January, 1901.
During the past year there has been no event of striking importance to chronicle, such as the visit of Professor Starr to England in the summer of 1899, but the general interest in the Society has been well sustained, and the Council has been gratified by the accession to the roll of members of more than one anthropologist, whose contri- butions to knowledge are highly esteemed wherever folk- lore and the kindred science of ethnography are studied. Their adhesion is a testimony to the growing recognition both of the importance of the study of folklore and of the value of the Society as an organisation for that purpose.
There are now 382 enrolled members as against 386 at the end of 1899 ; a state of affairs which, although it affords
Annual Report of the Council.
little room for congratulation, is by no means unsatisfactory, considering the many urgent calls on public attention and on the individual purse during the past year.
In the death of Lieut, -Gen. Pitt-Rivers, one of its Vice- Presidents, the Society has shared in a special manner a national loss. His services to archasology have been duly recorded in the pages of Folk-Lore. Although he never made any communication to the Society, every folklore student owes a deep debt of gratitude to his labours, and to the collections at Oxford and at Farnham which he founded.
Miss Mary H. Kingsley was never a member of the Society. But she rendered invaluable assistance to it by writing the introduction to Mr. Dennett's Folklore of the Fjort,and by contributing to the pages of Folk-Lore a. most interesting and suggestive paper on The Fetish View of the Human Soul. Her keen and wisely-balanced sym- pathies with the native races of West Africa, and her whole-souled and statesmanlike efforts to secure at t> hands of their white rulers a stable administration bas upon a thorough comprehension of African traditions a polity, render her premature death a calamity alike to Afr and the empire.
During the earlier part of the session the attendar the evening meetings was not so good as usual. Tb due no doubt in a great measure to the general dep and anxiety caused by the war in South Africa, special personal anxieties and sorrow from the sa of many members and friends of the Society, spring advanced, however, the meetings became ; attended, and the concluding meeting of the ' which Professor Sayce read his paper on Cairer was specially well attended. The Council has reports reminded members that any friends the with them to the meetings would be welcoff now venture to urge that one of the best wa and deepening the interest taken in the So'
Annual Report of the Council. 7
of extending its usefulness is by bringing to its meetings all who are in any way attracted to the many subjects com- prised under the general name of folklore.
The following papers were read ki the course of the year 190O1 viz. : —
Feb, 21. March 21.
Jan, 17. The President's Address: "Totembm and some Recent Dis- coveries." " Toys and Games of Papuan Children." By Professor Haddon. *• The Feast of Fools." By Mr. E. K. Chambers. " Notes on Korean Folklore." By the Rev. J. S. Gale. " The Bumble-bee in Folklore." By Miss M. Peacock. " A Note on the Japanese Legend of Ama Terasu." By Miss L. Kennedy. April ^^, "Animal Superstitions and Totemism." By Mr. N. W.
Thomas. " Horses' Heads, Weathercocks, &c." By Mr. N. W. Thomas. May 16. " The Ancient Teutonic Priesthood." By Mr. H. M. Chad wick. " Guernsey Folklore and Superstitions," By Mrs. Murray-
Aynsley. " Folklore from Wilts." By Miss Law. June 20. " Cairene Folklore." By the Rev. Professor Sayce. Nov. 28. <* Old Irish Tabus (Geasa)." By Miss Eleanor Hull.
" Note on Japanese Folklore." By Mr. N. W. Thomas. Dec, 19. " Lincolnshire Folklore." By Miss M. Peacock.
" Folklore from South-west Wilts." By Mr. J. U. Powell.
The meeting held on February 21st was enlivened by lantern slides and an exhibition of string puzzles and string tricks as practised by the Papuans, kindly given by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers and Mr. Sidney H. Ray.
The following objects haVe been exhibited at the meetings,
VIZ. :•
(i) Dentalium shells from the N.-W. coast of America used by the tribes of British Columbia for currency and ornament. By Mr. W. Comer. (2) Photograph of a bas-relief at Welton Farmhouse, Blairgowrie. By Mr. E. K. Pearce. (3) Engraving by Woollett representing a dance of native Australians. By Mr. J. P. Emslie. (4) Photograph of Bacchanalian dances on sarcophagi at Rome. By Miss F. Grove. (5) Totems, fetishes, and toys of the Hop! tribe of the North American Indians. By Mr. Lundgren. (6) Photograph representing a harvest scene at Ssetersdal in Southern
8 Annual Report of the Council.
Norway. By Mr. N. W. Thomas. (7) Three Japanese fishinp flies. By Major C. S. Cumberland. (8) Medieval prints contain- ing woodcut initials representing children's games. By Dr. Gaster. (9) Photograph of moulds in which cakes are baked on St. Nicholas* Day in South Austria. By Mr. N. W. Thomas. (10) "Reaping Maiden" from Argyllshire. By the Rev. Malcolm MacPhail. (11) Japanese picture of the Buddhist Wheel of Life. By Mr. N. W. Thomas. (12) Photograph of two Gibber stones from New South Wales. By Mr. A. Lang. (13) Irish pipe from a box beside a grave in the old grave>'ard at Salruck, Connemara. By Mr. J. Cooke.
Several of these objects have been presented by the exhibitors to the Society and placed in the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge. The thanks of the Society have been given to the respective donors, and also to the authorities of the museum for their courtesy in allowing the objects to find a home there.
The exhibition of objects of folklore interest adds greatly to the pleasure and instruction of the meetings ; and when such objects are suitable and the owners are willing the Council is always glad to have them photographed for reproduction in the pages of the transactions. This enhances the value of the transactions by preserving a record of objects which may often be of a perishable nature.
The collection of Musquakie beadwork and ceremonial instruments, so generously presented to the Society by Miss Mary A. Owen, will shortly arrive in England, and arrangements are being made for its exhibition at a joint meeting of the Society and the Anthropological Institute. The collection is a very valuable one, and will add greatly to the interest of the Society's exhibits at the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge.
The number of volumes in the library is increasing, some thirty-five books and pamphlets having been presented to the Society or received in exchange during the year.
The Lecture Committee continues the excellent work commenced last session. The meetings arranged to take
Annual Report of the Council. 9
place at Chelsea and Battersea at the beginning of the year, which were alluded to in the last annual report, were well attended, and Mr. Crooke's lectures were much appreciated. In November a series of three lectures was delivered at the South Western Polytechnic, Chelsea, by Mr. Clodd, Mr. Nmt, and the President. The attendance at each of these lectures was large. The lectures themselves were listened to with attention and interest, and it is hoped that they will be the means of attracting some of the audience to the serious study of the subject. A lecture was also delivered in November by Mr. Nutt before the Dulwich Literary and Scientific Institution at Dulwich, the arrangements for the lecture having been very kindly made by Mr. A. R. Wright. The success of these lectures has been due to a very great extent to the untiring efforts of Miss Grove, the honorary secretary of the committee, and the Council desires to express their special thanks to her for her tact and energy. The Society has issued during the year the eleventh volume of the new aeries of its transactions, Folk-Lore, which the Council ventures to think has been well kept up to its general level of excellence. The Society is indebted to Mr. A, R. Wright for the index to this volume. The President having been reluctantly compelled to give up the editorship, by the pressure of his many other engagements, the Council has appointed Miss C. S. Burne as his successor, the President retaining the chairmanship of the Publications Committee.
In its last report the Council announced that the extra volume for 1899 would be a further instalment of County Folklore, but that the order of publishing the three collec- tions, which had then been completed, had not yet been determined. The Council has since resolved that Mrs. f Gutch's collection of Folklore from the North Riding of I Yorkshire shall be printed first, and it estimates that this will fill a volume- The collection is now in the hands I of the printers, and it is hoped that it will be issued to
10
Annual Report of the OmncH.
members early in the year. The delay (which the Council much regrets) has been unavoidable. Happily it will not entail similar delay in the issue of extra volumes for 1900 and 1901. The former will be a collection of Argyllshire Pastimes, by Dr. R. C. Maclagan, which is now in the press, and will in all probability be ready for publication about the same time as the volume for 1899. The Society is indebted to Dr. Maclagan for a liberal contribution towards the cost of this volume. The extra volume for 1901 will 1 be a further instalment of County Folklore, consisting of Mr. G, F. Black's Orkney and Shetland collection. The MS, is ready for the press, and will be printed as soon as the arrangements are completed. These volumes, together with the Transactions and the ordinary expenses of the Society, will practically pledge the income of the Society during the year now opening as well as exhaust the accumulations of the last two years. The Council believes, J however, that the intrinsic interest of the volumes will fully repay the outlay; and it is hoped that they may indirectl be the means of widening the circle of students awakening to the importance of folklore more of that I? class whose attention is mainly or primarily occupied local matters. j
Early in September an International Folklore Co^f was held in Paris in connection with the Exhi' Owing to the simultaneous meeting of the British j* tion at Bradford and other circumstances, the Counci' that few members of the Society were able to tat it. Mr. Abercromby and Mr, Andrews, how attended, were the delegates of the Society, an- by Mr. Abercromby has already been printed Lore. The Council, entertaining a warm reg French colleagues, is pleased to be able to ' them on the success of the congress, to thank t' hospitality to British visitors, and to express the value of these congresses may be incre ciated by students on this side of the channr
Anuual Report of the Council. ii
The Society was represented at the British Association meeting in Bradford by its president, Professor Rhys, _ Dr. Haddon, Messrs. Crooke and Brabrook.
During the year the Council has, in conjunction with Bthe Council of the Anthropological Institute, presented a I memorial to the Colonial Secretary praying for the appoint- ment of a Commission to inquire into the customs and institutions of the native races of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony. The suggestions contained in the memorial I have been approved by a large number of scientific men, 1 and a reply has already been received by the memorialists from the Colonial Office intimating that their suggestions will not be lost sight of when the proper time arrives. The memorial approaches the subject from the scientific side. I The Council believes it is only by an accurate knowledge of rthe customs, institutions, and superstitions of the natives rthat the extremely difficult problem of dealing with the native races can be satisfactorily solved, while the scientific ; of the record which would be obtained by such a Commission as is suggested, would be hardly less than its [administrative value.
The Council has also co-operated with the Anthropo-
' logical Institute in a scheme for providing lantern slides
representing scenes and objects of scientific interest. The
i provides for the appointment of a joint Committee
of Management, and the Society is very ably represented on
ithis committee by Miss Grove. The slides are kept at the
reoms of the Anthropological institute, and are available
e by the members of the Society. They have proved
Ilndispensable to the Lecture Committee for the work they
Fbave in hand. At present the slides are comparatively few
1 number. For them the Society is indebted to Dr. Haddon,
. Oscar W. Clark, Mr. W. H. D. Rouse, and the Pre-
ent. It is hoped that in the course of the next few
years, by the kindness of individual members, and with
judicious expenditure, such a number will be accumulated
as will be available for the formation of several repre-
12 Annual Report of the Council.
sentative sets for lectures. With the view of securing this object the Council has lately made a small conditional grant which it has little doubt will be met by a gfrant of like amount from the funds of the Institute. The Council will be very glad to receive contributions either of money or of slides.
The Council of the Anthropological Institute, being in search of a new habitation, has approached this Council with a suggestion as to the feasibility of securing a common home for the two societies. The want of a local habitation for the Society makes itself felt in more ways than one. In its library the Society possesses something more than the nucleus of a collection of books which might be of much ser- vice to students. To develop it and extend its utility rooms are required, whither members might come to look up sub- jects of interest without feeling that they were trespassing upon the business hours and engagements of the Secretary. The desirability of a place where, objects may be conveni- ently exhibited and temporarily housed was illustrated at the time of Professor Starr's visit. Although the Anthropr logical Institute has, with a readiness which the Counc cannot but gfratefully acknowledge, shown itself willing 1 repeat this hospitality, the Council feel that the Socif ought not to be dependent upon acts of courtesy, howf gracious, which it is not in a position to return. Council has therefore gladly entertained the suggestio common home, and a joint committee has been apf to consider the matter. It is to be hoped that th mittee may during the year see its way to some prac recommendations.
The Council submits herewith the annual acco balance sheet duly audited, and the balloting li Council and Officers for the ensuing year.
E. Sidney Har Presia
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X
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Only one more of the responsibilities which you laid upon me when, two years ago, you did me the honour to elect me your President yet remains to be discharged ; and for that I have to make during the next few minutes what I hope will not seem an undue claim upon your indulgence. The past year has been a sad one for many of us in our personal relations. As Members of this Society, and as students of folklore, it has been not less sad. We have had to mourn the loss of some who have rendered striking service to the cause of science, and of more than one to whom we and the world at large owe much of the pleasure and interest which give zest to life.
General Pitt-Rivers had been for eleven years a Vice- President of the Society. His chief work, though outside the immediate range of our studies, was of a kind which on the one hand illustrates those studies, and on the other hand receives from them illustration and confirmation. The continuity of tradition was the leading thought of his scientific life. The noble museum at Oxford which bears his name, and is due to his munificence, grew out of that thought ; and the other museum, hardly less interesting, on his estate at Farnham is penetrated with the same. If genius be properly defined as the infinite capacity for taking pains. General Pitt-Rivers was endowed with it in ample measure. His motto in everything was Thorough ; and it will be of evil augury for British archaeology if the example he set shall ever be lost sight of. He has left to his country and to anthropological science in the two
1 6 Presidential A ddress.
museums and in his writings, not simply a monument to his own fame, but a gfift the value of which must grow with the rolling years and our evolving civilisation.
There is another loss which touches us in some respects even more directly, that of Miss Kingsley. Among all the victims of the war against the Boer states there has been none whose life was so precious as that of Mary Kingsley. I need not repeat the phrases of admiration and affection with which her death has been mourned from one end of the country to the other. All phrases seem cold when we think of her. She suffered the crowning tragedy of so many gracious lives in dying with her work unaccom- plished. Her insight into the mind of the West African native, and her bold and humorous advocacy of careful study of and rational treatment for him, had hardly begfun to impress the powers that be in the political and religious worlds. A band of friends are seeking to fulfil that task. To do so will be to perpetuate in the worthiest way, the way she herself would most have wished, the memory and the aims of one of the noblest among women.
Unfortunately General Pitt-Rivers and Miss Kingsley do not end the sad list. Ulrich Jahn, the Pomeranian collector of folklore, was known to all students. Professor Max Miiller, insecure and unsatisfactory as his mythological theories were, deserves a gjrateful recognition from us as the first to popularise by his charming and persuasive style the study of mythological problems. From him many of us drew our earliest interest in the subject. Nor may we forget the name of that distinguished student of savage peoples, Frank Hamilton Gushing. Throughout the length and breadth of North America his premature demise has called forth the most touching expressions of regret. His constant associates, themselves men of learning and judge- ment, speak of him as *' a man of genius," ** one of the most original minds among anthropologists '* ; and Major Powell, the head of the Bureau of Ethnology, adds : *' From
Presidential Address.
ne lime that we first went together to Zuni until the day f his death, he was my companion and friend, and I loved bim as a father loves his son." My own acquaintance with Fhim was of the slightest; but what I had the privilege of ' fleeing assured me that in him anthropology possessed, not merely a capable and devoted, but a brilliant disciple. To English readers his works are not very accessible, being chiefly embodied in official reports. No one who studies them, however, can resist the impression that their writer was endowed with all the qualities and experience which go to make an ideal investigator of archaic civilisations.
We will not dwelt on the losses of the immediate past. Deeply though we may feel them, their noblest use is to inspire the activities of the present. After all, the shadows of a closing age are but the reverse side of the hopes of that which is opening. As we linger on the threshold of the twentieth century we are tempted rather to look for- ward into the unknown, and to wonder what new fortunes, what events, what discoveries are to glorify or bedim, at any rate to signalise, the new era. Especially with regard to anthropological science, whereof folklore is so important a branch, we desire to forecast the future. We are perhaps getting a little tired of rhapsodies on the progress of science during the nineteenth century. We are willing to take it all for granted. Yet it is well we should remember how rapid has been the rise of folklore as a serious study. A hundred years ago Brand was apologising for his investiga- tion of the causes of " vulgar rites and popular opinions." " If," he says, "they shall appear to any to be so frivolous as not to have deserved the pains of the search, the humble labourer [namely, himself] will at least have the satisfac- tion of avoiding censure by incurring contempt." And he thinks it necessary to appeal, against the pride which would so treat him, to the common origin of mankind, the lowest as well as the highest. "The People, of whom society is chiefly composed, is," he pleads, "a respectable subject to everyone who is the friend of man." Before these words
VOL XII. c
1 8 Presidential A ddress.
were published, a greater than Brand had issued the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border ^ and the brothers Grimm had collected and given to the world the first volume of their famous Kinder- und Hausmdrchen. With these two works and Brand and Ellis' Observations on Popular Antiquities, the foundations of the science of folklore were securely laid. Nearly two generations, however, were to pass away before Maine, Maclennan, Morgan, and Professor Tylor began to build upon them.
When we consider the remarkable results of the researches of the past forty years initiated by these distinguished men, we need little encouragement to anticipate an early solution of the great enigfmas offered by human civilisation and the history of religion. They, however, who know the com- plexity of the problem will be the least sanguine. They will be more likely to sympathise with Brand's modest estimate of possibilities. " The prime origin of the super- stitious notions and ceremonies of the people," he assures us, as Dr. Johnson had done before him, '* is absolutely unattainable. We must despair of ever being able to reach the fountain-head of streams which have been running and increasing from the beginning of time." Then, with the true instinct of an explorer in this difficult region, he adds : " All that we can aspire to do, is only to trace their courses backward, as far as possible, on those charts that now remain of the distant countries whence they were first perceived to flow." For my own part, after the experience of what has already been discovered in this way, I am content to believe that in good time all the important issues will be determined, though that determination will have to be preceded by arduous enquiry, perhaps in directions hitherto unthought of.
Dismissing speculation, let us turn to one or two of the questions awaiting solution. Our thoughts have bee during the past year directed so continuously to Sou Africa that I shall offer no apology for considering su<
I
questions in Ihe light of the folklore of the South African tribes. Among the subjects that have at various times occupied the minds of the foremost thinkers throughout the world is that of the beginnings of religion. Its attraction is perennial. But not until our own time has it been possible so much as to enter on the enquiry in a scientific manner. And still, like the visionary Fountain of Youth for which the Spaniards sought so pertinaciously in the New World, the further we penetrate the wilds of savage thought and savage custom, the further off seems the abject of our search. Has the search then been in vain? By no means, Or.ly in the sweat of his brow shall man eat the bread of scientific truth. It does not drop like manna from heaven. Its clear waters will not well forth from any rock in the wilderness, chance-smitten by any rod. He who essays to reveal it must not shrink from long and painful preparation, from patient and heedful observation. It must be won by exhaustive research, by the careful framing and conscien- tious testing of hypotheses, and by their rejection or modifi- cation as the facts, and the facts alone, demand. This is a process of which we have already been witnesses and par- takers. Hypothesis after hypothesis has been formulated, each probably embodying some aspect of the truth. Their destruction by criticism has been as inevitable and as essential as their formation. It should not dishearten us : nor should it obscure the portions of truth they have severally contained.
One of the latest contributions to the discussion was furnished a year or two ago by Mr, Andrew Lang in his book on TAe Making of Religion. The phenomena of hypnotism and the High Gods of low races were there examined; and a vigorous polemic was instituted against Huxley, Dr. Tylor, Mr. Herbert Spencer, Mr. im Thurn. and others who denied anything like a Supreme Being to savages on a low plane of culture. Hypnotism is beyond ken. But I ventured, as you will remember, to urge in
20 Presidential Address.
the pages of Folk-Lore some objections against Mr. Lang's presentation of the Australian evidence for a relatively supreme and moral Being. I still think those objections valid, though I have been unable to convince him. I do not intend now to return to the charge. Rather I would say : Be Mr. Lang's conclusions right or wrong, he has rendered a service to anthropology in drawing attention to evidence which has been too much overlooked.
Since The Making of Religion was published, another interpretation of much of the evidence concerning savage religion has been attempted by Mr. Marett in a paper printed in the last volume of Folk-Lore. He does not claim to have " a brand-new theory to propound.'* The phenomena to which he points have been observed by pre- vious writers, and have long been admittedly an element not to be passed over in the solution of the problem. His merit is to have explained those phenomena anew, and to have recognised that they have a greater value than had been assigned to them. If his view be just, they must henceforth occupy not a subordinate, but a principal — not necessarily an exclusive — place in our explanations.
Like Mr. Lang, Mr. Marett seeks to go behind animism, and to resolve into its elements the compound of emotion and belief which we call religion. He is struck by the attitude of the savage mind in relation to the unfamiliar. That attitude he identifies, if I rightly understand him, with the attitude of the primitive savage towards the world and its phenomena. Missionaries and scientific men who have endeavoured to sound the depths of savage belief have been baffled by its vagueness. Accustomed themselves to the sharply defined affirmations of the Christian creeds, they have been perplexed by the contradictions and the want of clear and self-consistent ideas with which the savage on the theory of his religion, as on all subjects not immediately practical, is content. Therein I think they have shown a want of knowledge of human nature. If
Presidential Addre
Tthey had recollected what many of them must have bet'ii
I familiar with — the mental condition of their own peasantry
I at home — nay, if they had looked into their own minds and
I asked themselves what was their own attitude with regard
'erything outside a certain radius of subjects with
j which they were occupied from day to day, or which they
[ were thoroughly taught in earlier life, they would have
1 found the very same condition, the very same attitude.
These contradictions, this want of clear and self-consistent
ideas, is simply ignorance. Inasmuch, however, as the
unknown all around the savage presses upon him uninter-
' mittently, it is regarded with a feeling best described as
'e, a feeling in which fear sometimes predominates, and
I sometimes wonder. Portions of the unknown are from
time to time conquered, or at all events parcelled out
among various powers, whom the savage explains in the
terms of his own consciousness, and names as beings in
actual relation with himself. This explanation is called
Animism, and the beings it summons into existence are
spirits, ghosts, witches, gods. But they do not exhaust the
unknown. Beyond and behind them the Awful, as Mr.
Marett calls it, is still there, infinite as night and filled
with possibilities as dreadful as death.
Now it occurs to me that here may be found the solution I of the puzzle Mr. Lang has pointed out. I do not wish to dogmatise ; nor do I claim credit for the suggestion, which is explicitly or implicitly Mr. Marett's, Mr. Lang's critics have missed his meaning so often that 1 tremble to repro- ] duce his theory, Apparently, however, it is claimed that
j the belief in a Supreme Being came, in some way only to
L be guessed at, first in order of evolution, and was subse-
^^^1 quently obscured and overlaid by belief in ghosts and in a ^^^^ pantheon of lesser divinities. Animism hrst, and then ^^^B polytheism, supplanted theism. I think I should find myself ^^^H within measurable distance of reconciliation, if for theism I ^^^B might substitute that attitude of mind for which Mr. Marett
^
2 2 Presidential A ddress.
has invented the term Teratism. Defining Teratism as the sense of awe (of which "Fear, Admiration, Wonder, and the like" are, as Mr. Marett puts it, "the component moments*'), I could not of course assent to the statement that it was actually supplanted by animism, polytheism and so forth. Rather, it was the soil out of which they grew. It was the dim vast background on which they were manifested. The soil was ever fertile of new growths. The sense of the Mysterious, of the Awful, might concentrate itself on a tree, or a boulder, on an amulet, or a dead man ; but this would not exhaust it. Other shapes, not yet fully realised, would loom forth now and again from the background, some to become defined, to receive specific acts of homage and thus enter into relations with humanity, some to fade away once more into the gloom. At one time this process would be long, at another time it would be short. A striking exhibition of power, especially from some visible object, might cause an immediate concentration of awe and its precipitation in acts of worship. The multitude at the gates of Lystra only differed from many another multitude in identifying the new Powers revealed to them with the old ones. On the other hand, a power only ex- hibited occasionally, not proceeding from any visible object, and not traceable in savage reasoning to any known centre of Awe, might hover for generations or for ages in the borderland where the recognised and the unrecognised, the personal and the impersonal, meet.
South Africa does not bulk very largely in Mr. Lang's argument, probably because of the extreme difficulty in extracting from the conflicting testimony any sane or self- consistent interpretation. The largest body of evidence in regard to any one of the South African peoples is that collected by Dr. Callaway in The Religious System of th Amazulu, As Mr. Lang says, it is " honest but confused.' Confused ! precisely. But it is more than confused ; it contradictory. I invite your attention to this confus«
Presidential Address.
23
this contradictory character of the evidence. It may
I perhaps be said that tradition often is confused and con-
I tradictory. So it is ; but the evidence as to the traditional
I religious beliefs of the South African races is, whatever be
' the cause, more than usually confused and contradictory.
Oni; of Bishop Callaway's informants told him: "The
primitive faith of our fathers was this, they said, ' There is
Unkulunkulu, who is a man, who is of the earth.' And
they used to say, ' There is a lord in heaven.' " Another
fiatly contradicted him : " The ancients did not say there
is a lord in heaven (inkosi pezulu). As for Unkulunkulu,
we do not know that he left any word (or man. We
worship the Amatongo [the spirits of the dead]."^ On
one thing, however, all were agreed. If there was any
lord in heaven, he was not the Creator. In fact, so far
as can be gathered, the very idea of creation was foreign
to their minds, Unkulunkulu, or whatever was the name
of the great father who gave being to man, was regarded
as a man, The way he gave being to man is told differently
I by different informants. He begat them, he dug them up.
I he split them out of a stone, he made them out of a reed,
I Anyhow, " the- earth was in existence first, before Unkulun-
I kulu as yet existed.'"
If we turn to the Bechuana, we find Moffat, after twenty- ■ three years' service as a missionary, chiefly among them, emphatic as to their want of belief in a god, " No frag- ments remain," he tells us, "of former days, as mementoes to the present generation, that their ancestors ever loved, served, or reverenced a being greater than man. A pro- \ found silence reigns on this awful subject."*
Unfortunately no missionaries to any of the numerous k Bechuana tribes have ever thought it worth while to collect I their religious traditions as Callaway did from the Zulus.
' CalUway, AVi .S>j/., pp. 56, 44.
' Ibid., p. 41.
' MolTat, Misthnary Labgun and Stti
n Southern Africa (1841), p. 243.
24 Presidential Address.
We have, therefore, to draw our conclusions from incidental notices. There is, however, one word, common in some form to most of the Bechuana dialects, which has been much discussed : the word Morimo^ plural Barimo. In the singular it has been adopted by the missionaries to trans- late God. Yet Moffat tells us expressly that it did not convey to the minds of those who heard it the idea of God, though Morimo is never called man. Morimo, as well as man and all the different species of animals, came out of a cave or hole in the Bakone country, where their footmarks are still to be seen. He appears as a malignant being — something cunning or spiteful — able to injure men and cattle, and to cause death. When hail damaged the crops, or rain fell unseasonably, Morimo would be cursed in the vilest language. " Would that I could catch it [t.^., Morimo] , I would transfix it with my spear ! " exclaimed a chief, whose judgement on other subjects, we are told, would command attention. However, for good or ill the missionaries had adopted the word to translate their con- ception of God; and one day Moffat was addressing a chief, when the latter called some of his men : " There is Ra-Mary " [Mary's Father, the name by which Moffat was known], said he, "who tells me that the heavens were made, the earth also, by a beginner, whom he'calls Morimo. Have you ever heard anything to be compared with this ? " And he added other expressions which rendered it evident that neither he nor they had ever before heard of Morimo, or if they had, it was certainly not in the capacity of Creator or Preserver of the world. His words were received with a burst of deafening laughter, and he begged Moffat to say no more on such trifles, lest the people should think him mad.i
Morimo is an uncanny word. It is said to be derived from gorimo^ above, with the singular personal prefix mo.
' MofTai, chap. i6.
Presidential Address. 25
It would thus signify Him who is above. The plural Barimo, seems to mean the spirits of the dead. The phrase " Going to Barimo," means dying. ■' I( a person were talking foolishly, or ivandering in his intellect, were delirious, or in a fit," Moffat tells us he would be called Barimo, which we may best render by " Possessed." ' Mackenzie, also a missionary of considerable experience, gives another plural, Merimo, having the sense of "gods."^ This is puzzling, because, properly speaking, the Bechuana have no gods. They invoke their ancestors, or the ancestors of their chiefs, if not too remote, and when they offer sacrifice it is to the spirits of the dead. Light is perhaps thrown upon the matter by Casalis, who, speaking of the Basuto, says that, "every being, to whom the natives render adoration, is called Molimo," a dialectic variation of Morimo. When a Mosuto falls sick, the first thing the medicine-man does is to divine " under the influence of what Molimo the patient is supposed to be. Is it an ancestor on the father's side or the mother's? According as fate decides, the paternal or maternal uncle will offer the purifying sacrifice." Here the word Molimo is obviously used to designate a ghost, or disembodied spirit, and nothing else. In fact, Casalis tells us plainly, and includes other Bechuana tribes in the remark : '■ Each family is supposed to be under the direct influence and protection of its ancestors ; but the tribe, taken as a whole, acknowledges for its national gods the ancestors of the reigning sovereign,"* Mackenzie declares Barimo to be a plural without a singular. And Moffat admits that, though in form it is the plural of Morimo, it is never so used ; but apparently he knows nothing of the other plural, Merimo.
What are we to make of all this confusion and un- certainty? I am inclined to regard Morimo not as a once
' MolTal, p|i. z6o, 361.
' Mackenzie, Ten Years Nerlh of the OraHj^e Kiver 1 1S71), p. J94.
' Casalis, Tkt Bmulos {1B61), pp. 248, 249-
26 Presidential Address.
supreme divinity fading away, but as a god in process of becoming. It is I think more in harmony with all that we know of savage thought and of human evolution to suppose that out of the vague background of the unknown there was being slowly shaped the figure of a powerful being, or god, than to attribute the ambiguities and difficulties to forgetfulness. It is true that Mackenzie represents the Bechuana as saying: "Our forefathers, no doubt, knew more about Morimo than we do; but they did not persevere in speaking of him to their children.'* The very form, however, of this assertion shows that the speakers were merely guessing. They were trying to explain to the missionary why they knew so little about Morimo. A quick-witted race, they accounted for their ignorance as they thought the missionary thought it ought to be ac- counted for. And they were successful.
The same interpretation must be put on the Zulu evidence. Bishop Callaway gave it piecemeal as he received it; and it perplexed Mr. Lang, as it evidently had perplexed the bishop himself. The latest enquirer is M. Junod, whose book on the Baronga is well worth a careful study. The Baronga are a Zulu tribe. The very word Zulu means heaven. In the dialect of the Baronga it is Tito ; and concerning Tilo M. Junod has much to say. It is a place. It is, moreover, a power which manifests itself in various ways. As such, it is sometimes called hosi^ the same word as inkosiy translated by Bishop Callaway as lord or chief. But it is a power, says M. Junod, " en- visaged for the most part as essentially impersonal." Rain, tempest, strange diseases, infantile convulsions, are attri- buted to it ; above all, the mysterious visitation of twins. I must refer you to the book itself for the details of the Ronga ideas concerning Tilo, and for the curious rites with which those ideas are connected.^ I can only say that the ideas
' Junod, Les Baronga (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 408, sqq.
Presidential Address.
27
I are as confused, as vague, as contradictory as those of the lus. In fact, a careful comparison shows that they are substantially identical. Bishop Callaway himself in the end sums up to the same effect as M. Junod. " it appears, therefore," he says, "that iii the native mind there is scarcely any notion of Deity, if any at all, wrapt up in their sayings about a heavenly chief. When it [i.e., the name inkosi pezulu, heavenly chief or lord in heaven] is applied to God, it is simply the result of leaching. Among them- selves he is not regarded as the Creator, nor the Preserver of Men ; but as a power." And he adds by way of a con- jecture : " it may be nothing more than an earthly chief, still celebrated by name, — -a relic of the king-worship of the .Egyptians; another form merely of ancestor-worship."' I Accepting the Bishop's judgement, we may discard the I conjecture as no more than an obiter dictum. Tilo, or I inkosi pesulu, thus, tike the Ngai of the Masai, like the [ Malagasy Andria-manitra, like the Siouan Wakanda, is I found to be theoplasm, god-stuff, not a god fully formed I and finally evolved. It is a god, or gods, in the making, I not a god with one foot in the grave.
The Zulus and the Bechuana then appear to confirm the
' suggestion with which we started. The evidence gathered
from other South African peoples is more fragmentary still
than that from Ihe Bechuana. So far as 1 can interpret it,
the effect is the same. But the discussion would be tedious,
and I want to come back to Bishop Callaway's obiter dictum.
It is a guess founded on the deeply-rooted cult of the dead
which forms the very core of Zulu religion. The worship
of the dead, as it prevails among the Zulus, cannot be
deemed in any sense of the word a primitive institution.
. The Zulus themselves are not a primitive people. One of
I the most advanced offshoots of the Bantu stock, they have
I long since, like all their congeners, taken that step, which,
I according to Mr. Payne's canon, divides savagery from
' CalUwiiy, p. 124.
2 8 Presidential A d dress.
barbarism. Their social state no longer rests on a natural basis of subsistence. The Bushmen, living upon the pro- ceeds of hunting and upon such roots and other edible vegetables as they may chance to find, are savages. Agri- culture and cattle, on the other hand, afford the mainstay of Zulu economy. In other words, the Amazulu are no longer savages. They live a comparatively settled life in kraals under chiefs, and have developed a highly organised government. The development of their religion corresponds with that of their social economy ; and traces of an earlier stage are few and indistinct, so far as our information extends. Yet they must have passed through the savage phases of religion usually accompanying the uncertain and wandering lives of hunters and root-diggers.
Other tribes belonging to the same stock retain traces of that earlier condition. The Bantu are an intrusive race. They occupied South Africa in successive immigrations. Wherever the original habitat whence they started for their conquests may have been, it was a country where they had already domesticated the ox and learned the rudiments of agriculture. They have now been living for ages in an intermediate state between a nomadic and a definitely settled life. The climate and meteorological conditions of South Africa have retarded the evolution of true civilisation. Tribes are compelled to remove by disappearance of wood by want of water and pasture, exhaustion of soil and other causes. Hence, a powerful incentive to peaceful changes of settlement within a limited area, but also to wars of conquest and wholesale movements of armed populations. In the face of recent criticism, I hesitate to assert that mother-right (or kinship traced only through women) and totemism are invariable notes of savagery. There can however, be no question that these institutions tend to disappear with the higher organisation of agricultural and pastoral life. The accumulation of property, in the shape of cattle and other food stores, the preservation intact of
Presidential Address.
29
jiie cultivated land, and its increase in proportion to the Increase of the population, involve continuous and elaborate preparations for defence and for attack. The inevitable t is to unite the whole community round a permanent aider or chief, and to efface mother-right (where it lubsists), and usually to change it into Agnation, or the reckoning of kinship through the father only.
Accordingly, we find the Bantu everywhere under a patriarchal rule, sometimes more, sometimes less, despotic in its character. The position of women is proportionately depressed. Though not slaves, they are held in perpetual tutelage, like the women of old Rome, where in prehistoric times a similar condition of society and civilisation gave birth to the race that conquered the world. Women, mong the Bechuana. are degraded to field- and househotd- ■udges, whose purpose in life is to rear children and till J fields.
it remains of a different state of things, in which mother- ight prevailed, are not wanting. The influence of the laternal uncle is usually regarded as an index of mother- light. Among the Basuto this is well marked. The eldest Waternal uncle enjoys special rights over the sister's liildren. His duties towards them commence with their , and it is he who presides at their funeral ceremonies. He IS entitled in return to a share of the spoil taken by his lephews in war, as well as of the game they kill. The price of a bride is usually paid in cattle. A portion of this feattle goes to the eldest maternal uncle; and he is expected I take care of the bride and her children, and to sup- ^ her with anything she may require.' The Ovaherer6 [ Damara-land. now German territory, more backward in Fgeneral culture than their eastern brethren, are distinguished rfor the consideration paid to their women. Descent is ■.reckoned, for most purposes, through the mother. The
^ Cssslii, Les Btusautas, p. i90(Ei^. ed. p. 180). Cape of Geed ffeft. %ip.ef tktGavernmenlCemm.enNaiivtLavisaHdCu!tomi(\f&^), App. p. 23.
30 Presidential Address.
children belong to her eanda^ or gens, and derive their right to property through her.^ A man's sister's children, therefore, not his own, inherit from him. So, among the Bayeye of Lake Ngami, who like the Ovaherer6 have an infu- sion of Hottentot blood, no chief is succeeded by his son, but by his sister's son.* The Hottentots proper appear to re- present the vanguard of the Bantu invasion. Both in their physical traits and in their language Bushman influence is apparent. They were, as might be expected, on a lower step of culture than the Bantu peoples strictly so called. Contact with civilisation, however, has greatly changed them, and our information as to their primitive condition is very fragmentary. As far as we can trace, their women have hardly entered upon that long martyrdom in the cause of civilisation which has been so sad a necessity of progress. In every Hottentot's house the wife is supreme. Her husband, poor fellow ! though he may wield wide power and influence out of doors, at home dare not even take a mouthful of sour milk out of the household vat without her leave. Nor is a woman's realm limited to her husband. There seems a special relationship between brother and sister. The highest oath a man can take is to swear by his eldest sister; and if he abuse this name he forfeits to her his finest cows and sheep.* Women having this position, we might anticipate other remains of mother-right in Hottentot custom. There are indeed traces of it, both in their jurisprudence and language; but, whether from our imperfect knowledge, or from any other cause, those traces are too few and uncertain to lead to any definite
result.
Turning now to the question of totemism, let me first observe that, whether or not it be an invariable note of
> South African Folk-Lore Journal, vol. i., p. 40. Cape Comm. Rep,, App.
p. 401.
« South African Folk- Lore Jounial, vol. ii., p. 37.
' Hahn, Tsuni-^^M, pp. I9» 21.
Presidential A ddress. 3 1
savagery, totemism is a purely savage institution. Accord- ingly, we must not expect to find it in full force among the Bantu. All we can expect to discover are better or worse preserved survivals. The well-known passage in Living- stone's first book tells us that " the different Bechuana
tribes are named after certain animals, The term
Bakatia means * they of the monkey ; ' Bakuena, * they of the alligator ; ' Batlapi, * they of the fish ; ' each tribe having a superstitious dread of the animal after which it is called. They also use the word * bina,' to dance, in reference to' the custom of thus naming themselves, so that, when you wish to ascertain what tribe they belong to, you say, * What do you dance ? * It would seem as if that had been part of the worship of old. A tribe never eats the animal which is its namesake, using the term * ila,' hate or dread, in reference to killing it. We find traces of many ancient tribes in the country in individual members of those now extinct, as the Batau, * they of the lion ; ' the Banoga, * they of the serpent ; ' though no such tribes now exist." ^ But the evidence does not stop here. Casalis, after giving additional designations — Banare, they of the buffalo ; Batlou, they of the elephant ; Banuku, they of the porcupine ; Bamorara, they of the wild vine — adds by way of illustra- tion : '* The Bakuena call the crocodile their father ; they celebrate it in their festivals, they swear by it, and make an incision resembling the mouth of this animal in the ears of their cattle, by which they distinguish them from others. The head of the family, which ranks first in the tribe, receives the title of Great Man of the Crocodile. No one dares eat the flesh or clothe himself with the skin of the animal, the name of which he bears. If this animal is hurtful, as the lion for instance, it may not be killed with- out grreat apologies being made to it, and its pardon being asked. Purification is necessary after the commission of
' Livingstone, Missionary Trcn'elSy p. 13.
II III
32 Presidential Address.
such a sacrilege."' Additional particulars are given by Arbousset and Daumas. The Baperi are commonly called Banoku, they of the porcupine. " Their great oath is that of ka nokuy by the porcupine, because the majority of them singi to use the consecrated phrase, intimating that they feast, worship, or revere that animal. . . . When they see anyone maltreat that animal, they afflict them- selves, grieve, collect with religious care the quills, if it has been killed, spit upon them, and rub their eyebrows with them, saying, * They have slain our brother, our master, one of ours, him whom we sing.' They fear that they will die if they eat the flesh of one."'
In this passage I daresay you will have noticed that not all the Baperi, but only the majority of them, are Banoku. This throws light on the loose phraseology of the mis- sionaries to whom we are indebted for our information. The last-quoted authors on a later page explicitly define their use of the word tribe to mean family ^ illustrating it by reference to these totemistic superstitions.* Accord- ingly, the Baperi did not all belong to the gens or clan, as we should say, of the porcupine ; it only predominated in their organisation and territory. I have not noticed in the authorities I have hitherto quoted any reference to mar- riage-prohibitions. Mr. Lionel Decle, however, in de- scribing the totemism of a more northerly people of the Bantu stock, the Waganda, says expressly that " no man can marry in his own clan." * Among all these peoples A the clan would appear to descend from father to son. The
.». * Casalis, The Basutos (Eng. edit.), p. 211. I cannot at this moment refer
^ to the original French, but possibly we should read : ** Even if this animal is
hurtful," &c.
* Arbousset and Daumas, Narrative of an Exploratory Tour to the North- east of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hofe^ translated by Brown (Cape Town,
, . ; 1846), p. 176. Other particulars follow, which I have not thought necessary to
quote.
* Thid.y p. 213. Cf. p. 169.
* Decle, Three Years in Savage South Africa^ p. 443.
t
1 rai
thi
L H-
Presidential Address.
less cultured Ovahererfi, as we have seen, trace descent of the eanda through the mother. It remains to be added that, so far as can be gathered from the very meagre reports we possess, the eanda is exogamic and bears the name of a totem, each eanda having " its peculiar rites and superstitions." '
In fact, the only branches of the Bantu race among which no certain traces of totemism and but few of mother- right are found, are the Amazulu and their allied tribes ; and they are precisely the most advanced of all the Bantu peoples. The Bechuana yield very substantial remnants of totemism, and side by side, though not organically con- nected, with them traces of mother-right. While in the less advanced branches of the race mother-right is still strong and unsubdued by the patriarchal economy, and it is organically connected with totemism. Thus the Bantu present a graduated series of social stages. On the lowest of them, though the totem-sacrifice has not been reported, totemism is yet flourishing, and patriarchal and pastoral institutions are struggling with it. On the highest it has disappeared with almost all its characteristic accompani- ments. There can therefore be little doubt that the Bantu race has emerged from a nomadic savagery organised on the basis of totemism and mother-right. The question is. How, if so, has ancestor-worship developed and supplanted totemism ?
I answer that it is entirely dependent upon the growth the patriarchal system. The more highly the patriarchal system is organised — the more absolute becomes the power of the head of the nation, and under him of the subordinate chiefs and the heads of families — the more the original totemistic superstitions tend to disappear, until they are altogether lost and forgotten. The Bushmen appear to believe in the continued existence of the dead, though even
' Anderson, Laic NsaiHt, p. 221. Cf. South African Fotk^Lort Jaumul, vol. i., pp. 40, 4S,
VOL. XU. D
34 Presidential Address.
on the most liberal construction of the word worship they can hardly be said to worship them. This belief, arising in savagery, gains in strength with favouring circumstances. It does not literally involve the immortality of the soul, for the dead are gradually forgotten. Campbell, who early in the last century took pains to obtain from the memories of the people lists of chiefs of various Bechuana tribes, succeeded in one case only in getting the names of as many as ten deceased chiefs ; and these would probably not extend to more than five or six generations. ' It is a com- mon experience of enquirers that peoples in the lower culture when questioned on the fate of their forgotten dead, affirm that their existence has been finally terminated. But in fact very few trouble themselves about the fate of their forgotten dead ; and the vagfueness characteristic of their other opinions on the subject of the supernatural attaches to this also. The recently dead is alone remem- bered vividly and worshipped earnestly. " Black people," said one of Callaway's Zulu friends, " do not worship all Amatongo indifferently, that is, all the dead of their tribe. Speaking generally, the head of each house is worshipped by the children of that house ; for they do not know the ancients who are dead, nor their laud-giving names, nor [any of] their names. But their father whom they knew is the head by whom they begin and end in their prayer, .... So it is then, although they worship the many Amatongo of their tribe, [thus] making a great fence around them- [selves] for their protection ; yet their father is far before all others when they worship the Amatongo." *^ Behind their father stand the figures of a few others whom they remember ; behind them, all is chaos. They would not think of \yorshipping a father in his lifetime. Then they
* Campbell, Trccveh in Sottth AfricOy 3rd edit., 18 1 5, p. 206. Ibid., Secoftd Journey y 1822, vol. i., pp. 179, 242.
^ Callaway, op. cit.^ p. 144. The words in brackets are my interpretation, not Bishop Callaway's.
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35
Fcan hear him, see him, they know his ways, they can I tske his commands from his own tips, and whether he be
■ pleased or displeased the mood is manifested directly. But when death has conferred mystery upon him, the
^rence for a father rises into worship. The chief of a
tribe is but a father on a larger scale. He gives his name
to the tribe, and the tribesmen are in a sense his children.
Hence, when a chief takes-on the mystery of death, the
Iwhole tribe which has lately quailed before his rage or
I rejoiced in his pleasure and his might, believing that his
f anger and his power are not less than before but all the
greater, because manifested by methods terrifying in that
they come not under observation and their results — drought,
sickness, defeat in battle, and the like — are only to be inter-
_ preted by the witch-doctor, render to him the heightened
\ service of worship. He becomes part of the tribal religion,
I for the moment, perhaps, the most prominent part, until
I another dead chief, or some more striking personage, real
I or imaginary, supplants him,
Patriarchy, or government by the father or the eldest I male of the family, is not identical with father-right, or the Precognition of blood on the father's side only. But the two I'institutions tend to coincide. Patriarchal government I loosens the ties of mother-right, and eventually succeeds in
■ effacing them. It does not always succeed in substituting father-right, though the paternal blood always becomes the more potent bond. This process, as I pointed out last year, tends to collect the kin and consolidate it with the local group. When we have a totemic clan thus consolidated with the local group and under patriarchal rule, we have the conditions for the evolution of totemism into ancestor-
l worship. It only remains to ask by what avenue the I passage from one to the other may be accomplished.
A belief in transformation and impermanence of form is one of the elements of totemism ; and it is found in strong force among the Bantu. They commonly hold that men —
36 Presidential Address.
some men at all events — can change their shapes at will. It is their universal belief that the dead come back in brute- form, and in that form their departed friends receive reverence and offerings.
The head of the clan bears the clan name in an emphatic shape. The Bataung, as you will remember, are the Lion- clan. Accordingly their chief is the Lion-man (Motaung, he of the lion).^ He represents, as it were, the lion. The Bakwena are the Crocodile-clan. Their chief is the Great Man of the Crocodile. We are expressly told that the crocodile is called by the Bakwena ''one of them, their master, their Father ; " ' and that the Baperi speak of the porcupine in similar terms. The same is doubtless true of the totem-animal of the Bataung and other tribes. This is precisely the way in which the chief would be regarded. He too is " one of them, their master, their father." After death the chief appears in the form of some powerful animal. For example, among the Barotse he takes the form of a hippopotamus. ^ I have not indeed met with the state- ment that a chief comes back in the form of the totem-animal. Perhaps the dissolution of Bantu society and religion has now proceeded too far for us to recover any such belief, if it ever existed. It was the belief of some at all events of the North American tribes that a clansman after death assumed the form of the totem-animal. ^ And although we may not be able to put our fingers on any similar evidence in respect to the Bantu, I venture to suggest that this was the link, now snapped asunder, between totemism and ancestor-worship in South Africa. Once totemism began to fall into the background, the posthumous assumption of totem-form would tend to be confined first of all to the chief.
» Arbousset, p. 213. The Lion-dan existed as a political unit in the time of Arbousset and Daumas, though it had disappeared by Livingstone's day. * Arbousset, loc. di.
» Dede, Tlurm Ymn m Stamgt Afritm^ ^ 74. « FiaMT, T^inmirmt p. 56^ dting seveial anthonties.
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37
I In other words, he who was in his lifetime emphatically the Lion-man, the Crocodile-man, the Porcupine-man, the Elephant-man, the Hippopotamus-man, would longest pre- serve the totem-form after death, especially in the cases where the totem was a beast to be dreaded for its size, physical powers, and propensities to mischief. Ultimately this appropriation would be dropped, and a dead man, be he chief or another, would reappear in any suitable form as 1 conceived by the survivors.
This of course is a mere hypothesis. But it has seemed
I worth while, in view of recent discussions, to try to show
\ how totemism might conceivably, by the change from
I mother-right to father-right, or at least to patriarchy, and
the consequent identification of the local organisation with
the clan, pass into something like a tribal cult, and
ultimately into ancestor-worship. I took up so much of
your time last year in discussing questions relating to
totemism that I did not intend to bore you with the subject
to-night, i hope you will not think that it is like King
Charles's head, and cannot be kept out of my lucubrations.
In any case I offer the most humble apologies. Happily,
' by the constitutional practice of the Society, you will not
run the risk of being troubled with it again.
I owe you these apologies all the more because I do not
pretend to have solved any of the problems 1 have touched.
That is a task far beyond what I set myself to do, probably
far beyond our present knowledge, and in any case
demanding the collation of evidence from all parts of the
world. What I have tried to do is to suggest some ways
in which the folklore of South Africa may contribute to
their solution. Most of my illustrations have been taken
, from tribes in British territory. The vast extent of our
; African possessions embraces peoples in almost every
■ stage of culture. On that continent alone, the opening of
the twentieth century thus finds us in a position which is
unique in its opportunities for the advancement of anthro-
38 Presidential Address.
pological science. As you will have read in the Council's Annual Report, the Anthropological Institute and the Folk- Lore Society have joined to urge upon the Government the importance of seizing those opportunities in the countries we have lately added to the empire. We must not think that already we know enough about the coloured peoples of South Africa, On the contrary, our information is of a very fragmentary and often uncertain character. The great blanks must be filled ; it must be systematised and rendered intelligible. For such purposes a careful and com- prehensive enquiry is needed. The first consideration we have put forward in the memorial we have presented to the Colonial Secretary is the proper government and well-being of the native tribes beneath our swav. This is the prime consideration to a statesman ; and we believe that by no means as effectual as the methodical study of the people and their customs and beliefs can their proper government be secured. No ruler who does not understand his subjects can govern them for the best advantage, either theirs or his. Surely the time has come to abandon our old igno- rant, unsympathetic, though often well-meaning, fashion of muddling along. It has led in the past to innumerable difficulties, to endless waste of blood and treasure. With the new century let us turn over a new leaf in the history of our dealings with savage and half-civilised nations, and write on an unstained page our resolution to seek a more excellent way.
But we have ventured to urge another consideration — the interests of anthropological science, interests only to be subordinated to those of actual government. For when in all directions the speculative science of to-day becomes the practical and applied science of to-morrow, who shall venture to deny such a possibility to anthropology ? I read in the newspapers that the German government, clearer'in perception and more prompt in execution than ours, spent in the year 1898 upon anthropological explorations no less
Presidential Address.
39
I
a sum than £25,000. The Bureau of Ethnology at Washington costs 40,000 dollars a year ; and that is by no means all that the government of the United States is spending upon the anthropology of a single race. The government of India, under the guidance of Mr. H. H. Risley, and thanks to the statesmanlike grasp and energy of Lord Curzon, is taking measures for an Ethnographical Survey of that teeming empire. Among our self-ruling colonies. Cape Colony and Queensland have been foremost in recognising the political necessity of an accurate register of the customs and institutions, ay, the prejudices and superstitions, of the coloured peoples beneath their sway. And there are signs that the latter and more than one of her sister-states of the Australian Commonwealth are prepared to go further, and to assist in gathering such information for purely scientific purposes. The mother- country in her turn will surr-lyshowajust appreciation of the duties of a civilised nation. We are helping vigorously to macadamise the world for the benefit of modern commerce. The material prosperity of ourselves and others — perad- venture, higher benefits loo — will follow in the wake of the steam-roller. It will certainly destroy much that can never be replaced, much thai is picturesque, much that is capable, rightly construed, of yielding instruction as to the past of humanity. In the "dark backward and abysm of time " before the dawn of history, the destiny of the nations was being shaped by forces which it is the endeavour of anthropology to understand and account for. The deter- mination and the measurement of those forces can hardly fail to bring forth practical results. However this may be, I am greatly mistaken unless the intelligent curiosity of mankind will, as the ages roll onward, be more and more drawn to questions concerning it so vitally as the story of its own early struggles with nature and its first futile guesses at the unsearchable riddle of things. To have missed an opportunity like the present of accumulating a
40 Presidential A ddress.
large body of evidence within and beyond (for if the movement be once started I trust it will not stop within the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony) our new posses- sions, will then be seen to have incurred a responsibility and a reproach which we are seeking to spare our country and our government.
Considerations like these, moreover, touch in appropriate degree everyone of us. The unparalleled changes wrought by the nineteenth century have swept away for ever much that remained to us of the ideas and the practices of our remote forefathers. Whatever the twentieth century may do over the rest of the world, it will in Britain at least complete the work of the nineteenth. The muse of folk- lore is inexorable as the sibyl. Of no other science are the materials disappearing so rapidly. That for which we will not pay the price to-day will become fuel for the devouring fire of civilisation, and to-morrow we shall repent in vain our refusal or neglect. Of the two tasks before us at the opening of the twentieth century, there can be no question that the work of collection is the more pressing. For the framing of hypotheses we can wait the leisure of a later day. We cannot wait for the observation of phenomena which are rapidly passing out of existence. A single new fact carefully observed and rigorously reported is just now more than ever worth a hundred of the most brilliant hypotheses. In this Society we rightly insist upon the study of the phenomena. But I hope we shall yet more strenuously urge the prior duty of ascertaining and record- ing them, whether in this country or elsewhere, and the paramount necessity of literal exactness in so doing. Thus the Folk-Lore Society will fulfil the purpose of its being with more abundant success, and establish a lasting claim upon the gratitude of all serious students of the origin and growth of human institutions and culture.
Prmdemi 1900.
OLD IRISH TABUS, OR GEASA.
{Read at Meeting of 2%th November, igoo.)
' Though a great deal of attention has been given during the last few years to the study of " tabus," and to the elucidation of their bearing upon primitive ideas of morality and religion, and though nearly every nation has been laid under con- tribution in furnishing examples of this curious survival of primitive custom, the literature of Ireland and the pagan ideas belonging to our own Gaelic stock have, so far as I am aware, not yet been even cursorily examined with a view to finding out what were the ideas of the ancient inhabitants of our own islands on this question. In the very able books put forth by Mr. J. G. Frazer, Mr. Frank Jevons, and Mr. Andrew Lang, the entire world is ransacked for data; but I do not think that the tabus of Scotland, Wales, or Ireland are so much as mentioned. Yet we cannot take up any ancient Irish romance without being immediately con- fronted by tabus of the most pronounced kind. Their influence pervades almost every piece of ancient Gaelic imaginative literature; their mysterious power encircles the life of every notable Gaelic hero. There is, perhaps, no ancient literature in which they play so conspicuous a part. Tribal, ancestral, or personal tabus (called in Irish litera- ture geasa) hem in the actions of all the chief personages of Irish romance. They are imposed sometimes at or even before birth, sometimes at critical moments in the career; in either case the breaking of them portends death or disaster to the individual. In some instances every act from the moment of birth to death is determined by these solemn harbingers of destiny; whether the individual is or is not conscious of them, he cannot escape from their doom.
42 Old Irish Tabtis^ or Geasa.
Wc must not disregard the evidence as to the existence of a complicated system of tabus in the social and political order of things in ancient Ireland, merely on the ground that our knowledge of it is derived largely from romance literature. The old romance of Ireland undoubtedly pre- serves for us traditions of a time anterior to the introduc- tion of Christianity into these islands, and one of its chief claims to the attention of students is derived from the fact that it enshrines for us many of the pagan beliefs, modes of life, and customs of the early Gael.
In these romances we can study from within what Roman conquerors and Christian missionaries could only study from without ; and, moreover, could only study with minds strongly imbued with the superiority of their own system of life, and incapable of comprehending, even had they wished to do so, the ideas and customs of the ''barbarians'' whom they came to conquer for Caesar or for Christ.
If we would correct or amplify our superficial and often misleading ideas drawn from Latin sources, as to the religious belief and social life of the Celt, it is largely to Irish literature that we must turn. Elsewhere the pri- mitive lore of the Western Celt, expressed in legend and story, has to a large extent died out under the influx of foreign ideas enforced by conquest and by the introduction of a more solid written literature. But in Ireland we possess a great body of material that has come down to us from a pre-Christian condition of life, and that places us in relation to a system of things dating back to a remote pagan antiquity. Roman civilisation, which eventually transformed the social and political standpoint of Gaul and Britain, made itself felt only in a minor degree in Ireland. As an educational and religious force it exercised a con- siderable influence ; as a political and social force its influence was almost nil. Ireland retained her original tribal laws and regulations, and her ancient system of rule mid !•».* ^^ver die larger portion of the country
Old Irish Tabus, or Gcasa.
43
right up to the period of the Tudors ; she retains even to this day many of her primitive modes of thought.
I do not contend that Irish pagan romance has, in all Cases, come down to us unchanged by later influences. Not only have the inevitable variations due to verbal repeti- tion continued over a long space of time to be taken into account, we have also to allow for alterations and omissions purposely made by the scribes and compilers, who were in the majority of cases Christian bishops, saints, or lay- brothers, working within the walls and for the honour of their various monasteries, It is, however, much to the credit of these clerical compilers that, except in a few cases in which doctrines directly antagonistic to Christianity were conveyed by the text, these changes are so slight that they can in most cases be detected by a comparison with other versions of the same story. On the whole, we cannot too highly praise the enlightenment of monks who apparently bestowed the same care upon the collection and transcrip- tion of the tales and legends of their pagan forefathers as they did upon the religious dissertations, homilies, and lives of saints, which make up the larger part of the remaining tracts belonging to the oldest stratum of Irish literature.
Now, as we should naturally expect, it is in the more archaic romances that the greatest stress is laid upon geasa. Again, comparing together the two chief cycles into which the heroic romance of Ireland falls, the Cuchulainn or Conchobhar cycle, and the Finn or Ossianic cycle, we find that it is in the former cycle that geasa or tabus play the more prominent part. This is not to prejudge the question as to the comparative age of the two sagas, which does not concern us here ; it merely serves to emphasise the conclu- sion that we should have drawn from other indications, that we possess the tales of the Cuchulainn saga, as a whole, more nearly in their original form than the tales of the 'inn saga. The Cuchulainn stories as they have come [down to us bear, with a few exceptions, the impress of hav-
44 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
ing been formed in one single stratum of social life, whereas the Finn cycle comes to us diversified by the variations impressed upon it by the handling of different epochs with different ways of thought. In the " Story of Diarmuid and Grainne," the longest and most impressive of the Ossianic tales^ tabus are frequent, and of terrible import ; and this story is, as we should expect, probably one of ^he most ancient of the cycle. Elsewhere they play a much less im- portant part than in the Cuchulainn tales, in which the principal actors are caught round and controlled from birth to death in a web of minute observances, the omission or commission of which presaged loss of honour or life, either to themselves or to those whom they were bound to pro- tect. They are usually spoken of as " solemn druidical prohibitions " or " fearful perilous bonds " which no true hero can avoid.
From a literary point of view, the unconscious infringe- ment of geasa is the motif of some of the very finest scenes in the heroic romances. For instance, in the Ossianic story of " The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne," to which we have alluded^ the climax of the tragedy turns upon an unwitting transgression of geasa. The death of Diarmuid is caused by his destruction of the wild boar of Ben Gulban, in which was the soul of his own foster- brother, unjustly slain by Diarmuid's father. Now a pro- hibition had been laid upon Diarmuid by one of the gods, Angus of the Brugh, his special protector, that he was never to hunt a boar ; but this tabu, laid upon him in infancy, is unknown to him. Finn, his jealous rival and sworn foe, is, however, well aware of it, but he conceals the matter until, by cunning wiles, he has persuaded Diarmuid to join in the hunt of Ben Gulban. It is then too late. " By my word, " quoth Diarmuid, ** it is to slay me that thou hast made this hunt, O Finn ; and if it be here that I am fated to die, I have no power to shun it, ^' and he rushes forward to kill the boar whose fate is so inextricably bound up with his
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
45
^^^in th
own, that the death of the one means also the death of the other. As the boar falls beneath the sword of Diarmuid, the pains of death overtake the hero and he expires at his side. The sense of fatality expressed in Diarmuid's speech is an undertone running through the whole of Irish romantic literature, and it remains strongly impressed upon the Irish peasant of to-day. " It was to happen ; " " what is to happen, must happen, " is his belief to-day. " It is profitless to fly from death ; " " there are three periods of time that cannot be avoided : the hour of death, the hour of birth, and the hour of conception," sang his forebears a thousand years ago. This sense of an irresistible necessity determining the periods of life and death, combined with the finality involved in the destruction (conscious or unconscious) of the tabus whose observance have hedged life round with safety, imparts to the tales so strong a feeling of overmastering fate that, were we to find geasa playing an important part only in romantic literature, we might be templed to think that they were introduced solely with a dramatic purpose. But this is not so. Geasa seem to have controlled the lives, not of imaginary personages only, but of actual chiefs and rulers of Ireland, and this for a long period of time, stretching down from the unchronicled years of barbarism into a late historical period.
There is in existence a valuable tract called the Leabhar nag-ceart, or " Book of Rights,"' which contains an account of the rents and tributes payable to the kings of the pro- vinces of Ireland. This tract, though doubtless added to and altered as necessity arose, probably dates back in its original form to the days of St. Patrick. It claims to have been part of a notable book called the Saltair Ckaisil, said to have been drawn up in its original form by St. Benan, the friend and companion of St. Patrick and his successor in the primacy of Armagh. Now to this important work is elixed a shorter tract which forms a sort of introduction
' Edited tor the Celtic Society by John O'Donovan, 1847.
46 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
to the other, called Oeasa agus Buadha Riogh ^ireann, or the *' Restrictions and Prerogatives of the Kings of fore," in which those things that are forbidden to the kings of the several provinces, because the doing of them would bring ill luck — their "prohibitions," as O' Donovan translates the word Urghartha — are laid down with great precision. This most curious collection of kingly tabus is ascribed to Cuan O'Lochain, chief poet of Malachi II., monarch of Ireland ; and regent (after the death of the king in 1022) for twenty years, during part of that troublous period that intervened between the downfall of the Danish power and the Anglo-Norman invasion. The larger number of these tabus are not only quite inexplicable to ourselves, but their meaning appears to have been doubtful even at the time they were written down, though they were probably observed none the less scrupulously for that. They evidently reach back into far anterior times. Dr. O' Donovan, the editor, remarks in his preface lo the tract that the reference to the King of Leinster " drinking by th^ light of wax candles in the palace of Dinn Riogh," shows that this prohibition dates from a remote period in the history of this province, Dinn Riogh having been deserted by the kings of Leinster for Nas (Naas) long before the introduction ot Christianity. Again, the prohibition to the monarch of Ireland "that the sun should not rise upon him on his bed at Tara " clearly refers to the period when Tara was still a royal residence, which it ceased to be about the year 565 A.D. Yet though the meaning of many of the tabus had probably been lost, the importance of observing them does not seem to have dimi- nished. Their observance will, it is promised, make the earth fruitful and bring victory in battle, will guard against treachery and the pollution of the high attributes of the king. The poet ends with the solemn injunction : " It is certain to the kings of £ire that if they avoid their geasa (restrictions) and obtain their buadha (prerogatives), they shall meet no mischance or misfortune ; no epidemic or
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
47
mortality shall occur in their reigns, and they shall not ex- P perience the decay of age for the space of ninety years. I The poet or the learned historian who does not know the \adha ("prerogatives) and urghartha (prohibitions) of these , kings, is not entitled to visitation {Le. free hospitality) orto (the) sale (of his own compositions)." These tabus seem to have been hereditary, and binding on all kings. A large number are evidently precautionary, as is indeed implied in the words " if he observe them, it will guard against treachery in battle and the pollution of his high attributes." They refer, for the most part, to the danger of doing certain things on certain days or in certain seasons of the year; such as the caution to the King of Eire not to alight on Wednesday in Magh Breagh {Bregia, co. Meath) ; to traverse Magh Cuitlinn after sunset ; to go on Tuesday against North Teffia (co. Longford) ; to go in a ship on the water the Monday after Beltaine (Mayday) ; to leave the 1, track of his army upon Ath Maighne (co, Westmeath) the I Tuesday after Samhain (Hallow-e'en) : this latter being no [doubt a reference to the lateness of the season for warfare. The Irish, like all superstitious people, had a great belief Kin lucky and unlucky days, The origin of this special form [of superstition may have come in many instances from the ^experience that certain fortunate or unfortunate events had P occurred on such days, whence arose the belief that all . actions performed on the same day would turn out in the same manner. In the Battle of Magh Lena, an early semi- historical epic,' we read of a regular horoscope being drawn ■ before a certain king of Munster, Eoghan taidhleach, the I- Glorious, marched to battle with all good omens. "For lit is certain," says the writer, " that the calculations of the ftmoon and of nature said that it was a lucky conjuncture
' Tht Battle of Magh Ltna, edited for the Celtic Sodely by Eugene VO'Ciuiy, 1855. In Mtita Ulad we find Cudmlainn sending out his eer lo " observe ihc stars of the air, and ascertain when midnighl " but this does not presuppose much acquaintnnoe with asttononiy.
48 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
with a seventh, and that it was counted a foot in advance towards an eighth, and that it was a strong fifteenth to- wards happiness and strength for him, to have decided on gaining power over his foes at that particular time." In the old medical treatises, the cross or. unlucky days of the year are all set down in order, but many of these may be of late origin. The use made by Christianity of these super- stitions is seen in a marginal note to one such book bear- ing date 1733.^ "The prohibited Mondays of the year. The first Monday in April, on which day Cain was born and his brother slain. The second Monday in August, on which day Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. The thirteenth (the third Monday of?) December, on which day Judas was born that betrayed Christ." The addition of biblical events to the days of pagan observance was part of the regular system pursued and openly acknowledged by the early Christian teachers.
We have seen in the tale of Diarmuid and Grainne that at Brugh on the Boyne the foster-brother of Diarmuid was transformed into a wild boar by the power of Angus. Though the subject of such transformations does not lie directly in our course, it bears so closely upon it that I may, perhaps, be allowed to say a few words regarding the Irish belief about it. In Irish legend it is usually, if not quite always, the higher order of beings, the Tuatha D6 Danann, who are capable of undergoing transformation into birds or beasts. The daughters of Lir are turned into swans ; when Fand comes to beckon Cuchulainn into Magh Mell, the Plain of Honey, the Paradise of Irish paganism, she and her companion appear to him swimming on the lake in the same disguise ; so do Dervorgilla and her maiden in that tale which is so close a parallel to the classical stories of Perseus and Andromeda and of Iphigenia in Aulis.
Again, in the tale of the Origin of Cuchulainn, his mother disappears with fifty of her maidens for three years. They
' Hodges and Smith Collection, Royal Irish Academy, No. 65.
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
49
reappear as a flock of beautiful birds who attract the
Fattention or the Uitonians by devastating the country and
eating up every blade of grass, until they induce the warriors
to come out in strength to hunt them, when they fly before
them to the mysterious country in which Ciichulainn had
birth. The birds, as in Northern legend, are usually yoked
together with golden or silver chains; when they are
wounded they resume their natural shape. In the stories of
LCtual re -incarnation the agency of certain animalculae is
lesorted to,
We must guard against the notion that the transforma-
■tion into bird or beast necessarily implies to the primitive
1 a descent Jn the scale of being. There exists for him
Brno such line of demarcation as we are accustomed to draw
■ between the larger animal-world and mankind; he does
I'Bot doubt their power of intercommunication, nor does he
doubt the reasoning faculty of the beast, or its close interest
in human affairs. Remembering this, the ancient tales of
interchange of being between man or god and the lower
animals lose half the horror with which we are inclined to
regard them : they regain the poetic beauty with which the
savage mind invested them. They are no longer associated
I exclusively with the idea of human degradation ; rather
nthey are the expression of a simple and beautiful belief
Kthat the whole creation is linked in brotherhood and
Vgentle fellowship. In Ireland this view of their relation-
■ship is emphasised by the fact that it is rather divine
['than human beings who can accomplish the transforma-
There is one example of what appears to be a true tote- I mistic idea in these stories, though, so far as I am aware, such examples are rare. It is in Cuchulainn's prohibition to eat the flesh of a hound because it was his namesake. You will remember that he gained his name of Ciichulainn, i.e. the " Hound of Culann," because he had slain, while yet a child of eight years, the monstrous watch-dog belonging to the
5© Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
smith, which barred his way. He is frequently called simply Cu or the Hound, and in the poems detailing his (eats he is renowned as the Hound of Combat. When he is going forth to bis last fight, three crones, daughters of the mist, sitting by the wayside, urge him to partake of their pro- vender. Now one of the things that Cuchulainn was bound not to do was to go to a cooking- hearth and consume food. Another thing that he must not do was to eat his namesake's flesh. Now the crones, bent on his destruction, were cooking a hound with poisons and spells on spits of the rowan-tree. He speeds on and is about to pass them, when they upbraid him thus ; " It is because the food is only a hound," quoth they; " were this a great cooking-hearth thou wouldst come more readily. But because what is here is little thou condescendest not. Unseemly is it for the great to despise the small." Touched in his tenderest point, an appeal to his chivalry, Cuchulainn takes a shoulder-blade and eats of it out of his left hand, putting it under his left thigh. The hand that held it and the thigh under which be put it were stricken from trunk to end, so that they had no strength in them for his last fight.
Of that earliest form of belief in which inanimate nature as well as animate shares in sympathetic fellowship the joys and sorrows of man, we also 6nd traces in the more archaic pieces of the ancient literature, though the Irish theory as regards inanimate nature had, as a rule, reached an advanced stage before we meet with it; and we find the underworld conceived of as mapped out and inhabited by mythical beings, just as the upper world was peopled by man- kind. When, after the mythical fight of Tailltc, the Tuatha gods entered the underground, each took possession of his or her own particular domain beneath the hills and vales of £ire; and there from particular centres, generally places where tumuli existed, such as New Grange and Knowth on the Boyne, they ruled and marshalled their invisible hosts.
MS
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
51
much as the chieftains of the upper world ruled iheirs.^ We can localise a large number of these Sidh or fairy dwellings in various parts of Ireland. Later, the belief seems to have widened until every hillock was conceived of as peopled with fairy people, the modern representatives of the ancient and powerful race of gods.' But beyond and behind this conception we seem to catch traces of a yet more primitive idea, in which is realised a belief in a consciousness in inanimate nature itself, in the cognisance of nature and its sympathy in the affairs of man. For instance, there is a fine poetic passage in the Second Battle of Moytura, a very archaic piece, which describes the mythical battle of the Tuatha De Danann and the Fomorians, in which it is said that afterthebattle'The Morrigan, daughter of Ernmas (the Irish war-goddess), proceeded to proclaim the battle and the mighty victory that had been won to the royal heights of Ireland and to its fairy host and its chief rivers and river mouths."^ Here she addresses nature directly, as being interested in the doings of mankind. Of a similar sort is the belief in talking swords, in the harp which sounded forth melodiesattheDagda'scallandwhichmovedfrom the wall to greet him, or in the moaning and roaring of the shield of King Conchobhar when its master was in danger. As it cried, all the shields of the warriors of Ulster cried out likewise, and the weapons hung in the hall of Emain Macha fell from their racks. Moreover, the three sympathetic waves of Erin, surging up upon the extreme points of the coast, moaned in unison, as was their custom in times of dire distress, " As for the King" (we read in the Battle of Rosnaree) "a hun- dred advanced to the place where he was, and they battered
' See the lale entitleJ Ckafhur in Ha mutnda, Ici.sche TexlB, 311; Serie. Heft I., pp. 230-378.
' See for example Asallamh na Stnifrar^ or T&e Colloquy ef the Ancienis, Silva Gadclica, edlled hy S. H. O'Grady, vnl. i., pp. 94-*33-
' The SieendBaitli of Maf;h Tnirtadk, editcti by Dr. Whiiley Stokes, Ra>. Cttl. vol. iz.
52 .Old Irish Tabus ^ or Geasa.
his shield with murder-strokes until the shield, the Ochain, cried and roared at the greatness of the need wherein he lay. And all the shields of the men of Ulster fell from their shoulders and from their grasp and from the racks in which they were placed, at the cry of the Ochain at that hour. Then the three blue-flooded surging waves of fiire thundered mightily in lament for the unequal fight sustained by Conchobhar, to wit, the rushing ruddy wave of Rury, and the freight-bearing stormy wave of Cleena, and the swollen flood of the wave of Tuadh Inbhir." ^ The moaning of these three sympathetic waves is a very poetic survival of those earlier days when man and nature were but one ; a beautiful conception which the Christian creed, the growth of an interest in man apart from the rest of the universe, the scientific and rationalising spirit, and above all the removal of the majority of mankind from those habits of pastoral and agricultural life which fostered an intimate association with nature, have done much to dispel. It is the effort of the most far-seeing of our nature-poets some- what to revive it.
Turning now to the tabus or geasa of the Conchobhar and Cuchulainn cycle of tales, you will excuse me if, in order to make my meaning clear, I remind you that in general terms, many of the tabus of savage races are founded upon the idea that certain men, usually kings, have a special spiritual influence upon their fellow-men, and that the well-being of these persons is essential to the well- being of the entire tribe. It becomes, in consequence, a matter of the first importance that a life so precious to the tribe should be guarded and preserved. Any defect or illness of the king, who, in some early states of society, is regarded as a divine being, is believed to entail similar suffering on his people. So much is this the case that any serious defect is still, in some countries, sufficient to
* Cath Ruis na Rig Jor BSinn, edited by Rev. E. Hogan, S.J., Todd Lecture Series, vol. iv.
53
I incapacitate a king from retaining his sovereignty. The king or chief has, in fact, a double existence, a personal and a vicarious one; but his personal life has to give way, as it were, before his more important function of represen- tative of his people. To ensure their well-being, his per- r sonal life is submitted to control, even at times to the ex- I tent of entire loss of liberty or volition. In order to pre- serve him in perfect health and safety, his existence is compassed about with a number of minute observances, so much so, indeed, that in some cases he is reduced to a con- dition of perpetual confinement, or of imbecility. The life of the king or divine-man may thus become an existence of vicarious suffering for the good of his tribe. The regulations and observances which are more or less binding on every member of the society, fall with exceptional severity on the chief, so that, as has been said of a chieftain of one African tribe, " when he ascends the throne, he is lost in an ocean of rites and tabus." ' I will not trouble you with examples, which are probably more familiar to those present than they are to myself. An immense number of instances are collected in that book of great research and extraordinary interest, Mr. Frazer's Golden Bough.
Now we find in Irish literature that the chief heroes of I the Ultonian or Ulster cycle (the cycle which comprehends the deeds of Cuchulainn and his compeers) are, from birth to death, encircled by similar tabus, and that these tabus or geasa, while they affect more or less all the heroes, accumu- late, as it were, upon the head of the two central figures, ■ King Conchobhar and Cuchulainn. There is in the Book ' of Leinster, in the tract describing the glories and wisdom I of Conchobhar's reign, a very remarkable passage, which Jseems to bring these kingly tabus into line with those of lother races. The passage runs thus: " Sooth to say, very * great was the reverence that Ulster yielded to Conchobhar
' Dapper, Dacriptiim di CAfrigtUy p. 336, quoted Fraier, Golden Bough,
itt ed., vol. i., p. 116.
54 Old Irish TabuSj or Geasa.
; upon earth was not a human creature wiser than
he. [Yet] never did he pass judgment, for to do so was not permitted to him ; which was to ensure that never should he utter a false judgment, and so his fruit should not be any the worse. On the earth, moreover, was not a hero of might greater than his ; yet never was he suffered to encounter danger ; [this was done] for the preservation of the king's son. In battles and contests heroes and paladins of war and mighty men were ever in front of him, that he should not be imperilled." ^
This passage, if we could find nothing elsewhere to explain it, would be mysterious in the extreme. We have a king whose wisdom, in the opinion of his subjects, surpassed that of every human creature, yet who was never permitted to make a decision lest he should fail when put to the test ; * and it is, in fact, always Sencha, Morann, or some other adjudicator who decides a dispute in the tales ; never the king, in spite of his supposed wisdom. In the discussion about the bringing up of Cuchulainn the king alone gives no opinion and makes no claim. The matter is decided by others.
Again, we have a king who is counted the bravest upon earth, yet who was never permitted to enter battle or encounter danger, and though the tales give instances in which the king does take part in conflicts of importance, ^ we shall see that this was not frequently the case. Clearly his wisdom and courage were both supposititious, having never been tested by experience ; and we have the curious spectacle of this all-wise and valiant chief reduced by the unwritten decree of his people to a condition of inactivity, perhaps of imbecility. The reason given for this condition of things is equally curious. It is not for the preservation of the king's own person and reputation, but for a vicarious
' Book of Leinster^ fac. pp. lo6a, 33- 107b,' i6.
- As in the Battle of Rosnaree and the Siefje of Howth, in both of which ihc king took part.
Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasu. 55
'purpose, namely, "the preservation of the king's son." and that "his fruit should not be the worse." It is difiicult at first sight to see how the king's son could be imperiUed by any danger undergone by his father, still more by any false judgment that he might utter. It seems only possible to explain it by comparison with such similar ideas as we find holding good among other primitive peoples, in which the ruler suffers vicariously for his tribe. The condition of inactivity in which the king usually remained is accounted for by a curious incident, in which it is stated that Cet, one of the chiefs of Connaught, the hereditary foes of Ulster, had in a moment of jealousy and revenge struck the king in the head with a ball compounded out of the brains of Mesgegra, the slain king of Leinster. It would seem to have been the custom of the warriors to harden the brains of their slain foes into balls, which were laid up in one of the kingly houses as trophies of valour. This ball, which had lodged in the king's head, had never been extracted, because Fingen, the royal leech, had assured the king that to take it out of his head would cause immediate death, whereas if it remained he could, if he exercised great caution, still live for many years. It was carefully impressed upon him that he must never under any circumstances whatever allow himself to be " aroused to anger or to passion, or to ride on horseback or to run." ' " The blemish," said his people, " is a small thing for us compared with his death." So his head was healed, and stitched with a thread of gold, because the king had golden hair. " So long as he lived, namely, for seven years, he continued in that precarious condition ; he was incapable of action and
i could only remain sitting still." It was on the occasion on which he received the tidings of the death of Christ at Ihe hands of the Jews that, being aroused from his lethargy tnto sudden and furious energy by his desire to revenge
' L L., fol. 79. n
56 Old Irish Tabus ^ or Geasa.
this monstrous act, the ball fell out of his head and he died.
The mention of riding on horseback, as well as the Christian denouement of this story, show that it belongs, in part at all events, to a later age ; it was probably an attempt to give what appeared a rational explanation of the ces noiden Ulad which, in all the oldest tales, is the explanation offered for the inactivity of the king at critical moments. It is of this belief that we have now to speak.
The ces noiden Ulad was an extraordinary weakness or prostration which at certain times, and especially at critical moments for the province, overtook not only the king, but all the grown warriors of Ulster. The only exemptions were women, children, and Cuchulainn, who is said, according to this account, not to have been born in the province. In times of great emergency the whole of Ulster's fighting men are represented as being incapable of motion or activity of any kind. No appeal or necessity could arouse them from their stupor. This "curse," as it is forcibly called, was sup- posed to be a punishment upon the king for an act of extreme brutality and heartlessness committed upon one of the ancient goddesses of Eire, who in mortal form had married a liegeman of the province. In the Great Defeat of the Plain of Murthemne, the final rout in which Cuchu- lainn fell, the monarch was unable to lift hand or foot to help him. He and all the male population of Ulster were lying in their several palaces " in the Pains," and none could go to his aid. The theme of the great epic of the Tdin b6 Cuailgne, the Iliad of ancient Ireland, turns upon the same incapacity of the warriors to do an)rthing to save their province from invasion at the moment of its greatest peril from the allied forces of the South and West. Alone and unaided we find Cuchulainn month after month sustaining single-handed the unequal conflict, holding at bay by the valour of his single arm the deadly foes of Ulster. There is a fine passage in the beginning of the Tdin, in which Meave, the Amazonian
Old Irish labus, or Geasa.
Queen of Coonaught, leader of the allied hosts, goes to consult a woman seer on the fortunes of the war, on the eve before the setting forth of the troops. One by one she re- counts the chiefs and leaders of the Ulster host, whom her heralds have reported to be lying helpless and prostrate each within the security of his own fortress. At each warning utteredby the prophetess, who foretells the rout and final over- throw of Meave's great host ("I see red on thy hosts, I see crimson,") the Queen's anger breaks forth anew, and she cries triumphantly,"Nought is there that we need fear from Ulster." For the whole of the winter months, from November to February, in Irish reckoning from the Monday before Sam- hain (Hallowe'en) to the Wednesday after Imbolc (February ist), the weary conflict goes on, Cuchulainn holding back and destroying the hosts of Meave, until, overcome by weariness, he feels his strength departing. At this moment his mortal father, Sualtach, takes it upon himself to arouse Ulster. On Cuchulainn's grey horse he pushes his way right up to the gates of Emain Macha, the palace built on the very spot on which, according to the legend, the curse had fallen, and named after the goddess who had called it down. A silence as of death reigns over the dwelling of the king.
'" In Ulster, men are slain, women carried captive, cattle driven off : ' " Sualtach cries ; yet from Ulster he has no answer. Close to Emania's rampart he pressed, again repeating his warning: " Men are being slain, women carried captive, kine driven ; " but a second time no answer came. Then he penetrated even to the Stone of Hostages and again gave forth his cry. "Who are taken, and who are they that take?" asked the Druid Cathbad. " Ailell and Meave are they that have harried and banished you," said Sualtach; "your women, your little boys, and your cattle, and your horses they have carried away ; in the valleys and passes of Conaille-Muirthcmne, Cuchulainn, alone and unaided, delays and impedes the four great
58 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
•
provinces of fiire, all which unto the world's utmost end never can be requited." " Death and destruction fall upon him who presumes to challenge the king/' quoth Cathbad. But Conchobhar said: "The word is true that Sualtach says." '* Ay, true indeed," all Ulster as one man made answer. Then Conchobhar awoke from his lassitude, and he sent a messenger of his household to number and call to arms the warriors of Ulster ; but through the con- fusion of mind caused by his recent trance and pains as of child-birth, the king enumerated to him their dead as well as their living.' It would appear that the length of the warrior's trance depended upon the condition of the king ; for when the messenger goes forth with the royal command, all Ulster springs, as one man, to arms.
From a mythological point of view this long trance, ex- tending from October to February (i>. throughout the winter season), would seem to suggest the decay and sleep of nature during these months; while the solitary conflict of Cuchulainn with the forces of Meave, the forces of death and darkness, may symbolise the solitary efforts of the sun to break through its chains. If we regard Cuchulainn as the Irish Sun-hero, such a conception would be in all respects a natural one. Probably, however, there is some physical origin also for the occurrence. Old romance writers sought to explain the curious phenomenon of the prostration of an entire province at moments of urgent need for activity by such fine imaginative conceptions as the Tale of Macha ; modern theorists have ascribed it to a custom similar to that known as the couvade.^ There is, however, no instance on record, so far as I am aware, of the couvade being extended to a whole tribe or nation ; nor is there any sign in Irish literature of the prostration of the Ultonians having originated in the same cause. It has
* Pennant mentions an instance of the couvade in his Tour in Scotland, vol. ii. . p. 91 quoted, by Wm. Mackenzie in his Gaelic IncantcUions^ Charms y and Blessings of the Hebrides.
Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa. 59
nothing whatever to do with the concerns of a particular family; it concerned the whole grown male population, save, by special exemption, Ciichulainn; and it lasted, according to the tale of The Debility of the Ultonians for five days, but actually (at least at the period of the Tdin B6 Cuailgne) for about four months, during which time Cuchulainn sustained the combat single-handed.
There is in Jevons's Introduction to the History of Religion a passage that seems to throw a possible light on this singular matter. In speaking of Taboos of Time, he gives the following examples of inactivity of a somewhat similar sort to that which afflicted Ulster. "On the day of a chief's death, " he says, quoting from Ellis's Tshi-speaking Peoples, " work of all kinds is tabooed ; everything done on that day is defiled. The Tshi-speaking Negroes celebrate an annual feast for the dead, generally lasting for eight days, and the whole eight days are termed ' eight seats, ' because it is a period of rest during which no work may be per- formed. " Again he says, quoting from Gage's New Survey of the West Indies : " In the New World, the funeral ceremonies lasted five days, and in all that time no fire was permitted to be kindled in the city, except in the kingfs house and temples; nor yet was any corn ground nor market kept, nor durst any go out of his house. " So on the Gold Coast, ''on a day sacred and set apart for the offering of sacrifice to a local god, the inhabitants abstain from all work, smear their bodies with white clay, and wear white clothes in sign of mourning .... On the Slave Coast every tribal and local god has, with the exception of Mawn, his holy day." ^
It is apparently, then, a common practice among certain tribes or nations to keep special periods of time with rigid abstinence from work or activity of any kind. These periods of repose are attributable to one of two causes : the
' F. B. Jevons, Introd, to the History of Religion^ pp. 65, 66.
6o Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
sacrifice to a deity or the funeral solemnities of a defunct chief. Now in Ireland, funeral ceremonies were most care- fully observed, generally for several days at a time. As in Greece, most of the great fairs or feasts of Eire, in- cluding not only exchange of produce but games and races, as well as the promulgation of the laws, were commemo- rative of the death of some notable person, and took place in connection with the burial-mound. They were attended by all married men, and were days of general holiday and festivity. It is at least a curious coincidence that in the tale of Macha the debility of the Ultonians should be associated with one of these great assemblies or fairs, at which time the " curse " was said to have originated. The period of five days and nights there assigned as the dura- tion of the ces noiden Ulad also curiously coincides with the term of days over which the rites mentioned by Gage extended. It was probably the real length of the Ultonian abstention from work and warfare, but exaggerated in the Tdin for mythologfical reasons, or the more to cover Cuchulainn with glory.
If in the northern province, there were in fact such regularly recurring periods of enforced inactivity, they would naturally become known throughout fiire, and the enemies of Ulster would be likely to choose these moments as especially propitious for warfare, knowing that the Ulster warriors were unable to break through their geasa and enter the field against them. Macha, it is true, foretold that the ** curse " would fall, not at regular intervals, but when special danger threatened the province ; but it is equally simple to read the prophecy the other way, and to suppose that the enemies of Ulster waited until the moment of the ces noiden Ulad to begin their raids and cattle-lifting on the borders. Some such cause of the mysterious inactivity of the Ultonians seems at least to supply a more adequate explana- tion than by ascribing it to the couvade, in which only one special family could have been involved, and which
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa.
6i
L
therefore in no way accounts for the prostration of the entire male population of the province.
As is but natural, the tabus of the Cuchulainn cycle accumulate around the head of the two chief semi-divine personages, Cuchulainn and Conchobhar. Conall, Fergus, Cormac conhinges (Conchobhar's son), and other chiefs are all more or less affected by them, but not to the same de- gree. A good number of thes^ geasa may be ascribed to precaution, another series to early ideas of morality, and a large number to primitive notions of honour. They formed, indeed, a traditional code of chivalrous practice. Some, like those in the Book of Rights were evidently hereditary, others were laid upon the infant before or after birth, others were inspired by motives of revenge or the desire to injure their object. They were generally, especially the birth- tabus, prescribed by Druids ; but anyone seems to have had the power to inflict them, and they appear to have been equally binding, however imposed. They often resulted in serious evil, as the prohibition of Fergus to refuse a feast, which led to the tragical death of the Sons of Usnach, or the strict geasa left by Cuchulain n with Aife for the guidance of their son Conla, which resulted in the death of the youth at the hand of his own father. A tabu of special interest is the Polluted Stream tabu, common among many nations ; o( which an example will be found in the Tdin B6 Cuailgne, where Loch mdr refuses to do combat with Cuchulainn at the ford at which his brother had fallen, because it had been polluted by his death. A curious tabu which appears in the Finn saga and which appears explicable by a comparison with the ideas of other nations, is that of Diarmuid O'Duibhne's prohibition to pass through a wicket-gate. When a difficulty arises as to a means of exit, he deliberately leaps over the obstacle rather than break his geasa. At first sight this seems a purely inconsequent prohibition, without purpose or meaning, yet similar objections to passing through or under obstacles are
62 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
entertained among some nations at the present day. The head being regarded among primitive peoples as peculiarly sacred, as the seat of a spirit very sensitive to injury or disrespect, the danger anticipated is that any drop of water, blood, or other matter falling on it from above should pollute it. Mr. Frazer gives a great number of curious examples illustrating the wide prevalence of the idea. The following is almost an exact parallel to the Irish case. He says : " Gattanewa, a Marquesan chief, and all his fariiily, scorned to pass a gateway that is ever closed, or a house with a door ; all must be as open and free as their unrestrained manners. Often I have seen him walk the whole length of our barriers in preference to passing be- tween our watercasks, and at the risk of his life scramble over loose stones of a wall rather than go through a gate- way.*' ^ A similar idea may very possibly have prevailed in Ireland.
The geasa of Cuchulainn form the substance of a special tract. Very great importance is attached to them, and thev exceed in strictness and multiplicity those of any other hero of the cycle. In the tract which forms the beginning of a piece entitled, " The Violent Deaths of Goll and Garb," a list of them is given.' It commences thus : " The tabus and many burdens which lay on Cuchulainn, on the famous stripling of the Red Branch, on the son of Conchobhar's sister, on the bright-mantled one of Line, on the guardian of the Kine of Magh Breagh. These were his tabus : to name himself to a single warrior ; to swerve a foot from his path before single combat ; to refuse single combat ; to enter an assembly without leave ; to go with a single warrior to an assembly.'* These were evidently honour-tabus. Others have a moral purpose, and one seems to refer to his excessive activity as the sun-hero.
* D. VoxiQXy Journal of a Cruise made in the Pacific Ocean^ ii., 65, quoted Frazer, Golden Bough, 1st ed., i., 190. ' T^. L. fac. p. 107, b. 22-3a
" A tabu of his was that the sun should rise upon him in Emain-Macha ; it was he, on the contrary, who should rise before it."
More curious are the tabus of Cortnac conloinges, Conchobhar's son, which are fully set forth in the tale of the " Destruction of the Bruidhen da Choga," at which place, one of ancient Ireland's most famous houses of hospitality, he met his death through the breaking of his geasa. They were laid upon him at birth by Cathbad the Druid. "Many and great tabus," says the romance, " stood against Cormac, It was tabu to him to be borne by horses yoked with an ashen yoke; it was tabu to him to swim at one time with the birds of Loch Lo ; to have a stag with golden horns in front of his hounds ; to have contact with the dewy moisture of Cluain-Finnabhrach. To go astray in passing out of one province into another was forbidden to him, and it was forbidden to him to listen to Craiphtine's harp. It was tabu to him to pass dry-foot over the Shannon, to be by women accompanied over old Athmore, and for his hounds to pursue the swift hare of Magh- Sainbh. These were Cormac's tabus, which on the night when he was born were laid on him by Cathbad the Magician." In the tale we find that he was obliged to break his geasa, and his death was the result. P'or instance, he had been a former lover of the wife of Craiphtine, the most noted harpist in Eire, and on the night of the attack on Cormac, Craiphtine, in a fit of jealousy, standing outside where Cormac was unaware of his presence, played an air so sweet and enervating that the youth, overcome by its melody, fell an easy prey to his enemies. Curious and fan- tastic as some of these tabus appear, and utterly inexplicable to us, they are not more curious than many of the semi- historic prohibitions of the Book of Rigkls. They at all events show that such ideas were familiar in Ireland.
In the same manner the death of Cuchulainn is over- poweringly certified to him when one after another his
64 Old Irish Tabus f or Geasa.
geasa are broken. His approaching end is surroanded bjr omens. When he rises to go forth to the battle of Muirthemne in which he feO, " his mantle's border chanced under his feet, so that he unwittingly was put sitting. He from that misadventure upspringing rose again, red for shame, and the golden pin in his mantle flew upwards, then downwards falling, pierced his foot through to the earth. ' True,' said Cdchulainn, ' the cloak-pin is a foe, the cloak a friend, it warns me.' " When he leaps into his chariot his weapons fall down beneath his feet ; his horse, the Grey of Macha, refuses to come at his call ; the M6rrigan, the God- dess of War and Conflict, breaks his chariot-wheels : all this to him a " mighty foreshadowing of evil."
The " Washer of the Ford " who foretells the death of heroes, is seen by Cuchulainn washing his bloody gear. When his mother, Dechtire^ meets him to offer him a cup, the drinking of which iiad ever presaged victory, it is thrice filled with blood. He answers : " Lady, as regards thyself, there is no fault ; it is that my geasa are destroyed, and my life's end is near ; from the men of £ire I shall not return alive to-day." ^
There is no doubt that all the chief personages of this cycle were regarded as the direct descendants, or it would be more correct to say, as avatars or re-incamations of the early gods. Not only are their pedigrees traced up to the Tuatha D6 Danann, but there are indications in the birth-stories of nearly all the principal personages that they are looked upon simply as divine beings reborn on the human plane of life. These indications are mysterious, and most of the tales which deal with them show signs of having been altered, perhaps intentionally, by the Christian transcribers. The doctrine of re-birth was naturally not one acceptable to them. In such stories as that which de- tails the marvellous transformations of the two Sidh swine-
» Brisleck nUr Maige Murthemne, or Great Defeat of Murthemne's Plain, MS. 17 12, Brit. Mus., Egerlon 132, fol. i.
Old Irish Tabus, or Geasa. 65
herds who eventually became the two terrible bulls who play their part in the Tain Bo Cuailgne ; or of the goddess Etain, who becomes the mortal wife of a king of Ireland (stories which were probably less familiar, and therefore less liable to undergo change), the re-birth doctrine is distinctly laid down ; and it corresponds with the indications in the other tales. Conchobhar, moreover, is spoken of as a terrestrial god; and Dechtire, his sister, and the mother of Ciichulainn, is called 2 goddess. ' In the case of Ctichulainn himself, it is distinctly noted that he is the avatar of Lugh lamhfada (long-hand), the sun-deity of the earliest cycle. Lugh appears to Dechtire, the mother of Ciichulainn, and tells her that he himself is her little child, i.e. that the child is a re-incarnalion of himself; and Ciichulainn, when inquired of as to his birth, points proudly to his descent from Lugh. When, loo, it is proposed to find a wife for the hero, the leason assigned is, that they "knew that his re-birth would be of himself."
Before leaving the subject, it maybe interesting to point out, that among the Welsh Mabinogion, it is only in those in which, by the test of language. Professor Rhys discovers a Goidelic or Gaelic influence, that we find geasa playing a part. Out of the twelve tales translated by Lady Charlotte "luest and included by her under the general title of Mabinogion, there are five of Gaelic or Irish origin, viz. KilhwchandOhven, or the Hunting of TwrchTrwyth; PywII, Prince of Dyved; Branwen, Daughter of Llyr; Manawyddan son of Llyr; and Math, son of Mathonwy. These tales stand quite apart from the others, and have peculiarities of their own. They deal with the adventures of the various children of Don, the Irish Tuatha De Danann, and in them I geasa play an important part. To place a person under
V geasa is in Welsh called "swearing him a swear" {tyngu
\ tynghed), but it is more usually translated " to swear him a
I destiny." Professor Rhys has pointed out in the volume
b ' dia lalmaidc, >ee L. U. lOlb ; Ciiihulainn mi dta dechliri, L. L. tajb.
^^^H xii>
whi I Goi
' Kil
66 Old Irish Tabus^ or Geasa.
of th6 International Folklore Congress, 1891 (pp. 149-152), that Lady Charlotte has not always done this phrase justice in her translation. ^ One of her notes to Manawyddan ab Llyr, taken from a Triad relating the adventures of this prince, alludes to the same matter. ** Three makers of Golden Shoes, of the Isle of Britain, Caswallawn son of
Beli : ; Manawyddan, son of Llyr Llediath, when
he went as far as Dyved laying restrictions, &c.'*
It is in these tales that we find the greatest number of resemblances to Irish romance ; and whether they date from a period before the " Gael of the East of the Sea " {i.e. Cornwall and South Wales) parted from the " Gael of the West,*' or whether they belong to the period of the later immigrations from Ireland, it is interesting to find the same features predominating, features distinct in character from those found in the purely Welsh or Brythonic stories of North Wales.
I I am indebted to the author for these references. See Professor Rhys' Notes on the Hunting of Twrch Trwyth^ Trans, CymmrodorUm Soc.^ 1S94-5, pp. 1-37. The Goidels in Wales ^ Archaologia Cambrensis for 1895, PP- '^-39, and Goidelic Words in Brythonic^ ibid,^ pp. 264-302.
COLLECTANEA.
A Buddhist Wheel of Life from Japan.
The picture of which the frontispiece is a reduced reproduction, was given to me by my friend Professor Anesaki of Tokio, at present resident in Kiel. In the description of it which appeared in Man (January, igoi), was included a translation, by the late Mr. T. Watters, of the Chinese text at the foot of the picture. It will not be necessary therefore to do more here than supply a key to the picture, and call attention to the points interesting to folk- . lorists.
Commencing with the nave, we find Buddha seated in the ^ centre (the white circle showing perhaps that he is supposed to be outside the wheel ; on the other hand it may be that the corporeal Buddha is regarded as a part of the illusion of this worid, and "therefore placed within the wheel); in the yellow circle are a dove, a serpent, and a pig, emblematic of evil cravings, malice, and stupidity. In the body of the wheel, which is conceived as continually revolving, are five " Resorts," or " Ways of Life " — Hell at the bottom, in a very simplified form, however, and hardly suggestive of the Inferno of Dante, or likely ' to have given him ideas for it ; at the top is Yama, god of the dead, and on either side of him good and bad angels ; below are the various punishments— on the right the hot hell, in the centre a person having his (or perhaps her) tongue torn out, a requital reserved for slanderers ; on the extreme left we have perhaps the cold hell, and above it a person is held by the hair by a demon before a mirror to see his or her sins in it ; the actual occurrence in the mirror seems to be a murder, committed by hurling the victim over a precipice.
In the next Resort we have the tantalised ghosts. The details are here unfortunately not sufficiently clear in the original to make a good picture. The tantalised ghosts are here represented as emaciated human beings, who, when they endeavour to eat and drink, find that everything which they touch turns to fire. They are elsewhere repreiienled with large stomachs, mouths the .size of
68 Collectanea.
a pinhole, throats the size of a hair ; this detail in the picture is Japanese.
The other three Ways of Life explain themselves ; it may, how- ever, be noted that in the " Resort of Man " there are four continents. Of these the Eastern one is that of " Men," i.e. the Chinese in this case, who apparently, like so many other peoples, apply this term to themselves par excellence. In the north we should find the country of horses, but what is actually represented is a man engaged in binding sheaves. It is not clear how this feature comes into the picture. The Gilyaks who live north of the Amur get their com by exchange from the Chinese; it is true they formerly cultivated millet, and the picture may refer to this ; for though drawn by a native of Japan it is clearly almost entirely under the influence of Chinese ideas. The original name — country of horses — seems equally to demand explanation; the term can hardly refer to the present neighbours of the Chinese. It would be interesting to learn how far back the name can be traced and how far there is a historical basis for it.
The same remark applies to the country on the west — the country of oxen ; it is difficult to see how this can refer to any period except one antecedent to the introduction of the ox in North China, where it is employed in ploughing ; and even then it is not clear to what neighbours it refers ; the nomadic hordes of Central Asia would surely be too far away.
On the rim are buckets containing human beings, some dis- appearing head downwards typifying death, ue. passing out of one form of existence, and others emerging head upwards, typifying birth, i,e, entering upon a new form of existence; the buckets are naturally at the end of the spokes which divide the ** Ways of Life." The whole is held in the grasp of the great Demon of Impermanency, who is, unlike many of the figures, of a thoroughly Japanese type. It is interesting to note that he has points of connection with the mediaeval Devil. The white circle of Nirvana is at the top of the picture. The small figures round the wheel are typical of the twelve Niddncu^ or Causes of Existence. There are eighteen pictures, five going to the twelfth Niddna and three to the eleventh. The series commences with (i) the demon in the centre (typifying ignorance), then follow (2) a wheel (elemental matter), (3) a monkey (consciousness), (4) a man crossing a stream (perhaps the rise of self-consciousness),
Stray Notes on "Japanese Folklore. 69
■ (5) a naked man (the senses), (6) a man and woman in contact, r (7) figures typifying pain and pleasure, (8) a wfoman with children (affection), (9) a man drawing water, (10) the God Brahma (existence), (11) three st^es of life, and finally (12) scenes typifying pain and sorrow. The meaning is very often doubtful, and I there/ore pass over some of the scenes without suggesting what they typify.
As I have elsewhere pointed out, we see in the three-headed figure representing BrahmS a small head above the other three ; this is usually a feature of the images of Avalokita, who was in later limes depicted with several heads ; in view of the capricious nature, however, of Japanese art in these respects it is a question what is really intended.
The first scene of the twelfth Nidana represents a funeral ; on
the bier supported by the bearers is a Swastika, for which we have
in English no popular name like the German " Hakenkreuz."
There does not seem to be any significance attached in the Far
East to the direction of the bent arms of this emblem, which as
here depicted is left-handed. I am not quite sure what meaning
we should attach to it here. In China it is the custom to have it
on the grave-clothes, prepared many years before the person
L expects to die, when its influence is supposed to conduce to
^longevity. This can hardly be the case here unless it is the living
I who are to reap the benefit of it. On the other hand there is no
l:ieason to regard it as merely decorative in its object.
The picture was the work of the grandfather of Professor I Anesaki ; it is dated 1850. There is another picture of the same I sort in existence in Japan, dated a few years earlier. It seems L very probable that both go back to a Chinese original of great age, [ but of this I have so far no proof- The details of three of the ■Kesorts are distinctly old Chinese. I hope at a future period to e able to give the whole history of the picture.
N. W. Thomas.
Strav Notes on Japankse Folkloek.
The following notes of Japanese superstitions were communi- I cated to me at various times in the course of conversation on 1 European folklore, by Professor Anesaki of Tokio.
70 Collectanea.
If a man feeds a thousand white hares in his house, one of his daughters will, marry an emperor. [From Heike-monogaiuri^ a thirteenth-century poem.]
At the Oharai or great purification, (end of July and February), an idol was formerly thrown into the river as a scapegoat.
Formerly a man whose house took fire was taboo.
During drought, torchlight possessions are sometimes made to a shrine on the top of a mountain. The idol is sometimes bound with cords until rain comes (but ct/oum. Anth, Inst.^ xxvi., 30).
Domestic pigeons are not eaten ; they are fed in the temples. The pigeon is the sacred bird of the Minamoto clan, at the crises of whose history a white pigeon appears ; there are many white pigeons in the temple of the clan-god Hatchiman.
Sailors feed black cats, which can foretell change of weather. Three-coloured cats (termed mikt) are more powerful in magic than others.
Swallows in cages are bought merely to set them free. They are also released during funeral rites. Pigeons are set free at the launch of a ship.^
" This custom being more unusual than the others noted, and in itself of some interest, I add the following parallels :
(a) The Valav^ of Madagascar have each their special Fady\ in some cases this includes all animals which have hair or feathers ; in other cases only indi- vidual species. They say that the souls of their forefathers have entered these animals, and when they are kept in captivity, buy them and set them at liberty ; if they are dead, they bury them {Globus, xliv., 284).
(b) On August 1st (New Year's Day), the Armenians set free pigeons and losects (Erman, Arckiv., xv., 144).
(c) At Champ d'ioux (Nivemais), the lord of the manor had to release a wren annually (Holland, ii.; 297).
(d) At Paris, swallows are purchased and set at liberty (Holland, ii., 321. Cf. R^' ^^ Trad, Pop.y iv., 229 ; Globus, xlviii., 186).
(b) On March 22nd, cakes in the form of larks are made in the Ukraine and thrown into the air ; this probably points to a similar custom (Reinsberg- Dttringsfeld, Ethnogr. Curiositaten, i., 128).
It seems clear that these cases, in their present form, cannot be referred to a single origin. In the case of the Festival Customs it seems possible that we may regard the bird as a scapegoat (cf. Volkskunde, vi., 155). The Battas of Sumatra set free a swallow as a means of getting rid of a curse. {Allg. Missions Zeitschr,, xii., p. 478.) The Japanese custom is commonly, but perhaps on insufficient grounds, attributed to a Buddhist origin ; the Madagascar custom seems clearly totemistic ; the Ukraine custom may be no more than a celebra- tion of the return of spring-
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts. 71
In pictures, the quail seems to be associated in some way with millet
Carp are eaten for luck.
On May 5th a carp cut out in paper or cloth is hung on a pole. Professor Anesaki sends me a picture of this, of which he says :
" This is a picture of popular May-festival in Japan. The 5th of May is celebrated to felicitate the future career of boys. Carp, sweet-flag (in this picture), oak-leaves, are all the symbols of victory or power. This day was originally the festival celebrating the subjugation of the devils of pestilence, the reminiscence of which remains in the use of sweet-flag leaves and flowers, because this grass is believed to have medical powers. The festival is called * Gogatz-no-sek ' (May-festival) or * Ayame-no-sek ' (Sweet- flag festival)."
The intestines of executed criminals were formerly eaten ; this was believed to give strength.
A person's nails were also boiled in water, which was then dnmk by any one who wished to acquire his qualities.
Chips from a gravestone, (especially of a man who has been executed or died a violent death), bring luck in speculation.
A tooth falling out portends the death of a relative.
To find the body of a drowned person, a piece of paper with a magic formula is thrown into the water and stops over the spot where the body is.
The southern (?) Chinese bury one boot in the coffin and keep the other in the house ; the dead will then visit the house.
N. W. Thomas.
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts
The district from which these notes have been collected is in South-west Wilts, in a valley running north and south between the downs and ending at Warminster. Most of them come from Hill Deverill and Longbridge Deverill, two adjoining parishes about halfway down the valley. Dorset and Somerset are but a few miles off; the country is hilly ; the villages are self-contained, and the population is not scattered. Longbridge DeveriU is at the junc-
72 Collectanea.
tion of two main routes, the Warminster and Shaftesbury road, and the road from Heytesbury to Bruton and Wincanton; but Hill till 1854 had only field roads and footpaths.
The Manor Farm at Hill Deverill, often mentioned below, has buildings going back to about 1500; it is built on the edge of a marsh made by the river Deverill, and stands by itself in a lonely and dreary situation.
The materials have been collected by me during the last twelve years, mostly from old agricultural labourers and their wives, some of whom are still living; and the information has come practically first-hand, both from the labouring class and from other natives of these parishes, except where I have noted otherwise.
It will be convenient to follow the classification of Mr. Gomme in his Handbook to Folk-Lore (1890). I have been scrupulously exact to preserve as far as possible the precise words and form of sentence in which the narrations were given, and not to add or edit where there were any gaps ; but for purposes of convenience I have not generally attempted to keep the dialectical forms of words. The date of receiving the narration is given in every case.
I
Superstitious Belief,
Trees. — If a branch was blown down off certain old ash trees at the Manor Farm, this portended the death of one of the family living there. (1889.)
GoBLiNDOM. — Ghosts. — ^The great-grandfather of my informant was driving his master to Hindon one night, and '* sum'at clung on to the carriage behind. ' Drive, Jim, as hard as you can,' he said, and sum'at came out, and they never seed the going on't ; and the horses ran with sweat when they got into Hindon."
''A Deverill man was courting at Hindon, and he walked home down Lord's Hill, and he seed sum'at, and he said, ' If thou be the devil, appear bodily;' and he seed sum'at as had eyes as big as a tea-saucer ; he didn't know how he got home, and the sweat poured down him like rain, and every single hair of his head did stand on end ; and he never seed the going on't." (1889.)
On " Midsummer night " my informant went, as a boy, about 1833, to the churchyard at Hill, " to see them come out and in;" he wanted to see the ghost of his " butty " (his companion in
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts.
fieldwork). Men without beads have been seeu in the church, and a little child, and " a turr'ble sight o' galleysome (fearsome) things." (1894.)
There is a coach with a headless coachman on Lord's Hill.
A woman in white rustled past John B on the Manor House
A tall lady in silk rustled past my informant, "just at the turn into the turnpike road, when I was carrying some tracen (traces)." (1894.)
Round the last of the family of Coker, who owned the Manor, , have gathered the following stories. (He died in 1736.)
" Old Coker " is seen silting, or heard riding (see below) j he has been seen sitting " on the dreshol (threshold) of the bam, so that they had to go in another way." (1894.)
Two children "came out and danced before" a woman working
at the Manor Farm. A former tenant-farmer (Mr. C ) has
been seen sitting on a stile in the Bradley Road (1889); and (1897) in Brixton Deverill a dwelling-house is haunted; "Old Coker did come again " before it was altered.
But besides these, there is invisible agency. An unseen hand
pelts with stones Joe G as he works at the Farm. Something
"galleys" (frightens) the horses ploughing. Invisible hands place a jug of drink, while men are threshing in the bam. Pots will not stay on the fire at a farmhouse at Kingston Deverill, but jump off; and apples on the floor overhead dance about. (1895.)
Where the under-carter slept, at the Manor Farm, something would "come and pull the clothes off hJm " (1894) ; " two may- dens " would do this (1899). "I'll throw my shoe at 'ee," said he; and at Tytherington something would come at night in a certain house, and lay the " hangles " (pot-hooks) on a la^e hearth-stone. ( i S99,)
And (1890) one of the farm lads opened the barn early in the morning, and heard the cake-cutter going of itself.
Laying Spirits. — There was a spirit in a house at Heytesbury, and the "parsons" were summoned to "conjure" it (accent on the d), but they all "gied out" and were "mastered," except Parson Smith.
A spirit should be accosted thus, solemnly ; " In the name of the Lord, why troubles! ihou here ? " Spirits cannot address you, you must speak to them first. (18S9.)
74 Collectanea.
The spirit of Lord appeared to his widow in a certain
room ; she had wrapped herself in a lamb's skin. The "parsons went to c6njure it," but Parson S was the only one who suc- ceeded ; " the other parsons gied out, and if it had not been for Parson S they would have been torn in pieces." After con- versation, the spirit asked, ''What is the simplest thing in the world?" The Parson said, "A lamb." Then the ghost was laid. The Parson wanted to lay the ghost in the Red Sea, but the ghost
begged not to be put there. Lady was dressed in a lamb's
skin, because a spirit will tear ^ou in pieces if you do not answer its questions, but it will not hurt a lamb's skin. Others say (1893)
that Lady went once a year, wearing a sheepskin inside out,
to talk with her husband.
On that night there was a fearful storm ; my informant's house was "unheled" (thatch blown off). (When there was a great tempest, people would say, "They're conjuring.") This laying can be dated. " It was nine days before I had my second son,
and the night when a woman named C at Sutton had twins;"
that is, somewhere about 1854. (1894.)
Apparitions, — My informant's wife was ill of small-pox, and as he was passing by Longbridge Deverill churchyard, on his way to sleep at another house, he seemed to see a funeral, and as it were the corpse carried on men's shoulders. Soon his son came running after him to call him back, and told him his wife was dead.
(1895.) The ''Spectral Hunt'' is attached to the name of "OldCoker,"
who drives his hounds round "Gun's Church," the name of a
round barrow on a down at the south-east extremity of Hill
parish, or through his "grounds" by the house, "horses galloping
and chains ratding," and the horn sounding. (1889.)
The devil appeared in the form of a hare at the hanging of two men on Warminster Down in 1813 ; it started out among the spectators, and no one dared stop it. (1889.)
The devil appeared in the form of a dog one Palm Sunday when there was the annual gathering on Longbridge Deverill Cow- down ; some one said the devil was there in the shape of a dog. " Sum'at was there, anyhow," and they all ran away. " After that there were no more gatherings." (1898.)
A certain farmer said he would revisit his farm on a lonely moor near and run about it in the shape of a rat. (1895.) He
Folklore Notes from South-'west Wilts. 75
Bbad a reputation for wickedness, and it is a fact thai the dead of ) his family were buried not in the churchyard but in his fields ; he died about i860. Thus, in a thunderstorm, he would say of a peal of thunder, if his wife was frightened, " Thai's a good rush- bowl " (rushbowls are skittles).
Witchcraft. — One old man of an older generation was spoken of as being able lo " rule the planets." (1896.)
A certain thatcher, who came from Hampshire, is said to have bewitched cows. (1889,)
Buried Treasure. — There is treasure buried in certain fields. The view given me is, that there were not the present facihties for keeping money, and therefore the owners were reduced to hide it ; and the appearances of persons are due to the owners of the buried money harbouring round the place and drawing atten- tion to it. Or in another form, Mr. C sees a light by a
certain old tree in " conigre " (rabbit warren) on his farm. He asks the estate-steward for the tree, and when it is grubbed, a " bushel of guineas " is found.
?er plate is buried in a well in the field beyond Hill Church ; some call it the " church plate." (1894.) And somewhere there is a golden cofBn buried. A pot jumps about in a house ; they dig underneath and find |lnoney. (1893.)
GENERAt Superstition.— Tht head. — If a child had two " crowns " on his head, that is, two places from which the hair radiates, it was a sign that he would "eat his bread in tnro nations." (1898.)
Cock-erowing. — At night, cocks crow at the hour, and crow the humber of the hour. (1898.}
il.
Traditionai Customs.
Fe-stivals. — On Palm Sunday there were gatherings on Long- bridge Deverill Cow-down to play "trap," going up by "Jacob's ladder." The young men, with the elders to watch them, would " beat the ball " up Cow-down and then play trap.
And on Palm Sunday the women and children would go out inlo the fields "to tread the wheat" (1897.)
76 Collectanea.
Crockerton Revel (1893). (I give the infonnation, but cannot verify the historical fact underlying it) Thomas ^ Becket " used to come to Crockerton Revel dressed like a gentleman, and he would depart through the wood dressed like a beggar, in rags, having spent all his money at the Revel." He is said to have consecrated Longbridge Deverill Church, which is the parish church ; and certainly the oldest stone work in it is of about his date. The Revel is on the first Sunday after the Translation of Thomas ^ Becket, the day of which is July 7 th.
The following story is told me about Wishford, a village some twelve miles off, on the Great Western Railway line next to and north-west of Wilton. An oak-bough is cut annually on May 29th and hauled down into the village. It is then decked with ribbons and hung from the church tower, and the day is kept as a Revel. It gives the villagers the right of getting dead wood from Grovely Wood. (1896.)
Oxen were said to kneel on the night of the Nativity. My informant when a boy would propose to go out to the farmyard opposite where he lived and see them. This belief is not much heard of now. (1898.)
Children's Games. — Dred-the-wold-'ooman's needle. Turn the-barrel.
Local Custom. — The church land at Lx)ngbridge Deverill is let " by the candle." I am not aware of the custom anywhere else in this immediate neighbourhood, but it exists at Alder- maston, near Newbury.
III. Traditional Narratives,
An old man would tell a story in the following way : " There were a time, 'tweren't in my time, neither in your time, nit (nor yet) in anybody else's time ; 'twere when magpies builded in old men's beards and turkey-cocks chewed bacca;^ all over hills, dales, mountains, and valleys, so far as I shall tell you to-night, or to-morrow night, or ever I shall tell you before I've done, if I can." (1895.)
* Apparently something is lost here.
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts.
Creation Mvth. — This small fragment can be illustrated from other parts of the world : " I've heard 'em say that Adam v
made and then put up again' a wold (old) hurdle to dry." (1895.) Fragments of Ballad (?). — T/ie Comical Man.
n had a river to cross,
I 10 slay where he was." (1S95-)
A fragment not identified (1895). " Jack-in-bog ■ ■ . ■ put meal for the horse and straw foi Ihe lion."
Place Traditions. — It is not the function of folklore to chronicle the facts of history that are known independently, but rather the popular additions to these facts. For example, the names attached to fields by which the names of former occupiers are preserved need not be mentioned, except where a story has become attached. But I give some such traditions of history (1889). The story of King Alfred and the cakes is localised at Brixton Deveril!, in the grass ground south of the rectory. Alfred is called " him of Stourton." (At Kingsettle Hill, Stourton, some few miles off, is a tower built about 1722 as being the spot where he " erected his standard against Danish invaders.")
The dim past is called the time " when there was a king in every county."
In the Manor Farm Hill, "a romantic place "{1893), "traitors" were shut up (1889). Coker, the former owner (died 1736), is said to be " a robber, and many went into the house that never came out." There are blood-marks on one bedroom floor. " He was a robber, and used to go about at night with men and rob. He kept a cannon at the round window."
The house was like "a den of thieves" (1894). Some connect it with smugglers (1894).
The following traditions are preserved of the Civil Wars. The farmer's house at Hill Deverill that goes with the mill was a rendezvous or headquarters. Upon the shoulder of the hill south-east of the Manor Farm cannon were said to have been mounted, and to have battered down the " houses " which stood on the rising ground south of the church. It is interesting, how-
78 Collectanea.
ever, to know that the " brows " and ridges in these fields, which this tradition calls the remains of houses, are really the site of a British village, of which traces may also be seen, though less conspicuously, in the rising ground behind the Manor House, and indeed all over the high ridge of Cold Kitphen and Bid- combe, to the western boundary of the parish (1889).
A beam in the bam at Rye Hill Farm is called " Coker's bed- stead." The timber is said to have been brought from a bam that was pulled down at the Manor Farm (Coker's).
The " Devil's parrock " (dialectical for paddock) is so called, because horses when ploughing there, or when going alone in the drove hard by, would be frightened by something and run away (1894).
" Gun's Church," a round barrow on the eastern boundary, has been already mentioned as having the " Spectral Hunt " localised at it.
At Longbridge Deverill people were afraid to go up the Church Lane in the dark, lest "woolpacks should roll down from the thicket " upon them ; and kegs of brandy are said to have rolled from it (1895).
A fragment of wall abutting on the road from Warminster to Longbridge Deverill, north of the churchyard, is called "the Jew's wall." The story attached is that a Jew was murdered on Lord's Hill, and that they would not bury him in the churchyard, so he was buried outside, at this spot. Historically, this wall is the remains of the wall that ran round the yard of the Manor House, which was standing in 1660.
The following is the origin of Cley Hill, near Warminster, a round isolated prominent hill with a small knob on it, and by its side a smaller hill joined to it ; so that it is said —
« Big Cley Hill do wear a hat, Little Cley Hill do laugh at that."
(Warminster, 1874.)
The folk of Devizes had offended the devil, who swore he would serve them out. So he went " down the country " (i.e. into Somerset), and found a big " hump " and put it on his back, to carry it and fling it at them. On his journey back he met a man and asked him the way to Devizes. The man replied.
That's just what I want to know myself. I started for Devizes
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts.
79
when my beard was black, and now it's grey, and I haven't got there yet. The devil replied, " If that's bow it is, I won't carry this thing no further, so here goes," and he flung the "girt (great) hump" ofThis shoulder, and there it is. (Watminsler, 1893.)
Adjoining the mill at Boreham, one mile east of Warminster, is a meadow in which, local tradition says, hay will not be made without rain ; or when the grass is cut, rain will fall. The story is this : It had once been rainy for some time when the farmer wished to make his hay. A fine Sunday came, and he then hid his watch under one of the pooks (cocks). Then with his fork he turned over all the other pooks, and when people asked him why he was making hay on a Sunday, he explained that he had lost his watch under one of the pooks, and therefore was turning them over. So saying, he turned over the last pook which re- mained unturned, and there discovered the watch, and gained his real end.' (Bishopstrow, 1894),
Foik-Sayiiigs,
Rhymes. — The thumb and fingers.
■■ Tom Thumbkin Tom I6si«i Belly bOsten Long Iftsten Liitle pig a rOslcn
(This comes from North Wilts, 1894.)
A lullaby.
" Hush-a-hye, hahby, The beggar shnn'l have'ee
No more shall the maggotly-pye (magpie) ; The took nor the raven Shan'l car" thee to heaven (cany).
So hush-a.bye, babby, hy-byc."
(Hfard about 1870.)
8o Collectanea.
Of the seasons.
'* March will search April will try May will prove Whether you Uve or die." (1898.)
Children's rhyme.
'* Stare, stare, like a bear, And then you'll know me anywhere."
(Homingsham, 1898.)
Written in pencil, 1840, upon the whitewashed church porch. Hill.
" When life is past and death is come, Happy is thic ' that well hath done." (1896.)
Fragment for lying-in (?).
. " Pins and needles, victuals and clouts." (1889.)
A charm used when pulling out a tooth. Children look up the chimney and say.
'* Burn, bum, blue tooth. Please God send me a new tooth." (1895.)
And the tooth is thrown into the fire.
A rhyme to make a " gramfer-grig " (that is a wood-louse) curl into a ball.
" Gramfer-grig killed a pig. Hung 'en up in comer ; Gramfer cried and piggy died, And all the fiin was over. " ( i S94. }
Another version of line 2.
** Covered him with clover." (1896.}
A rhyme.
'* There once was a man with a girt black beard ; He kissed all the maidens, and made them afeard.
»
1 «(
That man "
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts. 8r
A rhyme of Shrovetide.
" Dame, a yuur pan hpl ?
L&rd Rnd corn is desi ; I've come a-shroving,
'Ti5 but once a year. So up to the flilch. And cut a girt sttlch ; If your hens don't lay, I'll steal your cock away Before nexl Shtove Tuesday."
A rhyme for a child.
" Draw a bucket of walei For my lady's daughter,
MUk the cow
Sar" the sow (serve), And turn (he ducks lo wafer." (1899.)
Place-Rhymes and Savings.— Rhymes representing what the church bells of the neighbouring parishes " say." Sotton Veney bells (eight),
" Poor old John Long is dead and goni:."
Monk ton Deverill (two).
Longbridge Deverill.
" Up on cow.duH'n. cow-cla(s. and c Thy dog bit my dog and made him
Horningshat
" Fire-pan, poker, tongs."
; reputation of Maiden Bradley is glanced at in the lines " The Bradley man has gone to sleep, And 'tis a pily lo wake him."
; Great Bear is called in Longbridge Deverill, "Jack and his learn going to pit," that is, to the coal-pit to fetch coal. The explanation Is this : it was the custom for farmers, and still con- linues, to send a waggon at night lo the Radstock pits for coal, la distance of some fourteen miles. Now, roughly speaking, the ; Bear moves in the same direction as a waggon leaving the tnllage for the coal-piis would take. Thus children, going out at
VOL- XII. G
82 Collectanea.
night (say to some meeting) in the school-room, would say as they went, " There's Jack and his team going to pit," and in coming out, they would notice how far he had moved. (1893.)
If anyone had not heard the cuckoo by Warminster Fair (April 23rd), people would say, " You must go to Warminster Fair and buy one." (1898.)
Flowers,— K child told my informant (1898) that with "lords and ladies," they try, by seeing which break off, which will go to hell, and which to heaven ; " and even some of the little ladies go to hell."
There is a great number of fanciful flower-names in this district which contain children's folk-stories condensed, and the Wiltshire Words (English Dialect Society, 1893) contains many from v^irious districts. From this district come " Granny jump out o' bed " (monkshood), "Sweethearts" (goose-grass), Granfer-griddle-goosey- gander (early purple orchis), a few miles off; Quiet Neighbours (red spur valerian) ; Hand of God (nipple-wort).
Proverbs. — It is not easy to define a " proverb." Lowell, in the introduction to the Biglow Papers^ remarks that almost every country has some good die-sinker in phrase, whose mintage passes into the currency of the whole neighbourhood." The following are examples of pure mother-wit, and some are plainly original, though others are familiar : —
" Children be first a yearm-ache (arm-ache), and a'ter^^-ards a heart ache."
** She was very onkind, but God is good and the world is wide."
" We change, the seasons don't."
*' 'Tis no good selling a breakfast and buying a dinner."
*' You can't go through the world in glassen slippers."
"Her'd lie abed till her wur vinny"^ (one old woman of another given to shamming). " A would skin a vlint vur a varden and spwile (spoil) a tenpenny nayl in doin' on't." " More store, more stink." " A lie's a lie, though the king tell it." " What's the good o' going to law when the court's in hell ? " " What be you a lookin' vor ? Lookin' for last year's snow ? " (said pettishly to an old woman poking about the house). " Ees, her wur a proper vool. Her wur missis of a public-house and left it for to be missis
I ((
Vinny " is used of blue-moulded cheese.
L
Folklore Notes from South-west Wilts. 83
of a teaty-pit " (potato-pit) (of an innkeeper's widow who married a labourer),' t" What sort of man is the new fatmer?" "Oh, lilce a crooked road, in and out." " Our Tom he's too wuld and loo stiff for a souldier ; perhaps they'd have en, if a were oiled and plyed," " My uncle worked seven years o' Sundays." The meaning is that he worked Iq\ forty-nine years; he was a shepherd, and therefore had to work on Sundays. If the number of Sundays he had worked during his life were added together, they would make seven years; multiply 52 Sundays by 49=™ 2,548; divide this by 365, and you get seven years.
Similes from Animal Life. — " They ran like two young grey- hounds." " I can't get out of Dobbin's pace." " Need to have a head Hke a hawk." "As cunning as a young rook." "The poor baby's arm's no thicker than a lamb's tail a'ter It's been skinned."
Various. — " What, be I to be shrowded like a wuld potly ? " (said by a man when told by the doctor that he would have to lose his arm, i.e. lopped like an old pollard). " These yere cats be passon and clerk " (one white, the other black). " I be just like a almanack, I can tell the changes coming" (said by a rheumatic woman). " Chatter-watter " is a good expression for " tea." Two good terms of abuse are " Thee girt maa-kin " (malkin, a long, thin haking-slick). " Thee little truckle-muxen " (little girl playing about in the mud). "Passon gied'em a physic- ball 'smaroin' in church." (All between 1888 and 1900,)
This small collection from a small locality, though possessing little that is remarkable, still illustrates fairly well the outlines of folklore ; and it is probable that much more might be gathered in other places like these, particularly in the region of popular superstition, as well as fragments of history with local interpreta- tions and additions.
John U. Powell, M.A.
84 Collectanea.
Folktales from the iEcEAN.
(Continued from voL xi., p. 456.)
XV. The Accursed Schoolmaster. (Lesbos.)
In a certain town there was a schoolmaster, who was one of the Accursed. Every day he used to eat a little girl. The king's daughter was one of his pupils. One day she came to school earlier than usual, and went up-stairs and saw him feasting on a girl. She ran down quickly and said nothing to anyone about it, but she said to herself, " I will go to-morrow and see if he does this every day." She went, and found him eating another little girl. On the third morning, as she was watching, he noticed her and caught her, and asked her if she had told anyone about it She swore she had not (if she had, he would have eaten her too) ; but he cut her with razors and tortured her to make her confess. When he had tortured her enough, he carried her away and put her on the roof of the palace of another king, and left her there.
This king was young, and lived with his mother. In the night he was awakened by the cries of a child overhead : " O blessed Mary, O my mother, help me : what shall I do ? " He ran and called his mother, and she said, " Wait until dawn, and we will go and see what it is." In the morning they went up on the roof, and found the little girl thus vilely used and half dead of wounds and cold and hunger. They took every care of her, and in a month or two she was well. Then the king said to his mother, " I will take her to wife ; she came and fell on our roof and she is my Kismet (fate)." " Marry her if you will," said his mother, " but remember we do not know what race she comes of. She may be of the Jews, or the Turks, or the Gipsies." But the king persisted in his resolve ; and when the girl was old enough he married her.
She became with child, and just before the time of her delivery the king had to go away to war. He begged his mother to take every care of his young wife, and she promised him that she would cherish her as she cherished himself.
The ypung queen gave birth to a beautiful boy ; but in the night came the Accursed One and took away the child, and persuaded her that she had eaten it. In the morning, when her mother-in-law came to see the baby, it was gone ; and when she
Folktales from the yEgean. 85
asked after it, the young mother said, " I have eaten it." When the king arrived his mother told him what had happened, and said she supposed his wife must belong to some tribe who were accustomed to eat their children. But although the king was very sorry, his love was still in its place, and he spoke no word of rebuke to his wife.
Again the young queen found herself with child, and again the king had to go to war, and commended her to his mother. This time the child was a beautiful girl, and the queen begged them to give her a roast lamb and lots to eat. In the ^night, however, the Accursed schoolmaster came back and took the child, and again made her think she had eaten it ; and this was all the reply her mother-in-law could get in the morning when she asked what had become of it.
The king, when he came back and heard of it, was very sorry, but still was steadfast in his love, and would not talk to his wife about it.
Again the queen conceived, and again the king had to go to war a little while before the babe was born. It was a lovely boy, and that night the mother asked them to give her a live lamb to eat, and when she was alone, she swaddled the lamb in the baby's clothes, and locked the baby up. But the Accursed, when he came, discovered the deceit, and made her bring him the child ; and in the morning, when the queen-mother asked where it was, the answer was the same as before : " I ate it."
This time the king, when his mother told him that his wife had eaten the third child too, was wroth, and threw his queen into a dungeon, and gave orders that she should be starved ; but from time to time her servants managed to bring her food, and so she kept her life in her. One day the schoolmaster appeared before her in the dungeon, leading three children (he had not eaten them, but taken' great care of them). " Here are your children," said he ; " but I will slay yourself and your husband." When the servants came to bring her food they recognised the children at once from their marks, and ran and told their master. When he came, the queen told him her whole story — how she was a king's daughter, and how the schoolmaster had ill-used her and cast her on the roof, and how he had come and stolen her children and persuaded her that she had eaten them, and of his threat to kill the king and her. " I will keep awake at night," said the king.
86 Collectanea.
and never closed his eyes ; and when the wall opened and the Accursed One came into their chamber, he shot an arrow at him and killed him.
XVI. Melidoni>
(Lesbos : told by Mersini. Cf. for the incidents No. VI.)
There was once a poor fisherman who had three daughters, and they were getting old enough to want husbands ; and, as is the wont of girls at that age, they were becoming very troublesome and quarrelsome. Their father was very poor; by his craft he made only just enough to keep his family alive. One day, when he was at the caf^, the cafezi asked him why he looked so sad. " I am thinking," said the fisherman, " how it will be possible to get a husband for my eldest daughter." Said the cafezi, " If you make yourself so miserable as that, you will have a fit of apoplexy, and your daughter will be worse off than ever. Go and pray to God, and make a cast with your net in the name of your daughter's luck." " Alas," said the fisherman, " what will a few pounds of fish be?" Nevertheless he took the cafezi's advice, and went for his nets, and made a cast in the name of his daughter's luck. Out came a great haul, 200 okes of fish ! He went and sold them for 800 piastres ; and taking the money in his pocket, he said, " Whoever will take my daughter with this money is welcome to her." On the road he met a youth whose appearance pleased him. " Good day," said he, " where do you come from?" "From Moria,"^ answered the boy. "If you would like to marry my daughter," said the fisherman, " here is 800 piastres ; it's all I can give you." " I may as well," said the boy to himself (he was a muleteer by trade); " it's enough for me to buy a horse and a pair of breeches for myself and a dress for my wife. So he answered, " All right," and went home with the fisherman and married his daughter.
In a year or two the cafezi noticed the fisherman looking very dismal again, and said to him, " I suppose it will be your second
* fieXidwvfi, "sorrow," or "care" : a Homeric word surviving still in this tale.
* A village near Mytilenc.
Folktales from the ^gean.
daughter this time that you want to marry? But what is the use of sitting with a face like that ? You managed to marry the first ; you ought to know how to set about it to dower the second. Go again, and pray, and cast your nets for her luclt." So the fisher- man went and cast his nets for his second daughter's luck ; and this time he got 300 okes of fish, which he sold for 2,000 piastres On his road he met a youth who took his fancy. " Good day, where are you from ? " " From Thermi," " Well, if you will marry my daughter, here is 2,000 piastres; it's all 1 have," The young man was a grocer's assistant, and he thought, " Well, that's enough to set up a small shop." So he consented, and ihey were married.
When it came to the youngest daughter's turn, the favourite, the cafezi saw the fisherman looking sadder than ever. " Well," said he, " what's the matter now ? " Said the fisherman, " I can't think how to get a dowry for my youngest daughter." The cafezi persuaded him to do the same as before, and again he went and cast his nets for his youngest daughter's luck. When he went to pull them up he could not move them, and he called all the boat- men and the steamer to come and help. They all pulled with all their might ; and when they drew the net up, what do you think there was in it? One enormous lobster! The fisherman sent into town for two carts, and on those they put the lobster, and the fisherman took it home with him. He called his daughter and said to her, "Here, this is your luck; you must marry the lobster ! " So she was married to the lobster, and her father and mother left her alone with it, and went away to another place.
The poor girl sat weeping, and had just cried herself to sleep, when she woke up with a start, and found by her side a very handsome young man, richly dressed. " Don't be afraid," said he. " 1 am your husband, and the lobster is my ship." ' At his command, tables with all kinds of delicacies were brought in, and they feasted logethRr, and then went to bed.
Thus they lived together for some time, and she was very happy, but her husband told her that if she ever saw him when her own people were with her she was on no account to tell who
I Ihat tapa^oi.
88 Collectanea.
he was. One day her mother and sisters came to see what she was doing, and whether she were alive or dead. They found her sitting and watching the lobster. Her mother said, "My poor child, you must be hungry. Shall we give you food?" "No," said the daughter, " I want nothing ; you gave me the lobster, and I watch over it." As they were all sitting at the window, the prince came by on a white horse with all his suite in gorgeous raiment. As he passed, the mother said, " Look what a handsome prince; he must have heard how pretty you are, and that's why he comes riding past here. What would you think of him for a husband?" But her daughter said, "Do you suppose that a prince would think of a poor girl like me ? I am quite content with the husband you have given me."
Next day the prince came by on his chestnut horse, and he and his attendants were more richly dressed than before. The mother said, " He must be in love with you." But her daughter answered as before. Then her mother and sisters said she must be out of her wits to care nothing about so fine a prince, and to be content with the lobster.
On the third day her husband came riding past on his black horse, and his dress and the trappings of his horse glittered with diamonds. " Just look at him now," said the mother and sisters ; " how beautiful he is ? He came to see you ; you may be sure of it." Then her daughter said, " You are very silly. I can have him and his diamonds when I want them, for he is my husband." The prince stopped for an instant and said, " Good-bye, and if ever you see me again , you will be lucky." In a moment he was gone.
Now he had told his wife his name— it was Meiidoni. Without delay she ordered for herself three leather dresses, and three pair of boots with iron soles, and a basket and an axe, and set out to look for him. On and on she went, and for a whole year saw neither man nor sheep, and fed like a beast on grass and herbs. At the year's end she came to a place with trees and a dry pond, and in the mud lay an ogress, with her eyelids hanging down over her face. Taking a piece of wood, the girl inserted it under the eyelids, and cut them short with her axe ; then she threw water over the ogress' face, and ran away and hid behind a tree. The ogress had been blind for fifteen years, and when she found her blindness cured, she called out, " Come here, whoever you are !
Folktales from the yEgean.
If you are a woman I will make you a queen, and if you are a
man I will make you a king." But the girl waited in hiding, and only came out when the ogress swore by her strength not to hurt her. Then the ogress asked her what she wanted, and the girl said, " I am looking for Melidoni." " Stay with me to-night," said the ogress. " I have two sisters, and we have one son between us, and when he comes home to-night I will ask him, and we will see if he can lell you." Then she turned her into a button and put her in her pocket.
At night when the ogress' son came home, he said, " Surely I smell human flesh ! " " Nonsense," said the ogress, " how can any mortal come here to our land? You must have been with man- kind to-day, and you have brought the scent of them away with you. And, by the way, did you hear what has become of Melidoni?" " Melidoni?" said her son. "Oh, yes, I heard he had married a beautiful girl, but she had betrayed him."
Next day, when her son was gone, the ogress turned the girl into her proper shape again, and told her, " You must journey on until you find my second sister, who is in the same state thai you found me in, and from her you may find out what you want." Putting on her second dress and pair of boots (for the first were quite worn out), the girl started off and journeyed on for a year, and saw not even a bird the whole time. At the year's end she came to a tree, and beside it another slough, with the blind ogress lying in it. She cut her eyehds as she had done to the other, and cured her loo. This ogress had been blind for eighteen years, and she was very grateful. " Come to me," she called out. " I will make you a queen if you are a woman, and a king if you are a man." But the girl did not leave her hiding-place behind the tree until she heard the ogress swear by her courage that she would not hurt her. " What shall I do for you ? " asked the ogress. " I want to find Melidoni," said the girl. " To-night, my son Is coming," said the ogress, " and perhaps he will know where Melidoni is ; but I must hide you, or he will eat you." So she made her into a thimble, and put her into her pocket. When her son came in, he said, " I smell human flesh." But his mother said, " How can any mortal come here, where no bird can fly ? You have been with mankind to-day, and have brought their scent with you ; and, by the way, did you hear anything of Melidoni ? " " Yes," said he, " I saw him in the shape of an angry black cloud,
9^ Collectanea.
and he spoke, and said he had married a beautiful maiden, but she had been faithless to him."
Next morning at dawn the ogress said to the girl, " Take this pan and these three apples, until you come to a well ; and then knock one of the apples against the pan, and Melidoni will appear before you. He is my younger sister's son, and he will appear, not in his own form, but in many others. But don't let him persuade you to give him a kiss, for then all will be lost ; but you may give him the apples if he asks for them."
The girl put on the third dress and the third pair of boots, and journeyed on and on until she came to the well. She knocked the pan once, and a man, not her husband, appeared before her, and asked her what she was doing there. " I am Melidoni's wife " said she, "and I am looking for him." " Give me a kiss," said he, " and I will take you to him." She replied :
** Never shall Melidoni's kiss be slave to any pleading; For Melidoni's sake I'm lost, but now I am succeeding."
Then, as he could not get the kiss, he asked for one of the apples, and she gave him one. He began to press her more, and said, "Just let me kiss you on one cheek." But she steadfastly refused, and always answered him with the same couplet. Then he asked for another apple, and she gave it him ; and then again for a kiss, but that she would not give him. But the third apple she gave him, and when he had it he said, " Now if you won't give me a kiss I'll take you to my mother, and she'll eat you up ;" and he blew on her and changed her into a button, and put her in his pocket.
Then he took her to the house of his mother, the third ogress. When he came in his mother said, " I smell human flesh." " It is because I have been with mankind," he said ; and they sat down together to dine. When Melidoni saw his mother was in a good humour, he said to her, " Suppose my wife were here, would you eat her ? " " No," said his mother. " I'm sure / would," said he ; " and do you mean to say you wouldn't ? " " No, I would not," said the ogress. " Swear by your courage," said her son, " that you wouldn't eat her." His mother swore it, and he took the button out of his pocket and changed it into the girl, and said, " Here she is," and left her with his mother.
Next day his mother said to her, " I am going out, and you
Folktales from the y£gean.
91
must sweep the house. There are forty rooms in it, and ihey must all be swept and not swept before I come back." The girl sat down and cried, and as she was crying her husband (but not in his own forml stood before her, and asked her why she was crying. She told him her story. Then he promised to help her if she would give him a kiss. " Never," she said ;
" Never shall Melidoni's kiss be slave lo an; pleniJiiig ; For Mcliduni'i sake I'm lost, bm now I am succeeding."
" Well, you are obstinate," said he ; " but I'll tell you what to do. First sweep the house clean, and then put the dust on the broom and scatter it about." So she did ; and when the ogress came back and saw the task performed, she said, " You are either a witch or a witch's daughter, or else my son told you." She replied, " I am neither a witch nor a witch's daughter, nor did any one tell me. Cod gave me light, and I did ii."
Next day the ogress told her to cook and not cook the meat She sat down to cry again ; and as she cried her husband stood before her in another shape, and begged her for a.kiss. " Never," she replied :
" Well," he said, " you are a very obstinate girl, but I am sorry for you, and I will tell you what to do. Cut half the meat and put it on to boil, and cut the rest into little bits and throw it in the pot when you see the ogress coming." So she did, and the ogress again said as before, and received the same answer.
Next day the ogress said, " My son is going to be married next week, and I want to bake bread for his wedding. You must go lo my sister's and fetch yeast from her house." As the girl went crying on her way her husband met her in the shape of a boy of
thirteen years, and asked her him her story. " I am Melidoni father is going to marry again. G will help you." " No," said she :
oing? She t ," he said, "and my ; a kiss, auntie, and I
o any pleading ; V I am succeeding."
" But just let me kiss your hand," said he. " Not even my foot,"
g2 Collectanea.
said she. " You are not nice," said he ; " but for the sake of my father's soul I will tell you what to do. You will come to a place where thorns grow in the road ; and you must take off your shoes and walk over them and say, * Why, what nice thorns ; it is just like walking on cotton. I wish we had thorns like these at home.' Then you will come to a fig-tree, and its figs are full of worms ; you must eat one, and say, * What delicious figs ; I wish we had a fig-tree like this at home.' Outside the ogress' house stand a donkey and a dog ; the donkey has bones under his nose and the dog has straw. You must give the bones to the dog and the straw to the donkey. In the courtyard is a fountain, from one side of which flows blood and from the other pus. You must drink from it and say, * What nice water this is. I wish we had water like it at home.' The yeast you will find at the top of the stairs. You must sweep the stairs and run off with it."
The girl did as she was bid. She passed the thorns and the fig-tree (she ate two figs instead of one), and the dog, and the donkey, and the fountain ; and with her dress she swept the stair, and carried off the yeast. As she ran away with it, it called out, " Mistress, mistress." The ogress got up and saw her, and called out, " Drown her, fountain ; " but the fountain would not drown her ; and then, " Eat her, donkey and dog ; " but they would not eat her ; and then, " Fall on her, fig-tree ; " but the fig-tree would not fall on her. Then she cried, " Embrace her, thorns ; " but the thorns would not ; so she got back safe with the yeast.
The day before the wedding the ogress said to her, " My son is to be married to-morrow ; " then giving her a mattress, a loaf of bread, a donkey, and a dog, she went on, " You must fill this mattress with feathers, and give the dog his fill to eat, and the donkey must come back dancing, and you must bring me the loaf back untouched." The girl went and sat down with her back against a stone and began to cry. Then her husband appeared to her in his proper form, and said, " Behold me ; I am your husband. I have been disguising myself so long to try you, and I have found you faithful. Now you may kiss me and I will tell you what to do." " No," she said, " not until we get home," and she would not yield. Then he told her to call on the birds, and say, " Melidoni is going to be married ; " and they would come and shed their feathers, and she was to fill the mattress, and there would be enough over for the dog to eat. When she got near
Folktales from the ^gean. 93
home she was to beat the donkey and make it kick (for that is the way a donkey dances). " Next day," said he, " you will come to the wedduig, and we will give you torches to hold. As they bum down you must bear the pain, but when you are told to throw them down, throw them at the bride and set her hair alight."
So the girl did as she had been told that day, and the next day, at the wedding, she was given two torches to hold. When the pitch ran down they burnt her very much, and she called out, " Oh ! " The bridegroom turned round, and said, ** Throw them down." But instead of throwing them down she threw them at the bride and set her hair on fire. I was there and ran like everybody else to put out the flames ; but it was all of no use, and the bride was burnt up, and in the tumult the prince and his old love slipt away and went home to her father's house. There they found that her father and mother had burnt the lobster shell; so they lived always together, and her husband never left her again.
XVII. Thirteen,
(Calymnos : told by Yannis Kephalouchos, aged about 50, labourer.)
Once upon a time there were in Calymnos an old man and woman who had seven sons. Skilful reapers were they, and used to earn about a pound a day between them; but instead of bringing home all their earnings they spent most of them in drink at the tavern, and used to come home of an evening with little more than a couple of dollars. The mother and the youngest brother used to scold the six eldest for wasting their earnings thus ; so they determined to go across to Asia Minor and find work there, but to leave the youngest at home to fetch water and do errands for the old folks. But he discovered their plan ; and when they started in a boat he took another boat himself at once, and followed until he met them in Asia Minor.
They went up the country looking for work. One day they came to a great plain covered with ripe standing corn. Well, they thought, this corn wants reaping and there seems no one to do it, so they fell to, making sure that the owner would appear and pay them wages. Soon the owner, who was an ogre, did
94 Collectanea.
appear, and asked what they meant by reaping his com. They told him what they had been thinking. " Well," said the ogre, " look here ; I have seven daughters. If you can reap as quickly as I can bind I will marry you to my daughters ; but if I catch you up I'll eat you." The youngest, who was the clever one of the family, directed his brothers to make the trusses of corn much smaller than they were used to do at Calymnos ; then, said he, he will never catch us up. All that day they reaped, and the ogre could not bind fast enough to catch them up. In the evening he invited them to his castle to dine and pass the night. In the middle of the hall slept the ogre and Mrs. Ogre, on one side of them his seven daughters, and on the other the seven reapers. The youngest very wisely kept awake ; for in the middle of the night he heard the ogress say to her husband, " Now they're asleep, get up and kill them for breakfast." As many times as the ogre got up to cut their throats the youngest brother coughed loudly, and back went the ogre to bed ; until at length it was morning and his brothers woke up too, and he told them what had happened. All that day they reaped ; and at evening there was only one day's work left ; but the ogre was behind in his binding.
That night again the youngest kept awake, and heard the ogre say to the ogress, " We'll put out the light to-night, and then I'll get up and cut their throats." The moment the light was out the youngest brother got up and took off the seven daughters' headkerchiefs, and put them on his own and his brothers' heads, and their fezzes he put on the daughters' heads. The ogre got up to cut the throats of the seven brothers ; but when he felt the kerchief on the first one's head, " A pretty mistake," said he, " I was going to make," and went over to the other side, and cut all his daughters' throats, and then he went back to bed again and to sleep.
Then the youngest reaper awoke his brothers and off they started and ran for their lives. In the morning said the ogress, " Let's get up and cook them." But when they came there were their seven daughters all stiff and stark, and the seven brothers gone. Off went the ogre to catch them ; but when he was close upon their heels they reached a river and crossed it, and he could go no further. From the other bank the youngest called out to him, " This is nothing, the worst is to come, and if you want to know my name, it is Thirteen."
Folktales from the Aigean. 95
I They journeyed on until they came to a city, where ihey settled 'a a house near the king's palace. The king sent (or the strangers "and questioned them. Now the six elder brothers were very jealous of the youngest, and when they had told the king how he had cheated the ogre, they went on : "The ogre has a coverlet with forty-one bells, and our brother is clever enough to fetch it for you," So the king commanded him lo fetch the coverlet. " How can 1 ? " said he. But the king gave him the choice either to fetch it or be killed.
So away went poor Thirteen, and on his road he came across a cat and some mice quarrelling about the division of a carcass. He divided it for them so skilfully that they asked him how they could assist him. At first he laughed at their offer ; but when they insisted, he told them of his errand. " That's a simple matter," said the mice, "we'll fill the bells up with cotton;" and off they went and did this-
Thirteen entered the ogre's castle at night when the ogre and ogress were in bed, and began slowly pulling the coverlet off. " Don't pull the clothes all over to your side," said the ogre to his wife. " I didn't," said she. " You did," said he. And they quarrelled till they went lo sleep again. Then Thirteen worked the coverlet off and ran away with it. When the ogre woke, "Why, you've got the whole thing now," said he. " You've got it yourself," said she. They struck a match to see which was right, when lo, and behold, the coverlet had vanished. " It's that Thirteen," said the ogre, and off he started to catch the thief. But Thirteen had crossed the river before the ogre caught him up, and called out, from the other side, " The worst is yet to come." Then he brought the coverlet to the king.
The six brothers now said lo the king, "You see now how clever our brother is. The ogre has a finer thing than that coverlet — a talking horse. Our brother could fetch you that if you want it." The king sent for Thirteen, and said, " You must go and fetch me the ogre's talking horse, or else I will kill you." Thirteen was in despair, but he was obliged to go. He found his way into the ogre's stable, and began to saddle the horse, but it called out, " Master, Master." Then out rushed the ogre and caught Thirteen, and carried him in to the ogress. " I've got him," he said, " and now we'll cook him. Light the oven, and while lies roasting I'll go and ask my brother to come and dine
96 Collectanea.
with as. I shall be very hungry before I get back, so hang up one of his forequarters outside the door, ready for me to eat at once." So the ogre started for his brother's castle, and the ogress lighted an enormous fire in the oven. She put Thirteen in before it was quite hot, but he kept slipping out. '' Can't you make it hotter," he said, *'so that I may be roasted the moment I'm in, because this is very disagreeable ? "" The ogress piled on more sticks, saying, " If you don't know how to keep inside I'll show you," and in she got into the oven herself. Thirteen slammed the oven door and
oasted the ogress to a turn ; then he cut off her fore-quarter and hung it up outside the castle door. On the bed he piled a lot of sticks and threw the counterpane over them. Mounting the horse, away be rode.
The ogre came back with his brother, and seizing the fore- quarter devoured it Then he went in and saw the roast carcass served up on the table, and what he thought was his wife covered up in bed. ** Poor thing," he thought, " she was tired with cooking, and has gone to sleep." But when he looked at the roasted carcass he knew it was his wife's. Calling down upon Thirteen the most terrible curses, he started out to catch him. Thirteen was waiting for him on the far side of the river, and called out again, " The worst is to come, and take care of your- self this time."
When he had brought the horse to the palace, his wicked brothers said to the king, "l/jok how clever he is ; he is so clever that he could bring the ogre himself." And the king sent for him and ordered him to do this on pain of death. There was no help for it. Thirteen begged the king to give him a sharp woodman's axe and a few dozen big nails. Furnished with these he set forth disguised as a blackamoor, and started cutting down the ogre's finest trees. The ogre hearing the crash of the timber ran out to see what was the matter ; but Thirteen, as he approached, went on hacking away, all the time repeating loudly to himself, " Curse that Thirteen ! Curse that Thirteen !" "What are you doing? " asked the ogre. " I'm cutting wood to make a coffin to put that Thirteen in," said he ; " he has played me some nasty tricks." " And me too," said the ogre, and helped him until he had finished the coffin. " You are much of a size, Thirteen and you," said Thirteen. " Would you mind getting in and seeing if the fit is right ? " So in got the ogre, and Thirteen put on the lid, and knocked in one nail.
Crnffping Animals' Ears.
97
"Can you move now?" asked he. "Yes," said the Ogre. Then he knocked another nail in. "Can you move now?" "A little." Then a third nail. "Can you move now?" "Not a bit." " Thai's right," said Thirteen. " I am Thirteen," said he, and nailed down the rest of the lid, and carried the ogre in the box to the king.
The King decreed that the ogre should be roasted after they had had a look at him ; and the six brothers said " Our brother who nailed the box down must open it." So they heated a large oven, and Thirteen went and opened the box, and out jumped the ogre ; but before he was well out Thirteen got out of the way, and the ogre went for the six brothers and gobbled them up. Then he saw Thirteen and chased him ; but Thirteen dodged him skilfully ; and at length he so managed that the clumsy ogre in trying to catch him fell head foremost into the oven, and thus he was roasted.
Then the king gave Thirteen his daughter in marriage and made him heir of his kingdom.
W. R. Paton.
Cropping Animals' Ears. (Vol. xi., p. 456-) Cream -stealing cats have their left ears cut off in the Highlands. Stewart, 'Twixt Ben Nevis and Glencoe, p. 238.
Among precautions against witchcraft, " as soon as a calf is dropt they immediately lacerate the ear by slitting it with a knife." (Neighbourhood of Helrasley,) Brand, iii., zo, ai, quoting The Yorkshireman, 1846.
" Chats entiers vont au sabat le samedi ; mais si Ton leur avail CDup^ de la queue ou des oreilles, ils n'y seniient jamais admis." Dumaine, Tinchebray, p. 585, n. iiz.
" Lorsqu'on conduit une vache au laureau, on ne manque jamais pour la faire concevoir . . . . de fendre en quatre la derniere articulation de sa queue." La SicoTifcRE : Le D^parttment de rOme, p. 339.
" Einem neugekauften Pferde wird im Friihjahr aus dem Schweif etwas Blut genommen, und dasselbe dem Thiere eingegeben .... damit es dablciben moge." Holzmaver, Osiliana, p. 109.
N- W. Thomas,
H.M. QUEEN VICTORIA.
I feel it my duty, as President of the Folk-Lore Society, to offer some expression, however inadequate, of the deep sorrow felt by the members of the Society in all parts of the Emjiire on the mournful occasion of the death of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, and of the loyal and loving remembrance with which they regard Her long and glorious rule ; and I cannot do so more suitably than in the pages of the Society's official oi^an.
It is in the British Empire, which has to so large an extent grown and been consolidated during Her Majesty's reign, and which includes within its bounds countless races of every degree of civilisation and mental development, from the lowest to the highest, that the student of folklore has to seek many of the most precious materials of his study.
Under Her Majesty's rule every religious belief of these races has been respected, their customs have been regarded with consideration, and their prejudices conciliated ; and the study of folklore, a science the very existence of which is bounded by Her Majesty's reign, has thus been rendered possible,
All these races are now united in one common sorrow. The loss of the " Great White Queen " is to us and to them the same, and this is a point of sympathy between us and them not to be lost sight of by those who are brought into contact with the subject races. Mutual sympathy ought to help forward mutual under- standing.
Upon all these grounds, the members of the Folk-Lore Society claim a special share in the universal grief which has fallen upon the subjects of the Queen ; and on their behalf I desire to offer an expression of respectful condolence to Her illustrious Son, whose declaration when entering upon His great heritage has touched al! hearts.
Long may King Edward VH. and Queen Alexandra live to carry down to remote posterity the traditions of Victoria and of Albert the Good !
E. W. Brabrook,
Pmident igar.
J F Em^llP, .Q
WEATHERCOCKS.
Correspondence. gg
Weathercocks. (Vol. Xi.. p. 322.)
In 1870 and the few succeeding years I made about forty-five drawin){s of weathercocks. 1 knew nothing of any meaning they might have, though I used lo think that there must be a meaning ; curiosity of form was sufficient attraction to induce me lo make a drawing. Some of those I have depicted are on buildings which, I believe, have been since pulled down. Amongst them are not a few representations of animals.
On Hendon Church (St. Mary's) a lamb and flag, which (I was told by the landlady of an inn close to the church) was said to be the only one of its kind in England ; on Llanfair Caer Einion Church, Montgomeryshire, a cock ; 1 have seen this on many churc'hes in Wales, England, and the neighbourhood of Boulogne- sur-Mer, whatever might be the dedication of the church ; on Neasdon House, Middlesex, a stag ; on a stable at Neasdon, a running fox ; on Bridge House, Hendon, Middlesex, a peacock (the tail not spread) ; on Clovelly Church, Devonshire, a bird of some kind, certainly not a cock ; on the lantern of the Inner Temple Hall, London, a winged horse (the crest, I believe, of the Society) ; at Friern Barnet, Middlesex, a flying swallow ; at Greenford, Middlesex, a bear's or boar's head (Plate II., A).
Weathercocks with representations of fabulous animals are, on Seaford Town Hall, Sussex, a horse's head and forelegs (the two feet holding an anchor) joined to a fish's body with a long waving tail (B) ; at Clay Hill, Beckenham, Kent, a dragon's head (C) ; a similar one at Caroline Mount, Chingford, Essex ; on another house at Chingford, another form of dragon's head (D).
Many weathercocks have a form as of a ribbon with its end slit and waving in the wind, of which E, from Hanger Hill, Ealing, Middlesex, is a fairly typical example. But the question may arise : Is this very common form of weathercock a debased form of the dragon's head? for F, from Luccombe Church, Somersetshire, would seem to be a transition from the one to the other.
Very many weathercocks are in the form of arrows with more or less ornate feathering. The vane of the weathercock of Merton Church, Surrey, is pierced with representations of the sun, moon, and a star. On the weathercock of Twyford Chapel, Middlesex,
lOO Correspondence.
are the letters I H ; a part which probably had the letter S has been broken away. At Bury Street, Edmonton, Middlesex, is an angler drawing a fish out of the water ; the action of the figure is very good ; he is in late seventeenth-century costume.
Much might be said about the fanciful scroll-work which sup- ports the post of the weathercock and the four letters which are around it, but I suppose that this is a matter of art rather than of olklore.
At a meeting of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, held on the 13th March, 1876, a paper on the Church of St. Michael, Queenhithe, was read by the rector, the Rev. G. L. Gibbs. In his paper he stated that '* it was said " that the ship forming the weathercock of the church had been used as a measure of the amount of com which was the Queen's due from every ship entering the port of Queenhithe.
A ship in full sail was also the device on the weathercock of the now demolished Church of St. Mildred, Poultry. There are several curious weathercocks on other churches in the City of London, but I can only at present call to mind three : on St. Clave, Hart Street, a royal crown; on St. Lawrence Jewry, a gridiron, the symbol of St. Lawrence ; on St. Peter, Comhill, a single key, not the two cross-keys which are the symbol of St. Peter.
A young man in the City told me that he had once seen the dragon of Bow Church steeple in a builder's yard, where it was undergoing repairs, and that he had been told that when the dragon of Bow Church and the grasshopper of the Royal Exchange were both together in the same builder's yard the streets of London would run with blood.
J. P. Emslie.
Alphabet used in Consecrating a Church.
(Vol. xi., p. 105.)
In answer to A. E. O. E.'s question, Professor Albrecht Dieterich of Giessen, the distinguished author oi Abraxas (\Z^\) and Nekyia (1893) has sent me an offprint of his paper in the Rheinisches Museum fiir PhilologiCy vol. Ivi., entitled " ABC-Denkmaeler." In this exhaustive study the author surveys the entire field — Greek,
Correspondence. >''.■■
Roman, Etruscan, Sanskrit, Norse, Medijeval— of monunieil^.I^nd literary use of the alphabet, and shows that it always had "been and still is of a magi^ai nature. The alphabetic series, wfietHer simple, reduplicated, or transposed, was in itself a potent chani>,-*' and one which was handed on by Paganism to Christianity. T'j\e_.- particular usage to which A. E. O. E. alludes will be found in the-;* latest editions of the PontiJicaU Romanum (e.g. on p. 130 of the Ratisbon edition, 1891). It precedes an exorcism by the con- secrating bishop, the purport of which is to keep the devil out of the precincts of the newly-consecrated church. The compilers of the Pontifical evidently thought that the Latin and Greek alpha- bets conjoined were enough to frighten even the devil.
Alfred Nutt.
HUSBAND-AND-WIFE StORY.
(Vol. xi., p. 375.) Professor Sayce's Cairene story, No. n, is similar to Macchia- velli's very witty story of the Devil who married a wife. The name of this story is Belphegor. As far as I remember, it was first published in a small book of stories by Firenzuola (?), as being his, and not Macchiavelli's, but it is certainly the latter's. It is translated in Italian Taks, with Cruikshank's plates.
W. R. Paton.
Head of Corpse between the Thighs. (Vol.xi., p. 413.)
In Professor York Powell's review of Dr. Boer's edition of Grtttis Saga, reference is made to an ancient custom of burying the head of a corpse between the thighs, the head being described in the Saga as " thigh -forked."
About three years ago I visited and examined a remarkable church near Barnsley, and immediately after my visit wrote the following note {inter alia) :
" Built into the west wall of the tower of Roystoii Church, near
to2 .•../'. Correspondence.
Bari^9l^,*on the north side of the western doorway, and near the grorupdv is part of the lid of a stone coffin.
^'•Phe breadth of the stone is i foot ii inches ; the thickness in
'Hve middle (it slopes away to each side) is 3^ inches, so far as
./.jit- can now be measured. The length is 3 feet. The cross carved
•./'•on the lid is that which is known in heraldry as a cross crosslet
.•^•- On making inquiry from the sexton and gravedigger, the foUow-
./ ing account was given to me. When the font was removed from
its old position under the tower, and the floor of the church
lowered about a foot, the excavators came upon a coffin lid, which
was formed of two stones. The stones covered a stone coffin, in
which lay a skeleton. The skeleton was perfect, but the head
had been removed from its natural position, and lay between the
thighs, near the pelvis. The stone on which the cross is carved
was built into the tower by the gravedigger. The other stone
which completed the coffin lid was left in situ when the remains
were covered up. The gravedigger spoke of it with horror."
In an article called "Eaten with Honour" [^Contemporary JRevieWy June, 1897) Professor Flinders Petrie speaks of a civilised people of about 3000 B.C. who had exquisite handicrafts, but who " habitually cut the heads from their dead and ate some portion of the bodies." He afterwards describes bodies in tombs which had been dismembered and the flesh eaten.
The lid of the coffin at Royston is shaped like those of Roman coffins found at York. [See Wellbeloved's Eboracuvu) In many old stone coffins a place for the head is cut at one end. I ought to have asked the sexton, whose name is Joseph Haigh, whether he remembered such a thing in the coffin just referred to.
S. O. Addy.
The Divining Rod in U.S.A.
«
(Vol. xi., p. 434.)
In connection with Mr. Rouse's note on divining rods for metals in the last number of Folk-Lore^ the following extract from the specification of an English patent, granted in 1889 (No. 1,919) to a Texas farmer, may be of interest : " The object of this invention is to enable precious metals to be discovered by a process com- monly known as divination; and it consists in a composition which
Coriespon de n ct
103
has a strong attraction and affinity for gold and silver, the attraction reseinbhng somewhat that of magnetism. In carrying my invention into practice, I place the composition in a vial or flask, seal it tightly, and suspend it by means of a string, The composition referred to is made up of gold, silver, quicksilver, and copper, the ingredients being placed in a small vial or flask, together with a quantity of dilute nitric or tartaric acid or pure alcohol." (An accompanying drawing shows a flask with a cord or string, about 20 inches long, secured to the neck, and the cork or stopper sealed tight, as by wax.) " In iising my gold and silver finder, the instru- ment is held, preferably, by the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and steadied with the left hand ; it shoiild be held steady, but not cramped. Then, if there are any precious metals in the immediate neighbourhood, the flask will be attracted by such metals and will move toward them at first and will then vibrate, thus indicating the presence of the metaJ sought for. To protect and conceal the contents of the flask, I cover it with paper, cloth, or tin."
A. R. Wright.
The Bumble-bek in Magic, (Vol, xi., p. 438-)
I have not met with the bumble-bee as a familiar spirit in Guernsey, though much of the folklore of the islands refers to the subjects of magic and witchcraft. But the following note from the MS. collections of the late Miss Annie Chepmell, who was a repertory of local folklore, may interest Miss Peacock :
" Motuhe, or, as pronounced in Guernsey, ' Mouque ' (cf. O. Fr. mouskes, moui^ue), a fly. When a man sells his soul to the Devil, a demon is given to him for his servant and familiar spirit. It waits upon him constantly in the form of a fly. A wizard is known by his meiigue as surely as by his having no shadow."
Miss Chepmell, who was sixty-nine at the time of her death in 1899, had lived in Guernsey all her life, and as a Guernsey woman had always heard and known our island traditions. She lent me the notebook from which the above extract is taken, for use in the notes to the volume of Guernsey Folklore, compiled by the late Sir Edgar MaccuUoch, which I am now editing at the request of the Bailiff and Royal Court of Guernsey.
Edith F, Carey.
1 04 Correspondence.
Customs in the Building Trade. (Vol. xi., p. 457.)
In the December number of Folk-Lore I see a letter on London Building Trade Customs. I never heard before of drink being served out when the first chimney is finished, but I believe it is comnv^n throughout the country, certainly in the north, to have what is called a " rearing " — namely, a supper or " spree " — when the roof principals are fixed. I remember an amusing instance of this at Heywood, in I^ancashire, where the proprietor — being a teetotaler of rather austere religious principles — on being approached for a contribution to the " rearing," would not give money to encourage drunkenness among the men, but presented each of them with a cheap copy of the Bible, which of course found its way to the nearest " pawn-shop " for what it would fetch, and the language used was scarcely in accordance with any religion whatever.
I believe that forty years ago the same custom prevailed in the vicinity of New York, I will not say in the city itself, but in adjacent districts of New Jersey, bordering on Staten Island Sound. W. Henry Jewitt.
Irish Burial Custom. (See antCy p. 3.)
"I send you an Irish pipe, value a fraction of a penny. It has an interest attached to it, however, which .... you will appre- ciate, and perhaps you do not possess a specimen. In a few places in the west of Ireland the usual pipes and tobacco — universal at country wakes — are brought also to the graveyard and a fresh dis- tribution made. Matches being not always carried by the pea- santry, a lighted turf may be procured from a neighbouring cottage to supply the necessary light for the pipes. The pipes are left in the rude box beside the newly-filled grave, or if the supply runs short a few are kept to put upon it. These are religiously left alone; but I could not overcome the inclination to take speci- mens, one for myself and one for you, from the old graveyard at Salruck. You will find the place close to the head of Killary Harbour, or rather at the head of the Little Killary, in Murray (map, p. 226)." John Cooke.
66, Morehampton Road, Dublin, 8 Dec, 1900. (To E. Sidney Hartland, Esq.)
Correspiindence. 105
Sacrifice to Avert Shipwreck.
There are a curtain number of allusions in the Greek Romances which have interest for students of folklore. Here is a passage which recalls the story of Jonah :
Eii^afiiotr ^iKoad^av to Kaff '\a^{vi\v
V bpiifia, vii. :
[During a storm, the helmsman says :]
"Fellow-voyagers, buffeted upon the waves, and about to die, fierce is the wind, the waves unceasing, and rising to the clouds. The mast is broken, the vessel full of water, and 1 have strength no longer lo resist the mountainous waves and the violent blasts that blow against us. I have had shipwreck enough : Poseidon is wholly against us. Why not follow the islanders' law, and pour libations of supplication ? To cast lots is the law ; why not cast lots for the victim?" .... The lot fell on Hysmine for death, .... "Poseidon," said one, "seeks the girl; the lot fell on her: she is victim and ransom for our lives." [Then she was stript naked and cast overboard.]
W. H. D, Rouse.
Spectral Light in Corsica.
A story is lold in M. Gaston Vuillier's Jvr^o/U/i Isles, trans- lated by Frederic Breton, regarding a light which is ai times to be seen at Busso. A certain lord of sporting tastes kept a monk as chaplain, one of whose duties it was to say prayers when the lord returned from the chase. One evening he came home late ; the prayers had been said, and the monk had gone to bed.
" Furious with rage the lord rushed to the chaplain's room and Striped his sword through the priest's body, From that time the monk returns each night lo the village, wandering about with a lighted taper in his hand, searching for the site of the chapel in order to say mass as he did in the time of the old lord."
That the light exists seems certain. M. Vuillier saw it one evening, and the next day made inquiries to satisfy himself that he was not the victim of hallucination. " Many other people," he tells his readers, "have had their curiosity aroused by this nocturnal phenomenon, but none has ever been able to determine
1 08 Reviews.
them so ; and this volume is the first instalment of the results of two expeditions and of many months' residence among them and their neighbours the Coras.
The author here presents us with an account of the gods and goddesses of the Huichols, and a full description, accompanied by beautiful plates and other illustrations, of the various ceremonial objects connected with their cult. The Huichols are polytheists, sufficiently advanced in civilisation to carve images of their divinities and to have god-houses, dignified by Mr. Lumholtz with the name of temples. Huichol philosophy of life, he tells us, is summed up in a sentence actually uttered by his Huichol servant : " To pray for luck to Tatevali [the god of fire] and to put up snares for the deer — that is to lead a perfect life." Tatevali, Grandfather Fire, is therefore the principal god, and his mother, Takotsi Nakawe, Grandmother Growth, is the chief goddess. The number of divinities is unlimited, "since every hill and every rock of peculiar shape is considered a deity. . . . However, it would be a mistake to assume that all gods are in reality different. ... A great number are necessarily only different impersonations of the same god." Water-holes and springs are their dwelling- places. "Women are considered as the daughters of the goddesses and men as the sons of the gods, each one belonging to a par- ticular god. Each god has his animals, which, as an Indian once explained to me, stand in the same relation to the god as do the hens to the master of the house."
Images of the gods do not as a rule stand in the temples. They are placed in excavations beneath, or in other secret places, often in some remote cave. In the temple is found a kind of altar on which are seen sacred disks representing the god's domain, and painted or carved with symbols of his attributes and relations to the world. They are consecrated by being smeared with deer's blood. Where images of the more important gods are found, they stand on such disks. Among other ceremonial objects in the temples are votive chairs and stools for the god, arrows painted with symbols of the god and having various votive objects attached, shields (both front-shields, usually circular or polygonal, and back- shields or beds, ordinarily oblong), symbolic eyes, and votive bowls. Most of these objects indicate some prayer by the persons deposit- ing them. The large collection made by the author furnishes abundant illustrations, which are minutely described and their
'j^i p.*^ .&
Iymbolism of thk HuicHOL Indians. By Carl I.umholtz. (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, '. iii. Anthropology, ii.)
n HAVE already had the pleasure of drawing attention in these
iges to Dr. Roas' monograph on the Mythology of the Bella
Coola Indians, and that of Mr. Teit on the Thompson Indians.
■The present work by Mr. Lumholtz deals with the beliefs of a
^very different people of the North American continent. It is equaily the fruit of the munificence and the large comprehension of the value of the scientific study of savage peoples displayed by our cousins across the water. Naturally and properly iheir atten- tion is chiefly devoted to the elucidation of human pre-history on the western continent. This is a field of the utmost importance. The unity of race amid a variety of conditions, and the develop- ment of an indigenous culture almost untouched by external influences, amid an environment of fauna and flora very ditferent from those of the old world, may be expected lo throw new and striking lights on the problems of the evolution of civilisation.
Mr. Carl I.umholt/ is one of the latest recruits to the band of trained American anthropologists. His previous experience in Borneo and Australia has stood him in good stead. His quick- ness of observation, the minute accuracy which nothing escapes, and the insight bom of sympathy with savage modes of thought, are worthy of the best traditions of American science.
The Huichol Indians were practically unknown lo science until he went among them. They inhabit the southern part of the Sierra Madre del Norte in Central Mexico. Through this moun-
I tainous territory the River Chapalagana, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Santiago, runs in a deep ravine, whose sides broaden-
Fing out rise to heights of from 8,ood to 10,000 feet. Here the Huichols have been able lo defy civilisation. Missionaries indeed came to teach them, but they have been long since expelled. "To-day there is no priest among them, the churches are in ruins, and the Huichols are living in the same state of barbarism as when Cortes first put foot on Mexican soil." They are thus an ideal hunting-ground for the ethnologist. Mr. Lumholtz found
no Reviews.
UAnn^e Sociologique, publiee sous la direction de Emile Durkheim, Professeur de Sociologie k la Faculty des Lettres de rUniversit^ de Bordeaux. Troisiime Annte (i 898-1 899). Paris : Fdix Alcan. 1900.
The " M^moires Originaux " of the third volume of this valuable periodical are but little concerned directly with the study of folk- lore. The first article is by M. Frederic Ratzel on the Soil in its relations with Society and the State. Insisting that these relations have been imperfectly taken into account by sociological students^ he points out that the relation of society to the soil is always con- ditioned by a double necessity, that of habitation and that of food- supply; and he discusses very briefly how the evolution of the family and of the state is affected by the conditions of the soil. The essay is suggestive : it might have been lengthened with advantage.
Passing over M. Gaston Richard's article on Social Crises and the Conditions of Criminality as dealing with a subject, however interesting, with which we are not here concerned, we encounter the piece de resistance in M. Steinmetz's article on the Classifica- tion of Social Types and a Catalogue of Peoples. The author contends that the great want of sociology (on the interpretation put upon this word see my notice of the previous volume, vol. xi., p. 96), which embraces ethnology and a good deal beside, is a proper classification of peoples and of cultures. The absence of a sound classification universally accepted leads to all sorts of blunders, and to the elaboration of theories which are flights of fancy and nothing more, but which by their brilliance and plausi- bility mislead the inquirer and delay the progress of science. From demonstrating the possibility and utility of such a classifi- cation, M. Steinmetz passes to the consideration of the various systems which have been proposed. These he subjects to a keen criticism, finally sketching the classification he himself proposes.
His system is partly psychological, partly economic. First of all, he classes human societies under four heads, according to the predominant character of their intellectual life. The first head is that of the Urmenschen^ a purely hypothetical class, wanting reli- gion, wanting the idea of soul, of spirit, of fetish, even wanting animism; but it must have preceded the second. The second head is that of Savages. Here animism is developed under the
Reviews.
1 11
form of spiritism, ancestor-worship, and fetishism. Savages have not yet felt the need of system in their conceptions ; theit intel- lectual force is loo feeble for such an effort. The next head, therefore, comprises peoples who display the aptitude for system- arising and unifying ideas. The great mythologies and hierarchies of superhuman beings are now produced ; inventions, even of great importance, are made ; magnificent philosophical poems are conceived j even a certain erudition is acquired. Egypt, China, and the Middle Ages of Europe, among others, belong to this class. The remaining head comprehends the scientific age begmning with the Renaissance and the sixteenth century. Free criticism, a methodical and scientific attitude towards the entire universe, is its essential characteristic.
This progressive series, however, does not fulfil all the require- ments. It is necessary to have another division founded on the general character of the economic life. Here the first class is that of Collectors, again a hypothetical, or almost purely a hypothetical class, who collect the gifts of nature with no other instruments than the simplest tools hardly fashioned at all, and who forthwith consume whatever they collecL Next come the Hunters; third, the Fishers ; fourth, the Agricultural Nomades, or Hunter-Agri- culturists. The fifth and sixth classes are those of the Lower and Higher Agricuhurists. The seventh class comprehends the Pastoral Nomades. The eighth is a class disringuished by com- plexity of conditions — division of labour, industrial progress, increased commerce ; but the industries are carried on in small workshops by a few hands, and often in the household as accessory to agriculture. In this class are comprehended the European peoples during the greater part of the Middle Ages, the Chinese and others. The ninth class is the period of Manufacture, marked by greater concentration of labour and the rudimentary employ- ment of natural forces. The tenth and last class is characterised by what M. Steinmetz terms Industry; division of labour pushed to its extreme limits, regular employment of natural forces, such as steam, electricity, and explosives, as the basis of all production, and the entire economic life founded on international commerce.
These classes, although beginning with the lowest and ending with the highest, are not necessarily like the last in an ascending series ; and each of them is subdivided into various species. It will be seen that the scheme is sufficiently complex for all require-
i 1 2 Reviews.
ments. M. Steinmetz pleads for its adoption as a working hypothesis, insisting on the need of at least some system of classi- fication of all known societies and their historical phases, if science is to make progress. FinaUy, he calls for a catalogue raisonnS of peoples and of their historical phases, of the method of which he sketches an outline. It remains to be seen whether his system of classification will meet with the approval of scientific workers and whether his call will be answered. In any case the essay is well worth reading, if only for the analysis and criticism of the systems hitherto proposed.
The remainder of the volume is occupied with excellent reviews of works interesting to students of folklore and other branches of anthropology.
E. Sidney Hartland.
The Making of Religion. By Andrew Lang, M.A., LL.D. 2nd Edition, 1900. Longmans and Co. 5s. net.
We are glad for more reasons than one that our distinguished ex-President has so soon been called upon to prepare a second edition of the work which in Folk- Lore for 1898 and 1899 gave rise to a memorable polemic between himself and his successor, Mr. Hartland. In the first place, the fact indicates the growing interest of the public in the subject, which Mr. Lang treats with all the charm that his practised pen and ready wit bestow upon even the driest and most abstruse of problems. In the second place, it has given him the opportunity of adding a preface, which we think in some respects minimises the differences between him- self and his critics, and removes the slight trend towards paradox that is the besetting sin of a brilliant writer.
The readers oi Folk-Lore will recollect that the work falls under two divisions — the first eight chapters dealing with the origin of the belief in spirits, and the following nine chapters with the origin of the idea of a Supreme Being, when the notion of spirit has been attained. These two branches of the subject are sharply divided — so much so that Mr. Lang says that the students who are interested in and familiar with one of them neither know nor care anything about the other, and this he holds to be the natural result
113
i a too restricted specialism. In the first branch of the subject
I compares the mystical phenomena of savage life with the
■modem instances examined by psychical research among the
civilised, suggests (what we are more than ready to admit) that
the evidence of the former is at least as good as that of the latter,
and produces instances of clairvoyance, crystal vision, apparitions,
possessions, and fetishism to prove it. In the second part, he
traces the evolution of the idea of God up to a high point in very
low races, analyses what is known of the beliefs of savage peoples
1 a Supreme Being, and solves the difficulties of the question by
jverting to the old degeneration theory.
In the preface to the new edition, in dealing with the first part of the book, he urges upon such anthropologists as can observe savages in their homes the closer scientific study of those psychi- cal conditions, as of hallucination and the hypnotic trance, in which the belief in spirits may probably have had some at least of its origins.
In dealing with the second part, he does not accredit the lower races with more than dim surmises as to a Supreme Being, and a belief in "a kind of germinal Supreme Being," and this he thinks need not at all have arisen in the notion of spirits. As soon as man had an idea of making things, he might form conjectures as to a Maker of things which he himself could not make, and gradually clothe that Maker with powers and attributes which would include the ideas of fatherhood and goodness and regard for the ethics of his children. The author sees nothing in this beyond the limited mental powers of any beings that deserve to be called human, and relies largely in support of his view upon the evidence of Mr. Howitt as to the beliefs in a Supreme Being entertained by some of the Australian tribes. This he admits, however, not to be confirmed by the recent researches of Messrs. Spencer and (iitlen among the Arunta of Central Australia, and even suggests that these Arunta may have degenerated in religion and dropped the moral attributes the other Australian tribes are reputed to have conferred on their deities.
While the decline of belief in the supernatural is not necessarily a sign of degeneration, and while it is a commonplace as old as Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients that early religious conceptions become modified in course of lime into mythical beliefs, we must still hold that it has not yet been proven that any savage tribe
VOL. XII I
1 1 4 Reviews.
has lost any high ideal of religion or of morals that it had ever previously reached. The ethical teaching, such as it is, which Mr. Howitt reports to be given to the Blackfellows at their initia- tion, does not appear to be of great eflfect in the diffusion of sweetness and light among them. Perhaps, however, the same might be said of the ethical teaching current among the more civilised races.
Celtic Folklore, Welsh and Manx. By John Rhys, M.A., D.Litt H. Frowde. 1901. 2 vols. Price 21s.
Professor Rhys is an ideal collector of folklore. To begin with, he was bom and brought up in its midst. It is not given to every man to have been tended in childhood by a nurse who belonged to a family of hereditary hare-witches, so that the neighbours blamed his mother for putting her child into the charge of so untrustworthy a being ; nor to have been instructed by his aunt in the history of the reaper whose soul left his body and wandered round the harvest-field in the shape of a little black man, while the body slumbered peacefully among the sheaves. Then his chosen field of work is his native country, where of course he not only speaks the language of the people, but speaks it as one of themselves : a point of tenfold importance among the Welsh, who are sometimes more reserved with a stranger who speaks their language than with one who does not. To these enormous initial advantages he adds the enthusiasm of the local patriot, the educated man's sense of the value of evidence; perseverance, sense of humour, genial bonhomie, and immense power of winning confidence. He elicits fairy stories from a peasant-woman casually met at a railway station, and spends a fortnight in trying to draw forth the legend of " the lord of Castellmarch who had horse's ears " from an aged blacksmith.
For more than twenty years past he appears to have been in the habit of revisiting his native country with the definite object of collecting folklore ; he has corresponded with all who could help him in the work, and he has made at least one expedition to the Isle of Man for the same purpose. The matter so gathered fills the greater part of the two volumes before us.
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We open them, and find ourselves transported to realms where fairies eat bread and cheese and buy and sell in markets ; where church bells ring beneath the waves, and King Arthur and bis knights sleep in the secret recesses of the mountains ; where sacred fish are guarded in wells, where your next-door neighbour may be a fairy changeling, and where a man may die from the effect of having an oath forced upon him by a foe. And as we journey, our RUide beguiles the way with racy humorous talk of all things relevant and irrelevant ; of his own opportunities of collecting when a village schoolmaster in Anglesey, lost because he had grown up " without learning to observe anything except the Sabbath ; " of the baleful influence of Mr. Robert Lowe on elementary education ; of Welsh etymologies and the skulls of ritualistic clergy ; of the unpleasantness of life when folklore was in full flower ; and of the (ajjocrypha! ?) German philosopher who, ordering dinner at an English hotel, wound up by saying, " And hereafter I vill become a Velsh rabbit ! " Are we through the looking-glass ? or are we not ? We do not greatly care ; we yield ourselves up to hear the voice of the charmer.
But sooner or later the magic volumes must be closed, and the prosaic unromantic Sassenach nibs his eyes, shakes himself free from the glamour of Faery, and in the clear cold light of the twentieth century begins to say disagreeable things.
Surely we have read this before ! This chapter has appeared in Folk-Lore, that in Y Cymnirodor. Some were written so far back as 1881 ; the final chapter of all is an expansion of Professor Rhys's presidential address to the Mythological Section of the Folklore Congress. Now it is very well to collect and reprint old papers, but they ought to be reprinted as such. Professor Rhys does not of course imply that they are newly written, but no one would suspect from the title-page that his book is a collec- tion of essays, " chips from a " Welsh " workshop," and not a single connected work. And the want of coherence necessarily resulting from such a method of composition cannot but detract from the usefulness of the book.
Professor Rhys begs us in his preface not to imagine that "there is no method in my madness;" and in fact, through the midst of digressions, recantations, speculations, and what we can only call "shots," we do dimly discern that he has a definite aim in view, namely, to see what light Welsh and Manx folklore throw
1 1 6 Reviews.
on the ethnology of the Welsh people. In this he would have been more successful if he had looked further afield, and by com- paring Celtic and non-Celtic folklore had ascertained what features (if any) are peculiar to the former. But though he occasionally makes a good point, as when he discusses the popular calendar of the Isle of Man, the value of his inductions suffers from the few- ness of the facts on which they are based. Even with regard to his favourite thesis, that the Welsh belief in fairies arises partly (for he considers that belief in water-spirits is another source of nearly equal importance) from traditional memories of an abori- ginal or prehistoric race preceding the Celts, we feel that the existence of such a race may help to account for belief in the fairies, rather than that belief in the fairies is evidence of the existence of such a race ; which last, if we mistake not, is what the writer would have us suppose. But Professor Rhys's naive way of " thinking aloud " in print tends to obscure the thread of his arguments, though it gives an inimitable impress of in- dividuality to his writings.
We will not attempt to follow him into the thorny paths of Welsh heroic legend. Some day, perhaps, he will tell a meeting of the Society definitely what he considers the Aryan and what the non-Aryan elements of Welsh tradition. Meanwhile we can but thank him for the amusing, provoking, fascinating book now before us.
GuiNGAMOR, Lanval, Tvolet, The Were-wolf (Bisclaveret). Four lais rendered into English prose from the French of Marie de France and others. By Jessie L. Weston. With designs by Caroline Watts. (Arthurian Romances un- represented in Malory, No. iii.). Nutt. 2S.
Miss Weston has again placed the public in her debt by a fresh series of adaptations of tales which, though not contained in Malory, may be held to have belonged to that stratum of mediaeval romance from which the materials of the Arthurian cycle proper were drawn. In her former adaptations the author dealt with romances belonging to what may be called the period of conscious work, when the romance-writer moulded his story after a distinct literary conception of his own. In this present volume she " goes
117
behind the work of these masters of their craft to that great mass of floating tradition from which the Arthurian epic gradually shaped itseif, and of which fragments remain to throw here and there an unexpected light on certain features of the story, and to tantalise us with hints of all that has been lost past recovery." The connection of these tales with the Arthurian legend is some- times of the slightest. A few lines from Chretien de Troyes links the unnamed actors in the tale of Guingamor with Arthurian romance ; a side hint from Malory serves to introduce the Lai du Bisclavtrtt, in which again no name is introduced. But the general principle on which Miss Weston works is a sound one. " At the time that the longer Arthurian romances took shape there were also current a number of short poems, both in Breton and in French, the latter in the precise metre adopted for the longer poems, connecting the Arthurian story with a great mass of floating popular folktale, which short poems were known to the writers of the longer and more elaborate romances. Are we seriously called upon to believe that they made absolutely no use of them ? Such a solution of the Arthurian problem I can scarcely think likely in the long run to be accepted by students. The Arthurian legend has its roots in folk-tradition, and the abiding charm of its literary presentment Is in reality due to the persistent vitality and per- vasive quality of that folklore element." That the Arthurian story-tellers spread wide their nets is becoming more apparent by every fresh study of the subject ; but what is of still greater interest is the discovery, hardly realised as yet, that the main elements of Celtic romance, wherever the tales of the disconnected cycles are capable of being compared together in their more primitive state, are found to be, to a large extent, the same. The number of parallels between Breton, Cymric, and Irish romance is constantly accumulating, and they are much more apparent in these early lais than in the more sophisticated romances of later date. Miss ^Veston has pointed out some of these ; there are others over- looked not only by her, but also by Dr. Schofield, in his recent study of the Lays of Graelent and Lanval. In the story of Guingamor both these writers point out that the Incident of the rape of the maiden's clothes by the knight while she is bathing is paralleled in the Norse tradition of the swan-maidens, who are forced to become the wives of the three brothers who discover them bathing in a lonely lake and get possession of their swan-garments. But
1 1 8 Reviews.
a still closer variant exists in the story of Nessa, mother of Con- chobar, in Irish romance. " Once Nessa had gone upon a quest into a wilderness, and seeing a clear beautiful spring of water the maiden went off alone to bathe. While she was bathing Cathbad passed by and saw her. He bared his sword above her head and stood between the maiden and her dress and weapons. ' Spare me I ' she cried. * Grant then my three requests,' replied the Druid. *They are granted,' she said. * I stipulate that thou be loyal to me, and that I have thy friendship, and that for so long as I live thou wilt be my one only wife,' said he. * It is better for me to consent than to be killed by thee, and my weapons gone,' said she." ^
The Irish story is of interest, because it preserves the three conditions on which the garments will be returned, and the use made of them in securing the fay to wife. This, which seems to be an integral part of the origind legend, and which is preserved in the kindred stories of Graelent, and the middle High German poem of Friedrich von Schwaben, who introduces it from the Eddie lay, is lost in Guingamor, in which the fay-maiden is repre- sented as offering herself voluntarily to the knight. It is, we incline to believe, one of those incidents which have been intro- duced into Celtic legend from the Norse by way of Ireland. The long sojourn of the Norsemen in that country and the perpetual movement between Iceland and Ireland during that period will probably be found to have influenced Irish literature in much the same proportion as Irish literature influenced Icelandic romance. Many of the resemblances to Norse legend in the Tristan tale, and in other tales and lays of the Cymric and Breton romance, may, we believe, be thus accounted for rather than by direct transmission.
Among other Irish parallels not specifically mentioned by Miss Weston we may point out that the beautiful description of the attendent niaidens in the stories of Launfal or Lanval, and Guin- gamor, who bring to their mistress a basin of gold finely wrought and a snow-white towel, and comb her hair as she stands half- dressed for the bath, recalls almost word for word the description of the fay in the " Wooing of Etain," while the charge of the fay to Guingamor that he shall neither eat nor drink on his return
* MS. Stowe, 992 Brit. Mus., and LI., foL ii6a, i.
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to earth from fairyland, lest he be undone, reminds the reader of ihe return of Oisfn (Ossian) from Tir na n-6g. Many of the details of this story are reminiscent of Irish methods of description.
Of the four tales adapted by Miss Weston, two aru from the undoubted iats of Marie de I-'rance and another, Guingamor, is attributed to her. It maybe looked upon as a variant ofGraeleni and Lanval, This tale, and that of Tyoiet, have been edited by M. Gaston Paris for Romania (viii.) from a manuscript of the thirteen century preserved in the Biblioth^que Nalionale. (No. 1,104, of the Nouvelles Aii/uisitions du Fonds Franfah.)
\Ve should prefer that Miss Weston had left untranslated the word Bretagne, which in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was used in- discriminately for Armorica and Britain. To translate it " Brittany " is to prejudice her readers in favour of her own clearly expressed opinion ; "They are Breton iats ; Arthur is a Breton king." The two of these lais which distinctly mention Arthur deny the latter assertion, the former is at least problematical Out of the twenty- four lais in the above-mentioned collection which bears the title Ci commenctnt les lais de Bretaigne, only a portion are really Breton lays. The word was evidently loosely used for lays of a certain class which resembled Breton compositions, and it is at the present moment of the utmost importance that the mind of the reader should be perfectly unbiassed as lo the Cymric or Gaelic or Armorican origin of these folk-tales. A wider study of com- parative Celtic romance is requisite before any certainty can be arrived at on this point. The spelling of " were-wolf " is also open lo objections. The middle English form, here the preferable one, s to have been " wer-wolf," liice the middle High German or Teutonic. In the only passage in which il is found in Anglo- Saxon, i.e. in the Laws of Cnut, where it applies to the devil, it is spelt " were-wulf," but we are not here dealing with Anglo- Saxon tales. Otherwise the judgment of the author is seldom at fault.
Eleanor Hijll.
1 20 Reviews.
CURIOSITis DE LA ViE EnFANTINE : 6tUDES DE FOLKLORE.
Par Aug. Gitt^e. Paris et Verviers : Bibliotheque Gilon. 1899.
M. GiTT^E has printed, or reprinted, here a number of charming studies on folklore, of which the majority are devoted to the folk- lore of child-life. Together they form just such an introduction to the study of folklore as the ordinary reader is likely to appreciate. There is hardly any scientific work more useful just now than the popularisation of the study of folklore. The writer who with com- petent knowledge and discretion knows how to entice his fellow- countrymen and fellow -countrywomen to the preservation and study of these priceless remains of the past is doing a service both to science and to patriotism. This is what M. Gittee has attempted, and he deserves to succeed. Whether he is explaining what folk- lore is, or pleading for a folklore museum, or discoursing on children's rhymes or children's games, he is equally interesting.
The subjects, however, which give a name to the little volume do not exhaust its contents. His chapters on Midsummer and Christmas observances are well worth reading. In the former he takes as his text a Walloon superstition that St. John does not go away without his fish, in other words, that Midsummer day never passes without some are being drowned; and he refers it to a tradition of pagan sacrifices to water-spirits. Among Christmas observances he fastens on the custom at Li^ge and elsewhere in Belgium of firing guns. This he contends is a relic of the ter- mination of a midwinter feast given to the dead. When it was all over the spirits were driven away with shouts and noise.
One of M. Gitt^e's chapters discusses the researches of the Psychical Society with a gravity which would delight Mr. Andrew Lang. Without coming to any positive conclusion about them, he points out their importance in the consideration of many facts belonging to anthropology or to history, such as the ancient oracles and savage sorcery. Mr. Lang has himself pointed out their bearing on the miracles alleged on behalf of more than one religion.
An able article on M. B^dier's book on Les Fabliaux concludes the volume. M. Gittee fully accepts M. B^dier's reasoning, and recalls the fact that he had already in 1892 given expression to
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the same opinions on the impossibility of determining the place of ori^n of most of out folktales. There can be no doubt that this is the view which must prevail ; and M. GJttife is right in recog- nising how substantial a contribution towards the settlement of the controversy was made by M. Bedier.
E. SiDNEV Haktland.
PoPULAK Studies in Mvthologv, Romance, and Folklore. Nos. I to 7. David Nutt. 5d. each,
1. Celtic and Mediseval Romance. By Alfred Nutt..
2. Folklore : What is it, and what is the Good of it? By E. S.
Hartland.
3. Ossian and the Ossianic Literature. By Alfred Nutt.
4. King Arthur and bis Knights, By Jessie L. Weston.
5. The Popular Poetry of the Finns. By Charles J. Billson.
6. The Fair)' Mythology of Shakespeare. By Alfred Nutt.
7. Mythology and Folktales. By E. S. Hartland.
These little books should be very welcome to all who wish to begin the study of folklore. The ordinary reader, with vague ideas of the Arthurian legends or Scandinavian sagas, roused into further interest in the subject perhaps by Mr. Andrew Lang or Professor Max Miiller, finds the difficulty of starting on a sys- tematic course of study by himself almost insurmountable. The field open to him is alarmingly vast, the materials for work are most inaccessible, the information he can get hold of either vague or forbiddingly erudite. To such an one these booklets bring exactly what he needs, a chart across these untravelled seas, a map of the unknown champain. Out of the mass that comes under the name of folklore, they mark off regions, as it were, within the limits of which study and investigation seem possible even to the beginner, and give, in a simple but by no means superficial manner, such summaries of special branches of the subject as will guide the student in the choice of a line of study and show him where to seek his materials and what to look for as he goes along. The books are not of a dry text-book quality ; they are pleasant reading and rouse the desire to read more. It
122 Reviews.
is no reflection on the otliers of the series if we say that Mr. Nutt's contributions to it are specially interesting. He has fascinating subjects in the Fairy Mythology of Shakespeare and the literature of Ossian, and he treats them as one who brings out of his treasure things new and old. The bibliographical appen- dices to each booklet are also most valuable as an aid to further study. The importance of a knowledge of folklore to us as Englishmen and Christians is well set forth in Mr. Hartland's lecture, contained in No. 2 of the "Popular Studies"; it is a sub- ject to which all intelligent workers can contribute something and in which no contribution is valueless. We live among un- noticed survivals of ancient beliefs and customs, and the observa- tion and record of these are always of worth for the science of ethnology. It is only here and there that a man of genius will arise who will know how to reveal to others the laws which underlie the strange workings of the human mind from earliest times, but the truth of his conclusions will depend to a great extent on the fulness and accuracy of the records which smaller men have col- lected for him beforehand, and in this collection every honest student of folklore can take a part. Such books as those before us will be of immense use if they encourage a host of workers to come into this hitherto unreaped field.
[As this series appeals rather to the general public than to members of the Society, it seemed well to depart from our usual custom and to test its suitability for its purpose by entrusting the earlier numbers to a non-member for reviewal. The above is the result of the test. — Ed.]
Man. a Monthly Record of Anthropological Science. To be published under the direction of the Anthropological Insti- tute of Great Britain and Ireland. Nos. i and 2.
A PERIODICAL such as this would certainly supply a need in this country, but it will have to be better done than these two numbers. With all goodwill to the intention, we are bound to say that they are thin. It is very doubtful whether the venture can be a success if only sixteen pages are given to a number. A single article in
Reviews. 123
foreign review of this type often fills more than sixteen pages, and here we have quite a number of different subjects attempted, not lo spealc of reviews. The best article is one by Mr. N. VV. Thomas, on a Pictorial ReprestHlalion of the Wheel of Life from Japan, with coloured plate. The number is worth having for this alone. Every student of Buddhism has heard of the Wheel of Life, but it was unknown until quite lately what was meant by it. Mr. Thomas gives a translation of the inscriptions and descriptions which accompany it, which in matter is full enough, if in style it is a trifle rough ; but considering the rarity of these things, and their interest, we should wish for descriptions of the others, or at least references to find them by,
Messrs. Evans and Hogarth give a tantalising sketch of the Cretan discoveries, hinting at greater finds in store and appealing for money. We note that they speak of the Cnossos palace as a "sanctuary of the Cretan god of the double axe," and of the royal " throne- room." We cannot let this pass without ask- ing for evidence (1) that the double axe, which is scratched on some of the concrete blocks in the palace was meant for a divine symbol, (z) that the room with the throne was the throne- room. It should not be forgotten that other symbols besides the axe are scratched about the palace, that there is no axe in the similar i>alace at Phaistos, but other symbols only, that there is nothing to show whether the marks were meant to be seen at all. ■ They were probably all covered with stucco. As to the " throne- room," was it usual in Crete for the king to hold audience in his bath ? The " royal bath " is in the same room, and we might fairly call this throne a drying-seat. The other pages of this number are notes or reviews. A quarter of the second number is filled with an obituary notice of Max Miiller, and one page is devoted to an interesting tomb-find from China, one to Californian basket-work, and one to Slonehenge.
The fact is that Man consists of the miscellaneous minor notes contributed to the Journal of tiu Anthropological Institute, and here pubUshed separately for general circulation in the hope of promoting popular interest in anthropology. Such an attempt has, of course, our warmest sympathy, but we fear that the " scrappy " effect inevitably produced by the wide field to be covered in the very limited space at command will render success very difficult of attainment.
1 24 Reviews.
AcHTZiG Marchen der Ljutziner Esten. Gesammelt von OsKAR Kallas. (Kaheksakiimmend Lutsi Maarahva Muin- asjuttu Kogunud Oskar Kallas). (Verhandlungen der Ge- lehrten £stnischen Gesellschaft, 2o»*«' Band, 2^ Heft, pp. 83-405.) Dorpat: Jurjew. 1900.
The present collection of tales was formed among a community of Catholic Esthonians who live, interspered with Letts, in the neighbourhood of the town of Liutzin, in the Government of Vitebsk, a little to the south-east of the frontiers of Livonia. An extremely interesting account of these people is given in the pre- face, commencing with a short resumi of what has been previously published respecting them. As they have been cut off from their compatriots for the last two centuries, it is not surprising that the original language is rapidly disappearing, and that in many places Lettish and Russian have taken its place. But where it still exists, not only does the language still retain its original purity, but some of the tales are almost identical with those which have been col- lected in Esthonia proper. Occasionally a word has acquired a special meaning. Thus we read (p. 99) : " The word * saks ' is known, but no longer indicates German nationality, but, as in the Baltic Provinces, the better classes. * Saks ' also means the Devil, the Homed One." From the traditions of the people, who assert that they came from " Sweden," Professor Kallas comes to the conclusion that they emigrated from Livonia about the middle or end of the seventeenth century, and that they were probably Lutherans at that time, though they are now Catholics. Though a Catholic catechism, of which the title page is given, was pub- lished in Esthonian and German in 1771, this was for the use of the few Catholics in Esthonia itself, and nothing of the kind was found among the Esthonian Catholics of Liutzin. A few pages tin; devoted to the author's account of how he gained the con- lUlrncc of the people ; but we will now pass on to the stories. Tlu^ KHthonian text of these is given in full, but twelve only are hitnNlAted in full into German, only German abstracts being given (if thn others.
Muny of the stories are familiar ; thus the very first gives us a ^v^t^lMh of the hero who discomfits an impostor by showing the \\\\\\\\ huigUciN of the monster he has killed. Other stories belong ^v\ \\\\^ Twin Hrothers type; the Gold Child type; the Fortunate
Reviews.
"5
Younger Son ; the Devil outwitted ; the Journey to Hell ; the Singing Bone type, &c. There are also a few a.niniaJ (ales. Some of the stories, however, are more decidedly of a Finnish-Ugrian character, such as those which relate to various artifices by which God outwits the Devil, and those in which many-headed demons are introduced, Both these features are common in Tartar folk- tales.
W. F. KiRBV
Songs of Modern Greece : wtth Introductions, Transla- tions, AND NoTKS. By G. F. Abbott, B.A. Cambridge University Press. 5s. net.
Modern Greece is full of interest for the student of folklore; and in spite of the labours of Schmidt and others it is an almost un- worked field. A great deal may be learnt from the popular ptoetry. The contents of this volume have not been chosen for their bearing on folklore, yet they conLiin a good deal. Unfor- tunately, as Mr. Abbott has not indicated his sources, it is not safe to conclude that a given piece is genuine popular poetry. In fact, several of the pieces are taken from the works of Valaorites and Solomos, who were indeed inspired by the popular muse, but wrote as self-conscious artists. We can, however, praise Mr. Abbott's introductions and notes with a clear conscience. They are very interesting, and throw light on the customs of marriage and of burial, the feast and the dance. We watch the warrior in his Homeric struggles, and listen to the wandering rhapsode, who accompanies his recitations on the lyre. There is a certain amount that is new in the volume, and new or not it is all fresh, for Mr. Abbott has seen, and therefore he has spoken. We do not propose to discuss the poems from a literary standpoint ; suffice it to say, many of them are graceful and stirring, whilst all have the elements of true poetry, and the translation is correct and pleasing. The book is worth getting.
w
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
1900, UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED.
All English books are published in London^ all French books in
Paris^ unless otherwise stated.
Arnold (E. V.). The Rig Veda. D. Nutt. i6mo. 56 pp. (Popular Studies, No. 9.)
Boyle (Virginia Frazer). Devil Tales. Illustrated by A. B. Frost. New York and London : Harper Brothers. 211 pp.
Caxton (W.). The Golden Legend, or Lives of the Saints. Dent. i2mo. 7 vols, x., 298; vi., 285; vi., 306: vi., 274; vi., 258; vi., 274; vi., 292 pp.
De Visser (M. W.). De Graecorum Diis non referentibus Speciem Humanam. Lugduni Batavorum : Los. 8vo. iv., 283 pp.
Fletcher (Alice C). Indian Story and Song from North
America. Boston : Small, Maynard, and Co. xiv., 126 pp. Frazer (J. G.). The Golden Bough, a Study in Magic and
Religion. Macmillan. 2nd Edition, 1901. 3 vols, xxviii.,
467; X., 471; X., 490. 36s. Laisnel de la Salle. Souvenirs du Vieux Temps. Le Berry :
Croyances et L^gendes. Maisonneuve. i6mo. 415 pp. Lang (Andrew). The Making of Religion. Longmans. 2nd
Edition, xxv., 355 pp. 5s. net.
NiEBOER (H. J.). Slavery as an Industrial System : Ethnological Researches. The Hague : Nijhoff. 8vo. xxvii., 474 pp.
Rhys (John). Celtic Folklore, Welsh and Manx. Henry Frowde. 1 901. 2 vols. 8vo. xlviii., 718 pp. 21s.
Rolland (E.) Flore Populaire, ou Histoire Naturelle des Plantes dans leurs Rapports avec la Linguistique et le Folk-lore. Tome iii. Rolland. 8vo. 378 pp.
Roscher (W. H.). Ephialtes, eine pathologische-mythologische Abhandlung iiber die Alptraiime und Alpdamonen des klas- sischen Altertums. Leipzig : Teubner. Imp. 8vo. 133 pp.
Rouse (W. H. D.). The Jataka. Vol. iv. Cambridge University
Press. Price 12s. 6d. Schulte (Fritz) Psychologie der Naturvolker. Entwickelungs-
psychologische Charakteristik des Naturmenschen in intel-
Bihliograph v .
127
lektueller, aesthethischcr, ethJscher, und religioser Beziehung.
Eiiie naturliche Schopfungsgeschichie menschlichen Vorslel-
lens, Wollens und Glaubens. Leipzig ; Veil & Co, 8vo,
viii., 39a pp. StBiLLOT (P ). Les Coquillages de Mer. (Melanges Tradition-
nistes pubiiifs par Paul S^billot et Julien Vinson). Maison-
neuve. i6mo. v., iii pp. Contes des Landes et des Greves. Reniies : Cailliere. Sq.
8vo. xi., 306 pp.
PERIODICALS.
Tht ConttHts of Periodicals txduiively devoted to Folklore
are not noted. L'Antbropoloffie, xi., 4, S. Reinaeh, Quelques observations sur
le tabou. Antiquary, December, 1900. A. H. Ball, An Indian Child's
Burial in Assiniboia. February, 1901, W. E. A. Axon,
A Fifteenth-century Life of St. Dorothea. Archiv fiir ReligionswisBenscliaft, iii, 4. H. Steintkal, Allge-
meine Einleitung in die Mylhologie (Schluss). K Losch,
Mythologische Studien im Gebiet des Baldermythus. Proceedings of the Cotteswold Katnralists' Field Club, ziii, 3.
E. C. ScoMl, The Common Fields at Upton Saint Leonard's and the recent inclosure (1897).
EngliBh EiBtorical Review, vol. xv., p. 625. A. Ji. IVAitnvay, Customs of Che Western Pyrenees.
Transactions of the Devonshire ABSociation, 1900. P. P. S. Amery, Seventeenth Report of the Committee on Devonshire Folklore. [Several curious items, of which the most in- teresting is perhaps that of the discovery of a bottle con- taining a dark fluid corked with a cork stuck with pins, said to he a " witch's bottle," in the churchyard at Monkleigh.J
Fortnightly Review, Pebrnary, 1900. A, Lang, The Golden Hough [review of],
Indian Antiquary, November, December. Sir J. M.Campbell, Notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom. R. C. Temple, The Thirty-seven Nats (Spirits) of the Burmese. T. L. Barlow,
F. McNair, and W. Crooke, Folk-tales from the Indus Valley,
128 Bibliography.
InternationaleB Arehiv fur Bthnogpraphie, ziii, 6. W, von Biilaw^ Beitrage zur Ethnographie der Samoa-Inseln. H. Ling Roth^ Artificial Skin-Marking in the Sandwich Islands. 6. O. Sierich^ Samoanische Marchen. Supplement T, Koch^ Zum Animismus der Siidamerikanischen Indianer [an im- portant contribution to the literature of the subject, drawn chiefly from German sources].
Journal of Hellenic Studies, voL zx, p. 99. Jane E, Harrison^ Pandora's Box.
Man, a Monthly Record of Anthropolog^ical Science. No. 1, January, N, W. Thomas^ A Buddhist Wheel of Life. /. Rhys^ On certain Wells in Ireland. No. 2, February, E, S. Hart- land^ Problems of Early Religion, Certain Wells in Ireland. Anthropological Institute. Imp. 8vo. i6 pp. monthly.
Notes and Queries, December Sth, 1900. Isaac Taylor, Nature Myths. A' y. Davy, A Good Friday Superstition. December 15th. Mayhew, Sparrow-mumbling.
Reliquary and Illustrated ArchflDologist, vii, 1. T, H. Bryant, John Schome : a Mediaeval Worthy [who conjured the Devil into a boot].
K^vue F^libr^enne, Tome xiv, 1898 et 1899. G, Doncieux, UEscrivette, £tude de folklore national.
Kevue de I'Histoire des Religions, xlii, 2. Congres International de FHistoire des Religions (Paris, 1900), Proces-verbaux, et discours de Naville, Bonet-Maury, et de Gubematis. E, L, M. Conard, Les Id^es des Indiens Algonquins relatives i la vie d'outre-tombe.
Khenisches Museum fur Philologrie, vol. Ivi. 1900. Alb. Dieterich, ABC-Denkmaler [a most exhaustive and erudite article on the distribution and original (magical) significance of the Alphabet used as a formula].
The Scottish Review, October, 1900. Olaf Davidson, The Folk- lore of Icelandic Fishes.
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, 2nd Series, xviii, 1. W. F, Baildon, On a Sixteenth-century Leaden Charm, found at Lincoln's Inn. [Similar to one described and discussed in the Reliquary and Illustrated Archceologist, July, 1897. Better evidence as to the age of the object and the person against whom it was directed is desirable.]
3folk*Xore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY.
Vol. XII-]
JUNE, 1901.
[No. II.
WZDHXSDAT, FEBRUABT gOth, 1901.
' The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook, C.B.) in the Chair.
The minutes of the December Meeting were read and con- . firmed.
The President read an Address to His Majesty King I Edward VII. on the demise of Her late Majesty Queen I Victoria, prepared by him at the request of the Council. It E was unanimously resolved that the same be adopted by the I Society and presented in the usual way.
The election of the following new members wasannounced, iviz.: Mrs A. Newton, Mr. C. H. Chase, Mr. A. Baldwin, I Mr. H. A. Rose, Miss E, W. Allen, Mr. G. H. Hampton, f MissE. M. Cobham, Miss Thompson. Mr. D. F. de I'H. I Ranking, and Miss C. R. Coleridge.
The resignation of Mr. J. L. Andre, Mrs. Morris, Mr. F. I L. Gardner, Miss C. Burdon, and the Ecole des Hautes I £tudes (Sofia) were also announced.
Mrs. Gomme exhibited and presented to the Society a Kirn Maiden or Dolly, copied by Miss Swan from those made at Duns, in Berwickshire, fifty years ago, and Mr. Gomme read a letter from Miss Swan describing it [p 2 15] . Votes of thanks were accorded to Mrs. Gomme and Miss Swan.
Mr. N. W. Thomas read some notes on Animal Super- stitions in Asia Minor [p. 189], upon which Mr. Kirby, Mr, Ordish, and Mr. im Thurn offered some observations.
VOL. XII. K
1 30 Min utes of Meeting.
Mr. E. F. im Thurn read a paper on the " Games of the Red-men of Guiana" [p. 132], illustrated by lantern slides, and in the discussion which followed Mr. Gomme and the President took part.
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. N. W. Thomas and Mr. im Thurn for their papers.
The following books and pamphlets, presented to the Society since the November Meeting, were laid upon the table.
I. The Annual Report (1900) on British New Guined^ presented by the Government of Queensland. 2 Prods- verbaux Sommaires du Congr^s Internationale des Tra- ditions Populaires (1900), presented by M. Paul S^billot. 3. Transactions of the Japan Society^ vol. v., presented by the Society ; 4. Leggende Tifernate and (5). Amuleti Italiani Antichi e Contemporanei, by Giuseppe Bellu«ci, both presented by the Author. 6. On Norman Tympana^ with especial reference to those in Derbyshire^ by Dr. T. N. Brushfield, presented by the Author. 7. Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeological Society y N.S., vol iv., Part i, presented by the Society. 8. Folklore of the Australian Aborigines y by R. H. Matthews, presented by the Author. 9. De Grsecorum Diis non referentibus Speciem humanam^ by M. W. de Visser, presented by the Author. 10. The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, vol. xxiii., No. I, presented by the Smithsonian Institution. 11. An Etymological Dictionary of the Assamese Language (Hem Kosha), by the late Srijut Hem Chandra Barua of Chandra of Gauhati, edited by Captain P. R. Gurdon and Srijut Hem Chandra Gosain, presented by the Assam Government.
Minutes of Meeting.
WEDNESDAY, MARCH SOtb, 1901. Ww/ Meeting of the Folk-Lore Society and the Anthropological Institute. I Chair was taken by Mr. E. W. Brabrook, President of the Society. f The minutes of the previous Meeting of the Society were read and confirmed.
Dr. A. C, Haddon exhibited a Wren-bush from co. Wicklow, and lantern slides of a Wren-bush being carried round, and of a wren-box from the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Farnham. He also exhibited two specimens of Yule Doos (Christmas cakes) from Newcastle-on-Tyne. A vote of thanks was accorded to him for these exhibits.
Mr. Brabrook then vacated the chair, which was at his request taken by the President of the Anthropoiogical Institute, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Dr. W. H- R. Rivers then read a note on " Primitive Orientation" [p. 210], illustrated by a lantern slide. A short discussion followed, in which Mr. Brabrook, Miss Grove, Mr. Lewis, and Dr. Gaster took part. A vote of thanks to Dr. Rivers for his communication having been passed.
Mr. Wilfred Godden read a paper by Miss Gertrude M. Godden, entitled, "The Legend of the Sand-Rope and other Futile Tasks, B.C. 400 — A.D. 1900," which was illus- trated by lantern slides.
Miss Godden exhibited the following objects illustrative of her paper: — i. A specimen of Fulgurite from Poland, lent by Mr. F. W. Rudler. 2. Photographs of Greek vases and other classical monuments, showing futile tasks. 3. A drawing of an unpublished Greek vase recently acquired by the British Museum, showing Greek futile tasks. 4. Sketches of scenes of futile-task-stories in Cornwall, by Mr. W. Godden. 5. Photographs of scenes of futile-task- stories in Denmark, Scotland, and England.
In the discussion which followed, Mr. Kirby, Dr. Gaster, Mr. P. Redmond, Mr. N. W. Thomas, Mr. Brabrook, and the Chairman took part.
The Meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to Miss Godden for her paper and to Mr. Wilfred Godden for reading it.
GAMES OF THE RED-MEN OF GUIANA.^
BY BVERARD F. IM THURN, C.B., CJC.G.
{Read at Meeting of 20th February , 1901).
A SOCIETY such as this has use for two different classes of workers — for some who observe and record facts, and for others who from these recorded facts make theories. It is in the former and humbler capacity that I come before you to-night. I propose by word of mouth and by picture to set before you facts as to the games of the Red-men of Guiana, noted during a twenty years' life among them ; and I leave to others the task of evolving, by the comparative method, theories as to these games — a task which can probably not be performed till much fuller records from all the world over shall have been accumulated.
My players of games are the Red-men, the so-called " Indians " of the country immediately south of the Orinoco River, who are still in much the same condition as when the sea coast and the river banks of these parts were first explored by rival Dutch and Spanish adventurers of the sixteenth century.
At that time the vast mangrove swamps at the mouths of the rivers, places where there is no dry ground, and con- sequently no possibility of cultivation, were occupied by the Warau Indians, who are almost certainly the remnants of the earliest inhabitants of that land of whom we have any knowledge. In the more habitable places afforded by the sand reefs which lie just inland from these swamps were the Ara- waks, who had been driven southward on to this part of the mainland from the West Indian Islands in front of the fiercer Caribs, who were at the moment slowly making their way south. Various bodies of the Carib race had reached the main- land long before, and each of these under a new tribal name
* Considerable parts of this paper were printed in 1890 in TtV/Mn', a Guiana journal.
L
of the Red-men of Guiana. 133
had made its way inland and had established itself inaseparate part of Guiana. Thus of these early Carib immigrants, the Akawois and the Partamonas had penetrated through the Warau swamps and the Arawak sand reefs, and had divided between them the forest country between the sand reefs and the open plains (locally called savannahs) of the far interior ; and the Wapianas, the Macusis, and the Arekunas had passed up the great Orinoco river till they reached the savannahs on the right bank and had then struck across inland and had taken up distinct areas on the savannah reaching toward the Amazon. But the True Caribs — the main body, that is to say, which we now know by that name — were, when the Dutch and Spaniards came, only just reachingthose parts. They were raiding in widely-scattered warlike bands among the tribes already settled, and were in the act of winning for themselves a home and country.
At that moment first came into those parts white men, Dutch and Spanish adventurers; and, as the development of a photographic negative is arrested by the fixing salt, so the spread of the Red-man over this part of Guiana was arrested by the incoming of the white man. The tribes which had already divided up the land between them remained in their places, and the wandering bands of the Caribs stood still each on the spot where it happened to be. And so, with but slight tribal movements, the distribution has remained to this day.
As a matter of fact the Spaniards never established them- selves in the parts with which I am dealing, nor even pene- trated into these to any considerable extent ; and the Dutchmen, who established themselves in the homes of the Arawaks. made friends with that people — for which reason the Arawaks are more changed than any other tribe — but deliberately adopted the wise policy of befriending the other Red men with as Utile interference as possible — for which reason these other Red men remain to this day almost unaltered in habits and ways of thought. It is only
134 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
just now, when the attraction of gold and diamonds is at last spreading white men throughout Guiana, that the whole nature of the Red-man's system of life is inevitably to be effaced.
All these details are not really apart from my subject; for my fragmentary record of the games of these people will only gain full value if hereafter, when other similar records have been accumulated, the diffusion of ideas as illustrated in games can be detected as a correlative of the diffusion of the tribes themselves.
Yet another point must I deal with in this long preface. The attempt to define at all fully the connotation of the word " games " would be hazardous ; but I take the risk. A game, it appears to me, is the pleasurable exercise of any of the bodily or mental faculties without any other purpose on the part of the player than either (i) developing the faculty exercised or (2) developing in the player a fervid state of mind — in this case generally for quasi-religious pur- poses. I do not now intend to examine or prove the truth of this definition. I only wish to point out that it includes not only all that we civilised folk class in common thought as games, but also — and this is more easily illustrated in less complex states of civilisation than ours — all simple games of imitation, whether, as in the case of many children's games, of the doings of their elders, or, as in many games both of children and adults, of the doings of animals, games of endurance, and such as evoke many other qualities, and (to come to much more complex forms of games) dances in all their many forms, uncivilised and civilised, religious and non-religious.
The simplest and earliest form of game, whether we regard the life of the individual or of the race, is the imitation by children of their elders. Without going to primitive folk, we can see such games as playing at soldiers, at marrying, burying, preaching, coaching. In a church paper a few years ago there was a serious complaint that
Games of the Red-men of Guiana. 135
I parents allowed their children to play at Jack-the-Ripper. In our state such games arc of course survivals with the utility almost gone out of them. But among the Guiana folk such games are the education of the children. The boys' earliest and only toys are little bows and arrows, blow-pipes, and the few other things which the adult Red- man uses; his ordinary games are the use of these; and he never ceases from the practice of these games till, his implements of sport having grown with his own body, he finds that he has imperceptibly become a man, with a man's habits and utensils. The girl, on the other hand, has as her toys some clay, with which she makes little vessels of the few conventional shapes, little baskets in which she at first pre- tends to carry loads, and a few sticks which she makes into a frame on which she puts together a hammock ; and she too grows up with such things and finds herself a woman.
It is curious, and I think characteristic, that one of the simplest of games, which has developed again and again among many different peoples and has taken on an infinity of elaborate forms — I mean ball-play — is almost unrepre- sented among these utilitarian Red-men. I never saw any ball-game except among the Arekunas of Roraima. There the men, not the boys, sometimes stand in a great circle beat- ing a small ball of native rubber from one player to the other, each with his hand beating it down on to the ground in such a way as to make it rebound towards some particular player, whose duty it is to beat it to another player. The rarity of ba!!-play in Guiana, and the fact that it appears to be practised only by adults, looks rather as though it had not been spontaneously developed, but adopted from some other people.
But in addition to the games which are followed from babyhood to adolescence, and which are merely imitations of the adult's few serious arts of life, there are in Guiana games freely joined in by the boys and lads which are dramatic representations of the more complex doings of their
136 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
elders, or of the habits of animals. These also probably have their recognised educational value, taking the place of the story-books and natural history books of our state.
One of the most elaborate of the story-book games is played by the Macusi lads of the savannahs on the western slopes of the Pacaraima Mountains. It must be explained that a visit from those parts to town is, or was till within the last few years, a very rare event, falling to the lot of but very few, and making a correspondingly deep impression. When such journeys do occur, a principal feature in them is the purchase and bringing home of a number of small articles to which the travellers take a fancy. So this important event has given rise to a game.
The players, seated on the ground one behind the other, and each clasping the player in front of him, form a long line, which by the motion of feet and thighs drags itself slowly forward, swaying from side to side, and imitating the forward rolling motion of a long and well-manned canoe. (Plate III.) Two other players — who have not been to town — pass along the line, and as they come to each squatting figure seize a foot and make the owner name for each toe some object that he is supposed to be taking home — a razor it may be for the big toe, a gun for the next, cloth for the next, hair-oil for the next, and a "chimney-pot" hat for the little toe. The greater the imagination shown in the choice of goods, the louder are the shouts of laughter from the spectators.
Each player having accounted for his treasures, the incidents of the return voyage are acted. First, rain overtakes the travellers, that is, the two detached players seize a long pole by the two ends, and applying this to one side of the line of squatting travellers, forced them on to their sides and to the ground, as heavy rain stops the progress of paddlers. Next, the travellers turn over on to their backs, but still in line. Then the two home-stayers hold the pole longitudinally over first one and then another of
u
i
n
^
^^^ tail, ^^■taostn
Games of the Red-men of Guiana. 137
prostrate travellers, each of whom in turn seizes the lole with his tingers and toes, and is carried across the playground and placed, still flat on his back, in another
place. This is portaging the boats and goods overland, to
avoid the worst falls on the homeward journey. Next the
two home-stayers, one after the other, run quickly along
the line, finding room for their feet in among the legs of
Uie line of prostrate travellers, who, it must be remembered,
placed as closely as possible the one beside the other,
id who endeavour, by the movements of their legs, to
iset the runners. The boat is being guided through the
itricate groups of rocks which in the dry season block the
Team, Then the home-stayers, taking each traveller in
;rn by the head, raise the perfectly stiffened body on to its
, It is the fallen limber being moved from the creek
which the canoe now has to pass. This done, each
ilayer in the line falls forward on to his hands and feet, his
lighs the highest part of him. Thus the closely pressed
idies of the players form a long tunnel through which
;h player in turn has to creep from the end of the line to
ike his place at the other end, as a canoe along a tree-
■ched creek, (Plate IV.)
The following are some of the ways in which the Macusi
ids play animal. In the kaikoosi, or jaguar game, all but
iree of the players form one long procession, each player
ith his hands on the shoulders of the one immediately in
int of him, and then the whole procession winds here and
lere, with rhythmic sway of bodies from side to side, and
with rhythmic monotonous chanting of the words " Kaikoosi
brahma celertbt." ("There is no jaguar here to-day."}
Then from the onlookers comes one of the three players
omitted from the procession. Moving on his two hands
and one leg, the other leg held high in the air to represent
tail, he is the jaguar whose task it is to catch the hinder-
lost member of the procession before its leader, encumbered
his followers, can turn and face the dangerous beast,
138 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
and then to carry him off and place him among the spectators. (Plate V.) The next has then to be caught, and so on until all the members of the procession have been removed to the aguar*s lair among the spectators. The two other players, not involved in the procession are two small boys who, on "all-threes," imitate the jaguar cubs, running here and there after the full-grown kaikoosi, doing nothing else, but adding considerably to the picturesqueness of the scene.
In the monkey game, all form in single file and move in procession, but very quickly, and with ever quicker and quicker movement, until a considerable pace is attained ; they wind round and round the open space and across and across it till, at a sudden signal from the leader, the line is instantly broken ; each bigger lad has one or two smaller player^ on his shoulders (Plate VI), all chattering and squealing and gesticulating, and running hither and thither. It is a troop of monkeys suddenly alarmed and angered.
Another game is of an acoorie {Dasyprocta aguti) in a pen and the attempts of a jaguar to get at it. The players form a ring, their faces inwards, their arms round each other's necks. Inside the circle one player crouches as an acoorie in- side a pen. Outside the pen another player watches ; it is the jaguar looking with hungry eye on the acoorie. (Plate VII.) He tries to get the acoorie out between the bars of its pen — that is, between the legs of the circle of players. But the living pen whirls round and round, and it is long before the jaguar succeeds in grasping the acoorie and dragging it out.
A flock of vicissi duck resting on the ground in a close- packed, irregular-shaped group is well imitated in another game. The leading duck, at some supposed sign of danger, starts the whole flock, which now darts backward and forward in straight duck-like flights in among the houses, imitating the curious characteristic whistling of the vicissi.
Again, a procession forms and moves, while a single
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Gatnes of the Red-men of Guiana.
player hovers in front of the leader of the tile until, with the cry of a hawk, he strikes down one side of the file to seize the hindmost of its members, each one of whom, startled by the sudden cry, crouches as a chick behind a hen, and only the hindmost man runs up the line, on the opposite side to the hawk. If the latter is quick enough to effect this uncaught, he is safe for that time ; otherwise he is carried off and placed among the onlookers, and this is continued until the whole brood of chickens has been captured by the hawk. Or, all but one of the players squat on the ground, each behind and clasping his neigh- bour's neck with his arms, and all forming a long line. The one man left out, representing an ant-eater, creeps up to the foremost man and, after scratching on the ground with his hands, seizes the foremost player by his feet, throws him over his shoulders, and so conveys him, head down- ward, across the playing ground, and places him among the spectators. This is no easy task when the prey is a well-grown boy, and if the boys are small, two are carried at once. It is an ant-eater supplying himself with ants.
Again, one boy squats in Indian fashion while the others dance round him in wild disorder and confusion, buzzing like a swarm of wasps, occasionally darting forward and rumpling the hair and otherwise worrying the sitter. The latter bears this patiently until he sees his chance, when, with the eagerness of a monkey who sees his opportunity of catching a troublesome wasp, he seizes and disposes in turn of one after another of his tormentors.
Though the games as yet described are played generally by boys, the young men join most heartily in every one of them. And among the Arawaks grown men and women, as well as children, play somewhat similar and equally simple games of imitation. The trumpet-bird or viarracaba game is simplicity itself, and yet no one who knows the habits of the trumpet-bird {Psophia crepitans) could fail to recognise what is being imitated. The players in single
140 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
file, each with his or her hands on the shoulders of the player next in front, march and hop about the settlement, entering and prying everywhere, emerging from the most unexpected directions, always imitating the curious boom- ing note of the warracaba.
I have seen adult Arawaks play a most realistic monkey game distinguished by unusually rough fun. The players in line simply rushed, sometimes over the roofs of the houses, tearing off bits of thatch and pretending to chew these, up and along the rafters of the house, throwing down the many small properties there stored, into the kitchen, upsetting the pot, devouring or destroying all food that came in the way, driving out the women who were baking bread, scattering the fire ; and all the while chattering and grin- ning as vehemently as any troop of real monkeys. The women scuttled at the very sight of the coming troop. The old man of the settlement and his wife, in real anxiety for their goods, tried to protect what they could, tearing it even out of the monkeys' hands, or throwing food to the monkeys to distract their attention from more valuable properties. At last the old man, with the help of one or two bystanders, secured the more violent of the players, and, despite some too genuine scratchings and bitings, managed to fasten them by ropes round their loins, monkey- wise, to the posts of houses. At last five had been so caught and tied in one house ; and then, if there had been uproar before, there was pandemonium now. The captives screamed and shrieked and yelled ; they rolled as far as their cords would allow, and tore with their teeth everything that came in their way : food, clothes, hammocks, pans, and calabashes. With difficulty I saved a young chicken which one monkey had seized and was about to eat alive ; and my camera, which unfortunately was standing by, had to be most closely guarded. One monkey took into his mouth and spat out, mouthfuls of salt and of red peppers {Capsicums), At last, everything within reach having been either destroyer-'
Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
141
' or removed, the captives took to fighting each other, in
iine heaving heap of humanity. And the whole mighty
j^roar only ceased when all were literally too tired to do
Then rest and refreshment, in the shape of paiwarie,
pic native fermented drink) followed, and the usual good
nuniour reigned everywhere.
The games which 1 have hitherto spoken are of the simplest possible description, and may probably be found mutatis mutandis among a great many other races. But 1 have now to speak of a few of a highly specialised kind, and which have almost certainly been slowly developed each in the tribe to which it seems peculiar. These too seem to have lost much of the educational character of the earlier kind, and yet almost certainly wrap up a good deal of the history of the tribes that play them.
The whipping game, called macquari, of the Arawaks is a curious performance, the essential feature of which, the mutual whipping, is, I suppose, unique. If the purpose of the game is the cultivation of a habit of endurance, analogies may be drawn between this game and all of the many habits of self-torture practised, and most stoically endured, by almost all people below a certain stage of civilisation. ^ut I am not aware that elsewhere than among the Arawaks his habit has taken the particular form of extremely severe mutual whipping carried on simultaneously with extreme |7jollification.
Brett and Schomburgk write of it as a funeral rite, prac- tised in commemoration of some important dead Arawak ; l)ut I have never been able to confirm this statement. ' It U true that the game is very rarely practised now, and but few Arawaks retain the correct form and ritual of the cere- mony, and that in Schomburgk's and Brett's time the game ■luisl have been much more frequently practised. Their
' The laic Rev. C. D. Dance, in his valuable if somewhul ill-artanEed Sj^'Uts frem a Guianesf teg-ioei, axinhiAci a funeral purpose lo Ihe macquari itiic. ihough wilhout giving any itapoitani evidence of the fact.
142 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
chance of obtaining information was therefore betterthan any that can now be had. But if the game really was a funeral rite, it seems to me strange that within one generation all knowledge of this has died out from the minds of the Arawaks. Futhermore, there is a circumstance connected with the game which may easily have misled the earlier writers. A grave is prepared before the game begins, and in this grave, at the conclusion of the game, a burial does take place, attended by all the players. But the thing buried is not a corpse, but is the apparatus of the game, the whips and whistles which have been used, and which are then ceremoniously buried, to be dug up and used — all that is left of them — with the addition of whatever new material may be requisite, when the game is again to be played.
The macquari game is carried on with much drinking of paiwarie, and has at least in these latter days developed into a regular paiwarie orgy. Probably it was always so. The headman of the place where the macquari is to be held sends out his invitations long before the day appointed, each guest being given a knotted string or a notched stick, the knots or the notches on which represent the number of days before the game.^ The time appointed is, as indeed in all their games and dances, when the moon will be full ; for the proceedings are carried on steadily through day and night.
As regards the instruments to be used, I think, but am not quite sure, that the hosts always make and supply these. Possibly, however, the guests make and bring their own share.
The essential parts of the whip are the handle, which is a stout stick, some twenty inches long and perhaps an inch
' Early one December, stopping for the night at an Indian settlement at no great distance from a mission, the headman of the place insisted upon my preparing for him a cord knotted with a number of knots to correspond with the days before Christmas ; and when, sympathising with the devotional inten- tions which I mentally attributed to him, I asked him why he was so anxious for Christmas, he replied that ** he wanted to have a good drink."
Games of the Red-meti of Guiana.
i43
and a half in diameter, and the lash, from two to two and a half feet long, which is made of a bundle of parallel strands of the remarkably tough fibres of the silk-grass, round which is very tightly and closely bound more silk-grass ; the whole is then heavily beeswaxed, and forms as severe a cutting implement as any single lash could. But over these essential parts of the whip is put a thin covering, by way of ornament, of the far weaker uncleaned fibre {libisiri) of the xla palm {Mauritia flexuosd); and the ends of this are allowed to hang loose at each end of the handle, so as to make a sort of ornamental tassel which is stained red. A touch or two of other colour is added by tying on a few bright feathers.
In the above description the essential pans of the whip have been carefully distinguished from the ornamental. It will easily be understood, remembering the nature of the materials used for these two parts, that the former, the handle and the lash, are of a very tough and enduring nature, while the mere ornamental parts are of very perish- able nature. When, therefore, after the game is for the time over, the whips — or some of them, for I think only a few are ever so treated — are buried, the ornamental parts quickly decay, while the handle and lash endure. It is these latter which are dug up on the occasion of the next playing of the game, and are then, under the name of " macquari grandfathers " {Macqttareeichi), placed (I am not sure that they are actually used on this second occasion) among the whips to be then used.
It is as though the vitality of the sport were preserved from occasion to occasion ; as if the macquari of one genera- tion, reduced we might almost say to skin and bone, looked on as a grandfather might at the play of the macquaries of the next generation — surely a curious and characteristic idea, and one which may obviously have given rise to the idea that the game has the nature of a funeral rite.
Two wooden whistles are made, about three inches long, roughly carved and painted to resemble plovers — whistling
144 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
birds be it remembered. These are, I think, used by the two chief male players. More of these instruments may sometimes be made and used, but I know of no case.
Whips and whistles are essential implements to the macquari game. Whether the other instruments which I have now to describe are also essential, or whether they really belong to some other game, perhaps more than one, which has in some way nowadays got mixed up with the macquari, I know not, but I have seen the following all used.
The honore — named from the Arawak name for the heron {Ardea cocoi) — is also a rough, very rough, wooden representation of a bird. It is used always by the women, and sometimes by the men in place of the macquari whip, the blow given with it being of course merely formal and not severe. ^
A large bundle of aeta fibre is tied up to imitate the shape, in natural size, of a sloth. The two front limbs of this creature are tied together at the toes, in such a way that when the loop thus made is slipped over the neck of one of the players it hangs down his back like a sloth hanging by its front legs round his neck. This seems to be a sort of badge of disgrace hung on any player who is in some way a defaulter in the game.
Rattles, or shak-shaks^ made of small round gourds, enclosing some pebbles, are mounted at the end of very long sticks (eight or nine feet), and are adorned with tassels of 3eta fibre. One of these is provided for each female player.
For most of the other games observed, special clothing, scanty but appropriate, is provided, For the macquari I
* Mr. Dance, in his Guianese Log-book^ already quoted, page 273, alludes to the " Honora, the crane or heron dance," as distinct from the macquar. He may be right ; and, in that case, it must be understood that the honore element which I saw in the macquari was only accidentally mixed up with the true ritual of the latter game.
Games of the Red-men of Gutana
HS
liiave noticed only one such preparation, which is that the
Pwomen cover their heads with small pieces of white natural cotton fibre. But as the Arawaks are by far the most civilised of the tribes, and have, with very few exceptions, almost invariably adopted shirt, trousers, and, in the case
1 of the women, ordinary dresses, we may suppose that the radition of the appropriate dress for the macquari has >een lost
When, in addition to the things already mentioned, a sufficient quantity of paiwarie has been prepared, all is ready for the game, which will last for a day and night or more, according as the paiwarie lasts out.
The guests arrive the afternoon before the first day of the regular dance. As they arrive they are met at the waterside by the hosts, provided with whips. The guests stand to be whipped, and, in turn, the whips being handed over to them for that purpose, whip their hosts. So,
I whipping and being whipped in turn all the way, the pro-
Icession moves up to the houses.'
Before daylight the next morning the women are astir, and hand to each player a small calabash of paiwarie which has been especially prepared twenty-one days beforehand.
I Now paiwarie is undrinkable the first two days after made, is in perfection on the third, and rapidly
f deteriorates afterwards. As a rule, no one would think of drinking paiwarie more than four days old. But on this occasion each player takes a dose of thoroughly spoiled paiwarie, and it is perhaps hardly necessary to throw light
[ on what goes on under cover of the darkness that morning,
■ but by dawn each player feels within himself a void which
Ronly much fresh paiwarie can fill.
Soon after, play begins. At 6rst chiefly the men take part
' I remember overhearing in a discussion as to which of two scltlcmeDts "■ Aould be the scene of an intended macquari dance, an BrEninent put forward Ihet one of the two was much more suitable, as being furlhcsl from ihe watei- lide, and therefore allowing more scope for their initial whipping. VOL. XII. I.
146 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
in it, though after a time some of the women occasionally break into the line and take part. At first too the pro- ceedings are more like that of an ordinary paiwarie dance, the players standing opposite to each other in two lines, their arms round each other's necks or waists, and these two lines approach and retreat from each other with much rhythmic stamping. Suddenly this play is abandoned and the real business of the macquari begins. This may be said to take chiefly two forms, alternating, in the first of which only the men take part, while the women share in the second. ^
In the former, in which the really serious business takes place, two lines of men and boys stand facing each other, each provided with a whip, and the two at one end having the two whistles. The members of the opposite rank stamp rhythmically at each other, all keeping up a constant shouting of Yau-au (like au in German Frau)^ all waving their whips. Suddenly the two with the whistles pass down from their end, between the lines, to the opposite end, the two lines meanwhile moving up in an opposite direction. More stamping follows, and then the two whistlers begin excitedly whistling at each other. This is done with the most comical vehemence, the two holding their heads in opposite directions to each other while whistling, and each at regular intervals reversing the direction in which his head is held. Then takes place for the first of many times what I may call a complimentary whipping. Each man raises his whip high over his head and brings it down with a great show of force and violence, as though bent on cutting open the calf of the opposite player's leg; as a matter of fact, however, the stroke ends in the merest, gentlest, flick of the leg. After that the whistlers rush back, as they came, to their original positions at the other end of the line. These proceedings are repeated several times, till at last the lines break up, and the women at once bring round to each player calabashes of paiwarie.
Games of the Red-men of G.
M7
But it is also now that the serious business of the thing begins, any pair, or any pairs of the players, challenging each other to a real use of the whip. The two challengers stand apart. One puts forward his leg, planting it firmly ; generally he turns his back, and consequently his calf, to- wards his opponent, but sometimes faces him exposing his shin. The opposite man stoops and stretches out his whip 90 as carefully to measure the distance to which the lash will reach, then, rising, he carefully poises it over his head, and flogs, one single stroke, butwithall his might and main. The crack is like a loud pistol shot. The first time 1 saw and heard the blow given, seeing not the slightest flinching of the recipient's body, not a twitching of his lips, I was fully per- suaded that there was some trick in the thing, that the blow was little or nothing else than mere sound and fury. Express- ing something of this, the flogged_man turned toward me his calf, and right across it, extending nearly round on to the shin, was a bleeding gash. The stroke having been given, the two players at once began to dance against each other for a few seconds, the flogged man during this shouting out au the flogger yau. Then the same man receives a second stroke, which is sometimes, according to a rapidly made sign, a second serious stroke like the first, sometimes a merely complimentary stroke. Then follows another few seconds of dancing and shouting. Then the one who flogged before is now flogged in the same way, either only the first or both strokes being serious, according as were those he had inflicted. Then the two returned to the body of players, in the best of humours, hang up their whips, go to the paiwarie trough, and drink together.
The whole business, the two lines of dancers, the pairs of challengers, and the flogging, are repeated again and again throughout the day and night, and, if the paiwarie lasts out, throughout the next day and the next night, and sometimes, I am told, yet longer. From time to time all the players, men and boys alike, give and take their share
148 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
of blows, some, however, being more eager than others for this part of the entertainment, in proportion, as it seemed to me, to the skill which each attributed to himself in scientifically and forcibly inflicting the cuts. Watching with the greatest care, I have never detected the slightest flinching or sign of dread of the blow, nor any sign of ruffled temper. Yet I have seen men, and even small boys, after twelve hours of this work, with their calves so cut about that they could not put their feet to the ground with- out pain ; and in the case of one boy, whom I took into my service immediately after one of these performances, the scars lasted for months. I may add that the two challengers are in all cases suitably matched, boys challenging boys, and men challenging opponents worthy of their lash.
But the performance so far described is occasionally slightly varied, and it is in this second form that the women take part. It seems a milder, perhaps a later, form of the genuine game; and it seems itself to admit of a good deal of variation. The women who take part in it are armed, not with whips, but each either with the long skak-shak or rattle, which has already been described, or with the wooden figure of a heron. The leader of the men also has one of these wooden birds in place of his more usual whip.
Two lines are formed, the men and women standing indiscriminately facing each other. These two lines make the usual series of advances and retreats to and from each other, those players who have whips shaking these, those who have rattles shaking these by hitting the stick part of them at regular intervals with their disengaged hands ; and those who have honores shake these at each other. Then a pause is called, the players, men and women alike, put forward their calves, and each receives either with whip or honore a quite gentle courteous tap. Sometimes, too, the players instead of dancing opposite to each other in two opposing lines within the house, vary the proceedings by
Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
149
I marching round and round the house in double-Rled proces- \ sion, stopping from time to time to give and take the I complimentary strokes.
In a curious dance, perhaps a variety of the macquari,
* time is beaten for the dancers by two old women, or an
old man and a woman, rarely two young persons, who
squat opposite to each other in the centre of the dancing
square with this board between them. Each is provided
with a rough wooden figure of a man called warau, which
[ word as thus used by the Arawaks signifies "barbarian,"
a person not an Arawak ; or sometimes in place of this
■ail each has a bundle of a few straight sticks from two
I to three feet long. Whatever instrument is used, it is
I beaten by each player on the board to a sort of rough tune
I and with an accompaniment of rhythmic chanting.' The
1 words of this chant, as I am assured, are now unintelligible
nonsense ; frequent reference is, however, evidently made
to the ourafia, or labba. In a circle outside these beaters
of time stand a few, apparently rarely more than four or
six, of the young men. Each of these is provided with his
macquari whip, which he holds by its two extreme ends,
his arms being thus outstretched to their full span. The
extreme end of the lash, held in the left hand, is pointed
I toward the centre of the circle, and is held so as almost to
I touch the ground ; the opposite end, held in the right hand,
L is held as high as may be from the ground. Thus the
I bodies of the circle of dancers are all inclined inward, the
I lashes of their whips pointing to a common centre, at which
I lies the square board. Suddenly, at a signal from the time-
I beaters in the centre, and always in time with this beating,
I the men come forward with a curious little running motion,
' In Nature, for Septembei Sth, 1E99, il is suited Ihal Ihe Mincopies hnve but one musical insiniinenl, which consists " merely of a hard wood board, of spedsl shape," which is used for sounding a ihylhmical lime foi dancing. It il used only as a musical inslnimcnt, and so illustrates a step in advance of ihe
I Australian, who taps with his stick upon his " casting boaid " or the samcpur-
I pose, without etiiploying a separate insUuoienl.
150 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
y
i
1 I
and the circle contracts. The time-beaters beat on, now faster, now slower, and as they beat the circle of dancers round them advance and retreat, faster or slower, and as they dance, in constant alternation, the points of the whips are now raised toward the sky, so that the men's figures are bent backward out of the circle, now are turned, as at first described, down toward the ground. Description entirely fails to give any idea of the curious gracefulness of this measured swaying backward and forw-ard of bodies, and of the unusual grace and unusual activity of these dancers. After a time the women occasionally break in and increase the circle of dancers, to the destruction of the gracefulness and, it must be said, rapidity of the dance.
The Warau game, called taratoo^ or naha^ in which the most marked feature is that each player is provided with a large shield made of palm-leaf stalks, is both, as far as I know, unrecorded as played by any other people, and is remark- able for certain features peculiar to it. Chief of these are that it is the only game, except mere children's games, known to me which is not accompanied by drinking, and that there is a real element of contention in it, in that it is used as a practical means, a trial by ordeal, of settling disputes which may have arisen between distinct groups of Waraus, generally between two groups respectively occupying adjacent rivers or creeks.
The absence of drinking may, perhaps, be explained in this way. The usual fermented liquor used in the Indian games of Guiana is either paiwarie or casiri^ both of which are the ordinary every-day drink, one might almost say meat and drink, of all the Indians of Guiana except the Waraus. The latter — of course I speak of them now in their natural state, in which they are now only found in British Guiana, near the mouths of the Barima and Amakuru rivers — have never risen to the level, if I may so speak, of a good drink ; they live, apparently, curiously uncomfortable lives, hidden away between the mud and the
Games of the Red-men of Guiana. 151
gloom, in dense jeta-palm swamps at the edge of the sea. The ground there is nowhere dry enough for the growth of cassava ; agriculture, even in the simple form practised by
rthe other tribes, is unattempted and is indeed impossible;
Mnd consequently the great food supply which the other tribes use, in the form of cassava bread and paiwari, is unattainable and unused by the Waraus. They seem indeed, in their purely natural state — which is perhaps no longer exhibited anywhere unless on some of the more remote and intricate windings of the mouths of the Orinoco — to have been in litlle more enviable state thao the Digger Indians of California, or the Fuegians, generally accounted the most miserable of human beings. Even game is very scarce in the sea-adjacent swamps where live the Waraus, who use instead fish and crabs. But one food supply they have of a marvellously all-suf- ficient, if unsatisfactory, character, the a^ta palm [Mauritia flexuosa) ; and on this, if we except the fish and crabs, they live exclusively. The pith of the aeta palm and the pulp round the fruits of the same tree serve them as bread-stuff; the fermented sap of the seta palm alone seems to save them from quite always quenching their thirst with water. For some reason, possibly with a natural and wise instinct for the preservation of the palms, which are so much to them, they only sparingly use this liquor, the drawing of which means the destruction of the tree. Unlike the other Indians, the Waraus therefore are not naturally habituated to the incessant use of fermented liquor; and for this reason it is perhaps that, also unlike the other Indians, they do not use it at their national game. The energy, emulation, and excitement shown by the Waraus in their liquorless game, is at least equal to that shown by the paiwarie-filled game-players of other tribes.
The second remarkable feature of the shield-game is that
I it serves as a trial by ordeal. The Waraus of one river are
Kaccused, say, by the Waraus of a neighbouring river of
152 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
having stolen some pots, or some other such offence. The dispute between the two parties waxes hot. But instead of an interchange of blows, the headmen of the two parties meet, and these two arrange that their followers shall assemble at some appointed place, and at a date sufficently far ahead to allow of due preparation, and shall then fight it out — or play it out. A tree is chosen, and on one and the other side of this tree each of the two captains respectively make a number of masks indicating the number of days before the strife. They make the tree look, as one civil- ised Warau once picturesquely described to me, like a news- paper. The two parties now return each to their own homes, and there occupy themselves until the day of strife in the preparation of their shields and personal ornaments. After the strife, it may be as well here to say, the vanquished will, in the case above supposed, good-temperedly pay to the victors the amount of the damage which by ordeal they have been shown to have done.
The shields, one of which each man prepares for himself
are made in this way. Three sticks of light wood, the
centre one much slighter, but also nearly double the length
of the other two, are laid at distances of about fifteen
inches, parallel to each other on the ground. The two
outer sticks are perhaps four feet long, the middle one seven
or even eight feet. Across the front of these parallel sticks
pieces of the leaf stems of the aeta palm, all cut to one
length, perhaps thirty inches, are laid parallel to each other
and close together. These are then tightly bound with
the fibre from the aeta leaf in the place which they now
occupy. The result is a compact, dense shield of acta
stalks, square or oblong in shape, above the top of which
the two outer of the three upright sticks projects five or six
inches, while the centre of these sticks projects several feet.
To give additional strength to the shield, a stick of light
strong wood is bound across the top of the aeta stalks,
crossing the three projecting sticks at right angles, and
Games of the Red-men of Guiana,
153
another stick, this time a stout piece of palm-leaf stalk, is bound on similarly at the bottom of the shield. Into three holes made in this lowest horizontal stick the lower ends of the three upright projecting sticks are inserted. Great tassels of flowing acta fibre, partly dyed red, are now bound, by way of ornament, on to the three sticks which project over the top of the shield, and the outer face of the shield, also by way of ornament, is painted in quaint barbaric patters with certain white, red, and yellow ochreous earths. The shield is now complete. It should be added, however, that each maker prepares his shield of a size suitable for himself, so that these vary in size from that of the big full- sized man to that of the small boy.
The personal adornment is of a very simple nature, its con- stituents, if we exclude the few beads or teeth which a very few of the Waraus are rich enough to have and to wear habitually, are only acta fibre and coloured earths. Yet it is a fact, easily paralleled among other Red-men, that a great variety of taste, and some very good taste, is indi- vidually shown. Among the group of players all individuals may be discovered varying from the sloven's state to that of the well and worthily dressed man — 1 had almost said gentleman. Yet the latter has nothing over his bright clean skin but a loin-cloth or lap a few inches wide, a few bunches and twisted strands of straw-coloured palm fibre — these latter sometimes partly dyed to a pretty and congruous red colour — and possibly a few patches of coloured earths, and sometimes of plant juices.
Here is the description of one special player, in a sense as well and as becomingly dressed a man as I ever saw, His waist-cloth was of clean white calico, and was the only European thing about him. It was kept in place by a thick girdle of loosely twisted palm fibres. Round each of his legs, just below the knees, and round his arms, just above the elbows, were similar girdles, each ending in a long and flowing loose end. From round his neck to below his waist hung a thick sort of cloak of etitirely loose fibres; and
154 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
round his head was a fibre fillet ending at the back in a bunch of long loose ends which hung down over his neck. The whole of his hands to above the wrists, and the whole of his feet to above the ankles, were dyed of that deep Indian-red colour (procured from Bixa orelland) which is, strangely enough, so becoming to the red skin of a Red-man. The whole of his clothing, except the paint, I could hold in one small bundle in my hand; yet in this full dress he looked only not a dandy because perfectly becomingly dressed.
When the appointed day comes and the players are gathered together, each with his quaint shield and many flowing tassels, the group presents, as a whole, as picturesque an appearance as can well be imagined, the almost solely prevalent colours of which are soft and well-blended reds, yellows, and browns.
After all this preparation the game is simplicity itself. Each party is drawn up in a long single line, the two lines facing each other in such a way that each player has immediately facing him a player of the opposite side of about his own size. There is much stamping of feet and much threatening shaking of shields, now held high over head ; and there is much shouting of the word saki^ sakiy sakiy each series of shouts ending in a general roar. Then suddenly the two lines take a half turn, and march off and about in single file, but the two sides in parallel lines ; the stamping, the shield-shaking, and the shouting being still kept up. Those who, judging by the unfortunate stray Red- men seen dazed in the town, think these people naturally dejected and low-spirited, would quite change their opinion did they see these same Red-men wildly excited and in the highest of spirits during this game. Suddenly the march- ing ceases, and the two ranks resume their places opposite to each other. Each man gets his shield against that of his opposite foe, and now in silence each pushes against his opponent, each strives might and main, heart and soul, to
Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
155
[push his opponent back from the line and if possible to
I overthrow him. Then follows more marching; and the
whole thing is repeated time after time till all are too weary
to do more. Then the thing ends. It would often be
difficult for any but the most observant onlooker to tell
which side had got the better; but they themselves know,
I and the vanquished admit their defeat. Forfeit is paid, or
r arrangement is made to pay the forfeit at some convenient
f time. Lastly, all separate in the best of tempers.
An account, written at the time, of a very curious cere-
' monial feast, which I saw held, apparently with strictest
and most accurate ceremony, by the Partamonas, must
bring this paper to a close. In the course of an overland
journey in the interior of this colony, 1, with four of my
Pomeroon Indians and a large crowd of Macusi carriers,
[arrived at the village of Araiwaparoo before noon, and there
I found great preparations in hand for a dance which is called
parasheera, and seems to be practised especially by the
Macusi and Akawoi.
Parasheera seems to be the name not only of the dance
but also of each of the performers, who, fantastically clothed,
arrived at the appointed settlement for the dance. Even
when we reached Araiwaparoo in the morning, the wooded
kbeights round us from time to time re-echoed to frequent
rshouts; these, however, for some hours died away each
|(ime they were raised without anything apparently happen-
■ ing or anyone appearing. There seemed a good deal of ■ Ihesitation and unwillingness in answering my questional i about these shouts, and an air of mystery seemed to per- ("vade the whole village. I however induced one of my
■ Macusi travelling-companions to throw some light on the Imatter. He told me that it was the parasheera gathering, PEach party of two or three, being the male inhabitants of l^ne household from some part of the neighbouring
lavannah, as they come, shouting and yelling, to some spot the forest, appointed as a gathering place, near the
156 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
village where the feast is to be held, hush their cries and wait till the other parasheeras, each party of whom seems to come from a separate, more or less distant settlement, come up. Only when the representatives from all the invited settlements have thus gathered together at the appointed place in the forest at some little distance from the place appointed for the feast, does the whole party move forward together When we arrived at Araiwaparoo, and for some hours afterwards, the mysterious parasheera were thus gathering in our neighbourhood, unseen, but most certainly heard, and apparently not to be talked of.
At last, just before four o'clock, the excitement reached its highest pitch, and seemed to pass into a new phase. The men and boys of the settlement rushed into one of the houses, and presently came out fantastically painted with the finest white clay. The headman had a broad band of this pigment entirely across his face so as to cover both eyes and meet the ears on either side ; he looked exactly as though blindfolded with a white handkerchief. The same man had also various bands of the same white sub- stance round his body and legs. Each of his party was also painted, but differently, with this same substance. Otherwise they had no ornament, and no clothing beyond the ordinary narrow waistcloth. Each had a whistle formed of one, two, or three very slender pieces of bamboo, arranged, when there was more than one of these, like pan-pipes. This instrument is called kimitiy and from this instrument the whole of the party is also called kimiti. Those who amuse themselves with far-fetched fancied points of analogy between different languages may be especially in- terested to hear that this ^m/V/ performed exactly the office of a reception committee. Some of the kimiti frantically waved small joints of smoke-dried meat. Then, with endless wild and most fantastic caperings and posturings, and with most vehement sounding of their shrill whistles, the kimiti darted like a flock of wild duck down the path toward the
Games of the Red-men of Guian
157
forest, whence the parasheera were to emerge. The approach of the latter was indicated by the growing roar which they raised, which, by the way, contrasted curiously, and doubtless intentionally, with the piercingly shrill sounds of the equally, but differently, noisy kimiti. I At last, just as the two bodies of different noises approached land blended in a most truly marvellous inharmonious har- rmony, the first of the long single-filed procession of new- comers came in sight just at the edge of the forest His entire body was concealed in a clothing of the pale yellow- green young leaves of the a;ta palm {Maurilia flexuosd). A skirt of the same, plaited together at the top, but other- wise hanging loose, hung from round his waist to his heels. A similar cloak of the same hung from round his neck so as to overlap the skirt; and a curiously plaited arrangement of the same leaves encircled his head, part serving as a far- extending halo-like crown, part hanging down visor-like r his face so as to overlap the top of the cloak. He ■ 'held in his hand a long wand of trumpet-wood {Cecropia 1 peltata), pierced with holes so as to serve as a rude musical instrument, and surmounted by a large flat representation of the sun or moon, or some star, or of some animal or bird, made of carved and painted soft wood.
The procession as it emerged from the bush was com- posed of thirty-five of these fantastic figures [Parasheera), each dressed exactly as above described ; except that in each case the figure which surmounted the trumpet-wood dancing-stick represented some different object of the heaven or of the earth, or in some few cases was re- placed by a long rattling band of rattle-seeds [TheveCia nereifolia). Almost all the performers were grown men, but the last half-dozen or so were boys of various sizes down to the smallest. The first three men were accom- panied by their wives, who were, however, not in the rank, but walked, or rather pranced, each by the side of her husbaud, her hand on his shoulder. These women were
1 58 Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
entirely without clothing or ornament except the usual small bead apron, and each had as solemn a face as if she were taking part in the gloomiest or most sacred of rites.
As the party of parasheera and the kimiti met, the former blew, though that had seemed impossible, more vehemently and more deeply through their deep-toned trumpets, the latter redoubled — nay, increased beyond the power of words to express — their ear-splitting whistling. All, of both parties, postured and capered, and stamped, and waved their sticks till the whole was welded into as strange a phenomenon of sight and sound as eye ever saw, ear ever heard, or mind ever conceived. Thus the parasheera came on, slowly but steadily, and as they did so the kimiti whirled round and round the advancing line, even while at the same time they were posturing and capering as frantically as ever. Whether by accident or design, the long procession closed around me, yelling, shrieking, and roaring, and waving their dancing sticks so closely round my head that I had continually to duck to avoid them. The headman — who had led the procession — alone remaining outside, the procession passed into the house, and there formed a circle, faces inward, round the paiwarie trough. And now, as Mr. Rider Haggard would write, a thing most surprising to me happened. The kimiti, with the exception of the leader, instead of going in to share the feast with the parasheera, retired quickly into their own house, washed off their clay adornments, and came out and, except the head man of the settlements, set about their ordinary occupations. Except as a sort of a reception committee, the men of Araiwaparoo itself — the male hosts as it were — took almost no part in the feast.
The headman of the parasheera, who, as has been told, instead of entering the drinking-house with the others remained without, now sat down outside the door and was there entertained, not for one hour or two, but until I left the place the next morning, by the leader of the kimiti with pepperpot and cassava, with much paiwarie, and
Games of the Red-men of Guiana. 159
with an endless interchange of every ejaculatory conversa- tion.
From within the house the most fiendish noise was
issuing. The whole parly posturing in the most curious
way, going through what I can only describe as the most
solemnly ridiculous and fantastic posturings, their bodies
energetically, yet steadily, bent from the hips alternately
backward and forward, while at the same time their stamp-
ling feet moved the whole circle of them round and round the
Ipaiwarie trough. All were chanting as loudly and
Sonorously as possible a short continuously repeated
bentence, erantan eivorki, which being interpreted by one
W my own Macusis, was said to mean " that they had come
Ho drink like hogs." This sentence, apparently more appo-
Mitc of meaning than they intended, really signified that they,
fen the character of bush-hogs (or peccaries), had come to
^^rink. And to a very large extent they justified their
fstalement that they had come to drink like hogs, both in its
apparent and in its intended signification ; for while they
wrtainly did, as a rabid total abstainer might say, drink like
■bogs, make beasts of themselves, they at the same time
cleverly managed to keep up the whole time a somewhat
Sclose suggestion of a herd of peccaries. Their stamping
Svas as the stamping of a herd of these animals, and every
vand then they interrupted the chanting of their sentence
I utter a series of fiendish shrieks, always immediately
followed by a rapid and vehement imitation of the grunt-
ings of a herd of bush-hogs when disturbed by some un-
fltpected sight or sound. But even the monotony of the
Planted sentence was occasionally, perhaps once every half-
ir, altered by the adoption of new words. Sometimes it
(ras erantan meopoi wai cjy, " we have come to a bad
mlace ; " that is to say they had had to mount a steep hill
■each the drinking-place. This was followed by sugges-
ions that, they having taken so much trouble, it was to be
loped that at least the drink was good and plentiful.
r6o Games of the Red-men of Guiana.
Sometimes it was ewoto wai e re kay^ *' we stamp the ground like bush-hogs ; " and certainly they did stamp on the ground, " earth-shakers " they were like, but much more vehement than any bush-hogs. Then again, they were shouting in chorus that ''hog want our dancing-sticks, bat we not let hog have them."
The three women who had come with the party of para- sheera were not actually included in the circle of dancers ; but they solemnly pranced round just outside the circle, each behind her husband, with her hand still on his shoulder. The women of the settlement of Araiwaparoo had from the first kept within the drinking house, and were now in- side the circle of dancers, where they were busily employed in handing calabashes of paiwarie or casiri to the thirsty dancers.
With almost no variation this went on all night. Every now and then two or three of the dancers retired from the circle and the house to free themselves by vomiting of the superfluity of liquor. And later on in the night a few occasionally fell down as they danced, only, however, to re- cover themselves in a marvellously short time and resume their places in the circle. The caperings of course got wilder, the shouts more disordered, and the dresses much dis- arranged. Two or three of the women of the place, one carrying her new-born baby under her arm, took part in the procession for a few minutes. Sometimes, too, nature seemed to be going to have her way and the proceed- ings slacked, but whenever this happened the watchful kimiti rushed, into their own house, adorned themselves afresh each time with white paint, and entering the dancing house, frantically capered round outside the circle of the parasheera, stimulating the latter by frantic whistlings and shouts to fresh exertions and fresh potations — and never
in vain.
When I left the place the next morning the proceedings were still in full vigour, except that the headman of the
Folklore of Lincolnshire. i6i
parasheera and the leader of the kimiti no longer sat talk- ing at the door, but lay there prostrate and overcome. I was assured that the proceedings would continue as long as the paiwarie lasted, which might be all that day and partly on into the next night, but that as soon as the liquor was finished the procession would move off, with as near the same ceremony as their state allowed, to the next settlement, and would there go through the same performance. I was fortunate in seeing them only at the first settlement, but the party was engaged to visit three others. In each case, I was told, the number of the parasheera would be swelled by the men and boys of each of the settlements at which they had already danced.
P
THE FOLKLORE OF LINCOLNSHIRE.
{Read at Meeting ofigth December, rgoo.)
When the popular beliefs of Lincolnshire are compared with the traditions of more picturesque districts of the United Kingdom, it is at once seen that its folklore is prosaic. The fertile stretches of agricultural land forming the three divisions of the county, known as Lindsey, Kesteven, and Holland, support a population which, taken as a whole, has little poetic susceptibility, notwithstanding its probable descent from some of the scalds of the Viking age. On the one hand, the unromantic landscapes charac- teristic of the shire have done little to arouse the imaginative faculty, and on the other, social disorder has but rarely been acute enough to become a mental stimulus. The traditionary superstition of the county, then, is lacking in the beauties which distinguish the conceptions of the Celtic peoples.
VOL. XII H
I f}2 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
I have; been unable to detect any near relationship
\,t\wt'rn tlH! folklore of Lincolnshire and that of S/ ;iri^iin;ivia, although our place-names and dialect still \»*'AT wihifSH to thc! settlement of the Northmen between the \\uu\\nT ;\ut\ thr Kens. The folklore of the shire, as I know it, li;i«t \\\\\r. or no originality. One tradition has its fellow in S'Tiuu I'f another in Ireland, a third in Russia, a fourth in l;'nrri;trk, and so on ; but so far as yet appears, there is no f ofif ifMnf;il area, the b(»liefs of which have a special kinship 7/it|i our ^nijierstitions. Yet my experience must not be t;ih fi ;n ;illogrther conclusive. Although I have spent ii'.ifly ;ill rny life in th<! county, my opportunities for know- ing/ til'- <li(f<Ti-iil wa|)(!ntakes into which it is" divided have h" )» v« ty liffiitrcl, and <rven in the district best known to in* .It I". ' 'ft a in that i have gathered but a very small part ol till I zi-'.f iiig folklore. Many of the elderly people are still ih til' ityt- of folklore faith, but one has to know them ii,Utii>tU \y iK'lore they will spcak openly, unless they li^i|/j/« ri to h'lray llnir thoughts unintentionally in general ' M./M:-.;itiofi. l*or this reason it is scarcely possible yi t I/, I i,itif \t> a cjcfinite conclusion as to a connection \t*\'/ttt\i I jri' olnsliire and Scandinavian beliefs. It is /iot|i « ;il,|r that as in other districts of England — it may l/< ^.;ij'l of lMiro|i( — there is a paucity of genuine Christian luytholo^^y, for the divination still practised on the eves of rrrtain saints' rlays i.s crntirely heathen in its origin. The dih|iosv.«-sHed nature-deities appear to have fallen out of memory soon after their overthrow. But the far older shamanism with which tlwty had become connected has not yet entirely vanished. And after all, it may be that the gods are not so dead .'is th<jy seem. A legend or two which must have once been linked with their names, still survives. The story of the farmer and the weather, for example, appears to indicate; that the offended power was anciently thought of as a touchy and jealous ruler of the atmosphere, not as a deity " slow to anger and of great goodness.''
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
"Thaay do hev it, 'at wonce, a many years back, i' a wet time, a wolds-man said 'at he did wish th' Lord ud goa te sleep while ( = until) harvist was well in. And as soon as he'd spokken, ye knaw, he went fast asleep hissen, as fast as a church, just as he was, oot on his land. Yonder he had to stop i' th' oppen. Noabody could'nt wakken him, do as thaay wo'd, nor git him moved awaay. Foaks hed te build a shed ower him at last te shilter him. An he niver stirred at all while ( = until) his neighbours hed gotten all their com in. Then he wakken'd, an fun all his awn stuff clear ruinaated wi' wind an raain."
Another tale, also from the wolds, affords a further instance of the folly of offending the controller of the atmosphere. A certain man was sowing beans on Fonaby- Top. not far from Caistor, on a stormy day, when the wind became so strong that it blew the beans out of the field. " Damn the wind ! " ejaculated the sower. Whereon he and the sack from which he was taking his seed were instantaneously turned into stone. To confirm the truth of the story, the boulder into which the man was changed may, or might till lately, be seen at a little distance from the transformed sack. It is remarkable that a legend of a different type, referring apparently to this same sack, was
related to Mr. C. F not many months ago. "Last
week I was talking to an old man, who told me that Jesus Christ once came to Caistor, and went into a field there, and asked the farmer in it for some bread. The farmer gave him the only loaf he had. Thereupon Christ turned the stones lying near into sacks of barley, one of which lies in the held now, a huge stone like a sack tied up at one end."
There is also a third story which seems to be connected with the same stone. This tale was picked up not long since as far away from home as the Argentine Republic. One of my brothers met a member of a welt-known" family of Lincolnshire wold-farmers at Buenos Ayres, who told him the substance of what follows here.
1 64 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
On the road from Caistor to Grimsby, in a field by the liif^hway, there stands or used to stand a stone known as the " Traveller's Corn Sack." One winter's day, many 3rear8 af^o, a horseman rode along the road — ^at that time little more than a track across the open wolds — making his way towards (Jrimsby. As he pressed forward he saw a man busy at work sowing grain, and drew near to ask him if he would give or sell him some of it for his horse, which. like its master showed signs of a long journey.
" I am short of corn myself," was the sower's reply, " I can neither give nor sell." But the wayfarer's glance had fallen on a sack which was standing near.
" You have a sack there still full," he urged, " and you have almost done sowing. Give me something for my horse,"
'* That ! " cried the sower ; " that is a great cobble-stone, and no sack of corn ! " Receiving this churlish and un- truthful refusal the rider's wrath was roused^ and in his anger he uttered the following words :
" Saints reward lx)th thee and thine, As thou rcwardcst me and mine. A stone, thou sayest, I can see — Stone for ever shall it be 1 "
And having spoken thus he passed on his way, leaving the startled husbandman to find that the sack had, indeed, become stone. According to the story, there it stood with its very .seams and stitching, its pursed-up mouth, and the cord that bound it, even to the twist of the strands all showing, as they had shown before the spell was spoken. And there it remained through wind and weather, a thing of wonder and awe. But at last strangers came to live on the land, who put no faith in old-time tales. After a while it was found that the stone was in the way, therefore the holder of the farm on which it lay decided to have it moved, although the greybeards of the township warned him to let well alone. The task which he had set himself proved to
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
1 6s
be not only difficult, but unlucky also. All the horses and draught-oxen belonging to the man could scarcely drag the block to his homestead, so heavy did they find it. And in a short time his live stock began to sicken, some of the animals dying. Still the farmer was deaf to the voice of the '' old standards." Not till his son, an only child, lay at death's door, could he be convinced of his folly. Then his stubbornness had to yield. The stone was placed on his best wagon, and the teams brought out to be yoked to it. But scarcely was the old grey mare between the shafts when she started off alone drawing the once burdensome load with ease, although the road back to the field was up-hill. This wonder became widely known, and the old awe of the " Corn Sack " took a new lease of lile.^
To return, however, to the first of these legends. There are other stones in Lincolnshire connected with the weather, unless they have been broken up or removed, In a manuscript collection of local rhymes formed in the earlier part of the nineteenth century the following passage
^
"At Ewerby Wath, near Sleaford, an ancient doggrel is extant amongst the inhabitants, which they apply to several large coffin-shaped stones that lie upon the common there —
' The KingG of Eogland, Fianct, and Spain, All fell down in a shower o{ cnin, The showei of raio made diity wealher. And heie they all lie down logclher,' "
The tradition connecting the devil and the wind with Lincoln Minster has lately been recorded in Folk-Lore.^ Variants are lold of several foreign churches, and the allied belief that the weather is unsettled when there is a " hanging assize " at Lincoln, finds parallels in the popular lore of Germany and Austria, where the trial of a prisoner
lately heaid ihal Ihe slcitj' of Chrisl and Ihc sack has properly a similar ending.
pp. 172, 364.
1 66 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
for a capital offence is supposed to be accompanied by heavy gales when the result will be a conviction. Another illustration of the same idea is to be found in the story that many of the Cavaliers rejoiced over the death of Oliver Cromwell in one of the highest winds ever known in England, telling each other that the devil had come in a hurricane to fetch old Noll. The underlying conception seems to be that the god of the air and wind is claiming the spirit — the very breath of life — of the person about to die. For the same reason it is sometimes imagined that on the morning when a prisoner is to be executed at Lincoln a thunder-cloud hangs over the city : while I have lately heard that when, not long ago, an unusually violent thunder- storm followed closely on the death of two people who were much respected, it was suggested in a parish of North-west Lincolnshire that the devil was showing his fury. These good women had attained the bliss of heaven, and his rage betrayed itself in an appalling display of electric force. Had a notorious sinner been in question it would have been thought that the Prince of the Powers of the Air had come in strength to bear away a wretched soul to torment.
A lingering conviction that the heavenly bodies are awesome beings shows itself in the saying still to be heard in the wapentake of Gartree, that the sun, moon, stars, and rainbow ought not to be pointed at ; ^ while on the western slope of the wolds in North Lincolnshire the flames of the aurora-borealis are, or not long since were, spoken of as ** fire-drakes," a term which implies that they were once considered to be celestial dragons.
Needless to say there are many fragments of folklore connected with the moon. A girl of eighteen, who is a native of the wapentake of Aslacoe, says, for instance : " Doant Stan' i' th' doorstead te see th' new moon. If yo Stan' atwixt wood te see it, yah'll soon be atwixt yer coflin-booards."
* Cf. C. F. Romilly- Allen, The Book of Chinese Poetry ^ pp. 70, 71.
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
167
The sun, though of less account than the changeful minary, also receives consideration. SunUght shining 1 the apple-trees at Christmas betokens a heavy crop of fruit in the ensuing autumn, and the stones of all corn-mills should be set to turn with the sun, if the miller is to thrive.' Many people hold the opinion that neither eggs, nor flowers, nor any green plant should be brought into a house after sunset, for fear of ill-luck, and others say that to sharpen a knife after that time, or to leave one lying on a table all night, is very rash, for if the master of the house be a farmer one of his animals will die, In this instance the knife probably prefigures the flaying of the creature.^
Certain seasons are connected with ancient forms of love- divination, which (olklorists believe to have very unfortu- nate moral results. On the Eve of St. Agnes, the Eve of St. Mark, and Hallow-E'en, various rites are practised to obtain a glimpse of the spirit of the husband who has been allotted to a girl by immutable destiny, or to ensure a dream in which he must show himself. With this object "dumb- cake" may be prepared and eaten with the appropriate observances, a supper may be set out to allure the man's spirit, sage may be gathered to compel his appearance, or other spells may be used. Most of the stories connected with this kind of divination have a bad ending, and there is little doubt that young girls frequently allow themselves to be led astray from the conviction that the " true love " L revealed to them by occult means is bound to marry them My a fore-doomed fate from which there is no escape.
May Eve is another season for working love-charms.
k native of a village near Kirton-in-Lindsey, who is now in
^arly middle age, affirms that one of the most successful
lethods of discovering the identity of the person you are
3 marry, is to make use of the first bunch of hawthorn you
[observe in the spring time, especially if you can find it on
' Cf. Spenec, Shetland FaHihi-e, p, 112, » Cf. Falihre, vol. xj., p. 345, I. la
1 68 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
May Eve. You " crag " the spray on the bush, that is you break it partly through, and then leave it hanging. After- wards you go home, and at night you ought to see your future husband in your dreams. When the morning comes you must gather the may; and if you have not already dreamed of him, it is certain that you will see* him or his apparition ere you enter the house again.
"My gran'muther was just gooin' in at back-door efter she'd fetched th' maay. An' sh* seed sumbody as sh' knaw'd was bed-fast cross ower th' yard. Deein' he was, fooaks thowt. But awiver, he got better, an' married her. Muther tried it an' all, sh' says, an' dream'd o' feyther, but sh' dars'nt goa fer th' maay i' th' mornin when it cum'd to it, she was scared."
By the use of certain unholy spells, an unwilling person may be compelled to accept the yoke of wedlock. Accord- ing to information acquired by a friend of mine in the little town of Winterton, in the north of the county : " If you want to marry a man when he is set against it, you can force him in this way. Go to an eight o'clock Holy Communion, and when you take the bread, do not swallow it, but keep it in your mouth till the service is over. After you come out of the church, you will see a toad in the churchyard. Well, you must spit out the bread before it, and it will eat it at once. Then your young man, the next time you see him, will be ready enough and wanting to marry you." This grotesque and sacrilegious belief finds close parallels in modern Italian sorcery.
Another charm, acquired from a girl who was born at Lincoln, some twenty-five years ago, has affinity with spells known to the ancient Romans. ** If you take the breast-bone of a toad, or the whole skeleton, and bury it in an ant-hill until the ants have eaten all the flesh from it, and then throw it into a running stream, whichever way the water goes you will see it float right against it. You will find, too, that however often you throw that bone away it will always
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
return to your pocket, and give you power over horses, cattle, and people. My uncle told me of a young man, 1 forget where he lived, who had a toad's breast-bone, and the queerest-tempered horses and beasts would do just as he liked, and kneel to him. And if he went along the road, and willed it so, all the men and women passing by had to come to him and follow him." No magic flute, no lyre, not even that of Orpheus, seems to have ever possessed more compelling power. The toad's bone can hypnotise all sorts and conditions of creatures at the will of its owner. The commonest motive for the use of such a charm is, as might be expected, the desire to secure an illegitimate hold on the affections of a woman against her inclinations, but the intention may at times be less guilty, although in no case is it considered right to gain such authority over people and their possessions,
It is difficult to determine whether anyone now watches the porch of the church on St. Mark's Eve, to see the spirits of all the parishioners enter the building. But various accounts of this practice as it was observed sixty years ago are still current.
"The folks to be married came out arm-in-arm," says one story, " and those who were to die within the next twelve months never came out at all."
Unless they are summoned by love-spells, or watched for at the church porch, the spirits of living men and women rarely appear, though they have at times been seen by persons gifted with what the Scotch term "second sight," a faculty which, according to my experience, is but rarely heard of in Lincolnshire. Ghosts of the dead are, however, common enough, and apparitions of inanimate objects are not entirely unknown. Early in the nineteenth century, before the house underwent alteration, a powder-puff and its box were amongst the spectres said to haunt Winterton Hall. At the present time fairies are seldom heard of, but in
1 70 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
earlier days it was not unusual to encounter them, though they do not appear to have been very numerous, even before the great agricultural enclosures. Formerly they were to be observed at their sports on Brumby Common, and about the year 1874 a certain Mrs. W. was heard to declare that she had often seen them at dusk dancing by the wood-side as she went to pick up sticks by stealth in the avenue of the park at Blyborough. She had also known a man who had seen the fairies all his life in the park. When she was a lass they were often there. '
According to a writer in the Stamford Mercury^ June 7th, 1889, fairies were once to be met with in "Fairies' Holt," a field between Bag-Enderby and Somersby, " where the ploughmen in the old days used to be regaled with hot cakes brought to them from the neighbouring coppice. Fairies' Wood.*'
The Scotch Brownie and the Yorkshire Robin-Round- Cap have at least one kinsman in the parts of Lindsey. He is known as the Hob-Thrust,^ and he has attached him- self to a house in the parish of East-Halton. The stories which are generally related of his northern relatives are told of him too, but he is distinguished by one idiosyncrasy. He may always be made to " walk " by stirring the contents of an iron pot in the cellar, which pot is supposed to con- tain " children's thumb-bones." This idea connects him with the ordinary ghostly world, for I have it on the authority of a Lincolnshire girl that " th' waay to be shut o' ghoasts is te get 'em under iron pots." ^
Another more than natural being who once had great renown, and who still survives in story among some few of the " old standards " of the Isle of Axholme, was William of Lindholme. This William was a wizard giant, so far as can be judged, not wholly unlike the Irish Fann MacCuil
' See Hob-thrush in New English Dict.^ and Hob in Atkinson's Glossary of the Clevelaf id Dialed,
^ Cf. Patrick Kennedy, Legendary Fictums of the Irish Celts ^ p. 13.
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
171
but with a closer resemblance, perhaps, to Michael Scott and other warlocks of fame. He used to live at Lindholme, a small hill of gravel on the turf moor near Wroot. The first and most celebrated of his exploits was performed when he was a boy. His parents went to Wroot feast, leaving their son to keep the sparrows from the corn-land. The thought of this occupation enraged him so much, however, that he snatched up an enormous stone, and cast it at the house to which his father and mother had gone ; but as he threw too high, the missile fell on the further side of the building. After this feat he himself went to Wroot, and when taken to task for deserting his work, explained that he had fastened up the sparrows in the barn ; where indeed they were found in the evening, all dead, except a few whidi had become white. The farmer on whose land the stone hurled by the boy had fallen, yoked six horses to it, but their united strength failed to move it, and they all died soon after. Before the shifting of the population, now going on throughout Lincolnshire, had filled the neighbour- hood of Wroot with strangers knowing nothing of the old local traditions, it was considered unlucky to meddle with this or with other large stones in the district. Two boulders, called the " Thumb Stone" and the " Little Finger Stone," were formerly believed to owe their position to the ^ant. Whether any of the stones thrown by him still exist I have not hitherto been able to learn. Popular fame also formerly connected him with an ancient un- iinished causeway, and a Kirton-in-Lindsey man who was in " The Isle " not so very long ago, was informed that on one occasion William of Lindholme went to borrow some straw of a neighbour. The latter told him to take as much as he could carry on his fork. No sooner said than done. The borrower stuck the agricultural fork he had in his hand into a stack and walked off with it entirely. * A
' It is piotiahtc [hal al Ihe period when Ihis ^tocy gr<^w up, stacks in the Isle of Axhulnie anil other parts of Lincolnshire were much smallci IhiUi they ue now. Diniinulivi' slacks m»y still be seen in Brittany, i [lott of the world which i!>i aj^ricullumlly speaking, behind the tiniL's.
172 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
fragmentary form of the legend relating to the sparrows occurs in another part of Lincolnshire, and other examples of the story have been found beyond the borders of the county.^
Supernatural beings in animal shape are now less fre- quently seen than in earlier days, yet their appearence is still vouched for by some elderly people. Shag-foal^ or as he is also called Tatterfoal^ a mischievous goblin who seems to be one aspect of Puck, manifests himself most frequently as a foal in its rough winter coat. Of late years he has seldom been met with, and it is possible that he has been disconcerted by the drainage and cultiva- tion of fen, marsh, and low-lying moorland. It must be con- fessed, however, that local belief scarcely attributes to him the fondness for water which distinguishes the Irish pooka^ the Scotch kelpie^ and many of the goblin horses of conti- nental Europe. Black dogs with eyes glowing like hot embers, phantom calves, white rabbits, and other eerie animals, are sometimes said to haunt places where murder or suicide has been committed. But it is by no means clear whether these apparitions are considered to be spec- tres of the dead in brute form, or demons from the infernal regions. After some consideration I have come to the con- clusion that they are probably the former. The belief in shape-shifting still exists, that is certain. In Lincolnshire, witches can take on themselves animal guise at will. They have been known to assume the appearance of a hare, a magpie, or a cat. One of the witches whom I myself have seen, was credited with being able to change himself into a dog or a toad, that he might injure the pigs, bullocks, and other live stock of his neighbours. With us, be it observed, the word " witch " is often masculine, and it is noteworthy in this connection that Bunyan speaks of ** Simon the
* Anielie Rosquet, Iji Normandie Romanesque et Mervcillcusey p. 219. A. C. Fryer, Llanttvit Major (1893), p. 35. Stirling, Artists in Spain^ quoted in Card. Wiseman's Essays, p. 406.
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
173
I Witch," meaning Simon Magus.' This use is correct ; the Middle English wicche, a wizard, a witch being both mascu-
I line and feminine ; Anglo-Saxon wicca masculine, wicce feminine.
Another male witch living in the same parish with the man above mentioned, had received the evil eye by descent, and had therefore to take precautions against its blasting too freely, since if he looked at any living thing, whether animal or vegetable by nature, before eating in the morning, it straightway withered and died.
That sorcery still holds its own in the district lying to the west of the Trent is shown by the following notes on the subject sent to my father a short time ago by a close observer of folk-custom.
" The survival in England of the belief in witchcraft is sometimes questioned. Lady Rosalind Northcote* appears to doubt whether it survives in Devonshire. 1 think I may safely say that it still lingers in the Isle of Axholme. A few years ago a girl friend of mine, when staying in a farmhouse in the next village to this, noticed that before the farmer's wife began to churn she threw a little salt into the churn and a little into the fire. When asked why she did this, she replied that it was to ' keep the witch out o' chum.' She did not mean her butter to be ' witched.' Some weeks after this was told me, one of my neighbours asked me if I could take a pound or two of butter from her, as she had made more than she had customers for. 1 asked, jestingly,
[ whether it was 'witched,' and was surprised to find my question taken quite seriously. The woman assured me
I that she ' always took care o' that,' and when I asked how, she said she always used the salt-charm just described. When I pressed her to say whether she really believed in
' See Precenlor Vtrablea' eililion of Ihe Pili-rim's Frogrcss, nole lo p. q^ J- uid p. 98. Ct also a reference lo the Warwickshire use, in Alhetueum, L October 13, 1900, p. 474, 3id cdIuiud.
' Folklore, vol. xi., p. 316
1 74 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
witches and charms she hesitated a little, but finally said that she ' wasn't sure ' that she did, but she had always known this charm used for this purpose and ' thought it as well to be safe.' " ^
** Some fifteen years since," continues Mr. Peacock's correspondent, '' I communicated some notes on popular weather lore to a local paper. Shortly afterwards a man from a neighbouring village whom I knew very well called upon me. His manner was mysterious and shamefaced, and I could not at first make out what he wanted. At lengthj however, he said that he had read my letters about the weather and the moon and such like, and knowing that I was ' lamed ' in these matters he wished to lay his trouble before me, in the hope that I might be able to help him. His story was this. He had for years been * living tally ' with a woman — that is, in cohabitation without marriage— and the vicar of the parish had been * at ' him to marry her. ' He said something would happen to me, if I didn't' He had not done so, and the ' something ' had happened."
*^ * It's t'ould vicar as has witched me,' he said. I tried in vain to laugh and then to argue him out of his belief. It was well known, he said, that such things had happened and he had several instances pat. I told him that witches were usually old women, whereas the vicar — ! ! ! ! But all was of no use ; I must ' take it off him ; ' he was sure that I could.
" Perceiving that his case was one of a troubled conscience complicated with chronic dyspepsia, I prescribed a strong purgative and marriage with the woman. He took both doses and found relief."
Such is the testimony of one intimately acquainted with village life in Lincolnshire.
The work of sorcerers and people gifted with the evil
' Salt is thus used in North Lincolnshire, cfist of the Trent, also. I have often seen my mother's servants throw it into the churn and into the fire, at Bottesford.
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
eye may be counteracted in various ways. Sprigs of the far-famed " Wicken-tree " (^Pyrus aucuparia), which seems to be generally so used throughout Northern Europe, are supposed to prevent ati witch-work if kept about a house or farmstead, especially if tied in the form of a cross. A horse-shoe placed with the points upwards or a "witch- stone," is also effectual- Any stone with a hole through it, if found without being searched for, will serve as a " witch- stone," but the longer it has been used for this purpose the
more efficacy it possesses. Old Mrs. V , who owned
one till she gave it to a correspondent of mine who makes a study of village-lore, told him that every house in the parish where she dwelt was probably provided with a
stone, Mrs. M , an inhabitant of the same village,
had another of these amulets, and she was of opinion that
they acted equally well whether concealed in the pocket
or exposed to view. A common way of using them, I
learn on the same authority, is to hang one behind the
outermost door of the house which it is to protect, thus
, securing the entrance of the dwelling. Flints seem to be
kthe favourite stones with us, but Mr. John Nicholson, author
lof Folklore of East Yorkshire, says (p. 87) that thin flat
loolite stones having a natural perforation are found in
I abundance on the Yorkshire coast, and are tied to door-keys
for suspended by string behind the cottage door to keep
I witches out. " As a relic of this custom, a reel, from which
I the cotton has been used, is often tied on a bunch of keys."
■In Lincolnshire I have noticed one instance of a perforated
flint being tied to a bunch of keys, though the person who
attached it to them professed ignorance of any special
reason for doing so. Cotton reels are commonly thus used,
perhaps simply from custom in many instances. My father
has a fine neolithic stone hammer with a perforation for the
handle, which was discovered in a little square chamber con-
l^ved beneath the door-stone of an old house which used
I stand opposite to the Methodist chapel at Messingham.
176 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
" Greybeards," and other oid-fashioned vesselsi or frag- ments of iron, are sometimes found embedded beneath the foundation, the threshold, or the hearthstone of ancient dwellings, to hinder witchcraft. Such vessels may con- tain horse-shoe nails, other scraps o£ iron, needles, pins, and any small trifles supposed to injure sorcerers or divert their attention. An animal's heart stuck full of pins, and concealed within the fabric or under the walls of the build- ing to be guarded, was not long ago a great protection. Whether it was a substitute serving in place of the animal or human being which in heathen days was walled up in new buildings, has yet to be proved.
Burning some of the thatch from a witch's house will thwart her; and grass from a new-made grave is also of use. Not many years ago, a man in the wapentake of Yarborough took a " stee " — that is, a ladder — to the wall of a churchyard, climbed over just after a burial, and plucked blades of grass from the sod on the freshly-filled grave. These blades were to put under his wife's pillow, because she was bewitched.
To make a witch appear, a cake stuck full of pins should be burnt on a girdle, or pan, over a fire.
People who deal in innocent magic are but rarely sup- posed to practise the black art also. Generally speaking, the wise-man and the witch are quite distinct and even opposed to each other; the former being employed to counteract the misdoings of the latter, and showing him- self as inimical to those dealing with the powers of dark- ness as was the great god Thor himself. An instance of the possible combination of the two professions was, how- ever, furnished not long since by the Rev. J. Conway Walter, who sends me the following extract from the autobiography of Thomas Wilkinson Wallis, of Louth.
" In Louth there was a man named Stainton who had the reputation of being a wizard. Prior to Mr. Brown's illness he met this man at the public-house, and said to him, * If
I
Folklore of Lincolnshire. lyy
yah be a wizard, wizard me. ' Brown was ill soon after this and believers in witchcraft said he was bewitched. On one occasion the foreman of John Wright (second husband of Brown's mother) of Haugh came into the sick-room and said to him, 'John, 1 am sure you are bewitched, and you will be cured if you do what I am going to tell you. Send for this man, Stainton, and get him close to your bedside, and stick an open penknife into him. Draw blood and you will be cured.'" Brown did not try the remedy. Whether he recovered witness deponeth not.
If Stainton, the wizard here mentioned, were really, as Mr. Walter's letter to me implies, the same person as the wise man who consulted his book by the aid of a bumble- bee, of whom he was once told by his clerk at Woodhall [Folklore xi., 438] the case is curious and exceptional. I regard it as unorthodox and degenerate folklore.
Workers of useful magic can make charms against witch- craft, reveal the sex of creatures yet unborn, foretell future events, and perform strange cures. Within the memory of people still living, there was a wise man at Lincoln of whom the following story is told.
A Market-Rasen witch laid a spell on the cow of a neigh- bour, so that the animal would not go into her shed to be milked. The daughter of the owner, a woman who now lives " on the other side o£ Doncaster," was therefore sent to the wise man to see what he could do. She did not know in which street of Lincoln his house was, but as she was going through the city uncertain of her way, a man came out of a door and asked her name. After one or two more questions he informed her that he was the person whom she was seeking, and that he had been expecting her to come. He then took her into an inner room of his house left her there, and in a little while returned with a red-hot poker, which he thrust into the fire-grate, kindling the wood and coal arranged in it.
You may go home," he said, " it will be all right now."
VOL, Xli N
178 Folklore of Lincolnshire.
And the spell was, in truth, broken. At the very time the fire began to burn at Lincoln the witch was heard to scream with agony at Rasen. Another person troubled by the same old woman is said to have "drawn blood" by cutting her across the fingers with a chopper, and after that she had no further power to injure him.
Sometimes people who do not practise professionally as wise men or wise women, yet have inborn knowledge by which their friends may benefit. An instance in point is the following story, which was related to me by an old woman in 1885.
" When Mrs. Blank lived i' th' Marsh, i' B. parish, she ed* a bairn /at was overlooked, an' hed n't noa ewse at all i' his legs. He was windlin' awaay as fast as he could, while \i.e, until] th' wife o' th' captain o' a vessil 'at pot in at Whitton [on the Humber] tell'd his muther te saay a set o' words ower sum barberries — barberries is like beans, an' thaay gits 'em at druggists — an' pot 'em i' a bag roond lad neck. Then he'd cum all raaight, sh' said. An' he did. Just th' fost week or two, he seemed to goa back'ard an* cried an' frettid at neet : bud afore very long he was as raaight as th' rest on 'em. An' noo him an' his bruthers is all preachers."
(Preaching, I may add, was an hereditary gift, for the boy's father, though said by his critics to be quite illiterate, was a " local " whose sermons and exhortations were popularly believed to have brought conviction of sin to many a stubborn heart.)
While the dread of witchcraft has even yet a far firmer hold on many people than they are willing to allow to strangers, the closely allied belief in luck and ill-luck is quite as strong and still more general.
A greater number of actions than can be counted are placed under taboo. It is, for instance, most unlucky to praise a person, or thing, very highly. And many people of good middle-class education feel that to say you have
Folklore of Lincolnshire.
escaped a misfortune invilcs it to fall on you. To turn back without fulfilling the intention with which you set forth, or to take anything out of the house before it has been applied to the use for which it was brought in, is very unwise. In sweeping a floor the dust should never be swept out of the door, lest luck should be swept away with it. A lantern left on a table all night brings misfortune ; probably because lanterns are frequently used in the hours of darkness when men, horses, or cattle are ill. In a certain house in the wapentake of Manley, when one was set on the table for a very short time " there was a six-pound farrier's bill to pay for a cow." To carry all your eggs to market in one basket is foolhardy ; evil will follow. And to bring the small yolkless eggs, known as wind-eggs, into the house at any time is to do a terrible thing.
No farmer should count his lambs too closely during the
lambing season. This idea is, it may be guessed, connected
with the notion that to reckon very accurately gives the powers
of evil information which they can use against the objects
under consideration. " Brebis catnpt^es, le hup les mange"
I have seen a shepherd in obvious embarrassment because
his employer knew so little of his own business that, though
usually the most easy of masters, he would insist on learn-
Ljng every morning the exact number of lambs his flock had
■ produced. For a cognate reason, it may be, some people
' when asked how old they are reply, "' As old as my
tongue, and a little bit older than my teeth. M. Gaidoz
remarks in Melusine (ix., 35) that old people ought not to
I tell their age, and when importuned to reveal it they should
■■rsnswer that they are as old as their little finger. Inhabit-
lants of Godarville, Hainault, reply, " I am the age of a calf,
pvcry year twelve months."
To spit for luck on the ground or on money when buying r selling is a custom still frequently observed. It is usual Iso for the seller to give the purchaser " luck-money." Dn a certain day in August, 1898, a large number of
mar-
J So Folklore of Lincolnshire.
buyers kept aloof from the auction sale in Lincoln .„«.. ket because "luck-money'' was withheld. The Lincoln Butchers' Association asserted that the money always had been given till the auction system was introduced, and that it ought still to be allowed at the rate of one shilling on cattle and a penny on sheep. The auctioneers, who found their customers from a distance less conservative, proved obstinate, however, declaring that the Corporation of Lincoln would not permit them to make a grant of " luck- money." The old custom will therefore fall out of use.
Indeed, a large number of traditionary practices and beliefs appear to be doomed to extinction or to severe modification. Not only do gossiping newspapers and penny novelettes distract the thoughts of the young from interest in the lore of *' idle-headed eld," the changing of the population also does its work of destruction. In almost ' every village, strangers are now replacing the old families which have lived there or in the surrounding parishes from before the time that manorial records first began. Ere many years have passed away, the old methods of thought will have dropped out of existence or have taken new shapes in accordance with the necessities of the average school- boarded intellect.
Nevertheless, at the present time much might still be done in collecting folklorfe. For a little while yet there will be a crop to gather in. The pity is that in Lincoln- shire as in many other counties there is a dearth of har- vesters to bring together what might still be stored. Every village and hamlet possesses its own variant of some of the popular superstitions of Europe, but this fact is generally unrecognised, and people with the opportunity to discover or the inclination to record, our local credulities are not easy to find.
COLLECTANEA.
Stories and other Notes from the Upper Congo.
(Collected by the Rev. J. H. Weeks, Baptist Missionary, Monsembe Station, Upper Congo River.)
It may interest you to know how these stories were obtained. Soon after we opened this station, in August, 1896, I tried to get some native stories from the boys, but failed in every attempt. I felt sure, however, that they had some, and it was not until one evening early in 1892 that I was successful. On that evening while I was writing, some boys were sitting on the floor at my feet talking. After a time I noticed that one was talking and the others listening intently. I made a mental note of it, and the next day I asked him to write out on a slate for me the palaver he had told the boys on the previous evening. He did so, and I found it was a native story. I gave him a small present and asked him to write some more, which he did, and in a short time I had four or five boys writing stories on my verandah, and very often one boy who knew a story, but could not write, sat and told it to one who could, and then shared the spoil. We have between sixty and seventy native stories, and the majority of them was handed down by one chief, who, although he died before we came here, is still spoken of with respect on account of his knowledge of the ancient myths and customs.
These stories, or most of them, have been printed in the original, to use : first, as a reading book for our school ; secondly, as a storehouse of native idioms for our own use ; thirdly, so as to have them in a handy and permanent form for reference.^
Some of the stories are witty and amusing; others are only remarkable for the way in which they account for the present state
* The thanks of the Society are due to Mr. Weeks for the copy of this work which he has kindly presented to the library. — Ed.
of affiurs b the ph^kai ^ „^
>nMght mio the a«in^ nxiai. ^ his li^rf ."^T^ give a dear »n the loUowi,^. taasoaocs 1 sh.2^2 »!1^' ^"""^^ *P to wtiw Hikww but he« ^ »K^,^ f "* « possible
- to
oeamess.
amd unnecessary detaUed expon^^,.^^ to
L— Lo LA MOTV WAwu iXfiketo, p. ,,)
His name was Mokwete. He possessed a number of - but he lived in a hunting camp. He made traps with r^JS cane. One day he went to look, and found an animal tram^ when he had taken the animal, he said to his wives : « My " ' take this animal and cook it'' They cooked it, and when iT^^ finished they dinded it into two portions : one the)- took to h^ and the other they kept for themseh-es. The husband took^ and ate it, but was not filled. ^
By-and-by he caught another animal ; then he said : « I hav caught plenty plenty animals, but 1 myself ha^-e never eaten to repletion, because of my numerous wives." Another day he went and found another animal trapped, and then he deceived his wives by calling out: "Wives of Mokwete, wives of Mokwete!" They answered: "Yes." He said: "Should your husband come with meat, you must not eat ; if you eat, you are dead." They answered: "Very well." The wives waited a little, and, looking, saw their husband coming with an animal. He put it down, and told his wives to take and cook it The wives cooked all the meat, and brought it all to him. The husband said : " Why have you not taken some meat?" They said : "A person told us just now, * Should your husband come with meat, you must not eat it.' " Then he ate it, and sang.
He went to look at his traps and found another animal. He Klartcd again for that place from which he had called to his wives. A boy was visiting the place, who when he saw him, hid himself \\\i\ hollow tree. He looked, and saw a person come staggeringly «ilv>ug and throw something heavily down, then he said: "Wives s^\ Mokwete ! " They answered : " Yes." " Should your husband i\»uu* with meat you must not eat it, if you eat it you are dead." { \w lH>y looked and found that it was his father who was deceiving
Slories from the Upper Congo.
his mothers. He went at once and told his mothers that " the person who is calling now is father," His mothers said : " II is untrue." He answered : " You doubt it, come and look then." They went and beheld their husband standing calling to his wives. When they saw their husband there they returned, and afterwards when he came with meal they cooked it for him.
He went again, then the wives said : " Let us run away." They fled, ihey broke the saucepans, they put out the fire, and ran to their towns and told the people i " We would have stayed if wc could have eaten of the animals our husband killed ; he lulled one and we ale of it, he killed another and refused us ; we felt angry and ran away."
Vou see women got the habit of running away from this, and in the same way people became liars.
The last two lines contain the moral to the story. They are very fond of rounding off their stories with reasons for the present state of things.
There is only one remark to make on this story. The women would have the full sympathy of all who heard the story, and the man would be condemned for his selfishness, but applauded for the cunning way in which he tried to deceive his wives. Voices telling them what to do would be accepted as very probable, for they come quite within the sphere of their philosophy,
II,— Lo LA Ensulunkl'tu na Lokanga. (Miketo, p. 4.)
Concerning the Owl and the Partridge.
They had been fishing in a pond when the owl killed the partridge, skinned it, dressed himself in it, and so, changed into a partridge, went to the town. The partridge's son asked the owl, saying : " Where is my mother ? " The owl, deceiving him, said : " Why, I am your mother." The young partridge cried : " Those are the arras of my mother." Then his grandfather said to the owl : " Why did you kill the partridge ? Behold, you now wear the skin of the partridge, and why are you deceiving the partridge's son ? " They killed the owl, he died in revenge for the partridge, and they buried him in the road on the way to the well.
The little boys [i.e. little paruidges] went lo draw water; they passed along in numbers, having with them the partridge's son ;
184 Collectanea.
when they reached the place where the owl had been buried all the boys passed without spitting, but the partridge's son spat on the grave. They drew the water and were returning to the town, when the owl stopped them and asked each one : *' Did you spit here?" But each one denied doing it. When the partridge's son was passing, he who spat there, the owl asked : " Did you spit here?" and he answered : "Yes." Then the spirit [mungoli = dis- embodied spirit] of the owl tied him and killed him.
For this reason the people are afraid of spirits, because he [the owl's spirit] killed the partridge's son.
This story illustrates two customs and one belief among these people.
1. The law of revenge. An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, is carried out literally. When A. wounds B., B.'s only desire is to wound A. to the same extent ; but should he go beyond, A. has the right to square the account by wounding B. again. Should A. wound B., and B. in return wound A. so badly that he dies, then A.'s family will use every effort to either kill B. or one of his family. In the eyes of the natives the one who killed B. or one of his family would be held guiltless. They would say that he was simply doing his duty by a member of his family. Should a slave kill a chief, the death of the slave would not square off the death of a chief, so the slave's master would be held responsible, and either he or one of his family would have to pay the balance due. We have had examples of each of these points here.
2. The respect due to the dead. The owl had paid the debt of his crime, therefore why insult his grave ? The custom was very prevalent when we came here, not to mention a dead person's name directly ; but if it were necessary to speak about him, some little characteristic was mentioned. As we talk so freely about our dead, they are not now so careful as formerly.
3. The spirits of fairly good people go to " Longa" (the nether region), but specially bad ones wander through the forests or remain about their graves. Such spirits are invested with all kinds of power, (a) They bring sickness on a town, but can be driven out by proper means through the agency of a " medicine man." (b) They bring sickness on an unfavoured individual, but the medicine man has power, under conditions, to drive the sickness thus caused away, (c) They sometimes take possession of a man
Stories from the Upper Co7igo. 185
and talk through him, telling the people what tliey are to do. The signs of such possession are : the body quivering, the eyes frenzied, the language obscure — being generally the ancient obso- lete language of the elder folk. When under the sway of the Spirit \mo»gol}\ they deliver messages from some well-known deceased person to some living person. This has, however, quite recently fallen into disrepute here, because it has been used as a means to get slaves, &c., by the person so possessed out of others.
Sundry Notes. . Charms are used to protect inanimate objects from malign P influences.
Among the Bangalas it is the custom to tie a small palm-plant to I the central post when building a house, otherwise some enemy • will bewitch it, and cause it to leak badly, or throw it out of the perpendicular, or spoil it in some way or other. The palm-plant is always used, but frequently it is supplemented with other charms, according to the experience or predilection of the builder. Canoes are protected, during construction, from cracks, bad shape, &c., by a seed pod or a piece of candelabra euphorbia tied to them. The man while making the canoe will abstain from water, and drink only sugar-cane wine, or from some particular food. Should he through carelessness happen to partake of the tabooed article something will spoil the canoe. There is scarcely a thing manufactured except under the protecting influence of a charm. Fishing-nets, smithy-work, stools, houses, canoes, pottery, all have their own special charms ; and those who make them also have each his own charm to protect his skill from the malign influence of any witchcraft that may be exercised against him by his enemies.
3. Charms are used in dealing with living things.
No attempt is made to capture elephants until an elaborate
ceremony, lasting from one to three days, has been performed.
When elephants are known to be in the neighbourhood, a man
will call a fetish-doctor to impart to him the necessary skill to
ensure success. The fee Co the "doctor" will be either a lump
sum down or a commission on the sale of the slaughtered animal's
flesh, or both. Sometimes a " doctor " will visit a town in the
Lvicinlty of elephants, and after performing certain rites will sally
Ifortb with people from the town to trap and kilt. Helpers will
1 8 6 CGlIectfinea.
take a part of the flesh if the hunt is saccessfix], but if otherwise the *' doctor'' excuses himself bj saving that a more powerful charm than his has been used by^ an enemj to counteract his and bring about £ulure.
As hippopotami are more plentiful than elephants^ the requisite ceremony to ensure success in killing them is neither so elaborate nor so long ; crocodiles^ however, bdng very cunning, no attempt is made to catch them without much ceremony. As fish are very common, no specially prepared charms are necessary to catch them, unless large quantities are wanted, or expeditions of an extensive kind are made.
The first fish caught by a bd b given to his parents^ or those who stand in that relationship to him. otherwise he wiU £sl11 under the ban of a curse. The first fish caught in the season is given to the person who greets the owner first on stepping ashore, or he wiU have no further luck. The giving away of the firstfruit of skill in manufisLCture, in fuming, in hunting, &c., is widely observed.
3. '* Likundu " is the native term for an occult power supposed to be possessed and exercised by many individuals; both its possession and exercise may be without the knowledge of the person who is supposed to possess it.
A person is accused of possessing " likundu " when he or she is extraordinarily successful in hunting, fishing, skilled bbour, or the accumulation of wealth. There is apparently only a certain amount of skill extant, only a certain number of fish to be caught, only a certain amount of wealth to be gained ; and for a person to excel all others is a proof that he is using evil means to his own advantage, and in thus defrauding others of their share he lays himself open to the charge of possessing " likundu."
The charge of having "likundu" is sometimes brought play- fully against a person, and is then simply equivalent to our phrase " you arc too clever," but when used seriously against one it causes much annoyance, and can only be disproved by either drinking the ordeal or refraining from doing that which has brought the charge. There is a man in this town who will not set traps for the palm-rat now, because his success has laid him open to the charge of having " likundu." A person who possesses this " likundu " may unconsciously cause the hunting skill of any hunter in his family to fail. There is a hunter of hippopotami in
Stories from the Upper Congo. 187
this town who for a considerable time was very successful in his expeditions, Soon after we started our mission work he utterly failed in his hunt for them, and could not kill a single one. He returned to the town after one of his unsuccessful hunts and accused his nephew, a lad of ten or twelve, of having exercised his " likundu " against him. The lad denied the charge, but on having the " ordeal " administered it was satisfactorily proved to those concerned that he had " likundu," consequently his brother paid a heavy fine to the disappointed hunter who had been the supposed victim of his evil through unconscious machinations. He has done little or no hunting since.
It is a common belief that girls and lads "have plenty likundu." This belief perhaps originated, but is cerUiinly strengthened, by the fact that the ordeal-drink is an intoxicant, and as girls and lads are not inured to its effects they become quickly intoxicated and fall, but after having taken it a few times they are able to resist its effects, or as the natives say: "they have no more 'likundu,'"
4. Ordeals used are as follows : —
The most common one in this district is " nka," on the Lower Congo "nkasa," It is the outer skin of the rootlets of a certain tree; when the skin is scraped off it looks like the combings from plush velvet. A piled teaspoonful is given. If the person is guilty he will soon fall intoxicated ; should he not fall intoxicated his innocency is proved. If two persons, the accused and the accuser, take it, as often happens, the one who falls first is the guilty party. Should the accused fall he is guilty, should, how- ever, the accuser fall first his accusation is thereby proved false. The next in favour is the " hlela " or wild yam. About a pound . is boiled and administered in lumps to the subject. The " nka " I is never given in sufficient quantity to kill, but the "lilela" is r very often fatal in its action.
" Mokungu " is very seldom used. The bark of a certain tree is broken off, and the inner skin of the bark carefully scraped ; the juice from this skin is pressed and dropped into the eye. If the eye is blinded the person is guilty,
5. A few years ago, it was the custom in this district that when j the fishing season began badly, the parties interested contributed I towards the purchase of a slave, generally an old person, who 1 «as bound hand and foot, and thrown into the river to propitiate I the water-spirits. As the people who contributed the necessary
1 88 Collectanea,
amount fished continuously and zealously to gain as much benefit as possible from the appeased disposition of the water-sfniits, diey of course were very successful, and put to the credit of their sacrifice what was really due to their zeal. There is to-dayin the district above this, a man with one eye who was sacrificed in this way. While in the water his bonds became unfastened, and on swimming to land be told the people that the water-spirits had sent him back because they did not want a one-eyed man. His wit saved him.
6. I will close with two or three observations on the drinking customs of these people. The liquor generally used is fennented sugai-cane water. (Palm wine is drunk, but is very scarce.) The canes are cut into lengths of two feet, stripped of the hard outer skin, put mto heavy canoe-shaped troughs, and pounded with heavy pestles until Uie fibres are cnished and separated. The mode of pressing the juice out is one that I have seen illustrated as an old Egyptian one. Two strong uprights are fixed in the ground, and at a convenient height a horizontal cross-piece is placed. Rope a quarter of an inch thick is plaited into an oblong web two feet long by about one foot three inches wide, with loops at each end ; the cross-bar is threaded through one end, and a short stout stick is passed through the loops at the other or lower end ; a large handful of juicy fibre is placed on the web and held in position while the lower stick is turned two or three times until the fibre is enclosed in the web, then the lower stick is turned repeatedly until the fibre is pressed dry ; the juice runs into a slanting canoe beneath, and is drained ofl" into jars. This process generally takes place in the morning, some fermented wine is added to the fresh juice, and by the early afternoon the whole is effervescing and ready to be drunk. A jar of about three gallons can be bought for a couple of yards of calico.
A man buys a jar of wine, beats his drum in a certain way to call his friends, who, after a few minutes, begin to gather from various parts of the town, often followed by a wife carrying a stool and some article out of which the man is to drink. One has a bottle, another a saucepan, another an old coffee-pot, another a jug, another an enamel mug or a glass. A man is chosen to dole out the wine. The majority drink in the ordinary way, but some drink in a manner peculiar to themselves. One draws his wine through a tube ; another has a cloth dropped over his head while
A nimal Superstitions. 189
drinking; another places some fine-shredded grass over the
mouth of his bottle and draws the wine through that ; another
takes a part of a plantain leaf, makes a channel down the middle,
puts one end into his mouth, and pours the wine out of his cup
on to the top end of the leaf, from whence it runs down the
groove into his mouth. All these various modes of drinking are
rigidly followed out of regard to the strictest injunctions of some
medicine-man, who has told them that in order to prevent the
return of a sickness from which they have suffered or to escape
some disease they must drink wine in such and such a manner or
not at all.
When a man is " on the booze," he sticks a leaf in his hair to
show it, and then no notice is taken of any stupid or insulting
remark he may make, or any business transactions he may enter
upon.
John H. Weeks.
Animal Superstitions. I. From Symiy Asia Minor, {Ante, p. 129.)
[The following are a selection from the notes collected for me by Mr. Demosthenes Chaviaras, and translated by Mr. W. R. Paton.]
I. The sponge- fishers think it an evil omen if they see an octopus at the first place they touch at on their way to their fish- ing ; they refrain from catching it.
Children's clothes on which a cat kittens ^re thrown away, as are those over which a bitch that has just littered passes.
When they hear the owl's cry they think it a good omen ; the women say to it : e/iayas KaXii ya^ircLpia Kat aovvov icaXa fAayrara, " Good news for us and good messages from you."
Children who catch an owl hold it by the beak and say these verses :
KovKKov (iaba fiaiayil vuts \opevei ^ fiavva aov ; T6vpiKa kL iipfiiyiKa kI dp/ievo7roX/rc<a.
" Palm-Sunday owl, how does your mother dance ? Turkish and Armenian, Constantinople- Armenian.'*
And then the owl shuts its eyes and goes round like a top.
igo Collectanea.
When the crow caws it is considered a bad omen, and they say to it : va i^ar\s r^v Jce^aX^v trov Xaicepa, " Eat your head whole."
The trvyxoLipi^trHii (?), when it enters a house and goes buzzing round, is looked upon as. a good omen ; the person round whom it flies will have good news.
The grasshopper is considered lucky ; they do not kill it
The 6\oaTaKri% tou xp^ffrov (Christ's little horse) is caught and put on the palm of the left hand and the following verse said :
" If you are Christ's, stay ; If you are the denl's, away ! "
It is lucky if it remains, and vice versa,
[The creature — a kind of large grasshopper — is called in Calymnos "The Virgin's little horse"; the children when they find it say the Paternoster; if it flies away it is unlucky. — W. R. P.]
Moths and butterflies which come into the house are looked upon as lucky and are not hurt. [In Calymnos the humming- bird hawk-moth is regarded as presaging good tidings. It is perhaps the avyxaipiatrrlis mentioned above. In Calymnos it is called " extinguisher," Kay r{Kotrfi6trTris, — W. R. P.]
The "little bird of the house" (cricket), which usually lives near the hearth, is considered lucky when it chirps at night.
Swallows bring luck, and are respected.
Pigeons bring ill-luck and dearth ; any one who eats nothing but pigeons for a fortnight will die. [Pigeons are also unlucky in Calymnos.— W. R. P.]
When a hen crows like a cock it is an omen of death ; its head must be cut oflf with a chopper on the threshold Lvd^vltrut^ ue, striking it on the upper part of the neck. The fowl is eaten.
The howling of a dog is a death-omen.
When the ^ttXcq (migratory birds) pair in autumn, girls say to them :
&'K\in fiov KardrrXia fiov iipave ri)v irXoLKay fxov hive KdfXTTOv koI deiXidv trrov TtrovWiov fiov n)v fiepidy,
*' My aplia, my kataplia, Dry my Washing-stone, Tie a knot and an end knot, In my braid of hair/'
Animal Superstitions.
191
The seal is regarded as unclean.
The £fnas, a large snake which lives near houses, was fopnerly looked on [as in Lesbos, W.R.P.] as the guardian of the house. It is not killed nor persecuted much, as other snakes are.
The colour of an animal seen in a dream decides whether the omen is good or bad. Black dogs or pigs seen about midnight or before cockcrow are regarded as demons or vampires ; any one who sees them leaves his boots outside the threshold till dawn to prevent the ghosts entering the house. (The xiXiavrpitrira, a terrible apparition, was believed to traverse the town after midnight, howling savagely and accompanied by a number of pigs grunting loudly. She disappeared, like other ghosts, at cockcrow).
The vafacrfipfji (spider^ literally weaver) must not he killed. A man was once unjustly pursued and hid himself in a cellar; over the door a spider spun its web and saved the man.
3. To protect children from the evil eye, they hang on them the largest claw of the crab, known as S^tpfioa or left.
The fiesh of the tortoise and blood of the turtle give strength.
A little bone of a bat brings luck.
When a man suffers from night-blindness they say he has oj)yiOoaKovTO<f\iisv (chicken-blindness). He must eat the head of a black she-goat roasted and wash his eyes in the morning in the chickens' waler-dish.
Those suffering from stone drink the stone from the gall- bladder of an ox.
Those who have a wound let a dog lick it.
Those who suffer from heart-disease should eat the heart of a live pigeon.
They pound the fr<^ in a mortar in spring and apply it to a hand which Kav^t fiofaxn r>ji (suffers without having been injured).
The fat of a kind of vulture and of the ftavp^ Sjiyida is used against rheumatism and colds.
The hair of the dog which has bitten a man is used to cure the bite. The hair must be removed together with a portion of the skin ; the dog cures the wound so caused by licking it. There- fore they say ironically to some one who has been ill-used by a bad man, " Cut a hair off him."
To cure a person in danger of being choked by a bone they
192 Collectanea.
hold the muzzle of a puppy not yet weaned to his mouth, and its breath helps him to swallow it For a fish-bone they use a cat. [Also in Cos and Calymnos. — W. R. P.]
With the prickle on the back of the hpuKaiva (a sea-fish) they prick those suffering from toothache.
To cure a bruise, a person is put naked in a warm sheepskin.
3. At Easter they make KovWovpia (a cake) in the shape of snakes ; in his mouth they put a red egg and peppercorns or cloves for the eyes. .
On the avyoK^KKas^ large twisted Easter ffoXX<$vpca, they put little birds made of the same dough.
4. After the funeral salt fish, bread, and wine are served to the grave-diggers ; meat was formerly forbidden at the fiajcap/ac (the ancient 7Fepih€iTya\ the feast given to the relations and friends of the deceased
5. Skulls of animals are put in the garden as scarecrows. The horns of stags or oxen are sometimes seen over the doors of houses.
II. From Aidin^ Turkey. Collected by Mr. J. Kletropoulos.
The vulture {karidl) is not killed by Turks ; the swallow, crane, large snake are also respected; so is the kaplan^ or panther of West Asia Minor. It is regarded as the king of beasts; whoever kills one is imprisoned for twenty-four hours and then rewarded.
The camel is only killed and eaten on solemn occasions in Asia Minor.
The partridge is killed because it once betrayed the prophet ; its legs are red because they were dipped in the blood of Hassan- Husein.
The pig is not called tomuz^ but hinzir, "demon." Greeks call the wild pig fiovxrepdy (i.e. iio\Bripov) instead of its proper name.
The dog is often called keip (scurfy) instead of kiotek^ its proper name.
[At weddings in Aidin a pigeon is eaten by the bride and bridegroom. — W. R. P.]
Animal Superstitions.
III. From SUradz^ Poland. Cotlecied by M. I. de Piatkowska .
A goat is kept for Inck. A wolf, crow, pigeon, or magpie in he house bring ill-luck.
A stork seen for the first time in flight is lucky, on the ground unlucky.
There will be a good millet year if many cockchafers are seen.
Earth taken from the ground on which wild geese have rested, and put under a tame goose when it is sitting, will ensure a good brood.
When you see the swallow for the first time in spring, you must sit down ; this prevents sore feet in summer.
The first butterfly should be caught to ensure riches j you should turn your money when you hear the cuckoo, the frog, or the stork for the first time.
The swallow, nightingale, lark, stork, and ow! are not killed, nor their nests touched. Bees and ants are also spared, and the word used for " die " is the same for them as for human beings. The spider is not killed. Sparrows are killed with whips.
At Christmas and during the Carnival, young men disguise themselves as animals— bear, horse, or monkey— and go round the village. They also appear at weddings disguised as bears.
Owl-feathers burnt in charcoal are good for fumigating rheumatic Imbs ; the- flesh of the owl is also good for rheumatic patients ; so is that of the stork, but you are not allowed to kill it.
A tree-frog held in the hand cures excessive perspiration.
To cure consumption you should eat the fiesh of a cat and wear its skin on your chest.
Cataract is called "hen-blindness"; to cure it, take a black cock, hold it in a riddle, make it look at the setting sun, and look at the sun yourself; then throw the cock on the ground, jump on the top of a hedge, and imitate the crowing of a cock three times.
On the eve of St Andrew, girls who wish to get married take a black cat and hold it over the fire ; then they throw barley on the fire and say : " Barley, burn ; cat, mew ; and let my dear one come." To divine which will be married first, girls put bread before a dog and see which piece it eats first.
Clay whistles are made in the shape of cocks, dogs, and pigs.
The souls of the drowned take the form of a horse or dt^,
VOL. xn. o
194 Collectanea.
Witches appear as frogs, wild geese, black cats, and crows.
The bear was once a human being ; he frightened Christ by his growling, and received his present form. The cuckoo was formerly a girl; she disturbed Christ by crying "cuckoo" and was turned into a bird The cuckoo becomes a hawk in winter. The swallow was once a girl who was made captive by the Tartars ; she prayed to be allowed to return to her country and was changed into a bird.
The stork brings children out of a well (? spring).
A woman was once carried o£f by a bear and produced two young bear-cubs.
Cocks, owls, and stags' heads made of wood are found on the houses. Eagles, owls, and hawks are killed and nailed to the front of the house.
N. W. Thomas.
Vine-grafting in Southern France.
My authority for the following is Madame Gasquet, wife of Mon- sieur Joachim Gasquet of Aix-en-Provence, formerly Mademoiselle Marie Girard of Saint-Remy-de-Provence. She is a singularly intelligent woman, and possessed of a retentive and accurate memory. She is (I may also mention) a beautiful woman, tall and well formed, and as a girl had a remarkably pure and sweet expression of countenance. In April, 1894, Mile. Girard, as she then was, was aged about nineteen, and was staying with her foster-mother, Liso Gonfaut, at her mas^ or farm, the Mas Pelissier, or Viret. It lies at the eastern end of the northern slope of the Alpilles, a chain of sharp, peaked, rugged, low mountains, running eastward from the Rhone near Tarascon. Formerly they were well wooded, now the upper part is almost all bare rock, but the slopes or foothills grow almonds, olives, and vines, according to the altitude. Mile. Girard told me of the vine-grafting when I first met her in the autumn of 1894, but not wishing to trust to my memory only I' wrote to her last autumn (1899) ^or exact details, and in reply she sent me a copy of a letter written by her at the time to her fianci^ M. Gasquet, from which I quote the following passages :
Vine-gmfting tn Southern France.
Mile. Girard to M. Gasquet, \z Avril, 1894.
" J'etais dans les environs de Romaninl depuis d^ji une quinz- aine de jours. Je m'etais mel^e le p'us possible i la vie simple des paysans. Puerile un peu, j'avais voulu errer dans les ruines vfetue de blanc ; une vieille robe de bure blanche, belle de ligne, mes cheveux ^pandus, un immense beret blanc, me composaient la toilette rev&.
' Un matin, la ntblo iTabrUu (brumes d' Avril) 'm'avail forc^e d'errer un peu i I'aventure sans point de repaire bien distinct. Je courrais de morne en morne, Candis que, semblable i d'enor- mes fiocons de lumiere, des lambeaux de btouillard Irainaient partout. Les amandiers k perte de vue s'cvaporaienl dans le soleil. Je m'etais eloignee beaucoup, sans doute, car dejk les terres rosdtres de la Vallongue etaient la. Un dernier amandier gigantesque tcrminait le sentier, que de nouveaux defrichements avaient sacrifi^. J'allais resolument partir i travers la terre iabourde, quand des aboiements furieux retentirent, partis d'un groupe de chenes-verts oil je distinguais vaguement la forme de trois honimes couchds, ' Sounas li chin I'* m'&riai-je. Obeis- sant, les chiens retournerent pres du maltre, qui, imperieux, les fit s'eCendre.
" II y avail un grand vieillard raaigre, i barbe blanche, I'allure superbe et presque thedtrale, tant les moindres gestes etaient soignes ; un homme de vingt-cinq i trente aus, nerveux, et i I'air sombre,^ et un enfant de seize ans. Le vieillard me salua d'un large geste de la main, et me dit avec un inexprimable melange de fierte et d'dmotion : — -
" ' Je suis le maltre grefleur des 30,000 pieds de vigne qui sont li. Dans mon pays,* pour que la vigne soit prosp^re, il faut que la sort conduise la fille la plus saine, la meilleure, el la plus belle, de la commune. Cette fille doit greffer le plus beau pied de
' The ruins of a castle that belonged to the Seigneuisof LeaBaux.— C A. J.
' "Call off the dc^ I"
' " Le bailc [bailiff] du marquis de Poizi, propri^tnirc des vignes et de Romanin."— M. G. to C. A. J., iQ Mars, 1900.
< " II DC me par la pas on bon Pioven^Bl, mais en languedocEen de Toulouse ; puis en fian^ais, quand 11 devina la difficult^ que j'avais ^ compiendre. II s'eipiinia coiteclemenl et pompeuseroenl." — M. G. lo C. A. J., ;o Mais, 1900.
196 Collectanea.
chacun des cdt^ d'oii peut venir le malheur. Du midi il n'y a ricn ii craindrc, c'est le soleil, mais de ci et de \ky c'est le phyl- loxera, le mildieu, la mine ! Jamais dans cette valine perdue je n'aurais cru rencontrer la vierge qui doit donner ses vertus k la vigne, et j'^tais inquiet tout au fond de moi. Voudrez-vous, belle enfant, que par vous la r^colte soit abondante le vin plus g^n^reux ? * "
" * Je veux bien, mais je ne sals pas.' *' " * Qu* k cela ne tienne, nous allons vous montrer.' " " La le^on fut courte, et dis que j'eus compris, nous partions, le vicillard, I'enfant, et moi, car M'homme' ^tait parti marquer d'une branche de romarin fleuri les trois plus beaux pieds des trois c6t^s k preserver.
'' Arrives pr^s du cep, le vieillard ^tendait gravement sa limou- sine^ k terre^ pour m'y faire m'agenouiller, et je greffais le pre- mier plant ; puis, 1^-bas au versant uba dis Aupiho^ le second. Au troisi^me, comme je penchais un peu trop la t^te pour nouer d'aplomb la ligature, mes cheveux glisserent. Prompt comme Teclair, I'enfant arracha la branche fleurie marquant le cep, et d'un geste adorable maintint mes cheveux, en s'dcriant, ' Anavon toucala terro/^"^
" Le vieillard me dit simplement, * Enfant^ vous grhmaci^ fugues urauso,^ " *
Mile. Girard inquired some time later how the vineyard had fared, and heard that only the plants she grafted had flourished ; the rest were not dead, but had failed owing to the carelessness of the farmer.
Madame Gasquet to Mrs, Janvier.
" Aix-en-Provence, 14 Decembre, 1899. " Je ne sais d'oii peut venir cette l^gende adorable. La greffe des vignes amdricaines est toute rdcente, et, helas ! le peuple a perdu rhabitude de donner un sens symbolique k ses actes, et la vivante po^sie de la terre vit sur son passd. On garde bien la tradition, mais on ne crde pas de nouveaux mythes.
* A striped wrapi a sort of blanket.
* The northern slope of the Alpilles.
■ " It was going to touch the ground !" [Cf. Folk-Lore^ vol. xi., p. 448, 1. 24. — Ed.]
* ** Child, I thank you ; may you be happy 1 "
Folktales frc
1 the
■97
" Dans le Lot-et-Garonne, j'ai entendu dire i une vieille ferame I tres int^ressanie et un peu sorci&re, avec laquelle j'ai caus^ des journ^es, que, pour greffer les vignes autrefois (alors que I'on greffait un malaga sur d'aiiciens pieds fran^is, de mgme pour les I pfiches que Toti greffe sur des arbres sauvages), une jeune fille pubire (condition absolue) doit greffer le premier plant de chaque rang^e. Dans le pays I'usage n'esi plus observ^, et quand j'ai demande pourquoi i la vieille Peirusseto, elle n'a su que me dire ' Les vieux avaient dit qu'il fallait le faire.' "
Peirusseto lived near Monerabeau, in that corner of the depart- ' ment of Lot-et-Garonne which is between the departments of Gers and Les Landes (ancient Gascony). Mme. Gasquel visited the district in November, 1899.
Mr. Fernand Lundgren told me a few days ago that among the Navajo Indians (North America) it is the custom that the first row or planting of maize shall be done by young girls. This custom is falling into disuse, but at one time it was considered absolutely necessary.
Catharine A. Janvier.
March, 1900.
Folktales from the <Egean. (Continued from p. 97.)
XVIIL Thi Woodcutter Lad.
(From the same source as No. XIV.)
There was a poor woman who had one only son. One day I she found she had no meal to make bread, but her boy had to go and cut sticks on the hill, and he must have something to cat to I take with him. She made him a cake out of ashes instead of flour, and told him, " Do your work lirst and then sit down and eat," for she was afraid he would get angry when he saw the black ashen bread, and come home and scold her and cut no sticks.
198
Collectanea.
Away he went to the hill and cut himself a big bundle of sticks, and then sat down with the other woodcutter boys to eat When he untied his napkin and produced his black bread, the other boys laughed at him and bade him get away, and he sat down to eat by himself. As he was eating, an old monk appeared and begged to share his meal. " I have nothing but this black bread," said the boy, " but share it if you will." Now this monk was Christ him- self, and he had gone to the others and asked for food, but they had laughed at him and chased him away. He sat down and they began to eat, and lo, the ashen cake became a beautiful white loaf, and as they ate, it never diminished. The monk rose and took his leave, and blessed the bundle of sticks, and the boy tied the white loaf in his napkin and put the bundle of sticks on his back and started off home, and the bundle seemed no heavier than a feather. When his mother noticed the napkin and saw the white loaf, she asked him how he came by it, and he told her all that had befallen him. She gave him some incense, and bade him return next day to the same place to cut sticks, and when he had finished his work, to bum the incense. So he did, and the old monk appeared, and asked him what he could do for him. " I want nothing at all," said the boy ; but the monk said, " You may have anything you want ; you have just got to ask for it and it will be yours." The boy began to trudge home with his bundle, and as he went he all of a sudden said to himself, " Why should these sticks ride on me, and why shouldn't I ride on them ? " Instantly he found himself mounted on the faggot and rode merrily home. On his way he had to pass the king's palace, and the princess was standing on the balcony. When she saw the bumpkin riding on the faggot she burst out laughing, and he looked up and said, " Laugh away, but may you grow with child." ^ Sure enough after a few months the princess found herself pregnant ; and one month passed, and another, and she gave birth to a boy.
The king was deeply troubled, and questioned her again and again as to the father of the child, but she persisted in saying that she knew nothing of it. Then the king said, " We will do this : I will give the child an apple, and I will send and summon all my male subjects to pass before the palace window, and whomsoever he hits with the apple is his father." For three days the procla-
' The same incident occurs in one of the stories in Basilc's Pcntamcrone.
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malion was made, and all the men of the kingdom passed under. Only the old woman's son said, " What is the use of my going ? " and stayed at home. The baby threw the apple at no one, but he was allowed to keep it, and one day the boy chanced to pass by and the baby threw the apple at him and hit him.
They ran and told the king, and when he saw this ragged boy, he called his daughter and asked her what she knew of him. She said, " Nothing at all ; " but her father would not believe her, and had a box made into which he put hts daughter, the boy, and the baby, and cast them adrift on the sea.
As they sat shut up in the box, the princess begao to cry, and said to the boy, " Speak to me." He said, " I won't. I don't know anything about you, and you have got me into a pretty scrape." But she and the baby cried so much that he was softened, and said, " Do you want to get out of this box ? " " How is that possible?" said the princess; "here we are on the sea, and who can save us ? " " If you 7oani to get out, we will get out," said the boy, and wished the box to be landed on a desert island opposite the city and there to open. His wish was performed, and they found themselves on the shore. " But what are we to do here," said the princess, "without house, or food, or water?" " Trust me to make you comfortable ; " and he wished for a great palace with male and female servants, and beds and everything, and as he wished, it arose. Next morning the king's servants came running to tell him, " There is a great palace bigger than yours on the island," and the king got up and looked, and said, " I must go over and see what all this means ; " and he ordered his boat to be got ready, and started in state to visit his new neigh- bour. The old woman's son, dressed in royal robes, came down and received him courteously. The king said, " May I ask if you are married ? " " Yes," said the boy, " but you must excuse the absence of my wife. She has just had a baby ; and if your majesty would come next Sunday and stand sponsor to it, 1 should be greatly honoured." The king consented, and they sat and talked. When the king was about to leave, the prince (for now the bumpkin has turned into a prince) said to him, "Why did your majesty come here by sea and not on dry land ? " The king was a little taken aback by this question, but concealed his embarrassment and said, " We were just taking a little trip in our boats, and we happened to pass here and thought we would call
200 Collectanea.
upon you." " But you may as well go back by land," said the prince, and he wished for a bridge and a carpet on it stretching to the king's palace door.
The king went back across the bridge to his palace, and that night he told his wife all that had happened, and said he was puzzled. On Sunday he took his councillors with him and re- crossed the bridge, and came to baptise the prince's son as he had promised. " Is the baptism to be at once ? " he asked. " No, we will dine first," said the prince, and led the king to the banquet- ing hall, where the table was furnished with a splendid service of gold plate. After dinner the prince wished all the gold spoons and forks and cups to go into the king's bosom, and they did so. When the servants came to clear away, they said, " All the plate is missing." The councillors were loud in their assurances that they had taken nothing, and the prince said : "This is awkward; your majesty will permit me to search my guests, and of course I will begin with yourself." The king readily consented, and out of the bosom of the king's shirt the prince pulled his whole service of gold plate. The king was not a little crestfallen, but the prince said, "You have never seen these cups and spoons, yet they are in your bosom. I never touched your daughter, yet she conceived, and for this you put us in a box and sent us to be drowned."
The king recognised his fault, and the poor old woman's son was married to the princess.
XIX. The Three Sisters. (Cassaba.)
There were three girls sitting spinning with their mother, and they agreed that whosesoever thread broke first they should kill and eat. Their mother's thread broke, but they said, " Let us spare her for having carried us in her womb," and went on spinning. When the mother's thread broke a second time, they said, " Let us spare her for having suckled us from her breast." But when the mother's thread broke a third time, she had to be killed. The two eldest killed her, cut her up, cooked her, and eat well of the flesh, but the youngest would not join them, and when they had finished she collected the bones and put them in a large earthen- ware jar. Every day for forty days she incensed them. After
Folktales from the y^gean.
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forty days she went to the jar and found within it three dresses (one, the plain with its flowers; another, the sea with its fish; and the third, the heaven with its stars), and a pair of beautiful slippers and a splendid horse. On Sunday she put on the first dress and went to church. There the king's son saw her and fell in love with her, but she ran away before he could catch her and speak to her. So it was the next Sunday, when wearing the second dress she came to church again. On the third Sunday she put on the third dress. As she was returning from church she stopped to let her horse drink, and one slipper fell into the drinking-trough. The prince, who was following her, stopped his horse too, and it was frightened at the slipper, and would not drink, So he saw the slipper and knew to whom it belonged, and went round to all the houses in the town trying to fit it. The eldest sister had put the youngest under a basket, and on this the prince sat down to try the slipper on. It would not fit them, and he asked them if they had no other sister. They said, " No," but the youngest took a pin from her hair and pricked him with it, and so he lifted up the basket to see what was under it.^
When it was lifted, the eldest sister said, "She is a poor outcast, our servant, whom we put there that you might not see her." But the shpper fitted her, and the prince recognised her, and they were married.'
XX. ThtRing. (Mytilene). ,
There was once a poor boy who found a ring lying in the road, and took it home to his mother, and she said, " What is the use of that ring? It is a pity it was not at least a piece of money." But the boy said, " Let us keep it and see what luck it brings us," and he put it on his finger and wore it. He called on the ring one day, " My ring, my little ring, now 1 want to see you ; " and forty (^res presented themselves and did all his behests, and he
' The same ioddent occurs in a Cinderella sloiy in Miss Wardtop's Ceergian Felk-lalcs,
' Calymms variants. — The mother, before she is killed, lells the daughter to collect her bonn, &c
The slipper is dropped on the road.
The incident of the horse drinking in Ihc Cassaba version seems to come from the same narralor's KasitUako.
202 Collectanea.
became as rich as he wanted by calling on the ring. When he grew up, he sent his mother to the king and asked for a measure to measure his money with ; and the king lent his measure, and was very much astonished when it was returned to him with a large gold coin in it, and asked, "Who is your son that he measures his money in a measure?" "He is richer than you," said the mother. Next time the young man sent his mother to ask for a still bigger measure, and this, too, was sent back with a coin in it. Next time he sent her to ask for the hand of the king's daughter. The king said, " If your son wants my daughter, he must make this hill near my palace flat, and plant trees on it, and after forty-one days I must eat their fruit" The young man said, " My ring, my little ring, now I want to see you," and there were the forty ogres, and they went to work with such a will that next morning the mountain was level, and planted, and after forty-one days the fruit was ready for the king to eat. " Now," said the king to the woman, " I want your son to make this other hill before my palace flat, and to bring the sea to my palace-door, and make a beautiful garden at the seaside." Next morning it was done ; but the king still demanded that his daughter's suitor should separate the corn in his bams from the grist and stones, and make separate heaps of each. When this task had been performed the king yielded, and the marriage took place, and the bridegroom brought his bride such dresses and jewels as she had never seen in her life.
Now there was a Jew who knew the young man had that ring, and he went and bought a lot of beautiful diamond rings, and went about the town crying, " Rings, rings to sell." As he passed the palace the princess saw the rings. Her husband was asleep ; so, taking his off* his finger, she exchanged it for one from the Jew's basket.
As soon as the Jew had the ring, he called on it and wished that the palace and the princess and himself should be out at sea, and that her husband should find himself in the street in his drawers. This was done in a minute, and when the young man found himself in this plight, and his ring and his wife and all gone, he ran ofi" to drown himself in the sea ; but once he had seen a man taking a dog and cat down to the sea to drown them, and he had asked him why he was going to do so. " They are bad beasts," said the man, " and do us damage." " Don't drown
Folktales from the ^gcari.
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them," said he, " I will give you 100 piastres and take them home with me," and he had done so and taken care oi them ; and now the dog and eat came to him, and the dog said, " Don't drown yourself ; let us go and look for the ring ; " and the prince let them try. So the dog took the cat on his back and swam over to the palace, and sent the cat up to do her best to get the ring. The Jew was so afraid of losing the ring that he kept it always under his tongue. The cat caught a mouse in the palace and said, " I will eat you." " Please don't ; what will you gain by eating me ? " said the mouse. " I will spare you," said the cat, " if you will go and dip your tail in oil and then put it in the Jew's nose when he is asleep." This the mouse did, and the Jew sneezed violently and out dropped the ring. The cat was ready and grabbed it, and rushed out of the palace and on to the dog's back, and they started for the land. As they were crossing the dog said, " Give me the ring- I am afraid you will run off when we get to land and give it to our master and get all the reward." The cat said, " No, I won't." But the dog insisted, and said he would put her off his back if she didn't. As she was trying to transfer the ring from her own mouth to his, it dropped into the sea. They came and told their master what had hap- pened, and he said, " Now 1 will drown myself." But the cat said, " ^Vait a bit, who knows, a fish may have swallowed the ring and may be caught, and we may find it." Sure enough it was so. That very day some fishermen caught this fish amongst others and cleaned it, and threw its entrails on the beach, and the cat went to eat ihem, and found the ring, and brought it to her master.
Then he wished the palace back in its place, and his wife and the Jew in it. He look the Jew and tied him on a wild horse with a sack of walnuts, and he was knocked to bits ; and- the princess and her husband lived happily ever afterwards.
XXI, Kyra Fhrou. (Cassaba.)
There was a certain queen who had two children, a son and a daughter. The princess was very beautiful ; when she combed her hair pearls fell from it, and flowers from her lips when she laughed, but when she cried it thundered and rained. The queen lay dying, and called her son to her, and bade him never leave his sister alone to grow sad and cry and bring storms of rain, but he
204
Collectanea.
must always remain with her. For some months after their mother's death the prince did as she had commanded, but one day he said, '' I must go out and look after my servants, who are storing the com in my granary." " Go " said the princess. When he was gone an old b^gar woman carrying a distaff came to the palace and sought alms. The princess called her in and gave her coffee and bread and a new dress, and the old womajn sat spinning and chatting for a time and then went away. Next day the prince went out again, and again came the old woman and sat spinning and talking with the princess. " Why, " she said, " should such a pretty girl as you, and a princess too, sit here alone? It is surely time for you to look out for a husband ; " and more words of like effect ; so that when she had gone away the princess grew melancholy and began to cry. All at once it began to thunder and lighten and rain, and the prince ran home to see what had happened. His sister (her name by-the-bye was Kyra Florou), told him, and he bade her, should the old woman return, ask her if she had said this thing of her own accord, or if someone had sent her to say it So next day, when the old woman began again, " Ah, you will never be happy, my child, until you find a hand- some young man for a husband," Kyra Florou asked her, " Tell me, didn't some one send you to say this to me ? " " No," said the old woman, " but I know it is your Kismet to wed the King of Rhodope's son."
When the princess told her brother, he started off to find the King of Rhodope, and offer his sister in marriage to the King's son. He journeyed on and on, and on the fifth day he met a monk, who asked him where he was going. " To find the King of Rhodope," said the prince. " It is a far road and perilous," said the monk ; " but I will guide you." After many days' travel they came to a plain full of horses and flocks and herds grazing. " Whose are these ? " asked the prince. " The King of Rhodope's," answered the monk. " Here I must leave you, you must go on alone and do as I bid you. When you come to the palace you will see it has three gates, and each gate is guarded by a beast. You must catch a horse and three sheep from those you see feed- ing on the plain, hang the sheep on the horse, mount it, and ride on. When you come to the first gate, throw the beast a sheep and ride quickly through, and so do at the second and third gates. In the doorway of the king's presence-chamber is a sword which
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keeps descending and ascending. You will say as it rises, ' Steady, sword, now I want to pass,' and you will rush through before it falls. Then the king's servants will call out that a stranger has entered, and the king will ask you forty times who you are and what you want, but never a word must you answer. Then the king will say, "Tell me your trouble, and you may abide here with me in safety,' and then you may speak and tell him your mission."
It all fell out as the monk had said, and the prince told the king that he was come to offer his sister in marriage to the Prince of Rhodope. " Would you know your sister if you saw her ? " said the king. " Of course I would ;" said the prince and the king led him into a room all hung with portraits of maidens, but his sister's was not among them. They passed into thirty-nine other rooms full of the pictures of all the girls in the world, and in the last picture of the fortieth room the prince recognised his sister. "If that is your sister," said the king, " then she is my son's destined wife. I will give you ships to go and fetch her." " I am afraid," said the prince, " because my sister, when she goes lo sea, turns into an eel, and takes to the water." " I will make you a glass box," said the king, " and into that you must put your sister, and set a woman to watch her during the journey." So all was pre- pared, and the prince sailed to his home and bade his sister make ready to return with him. One day, a litlie before they were to sail, the old woman came to the princess and begged to come too. " You have no mother or grandmother," she said ; " take me, and call me granny." Kyra Florou obtained her brother's consent to this. Now the old woman had a daughter who was blear-eyed and ' yery ugly, and next day she came andbegged the princess to take her I daughter too«" " You will tell them she is your cousin," said she, land the prince and princess agreed to this loo. The princess was ■ put in the glass box and the old woman was set to watch her. s they were nearing the coast of Rhodope, while everyone slept I the old woman opened the glass box, and out slid the princess and I'into the sea, Then the old woman put her own ugly daughter in J tiie box. When they reached the city the king and his son and I -all his courtiers came down to receive the bride ; but when instead of the beauriful girl he expected, the blear-eyed girl was presented to the king, he grew very wroth, and ordered the prince to be loaded with chains and put in prison. The Prince of Rhodope, however,
■■d
206 Collectanea.
had to marry the old woman's daughter, as he had givdnhis promise, and could not break it After a year the king had for- gotten all about the young prince in prison, and when oq£ day the prince begged his gaolers to take him to the king and then begged the king to be allowed to go down and walk near the sea, the king did not know who he was, and gave his consent. So the prince went down to the beach and began weeping and calling on his sister, and cried himself to sleep. As he slept the eel came out of the sea and coiled itself round his neck. When he awoke and found something strangling him, he started to his feet and ran up the beach trying to tear it off. Then, when he was at some little distance from the sea, the eel spoke and said, " I am your sister. You must kill me and take me to the king, and tell him I am very good to eat, and ask to be allowed to cook me for his table. You will cut me into three pieces and make three dishes, //b/b',^ roast, and boiled. When the king and his court have eaten me, you must collect my bones and bury them. Then a rosebush covered with beautiful rosebuds will come up. The old woman will ask the king to have it cut down, and when this is done take care of th^s||m, for I am in it." The prince did as he was bidden. The kin^, his vizier, and courtiers entirely finished the three dishes and sucked the bones, which the prince collected and buried. Next day there was a beautiful rosebush growing inside the palace. As the king stopped to admire it, one of the branches waved towards him and scratched him. " What is this ? " said the old woman, who was walking with the king. " Are we going to have your palace made into a thicket where you can't walk without scratching yourself? Cut the nasty thing down at once," and this was done. The prince secured the stem, and taking it with him started off and walked until he came to a monastery where lived a monk with no other companion than a cat. He asked the monk to give him a dish of soup. " I have nothing to make it of," said the monk, ** and no wood to cook it with." " But I," said the prince, " have meat, and rice, and firewood too. Give me an axe and a room to myself, and I will prepare it." When he found himself alone he took the rose-stem and struck it three times with the axe, and out of it stepped his sister as beautiful as ever. She told him, " You must ask the monk to give you a room which you may keep closed, and there I will stay, and you must ask him
* A stew.
raronb."
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for a ronb." When she had the comb, she combed her hair, and out fell quantities of pearls. These she bade him give the monk to take to the king, and the king gave him a handsome present of money. This she did several times, and then bid her brother tell the monk that he wished to rebuild the monastery. He was to order all the wood and stones and two hundred masons, and he was also to get her an embroidery-frame and silks and stuff. All this was done, and in a month the monastery was magnificently restored. "Now," said Kyra Florou, "tell the monk that to celebrate ■ the completion of the work he must give a banquet, and invite the king and court, and you must find means for me to lay the table." The king and his vizier and courtiers came to the banquet and each had a beautiful embroidered napkin set before him. The vizier's napkin and all the others had each something appro- priate worked on them. But when the king unfolded his, he saw on it the portrait of Kyra Florou. Then he asked, "Who made this?" and when no one could answer, the princess came out of her hiding-place and saluted him. So he took her home with him and she was wedded to his son. The wicked old woman was cut to pieces, and the pieces put in one of a pair of saddlebags, the other of which was filled with nuts and set on the back of a wild horse, and as the nuts were scattered, so were the fragments of the old woman. But her blear-eyed daughter was sent to wash the dishes in the scullery.
XXII. Fox^skin, (Cassabd.)
There were three princes whom the king their father bid shoot their arrows, and each prince was to take a wife from the house on which his arrow fell. The first prince's arrow alighted on the roof of the Vizier's house, the second prince's on that of the Nadir's house, but the youngest could not find his arrow at all. Coming to a tower, he went in, and found an old woman, who told him that his arrow had alighted there, and that he was to marry her daughter. Her daughter was a fox. They were married and started off for another palace. From here the fox sent her husband back to tell her brother the cat to bring her dresses. The cat obeyed, but when he brought them he tore the bridegroom to pieces. The old woman, who wasawilch, put him together and brought him to life again. The fox took off her skin and became
2o8 Collectanea.
a beautiful girL She gave the skin to her husband and b^|;ged him never to bum it, for if he did, misfortune would befall them. She then caused in one night a splendid palace to be built in the sea opposite her father-in-law's house, and there she and her hus- band went to dwell. The king was angry when he saw the palace, and sent to ask whose it was. When he heard it was his son's, he begged him to bring his wife and introduce her at court. The prince first burnt her fox-skin. As they were dining with the king, she spUt a spoonful of pilaff in her bosom and it all turned into pearls. Her sisters-in-law were jealous of her, but she charmed the king so much that he fell in love with her and wanted to marry her. His daughter-in-law now said to her husband, " Ah, why did you bum my skin?" and they started off together to escape. The king sent after them an old woman, who was a witch. The girl tumed round and saw a black cloud following them, and said to her husband. "You must become a cypress-tree, and I a bird sitting singing on you," and the old woman passed on. But no sooner had the pair resumed their form and continued their flight than there again was the black cloud following them. ''You must," said the girl, " become the sea, and I a sea-gull swimming on you," and then the old woman passed on again. When the black cloud appeared for the third time, the girl said, " You must become a church and I the Virgin Mary sitting in the middle of you ;" and so they escaped from the old woman, and came to a castle, in which, however, they found the prince's father, who killed his son and took his daughter-in-law to wife.
W. R. Paton.
Cropping Animals' Ears.
{Ante, p. 97.)
Among the Hudson's Bay Eskimo "the dogs must not be allowed to get at deer-meat, lest the guardian spirit of the deer be offended and refuse to send further supplies. If by some misfortune the dogs get at the meat, a piece of the offending dog's tail is cut off, or his ear cropped." nth Ann, Report Bur. Ethn,,
P- ^^'- N. W. Thomas.
Here is a curious illustration of this practice. In the reign of Claudius, by the request of a section of the Parthian nobles.
Cropping Animals Ears. 209
Meherdates, who had been brought up in Rome, was sent to assume the crown. He was defeated and captured by the reigning King Gotarzes, and Gotarzes instead of killing him cut oflf his ears. The words of Tacitus distinctly imply that Gotarzes inflicted this punishment on him as a trespasser : " ille * non pro- pinquum neque Arsacis de gente sed alienigenam et Romanum ' increpans, auribus decisis vivere jubet, ostentui clementiae suae et in nos dehonestamentp." (Tac. Ann, xii., 14).
Unless one had these words of Tacitus, one might be inclined to regard the mutilation as similar in motive to the putting out the eyes or cutting off the nose of pretenders to the throne, so extensively practised in the Byzantine Empire ; viz., to render the claimant unfit to be king, since a king must be complete (6XdicXi7pos), like a priest. I daresay both notions were present to the mind of Gotarzes, who seems to have been as humane as he could be under the circumstances.
From my infancy I have thought that when Simon Peter in the garden of Gethsemane drew a sword " and smote the servant of the high priest and cut off his right ear," as narrated in all the four gospels, he made a bad shot at the man's head ; but it seems not unlikely that he caught hold of the man by the head, and cut off his ear purposely.
W. R. Paton.
VOL, XII.
CORRESPONDENCE.
Primitive Orientation. {AnUy p. 131.)
When in Torres Straits with the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, I used a method of testing acuteness of vision in which the natives had to place a letter E ^cld in their hands in a given position. In the island of Mabuiag, definite names were given to different positions of the letter, the normal position being called "paipakit" and the reversed position "pbpakit" These words mean " windward " and " leeward " respectively, and the E was said to be windward when the open side was towards the direction of the prevailing south-east trade wind. In describing direction and locality, the terms "windward" and "leeward" were constantly used by these people, and also by various Melanesians living on the islands
Cohn,^ who used the same method of testing acuteness of vision in Heligoland, had a similar experience. He found that the fishermen of that island described the position of the E ^ north and south in place of right and left, and Cohn had con- siderable difficulty in getting them to give up the habit. I have recently met with a similar custom among the fellahin of Upper Egypt. In testing the colour-vision of these people, I used a box within which two patches of light could be seen. A native had to say whether the right or left patch was coloured. Instead of the Arabic words for right and left, the people invariably used the terms bahari and qubli (the local pronunciation of bahri and qebli). These words are those commonly used in the colloquial Arabic of Egypt for north and south respectively.
Rink ^ states that the Eskimo of Greenland use the same words for right and left as for north and south.
I believe that the custom of using the points of the compass
' Dcutsch, medicin, Wochensch,, 1896, s. 698.
"^ J ourtial of the Anthropological Institute i vol. xv., p. 244, 1886.
Correspondence,
for indicating direction, and for orientation generally, still exists in Yorkshire and in many parts of Scotland. An interesting indica- tion of the custom is to be found in Barrie's A Windrnv in Thrums (p. z6), in which Hendry has his east-trouser pocket filled with dulse. Dr. C. R. Browne informs me that the islanders of the west coast of Ireland direct by compass points, and that the same custom is found all along the Irish sea line, while inland one is directed by right and !eft or by pointing.
In several languages the word for right or left is the same as for one of the cardinal points. Mr. Sidney Hanland and Professor Skeat have called my attention to the fact thai in Welsh " deheu " means both "right" and "south," and the same association is found in the Irish " deas " (old Irish, dess). Professor Skeat has also pointed out to me that the Sanscrit " dakshina " (related to Greek hilwi) also means both "right" and "south," and in the term " Deccan," applied to the southern part of India, we have the same word, Mr. W. W. Skeat has called my attention to the fact that in both the vernacular and ceremonial dialects of the Java- nese, in the vernacular dialed of the Sundanese, in the ceremonial dialect of Bali,' and in the Patani dialect of Malay,' the word " Kidal " used for south is certainly connected with the Malay word " Kidul," meaning left or left-handed, Crawford* states that the Javanese usually employ the Sanscrit terms for the cardinal points in the sense of beginning, end, right, and left.
The instances which I have given are sufficient to show that there is a tendency among savage and semi-civilized races to orientate by means of the cardinal points or by reference to natural features (prevailing winds), and that this custom still lingers in many parts of our own countty. In other cases, the existence of the custom in an earlier stage of culture seems to be shown in language.
It is probable that man's primitive orientation was by means of the objects around him. Nearly all races have an idea of the cardinal points in some more or less developed form, and it is probable that man first orientated in reference to these, and that orienlation in reference to himself, which is implied in the ideas of right and left, came later. Rink* believes that, in the case of
' Sec Crawford, MisUry eflhi /iidian Arikipita^, iSao, vol. ii., p. la?. ' Ibid, vol ii., p. 101, * Ibid., vol. i., p. 316.
212 Correspondence.
the Eskimo, the distinction between right and left was the original method, and the words for the right and left sides came t6 signify at the same time " north '^ and "south," but it is far more probable that the latter were original. I think it is in accordance with what one knows of the psychology of primitive man that he should have originally orientated in reference to his surroundings rather than in reference to himself.
It is perhaps worth noticing that two of the instances which I have given (Mabuiag and Heligoland) are derived from seafaring people, and that Dr. Browne believes that, in the case of the Irish, the custom is limited to the inhabitants of the coast.
I should be very much obliged if members of the Folk-Lore Society could give any information as to the existence of the custom in the British Isles or elsewhere, especially in relation to one point about which I am at present uncertain, viz., whether the association between a given point of the compass and right or left is a fixed one. Most of my informants are inclined to think that in the British Isles an object is only called east when it is actually on the eastern side at the moment of speaking, but in Welsh and other languages there must have gradually come about a fixed association between south and right, and it is possible that one may find a similar association between a given point of the compass and right or left side in different stages of fixity and constancy. The use of such an expression as " doing her hair east," which I have been informed is to be met with in Perthshire, certainly suggests a definite association of such a kind.
W. H. R. Rivers.
P.S. — Since writing the above. Miss Burne has called my atten" tion to references to the custom in Dean Ramsay's " Reminis- cences of Scottish Life and Character" (22nd Edition, p. 179, 1874). One of the instances given by Ramsay is that of a man whose medicine " wadna gang wast." Ramsay states that in this case the man would be lying with his feet to the west. If this statement is correct, it would imply that the term " wast " was used on account of the man's position at the moment of speaking. Mr. P. Redmond, however, informs me that in Ireland " west " is used in a bad sense as in the sayings " the inflammation has gone west on his stomach," " a cold has gone west on him."
Co rrespondc tice.
(Vol, xi., p. 375 ; vol. xii., p. loi.)
This slory recurs in Carnoy and Nicolaides' Traditions popa- laires de PAsie Afineure, p. 173. There the wife is always demanding jewels and fine clothing, and is enticed by her husband, when his patience is worn out, into the well, under pretence that that is where the jewels and so forth are to be found. In a Sicilian story given by Pitre (No. 54, Bibliottca, vol v., p. 18), the Lame Devil, having been told by all the men who come to hell that they come through the women, determines from curiosity to go to earth and marry. So, clad as a cavalier, he arrives al Palermo. He is pleased with a girl, whom he marries on a bargain that he shall take her without dowrj-, provided that she is to ask for all she wants before marriage, and that she shall ask for nothing after. After marriage he takes her one day to the theatre, where she sees a dress she has not got. As she may not ask for it, she falls into a bad humour. When her husband at last gets her to tell him what is the matter, he exclaims : " Ah ! then it is true that the men go to hell on account of you women." He leaves her in a trice, and presently meets an old comrade, to whom he tells his story. They then concoct a scheme by which the Lame Devi! is to enter into the daughter of the King of Spain, and the other devil is to exorcise him. The plot is put into execution, but the Lame Devil finds himself in such comfortable quarters that he refuses to leave, until the second devil tells him that his wife is coming. Hearing this, the Lame Devil is o£f like B shot, leaving the princess ; and his comrade marries her, in accordance with her father's offer to any man who could cure her. The tale also appears in Straparola, and in Bernoni's Fiabe popolari vemziane (No. 3). It is found in the textus ornatior of the ^iikasaptati {Tales of a Tarrot), vhcte the demon dwells in a pipal-tree at the door of a certain Brahman's house. The demon is driven away by the eternal brawling and wrangling of the Brahman's wife. Finally, the Brahman himself is driven away by the same cause, and picks up the demon of the pipal-tree. The tale then follows the course of the Cairene story. A Bihar proverb, given by Christian, p. 182, refers to a version where the demon originally occupied a pipal-tree. The village termagant,
2 1 4 Correspondence.
having driven all her fellow-villagers away, and having none left to quarrel with, vents her rage on the pipal-tree every morning with broom and voice. The proverb in question is used, Mr. Christian says, as an invocation to exorcise evil spirits, for the termagant's name is sufficient to make any demon flee. It is also used in joke when someone noted for an evil temper is coming. It looks as though the story originated in the East
E. Sidney Hartland.
Japanese Notes : Corrigenda et Addenda.
{Ante^ pp. 67 — 71.)
Professor Anesaki tells me that a thousand white hens^ not hareSy should be fed (p. 70).
The Oharai is now in June and December.
The magic formula (p. 71) was the name of Suitengd, the god of water and of heaven, corresponding to the Hindu Varuna.
Since writing my description of the Wheel of Life, I have observed that the figure in the bucket between the abode of animals and the abode of gods is not human ; it is most pro- bably that of a fox.
I am informed that the Swastika is known to English heralds as a Fylfot.
N. W. Thomas.
Cutting off the Head of a Corpse.
(Ante, p. 1 01.)
In East and West Prussia, if a family is visited with diseases after the death of one of its members, it is believed that they are caused by the deceased sitting up in the grave and eating his shroud. To stop him from doing this, he must be dug up^ and his head cut off with a spade. What is done with the head I do not know ; almost certainly it is replaced in the coflfin. (Tettau und Temme, Die Volkssagen, p. 277; Globus xix., 96; where references to prehistoric evidence will be found.)
Madi Braitmaier.
Correspondence.
215
Stone-catching Games. {Axle, p. lofi.)
I should advise Fraiikin Lemlte to communicate with Mr. E. LovetC, of 41, Outram Road, Croydon, England, who has made a study of the subject, and who exhibited, and read descriptive notes on, his collection of Astragali at the Society's meeting on April 17th. I venture to express a hope that we may be privileged to see these extremely interesting notes reproduced in Folk-Lore.
F. A. Milne.
A Berwickshire Kirn-doj.i.y. {Ante. p. 129.)
The " Kirn-dolly," or maiden, I exhibited on Wednesday evening, Feb. zoth, was made and given me by Miss Swan, of Duns, Berwickshire. The following notes extracted from cor- respondence I have had with Miss Swan may be of interest to members. Miss Swan says :
"In talking with our young folks about old customs last harvest (1900) [I called to mind the kirn-dolly] such as I used to see in my childhood's days fifty years ago and more, when they were constantly made." When harvest was proceeding "the last handful was left standing and was eagerly competed for by the great bands of harvesters. The men, standing at a certain distance, threw in turn their sickles at this last bunch of the standing corn. The man who was successful gave the cut corn to one of the women employed, any one he preferred. This girl then arranged the corn in the shape of the ' dolly ' shown, and dressed it. It was then taken to the farmhouse and hung up. Here it remained until the next harvest, when another would lake its place." Miss Swan adds : " I am sure there was a good-luck superstition attached to the making and preserving it, although it was not much talked about. The kirn sent you, though a modern dolly, is a faithful reproduction of those I have seen and helped to dress ' lang syne.' "
I have asked Miss Swan for further notes about harvest customs in Duns long ago, and will communicate any I receive.
II
3 1 6 Correspondence.
I hope to send photographs of this and other harvest-dolls which I have collected for reproduction in Folk-Lore, and the "dolly" itself I have pleasure in presenting to the Society's museum.
Alice B. Gomme. 24, Dorset Square, N.W.
StiN Charms.
In his ai^ument for the magical nature of lire festivals and midsummer fires, Mr. Frazer has not, I think, alluded to the practice of certain tribes of firing flaming arrows into the air during eclipses of the sun. This can hardly be anything but a magical rite intended to rekindle the dying light and heat. It might indeed be argued that it is, like the clang of gongs and similar usages, a device for scaring away the monster who is devouring the sun. This interpretation, however, will not apply to a custom of the Lenguas in the Gran Chaco. I recently saw at the rooms of the South American Missionary Society a photo- graph of an Indian holding towards the sun, which was obscured, a flaming torch, with the object, as I was informed, of enabling it to pierce the clouds.
N. W. Thomas.
Rain Charm in Asia Minor.
Owing to the drought, the Turks from the villages of this neighbourhood assembled yesterday on the seashore to the number of four or five hundred. They collected (at least they say they did, and they meant to do so) 77,000 stones and threw them into the sea. A certain number of stones are assigned to each man, and he has to lick each stone. I have heard of this practice also in the interior, where the stones are thrown into rivers ; but I did not know that the stones must number 77,000. The performance of the charm would be a trying task for a single individual, nearly as bad as having to stamp 77,000 circulars I
W. R. Pato.v, Myndus, Asia Minor. ■jth April, 1901.
Correspondence. 217
Sacrifice at York, 1648.
In Whitelock's Memorials of the English Affairs, ed. 1853, vol. ii., p. 291, under the date of 3rd April, 1648, there is an entry stating that " a woman [was] executed at York for crucifying her mother, and sacrificing a calf, a cock, &c., as a burnt sacrifice, and her husband was hanged for having a hand in that fact."
In the Criminal Chronology of York Castle, 1867, p. 29, this tragedy is mentioned, with the addition that the name of the woman who committed the crime was Isabella Billington, aged thirty-two, and that the deed was done at Pocklington.
I have tried to recover further details but have not been suc- cessful. I shall be pleased if any one can throw further light on the subject. The act must have been a folklore survival, not the result of madness, for it is noteworthy that two persons — ^husband and wife — were concerned in it.
Edward Peacock, F.S.A.
Blacksmiths' Festival.
I find in an old note-book the following cutting from the Guardian of December 23rd, 1891 :
"Can any of your readers explain why St. Clement's Day, November 23rd, is observed as a festival by blacksmiths, and whether the same custom prevails in other counties besides Hampshire ? They explode powder on their anvils and fire ofT guns, and certainly at one village (Twyford, near Winchester) there is what is called a " Clem Feast " for the smiths ; — a dinner, at which is read a curious story of Solomon's having given a banquet to all the labourers of the Temple, from which the blacksmiths were excluded till they proved their claim by pointing to their work. They were then admitted after washing off their smuts."
The note is signed " C. M. Y.," the initials, obviously, of the late Miss Charlotte Mary Yonge. It is not, I think, generally known that among Miss Yonge's many literary and intellectual interests was numbered a keen interest in folklore. Her Httle story " The Christmas Mummers," which deserves a place among
2 1 8 Correspondence.
the classics of village fiction, includes one of the first versions of the Mummers' Play ever "collected;" and the pages of the Monthly Pockety which she edited for so many years, were always open to articles on folklore (a point to which I may perhaps draw the attention of the Bibliography Committee). I owe my own first acquaintance with the subject to this source; and the late Mr. Henderson, many of whose earlier writings, besides those of the Rev. J. C. Atkinson, appeared in this way, mentions his debt to Miss Yonge in the Preface to Folklore of the Northern Counties. I am glad to have the opportunity of thus recording the name of one of the earliest of folklore collectors. She is no doubt right in her suggestion, made in the letter I have quoted, that St Clement's anchor accounts for his connection with the black- smiths, of which various instances have been given in our earlier volumes, but the Solomon story has not, I think, been mentioned before. Probably some of our members can trace its source.
Charlotte S. Burne.
The Mill of the Twelve Apostles. Last September I was travelling in a third-class railway carriage between Buxton and Ashbourne when a fat, middle-aged woman carrying butter to market got into the carriage and sat opposite to me. It was a hot day, and she had a very red face. As the train moved on a man who sat next to her said to her suddenly, " Missis, if your face keeps as red as that you'll never die." She laughed, and her face grew redder still ; and then, as if to make that face grow paler, the man, who carried a basket of tools and appeared to be a joiner, told a story about a woman whose husband had died. It seemed to be a folktale, but there was so much talking and noise that I could hardly hear a word. But I heard him say that the dead man was now "grinding snuff with the Twelve Apostles." As he told the story she ceased to laugh and her face grew paler. Can anyone supply the rest of the story ?
S. O. Addy.
REVIEWS.
The Golden Bough, a Study in Magic and Religion. By J. G. Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 2nd Edition. 3 vols. Price 36s.
Since the first edition of Dr. Frazer's work appeared he has greatly expanded it by the insertion of much fresh illustrative matter, drawn chiefly from further reading. It now fills 1,476 pages, of which nearly one-half is new matter. Nothing could more strikingly attest the extent and value of the additions that are daily being made to our knowledge by the activity and intelli- gence of observers in all parts of the world; and nothing could more clearly illustrate the effect which has been produced by Dr. Frazer's original and inspiring researches than the fact that the new matter thus collected fits in so aptly to the scheme of his work. The central theme of it was, it will be recollected, the priesthood of the groves of Aricia :
** Those trees in whose dim shadow The ghastly priest doth reign, The priest who slew the slayer, And shall himself be slain.''
The author explained the priest of Aricia— the King of the Wood — as an embodiment of a tree-spirit, and inferred from a variety ' of considerations that at an earlier period one of these priests had probably been slain every year in his character of an incarnate deity. A curious illustration of this theory has been afforded in an unexpected quarter by the publication in 1897 of the Martyr- dom of St Dasius by Professor F. Cumont, showing that in Lower Moesia the Roman soldiers celebrated the Saturnalia by the creation of a mock king, who perished by his own hand on the day of the festival, which indicates that though the custom had even before the classical era fallen into disuse in Rome, it lingered on to the fourth century of the Christian era in remote parts. Dr. Frazer proceeded
220 Reviews.
in his first edition to discuss, by means of his absolutely eichaustiTe knowledge of all the facts known at the time of its publication, the ceremonies observed by the European peasantry in spring, at midsummer, and at harvest. Since then the splendid researches of Messrs, Spencer and Gillen among the native tribes of Central Australia have furnished fresh and striking analogies ; so that, as the author observes, we find at the other side of the world an exact counterpart of those spring and midsummer rites which our own rude forefathers probably performed with a full consciousness of their meaning, and which many of their descendants still keep up. With regard to the harvest rites, not applicable to the Australian aborigines, who do not till the ground, equally close parallels have been traced in Malaysia by Mr. W. W. Skeat and in Sumatra by Mr. van der Toorn.
When it is remembered to how laigie an extent the work con- sisted of novel and startling hypotheses, it is distinctly noteworthy that the lapse of ten years and the collection of so vast a number of additional facts should have done so little to displace the particular arrangement and co-ordination of the then known facts by which the hypotheses were deduced. It is very possible that among so many observations there may be some which are less authentic than others, and that here and there a false analogy may have been drawn, but it is impossible not to feel that the sceptic is borne down by the very weight and bulk of the evidence.
It is to be observed that the second title of the work is " a study in magic and religion." When Dr. Frazer first wrote the book he was disposed to class " magic " loosely as one of the lower forms of religion. He now recognises that there is a funda- mental distinction and even an opposition of principle between the two, and that in the evolution of thought magic has probably everywhere preceded religion. To understand this change of view it is necessary to define the terms used. Dr. Frazer under- stands by religion a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life. It is opposed to magic, and equally in his opinion opposed to science, because conciliation implies that the being conciliated is a conscious or personal agent, whose conduct is in some measure uncertain, and who can be prevailed upon to vary it by a judicious appeal to interests, appetites, or emotions. Magic and science assume that the course of nature
is detennitied, not by the passions or caprice of personal beings, but by the operation of immutable laws acting mechanically. On this question of the essential distinction between magic and religion the author adopts views similar to those enunciated by Sir Alfred Lyall and Mr. Jevons ; but it is probable that neither the definition nor its consequences will obtain universal acceptance. To the objection that in magic spiritual agents are often dealt with, it is answered diat they are treated in the same way as inanimate agents, that is, constrained or coerced, not conciliated or propitiated.
It may be convenient to readers who are at a distance from libraries if we briefly recapitulate the main contents of the work. Passing from the discussion of Magic and Religion generally, the second chapter is devoted to the study of the perils of the soul, as sought to be avoided by royal and priestly taboos, which are traced to the belief in a separate soul, that can only be kept in the body by excessive precaution. Examples of this are given from all parts of the world, from the Flamen Dialis of Ancient Rome to the Kafirs of the Hindu Koosh. The savage dislike to being photographed is based on the same principle. These con- ceptions of the soul and of the dangers to which it is exposed lead to a great variety of strange customs and prohibitions.
The third chapter completely fills the second volume and goes halfway into the third. It relates to killing the god, and investi- gates the case where a king, being divine, had to be put to death in his prime, before decay set in, the ultimate substitution of a mock human sacrifice for a real one, and the many ceremonies connected with death and resurrection. The myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Dionysus, Demeter, Proserpine, and Lityerses are passed under review. The various customs relating to the cutting of the last sheaf of corn, in which the embodiment of the corn- spirit is supposed to lurk, the sacramental eating of it and the sacrificial ceremonies connected therewith are studied. The superstitions connected with transference of evil and expulsion of evil by means of a scapegoat are investigated. The religious customs of the Ancient Mexicans are compared with the Saturn- alia and kindred festivals.
The fourth chapter relates to the Golden Bough itself, which had to be plucked by the candidate for the Arician priesthood before he could slay the priest, and which is correlated with the
222 Reviews.
mistletoe by which the Norse God Balder was slain : the explana- tion being that Raider's life was in the mistletoe, which was called the Golden Bough as analogous to the mythical fern seed. " The result of our enquiry," concludes the author, " is to make it pro- bable that, down to the time of the Roman Empire and the beginning of our era, the primitive worship of the Aryans was maintained nearly in its original form in the sacred grove at Nemi, as in the oak woods of Gaul, of Prussia, and of Scan- dinavia ; and that the King of the Wood lived and died as an incarnation of the supreme Aryan god, whose life was in the mistletoe or Golden Bough,"
In reviewing the first edition in Foik-Lore (i. 384) Mr. Joseph Jacobs described the work as "a series of monographs on folklore and mythological subjects," and wrote in terms of just admiration of the literary skill with which it had been fashioned. This appreciation is not less but more applicable to the revised work. The spirit in which it is written may be stated in the author*s own words, "Whatever comes of it, wherever it leads us, we must follow truth alone ; it is our only guiding star."
E. W. Brabrook.
I HAVE read Mr. Frazer's new edition of the Golden Bough with care, and I need not say with how much pleasure and profit. There was all the old charm and fascination which I remember when first of all I dipped into the original two volumes. If I now venture to say a word of criticism as a folklorist it is only in the hope that Mr. Frazer may prove me and others all wrong. Of course he has gone through the whole process of observation, research, and deduction, in all its stages, and therefore knows his case so much more thoroughly than any one of us, that he will at once appraise the value of each criticism and put his finger on the weak spot. But I think this process will strengthen us all. If Mr. Frazer is right and Mr. Lang is wrong, if Mr. Frazer is right and Mr. Hartland wrong, then we have this grand study of a great subject left intact to us. And just where Mr. Lang is right and Mr. Hartland is right, if they are right, it is necessary to understand what part of the Golden Bough is thereby afiected and has to be rewritten or amended. The subject matter is, in point of fact, too important to be left to the ordinary channels of literary criticism, and hence I venture to add my small mite to
the additional studies which some of my fellow -in embers of ihe Folk-Lore Society's Council have supplied in connection with this monumental work.
Let me first of all stale broadly my conception of Mr, Frazer's process. He notes the famous rite of the Arician priesthood, and seeks to explain it : first, by endeavouring to understand the con- ditions of human thought which could give rise to the rites at the Arician grove ; and, secondly, by endeavouring to trace the rites corresponding to those of Aricia in other parts of Europe. The first process is necessary if we would view these rites from the 'point of culture at which they started instead of from the altogether misleading standard of our own time ; the second process is necessary if we would place these rites in their proper relationship to the culture of early Europe, of which they must have formed a part. It is essential to note this. The rites of Aricia must have formed part of the culture of eariy Europe, or else they are of no value in the history of culture, If they spring from the fancy of their literary observers or from the brutal instincts of Roman con- sul or emperor, they are not landmarks of culture, but examples of human folly or crime. This, shortly stated, I take to be Mr. Frazer's position. And a most admirable position it is. It is supremely logical, and can be the only scientific method of reach- ing a result
I shall not concern myself here with Mr. Frazer's first process. My concern rather is with the second — the identification of the rites of Aricia with the rites of early European people. I at once admit that Mr. Frazer has made good his point that the rites of Aricia are to be traced in riles surviving in other parts of Europe, but I do not think that Mr. Frazer's methods have produced the best proofs of this. In the first place the rites of Aricia them- selves are not minutely stated and examined. The authorities are twofold. Greek and Latin writers — Virgil, Servius, Strabo, Pau- sanias, Solinus, Suetonius, andOvid — and arch.-eological discoveries of considerable magnitude. Now the evidence from these diverse authorities is not exactly consistent. Archeology tells us of female votaries devoted to chastity and hunting, magnificent temple buildings and vast treasures, the result of offerings by the rich and noble. The texts tell us in varying language of the priest who was succeeded by his slayer, and of rites which are inconsistent with the archaeological evidence. Before, then, we can properly
224 'Reviews.
seek for analogues to the rites of Nemi we want a critical exami- nation of each element of those rites, the determination of the relationship of each element to each other, the reconstruction of the whole with a view of showing, if possible, what parts are archaic and in survival and what parts are developed and in accord with the religion of Imperial Rome. And we want explanations of why one portion of the rite was left in its archaic form, and that portion the most brutal and barbaric, and other portions were allowed to develop, and finally, whether the answer to this query is one of non-development and development of different parts of one whole, or of survival of an original rite and the intrusion of later rites.
All these things seem to me to be absolutely necessary before we are entitled to use these several rites as a whole, the parts of which properly fit into each other, and to take them all over Europe in search of their counterparts.
Now though, as I have said, I think Mr. Frazer conclusively shows that in Europe there exist the analogues to the Nemi rites, he fails to show that in Europe there existed in any one place, either in survival or in tradition, one set of parallels to the differing rites at Nemi. One parallel is found in one group of peasant customs, another is found in another group, and so on. And hence it appears to me that the true force of these analogues is not properly seen in Mr. Frazer's study of them.
That Mr. Frazer considers them as parts of one whole is seen by his method of treating them. Everywhere in Europe they are referred to as Aryan custom ; custom, that is, of the Indo- European peoples who have governed Europe under their several names of Celts, Teutons, Scandinavians, and so on. The inference is purely gratuitous, and is due to Mr. Frazer's initial conception of the rites as belonging to a homogeneous original.
In any less skilled hands than those of Mr. Frazer the method of comparison adopted in the Golden Bough would have led the author to almost hopeless confusion. Mr. Frazer, imperceptibly as it seems to me, comprehends the difficulty, and as imper- ceptibly corrects it by elaborate and careful explanations all along the line. The result is a very lengthy study through which we wend our way, charmed by the wealth of illustrations brought forward and the many sidelights of the most suggestive kind which are constantly developed. But a simpler method of re-
The Golden Bough. 225
search would have been far more satisfactory, and would have left Mr. Frazer material enough for other studies which I personally should have welcomed from his pen. As it is, everything seems to be sacrificed to the one object of bringing the comparative results of the Latin and European customs into effective line. Too much is thus sacrificed for one study. There are many European customs which do not really belong to the subject, but which are nevertheless necessary to prove the desired results by Mr. Frazer's method. If the method of analysis had preceded that of comparison, many of these European customs, thus apparently forced into a setting to which they do not really belong, would have been left untouched, and I think to the benefit of science. It will be hard work for us more humble students to detach a custom, or set of customs, doing duty in Mr. Frazer's work, from the surroundings into which he has built them. We shall have to explain why it is that a custom successfully used in the Golden Bough as a part of a particular survival-group may also be used as a part of an altogether different survival- group. And in the study of survivals too much care cannot be taken, I think, in using each example exactly where it should be used — with its fellows of the same group either in study of culture or in connection with given peoples. And in this respect, there- fore, I consider Mr. Frazer's great book sins against the canons which govern, or should govern, our use of survivals of ancient culture.
I hope I have not said anything to make it appear that my methods, here noted, are accepted methods to which there can be no possible objection. I put forward no such claim. Mr. Frazer is of course more likely to be right than I am. I put them forward as the result of a study of his great book. I think I can discern that the study of survivals has hitherto proceeded upon no settled lines. Mr. Frazer uses them in one way, Mr. Lang in another, Mr. Hartland in another, Mr. Clodd in yet another, and so on, each scholar according to the immediate needs of the moment. But this must be wrong. If one of these methods is right all the rest are wrong. And I claim it to be not the least important result of Mr. Frazer's study that it would seem to bring before our minds the imperfection of the present methods of using survivals in illustrating facts of culture.
G. Laurence Gomme.
VOL. XII. Q
■ i
226
Reviews.
I INTEND singling out one small chapter in the book. The historical and literary value of the subject treated therein tran- scends to my mind in importance all the rest ; not to speak of the theological question connected with it, which I leave out alto- gether. In theology and politics the most sane men will disagree, and I have moreover no desire to introduce any of the old, but not yet extinct, odium theologicum.
The historical facts considered in this chapter, as they present themselves to me, are diametrically opposed to the ingenious suggestions which Mr. Frazer manipulates into reliable materiafs. When there are no known facts he is not slow to suggest possibilities which have never existed. One can not protest too strongly against a system which allows a promiscuous use of late and recent facts in juxtaposition with the oldest on record, which attaches the same value to mediaeval excrescences and imitations of strange habits as to old originals, and deduces from them results explanatory of very old ceremonies and beliefs. I am referring to the equation : Saturnalia, Sacaea, Zakmuk, Purim, and the crucifixion of Jesus (vol. iii., chap, iii., p. 138 ff., § 17).
The central idea of the book, restated in a few words, is the " one-day " or " one-year king," who must depart by that time, in order to insure by his voluntary departure or violent death the future happiness and prosperity of the vegetable and animal world in the course of that year. Round this idea every pos- sible parallel is grouped. The net is spread so wide, that even the most improbable is drawn into it and has to serve as an argument to prove this theory. Thus, the merry-making and the temporary freeing of the slaves on the Saturnalia is a mere later humanised form of the ancient more cruel custom. According to that custom in ancient times, a god or the god was yearly put to death ; his place was afterwards taken by a substitute, who as a representative of the god, wherever the worship of Saturn pre- vailed, enjoyed for a time the privileges of Saturn, and then died, " whether by his own or another's hand, whether by the knife or the fire or on the gallows-tree, in the character of the good god who gave his life for the world " (p. 142). In the same breath we are told, however, that already in the Augustan period the old stern and barbarous practice had been suppressed, and that it lingered on in the emasculated form of the Saturnalia as recorded by the classical writers. This is mere hypothesis, without a
The Golden Bough.
227
tittle of justilication for the identification suggested, especially as
not a single trace of any evil consequences to the revellers can be
found. No one was killed or hanged at the end of the Saturnalia.
The explanation of the Oriental custom told by Dio Chrysostom
regarding the Sacaea rests on a still more flimsy basis, and the
attemptedidentificationwith theBabylonianZakmukhasnotasingle
it to suggest any identity. The Zakmuk was merely the
ig of the new year, pregnant with omens for the coming
On that day the great gods assemble in the Temple
) determine the fate of man in general, and that of the king,
01C first person in the kingdom, in particular. The meeting takes
:; under the presidency of the god Marduk, and the season
diosen for the new 3'ear is the month of Nisan, on which, by the
Itiy, the Jewish year also begins. That is all that is known of this
BSiival, except that rich offerings were made on that day.
Quite natural, when one thinks of the result to be obtained by
properly propitiating the gods, and influencing them to take a
favourable view of the man who brought those offerings. Mr. Frazer
feels that there is apparently little in common between the two
festivals, and owns that the " identity with the Sacaea must
remain for the present a more or less probable hypothesis "(p, 152)
_ The dates do not coincide either, and yet " it would be premature
allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of
e two festivals " (p. 153). Not a single word of substitution or
a vicarious death, or of expiation, or of the renewal ol the
;'s reign after the lapse of one year, in fact not one of the
fcharacteristic elements of the central idea, so carefully worked up
' the author, appears in the Babylonian records or in the
lylonian Zakmuk, and yet it is afterwards treated as identical
I the Sacaea ; and we are led one step further in this exlra-
rdinary chain of reasoning. For the festival of Purim as related
n the Book of Esther is now identified with this new-year festival
' Marduk. I say nothing of the identification of the chief
iersonages, such as Mordecai with Marduk, and Esther with
pBhtar, or the still more doubtful identification of Haman with a
piythical Elamitic god, and Vashti with—? To prove anything by
ttie identity of the name ought by this time to he considered as
I exploded fallacy. Not one single old name of kings or of
great men is known, which is not directly derived from that of a
god. The king is merely called by a sacred name, probably for
Q 3
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the purpose of placing him under the direct protection of that deity, but not in order to identify him with this or that god. Even granted that the names are identical, the identity in character has still to be demonstrated. This demonstration is absolutely wanting. Not the wildest stretch of fancy can detect in Mordecai any single trait of Marduk. The problem gets more complicated, for we deal in the Book of Esther with a differen- tiation of the dramatis persona. Instead of one temporary king, instead of the Zoganes or the Marduk of the Babylonians, we have not one, but two, pairs, in the figures of Mordecai and Esther and in those of Vashti and Haman. There is no longer a question of one and the same person who is to enjoy the tem- porary privileges of the king, and then to die after the short enjoyment of them, but two doubles, in fact four persons, of whom two are quite unlike anything yet mentioned, as female characters are added to the impersonation of the one god. Between the Babylonian and the Jewish tradition, assuming it all to be actually as imagined by the author, lies a Persian intermediary, for the Jews have derived their Esther festival and merrymaking through the medium of the Persians.
The Persians know of an old ceremony of the " Beardless-One," who rides naked on an ass on the first day of the first month of the year. He is first honoured, in a very limited fashion, and is afterwards left to the tender mercies of the rabble. This buffoon is then connected with the old rite of the Sacaea ! We might just as well adduce the English " Guy Fawkes," who is after- wards burned on a bonfire, as a proof that this local and quite modern ceremony is a remnant of the old Zoganes festival. Before proceeding further, attention must still be drawn to the double interpretation of the figures in the Book of Esther. They represent, according to the author, the killing of the old king and the crowning of the new (but also) temporary king, and they represent the victory of the Babylonian gods over the Elamitic gods. Both explanations are given by the author, who decides for the first alternative, for he says (p. 185), when dis- cussing the duplication of the pairs, that " the old decrepit spirit of the past year is personated by one pair, and the fresh young spirit of the new year by another." A long way indeed from the primitive sacrifice of the god or his representative at the end of his year of office, which is later on curtailed to a much shorter period.
The Golden Bough. 229
Purim then is to offer the explanation of the liberation of Barabbas and the crucifixion of Jesus. A custom thus far known to the imagination of the author alone is to have prevailed in ancient Jerusalem. The Jews are said to have celebrated a life-like personation of Haman and to have hanged the man then on the cross after mocking him. Not a trace of anything like such a custom is known to have existed. Not the remotest hint in the gospels and not a word in the old writers of such barbarous merrymaking, either in ancient or in later times. To drink, to feast, and to offer gifts is all that has been enjoined and carried out throughout the ages. The discrepancy between the dates — Purim is four weeks before Passover — is again banished by a dexterous sleight of hand. Where is the proof of such an astounding assertion ? one might ask. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some such Biblical representations have taken place in Europe, after the model of the mediaeval Mystery Plays ! And this is the proof ! ! Nothing else to justify this curious identification, unless it be the other " beardless one," a caricature in which the Greek rabble in Alex- andria indulged to spite King Agrippa on a casual visit to that town. As if every caricature carried with it a deep mystical significance, and were the reflex of old forgotten customs and beliefs ! I refrain from pursuing this special point further; it is not here the place to tread so dangerous a ground.
This chapter is sufficiently instructive. A chain of argument, as loose as in fairy tales; the most improbable taken as real. Distances vanish. Everything stands on one and the same level. No discrimination between the modern and the old, between the true and the doubtful statement, a ready admission of the most hazardous identifications and of hardly verified conjectures; hypotheses from beginning to end ; plausibility making the proof of the unsatisfactory logical sequence very difficult ; the reduc- tion of the whole primitive human life and thought to almost one single notion — the dying and the quickened god — coupled with a brilliant style, wonderfully wide and comprehensive reading, are the characteristics of this book ; the conclusions of which have so readily been accepted by many, but which lack still the confirmation of the critical inquirer. Far be it from me to belittle the astounding achievement in the world of fiction. Reading the book as such, I owe the author sincere thanks for
230 Reviews.
the delight and pleasure with which I followed up the plot from beginning to end.
M. Gaster.
Like all other anthropologists I am immensely impressed with the great value of The Golden Bought not only as a synthesis but also as a mine of facts and references. I do not, however, pro- pose to criticise the book in bulk or in part, but merely to allude to a subject that has interested me.
The section on totemism has been increased slightly by foot- notes, notably by that on p. 416 (vol. iii.), in which Dr. Frazer admits that the theory previously adopted is at most only a partial solution of the problem. The theory was as follows. A tribe revere a particular species of animal or plant and call them- selves after it, from a belief that the life of each individual of the tribe is bound up with some one individual of the species, and that his or her death would be the consequence of killing that particular animal or destroying that particular plant. Thanks to the memorable investigations of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen in Central Australia, a further explanation of totemism is forthcoming which indicates that, at least among these tribes, its aim is to pro- vide the community with a supply of food and all other necessaries by means of certain magical ceremonies, the performance of which is distributed among the various totemgroups.
I may, perhaps, be permitted to adduce further evidence on this aspect of totemism from the Western tribe of Torres Straits. On certain occasions each of the dugong-men of Mabuiag was painted with a red line from the tip of his nose up his forehead and down his spine to the small of the back. (I obtained in this island a model of a dugong which was used as a charm, which was correspondingly painted with a red line.) The men's foreheads were decked with upright leaves to represent the spouting of the dugong, and leaves were also inserted in the armbands like water splashing off the dugong when it comes into very shallow water. This decoration was made when the dugong-men performed a magical rite in the ktvod (or taboo-ground) that was situated in their particular region of the island. A number of different plants were put on the ground and a dugong placed on the top. Several men took the dugong by the tail, which they hoisted up in such a way as to make the dugong face the rest of the island — for the
The Golden Boii^h.
23'
^was near the seashore and faced the great reefs on which the dugong abound. There can be little doubt that this was a magical rite performed by the dugong-men to make the dugong come towards the island of Mabuiag. The dugong used in this ceremony was given to the tartle-men. When only one turtle was obtained on a turtle expedition it was taken to the kmod of the turtle-men, who performed a pantomimic ceremony which symbol- ised the increase of turtle. The social, as opposed to the magical, aspect of totemism was also well developed among these people, and on another occasion 1 shall have something" to say about their |incipient evolution from a totemistic cult.
Dr. Frazer (vol. iii., p. 418) also regards the totem as a re- f eeptacle in which a man keeps his life, that is, his soui or one of his souls. I have no further evidence on this point, but on the island of Yam I discovered that the life of an augud (totem) might reside in a slone. In the kwod in this island there was an losed spot which contained the shrines of two great auguds of island, the crocodile and the hammer-headed shark. Each ■was represented by a large tortoiseshell mask, below which was in which its life resided. Although the same term aupid was employed for the mask as for a totem species, it is evident that true totemism is merging into something else.
I did not find a personal totem among the Papuans, either on
^the mainland of New Guinea or in Torres Straits, but I did dis-
r its occurrence among the Yaraikanna tribe of Cape York,
I who are true Australians. One informant told me he had three
art, one which fell to him through blood-divination at ihe
ceremony of knocking out a front tooth, the two others given as
the result of dreams. It appears that if an old man dreams of
anything at night, that object is the ari of the first person he sees
next morning; the idea being that the animal, or whatever appears in
the dream, is the spirit of the first person met with on awakening.
The personal totem of the Omahas, which has been described
|so graphically by Miss Alice C. Fletcher (The Import of the
* Totem, American Association for the Advancement of Science,
' Detroit Meeting, 1897), is somewhat similar to xh^Nyarongm
spirit-helper of the Sea Dayaks of Sarawak (C. Hose and W,
McDougall, Report, British Aaociation, Bradford Meeting, 1900,
.p. 907), in which "every Sea Dayak hopes to be guided and
■belped all through his life by a spirit which announces itself to
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him in dreams, and takes up its abode in some peculiar natural object or in some animal. In the latter case the Dayak will never kill or eat one of the same species of animal, and will lay the same prohibition on all his descendants, so that a whole family may come to pay especial regard to one species of animal for many generations." The personal totem, or an, of the Yaraikanna is different from either of these, and so far as I am aware has no equivalent among the Papuans, but it has occa- sionally been recorded for other Australians.
Dr. Frazer promises us a second edition of his excellent little book on Totemisnty which will be eagerly welcomed by students. It is probable that what is described as totemism in one place may be different in its origin from that which is called totemism elsewhere. Should this prove to be the case, the term should be restricted to practices and beliefs which are undoubtedly similar to those of the Ojibway cult.
Dr. Frazer rightly lays great stress in The Golden Bough on the importance of Spencer and Gillen's study of the Arunta tribe, in their masterly book, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, I should, however, like to add a word of warning, that although most of the customs and beliefs of nomadic savages may be what is termed " primitive," it does not follow that all are really primitive; indeed the evolution of customs is clearly stated by Spencer and Gillen in their tenth chapter, where three phases of evolution are de- scribed. Might I suggest that it would be well for students to face the probability of what may be termed " differential evolu- tion ; " that is, there may be a lagging behind, or an acceleration, or an entire omission of certain customs and beliefs in even allied tribes which belong to the same general level of culture. For example, we are told that in Alcheringa, the mythical anti- quity of the Arunta, each of the wandering companies was com- posed of a certain number of individuals belonging to a particular totem (p. 120). Judging from the authors' remarks on pp. 73 and 74, there was a closer connection between the Alcheringa ancestors and their totems than exists at the present day. The Alcheringa ancestors passed into the ground, and each spot or area became infected with the respective totem of the ancestor. Thus the totems are at the present day territorial, which does not strike one as being a primitive concept, quite apart from the tradition that it was not so.
The Golden Bough. 233
I have pointed out that the marriage restrictions of the Yarai- kanna tribe are territorial and not totemistic {Report^ British Association^ Dover, 1899, p. 585). Dr. Rivers has shown {^Journal Anth, Inst.y xxx., 1900, p. 78) that in Murray Island, Eastern tribe of Torres Straits, " marriages are regulated by the places to which the natives belong. A man cannot marry a woman of his own village or of certain other villages. The totemistic system which probably at one time existed in this island appears to have been replaced by what may be called a territorial system." I found that a similar custom occurs in the Mekeo District of British New Guinea, and it is probably still more widely distributed. I have collected evidence which proves that there is a territorial grouping of totemic clans among the Western tribe of Torres Straits. At Kiwai, in the delta of the Fly River, where, by-the-by, plant totems largely predominate, all the members of a totemic clan live together in a long house which is confined to that clan.
It would seem that the members of a totemic clan tend to live together and have lands in common, but on the weakening of the totemistic system the social restrictions come to be associated with the lands or villages. Among the Arunta, the totems have now no relation to marriage restrictions, nor indeed does it appear that there ever was a time when marriage was regulated by the totems (pp. 121, 393). This may very well have been a really primitive custom, and hence there is no territorial marriage restric- tion among the Arunta.
A. C. Haddon.
I INVOKE The Golden Bought vol. iii., pp. 458-461.
In the beginning there was Thought and there was Void. And Thought conjured up out of the Void an unsubstantial world — earth and sun — an ever-shifting phantasmagoria of thought, with the high-sounding names of the world and the universe. Having done this, without reason assigned. Thought proceeded to try and explain (presumably to the Void) what it had done, and devised hypotheses, three in number, successively — magic, religion, and science. By their aid. Thought — quite unnecessarily — registered the shadows on the screen, ix, registered the unsubstantial world and ever-shifting phantasmagoria, already mentioned. But having conjured them up and registered them. Thought has come
234 Reviews.
to the conclusion that they (somewhat superfluously, for unsubstan- tial things), may melt into air, into thin air — in fact that there is nothing in them. In these circumstances Thought feels that it is making an infinite progression towards a goal that for ever recedes, and that great things will come of that pursuit, though we may not enjoy them. Indeed, as Dr. Frazer says in his Preface, " we cannot foresee, we can hardly even guess, the new forms into which thought and society will run in the future." They will be an ever-shifting phantasmagoria, with high-sounding names, but thin, very thin ; in fact, not to put too fine a point on it, unsub- stantial, not to say void. We shall be making infinite progress from nowhere to nowhere, in a purely hypothetical way, and we may enjoy ourselves — in a phantasmagorical manner, of course.
This is " the lesson of hope and encouragement to be drawn from the melancholy record of human error and folly which has engaged our attention " in The Golden Bough. It is the conse- quence of " rejecting the religious theory of nature as inadequate and reverting in a measure to the older standpoint of magic." What hope or encouragement is to be got out of unsubstantial hypotheses, like science, conjured up out of the void only to melt into thin air, I cannot say. I only wish to make one or two remarks about the older and equally unsubstantial hypothesis of magic.
In the beginning, according to Dr. Frazer, man was absolutely destitute of religious belief, which " explains the succession of natural phenomena as regulated by the will." Man begins by finding himself in presence of "a certain established order of nature on which he can surely count and which he can manipulate for his own ends " by means of magic, which no more implies a belief in the existence of spirits than science does. This view is of course incompatible with Dr. Tylor's theory of Animism ; and one or other of the two theories must be wrong (or perhaps both are phantasmagorical). According to Dr. Tylor, man in his dealings with nature is dealing with bodies supposed to be animated by spirits like man's. According to Dr. Frazer, man knows nothing of spirits whatever in this stage ; he simply knows the succession of events, "a certain established order of nature," which, however, he (and the man of science) believes that he can vary and alter, and " manipulate for his own ends " — so that the "established order" is not really established but is perpetually
The Golden Bough. 235
being altered by man, by will. But man does not jump to the conclusion that the changes which take place around him are also produced by other wills or by other spirits or by other beings. If he did, Dr. Tylor's theory of Animism would be right and Dr. Frazer's theory of Magic would be wrong.
This is rather a priori speculation. As a matter of fact, do we come across instances or survivals, of a period when man believed in magic, but knew nothing of spirits ? Now " beneath a super- ficial layer of Christianity," we are told, we do find ** a faith in magic and witchcraft." Indeed " the common herd never really abandon their superstitions." The superstitions in question are a belief in magic, which we have learnt is a good deal nearer the truth of science than religion is. Now, what the argument requires is, that primitive man should believe in magic, and should not even so much as know that there are spirits. What Dr. Frazer tells us is something quite different, viz. that the " omni- presence and malignity of spirits " is a belief of " the primitive mind ; " and primitive man is dated as being in the hunting or pastoral stage. Thus it appears that spirits were omnipresent to the primitive mind, which is just what Dr. Tylor has taught, and what Dr. Frazer has denied.
I submit then that the omnipresence of spirits to the primitive mind is fatal to the theory that the primitive mind recognised only " an established order of nature " and knew nothing what- ever of spirits. Dr. Frazer himself has shown that primitive man recognises and deals with spirits, good as well as bad ; I do not therefore understand his belief " that in the evolution of thought, magic, as representing a lower intellectual stratum, has probably everywhere preceded religion," and that " magic is probably older than a belief in spirits." If it is, then, on Dr. Frazer's own showing, it is prior to primitive man, which is difficult to understand.
That magic is distinct from religion, I hold with Dr. Frazer. But that magic is prior to religion. Dr. Frazer produces no evidence to show.
Nevertheless, whatever criticisms we may make, we are all indebted more than we can well say for the second edition of The Golden Bough—
"venerabile donum Fatalis virgae longo post tempore visum."
F. B. Jevons.
\
236 Reviews.
I HAVE written elsewhere on the new edition of The Golden Bough, Here, however, I may say that I cannot accept the hypothesis on which Mr. Frazer's argument as to the Crucifixion depends. He is obliged to postulate a Persian custom of annually sacrificing the king at Babylon. I say "Persian," because I am not privileged to find any tittle of evidence that the feast of the Sacaea was old Babylonian. Mr. Frazer argues that, in time, a son of the king died as his proxy, and finally a criminal was selected. This man, after five days of royalty, was stripped, scourged, and hanged. He is sometimes said to die to save the king's life, and at other times he dies as a representative of Tammuz, or Adonis, a god of vegetation. I do not think he can be either alternately, or both at once. From this execution, the Jews are supposed to have borrowed the custom (unproved) of crowning, robing, stripping, scourging, and hanging a man at Purim, or, as Mr. Fraser also conjectures, not at Purim, every year. Our Lord was one of these men.
I can accept no step in the argument I entirely decline to believe that ever, anywhere, a king, let alone the king of Persia, was annually " sacrificed." No mortal would take the crown on the terms. No royal house could stand the drain on its members. No example of such an idiotic practice is anywhere proved to exist. Nobody who knows human nature could dream that the Persians would find kings ready to take the crown on the alleged conditions. Moreover, the supposed substitute is not " sacrificed " at all ; he is stripped, scourged, and hanged, if our solitary evidence — a speech attributed by Dio Chrysostom to the humorous cynic Diogenes — is evidence, which I doubt. Kings, if the victim represents a king, gods, if he represents a god, are not put to death or " sacrificed " by scourging and hanging !
The custom, if it existed, has an easier explanation. At the Persian Sacaea, as at the Roman Saturnalia, and in many other cases, each household, during a brief period of license, had its King of Unreason, in Persia a slave. To play the king in the real king's house was, technically, treason ; and was treason nowhere else. But, as it would have been a shame to punish a slave who, in acting king, only obeyed custom, a condemned criminal took in the royal household the role of King of Unreason. He was then stripped to show his mockery of kingship, whipped, to prove his servile status, and hanged, on the technical count of
The Golden Bough. 237
treason, and on the real charge for which he had already been condemned to death.
This, of course, is a guess, but it does not involve the fantastic theory that Persian kings were once annually " sacrificed ; " or that a sacrifice is ever whipped and hanged; or that once they were burned, but later were whipped and hanged by way of mitigation of their sufferings !
As I have criticised portions of The Golden Bough (^Fortnightly Review^ February, April, 1901), and as my book on these themes (" Magic and Religion ") is in the press, I need not occupy much more space in Folk-Lore, But I may point out that while Our Lord, by Mr. Frazer*s theory, derives his " halo of divinity " from his succession to a long series of criminals, recognised and sacrificed as divine, he also assures us that nobody recognised the god in these unlucky characters (Vol. III., p. 120). Of course this looks to me like a contradiction in terms. It is as if Mr. Frazer said, " Jones was universally known to be a pauper," and also that " Jones was knocked down and robbed, because of the universal belief in his opulence."
I need scarcely add that, though unconvinced by Mr. Frazer's logic, I have the highest sense of his industry and erudition, and of the value of his collection of evidence. Oddly enough, while describing the Ashanti custom analogous to the Sacaea, he omits the circumstance that in Ashanti, as at Babylon (if Dio Chr>'sostom makes Diogenes tell truth), a criminal is sacrificed on the fifth day of the feast (Ellis, TJu Tshi-Speaking Peoples^ p. 229). If, by the way, the word Sacaea is derived from the verb whence comes Sdkl (Persian, the wine-pourer) then Sacaea is a Semitic word and therefore cannot be Persian, and may suggest a Babylonian origin. This suggestion is not made by Mr. Frazer.
Andrew Lang.
Mr. Frazer's work has exerted an influence over and won an authority among his fellow students denied to any since the appearance of Professor Tylor's Primitive Culture, There are reasons why this should be so, over and above the author's immense range of reading and great literary skill in handling and displaying to the best advantage a mass of facts which, presented otherwise, would be simply unreadable. But it does not seem to
238 Reviews.
me that any of Mr. Frazer's reviewers have adequately recognised the force and cogency of his appeal to folklorists.
I speak of Mr. Frazer's appeal, but, as he himself has insisted, the hypotheses which he has so ably championed are originally due to Mannhardt. It would be unfair, however, to separate master and disciple, discoverer and expositor. Whatever may be the final decision of advancing knowledge upon their hypotheses, their names will remain indissolubly linked together in the history of folklore scholarship.
The Mannhardt-Frazer hypothesis has won such immediate and widespread recognition because it satisfies psychological require- ments of which every student is conscious, although very few are at the trouble of formulating them. It supplies, w^hat it was dimly felt the earlier hypotheses did not supply, an adequate explanation of the facts involved. This does not of course prove that it is true ; no one knows better than the student of folklore how far apart adequacy and truth may be. Ninety-nine per cent, of humanity have accepted and acted upon the most grotesquely absurd explanations of fact because they were nevertheless felt to be adequate.
What then briefly speaking is the nature of the facts which the hypothesis essays to connote and interpret, and wherein does its special adequacy lie ?
The customs and beliefs involved are in the first place wide- spread, covering as they do not only the Europaeo-Asiatic area in which all the higher civilisations have developed, but being met with also in districts and among cultures historically unconnected with that area. In the second place, they are found at all stages of recorded history, their range in time being as wide as their range in space. In the third place, they are singularly per- sistent in outline and animating spirit. Fourthly, unlike certain products of folk-fancy — story, song, riddle — they do not impress one at first sight as possessing an inherent capacity for wandering, for passing from one people to another. This impression may be wrong, but I believe that the most determined transmissionist, who is quite convinced e.g. that Cinderella originated in one definite centre whence it spread around, would hesitate to explain the prevalence of May-day or harvest customs in the same way.
We may fairly conclude that the appeal and sanction of these beliefs and customs must have their roots in something practi-
The Golden Bough. 239
cally common to all mankind, seeing that they are met with almost semper et ubique. These roots are, according to the Mannhardt-Frazer hypothesis, the overpowering interest felt by mankind in the germination and growth of the food-crop, and the anxious desire to promote processes recognised by experience as uncontrollable by purely material means, but upon the proper completion of which depends the welfare of the community.
The adequacy of the hypothesis is self-evident. Nearly every race of mankind has passed, or is passing, through an agri- cultural stage, and whilst agriculture, as it is in all early com- munities, is a self-contained and empiric craft, the welfare of the crop is of absolutely paramount importance. If, as the hypothesis assumes, certain practices do promote that welfare, they must^ for the average man and woman, have a significance, an import, tran- scending every other body of practices. Thus the ritual possesses the most awful of all sanctions — dread of starvation ; thus the mytholog}' which informs and animates the ritual appeals to everyone, and not merely to the higher minds of the community. If any ritual, if any mythology, could count upon persistent sur- vival after what may be called their social and economic justifica- tion has ceased to be operative, it would be these. And as a matter of fact, of all survivals of lower into higher culture these are the most marked and the most persistent.
What may be termed the central, the essential, adequacy of the hypothesis is reinforced by secondary considerations. The ani- mating spirit of the practices is influence exerted by imitation, mimetic magic. But this forcedly originates and develops the dramatic faculty. And if the craving for food be the most insistent physical demand of man, delight in dramatic represen- tation is one of the most potent of his psychical emotions. Man lives by bread — man does not live by bread alone : these two statements contain in germ the Mannhardt-Frazer hypo- thesis, the one which I firmly hold to explain most adequately the largest body of those diverse and well-nigh innumerable practices, opinions, and fancyings designated folklore.
If this be so, Mr. Frazcr can regard with perfect equanimity the bulk of the criticisms passed upon his work. P"or it so happens that his avowed object is, comparatively speaking, unimportant. He essays to show that the facts involved in the Arician custom are best explained by reference to the great
240 Reviews.
body of agricultural ritual of which Mannhardt and he have traced the outline and interpreted the spirit. Interesting if true — if not true, the failure of the essay in no wise discredits the main hypothesis. It is the exposition of facts necessitated by the attempted solution of the problem that constitutes the value of the work ; the solution itself is of little moment
Personally I keep a very open mind regarding Mr. Frazer's solution of the Arician problem, as I also do regarding his explanation of many of the subsidiary questions which arise therefrom. The point I wish to emphasise is the psychological adequacy of the main hypothesis ; it not only fits the facts, it arises naturally and unforcedly out of the facts.
Alfred Nutt.
For a woman to have the last word is perhaps not an unpre- cedented event in the history of the world, yet I should not have attempted to say anything on this subject had it not been sug- gested to me by one to whose opinion much deference is due, that it would be part of my editorial duty to close the discussion. Not even the most adverse of critics can fail to admire the extraordinary erudition, the skill in weaving fragments together, the intuition, insight, and originality, displayed by Dr. Frazer. Nor is it possible to read his great work without feeling that in the courtesy he shows to his opponents, the good taste with which he touches on "burning questions," and the candour and humility with which he acknowledges former mistakes, he sets us all an example worthy of imitation. But I am very glad to observe that there seems to be no disposition in the Society to take his views for granted, or to accept his theories without a close individual examination of his grounds for them. There is a natural tendency among students to confuse theories with discoveries, and to work from the theories of a great master as if they were axioms of science; to mistake them for proven facts, and to reason from them as a starting-point instead of from the evidence on which they rest, or which other inquirers have brought to light. It is a tendency against which all honest seekers after truth will rightly be on their guard. ^^ Al agister dixit " is a principle fatal to the advancement of science. Espe- cially it is so to a science such as ours, which is incapable of practical demonstration like the physical sciences, but (to borrow
The Golden Bough. 241
Mr. Hartland's quotation), deals with matters * in the dark back- ward and abysm of time," of which our knowledge must always be more or less scanty, vague, and uncertain, liable to be interpreted in different ways and modified as fresh evidence comes to light. It would be a great misfortune if the study of folklore were ever to become cramped by a blind following of the leader, or if its students were to be classified as the orthodox adherents of such a teacher and the unorthodox dissenters from his doctrine. The amount of independent criticism that has been called forth by the Golden Bought both in these pages and elsewhere, is then a healthy sign, of good omen for the future.
In one case Dr. Frazer seems to me to have laid himself open to criticism by himself starting an unnecessary difficulty and then inventing hypotheses to get over it. I mean as regards the Purim and Passover celebrations. If, as he suggests and as Dr. Gaster and others deny, it was the custom of the Jews to slay a human victim at Purim, the fact that our Lord was crucified at the Passover and not at Purim would not, I think, be a valid objection to the idea that some of the ceremonies attendant on such a custom may have been carried out in His case. It is not at all necessary for those who like to accept this view to assume a mistake as to the date in the Gospel narrative. The transference of customs from one date to another is an everyday occurrence : witness, for example, our English customs of lighting bonfires on the fifth of November and carrying oak-boughs on the twenty-ninth of May. Nor do our populace wait for Guy Fawkes' Day to mark their opinion of offenders against domestic peace by "riding the stang" for them (a custom, by the way, to which I think Dr. Frazer nowhere refers). Moreover, any expression of popuku: feeling is apt to reproduce old traditional forms. I remember being much struck with this on seeing a form of Fifth of November celebration at Folkestone in 1893, which closely resembled an old Corpus Christi civic trades' procession. I made inquiries, and found it had been newly introduced within the last few years ; and in this case the " reversion to type " was quite an unconscious one on the part of the performers.^ I/b. custom of showing mock honour
• Full details of this will be found in Folk-Lore^ vol. v., p. 38. An account of a Provenfal May Festival which I expect to turn out to be another case in point will, I hope, appear in a future number of Folk-Lore,
VOL. XII. R
242 Reviews.
to a condemned criminal at the Purim feast existed at one time among the Jews, it might easily suggest a similar treatment of our Lord to the minds of His captors at the Passover; supposing always that the nature of the accusation against Him were not sufficient by itself to suggest it to them. But in neither case ought we to assume that the whole procedure must necessarily have been carried out, because a resemblance to certain features of it can be traced. By doing so, Dr. Frazer has involved himself in a whole web of conjectures, possibilities, and imaginings.
This may seem like criticism of a detail, but it leads up to my main point. The recrudescence of old folklore in modem shapes, and still more, the assumption of a common form by practices having different origins, are subjects which call for more attention than they have yet received, and which are of first-rate importance in arriving at a correct interpretation of folklore. Long ago I urged that " the sources of folklore are not one but many," and I have since seen no reason to alter my opinion. With some, Animism seems to fill up the whole range of vision ; with others, Totemism ; with others, the Evil Eye and its kindred superstitions ; with others. Agricultural Sacrifice. But the fate of the solar mytho- logists should be a warning to us. There is no master-key.
Dr. Frazer acknowledges this in his preface ; but he is greater at synthesis than he is at analysis : he catches at points of likeness, and does not seem sufficiently to recognise the possibility of vary- ing origins underlying similar externals. If we add to this, that like almost all thinkers possessed with a great idea, he sometimes pursues his speculations without pausing to consider the difficulties his theories would involve in practice, and even allows himself to make one hypothesis the groundwork of another, I think we may see the causes to which the various criticisms directed against his work may be traced. But it is one thing to destroy and quite another to build up ; and Dr. Frazer's severest critics are perhaps the best able to appreciate the labour, the research, and the con- structive skill displayed in his building. We may disagree with him as to the distinctive features and relative positions of Magic and Religion ; we may show that one piece of evidence is unduly pressed into his service, and that another has no trustworthy basis of fact ; we may feel that he is rather a speculative philosopher than a sound historical critic, and that it is difficult to correlate his notions of early political institutions with the results of other
The Golden Bough. 243
researches into the subject ; we may even think the Golden Bough itself too slender a twig to sustain the weight of learning hung upon it ; but at present we have not found a more satisfactory explanation of our popular annual customs than Dr. Frazer's theory that a large proportion of them (though perhaps not so many as he thinks) originated in rites— call them magical or call them religious — intended to promote the fertility of Nature.
Charlotte S. Burne.
De Graecorum diis non referentibus speciem humanum. Marinus Willem de Visser. Lugduni-Batavorum, G. Los, 1900.
The extent to which scientific anthropology has penetrated
classical studies, and is helping to revolutionise and reconstitute our knowledge of pagan antiquity, is illustrated by Dr. de Visser's thesis for his degree at the university of Ley den. The body of the work is a collection from classical and post-classical writers, and from coins and inscriptions of all kinds, of references to Greek superstitions concerning plants, animals, stocks, and stones directly or indirectly indicative of the worship of divinities having other than human forms. This collection is preceded and followed by an interesting introduction and comments. Aph proving Schultze's definition of fetishism, which extends not merely to the worship of terrestrial objects like rocks, trees, animals, mountains, seas, and rivers, but also of the sun, moon, stars, and clouds. Dr. De Visser goes on to discuss totemism. The explanation of totemism which he accepts is that of Wilken, namely, that particular species of animals and plants are venerated because it is believed that the souls of departed clansmen have passed into them. This theor}% whether true or not, has the advantage of yielding an intelligible connection between totemism and the cult of the dead. The author favours the opinion that many Greek superstitions are ultimately referable to totemism.
R 2
1
244 Reviews.
Discussing the questions why many deities have incongruous attributes, and why several kinds of animals or plants are often under the tutelage of one and the same deity, he contends that there is no difference of kind between the higher gods and the lower orders of spiritual beings, and suggests that a definite deity of a lofty personality has in these cases taken the place oV an anonymous demon, or that the latter has become absorbed by the new and higher divinity. This theory of conflation, as it may be called, has been heard of before. The process is, indeed, well known to have gone on in connection with the conversion of the barbarians to Christianity, and its results are visible in the folklore of all Europe. Yet I am not sure that it has received enough consideration at the hands of anthropological students for the purpose of explaining the characteristics of the classical gods.
Dr. De Visser regards animism as the savage philosophy of religion ; and in discussing the various causes of reverence for animals, trees, stocks, and stones he refers them all in the last resort to animism. Now the degree of accuracy with which this theory represents the facts very much depends on the definition of animism. It must at least be made to include that presumably earlier habit of regarding all external objects as endowed with personality and consciousness similar to human, without raising questions as to a soul. But this is a larger range of meaning than Dr. De Visser gives it. He even makes fetishism dependent on animism, since he holds it to be the worship of an object because it is the abode of a spirit {quia animi domus est).
His discussion of the steps by which anthropomorphism con- quered is very interesting. He is undoubtedly right in his conten- tion against Botticher that the worship of stocks {loava) is only due in part to their being relics of trees. Idolatry, he thinks, arises from the union of fetishism (as above defined) with anthro- pomorphism. In the final chapter he turns to answer the question why are there more traces of the worship of stones, stocks, trees, and animals in Greece after the Christian era than before. It is curious at first sight that both the later monuments and the later literary sources are more productive of evidence than the earlier. Dr. De Visser accounts for this phenomenon by a general reaction against anthropomorphism. Anthropomorphism, which began by raising the divine ideal to a height of majesty and beauty hitherto unattained, ended by degrading the gods to the condition of mere
Reviews. 245
humanity. Aphrodite lost all sublimity when she lasciviously displayed her charms to every eye. Apollo was shorn of dignity and glory when he became, in marble or in bronze, a mere youth playing with a lizard. The consequent reaction was reinforced by the superstitions of all kinds that spread through the Roman empire on the break-up of the ancient local and tribal faiths, and in the universal ferment that preceded and accompanied the advent of Christianity. This subject, however, is beyond the scope of Dr. De Visser's thesis, and he does no more than indicate the solution of the problem.
Dr. De Visser's book, as this sketch will show, is a valuable con- tribution to anthropology. His collection of texts will be very useful to students. And the accompanying commentary, though it may not approve itself in all details, is the work of one who is thoroughly versed in the literature of his subject, and has carefully weighed the various theories between which he has had to choose. English anthropologists share with Wilken and Marillier the fore- most places among his authorities.
E. Sidney Hartland.
Res iNDiCiE.
1. The/dtaka^or Stories of the Buddha^ s former Births, Vol. IV.
Translated by W. H. D. Rouse, M.A. Cambridge. 1901.
2. Popular Studies in Mythology^ Romance^ and Folklore, No. 9.
The Rigveda, By Professor E. V. Arnold. D. Nutt. 1900.
3. Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, By S. P.
Rice, Indian Civil Service. Longmans. 1901. \os, 6d,
We have here three works on Indian subjects of varying inte- rest and value. I need hardly recommend to readers of Folk Lore the new Cambridge translation of the Jataka, of which this, the fourth instalment, translated by Mr. Rouse, is quite up to the level of its predecessors. He has given us a readable English version of the crabbed Pali text, and has been particularly successful in the metrical versions. He has added some valuable notes, and we can only regret that the plan of this edition did not admit of more ample annotation. None of the stories in this instalment
\
246 Reviews.
are of special novelty, but there are some interesting examples of familiar folktales and incidents. Thus, in No. 439, we have the Indian form of the Jonah legend, and the incident of the ship impeded in its course by the ill-omened passenger, for which there are many Indian parallels, as for instance in the Kathd Sarit Sdgara (i., 139; ii., 629). No. 472 is a variant of the Potiphar's wife saga, which is also common in other Indian collections. In No. 481 we have the incident of the goat knocking down the knife with which her own slaughter is to be accomplished — the At| T^iv fiaxmpay of the Greek tale from Zenobius and Strabo. In No. 489 the tale of the man who could not be made to laugh or fear appears in a shape somewhat different from the form familiar to us in Grimm (No. 4). In Nos. 454 and 461 we have interest- ing variants of the Krishna saga and the Rimayana. Among other interesting points incidentally referred to, I may note tree- worship and tree-marriage (pp. 97, 294) ; an annual ploughing festival, as in China (104) ; the birth-tree and the naming of a child from it (188); the juggler disappearing into the sky by climbing a rope, of which the /ocus classicus is Yule^s Marco Polo^ i., 308 ; the wearing of leaves as clothing, like the JuHngs of our own day (269).
Professor Arnold has made the most of the scanty space at his disposal in his study of the Rig Veda, which forms a useful intro- duction to the more detailed treatment of the subject in Professor Macdoneirs Vedic Mythology and Dr. 01denberg*s Die Religion des Veda. The study of Vedic mythology is now being conducted on saner lines, as the solar-myth interpretation is giving place to an investigation of the connection of the hymns with local Indian belief, and the stratification of the collection is being more closely examined.
Mr. Rice has broken fresh ground in his studies of the South Indian races, but his book is not likely to be of much service to students of folklore and anthropology, with the problems of which he exhibits only slight acquaintance. We should have welcomed a more detailed study of the Savaras and kindred jungle tribes, of whom little is known. But Mr. Rice's account of them is too slight to be of much practical use. At the same time the book contains some matters of interest. Thus, in founding a new- village the ground is ploughed and sown with a little grain (p. 39). Mr. Rice can suggest no reason for this ; but it is almost
Reviews. 247
certainly a fertility charm. And so with the mock struggles and games which are leading incidents in the marriage rites (p. 47), which are probably some form of mimetic or sympathetic magic. In one of the Uriya States there is a curious mode of counting the period of the Raja's reign which deserves investigation. **The first year of the reign is called not one^ but iabho or * gain.' The counting then proceeds in the ordinary course, but, with the exception of the figure 10, all figures ending with 7 or o are omitted. This is cdW^d onko. Thus, if a Raja has reigned 21^ years, he would be said to be in the 25th onko^ 7, 17 and 20 being omitted " (p. 96). Thus, all years ending in 7 or o are apparently unlucky, except 10. The rule is a curious one, if correctiy reported, and in default of further investigation I hesitate to suggest an explanation.
W. Crooke.
ENCVCLOPiEDIA BiBLICA : A CRITICAL DICTIONARY OF THE
Ijterary, Political, and Religious History, ARCHiEO- LOGY, Geography, and Natural History of the Bible. Edited by Rev. T. K. Cheyne, M.A., D.D., and J. Suther- land Black, M.A., LL.D. Vol. II. London : A. and C. Black. 1 90 1. Subscription price for the whole, ;^3 3J.
Last year in these columns {Foik-Lore, xi., 99 seq,) I called the attention of students of anthropology to the first volume of this important work. The new instalment is of equal if not greater value. With the literary and critical articles we have no immediate con- cern, but scholars will hardly find elsewhere a more exhaustive dis- cussion of biblical problems of the greatest moment than in the articles on the Gospels^ by Dr. Abbott and Professor Schmiedel ; Egypt ^ by Dr. W. Max M tiller ; Eschatoiogy^ with special reference to death and mourning customs, by Dr. Charles ; Genesis, by Dr. Moore ; the Hexateuchy by Professor Cheyne ; Israel, by Professor Guthe ; Jerusalem, the joint work of Dr. G. A. Smith, the late Dr. Robertson-Smith, and Colonel Conder; Job, by Professor Cheyne ; John, son of Zebedee, by Professor Schmiedel ; and Judith, by one of our members, Dr. Gaster, who has dis- covered at least one very early version of the story.
Of more immediate interest to readers of Folk-Lore are the articles which deal with anthropological matters. I can only refer
248 Reviews.
briefly to some suggestive contributions. Thus, Dr. Moore deals with the curious divination by means of the Ephod, which was probably some form of idol; when Jacob seeks the paternal benediction he wears the skins of sacrificial animals, of which many instances are collected ; in the story of Tobit we have the use of fish-gall in the treatment of eye-disease, and the same remedy appears to be still used in Persia ; the worship of sacred fish is discussed by Mr. Stanley Cook ; the avenging of blood by Dr. Driver ; Dr. Cheyne's investigation of the story of Hiel and the foundation-sacrifice, and the same scholar's article on Jonah, where he accepts Dr. Tylor's suggestion that it is connected with the Semitic Dragon-Myth. He also regards the story of Jephthah's daughter as a case of human sacrifice connected with the Tammuz- Adonis Myth.
Of special importance are the purely anthropological articles, particularly those by Dr. Benzinger on the Family^ with a discus- sion of birth and marriage rites and legal obligations ; on Fasting as a preparation for the sacramental meal ; on Government^ including the sept and tribe, and on Kinship, Dr. Morris's article on Idolatry and Primitive Religion is interesting, but a little thin. Folklore students will turn perhaps with most interest to Professor Noldeke's article on Esther^ which has been used by Dr. Frazer in the new edition of The Golden Bough,
The book is admirably printed, and the means adopted to eco- nomise space are most ingenious. It is supplied with good maps and all really necessary illustrations. The new Encyclopaedia is certainly far ahead of anything of the kind at present available for English readers.
W. Crooke.
The English Dialect Dictionary. Edited by Joseph Wright, Ph.D., D.C.L., Professor of Comparative Philology in the University of Oxford. Parts IX. and X. : Flyer — Gyver. 15s. net.
We should not ordinarily notice a work of this sort, but the Dialect Dictionary contains a great deal of folklore. We propose therefore calling attention to such parts of it as are important for our members, and leaving aside the purely Hnguistic parts. As
Reviews. 249
for the latter, a few words will suffice; to the student of the English language the book is indispensable. The clearness of its arrangement, its thoroughness, and the editor's sobriety of judgment make it worthy to rank in its own department with Dr. Murray's great work.
For ourselves, the Dictionary is valuable in two respects. In the first place, it contains a good deal of matter not elsewhere published. Take the children's games, for example. Mrs. Gomme's delightful volumes have recorded the best of them, but there are many which do not come within the scope of her work. Every game, however, has a name ; and under that name in the Dictionary the game will be found. The descriptions given are brief, of course, but sufficient for their purpose, and in the case of games not hitherto described the accounts given are full enough to explain them to those who do not know. When they have been described, a reference will be found to the authority. There is new matter under FoXy French^ Frincy-Francy, Funny^ G<^fft Geggy Green Grass, And secondly, the Dictionary gives 5it a glance the geographical distribution of the games, which may turn out sometimes to be a matter of some importance. Turning now to other subjects, we find a great deal of interest touching feudal customs and others connected with the tenure of land. The ancient Forrep-land is still known in Sussex ; the Great Foude is, or lately was, the King of Norway's representative in Shetland. Under Free-bench will be found the description of a rite, by which a widow who had proved too frail recovered her claim to her husband's copyhold lands, and which is ill suited to the dignity of a manor court. Rural custom is described under Fond-plough^ Fool-pioughy Geese-dance^ Guiser ; social custom under Feet- washing (447), Goodingy Grigglingy Groaning-cake, Lastly, for quaint superstitions we may consult Forspeaky Frogy and Gabriel Ratchet, These items do not by any means exhaust the interest of the book, which we cordially recommend to our members as a useful guide until Mr. Gomme has given us his Dictionary of British Folk-Lore,
250 Reviews.
L'Origine della Favola Greca e I Suoi rapporti con le
FAVOLE ORIENTALI. Del Dr. MiCHELE MaRCHIAN6.
Trani : V. Vecchi. 1900.
Since the *' discovery " of the Sanskrit language by Sir William Jones, the origin of fable has been a favourite battlefield of the scholars. First come the Indianists in a compact phalanx, long to remain in possession of all the strong places. To them enter, with fanfare and taratantara, with thunder, stormwind, day, night, and dawn, the Mythologists, headed by that redoubtable warrior, now at rest. Max Miiller. Lastly, like a cloud of light cavalry and mounted infantry, the Anthropological host, Mr. Andrew Lang in the van on a wiry Basuto pony or an Australian charger, and attended by totems, fetiches, hobgoblins, and high gods. And now, from a well-defined battlefield the theatre of war has become a scene of inextricable confusion, every leader harrying the rest on his own account, or holding some isolated kopje with his own devoted commando. Like the Pythagorean world, all was chaos, until Dr. Marchianb, like Nous, strides in and attempts to set things in order. Hence this book.
It must be admitted that the earlier parts of it produce a melancholy impression. Author after author, book upon book, one theory after another, marches past in state, only to be inspected, reprimanded, and sent to his own place. Fables Greek and fables Indian, fables Hebrew, Egyptian, Arabian, Syriac, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Cilician, Cyprian, Carian, Lydian, Phrygian, Sybaritic, Sicilian, Milesian, all come in for their turn ; their resemblances are examined, their divergencies ticketed, and each is put in its own appropriate pigeonhole for future use. The amount of labour unwisely applied, by those who start with a fixed idea, and work everything round to it, makes one weep. Yet after all, even these have done their part ; each has his measure of grain, even when Dr. Marchianb has blown away the chaff. He is no merciful critic, and men who like Ldveque have been rash and too ready to jump to conclusions make but a sorry figure before him. We would pay a tribute of respect to the great learning and accuracy shown in this section ; nothing seems to have been omitted, and the student could find no more satisfactory collection of facts than he will find here.
When we come to the author's constructive part, he is less satisfactory. In tracing the fable to a very remote origin, he is
Reviews. 251
no doubt right. There was doubtless a time when men lived not otherwise than the beasts of the field, when they understood the beasts better, and when it was natural to suppose them endowed with speech and thought. These fables may have been taken in earnest, and the type may have then originated. But when he speaks of the beasts influencing men's language by their cries, so that a large part of it is based upon them, or when he assumes that the earliest dramatic representations of the human race were a kind of beast-life mimicry. Dr. Marchianb goes beyond his evidence. It is comforting to find, though, that in spite of an imagination somewhat too luxuriant. Dr. Marchianb comes to much the same conclusion as Mr. Jacobs in his -^sop ; viz., that the literary fable, as we know it, was first born in Greece. He examines its traces in Greek literature, and its connection with myth and proverb, with acuteness and in a most interesting way ; and his conclusion may be regarded as a step onwards in the history of the question. We very fitly end with his final words, which on the evidence we cannot but agree with :
" Modern criticism, then, must reconsider its judgment as to the origin of fable ; and regarding its many independent origins as the incipient and rudimentary expression of human thought, and as a confused detritus of popular wisdom, ii must restore that literary form to Greece ; arguments irrefutable support the claim ; it is well suited to the Greek genius ; and a long tradition has never deflied it."
Devil Tales. By Virginl\ Frazer Boyle, illustrated by A. B. Krost. Harper Brothers, New York and London.
Though these tales profess to be such as used to be told to the children of planters by their Negro nurses when slavery still pre- vailed in the Southern States of America, from their form they cannot be strictly speaking regarded as a direct contribution to Negro folklore. Nevertheless they are capital stories and very well told. The title is perhaps a little misleading. The devil that figures in these pages is not of the awe-inspiring kind ; he is more inclined to make us laugh than to make the skin creep. Even when so serious a matter as lack of wood to keep the fires
252 Reviews.
of hell burning causes the fire to go out, the trouble the devil has to get a fresh light is amusing. And the fire went out because the devil was so long away courting a very pretty Negro girl.
The authoress has certainly interwoven into the woof and web of these tales a great deal of folklore, of which it is only necessary to give a few specimens. The hoodoo or Negro wizard figures largely, and generally as a beneficent personage that gives his neighbours charms to counteract the machinations of the devil and the spells of other hoodoos. He can even combine this function with the office of exhorter or evangelist No hoodoo can withstand a man that strikes him with a rod of green grape-vine, cut when the sap is flowing. But then the hoodoo must be on his own ground, not in a strange place. He may possess the power to give the devil a human heart, the better to torment him. But a hoodoo, however great, cannot cross running water without breaking the spell that gives him power, and his charms, too, cannot take effect across running water. Yet he can sometimes evade this obstacle by drying the water up.
The jay sold itself to the devil for a half-filled ear of com, and henceforth is bound to bring loads of wood to keep the fire of the infernal regions in full blaze every Friday. The crow, too, has to serve the devil in the same way, but only once a week, and can refuse to work oftener.
John Abercrombv.
Paul S^billot — Cuentos Bretones — Cuentos Populares de Campesinos, Pescadores y Marineros. Traducidos por Manuel Machado. Paris : Gamier Hermanos. 1900.
A TRANSLATION into Spanish of a selection of M. Sebillot's Breton tales. Wherever I have tested it the translator has done justice to the sense of the very charming originals, but the style has, perhaps inevitably, acquired a slightly more literary flavour. The introduction includes a short sketch of the life and an enumera- tion of the writings of M. Sebillot, which give some idea of the extraordinary industry of one to whom folklore owes much.
E. Sidney Hartland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
All English books are published in London^ all French books in Paris ^ and all 1901 ; unless otherwise stated.
Barrows (David Prescott). The Ethno-Botany of the Coa- huilla Indians of Southern California. Chicago University Press. 1900. 8vo. 82 pp.
Cheyne (T. K.), and Black (J. Sutherland). Encyclopedia Biblica. Vol. ii. A. and C. Black. Roy. 8vo. 1,344 pp.
Clark-Hall (John R.). Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, a Translation into Modern English Prose. Swan Sonnenschein. 8vo. xlvi., 204 pp.
NiNA-RoDRiGUES (Dr.). L'Animisme Fetichiste des N^gres de Bahia. Bahia: ReisandCo. 1900. Cr. 8vo. 158 pp. [A valuable account of fetishism as practised among the negroes at Bahia, including discussions of the neuropathic aspects of some of the rites, and of the fetishistic beliefs and practices retained by the nominal converts to Christianity.]
Orain (A.). Contes de Tllle-et-Vilaine. Maisonneuve. i6mo.
303 PP- Panzer (F.). Hilde-Gudrun. Eine Sagen-und-literargeschicht- liche Untersuchung. 8vo. Halle : Niemeyer. xvi., 452 pp.
Petsch (R.)- Formelhafte Schliisse in Volksmarchen. Berlin. Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. 1900. 8vo. xL, 185 pp.
Rice (Stanley P.). Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life. Longmans. 8vo. 223 pp. los. 6d.
RoussEL (A.). L^gendes Morales de Tlnde empnint^es au Bhagavata Purana et au Mahabharata. Traduites du San- scrit. Vol. ii. Maisonneuve. i6mo. 361 pp.
S^BiLLOT (P.). Le Folk-lore des Pecheurs. Maisonneuve.
i6mo. xii., 389 pp. South African Native Races Committee. The Natives of
South Africa : their Economic and Social Condition. Murray.
8vo. XV., 360 pp. Weston (Jessie L.). The Romance Cycle of Charlemagne and
his Peers (Popular Studies, No. 10). D. Nutt. 46 pp.
Wiedemann (K. A.). The Realms of the Egyptian Dead (The Ancient East Series, No. i). D. Nutt. 68 pp.
2 54 Bibliography.
PERIODICALS.
The Contents of Periodicals exclusively devoted to Folklore
are not noted,
L'Anthropologie, xi., 5, 6. M, Delafosse, Sur des Traces pro- bables de la Civilisation Egyptienne et d^Hommes de Race Blanche a la Cote d'l voire (suite).
American Anthropologist, N.S., ii^ 4. S. Culin^ Philippine Games.
American Antiquarian, Jan.-Feb. A, F, Chamberlaiuy Philippine Folklore. G. A, Dorsey^ Games of Makah Indians. March- April, y". Frasery Indian Words of Relationship in Australian tribes.
Archsological Report, Ontario, 1900. F, Hamilton^ Rough Notes on Native Tribes of South Africa. [These notes accompany some ethnographical specimens ob- tained by the writer while correspondent for the Globe during the war, and sent to the Museum at Toronto.]
Archiv fiir Beligionswissenschafk, iv., 1. B, Lauftr^ Zwei Legenden des Milaraspa. 7^ Branky, Zu den Ehrenstrafen. P, SchellhaSy Zur Maya Mythologie.
Berlin Museum fiir Vdlkerkunde. Veroffentlichungen vii., 1-4.
W, Grube, Zur Pekinger Volkskunde. Notizblatt, ii., 2.
Hahl^ Uber Sitten auf Ponape. K. T. Preuss^ Der Affe in der
mexikanische Mythologie. A. Bastian^ Zum SeelenbegrifT in
der Ethnologic.
British School at Athens (Annual of), vi. (1899-1900). /. C. Lawson, A Beast-dance in Scyros.
Bureau of Ethnology, 17th Ann. Bep., Pt. 2. C. Mindeleff, Navaho Houses [some religious and social details]. J. JV, Fezvkes, Archaeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895 [shrines, prayer-sticks, &c.].
Church Quarterly Review, April. Frazer's ** Golden Bough " [review of].
Fortnightly Review, April. A, Lang, Mr. Frazer's Theory of the Crucifixion.
Globus, Ixxix., 1 and 2. C. Af. Pleyte, Die Mentawei-Inseln und ihre Bewohner. 2. P, F. MuIIer^ Folkloristische Ewhetexte. 6. A". T. Preuss, Mexikanische Thonfiguren [amulets in form of gods]. Die Verehrung der Meteoriten. 7. Ozaki, Die Heisswasserprobe in Japan. 8. P. F. Kaindi, Aus der Volksiiberlieferung der Bojken (Ruthenia).
Bibliography. 255
Harper's Magazine, April. W, H, Tribe^ Snake-worshippers of India.
Indian Antiquary, January. /. Burgess^ Notes on Jaina Mytho- logy. M, N. Venkataswami^ Folklore in the Central Pro- vinces. March. Sir J, M, Campbell^ Notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom. M, N, Venkataswami^ Folklore in the Central Provinces.
Internationales Archiv fUr Ethnography^ xiii., 6. O. Stench, Samoanische Marchen.
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. zzx. {Jan, to June,) If. M, Chadwick^ The Oak and the Thunder-god. R, Koettlitz, Notes on the Galla of Walega and the Bertal. H. Pope-Hen fiessey, Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue. J, Strange, Nootka Sound [some details of religious belief and practice].
Journal of Hellenic Studies, zzi., 1. P. Gardner, A New Pandora Vase. A. J, Evans, Mycenean Tree and Pillar Cult.
Literary Guide, May. J. M^ Robertson, Mr. Frazer's Theory of the Crucifixion.
Longman's Magazine, May. A, Lang (**At the Sign of the Ship "), The " Borrowing Days " in Egypt and the Expulsion of Winter.
Madras Qovemment Museum. Bulletin iv., 1. E, Thurston, Todas of the Nilgiris. Meriah Sacrifice Post. Walking through Fire (Hot Ashes). Malaialis of the Shevaroys. Sorcery in Coimbatore. 5. Appadorai Iyer and E, Thurston, Nayadis of Malabar. [Mr. Thurston's anthropological bulletin is always good. His researches and those of his assistants among the less known tribes of Southern India have been continued, and we here get some of the results. Of special interest are his notes on a visit to the Todas, his account of a Meriah Sacrificial Post (probably the only one now in existence), which he has obtained for the museum, and the details relating to the customs of the wild mountain- tribe of the Nayadis. Among the last the ceremony of choosing a husband by the marriageable girl presents some very curious features.]
256 Bibliography.
Man, March. F, Fawcett, Notes on the Dombs of Jeypur. Edge- Fartingion^ Note on a Matuatonga [Maori sacred image]. April. N, JV. Thomas^ Animal Folklore in Georgia.
Hittheilungen des Seminars fur Orientalische Spracheiiy vol. iii.,
1900. R, Lange, Japanische Kinderlieder. F. H. Brincker^
Charakter, Sitten, und Gebrauche der Bantu Deutsch-Siid-
west Afrikas. C. Velten^ Die Spitznamen der Europaer bei
den Suaheli.
Monthly Review, April. E, S. Hartland^ The Native Problem in our New Colonies.
Notes and Queries, January 5th. The Danaids. Northumberland Marriage Custom. A Devil's Dam in a Cossack Stanitza. Counting Buttons. Smock Marriages. January 12th. Flower Divination (daisy-picking). Nature Myths. January 19th. Gipsy Wedding. Cure for Sterility. Lights and Buried Treasure. Evil Eye. January 26th. Mussulman Legend of Job. Lizard Folklore. Water in Death Chamber. Corpse on board Ship. Pebmary 2nd. Corpse Superstition. Ram- hunting at Eton. The Ladybird. Keeches (Christmas cakes in bird-form). February 9th, Superstitious Cures (S. America). White Marks on Horses (Hindustan). February 16th, Nature Myths. Wedding Custom. Boulder Stones March 9th. Ram-hunting at Eton. March 16th. Yorkshire Marriage Custom. March 23rd. Lizard Folk- lore. Animal Superstitions (Hindustan). March dOth. Mock Bull-fight on Christmas Eve (Bolivia). Nursery Rime.
Popular Science Monthly, Ivii., 7. F, Boas^ The Religious Beliefs of the Central Eskimo.
Revue de TEiBtoire des Religions, xlii., 3. Z. Legcr^ Intro- duction ^ r^tude de la Mythologie Slave. S. Reincuh^ L'Orphisme dans la IV° Eglogue de Virgile.
Revue d'Histoire et de Litt^rature religieuses, vi., 2, F, Cumont, Lc Taurobole et le culte de Bellona.
Taveta Chronicle, January, 1901. A. C. HolliSy A Wataveta Ngasu [marriage feast]. April. A, C, Hollis^ Laws of Divorce and Inheritance ; Criminal Law of Wataveta.
Zeitschrifb f'lir Socialwissenschaft, iv., 2. R, Lasch, Die Anfange des Gewerbestandes.
3folfe*Xore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLKLORE SOCIETY.
Vol. XII.] SEPTEMBER, 1901. [No. III.
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 17th, 1901.
Mr. Alfred Nurr (Vice-President) in the Chair.
The minutes of the previous Meeting were read and con- firmed.
The Chairman laid on the table a copy of Dr. Maclagan's Argyllshire Pastimes y being the extra volume published by the Society for the year 1900.
The Chairman also read the formal acknowledgment received from the Home Office of the address presented by the Society to His Majesty King Edward VII. on the occa- sion of the death of Her late Majesty Queen Victoria.
The election of the following new members was announced, viz. : Messrs. Hirschfeld Brothers, Mr. S. E. Bensusan, Mr. A. E. Swanson, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. E. Lovett, Professor A. Dietrich, and the Fulham Libraries. The resignation of Miss R. Higford was also announced.
Mr. E. Lovett read a paper on "The Ancient and Modem Game of Astragals" [p. 280], in illustration of which he exhibited the following objects, viz. : Ancient :
I. Photograph of Tanagra Group in British Museum representing Girls playing Astragals, B.C. 300.
lA. Ditto of Marble Figure, full size, later Greek period. British Museum.
VOL. XII. s
258 Minutes of Meeting.
2. Roman Bronze Astragali.
3. Astragalus of Bison, rubbed down as a die. Mound
burial, N. America.
4. Ditto of Bos longifrons. Lake dwellings, Switzerland. Modern :
5. Typical set of bone Astragals.
6. Set of four bones and ball. Gironde, France.
7. " Set '^ of foot bones of pig. " Five Bones." Kent.
8. " Five stones " of Diorite (road metal). Croydon.
9. *' Fivies." Quartzite pebbles. Scotland.
10. " Five stones." Drift pebbles. Essex.
11. Five wooden cubic astragals. Worcestershire.
12. Five discs of potsherd. Norfolk.
13. Ditto. Yorkshire.
14. Four pebbles and ball. " Cobbles." Kent.
15. " Marble and dubbs" (made in Germany). Houndsditch.
16. Nine quartzite pebbles, as played at Neuch&tel,
Switzerland.
17. Five stones called "Jacks." Warwickshire.
18. Five stones called "Jack o' five stones." Worcester- shire.
19. Tamarind stones from Gujerat, as played in India. Miss Violet Turner gave an exhibition of the game of
Astragals (locally known as Snobs) sls played in Derbyshire.
Mrs. W. Price exhibited (i) a photograph of the Grave- yard at Salruck, Connemara [reproduced, Plate viii., cf. p. 104], and (2) a photograph of a Wedding-dance Mask of plaited straw, used in County Mayo, Ireland, of which a specimen may be seen in the Society^s case at the Archaeo- logical Museum, Cambridge [Plate ix. See vol. iv., p. 123].
Miss Ella Sykes read a paper on "Persian Folklore" [p. 261].
A discussion on Mr. Lovett^s and Miss Sykes' papers followed, in which Dr. Gaster, Mr. Longvvorth Dames, Dr. Ranking, Mr. Gomme, Mr. Letts, Mr. P. Redmond, and the Chairman took part.
I
Minutes of- Meeting. 259
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. Lovett and Miss Sykes for their papers, and to Miss Violet Turner for her exhibition.
The following books and pamphlets which had been presented to the Library since the last Meeting of the Society were laid on the table, viz. : —
I. Schwetzerisches Archiv fur Volkskunde^ March, 1901. 2. Y Cymmrodor^ vol xiv., presented by ' the Cymmrodorion Society. 3. Archivio delta R. societh Romanay vol. 23, parts 3 and 4 , presented by the Societh. 4. Journal of the Anthropological Institute^ vol. xxx. (new series iii.), 1900.
WEDNESDAY, MAT 16th, 1901. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of the following new members was announced, viz. : Mr. J. L. Freeborough and the Reading Public Library.
The Chairman referred in sympathetic terms to the loss the science of Anthropology and Folklore has sustained by the deaths of the Rev. Dr Chalmers and Miss Christian Maclagan.
Mr. E. Lovett exhibited some crescents and discs used as amulets and charms in various parts of the world.
Miss Burne also exhibited some charms against the Evil Eye from Portugal and Italy.
Mr. F. T. Elworthy read a paper entitled " Dischi Sacri," of which he exhibited a number of specimens, and illustrated his lecture by lantern slides, from the figures given in his work Horns of Honour} A discussion followed, in which Dr. Gaster, Mr. Kirby, Dr. Ranking,
* Reviewed in Folklore^ vol. xi., p. 402.
S 2
1
26o Minutes of Meeting.
Miss Burne, the Rev. — Cornish, and the President took part.
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. Lovett and Miss Burne for their exhibits and to Mr. Elworthy for his paper.
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 19th, 1901.
Joint Meeting of the Anthropological Institute and Folk-Lore Society.
The Chair was taken by Dr. A. C. Haddon, the
President of the Institute.
The minutes of the last Meeting of the Institute having been read and confirmed, Dr. Haddon vacated the Chair, which at his request was taken by Mr. Brabrook, the President of the Society.
The Chairman referred in sympathetic terms to the loss the Society has sustained in the death of Miss Florence Grove.
A collection of Musquakie beadwork, presented by Miss M. A. Owen to the Society, was exhibited, upon which Mr. E. S. Hartland offered some observations, the catalogue raisonn^ promised by Miss Owen not having yet reached England. In the discussion which followed, Mr. Henry Balfour f Curat or of the Pitt-Rivtrs Museum at Oxford), Dr. Haddon, Colonel Temple, the Rev. J. Sibree, and the Chairman took part.
At the request of the Chairman Mr. Hartland undertook to convey to Miss Owen the expression of the very deep sense of gratitude the Society was under for her munificent donation.
A paper on ''Japanese Gohei/* by Mr. W. G. Aston, was read by Mr. Balfour, and a paper on ''The Spirit of Vegeta- tion," by Mr. E. Tregear, by Mr. N. W. Thomas.
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. Aston and Mr. Tregear for their papers.
PERSIAN FOLKLORE.
BY ELLA c. SYKES, AUTHOR OF Through Persia on a Side-saddle^ AND
The Story-book of the Shah,
{Read at Meeting of 17M Aprils 1901.)
I MAKE no pretensions to possess any special knowledge of this interesting subject. My only claim on your attention is that, during a residence of over two years in Persia, I collected various items of folklore, which may perhaps be new to some of those present.
Strabo says : " Man is eager after knowledge, and the love of legend is but the prelude thereto. This is why children begin to listen (to fables) and are acquainted with them before any other kind of knowledge." Persians of all ranks are like children in their love of stories. From the Shah downwards they listen with delight to the public story-tellers, most of whom belong to the order of dervishes, and make the round of the country, always drawing small crowds in every town.
Some eight hundred years ago the poet Firdusi collected all the old legends referring to the rise of the Persian nation, and made from them a fine epic poem, entitled the Shah Nameh, or Book of Kings. The principal character, however, is not a king, but a hero, the mighty Rustum, who is the Hercules of Persia, and whose won- drous exploits rival those of that illustrious Grecian hero. So much a part of the national tradition is Rustum, that a specially strong man, if referred to in conversation, would be at once compared to him, and all over the north of Persia, the scene of his exploits, villages named Rustum- abad frequently occur.
Scarcely less celebrated is Sohrab, Rustum's ill-fated son ; and the fine passage in Firdusi, where the champion of the world, unwitting of the relationship, kills his own child in single combat, is well known by every Persian possess- ing any claim to culture. Time fails to tell of Prince
262 Persian Folklore.
Isfundiyar, whose deeds of valour equalled those of Rustum, with whom he had a celebrated fight, lasting two days. The old champion, now aged some hundreds of years, was pressed so hard by his youthful opponent, that he was obliged to have recourse to the aid of the Simurgh, a creature half-bird, half-beast, before he could vanquish the prince.
It is but a step from these legends to the ghouls^ divSy jinnSy and afreetSy in which all Persians, even those who are well educated, have a firm belief.
The Ghoul haunts lonely places, and its aim is to lure travellers from their path and then devour them. Its real form is monstrous beyond words, and it indulges in blood- curdling yells and shrieks; but it has the power of assuming any shape it pleases, and often appears in the guise of a camel or mule, or even in that of its intended victim's relatives or friends. Both Rustum and Isfundiyar had repeated combats with these appalling creatures, which now specially haunt the "Valley of the Angel of Death,** not far from Koom. They are supposed to be the at- tendants of Azrael, or Death, and feast on the departed. Persians say that a true believer, who utters the name of the Prophet in all sincerity, can never be harmed by a ghoul; but all the same, no one will run the risk of going into a graveyard or of wandering among ruins if he can possibly avoid it. A Persian gentleman of my acquaintance con- fessed to being afraid of these horrible chimeras, but said that in my company he would venture into the most deserted ruin, because he knew that no ghoul would appear were an European present. The reason he gave was that these Persian bogies only revealed themselves to those who believed in them.
Divs or Demons are supposed to take the form of cat- headed men with horns and hoofs, and the hero Rustum's most celebrated exploit was the slaying of the great White Demon which lived in a cave on Mount Demavend. No
PERSIAN FOLKLORE.
BY ELLA C. SYKES, AUTHOR OF Through Persia on a Side-saddUy AND
The Story-book of the Shah,
{Read at Meeting of 17M Aprils 1901.)
I MAKE no pretensions to possess any special knowledge of this interesting subject. My only claim on your attention is that, during a residence of over two years in Persia, I collected various items of folklore, which may perhaps be new to some of those present.
Strabo says : " Man is eager after knowledge, and the love of legend is but the prelude thereto. This is why children begin to listen (to fables) and are acquainted with them before any other kind of knowledge." Persians of all ranks are like children in their love of stories. From the Shah downwards they listen with delight to the public story-tellers, most of whom belong to the order of dervishes, and make the round of the country, always drawing small crowds in every town.
Some eight hundred years ago the poet Firdusi collected all the old legends referring to the rise of the Persian nation, and made from them a fine epic poem, entitled the Shah Natnehy or Book of Kings, The principal character, however, is not a king, but a hero, the mighty Rustum, who is the Hercules of Persia, and whose won- drous exploits rival those of that illustrious Grecian hero. So much a part of the national tradition is Rustum, that a specially strong man, if referred to in conversation, would be at once compared to him, and all over the north of Persia, the scene of his exploits, villages named Rustum- abad frequently occur.
Scarcely less celebrated is Sohrab, Rustum's ill-fated son ; and the fine passage in Firdusi, where the champion of the world, unwitting of the relationship, kills his own child in single combat, is well known by every Persian possess- ing any claim to culture. Time fails to tell of Prince
266 Persian Folklore.
It is a usual custom to slay a goat in order to ensure prosperity to any personage on entering a town. On the approach of the traveller, the goat is killed in the middle of the road, then its head is placed on one side and its body on the other, the man thus honoured riding between the different parts of the animal and across its blood. Some- times sweetmeats are thrown under the hoofs of the rider's horse for the same purpose. Morier mentions that in travelling through a disturbed part of Persia his muleteer happened to kill a snake. The man cut it in half, and throwing the two parts on different sides of the road, he explained to his master that this act would save them from any marauding band that might be on their track.^
It is unlucky to commence walking with the left foot, or
for a gazelle to cross on the left of a rider, and all Persian
women consider that disaster is sure to overtake them if
they start off on a journey without giving some money to
the poor. Once my horse, shying, was within an ace of
precipitating us both into the moat round Kerman, and a
Persian gentleman with our party told me that the incident
was owing to my lack of charity as we started. A way of
ensuring a successful journey, which is common to both
Persians and Parsees, is to show a mirror to the traveller,
and at the same time to offer him a glass of water on which
floats the head of a flower, or to burn certain herbs before
him. During our journeys in Persia my brother and I
have been speeded on our way in this manner two or three
times both by Parsees and by Persians. My little Parsee
maid also used often to wave the smoke of a burning herb
before me when we left one camp to go to another.
She would assure me that this ceremony would guarantee
me against all kinds of accidents.
To sneeze once when starting on any expedition is an evil omen, and as far as I could make out it is equally un- lucky whether the traveller himself or anyone else per-
' Morier, A Jourtuy through Persia in i8o8 atid 1809, p. 316.
Persian Folklore. 267
petrates the sneeze. Persians in such a case will stare hard at the sun in order to induce a second or third sneeze. If they are unsuccessful in doing this, they can betake themselves to repeating a certain invocation to Allah ; but most Persians will give up the expedition, believing firmly that it can only end in disaster. Curiously enough, how- ever, Persians believe, on the other hand, that if they are desiring anything ardently, and someone sneezes at that moment, that their wish is sure to be granted. My brother's Persian secretary always attributed a bad accident to the fact that someone had sneezed just as he was mounting his horse. As his companions were Englishmen, he felt ashamed to decline the ride, but the sequels of a bolting horse and a broken arm made him chary about giving up his superstitions from that time. He also assured me that he owed the schooling he had had in England to the fact that when, as quite a child, he was wishing to go to that country, someone had sneezed. On investigation, I found that a lapse of several years had occurred between this lucky sneeze and its consummation, and I pointed out this fact to him. It made no difference, however, in his belief in that particular sneeze.
It is unlucky to name a horse after a Persian, as if any evil befalls the animal, the same injury will overtake the man after whom it is called. This fact was brought home to me in a curious way. We had bought a horse from a Persian gentleman, and had, in ignorance of this supersti- tion, called it after its former owner. When I met this latter after a lapse of some two years, I was struck by his eager inquiries as to the health of this horse, and at last elicited the real reason of this unusual interest.
If any accident occurs to a rider, his horse being hurt but he himself escaping unscathed, the Persians say, " The horse has become a sacrifice, " meaning that the injury meant for the rider has descended on his steed. During our travels in Baluchistan an incident of this kind happened to
268 Persian Folklore.
my brother, and the horse which he was riding was killed. As the animal was a great pet with us both I felt the loss keenly, greatly to the surprise of our servants, who con- sidered that I ought to have rejoiced, as the horse had averted the evil intended for my brother.
Throughout Persia there is a very strong belief in the Evil Eye, Every European on entering the country is warned never to admire anything belonging to a Persian without using the expression " Mashallah " (God is great) to avert it. If this be omitted harm is sure to follow.
Rich Persians frequently dress their children in shabby clothes in order to avert the Evil Eye. A friend of mine once took her children by invitation to visit a Persian lady of rank in Tehran who had one small son. The child did not make its appearance for a considerable time, and then was carried into the room dressed in clothes no better than would be worn by a peasant's baby. This was because the mother feared that the European lady might admire her son and so bring illness upon him. A few days after this my friend's Persian nurse came to her in great agitation, saying that some Europeans had admired one of her charges and had omitted to say " Mashallah." Oddly enough the child fell ill the next day, proving to the satisfaction of the nurse that the evil eye had been cast upon it.
Old hags are popularly credited with this unpleasant power, and no superstitious Persian will look at one if he can avoid it.
Blue is the favourite colour to ward off the Evil Eye, and camels, horses, and mules have beads fastened on their tails, or even wear blue necklaces in the case of highly valued animals. Children frequently wear a sheep's eye brought by a pilgrim from Mecca who has been there on the day of the great holocaust of sheep. A turquoise is stuck into this eye, and the whole, put into an amulet-case, is sewn on to the child's cap. Another powerful charm is a verse from the Koran, placed in the bazu-hand or amulet-box, which is
Persian Folklore. 269
then bound on the fore-arm. A metal hand with one finger extended is also used for the same purpose. A wild pig kept in the stables is supposed to keep the evil eye off the horses, who seem to be peculiarly liable to this malign in- fluence. A groom who broke the knees of one of our horses was sharply reprimanded by my brother for his careless riding. He answered promptly that the accident was no fault of his, because a man had admired the horse, and as he did not add the word " Mashallah" it was not surprising that the animal came to harm. This is only one of dozens of examples that came under my notice, showing the deeply- seated belief in the evil eye.
Curiously enough, a stable constitutes bast or sanc- tuary in Persia. While living at Kerman, we frequently found some refugee or other in our stable, come to implore my brother's good offices with the Governor. On one occasion, when we were in Baluchistan, the Governor of the province threatened to bastinado his soldiers for misconduct. We were in camp at the time and our horses were tethered in a grove of palm-trees. To my amusement the soldiers repaired in a body to this grove, and refused to move from among our horses until the Governor promised to overlook their offence.
While on the subject of sanctuary, I may mention that every shrine has this privilege, and in most Persian towns there are quarters in which any malefactor is safe, notably at the sacred city of Koom. To hold on to the English flag- staff, or to grasp the coat of any great personage, also con- fers sanctuary. ^
* [Sanctuary. " Among Bedouin tribes there is an ancient law called the law of * dakhal/ An escaped prisoner, or a man in danger of being captured by an enemy, may by this law claim refuge in the tent of an Arab, even in the encampment of an opposing tribe. The refugee enters the tent, takes bold of the robe of the occupant, and exclaims : * Ya dakhaliek,' and thus becomes a * dakhiel,* or prot^^. A true Arab will defend his * dakhiel' with his life. The law of * dakhal ' is, however, only in full force among those tribes who are, by their strength or geographical position, independent of the Turkish Government. Among tribes in which the law is maintained a
270 Persian Folklore.
Medicine in Persia is more or less a question of charms. A hot disease requires a cold remedy, and vice versi. The advice of the astrologers is always taken as to summoning the doctor, and they are again consulted before his medicine be swallowed. The doctor's principal stock-in-trade is a brass bowl with the signs of the Zodiac and texts of the Koran engraved outside. The inner surface is incised with a mass of short prayers — a prayer for each disease. To each prayer belongs a small key with the name of the disease. The method of procedure is simple in the extreme. The doctor fills the bowl with water, makes a feint of unlocking with one of the keys the prayer alluding to his patient's disease, and tells the sick man to swallow the water. If this be done in a believing spirit, a cure is sure to follow.
Here is another example of a faith-cure. A European lady-doctor was asked by a Persian patient for a token in order that she might be admitted to her presence. For lack of anything better the lady-doctor gave a safety-pin, but her patient did not appear at the appointed time. Shortly after, however, the token was returned with thanks, the patient alleging that she had been cured by drinking the water in which she had placed the safety-pin.
Many other remedies are resorted to. If anyone is at the point of d^ath, a pearl ground up will act as a power- ful restorative, while powdered rubies and emeralds are
man who proved false to his dakhiel would be disgraced for life. The expres- sion * Ya dakhaliek/ is used by town Arabs as a term of endearment, imply- ing perfect reliance and trust." — M. E. Rogers, Domestic Life in Palestine, p. 391 (published by Bell and Daldy in 1862, and probably long since out of print). Miss Rogers, the sister of the well-known *' Rogers Bey "(Mr. E. T. Rogers, H.B.M. Consular Service), had unusual opportunities of observing Palestinian life and manners. In the preceding pages she describes how the young sons of an Arab chieftain of Djebel Nablous, who had been worsted in a local strife in which the Turkish authorities took sides with the opposite party, sought her protection at the British Vice-Consulate at Haifa, clinging piteously to her skirts with cries of ** Va dakhaliek !'' and entreaties to be kept from faUing into the hands of the Turkish Ciovernor. C. S. Hirnk.j
Persian Folklore.
administered as tonics, and to sew a patient up in a raw hide is another remedy. If a person is badly burnt, the wounds are sometimes smeared over with soot from the bottom of the cooking vessels, and to drink quantities of pomegranate juice is another cure for the same thing.
A child suffering from water on the brain was brought to a Persian doctor, who assured the parents that it was possessed by a demon. He advised them to lay it in a newly-dug grave during the night, saying that in the morn- ing it would either be cured or the demon would have made away with it. The parents followed the prescription faith- fully, and their surprise was great to find their child next morning sleeping soundly in its strange cradle, neither better nor worse.
When the child of one of my friends was very ill, the servants implored her to allow them to try a charm in order to cure it. They mixed grease and charcoal, with which they made crosses on the child's forehead, the palms of its hands, and the soles of its feet. Then one of them took a roasted egg, and holding it in his two hands, raised them towards heaven, invoking at the same time the names of all the people whom he especially loved and respected.
Another charm used when a Persian is ill, and his disease does not yield to the remedies of the doctor, is to bring eggs into his room and plaster them over with mud, calling each by the name of some possible enemy. The eggs are then baked on the hearth, and the one that cracks first tells which enemy it is that has bewitched him. To escape from his power, the egg must be thrown into running water at a cross-road if possible.
Another method used to cure a sick man supposed to be bewitched, is for his wife to beg for fragments of food from all his acquaintances. This she does in the belief that if her husband can eat of the food of his enemy he will he cured. She makes a kind of porridge of all the pieces thai
272 Persian Folklore.
she has collected, and when the sick man has swallowed it he is supposed to recover.
One of our Persian servants, whom we had taken with us from the capital to Kerman, became very queer in his behaviour, and one day he took French-leave, and made his way back to his home, some six hundred miles away. The other servants were at no loss for an explanation of his conduct. They said immediately that his wife at Tehran had bewitched him in order to get him home again.
Near Kerman a small stream trickled out of a well of rock. Popular superstition ascribed this to a blow from the hand of Ali, and women desiring to become mothers would drink the water and hang candles and rags on the bushes near, in order to attract the notice of the saint. Not far from this was a cave in which sick women put food. If this were eaten during the night, it was a sign that the Peri-banou or queen of the fairies would cure them.
Some families possess a stone as an antidote against scorpion and tarantula bites. They say it is formed of the hardened tears of a certain Persian prince, who was turned by enchantment into an ibex, and wandered among the mountains, eternally bewailing his cruel fate.
Throughout Baluchistan are ziaratSy or shrines, consisting of small enclosures of rough stones. In the middle of these is always a heap of boulders, among which sticks fluttering with rags are placed. These rags are pieces of the garments of devotees, who imagine that in this way they are calling the attention of the holy man who is buried there, and who will cure their complaints and intercede for them with Allah. Often fine ibex or moufflon horns are placed on the stones to do honour to the saint, and usually there are camel-bells, presumably to attract his attention.
As these shrines are extremely common in Baluchistan, I used to wonder what qualities went to make a saint, and was interested when at a place called Manish to find that the
Persian Folklore.
273
late Governor was buried under a huge cairn of stones with
the usual accompaniments of fluttering rags and ibex horns.
The Baluchis informed us that this man's claim to saintship
Lconsisted in the fact that he had never robbed the poor.
jFrom an Oriental point of view, the man who has it in his
tower to oppress and to amass money as a result of his
ippressions, and refrains from doing so, is worthy of every
lossible honour. The natives themselves were often not
■■very clear as to the saintly personages buried beneath the
liinnumerable cairns of stones. In reading Mr. Floyer's
■ book, Unexplored Baluchistan, I noticed that he says
mp. 39) that he sometimes started a eiarai or shrine himself
Lby collecting together a small heap of stones as he walked
Ion ahead of his caravan. His camel-drivers, when they
|-came up to the spot, imagined that this must be the grave
I of some dervish, and at once cast their quota of boulders
^on the cairn.
Occasionally I noticed a shrine walled round with upright
Bslabs of a sort of shale, on which were scratched animals
F-and figures ; a proceeding quite contrary to the tenets of
Mohammedanism, which does not allow anything human or
animal to be depicted.
In some siarats the head and feet of the saint were marked by s!ate monoliths, and these were often placed several yards apart ; the idea being, I believe, to give an impression in this way of the grandeur of the departed.
Often 1 observed large round places swept clean of the
^lack shingle and formed into a circle with low upright
F stones, a small pile of stones being left in the centre. Dr.
Bellew, in his book From the Indus to the Tigris, says
(p. 54) they are called chaps, a word meaning " clapping of
-hands," and that on the occasions of weddings the Baluchis
lance here, keeping time to the muiiic by clapping their
inds, and the musicians take up their position on the stones.
lie explanation, however, given to me about these places
was, that they were used as points for the people to
274 Persian Folklore.
assemble and hear parts of the iameh or passi6n play recitedi the dervish who conducted these religious exercises sitting in the centre. Perhaps both explanations are right.
The folklore of places is interesting. For examplci the fort of Aibi in Baluchistan had a stuffed dummy warrior always hanging over the parapet. We were informed that the figure had been placed there by a dervish, who had assured the Baluchis that by this means their castle was rendered impregnable.
The volcano Demaveud in the Elburz Range is the scene of many of the Persian legends, and was the home of demons and genii, besides being the resting place of the blessed on their way to paradise.
Kuh-i-Shah| or " The Mountain of the Saint," in S.E. Persia, a peak 1 3,700 feet in height, is dedicated to a holy man who is supposed to cause explosions in the mountain during the summer months. Whether these explosions take place or not I am unable to say, but my brother's huntsmen firmly believed in them. My brother and I ascended this mountain in July, 1895, and found a heap of stones at the summit, on which was laid a large collection of coins, beads, brass rings, and, odd to relate, a Queen Victoria token. As the mountain was not a volcano there was nothing to account for the theory of these supposed explosions.
Kuh-i-Chehel-Tun or " The Mountain of the Forty Beings," in Baluchistan, is supposed to be haunted by forty children, turned by enchantment into goats, which cease- lessly fling down stones on all who dare to climb their fastnesses.
We will now turn to the subject of Games,
1. A ball is hit into the air with a gaudily-painted stick. Whoever catches it calls out Goal geriftun^ a corruption of Gul geriftun (I have taken the flower.) Who misses is pelted.
2. A row of walnuts are put on a ridge and knocked off by another walnut thrown at four to five yards' distance.
Persian Folklore.
3. A chain gathered up in the hand is thrown out so as to touch another player.
4. An oblong is drawn with divisions, and stones are kicked into them, each division counting so much.
5. The Jereed, in which horsemen throw javelins at one another; the men aimed at, ducking to avoid the missile.
6. The Dogfie/a-Basi {ihrowing game) is played on horse- back. The players fling a stick on the ground with great force and catch it up as it rebounds.
7. A lemon is thrown into the air and then fired at from horseback.
S. An egg placed on a little mound of sand is fired at by horsemen passing it at full gallop.
9 Chess, a kind of draughts, pitch and toss, marbles (played with pebbles), and a species of rounders and fives, are all known in Persia, as well as card-games.
10. My brother, Major Sykes, has had some success in reviving /o/(j, which is said to have had its origin in Persia. I'ln the SiaA Namek is an account of a game played by the vPersian hero, Siawush, before Afrasiyab, King of Tartary, iMy brother has sent home copies of old tiles on which K'the game is depicted in a spirited manner. The originals lare about the date of Shah Abbas, and the king is intro- fduced as watching the game.
No rUs, the Persian New Year's Day, which takes place F shout March 2ist, as the sun passes into Aries, is a day of general rejoicing, marking the end of winter and the beginning of spring. It is a festival dating from remote antiquity, and has nothing to do with Mohammedanism. l£very Persian dons new clothes, all ser^■ants being given :w costumes by their masters. There is a feast in every luse, and among the food are dishes of springing barley ^nd lighted candles. On this day the -Shah shows himself Ko his subjects, gives Kalats or robes of honour, and distributes largess; while ceremonious visits of congratula- tion are paid to him and to his representatives in all the
276 Persian Folklore.
cities in Persia. Persians have a superstition that whatever a man is doing on this day, he will be fated to do the same thing throughout the whole year ; therefore they are always anxious not to be travelling at Na rilzy not wishing to be unsettled for a twelvemonth. At this season, according to Dr. Wills, ^ the dervishes or professional beggars erect tents before the houses of prominent personages, make a pretence of a garden by sticking twigs in the ground, and then blow a cow's horn incessantly with the cry " Ya hue!" (my right) . They refuse to leave until they have been given a good present of money.
A Persian bride is given a piece of gold for luck. She carries bread and salt into her husband's house to ensure plenty, and kisses her father's hearth as she leaves her old home.
The Shah has the right to see every woman in his kingdom unveiled, and the royal glance is believed to bring good luck to those on whom it is cast.
I will now say a few words about the Gahres or Fire- Worshippers, commonly called Parsees by Europeans, the word Parsee or Farsi merely meaning Persian. These are the descendants of the old inhabitants of the land, who clung to their faith when Persia was overrun by the conquering Arabs. They are to be found at Tehran, but are principally at Yezd and Kerman, and also in the villages near these latter cities, and of course at Bombay. They are looked down upon by the Persians, who will not allow them to ride through the towns, and restrict the townsmen to ugly mustards and browns in their costumes, not allowing them to wear the flowing Persian ahha or cloak. The peasants wear curious helmet-shaped felt caps. Moreover the Gabres are restricted as to what trade they may follow, and in consequence the race has taken to agriculture, all the best gardeners in Persia being fire-worshippers. The women go about with their faces uncovered, and have a
' Dr. Wills, In the Land of the Lion and the Stitty p. 46.
picturesque dress composed of a gay chintz jacket, fu!l trousers which are embroidered in many coloured stripes, and half a dozen wraps for the head ; the fifth consisting of a white veil falling in graceful folds down the back, but not concealing the face, and the last being a large checked cotton sheet worn over the head and wrapt round the body for out-door use. Little Gabre girls wear a small coif, and the hair falls from it in long plaits, but the women would look upon it as immodest to allow anyone to see their head without its coverings.
The Gabres, as is well known, follow the tenets of Zoro- aster, and have the Zendavesta as their Sacred Book. They believe in Ormuzd, the Good Spirit, and in Ahriman, the Principle of Evil, and worship fire as a deity. At the city of Yezd is the chief temple of the fire worshippers, who believe that the flame which burns on the altar there has never been extinguished through the centuries. When Gabres settle in any other part of Persia they always get some of the sacred fire from Yezd to place in their temples. The priests who attend to this fire wear a veil over their mouths in order not to pollute the holy flame with their breath, and it is on account of this thai no Gabre will blow out a flame. My little Parsee maid always extin- guished a candle with her fingers when she entered my service.^
The Gabre men wear a threefold cord round their waists, signifying good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. This they untie and retie five times daily at the hours of prayer.
They reverence the dog, which in the Zendavesta is the special animal of Ormuzd, and a dog is often called in to decide whether a man be dead or not. If it eats the bread laid on the breast of the supposed corpse, life is ex- tinct, but if it refuses the food there is still hope.
' The Shah's band plays at sunset every day nl Tehran, and Ihis performance is supposed iq be a Zordiisirian cuslom, surviving from ihe limes when ihe wo WM worshipped.
278 Persian Folklore.
Herodotus says that the corpse of every male Persian had to be torn by a dog or by a beast of prey. At the present day the dead are exposed on towers to be eaten by vultures and crows. If the birds pick out the right eye of a corpse first, it is a sign that the soul has gone to the Zoroastrian Paradise. If, however, the left eye is attacked first, the fate of the departed soul is a gloomy one.^
There is considered to be such defilement in touching a corpse, that a special class of Parsees do all the burying, and even relatives will not assist a man if they think he may breathe his last while they are touching him.
Close to the Dakhma^ or Tower of Silence, at Kerman, in S.E. Persia, was a house with unglazed windows. The relatives of deceased Gabres were in the habit of setting out a substantial meal in the upper room of this house, affirming that the spirit, just after its separation from the body, was greatly in need of nourishment.
The Parsees never wash anything on a Tuesday, saying that no article can be cleansed on that day.
My Parsee maid used to hang a small white shell on any possession that she was afraid of losing, affirming that it was an infallible charm.
I have selected a few Proverbs and Saws which are characteristic of the country.
Here is a beggar's refrain : —
"Khodaguft, 'bidde,' Shaitan guft, 'nidde.'" It means, "God says 'give,' but Satan says, * Don't give.'''
" Stretch your legs no further than your carpet," is equi- valent to our " Cut your coat according to your cloth."
* [At the end of the 17th century, it was the custom in Kebraboth, a suburb of Ispahan, to let a cock out of the house in which the dead body lay. If it was caught and carried off by a fox, it was believed that the deceased person would be happy in the next life. If this test failed, or was ambiguous in its issue, the corpse was decorated and hung up on the wall of the cemeter>- with wooden forks for the test related by Miss Sykes. (Olearius, Persianische Reise- heichreibwtg, p. 49S-) N. W. THOMAS.]
" The jackal dipped himself in indigo, and then thought he was a peacock." explains itself.
" This camel is at your gate," is tlie same as " This sin is laid at your door."
" When you are in a room be of the same colour as the people in it," is the Persian for " Do at Rome as the Romans do."
"The swiftest horse is apt to stumble," is " More haste worse speed," and our familiar proverb, " Don't look a gift- horse in the mouth, " is found also in Persia.
" A cut string may be joined again, but the knot always remains," is used in speaking of a broken friendship.
" Only a Mazanderani dog can catch a Mazanderani fox," is the equivalent to our " Set a thief to catch a thief."
" Often to be kind to the tiger is to be cruel to the lamb," seems to have no equivalent.
" If you have a fine horse it becomes a gift, or pishkash." This proverb alludes to the way in which princes and those in authority despoil those under them.
■' A Persian receiving a toman (a coin worth about four shillings) at once buys a led horse," is a saying sati- rizing the national love of tashakhus or show.
" Our fathers never saw this even in a dream," is a com- mon expression denoting astonishment.
" All pains can be forgotten in forty days, but the pain of being deprived of food lasts forty years."
" A fool said, ' My father was vizier to the Sultan,' and I answered, ' What is that to you ?' " This is a Persian way of snubbing anyone who may boast of his ancestry.
"War at the outset is good if it ends in peace," is the Persian manner of saying that it is good to begin a friend- ship with a little aversion.
" Man is the slave of his benefactor."
"The innocent man may go to the foot of the scaffold, but he will never ascend it."
28o The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
" If you become rich and your head is not turned, you are
a man."
" New sleeves get a good dinner." This proverb alludes to the story that a shabbily-dressed mollah was turned away from a feast. On returning in a new coat lie was given the place of honour at the entertainment, and re- peated the saying at intervals during the evening in a bewildered manner.
THE ANCIENT AND MODERN GAME OF
ASTRAGALS.
BY B LOVETT.
{Read at Meeting of I'jth Aprils 1901.)
A FEW years ago, during a visit to Holland and Belgium, I noticed in the poorer parts of some of the towns children playing a game upon doorsteps with small metal objects, which upon investigation proved to be white metal copies of the Astragalus or knuckle-bone. I soon found some of these for sale in the toy shops, where I purchased them at prices ranging from three a penny to about a penny each.
They were of great interest to me, as they seemed to be a direct descendant of the bronze Astragali of the Roman period, and they prompted me to collect a few notes and specimens to illustrate the devolution and differentiation of this very ancient game.
The game of Astragals, so called because it was played with the Astragalus or knuckle-bone of an animal, usually a sheep, is of great antiquity. A beautiful group (one of the Tanagra terra-cottas) in the British Museum, representing two girls playing the game, is recorded as B.C. 800, and a lO^ijble figure of an astragalus player, life-size, of later date.
The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 281
may also be seen there. There are also other figures and pictures, Pompeian and others, of which I hope to give a detailed list in later notes. In Horace's Satires, Book II., we read: " Servius Oppidius, a rich man according to ancient reckoning, is said to have divided his two farms at Carnucium between his two sons, and when dying to have .said this to his boys, after they had been called to his bed- I side ; ' Ever since I saw you, Aulus, carrying your knuckle- bones and nuts in the loose fold [of your toga], giving them away and playing with them, but you, Tiberius, counting them and solemnly hiding them in holes, 1 have feared that different kinds of madness may seize you, and that _)'(ja will I follow Nomentanus and you Cicula-' " '
In the British Museum are several Astragali in bronze,
fcrock-crystal.agate, &c., of ancient Greek and Roman times,
I together with certain dice of which they are doubtless the
■ origin. But it is to their use in games of skill rather than
as gambling dice to which I have devoted these notes, and
unhappily I have not been able, so far, to ascertain any
details as to how the game of skill was anciently played,
\ beyond the figures and mural designs already referred to.
I take the following from the Report of National Museum, ISmithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S., for 1896:
" Knuckle-bones have been used as implements in games f from remote antiquity. There are several distinct ways in Rwhich they are thus employed. One was as Jackstones, ■described by classical authors as played principally by 1 and children with five bones. Among the Syrians pat the present day they are used by children in games resembling marbles, being knocked from a ring drawn on the ground with others which are sometimes weighted with . lead.
" A favourite and almost universal use of knuckle-bones I games was as dice in games of chance. Among the
' Nomenlanus, used by Horace as a lype ot a prodigal and spendthrift [ a very cautious money .lender.
282 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
Greeks and Romans numerical values were attributed to the four long sides, the two pointed ends not being counted. The two broad sides, respectively convex and concave, counted three and four, while of the narrow sides, the flat counted one and the indented six. The numbers two and five were wanting. Several names, both Greek and Latin, are recorded for each of the throws. Two persons played together at this game, using four bones, which they threw into the air or emptied out of dicebox [fritillus). The numbers on the four sides of the four bones admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of all was four aces, but the value of a throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up. The highest in value was that called VenuSy, in which the numbers cast up were all different. Certain other throws were called by particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and heroes. These bones, marked and thrown as above described, were also used in divination.
" Among the Turks, Arabs, and Persians, the four throws with a single knuckle-bone receive the names of the four ranks of human society. Thus among the Persians, according to Dr. Hyde, they were called as follows :
Supinum : — Dudz = * thief.*
Pronum : — Dihban=* peasant.'
Planum : — ^Vezir.
Fortuosum :— Shah. "The Arabic name for the bones is Kdb (plural Kabat)y meaning Ankle ^ referring to their source. Two bones are now commonly used — one from the right and the other from the left leg of a sheep. I regard them as the direct ancestors of cubical dotted dice, the name of which in Arabic is the same as that of the bones. The dice used in Arabic countries are made in pairs, and the most popular and universal game is one with two dice, Kdbatam,
" Games with knuckle-bones are a favourite amusement in Spanish-American countries, and it is claimed that they
wT/ie Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 283
existed among the [ndians before the discovery. Dr. Carl Lurnholtz found them among the Tarahumara, who attribute numerical values to the different sides. Among the Papago, in Arizona, Mr. W. J. McGee found a single knuck'e-bone of a bison, used in playing a game called Tan-wan, of which a specimen collected by him is exhibited in the U.S. National Museum. In Costa Rica, Dr. T, M. Calnek states that the Indians in the vicinity of San Jos^ continually play with the Astragalus of an ox or cow, using a single bone : they call the game by the name of Choque suelo. They are also used by the Indians in Peru. Their Quichua name tava would appear to be derived from the Spanish taba, but this is contrary to the opinion of Dr. Emilio Montez, who exhibited a prehistoric copy of a knuckle-bone in terra-cotta, from Cuzco, in his collection at the Columbian Exposition, There are nine Astragalus bones from the Lengua tribe, Chaco Indians, in the Hossler collections from Paraguay, in the Field Columbian Museum,
' Knuckle-bones of various animals, some worked and ihowing wear, have been found associated with Indian Pemains in various parts of the United States. Mr. C. B. Moore found a fossil llama Astragalus in a mound on
■ Murphy Bland, Florida, and a large fossil Astragalus, not identified, in a mound on Ossabow Island, Georgia. They are also reported from stone graves, Tennessee. They
-were always found in pots, and in the case of children's Eraves the bones as well as the pots were always smaller. showed wear and polish. There are also numerous
'records from earth mounds in Arkansas, the bones being those of deer and bison ; some have been squared for use as dice, others showed the high polish of much wear."
This concludes the Washington report, except in the ramifications of the use of the Astragalus as a die pure and simple.
My inquiries as regards our own country have yielded aery poor results very few of our museums preserving any
284 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
records of the game, either ancient or modern. I have been able to gather, however, a few very interesting specimens showing considerable variety in the objects used in the game.^
The classical name " Astragals " seems to be entirely unknown. None of my correspondents had ever heard of it. Instead of it we get Knuckle-bones, Knuckle-downs, Five-bones, Five-stones, Jacks, Jack o' five-stones, Fivies, Dibs, Dabbers, Chuckies, Chuckie-stones, and " Marbles and Dubs," the latter word seeming to be a corruption of Dibs and Dabbers. The word '* Jack," too, is curious, more especially as in the Swiss form of the game we get a King, Queen, Jack (or knave), and pawns — a remarkable mixture of Cards, Chess, and Astragals.
The materials employed in the game of Astragals of to-day differ almost as much as do the names themselves, and are equally devoid of any marked local feature or peculiar character. For example, in my small collection I possess the Astragalus bone series, which is the type ; another from near Bordeaux, in which the unjoined ends of the metatarsal bone of a lamb are used ; and a third from Faversham, Kent, of the short phalanges of a pig. Pebbles of suitable shape are very widely used, and I have them from Suffolk, Worcestershire, and Kent, besides records from Scotland, Ireland, and Cornwall. I have seen small selected pieces of diorite, used for road-making, turned into Astragals in London and in my own town, Croydon ; whilst trimmed pieces of potsherds are employed in Yorkshire, Suffolk, and Sussex. In Worcestershire I found small home-made cubes of wood thus used, merging thereby into dice ; and the Belgian and Dutch metal ones already referred to are a pleasing illustration of an attempt to perpetuate the Greek and Roman Astragali. It has, however, been reserved for Germany to produce the most prosaic and uninteresting machine-made materials for this ancient game.
* See list of exhibits, ante^ p. 257.
The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 285
This consists of a stone marble and four little fluted stone- ware cubes in assorted glazed colours. This "up-to-date" monstrosity is sold largely in Houndsditch by the name of " Marbles and Dubs," and in my many local inquiries this has frequently been the sole result, correspondents sending me sets of these " made-in-Germany " knuckle-bones, as of local interest.
Another curious aspect of the game is the use of a ball, or marble, and four, bones or stones, instead of five bones or stones and no ball. I am inclined to think that this is a some- what modern modification of the game, to enable young children or unskilled players to the more enjoy it. It is very widely spread, for I saw it played thus in Belgium, and I have a set from Bourg, near Bordeaux, another from Kent, and the " made-in-Germany " variety from many places.
A Parsee friend of mine tells me that so far as he knows the only game played in India at all corresponding to Astragals is played with tamarind seeds (Chinchora), and the game is called Oochard&o, It occurs chiefly in the province of Gujerat. The game is played chiefly (as might be expected) by women and children, and by from two to six individuals, arranged equally, of course. Adults use one hand only, but children are allowed to use two. A great number of seeds are used, and the winner is the one who succeeds, when throwing up, in catching the greater or greatest number upon the back of the hand. This aspect of the game appears to me to be a very degraded form of Astragals, to which it seems to have many similarities, differing only in being made exceedingly easy for the benefit of a race to whom an easy game of skill would naturally appeal.
The following is a description of the game as played in Scotland under the name of *' Chuckies."
Onesey. — Take five white stones in the palm of the right hand, toss up and catch one on the back of the hand, toss it up and quickly catch up one of the
286 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
fidlen stones and catch the <»ie yoa have tossed up before it fidit to the ground. Put one aside and do as before till all are caught up.
Twosey, — Take up one, throw it up and quickly, catch up two and the &lling one, put two aside, toss up one and catch up the other two and the fidlingone.
Threesey, — ^Same as before, but catch up three, then one.
Fmrsey, — Same as before, only catch up four and the fedling one.
Sweep the House, — Place four stones in a square, then say while yon toss up the fifth, " Sweep the house.*' Draw your forefinger in firont of one stone and catch the fidling one. Toss again and say, " Lift a chair," catch up one from the square and the felling one. Keep one in hand, toss up one again and say, " Sweep below," draw finger over the comer where yon lifted stone from and catch falling one ; toss again and say, " Put it dovm," put down the supposed stone and do the same at all the comers.
Dttttger, — Scatter stones, take one, toss it up, catch up one and the fidling one; toss up both, catch up one and the two felling ones, and so on till all five are in your hand.
Crawly. — ^Toss up &ve, catch as many as possible on back of hand, then keeping them there cautiously gather in the scattered stones under the hand.
CaUk Fishey, — ^Toss up five, catch as many as possible on back of hand, then by a quick movement throw forward and catch in palm again.
Catch FlHhey.~-Thtow up one and catch up all four, and then catch the felling one without turning up palm, but with the same forward movement, with a grab as it were.
Caws in /[>rfv.— Place tip of left-hand fingers on ground, put one stone between each finger. Toss up the fifth and say, '' Put the cows in the byre," push one stone under the hand and catch the felling one. Repeat till all are pushed under the left hand,
£an^ the Dyke, — ^Place four stones in line, toss up the fifth, catch up the first and the third and the felling one. Toss up again and catch up the other
twa Deaf and Crack. — Same as in first movement, only in catching the first it
must crack on the caught up one in the palm of the hand, the second must not
touch, the third must not, and so on.
This ends the game.
My friend M. Alfred Godet, Curator of the Museum of Ntuchatel, Switzerland, sent me specimens of the game as li^ knows it, and writes me as follows :
v^Xhis game has replaced, if I mistake not, here the game ^ Hockeets or Osselets, similar to the Dutch example of' .^jy^A you sent me a specimen. I do not think anything
The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 287
like it has been found here. The game I can remember as far back as between 1840 and 1850.
" The game consists of nine stones : The King^ black; the Queen, white ; the Knave, brown or green ; and six Pawns of yellowish white quartz.
" A flat surface is generally selected upon which to play, if possible rather soft or elastic, a hard cushion or a dress stretched across the knees. There may be several players.
" Let us suppose two players, A. and B. " A. takes in his right hand all the stones and throws them up, not too high, and catches them upon the back of his hand. Then three alternatives present themselves. " I . He catches one stone only, the others have rolled off to the right or left. In this case the player A, con- tinues (see later) ; *' 2. He fails to catch any of the stones, in which case B.
continues to play ; or
" 3. He has caught most of the stones, the others having
rolled off. In this case the player can, ist, work the
stones close together by means of the muscles on the
back of his hand ; 2nd, throw down some and take
care that the others do not fall ; 3rd, only retain one
upon the back of the hand, and proceeds to the next
part of the game ; but it is very important that he
retains in any case at least one stone upon the back
of his hand, otherwise the play reverts to his
opponent.
"A. now throws up, by a rapid movement, the one or
more stones resting upon the back of his hand, and must
catch them in his palm. If he fails, the game passes to B.
''A. then takes one of the stones (if he has caught more
than one he selects that of least value), throws it up, rapidly
gathering with a stroke of the hand as many of the stones
as possible resting on the cushion or ground, catching in
its fall the one he threw up. This continues till he has
288 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
picked up all the stones, but failure consists in missing the stone thrown up or dropping one of those picked up. Sometimes a good player will gather up all the stones at one coup if they happen to be in a group, which does not often occur. If he does, however, he has won the first part of the game.
" Now suppose A. at his first throw picked up a pawn, and with this thrown up, the king, then the queen, then the knave, then one or two pawns, and then misses his fifth or sixth try. B. then takes the rest of the stones that are on the cushion, throws them up as at the start of the game, and catches them on the back of his hand, dropping those which inconvenience him and only taking care of the one or more which suit him. This he throws into the air, catching it in the palm of his hand, and with this stone he gathers those which rest upon the cushion (as before). When he has collected all of them, supposing that he has succeeded in doing so, the first player, A., places upon the cushion one of the stones which he has won. This will be of the lowest value he has, a pawn for example.
" B. tries to take it by throwing one of his pawns up (in the usual way).
" A. then throws down his second pawn, B. tries to take it as before, after the pawns (B. still winning) A. gives up his jack. B. then throws up two stones in order to be able to take this piece. A. then yields the queen and B. has to throw up three stones in order to capture it. Lastly, A. yields his king and B. has to throw up and catch four pawns to enable him to pick up this piece. Should he succeed in thus picking up all the stones without dropping any he wins.
*' In the other event, A. again takes up the game with the stones left upon the cushion, B. in his turn giving up one by one his pawns, jack, queen, and king.
** Sometimes the game lasts a long while. It is very
The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 289
easy to learn and to play; some pick it up upon seeing it once, and with a little exercise soon become proficient." I have obtained a few other descriptions of the playing
[ of this game, but they differ only in minor points from those
' mentioned. As these few remarks are intended more as an introduction to the subject than a treatise thereon, I shall be greatly indebted to any members of the Fo!k-Lore Society for any future assistance in recording and collecting notes and specimens, so that a fairly comprehensive history
I of the ancient game of Astragals with all its recent
I ramifications may be thus obtained.
Note I.
I have in my possession a knuckle-bone of a very similar type to Mr, Lovett's Greek and Roman exhibits, which was dug up at the ancient site of Akra in the Bannu district on the North-west Frontier of India. It is of bronze, or perhaps copper, and is a very fair imitation of a real knuckle-bone. Judging from the evidence of sculptures, coins, engraved gems, &c,, found on the same site, it pro- bably may be referred either to the Greek kingdom of Bactria and N.W. India (B.C. 250 to B.C. 50) or to the Scythic kingdoms of the Sakas and Kushans which fol- lowed immediately after it.
At the present day gambling by means of knuckle-bones {of sheep) is extremely common on the N.W. Frontier, especially among the Baloches, and the legendary ballads allude to it. Dilmalikh, a very lavish hero of one slory, I laments that he was reduced by his extravagance to cutting grass for his tivciihood and being called " Uncle" by the Rind maidens. All his horses and their trappings have, he says, " gone with the coloured knuckle-bones." The story will be found in the " Legend of Mir Chakar," of which I contributed a translation to Colonel Temple's Legends of the Punjab.
M. LoNGWORTH Dames.
Note II. This game is well known among schoolboys under the
290 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
name of " knuckle-bones/' or *' dibs." When I was at school at Aldenham, in Hertfordshire, in 1860-67, it was played principally from October to April. The great ambition of every player was to possess a set of knuckle-bones, but as a substitute cubes cut from the horse-chestnut were often used. The mode of play was identical with the description of the game as played in Scotland, with some additions and variations.
It may be conceived that the knuckle-bones were origin- ally used as a means of divination, and afterwards degene- rated into a child^s game in the same manner as the present use of playing cards arose from the ancient " Tarots " used for divination. In this connection it might be of importance to notice the numerical values which Mr. Lovett mentions as being ascribed to the different sides of the bones, in case it should appear that they in any way correspond with the Pythagorean system of numbers which was so largely used in divination.
D. F. DE l'Hoste Ranking.
Note III. — The Game of "Snobs" as played in
Derbyshire. (See p. 257.)
Five snobs are used — the manufactured cubes — ^but no marble. Any number of people can play, and when one player fails in any action the next one goes on. Whoever gets to the end first, wins.
I. Single ones, — Take five in your hand, throw them up, and catch as many as you can on the back of your hand . Throw those up from the back and catch in the palm. Put down all you catch except one.* Throw that one up, and while it is in the air pick up one of those you did not catch on the back of hand, and catch the one thrown up. Put it down and repeat from,* till you have finished the balance you did not catch.
II. Single twos, — Take all five in your palm, put them on the table again,* throw up one, and while it is up, pick up two of the 'others, catch the thrown one, put down two, and repeat from* till you finish.
III. Single threes. — Take all in your palm, put them carelessly on the table, pick up one, throw it up and pick up three while it is in the air, put three down and throw one up, and pick up the remaining one.
IV. Single fours. — Take five in your hand, throw up one, put down four, and catch the thrown one.
V. Double ones. Take up five, throw up and catch on the back of the hand as many as you can, throw up those you catch, pick up another, catch all, and so on till you have picked up all five.
VI. Double twos. — Like single twos, as double ones are like single ones, except that you do not put down again those you take up, but keep them in your hand and throw them up with the others.
The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals. 291
VII. Deublt linn. — Pm M on table, lake up one, ihrow il up and take ■.'1^ three ; throw lip four and pick up the fifth.
VIII. Dsuble fiurs.—lhe same, only take up four instead of three,
IX. Jiaki. — Exactly like single raies, only that you have to make each stone dink agoitist the other in your hand as you catch it.
X. NoJinJli. — The same, only don't let them clink.
XI. Creeps. — Take all in hand, throw up and cnlch on bock of hand, take those not caught between lingers, throw i;ip those on back of hand, and catch in palm without letting the rest drop from between fingers.
XII. Potato Sets.—TaVe all in palm, throw up, catch on back of hand, throw up those caught, and caich in palm, throw up one, put down rest while it IS up, and catch again in palm ; throw it up again, and pick up Buotbei, catch it again, throw up second, put down nrst by the rest, catch second, pick up third, throw up third, put down second, catch third, &c., till all four are put down in a heap, throw up fifth, pick up the fourth, catch fifth, and end with all in your hand.
XIII. Stiaps.^Kitcxly like the !>ingle sets (i-iv), except that you catch over- hand instead of with palm uppermost.
The game may, at pleasure, be continued through " double snaps," as T-riii, but catching nvei-hand.
C. Violet Turner.
The name " Snobs" has been noted at Derby and Matlock, and in South Notts, but at Tutbury, Staffordshire, about ten miles south-west of Derby, the game is called "Jacky-
e five-stones," and generally in South Staffordshire "Jacky- stones." No five pla nar Sec Fot Ch;
|,NoTE IV. — Abstract of Information rfxeived Mr. Lovett since the Meeting.
" Knuckledovins" Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Played with five marbles or stones.
Fourteen complete "games" (or rather figures) are played with the right hand and fourteen with the lefL The names of the figures are in the order given : First Sum, LSecond Sum, Third Sum ; Onesey, Twosey, Threesey, Foursey ; Bonks, Creeps, Cracks, No Cracks, Everlastings, ^ Changelings, and Aniens. They correspond very nearly with the first eleven figures of the Derbyshire variant, adding the following figures :
Sonis. — Four in palm, one between finger and thumb, throw up latter, and while in air put down remBining four on ground and catch No, i. Place No. I Bgainbetween finger and thumb, throw it into air, while in air pick up teinaining four again and catch No. l.
£ver/aslingj.— -Five in palm, throw all up and catch on back of hand i if five so caught, throw up all from back of hand and catch in palm ; if less, throw up those caught and catch in palm. Retain these in palm, then Ihrow up one from finger and thumb, picking up one from ground while in air, catch falling one. Again throw up one and pick up another, repeating process till
u a
292 The Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals.
Changelings, — Five in palm, throw all up and catch on back of hand ; if five so caugnt, throw up all from back of hand and catch in palm ; if less, throw up those caught, and catch in palm, picking up one from ground at same moment Repeat.
Amens. — Four in palm, one between finger and thumb ; throw up the one and catch in palm. £. Linder.
2. ^^ Dabbers.** Chalfont St. Giles, Bucks. Played with four stones and a marble. The figures are given in full, to show the variant induced by the use of the marble kept constantly bouncing.
Pinks. (To find order of players). — Throw up four stones and catch as many as possible on back of tiand. Throw up and catch in palm. Each player has three throws. The player who catches most stones in the three throws starts first, and so on in order.
Ones, — ^Throw down four stones. Bounce marble, pick up one stone with- out touching the rest, and catch marble. Repeat for each stone.
Half-twos — Throw down four stones. Bounce marble, pick up two together and catch marble. Pick up the other two separately.
Twos, — As in "ones," but pick up two stones each time.
Threes, — As in " ones," but pick up three stones together and then one.
Fours. — As in " ones," but pck up all four together
Upsets. — Take four stones m hand, bounce marble, put down stones and catch marble. Bounce marble again, pick up stones, and catch marble.
Creeps. — Throw up four stones and catch as many as possible on back of hand. Those which fall, to be picked up between fingers. Throw up those on back of hand and catch in palm, retaining those between fingers.
Clicks, — As in " ones," but each stone and marble must click.
No Clicks. — As in "clicks" but stone and marble not to click.
Little Maids, — Three stones taken. Throw up and catch as many as possible on back of hand. Throw up and catch in palm. Throw up again, pick up others and catch.
Big Maids. — As in ** little maids " but four stones used.
First Everlastings, — As in **big maids" but no stone caught must after- wards be dropped.
Second Everlastings, — Throw down four stones. Bounce marble, pick up one stone, and catch marble. Bounce again and pick up number two, still holding number one, and repeat until all four are picked.
Third Everlastings. — Throw out four stones, and play as in "second everlastings," putting down number one and picking up number two whilst marble was bouncing.
Longs, — Place two stones about a yard apart. Bounce marble, pick them up together.
Shorti. — Two stones a foot apart, then as in " longs." E. Linder.
Compare the Wakefield variant^ Gomme's Traditional GatneSy i., 125.
3. Other correspondents describe '* Jacks/' played at Whitefield and Haslingden, near Manchester^ with four cubes and a ** dobber,*' or marble ; played in youth at Bolton-Ie-Moors, by Mrs. Hannah Woodcock, born 18 14, with four bits of wood and a dobber. The game played was the Westminster variety described in Traditional
THE PAGANISM OF THE ANCIENT PRUSSIANS.
TIANSLATBD I
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians. 293
Games, 1., 126, but the last part was called " Driving Pigs to Market."
The playplace is generally mentioned as the doorstep or the hearthstone.
Some account of the classical game will be found in Traditional Games, i., 239, s.v. " Hucklebones/' and refe- rences to the several British variants recorded by Mrs. Gomme have already been given, ante, p. 106. . 4. The game is known in Persia, where, says my inform- mant, it is played by boys of the lower classes — E. c. Svkes.
^^H Tt
^^^^n'HERE was printed at Spiers {Spiral) in the year 1582 by ^^^^ Barnardus D'Albinus a volume, now become infinitely rare, of which the contents are thus described on the title page : " About the religion, sacrifices, wedding and funeral rites of the Russians, Moscovites, and Tartars, by various authors." Mr. Arthur Evans possesses a copy, which he has kindly lent to me. All the pieces are in Latin, and the first is a long controversial dialogue in which are discussed the respective merits of the new Lutheran religion and the faith of Muscovy, The discussion was held in Moscow early in the year 1570, and no less a personage than Ivan the Terrible is put forward to assail the Lutheran faith, which is defended by the minister of Christ, John Rohita. Many cruelties perpetrated by the Muscovite tyrant against Lutherans are detailed in the course of the dialogue, and serve to dispel the opinion one often hears expressed, that the history of the Russian State has never, like that of other countries, been sullied by purely religious persecu- tions.
The gem of the collection, however, is the tract about
294 Th^ Paganism of the Ancient Prussians^
the superstitions of the Borussi or Prussians, which fills pp. 257-264. It is so little known, that I have thoagbt it iworthy to be translated. It was written about 1553, and a£Fords us a pleasing picture of the old paganism of Prussia, which in that age still survived, hardly touched, in remote country places. The Borussi or Prussians were, of course, Slavs by race and akin to the RuthenL — ^F. C. C.
About the Reugion and Sacrifices of the Ancient
Prussians.
An Epistle ofyohn Meletius to George Sabine}
My son Jerome, who is usually very much delighted with your writings, gave me to read that elegy of yours which you wrote to the Cardinal Peter Bembo, and in which you mention the custom of sacrificing a goat and of worshipping snakes found among some oi the Sarmatian races. I could not help writing to you details I have ascertained of the vain cults of those peoples. Indeed, I expect you will not be sorry to understand more fully the customs and idolatry of tribes among which a certain destiny has sum- moned you, and in the neighbourhood of which you are passing your life. For many superstitious rites and idola- trous cults are still kept up in these regions, which as a fresh-comer you may not yet have learned about. This is why I have made up my mind to communicate to you what- ever I have found out about them.
Not to trouble you wth a longer preface, I will begin by describing the sacrifices with which formerly the Borussi, Samogitae, Lithuanians, Ruthenians, and Livonians wor- shipped the demons as if they were gods, and still continue to do so in secret in many places. Then 1 will describe
' Meletius wa<i arch -presbyter of the Ecclesia Liccensis in Prussia. Sabinus was a pf^et. Johannes Lasicius (Lasitzki), in his tract De diis Samagitanitn^ (Basil, 161 5), reproduces the book of Meletius. It was reprinted by Michael Neander, Or bis terra Succincta Explicatio (Lipsi;ie, 1597), p. 573 foil., and in thU century by Haupt, vol i., p. 146 foil.
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians. 295
certain superstitious rites usual among the same races in celebrating weddings, funerals, and wakes.
On St. George's Day they are accustomed to offer a
I sacrifice to Pergrubrius, who is believed to be the god of
flowers, plants, and of all seeds. This is how they sacrifice
to Pergrubrius. The sacrificing priest, whom they call
Vurschayten, holds in his right hand a dish {obda) full of
beer, and after he has invoked the demon's name, chants
I his praises. "Thou," he says, " drivest away the winter;
I thou bringest back the pleasures of spring; through thee
the fields and gardens grow green ; through thee the woods
. and groves get their leaves." When he has finished this
i hymn, he takes the dish in his teeth, and drinks down the
' beer without touching it with his hand; then he throws
I backwards over his head the dish which he has drunk up,
I touching it only with his teeth. Next the dish is picked up
' off the ground and filled afresh, and all present drink out
I of it in order and sing a hymn in praise of Pergrubrius.
' After that they feast the whole day long and dance.
Similarly when the crops are ripe the rustics meet together in the fields for sacrifice, which in the Ruthe- nian tongue is called Zasinck, that is the beginning of spring. When this rite is finished one o( their number is chosen and takes a forecast or augury of the harvest by I cutting down an armful of corn, which he carries home. On the morrow all, first the members of his household, then of the rest all who will, get in the harvest,
When, however, that is done they offer up a solemn
sacrifice by way of giving thanks. This is called in the
' Ruthenian language Osink, that is to say the completion
of the harvest. In this sacrifice the Sudine peoples of
I Prussia, among whom amber is collected, sacrifice a goat,
IS you write in your elegy to Bembo.
The ritual of this sacrifice, however, is as follows. The
[people congregate together in a barn, and a goat is brought
■ forward, which the Vursichaytes [sic), or sacrificer, is to slay.
296 The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians.
He lays both hands on the victim and invokes in order the demons whom they believe to be gods, to wit : Oocopim, the god of heaven and earth ; Antrimpi the god of the sea ; Gardoaeti the god of sailors, such as of old ampngr the Romans was Portunnus; Potrympi the god of rivers and springs ; Piluiti the god of riches, whom the Latins called Plutus; Pergrubrius, the god of spring; Pargn, the god of thunder and tempests; Poccl, the god of hell and of darkness; PoccoII, the god of the spirits of the air; Putscaet, the god that protects the sacred groves ; the god Ausceuti of health and sickness ; Marcoppol, the god of magnates and nobles; the Barstuccae, whom the Germans call Erdmenlen^ that is to say, the subterranean ones.
When the demons have been invoked, those who are present in the barn raise aloft, all together, the goat, and hold it up over their heads while a hymn is sung. When that is finished they put it down again to stand on the ground. Then the sacrificer admonishes the people to conduct this solemn sacrifice, instituted by the piety of their ancestors, with the most entire veneration, and to treasure up religiously the memory of it for their posterity. When he has delivered himself of this little homily to the people, he himself slays the victim and sprinkles about the blood, which has been caught in a patin. The flesh, how- over, he hands over to the women in the barn in question for them to cook. They meantime, while the flesh is being cooked, get ready cakes of siligineous flour. These they do not put into the oven, but the men stand round the fire and turn them over and over in the fire without ceasing until they grow hard and are cooked. All this discharged, they feast and carouse all day and night, drinking till they vomit. Then the drunkards, at the top of the morning, go forth outside the village, where they choose a spot, and cover up with earth whatever is left over and remains of their feast, so that it may not become the prey either of
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians, 2y7
birds or of wild beasts. After that they dismiss the gathering, and each returns to his home.
For the rest, out of all the tribes of Sarmatia above mentioned, many still worship with particular veneration Putscaet, who presides over trees and groves. He Is believed to have his dwelling under the tree Sambuc. Men everywhere in their superstition make him offerings of bread, beer, and other sorts of food, which they lay under the Sambuc tree, praying of Putscaet that he will appease and make friendly to them Marcoppol, the god of magnates and nobles, to the end that their lords may not oppress them and make their servitude heavier to bear. They also pray that the Barstuccse may be sent to them, which are, as I said before, called the underground spirits. For if the latter are tenanting the house, they believe that the owners are in good luck, and they place at eventide for them in the barn, on a table spread with a cloth, bread, cheese, butter, and beer. Nor do they doubt that it will bring them good luck, if next morning they find the food left there taken away. But if it ever remains untouched on the table, they are in great distress and fearful of some calamity.
The same people worship certain spirits that can be seen with the eye, and which are called in Rulhenian Colfy, in Greek Coboli_ in German Co holds. These spirits they believe to dwell in hidden places in their houses or in the network of the timbers ; and they feed them handsomely on all sorts of food, because ihey are wont to bring to them who so feed them wheat which they have carried off by stealth from other men's stores-
When, however, these spirits desire to take up their residence and be fed somewhere or other, this is how they make known their disposition towards the father of a family. They heap together by night in the house chips of wood, and place on the milk-pails full of milk different sorts of animals' dung. As soon as the father of the family
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shapie tf^ir pmiktioBS in regard to all saitcfs thcr hare b^en askfMi aboct. I myself knew a pix>r wocsan who had for long been awaiting the retiim of her absent son ; for her son had left Prussia and gone to Dennsark. She con- suh/xl a fortnne-telleTy and he told her that he had perished by fthipwreck. For the wax, when poured into the water, t/>ok the form of a broken ship and the shape of a man fl//atin^ flat on his back close bj the ship.
Among the Samogita: there is a mountain situated by th^ Kiver Nauuassa, on the top of which formerly a fire wa» kept ficrpetually alight by a priest, in honour of Pargn himHrrlf, who is still believed by superstitious people to control thunder and tempest So much for their sacrifices.
I
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians. 299
Now for their marriage rites, funerals, and wakes, about which I can tell you things as laughable as they are super- stitious. Among the Sudini, Curonenses, Samogitae, and Lithuanians, girls of noble birth in places carry a bell, which is tied by a string to the girdle and hangs down to the knees. They are not led in marriage, but are carried off after the old Lacedemonian manner instituted by Lycurgus. They are, however, carried off not by the bridegroom him- self, but by two of his kinsmen. And when they have been carried off, and not before, the consent of the parents IS sought and the marriage contracted.
When the wedding is actually being held, the bride is led .three times round the hearth, and is then placed in a chair by it. As she sits on the chair, her feet are washed; and the water in which her feet are washed is sprinkled over the marriage bed and over all the furniture of the home- In the same way the guests, who have been invited to the wedding, are sprinkled. After that the bride's mouth is smeared over with honey and her eyes are hidden with a veil ; and with her eyes thus veiled she is led to all the entrances of the house and is told to touch and beat them with her right foot. At each entrance is scattered around wheat, siligo, oats, grain, pease, beans, and poppy. For the man who follows the bride carries a bag full of all sorts of fruits, and as he scatters them about declares that none of these shall be wanting to the bride, if she reverently follows her religion and looks after her household affairs with all due diligence. This done, the veil is taken off the bride's eyes and the feast is held.
In the evening when the bride is going to be led off to bed, in the course of the dancing her hair is cut off, and when that is done the women put a garland on her, decked with a white kerchief, which wives may wear until they have borne a son. For until then wives conduct themselves as if they were virgins,
In the end she is led into her chamber, where, after being
300 The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians.
struck and beateiii she is thrown on to the bed and handed over to the bridegproom. Then, instead of wedding-cakes, are brought the testicles of a goat or of a bear, the par- taking of which together on the very day of the wedding is' supposed to render the wife fecund. For this reason also, no castrated animal is slain on the occasion in view of the wedding.
At funerals the following rite is observed by the coiftitry folk. The bodies of the dead are dressed up in their coats and trousers and are placed upright on a bench. Then their nearest relations sit down by the body and drink and carouse, swilling beer and raising a funeral lamentation, which in the Ruthenian tongue has the following sound :
f Hale le / le le / y procz ty mene vmarl ? ii za tii nie miel szto nesty albo pity? y procz tii vmarl? Ha le le/le le ii za tii nie miel krasz iie mlodzice ? ii procz tii vmarl?" That is to say : " Ah, ah me ! Why hast thou died ? Was there lacking to thee food or drink ? Why then hast thou died ? Ah, ah me ! Hadst thou not a beautiful wife ? Why then hast thou died ? "
With such lamentations as this, they enumerate in order all the external blessings of the one whose death they deplore, to wit, his children, sheep, oxen, horses, geese, cocks, &c. And as they enumerate each item they chant this refrain : '' Why then hast thou died when thou hadst these ? "
After the lamentation is done, presents are given to the corpse, namely, to a woman a thread and needle, to a man a linen cloth, which is folded round his neck. When the body is carried out for burial, many follow the funeral on horseback and drive chariots towards the place whither the body is being carried. And they draw their swords and smite the winds, crying aloud : "Sey geythe begaythe peck elle." That is : " Flee, ye demons, into hell." Those who conduct the funeral throw down coins into the grave, as if to help the dead on his way with journey-money. They
The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians. 301
also place bread and a pitcher full of beer at the head of the corpse brought to the tomb, that the soul may be neither thirsty nor hungry. A wife, early and late, at sunrise and sunset, sits or lies on the tomb of her lost husband and laments for thirty days. The kinsmen, however, hold banquets on the third, sixth, ninth, and fortieth days after the interment- To these banquets they invite the soul of the deceased, praying in front of the door. In these ban- quets, in which they loast ' the dead, they sit in silence at a table as if they were dumb, and use no knives. At table, however, two women wait and put food before the guests and also forbear to use a knife. They each throw some- thing from every dish under the table, upon which they believe the soul feeds, and they pour out drink for them [i.e. for the dead souls,] If perchance anything drops off the table on to the ground, they do not pick it up, but leave it to be eaten by the deserted souls — such is their phrase for such souls as have neither kinsmen nor friends living, by whom they could be entertained at the feast. When the meal is finished, the sacrificer rises from the table and clears out the house with brooms, And he casts out the souls of the dead along with the dust, as if they were fleas, and prays them in the following words to quit the house : " lely, Piiy ducisse : nu wen, nu wen." That is: " Ye have eaten and drunk, beloved souls; go ye forth, go ye forth." After that the guests begin to talk to one another and vie in their cups each with his fellow. The women drink first before the men, and the men in turn with the women, and they kiss one another.
Of this oblation of food over the tombs of the dead Augustine also makes mention in his 15th Discourse, con- cerning the Saints, and his words are these :
" I wonder why among some infidels of to-day so per- nicious an error has become so common, I mean of putting
' The writer hai ihe Latin ViOtil parenlani, and use* ihc wotd parttUalia lo describe Ihe whole cetemony of Ihe wake.
302 The Paganism of the Ancient Prussians.
together food and wine on the tombs of the dead, as if the souls come forth out of the bodies and wanted carnal food. For it is only the flesh which wants banquets and refections; but the spirit and soul do not want them. Anyone will tell you he is preparing for his dear ones what he devours him- self. What benefits the belly he sets down to piety, &c." So far Augustine.
These details about the superstitions, rites, and cere- monies of these races I relate, having witnessed some of them and having heard others from men worthy of credence. Do you, however, my most distinguished friend, as one accustomed to be delighted by a knowledge of various things, take in good part this poor essay written by one most attached to your person.
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COLLECTANEA.
A Hertfordshire St. George.
Dragon legends are, I think, somewhat uncommon in the eastern and souihem parts of England. Perhaps the dense woods and morasses formerly existing in the northern portion of the kingdom, in which all kinds of wild beasts could find a refuge, may have produced such stories in greater abundance and detail.
In the church of Brent Pelham, or Pelham Samers,^ Herts, a small village situated about ten miles from Bishop's Stortford and five from Buntingford, is a semi-effigial monumental slab, thus described (163 1) in Weever's Funeral Monuments, " In the North Wall of this Church lyeth an antient Monument of Stone, wherein a Man is figur'd, and about him an Eagle, a Lyon, and a Bull, all having Wings ; and a fourth of the Shape of an Angel ; as if they should represent the foiir Evangelists ; under the Feet of the Man is the Gross Fleurie, and under the Gross a Serpent."
" Simple and beautiful as these symbols are," says our most recent county historian, Mr. Gussans (1872), "they have given rise to the most absurd traditions. The most popular is, that Piers Shonkes [in whose memory the monument is said to have been erected] was a mighty hunter, and was always accompanied in his expeditions by one attendant and three favourite hounds, so swift of foot that they were said to be winged, and are so
* Brent Pelham, or Pelham Arsa, from a fire which destroyed it in the reign of Henry I. ; t*elhara Samers, from the name of a grantee of the Bishop of London shortly after the date of Domesday. These cognomina are needed to distinguish the place from its neighbours, Pelham Furneaux and Pelham Stockin. But at the time of the Conquest, says Sir Henry Chauncy (^Hist, Herts, i., 276), "These several Mannors and Parcels of Land made but one Parish, known in Domesdei Book only by the name of Pelham," when they formed an estate of the Bishop of London. The three parishes are collectively known as " the Pelhams" to this day. The Domesday Church seems to have been at Pelham Furneaux.
304 Collectanea.
represented on the tomb.^ Chancing one day to kill a dragon, which seemed to have been under the immediate protection of Satan, the latter declared that he would be revenged on Shonkes, and would have him at his death, whether he was buried within or without the church. Shonkes, to avoid his fate, directed that he should be buried neither within nor without the sacred build- ing, but in the wall, and feeling perfectly secure in that position ordered that a representation of his achievement should be carved on his tomb. On the wall at the back of the tomb is painted this inscription :
" ' Tantum £aima manet Cadmi sanctique Georgi Posthuma ; tempus edax ossa sepulchra vorat. Hoc tamen, in muro tutus, qui perdidit anguem Invito positus Dsemone, Shonkus erat. O, Piers, Shonks Who died, Anno 1086.'
" * Nothing of Cadmus nor St George, those names Of great renown, survives them but their fames ; Time was so sharp set as to make no Bones Of theirs, nor of their monumental stones. But Shonks one serpent kills, t'other defies And in this wall, as in a fortress, lies.'
" It is possible that the last couplet may have given rise to the tradition." ^
* The four Evangelistic symbols as above.
' The epitaph is said (by Salmon) to have been composed by the Rev. Raphael Keen, who died in 1614. He was vicar of Brent Pelham for 75^ years ! Chauncy, writing in 1700, gives the inscription and also a variant of it, and speaks of it as "formerly" over the tomb. Mr. E. E. Barclay, of Brent Pelham Hall, has kindly shown me a copy, made 1806, of a copy of both variants made by Tho : Jugge, Vicar 1683- 1725, which also speaks of them as "formerly" there. That now existing must have been repainted before 1728, when Salmon saw it. The other runs thus : —
" Cadmi Fama manet, tantum tua Fama Georgi Posthuma, Tempus edax Ossa, Sepulchra vorat : Attamen hoc Tumulo, Shonkus qui perdidit Anguem Invito Satano caute sepultus erat."
" Cadmus his Fame, St. George his Fame alone, Their Tombs and Ashes all are gone : But Shonks who valiantly ye Serpent wounded In spite of Satan, here he lies entombed."
[The tradition must be older than the epitaph which embodies it. — Ed.]
A Hertfordshire St. George.
305
Salmon, writing in 1728, winds up his account of the place " with the relation given to me by an old farmer in the parish, who valued himself for being born in the air that Shonk breathed. He saith ' Shonk was a giant that dwelt in this parish who fought with a giant of Barkway, named Cadmus, and worsted him ; upon which Barkway hath paid a quit-rent to Pelham ever since.' " ^
It is hardly necessary to state that the Cadmus referred to was no local giant, but the fabled Phoenician dragon-slayer mentioned in the epitaph, while the quit-rent was the usual copyhold tenure.
The accounts given locally vary greatly, as is usually the case. The chief variant is, that when Piers was on his death-bed he called for his bow and an arrow and shot it at random from his window, commanding that he should be buried where the arrow fell.' The arrow passed through one of the church windows and transfixed itself in the wall where the tomb now is.
Some thirty or forty years ago, a patriarchal old villager told Mr. W. H. N, of Watford that he either retnembered or heard that on an excavation being made under the wall near the monu- ment, bones, supposed to be Shonkes', were found, and from their proportions would have belonged to a man from nine to ten feet high. Whether these were replaced in the tomb or not he did
An old man named Thomas Tinworth, who died a septuagenarian in 1899, told Ml. E. E. Barclay, of Brent Pelham Hall, that his father was the person who explored the tomb during some repairs to the floor about 1835, He found that the recess went a Jong way down, and in digging into it he found some very large human bones, evidently belonging to a man of great stature.
The following account written some years ago by the Vicar of Brent Pelham (the Rev. W. Wigram, M.A.) is worth quoting here. He says : " The tomb is in the north wall of the church and is of
ihirteenlh-cenlury ^ work The staff of the cross is driven
like a spear through the mouth of the dragon, the emblem of the human sou![?]. The chancel of the church was rebuilt about forty years ago and is now in a straight line with the nave. For- merly it inclined so much to the north that room for a small
' Salmon'! ATiitorj-o/^tm, p. 389.
* This resembles an tncidenl
* More probably (ourtecnth
Robin Hood heio-talc.
3o6 Collectanea.
vestry was gained between the original north wall (which was left as it stood) and the line of the existing north wall ; hence the south window of the chancel looked through the chancel arch, and an arrow entering at the window could have struck the north wall of the nave.
"A terrible dragon kennelled under a yew tree which stood between what were afterwards two fields called Great and Little Pepsells ; and the stile in the pathway which crossed them was set up in the stem of this tree when it was split open, as such trees do, with extreme old age. This dragon was killed by Shonkes, and as it was dying Satan himself arose and claimed Shonkes' body and soul for slaying his dragon. The Christian knight defied him, promptly replying that his soul was in the keeping of Heaven, and that his body should rest where the arrow then upon his bowstring should fall. He shot accordingly, and the arrow entering the south window of the crooked chancel passed through the chancel arch and struck the north wall of the nave at the spot in which Shonkes still rests, invito Dcemone.
" In subsequent ages the yew tree was cut down by a labourer well known to my informant, the parish clerk. The man began his work in the morning, but left it at breakfast-time, and on returning found that the old tree had fallen, collapsing into a large cavity underneath its roots."
As to the real history of the hero, little can be said. Weever, who gives neither legend nor inscription, says {/oc, cit.) : " He is thought to have been sometime the Lord of an old and decayed House, well moated, not far from this Place, called O Piers Shoonkes?- He flourished Anno k Conquestu vicesimo primo." In Salmon's time (Joe. cit) there was a barn standing on this moated enclosure, and he also states that this manor (Beeches) pays castle-guard to Bishop's Stortford, a relic of the feudal system which is, I believe, paid to the lord of the manor of Stortford tp-day. Mr. Wigram {ut supra) says : " The site of the hero's house is marked by the moat which once surrounded it, in a pasture still called * Shonkes' Garden,' upon Beeches' Farm." " Batches alias Beaches " was a distinct manor in Brent Pelham parish; and of another manor, "Graies," Sir Henry Chauncy
' Sic. The next sentence is not borne out by Domesday Book, still less so is the statement of the inscription that Shonkes died in that year-
' Grateful Pr4jus"
307
(1700) says it was " become a decayed Farm and now annexed to Beaches." Among the endowments of the church is a parcel of woodland called " Beches and Shonks."
The only other person of ihe name in the neighbourhood of whom we have any record is Gilbert Sank, who in the sixteenth year of Edward I. was distrained upon by Simon de Furneaux, Lord of the Pelhams, for his " Homage and service and forty shillings and sixpence rent by the year, Fealty and Suit at Court at Pelham Arsa, from three weeks to three weeks,"' Salmon suggests that he might be the father of Peter or Piers Shonks.
As to the dragon, fossil remains of extinct animals have often been found in the clay-pits of Hertfordshire, none of which, however, are of so recent a date as the medieval period. But the story may be very much older, dating possibly even from prehistoric times, and thus handed down from father to son it has become connected in the usual materialistic way with the monumental slab, assisted during the past two centuries, as Mr Cussans says, by the epitaph.
W. B. Gerish.
"Gratefl'l Frejus." {Quoted by permission from the " Guardian," iind August, 1900.)
It is not often, even in Provence, which has kept much sim- plicity and the beauty born of simplicity, that we have the opportunity of taking part in a festivity entirely popular in its character, which has been celebrated for several centuries with the same details as it is to-day.
But on this sunny May morning the high road to Fi^jus is gay with bright faces, and many a family group of gaily dressed girls, white-capped mothers, and red-sashed, blue-trousered fathers, goes chattering along the boulevard under its young-leafed plane-trees, their French greetings seeming almost out of keeping with their dark, handsome Italian faces. French greetings for us only,
' Chauncy, Hut. Mtrli C1700), vol, i,, p. 378. I
3o8 Collectanea.
however, for we find it hard to follow their pretty Provengal tongue, with its soft diminutives and drawn-out vowels. Fr^jus, the sleeping city that dreams alternately of Roman Empire and mediaeval ecclesiasticism, is half awake this morning, and has hung her steep streets and old-world houses with flags.
Down a side-street, where the interest seems gathering, a little crowd of women is watching the assembling of some strange little figures. Little boys, from about twelve years old down to mites of three or four, trot up one after the other inside cardboard horses, adorned with long lace frills, that do not quite hide the little running legs of the rider. These hobby-horses have the small heads df their kind, above which are the tiny round serious faces of the younger and the laughing mischievous faces of the elder boys, all dressed in gay coats and caps with flowers and ribbons.
Anxiously careering round them on, or rather we must say /«, a hobby-horse of a larger growth, is a " Capitano " of so humorous and yet earnest an aspect that one can but wonder what other part in life he could ever play. Dressed like the boys in ribbons and laces, he wears on his head a large white hat, with long coloured feathers, rosettes on each ear, and an elastic under the chin, which gives a peculiarly innocent look to his wrinkled old face. Flourishing right and left with his sword, encouraging here and urging there, he gets them at last into procession, and they set off for the " Chapelle de St. Roche " — a small, dilapidated building just outside Fr^jus.
There a larger crowd is assembled outside the door, by which stand two barefooted monks and a charming old lady in a large straw capeline, or Proven9al hat, black tippet, and distaff in her hand. These three wait patiently, their eyes on the ground, till the music is heard and the procession of hobby-horses, headed by a few young soldiers and sailors and a band, comes winding between the high white walls over which the fresh young fig-trees are peep- ing. The door of the^ chapel then opens, and there is carried out a small boat, which is placed on wheels, and by which the monks and the old lady take their places and head the procession, which moves gaily up into the town and into the big square in front of the cathedral.
Here all Fr^jus is collected round the barrier that rails in the square, and all the windows of the four or five-storied old houses
" Grateful Fr4jus" 309
are full of faces looking on. The little hobby-horses manifest a disposition to prance round and show themselves off, but are soon recalled by the Capitano, who wildly waves his sword and forms them again into line preparatory to leading them round the square with a dancing step in time to the music. Suddenly all the chattering and laughing is hushed, every one presses forH'ard round the railings, the little hobby-horses retire into a large circle, and in the centre of the square three figures stand alone — the two monks and the old lady, whose name, we are told, is Santa Brigitd. The elder monk, reverent and serious of face, and digni- fied in bearing, now comes forward, and, addressing the old lady, who stands with her hands clasped round ber distaff, asks her in Provenga! why he, a stranger, just arrived by sea in Fr^jus, finds the city empty and forsaken, doors and windows shut, silence in the streets, and no children at play.
She answers him in the same soft tongue, and in a clear, pathetic voice, that Frejus is ravaged by the plague, that many of the inhabitants are dead, others sick unto death, and that those who are still in heahh have fled to the country and carried off all the children in fear of their lives. On hearing this he bows his head in silence, then, turning to her again, he requests her to lead him to the cathedral. Amid perfect silence around, the two cross the square and disappear within the great doors, and only the splashing of the stone fountain at the corner disturbs the hush of expectation until the two quiet figures reappear and take up their position again in the middle of the square.
Stretching out his hand to her, the monk then cries in a loud, clear voice, "I am Francois de Paule. God has sent me to Frejus to stay the plague and heal this suffering people." Stooping down he then draws a circle on the ground with his staff and kneels down to kiss the centre of the circle. Then, laying down his staff, he lifts his hands to heaven and cries aloud upon God to look down on this poor Frejus and to have mercy on her. This cry he repeals three times, each time in a louder voice, more and more thrilled with passionate supplication. Rising to his feet he. then takes up his staff and turns again to the over-awed woman. " Go," he cries, " and tell the inhabitants of Frejus that God has stayed the plague and healed their sickness." He continues with
solemn command that In all ages to come Frejus should remem- this great mercy, and that each year a solemn remembrance
I stayed the
^^^■^ solemn c ^^^Hkt this gri
3IO Collectanea.
and rehearsal of his coming by sea to Fr^jus and this miracle that God has wrought by him be enacted. Nor must Fr^jus ever cease to carry out this custom, for, should it ever fall into n^lect, the plague would surely return to the city.
After the solemn adjuration he turns and leads the way to the cathedral, followed by old Santa Brigitd, the procession of boys, and the crowd of onlookers, who soon fill the dark old church, where the priest is waiting to say mass at the side altar of St. Frangois, which blazes with lights. The mass is long, the crowd pass silently in and out of the great doors, and the little hobby- horse boys sit down for very weariness in rows on the steps of the high altar, the little brown heads of their horses appearing through the gloom, at that distance, quaint appendages to the solemn service. We stay to see no more, but feasting and frolic fill up the two following days till the third evening, when St. Francois de Paule and his boat are conducted back to the little chapel of St. Roche, and grateful Fr^jus subsides into its calm life of every day.
Valescure. E. M. J.
The following further notes have been kindly sent us by the writer of the above article. Lady Jones :
The fete is an entirely popular one, and has no connection with the Church, though sanctioned by the celebration of mass at the altar of St. Francois de Paule. The priests do not seem at all interested in the ceremonies ; they evidently treat them as amusements for the people. The correct date of the fete is said in the local history to be the third Sunday after Easter ; hence it is a moveable feast. But it is changed to suit the convenience of the people. I saw it on the 27th May, 1900, in which year it was not held on the right day, as there were municipal elections going on. This year (1901) it was perpetually being put off on account of the extraordinarily bad weather. The following extracts from LHistoire de FrejuSy by J. A. Aubenas, Honorary Curator of the Museum of Antiquities at Fr^jus, published at Fr^jus in 1881, give the local tradition as to the origin of the festival (pp 276-279) :
La Peste et St, Franfois de Paule,
La villa se vit plus cruellement ^prouv^e encore par un fieau qui 9'<5tait abattu sur la Provence en 1480, en m^rae temps que
' Grateful Fr4jus"
mourait 1e roi R^n^,* et dont les ravages n'ont ^te depasses que
parceuxde la pesie de 1720 C'est dans ces circonstances,
qu'au commencement de I'annee 1483 la tempete jeta sur la plage voisine un homnie, un Saint, le celebre Francois de Paule, appeW du fond de la Calabre par le roi Louis XI. agonisant, pour lui rendre, par un miracle, la sante que la science humaine ne pouvait plus lui donner. Cetle gucrison d'un vieiliard cruel, en meme temps habile et prafond politique, n'etait pas dans les desseins de Dieu ; mais la tradition et la foi contemporaine attestent le miracle non moins grand, accompli, b, cette occasion, par le saint anachorete en faveur de Fr^jus. Girardin- est le plus ancien historien qui ait recueilli par ^crit cette tradition, unani- mement proclam^e jusqu'i lui : il convient de le laisser parler.
" Le serviteur de Dieu," dit-il, " ne sachant pas que notre ville fQt infecte'e, s'approche de nos murs, accompagn^ de plusieure personnes, et s'avance dans les rues sans trouver qui que ce soit. Enfin, une femme dgee se trouve par hasard sur ses pas; il lui demande pourquoi on ne voyoit personne dana la ville : ' Hii ! mon Pere,' dit-elle, 'c'est parceque la peste est ici. La moitie des habitants a peri, et la pluparl des autres se sont enfuis, ou se tiennenl enferm^s chez eux,'
"A cette nouvelle, Saint Francois de Paule, plein de charit^ et de confiance en Dieu, se jeta 4 genoux pour se recommander avec aa troupe au Seigneur, et pour le prier qu'ii voulflt bien Eloigner ce terrible fleau d'une ville 0(1 sa providence I'avoit conduit. La priere de ce juste eut un effet singulier, car, depuis ce moment, le mal contagieux cessa, non seulement de faire des progres, mais encore on vit ceux qui en etaient attaqu^s recouvrer la sant^. Bien plus, depuis cet heuteux jour, la peste n'a jamais ose approcher de cette ville, et semble encore aujourd'hui respecter un lieu d'oii ce grand saint I'a chass^e une fois.
" Notre tradition nous apprend que le saint entra par la porte de
' [Rini of Anjou, Counl of Provcnc*. liwlar K[ng of the Two Sicilies and ■ Jerusalem. It should be noliced Ihal the independence of Provence expired with the death of King Rini, and ihat Louis XI. was Ihe liril French sovereign ever scknowledged there.- — Ed.]
' [M. le Curi Giraidin wrote about 1750, but hiswoiks, Hisloirtdt la i'ilU tl de FEglin dt Frijta and Dtscriplian kUlerique du Dtixht dt Frijui, were only printed in 1S73, when they were edited by M. I'Abb^ J. B. Disdier and published al Dtoguigtion.— Ed.]
312 Collectanea.
M6ons, et que, prenant d'abord k droite, il venoit it F^lise par ces petites rues qui, apr^s quelques detours, aboutissent k la Place — que c'est dans ces quartiers-lk qu'il rencontra cette femme, et qu'il prik k genoux pour la prosp^ritd de notre villa. Elle nous apprend encore que le serviteur de Dieu logea dans la maison canonicale de M. le Pr^vot Antelmi, aujourd'hui iv^que de Grasse, et qu'on lui donna une chambre vers le coin qui r^pond k la porte du cloltre de TEglise.
" Une preuve ^vidente de la brusque cessation du fleau, de la coincidence de ce fait avec le passage de Saint Frangois de Paule, et en mdme temps, de la croyance des contemporains en sa miracu- leuse intervention, c'est la construction presque immediate de r^glise et du couvent ^lev^s k Frejus pour perp^tuer la m^moire de ce grand bienfait. Quelque temps apres la mort du roi Louis XL, et grice aux liberalit^s de son fils Charles VIII. le saint Calabrais venait de fonder, k Plessis-les-Tours, le premier monastire, en France, de son ordre, que, dans son humility, il avait voulu appeler TOrdre des Minimes (les plus petits de tous). Commence d^s 1490, sept ans seulement apr^s les faits accomplis, le couvent des Minimes de Frejus, aujourd'hui disparu, et sa remarquable ^glise qu'on voit encore, ^taient completement achev^s en 1509. Cette maison prit, des Tabord, une grande importance, et trois chapitres gendraux, ayant mission d'elire le chef de FOrdre y furent tenus, en 1547, en 1556, et en 1565.
" Depuis, la population de Frejus, dans une fete annuelle, n'a cess^ de renouveler I'expression de ses actions de grices envers celui qui fut son protecteur et qu'elle a choisi pour son second patron." ^ [St. Leonce, Bishop of Frejus in the fifth century, is the original patron.]
* La fi&te commemorative de Saint Fran9ois de Paule se c^lebre le 3m c dimanche apris Pdques et dure plusieurs jours. L'espace nous manque, k notre grand regret, pour d^crire ces manifestations touchantes de la reconnaissance populaire, et nous ne pouvons que renvoyer le lecteur i la relation si complete et si heureusement r^ussie que vient d'en publier M. I'Abbe Paul Terriss, secretaire de Mgr. TEveque et Chanoine honoraire de Frojus, La fete de Saint Francois de Paule h Frijus Ctyp. L. I^ydet, imprimeur de I'Eveche).
I have been unable either to buy or borrow a copy of the last mentioned work, and the following version of the dialogue recited on the occasion is translated from the Provencal notes given me
" Grateful Frejus.'*
f one of the Cures, The dialogue, however, is far n ['than it is possible to convey.
Dialogue de S. Framjois db Paule et ia i-emme i
1 FBftjUS
SI. Fra\
: Femme, d'oCi vieni qu'en arriva.nl dans celle giiinde villc, je ;rsoDDe? D'oii Went que potlcs el fenelres soot leimies, que llierbe cioit entte lea pienes? D'oii vienl une %\ giande solitude ?
La Ftmmc : Comment I vous ne savez pus que la pestc d^sole notte pauvte ^ ville depuis irii longues inn^cs 1 Vous ne saves pas que presque lou! habitants soul morts el que les lares suivivants snnt dans leurs maison campngne ou cach^ au fond de leurs niaisons de ville F
St. Frartfeis : Femme, pai la charit ^ de Dieu, enseigne-moi I'jgtise 1
La vUilU femme mint St. Francois d ttglist, efc. .... Mevenant h la Crandt Place de Frijus. St. Franfeis se frmterni, el ficrie par troisfois : —
St. Franfoii : Mis^ricorde, Seigneur, pardonnc au peuple de Fri!jus I {Fuis il s'adrisa i la Femme, el, ebitssani it tint veix intin'mTe qui Itii dil que sa friire est exaucit, lui dil): Femme, vas annoncer au peuple de Frjjus que la colore de Dieu s'esl apaisj, que la pesle ne revicndia plus jamais a Fi^jus — el qu'ils se souviennent de Si. Francois de Piule 1
There is something left out at the end, for I distinctly heard the St. Francois say that if ever the fete were forgotten the plague would return.
I was certainly told at the time of the fete last year that the woman represented St. Brigili, who has a chapei near Frejus, al which an interesting ceremony takes place every May, which I attended this year, namely, the blessing of the iflai/, who are brought to the chapel early in the morning for the purpose. But I the priest who officiated told me that the woman of the dialogue 'is simply " une vieJUe de Frdjus."
Evelyn M, Jones.
[The^harbour of Frejus, which in the time of Augustus sheltered 300 galleys after the battle of Actium, was still in use in the tenth century, but during the Middle Ages it gradually silted up. owing to the soil washed down by the River Saint Argent, so that by 1555 it had become useless, and the stagnant pools and marshes which formed around the city in consequence of the loss of the outlet for the water rendered it exceedingly unhealthy. The Chapel of St. Roch, whence the festival procession starts, is situated on the quay of the old harbour. (D'Aubenas, ofi. cil., I map 3.) The visit of St. Francesco di Paola to France during a
314 Collectanea.
time of plague, at the request of the dying Louis XL, is an actual historical event, but the saint landed not at Fr^jus, but at Bormia, {Acta Sanctorum^ April 2nd, ed. 1675). Here, so say the Bollan- dists, he visited the church of St. Roch, the first to be reached on arriving, the doors of which opened to him of their own accord ; and by his prayers caused an intractable beam in the new roof to fit into its place. Here also he caused the plague to cease. The next day he went on to Fr^jus, where took place the circumstances commemorated in the festival. The house of his order of Minimes, built by the city in honour of the event, was finished in 1509, but was handed over to the order of Cordeliers in 1571.
St. Roch of Montpellier (i 295-1327) is related to have healed plague-stricken folk in -North Italy, and to have died in prison in his native town after five years' unjust detention. When the plague broke out at Constance during the sitting of the Council (14 14), processions and prayers in honour of St. Roch were ordered, and the plague was stayed; hence a great increase of devotion to him. His relics were translated, part to Aries, 1399, part to Venice, 1485. While living as a hermit in the forest near Piacenza, the wild beasts, plague-stricken, came to him for healing, and were cured by his blessing. " Hence the habit in certain places of blessing domestic animals and flocks on the Feast of St. Roch, and of having recourse to his intercession in time of niurrain." {Lives of the Saints of the Order of St, Francis [of Assisi], Franciscan Convent, Taunton, 1886, vol. ii., pp. 17, 18.)
It may be noted that St. Raphael, the name-patron of the port at the mouth of the river, four miles from Frcjus, is the Angel of Healing.
There were two St. Bridgets ; the famous early Irish saint, and St. Bridget of Sweden (i 302-1373), foundress of the Brigittine Nuns, who in her widowhood made a pilgrimage to Rome, took up her abode there, and eventually died at Avignon. She is the Santa Brigita usually honoured in Italy and Southern France, but her legend has no reference to cattle, while of the first St. Bridget it is related that the cattle stolen from worshippers at her convent at Kildare ran to the convent with the thieves in pursuit of them. But the blessing of cattle on the feast of a patron saint seems to have been a common mediaeval custom.
St. Francesco de Paolo had a sister Brigita, who was married to Antonius de Alesso (Alassio?), and their son Nicholas is said
Midsummer in the Pyrenees. 315
{Acta Sanctorum, foe. at.) to have been the young man whom the saint miraculously restored to life, and whose parents then consented that he should "enter reUgion." Can the silent younger monk in the festival ceremony be meant for him? And can some confusion between his mother and her patron saint account for the vague association of St. Bridget with the festival ? We do not know ; and it seems impossible, with the information at present at our disposal, to carry the fete beyond the fifteenth century. But the boat and the hobby-horses suggest a far earlier date than the dialogue, and we must hope that some of our French or Provencal brethren will be induced to undertake a search in the municipal archives of Fr^jus in order to ascertain if possible what anoual ceremonies were customary there before 1483.
Festival processions with ships or boati are known at Brussels and Mannheim and probably other Continental towns ; as well as at Luxor. Detailed descriptions by recent eye-witnesses of any of these would fee welcome. — Ed.]
Midsummer in the Pyrenees,
On Midsummer Eve, some ten or eleven years ago, I was present at the ceremony of the Srandon, at Bagneres de Luchon, in the department of Haute Garonne, in France, The town stands in the heart of the mountains, close to the highest point of the Pyrenees, and almost in the country of that rather mysterious people, the Basques. The custom is so ancient that no Luchon- nais questions it. They tell you that it has always been so, and that appears to them to be a perfectly satisfactory explanation. I watched the building of the Brandon from the first. It was _ erected on the Quineonce, that shady plantation of trees in rows 1- forming a square, which is a special feature in most provincial ■'towns in France. The Qmnconce at Luchon is unusually fine ; the trees are grand, and many of them are trees that blossom. The Brandon was placed in the centre of a wide gravelled area which extends from the outer row of the Quimona to the ^tabUs- tenutti at the base of the beautiful wooded hill. It was composed of thin laths of wood, nailed in network fashion, and it was stuffed
i
3 1 6 Collectanea.
with shavings and straw, soaked in some inflammable liquid. It was shaped like a mummy, or perhaps a cigar set on end, as it was so long in proportion to its breadth. The base was certainly narrower than the centre. It rose to the height ("so far as I could judge from comparison with the trees behind) of about twenty feet.
After the Angelus on Midsummer Eve, a priest, accompanied by some choir-boys bearing lighted candles, and followed by a multitude of the Luchonnais of both sexes and all ages, came in procession to the Quinconce^ chanting solemnly; and after sprinkling the base of the Brandon with the goupillon or asperge^ as the holy- water sprinkler is named, he set Are to the shavings and then returned by the way he came. The wood crackled, and the whole huge torch was soon a roaring pillar of fire, with a fine plume of mounting sparks against the deep blue dusk of the summer sky. As it burned, it bent and broke, and fragments fell to the earth. There was a rush each time, and the blazing piece of wood was snatched by some member of the crowd. Then ensued the most picturesque night-scene of weird and rather perilous revelry. A dance began in and out amongst the trees. It seemed to have no set step and no figures, but the effect was a continuous and rhythmical whirl ; each dancer whirled alone, as he whirled his flaming torch above his head. It was wonderful that no accident happened, but it must have been owing to the dexterity of long practice. The whole Quinconce was full of whirling separate flames, and yet the dancers seemed to keep clear of each other and of the stems of the trees. As the torches burned down, and threatened to burn fingers, they were carefully extinguished and carried home. I was told that the blackened and charred wood is carefully preserved till the next Brandon^ and that some mysterious virtue is supposed to be attached to it.
I was also told that until very recent times it had been the custom to imprison couleuvres (a non-poisonous snake), and toads, and even apes, within the Brandon^ which caused great entertainment (!) by their efforts to escape this horrible death, jumping out in all directions and wriggling higher and higher as the flames approached them, only to be caught and cast back into the fire. And it seemed that no human feeling of pity for the reptiles would have caused a cessation of the hideous sport, but on one occasion a large coukuvre in agony leapt upon the back of a woman who stood unwarily near, and the woman died on the
Folktales from the yEgean.
317
spot from fright, So henceforth the Brandon lacked its living sacrifice.^
Jean Carlvle Graham Speakman. July and, jgoi.
Folktales from the ^gean.
(Continued from p, 208.)
XXIII. Ulum-Stfer. (Boudroum : told by the daughter of
the narrator of No. XXV. Both are illiterate.) There was once a priest who possessed many camels, oxen, and sheep. One day the keeper of his camels came to him bringing their bells and saddles, and told him that they were dead, every one. Another day his shepherds and neatherds came with the news that all his flocks and herds had perished. So he and his wife were left in poverty, and had scarcely bread enough to eat. The priest resolved to go out into the world lo seek his fortune, and leaving home arrived in the evening at a spring, where he sat down to soak and eat the stale crumbs of bread he had brought for provision. To the same place came a carpenter and a tailor, and when they had all become acquainted, they agreed to go on in company.
At nightfall they reached a large house, and entering found a beautiful room, with the table laid and the dinner cooking, and narghihes ready to be smoked ; but no one was there. They were all exceedingly hungry, and after waiting a little while in patience began to discuss the question whether it would not be best to no longer, but to sit down and dine. The carpenter and
I shoemaker were afraid, and said, "If this house belongs to a
' gentleman he will excuse us, but if the owners happen to be ogres they will certainly kill us." The priest, however, replied, " It will be all right" So they sat down and dined sumptuously. The priest then said, "Now we will go to bed, but each must watch in his turn while the others sleep, so that we can apologise to the
I owner when he comes." They drew lots, and it fell to the car-
I penter to watch first.
ice B much leis detailed account in G. B., iii., 314, quoted from the Atktnaum, 14 July, i86g, at which due the snakes were stilf sacrificed, — Ed.
3^8 Collectanea.
He sat down admiring the woodwork of the house, a beautiful piece of walnut-wood particularly pleasing him. He thought to himself, " I could make anything out of that wood/' Then to pass the time he commenced carving the figure of a girL By the time his share of watching was over he had completed his task. He awoke the tailor, whose turn came next, and went to bed.
The tailor on getting up was surprised to see a beautiful giri in the room, and began paying his respects to her ; but when she did not answer, he approached nearer, and found she was made of wood. "Ah!" cried he, "that's the carpenter's work;" and rather than be beaten he set to work and made a dress for the girl, so lovely that all the room shone.
By the time he had finished it was the priest's turn to watch. When he saw this lovely and splendidly-dressed young lady he made his bow and addressed her, but received no answer. Ap- proaching her, he discovered what she was, and said, " Ah I that's the carpenter's and tailor's work ; but I won't be beaten." So he went to work with his holy water and prayer-book, and read and read and sprinkled and sprinkled her until he put a soul into her.
In the morning, when his companions awoke, the question was, "Whose daughter is she to be ? " Each of the three stoutly maintained his claim to her, and at length they agreed to go to the town and have the matter decided there by the Cadi.
It was decided that the girl was to belong to the priest, who had given her a soul. When the beauty of the priest's daughter became known, there were many suitors for her hand, but she said, " I will marry no one but the man who w^ill bring me from the Uium-sefer (Road of Death) the kerchief that the princess is broidering."
No man in his senses could be found to venture to the place of death, but a poor man who got tipsy undertook the task and started on his journey.
As he became sober he began to repent, but was ashamed to return. At nightfall he lay down to rest under the tree in which the eagles had made their nest. The parent birds were away, and in the middle of the night came the monster with the seven heads to eat the young ones. The sleeper awoke at the noise, and, drawing his sword, cut the creature through the middle. " Hit me again," it said. " But once my mother bore me and but
Folktales from the ySgean.
319
I once I strike," he answered, and, dragging its carcass away, threw it into a guliy and went to sleep again under the tree.
In the morning came the two old eagles, and, seeing him said, " Ah 1 this is he who comes and takes our young every year," and were just going to kill him when the little ones all called out, " Don't, don't ; he killed the beast that was going to eat us." Then the eagles thanked him and covered him with their wings, and begged lo kiiow what favour they could show him. He told them that he was on his way to the Utumsefer, and they said, "It is a fearful place to go to, but we will take you. But you must get a sheep, kill it, and cut it in pieces to lake with you, also a pitcher of water, and on the journey when we say ' Kra ' you must give us meat, and when we say ■ Kroo ' you must give us water." He did as they commanded, and the eagles carried him and set him down outside the city of the Road of Death, and gave him a feather which he was to bum if he wanted help.
Close by was a shepherd keeping his flock, but when he went up and said, " Good day," never a word spoke the shepherd, nor did he move, he or his sheep, but they were as dead. Entering the town the man went first lo the baker's shop. There stood Lthe baker with his peel putting loaves into the oven, hut he I neither answered nor moved. So our friend took a loaf and went ron to the confectioner's to buy some halvd.'' There was the con- fectioner cutting a slice of fia/vd, and all the people round, but they neither spoke nor moved. Our friend cut as much as he wanted and breakfasted. Then he went on to the palace. There was a staircase of forty-one steps, and on each step stood a soldier with his sword drawn. Climbing the stairs, he pushed the soldiers over, and they all lay in a heap at the bottom like sardines. At 1 the head of the staircase was a door, and opening it be entered a Kipreat chamber, where sat the princess's father, smoking a chibook ■ with a stem as long as a beam and a bowl as big as a caldron, ' and with him the princess herself broidering the kerchief. He drew his knife and cut the kerchief from the frame, and taking it set out on his journey home. On his way to the city gate he passed a church and heard chanting within. Entering, he found " e church full of people, but they were all still and mule. Only Qie priest was just coming out of the sanctuary with the elements
' A well-known Turkish 5
s vuiety of which is like iiaugal.
320 Collectanea.
in his hand and called to the stranger, ''My blessing and the blessing of God be on thee, my son. Go and tell that bitch ^ to come back here, for she has tormented us enough." For it must be known that the soul of the wooden girl was the soul of the princess and of all the people of Ulum-sefer, and that is why they were dead.
Our adventurer found his way back to his city and took the kerchief to the priest's daughter. She asked him what he heard and saw, and he told her all his adventures, and the moment he came to the message with which the priest of Ulum-sefer had charged him, she turned into a partridge and fiew away through the window, calling out, " If you want to marry me, come and find me."
He was in such a hurry to follow her that he even forgot to bum his feather and summon the eagles, but away he ran and never rested till he came to Ulum-sefer. There he found the shepherd keeping his sheep in the same place, and said to him, " Why, the last time I came you were dead, and I might have driven away all your sheep." The shepherd thought he was mad, for he did not know he had been dead, and giving him some food sent him away. He went to the baker's and said, " Oh, you are alive now ; the last time I came I might have stolen all the bread in your shop." The baker laughed at him and gave him a loaf, and when he told the confectioner the same thing he also thought the man mad, and gave him a piece of halvd. So he breakfasted well this time too, and then went on to the palace. As he was about to mount the stairs, the soldiers (now in their places again) were about to kill him, but the princess from above called out, " Let him come, he is my betrothed." Her soul had told her this when it came back to her. So they were married with great rejoicings, and I wish I had been there, but I was not.
XXIV. Donkey-Skin:" (From the same source.)
There were once in the same city a poor woman and a noble lady, neither of whom had children. The noble lady one day
* This word, as in ancient Greek, is not used in so opprobrious a sense as in English. Helen calls herself a bitch.
* Cf. Pumpkin^ vol. x., p. $00. The type is common.
Folktales front the ^gean.
1, " If I could only have a girl I would not mind marrying her to a donkey." The poor woman also said to herself: "Ah, could I but have a son, even though he were a donkey."
Soon afterwards they both grew big with child, and a beautiful girl was bom to the lady ; but the poor woman gave birth to a donkey. He was her son, and she had to bring him up. When he went to school all the girls made fun of him, especially the lady's daughter. One day he said to her, " You had better take care what you say, because I am going to marry you." This made the girl cry, and she told it with tears to her mother, who remembered her vow, and replied, " Who knows ? It may be your fate." When the donkey grew up he said to his mother, " You must go and ask for that lady's daughter in marriage for me," and insisted until she went.
The noble lady, when the poor woman came, ashamed at making such a request, answered, "Yes ; if God has not written it, let Him write it now," and consented. She talked to her husband, and they agreed that it would be quite easy to let their daughter marry the donkey and to kill him the day after the marriage. So the marriage was made, and the bride and bride- groom retired for the night, When they were alone the donkey took off his skin, and lo ! he was a beautiful young man.
The next morning the bride's parents came, expecting to find their daughter in tears, and ready to kill the donkey, but they found her looking quite cheerful. " Do you mean to say," said her mother, " that you like the company of that donkey ? " " Oh, yes," said she ; "he may be a donkey, but 1 find him very nice." They were very much surprised, but thought no more of kUling the donkey, since their daughter liked him. Soon afterwards there was to be a great wedding, and sweets were sent to the donkey and his wife as an invitation. Her mother, however, said, " You cannot possibly come with the donkey." He said to her, "You must go alone, but I will come afterwards and dance with you ; only if you tell them that I am your husband you will lose me."
She went to the wedding, and the beautiful young man, whom no one knew, came and danced with her. Al! thought what a handsome pair they were, and what a pity it was she was the wife of the donkey. After the ball her motliet questioned her so closely about her partner that at length she told her the whole story. " You must prevent him becoming a donkey again," said
322 Collectanea.
her mother. " When he is asleep, go and get his skin from the cupboard where he keeps it, and bum it" So the next night the girl got up and burnt the skin, and instantly came the three £EurieSy her husband's sisters, and took him away with them.
The poor girl set ofif to find him, and came to a deep spring in which a rope was floating. She took hold of the rope to pull it out, but it pulled her down and down to another country. There, hard-by, she saw a great castle, and on going in found it empty and unswept. In a little while came her husband. She did not know him, but he knew her and revealed himself. He told her that his three sisters, the fairies, would come soon. " You must sweep the house and go to the garden and get roses to decorate the table, and when my sisters come you must beg the eldest for ! her handkerchief, the second for her head-kerchief, and the third
for her apple." When the fairies came they were very pleased at the work the girl had done for them, and the eldest said, " Ask for what you want Do you want money ? do you want long life ? Ask." " No," said the girl, '" but will you give me that pretty handkerchief." "Anything else," said the fairy, "but not that. I must have it to wipe the sweat from my face." The second sister also begged her to ask for money, or many years of life, or what she liked. " I should like your kerchief," she said. " Oh, I can't give you that, it's the only one I have." When she asked the youngest for her apple, the fairy threw it to her, but, alas ! she missed it, and in a moment she was lying at the bottom of the spring, and the palace was gone. She took hold of the rope and it pulled her up, and above was her husband turned into stone. He said to her, " You must watch here for forty days, forty nights, and forty sand-glasses,^ and then you will get me back." She had nearly finished her watch when a ship with a cargo of negresses came sailing there, and the captain sent his men ashore for water. They came and found the girl and asked her where they could get the water. " There is none," she said, but she had been weeping all the time and had filled a bottle with her tears, so she gave that to them. The captain, when he heard of it, said, " We must do something for her, as she has been so kind to us," and sent her one of his negresses to wait on her.
7
• Sand-glasses. The word is maniserolais. I do not know the derivation. These gKisscs are used by sponge-divers at Boudroum for reckoning time.
Folktales frotn the yEgeaii.
She told the negress her story, and liow she had watched the forty days, forty hours, and thirty-nine sand-glasses. " Go to sleep now," said the negress, "and I will watch it out." So the girl lay down and slept, and the n^ress hid her, and when her husisand awoke, instead of his beautiful wife he found a negress. "Don't you know me?" said she. "I have got so black sitting here in the sun." He was obhged to believe this and took her home with him.
When his wife awoke she knew she had been betrayed, and going down the spring again came to her husband's castle and begged for shelter. The negress shut her up in the donkey's stall, and there she lived. One day they came and told the negress that the girl in the donkey's stall had got a gold hen and chickens, " but she will give them to no one but your husband."
The negress very much wanted to have them and said to her- self, " If I give my husband a magic draught and send him to her, she will be obliged to give them and no harm will come." So they did this. A little time after they told the negress, " The girl has got a gold table, but will only give it to your husband." So the negress prepared another magic draught.
Now the keeper of a cafe to which the young man used to go, had heard the girl in the stable telling all her story to herself, and he told it to her husband. Then her husband felt sure she must be his wife, and when the magic draught was brought him this time he poured it away and went to seek the girl. He found his wife, and the negress wras tied on a horse with pepper in his nose and two bags of nuts hung on him, and she was dashed to pieces.
XXV. The Jealous Kh^.
(Told by all old woman from Boudroum.)
Once upon a time there were a king and his queen. One day the king said to the queen, " I^t us go and lunch in our garden." So they went and lunched on the platform of the garden-tank under the shade of the trellised vine. For dessert, the king com- manded his negro slave to pick grapes from the vine. The slave picked them and put them on the table in a golden platter. The king was in great good humour, and ordered the negro to undress
■it.
•
(
I
(
324
Collectanea.
and swim in the tank to make sport. The queen, as they watched him swimming, said, " Why ! he looks just as pretty there in the water as these grapes in the golden dish." This made the king very angry, and he at once ordered the negro to be killed and flayed. He had his skin stuflfed, and every night he laid the queen on the stuffed negro and scourged her until he had broken forty switches, saying all the time, "Is there any one handsomer than your husband ? "
There was in the town a woman whose babies never lived, and she was advised to get clothes for her last baby from a woman who had no sorrow, and then it would live. All her friends had some sorrow, and she thought to herself, " The best thing I can do is to go to the queen, who is so rich and happy and can have no sorrow, and ask her to do me this kindnesss." So she called on the queen, and made her request. " Sit down," said the queen, " and we will make you a cup of coflfee. I want you to stay with me to-night, and to-morrow I will give you the clothes. The king, my husband, has not yet returned, and in order that he may not see you I will put you into this closet So don't be afraid." So the woman went into the closet, and through the keyhole she saw how the king laid his wife on the stuffed negro and scourged her till he broke the forty switches, saying all the time, "Is there any one handsomer than your hus- band ? " In the morning the queen called out the woman, and said to her, " You see that I have my sorrow. I wanted you to see it with your own eyes, or you would not have believed it." The woman said, "Now I see that there is no woman in the world without sorrow; but to-night, when the king uses you so and says, * Is there any one handsomer than your husband ? ' you must say to him, * Yes, the king of the seven veils {kKTavKeirosX and then he will go to find the seven-veiled king and will be eaten by the beasts that guard his palace, and you will be well rid of him."
So the queen took her advice, and when the king received this answer he left off scourging his wife and said to himself, " I must find this seven-veiled king." So he took ship, and where he landed he asked about the seven-veiled king. They told him, " It is very difficult to come to him, for his palace is guarded by three savage beasts, a lion, wolf, and panther; but if you will venture you must take with you three roast lambs stuffed with spices, and throw one to each of the beasts. So the king did, and thus gained
f/
Folktales from the j^gea,
entrance to the presence-chamber of the seven-veiled. When the seven-veiled saw him enter he called to his guardian beasts add asked, " How is it that ye allowed him to enter? " They answered, " He is a king like you, and we never in our lives ate anything so nice as what he gave us." Our king was sitting in great trepida- tion in the presence-chamber ; but when the beasts gave this answer, the seven-veiled lifted his veils, and asked hira why he had honoured him by the visit. Then the king told his story. "Was it so Ughtly," said the seven-veiled king, "that you punished your wife ? I had a wife, whom I detected in adultery with my slave, and she, from her shame, was changed into a mare. She is a woman down to her waist, but the rest of her is a mare. She is in my stable, and every day, when they take com to my other horses, I send her, instead of com, a basin of pearls to eat. And is your wife very pretty?" "There is none like her," said our king, and the seven-veiled clapped bis hands and a lovely girl entered. " Is she like this ? " " This is like the girl who makes her bed." Then he clapped his hands again and a still more lovely girl entered. "Is she like your wife?" "She is like her tiring-woman." Then the third time he struck himself on the breast and there entered one loveliest "Is this like her?" "More or less," said the king. " Then," said the seven-veiled, " I con- gratulate you. You will go back and make your peace with your wife and give her this carpet as a present from me, and ask her sometimes when she goes to the bath to sit on the carpet and remember the giver."
The king went back with the carpet, and gave it and the message, and his apologies for his harshness to his queen ; but the first time she sat on the carpet, away went the carpet with her to its master, the seven-veiled, and her original husband could not call her back, though he called as loud and long as he had strength.
W. R. Paton.
326
Collectanea.
The Kraal Family System among the Amandebele,
(Quoted by permission from the ^^ Zambesi Mission Record^^
Vol. /., No, 13,/. 442.)
Although the Amandebele have considerably departed from the customs of the Zulus, their ancestors, still they retain in many ways their usages as the basis of their presetit mode of living. One of these is the family kraal system.
It may as well be stated at once that the word kraal denotes the domestic establishment and usual place of residence of natives.
Oa Indhlunkulu (the great house)
Oa '» 2> 3> 4» houses affiliated^ to the Indhlunkulu.
Ob Chief Kunene house.
Ob I and 2, houses affiliated to the chief Kunene house.
Oc Chief Ikohlo house.
Oc ^ a^^ 2, houses affiliated to the chief Ikohlo house.
Ox huts in the kraal, but not having the family status.
The Isigodhlo is the upper part of a great chiefs kraal, occupied by his wives and secluded from common contact.
' Affiliation denotes the attachment of a junior house to a senior house for the purpose of providing against the failure of an heir in the latter.
The Kraal Family System ^c.
327
The smaller huts in the Isigodhlo, as also in the Kunene and Ikoklo, represent the dwellings of the children of the various houses, the girls having their huts nearest to their mother's hut, while the boys have theirs in front of the girls' habitations.
The Isigodhlo was found only in the great chiefs or Wing's kraal, as also in kraals of indunas, where a wife or wives of the great chief resided.
The above diagram shows the plan of construction of the lead- ing kraals in Matabeleland under Lobengula. It must not be supposed that ihe kraals were circular in shape, nor that regularity or symmetry were observed in the arrangement of the various sections. The kraals were sometimes oval, and often irregular in
I their outer boundary ; still the internal disposition of the sections was always observed in the kraals of the leading famihes of the country. This construction was noticeable at :
Others might be added, but these were some of the principal kraals of the country, together with their indunas.
It will be observed that a kraal consisted of four sections — the Indhlunkulu (the great house), the Kunene (the right side), the Jkohlo (the left side), and the portion allotted to mere retainers.
The sides of the kraal are, as viewed from the Indhlunkulu, facing the isango or main entrance by which the cattle walked into their enclosure, each kraal being provided also with smaller jOpenings, called intuba, for the convenience of the inhabitants.
Oa i" ^^ diagram represents the Indhlunkulu, and Qi, 2, 3,
|
Bulawayo, Jnduna, Umakwckwe |
|
|
■Mhlahlandlela |
, Ulutuli |
|
Emagogwene |
, Ugambu |
|
Amanguba |
, Mapcia |
|
Inyali |
, Ishibini |
|
'M tern ha |
, Ucugutwayo |
|
Umuzinyati |
, Uzulu |
|
Nena |
, Umgandeni |
|
Mambanjeni |
, Ujosana |
|
Usizindene |
. Mapisa |
|
Ujingeni |
|
|
Induba |
Uloje |
|
Ingwanga |
Ugodo. |
328 Collectanea,
and 4 represent the houses of the wives taken by the head of the kiaoL By marriage these houses are affiliated to die Indklunkulu,
Oq stands for die chief house on the right-hand side of the kraaL and is called the Kunene, Qq i and 2 are houses affiliated to the Kunene house.
Oq represents the dii^ house on the I^-hand sick of the kraalf and is known as the Ikohlo, Except in the case of great chie^ and others of position and who also were ridi in cattle, the establishment of thb house was unusuaL
Kraals were ^sometimes formed of houses not known as the Kunene and Ikohlo. When diis was the case houses not affiliated were independent of each other. In kraals thus formed, if the chief wife died during her husband's lifetime, the wife next in rank succeeded her, but without prejudice to the surviving children of the deceased.
The affiliadon of houses was brought about by the giving of catde or other property, generally goats, if catde were wanting, by and on behalf of an intended husband to the ^ther or guardian of an intended wife. This delivery of cattle or property is called awudoMoj Irequendy contracted into lo^io.
In Matabeleland, marriage entered into between natives, ac- cording to native law, is not an act of religion. It is merely a civil contract entered into by and between the two parties, assisted when necessary by their respective fathers or guardians, which contract is made valid by the delivery of lobolo. In practice, it is frequendy not distinguishable from the purchase of a wife by a man for the purpose of begetting children, among whom the girls when marriageable are disposed of to obtain lobolo^ which is used again to purchase other wives, the final object being to acquire position and substance through the possession of women and children
In Matabeleland, then, the native, in many instances, enters into marriage as a business speculation, and to acquire wealth through the medium of women, just as the white man engages in and carries on commerce through the medium of money. This is the conclusion I have arrived at after eighteen years of re- sidence among natives. One day, when I was expressing my disapproval of and aversion to polygamy to an old man verging on seventy, who had recently taken a young wife, he said : " Lx)ok here, we black people are not like you white people, we cannot
get rich by trading in goods; where are our articles to trade with? We have only our women, we can only get rich through them." This statement, at once candid and instructive, left no doubt as to the true nature and operation of lobolo in the case of this individual, and in ail probability his case is that of many others,
P. PRESTAGE, S.J.
Stories from Upper Egvpt. (Told byaCopt of Assiut, on board a Nile steamer, January 1901.)
I. One night a man, when walking down a street of his village, saw a giant before him with a face of fire and his legs planted one on each side of the pathway. The man turned and ran back, only to find the same giant once again similarly facing him. Thereupon he cried out. Some friends came to his aid, and the giant suddenly vanished. (Assiut.)
II. There was an unusually fine donkey for sale, and a man, who wished to purchase it, mounted the animal to give it a trial ride. It began immediately to grow taller and taller. But the man, who was very strong and was possessed of a knife, displayed the weapon and threatened to kill the donkey if it did not at once return to its former size. The beast consented, and the man was able to dismount again, (Assiut.)
III. A fellah (peasant) of Upper Egypt wished to marry, but, having no money, applied to his neighbour for a loan. The latter replied Chat he was too busy preparing to go to Cairo, and that he would lend him money upon his return. Accordingly the rich neighbour's boat, laden with corn, started down the Nile towards Cairo, and pursued an uneventful voyage until it reached the cliffs of Abdul Fflda. There it stopped, and, after using every effort, the Reis (captain) told his master that he could not make his ship move. Suddenly a man appeared on board. The owner asked him his business. The stranger replied, " At how much do you value your corn?" "Why do you ask?" said the owner. " I want to buy it," came the answer. The owner said, " I value my com at five hundred guineas." " Then," exclaimed the stranger, " throw it into the Nile." This was done ; and thereupon the stranger gave the owner a paper, saying, "Take this to the
330 Collectanea.
slaughter-house in Cairo. You will find there a very dirty dog in
front of the house sitting on its hind legs. Give it this paper, and
it will procure you the money." Although he disbelieved all this,
the man took the paper, and when he reached Cairo went to the
slaughter-house, where he found several clean good dogs, and
finally a dirty one sitting on its hind legs. He gave it the paper.
The dog read it, and said, " I will give you the money to-morrow.
Return here at this time." The next day, when the man revisited
the dog, he was told, " Come again to-morrow for the rest. I give
you now half the money you require." On the morrow the dog
said, " To-day I can complete three-quarters of the full amount.
You shall receive the remainder to-morrow." On the following
day the last instalment was paid. " Tell me," inquired the man of
the dog, " who are you, who was he who gave me the paper, and
how did you procure the money?" The dog replied, "The
man whom you met is my king, and I am his slave. It was my
king that wished to marry, but he had no corn. On the first day
after you came here I could not find sufficient money for you.
When a thief stole money, I also stole. Where he stole one
guinea,^ I stole six. Thus I obtained for you the money." (Nile
Valley, between Assiut and Luxor.)
C. S. Myers.
Rhymes, English and Hindu.
I. I. From Mr. Hills, a very old labourer, of Compton, near Newbury, June, 1900.2
Chum, butter, churn ! Come, butter, come ! Peter stands at our gate. Wailing for a butter-cake. Chum, butter, churn ! Come, butter, come !
' The word ** guinea " has become universally Arabicized in Egypt. It means an Egyptian pound, i.e,, 100 piastres = ;£^i os. dd. It is the only common Egyptian word for such a coin, which is, as a fact, very rare, English gold being used (with the additional pence), as the equivalent of it.
- Ellis's Brandy iii., 313. It is interesting to find a charm in use 350 years ago still extant, and in a more complete form than that originally recorded.
Rhymes^* English and Hindu. 331
2. From the same.
There was an old woman lived under a hill, And three thieves came to rob her,
She cried out,
And made a great rout, For the thieves had a mind to stab her.
She ran fourteen miles in fifteen days, And never looked behind her.
She got in a wood,
And there she stood. And the thieves could never find her.
3. From the same.
There was an old man, and he had an old cow. And how to keep her he didn't know. He built up a bam to keep his cow warm, And a little more drink it will do you no harm !
There was an old man, and he had an old cat. And she kep' herself most wonderful fat. And always was catching the mice in the bam. And a little more drink will do us no harm.
4. From Mrs. Shaw, an old woman since dead. Pinkney's Green, 1898.
Cicely Parsley lived in a den. She brewed good ale for gentlemen. Gentlemen came there twice a day, Yet Cicely Parsley ran away !
5. From the same.
Little pretty Nancy girl.
She sat upon the green. Scouring of her candlesticks,
They were not very clean. Her cupboard, that was musty, Her table, that was dusty ; And pretty little Nancy girl, she was not very lusty !
6. From the same.
Green sleeves, yellow lace,
Maids, maids, many a pace.
The bachelors are in a pitiful case.
They kiss away all their money O !
332 Collectanea.
7. From a MS., dated 1740, lent by the late Mrs. Samuel Plumbe, High Street, Maidenhead. Supposed to be Wiltshire.
" I prithee, Molly, whistle,
And you shall have a cow.'' " I fear I cannot whistle,
I cannot whistle now."
** I prithee, Molly, whistle,
And you shall have a man." *' I fear I cannot whistle,
But I'll whistle as well as I can."
(See variants in Northall's English Folk-Rhymes^ p. 295.)
8. From the same.
Fiddle-de-dee, fiddle-de-dee !
The wasp has married the humble bee !
Puss came dancing out of the bam
With a pair of bagpipes under her arm.
One for Johnnie and one for me,
Fiddle-de-dee, fiddle-de-dee I The bull's in the bam, thrashing the com, The cock on the dunghill is blowing his horn. I never saw such a sight since I was bom !
9. From the singing, or rather chaunting, of children in Norfolk.
I had a little nabby colt, (?)
His name was Dapple-grey, His head that was made of pease-straw,
His tail that was made of hay. I had a little nabby colt
No bigger than my finger, I bridled him and saddled him,
And sent him in to town. I sent him to the garden
To pick a little sage. He popped into the kitchen
And kissed the pretty maids.
Kate Lee.
IT. Heard at Wensleydale, Yorkshire.
Shak' a leg, shak' a leg, Where will t' gang ?
Gang wi' me mammy. When days is lang.
When days is lang And loans is dry.
Rhymes^ English and Hindu. 333
Gang wi' me mammy To milk cushie kye. And when we come to t* st/e Then vi^jounip o'er 't I
Margaret Eyre.
III. A riddle, from Moriey, near Wakefield.
Peter Flickem had a bam [child], It had neither leg nor arm, It had neither back nor belly, Eh, poor thing ! they called it Nelly.
Answer, An umbrella.
S. O. Addy.
IV. From Secunderabad, Deccan.
** Konga, konga, ammavari gudilo, poovaisi po, Konga, konga, ammavari gudilo, poovaisi po."
" Crane, crane, put a flower in the goddess's temple."
Thus repeat boys and girls in a sing-song tune on seeing a flight of white cranes in the skies, rubbing at the same time the nails of the four fingers (but not the thumb) of one hand with those of the other, with the hope that white specks, which they compare to a flower, will appear on the nail, which they call a goddess's temple, from its shape. The figure is very apt. No speck appears there and then, but on seeing a speck which they have not noticed before, they contend that it appeared there and then.
2. A boy's riddle.
" Eka, eka, kai, Paka, paka, kai, Kuloo, bundoo kai, Naila burdoo kai, Jagat jhoti kai."
Eka^ eka, fruit. Ripe, ripe fruit, Joint'fastening fruit, Naila burdu fruit, Light-unto-the-world fruit.
The meaning of the words in italics is difficult to trace ; they are not found in a dictionary.
[The answer to the riddle, if we understand Mr. Venkataswami's notes rightly, is " Man."]
334 Collectanea. ,
3. " Chunda mama, Chunda mama, chhakanga rayai ! Golakonda pothamoo, Gorraini testamu. Gorrai buddaidu pilu ichhay Pilu teesookoni komatodiki ichhai ; Komatodoo cobbaira bellamu ichhai ; Cobbaira bellamu teesookoni swamilli ichhay ; Swami poovoo ichhay, Poovoo teesookoni ma akka koppulo pettinanu."
" Uncle moon, uncle moon, come straight ! [We] shall go to Golconda, [And] bring an ewe. The ewe gave a bottle of milk ; Taking the milk [we] gave it to [the] Komati ; ' The Komati gave cocoanut zx\A jaggery ;^ Taking the cocoanut ^nA jaggery ^ we gave to God ; The God gave [a] flower ; Taking the flower [I] put it in my sister's braid of hair."
Thus repeats the father or elderly person, pointing out the moon to the crying child, and soothing him to quiet
4. B&vi, b&vS, bullairu, Bivani putti tunnairu, Eedi eedi tippairu Era gimdum poosairu.
" Brother-in-law, brother-in-law, is a built root. Brother-in-law is caught and kicked, Paraded from street to street. And rubbed [with ?] dirt-paste.'*
Thus repeats the younger sister-in-law, with a view to deride her brother-in-law.
y 5> A pancha voka kookka,
Ij E pancha voka kookka,
Nadi pancha ma biv4 kookka [j- Vundaina voka vailla vonto kookka.
** On this side of the/(ya/' there's a dog, On that side of the piyal there's a dog, In the centre of the piyal there's my brother-in-law dog, [Who] was at one time a solitary dog."
' Aomali, a shopkeeper, merchant.
" I^Sf^^i juice of the sugar-cane, unrefined sugar.
' Piyal J a roof on posts, erected over a platform.
Rhymes^ English and Hindu. 335
So says the younger sister-in-law, in a sing-song tone, con- trasting the condition of her brother-in-law before he had married her sister ; a condition which she regards as that of a dog snarling at everything. Amongst Hindus celibacy is looked down upon. Every Hindu is a married man.
6. Nagi, Nagi, nuUairu, Nagini putti tunnairu Cheekati kottulo vaisairu Chuppidi gungi posairoo.
" Nagi, Nagi is a nulli root. Nigi is caught and kicked ; [She is] put in a dark room And given conjee^ without salt"
Thus repeats one female playmate of another by way of a taunt. Nagi is the name of a girl. It is not known what is meant by nulli root.
M. N. Venkataswami.
24th August, 1900; 7th February, 1901,
' Conjee^ porridge, any kind of sloppy food.
CORRESPONDENCE.
History, Tradition, and Historic Myths.
Professor Ridgeway's recently published Earfy Age of Greue raises questions the correct answer of which is of much interest to folklorists, and which admit of discussion apart from any special reference to the author's thesis and to the arguments by which he supports it Stated generally, this thesis is that the present Greek-speaking area has been inhabited as far back as we know, by populations speaking varieties of that form of Aryan designated Gredc ; that these populations, called Pela^an in the eariiest times to whidi we have access, developed the civilisation known as Mycenaean, a dvilisation which owed little to the older cultures of the Euphrates and Nile Valleys or to the cultures influenced by them; that this civilisation was, in the period 1 500-1 300 B.C., influenced by the incursions of a tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed race, speaking a variety of Aryan akin to Celtic, and possessing a culture substantially similar to that revealed by the Hallstadt cemeteries, a culture which had for its dis- tinctive sign the use of iron, by which the far ruder invaders were enabled to overcome the more highly civilised Pelasgians, who only used bronze weapons. These invaders, the Achaeans of the Homeric poems, adopted the language of the Pelasgians, upon which, however, they imposed phonetic changes, and they ultimately became entirely fused with the earlier populations. The Homeric poems are the work of a. Pelasgian court bard, attached to descendants of the invading Achsan chiefs, and the civilisation he describes is that of the Achaean Celts, partly modified by that of the older Pelasgians they had subdued. Historic Greece derives its culture, blood, and speech substantially from the pre-Achaean Pelasgians, but with modifications due to the Achseans.
Professor Ridgewa3r's arguments are chiefly archaeological; with these I have nothing to do. But he also relies largely upon the traditions concerning their origin and early history found among Greek writers from the time of Hesiod {circa 800 b.c.) onwards. He practically assumes the substantial value and accuracy of
Cor respondence.
337
^
profi:
these traditions ; and his work marks the high water of a period of reaction from the critical scepticism, inaugurated by Niebuhr, which dominated scholarly research throughout the greater part of the nineteenth century. I say " practically assumes " because the author makes no attempt to discuss the nature and import of such traditions. The test he applies is, whether they accord with the theories he bases upon archaeological, anthropological, and general historic evidence. Is this sufficient?
Let me put a case. If Western Europe had been overwhelmed in the fifteenth century by a Turkish invasion, if the monuments of its culture had been largely destroyed, if the chief representatives of that culture (the priestly and warrior classes) had been driven into holes and corners but not extirpated, if after a lapse of centuries the wave of barbarism had receded, leaving West European culture sadly mutilated, wofully diminished, but still persisting, what account would the intelligent Aztec or New Zealander have found concerning its earliest origins ? Alike in the British Isles as in France, in Italy as in the remotest north, he would come across stories of wanderers from the Far East to whom the chieftain classes were proud to trace their descent, and concerning whom the priestly antiquary class had traditions based upon wrirings which had disappeared, but which were asserted to have been universally accepted as true. Here the eponymous hero-founder would be called Francus, there Brutus, nor could our Aztec savant fail to note that traces still remained of national and tribal desig- nations obviously related to the names of these heroes. Assuming that fragments of any historical works of the pre-invasion period were discovered, say fourteenth -century compilations based upon Geoffrey or Fredegarius, or an Icelandic chronicle on the lines of the Prologue to Snorre's Edda, they would definitely confirm what had been recovered from oral tradition.
Now we know thai the TViy Saga, the legend which places a fugitive from Ilium at the outset of some of the chief nations of modem Europe, is destitute of any and every kind of basis, histori- cal, racial, archaeological, or linguistic. We know it to be sheer, absolute fiction. Vet for centuries it was regarded as gospel truth ; it was embodied in every national chronicle, in every princely genealogy ; it was relied upon by statesmen and monarchs ; it was accepted by the learned cleric and by the wandering minstrel. The profoundest acquaintance with the facts disclosed by archaological
VOL. XII. Z
I
i
1 338 Correspondence.
or anthropoto^cal research could fumish our hypothetical Aztec savant with no reasons for disregarding traditioDs so widely spread and supported, apparently, by so many concurrent strands of evidence.
I do not for one moment assert that the Greek traditions are to be placed on the same level as the mediteval fables concerning Brutus and Francus. That would be begging the question which has to be answered. What I do assert is that any scholar who intends to rely upon tradition should as an indispensable pre- hminary make clear to himself and to his readers what opinion he really holds concerning its nature. Especially when, as is the case with Professor Ridgeway, the tradition is sometimes accepted, sometimes disregarded. He argues strongly for the original, non- derivative character of early Greek (pre-Achsean) civilisation. But most undoubtedly the historic Greek had very strong and very definite traditions to the contrary. If these are to be disregarded as completely as they are by our author, I, for one, should reiiuire better warrant for the acceptance of other traditions than their accord with theories based upon arch Geological evidence. Again, Professor Ridgeway treats the Achjean invasion as a mere episode in the evolution of Greek culture. The Achseans, he tells us, were probably few in number, they do not seem to have brought their women with them to any extent, they mei^ed with comparative rapidity into the conquered population. Large portions of Greece (e.g. Arcadia) remained unaffected by them, their own language died out utterly, their funereal rites and conception of life after death (after finding a record in the Homeric poems) died out also, their influence upon Greek art was transitory and unessential. All this may be true, but it would most assuredly have astounded a con- temporar)', whether of Hesiod or of Herodotus; he would have stoutly protested that it ran counter to all his traditional views, and indeed we, Professor Ridgeway's readers, are left wondering why on earth the Hellenic world should have accepted a set of stories about alien barbarians as an almost sacred record of its most famous past. There is a valid psycholc^ica! justification for the fabrication and belief in the Troy Saga and similar medisval fictions : namely, the tendency which leads the MuUins family to swallow the ingenious fables of Garter King at Arms concerning that doughty companion of the Conqueror, De Moleyns, from whom he traces their descent; the natural desire, that is, to
Correspondence. 339
believe that one is connected with a person or society of higher standing than oneself. But ex hypothisi Ridgewayii, the Achseans were the low-class parvenus.
Professor Ridgeway, I have said, accepts such Greek traditions as fit in with his thesis as being substantially valuable and accurate. I do not mean that he necessarily pledges himself to the actual existence of the heroes or to their sequence. Sometimes he appears to do so, but sometimes he seems to treat the traditions as historic myths. By this I mean that a story is regarded not as the actual record of the adventures of a hero named A or B, but as summing up in concrete form the relations of groups of men represented, for the sake of convenience and picluresqueness, by A and B. Here, I venture to raise a question which I raised nine years ago at the Second International Congress of Folklore: Is there such a thing as historic myth at all ? Do men commemorate tribal wanderings, settlements, conquests, subjugations, acquisitions of new forms of culture, or any of the other incidents in the collective life of a people in the form of stories about individual men and women? I do not for one moment deny the possibility of their so doing ; all I ask for is evidence of the fact. Obviously this evidence cannot be furnished by any examination of the legendary traditions of byegone peoples, Greeks or Celts, or Teutons, or Aitecs, or even Maoris ; it can only be furnished by the examination of the legends of such barbaric peoples as are still living in an oral -traditional mythopojic stage of culture. I ask again, do such peoples, apart from stories about actual men and women and their achievements, yield examples of " historic myth " — of an historic process, thai is, involving ihe fortunes of a collective group translated into the terms of individual lives ? I believe in naturalistic myths, that is in natural processes translated into the terms of human life, because I find barbarian and savage races all over the world, not only relating and accepting such myths, but still engaged in their fabrication. I am quite wilting to accept historic myths on the same evidence.
To any folklore student eager for a fruitful line of research I would recommend, lirstly, a methodical examination of the nature and value of tradition, especially of historic or pseu do -historic tradition ; secondly, an endeavour to determine whether " historic myth " is a substantial fact or a mere figment of mythologists. Alfred Nutt.
340 Correspondence.
Customs relating to Iron.
(Vol. X., p. 457. Vol. xi., p. 105.)
The late Miss Florence Peacock had observed that a nurse some- times heated the water in which a newly-born child is washed by plunging into it a red-hot poker, and supposed that the virtue of this act resided in the iron. I, who had observed midwives heat water for a lik^ purpose by casting into it red-hot cinders, sug- gested that these customs were a survival of the use of "pot- boilers," viz. the practice of raising the temperature of water by putting hot stones into it.
I have recently come upon a passage in the Saxon Leechdoms, (Rolls ed., ii. 218-219), which confirms the latter view : —
" edc hylp-S gif m6n " Also it helpeth if one mid ea stanum with water-stones ^
onbaernedum, offe mid fired, or with
hatene isene, J)a meoliic heated iron, the milk
gefyrS 7 self drincan." tumeth and giveth to drink."
^ Understand such stones as would bear to be heated and plunged in water. — \^Editor's note^ op, «/.]
Here the iron is to be used simply as an alternative to " pot- boilers" for the purpose of heating milk, and not because it possessed any magical virtue. But it affords an illustration of the influence of ferric metallurgy on the early customs of mankind, and makes it probable that the method of tempering iron by heating it and plunging it into water had long before been dis- covered.
On the other hand the Leechdoms (vol. i., pp. 244-245) furnish a pretty example of the superstitious use of iron ; especially when a necessary correction has been made of a mis-writing by the scribe and a corresponding mistake of the editor and translator. " This wort which is named fiavbpayopas is large and noble of aspect, and it is beneficial. Thou shalt in this manner take it when thou comest to it. Then thou understandest it by this that at night it seemeth all like a light-vessel (lamp)."
C'jrrespondence.
" Jwnne |)U hyre heaford serest geseo |ionne bepnC [bepri'5] pu hy pel hra{>e raid iserne fy Iffis heo |>e astfleo."
" When thou its head first seest
then inscribe [encircle] thou it instantly with iron lest it flee from thee."
" Its might is so great and so marvellous that Trom an unclean man, when he cometh to it, it will instantly flee. So therefore
|)U hy beprit [bepri^S]
do thou it inscribe [encircle]
as we before said, with iron ; and thou shalt so about it dig that thou touch it not with iron. But thou shalt carefully dig the earth with an ivory staff (spade)."
This last injunction, that the mandrake must not be touched with iron, shows that the instruction to inscribe it with iron must be erroneous. The change of a single letter, th for t, bewrith for beu'rit, makes everything clear. The iron was to be used for sur- rounding the wort with a magic circle. This is evident from Pliny's account (//"«/. Nat.^ xxv., 13), which relates that persons about to obtain the mandrake Rrst of all draw three circles round it with a sword, " tribus circulisantegladio circumscribunt, portea fodiunt ad occasura," and afterwards dig it up at sunset.
Here, too, we perhaps reach the origin of the Saxon writer's confusion ; he may have taken circumscribunt for inscribunt.
H. CoLLEV March.
The Transition from Totemism to Ancestor Worship. {Ante, p. 36.)
Facts are in ethnology very apt to upset theories. It does not always fall to the lot of the ethnologist to find that a hypothetical stage of development postulated by his theory actually exists, Mr. Hartland is, however, in this happy position. In his Presi- dential Address he suggested, but without being able to cite any actual case, that from the additional emphasis laid on the clan
342 Correspondence.
name in the case of the chief it would result that he would longest preserve the totem form after death. The following facts seem to supply the missing link in his chain of evidence. The Betsileos and other tribes of Madagascar seem to be, like the Bantu people, emerging from a stage of totemism. It is, or was, universally believed that the souls of members of certain clans passed after death into the bodies of animals. Each person seems to have known beforehand into what animal he would pass, the nobles into a snake, the middle-class into a crocodile, and the lower classes into an eel. It was not, however, the privilege of every noble to occupy a separate snake. The chief of the clan aff6rded accommodation in his totem-animal to the souls of his nobles, to the women, to the children, &c. {Les Missions catholiqueSy 1880, p. 550.)
The process of transmigration is too long to describe in detail, but an interesting point in connection with the metempsychosis of the lower classes may be noted. The soul passed into the first eel which took a bite at the corpse after it was thrown into the sacred lake.
How far the facts I have quoted may be taken to support Mr. Hartland's theory is of course another question. There may have been an earlier stage, but totemism in South Africa, as we know it at present, is, I submit, a form of ancestor-worship. If I have not misunderstood Mr. Hartland, his initial assumption is that the souls of the clan pass into some species of animal, which is respected on that account. This may not be ancestor-worship pure and simple, but still it is ancestor-worship, I, submit; and if this is so, does not Mr. Hartland's theory begin where it should have ended? Surely, in tracing the development of ancestor- worship from totemism, we must not assume the belief that the souls of the dead pass into animals which are therefore respected.
If, on the other hand, Mr. Hartland's theory is intended to show how South African ancestor-worship may have lost its totem- istic features, it is not clear why we should lay stress on the totem- form being confined to the chief. The germ of ancestor-worship is already present in the respect paid to the animals. When the social side of totemism fell into the background in the manner described by Mr. Hartland, the religious idea would hardly remain unchanged. It may well have happened that the sojourn of the soul in the body of the animal came in process of time to be
Correspondence. 343
regarded as lemporary, and for the period of the animal's life only. After the death of the animal the soul reached its final resting-place and received the honours and offerings characteristic of a cult of ancestors, If the social side of totemism had fallen 3 the background, the intermediate stage might well drop out. ' Whether this was the case, or whether the dead were believed to return in the form of any animal at will, it does not seem neces- sary to lay stress on the part played by ihe authority of the chief. The Madagascar facts show us, as I have said, the stage postulated by Mr. Hartland, but I suggest a different interpretation of them I from his. To me they seom rather to point to the way in which [ totemism may have been transformed into the cult of animals. N- \S. Thomas.
Spectral Lights.
(An/f, p. 105.)
It is not necessary to look abroad for "spectral lights." In
' the sea loch which severs Appin from Maraore, and between Ball.ichulish Hotel and Glencoe, the lights abound. There they are seen (by educated Lowlanders, too) on the Isle of St. Mun, an old place of burial, and on the opposite side of the loch, on the road to Callert. When I was at Carnoch House last year, opposite Invercoe, an English friend of mine observed the light closely, and about 10.30 p.m. in late August, the Ballachulish villagers turned out to stare and wonder. The lights moved rapidly down the road to Callert, then climbed the hill side, then went down to the shore of the loch. My friend could form no theory to account for their nature and movements, which are rapid. The country people have various hypotheses, all super- normal. No doubt there is a natural explanation, but. so far, conjecture has been baffled. They are no/ corpse lights, for they are visible to all, not merely to the second -sigh led.
The late Dr. Stewart (Nether Locbaber), who lived near Onich, on the further side of the loch, told me that a woman called him out one night to see a bright light on a rock on the
I shore.
344 Correspondence.
" Phosphorescence from decaying seaweed," said the doctor.
"There will be a corpse there to-morrow," said the woman. And a corpse was landed under the rock, from a boat.
The doctor looked for the decaying sea-weed of his explanation. He found none.
The local second-sighted man, a most interesting person, is wont to find the bodies of the drowned by the lights above them. He kindly gave me an account of the beginning of his powers. The whole story was "weird" enough, but I fear this is not folklore, is it?
A. Lang.
Miss Weston's " Guingamor."
{Ante, p. 1 1 6.)
May I point out in reference to -Miss Hull's review of Miss Weston's Guingamor that, as the title plainly states, the /ais are " rendered," not " adapted." Miss Weston's rendering is in fact exceedingly close, and represents the twelfth-century French as faithfully as is possible save in an avowed crib.
A. NUTT.
Blacksmiths' Festival. {Ante, p. 217.)
The following appeared in the Church Times on November 23rd, 1894, in "Peter Lombard's" notes.
" St. Clement is held to be the patron saint of blacksmiths. . . . Readers of Dickens will remember how Joe Gargery and his assistants hammered away at their forge to the musical accom- paniment of * Old Clem.' A year ago, apropos of St. Clement's Day (23rd inst.), a correspondent sent me the following, which he says used to be read, with accompanying song, in some Hampshire villages, eg. Twyford and Hursley, on this day : —
" It came to pass when Solomon, the son of David, had finished the Temple of Jerusalem that he called unto him the
Cnrrespondenci
chief architects, the head architects, the head artificers, and cunning workers in silver and gold, in wood and ivory, and in stone, yea, all who had aided in rearing the Temple of the Lord, and he said unto them, 'Sit ye down at my table. I have prepared a feast for all the cunning artificers and chief workers. Stretch forth your hands, therefore, and eat and drink and be merry. Is not the labourer worthy of his hire? Is not the skilful artificer worthy of his honour? Muzzle not the ox that trcadeth out the corn.' And when Solomon and the chief workers were seated, and the fatness of the land and the wine and oil thereof were set upon the table, there came one who knocked loudly at the door and thrust himself into the festal chamber. Then Solomon the King was wroth, and the stranger said, ' When men wish to honour me they call me the Son of the Forge, but when they desire to mock me they call me the black- smith; and seeing that the toil of working in the fire covers me with sweat and smut, the latter name, O King, is not inapt, and in that thy servant desires no better.' ' But," said Solomon, ' why come ye thus rudely and unbidden to the feast where none but the chief workers of the Temple are invited ?' ' Please you, my Lord, I came rudely,' replied the man, 'because thy servants obliged me to force my way, but I came not unbidden. Was it not proclaimed that the chief workmen of the Temple were invited with the King of Israel?' Then he who car\'ed the cherubim said, 'This fellow is no sculptor.' And he who inlaid the roof with pure gold said, ' Neither is he a worker in fine metals.' And he who raised the walls said, 'He is no cutter in stone.' And he who made the roof cried out, 'He is not cunning in cedar wood, neither knoweth he the mystery of knitting strange pieces of timber together.' Then said Solomon, ' What hast thou to say. Son of the Forge, why I should not order thee to be plucked by the beard, scourged by the scourge, and stoned to death with stones ? ' And when the Son of the Forge heard this, he was in no sort dismayed, but advancing to the table snatched up and swallowed a cup of wine and said, ' O King, live for ever ! The ■ chief workers in wood and gold and stone have said I am not of them, and they have said truly. I am their superior. Before they lived 1 was created. I am their master and they ate my servants.' And he turned him round, and said to the chief carver in stone, 'Who made the tools with which you carve?' And he said,
I
3
I
346 Correspondence.
*The blacksmith.' And he said to the chief mason, *Who made the chisel with which the stones of the temple were squared?' And he said, *The blacksmith.' And he said to the chief worker in wood, * Who made the tools with which you felled the trees of Lebanon and made into the pillars and roof of the temple ? ' And he answered, * The blacksmith.' * Enough, enough, good fellow,' said Solomon, *thou hast proved that I invited thee, and thou art all men's father. Go and wash the smut of the forge from thy face and come and sit at my right hand. The chief of workmen are but men, thou art more.' So it happened that the feast of Solomon and the blacksmiths has been honoured ever since."
T. W. E. HiGGENS.
A Sussex version of the story is given in a paper entitled " Sussex Songs and Music," by Mr. F. E. Sawyer, printed in the Journal of the British Archaological Association^ vol. xlii., pp. 306- 327 (1886), besides other notes relating to the blacksmiths* festival. Mr. Sawyer prints two or three special toasts that were used at the annual dinner held in honour of " Old Clem." ^ I wonder if anybody has ever made a collection of toasts that were formerly used in connection with trades, &c.
Perhaps the following rhyme, if unrecorded, may be interesting.
** * Little Billy Shortcoat, can you make a nail ? ' * Yes, master, that I can, as well as any other man. Smite, Jack ; hit, Tom ; Blow the bellows, old man.' " *
It was repeated to me by an old farmer, a native of West Sussex, from whom I have recently noted a good many folk-songs.
W. Percy Merrick.
' See also Folk- Lore Journal ^ ii., p. 321.
^ Cf, F. L.J,i iv., p. 146, and Shropshire Folklore y p. 571.
Cor re span dence.
"The Golden Bouc
MoAB OR Edom ?
{Anle,x>. 2I9-)
In vol, ii., p. so, of The Golden Bough, Mr. Frazer, discussing the supposed Semitic practice of sacriRcing the lirst-barn son as substitute for the father, refers to the incident recorded in 3 Kings iii. 27 as a definite instance of such a sacrifice. Some years ago this passage attracted my attention, and, studying it in connection with Amos ii. i, I came to the conclusion that the interpretation which, on a casual reading of the veree, one would most readily assign to it was not the correct interpretation, i.t. it was the son not of the King of Moab, but of the King of Edom, who was sacrificed.
The grammatical construction of the fMissage in Kings admits of the pronoun his being applied to either king, while Amos directly slates lliat Moab "burned the bones of the King of Edom into lime." As 1 understand the passages, the position was this : the King of Edom, Moab's old ally, had taken part against this latter; Moab endeavoured to reach him directly, but failed to do so ; he therefore adopted an indirect means of breaking off the alliance with Israel by slaying the King of Edom's son, who by some unexplained means was in his power. The result was exactly what was aimed at, "there was great wrath against Israel" (not, as we might have expected, against Moab), and the siege was raised, i.€. the King of Edom saw he had gained nothing by changing sides ; the loss of his son was more to him than that of a tribute of sheep to Israel, and he broke off the alliance.
If these two passages are really connected with each other, it follows that the incident Is not one which can fairly be quoted in support of Mr. Frazer's argument; yet it is the only definite case of such sacrifice which he produces; otherwise the practice is only a matter of inference.
Jessie L, Weston.
The Li;cK of Mvcekje.
It may interest readers to quote a curious passage from Accius. In a fragment of his Atreus, he speaks of a "golden lamb, the
348 Correspondence.
mainstay of my rule," preserved in the palace, which Thyestes stole away :
Adde hue quod mihi portento caelestum pater Prodigium misit regni stabilimen mei, Agnum inter pecudes aurea clarutn coma, Quondam Thyestem clepere aurum ex regia.
W. H. D. Rouse.
Horses' Heads. (Vol. xi., p. 322.)
I do not know if the following cutting from the Pembroke County Echo is worth anything, but I enclose it on the chance.
Florence Grove.
" A Strange Discovery at Jordanston.
" To the Editor of the County Echo,
" Sir, — Some time last year a paragraph appeared in your paper to the effect that a horse's head had been found under the flooring of a room at Poyston, near Haverfordwest, and it was suggested — whether by an archaeologist or a reporter I do not know — that as Poyston was the birthplace of the late Lieutenant-General Picton, G.C.B., who fell at Waterloo in 18 15, that the find was the head of his * favourite' charger. I very much question this theory myself. In laying down a new floor here last week twenty horses' heads were found. I believe it was customary very many years ago (I may say this house dates back to the Elizabethan era, over 300 years ago) to put horses' head under the flooring to cause an echo in the room. At any rate I do not think anyone would have the temerity to say that Colonel Vaughan, who died here in 1798, caused the heads of twenty * favourite' chargers to be interred under the flooring of a room — with all due solemnity of course. I have had all the heads put back, not from any fear of a visit from the colonel for disturbing the resting place of his « favourite ' chargers' heads, but to cause an echo, and I have no
Correspondence. 349
doubt that should the flooring be taken up in any very old houses that like discoveries would be made. — I am, &c,, H. W. Thomas. "Jordanston, May, 8/A, 1901."
[The above possesses a melancholy interest as the last com- munication we shall receive from Miss Florence Grove. But a few days after despatching it, Miss Grove died very suddenly in her rooms at Chelsea, on the i4lh June last. The main work of her life lay in philanthropic labours, in connection with the Board of Guardians and otherwise, for the benefit of the poor of Chelsea, where she had lived since her father's death some eight years ago. She only joined the Folk-Lore Society in 1895, but she took up the subject with her accustomed energy, and her work in con- nection with the Lecture Committee, the idea of which she originated, and of which she was always the leading spirit, soon won for her a place on the Society's Council. She was one of the most regular and business-like attendants at the Council meetings, and the gap she leaves there will be sensibly felt by all who were her fellow-workers in the Society. — Ed.]
New Year Customs in Hehekordshire.
The enclosed cutting from the Z'ai/c Graphic of ist January, 898, has been sent me by a correspondent. The custom described is new to me, and I hope you will give it a place in \ Folk-Lort.
J. G. Frazer.
"A strange custom still lingers in out-of-the-way country places I in Herefordshire, On New Year's Day, very early in the morn- ing, the farm boys go out and cut branches of the blackthorn, which they weave into a kind of globe of thorns. Then a la:^e fire of straw is made in the farmyard, in which the globe of thorns is slightly burnt, while all the inmates of the farm stand, hand in J- hand, in a circle round the fire, shouting, in a monotonous voice, I the words " Old Cider," prolonging each syllable to its utmost
350 Correspondence.
extent When the globe of thorns is slightly charred, it is taken indoors and hung up in the kitchen, when it brings good luck for the rest of Uie year. Old people say that in their youth the practice was general in all country places in Herefordshire, and it was a pretty sight on New Year's morning to see the fires burning all over the neighbourhood Another custom still in use is, to take a particular kind of cake, and on New Year's morning to bring a cow into the farmyard and place the cake on her head. The cow walks forward, tosses her head, and the cake foils, and the prosperity of the New Year is foretold from the direction of its foU."
[The above passage was alluded to by Miss Mabel Peacock in Folk-Lore, x., 489 (" A Crown of Thorns "), referring to the AnH- quary^ February, 1898, where it is quoted in fulU with a reproduc- tion of the cut depicting the "globe." The latter appears to consist of two transverse circles placed perpendicularly, and another placed horizontally across them, like a hollow globe formed of four lines of longitude and the equator. This, with or without the '* equator," is a common form of decorative *' garland" in the Western Midlands, where it may be seen on festive occa- sions made in flowers and leaves, and hanging from the cross- staves of maypoles, the centres of triumphal arches, and the ceilings of farm-kitchens.
We are indebted to Miss M. C. Ffennell for unearthing the following additional particulars from the Daily Graphic of January 8th, 1898. Two other letters appeared on the same date, but need not be reprinted. In one, the cry " Old Cider ! " is derived from Osiris ! — Ed.]
"Will you allow me to suggest that your correspondent's account of the 'strange custom which still lingers in out-of-the way places in Herefordshire ' scarcely represents the actual facts ? In the first place, the blackthorn *bush' is more like a crown than a globe, and the fire is not made in the farmyard, where it would endanger the buildings, but on the * headland ' of one of the wheatfields ; and the bush to be burnt is not a newly-cut one, but an old one which has been hanging in the farm kitchen for the past twelve months, its place being supplied by a new one every year. The bush when well lighted is usually carried across several ridges of newly planted wheat ; the number which can be traversed while the bush still remains alight being considered an
Correspondence. 35 :
omen or forecast of the number of successful (farming) months ii the year . . . . — E, L. Cave,"
" Bromyard [Herefordshire], ist January, 1898."
Whitsuntide Fate and Mock Burials.
As I understand that some inieresi has been excited by a para- graph on " Whitsuntide Superstitions" which I contributed to the Daily Chromck of the 27th May last, I write to soy that the belief that a prayer offered at sunrise on Whitsunday morning cannot fail to be granted, will be found in Arise Evans's Echo to ike Voice /mm Heaven, or a Narrative of his Life, iiii2, p. 9, quoted in ElHs's Brand, i., 283. My authority for the rest of the paragraph is the following passage from the autobiographical reminiscences of Mary Leadbeater, a Quaker lady of Ballitore, county Kildare, 1758-1816:—
[iSji.] "On Whit*Sunday a child was bom to I'at Mitchell, a labourer. It is said that the child born on that day is fated to kill or be killed. To avert this doom a little grave was made, the infant laid therein, with clay lightly sprinkled on it and sods sup- ported by twigs covering the whole, 'I'hua was the child buried, and at its resurrection deemed to be freed from the malediction," (The Leadbeater Papers, 18G2, vol. i., 403.)
M. F. Johnston.
A district visitor in Newton Abbot, Devonshire, on visiting an old man who suffered from rheumatism, found him unusually spry and cheerful. " Oh, yes'm," he said, " I be better, sure. I knew I should be if I took the right remedy, iliough 'tain'i a pleasant one." The lady asked him what the remedy was, and after some pressing he said that he had " made it all right with sexton," and had gone up at night to Woolborough churchyard, and had laid himself down in a new-made grave, " and of course if 1 did that, I knew my rheumatis would be cured, and so it be."
This happened two years ago. The only point on which my memory fails me is that I cannot be certain whether anything was said about " the full of the moon," but 1 think noL
35 2 Correspondence.
■■ >
/
The district Tisitor told the incident to mj came back from Newton Abbot and told it to me.
Torquay. Christabel
I know personally a man, now, I think, between thiitj-fi¥« and forty years of age, who as a very little child was buried iq> to the neck in the ground to cure him of smaD-pox. He was then living in (^oucestershire, where, by his mother's acooant, this method of medical treatment was frequendy resorted to. She <fid not state with what percentage of fatal results !
Stoke-on-Trent Alice A. Keart.
[See a Persian instance, anU p. 271. Mr. Black gives two examples, Folk-Mcdkine^ p. loi. — Ed.]
Border Marriages.
It may not be generally known how recently Lamberton Toll- bar, Berwickshire, " the Gretna Green of the eastern Borders," (Denham Tracts^ i., 289), has been resorted to for irr^ular marriages.
A friend of mine, who lately had to investigate a claim under the Workmen's Compensation Act, on behalf of the widow of a man who had lost his life in an accident in the neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, discovered that the parties had been married at Lamberton Toll ; and on pursuing his inquiries upon the spot, he was informed that so lately as the middle of the nineteenth century there were eight or nine " toll priests " who took acknow- ledgments at the toll, which up to that date operated in Scotch law as valid marriages. As the result of his investigations, how- ever, he was forced to the conclusion that the lady had no legal claim to compensation, as her marriage had been celebrated since the Marriage Act of 1856, and both she and her husband were domiciled in England, and neither of them had been resident in ^x>tland for twenty-one days previous to the date of the ceremony. I1w ^' toll priest " before taking the acknowledgment had inter-
Correspondence.
I PowKR OF Speech. {Translation.)
" rogated the husband pretty closely as to his domicile, but he
appears to have given answers which, if not absolutely untruthful,
^^^ were at any rate evasive.
^^1 F. A. MlLNE.
^^H There are in many places wells, springs, chapels, tombs, dolmens, ^ woods, trees, &c,, to which the people have resorted from time immemorial to be either cured of, or preserved from, some sick- ness or infirmity.
The Director of the Institution for Stammerers at Paris would be grateful for detailed information about the rites, ceremonies, and offerings customary at such places as are visited specially lor the cure of dumb or stammering children, or of those who are backward in speaking ; and, in fact, for any popular traditions relating to the power of speech. Address
M. LE Dr. Chervin, Inslitut des Bigues de Paris,
8a, Avenue Victor Hugo, Paris.
[A few examples from Great Britain may be given as specimens. If a woman hears her banns of marriage proclaimed, her children will be deaf-and-dumb (England), Common. An aspen leaf under the tongue cures dumbness, C. Alery Talys, quoted in Black's Folk Medicine, 203. Infant's mouth must touch the earth to ensure well-chosen language (Hebrides), Folk-Lore, xi., 445. Deaf-and-dumb fortune-teller infallible (Greenock), Choice Notes, p. 247. Legend of Caedmon, in Bede's Ecclesiastical History. Legend of True Thomas, in Border Minstrelsy, iii., 135. Com- munications on this interesting subject will gladly be inserted in Folk-Lore, but any further references to accessible printed books had better be sent direct to Dr. Chervin.— Ed.]
^^^B VOL
3
REVIEWS.
Magic and Religion. By Andrew Lang. Longmans. los. 6d.
In the form of a set of essays, chiefly new, but in some cases reprinted from various periodicals, Mr. Lang here sets forth a further study in what he aptly calls (p. 5) " the nascent science of the anthropological study of religions." This science, he tells us, has now been before the public for thirty years, since the first publication di Primitive Culture, Principles of Sociology succeeded that, and two editions of The Golden Bough have followed since, not to mention countless other books on the same subject. But the new science has not attracted the amount of attention either from the world of scholars or from the general public which it seems to us who pursue it to deserve, and which was foretold for it twenty years ago. Dr. Tylor then wrote that it was calculated to create a general sensation compared to which that caused by Darwin's theory of the Origin of Species would be insignificant. And yet the world at large remains unmoved, uninterested. Why is this? Many of us must have asked ourselves the same question. Mr. Lang answers it thus.
Science, he says, observes facts and reasons from them. The result is the discovery of the laws of cause and effect which pro- duce and govern them. Superstition also observes facts, but combines them with preconceived opinions and reasons from the combination. The result is the barren practices of magic. Hence Superstition remains stationary while Science progresses. Further- more, the present age, an age of science, " more and more .... insists on strictness in appreciating evidence and on economy in conjecture " (p. 8), while students of the evolution of myth and belief, now as always, fail in both. Hence we neither command the general attention we might have looked for nor make the progress we should desire. " We are all, we who work at these topics, engaged in science, the science of man, or rather we are
Reviews,
y labouring to make good the foundations of that science.
It our science cannot 'expedite progress' if our science
fbt scientific" {p. 9). And it is not scientific if it fails to
e the true value of evidence, if it overlooks or disregards
itncc, if it builds on hypothesis, if it leaves some of the facts
I cjf account.
: far Mr. Lang's opening essay ; the rest of the work is tonty occupied with an examination of the recent work of the cipal writers on the subject. Mr. Frazer, Mr. Hartland, Mr. fons, and (" with the greatest diffidence and while awaiting the Uication of his Gifford Lectures "), Mr. Tylor, are all passed r review, and all found wanting in one or another of these !ticu!ars. Mr. Frazer comes in for by far the largest share of mtion, the most caustic and unsparing criticism ; prefaced, we B glad to see, by a bit of warm and ungrudging praise, which in Rice to both parties we cannot resist the pleasure of quoting. . Frazer's speculations, says Mr. Lang (p. 76}, " are based on I extraordinary mass of erudition. We are not put off with vague and unvouched-for statements, or with familiar facts ex- tracted from the collections of Mr. Tylor, Lord Avebury, and Mr. Herbert Spencer. Mr. Frazer does not collect knowledge, as his Babylonian kings are supposed by him to have been sacrificed — by proxy. No writer is so erudite, and few are so exact in their references. While venturing to differ from Mr. Frazer, I must often, as it were, make use of his own ammunition in this war. Let me say sincerely that I am not pitting my own knowledge or industry against his. I rather represent the student who has an interest in these subjects, and peruses ' The Golden Bough,' not as ' the general reader ' does, but with some care and with some verification of the citations and sources,"
The principal counts of the acte tfacaisation against Mr. Frazer are three : that he omits such evidence as tells against his theory of the priority of magic to religion (a question which, moreover, " cannot be historically determined " ') ; that the chain of hypo- theses by which he connects the Saturnalia, the Sacea, and Calvary Is inconsistent with history and reason ; and Chat his proposed explanation of the origin of the Arician priesthood depends for its final proof on a series of unverified assumptions ;
' fage 47-
35^ Reviews.
a heavy indictment ! We cannot but feel, however, that Mr. Frazer would have escaped much of this criticism if he had adopted the method of work advocated by Mr. Gomme at page 223 of the present volume, and had begun by giving a critical study of the whole of the authorities for the ritual of Aricia and its reputed connection with the golden bough of iEneas, and had then sought in his vast storehouse of facts for parallels and analogues of the various points. His conclusions would have been likely to meet with much more general accept- ance when reached by such a course than when attained by the adoption of the opposite plan, namely, by working from the earliest point of culture which the author's mind could conceive or his studies suggest to him, down to the solid historical ground of the priesthood of Nemi.
But Mr. Lang weakens his position and mars the effect of his vigorous and earnest plea for trustworthy evidence rightly used, by his " guess " (he is careful to call it no more) that the Tree of Nemi was a sanctuary tree. In support of this suggestion he brings forward three present-day instances of such trees in Samoa. But here there is none of that " coincidence of testimony " from various nations and widely distant regions on which he elsewhere lays so much stress. To substantiate this "guess" we should need an exhaustive study of the subject of Sanctuary — from Leviticus to Westminster Abbey, from the immunity of the guest among Eastern nomads to the gradual spread of the King's Peace from the court and the highway over the length and breadth of the realm— placed in juxtaposition with an equally exhaustive study of sacred and guardian, magic, and taboo trees in all times and places. Meanwhile we can only say, "Not proven." He himself calls it " a problem which I think we have not the means of solving" (p. vii.).
We do not propose to enter into the merits of the particular controversies in which Mr. Lang engages. We prefer to make some remarks on the main theme of the book, the needs and methods of the scienlific study of the evolution of religion. In the first place, one cannot but observe that the absence of accepted definitions forms one most serious obstacle to progress. Take the word Religion itself. Mr. Frazer defines it {G, B,, I. 63), as "a propitiation or conciliation (the italics are ours) of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of
/
Reviews. 357
nature." This definition identifies Religion with Worship. Mr. Lang (pp. 48, 69) contends that there may be Religion, (that is to say, Religious Faith), without Worship. This is a legitimately argu- able question, though not a new one, (we know what St. James thought on the subject !) ; but so long as two different definitions of Religion are current, progress can hardly be hoped for.
Leaving the preliminary question, whether belief without worship should be called religion or not, the next point is, when belief in a vague unworshipped deity is found among savages, did they borrow the deity from the white man ? Mr. Lang says, had they done so they would have borrowed the white man's ritual of worship also. Does not this depend a good deal on the white man? To acknowledge a Deity without worshipping him is a phenomenon not unknown in European countries. Savages brought into contact with white traders and sailors long before the arrival of the missionary, might conceivably borrow the idea of an unworshipped deity from them, and report it to the mis- sionary in after years; but where the missionary has followed closely on the heels of the trader, or (as in some of the islands of the Southern Seas) has actually preceded him, one would expect to find that if borrowing took place at all, ritual, or at any rate prayer, would be borrowed as well as belief. And not only would one set of missionaries import a veneration for beads and images, as Mr. Lang suggests on p. 11, but another set would import veneration for printed books. It is a case in which one cannot generalise, but in which each instance needs to be considered on its own merits. Moreover, it is one of those cases in which one indisputable piece of evidence would be as good as a hundred. One absolutely unimpeachable case of a borrowed faith engrafted without worship into a native cult, would suffice to establish that such borrowing can occur ; and one equally unimpeachable case of an unworshipped " high god " of native growth would suffice to prove, not that such gods are never borrowed, but that such a god can occur where no borrowing has been.
It is to be observed further that the question of borrowed re- ligions is only a part of the great question of borrowing versus independent origination, whether of folktales, customs, or other things, and ought to be studied in connection with it. Some students have formerly contended that the contact of races has tended in many cases rather to crystallise than to obliterate national
358
kxa
of ODC4 lllllllft
, beapectBd id
iiiiiMiPiitiii QOBDI RuCr anKL SLIil|aLL. IWIII' H UL
ini|^iilMm% and jcjuxdiiig^ Id Iftw.
tbe <{0Bsxmi Ok CEvidenoe* Every one aits oot^ IB cvujp Qoe bos cnca out fiir cbc bst iweuLjp jcsis^ for move evidexice. Bat die qoestioa of wfaic is ini&iwurthy eruieiice is m verj diffiazk one. The onfiiBizT diffioiItT of pnmng a n^atXYe is iocreaaed aad compficated in oar case by the qnesdoo of per- sonality. It h^ipcDs at home as well as abroad dut ooe folklore collector wiD dxxt a host of informatioa on a certain point, and anodier wiD hear fittle or noching, naj. will eren meet with denials. The fishermen of Sooth Uist^ qoesdoned by a irisitor who ''had the Gaelic," ''just all had a heavy silence like mist on nSy" said one of them. ** For we knew diat though he had the Gaelic tongue, he had not the Gaelic heart. For sure it was not for love and kinship, bot just to find out and to speak sccmfully to others about our ways, that he asked. ** When denials did not suffice, too close a crossexamination naturally produced fictions. ** At first I to!d them nothing," said another, speaking of other inquirers ; " and then when they bothered me every hour, I told them a litde that was nothing at all, and they were pleased ; and at last when they wanted more, and spoke of things I did not wish to speak about, I told them a fathom o* nonsense, and the older man, he put a net into my words, and took out what he fancied, and told his friend to write them down as he said them
Reviews.
over," What was the effect on these tourists we are not told, but the inquirer first mentioned " found the people strange and quite unlike what he had read about them .... dull and prosaic, with in- terests wholly commonplace and selfi.sh."* It is not close question- ing, but interested and sympathetic listening, that wins confidence and ehcils truth. Any one hving in a country, or even passing through it, may observe more or less of the customs, but the belief is another matter. A great deal of mutual knowledge may exist among people who nevertheless remain " strangers yet." Lord Wolseley has been in the army all his life, but one hardly credits him with the insight into the mind of the private soldier possessed by Mr, Rudyard Kiphng, Nor is it only personality which tells; the collectors' sex, natural powers, circumstances, employments, all alfect their opportunities of information and their qualifications as witnesses. The unmusical man collects no songs, the busy man of affairs has not time to listen to folktales, the clergyman rarely hears anything that he is supposed likely to think superstitious. Papers on Wiltshire and on Lincolnshire Folklore respectively were read at the same meeting of the Society last winter, and it was observed that the difference of the matter recorded was due not so much to the difference of the two districts as Co the differing sex and consequent opportunities of the two collectors, Mr. Powell and Miss Peacock.' In fine, if caution is necessary in accepting positive evidence, it is tenfold more necessary where negative evidence is concerned.
Then there is historical evidence to be considered. What are the relations between folklore and recorded history ? The great question of the amount of credit which may be accorded to tra- dition has never been really thrashed out from our point of view. Much has been written on individual traditions, but little has been ascertained on the whole subject. There is hardly anything that wouid be a more valuable contribution to the " nascent science " than an examination and determination of the conditions favour- able and unfavourable to the maintenance of a trustworthy his- torical tradition. Would that some of our romance students would address themselves to the comparison of oral historical traditions
' Fiona Maeleod, "The Gad and Hti Herilagc," in 73* NiniUtnth ittry, November, igoo. (, pp. 71, 161.
360 Reviews.
with the contemporary records of the events to which they refer ! By then examining the social and other conditions under which each tradition has been preserved, we might arrive at some ap- proximate determination of the law which governs their credi- bility in general.
In the meantime it is remarkable how many people fail to discriminate between authorities, or to appraise an author's possible sources of information. Some even seem unable to realise that a tradition when written down does not cease to be a tradition, and that because a tradition was recorded some generations or even centuries ago, it does not thereby become authentic history. Others, again, seem to forget that oral tra- dition, when rejected as evidence of fact, ranks with folktales as evidence of the ideas and manners of the time — or succession of times — in which it took shape or grew. A knowledge of the methods of historical criticism is really a necessary part of the equipment of the folklorist.
These are some of the reflections to which Mr. Lang's new book gives rise. They may seem truisms, but it is good some- times to be recalled to first principles and forced to consider how far our actual practice agrees with the elementary maxims which in theory we all accept.
The Early Age of Greece. By W. Ridgeway, Disney Pro- fessor of Archaeology in the University of Cambridge- Cambridge University Press. 2 IS.
Professor Ridgeway is a most inspiring writer. One might say of him what was said of another, nihil quod ieiigit non ornavif. He is also a first-rate fighting man, and we like him best when he is flourishing his shillelagh in the face of what we may call the archaeological ritualists. He has a great advantage over other scholars in his knowledge of ethnology and folklore, and, indeed, it is his application of these to classical subjects which have made his reputation. Our readers will all be familiar with that brilliant essay, the Origin of Coin and Weight Standards ; and although there is less room in the present volume for comparative folklore, it is used on occasion with effect.
Greek archeology is outside our province, and we will do no more than indicate the lines of the argument Professor Ridgeway first collects and condenses all the notices of Mycenean finds over the Mediterranean area. Their range is remarkable, and no less so their uniform character. He concludes that these are the pro- ducts of one race. Next he examines tradition and history, and finds that both point to a race, known to the Greeks as Pelasgian, which attained to great power in the period before either Achfeans or Dorians had entered Greece, and which had its centre in the Argive plain and in Crete, where the most remarkable finds have turned up. He then examines the claims ol the Achreans, the Dorians, and other races, to be the authors of the Mycenean culture, and decides against them. The Pelasgians are left. ^Ve are struck by the cogency and lucidity of the argument, and no less by its fairness in meeting difficulties. The main theory has been before the world of scholars for some years, since it was originally published in \k\t Journal of Hellenic Studies, and there has been no attempt to answer it until Mr. Hall's book was brought out last month. Mr. Hall does not make out a good case, and has evidently not mastered the Greek side of the question.
We need not enter into the points which crop up by the way — Homeric armour, the Homeric dialect, the relations of Achrean or Dorian to Mycenean ; but we proceed to those which interest us more closely, First comes the question of religion and custom. Religion is only touched on occasionally, as it is to form the subject of the second volume. But burial customs are an important link in the argument of this. Professor Ridgeway is not of Mr. Hall's way of thinking, who pooh-poohs the difference between burial and burning, and suggests that since they existed side by side they could be used indifferently by the same people. Professor Ridgeway points out that they imply two opposite con- ceptions of the worid of the dead, Those who bury, believe that the dead man abides near his body ; they wish to locate it and preserve it, that they may keep it in good humour by sacrifice and offering. Those who burn, regard the world of death as shadowy, unsubstantial, afar off; and they burn the offerings which they desire the dead to have, that they may get them the easier, fiurial B a mark of the Myceneans, burning of the Homeric age, which e assigns to the Achseans. He uses this custom as a criterion
362 Reviews.
of race, and explains the fact that burning and burial were used together by assuming that two races existed side by side, one having conquered or superseded the other. This theory he illustrates from the tombs of Central Europe. This argument leads him to ethnology ; and he gives reason for holding that the Pelasgians were a small, swarthy race, the Achasans a tall and fair one. We may regard this as proven, not only by the distinct statements of Homer and Hesiod, but by the measurements of sword-grips and the actual remains of the dead. The culture of the two races is examined, and a great deal of evidence taken from the types of brooches, cups, and armour : from the number of spokes in the wheels of the chariots ; from the use of iron or bronze ; from the breed of cattle. Some of this is new; and there is no other book which brings it together.
We shall look forward with special interest to the next volume ; but enough has been said to show that the student of custom or ethnology cannot afford to ignore this. It appeals in the first place to the classical student, but no less truly, if less completely, to the student of folklore.
Myths of Greece. By George St. Clair. 2 vols.
Williams and Norgate.
Mr. Casaubon, with the aid of the beautiful Dorothea, spent his life in searching for a Key to All the Mythologies. He was not the first, nor will Mr. St. Clair be the last, to undertake the search ; but the result is always the same. One key will not fit all the problems of a single mythology, much less those of all. Mr. St. Clair has opened up Egypt with his key, and he now applies it to Greece. If you allow his method, he will in due time open all the rest ; but unfortunately his method is wrong. It is briefly an attempt to prove by the use of metaphor — as unscientific as it would be to hold that the sun is alive because we can say he
shines.
Mr. St. Clair's explanation of Greek mythology is, that every legend refers to the calendar, and usually to some reform of the
I Plar
calendar introduced by astronomical priests, We do not find historical persons who have reformed the calendar using this method. Julius Cfesar was more simple, and he was a priest, but we will not insist on that. We will content ourselves with point- ing out that Mr. St, Clair's theory assumes that the Greeks con- ceived of astronomy as the one thing which mattered, and that the priests were undisturbed in their efforts through thousands of years. If the first supposition were true, it is odd that so little of their information leaked out, and that after so many reforms Hesiod could write in so childish a fashion about it. The second, in view of the eternal wars, raids, and invasions of Greek lands, is clearly impossible. History is completely neglected by Mr. St. Clair, with all the evidence accumulated of recent years to show that incoming conquerors brought their gods with them, that these gods superseded the old, or by some fiction were combined with them, and that legends often preserve a record of the fact. One such is ihe legend of the strife of Athena with Poseidon, to explain which we have the known fact thai a people who wor- shipped Athena got hold of the power in a place which had formerly worshipped Poseidon. Mr. St. Clair thinks that Athena, in ihe year 2418 B.C., effected a reform by which "the Horse were bom and adopted into the year of Poseidon beginning in the autumn." Archaeolc^y will hardly carry Athena beyond the eighth century in Athens, literary evidence beyond the eleventh, but that is a trifle. Archteology might also help in explaining the ages of man. But for Mr. St. Clair, the four ages of gold, silver, brass [f<V], and iron are the four seasons.
Mr. St. Clair's theories are all put as statements, more or less confident. In place of logic we have such phrases as " this may well be," " may we not suspect," " more likely," or " the heroic deeds of Perseus and the gigantic labours of Hercules are really allegorical descriptions of great reforms." When the legends do not lit, the heaven is shifted round until they do— an easy thing when we deal with milleniums. In the heavens are mythological towns and rivers ; but Mr, St, Clair is good enough to say, " We need not doubt, however, that Arcadia and Argolis, Argos and Thebes, although celestial and belonging to the myths, had a gec^raphlcal existence as well."
It would be too long a task to examine all Mr. St. Clair's ex- planations ; but one or two may serve as examples, llie pecca-
364 Reviews.
dilloes of Zeus are not unknown to us. Here the god appem like a sailor who has a wife in each port of call : borne on the bosom of Oceanus, he travels round the Zodiac, finding his wivet ready for him at 90 degrees apart (p. 240). It was prudent of Mr. St. Clair to put ninety degrees between the ladies. Mutilated Cronus is ^ the year of 365 days, deprived of that small member the six hours, a loss which gives rise to the Sottuc Cycle ^ (p. 334). We sliould like to quote a longer passage as an example of Mr. St Clair's logic (p. 166) ; but enough. He is quite equal to proving that King Arthur's Round Table is the Zodiac Multiply the 150 knights by two and you get 300, which is only 65 diort of the reformed calendar. If the Sothic Cycle cannot ei^lain away these 65 we are much mistaken.
Mr. St Clair comes to his task insufficiently equipped in scholarship. Quam kmge inUrvalla^ he ejaculates in one place ; and a certain author is always called Pausanius. The etjrmologies are as wild as Mr. Robert Brown's: evpweiv is derived (after Ghdstone) from ^ms^ regardless of form and meaning. Athena, or Athana, " the only form used in tragedy " (p. 490), is "sugges- tive of Atkanes^ undying ^ (a word not known before 1 50 b.c). The vowel '' a '' is long in Athana, and short in Bavaroi — of course that does not matter. Athena is immortal because *' the lunar year, and eveiy year that was too short, ended before the next [lunar?] year began. . , • The year of full and true length was said to be re-bom in the moment of its death, like the phoenix ; but that was like saying that it never died at all." Odd, is it not, that no one ever said that of the phoenix ? '' Bosphonis " is explained as an astronomical " bull-that-carries ; " but here Mr. St. Clair trips, for the ancients called it Bos-poros, the Oxford. No less remarkable are the oMer dicta. We learn that baituUa (sic) are stones with wings, and for authority are bidden " see Cory's Fragments " ; the phallus is said to be an '' emblem of life and truth." This book has made us melancholy ; so much hard work and so misspent.
The Realms of the Egyptian Dead. By K. A. Wiedemann.
London: David Nutt. 1901.
This is the first volume of the translation of an excellent series of little books that are being published in Germany under the title
Reviews.
of The Andeni East. They are written by competent scholars, and are intended to popularise the most recent discoveries and conclusions of oriental archeology. Their handy and compact form and absence of technicalities ought to make them as popular in this country as they are at home.
The name of Professor Wiedemann is a sufficient guarantee that the account he gives of ancient Egyptian beliefs about the next world is accurate and scholarly. There is no one who is better acquainted with the subject, and he enjoys the rare distinction among Egyptologists of being thoroughly familiar with classical literature. It is really astonishing into how small a space he has packed a complete review of the various doctrines held in ancient ERypt concerning the life after death, without any sacrifice of lucidity. All is clear and complete, and at the same time brief.
He emphasises the fact that a systematic account of ancient Egyptian theology is impossible, as the Egyptians themselves never possessed what we should call a theological system. Opinions, utterly inconsistent with one another, were held by them without any apparent perception of their inconsistency. They were too conservative to discard a belief or practice which had come down the past, however little it might harmonise with the theology of a later day. But in this they were not peculiar. The views held by a good many modem Europeans about a future life would be found, if closely examined, to be similarly full of inconsisten- cies. In such matters the majority of mankind are not inclined to be strictly logical. It is probable that some at least of the different beliefs and practices which were thus mingled together in the oRicial or popular religion of Egypt were derived from different elements in the population.
Another fact which has to be emphasised is the great antiquity of the beliefs in question. Most of them go back to a period long before the earliest monumental records, when those who professed them were still but partially civilised. They have been already incorporated into the state religion when our first knowledge of it begins. Menes and his immediate successors were already followers of Osiris, with all that the Osirian form of faith involved.
Professsor Wiedemann has been unfair, however, to the Osirian religion, which was that of the great mass of the Egyptians through- out the historical period. The need of being brief has made him slur over the moral element that is so remarkable a feature in it,
366 Reviews.
and the reader who is unacquainted with the subject would con- clude from his words that the follower of Osiris, like the follower of the Sun-god, looked for salvation merely to magical charms and spells. But this was not the case. The passport to the heaven of Osiris was not the potency of magic, but a righteous life. It was only after the heart or conscience had been weighed in the balance of truth, and proof was thus given that the dead man had spoken truly in declaring that he had lived in accordance with one of the highest of existing moral codes, that he was admitted to the fields of paradise. The test of admittance to the heaven of sunlight and happiness over which Osiris ruled was a moral one, and the morality was of a very high order indeed. It was the follower of the Sun-god, who looked forward to sharing with him the solar bark, that put his trust in spells and incantations, and the solar creed, with its books of Am-Duat and the Gates, does not seem to have been older than the age of the eighteenth dynasty. The Osirian creed, on the other hand, has its roots in the very beginning of Egyptian history.
The translation of Professor Wiedemann's work is excellent and free from Germanisms. Type and paper are also good, and I have noticed only one misprint — the omission of " with " near the foot of page 22.
A. H. Savce.
The Ethno-Botany of the Coahuilla Indians of Southern California. By David Prescott Barrows. Chicago Uni- versity Press. 1900.
This dissertation forms a valuable contribution to our too scanty knowledge of the aboriginal peoples of Southern California. The Coahuilla (pronounced Kau-ivei-yah) belong to the great Shoshonean family which formerly wandered over the Rocky Mountains and the arid lands to the east of the range. How far they are purely Shoshonean may be a question, for they speak an idiom which is probably that of the Californian tribes into whose territory they have intruded at some unknown period. Their habitat is desert-country, sandy, mountainous, broken by cliffs and gorges, and having a flora rich in the number of species, but
Reviews.
367
^ranting in foliage, while fruitful in thoms and prickles and stiff hairs, with thick stalks and trunks suitable for retaining and utilising every drop of the scanty moisture which the climate affords ; in short, a desert-flora of yuccas, cactuses, agaves, and so forth. The canons, however, are often watered by streams, and there a luxuriant vegetation of palms and other tropical and aub-tropical trees and plants is found. On emerging from the canons the rivers lose themselves in the sands of the desert, in the remote past an extension of the Californian Gulf, Beneath the sand-drifts, therefore, often lies a. reserve of water ; and perhaps quite alone among the American tribes the Coahuillas have learnt to dig wells.
In a district like this, where white men could hardly live, the inventive and adaptive powers of the natives have been exercised to the utmost. The terrible struggle with nature has sharpened their wits, and, as in the search for water, has led to developments of great interest. These Dr. Barrows has here undertaken to describe and discuss, so far as they concern the flora of the country. House- building, basket-making, and other manufac- tures ; food-plants, their callection, preparation, and storage ; drinks, narcotics, and medicines, come successively under review. There seems to be no detailed scientific account of the organisation and traditions of the Coahuillas ; hence much of Dr. Barrows' account is less intelligible than it might fae. Even his careful de- scription of the construction of the dwelUngs would be more easily understood if we knew what was meant by the term " family." Similarly, much light would have been thrown, not indeed upon the species and qualities of the plants used as intoxicants and medicines, but upon their use, by a discussion, which the author avoids as no part of his subject, of the position and practice of the shamans of the tribe. And an acquaintance with the religious beliefs might easily lead to a better comprehension of the attitude of the Coahuillas to many of the plants employed for these and other purposes. Dr. Barrows' treatise thus reminds us of a modern development of the art of writing books, according to which the first volume is not necessarily the earliest in the order of publication, though the others may be mere fragments without it. He has done his work so well that we regret all the more that the groundwork was not first provided in a general study of the tribe.
In substance, the monograph is an enumeration and description
368 Reviews.
of the different vegetable products used by the Coahuillas. The author has not been able to identify the scientific name of every species, for they are very numerous, and supply a great variety of food at times, and in some districts in great abundance. With- out pretending to have exhausted the list, Dr. Barrows claims to "have discovered not less than sixty distinct products for nutrition, and at least twenty-eight that were utilised for narcotics, stimu- lants, or medicines, all derived from desert or semi-desert localities in use among these Indians." His observations on the problem of the search for food in such places, where a white man would die of starvation, and on the part played by the women in this work, are most instructive; and perhaps the most interesting part of the book is that which relates to the food-plants and to their ingathering, preparation, and storage.
The tribe, once the most powerful in Southern California, is now dying out Change of food, new diseases, and other inci- dents of European domination have all contributed to the result. The author's concluding paragraphs describing and deploring the rapid extinction of the tribe are fraught with suggestive reflections on the patience and powers of adaptation displayed by the people, the advance they had made in culture, and the influence of the desert on the development of civilization.
E. Sidney Hartland.
Indian Story and Song from North America. By Alice C. Fletcher. Boston : Small, Maynard, and Co. 1900.
Miss Fletcher is well known for her careful investigations into the life and culture of the aborigines of North America, especially of the Omahas, among whom she has lived and worked for a considerable period. One of the subjects to which her attention has been directed has been the native music, and the investigations she carried on in conjunction with the late Pro- fessor Fillmore have led to the production of the volume before us. For it was felt that in dealing with savage music, as in dealing with savage beliefs and savage institutions, inquirers were driving a shaft down into a more archaic stratum of culture. Vistas appeared to be opened in the history of the evolution of music. Both for purposes of science and as materials for the civilised
composer, it was obvious that the songs would be better undei- stood if they could be presented " in their matrix of story " or ceremony.
This then is what Miss Fletcher has attempted here. " In Indian story and song," she says, " we come upon a time where poetry is not yet differentiated from story and story not yet set free from song. We note that the song clasps the story as a part of its being, and the story itself is not fully told without the cadence of the song. Yet in even the most primitive examples a line of demarcation can be discerned ; and when this line has deepened and the differentiation has begun we are able to trace the formative influence exerted by story upon song and by song upon story, and can observe what appear to be the beginnings of musical and poetical structure." Accordingly she not merely gives the song, she narrates also the story, or describes the scene or the ceremony she has witnessed, of which the song is an integral part. So simple are the words of most savage songs — indeed they are often mere vocables to float the voice — that they have little if any meaning apart from their setting of tale or rite, When that is known, the emotion it is sought to render becomes intelligible, the song completes the story, the story interprets the song.
Most of the songs are printed with harmonies by Professor Fiilmore, whose views on the subject of Indian music, put forth shortly before his death, excited some controversy among musical critics. It certainly seems a questionable method, to render with modern scientific harmonies, however simple, [he melodies of a people " practically without musical instruments," who sing always in unison, accompanied only by the monotonous beat of a drum or the harsh sound of a rattle to mark the rhythm. But as they have in many cases been noted down by the aid of the grapho- phone, the airs themselves are safely put on record for the use of future investigators. The words have been translated wherever that was possible. Many of the songs are now printed for the first time, but others have already appeared in scientific periodi- cals on the other side of the Atlantic. All have been gathered directly from the people themselves, and thus a valuable contribu- tion has been made to the study of savage music and ceremonial. The intimate connection between music and religion, amounting even to a belief that song is in itself a means of communicat-
VOL. XII. 3 B
370 Reviews.
ing with the unseen, is very strikingly brought out; and Miss Fletcher's remarks on the relation of story to song, and on the place of music in Indian life, are well worthy of the attention of folklore students. £. Sidney Hartland.
CoNTES DES Landes et des Gr^ves. By Paul S^billot.
Rennes: Hyacinthe Cailli^re. 1900. Les Coquillages de Mer. By Paul S^billot. Paris : Maison-
neuve. 1900. Le Folk-Lore des P^cheurs. By Paul Si^billgt. Paris : Mai-
sonneuve. 1901.
M. S]^billgt's folktales seem inexhaustible. It is true that most of those in the first volume before us have been already printed in periodicals. But he has done well to reproduce them together ; and he has added some which have not been previously published. Tales of Moor and Strand, as he calls them, they are gathered chiefly from the department of Cotes du Nord, and display similar characteristics to the other stories of Upper Brittany that we owe to his patient zeal and admirable power of reproduction. For the most part, he tells us, he has endeavoured here to give tales which have no parallels in his previous collections. He could not of course altogether avoid drawing on the common stock. What he has done is in such cases to give stories which, though composed of the common incidents, take a new and unexpected turn. The story of the magical bird, whose head eaten destines the eater to become king, and whose heart eaten makes the eater wealthy, may be taken as an example. The two boys who have eaten the fatal portions are abandoned by their father and adopted by a lady. One of them is married and taken away by the Queen of Spain. After three years the other goes to seek his brother. He falls into the power of a man-eating giant, from whom he escapes by robbing him of his invisible mantle, taking at the same time his inexhaus- tible purse. In turn he is robbed of these objects, and of the bird's head, which he had eaten, by three girls, and conveyed by means of the mantle, which has also the power of transporting the owner whither he will, to an island in the ocean. There of course he finds the two kinds of carrots which effect transformations into animal form and back into human. Escaping from the island, he
Kevtews. 37 1
recovers by their aid his mantle and purse and the bird's head. He, however, makes no further use of these magical objects, but sets out on horseback to find his brother. Coming to a cave in the mountains, he stays there, and at the end of twenty years his corpse is found by his brother, who falls dead also at his side.
The collection includes some apologues, beast-tales, and drolls. Episodes from the epos of Reynard the Fox appear among them, and some more adventures of the famous Jaguens. The Jaguens are always entertaining. Some of the other drolls are very funny.
The frontispiece is a delightful portrait of M. S^billot,
The two remaining works are collections of folklore, classified, not by its place of origin, but by its subject. Les CoquiUages is the initial monograph of a series, projected by the author and M. Jules Vinson, of little volumes of 64 to 120 pages, containing disserta- tations or collections too short for an ordinary volume and yet too long for a magazine article. To judge by the present specimen, they arc likely to be of considerable use to the student. Here both the living mollusc and the shell are treated under appropriate headings. M. S^billot draws not only on his own investigations in Brittany, but also on his wide reading, and the references are always given.
Tht Folklore of Fiihermen is a volume of the same general character, but much longer. It forms one of the volumes of Les Lilthratuns Populaires de loutes les Nations published by M. Maisonneuve. The two together make a tolerably complete collection of folklore relating to fishermen and their quarry. Not the least interesting of the chapters in the latter volume is that on whalers. It is not confined to the whalers of civilised countries. The very remarkable customs, especially the burial customs of the Kaniagmioute whalers of the Aleutian Islands, are described from an article by M. A. Pinarl in the Revue (TAtttkropologie, which supplements in important details that given by Mr. W. H. Dall in the first volume of Contributions to North American Eth- nology, p. 90, apparently referring to the same people.
The two English place-rhymes quoted by M. Sebillot on the last page illustrate the great difiiculty of translating such amenities into a foreign language. Neither of them seems quite accurately reproduced, though the translations are suflUciently close for practi- cal purposes, except that M. S^billot is evidently and pardonably unacquainted with our vulgar corruption oXtaters iroia potatoes .
372 Reviews.
An index would have been useful. And those readers who are familiar with the earlier dainty volumes of Les Literatures Popu- laires cannot but regret the deterioration in paper and printing of the later volumes. Paper and printing count for sometliiiig, even in the eyes of a scientihc student.
E. Sidney Harti.akd.
Tradizioni Popolari Pistoiesi. Racconti Popolari Pistoiksi IN VERNACOLO PisToiESi, Raccoiti c pubblicati da Rudolfo Nerucci. Pistoia. 1901. SiGNOR Nerucci has in this volume begun the publication of a collection of traditions collected at Pistoia. Drolls are by no means the most interesting species of folklore, but they are of^en very amusing ; and this at least may be said of the collection here presented to us. Some of them, of course, are old friends, such as that of the peasant who outwits the devil, with whom he has to divide what he sows (No. 21). The devil figures in many of the tales. I do not remember to have read before the version (No. 3) of the favourite subject of the devil outwitted by a woman, which represents the contest as one of sewing. The devil was beaten because he forgot to knot the thread.
Many of the stories, as we might expect, are satires on the priests and other churchmen ; but they are not lashed with more than ordinary severity. Allied to these are several stories about commissions given to artists to paint pictures of the saints. In one of them (No. 41) we find a variant of the story by Hans Andersen, doubtless of traditional origin, about the Invisible Clothes. In this case the figure of the saint cannot be seen by persons in a state of sin.
An example of the rapid spread of modern stories is that (No. 15) of the boots sent by telegraph, which is found in more than one European country. Some of the stories illustrate or contradict proverbs. " He who sleeps does not catch fish " {Che dorme 'un pigUa beset) is, it seems, the Pistoian version of " The early bird catches the worm." The tale (No. 6) proceeds to tell of a lazy boy whom his father could not cure of his lie-abed habits. One day he heard of a purse full of money found upon the road. He promptly told his son, improving the o
Reviews. 373
point out that if the latter had been up early that morning, instead of snoring in bed, he might have been the lucky finder. When he had finished, the boy simply remarked that a bigger fool than the finder had been up first ; if he had stayed in bed. he would not have lost the purse ! " Serves the worm right ! " as we say.
Il is to be hoped that Signor Nerucci will complete his scheme by issuing the other volumes of traditions in due course.
E. Sidney Hartland.
The Wife of Bath's Tale ; its Sources and Analogues.
By G. H, Mavnadiek, Instructor in English at Harvard
University. (Grimm's Ubrary. Vol. riii,) Iv this study Mr. Maynadier examines the various versions of a
popular and wide-spread tale, the testing of the courtesy of a hero by a " Loathly Lady," who is either a fairy, or a maiden in be- spelled form. Variants of this tale are found in Irish, English, Scandinavian, and Teutonic literatures. Whether a genuine French version ever existed is doubtful, although a " Loathly Lady " is a figure of French romance, and certain characteristics of her appear- ance may have influenced the English tales.
The hypothesis eventually offered by Mr. Maynadier (he does not claim to have arrived at a certain result) is that the tale, in its origin Celtic, relating a test imposed by a beneficent fairy upon the hero, is found in its earliest form in the Irish versions ; from Ireland it came to England probably by direct transmission, but possibly through a Scandinavian channel. The earliest English form has been lost, and the extant versions all present features unknown to the Irish tales. Some of these features Mr. Maynadier considers to be of Scandinavian origin ; the source of others he does not specify. The relation of the Teutonic parallels he does not attempt to establish, merely deciding that they are ofTshoots of the Irish tale.
With the main conclusion, that of the CeUic origin of the story, I entirely agree, but there are certain points overlooked by Mr. Maynadier which I think may usefully modify the rather confused hypothesis which is the outcome of his study. The "question motif" should, I think, be ascribed to northern influence. All students of Scandinavian and Teutonic literature must have been
374 Reviews.
struck by the frequent recurrence of " riddling " contests, in which life depends upon the correct answering of a question, as in eg. the Vafthrudnismal^ King HeidriJ^s Riddles^ the Wartburg-kriegy etc. The motif is of course found elsewhere, but nowhere does it seem to have been so popular as in the north. I should con- sider such features as the question, appetite of the lady, and rape of maiden, as all indicative of indirect transmission, and most pro- bably dependent upon a northern source.
Again I should connect the tale with Gawain as a Celtic^ rather than as an Arthurian^ hero. As I pointed out some years ago, he is certainly closely connected with early Irish tradition ; his love was as certainly an unearthly lady ; and in some instances, as in Diu Crdnty he has to undergo a severe test before winning her. As the Gawain versions now stand they possess this striking peculiarity, that in them alone is the rdle of hero and question- answerer separated'; is it not possible that in the earliest form of the Marriage of Sir Gawain the question found no place, that it was introduced later under the influence of versions affected by Scandinavian transmission, and that the appearance of Arthur as question-answerer was due to a desire to harmonise the story with the more popular form, while at the same time the chivalry of the hero was emphasised by making him undergo a double test, that of devotion to his king, as well as courtesy to the lady ? Mr. Maynadier rightly recognises that it was Gawain, rather than Arthur, who was the hero of the early English tradition. I would therefore suggest that for Mr. Maynadier's hypothetical lost English source we substitute the earlier form of the Marriage of Sir Gawain^ derived directly from an Irish source and minus the " question," and probably also the " appetite," features.
The Wife of Bath! s Tale^ which possesses both " question " and " rape," points to a different line of transmission.
As to the supposed Wolf Dietrich parallels, they do not, I think, all come from the same source ; die rfihe Else may be a connection of this " Loathly Lady," but the Aleer- Wib stories are more suggestive of a sea monster of the Grendel and Diu Crone type, complicated in one instance by a transformation motif
Mr. Maynadier's study is extremely interesting and suggestive, but it would have been improved by a more discriminating method. Similarity of incident does not always constitute paral- lelism, much less identity, but Mr. Maynadier too often argues as
if it did.
Jessie L. Weston.
JUNIOR Temple Reader. By Clara L. Thompson and
E. E. Speight. Horace Marshall, is. 6d. O to be a child again! If children do not learn to love fine literature nowadays, they are Philistines bred and born. Here are fairy tales, myths, legends, and lays from aL parts of the world ; from ancient Greece and modern Lapland, from Germany and New Zealand — historical deeds like the last fight of the Jievengf, Roland and his Oliver at Roncevaux — fables by yEsop and nursery tales — poems by Stevenson, Allingham, and Blake, riddles and nursery rhymes, what a feast 1 And told so well, in the simplest of vigorous prose, no meretricious tricks, no laboured pretiosities. This is hardly a book for the Folklore Society as a society; but as human beings, produce the man whom it would not charm, and there stands a dullard. We lay it down with a prayer that it may fall into the hands of some of our popular novelists, and give them a first glimpse of what good writing is. There are many pictures in the book, some really good, but some rather hard to understand ; and why are the women twelve heads high ? That is the only fault we have to find. We hope that such books as this may be adopted in every elementary school. The elementary schools have almost killed our idiomatic English, and with it the traditional culture of the people ; the least they can do is to revive it before it is too late.
POPULAH Studies in Mythology and Folklore. No. io.
The Romance Cycle of Charlemagne and his Peers.
By Jessie L. Weston. D, NuIL 6d. The romances of the Charlemagne cycle, although to English readers not so interesting as the Arthurian, have an importance of their own as showing how the popular fancy deals with historical facts. Since we can here compare the fact with the fancy, we find parallels and criteria which may be applied to prehistoric legends in order to extract their truth ; as Professor Ridgeway has shown in the book which we review elsewhere. In literary value this cycle is perhaps not equal to the legends of Arthur, but in character-drawing it is superior; and we point to these as a possible source for future poets to draw from. Miss Weston gives a lucid account of the divisions of the cycle. Of course she has no space for details ; but the pamphlet, with its bibliography, will serve well as an introduction to further study, which is all it otofesscs to do.
BIBLIO GRA PHY.
BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
All English books art published in London, all French books tn Paris, and all 1901 ; unless otherwise stated,
Amersbach (Karl). Licht- und Nebelgeister, ein Beitrag zur Sagen- und Marchenkunde. Baden-Baden : Ernst Kdlblin. 8vo. 48 pp.
CuMONT (Franz). Les Myst^res de Mithra. Brussels. 1900. 4to. viii., 84 pp.
Lang (A.). Magic and Religion. Longmans. 8vo. x., 316 pp. I OS. 6d.
Maynadier (G. H.). The Wife of Bath's Tale : its Sources and Analogue. D. Nutt. 1901. Cr. 8vo. xii., 222 pp.
Nerucci (Rodolto). Racconti Popolari Pistoiesi in Vemacolo Pistoiese. Fistoia : Niccolai. 8vo. 164 pp.
NuTTALL (Zelia). The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilisations : a Comparative Research based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious, Sociological, and Calendrical Systems, Cambridge, Mass. Archjeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody Museum, Harvard Uni- versity. 8vo. 60a pp.
Patkanov (S.). Die Irtysch-Ostjaken und ihre Volkspoesie. II. Teil. Text und Ubersetzungen. St. Petersburg. 1900. viii., xii., 26, 302, 114 pp.
RiDGEWAY (William). The Early Age of Greece. Cambridge University Press. 2 vols. Illustrated, Vol. i. 8vo. xvi.,
684 pp. 2 IS.
St. Clair (George). Myths of Greece Explained and Dated 1 an Embalmed History from Uranus to Perseus, including the Eleusinian Mysteries and the Olympic Games. Williams and Norgate. 2 vols. 800 pp. i6s.
Theal (G. McC). Records of South-Eastem Africa, Collected 1 Libraries ahd Archive Departments in Europe.
/
Bibliography.
377
Vol. vii. Printed for the Government of Cape Colony. 8vo. 501 pp. [Contains "Ethiopia Oriental," by Friar Jo3o dos Santos, with an English translation : and Ahstract of Ethno- graphic Information contained in Portuguese Records and Early Histories, added to papers on the same subject pub- lished some years ago hy the compiler of these volumes.] BWeston (Jessie L.). The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac. Studies of its Origin, Development, and Position in the Arthurian Romantic Cycle. (Grimm Library, VoL 12). D. Nutt. xii,, 252 pp. ys. 6d.
PERIODICALS.
Tht Conttttts of Periodicals exciusively devoted to Folklore are not stated.
Al-Hachriq, 1901, No. 4. P. 'Rto, Les castes indiennes. 8. /.
Pafiii, Mteurs libanaises; les Jeux de I'Enfance, American Aniiqusrian, xxxiii., 3. J. Maclean, Blackfoot Amuse- ments. J. Fraser, Hindu Relationship Terms in Australia. S. D. Peet, The Serpent and the Tree. A. F. Chamieriain, Philippine Studies. I American Anthiopolo^'st, iii., 1. G. A. Dorsey, Gambling Games of ilie Klamath Indians. W. Bogoras, The Chukchi of N.E. Asia. C. P. Boiuditck, Maya Calendars. I Anglo-AmeTican Magazine, January. E. E. Blackman, Quivera, History and Legends of an Ancient American Kingdom. February. C. G. Shaw, An Attempt to define Religion. L'Annee Sociologique, iv., 1899-1900. C. Bougie, Remarquea
sur le Regime des Castes. Annual of the British School at Athens, vi., 1899-1900. /. C. Lawson, A Beast-dance in Scyros. Bji'Anthropologie, lii., 1. B. Girard, Vahomas et Bougons Anlhropophages du Haut-Oubanghi. jitiqnary, xxxvii., 4. W. H.Jewitt, Pagan Myths and Christian Figures, i„ Sun Worship. 5. W. E. A. Axon, The Legend
378 Bibliography.
of Isaiah's Martyrdom. W, H, Jewitt^ Pagan M3rths and Christian Figures, ii. The Moon and the May . Goddess. 6. W. H, Jewitt^ Pagan Myths and Christian Figures, ii. The Moon and the May Goddess (continued).
Archiv fiir Beligionswissenschaft, iv.^ 2. D. W, Bousset, Die Himmelsreise der Seele. B, F, Feilbergy Hochzeitsschiisse, Neujahrsschiisse.
Asiatic Quarterly Beview, April. H, Beveridge, An Afghan Legend.
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, viii., p. 604. y. Habbenea^ Bij geloof in de Preanger-Regentschappen.
Bulletin de la Societe d'Etudes Coloiiiales, Brussels, April. Fetiches et F^ticheurs.
Bulletin de la Societe Royale de Oeographie d'Anvers, zxv., 83. A. Courboin^ Chez les Indiens [Amazon Valley].
Bureau of Ethnology, 17th Ann. Bep., Pt. 1. W, /. McGee, The Seri Indians. 18th Ann. Rep., Pt. 1. E. W, Nelson, The Eskimo about Behring Strait.
Calcutta Review, January. Travancore and its Land Tenures. Century, February, Ac. /. Stadling, The People at the Top of the Worid [Siberia].
Chambers' Journal, July. /. Cassidy, The Basuto at Home [Marriage, Amulets, &c.]
China Review, xxv., 3. 2! W, Kingsmill, Han Wu Ti and the
Aboriginal Tribes on the S.W. Frontier of China.
Church Missionary Intelligencer, June, p. 475. Japanese Super- stitions.
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NOTES AND QUERIES ON TOTEMISM.
TOTEMISM is the name given to a religious and social system which has been found amongst savages in many parts of the world, especially Australia, North America, and Africa. A totem is a sacred object, generally an animal, less often a plant, an element, or even an inanimate object, of which the whole species is revered by a tribe or clan. The tribe or clan generally takes its name from the totem. Thus if the totem is a wolf, the tribesmen or clans- men call themselves wolves, and they will not kill or.injure wolves or eat wolf's flesh. Often the clansmen think they are descended from the totem, but sometimes they explain their connection with the totem in other ways. Where totemism exists in full force, a man may not marry a woman of the same totem as himself ; thus, if he is a wolf he may not marry a wolf, but may marry a bear, &c. Where this rule of exogamy {i.e. marrying out of the clan) exists, we necessarily have two or more totem-clans existing side by side ; and generally there are many different totem-clans living together. In some clans the children are of their mother's totem ; thus, if the father is a wolf and the mother is a bear, the children will be bears.
386 Notes and Queries on Totemism.
In other clans the children are of the father's totem; thus, if the father is a raven and the mother a dog, the children will be ravens.
Totemism in ,some places tends to become territoriial. The members of the same totem-clan may live together in the same house or in a group of houses, and there may be definite clan-lands. This leads to other developments.
In some rare cases,, the totem to which an individual belongs is determined by the part of the country in which his mother was at the time when conception is thought to have taken place; different districts being the supposed sites of the death of different totem-ancestors, who are supposed to reincarnate themselves in the children con- ceived in these localities. (Central Australia.)
Among some of the Australian tribes, the male members of a totem-clan believe that by magical rites they have the power of ensuring a plentiful supply of their particular totem-animal, plant, or whatever it may be. This economic aspect of totemism has been recognised only quite recently ; it is known to extend to one Papuan tribe, but it may be more generally distributed. It is possible that when rain- making, for example, is restricted to a certain group of people it may have had a similar origin.
Besides totems proper {i.e. animals, plants, &c., revered by a whole clan) there are also what may be called personal totems and sex-totems. Thus, besides the totem of his clan, a man may have a private totem of his own ; if he is of the Wolf clan, he may have snakes for his personal totem.
Among certain American tribes, various animal figures are successively drawn on the floor of the hut and nibbed out while parturition is proceeding, the animal represented by that figure which was unobliterated at the actual moment of the child's birth being called his naguaL Again, among certain Australian tribes, there is some evidence to show that subsidiary personal totems may be, and are, acquired
I^otes and Queries on Totemism. 387
at puberty, while among the Omaha and other North American Indians, the personal totem is not received from an ancestor, was not the gift of any living person, but was obtained through a certain rite by the man himself.
In Australia, besides the clan-totem and personal totem, each sex has, in some tribes, a totem ; the men calling themselves by the name of a particular bird, and refusing to injure any bird of that species, and the women doing the same with another sort of bird. It is, however, doubt- ful how far a personal totem, or a sex-totem, can properly be considered a totem. It is true that, as with a totem strictly so called, ihe whole species stands in some relation to the person who honours it. Where the personal totem is an animal, the animal is regarded as a tutelary being. In the case of sex-totems the relation is one of fraternity rather than protection. Other characteristics of totemism (marriage-taboo, name, &c.) seem to be unknown.
Amongst certain Papuans, the representation of a man's totem is painted on his chest or back, and it is a fixed law in battle that no man shall attack or slay another who bears the same cognisance as himself. A stranger from hostile tribes can visit in safety villages where the clan of his totem is strong, and visitors from other tribes are fed and lodged by the members of the totems to which they severally belong.
It is also important to determine whether ancestors or ancestral spirits to whom reverence is paid, or who are regarded as capable of influencing the course of events, are associated in name, form, or attribute, with animals, plants, or natural objects (among certain Papuan tribes there is a stone-clan). The precise nature of such association, should it exist, can, however, only be guessed at by analogy with the beliefs of other savage tribes; and the following questions (many of which, together with the definition of ■totemism, are taken from Notes and Queries on Anthro- pology, published by the Anthropological Institute), may re-
Notes and Queries on Totemism-
quire to be supplemented by other questions, which should readily suggest themselves to investigators on the spot.
1. Are the natives divided into tribes, clans, or castes? Enumerate these tribes, ctaas, or castes, with their sub- divisions, as far as you can ascertain them, giving in each instance the native name and its English equivalent, so as to make it clear whether any of these tribes, clacis, or castes are named after animals or plants.
2. Do the members of each tribe, clan, or caste, &c., revere any species of natural objects, as a particular kind of animal, or plant, &c. ? If so, in what way do they show their respect for the animal, plant, &c. ? Are they for- bidden to kill and eat it? What do they do on meeting one of the sacred animals, &c. ? What do they think would happen to them if they were to act disrespectfully to it ; as, for instance, if they killed and ate the animal or plant? If a man inadvertently killed an animal whose name he shared, what would happen? And should he find such an animal dead, would he show signs of grief or mourning, and would any attempt be made on his part to perform over the animal's body the rites he would perform over the dead body of a clansman? If a man of another clan killed an animal whose name a clansman bore, would the latter in any way dissociate himself from the act and express sorrow or horror? Enumerate all the kinds of animals, plants, &c., thus revered by the tribes or clans.
3. Do all the members of each tribe, clan, ftc, call them- selves by the name of the totem (sacred animal or plant), &c.? If they do, how is each individual distinguished? Are individuals called after parts of the sacred animal, as the tail, shoulder, tongue, &c. ? Is a clansman ever cut, tattooed, or painted with a realistic or conventionalised design representing the animal or vegetable whose name he bears? Sometimes the clan is named after one kind of animal, but reveres an animal of different species. Where
Notes and Queries on Totemism.
this happens, in what relation do these two kinds of animal or plant, &c., stand to the tribe and to each other? Is the animal whose name the clansman bears ever called ' father' or by any other honorific title ? Is it sworn by ? And is a design representing it or any o( its salient characters ever carved or burnt on the property or cattle of the clansman ? Is there any special title by which the oldest man, or the most important man, in each clan is called ? And if so, has his title any suggestion of special relationship or influence with the animal whose name the clan bears? For instance, is the man who is the head of the lion-clan — supposing that such a clan exist — known or regarded as the lion-man? And if so, is he Jn this capacity supposed to be able to exert special powers against or to show a special know- ledge of the habits of lions? Would he, in the event of man-eating lions becoming troublesome, be specially ap- pealed to? Would the necessary killing or driving away of such animals be entrusted to him ? Or would he care- fully abstain from taking part in any such proceeding?
4. What stories do the natives tell of the totem (sacred animal, plant, &c.) of the tribe? How do they explain its sanctity? Do they think that they are descended from it? Is a clansman ever supposed to change his form and to take on that of the animal whose name he bears, or any other? Are there legends relating that in olden times this occurred ? And especially were the founders of different clans able to exert this power?
5. May a man marry a woman of the same totem as himself, or may he not? Thus, if he is a wolf, may he marry a wolf? If he may not marry a woman of his own totem, is he free to marry a woman of any other totem ? or are there certain other totem-clans beside his own into which he may not marry? May a clansman marry into a similarly-named clan of another tribe, or have connection with a woman of such a clan? Enumerate as many of these prohibitions of marriage as you can ascertain, Is kinship reckoned through the mother or the father? Is
390 Notes and Queries on Totemism.
the influence of the maternal uncle especially strong? Does the latter present a youth with his first weapon, inculcate tribal morality, or assume a position o£ special responsibility towards his nephew at puberty or any other time? Does a nephew as a matter of custom present his maternal uncle with a portion of loot taken in warfare, or of animals killed ? Does a nephew inherit property or office from his maternal uncle, and does the latter take a promi- nent part in exacting vengeance or receiving cattle equi- valent to blood-money, should his nephew be killed ?
6. If a man may not marry a woman of the same totem as himself, is he allowed to have sexual intercourse with her, either generally or at stated times ? If at stated times what are these times, and what reason is given for this license ?
7. What do they think would happen to them or to their children if they married, or had sexual intercourse with, women of a forbidden totem ? Does the tribe punish such breaches of tribal law ? and if sOj how ?
8. How does a man ascertain whether he may marry or have intercourse with a stranger woman, especially when they speak different dialects ?
9. Are the tribes, clans, castes, and their subdivisions distinguished from each other by badges, or by differences in dress, the mode of wearing the hair, tattooing, chipping or filing the teeth, &c. ? Distinguish carefully the national badge {i.e. the badges worn by all the people) from the tribal or clan badges {i.e. the badges worn by different sub- divisions of the people, namely, the tribes, clans, &c.). Do the tribal or clan badges ever consist of representations of the totem tattooed, painted, or carved P Does a clansman wear a portion of the totem-animal or plant about his person on all or on special occasions, or does he carefully avoid doing so ? ,
10. Are any^ipe^al ceremonies observed by each totem tribe, or clan, aO the birth of a child ? Describe such cere-
Notes and Queries on Totemism.
391
L
!i. Are initiatory rites performed on boys or girls at puberty to admit them to the full position of tribesmen and tribeswomen ? Describe such rites fully. Is there any pretence of killing the boys and bringing them to life again?
12. During and for some time after these initiatory rites are the lads forbidden to see women? If so, why?
13. What is the relation of children under puberty to the totem ? May they eat the totem-animal or plant ? Are they absolved from the other restrictions which are imposed upon grown members of the clan in regard to the totem ?
14. Have the ceremonials at the death and burial of a member of a totem-tribe any reference to the totem ? Describe such ceremonies. What is supposed to happen to the spirit or sou! of a member of a totem-tribe at death? Is it thought to migrate into the totem ? Or is the dead man himself thought to be transformed into a member of the totem-species?
15. Are omens drawn from the appearance, motions, cries, &c., of the totem ?
!5. Is the totem supposed to help the tribe, clan, or clans- man in any way ?
17. Is food offered to the totem-animal? Is it caught and kept in captivity ?
18. Is the totem ever treated like a human being, dressed in clothes, prayed to, &c. ?
19. Is constraint ever placed on the totem, in order to compel it to grant the wishes of the tribe ?
20. Are there totem-dances, i.e. do the members of the totem-tribe or clan dress up in the skins of the totem animal and represent its movements and cries? On what occasions, and with what object, are such dances per- formed ?
2[. Does each tribesman or clansman revere all members of the totem species equally ? or does he suppose that he has a special connection with one particular individual of the species, e.g., if he is a wolf does he respect all wolves
392 Notes and Queries on Tolemism.
equally ? or does he think that one particular wolf is his special friend, and that his fate is bound up in that par- ticular wolf so closely that if it dies or is killed, he must himself die at the same moment ?
22. In addition to the tribal or clan-totem, has each man a totem of his own? i.e. an animal, plant, &c., which he specially reveres and with which he conceives that his fate is bound up ? How does he acquire his personal totem ? is it chosen for him at his birth by his parents or the priest ? or does he choose it for himself, and if so, how, and with what ceremonies ? Does he take for his personal totem a whole species of animals or plants, &c. (as all eagles, all turtles), or only one individual of the species (as a particular eagle or turtle) ?
23. Are there any traces of the transitions of totemism into a more advanced worship ? e.g-t are there any gods worshipped in human form with the heads of animals, or la animal form with human heads, &c. ? Are gods in human form supposed to have certain animals or plants specially connected with their worship ? Do these animals or plants appear to have been once the totems of tribes or clans? Are the dead, or the spirits of the dead, worshipped? If so, what is their name (Zulu Amatongo) ? And have these any relation to animals, and especially to snakes (Zulu Ihloei), or to those animals whose name the clan bears? Are such animals considered to bring luck or to represent ancestral or guardian spirits? Is there a supernatural being, a kind of great father, who first gave being to men ? And if so, what is his name (Zulu, Unkulunkulu)'} How did he beget them ? Were they dug up, or split out of wood, &c.
24. Is the totem-animal ever slain sacrificially ? If so, what is done with the various portions of the carcase, such as head, various organs, bones, flesh, &c. ? Do the clans- men consume the flesh, or any portion of it ? And are any other persons admitted to share the meal? What, if any, superstitious beliefs are annexed to the act, or to the dis-
f
Notes and Queries on Tatemism.
393
posal of any part of the body not wholly consumed ? Is the observance of any such custom periodical ? Is the slain animal supposed to revive ? And what, if any, precautions are taken for that purpose ? When the totem is a plant, is it ever eaten ceremonially by members of the totem-clan ? 25 Are there any traces of territorial totemism ? Do the members of the same totem live together? Have they common lands? Are there any land or village restrictions which may have had a totemistic origin ?
26. Has each totem-clan a special burial-ground of its own ? If so, is the place or the district sacred to the clan and not to be inhabited, or used for common purposes? Does the place become a sanctuary or refuge where animals and men are safe from violence ?
27. Do the members of any totem-clan believe that by magical ceremonies they can ensure a constant supply of their particular lotem for the good of the community ? Give the native explanations of the symbolism employed.
28. When the totem happens to be a noxious or dangerous species of animal {e.g., crocodiles, serpents, locusts), do the members of the totem-clan perform any ceremonies to appease, avert, or destroy such animals? When the totem happens to be a harmful or dangerous thing, [e.g., snow, or thunder and lightning), do the members of the totem-clan perform any ceremonies to avert such dangers or to prevent, abate, or remedy the harm resulting from such things ?
29. Can a man belonging to a particular totem-clan visit with safety a man of a non-friendly tribe who belongs to the same, or an associated, totem ? Would a man inten- tionally kill, in battle or otherwise, another belonging to the same totem-clan as himself ?
"," Infonnatioii on any of Ihese poinls will be very welcome, nnd may be fbrwu-ded to the Secietary of the Society.
Copies of these Notes and Queries may be oblained sepotalelT from D. Null, 57, Long Acre, price 6d.
GARLAND DAY AT CASTLETON.
I.
Before describing the ceremony which forms the subject of this paper, let me first say something about the district in which it is performed, and about the inhabitants and their traditions and customs.
The village of Castleton, in the High Peak of Derbyshire^ lies at the bottom of an amphitheatre of steep and lofty hills thinly covered by grass, limestone crags protruding here and there from its slopes. It is difficult of access except on its western side, in the direction of the adjacent village of Hope, Before the opening of the Dore and Chinley Railway a few years ago it was visited chiefly for its well-known caves, and for the ancient and once impregnable castle which frowns over the village, and which has been made widely known by Scott's Peveril of the Peak. In 1851 U had fewer than 900 inhabitants, and since the decay of the lead-mining industry the population has become still smaller. Last April the census showed that there were 547 inhabitants. Parts of the church are old, the chancel arch being round, and of Romanesque or Norman work, with chevron ornamentation.
The parish consists of the townships of Castleton and Edale, which contain together about to,ooo acres, Edale being a small village which is separated from Castleton by a range of hills. The township of Castleton contains about 2,900 acres. "The Duke of Devonshire has the nominal appointment of Constable of the Castle, and is lessee of the honor, or manor, and forest of the Peak, of which Castleton was till of late years esteemed a member. Courts are held for Castleton as a distinct manor, extending over many of the townships of the Peak The civil subdivisions of
Garland Day at Castleton.
Derbyshire, like those of most other northern counties, were anciently called wapentakes. In the Domesday Survey we find mention of the wapentakes of Scarvedale, Hamestan, Morlestan [jiV], Walecros, and Apultre, and a district called Peche-fers (Peak Forest), but we gain no information from it as to the extent of the several districts.^ .... The Wirksworth division still retains the name of a wapentake ; the other modern divisions, Appletree, High Peak, Scarsdale, Repton and Gresley, and Morleston [sic]
and Litchurch are called hundreds The Duke of
Devonshire is lessee, under the Duchy of Lancaster, of the hundred of the High Peak." «
Domesday Book says: "In Pechesers Terram castelli Will'! Peuerel tenuerunt Gernebern et Hundinc." The Pipe Rolls show payments of salary to the custodes of the castle for many years, proving that in the twelfth century it was Crown property. In 1374 it was granted by Edward III. to John of Gaunt, with the Honour and Forest of Peak, and became parcel of the Duchy of Lancaster. I have been unable to discover at what place the Hundred Court was held in the High Peak. The Great Barmote Courts for the district which includes Castleton, were held at Monyash ( = many ashes) near Bakewell, on the first Tuesday in April and the first Tuesday in October, at which all pleas of debt and disputes as to title relating to lead-mines within the hundred of High Peak were determined. Other Barmote Courts were held at Ashford, Eyam, Sloney Middleton, Crich, and Wirksworth. No Barmote Court appears to have been held at Castleton. The village of Bradwell and the hamlets of Pindale and Smalldale, mentioned in the following pages, are in the pari.sh of Hope. It appears, however, that the manor and the parish of Castleton were by no means co-extensive. The castle gave to the town
' [Sny rather, no one has been M Ihe pains to trace the areas of these districts from Ihe poiticulan given. — Ed.] - Lysons's Derbyshire, 1817, pp. 73, xi.
396
Garland Day at Castleton.
'
of Castleton an importance which its neighbours did not possess.'
That the inhabitants have been clannish, and have freely intermarried, may be shown perhaps by the great prevalence of the surname Hall. The churchyard seems full of Halls. So common is this surname that the various persons who bear it have been popularly distinguished by nicknames. Thus there are the Hall-Baileys, so called because one of them had held the office of bailiff ; the Hall-Chips, so called because one of them had been a cooper or "tub- thumper;" the Hall- Frenches or French-Halls, so called because they are maternally descended from a Miss French ; the Hall-Stones, from a place called Stones in the neigh- bourhood where they lived; the Hall-Chorltons, of un- known origin; the Hall-Cotes, from Cotes Green in the township of Bradwell ; the Hall-Blacksmiths, from the family trade, and so on. The second name is commonly used. Thus Nancy Hall, or Chorlton, would be called Nancy Chorlton. I heard it said of a woman in Castleton that " she couldn't call folks by their right names if she tried."
Till of late years, a considerable part of the inhabitants have been engaged in lead-mining. This is a veiy ancient industry both in the High Peak and in the wapentake of Wirksworth. The lead-mining population of the district have, or rather had, some peculiar customs. Two or three years ago I was talking to Mr. Bagshaw, a farmer about sixty years of age, who lives at Shatton, three miles, to the east of Castleton. He mentioned a tradition that if a man could build a hut on the moors in that neighbourhood in a single night, and make a fire so that the smoke would go up in the morning, he would obtain the right of following a vein of lead on those moors. 1 immediately wrote this down,
' A trace of this dignity may appear in a proverb which the Castlelon boys repeal when they go to play fixitball in other villages : " Castleton for honoar, Halhersage for wit, Detwent for water," Ac.
Garland Day at Castleton. 397
and, as I was lodging at Mr. Bagshaw's house at the time, I had good opportunities of judging as to the source of the tradition. I was satisfied that it was not derived from books, nor am I acquainted with any book which mentions such a custom in Derbyshire in the way in which Mr, Bagshaw put it. The tradition is confirmed by the former existence of a similar belief in Sheffield. On the edge of Crookes Moor, near that city, a house called Mushroom Hall, long ago rebuilt, still exists. Its name was derived from the fact, or from the belief, that the original house sprang up in a night like a mushroom. " The story was," says the Rev. Joseph Hunter (i 783-1861), "that it was built, covered in, and a pot boiled, between sunset and sunrise, and this, it was alleged, gave a right to the ground on which it stood, according to the custom of the manor.'"
One of the most interesting of the Derbyshire lead-mining customs was that which enabled the finder of a vein to set a mark of possession called a " stowe " upon it, and to build a " coe " or hut over the " grove " or pit. This practice is well explained by the opening lines of Manlove's Liberties and Customes of the Lead-Mines within the Wapentake of Wirksworth, first printed in 1653 :
" By cuslom old in Wirkswonh Wapentake, If any of this nation find a Rake, Or Sign, 01 leading to the same ; may scl In any Ground, rmd there Lead-oai may get : They make crosses, holes, and set theii Stowes, Sink Shafts, build Lodges, Cottages or Goes. But churches, houses, gaidens oil aie free From ihis strange custom of the minery."
That the practice of building a hut over the pit leading I into a newly-opened lead-mine is ancient, may perhaps be I inferred from a folktale belonging to the district. I have I published a tale called " The Little Red Hairy Man,"' in
MS. Glossary in the British Museum.
HaustMd Talis, &-c., p. 50. The first pait of the talc has a strong 10 Grimm's Celdem Gaost.
398 Garland Day at Castleton.
which the sons of a poor Derbyshire lead-miner meet, each in turn, " a little red hairy man, covered with hair, and about the height of nine penn'orth of copper." ^ The little man, in the course of the story, directs one of the sons to an old lead-mine. " The opening of the mine, " we are told, "was inside an old hut." The son goes down the pit, and finds himself in a beautiful country.
In Castleton and in the adjacent village of Bradwell, and probably also in other villages of the High Peak, the garden or yard belonging to a house is known as "the privilege.'' Thus one may hear a man say, " He's got a nice bit o' privilege at the back of his house," or, " I'll not have thee on my privilege." This word is either a reminiscence of the time when a man's house and garden were free from the invasions of lead-miners, or of squatting on the waste and obtaining a title by prescription. It is commonly said that everybody in Bradwell has " a bit of a house of his own.' One of my informants said, " There never was a place with so many little freeholders as Bradwell." Another said that " Bradwell has more freeholders than any village in England." Some of the houses are very small, and within my knowledge have been sold for small sums. The Bradwell people have been described as " independent paupers." The houses are built in a most irregular way on a hillside. It is a common thing on the sale of any of these " privileges " to reserve a "ladder-stead," i.e. a right for the seller to put a ladder on the sold " privilege" to repair windows, spouts, &c. The people have the reputation of being extremely thrifty and industrious, hating nothing so much as debt. Like the people of Castleton, they are very fond of music, and generally are intelligent and refined. Old lead-miners still remember an ancient technical vocabulary, of which only a small portion has found its way into word-books, I have been overwhelmed sometimes by
■ In Sheffield they uy of a small man " He's a little Hop o' my Thumb, no bigget Iban nine penn'orth o' brass.
4
Garland Day at Castlcton. 399
quite a torrent of these words, and found it impossible to write them down.
The name-system at Bradwell resembles that at Castleton. The great prevalence of a few surnames, such as Bradwell, Middleton, and Hallam, has led to the invention of distin- guishing cognomina, or to the substitution of bye-names. Thus Jack Clany was so called because his mother's name was Clarissa Middleton. The real name of Bob Shoemaker was Robert Middleton ; Joe i' t' Meadow, Tom i' t' Meadow, and Tom o' th' Island were also Middletons. (The Island is the name of a knoll in Smalldale.) Sam o' th' Hatter was the son of a hatter in the village.
The ceremony at Castleton which I am about to describe takes place annually on the 29th of May, and as that was the day of the Ambarvalia it would perhaps be to the point if I said a few words about the vestiges of the Romans in this district. Two miles to the east of Castleton, and one mile to the north-east of Bradwell, are the remains of an unexplored station or town called Brough, formerly Burgh. The once paved Roman way known as Bathom Gate,* which extends between Buxton and Templeborough, and which goes from the the latter town towards the Humber, passes through Brough, and through Smalldale adjoining Bradwell, which is an old lead-mining village in the manor of Castle- ton.^ By this means there was direct communication be- tween the Derbyshire lead-mines and the Humber. That the Romans worked the lead-mines of this district is proved by the discovery of inscribed pigs of that metal. In 1894 a pig of lead was discovered near Matlock with an inscrip- tion which Mr. Haverfield interpreted to mean " the lead of P. Rubrius Abascantus, of the mine of Lutudarum," which was already known as a lead-mining town or district near Matlock and Wirksworth. " It may be worth noticing," says Mr. Haverfield, " that three of the four men whose names
■ The a iD BBthom is sounded like the a in late.
■ But ia the puish of Hope, see p. 395.
400
Garland Day at Castleton.
have come down to us as private miners at Lutudamm have Greek cognomina, Abascantus, Protus, and Trophimus (if that be the correct expansion). This may show that here, as elsewhere, trade was to some extent in the hands of Greek freedmen. It is more important to add that Lutu- darum is the only mining district in Britain where we find private enterprise active, according to our remains." * Lead was worked in Britain in the time of the Venerable Bede, and the evidence of Domesday Book and many later records proves that it has been worked continuously in Derbyshire from the eleventh century to the present day.
Mr. Bagshaw, of Shatton, said to me some years ago that the old inhabitants of Bradwell were of short stature. Mr. Marrison, of Castleton, whose evidence about the garland ceremony is given further on, told me last September that the old inhabitants of Bradwell were the descendants of " transports, like the people sent from Russia." He said he had heard that these " transports " built themselves little stone huts without mortar, " and settled down in Bradwell." He had heard about the " transports " all his life ; " it was quite true, and had been handed down." He "had heard scores and scores of people talk about it." They were transported to work the lead-mines. Some of them came out of Italy and France, and they used to call them "part- bred Italians." Some of these "old originals were half- blacks when he was a lad," and he had known some people at Hucklow whose hair was "as black as a sloe." They were "little folk, strip-made. They had little short legs, and their knees were low down," Mr. Marrison was care- ful to add that " as a rule they were honest, hard-working people." He afterwards said they were " long-headed " (which he explained as meaning "witty") people. He said that he was born In Castleton, and his father before him.
Mr. Henry Ashton, of Castleton, told me that he had heard that the lead-miners of Castleton, as well as Bradwell, were ' PreictdtHgi of Ike SacUly ef Antiquaru!, May, 1S94.
I
L^
Garland Day at Castleton.
the descendants of convicts. He thought he had seen that in a book, but could not remember where. Mr. Joseph Dalton, of Aston Hall, farmer, said to me that the old inhabitants of Bradweli were short and thick-necked (what I have noticed is that they are short-necked). Mr. George Barber, of Castleton, mentioned below, said there were "plenty of people in Bradweli not more than 4 foot 8 inches high." They were "podgy little things," and he observed that a well-known man in Castleton, now deceased, said they were " nothing but Hottentots."
Robert Bradweli, of Bradweli, formerly a lead-mine owner, aged 88, told me last September that he was the oldest inhabitant of Bradweli, and was descended from the old stock of Bradweli people. He had heard that the lead- miners of Bradweli were sent there as convicts — that was his word — from a foreign country a long time ago. He had heard that from his father. It was an old tradition. He had never seen it in print, but he believed that many people in Bradweli were descended from those men. "We're descended from a nice lot, aren't we?" said he. He said that the Castleton people used to say that the Bradweli people were descended from convicts, whilst the Bradweli people retorted that the Castleton people were descended from slaves. Mr. Bradweli said that these convicts lived in stone huts near the mines. He was not aware that the Bradweli people had dark hair, and I asked no questions about stature. He said that the Castletop people used to reproach the Bradweli people because they had "no steevelin' " (stabling), Mr. Bradwell's daughter- in-law said that the old Bradweli people were "transports," sent over by some foreign power, and "that is why they differ from other people." '
Mary Barber, of Castleton, mentioned below, said tliat the old inhabitants of Bradweli rarely married out of their own
' [Compare Ibe " Biddlc Muir men ol Noilh SuSbrdshiie, Folklore, vil. , |«, 379-]
VOL. Xll. 3 D
403
Garland Day at Castleton.
village. She said that they were short and thick-necked, and she thought that the thick necks were caused by thd women carrying buckets of water on their heads, watei being scarce in Bradwell. These buckets stood on " rows i.e. on padded rolls of old stockings or some soft materia] They were made like crowns, so as to fit their heads. ^ Son: people attributed the short stature of the lead-miners I working in the mines.
I have seen enough of the old inhabitants of Bradwell tfd enable me to confirm these statements about their shoif stature. Many of them are strikingly little, and considerable below the middle height. Their faces are of an intellectuaT type. Their hair is generally dark, but I have seen no c of black hair. It is necessary to distinguish the old ia4 habitants, nearly all of whom have been lead-miners, i are the descendants of lead-miners, from the inhabitants who have settled there of late years. The railway brought a new population from Sheffield and elsewhere.*
As this remarkable tradition may have arisen from 1 opinion of some antiquary or writer, I have searched In" county histories and guide-books for some account of these so-called "transports" or convicts, I find that Glover, in his History of the County of Derby, 1829, offers the extraordinary conjecture that some of the terms used by the miners can be traced to an Asiatic source, and this, be says, "seems to go far in proving that the mineral treasures < the county were, at a very early period, wrought either by i colony of foreigners from the East or under their direction. |1 1 have also come across the following passage in W. Wood's
■ " Derl^shire neck " {i.e. goitre) was a common ailment of the womei * 1 wa$ lold at Bradwell that the people of Little Hueklow, two miles BredwcU, "were left to themselves, more 10 than at BcadwelL X Ilucklow is locally called " flen-town," and the people are said to be '* gipHes." People there are called " strainers " if they have not lived ix vill^e [oT several gencrstioDS. I have not visited the place myself told that many gipsies have enctunped there. " Flea-tuwn " is said to fa«9 modem name.
L
Garland Day at Castleton.
Tales and Traditions of the High Peak, the preface to which is dated from Eyam, where the author lived, in 1862, that village being four miles from Bradwell :
" The inhnbitanis of Castlelon, and ihe Peak in general, ate now dislin- Euishcii by a many excellent traits, of humanity, kindoess, and social impoi- tnnce. That the inhabitants of this mountiinous locality, generations back, should have been rough, uncouth, yea, even savage and ferocious, may be ac- counted, if not apologised for, by Ihe Eeneially stated fact that the north of Derbyshire was, during and after the Septarchal ages, a penal selilcmcnt ; that criminals were sent to work in mines (under captains) as a fit punishment for certain crimes" (p. 57).
I take it that the words ■' generally stated fact " mean a tradition which Wood had heard, and that the words " Septarchal ages," "under captains," and "certain crimes" are embellishments of his own. It seems strange that Wood, who mentions Brough and the Roman settlement there in this same book, should never have mentioned the fact that under the Roman Empire the workmen employed in mines were often slaves, soldiers, or criminals, and that where the miners were criminals there was always a military station near them. But let us not forget the Greek freed- men whose names seem to appear on the Derbyshire pigs of lead.
The " Hundred of the High Peak, that is called the King's Field, is divided into several divisions or liberties, and every one of those liberties is governed by a person called a Bar-master."' The barmaster (minemaster) was assisted by a grand jury of 24 men, and he and the jury held a Barmote Court, which settled the ctjstoms of the liberty. In this court all actions relating to the mines were to be brought. The barmaster held a court every three weeks if required, and two great barmote courts every year. He sat as coroner in cases of fatal accidents in the mines. He was arbitrator between miner and merchant. He gave possession to the discoverers of veins, inspected the mines, and set out roads. He could put offenders into the ' Hardy's Mineti Guide, 1748, p. 6. 3 D 3
404 Garland Day at Castleton,
stocks, and he administered a curious and elaborate body of customary rules.
In the High Peak the barmaster is " first chosen by the lord of the field or his farmer." '
In Castleton there is an ancient lead-mine which in county histories and other books is described as " Odin Mine." But old lead-miners in Castleton and Bradwell speak of it as Owdane Mine, accenting the second syllable. A Castleton man said to me that this mine " formerly belonged to the Danes," and an old Bradwell lead-miner said that " the Danes hid themselves in it," afterwards remarking, " We've mixed with the Danes." I think there can be no doubt that the true name of this mine, in which many ancient tools have been found, is Owd Dane (Old Dane) Mine, for prehistoric and Roman work is often in this country attributed to the Danes. For example, at Eckington, in Derbyshire, the Roman road is known as Dane Balk. There seems to be no trace of the Scandinavians either in the place-names, the dialect, or the people of the High Peak. The usual name for ancient lead-workings in the Peak is "owd mon workings." Less than a quarter of a mile from the north-eastern side of Bradwell, and between that village and Brough, is a straight embankment of earth which runs from a very steep hill, called Rebellion Knoll on the ordnance map, to another very steep hill on the opposite side of the valley. It is called Grey Ditch ou the ordnance map, and the people know it as Grey Dych (with a long y). This earthwork cannot have been a road, but its perfect straightness affords some evidence of Roman origin. It looks like a military work extending from a cliff on one side of the valley to a cliff on the other side, and forming a barrier between Bradwell and Brough.^
' The course of Grey Ditch is not continued over the cliff in the diiectioD of the norlh'Wcst ; bul on the olhcr side of the cliff it goes on again for a lew hundred ysrds, and is abruptly terminated by two short ctn- bMikntenla at right anglea to the long one. The earth has been thrown up
Garland Day at Castleton. 405
The Peak of Derbyshire is mentioned in the English Chronicle for the year 924 under the name of Peiclond. And in Kemble's Codex Diplomaticus ( i, 14, 7.) the inhabit- ants are called Pe^c-s^etan, Pec-sa:tan, the district being described as containing r,20o hides. In Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle {Hearne, p. 7) the eminence on which the castle stands is called " ^e hull of J>e pek." Whatever be the meaning of this peac or pec, it can hardly mean a " peak " in our sense of the word, for there are no such things in the district, and the hill on which the castle stands has a truncated top.
That an open-air court was once held in this neighbour- hood seems proved by the existence of a pJace described on the ordnance map as Laughman Tor (Lawman Rock) four miles to the south-west of Castleton. (Tor is pronounced iur in this neighbourhood.)
Castleton, like other villages in the High Peak, has its wakes. They begin on the first Sunday in September, and last till the following Sunday. During this week natives of the place who have gone to live elsewhere come back to see their relations. There were few wakes without a quarrel. The Castleton people quarrelled with the Bradwell people, and fought with knobsticks in the fields between
from ihe nDrih-eMlem side of Ihe embankmenl, or Ihe side facing Brough. " It is about twelve feet broad at Ihe top There U no tradition con- cerning it ; but pieces of swords, spears, spurs and bridle bits have be«n found very near it." (Pilkington's iJunij'jAin!, 1789,11., 403.) I found thai the widtb of Ihe convex surface b 45 feet, the heighl, measured from an im^nary line drawn at right angles to the base, being about 10 feet. The one-inch ord- nance map shows the portion of the earthwork which extends from Rebellion ICdoU to Bradwell Brook, but does not show its continuation across StretGeld, where the Roman ruad is, to Far Coatcs or Meadow House. Mrs. Middleton, mentioned below, whose house in Smalldale is on the Raman toad, and on the Bradwell side of the embankment, said there was a tradition thai her house was once a prisotu It was not so in her time, and she cannot lix a date. A few yards to the north of the embankment is a place which the inhabitants call the "IddenTrec." They speak of a man being "down at t' Idden Tree," and their fancy connects It with hiding io a tree. There is no tree Ihete now. (See more about this pUice in Wood's TaUs, &c, pp. 182 «f.)
4o6 Garland Day at Castleton.
the two villages. Tbey also fought in 3 croft behind the Bull's Head Inn.
Forty years ago it was said of Bradwell that, "like all other mountain-hid villages, it contains a population strongly niariced by peculiarities of custom, and most pug- naciously tenacious of their numerous, time-honoured, and antique usages. Here, to a deplorably excessive degree, intermarriages exist, and have existed for ages."' In this and other villages of the High Peak a fine, sometimes called " foot-ale" ("foot" being sounded like" boot"), was exacted by the populace from a stranger who came to woo a girl in them. At Bradwell the 6ne was is. 61/., and if the interloper would not pay, a haiter was put round his neck and he was driven round the tillage. Mr. Sidebotham, of Castleton, whose evidence about the Castleton garland I shall give further on, told me that if a suitor of this kind would not pay " they put him into the mere," and " covered his clothes with mud." But he said that such rough treat- ment would not now be permitted, and that the police " would ran people in " who attempted it, Mr, Potter, whose evidence as to the Garland I shall also give, told me in August, 1901, that if a stranger came to court a girl at Chapel-en-le-Frith forty years ago he was expected to pay a small fine. If he refused " he was dragged through the water — a sort of christening." He remembered a girl at Chapel whom a number of young men " wanted." But a man from another village came to court her, and, because he would not pay, they first of all dragged him through a pool of clean water, and, as that did not make him pay, they dragged him through a dirty horse-pond. Mr. Robert Evans, of Bradwell, whom I saw there in August, 1901, told me that he once lived at Deepcar, between Sheffield and Penistone, where this custom was known as " pitchering." My friend Mr, Joseph Kenworthy, of Deepcar, teils me that the word " pitchering " simply means that the fine, which
■ Wood's Tales, ut supra, p. 183. I was told al Bradwell, in August, 1901, thai " nearly all Ihe old people are related."
N
Garland Day at Castleton.
varied according to the means of the person accused, was spent in drink (in a jug or pitcher), and has some affinity to the custom of footing or " foot-ale." He says that the custom is remembered in Deepcar by a few people. Every village in this neighbourhood seems to have some predominant sur- name. Thus, at Tideswell (popularly known as TJdsa or Tidsa-God-bless-you)' they say "Tidsa for Bramas," Bram- well being the most common surname. At Bradwell Mr. Evans remembered the custom of " cucking " (compare " cuck-atool ") or tossing up the young women at Easter, if they refused to kiss the men,
Mrs. George Middleton, mentioned below, told me that on Christmas Even, as they call it, when the lead-miners came out of the mines, they left half a candle burning for the " owd man," this being the collective term by which they describe the men of bygone limes who have worked in the mines.' In another part of Derbyshire colliers have been known to leave pieces of coal in the pit for the fairies, but I am not aware that they do this on Christmas Eve. In their houses on Christmas Eve, Mrs. Middleton said, the miners burnt a Yule candle, which is much bigger than an ordinary candle, ate a Yule loaf, and drank posset. " The Yule loaf." she said, " is like a round cake put on a square loaf, and pricked with a fork." Another informant told me that "they all sit round the table whilst the candle is burning, and put spoons into the bowl [of posset] as it is passed round. It is done yet, and the grocers give the candles to their customers for this purpose."
About five years ago my wife and daughter were staying
■ This U Ibe common Uont of ponrty, ss in Tickhill-God-tidp-you, neai Rotherham.
' Mrs Middleton afterwMds said Ihat Ihey also left a portion of their dinner. I mentioned this lo Mr. Robert Bradwell, who said he did not remember it, bul that he had seen Ihem leave a whole candle " for the old ancient man to have hii posset by." I had not memiooed posKt to him.
4o8 Garland Day at Casileton.
in Castleton at the house of Mrs. Jacob Eyre, who lets rooms. On the evening of the 39th of May there was so much noisy merriment that they were kept awake half the night. On inquiring what was the cause of the noise, Mrs. Eyre said it was made by the Morris- dancers. My wife then wrote down the following note of what Mrs. Eyre told her.
" On the 29th of May the church bell rings at two o'clock to call the ringers together to make a garland of May- flowers and ginger-flowers (wild geraniums) ' , the flowers having been gathered by the people in the village.
" At six o'clock the king and queen go round the village, and the king carries a garland. They dance, and any one that has a bit of oak can join in it. It is said that the oaJc is used in memory of King Charles II. The dance is kept up till a late hour on a fine night, and after it is finished the king, queen, and dancers go to a public-house and have a feast. Castleton is a noted place for singing, ringing, and playing."
Mrs. Eyre told me on the 30th of last May that the 29th of that month is known as Garland Day, and from further inquiries which I have made from the inhabitants I have no doubt that such is the fact. She also said that when she was young, more than fifty years ago, the king and queen were called " the man and woman."
Last April I got some further particulars of this ceremony from my brother-in-law, Mr. Barton Wells, and on the 10th I went over to Castleton to make preliminary inquiries, intending to see the ceremony myself on the 29th of the following month.
I soon found out who took the leading parts in the cere- mony, and my first informant was George Potter, aged 57, a native of Chapel-en-Ie-Frith (six miles from Castleton),
' Red Campion, Lyncknis diuma. There is a Held in a swampy hollow at Deepcar called Ginger Botloms. I have often heard these (lowers called " giuger-Boweis " ai Castleton.
Garland Day at Castltton. 409
who keeps a shop and lets rooms in the village. He said that Castleton people called the 29th of May Royal Oak Day. A garland is made " in the fore part of the day," and "they reckon to finish it about two o'clock." The framework of the garland is kept at the parish clerk's house, to be used every year. It is like a beehive in shape. On the top of it they fix a large bunch of choice flowers which they call "the queen" (locally pronounced "quane"). This bunch of flowers is fastened to a stick which fits into a round hole in the top of the garland frame. The garland itself is made chiefly of wild flowers, each bunch of flowers being tied on with string. They begin fastening the flowers at the top, and gradually get down to the bottom. Formerly the ringers alone made the garland, and they have now more to do with it than anybody else. There are people in Castle- ton who still grow tulips and other flowers for the garland ; especially for "the queen." Some of these are ringers, and others are not. Before the garland is put on the king's head, the king and queen ride round the village, dressed in their costume, to "advertise themselves," and to show the people that the ceremony is about to begin. Having done this the garland is put over the king's head by two strong men, who stand on two barrels or stools, and lift it up by " fork-stales," i.e. fork-handles. The king then rides from one inn in the village to another, with the queen and the Morris-dancers. The garland covers him down to the hips, so that you can see nothing of him but his legs. His arms are inside the garland, steadying it. It is so heavy that it makes him sweat. The part of king, which requires great bodily strength, is taken by Thomas Hall. He is so encum- bered by the garland that he cannot use the reins, and his horse has to be led. He can move aside some of the leaves in one " quarter" of the garland in order to see through.
The woman, lady, or queen, taking part in this ceremony, is a man dressed in woman's clothes. The present queen is Arthur Whittingham. The queen now wears a jewelled
4IO Garland Day at Castleton.
crown, bought a few years ago ; formerly it was an old bonnet.
As the king and queen ride round the town they are accompanied by a band of music, which now comes from Bradwell. The queen rides behind, and keeps the ground clear for the Morris-dancers, who go in the middle of the pro- cession. Formerly a man with a besom went before it, to clear the way. The queen's horse has been led for the last ten or fifteen years by John Nail, parish-clerk and sexton. It is safer to lead the horse, because a strange horse might not stand the noise. The Morris-dancers are now young girls.
The band plays as they go round the village, and the Morris-dancers dance before every public-house in the village, and after they have done riding round, the king rides alone into the churchy&d. He sits on his horse, close to the south wall of the tower, when the ringers remove the nosegay called " the queen " from the top of the gfarland, and a rope is let down from the summit of the tower, put through the hole left by the removal of " the queen," and fastened inside by the king. Six or eight men are standing on the top of the tower ; less than six could not manage it. The rope goes over a stone which projects from the leads of the tower, and serves for a pulley. The men pull the rope, the garland is lifted from the king's head, and raised to the top of the tower. It is then fixed " on the pike," i.e. on the middlemost of the three pinnacles on the south side, a " pike " being a pinnacle.^ The ringers and their friends sometimes get a little money as they go round collecting flowers, and the bunch of flowers called '*the queen" is given to some prominent inhabitant at the end of the day. It is not sold, but the recipient usually makes a present, varying from 5s. to £2^ to the ringers. Mr. Potter is not elected by the ringers ; the king knows that he is always ready to lead the horse. Mr. Potter has seen the late Mr
* Between my first and second visit the western pinnacle on this side fell.
Robert Howe, barmaster, and other well-to-do inhabitants, dancing as ringers and Morris-dancers.
On Garland Day, everybody is supposed to have a bit of oak, and the Morris -dancers, who were formerly the ringers, tossed their pieces up in the air as they danced, first in one hand and then in the other. The children, in imitation of what the men did, " dance two steps out and two steps in, and then they twist round." Thus far George Potter,
Mrs. Wood, of Castleton, said that she knew James J/arr Deakin, an old man who took the part of queen and rode on a side-saddle. He had a wide strip of needlework stitched at the bottom of his trousers, and he wore the oldest shawl that could be found. He wore a large yellow Tuscan bonnet, sometimes called a Quaker or " entry " bonnet, with a broad blue ribbon on it. Flowers for the garland, such as tulips, were often cut some days before the 29th of May, if ihey were likely to be overblown by that time, and kept in a dark place, such as under the stairs or in the cellar, to keep them in bloom. Sometimes they were put into salt and water for that purpose. All work was at a standstill, except a bit of milking of the cows, the old folks danced, and it was a high feast. There was more laughing and scjuealing in those days than there is now. James Marr Deakin's wife used to brew what she called " yarb beer " (herb beer) to be used on Garland Day. She said that there were twenty-four sorts of herbs in it, such as dandelion, Robin -run-i'-t'-hedge (ground ivy), foal-foot, &c. It was " as black as black treacle," and was good for the blood. There wasn't so much doctoring then as there is now. I could not ascertain that the beer was made by anybody eUe in Castleton for Garland Day, and Mrs. Deakin was said to have made it for the benefit of some regular visitors, who came over from Chesterfield on that day. Mrs. Wood said that most of the inhabitants grew flowers
Ir the garland, and flowers were often stolen for it. I was told by another informant that tulips " are very
413 Garland Day at Castieton.
nesh {tender) in the stem, and won't stand tying," so that they are put in the " quane."
Mr. Potter's daughter kindly took us to see the frame of the garland. On our way she showed me the spout or gargoyle over which the rope goes when the garland is pulled up to the top of tht tower. She said that the garland is taken down in two or three weeks, when the flowers are withered. Sometimes it is blown off by violent winds. Photographers don't like it because it spoils their view of the church. We found the frame of the garland at Mary Barber's, Primrose House. Passing through a long disused rope-walk, with a very low ceiling, we mounted a ladder at one end, and got into the chamber in which the frame of the garland was hung by a chain from a balk of the roof, the chain going through a round hole bored through a round piece of wood which formed the top. The frame consists of a round hoop, with a diameter of 2 feet 5 inches, from which seven curved strands or pieces of wood rise and meet in the apex formed by the round piece of wood just mentioned. The height of each curved piece of wood is I foot 8 inches, and the the whole framework is neatly wrapped by straw. The round piece of wood forming the top is 6 inches in diameter, and the round hole at the top to hold " the queen " is i inch in diameter. Miss Barber, who is 76 years old, said that many of the flowers are gathered the day before Garland Day. Formerly, she said, they were gathered by the eight ringers. She remembered the garland banging on the tower all the year round. She said that the frame of the garland was brought to her house last year, because some repairs were being done at the parish clerk's house. Her brother Edwin, who lives with her, is now the oldest ringer. She had heard that King Charles took an eagle up into the oak-tree with him, to deceive his pursuers. She called the Morris-dancers " molly dancers." She said that most people in Castieton grew flowers for the garland.
i
_jl
Garland Day at Castleton.
Thomas Hall, a native of Castleton, aged 48, formerly a lead-miner, but now a labourer, said that he had taken the pari of king for the last thirty years, having begun at the age of eighteen. He is not a ringer. George Watts, who was king before him, had taken that part for many years. Watts was coachman to the late Dr. Winterbottom, of Castleton, and the coat which he wore on Garland Day was an old livery coat of drab colour, reaching down to the heels, with a red lining. This coat was afterwards worn by the said Thomas Hall, and every year they put fresh ribbons and rosettes or " May -bunches " on it. He said that the ringers " uphold " the garland, meaning that they keep the ceremony up. They meet in the belfry or in a public-house a week or two before Garland Day, and ask the man who was king last year if he will be king again . Formerly he was not paid for his services, but now he gets a small sum. Four years ago the ringers bought a new coat for the king, and Mr. Hall keeps it at his own house. The ringers also bought a crown for the queen at the same time. The hat which the king formerly wore before the garland was put on was black, with a broad brim. He said that James Marr Deakin (commonly known as James Mart), was queen along with him for many years. He was a clean-shaven man, and was called Marr because bis father's name was Marriott Deakin.
Mr. Hall said that the band plays " the old original tune " as the procession marches round the village, and a different tune in front of the public-houses. P'ormerly, two or three men carrying besoms used to go before the procession to sweep people out of the way. Before they went round the town they used to go to the old vicar's house at Goose Hill Hall. Mr. Hall was chosen king on account of his bodily strength, for the garland is very heavy when the flowers are wet, especially when there are such flowers as " May- blobs " ' in it. He fixes a round pad on his head before they ■ Motsh-marigotds (Cd/Ma/a/wi/nV).
414 Garland Day at Castleton.
put the garland on, and when it is put on he makes a hole in the garland with hts hands to see through. The king always rides first in the procession, and Mr. Hall has never heard any other names than king and queen used on Garland Day. His family of Hall is popularly known as the Hall-Pees. This nickname is said to have been given at school, the Castleton schoolmaster having said to a boy of this family, " Well done, Bob, thou'll soon be as clever as Bobby Pee " (the local p c riation of Peel). Mr. Hall said that they once tried to i e a garland at Bradwell out of a hamper, "but the man's id went through, and they jarred one another about it." n'e said that he had missed being king two or three times in the thirty years owing to bis absence in India. Mrs. Hall said she had seen the late barmaster and his brother dancing among the ringers.
Arthur Whittingham, carriage -driver, aged 20, and a native of Castleton, said that he had taken the part of queen for the last five years- His brother had been queen before him for one year, but " could not settle down to it." He said that he was chosen by the ringers every year. The ringers meet in the belfry first, and then at the public-house where the garland was to be held for any particular year. They write down the names of those who have been chosen at the public-house. He grts a shilling for his services.
John Nail, parish cleric and sexton, said that he leads the queen's horse, but does not remember how long he has led it Formerly the man who led the king's horse carried a besom, but he has not carried one himself. The king rides first.
Ann Nail, aged 69, widow of Nathan NaU, late parish clerk and sexton, said that she was bom in Castleton, like her father and grandfather before her. Her late husband had at one time " led the garland," which she explained as meaning " led the king's horse." She lives with her son, John Nail, the present parish clerk. She showed me the queen's new crown and false hair, which are kept at the
I
Garland Day at Casthton.
parish clerk's house. The old shawl formerly worn by the queen belongs to her. She said that her son now leads the queen's horse, and lately had a coat made for him, but would not wear it, preferring to keep to the old style. She said that Samuel Howe or Cooper, grew "a square of tulips" for the garland. Formerly the queen had a new bonnet every year, which was provided by the inn at which the garland was held for that year. A man carried a besom before the garland, and " used to clear people away with it," and sometimes hit them on the legs. He usually carried the besom over his shoulder. The king's old coat was scadet with ribbons attached to it. She said that the frame of the garland has always been kept at the parish clerk's house. She called the Morris-dancers " molly dancers." She said the ringers used to dance themselves and throw pieces of oak up.
George Barber, tailor and draper, aged 65, was born in Castleton, and is now one of the churchwardens. His father, who lived at Castleton, and was born in 1792, remembered the Garland Day in his time. He said that there are now seven public-houses in Castleton, the garland being held at each of them in turn, so that it takes seven years to go round. The king and queen are dressed up, and they start from the public-house where the garland is made in any particular year, and ride round the town to show themselves. Then they go back to the public-house, where the ringers put the garland on the king's head. He was sure that king and queen are the old names. The garland has always been made by the ringers, and the king's horse was formerly led by a ringer, but George Potter, who now leads it, is not a ringer. The Morris- dancers were formerly the ringers, joined with some others. They were men, and the elderly people once took much more interest in the affair. When the band goes round ; town it plays the tune of "A feberry loaf, &c.," and ley f^et a drink at each public-house. Une of Mr. Barber's
4i6 Garland Day at Castleton.
SODS, who was one of the ringers, with others who were mostly ringers, went into the fields about four o'clock on the morning of the 29th with baskets to get flowers for the garland. Mr, Barber's son said that the present frame of the garland was made last year, the old frame being quite rotten. It is " made of laths like the strands that go round an apple barrel." The new frame cost 2j. Mr. Barber said that the ringers meet a week or two before Garland Day, sometimes in the belfry and sometimes in a public-house, to settle who is to be king and queen that year. This year he was making Arthur Whittingham some clothes, and when he came to have them tried on be said he had been chosen queen again. Mr. Barber also said that he had seen the late Mr. Robert Howe, barmaster, who was one of the ringers, dancing as one of the Morris-dancers, and also bis brother, Mr. Edmund Howe, and Mr. James Halt.
Samuel Sidebotfaam, of Castleton, grocer and diaper, ap- parently aged about 60, said that the old people who knew most about the ceremony were dead. Formerly the eight ringers had sole charge of the affair, and even yet they had more to do with it than anybody else. When he was a boy the king and queen were called "the man and woman." The Morris-dancers were formerly all men. The person taking the part of queen had always been a man. He could not remember when the ceremony first began. It was before his father's time- Samuel Marrison, aged 86, retired farmer and cattle dealer, said that he had lived in Castleton all his life, and remembered the garland since he was a child. When he was young they played clarionets, French horns, and a serpent, as they went round the town. He said that the garland was bigger than it is now, but it was made in the same way and hung on the church tower. He remembered a shoemaker who grew tulips in his garden for the garland, and he knew an old man who used to boast that he had taken part in making the garland for 70 years, and had
Garland Day at Castkton.
never missed. He connected the garland with Charles 11., and said that when Charles was followed with bloodhounds he took an eagle up into the oak-tree to deceive his pursuers. The pursuers knew by that that the king could not be in the tree, for no bird would have remained in a tree if a man were hidden in it. The men saw the eagle fly out, and so the king was saved.' Mr. Marrison remem- bered no other names but king and queen on Garland Day. It took a strong man and a strong horse to carry the garland. The Morris-dancers were old men dressed in their Sunday clothes. Two of Mr. Marrison's sons agreed in saying that the king and queen were elected every year, but the ringers always paid the same men the compliment o( re-electing them. Mr. Marrison had never seen a may- pole at Castleton.
Samuel Barber, of Castleton, aged 59, said that the " queen " on the top of the garland was a bough of green oak covered by flowers, and that many people in Castleton grew flowers for the garland, lilies and "gillivers," but mostly tulips.
Edwin Barber, aged 57, said that he was now the oldest ringer in Castleton, and had rung for 36 years. The ringers arrange the garland ceremony a week or two before Garland Day. They see that horses are bespoken for the carrier of the garland and for the " lady," and their custom is to ask the two men who have acted before to act again. The ringers do not use the words " king and queen." They speak of the " man that carries the garland," and the " lady." They have £2 2s. a year paid out of a voluntary church rate. They spend one-quarter of this on Garland Day, another quarter on the 5th of November for their " suppering " at one of the inns, another quarter on Christ- mas Eve in plain loaf and warm ale, and the remaining quarter on New Year's Eve, when they ring the old year ' Mr. Robert Bradivll, of Bradwell, hnd also hearJ lha( King Charles took an ragle up into the tree, 10 deceive his pursuers. VOL. Xli, 2 K
1
4i8 Garland Day at Castleton.
oat and the ttew yesr in. The queen rides round and round the Moms-dancers lo keep people out of the way. Formerly a man it-ith a besom walked before the king. The Brad- wefl band only plays because they cannot now maintain a band in Cafiletoo. The muMcians used to be Castleton ■KO, and the procession used to go to the old vicar's house first. They fix boughs on the church tower on the 2Sth, aboot seven in the evening. The garland is lifted upon the king's head by a " fork-stale."
I went to Castleton again on the 2Stb of May and Rmained two o^^its at Mrs. Jacob Eyre's. About aevea o'dock OD tbe evening of that day the ringers fastened green boughs to all the pinoades on the church tower, and some of tbe Castleton pet^Ie were out all ni^t In the fields gathering wild flowers and ^ligs of oak in baskets. The garland was to be held this year at the ina known as the Ckeskirg Ckeese. It was composed, as far as 1 could tell of blue hyacinths, water lilies, and ferns, tt^ther with lilacs and other garden flowers. I am told that " lady-grass," or " ribbon-grass," is also used. The garland was hung from the roof of a stable by a rope, and as one bunch of flowers after another was tied on, and the superfluous stalks trimmed off, the weight became condderable. It is said to weigh about 13 stone when complete. In a building adjoining the stable I saw them making the lai^ nosegay called " the queen."
The day seemed wasted, but 1 was told that most of the ringers were farmers, who could not leave their work until the cows had been milked. At five o'clock young men were going about with oak branches, and distributing pieces to those who had none, and girls dressed in white and crowned with wreaths of flowers appeared in the streets. It was said that sods would be thrown at those who had no oak.
At half-past five I saw the king and queen leaving the Cheshire Cheese, which is near the Peak Hotel, where the garland was held last year, to ride round the town and show
Garland Day at Castleton.
419
themselves. The king was dressed like a cavalier, in a blue velvet tunic and cape trimmed with gold lace. He wore a slouched hat with a red feather, and big top-boots. The queen, who rode on a side-saddle, wore a crown and a shawl, and had a long white veil and streaming false hair. Both carried branches of oak in their hands. The queen's crown was adorned with imitations of pearls and precious stones.
At six o'clock the king and queen returned to the Cheshire Cheese. Shortly afterwards a band of music, which came from Bradwell, met them, and the huge garland having been put on the king's head, they rode through the town. First came the king, and then a procession of young girls, who were dressed in white and crowned with flowers, each carrying in her hand a stick with ribbons of different colours streaming from one end. Last of all came the queen. As the girls danced they waved their sticks about so rapidly that a photographer said that he could not take a snap-shot at them, I noticed that drink was given to the performers at two of the public -houses, and I am told that all the public-houses give it to them on Garland Day. 1 did not follow the procession through the town, for a heavy thunderstorm came on, compelling the people to take shelter. But at eight o'clock, when the rain had ceased, I went to the church and found that the garland was already hung on the middle pinnacle of the south side of the tower. 1 had been told that everybody had gone home, and regret that I did not see it hoisted up. I was told that the rope is let down from the tower and fixed to the garland by the sexton, assisted by the man who leads the king's horse. A good strong rope is borrowed from somebody in the village.
I had hoped to get instantaneous photographs of the procession as it moved along, but owing to the late hour at which the proceedings began and to the thunderstorm it was impossible. The photographs of the king and quetn here reproduced were taken at my request by Mr. H. 2 E 2
420
Garland Day at Castleton.
Bamforth of Holmfirth, whilst their horses were standing, and Mr. Bamforth took the photograph showing the garland on the tower on the morning of the 30th of May.
As the king wore it in the streets, the garland was not a beautiful object, and of course photography does not represent the different gradations of colour correctly. It looked more like a very large beehive moving above the heads of the people than anything else. The band played in the streets long after the garland had been hung on the tower. There was a dance at the Cheshire Cheese, and that inn had obtained leave to remain open till midnight on this day. I tried to discover whether any superstitious belief was connected with the ceremony, but without result.
Being in Castleton again on the 21st of August I fouod that the garland had been removed from the tower. Mr. Barber's son, who is one of the ringers, said that it is now taken down in about three weeks, when the flowers are withered. On the 23rd I found the frame of the garland, still covered bywitheredflowers,at the parish clerk'shouse, which adjoins the churchyard. 1 carried it to the steps at the foot of the south side of the church tower and photographed it lying on its side, so as to show the strands, and the very numerous pieces of string by which the bunches of Bovvers were tied on. I was often at Castleton during the months of August, September, and October last, and some part of the foregoing evidence was written down by me during that time.
III. The tune played as the procession goes round the town was kindly written out for me by Mr. Horace E. Middleton, of Bradwell, teacher of music. It is as follows : —
Mr. Middleton knows no other name for the tune but "Rowty Tow."' In Castleton they sing no words to it during the garland ceremony, but many Castleton people whom I have questioned on the subject agree in saying that the following words belong to the tune : "A febeny loaf and pili oakum pic,
^^_ And wlial Iheie u i' Bradn', [Bradwell]
^^^^_ An old cow's ycad [head] and a piece o' bread,
^^^^H And a pudding baked in a lantern.
^^^^H A bit for me and a bit for thee,
^^^^H And a bit for l' Morris-dancers.
^^^^H Ra di da, diddle diddle dum, rowty, lowly. t»w."
^^^^ See
422 Garland Day at Castleton.
One of the witnesses said "cinder pie" instead of "oakum pie." Another version is :
" Thou doesno' know, and I dono' know Whal they han i' BiaJa' ; An owd cow's head, and a piece o' bread. And a pudding baked in a kintem. If fhou'd been wed as long as me, T' pudding would ha' been wanicd,"
Feberry {i.e. gooseberry) loaves are eaten at Bradwell wakes, which begin on the second Sunday in July. A feberry loaf is a gooseberry pasty made in a pie-dish. It is like an ordinary gooseberry pie, except that the crust goes all round it, so that the "loaf" can be taken out, and cut into slices. Plum pies could not be cut in this way, for the juice would ooze out. At Bradwell wakes this feberry loaf is usually eaten with set custard, i.e. baked custard. I have often heard feberry pronounced " fayberry," or even " fayvcrry."
As regards the " old cow's head," Mr. Robert Bradwell, mentioned above, told me that the lead-miners made cow's- head broth when he- was young. They used to club to- gether and buy a cow, feed her up, and after killing her, hang up the salted portions of the beef on the balks of their houses. Mr. Bradwell had seen beef procured in this way hung up in his own house, where he had lived for seventy years. As regards the " pudding baked in a lan- tern," Mr. Bradwell said that kettle-pie was a favourite dish in Bradwell. It was made with potatoes " slashed into thin slashes," and covered by a "male" (meal) crust. At Bradwell they had also a kind of meal porridge which they called " lenten dick." This was more frequently called " lumpy tums," both in Castleton and Bradwell. These "turns"' are lumps of oatmeal caused by the pot being imperfectly stirred. At Bradwell they called water-gruel " cobbling-knife water."
' Al Bradwell Ihey call a foolish penon "a turn i' (' wa' " (wall).
Garland Day at Casileton.
423
Mr. Robert Evans of Bradwell told me that the lines about " a feberry loaf, &c,," were intended by the Castleton people as an insult to the people of Bradwell, and I heard the same thing at Aston, a hamlet about two miles off. But I could never get anybody in Castleton to admit this, or to explain why the Bradwell people should be insulted on Garland Day, especially as the Bradwell band now plays the tune to which the offending lines are alleged to be set. The village of Bradwell, the hamlets of Smalldale and Pin- dale, and the village of Castleton are described thus :
^
Brada' rappers,' Sma'iia' Etnokets, Pinda' pipers. And Castlelon swill -lubs.
When a fever was prevalent in Bradwell a few years ago a Bradwell woman said in Castleton that if she could send the fever to Castleton in a piece of paper she would. Not- withstanding this animosity between the two villages the Castleton people used to beg flowers from the Bradwell people for their garland, and Mrs. Harriet Middleton, of Smalldale, aged 83, told me that Edward Middleton, of Bradwell, " would have stripped his garden " of tulips for the garland.
V IV.
I thought it desirable to inquire whether other villages
in the neighbourhood of Castleton had a Garland Day.
The nearest village with an old church is Hope, two miles Kvff.^ James Proctor of that village, saddler, aged 60, told
The meaning of ihis word iii unknown in the nrigbbourhood. An ingenious ve of Bradwell suggests rapparei, an Irish robber. A Castleton man will to a Bradwell man, "Thou'rt nought hul a Brada' rapper." This is said aggravate him."
(" Mony a one lives in Hope ns never saw Castleton." Local ptm-erb the stBy-at-home hatuia of the people.— f. L. /., vii., 191 ]
434
me that about forty years ago they had a garland on the 29th of May, but the ceremony was only performed twice. He was the " roan," and Joseph Holmes, blacksmith, was the " lady." They made a heavy garland of ' kinds of flowers on a frame of wicker work, went round the villa^ with a drum>and-fife band, and at the end of the proceedings fixed the garland on the old chancel, which was pulled down about twenty years ago. There ; pinnacles on the church tower, and if lixed on the tower at all the garland could only have been put on the top of the spire. He was sure that the ceremony was not an old custom in Hope, and he had never heard his fathei mother or any old people speak of a garland at Hope at an earlier time. He said that the members of the dnim- and' fife band got it up. He' rode on horseback, as they do in Castleton.
Henry Shirt, mason, whom I saw on the 9th of October, said that be was a native of Hope, and 56 years of age. He played in the drum-and-fife band when a garland was held at Hope on the 29th of May, about 1861 and i86a. He thinks that it was not held more than twice, and that it was not an old custom as it was in Castleton. The garland was made of boughs of green oak and wild flowers with some garden flowers, such as "laylacs" (lilacs) with mari- golds and lady-grass among them. The king and queen rode on horseback, as they did at Castleton. The queen was dressed in woman's clothes, and rode on a pony belong- ing to Mr. Robert Middleton, who was churchwarden for many years. They went round the village, and got a drink at each of the public-bouses. There was a crown, made of choice garden flowers, at the top of the garland, and this crown was given away after the garland was over. The garland was pulled up to the top of the church by a rope let down and "threaded"where the crown had come off. There was a hole at the top of the garland into which the crown fitted. He did not remember that anybody in Hope grew
flowers for the garland. It was fixed somewhere in the middle of the church, and he thought, but was not quite sure, that it was fixed on a pinnacle on the north side. He said that the band played the same old tune that they played at Castleton, and he whistled it to me exactly. He thought that on the first occasion the crown was given to a former vicar, Mr. Daniels. He had been a ringer for thirty years, and said it was chiefly the ringers and bandsmen who got the garland up. He did not remember that there were any words to the old garland tune. He had never heard his father or mother speak of a garland being held at Hope before the time mentioned, and he thought that the Hope garland was a copy of the Castleton ceremony.
Joseph Holmes, aged 62, Charles Hadfield, grocer, Henry Ashton, owner of a saw-mill, George Ashton, aged 75, and Mrs. Shirt, wife of Henry Shirt, and also a native of Hope, corroborated this account. Mrs. Shirt used the names " gentleman and lady," and Mr. Hadfield " king and queen." Mr. Holmes, who took the queen's part, believed it was not an old custom in Hope, but did not seem quite
Benjamin Wilson, of the parish of Hope, farmer and landowner, aged apparently about 65, said that the children of Thornhill, a hamlet in the same parish, used to erect a maypole there on the 29th of May. It was a piece of wood three or four yards long, set up somewhere in the village and fixed in a heap of stones. They used to go round gathering flowers, and said some verses containing the words " a posy for my meepow " (maypole). The practice has been discontinued for many years.
Mr. Middleton, of Bradwell, postmaster, said he remem- bered children in that village on the 29th of May carrying branches of flowers tied to the end of sticks. "They used to carry them about like umbrellas, and some of them were very elaborate affairs." Harriet Middleton, of Smalldale, adjoining Bradwell. remembered the same thing in Bradwell
436
Garland Day at Castleton.
on the 29th of May. She said that the flowers used were chiefly " may-blobs " and " frumity-flowers." '
Mr. Bradwell, of Bradweli, mentioned above, said he remembered an attempt to hold a garland at Bradwell on the 29th of May less than fifty years ago. It lasted for two or three years, and was not continued. There was no church at Bradwell then.
None of the persons with whom I talked could remember a garland at Eyam or Hathersage, but I have made no personal inquiries in those villages. I was told at Tides- well that they had no garland there, and no ceremony of any kind either on the ist or on the 29th of May. The Morris-dancers dance at the wakes in June and at the Kettle Fair in September. ^
The above-named Mrs. George Middleton, of Smalldale, aged 43, said that she was born at Abney, a hamlet two miles south-east of Bradwell. The place is shut in by hills on all sides, and difficult of access. When she was young every house in Abney had a garland hung above its door on the first of May. She had helped to make these garlands herself. They were round like hoops, and made of " bits of green things," primroses, Mary-blobs (j/V), &c. She said that people " would plod through snow " to get flowers for them. They were about a foot in diameter, and were left hanging over the doors tilt the flowers were withered. She thought they were intended to welcome the spring. She spoke of the Garland Day at Castleton as Oak-apple Day, and said that " when the oak is coming out a little tiny crab comes with the leaf."
' Old Mr. Bradwell had heard of frumity-flowers " hundreds of times," but could not describe ihem to me. 1 found (hat other people in Bradwell knew them, and I ascertained eventually that frumily-flower is n, name for the cuckoo-flowet 01 lady's smock (Cardaminf pralimis). Can we connect it with the l.alin fminmhiiH ? and was it once intended to have a magical influence on the harvest?
' Till of late years Derbyshire men believed thai Morris-dancing was borrowed from the fairies. I have elsewhere published the tune which these dancers used at Eyatn and Tideswell. {HoHseiolii liUi, &&, 1S95, p. 136.)
I
Garland Day at Castieton.
We have seen that the people o( Castieton speak of " holding the garland " at this or that inn. Here, by an easy transference of meaning, " garland " has come to mean " feast." This sense of the word is not recorded in diction- aries, but it is neither local nor modern. In the years 1600 and 1608, two Kentish innkeepers were presented in the court of the Archdeacon of Canterbury for holding " gar- lands " in their houses on holy days and Sundays, and per- mitting dancing, music, tippling, and drinking there."
A few lines about the Castieton garland are given in Cox's Churches of Derbyshire (ii. 132). The author ob- serves that ''in the churchwardens'accounts for the year [749 is the following item: "Paid for an iron rod to hang ye ringers' garland in [on ?] 8(/." The item is valuable as showing that even then the church took official cognizance of the ceremony.'
Now, as we have seen, the festival is undergoing change. The queen's crown is a novelty. The Morris-dancers are no longer men, and the women who have dressed up their children in lieu of them are talking of introducing a well- dressing. But the striking feature of the May celebration at Castieton is that it still remains the act of the whole community, and not that of a special trade or of scattered parties of idlers in search of gain. The ringers, who have the principal management of it, are evidently the agents of the community. Till quite lately the Barmaster, the most important official in the neighbourhood, took part in it,
' Mr. Arthur Hussey in jV.oWg,, <»lhser., vi., 245.
' Biiind's Popular Antiq., 1849, 24S. Old churchwatdens' ftccounla often record payments for the garmenU and tinsel of Moms-dancers. "In the later mediieval period Morris-dancing was associated with churches, that a m the nave ni ^¥esl end, the mummeis not going forth on Iheir Whitsuntide round until the fasi dance had l>ecn given within the sacred fabric" (" Sports in Churches." by Ihc Rev. Dr. Cos in And.«ws's Cwi.',,, Chavck Cusfsmi,
1
4j8 Garland Day at Castleton.
though not perhaps in his official capacity. Mr. Potter, who leads the King's horse, is the owner of the house in which he lives. The parish clerk takes part in the proceedings, and the frame of the garland and the queen's garments are kept at his house. Further, the inhabitants still grow flowers specially for the garland.
VI.
I beg leave to quote the following very striking parallel from the second edition of Dr. Frazer's Golden Bough:
"At Grossvargula, near Langensalza, in the eighteenth century, a Grass King used to be led about in procession at Whitsuntide. He was encased in a pyramid of poplar branches, the top of which was adorned with a royal crown of branches of flowers. He rode on horseback with the leafy pyramid over him, so that its lower end touched the ground, and an opening was left in it only for his face. Surrounded by a cavalcade of young fellows, he rode in pro- cession to the town hall, the parsonage, and so on, where they all got a drink of beer. Then under the seven lindens of the neighbouring Sommerberg, the Grass King was stripped of his green casing; the crown was handed to the mayor, and the branches were stuck in the flax-fields in order to make the flax grow tall." '
I have elscM'here {Evolution of the English House, p. 176 jy.) tried to show that an English parish church was substantially a basilica, or town hall, the place where the local council met for the transaction of business, and the place where justice was administered.
' Vol. i., 218, refenringto F. A. Rcimann, Deutsche Valiifitt fakTkuBaert, pp. I57'IS9; Mmnhardt, B. K. p. 347 iq. ; Wifischel, Si^m, Sitten, and Ceirdaz-ke am nuriagm, p. 203.
Garland Day at Castteton.
Note I.— The Air " Rowty Tow."
The above Moms-dance tune bears a considerable degree ' of resemblance to others formerly current in different parts of the country.
A Cheshire Morris-dance printed in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. li., page 369, may be com- pared, as also a Lancashire specimen, used at Rush-bearings on the outskirts of Manchester, which is noted in my book Traditional Tunes, 1891, page 184. This latter has many points of similarity with the Derbyshire one, and I have also come across a traditional Sword-dancers' Song used in the North Riding of Yorkshire, built upon a like melodic basis.
Hal and Tow, the Helstone dance, is a very good example of typical Morris-dance tunes, which are generally in a form requiring the repetition of the first strain as a con- clusion. Theyareall.properly, in two-four time, commencing on the accented note of the bar. 1 take it that they are the survival of the original country dance (not the exploded centre danse) ; and in Oxfordshire, if in no other county, they are danced to their original music, that of the pipe and tabor.^ The pipe, though it has but three holes (two in front and one at the back for the thumb), is equal to most simple tunes, and by clever management of the breath can be made to cover more than an octave. Some of the i8th century country-dance books bear upon their titles the statement that the tunes are " adapted for the violin, German flute, and tabor and pipe," and some bear representations of the instruments themselves.
The Morris-dance tune was not necessarily one especially composed for the dance, but some suitabli' popular air was most frequently used. A comparison with the old Scottish tune "The Breast-knot," as given below, will show that both the Derbyshire tune and the others quoted owe much of their melody to it.
The earliest copy of this tune I have seen occurs in a volume of Walsh's Caledonian Country-Dances, circa 1753, under the title " The Ladies' Breast-knot," and it is practically the same as the following from Bremner's Reels
k
I C/. Folilart, viii., 308.
Garland Day at Castleton.
and Country Dances (Edinburgh, 1758). I should not think it is much older than about 1740-50.
Tua Lady's Bi.%ASt-iSMat\Bnmiur'i Rait, 175S;.
At a later date the air, with a song attached to it, appeared in Johnson's Scot's Musical Museum, vol. iii., 1 790. The late Mr. Chappell, in Popular Music of the Olden Time, 1856-9, p. 681, mentions that the air was then common as a Morris-dance in Derbyshire and Lancashire.
To prevent confusion, it may be as well lo state that another song, " Hey the Bonnie Breast-knots," with a different air, composed by John Sinclair, was published ia 1826, and that this is the one most frequently reprinted.
Frank Kidson.'
128, Burley Road, Leeds.
(Meoiber afComnuUeei Kolk-Soog Socieiy.)
han<
In the early chapters of Mr. Frazer's Golden Bough the author, following the Commentary of Servius. connects the rites performed at Nemi with the allusion of Virgil to the bough plucked by command of the Sibyl and carried by vEiieas into the under-world. So far as the present writer is aware, there is no other and no better ground for the connection than this one passage from Servius. The refer- ences given by the author to Pausanias, Strabo, and Sue- tonius, do indeed bear upon the legend and the rites of the Grove of Aricia, but none of them suggest any further tradition connecting the bough broken off by the runaway slave within the sanctuary of Nemi, with the Golden Bough plucked near the entrance to Avernus from the wondrous tree sacred to " Infernal Juno " {i.e., Proserpine), without which none might enter the realm of Pluto. Is there, in fact, any likelihood that such a connection really existed?
Without unduly emphasising the fact that Servius lived nearly 400 years later than Virgil, we would remind the reader that Servius is a voluminous writer, who drags in every possible and impossible allusion collected in the course of a laborious life, however remotely bearing upon the matter in hand, which can by any means be used to illustrate his subject. He is quite devoid of the power of discrimination, and his work is rather to be regarded as a repository of legends, many of which might otherwise have been lost, than as a trustworthy guide to the origin of any particular tradition. Nothing indeed could better illustrate his system of gathering together and setting down every allusion occurring to his well-stocked mind, which bore in the most distant way upon the subject in hand, than his treatment of this very point. Here is the
432 The Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
passage : " Ucet de hoc ramo hi qui de sacris Proserpinae scripsisse dicuntur, quiddatn esse mysticum affirment ; pub- lica tamen opinio hoc babet. Orestes post occisum regem
Thoantem in regione Taurica cum sorore Iphigenia "
(Here begins the story of the flight of Orestes with Iphigenia and of the carrying off of the statue of Diana, as related by Hr. Frazer.) ". . . . Nunc ergo istum inde sumpsit colorem. Ramus enim necesse erat ut et unius causa esset interitus unde et statim mortem subiungit Miseni: et ad sacra Pro- serpinx accedere, nisi subUto ramo, non poterat. Inferos
autem subire hoc didt sacra celebrare Proserpina "
(Servius, /ff«., vi., 136 sqq, ) After which, Servius wanders into a discussion of the doctrine of Pythagoras that life is like the letter Y, in which he finds again the symbol of the branch in the dividing ways of good and evil.
We may read the passage in English as follows : —
" Although such as are said to have written on the rites of
Proserpine assert of this branch that there is something
mystic in it, the current view is as follows. Orestes, after
the slaying of king Thoas in the Tauric district, fled with
his sister Iphigenia Now therefore he (i.«. the poet)
has coloured his story from this source. The branch had to be the cause of one death ; wherefore he adds at once the death of Misenus: and he could not join the rites of Proserpine without having the branch to hold up. And by 'going to the shades' be (the poet) means celebrating the rites of Proserpine." '
a indebted to the kindness of Mr. W. H. D. Rouse for the &bove With reference to the phisse " Don poteial," Mr- Rouse adds : " I think feterat is used loosely, as if Moias had been mouil, when the writer should have said ' a man.' j^neas was to pluck the bough because he could not join, &c, to imply that dOQc could. Not Misenus, ceilaioly, ij meant ; Kraromatically, the poet ; by intent, .tneas ; by implication, anyone." Miss Bume suggests that Servius must have seen in his own lifetime the last days, perhaps the Goal extinction, of the " Rites of Proserpine," i.e. the famous Eleusinian Mysteries. This throws an interesting light on his nsc of the impcrlecl, feltrat.
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend. 433
It will be seen that Servius endeavours to rationalise the story by connecting it with the Orestes legend and the death of Misenus, adding that he derives the former con- nection from a current tradition, popular in his day. That there was some such confused popular tradition is likely enough, but it seems to have had as little foundation in the thought of Virgil as had the further suggestion that the bough represented to Virgil the diverging paths of virtuous and evil living, represented by the letter Y of Pythagoras. As explanations of the bough of >Eneas, both seem to be equally far-fetched ideas. ^
The point in no way touches Mr. Frazer's main line of argument, derived from a consideration of the rites of Nemi, and it might not have been worth while to call atten- tion to it, but that it would seem a pity that a modern scholar should give prominence to a far-fetched theory of post-classical origin, to explain an episode so full of beautiful and mystic meaning as the plucking of the bough before entering the under-world. It certainly had no such cut-and- dry rationalistic meaning in the mind of the poet. Even Servius recognises an older meaning, though it had become faded and obscured in his day, when he says, "Such as have written on the rites of Proserpine assert of this branch that there is something mystic in it." And again, " He could not take part in the rites of Proserpine without having the branch to holdup, and by 'going to the shades' he means celebrating the rites of Proserpine ; " that is to say, the well-known and constantly recurring Mysteries of Eleusis, in which the disappearance of the Maiden into
' Since writing the above, my allention has beea dnwn to ihe puiage in Mr. Andrew Lang's recent boolt M<^e and ReligiBn, pp. 207-9. In the main his view of Servius' methods agrees with Ihe above, but he does no[ appear to be aware of ihc Irish fulklore Iiclief. It is (ar more likely that Virgil look his legend from prevalent tradition than that be " invented " it. I can see no connection between the Golden Bough and Ihe dnwing of Arthur's sword, which lielon(^ to a dilTerenl set of legends, viz. Ihe hero-
voL. XII. a r
434 ^^ Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
Hades was continually re-enacted. Here Servius en- deavours to explain away the supernatural element in the history of /Gneas, and to that end credits Virgil with an allegorical method of relating history. Again, the branch could not have caused the death of Misenus, as Misenus was dead before the bough was plucked. This seems a wholly gratuitous addition cn the part of Servius to support his theory. Nor can it be said that the branch had a con- nection with the burial, for the surprise of Charon at the sight of the Bough, " so rarely seen " in Hades, shows that it was only those who entered the realms of the dead during life who presented the branch to Proserpine. She herself was a native of the upper world, dwelling in the shades, but able to return to earth at inter\als. Hence, no doubt, the need that the living man who would enter Hades and return, should appear there in the character of her votary. The connection with the death of Misenus was simply that thtf truth of the Sibyl's announcement with regard to Misenus strengthened the belief of ^neas in the righteous* ness of her further command to pluck the bough.
The idea of the poet is wholly different from that of his commentator. In Vii^, the Golden Bough, which grew concealed in the shades of gloomy woods, and could only be gathered "the fates permitting," was dedicated to Proserpine. It was to be presented to her as her peculiar gift. It could never come to an end, because no sooner was one bough broken off than another succeeded it. It was . this shining bough, plucked by v^^neas, and carried by the Sibyl, that gained them admission into Hades. When Charon withstood their passage, refusing to ferry living beings across the Stygian lake, the Sibyl " showed the shining bough, concealed within her breast."
' ' Nor mote wu needful ; for the gloom)' god
Stood mute in awe to see the golden rod ;
Admired the destined offering to hii queen,
A venenble gift, so rarely seen. "
'rm's Trautiatitm.)
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
With limbs and body cleansed with water, iEneas later approaches the gate of Pluto's palace, and " fixes the fatal bough required by his cjueen above the porch." The Golden Bough was thus plainly a talisman, empowering the bearer to enter in safety during his lifetime the under-world. It was the property of the queen of the unseen abode.'
Now it is interesting to find the same idea running through a number of very early pagan legends derived from Gaelic or Irish sources. We propose to throw to- gether a few of these examples, gathered out of that large storehouse of visions regarding the unseen world which Irish literature provides us with. Probably these surviving visions or voyages are only the remains of a body of legend originally extending far beyond Ireland, though some of the conceptions which we find in them seem special to the Western Gael. The bough in Irish legend was not intended to avert the anger of the gods of the under-world, who are always represented as craving for the presence of the chosen being ; it is rather the gift of the queen or presiding genius of the Land of the Ever Living and Ever Young, to draw to her domain the favoured mortal on whose com- panionship her heart is set. For the mortal generally enters by invitation, and the branch is held out as a clue binding the desired one to enter her abode. It acts the double part of a link to the unseen world and of a means of sustenance while there. Often also it produces sweet and soothing music, which both allures the mortal, and wiles into forgetfulness the bereaved who are left behind. The Irish conception of the unseen differs so entirely from the classical, that it is only to be expected that the functions of the bough should differ slightly also. The idea of torture, pain, or expiation for sin never enters into the Celtic future. His Elysium is wholly happy ; the Plain of Flowers, the
' In G. B., iii. , 455, u 5, Mr. Fraicr seems suddenly 10 revert lo this idea, Ihough the whole of his previous aiguinent hangs upon ibe bough bearing a
diffeient ugnificaliun.
I Ihough tl
L diffeient 1
436 27ie Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
Land of Youth, the Country ot the Ever-living, the Plain of Honey, these are his names for it. It is only after the introductioD of Christianity that these joyous ideas become oversbado¥red by gloom, and the conception of guilt and expiation fills the canvas.
Let us take first a vision which in iis structure and sub. stance retains, with very little infusion of Christian elements, its pagan form and feeling. The Voyage of Bran, Son of Fehal, describes the visit of Bran to the Elysium of the pagan Celt. It begins thus: '■ It was fifty quatrains that the woman from the unknown land sang on the floor of the house to Bran, son of Febal, when the royal house was full of kings ; they knew not whence the woman had come, few the ramparts were closed. This is the beginning of the story. One day in the neighbourhood of his stronghold Bran went about alone, when he heard music behind him. As often as he looked back it was still behind him the music was. At last he fell asleep at the sound of the music, such was its sweetness. When he awoke from his sleep he saw close by him a branch of silver with white blossoms, so that it was not easy to dis- tinguish the blossoms from the branch. Then Bran took the branch in his hand to the royal house. When the hosts were in the royal house, they saw a woman in strange raiment on the floor of the bouse. 'Twas then she sang the fifty quatrains to Bran, the host listening, and all beholding the woman. And she sang:
' A branch of ihe applelree from Emiin
I bring, like those we know ;
Twigs ai while silver are on i[
Crystal biows with blossoms, Ac' Thereupon the woman went from them and they knew not whither she went. And she took her branch with her. The branch sprang from Bran's hand into the hand of the woman, nor was there strength in Bran's hand to hold the branch." '
' Edited by Dr. Kuno M yer in Mr, Null's Voyage qf Bran, vol. L
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend. 437
We would note, m passing, that the branch is always said to be the bough of an apple-tree, and we shall see in future extracts that the apples of the branch served for meat and drink in the Land of Promise. They tasted of every sort of delicious flavour, and their sustenance lasted during the whole sojourn of the visitor to the in- visible world. The tree is described in the Sickbed of Cuckulainn as growing in Magh Mell, "the Plain of Honey," another name for the Irish Elysium.
" There is a tree at ihe door of ihe Court, It cannot be matched in harmony, A Itee of silver upon which ihe sun shin«. Like unlo gold is its splendid lustre.
" There are at the eastern door Three stalely trees of crimson hue, From wliich Ihe birds of perpetual blooro Sing to the youth from Ihe Itingly rath."
Mr. Frazer takes it for granted that the Golden Bough of Virgil, and also that cut by the fugitive at Nemi, which in his view were the same, but to our mind were probably unconnected, was the mistletoe.' This is possible, but it is worth remark that this plant, though we learn from Latin authors that it played a part in the religious cere- monies of the pagan Celts of Britain and Gaul, is seldom if ever mentioned in Irish literature. The ceremonial cutting of the mistletoe bough either belonged to a later system of things than that described in Irish Gaelic litera- ture, or it was confined to the more Easterly branches of the Celtic race.* The yew was the tree from which the Irish Druid's wand of divination was made, and it is the apple- tree that plays the greatest part in his romance. In the Voyage of Bran the talisman given by the unknown
' It is rK>where stated that the bongh of i€iieas was the mistletoe. Virgil
etmfans it to the mistletoe, which, as Mr. A. Lsiig remaiks, aiguei to the
1 contrary.
438 The Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
woman to Bran, is said to be " a branch of the apple-tree itom Emain," i.e., the kingly residence of the Kings of Ulster, the earthen ramparts of which still exist not far from Armagh. Now the three halls or forts of this ancient palace were called the Royal Branch {Craebh Ruadh), the Red Branch [Craebh Derg), and the Speckled House {Teiti Brec) ; while the bodyguard or knights of the king were styled Champions of the Royal Branch. It was only by special proficiency in the arts of combat that Admittance into this order was gained. So far as is known to the writer, the origin of these names is lost: could we regain their significance, some light would pro- bably be thrown upon the choice of the "apple-tree of Emain " as the magic talisman insuring safety and nourish- ment in the invisible world.
But to turn to another story. We meet the silver branch again in a tale entitled Cormac's Adventure in the Land of Promise} The youth who acts the hero of this tale was one of the most famous kings of early Ireland. The portion of the tale bearing upon this point runs as follows : — " One day at dawn in May-time, Cormac, grand* son of Conn, was alone on Mur Tea in Tara. He saw coming towards him a sedate, grey-headed warrior. A branch of silver with three golden apples on his shoulder. Delight and amusement to the full was it to listen to the music of that branch, for men sore wounded, or women in child-bed, or folk in sickness, would fall asleep at the melody which was made when that branch was shaken." The warrior tells Connac that he comes from a land wherein is naught but truth ; where is neither age nor decay, nor gloom, nor sadness, envy nor jealousy, hatred nor haughtiness. Cormac begs the warrior to give him the branch. This the unknown consents to, on condition that he receives in return any three boons that he shall ask.
' Edited by Dr. Whitley Stokes, Iriicht Ttxit, vol. iii., pp. iSj-izg.
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
On getting Cormac's promise, he gives the branch to the young prince, and disappears, Cormac knows not whither. Cormac returns to his palace. He shakes the branch and deep slumber falls on all. But at the end of a year the warrior returns and demands in succession the three boons promised him by Cormac. They are Cormac's daughter Ailbe ; his son, Cairpre Lifechair; and finally Cormac's wife, Ethne the Tall. Twice Cormac uses the magic bough to sooth the grief of the survivors, but the third time he follows the messenger into the invisible land, where he finds his wife, and sups with her and his children in a country of wonderful happiness. He finds that it was Manannan mac Lir who drew away his wife, the same god who interferes between Cuchulainn and Fand in The Sick- bed of Cuchulainn, and who probably was conceived of as the ruler of the unseen world. In the latter story it is a cloak that he shakes between the seen and unseen to hide the invisible world from Cuchulainn. The cloak seems here to have for some reason replaced the branch. The close of the story of Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise is that Cormac gets the Cup of truth and the Branch of music and joy, and returns home.
The branch performs the double function of sustaining life by providing nourishment and of producing sounds of entrancing harmony. There may be a connection, conscious or unconscious, between this latter power possessed by the branch and the symbolic branch carried by the bards as a sign of their profession. The purpose of the branch [Craebh Ciuil) was exactly the same as that described above; it was used to bring about peace and order in moments of excitement, and its authority seems never to have been questioned. The shaking of the bardic wand, which seems to have been a little spike or crescent, with gently-tinkling bells upon it, quieted the most turbulent assembly. For instance, in the piece called Mesca Ulad, in the midst of a bloody fray, the chief poet of Ulster,
440 The Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
Sencha, arose '' and waved the peaceful branch of Sencha, and all the men of Ulster were silent, quiet ; " ivhile in another passage in the same piece, he is described as " bearing a bronze branch at the summit of his shoulder." His title of " pacificator of the hosts of Ulad " probably comes from this. In another piece entitled Agallamh an da Shuadh or the Dialogue of the two Sages, the symbol is thus described : "Neidhe"(a youthful bard who aspired to succeed his father as chief poet of Ulster), " made his journey with a silver branch over him. The Anradhs^ or poets of the second order, carried a silver branch, but the Ollamhs^ or chief poets, carried a branch of gold ; all other poets bore a branch of bronze." The King of Ulster also had in his palace, at the right hand of his seat at table, a bronze post, which he struck with his wand or sceptre of silver, and which had the same instantaneous effect of pacifying feuds between his followers. In the tales of the Irish Elysium, there may be some remembrance of these well-known kingly and bardic boughs of Peace.
In the story of Conla Ruadhy the maiden who calls him away uses a single apple as a bait to draw him to fairy- land. He is the son of a famous monarch of early Ireland, Conn, the fighter of a hundred (Cet-da-thach) and the story seems to have been told to explain why his brother Art, the succeeding king, should have been named "the Solitary." Conn and his son Conla were seated together one day on the hill of Usnech in Meath, when Conla per- ceives a beautiful maiden, visible only to himself, who speaks to him and invites him to join her in Magh-Mell (viz. the *' Plain of Honey," one of the Irish names for Elysium).
The king is startled at the abstraction into which the vision has thrown Conla, and frightened at hearing him converse with an invisible being. He hastily sends for his Druids to exorcise his son and chant their incantation against the invisible syren, who disappears. *' But when the chant of the Druids was driving her away, she threw an
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend. 441
apple to Conla. For a full month Conla ate nothing but this apple ; no bit nor drink beside it passed his mouthy for he deemed all other food poor and unworthy beside that apple. Yet, however much he ate of it, nothing was gone from the apple ; it was still quite whole." At the end of a month the lady appears again, beseeching him to come and reign as King over the Ever-living Ones, the people of Tethra, Ocean King. Conla is grieved and perplexed between his duty to his kingdom and his strong desire to go ; and seeing him wavering, the lady breaks out into song, describing in terms so ravishing the joys and glories of the Land of the Living, that he gives one spring into her " very strong, well- balanced, gleaming curach '' and disappears. " And it is not known whither they went."*
In the next story that attracts our attention, however, we learn " whither they went."' In it the same hero plays a part. We meet Conla again in the semi-Christian tale of TeiguBy Son of Cian. It is, like so many of the Irish stories of the unseen world, thrown into the form of a voyage. The invisible world is conceived of sometimes as being beneath the hills, and entered through the tumuli that in several places in Ireland mark the burial places of early heroes or gods ; or as being far over the seas, and approach- able either by boat or by means of a magic horse which rides across the waves, and which carries the chosen hero to the land of happiness. There is quite a large literature, full of imagination and romance, dealing with these voyages; a literature that is exceptionally interesting as showing the gradual modification of thought brought about by the in- fusion of Christian ideas. The two most important points regarding the pagan conception, unadulterated by Chris- tianity, are (i) that the Irish unseen world was a land of absolute delight, unclouded by any idea of pain or expiation
' Edited by 0*Beirnc Crowe, Kilkenny ArchmologUal Journal^ 1S74-5, p. X18, etc.
442 The Silver Bough '*> Jrish Legend.
for sin; (2) that it was not attained through death: but generally at the call or invitation of an inhabitant of the in- visible world, often a woman who sets her love upon some human being and entices him away. The passage from the story of Teigue, Son of Cian, bearing on our point is as follows 1 —
" Now for all they had suffered of cold, of strain on their endurance, of foul weather, and of tempest, yet after reach- ing the coast on which they were thus landed, they felt no craving at all for fire or for meat ; the perfume of that region's fragrant crimsoned branches being meat and satis- fying nourishment for them. Through the nearest part of the forest they take their way, and come by-and-by upon an orchard full of red-laden apple-trees, with leafy oaks too in it, and hazels yellow with nuts in their clusters. They quit this spot and happen on a wood; great was the excellence of its scent and perfume ; round purple berries hung on it, and every one of them bigger than a man's head. Birds beautiful and brilliant feasted on these grapes ; they were fowls of unwonted kind : white, with scarlet heads and golden beaks. As they fed, they warbled music and min- strelsy exquisitely melodious, to which the sick of every kind and the many times wounded would have fallen asleep, and Teigue hearing, chanted this melody : ' Sweet to my fancy, as I consider them, the strains of this melody to which I listen,' '"
They advance over a plain, clad in flowering clover all bedewed with honey, and enter a fort with a silver rampart in the " Earth's Fourth Paradise," where they find a charm- ing youthful couple, with torques of gold about their necks. " Now the youth held in his hand a fragrant apple having the hue of gold ; a third part of it he would eat, and still, for all he consumed, never a whit would it be diminished. This fruit it was that supported the pair of them, and when
I Edited by Dt. Slandish Hajes O'Grady, SUva Gadilka.
The Silver Bough in Irish Legend, 443
once they had partaken of it, nor age nor dimness could affect them."
The youth explains that he is Conla and that he has been drawn away by the girl of many charms who sits beside him. Then as they wander round the splendid mansion, now^ empty, but reserved '* for the righteous kings who after acceptance of the Faith shall rule Ireland," Teigue looks away across the capacious palace and " marks a thickly furnished wide-spreading apple tree that bore both blossoms and ripe fruit at once. ' What is that apple tree yonder ?' he asked, and she made answer : * That apple tree's fruit it is that shall serve for meat for all who come to this mansion, and a single apple of it was that which coaxed away Conla to me.' '*
The pagan idea of the apple-branch as a talisman is, in such semi-Christian visions as the above, evidently be- coming confused with the idea derived from Biblical sources of the tree in the midst of the Christian Paradise ; yet its original meaning is not entirely lost. In the visions in which the Christian idea is paramount, such as the Vision ascribed to Adamndn, or the piece entitled the Two Sorrows of HeaverCs Kingdom^ the notion of the talisman is altogether lost, while the idea of the tree of nourish- ment^ which is pagan and Christian alike, remains. The birds of pagan legend inhabiting its boughs become in the later visions the souls of the righteous in the form of birds. In the Voyage of Brendan we find, amid many details inspired by Christian tradition, a confused remem- brance of the fair maiden of the pagan tales, in the monstrous maiden, "smooth, full-grown, yellow-haired, whiter than snow or the foam of the wave " who is found floating dead upon the ocean, and is brought to life by Brendan in order that she may be baptised and receive the Sacrament, "before going at once to Heaven."
In the Ossianic tale of Oisin in Tir-na-nog^ the wanderers, Oisin (Ossian) and the beautiful maiden who entices him
444 ^'^^ Silver Bough in Irish Legend.
away, meet, twice in their voyage " a lovely young maiden riding the waves on a brown steed, with a golden apple in her hand, followed by a young warrior on a white steed, who closely pursued her." In the Voyage of Maelduin 2l similar idea is latent in the rod plucked by the voyager from the wood as they were passing, which sprouted on the third day with a cluster of three apples, and each of these apples sufficed them for forty nights.
Putting together all these examples, which no doubt might be added to from other sources, may we not ask, is not the Gaelic Apple-Bough of entrance into the unseen world nearer in idea to the conception of Virgil thaa the legend of the bloody sacrifice within the groves of Nemi, or the story of the flight of Orestes from which this is supposed to have had its origin ? In both, the mortal entered alive into the unseen world, guided by the bough ; in^both, the bough, though in classic tradition it grew above Avernus, while in Irish tradition it grew in the invisible land itself, was the special property of the presiding god- dess of that world. It would be curious if a folk-belief, once perhaps widely-spread, had been retained only in the verse of Virgil, and the folk-tradition of Ireland.
[Miss Hull suggests that her examples of Magic Boughs may be added to from other sources. The following passage from Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie seems pertinent to the subject. (Stallybrass' translation, vol. iii., pp. 971 sqq,) He is dealing with the widespread German legends of departed heroes slumbering in hidden caverns, and of white ladies inhabiting the recesses of the mountains, with whom is usually commonly associated the notion of an enchanted yet recoverable treasure.
** To get into the mountain in which it b concealed, one usually needs a plant or root to clear the way, to burst the door. The folktales simply call it a beautiful wofuUrflower^ which the favoured person finds and sticks in his hat ; all at once entrance and exit stand open for him to the treasure of the mountain. If inside the cavern he has filled his pockets, and bewildered at the sight of the valuables has laid aside his hat, a warning voice rings in his ear as he departs. Forget tiot the best I but it is then too late, the iron door shuts with a bangy hard upon his heel^ in a twinkling all has disappeared and the road is never to be found again. The same formula comes up regularly every time
TTie Silver Bough in Irish Legend. 445
Id Ih« l^eods of the Odenbe^, of the Wcs«r mountuiu, and the Han, and in many more {D. Sag.,DOi. 9i303i 314- Bechst. i, 146, 3, 16, 4, 310-1. Dieffenhoch's WeUerau, pp. 284-5. 19^) ! it ntust be very old. The flower is commonly said to be blui, the colour most proper to gods and spiiits, yet also I find 'purfli flower' and 'mhitt flower' mentioned. Sometimes it is called SchliisstJblttiat (keyflower) because it locks the vault, and as symbol of the key-wearing white woman whom the btateh ef keys beflts as old niistress and housekeeper, and who has likewise power to unlock the treosuie ; also luck- Jhwer (Bechst. 3, 3 13), but most frequently nwnakrJ/KHW. When three viondtr- fiorotrs are named, it seems to mean three on one stalk {ib. t., 146, 4, 209)."
Instead of wonderflower or keyflower, other stories name the sfringvmnet (explosive root) supposed to be the tupherbta laikyrii, which the Italiaos call sferra-tavalh, because its power over metals is so great that a horse stepping on it has to leave the shoe behind. A foot-note refers to the rock-splitting plant Shamir, of Rabbinic legend. Trom this he passes to the use of the wish-rod, or divining-rod, called in the description of the Hoard of the Nibelungs [Nit. 1064) "a rodling of gold." Additional references are given in vol iv., pp. 1596, 1597-
We naturally think of " Open, sesame ! " in this coimection, but ef. Mr. Haitland's remarks, Jieport ef the Folilitrt CiMgrtss of 1S91, pp. 28-30.— Ed.]
COLLECTANEA.
The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti.
{Quoted by permission from ^^ Nature ^^ 22nd August^ 1901.)
The very remarkable descriptions of the " Fire Walk," collected by Mr. Andrew Lang and others, had aroused a curiosity in me to witness the original ceremony, which I have lately been able to gratify in a visit to Tahiti.
Among these notable accounts is one by Colonel Gudgeon, British Resident at Raratonga, describing the experiment by a man from Raiatea, and also a like account of the Fiji fire cere- mony from Dr. T. M. Hocken, whose article is also quoted in Mr. Lang's paper on the " Fire Walk," in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, February, 1900. This extra- ordinary rite is also described by Mr. Frazer in the Golden Bough and by others.
I had heard that it was performed in Tahiti in 1897, ^nd several persons there assured me of their having seen it, and one of them of his having walked through the fire himself under the guidance of the priest, Papa-Ita, who is said to be one of the last remnants of a certain order of the priesthood of Raiatea, and who had also performed the rite at the island of Hawaii some time in the present year, of which circumstantial newspaper accounts were given, agreeing in all essential particulars with those in the accounts already cited. According to these, a pit was dug in which large stones were heated red hot by a fire which had been burning many hours. The upper stones were pushed away just before the ceremony, so as to leave the lower stones to tread upon, and over these, ** glowing red hot " (according to the news- paper accounts), Papa-Ita had walked with naked feet, exciting such enthusiasm that he was treated with great consideration by
the whites, and by the natives as a god. I Tound it commonly believed in Tahiti that anyone who chose to walk after him, European or native, could do so in safety, secure in the magic which he exercises, if his instructions were exactly followed. Here in Tahiti, where he had " walked " four yeare before, it was generally believed among the natives, and even among the Europeans present who had seen the ceremony, that if anyone turned around to look back he immediately was burned, and I was told that all those who followed him through the fire were expected not to turn until they had reached the other side in safety, when he again entered the fire and led ihem back by the path by which he had come. I was further told by several who had tried it that the heat was not felt upon the feel, and that when shoes were worn the soles were not burned (for those who followed the priest's directions), but it was added by all that much heat was felt about the head.
Such absolutely extraordinary accounts of the performance had been given to me by respectable eye-witnesses and sharers in the trial, confirming those given in Hawaii, and, in the main, the cases cited by Mr. Lang, that I could not doubt that if all these were verified by my own observation, it would mean nothing less to me than a departure from the customary order of nature, and something very well worth seeing indeed.
I was glad, therefore, to meet personally the priest, Papa-Ita. He is the finest looking native that I have seen ; tall, dignified in bearing, with unusually intelligent features. 1 learned from him that he would perform the ceremony on Wednesday, July 17, the day before the sailing of our ship. I was ready to provide the cost of the fire, if he could not obtain it otherwise, but this proved to be unnecessary.
Papa-Ita himself spoke no English, and I conversed with him briefly through an interpreter. He said thai he walked over the hot stones without danger by virtue of spells which he was able to utter and by the aid of a goddess (or devil, as my interpreter had it), who was formerly a native of the islands. The spells, he said, were something which he could teach another. I was told by others that there was a still older priest in the Island of Raiatea, whose disciple he was, although he had pupils of his own, and that he could " send his spirit " to Raiatea 10 secure the permission of his senior priest if necessary.
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In answet to my inquiry as to what preparations he was going to make for the rite in the two or three days before it, he said he was going to pass them in prayer.
The place selected for the ceremony fortunately was not far from the ship. I went diere at noon and found that a large shallow pit or trench had been dug, about nine feet by twenty- one feet and about two feet deep. Lying near by was a pile con- taining some cords of rough wood, and a pile of rounded water- worn Stones, weighing, I shuuld think, from forty to eighty poundl apiece. They were, perhaps, loo in number, and all of porous basalt, a feature ±e importance of which will be seen later. The wood was placed in the trench, the fire was lighted and the stones heaped on it, as I was told, directly after I left, or at about twelve o'clock.
At 4.0 p.m. I went over again and found the preparations very nearly complete. The fire had been burning for nearly four hours. The outer stones touched the ground only at the edges of the pile, where they did not burn ray hand, but as they approached the centre the stones were heaped up into a mound three or four layers deep, at which point the lowest layers seen between the upper ones were visibly red-hot. That these latter were nevertheless sending out considerable heat there could be no question, though the topmost stones were certainly not red- hot, while those at the bottom were visibly so and were occasion- ally splitting with loud reports, while the flames from the burned wood near the centre of the pile passed up in visible lambent tongues, both circumstances contributing to the effect upon the excited bystanders.
The upper stones, I repeat, even where the topmost were pre- sently removed, did not show any glow to the eye, but were unquestionably very hot and certainly looked unsafe for nalced feet. Native feet, however, are not like European ones, and Mr. Richardson, the chief engineer of the ship, mentioned that he had himself seen elsewhere natives standing unconcerned with naked feet on the cover of pipes conveying steam at about 300 degrees Fahrenheit where no European foot could even lightly rest for a minute. The stones then were hot. The crucial question was, how hot was the upper part of this upper layer on which the feet were to rest an instant in passing ? I could think of no ready thermometric method that could give an absolutely trustworthy
The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti.
answer, but I could possibly determine on the spot the thermal equivalent of one of the hottest stones trodden on. (It was sub- sequently shown that the stone might be much cooler at one part than another.! Most obviously, even this was not an easy thing to do in the circumstances, but I decided to try to get at least a trust- worthy approximation. By the aid of Chief Engineer Richardson, who attended with a stoker and one of the quartermasters, kindly detailed at my request by the ship's master. Captain Lawless, I prepared for the rough but conclusive experiment presently described.
It was now nearly forty minutes after four, when six acolytes (natives), wearing crowns of flowers, wreathed with garlands, and bearing poles nearly fifteen feet long, ostensibly to be used as levers in toppling over the upper stones, appeared. They were supposed to need such long poles because of the distance at which they must stand on account of the heat radiated from the pile, but I had walked close beside it a moment before and satisfied myself that I could have manipulated the stones with a lever of one-third the length, with some discomfort, but with entire safety. Some of the uppermost stones only were turned over, leaving a superior layer, the long poles being needlessly thrust down between the stones to the bottom, where two of them caught fire at their extremities, adding very much to the impression that the exposed layer of stones was red hot, when in fact they were not, at least to the eye. These long poles and the way they were handled were, then, a part of the ingenious "staging" of the whole spectacle.
Now the most impressive part of the ceremony began. Fapa- Ita, tall, dignified, flower-crowned, and dressed with garlands of flowers, appeared with naked feet and with a large bush of " Tl " leaves in his hands, and after going pardy around the fire each way uttering what seemed to be commands to it, went back and beating the stones nearest him three times with the " Ti " leaves, advanced steadily, but with obviously hurried step, directly over the central ridge of the pile. Two disciples, similarly dressed, followed him, but they had not the courage to do so directly along the heated centre. They followed about half-way between the centre and the edge, where the stones were manifestly cooler, since I had satisfied myself that they could be touched lightly with the hand. Papa-Ita then turned and led the way back, this time
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with deliberate confidence^ followed on his return by several new disciples, most of them not keeping exactly in the steps of the leader, but obviously seeking cooler places. A third and fouitfa time Papa-Ita crossed with a larger following, after which many Europeans present walked over the stones without reference to the priest's instructions. The natives were mostly in their bare feet One wore stockings. No European attempted to walk in bare feet except in one case, that of a boy, who, I was toldy found the stones too hot, and immediately stepped back.
.The mise en seine was certainly noteworthy. The site, near the great ocean breaking on the barrier reefs, the excited crowd, talking about the "red-hot" stones, the actual sight of the hierophant and his acolytes making the passage along the ridge where the occasional tongues of flame were seen at the centre, with all the attendant circumstances, made up a scene in no way lacking in interest. Still, the essential question as to the actual heat of these stones had not yet been answered, and after the fourth passage I secured Papa-Ita's permission to remove from the middle of the pile one stone, which from its size and position every foot had rested upon in crossing, and which was un- doubtedly at least as hot as any of those trodden on. It was pulled out by my assistants with difficulty, as it proved to be larger than I had expected, it being of ovoid shape with the lower end in the hottest part of the fire. I had brought over the largest wooden bucket which the ship had, and which was half- filled with water, expecting that this would cover the stone, but it proved to be hardly enough. The stone caused the water to rise nearly to the top of the bucket, and it was thrown into such violent ebullition that a great deal of it boiled over and escaped weighing. The stone was an exceedingly bad conductor of heat, for it continued to boil the water for about twelve minutes, when, the ebullition being nearly over, it was removed to the ship and the amount of evaporated water measured.
Meanwhile others, as I have said, began to walk over the stones without any reference to the ceremony prescribed by Papa-Ita, and three or four persons, whom I personally knew on board the ship, did so in shoes, the soles of which were not burned at all. One of the gentlemen, however, who crossed over with unburned shoes, showed me that the ends of his trousers had been burnt by the flames which leaped up between the stones,
The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti. 451
and which at all times added so much to the impressiveness of the spectacle, and there was no doubt that any one who stumbled or got a foot caught between the hot stones might have been badly burned. United States Deputy-Consul Ducorran, who was present, remarked to me that he knew that Papa-Ica had failed on a neighbouring island, with stones of a marble-like quality, and he offered to test the heat of these basaltic ones by seeing how long he could remain on the hottest part of the pile, and he stood there, in my sight, from eight to ten seconds before he felt the heat through the thin soles of his shoes beginning to be un- pleasantly warm,
A gentleman present asked Papa-Ita why he did not give an exhibit that would be convincing by placing his foot, even for a few seconds, between two of the red-hot stones which could be seen glowing at the bottom of the pile, to which Papa-Ita replied with dignity. " My fathers did not tell me to do it that way." I asked him if he would hold one of the smaller, upper hot stones in his hand. He promised to do so, but he did not do it.
The outer barriers were now removed, and a crowd of natives pressed in. I, who was taking these notes on the spot, left, after assuring myself that the stones around the edge of the pit were comparatively cold, although the centre was no doubt ver)- hot, and those below red hot. The real question is, I repeat, how hot were those trodden on ? and the answer to this I was to try to obtain after measuring the amount of water boiled away.
On returning to the ship this was estimated from the water which was left in the bucket (after allowing for that spilled over) at about ten pounds. The stone, which it will be remembered was one of the hottest, if not the hottest, in the pile, was found to weigh sixty-five pounds, and to have evaporated this quantity of water. It was, as I have said, a volcanic stone, and on minuter examination proved to be a vesicular basalt, the most distinctive feature of which was its porosity and non-conductibility, for it was subsequently found that it could have been heated red hot at one end, while remaining comparatively cool at the top. I brought a piece of it to Washington with me, and there determined its specific gravity to be o'39,' its specific heat 0-19, and its con- ductivity to be so extremely small that one end of a small frag-
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ment could be held in the hand while the other was heal indefiiiitely in the flame of a blow-pipe, almost like a. stick. sealing-wax. This partly defeated the aim of the experiment ( find the temperature of the upper part of the stone), since ot the mean temperature was found. This mtan temperature of t hottest stone of the upper layer, as deduced from the above dal was about 1,200 degrees Fahrenheit, but the temperature of t surface must have been indefinitely lower. The temperature' which such a stone begins to show a dull red in daylight is, so| as I am aware, not exactly determined, but is approximately i,j to 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit.
To conclude, I could entertain no doubt that I had witneai substantially the scenes described by the gentlemen cited, and have reason to believe that 1 saw a very favourable specimen of " Fire Walk."
It was a sight well worth seeing. It was a most clever ai interesting piece of savage magic, but from the evidence I ha just given I am obliged to say (almost regretfuUy) that it was nol miracle. S. P. Langl£y.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., August ^tht 1901.
Mr. Lang has published some remarks on the above accoo {Morning Post, aist September) which we summarise as follow omitting his observations on the extraordinary lightness of ti stone, which have proved to be based on a misprint in JVatk (" spedfic gravity, o"39 " for " a'39 ") : —
The test applied was so "rough" as to be inconclusive. T quantity of the water is not given, nor are we told whether ai allowance was made for the water likely to be absorbed by tl porous stone. In any case, only the mean temperature, not th of the upper surface, could have been discovered by this mear Nor do we hear how long a time elapsed before Europeans pass< through, shod, without harm.
A comparison of the afiair with other accounts brings out tl following points.
I. It was undertaken as an exhibition, not, as in the originals religious ceremony preparatory to cooking the first-fruits. The; b certainly no such rite in Tahiti, where the performant occuired.
The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti. 453
2. The stones used were noted by Dr. Hocken as basaltic (as above), and by Mr. Gorten a.s lava rocks. Other witnesses omit the point. " In Asia and India stones are not used, but what is described as red-hot charcoal, as in ancient Italy."
3. The tests of temperature attempted by previous witnesses all fail in some respect.
4. The trousers of an American were burnt by the flames between the stones (Langley). The dry fern anklets of the natives were not burnt (Thomson).
5. Thomson and Hocken examined the feet of the "native' fire-walkers, and found them not insensitive, but unburnt. Colonel Gudgeon (though a European) himself, with several others, walked barefoot, and unhurt,
6. The furnace was only lighted four hours before the per- formance ; not, as in Hoclten's case, 36 to 48 hours before, or, as in Gudgeon's, from dawn till z p.m.
" Here I leave the matter, not, of course, claiming a ' miracle,' but hopeful of more exact tests, both as to temperature and ' native feel.' "
Mr. Lang writes to us that he does not desire to engage in further controversy on Mr. Langle/s case. He adds :—
I am glad that Folk-Lore is turning its attention to the Fire Walk. Its interest is religious, apart from the problem of the immunity from blisters. In the Oceanic area, the rite appears to be one of the sanctifying of First Fruits. In the Asiatic area the rite, at least in some cases, is one of purification. Mr. Frazer suggests that, in ancient Italy, " the passage of the priests of Soranus through the fire was a magical ceremony designed to procure a due supply of light and warmth for the earth by mimicking the sun's passage across the firmament," that is, if Soranus (Apollo) was a sun-god {Golden Bough,\\\., ^11). I have not observed this magical purpose asserted where the rite is still practised. Mannhardt thinks that perhaps the Italian fire-walkers {Hirpi, wolves) represented the Corn Spirit, — not the Sun. This is not the case where the fire- walkers have no corn, but perhaps they then represent the masawe spirit ?
As to the immunity of the fire-walkers, I cite many examples, and good European reports, in Modern Mythology, and in Magic and Reiigion,
The best authorities are Mr. Basil Thomson, when a British
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official in Fiji, Miss Teuira Henry, a learned lady of Polynesu extraction (Honolulu), Dr. Hocken of New 2^ealand, who made very careful examination, using a thermometer, Colonel Haggai (Japan), Colonel Gudgeon, Governor of Rarotonga (who, wit other Europeans, performed the walk barefoot and unhurtX ^^ Mr. George Ely Hall, Turkish Consul-General at San Francisa who did the walk in company with Commodore Germinot, con mander of the French cruiser Froiet, last year. His account is i the Sunday Examiner Magazine (San Francisco) for Decembei 1900, and brief extracts appeared in ih^ Journal of tke I^cfyfusia, Society^ March, 1901.
In my opinion these and other versions, cited by Mr. Fiazer ii The Golden Bought and by myself in the books mentioned,^ nea to be compared with the description by Mr. Langley. It is tni( that the other authors offer no explanation. The only explanatioi which I have ever oflfered (in Magic and Religion) is that ** perhap we can all do the fire-walk." One never knows till one tries !
A. Lang.
We have to thank the proprietors of The Wide World Magazini for the use of the illustration, (Plate xv.), one of five photograph; taken by Mr. Frank Davey, (" the well-known Honolulu photo grapher"), of the exhibition given by Papa-Ita at Honolulu or Saturday, January 19th, 1901, which are reproduced in the June (1901) number of The Wide World, with an accompanying description by Mr. Davey.
With regard to the points emphasised by Mr. Lang, Mr. Davey's evidence is as follows, i . The ceremony as performed by Papa-Ita has " degenerated into a mere show," with a " manager " and gate money. 2. "The peculiarly-mottled lava-stones which are necessary
for the ceremony were easily found Ita was greatly pleased,
for they were just what he wanted." 3. No test of temperature is described ; but " you could hear the stones splutter as the rain (which began to fall at the moment) struck them." 4. J^i/, 5. "I personally examined his feet with scrupulous care, and found they were intact." Their callosity or otherwise is not men- tioned. 6. The furnace was lighted ten hours beforehand. Ita said " the stones were not hot enough," and that he would give another performance, which he did the following Thursday, when 500 dollars was offered to any one who would precede him, but not
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aken. Mr. Davey speaks of the " red-hot " stones, the flames leaping up between them, and the men who (in ordinary European dress, according to the photograph) turned them over with long poles, " so as to get the greatest heat uppermost " ; but neither he nor any narrator previous to Mr. Langley explains whether or not he means the epithets "red-hot" and "white-hot" to apply to the upper sur/aet of the topmost layer of stones at the moment of being trodden on 1 If not, then the witnesses are substantially agreed on this point, However, we are not dealing with con- flicting accounts of the same event, but comparing the accounts of different events.
It is perhaps worth while Eo point out that in all Papa-ICa's performances of which we have particulars, the fire was made under a cairn of stones, and continued to burn during the exhibi- tion, which must have added not a little to the exciting nature of the scene; while in other cases (New Zealand, Fiji) the pit, appears to have been lined with the stones and the firewood placed on them ; what remained of it being removed (in Dr. Hocken's account) when they were sufficiently heated, after the manner of an old-fashioned bread-oven in England. Ed.
I
A Survival of Tree-worship. {CommunUated by Mr. J. G. Frazer.)
In this little- visited corner of Tuscany 1 have come across what appears to me a curious survival of tree -worship, or rather, worship of the spirit of the woods. I am spending the summer in a little village on the edge of the great chestnut forests which cover Mount Amiata, an isolated mountain rising from the Maremma. All summer a movement has been going on ; the peasants going away by twos and threes at night, and returning the next day, tired, but with a queer excited visionary look which was so marked that it excited my curiosity. At first they were unwilling to say much, only that they had been to visit a Madonna in an oak-tree ; but as I have become well known they grow more communicative and enter into particulars. They walk to a certain valley, and there they
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assert that a lady (the Madonna, as they believe) appears in an oak-tree. They spend the night in a sort of ecstasy, of which they can tell little except that it leaves them " conteniisitmi* This has been going on all summer, and sometimes there arc several thousand people on the spot. When one sees them going off after their hard day's work under the Italian sun, to take first a walk of four hours from here (many come from much furtber)^ and then to spend the whole night in this way, one cannot help feeling that some strong instinct or feeling must draw them.
The Church discourages the whole thing ; the arch-priest d Santafiora goes so far as to assert that it is a work of the devO, but that would be his view of any survival of the worship of the wood-spirits. The people, though pious Catholics, will not be prevented from going to their oak-tree ; they are persuaded it ii the Madonna. The government, which dislikes any religious fcp ment among the people, has sent the carabinitri once, who tOrt off the offerings which the poor people had hung on the tree, and threw down and trampled on the candles they had fixed on it | but this has only irritated the believers. They threaten now to cut down the oak and post carabinieri on the spot, so the who!* thing may soon be put down, and you may like to know about il while yet going on.
Peasants are not good hands at describing sensations ; about their visions they can only say they see a strange light and tbt Madonna appears, and they see, or she tells them, wondeifu! beautiful things. It is all vague as to detail, but not as to th( sentiment, or belief in the vision. Owing to its isolation, sur rounded by the deadly Maremma, the people of this mountaii aie peculiarly primitive ; but an electric tram is threatened, so ooi had better study them at once, as that will banish the spirits.
Makv Lovett Cahbron.
Le Bagnore, Arcidosso, Prov. di Grosseto, Italy. izth August, 1901,
The Rice Harvest in Ceylon. 457
The Rice Harvest m Ceylon. (Communicated by Mr. Andrew Lang).
Let me give you an account of a Hindu festival that occurs here, in Ceylon, annually. The Tamil coolies have a god Mareii, that they carry in an ark, shaped so. [Here follows a small rude pen-and-ink outline : a figure (the god) under a segmental arch supported on pillars, out of which spring lines explained to repre- sent " peacock's feathers, hair, &c."] After the harvest of rice is gathered, any time in May, June, or July, and befort the burst of the south-west monsoon, which occurs in May or June, they lake this god and throw it into the river ; and then fifteen or twenty- one days after they go to the same spot, and look about for the new god ; pretend not to find it, and go through a pantomime ; and then find a new ^d in the water, with great rejoicing, &c. I asked the man,^ why find a new god ? Would not the old one do, washed and dried ? No, he said, after the rice is harvested the " god must be killed," and a new god found hke a new-born baby come to life, and it must be found, or the " great rain " (the south-west monsoon) will not come, and the sowing of rice (for the second crop) will fail.
Note the variable date of doing this. This depends entirely on the harvest date, late or early, according to the weather and the heaviness of the crop. And here in Ceylon we have two or three different dales for harvesting produce, entirely depending on the rain and sunshine being different in different parts of Ceylon. In one place you will have drenching rain, wind, and cold, and on the same day you go five miles or so, across a range of hills 6,000 feet high, and you go into a fine climate like Italy : no rain, no cold ; all sunshine and drought. The harvest time is opposite 10 harvest time on the other side of the range. One must live in the tropics to understand this.
Another very interesting ceremony among the Singhalese is Thrashing the Rice. I found an account of it in the Monthly Literary Register, or Notes and Queries of Ceylon (Ferguson, Obstroer Office, Colombo), 1896, p. 149, as follows,
I Obstroer Off
Presumably a Tamil coolie previously mentioned.
458
llfl
They choose a lucky day and hour, and then draw in wood- ashes on the floor of the thrashing-place this picture. [Here follows a rough diagram : a cross with equal amis having trident- shaped extremities, intersecting three concentric circles, the arms projecting well beyond the circles.] They then put in each of the six arcs of the two outer circles [sie] the following : r, a broom ; 2, a winnow ; 3, an ear of corn ; 4, a flail ; 5, the bow and arrow of Vishnu ; 6, a new moon. The two btter [figures ?] are to keep off evil spirits. Then turmeric and cow-dung are mixed in water and spread all over it, and in the centre is put (i) a piece of margosa-wood, (2) a sea-shell, (3) a piece of iron. The first is to keep off the special com-devil, the second is an emblem of the purity of Sakkeya, and the third is to ward off general devils.
Then some one lucky and wealthy carries in a handful of ears on his head, walks three times round the thrashing-floor, places the corn in the centre, kneels down and folds his hands before it, and bows down to it with uplifted hands ; and then he makes a litter of the stack, and thrashing begins. While they are thrashing, " tee " or " dummy " names are used for all tools, &c. ; and no one may swear, or say devil, tiger, hre, &c., or the com will be spoilt
R. J. Druumond, M.D.
Belgravia, Talawakelli, Ceylon. z^th Septemier, 1901,
|1
Stories and other Notes from the Upper Congo.
{Continued from p. 189.)
III. — MoTU MoKo. (Miketo, p. 36.)
About a Certain Person.
He lived and worked a farm, and planted a large number of
plaintains in it. They ripened very well.
One day he went and found that the matured plantains had been entirely broken off their stems. He said : " Who has
r
stories from the Upper Congo. 459
broken my plantains thus ? Alas ! for mercy." Every morning and every day it was thus ; however, it was the Above-folk who came down on purpose to steal them. One day he laid in ambush, and saw them descend in numbers and give themselves up to eating the ripe plantain. The man rushed out and chased them, and caught one woman, He brought her with him and put her in his house, and gave her a name — Mwila-ndaku.
Mwila-ndaku' had much intelligence. She set fire to the wood, did work, and knew things like a member of the human race, and was every day charming her friends, and afterwards she brought a great many of them to her husband.
By-and-by this woman became possessed of a covered basket, and thereupon she said to her husband 1 *' As we live here, if I go to the farm, you must not open my basket, and if you open it, then consequently we shall all go away." The husband answered : " All right, then I will not undo it"
Every day he was very happy because he had plenty of people. But one day the wife went to the farm, and the husband said : " Every morning why does my wife say, ' You must not open the basket ? ' " The husband opened the basket, looked inside, and shut it again. When his wife returned she entered the house and said : " My husband, why did he open the basket ? " The husband sat perfectly quiet. One day the husband went into the bush, and the wife called all het tribe and returned above.
Moral: You see when a friend admonishes you not to touch his things, then leave them alone.
1. Ba-Likoh 0\ Bai-Likolo. Likolo>= sky, place above; ba or bai=people of; hence the people of the place above, or for short, the Above-folk, This I acknowledge is an awkward phrase ; perhaps a better will suggest itself some day. One is restricted to this narrow view of Likolo because they have the word Bolobo =happiness, as describing a place where some of their ancestors are. Bolobo is from the verb lo6a = lo rejoice. Their notions regarding this place (Bolobo) are very nebulous.
Some other stories give other phases of the powers of these folk who descend from above.
2. Mwila-ndaku. This was one of the names given to a slave- wife who was set apart 10 be buried with the dead husband- If she gave birth to a child before her husband died, she waa freed
460
from this doubtful honour. The woman was often buried alive. During the first year or two of our residence here we were enabled to stop this cruel custom.
3. Set fire to the wood. The belief is that there was no fiie on the earth, but that originally it came from above. In another story it is related that these Above-folk brought down the fire, and taught the folk on earth the use of it.
II
IV. — Lo La Nkkngo. 1
Palaver of Nkengo.
The son of Libuta lived in a town. When he saw the people dying in numbers, he said : " Vou Above-folk, throw me down a rope." The Above-folk heard, and threw him down a rope. Nkengo held the rope, and they pulled him up above. When he reached above he waited one day.
When the day was gone, in the morning, they asked him, saying : " Vou come here in order to receive salvation, the appointment is for seven days, but you must not sleep; should you sleep, then you will not receive salvation."
Nkengo was able to remain sleepless for six days, but on the next — the seventh — he was not able, but nodded in sleep. They roused him up, saying : "You came that you might receive salva- tion, you had an appointment for seven days, you were able to keep six well, why did you abandon salvation on the seventh?" The Above-folk were angty, they drove him away, saying : " Get out, and go with your dying," They lowered him to the earth.
The people left on the earth asked him, saying : " Tell us what happened when you were up above to receive salvation." Then Nkengo said : " When I went above to receive salvation, they gave me an appointment, saying, ' You have come to receive sal- vation, but you must not sleep for seven days.' I was able for six, but the next — the seventh — I abandoned it. Thereupon they were angry, and drove me away, saying, 'Get away with your dying, you shall not receive salvation; every day you shall be dying.' "
His friends who were left laughed at him, saying : " Nkengo, the son of Libuta, was receiving salvation, and ran away quickly,
d so lost it"
Stories from the Upper Congo.
This story I have had for several years ; in fact there are many reasons to believe that its conception is purely native. Nkengo is often blamed for so nearly gaining salvation, and yet losing it.
V. — The Two Bundles.
On one occasion while a man was working in the forest, a little man with two bundles, one large and one small, went up to him and said : "Which of these bundles will you have? This" (taking up the large bundle) "contains knives, looking-glasses, cloth, &c. This " (taking up the small bundle) " contains immortal life." " I cannot," said the man, "choose by myself; I must go and ask the others in the town." While he was gone, some women arrived, and the choice was put to them. They tried the edges of the knives, decked themselves in the cloth, admired themselves in the looking-glasses, and, without more ado, selected the big bundle. The little man, picking up the small bundle, vanished. On the return of the man from the town, both little man and bundles were gone. The women exhibited and shared the things, but death continued on the earth.
This legend was told me by a brother missionary who had lived some years among the Balolo tribe, five miles south of the Equator (long, 18° east), as being generally accepted among his people to account for the continuance of death on the earth.
My friend told me that he had beard the people say frequently ; " O, if those women had only chosen the small bundle we should not be dying like this ! "
Sundry Notes,
I. The Ngala langu^e, with small dialectical differences, is spoken by the tribes living on that portion of the right and left banks of the Congo River that has the large state station of Nouvelle Anvers (the native name is Bangala) as its centre. Lat. about 1° 40' north, long. 18° east. The Ngala language is used for 100 miles west and 150 miles east of that point. Both the language and the tribes are chieSy confined to the river-
^bi
Collectanea,
I
/i
banks. The hinterland folk spealc a dilTerent languitge, and lutve different tribal marks. Stanley mentions these BangalA {I>ark CimtintHt, ed. 1878, ii., 300). They were a warlike people; they fought Stanley several times during his first journey down the Congo.
Whence these tribes come, and why they have come, in the memory of men now living, to inhibit the main banks of the river, are questions of great interest, which I must try to answer another time. Suffice it to say they belong to the great Bantu family, come probably from the direction of the Mob.ingi River, and have for their principal tribal mark the Lilcwala (= cock's comb) running from the middle of tlie head down the forehead to the bridge of the nose. The more dandyish a person is the more prominent is bis or her likwala.
a. There is no objection whatever to naming a child after the dead. It is often done when there is a similarity between the child and the dead person, and sometimes it is done when the dead person was a man of some distinction and wealth. The motive then is either to bring similar good-fortune on the child so named, or to keep green the memory of a chief who has brought distinction on a family. The name would then be that of the child, and to call him by it, no matter how frequently, would not be considered wrong.
3. As to belief in the rebirth or reincarnation of a dead person, preferably an ancestor. A few years before Sunley descended the Congo there was a general belief extant in this district that many of their ancestors would appear in another form, and yet would be recognisable by similarity of features to those whose spirits the "appearances" took. When the white men came, this belief seemed to be confirmed by the fact that they often thought they saw a likeness in the features, walk, or gestures of some white men to dead men whom they knew. I myself have often been surprised and amused when a motion, a glance, or some little peculiarity among these folk has called vividly to mind some person I know at home. There was one man (now dead) I never met without having a certain uncle of mine recalled to mind, and another person (a girl) always by an indescribable something reminded me of a girl I knew at home. When we came here in 1890, my colleague was thought to resemble a chief who had died some e before, and I was ftvoM^t Uj bt ViVa MicttvM who had died
I beli
Stories from the Upper Congo. 463
belonging to a family that has a hippopotamus for its omen (not totem, that is another word), and this view was confirmed by my firing on two successive nights at a hippo that came prowling about our beach. After the second night the hippo sent me a message to say that it was little use my firing at it as it was im- possible for me to kilt it, as it was a spirit. The message was sent through a member of the family to whom the hippo acted as an omen. However, after this the hippo gave our beach a wide berth, and so I lost a chance of distinguishing myself by killing a spirit The members of the above family used to put a pot of sugar-cane wine out in the town every night, while the hippo was in the neighbourhood, for it to drink.
Our small steamer, the Peace, was the first to pass near the towns in this bay, and as the people could not see any reason for the rapid progress of the "big canoe," there being no paddles visible, they believed that the water spirits (some of their ancestors) were pushing it along from below. Many thought that the steamer was Libanza (God) on his way to Tinge-Tinge (Stanley Falls) to visit his sister Nsongo. You will see on page 1 1 of Miketo Nsongo mentioned several times, but that story I must tell you another time.
There is no belief in reincarnation among these people, and the above slight suspicion of it may, I think, be accounted for by rumours of the white man having filtered through from both coasts. The Bangala fifteen or twenty years ago were a strong war-loving people who travelled far and wide on the river. Then again slaves were bought and exchanged from widely distant parts, and of course carried with them the news and rumours, true and false, of their last residence. This factor in the disseminating of religious belief, and the interweaving of those beliefs into what is often a patchwork whole, has not been ^iroperly allowed for in dealing with the superstitions of African
ces.
Bamaleli is a word for a sickness in which a man is supposed to be possessed by many spirits. When the afflicted person eats, he divides his food into two portions, one he scatters in various directions around him for the spirits to eat, and the other he eats himself. It is a very common custom here and on the Lower Congo for a sick man lo remove secretly in the night to another town so as to outwit the spirit that is supposed to be troubling
464
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him. A few weeks ago a sick man came to me attired in a woman's dresi, and ttyinR to speak in & woman's voice. He was attempting by these means to make himself other than he was in order to cheat the spirit that had made him ill.
Abnonnal events are frequently placed to the credit of the spirit of a man recently dead. A few hours after the death of a young man who died about thrive months ago a furious storm broke on the town, blowing down plantain trees and working havoc in the farms. It was stated in all seriousness by the old folk that the storm had been sent by the spirit of Mopembe. We have had for dinner to-day a shouldi;r of antelope, the history of which will further illustrate the above statement. Three days ago Mumbamba, an old head-man, died. Since his death his relatives have been coming from various towns to mourn at his grave. This morning three canoes of men and women were coming up liver, with the object of expressing their grief at the grave, when they happened upon a large anteiope caught in the grass of an islet that bad lodged against a fallen tree in the river. The mourners dragged the antelope into one of the canoes, and gave Mumbamba the credit of sending them an antelope as an expression of his fovour.
John H. Wkucs.
SUPERKATURAL CHANGES OF SiTES.
<VoL viii., pp. 177, 379.)
The Sporting Magasine for April, 1S13, p. 31, contains a story relating to a knightly effigy which was then, and I trust still is, in the church of Tolleshunt Knights, Essex. When I first read it I had thoughts of sending to Folk-Lore a full transcript, but it is so clogged with needless verbiage that I am sure students will prefer a condensation. The writer, who signs his communication L, says that he had heard the tale told more than fifty years before sending it to the Sporting Magazine, and was evidently of opinion ^hat it had not been recorded elsewhere. It was, he says.
Supernatural Changes of Sites.
" honoured with entire credence by some .... and half believed by all " the old peciple who told it.
A long time ago the landowners of Tolleshunt Knights had a dispute as to where a certain manor-house, to be called Bam Hall, was to be built. An attempt was made to erect it near the church, but as soon as any part thereof was to be seen, it was torn down " and carried clean away by night," and ibis damage was not done silently but accompanied by terrible sights and sounds. At length a knight was found sutBciendy heroic to undertake to encounter the evil spirits who impeded the work, the townsfolk went to bed, and at about midnight the knight fully armed "and attended only by his two faithful spayed hitches " sallied forth. There was a violent storm — thunder, lightning, and a whirlwind, and in the midst of the elemental disturbance the devil appeared. He was armed with an immense club. After some hard fighting in which neither the knight nor the spirit of evil was victorious, the latter was for a time out of breath, so he paused, and, resting on his club, said to his antagonist, " Who helped you ? " To this question the knight gave answer, " God and myself, and my two spayed bitches." The fight was again renewed, but soon the Devil was once more exhausted, so he paused as before, the same question was asked and received a tike reply. The encounter was renewed for a third time, and the Devil once more put his former query. Hitherto the knight had done well, but now he made a fatal blunder by putting in his reply his own name before that of God, his answer running, " Myself and God and my two spayed bitches." The result of this verbal error was terrible. The knight was at once overcome and slain, and the victorious demon exclaimed in an earth-shaking voice, " Be you buried by land or by sea, in church or churchyard, I will have you." Then he whirled his club five miles away saying, " Wherever you drop, there Barn Hall shall be built," and so it came to pass. Bam Hall was built on the very spot where the club fell, and of the club was made the main beam of the house. The villagers had too much admiration for their fallen hero to be willing that the Evil One should possess his soul, so they buried his body neither in the church nor the churchyard, but in the church wall itself, and set up near his place of rest his efligy clad in armour with his two faithful hounds at his feet.
The writer says that there was another form of the tale in which
vot. XII. a u.
466
Collectanea.
it is set forth that it was the building of the church, not of the hall, that the demon was bent upon frustrating.
Edward Peacock.
[This i« evidently the version of the Barn Hall legend known to the late Rev. J. C, Atkinson in his boyhood (see ref., supra). The veruon given in Mr. Gomme's Folkkrt RelUs of Early ViUag! life was told to Mr J. H. Round " by a person well acquaintol with the locahty," and recorded by him in the Antiquary, vol. iv., p. a79.— Ejx]
(Jn/c, p. 336.} Mr. Nutt's criticism raises the general question, whether we are justified in accepting a part of any group of traditions as evidence and rejecting the rest. This is too large a question to be discussed fully here ; but perhaps I may point out that there are certain kinds of accretions, (for instance, the miraculous element, or exaggerations of numbers), which are apt lo add themselves to stories told by tradition ; these may be eliminated without discre- diting the rest So, too, whole episodes based on local prejudices may often be traced to their origin, though with less certainty. But those parts of a body of tradition which are possible in fact, and consistent together, stand on a different basis from isolated episodes. In such a case it may be unsafe to base theories upon these alone ; but if it be found that they support theories which are based on acchEeological or other evidence, they may be added as confirmatory evidence, and will be cogent in proportion to their mass and consistency. Professor Ridgeway has used the Greek traditions in this way. He deduces his theory from archfeo- logical and ethnological evidence, and then points to the remark- able fact that the traditions in the main agree with the evidence. It follows, then, that the traditions are in the main trustworthy. But Professor Ridgeway does not assume iheir trustworthiness, and then deduce a theory from them. After his demonstration, however, we are justified in giving weight to the traditions.
Those which Mr. Nutt adduces as examples of what might have happened are not parallel to the Greek traditions. He chooses one which is "destitute of any and every kind of basis, historical, racial, arcbseological, and linguistic." If there are such amongst Greek traditions, it would he rash to base theories upon 2 H 2
m
468 Correspondence.
them ; and Professor Ridgeway has not done this at all. More- over the conditions are difierent in a world which has been accustomed to the common use of writing for two thousand years; and in the world of two thousand years B.C., where writing was known indeed, but was certainly not common.
Genealogical trends were of supreme importance to the Greek, who so olten traced his descent from gods or demigods, and whose religion was bound up with his family. It was of importance to him to be accurate in this, although the tendency to self-glorification no doubt was present ; and it was possible to carry much historical fact by tongue-tradition when family bards existed, whose life-work it was to preserve and, it must be admitted, to embellish this. I do not offer any opinion on the question of " historic myths," but ray own studies lead me to think that there is a personal basis for heroic legends, and that Asclepius and the Dioscuri were not the only divinities who were human to begin with.
On the whole, I think Professor Ridgeway has treated the legend fairly ; but if he has not, I fail to see why all tradidons should be discarded as worthless for evidence, as Mr. Nutt seems inclined to do.
W. H. D. Rouse.
The Ethnological Sichificance of Burial and Crkmation. (Ante, p. 361).
IsProfessorRidgewayon firm ground when, pointing todiflerences of custom in the matter of disposal of the dead as indicating a different conception of the world of the dead, he argues that this difference of mental attitude is due to difference of race ? I ven- ture to think that we have no. solid grounds for supposing that where one custom has succeeded the other, this result may not be due, as Mr. Hall suggests, to other causes than the presence in later times of a people of alien race. Surely we have no reason whatever for believing that the religious creed of a people can only be changed by an admixture of foreign blood. It is not •iven proved that difference of race is the cause of the varying
standard of culture of different strata of the population. The parishioner may locate the ghost of a dead man in the churchyard and the pareon believe it to be further away, without their being of different blood. If contemporaneous divergences are not in- compatible with racial unity, still less are the differences of custom of successive ages a proof that one race has succeeded another.
In examples drawn from European peoples, however, it is always possible to argue that racial diversity lies at the root of divei^ences of mental attitude. It may therefore be well to give an example in which this cause is practically excluded. Collins {Account of Ihe English Colony, p. 60 1) informs us that the natives of New South Wales buried their young people and burned their old. No one will assert that the difference here is due to racial diversity ; it points to a difference of intention with regard to the dead, rather than to the different conception of the world of the dead, for which Professor Ridgeway argues. I do not of course argue that a similar custom prevailed in Greece ; it is quite pos- sible that Professor Ridgeway is right, but the burial-cremation test does not prove him to be so.
N. W. Thomas.
" MvTH'; OF Gbf.f.ck,"
{Ante, p. 362.
The able classical scholar who has noticed my book is unfair to me. For example, I have quoted from a writer of the folklore school a paragraph containing a bit of bad Latin, and the error in the Latin is charged upon me, without any mention of the quotation marks. Most of the other errors could be just as easily explained. But what I want to say is that my book is the outcome of years of investigation and ought not to be damned for a trifle. Tht Times has said that " there is some truth in Mr. St. Clair's explanations," and Literalun allows that I have at least " advanced the study of one factor, perhaps a large factor, in the growth of Greek legend." Why. then, cannot the folklorists accept me as a co-worker, instead of depreciating the work of
470
Correspondence.
years because my method is not the same as theirs, or becan my assumptions are not the same aa theirs?
Now really my method has been scientific. My critic says tb 1 "attempt to prove by the use of metaphor." He is mistalw That there Is figure and symbol in the myths is, 1 suppose, inca testable. Paosanias, for one, tells us that the wise among d Greeks spoke of old in riddles.
To discover the meaning of any symbol or phrase I have o( lated the passages in which it occurs and then asked myself »i4 sense would tit them all. This is the inductive method. Na like any man of science, I have framed a " working hypothesa and tried the application of the meanings thus arrived at. The "fables" are prehistoric in origin. Where, then, is the sense asking me to furnish historic record or foundation for everythil I put forth ? " Literary evidence will not carry Athena beyoi the eleventh century." How far will literary evidence carry ti existence of the Greeks themselves ? And do the Greeks on begin when the literai; evidence b^ins ?
My working hypothesis connects the myths with the seasons ' the year and the measurement of time.' What more likely ? Ai if true, there would of course be something like systeoi and co tinuity. My critic says I assume that the priest-astronomers we undisturbed in their efforts through thousands of yeaiB, and th this is impossible in view of wars and invasions. Let me remin him that Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, and Pope Gregoi soi^ht to perfect it, after 1,500 years, notwithstanding wars an invasions. But tii presenting my working hypothesis as a who! I have, in some places, been able to offer nothing better than guess. It is only what a classical scholar does when he seeks t translate a mutilated manuscript ; when he fills in the Ituunee oai jecturally. Where is the fairness — either to me or your readers- in singling out such a passage as "an example of Mr. St. Clair logic " ?
As to the strife between Athena and Poseidon — " Where Pose don had been worshipped, the worship of Athena supplanted ii Incoming conquerors brought their gods with them." Of cour$ they did ; but you don't account for the origin of a tribal cult, an more than for the tribe itself, by saying that it is an immigtan from another country.
I,astly (on account of space), the reference to the four ages i
Correspondence.
471
\Sfcurus iudictt orhis ttrrarum. — Your Reviewer.]
unfair. It is matter of fact that the ancients spoke of a Great Year. The Sothic Cycle was one Great Year and the Precession Cyclf anothet. These "years" of course had their quarters ; and a quarter of the precession cycle would be 6,467 ordinary years. What is there ridiculous in surmising that the notion of these was what underlay the tradition of Four Ages — of gold, silver, bronze, and iron? In describing the Four Ages of the Anecs, Hum- boldt says, '• They are fictions of the astronomical mythology." (Rtsearches, xiv. 23.) I am not speaking of the seasons of the
rmmon year, as my critic represents. Geo. St. Ci^ib. Thk Transition from Totemism to Ancestor- worship. (AttU, pp. 36, 341.)
The close connection between the aboriginal inhabitants of Madagascar and the South African races renders the comparison of their beliefs and practices important. I feel, therefore, much indebted to Mr. N. W. Thomas for calling attention to the very interesting Betsileo example of transmigration.
His remarks, however, open a wide field of controversy, and one into which I cannot here enter. I must content myself with disclaiming (a) the "initial assumption" which Mr, Thomas attri- butes to me, {b) any definite opinion on the origin of totemism (a subject on which the evidence at present accessible does not, 1 think, warrant our pronouncing), (c) the intention to trace the development of ancestor-worship elsewhere than among the Bantu from totemism, and [d) the assumption of identity between the totemism of South Africa and that of any other part of the world. My suggestions were entirely confined to South Africa. We are likely to make better progress with the investigation o( totemism if we begin by dealing with the problems of each area separately.
E, Sidney Hartland,
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472 Correspondence.
Customs Relating to Iron. (Ante, p. 340.)
I scarcely think that heating water witfi a red-liot poker for washing new-bom infants is generally practised in this neighbour- hood. C. B., a well-known nurse who lived in a village on the Nottinghamshire side of the Trent, near Gainsborougfa, and died in 1863, was accustomed to use nothing else until the navel had healed ; but probably the custom is dying out. A. H., a Lincoln- shire woman of experience, tells me now that she never heard of heating water by means of a red-hot poker for this purpose ; but she adds, unprompted, that cinder-tea is believed to be good for J I curing flatulence and colic in young children. A correspondent
at Epworth, (Mr. C. Bell, chemist), informs me that water heated with hot iron is commonly used in Notts and I Leicestershire for bathing infants suffering from " thrush."
At Scotter, in North Lincolnshire, some years ago, bandages soaked with water in which iron had been slaked by the village smith were applied successfully to a " bad leg." In like manner, in Swabia, water into which a smith has plunged iron at red heat is used for washing purposes by people suffering from the itch. (Birlinger, Volksthiimliches aus Schwaben, i86i,i., 486. In Derby- shire, a spoonful of water in which a hot iron has been cooled is I administered to a baby shortly after birth {Shapshire Folklore^
•\ p. 285.) And according to the Rev. S. Baring Gould {Gent. Afag.^
I Dec, 1889, art. "Coffin-Nails") the Romans, when affected by
i" dysentery, drank water in which glowing iron had been quenched.
■ i As to heating water with cinders. Dr. H. Ploss mentions the
custom of dropping red-hot coals into the water in which a new- born child is to be washed. {Das Kind, i., 140, 141, 143.) In Scotland a glowing ember was anciently put into the first draught of water given to a cow after calving. {F, L. /,, vii., 278.) And among the Magyars, a child injured by being stared at may be cured by throwing a live coal into the water and making him drink the fluid and bathe his eyes with it, while you wish the injury back to the person from whom it came (Jones and Kropf, T/ie Folk'taks of the Magyars, Ixv.). My friend Miss W. M. E. Fowler tells me the following story, the place at which it happened being Wakefield.
Correspondence. 473
"When one of my brothers was a few weeks old^in 1867 — he was suddenly seized by an attack of convulsions during my parents' temporary absence from home On my mother's return, the nurse rushed to meet her and told her of the baby's illness, continuing, however, to say that the infant was now sleeping quietly, and would certainly recover, as she had done all that was necessary or possible in such a case — namely, had dropped a hot cinder into a cup of water, with which she had baptized the child by making a cross on his forehead, afterwards giving him the remainder to drink ; thus, apparently, in her own eyes bringing both religion and science to bear on the case. The nurse was, I believe, an Irishwoman, who had been brought up in Yorkshire, where she would have many opportiAiities of learning the well-known healing power of ' cinder-tea,' "
A curious distinction between iron and copper came under ray notice the other day. Only a short time ago one of my neigh- bours said to her cook, "What is the good of my buying that new copper kettle if you do not use it ? " The girl, a native of Bigby in North Lincolnshire, answered that a copper kettle must be baptized before it could be used, and, on being questioned, explained that the baptism was performed by heating beer or spirits in it Iron kettles, it appears, need not undergo the rite.
One wonders whether the precious cauldrons of the Scandinavian sea-rovers were similarly hallowed. Miss W. M. E. Fowler tells me that she considers this belief far more like the superstitions current in Yorkshire than in Lincolnshire. Yorkshire folk are addicted to analogous ceremonies, which do not seem common south of the Humber.
Mabel Peacock.
R irton-i n-Li ndsey .
In the west and south-west of Scotland, among those who are rather more than less tenacious of the old customs, red-hot cinders are considered to have a mysterious efficacy in the matter of tempering or seasoning new cooking utensils. A new teapot or one that has been out of use for some time is placed on the hob filled with cold water. Into this are thrown some red cinders. It is allowed to remain for several hours, after which tea made in the pot is supposed to " mask," i.e. infuse, satisfactorily. On question- ing the advantage of this over simply scalding with boiling water,
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I was told, " My grannie and her grannie before her did it, and the auld folks kenned many things we dinna, an* I ken tea b nae guid in a teapot seasoned ony ither way." With some housewives all the pots and pans undergo this baptism of fire within, with the idea of cleansing properly before putting to domestic uses ; with others it is now only retained in the case of the teapot.
The favourite panacea for all ordinary physical ills amoi^ the rural population of Scotland is tea or gruel seasoned with whisky. The whisky is always referred to as " a cinder."
Katherine Carson.
I have always been familiar with the use of water he%ted by putting hot embers into it, (i) for removing any taint from over- kept meal, (2) for cleansing musty vessels, (3) for administering to infants suffering from flatulence. Two questions suggest them- selves : can dropping hot iron or cinders into water form any solution possessing antiseptic or medicinal qualities, or do the gases given off act merely as deodorants? and, secondly, what is used in wood-, peat-, or charcoal -burning countries for the various purposes mentioned ? Wood-3s\\^%, in England, were an old-fashioned sub- stitute for soap, and were supposed to be a stronger detergent. Coarse linen, much soiled, was not soaped and rubbed with the hand, but boiled in a " lye " or decoction of wood-ashes, beaten with a wooden bat, and rinsed in a running stream. See the description of a "buck-wesh" in Miss Jackson's Shropshire Ward- book {s.v.') \ evidently the same process that was being carried oa in Mrs. Ford's household when FalstafTpatd her his famous viat
I have communicated with Mr. Seligmann on the former point, thinking that the queer combination of sense and superstition which we so of^en find in folk-medicine rendered it worth while to asceruin the facts of the case. He tells me he has tried dropping fragments of (i) completely red-hot and (a) partly- burnt coal into cold water. (2) was slightly sulphureous in taste, and there was evidence of dissolved sulphides, presumably sul- phuretted hydrogen (HgS). (i) gave no traces of H,S or other sulphide. Although HjS kills germs, Mr, Seligmann does not think it would be present in strong enough solution to have the least effect on tainted meat, &c. On metal articles, if present in sufRcient quantities, it could have only a bad effect, nor does be think that minute amounts of H.S would affect a flatulent babe
Correspondence.
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one iray or another. Possibly traces of potash, lime, or magnesia present might be beneficial ; but probably not.
Iron, on being dropped into water, would partially oxidise, but no soluble compound would be formed.
Wood-ashes contain much soluble caustic alkali (potash princi- pally), which would destroy the tissues if applied to them.
Apropos of ashes, Mr. Seligmann adds that he has come across |-one or two out-patients at St. Thomas's Hospital who believed lat cigar-ash mixed with water was profoundly narcotic
Chari.ottk S. Bukne.
King Solomon and the Blacksmith.
{Ante, p. 344.)
I state at once that I know no parallel to this legend in either ' old or modern Oriental literature. It seems, however, to be a complement to another legend, and purposely invented as a set-off against the legend intimately connected with the history of the " Shamir," which has been treated so profoundly by the laie Pro- fessor Paulus Cassel, The gist of this legend is, that in con- formity with the Biblical prescription (Exodus xx. 25: "And if thou wilt make me an altar of stone, thou shall not build it of hewn stone : for thou hast lifted up thy sword [or too/] upon it and thou hast defiled it"), no iron was allowed lo be used by Solomon in the building of the temple. He had therefore re- course to a miraculous plant, or worm, which split stones and thus made it possible 10 erect the building. Evidently, then, the blacksmith had no place and could have no place at the banquet of King Solomon. This legend, then, is the afterthought, in- vented to correct the deficiency of the other, and to bring home to Solomon and the other masters how utterly ibey depended for their tools on the craft of the blacksmith. The original author of this legend must have been well acquainted with the older tale that no iron was used in the building of the temple, but either for the purpose of enhancing the value of his own craft, or because he really did not know of the full Shamir legend (which I am loth to believe, as it is always connected with the other, being, in
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fact, the necessary complement of it), invented this legend for the glorification of the blacksmith. As it stands, the legend has a Western ring about it, and reminds one somewhat of the Free- masons' Solomonic legends, which centre in the figure of the chief builder, Hiram.
M. Gaster.
MOAB OR EdOM?
(Ante, p. 347.)
Miss Weston will undoubtedly be pleased to learn that in die ingenious si^estioa of connecting the two passages, a Kings iiL 27 and Amoa iL i, and considering both as refening to one and the same incident, she has been forestalled by some of the niost famous Jewish commentators of the Bible, such as Abraham ibn Ezra in the twelfth century, David Qimhh in the thirteenth century, and Levi ben Gerson in the fourteenth century. Far from being a mere surmise, therefore, we may consider this identification to have the authority of tradition to back it.
M. Gaster.
Ship Processions. {Ante, p. 307.)
An account of a ship-carrying procession will be found in the Tramtutions of the Devonshire Association, xv,, 104. It appears that the ceremony took place in Plymouth al Corpus Christi in mediaeval limes. At Devonport it was brought from Millbrook on May-day within living memory.
Usener {Die Sintflvtsagen, pp. 116, 126) deals with the ship. It was borne in Dionysiac processions al Smyrna and Athens, and at the Panathenaion ; also in the Carnival procession in Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal {ibid. p. 120); and occasionally in Germany (Pan/er, Beitrag fur d. Myth, ii,, 250; Meier, Drufsche
Correspondence.
Sagen aus ScAwaien, p. 374). I need hardly recall the ship of Nerthus (Mannhardt, IVald. u. Feldkulte, i., 59,1). Other re- ferences will be found in Hahn, Demeter u. Baubo, p. 38 uq.
I
N. W. Thomas,
A " Nabbv " Colt.
{Ante, p. 1,1^.)
1 think this wbrd is correct In this neighbourhood a young
foal of the male sex is often addressed as " Nobby" j whether a
female is too, I am not sure.
^^H M. Peacock.
r The stoi
Earlv-Rising Jest. {Ante, p. 373.)
The story told in the review of Tradiziom Fojiolari Pistoien' occurs (according 10 John Ashton) in *^ England sjestt Rtfin'd and Itnprtn/d" &•€., iS^c {London. Printed for John Harris, at the Harrow \n^e. Poultry. 1695.} "A young lad being chid by his uncle, for lying a Bed so long in a Morning, telling him that such a one had found a Purse of Money by rising early in the Morning : I, says the Lad smartly, but he rose too early that lost
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W. Henry Je'
Dr. Keilberg's Seventieth Birthday.
Since getheiile Freude hi doppelU Freude, I would ask for the insertion in Folk-Lore of the following slightly-abridged transla- tion by Mr. Thornton of the account given in Hpjskokbladtl, 16th August, 1901, of Ur. H. t', l-'eilbcrg's sev<^deth birthday.
^1 :i^< 478 Correspondence.
1,1 i (>_, By this means the communication I have received will interest
i j: many another reader, and will especially gratify those memben of
! ' our Society who, like myself, know Dr. Feilbeig as a lavish giver
: '•! i of his vast learning and his untiring labour for the service of the
humblest student of folklore. One and all will assuredly join in
the congratulations to Dr. Feilbeig on the completion of his great
^; ' work, the Diakct Dictionary of Jutland.
Marian Roauv Cos.
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On behalf of the Council of the Folk-Lore Society^ I desire to associate myself with Miss Roalfe Cox in congratulating our valued member Dr. Feilbeig, who has more than once contributed to the gratification SH the readers of Folk-Lore^ on the pleasant celebration recorded below, and in wishing him many years of continued activity in the promotion of our science.
£. W. Brabrook.
'' The flags waved all over Askov on the 6th of August ; people in their Sunday clothes flocked thither from all around, and every- thing was at its gayest. At eight o'clock in the morning, a deputation from the Church and neighbourhood assembled in Feilberg's garden, where they sang a morning hymn. Knud Pedersen, schoolmaster from Skibelund, then stepped forward and thanked the old pastor for his helpful Church-work, prayed that for a long time to come he might live and work among them, and desired his acceptance of a sum of money as a token of their gratitude. The Principal of the Askov High School being away from home, Jacob Appel, one of the teachers, speaking in his stead, thanked Feilberg for all he had done for the school, and especially because on his retirement from pastoral work he had determined to fix his abode among the teachers, far from the capital and its libraries, so helpful to him in his researches. He also presented a money-gift. Feilberg thanked all gracefully and cordially for the great kindness and affection he had ever met with.
" Professor Otto Jespersen and Decent Axel Olrik had arrived the day before from Copenhagen, to brir* ' eting from the learned folk of the University in the sb ^ Number
of the scientific journal Dania^ issued uid con-
Sodning a sketch of Feilberg's ■ hand-
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writing and a striking portrait. Professor Jespersen has abo brought out a treatise on the teaching of languages, to which is
prefixed the following birthday dedication to Feilberg :
" ' You were young with the young and eager with the eager at the Stockholm meeting of 1886. Permit me now, on the day you complete your seventieth year, to dedicate to you in fuller form the thoughts we then strove for, with hearty thanks for all I owe you ; thanks for your splendid Jutland Dictionary, for your works on common life and common behefs, which we so much enjoy, but most of all for the beaming kindliness which has made every visit to you and every visit from you a red-letter day in my calendar.'
" In the afternoon Feilberg's children and friends met for dinner at his house, when many speeches were made ; and although most of them were of a domestic nature, yet the work of the philologist and folklorist was not forgotten by the Copenhagen scholars. In the course of the afternoon and evening people came flocking in to bring their congratulations, and although Feilberg's house is small his heart is so targe that they all passed a most happy evening. Letters and telegrams, bringing greetings from friends innumerable, kept coming in ; from Slesvig and from all corners of the land ; from mansions in Copenhagen and from huts on the Heath ; from the most learned of the land and from the small peasants of the barren west : all joined in honouring and con gratulating ' den gamle Feilberg.' "
Rainbow Magic
In the late sixties I was a schoolboy in Greysouthen, near Workington, Cumberland. At that time it was a custom amongst my companions, upon the appearance of a rainbow, to pick up two straws, cross them upon a stone, and then by means of a second stone to strike and break them at the middle of the cross. 1 this way the rainbow was supposed to be destroyed, and as it of course, disappeared within a short time of the ceremony had any reason to doubt its efficacy. I distinctly
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I remember that the first time I broke the straw cross I did
with feelings of impious daring such as no doubt Ajax t^d wl he defied the lightning.
Frkdjouc J. Chsshiu
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1. In East Anglia there is an almost universal demand th^it 1 Passing Bell should be tolled either exactly twelve or exac twenty-four hours after the death of a person. Why is this ?
2. It was remarked by the ringers here on Sunday, July 21 that the tenor bell '* roared " to such an extent that ** it drown all the others;" and the clerk gave it as his opinion that soi one in the parish would die in the course of the week. I nei heard anydiing about one particular bell '* roaring " elsewhei but this is an old bell-ringing parish, and superstitions lingi Can you tell me anything about it?
E. Farrkr, F.S.A.
Hinderclay Rectory, Diss.
[i. We need not remind Mr. Farrer that the practice of toUii a bell after death has gradually replaced that of tolling it while tl sick man is in extremis : still less, probably, need we refer him the 67th Canon as the Anglican post-Reformation authority f< the Passing Bell, nor to Ellis's Brand (ii., 202) for details ar records of the custom. But the particular rule he mentions curious, and has not, we think, been noticed before. What reasc do the people themselves give for it ?
2. In several collections of local English folklore (Hendersoi Northern Counties^ P« 5^ > Latham, " West Sussex Sup>erstitions Folklore Record^ i., 51), Mr. Farrer will find it said that a peculii heavy dull sound in the funeral bell is supposed to portend anoth< funeral shortly. This sound (be it real or imaginary) is doubtle what the ringers meant by the term "roaring," and the clerk inte preted it accordingly. The tenor bell, of course, would be the on tolled at a death or funeral. — Ed.]
L'Ann£e SociOLOGiQUK, publiee sous la direction de femile Durkheim, Professeur de Sociologie i la Faculte des Leitres de I'Universit^ de Bordeaux. Quatrieme Ann^e (1899-1900). Paris: Felix Alcan. 1901,
The high standard of learning and criticism set up by Professor Durkheim and his collaborators in the first year's issue otL'Annie Socio/ogigue has been fully maintained, though only one of the " Mdmoires Originaux " comprised in the fourth volume is directly interesting to students of folklore. The subject of sociology is a wide one ; and students of the folklore side have no ground for complaint that other aspects than that in which they are specially interested are also studied here. The second part of the volume contains, among other things, the best annual bibliography of folklore with which I am acquainted; and critical analyses of most of the important books and articles in periodicals are also supplied.
The " M^moire " with which we are immediately concerned is that by M. Bougie on Caste. The author sets himself to inquire, first, whether Caste is a phenomenon peculiar to India, or whether it is universal ; and, secondly, what are the relations between it and analogous social forms, such as the guild, the clan, the class. He begins by citing the Abb^ Dubois, Professor Max Miiller, Mr. W. Crooke, and other authorities who insist on the analogy between Caste and the social institutions and class hatreds of other countries. In opposition to them he sets the opinions of M. Senart and Mr. Risley, for whom Caste is, at least in its developments, purely Indian. To decide between these two views it is necessary to define accurately what is meant by Caste. He decides that Caste is distinguished by three characteristics : mutual repulsion, a hierarchy of class privileges and responsi- bilities, and hereditary specialisation. Mutual repulsion of castes implies that within the caste men are drawn together, and that the caste is endogamous. Hereditary specialisation means that the occupations of the parents descend to the children, and are
VOL. xii. a i
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obligatory upon them. Such occupations entail a certain lanL They entail also on the one hand monopoly, and on the otbei^ obligations towards other Castes and occupations. Status is in- exorably determined from £ather to son by Caste. Heredity if of the essence of the system, and it is impossible to escape from it Caste as thus defined is found only in India. But tins is not to say that there are not elsewhere elements and scattered tniti of it The exclusiveness of classes and coteries in western society, the clergy with their vast claims and close corporate selfishnesi^ the feudal system, all betray in various ways traces of the spirit of Caste. In none of them, however, is the rule of Caste comj^ete. The exclusiveness of classes and coteries is in nowise conseoated by law, and in practice is breached in a thousand places. Oeiiad succession is not perpetuated by heredity. The feudal system was erected not on an original ancestral or social distinction, but on the relation of the individual to the land. This might change. Throughout the Middle Age, when feudalum reigned, it dtid change often. The tendency of the system was not to cut society up into small, compact, mutually repellent, groups ; it was indi- vidualist. Even ancient Egyptian society, which of all known societies bears most resemblance to that created by Caste, does not seem in the light of recent discoveries to be a case of perfect analogy. Hereditary specialisation, if usual, was not absolute; and the social hierarchy was far from being petrified. From early times examples are found of men rising by talents or by favour from one rank of life to another. The king always had it in his power to upset the ordinary course of things. As a rule the transmission of land and of titles was hereditary; but in the feudalism of Egypt, investiture by Pharaoh was an indispensable condition to the status of baron. Pharaoh, by granting lands or appointing to office, could create nobles. Moreover, so far from the history of the Egyptian civilisation revealing that mutual repugnance of classes which has proved the political and social bane of India, nothing is more certain than that Egypt is one of those countries where the administrative organisation most quickly effaced the spontaneous divisions of the population. The necessities of the country demanded a strong central govern- ment, with efficient and cohesive organisation, which could never have been attained under the rule of Caste, and in fact was contrary to its spirit
'm^A
In India, on the other hand, the reign of Caste was opposed neither by a strong monarchy nor by a strong democracy. No- where is there greater speciahsation. Nowhere are the distinctions so wide. Nowhere do they entail so much either of contempt or of respect. Every observer is struck by the fact that the force which animates the entire system is one of repulsion. This it is which maintains the isolation of the different groups. In the eyes of an orthodox Hindu every caste but his own is in a sense impure. It is impossible of course for men of different castes entirely to avoid coming into contact with one another; but there are certain acts which, more than others, imply contamination, that of eating, for example. The scruples in this respect are naturally more lively in the higher castes, but they pervade the whole of Indian society from the top to the bottom. In time of famine, a Sanlal would rather die than touch food prepared by Brahmans. To eat food prohibited by one's caste is to become an outcast. Still higher barriers prevent the intermarriage of caste and caste, in spite of the exceptions introduced by the custom called by Mr. Risley "hypergamy," and by that of the Jdts, noted by Mr. Crooke. J^ts frequently marry girls of low caste. But girls chosen for this purpose are first of all made to pass for maidens of their own stock. This very Action is thus a testimony to the potency of Caste.
Anthropometry shows that in spite of prohibitions the mixture of blood has in fact been very great. Yet it remains true that the separatist tendency is inherent in Indian society ; and the best proof is the multiplicity of the groups into which it is divided. The witness of the sacred books as to the number of castes in antiquity is not to be trusted. Mann declares there are only four castes — Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras ; but there are indications of a much larger number even in those times. An examination of Buddhist and other ancient literature yields the same results. Moreover, of the four castes just named, three have practically disappeared, for the pretensions of the Rajputs, who claim to represent the Kshatriyas, are manifestly false. The Brahmans are the only caste which retains any semblance of continued existence, and even they are divided up into a crowd of castes, all closed one against another. The fact is that the castes have to be reckoned not by the unit but by the thousand.
484
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A long and interesting ailment follows, to show that Caste hi received, not its origin, but its special orientation, from industi] that a number of economic causes, similar to those which product the guild in Mediaeval Europe, have been operating from tin immemorial in India, to unite together all whose occupation m the same. It is pointed out that the guilds were organised like large family with common worship, sacrifices, feasts, and burii The form which they then took was not indeed economic. It «t determined by tradition, and was due to the influence of religia Powerful, however, as was the guild, it never obtained over il members the absolute empire of Caste. If it be impossible t explain all the peculiarities of the guild from economic causa i fortiori it will be impossible thus to explain all the peculiaritie of the caste system. The survivals of family religion, not di exigencies of industry, are responsible for the features of resecB biance between the guild and the caste. The ^ild was organise) like a family, or rather perhaps like a clan. But it was neve pretended that its members, though they regarded one anothe as brethren, were literally akin. The caste, on the other band is founded on the clan. Not that the members are in realit] consanguine. According to primitive ideas actual consanguiniti is not necessary to kinship. It often seems to be derived &oa union in one cult, from simple identity of name, or even fron dwelling together in one place. All that is necessary is the senti roent of relationship. It is on this sentiment of relationship, anc not on actual blood-kinship, that the caste is founded.
The weak spot in the theory which derives the caste from dn clan is, that the caste is endogamous while the clan is usuall] exogamous. M. Bougie is conscious of the difEculty, and be endeavours to meet it by arguing that, stricdy speaking, it is the family only that is exogamous. The gens, like the gotra of India, is exogamous. But the caste is an assemblage of gotras, as the clan and the tribe are an assemblage of several families or gcnta. They are thus endogamous, while the families, the gotras are exogamous. This is a question to some extent of terminology. But M. Bougie seems not to have a very clear notion of clan- organisation, or of the very wide differences of custom in respect to marriage characteristic of savages, even within comparativelv limited districts. And he expressly declines to determine whether the true germ of the clan is to be found in the clan or in th«
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tribe, on the ground that the dififerent types of primitive society are not yet clearly enough defined for this purpose. The main point is, he says, that the caste is animated by the spirit of these primitive (by which he means savage) societies, and that the religious scruples and the taboos of all sorts which lead these savage societies to repel one another, explain, in a natural manner, such customs as operate to-day in India to isolate the castes.
The domination of archaic exclusiveness may thus prevent the castes from minghng and producing a firmly welded society : il does not explain the hierarchy of castes. The chief riddle after ail is, why the Brahmans are at the top? Nor is it a difficult riddle to read. Given the hereditary priest, given the preter- natural seriousness with which he takes himself, as all priests do, and the exaggerated and, according to our view, topsy-turvy value he sets on ceremonial purity, given savage ideas on the nature of sacrifice and the qualities of the oflSciant, leading to an elatioration of rite surpassing that of most other peoples— given all these, and the wonder would be if, among an ignorant people largely preoccupied with religious matters, the Brahman did «o/ " come out on top."
The rule of Caste, as thus defined by M. Bougie, bears all its fruit only in India. Its roots, however, are to be found in savage society everywhere. When society attains a certain degree of civilisation. Caste begins to bud. But everywhere else than in India various causes have combined Co stunt its development and to cause its decay. India alone has sufTered a sort of arrested sociological development. What has elsewhere dissolved she has ossified. Where other peoples have unified, mobiUsed, levelled, she has continued to divide, to specialise, to hierarchise. To what concourse of circumstances this special direction of Hindu civilisation is due, what influences, ethnic or telluric, and what historical occurrences, have determined this social evolution, the author does not venture to say. Science has as yet no answer for these questions.
M. Bougie's is thus a very interesting article. It is lucid and judicial, and if not so important as some of its predecessors, it will help to clear the minds of students and prepare the way for further inquiries.
E. Sidney Hartland.
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The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac, By Jessie L, Wesios.
(Grimm Library, vol. xii.) D- Nutt. 1901.
The able study of the Gawain legend which appeared 3 ft* years ago from the pen of Miss Weston, should insure among ail interested in Arthurian criticism an eager welcome for the present volume, in which the author has made bold to attack what is, alike from its intrinsically complex nature and from the coroparatin inaccessibility of some of the texts, perhaps the most fonnidabk of the branches of Arthurian romance. The present study miy at once and unhesitatingly be pronounced fully worthy of llw wide knowledge and sound critical instinct of its author, and Ihe results attained are none the less important from the fact tbal they are necessarily in many cases of a tentative character. Tliil on certain points it is impossible to speak with any attempt ax finality Miss Weston fully recognises. "Until a critical text [d the Lancelot] based on a comparison of all the available veraions is in our hands, it will be quite impossible to do more than form a tentative hypothesis, or advance a guarded suggestion as to ike gradual growth and formation of the completed legend." This is alike modest and critically sound, and it would be an admirable thing were writers on the Arthurian romances generally to adopt an equally guarded attitude. But if in the very nature of the case it is impossible to arrive at results which shall have the quality of finality, there is yet room for good work in the way of cl^uing the ground and presenting in orderly form such evidence as is at present available, and much good work of this nature will be found in Miss Weston's book.
It is impossible here to do more than pass in review the general results, and call attention to a few points which appear for one reason or another to possess particular importance. In the course of doing so I shall, however, I believe, be able to bring to bear on the question of the relation of the texts of the prose Latue/ot some items of evidence which have somewhat unaccountably escaped the attention of the author.
The extant literature dealing with Lancelot may be roughly divided into two classes : on the one hand the vast compilation known as the prose Lancelot, consisting of the two parts of the Lancelot proper, the Queste and the Mart Artur; on the other, various smaller romances or independent laii which sometimes
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present a very different legend from that of the great cycHc com- pilation. Of these two divisions, the former may be held to be of demonstrably late origin, the distinctive features being unknown to earher Arthurian tradition ; though it is probable that some of the other cyclic romances, such as the Merlin and the Grand S, Graal, have been at least worked over with a view to making them agree with the Lancelot. The independent romances offer a rather more hopeful field of investigation as regards the original legend, though the inquiry still presents very considerable diffi- culties.
The first romance examined by Miss Weston is the Lanseki of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, a work the exact date of which it is im- possible to fix, but which probably belongs to the opening years of the thirteenth century, and is consequently later than Chrestien de Troyes. It is, however, highly probable, if not exactly provable, that the tradition represented Is as a whole earlier than that of any other romance dealing with the hero, since the story of his liaison with Guenevere, which later obtained such universal popularity, is wholly unknown. The poem contains the enfances of the hero in a primitive though probably not original form, followed by a variety of adventures relating to his later life which in all probabihty represent the working over of a number of independent lais so as to form something of a biographical romance. It is very doubtful whether any of these lais were originally connected with Lancelot at all ; in any case they form a highly incongruous whole, and involve the preposterous supposition that the hero was at least three, probably four, times married, one of the ceremonies taking place after his union with the lady who retains the position of wife at the end of the poem. The portion dealing with the enfances is important, since Miss Weston adduces strong reasons for supposing that in it we find the real aboriginal germ of the Lancelot legend. Throughout Arthurian tradition— and unlike other legends, we have no literary remains of the Lancelot legend in the stage before it became connected with the court of Arthur — Lancelot remains Lancelot du Lac. It is the one attribute which never varies, and the one feature common to all versions of the enfances is his residence in the kingdom of the mysterious Lady of the Lake, In Ulrich'g poem the lady is represented as a water fairy (mer-feine\ and her domain is the land of maidens, the Maide-lani. This has the appearance of an original or at least a primitive trait, but the
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character of the Lady of the Lake is perhaps the most punling of the whole cycle, and the probability of the influence of Gawain^ Castle of Maidens warns the critic to be careful. In its origis there is a good reason to believe that the land in question was an other-world kingdom, and Miss Weston puts forward the su^esdoa that Lancelot may in the first instance have been the Jover of in queen, a connection which, supposing its existence and surrival^ may have recommended him to fill the rdU of lover to Gueneveie. One of the later portions of the poem relates how, when a certain King Valerin or Falerin lays claim to Guenevere, he is challenged and defeated by Lanzelet ; when, however, he afterwards cairia off the queen, Lanzelet is by no means particularly instrumental in recovering her ; unless indeed one could identify the mysterioiB Malduz, the magician who helps to that end, with the otha magician M4bQz, the son of the Lady of the Lake, whom Lanzelot had previously benefited. This incident has an obvious likenesi to the Meleaganl adventure, though the similarity with that related in the Tristan {a character known to Ulrich) bids us again beware how we consider it as in any way particularly connected with Lancelot. On the other hand, it is rather difficult altogether to agree with Miss Weston, who in her anxiety to show that Ulrich knew nothing of the distinctive liaison molt/, endeavours to minimise Lanzelet's share in the rescue.
The next romance lo be examined is an episode, only known as occurring in the Dutch Lancelot, but which there can be little doubt represents some French lai of an episodic character. Miss Weston calls it the Cerf au pied blanc, and points out that in it we find the thoroughly ' Arthurised' form of the well-known ltd of Tyolet, which she regards with great plausibility as a transforma- tion legend ; while the special form which the adventure assumes involves the widely-diffused ' False Claimant' motif, which is well known from the Tristan, and actually occurs a second time in the Dutch compilation, namely in the Morien adventure. In any case the Cerf au fiieJ ilanc represenis a late and debased version and the existence of the iii enables us to state definitely what we might in any case have surmised with probability, namely, that the adventure cannot have formed any part of the original L^celot tradition.
Next comes Chrestien de Troyes and his Chevalier de la Charrettt, the earliest text which knows anything of the love ol
r hero for the wife of his lord. The manner in which this ; is regarded will depend largely upon the view taken of Chcestien's methods of authorship generally ; and in the fifth chapter Miss Weston descends into the arena of controversial criticism on the question of the relation of that writer's work to his sources, and attacks the theory advocated by Chrestien's most recent editor. Professor Foerster; a theory which has met with a good deal of favour among German scholars, namely that which would regard Chrestien as largely an original author and place the genesis of the romantic as opposed to the historical Arthurian tradition on continental ground. Miss Weston enters into a care- ful examination of the evidence of names and places with respect to the light they throw upon the locality of cristalisation, and endeavours to show the impossibility of regarding Chrestien's work as original, owing to the marked folklore features it con- tains ; a line of invesUgation which has only recently been applied to the legends, and which promises some interesting results. A good deal of clear logic, too, is brought to bear on some of the arguments of the advocates of the 'continental* theory, in par- ticular Professor Foerster's ; with a total result that a very fair case is made out for the insular origin of most of the romances refashioned by the French poet.
We now pass to the great prose Lance/of. As already stated, Miss Weston points out that a thorough investigation of the legend is impossible until the Herculean task of preparing a critical edition of this compilation, involving the comparison of innumerable and widely-scattered MSS. and printed editions, has been undertaken and brought to a satisfactory conclusion. At present it is only possible to treat detached sections of the story, and these only tentatively — a general criticism is out of the ques- tion. The tn/ances, the Guenevere iiaison, and the Grail adventure, are the points chosen for special study by Miss Weston. The second of these possesses the most general interest, and is dealt with in a singularly able chapter. The following points seem established as surely as the nature of the evidence available in such cases admits. In the first place, the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere form part neither of the original Arthur nor the original Lancelot legends. Secondly, Lancelot does not, as Miss Weston in her earlier work supposed, take over the rile previously belonging to Mordred. Thirdly, the story appears to have been
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introduced in accordance with the taste of contemporary coffll' life, and to have been developed under the influence irf d» popular Tristiam legend, which in its turn was influenced b; tie Latuehl. The chief difficulty is to find any reason for LanceW; being selected for the post of lover, and on this point it is oalf possible to offer a more or less plausible conjecture.
Leaving on one side the Melwas-Meleagant abduction episode, rightly regarded as an other-world rescue tale. Miss Weston oW the following sequence among Guenevere's lovers. Original lon( Gawain, replaced by Mordred, probably created for the piupwl when the position was regarded as inconsistent with Gawain'sbi^ reputation as a knight. Later, the queen is represented as repulRBg' the advances of Mordred, her character undergoing the ^i" process of clearing as Gawain's. Lastly comes the introduction fl( the Lancelot motif, due to social conditions, and to the popuiari^ of the Tristan. Miss Weston also suggests that to the into- mediate whitewashing stage belongs the introduction of ihU- mysterious character, the ' false Guenevere,' but the evidence available is of far too scanty a nature to allow of much importaw* being attached to the suggestion. With regard to the position ascribed to Gawain, it also behoves us to be cautious. He ii essentially a folklore character, and it is quite possible that 1* may represent a Cuchulinn-Diarraid-Conlaoch hero, and as sudi belong to the family of the Arician priest ; but even if the two characters are not exactly incompatible, it is not very easy to see how this would come to be combined with the position of sua hero ascribed to him in Miss Weston's former study.
We pass on to the very intricate subject of Quests redactions and at once find ourselves in a maze of hypothesis — -for the mosl part, it must be admitted, not of Miss Weston's devising. Ttx general transition from a Perceval to a Galahad Queste has o course been long recognised, but the present author brine forward strong reasons for supposing the existence of a Percev^ Lancelot Queste intermediate between the two. One point oi which Miss Weston very rightly insists is the absolute futility o the Galahad Quest, qua quest, and consequently the necessity o regarding it as a mere branch of the legend of Lancelot, for whos( glorification alone it was composed. It can only have existed ii the cyclic form, although its aggressively conventual tone stampi it as the work of a different hand from the Lancelot proper ant the Mori Arlur.
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The remainder of the volume is devoted to a detailed compari- son of the various versions of the great cyclic romance of Lancelot, including as it does nearly the whole of the later history of Arthur and the Round Table. This is important as being the first attempt at a scientific examination of the legend ; and the resuhs being of a less hypothetical character than those of the other portions of the volume, they deserve somewhat closer consideration in this place. The basis of comparison is afforded by the following texts : first, the Dutch Lancelot, an analysis of which is also given in the appendix (referred to as D. L.) ; secondly, the Lenoire edition printed at Paris in 1533, presen'ed in the Bodleian, and unknown to Dr. Sommer (referred to as 1533) i thirdly, Dr. Sommer's analysis of the prose Lancelot founded on the edition of 1513, said by him to correspond with the versions contained in the twelve MSS. and two other printed editions in the British Museum, and compared with Malory's text in the third volume of his edition of the Aforle d' Arthur (S.) ; fourthly, the Quale edited by Dr. Furnival for the Roxburghe Club from MS. Royal 14 E iii. (Q.); fifthly, Malory's Morte iT Arthur (M.); and sixthly, the Welsh Quesle in the Rev. R. Williams' translation (W.),
At the outset Miss Weston announces what she conceives to be the result attained by this comparison. "The point I desire to prove is that the versions D. L. and 1533 represent a text radically different from that consulted by Dr. Sommer, and that, in con- junction with Malory, they may be held to represent a family of MSS. hitherto unregarded or unsuspected." Thus it appears that the only knowledge Miss Weston possesses of the text represented by Dr. Sommer's analysis, and from which, according to him, the twelve Museum MSS. and other printed editions differ in "details of style and phraseology " only, is derived from the Doctor's ana- lysis itself. However, a few pages further on Miss Weston writes, " I assume throughout that Dr. Sommer's summary correctly represents his text, but I admit that I have my doubts on this point ; certainly in the Quesle section he gives some most mis- taken readings." One would have thought that under the circum- stances Miss Weston would have found it worth while to check Dr. Sommer's analysis by a few test -references to such an acces- sible work as the 1513 Laneelol; had she done so the result might well have surprised her. What is the position as represented by her comparison ? We find, as above stated, a general agreement between D. L., 1533, and M., as against the twelve MSS. and
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three printed editions in the British Museum examined by Dr. Sommer. Now, that a version, or more properly a type, of VboX of such wide diffusion as to underiie three texts in tluee diflerent languages, between which there is no external hint of comtectkn and each of which introduces matter not found in the other two— that such a version should be represented by no sis^gle textamoQg the fifteen preserved at the Museum is in itself all but an imponi- bility, and should have at once aroused suspicion. Having had experience for my own part of the singular blunders ci which Dc Sommer was capable in critical work unconnected with Arthurian romance, I determined to consult some of the editions and MSS. which he claimed to have examined, and very soon became con- vinced that for purposes of comparison his analj^sis was worse than useless. Here, in the first place, are a few of the resolti obtained by bringing that analysis alongside of his original of 1 5 13. It must be understood that the comparison was only made as r^ards certain test points; the results obtained show that further comparison would be waste of time, the whole work requires doing afresh. Thus at the top of page 181 of Dr. Sommer's Studies we read of *' forty * glaives,' forty-^five shieldsi and five spears." Miss Weston notes (p. 152) that D. L. speaks of " Ix. (? xl.) shields and helmets and xl. swords ", 1 533 of " forty- five helmets, forty-five swords, and more than forty>five shields." Malory merely mentions "many fayre sheldes." Now will any serious reader believe me when I say that the text of 15 13, that which Dr. Sommer is supposed to be representing, reads " plus de quarante et cinq glaiues & plus de quarate & cinq escus et plus de quarante & cinq heaulmes & quarate et cinq espees"? Again (p. 153), Miss Weston points out that both D. L. and 1533 differ from S. (p. 183) in saying that it was the Queen and not the King of Sorestan who had seized the lands of the daughter of the Duke of Rochedon. Here again Dr. Sommer has mis- represented his original, which distinctly speaks of the queen. On p. 154 Miss Weston remarks that when Lancelot and his com- panions separate in search of Hector and Lionel there were seven knights in the company and not six as S. represents. This is true; but here, however, Dr. Sommer is merely following the 15 13 text which says *six.* On p. 187 of the Studies^ on the other hand, Dr. Sommer asserts that the 15 13 text agrees with Malory in saying that Lancelot h- irse rides off on that
of Gaheret after the slaying of Turquyne. This is incorrectj 1513 agrees with D. L. and 1533 as against M., in making Lancelot ride off on his own horse, no mention being made of Gaheret's. Again, on the same page Dr. Sommer's analysis is, as Miss Weston sus- pects {p. 154), a "hasty summary which does not represent the text." S. has, "the knights exchange Terriquen's castle for horses, though not very good ones." Here D. L. evidently has an abridged version which may be left out of account. 1533 " says that ' Keux du Pare " has a ' brother ' prisoner : delighted at his safety he gives them all horses, very good to Arthur's knights, not so good to the others. Out of gratitude they offer him the castle." This really agrees with 1513, in which 'Ireu (an evident misprint for Keu) du pare,' whose brother had been prisoner " si fist venir a chascun cheualier ung cheual de la maison du roy artus bon & fort & donna aux aultres des cheuaulx, mais ilz nestoyent point si tres bons," after which Arthur's knights give him the castle in guerdon. Slightly different is the text presented by MS. Royal 19 C xiii. : "si fist uenir a ceaus qui esloient de la meson lo roi artur cheuax & armes & il li doiient p 16 coniun conteil ceu chastel en geredon de ceu seruise qui estoit beaus & forz." The reading of this MS. is very interesting in another way. The ' Keux du Pare ' appears in D. L. as ' Die grave van den Pale,' and Miss Weston conjectures that in Keux we should see some equivalent to grave ( = count). Now this MS. verifies her conjecture and puts the matter beyond doubt by reading "li qns {i.e. quens) deu pare" It may be mentioned incidentally that Dr. Somraer finding himself confronted by the obviously corrupt Ireu of 1513, omitted all mention of the name.
To pass lo another section of the work, namely, the Mnri Artur. On p. 223 of the Studies, Dr. Sommer says that at the tournament at Winchester " The people think the two knights cannot be the sons of the lord of the castle of ' escalol.'" Miss Weston (p. 195) remarks that in D. L. and 1533 it is Gawain who doubts. With this agree both 1513 and MS. Royal 14 E iii., the magnificent illu- minated MS, (ihe Quest section of which was edited by Dr. Fur- ni\'al), of which the Mort Artur section is unfortunately imperfect. Lower down on the same page S, says that Gawain meets a wounded knight: 1513, however, describes the knight as "mort nouuelle- ment," which agrees with 1533. With regard to the words of Arthur a few hnes later, " it was not the first time he took trouble
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without result,** Miss Weston points out that 1533 >^d D. L. add "through that knighf The text of 1513 reads, ^'pas k pre- miere peine que vous en auez eue,** which comes to die «"m^ thing. On p. 228 of the Studies occurs an important passage concerning the manner in which Lancelot hears of Guenevere^ danger from Madoc de la Porte. According to S., Lancdot meets a knight who informs him of the situation. ^ A daj after this conversation Lancelot meets Hector by chance, and xefcab his intention of going to Kamalof This is pure fictioo 00 Dr. Sommer's part The edition of 15 13 has *'et quant k cheualier fust eslognie de luy il regarde entrauers et vit uenir ung cheualier arme et lancelot la deuisa congneut tantost que cestdt j i hector du maris son frere ; " it is also Hector, not Lancelot, who
*' reveals his intention of going to Kamalot" With I5r3 and 1533 agrees MS. Add. 17443- MS. Royal 14 E iii. on the other hand says, '* mais il not gaires cheuauchie qnt il en contra booit et hestor. &. ii. escuiers auoec eus." They tell him the news and he says he already knows it. This agrees with D. L. as sum- marised by Miss Weston (p. 198) ; a noteworthy point, considering the general agreement reported between 1533 and D. L. as against the Quest section of the MS. edited by Dr. FumivaL On p. 255 of the Studies occurs, however, the most astounding and damning of Dr. Sommer's blunders. He here makes Lancelot send mes- sengers to King Ban of Benoyc. As Miss Weston points out (p. 200), King Ban (Lancelot's father) had died long before, and D. L. and 1533 have "the barons of Benoyc" By this time it may not surprise readers to learn that the edition of 151 3 (that, remember, summarised by Dr. Sommer), reads "Quat lancelot entendit ces nouuelles il print ung messaige et enuoya au royaulme de benoic & manda a ses barons que lis gamissent les chasteaulx," Ccc. ! With this, MS. Royal 14 E iii. agrees, and breaks off abruptly a few columns further on. Is it necessar}- to quote further instances ? I will only refer to one or two more particularly blatant errors. On page 256, at the bottom. S. asserts that 1513 agrees with M. in making Boors ovenhrow Arthur. It does nothing of the kind : it agrees with 1533 and P. I-. in ascribing the feat to Hector. Finally, on the opposite page, S. makes •Ector* offer to tight Gawain, vhile 1513 again agrees m-i:h the o;h** >qs in ascribing the
challence to Boors *
This then is the famed German Criticism, this is the kind of investigation on which other critics, such as Professor Foerster, possessed of no first-hand knowledge, rely, when they announce that " Der iiberall seine Quellen und zwar nur seine Quellen und obendrein noch treu wiedergebende Malory ist ein Phantasie- geschopf der Walliser und Englander " ! German scholarship has an honoured name the world over ; how many of its followers of to-day, one begins to wonder, are going to make it their life's work to trail that name in the dust P
The result of the inquiry has so far been to make the divei^ence between the texts of 1513 and 1533 far less than Miss Weston, relying on Dr. Sommer's analysis, was led to believe. It must not, however, be supposed that the divergence does not exist, or even that it is of minor importance. For instance, the note in 1533 recorded by Miss Weston {p. 160), "Ainsi prend fin le premier volume," &c., finds no parallel ai this point in 1513, while in the account of Elayne's leaving the court (Sommer, p. 196; Weston, p. 161) 1513 and M, agree in making Arthur escort her, as against D. L. and 1533, in which he does not, and which latter at this point apparently have the support of MS. Royal 19 C xiii.
Nor must it be supposed that the various MSS. agree in any constant or consistent manner with either of the printed texts. There are twelve MSS. in the British Museum which represent either the whole or parts of the 1513 text. Of these Dr. Sommer gives a table showing the correspondences, which he is careful to inform us was set up in type from the original drawn by himself. This is well, and the result is useful, only he might certainly have drawn it with greater care. Thus in the numbers of the various books of Malory given at the top of the table, " Book xviii." is apparently a misprint for " Book xix ; " Book xi,, chapters 1-3, should be inserted between the two portions of Book vi. to correspond to folios 313-315 {1513. vol. ii., folios 105-107), as appears from page 190 (note) of the Studies; MS. Royal 14 E iii. should be marked as breaking off in the middle of the Mart Ariur, and the dotted lines between volumes i. and ii. of the 1513 edition should be drawn atfoHo so8, not about folio 195,
I do not pretend to have examined all these MSS., but one or two points will make it clear what may be expected from a careful comparison. It will be noticed that there are twO MSS., Royal
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14 E iiL and Add. i7443» which correspond to tbe Qmst and Aforf only. These appear to agree closely togetber, and I hue already quoted readuigs from them. I will only add here tint they usually agree with 1513 and 1533 in points where D. L dififersy and also against M., as where (Sommer, p. 230) thej and 1 5 13 give Guenevere forty days' respite against M^'s fifteen. In MS. Add. 17443, however, there is an interesting vaiiation» the exact bearing of which I leave to more expert students than mysdf to determine. Dr. Sommer notes on p. 209, that in 1513 thcxe is a contradiction, Galahad being spoken of as the son of ** la fiHe le roy pescheoure " and '* la fille au roi pelles " within the compas of a few lines. The MS. in question reads " la fiUe au riche roi pescheor" in do^ cases, which, however, is such nn obvious i correction that it by no means makes it certain that the printed
text is not really the more original.
A yet more interesting MS. is Royal 19 C xiii., which covers die whole of the prose Lancelot text, though in parts it appears to offer a very condensed version. Thus when Lancelot leaves die castle of Turquyne, according to 15 13 and 1533, "si virent venir troi varletz qui amenoiSt trois sommiers chai^gez de venoison," while M. and D. L. agree in speaking of ''a foster with four horses lade with fatte veneson." Here the MS. merely says, *' si uoiet uenir .11. roncins chargez de uenoison." Again, when Arthur announces the tournament at Winchester, (Sommer, p. 195), the MS. makes no mention of the news spreading to Scotland, Ire- land, &c., though a few lines further down it clears up a confusion in M. We there read how Elayne took with her twenty knights and ten ladies "to the nombre of an hondred horses," while 1 5 13 merely speaks of ladies and damsels to the number of eighty. The MS. is unfortunately a very difficult one to read, but it cer- tainly adds "& seriSz (/>. serjants) asez," together with some hieroglyphics which I interpret to mean "et c. cheuaux." Later on (Sommer, p. 201, Weston, p. 163) we find the MS. agreeing with D. L. and M. as against 15 13 and 1533 in making Lancelot strike the shield as if ten and not twelve knights did it, and further down on the same page of the Studies, where D. L. differs from 15 13 and 1533 in representing Lancelot as chained by the ankles and not feet and hands, the MS. speaks of " petiz aneaul es jambes " only.
Thus it appears that the theory of the opposing groups of D. L.
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1 533, :ind M. on the one hand, and all the B. M. texts on the other, is a pure phantasm, the result of imperfect comparison and careless analysis on Dr. Sommer's part. My own impression is that the MSS. and printed editions alike are full of the most puzzling cross links which it will take a vast deal of labour and care to unravel.
So far then as concerns the acceptance of the results arrived at by Miss Weston in the ninth and eleventh chapters of her study (for the tenth she luckily had Dr. Fumival's edition of the Qmste), caution will be needed. Of her work as a whole, as a piece of patient, careful, and honest investigation, it is not easy to speak too highly, and such is the value of these qualifications in all literary inquiry, that it is impossible not to regret that the author should have allowed herself to be misled in an important section of her work, when a very few hours spent in examining the British Museum texts would have revealed to her the true character and value of Dr. Sommer's analysis.
Walter W. Greg.
Stories OF the High-priests of Memphis. ByF. LL Griffith. Oxford L Clarendon Press, igao.
Mr. Griffith's handsomely got-up book will interest two classes of readers. One is the philologist, the other is the folklorist. For the one, there are the best translations yet produced of two demotic Egyptian texts ; for the other, fragments of the ancient folklore of Egypt. Both " stories " relate to Setne Khamuas, the priestly son of Ramses II., whose later fame rested on his sup- posed magical knowledge and powers. The first of them is con- tained i[i a papyrus which was first edited and translated by Brugsch, the second is written on the back of two Greek docu- ments which are dated in the seventh year of the Emperor Claudius (a.d. 46-47), and has not been published before.
The first tale describes the efforts of Khamuas to get possession of a magic book which gave the owner power over the whole universe. It had been written by Thoth himself, and had been stolen from its original resting-place by a certain Ne-nefet-ka- Ptah, the son of an early Pharaoh, who had In consequence been drowned in the Nile along with his wife Ahure and only child.
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The ghost of Ahure endeavours to dissuade Khiimuas from fgj lowing the example of her husband by relating his disastrous lal^ All was in vain, however, and Khamuas succeeded in identifyiq and entering the tomb of Ne-nefer-ka-Ptah ; but the ghost of dl latter refused to give up the book unless Khamuas won it froB hicn at a game of draughts. But so far from doing this, Khamita lost game after game and found himself in consequence sinkiq into the ground " up to his ears." From this perilous ^tuatid he was rescued by his brother, who brought him the " amulets < Piah " and his books of m^ic.
After this Khamuas carried away his prize in triumph. But terrible misfortune soon overtook him. The ghost of Ne-netH ka-Ptah assumed the form of a beautiful girl with whom Khamiil fell in love. At her bidding he gave her all his possessions an put his children to death. Then suddenly she vanished, an behold, it was all a dream. But Khamuas was lying naked 0 the ground in the presence of Pharaoh and his court.
The second tale records how "Setme" Khamuas had a so whom he called Si-Osiri (" the son of Osiris "). The son g« rapidly in wisdom and the knowledge of magic. When he « still but a child he transported his father to Hades in order thi he might see there the rich and the wicked tormented, while t virtuous poor were rewarded for their deeds.
When Si-Osiri was twelve years old he was wiser than the wise of the scribes. Then there arrived an Ethiopian magician wil the object of humbling Egypt. Si-Osiri, however, read the wridi that was within his unopened letter, which described the contei in magic that had been carried on in old days between the ma) cians of Egypt and Ethiopia. Of the three Ethiopian magidai the most formidable had been " Hor the son of the N^ires But he was defeated by the Egyptian Hor the son of Pa-nesh when the final struggle took place between them in the presen< of the Pharaoh, and among other miracles the Ethiopian hj caused a thick darkness to overspread the land. Eventuai " Hor the son of the Negress " engaged not to come again Egypt for 1,500 years.
The fifteen hundred years were now fulfilled, and the Ethiopii messenger was " the son of the Negress " himself. As soon his real character was unmasked he was destroyed by magi( fire, and then Si-Osiri revealed himself as a re-incarnation of H
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the son of Pa-neshe, who had been allowed by Osiris to return to this earth in order to overthrow the designs of the Ethiopian enemy. The revelation having been made, Si-Osiri disappeared from view and went back once more to Hades.
Seme or Setme is a priestly title, the old Egyptian Sem, and Mr. Griffith suggests that we may see in it the name of SethBs, who, according to Herodotus, defeated the army of Sennacherib with the help of the mice. If, however, we are to identify Sethos with a prince of the 19th dynasty, it would be simpler to make him Seli, the feeble grandson of Ramses II. More attract- ive are the parallelisms that have been pointed out between certain incidents in the story of Si-Osiri and passages in the Old and New Testaments. The account of the rich and the poor man and their respective fates in the next world curiously resembles the parable of Dives and Lazarus, and the contest between Si-Osiri and the Ethiopian sorcerers reminds us of that between Moses and the Egyptian magicians. We know from the reference to Jannes and Jambres in t Tim. iii. 8, g that a similar story must have been current among the Jews before the time of St. Paul Thai the Hebrew narrative of the Exodus was not unknown to the writer of the Egyptian tale is clear, not only from the men- tion of the plague of darkness which was brought upon Egypt by the sorceries of the Ethiopian, but still more from the words put into the mouth of Si-Osiri : " Ho, ihou impious Ethiopian, art thou not Hor the son of the Negress whom I saved in the reeds (?) of Ra, as well as thy companion of Ethiopia that was with thee, when ye were drowning in the water, being cast down from upon the hill on the east of On ? " Long before the reign of the Emperor Claudius a large popularion of Jews had settled in Egypt, some of ihem being established as far south as Assuan, and the Greek language which they used enabled any educated Egyptian who chose to become acquainted with their literature. It is generally recognised that the parable of Dives and Lazarus is derived from Jewish sources. As for the assertion that when Si-Osiri was twelve years of age his wisdom already exceeded that of the most learned scribes, little can be inferred from it. Twelve is the age at which the Oriental boy begins to ripen into manhood, and it is therefore the period of life at which he would natm^ly be con- sidered first fit to associate and argue with older men. The doctrine of re-incarnation was probably derived from India ; it 2 K a
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differs essentially from the old Egyptian belief in the power of soul, or indeed of the magician himself^ to assume other foi Re-birth was an Indian and not an Egyptian idea.
A. H. SAva
De diis in locis editis cultis apud GitiBoos. CtrnpuxQ Albers. Zutphanis, W. J. Thieme & Cie., 1901.
Like Dr. de Visser, whose thesis on the Greek gods having oti forms than human was noticed in these pages a few months j^ £>r. Albers has recognised the validity of the anthropologi method of approaching questions relating to mythology a religion, and has chosen for his thesis for the d^^ree of doctc similar subject. The custom of worshipping in high placei very widespread. Dr. von Andrian in his woric, jDer Hokemau Asiatischer und Europaischer Vblker^ treated of the cult of h places among many peoples, but he unaccountably neglected am< European peoples the Greeks and Romans. Though Beer af wards attempted to fill the gap thus left, he did so in a perfiinct manner. Dr. Albers, therefore, found the material practia untouched, and he determined to devote his inquiries to Greek divinities, using the Roman customs merely by way illustration. In a few words, before plunging into his dieme, repudiates the interpretation of the myths as humanisations of story of the heavens, of day and night, summer and wint tempest and sunshine, and the narrow school of Indo-Germa scholars who wielded the philological method ; a method whi as he notes incidentally, is still in favour in Germany. Dr. Alb< however, avows himself a disciple of the school founded England by Professor Tylor, and now slowly but surely extendi its influence over the rest of the learned world, the school t) seeks to reach the origin and meaning of myths by the histori and comparative method, not divorcing mythology from worsh nor custom from belief and story, but bringing them side by si in order to ascertain what light every one of these can throw up the others.
Guided by the principles of the anthropological school, ] Albers passes in review the references in classical authors and 1
Reviews. 501
inscriptions exhibiting the cult of the various Greek divinities
practised on mountain-tops or declivities, or other high places. From this inquiry references to gods having temples in the citadels of the Greek cities are excluded, for the obvious reason that the citadel was simply the safest and most conspicuous position for the temple of a great deity, and therefore was not of necessity chosen as the site of his shrine on account of its height. In the course of the examination many shrewd observations are made. The uncertainty of the identity of Mount Olympus is ingeniously made an argument to prove that the worship of a god who was held to rule the world from some mountain height was very wide- spread among the Greek peoples. The god named Zeus absorbed the cult of all other such gods and effaced the memory of most of them, but probably each locality had originally ils own high divinity. In a similar spirit the author deals with the Arcadian worship of Arlemis and other goddesses identified with her. Arcadia was the most backward country of Greece. And it is there that we find the worship of Artemis most firmly established in high places, with every mark of barbarism and antiquity.
From his collection of examples Dr. Albers concludes that the Greeks worshipped from immemorial time on high places, that such worship was chiefly dedicated to gods thought to dwell in heaven, and that it was not derived from Semitic or other foreign intercourse, but was indigenous. For the last-named of these conclusions he also adduces the authority of Mr, Lang. The original god worshipped in many of the shrines can, he thinks, be identified. Many monasteries throughout Greece dedicated to the prophet Elias are found on the mountain-lops or ridges. Of these a large number occupy the sites of shrines of Zeus. Some of the sites, however, were dedicated to the Sun, 'nx<oi. That dedication, indeed, is known to have been in many cases super- seded by Zeus, or other divinities, as in the case of Acrocorinth, by Aphrodite. Dr. Albers adopts Wachsmuth's conjecture, which is now generally accepted, that St. Elias was substituted by Chris- tianity for Helios as an object of adoration ; and he is of opinion that wherever a shrine of St. Elias is found occupying a site once sacred to some other god than Helios, we may suspect an original dedication to the Sun. The cult of Hebos, he thinks, probably lingered on among the country people in spite of the supersession of his place by Zeus or any Other deity, and when in the decline
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of paganism the splendour of these great official gods hcgpn 1 wane, the pristine worship revived, to be finally merged or meta morphosed into the new cult of St Elias. It seems to me, howeve that this hypothesis will have to be considered in connectioD wit the Russian cult of St Elias. The Russians, of course, receive the saint with Byzantine Christianity, and his cult is now ver widespread. But the old Slavonic god, whose attributes a» legends have been transferred to St Elias, was Perun or Peikima In such a case there could have been no similarity of name t facilitate the supersession. And it may very well have been tbi in many Greek examples the change took place without any sud aid.
Dr. Albers has done excellent service to students by his con pilation of references and by his comments upon them. Woik like those of Dr. de Visser and himself are to be welcomed a evidence that the influence of the philological school of mytholog is giving away among continental scholars to a more truly sdentxfi method.
E. SmNSY Hartland.
Fables and Folktales from an Eastern Forest. By W. Skeat. Cambridge University Press. 7 s. 6d.
The Folklore Society knows that Mr. Skeat has recently returnee from an exploring expedition in the Malay States. He and hi company have brought with them, we understand, large collection of the kind which interest us ; and whilst these are being got int< shape, Mr. Skeat has kindly presented us with this pretty book containing twenty-six stories and legends. To students we cai cordially recommend them. The stories have not received an^ doctoring, and they appear exactly as they were told, although ii one case the disjecta membra of a story had to be recovered fron different sources. Mr. Skeat got them all at first-hand, and w< believe none of them have been printed before.
A few notes are added, which give the source of each tale, an< a good classified index completes the book.
It will not be out of place briefly to indicate the contents. Th
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reader will be interested to find a new variety of Brer Rabbit in the skin of a pretty little creature called the Mouse-deer. Though weak in body, he is great of wit, and nearly always gets the better of crocodiles and such monsters if they try conclusions with him. Some of the stories have parallels in the Indian peninsula. The Pelican's Punishment reappiears in the Jataka as Nandajataka, No. 39. The Tiger gets his deserts turns on the same point as The Foolish Fish {cf. The Talking Thnish, p. 65) ; and in the same book (p. 130) is a variant of the Tiger and the Shadow. In Fa/her Foll<ni)-my-Nose comes the episode of a man who was induced to bury four priests, by the pretence that the corpse had returned from the grave; this is widespread in the Levant and the East. King Solomon appears in one tale ; there is a Deluge Legend, and several which are intended to account for natural phenomena, the shape of plants, and so forth. Indeed, there is a taste of everything, and all good. It should be mentioned that the book is daintily got up, and illustrated with a number of capital pictures.
Indian Fables. By Ramaswami Raju. Swan Sonnenschein. y.
This is a delightful gift-book for children, who will enjoy the stories and their morals none the less for a trifle of sententious- ness. The morals, indeed, are generally pithy and often proverbial in form ; but the tales are not quite naturally expressed to an English ear. A fuller command of strong colloquial English would have made a better book of it, but who can now step into the shoes of L'Estrange ? We hasten to add that readers may be daunted by the preface, which is verbose, and not quite intelligible; but if they read further they will be rewarded. From our point of view the book is not adequate, since it gives no authorities- There is one of the Gotham stories on p. 61 (which turns on counting a dozen), 3 Jataka story on p. 88 (the Crane and the Crab), and one on p. 83 with the same motive as the Talking Thrush, p. 65, but there is nothing to show where the varionta come from.
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Records of Women's Conference on thx Homb Lifb of
Chinese Women. November, 1900.
When, last year, missionaries from all parts of China fled to the treaty ports, advantage was taken of the presence in Shanghai of workers from all parts of China to hold a Conference of Ei^ish- speaking ladies, Chinese as well as foreigners, to oompare notes on the home-life of Chinese women. It was, of course^ essentially a missionary Conference, and the scientific interest of its reooris is therefore subordinated to the missionary interest. In other words, the attention of those who took part in it was directed rather to the way to remedy, or at all events alleviate^ the evib complained of than to describe the customs and superstidoos minutely or dispassionately. Still a considerable amount of infor- mation was brought together and is placed on record in the pamphlet containing the transactions of the Conference. Certainly much of the information is not new. This was to be expected. Moreover, the Records require to be used with discretion. China is an enormous country, consisting of many provinces, the customs of which have a general likeness but very many differences of detail. The speakers, men as well as women (for the Conference was not entirely confined to women), coming from various dis- tricts, all relate their experiences, and care must be taken by the reader to discriminate the Ibcalities of the observances mentioned. These observances are necessarily dealt with, too, in a fragmentary way, and much is assumed to be already known. An illustration of this is found on p. 70, where a Chinese lady, reporting a custom presumably belonging to Honan and Hupeh, says, " A man with a big hat [Why a big hat ? How is it significant, and what is its form ?] asks each one in the crowd, * To what tribe, or stem, do you belong ? ' Chinese don't ask, * How old are you ? * but what is your tribe — dog, monkey, rabbit, dragon, or other of the twelve stems." The explanation is here only half given. It is referable to the custom of naming the years, and has no relation to the clan or family of the person addressed. This may be inferred from the sentence following ; but it is not made clear in the report, and hasty reading might lead to misunderstanding.
As against criticisms of this kind, however, it must be remem- bered that for the primary purpose of the Conference they are comparatively unimportant. It is only when the Records are
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used for scientific purposes that the criticisms become serious. The chief value of the Conference lies in the fact that its success determined the promoters to organise a permanent committee for the purpose of collecting information all over China. This was a decision of the most happy augury ; and the ladies chosen on the committee, so far as can be judged from the parts they took in the Conference, are admirably qualified for the work. I should like to urge upon them that in order that their publications may have real value, it is of the firet importance that the customs and beliefs they record should be set down accurately and minutely, that the locality should always be specified, and that the aboriginal tribes should by no means be neglected in the survey. The only real knowledge is accurate knowledge. If the object be to under- stand the native women, their customs, traditions, and condirions, for the purpose of facilitating Christian work among them, then vague, inaccurate information will very often be worse than none at all. If, beyond that, the committee wish the record to be of scientific value, and to serve as a monument for future ages of the state of things in China when Christian missions entered there, the duty of exactitude and fulness, glossing nothing and shirking nothing, is not less plain. Notes and Queries on Anthro- poiogy, issued by the British Association, would afford them valuable hints ; and both the Folklore Society and the Anthro- pological Institute would doubtless be glad to render them, if they need it, assistance, such as has been recognised as useful by many missionaries in various parts of the world. Finally, the information thus collected and compiled should be issued in a form which will render it accessible to all who may be interested in the subject, whether from a missionary or a scientific point of
I congratulate the organisers of the Conference on its success, and on the beginning of a work the value of which, if carried out in the manner I have indicated, it will be difficult to overestimate. With energy, care, and determination on the part of the committee, and the willing co-operation they are hoping to secure " all over China," the task, though laborious, will be amply repaid by its results and by the gratitude of those who succeed them in their devoted efforts for the benefit of the millions of China, as well as by the students of civilisation and of man.
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BIBLIO GRA PHY.
BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
All English books are published in London^ oil F^nch books in Paris^ and all 1901 ; unless otherwise staieeL
Albers (C.)* l^e diis in locis editis culds apud Gneoos. Zutphaniae : W. J. Thieme & Cie. 8vo/ 100 pp.
Blochst (E.)* Les Sources Orientales de la Divine Com&lie. Maisonneuve. 12010. xvL, 215 pp.
Van Eysinga (G. A. Van den Bergh). Indische Invloeden op Oude Christelijke Verhalen. Leiden: E. J. BrilL 8va ix., 140 pp.
Griffith (F. Ll.). Stories of the High Priests of Memphis. Oxford University Press. 2 vols. £^^ los.
Hall Qoseph). King Horn, a Middle English Romance (edited from the MSS. by). Oxford : Clarendon Press. Demy 8vo. Ivi., 240 pp.
Headland (Isaac Taylor). Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes. Translated and illustrated. New York : Fleming BL Revell Co. 160 pp.
Horstman (Carl). Nova L^enda Anglie (edited with fresh material). Oxford : Clarendon Press. 2 vols. 8vo. Ixviii., 506 and 732 pp. 36s.
John (Ivor B.). The Mabinogion {^Popular Studies^ No. 11). D. Nutt. 56 pp. 6d.
Ramaswami Raju. Indian Fables (translated into' English). Swan Sonnenschein. 5s.
Schmidt (K.)- Das Pancatantram. Eine altindische Marchen- sammlung, zum ersten Male iibersetzt. In 3 Parts. Part 2. Leipsic. Royal 8vo. 4s.
Schwarzfeld (M.). Cilibi Moise, Practica si apropourile lui, Precedate de Biografia lui Cilibi Moise. Bucharest. 2nd Edition, 1901. i6mo.
Skeat (Walter). Fables and Folktales from an Eastern Forest Illustrated by F. H. Townsend. Cambridge : University Press. 4to. xiv., 92 pp.
Taylor (Francis Edward). Wit and Wisdom of the Sooth Lancashire Dialect, an Appendix to tbfi iBifldntP>>^* ^^ -SMBi
Lancashire^ printed separately, and Manchester : John Heywood* Thurneysen (R.). Sagen ans 1 Wiegandl und Giv&\>exi, %to«
Bibliography.
PERIODICALS.
The Conttnts of Ptriodicah exclusively devoted lo Folk/ore are
not slated.
Abhandlusgea and Berichte des K. Z. and A. K MaseuniB za Dreaden, Bd. ii., No. 6. Ethnographisdie Miscellen. A. B. Meyer tind IF. Fov, Die Bestattungsweisen in der Minahassa in Nord Celebes.
Ainslee's Magazine, April. /. T. Headland, Chinese Children's Blocks {Illustrated).
Al-Machriq, No. 12. J. Patai, Mceurs lihanaises — les Jeux de retifance (fin.).
American Anthropologrist, No, 2. J. W. Feivkes, The Owalciilti Allar at Sichoraovi Pueblo. L. Farrand, Notes on the Alsea Indians of Oregon. J. D. McGuire, Ethnology in the Jesuit Relations. R. H. Matthews, Initiation Ceremonies of the Wiradjuri Tribes.
American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, July, Aujput. G. L. Robinson, The High Place at Pctra. F. Starr, Notes upon the Mandrake (Superstitions). G. E. Laidlaw, Gambling amongst the Crees with Small Sticks.
Antiquary, xxxvii., 8- A. Watson, The Tarasque. 9, 10, 11. W. H. Jewitt, Pagan Myths and Christian Figures.
Biblia, August. The Ethnological Significance of Burial Rites.
Bijdragea tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkande, 9e Deel, le en 2e afl. J. H. F. Kohlbrug^e, Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischcr Volkstamni.
Bulletin de I'EcoIe FrauQaise d'Extr^me Orient, i,, 1. L. Final, La Religion des Chams d'aprcs les Monuments. 2 and 3. L Cadiire, Croyances & Dictons populaires de la Vallee de Ngu6n-Son (religious ideas, legendary animals, tiger super- stitions. 8. A. Ltelere, La Fete de Ja Tonsure d'un Prince royal 1 Phnom-Penh.
Bulletins et Uemoires de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris, 1901, 1. F. Fommerot, Origines du culte des Viergcs noires.
Byegones, Jannary 2. Moon-superstition (Pig-killing and hen-
•ipttiru " January 16th. " Catholic Survivals " (Christmas
'**''. " Catholic Survivals " (Wooden
*^U5toms, 4;c.^ 'U.w.t^ ^'Ca..
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Gmin^sss
ConmpmikmMnn, Jvlr. ^.
at viiicfa dij bulls Aigvstb j4. SqLE^ Siriniriilirhe Sudvestdeatscfabud. Edinburgb Beriew, Oetober. Magac aod Rrfigioo (mievX
lagliih HisUnrieil Icmv, Odober. £. IL Bgwmm^ The I>eificatioo of Kii^ in the Greek Chies^
lUiaolofisehef Hotisbktt, iL, 3. Dr, K I^rUwm^ Udxr ktinstliche Korpenrerunstaltiiiigen bei den Eii^ebofenen im Stiden der deutsch ostafirikamschen Colonie. ZV. ^. .AuJtoi Zur noetischen oder ethnischen Psytixilogie. JHdz Zmn Seelenbegriff in der Ethnologie.
Expository TimeSy June. JF. Afarsrukj Magic and Religion.
Field Ck>lii]nbian MnBeam, Anthropologieal Series, iiL, 1. G. A. Darsey and H. R. Vothj Oraibi Sozal Ceremony (Hopi winter solstice celebration).
Tireeide, September. T. WHghty Anglo-Saxon Games.
Gentleman's Kagasine, Oetober. E, C, Vansittart, Italian Cradle Songs.
Oeographical Jonnud, September. /. Af, BeJI, Explorations in the Great Bear Lake R^ion (p. 252, hunting superstition; p. 356, Eskimo charm).
OloboSy Mo. 6. M. HofUr^ Das Spendebrot bei Sterbefiillen. N, IV. Thcfnas^ Eine intemadonale anthropologisch-ethno-
_' J J
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Bihlmgraphy. 509
graphische Bibliographic. No. 7. R. Lasch, Der Verbleibsort der Seelen der im VVochenbelt Gestorbenen. No. 8. H. Francke, Die Dhyini buddhas und M^nusibuddhas im Lichie der vorbuddhistischen Religion Ladakhs. A. Perrig, Aus den Bekenntnissen eines Dakota-Medizinmannes. No. 9. R. F. Kaindl, Die Jiiden in der Bukowina (marriage), In Benares Jiiir zeit der Wasserfeste, No. 10. P. V. Stenin, Die neuen Forschungen iiber die Baschkiren (marriage, burial, &c.). R. F. Kaindl, Die Juden in der Bukowina (festivals, omens, proverbs, &c.). No. 18. /. v. N€gekin, Das Pferd in der Volksmedizin. A. Gebhardt, Der Name der Weissen Frau. No. Ifi. Durand's Besuch bei den Webias auf Neukaledonien.
Harper's Ifonthlj' Mag&zioe, Septemlier. /. Moomy, The Ton- kawas, our last Cannibal Tribe.
Home magazine of New Tork, November, 1900. /. T. Headland, The Chinese Mother Goose {Illustrated).
Indian Antiquary, July. A. Weier, On the History of Religion in India. Tiid., The Satrunjaya Mabatruyam. Sir_f. M. Camp- bell, Notes on Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom (contd.). August. A. H. Francke, The Spring Myth of the Kesar-Saga. September, R. M. La/renais, Some Songs of the Portuguese Indians. G. R. Subsamiah Panlulu, The Tula-Kaveri Mahatmya. iternationaleB Archiv fUr Ethno^apliie, xiv., 2, 3. Dr. H. H. Juynboll, Das Javanische Maskenspiel.
Iriah EcclesiaBtical Record, Angust, P. Fardc, The Ongin of Religion.
Jewish Quarterly Baview, July. M. Jastrow, Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation.
Journal of the African Society, i,, 1, Col. J. G. B. Slop/ord, (ilimpses of West African Law and Custom. A. C. Hollis, Taveta Customs, [The attention of Members is called lo the African Society, founded in memory of Mary Kingsley, one of the principal objects of which is the investigation of the usages, institutions, customs, religions, antiquities, history, and languages of the native races of Africa. The President is the Marquis of Ripon, and the Hon. Sec. is the Count de Cardi, 18, Grange Road, Chiswick, who will be happy to answer inquiries and forward prospectuses and information to anyone interested in ^Vfrlcan subjects.^
5IO
Bibliography.
hr
y
Jottrnal of the Anthiopological Inatitnte, zzai., 1. B. ling
Roth, Maori Tatu and Moko. IV. G. Sumner, The Yakuts. Jiev. J. Roscoe, Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda. W. G. Aston, Japanese Gohei and Ainu Inao. Baiil Thomson, Note upon the Natives of Savage Island or Niue. S. H. Ray, Stories from the Southern New Hebrides. N. W. Thomas, Note on some Americaji Parallels to European Agricultural Customs. E. Tregear, The Spirit of Vegetation. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 1900. W. G. Asttm, Chhoi-Chhung : a Korean Miirchen [a translation of a Korean MS.]. S. Ballard, Some Tales from the Uji Shui Monogaieri. Jooiul of the Btqnl ABiktio Boeioty, July. C. F. OUham, The Nagas, a Contribution to the History of Serpent- worship. Joarnil of the Boyal Aaifttio Society of Bengal, Izix., S. L. A. Waddtlly Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley (maniage, tabu, tree cult, rope-pulling, sacrifices, &c.). Jonnil of Hellenio Stndiea, xzl., 9. W. H. D. Ronst, The
Double Axe and the Labyrinth. Journal of the Polynesian Society, June. Archdeacott Grate, Maori Tradirions from d'Urville Island. [Anon.'\, Short Traditions of the South Island. Law H«{ruii>«> August T. Baty, Debt Slavery in the Mah;
Peninsula. Madras Goremment Hoseiim. Bulletin, iii., 8. F. Fawcttt, The
N&yars of Malabar. [A very valuable monograph.] Hittheilungen der Anthropologischen Qesellaoliaft in Wien, 1901, 1. R. Lasch, Die Verstummelung der Zahne in America und Bemerkungen zur Zahndeformierung im AUge- meinen. N. Yamasaki, Ein Bcsuch in den Kopfjagerdorfera auf Formosa, v. Preen, Opferung aus Thonkopfurnen in Haselbach. P. Kretschmer, Das Marchen von Blaubart- 3 and 4. J. R. Bunker, Opfergaben fiir den heiligen Wolf- gang. Das Tafelngehen zu Plessnitz. Hittheilnngen des Seminars for Orientalische Sprachen, iv., 2. C. Brockelmann, Eine altarabische Fassung der Siebenschla- ferlegende. 3. Lieder und Sangesweisen und Geschichten der Wanyamwezi. W. Lederbogen, Duala-raarchen. Moniat, April. P. Carus, Fairy Tale Element in the Bible (Babylonian Cosmosto«ij,C>iTi.«AwTO'tJa^«£o( the Marduk
Bibliography.
Myth, Yahveh, Fight with the Dragon). July. Faiiy Tale Element in the Bible (concluded),
Hatnre, October 31. O. Fhher, Folklore about Stonehenge.
Hew Ireland Review, December, January, Febraary, MbtoIi, April. D. Hyde, Religious Songs of Connacht.
Notes and Queries, July 6. /. M. Lawrence, E. Ptacock, St- deorge and the Dragon. July 13. B. Belcher, Riding the Stang, August 3. /. Bouchier, Bible-eating (Magic). August 31. 0. Munter-Blair, Green an Unlucky Colour. T.J.Jeakes, Spider Follclore. September 14. Horse -ribbon Day. C. Harpur, Pineapple at New Year. Beptember 21, H. Andrews, Folklore of Sailors (list of articles on). October 6. Gadwhip Service. R. H. Wallace, Devil Worshippers and White Cattle. W. C. Yeo, Swallow Lore.
Open Court, August, September, October, November. H, Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis (continued).
Overland Monthly, Jane. M. W. Leighton, The Haidah Indians.
Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, October. J. Segall, A Druze Talisman.
The Reformer, August. Early Christian Magic.
Bevue de I'Histoire des Religions, xliii., 3. E. C/iavannes, Le dieu du sol dans I'ancienne religion chinoise. Z. Afan'/lier, Le folk-lore et !a science des religions, — 3. _/. Caparl, La fete de frapfter les Anou. T. Pinches, Observations sur la religion des Babyloniens deux mille ans avant J. C. J. Af. Price, Le Pantheon de Goud^a. G. Opptrt, Sur les Sila-
Jgnlmas, pierres sacr^es de I'lnde. M. Tehirat, La Legende d' Alexandre le grand chez les Arm^niens, M. Vemes, Notes sur les sanctuaries de la region chanan^enne. xliv., 1. Goblet tTAhiie/la, De I'emploi de la m^thode comparative dans I'etude des phenomenes religieux. P. de la Grasserie, Du role social du sacrifice religieux. G. Foucart, Sur le culte des statues funeraires dans I'ancienne Egypte. F. Cany- beare, Les sacrifices d'animaux dans les ancJenncs eglises chnfticnnes. Boyal Magazine, September. T. P. Wilson, School Superstitions. Science of Man, June. _/. Maguire, Buggeen, the Evil Spirit. August. J. Maguire, Childbirth (unnamed tribe or tribes), , Fraser, How the Aborigines about Kalliduan^ ^nai«A G. C. Greenway, The Bota.
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513 Bibliography.
South Amerieaa MiiuriimaTy Kagaiine, Ootolm. A Tiq> to
j . Palngin (Mapuche milk tabu ; sirens).
K Strand Magaiiiiey Angust Henry Ni JPubman^ Phntiiig tltt
I; Penny Hedge at Whitby (illustrated).
Taveta Ohnmide, July. A. C. Holtts^ Bantu Gestmes. Iktela Burial and Sacrifice. Feasts of Gicumcisioii in die Nev Year. The Maniata (house of the unmarried men).
TheoIogiBohe Tydaohrift, July. / C. JUaUkes^ De Dooden-
vereering bij Israel.
Theosophioal BevieWy Augnat B. KdgkiUy^ ReUgioo of die
Sikhs.
Tydschrift vor Indiaehe Taal-, Land-, en Volkenlnuide, yi«T| 4. y. Brandes^ Omina et Portenta. X. Kem^ Dweighertvertialai uit den ArchipeL xliiL, 8 en 4. J. Brandes^ Dweighert- verhalen buiten den ArchipeL C J. vam Gerde^ Aantee- kening over de Bodha's van Lombok (Religion, ICaniagc^ Birth, &c.).
Transaotiona of the Honourable Society of Qymmrodoriony 1899- 1900. /. lihys^ Welsh Cave Legends. E. Owen^ Owiin
Lawgoch — ^Yeuain de Galles.
Vienna Oriental Joumali zv., S. Z. v. Schrotder^ Das Bohnen-
verbot bei Pythagoras und im Veda.
VolkskundOi xiii., 9, 10. A, de Cock^ de Arabische Nacht Vertd- lingen; Spreekworden und zegswijzen (Vrijen en trouwen). M, Sabbe^ Eenige Brugsche volkslideren. G.y. Boekencogen^
Sprookjes en Vertelsels.
Wide World Magasinei May. D, Harding, Mystery Plays in the West Indies. Odds and Ends (" Breaking the Pinata " in Mexico — The Eagle Dance of the Stick Indians). June. E, M, Lee, My Experiences as a Lady Missionary in China, I. (Photos of water-filled jars representing " Great Bear " which protect Foochow from fire, of painted wall to avert malign influences, &c.). F, Davey, Papa Ita and his Fire- walking Performance (Honolulu, Photos), July, E. Af. Lee My Experiences as a Lady Missionary in China, II. (Photos of death-signs, shrines, &c.)
Ymer, xxi., 8. C. V, Hartmann, Etnografiska undersokningar ofver aztekema i Salvador.
Abdul Fflda cliffs (Nik), story co
cerning, 329-30 Abereromby, J., review by, Boylt
Devil Tales, xSl-i Abney : garlands over doors. May ut.
Accounts of Folk-I/wc Sociely, 13
Accursed Schoolmaster, The, Greek folktale, 84-6
A<hltig Marihen der Ljulziner Esten, by O. Kallas, reviewed, 124-5
Acoorie, lie Agouti
Adorn, in Wills tradition, 77
Addy, S. O., Garland Dny al Costle- toD, 394-430 iflaies): Head of Corpse between the Thighs, 101-2; The MUi of the Twelve Apostles, ai8; riddle collected by, 333
i^gean, Folktales from the, ty W. R. PatOQ, 84-97, 197-M8, 317-25
Afreet, Efiyplian 1 demon donkey, 339 ; giant phantom, 329
Afreet, Peisian : appears as animal, 263 ; causes epileptic fits, 263
Africa : {set also Ashanti ; Bantu ; Congo ; Egyp' < Gold Coast ; Ivory Coast; Madagascar i Otangje River Colony; Rhodesia; Slave Coast 1 Tanganyika ; and Trans- vaal) ; Notes and Queries on To- temism, 385-93 ; Some Problems of Early Religion in the light of South African Folklore, by E. S. Hartland, 4, 15'40
Age, unlucky to tell one's, Lincoln- shire, 179
Agmtion 01 falher-righi : among Bantu, 29 ; replaces molhec-right with higher organisaliun, 39, 35
Agoull : imitated in Macusi game, Guiana, 138 (plait)
Agricultural folklore, see Com -spirits, v^elalion souls, and the like ; Harvest customs and beliefs; Land tenure ; Maize ; MtUet ; Ploughing customs and beliefs ; Seeds ; So' ing customs and beliefs
Aibi : fort made impr^nable by charm, 274
Aidin : animal superslitioiu, 192 Akawoi Indians, Guiana, 133, 155 VOL. XII.
letat knucklebone from, 289 Aladdin type of folktale, 201-3 Alcheringa traditions of Arunta tribe,
C. Australia, 232 Aldenham : gameof "knucklebones"
01 "dibs, 290 AldemiBslon; letting " by candle," 76 Aleutian Islands; customs of Kaniag-
mioute whalers, 371 Alfred, King, set King Alfred Alligator, see Crocodile Alphabet used as a formula, 128 Alphabet used in Consecrating a
Church, by A, Null, loo-t Alpilles, vine-grafting on the, 194-7 Alsace r fair, 508 Altars: Huichol Indians, loS; Eastern
Vorubaland, 508 Amandebele, The Kraal Family Sys- tem among the, by P. Prestage,
326-9 Amazulu : (ste also Amandebele) ;
mother-right among, 33 ; religious
beliefs, 23-3, 26-8; totemism, no
traces of, 33 Ambarvalia : Garland Day at Caslle-
lon. 399-430 (plales) America, see North America ; and
South America Amulets and talismans, 128, 169, 175,
254, 259. 268-9, 274. 378-9. 435.
438. 443. 5'a
Amur district : the country of ' ' horses, 68; millet cultivated l^Gilyaks, 68
Ancestors ; re-bom, U pper Congo, 463; worship of arises from pairi- archal system, 33, and evolved from totemism, 35-36. 341-3. 387, 471 ; worshipped by Amazulu, 23, 27, 34-S, Bechuana and Basuto, 25
Ancient and Modern Game of Astra- gals. The, by E. Lovetl, 257-8 28093
Anesaki, Prof., notes on Japanese folklore from, 67-71 (JrontispUa')
Animal Superstitions, by N. W. Thomas, 129, 1S9-94
Animals in folklore: (JM d//# Agouti ; Anlenter : Ape ; Ass : Bat ; Bear i Birds: Bison 1 Boar; Buffalo; Bull ; Calf J Camel ; Cal ; Cattle i Cow ;
II
li
514
Index,
i
■I
■ H
' I
, ■■!
Crocodfle ; Crustacea { Deer ; Dog Dragon ; Dugong ; Elephant Fifth ; Fox ; Frog ; Gaselk; Goat Hare ; Hippopotamus ; Horse Ibex ; Insects ; Jackal ; Jaguar Labba ; Lion ; Llama ; Nlonkey Moufflon ; Mouse ; Mouse-deer Mule ; Ox ; Panther ; Peccary Pig; Porcupine; Rabbit; Rat Scorpion ; Seal ; Shark ; Sheep Shellfish; Sloth; Snake; Stag Tarantula ; Tiger ; Toad ; Tortoise Turtle ; and WolO ; apparitions of, at place of murder ac, Lincoln shire, 172 ; Bechuana ideas of origin of, 24; freed and buried, Madagascar, 70; Greek supersti- tions concerning, 24J-5 ; heart stuck with pins, against witdies, Lincoln- shire, 176; Huichol gods, connected with, 108; imitated in games, Guiana, 137-41, Red Indian, 379 ; knucklebones of, games with, 257-8, 280-93 t ornaments on musical in- struments, Guiana, 157 ; skulls as garden scarecrows, Asia Minor, 192 ; taboos, se$ Taboos ; totems, set Totemism ; weathercocks in shape of, 99-100
Animism : discussed by E. S. Hart- land, 21-2, 1 10- 1 ; J. G. Frarcr's views in conflict with theory of, 234-5 ; negro fetichism, Bahia, 252 ; de Visser's views on, 244
Annfe Sociohgiaiu, V, by E. Durkheim, reviewed, 110-2, 481-5
Annual meeting, 3-5 ; report of Council, 5-14
Ant : imitated in Macusi game, Guiana, 139 ; not killed, Poland,
Anteater : imitated in Macusi game,
Guiana, 139 Antrimp, ancient Prussian god, 296 Ape : burnt in Midsummer fire,
Bagncrcs de Luchon, 316-7 Apparitions of dead, see Ghosts Appin : spectral lights, 343 Apples : in Greek folktales, 90, 322 ;
grigj;ling, 249 ; from Irish Land of
Promise, 437, 441-4 Appletrec : silver apple bough in
Irish legend, 436-45 ; sunlight on
at Christmas foretells heavy crop,
Lincolnshire, 167 Applctree hundred, Derbyshire, 395 April : {see also May Eve) ; Barmote |
Comt, MoQymsh, 395 ; fint Moo- dur unhicky, Ireliiiidt 48 ; rbyne, Wilts, 80 ; 13th oC SaSMX tmhidbj, Persia, 264
Arabs : (j«# ais^ Bedonin) ; kmickfe- bonedioe, 283
Araiwapuoo : paruhcom danoe, iSS-oi
Anpaboes : rock fairies, 379
Anwak TtMiwuifi^ Gojana, t^-y,
Aivlnina Indiansp Gtdaitt, 133, 135
Argentine Ropa Wc, sm Gian Owbo
Argyllshire : (ue ais0 Appiii ; Balk- chulish ; CaUert ; Glencoe ; ami Invercoe) ; •« reaping maiden,** i
Arida, the priest of: FVaaer*s The Golden J&Hgk reviewed, 219-43,
^ ?S5-6, 431-45
Arizona : game of Tan-wan, Pkjpaga Indians, 283 ; shrines, prayei^Kks, Ac, 254 '
Arkansas : astragali from, 283
Armenians : friee pigeons &c., Aug. 1st, 70
Armories, see Brittany
Arrows, votive, in Huichol templo, 108
Arthur, King, sm King Arthur
Arunta tribe of C. Australia : tote- mism among, 232-3
Ash : branch blown off portends death, Wilts, 72 ; horse-yoke of, tabooed to Cormac canhinges^ 63
Ash, mountain, see Mountain ash
Ashanti : criminal sacrificed on fifth day of feast, 237
Ashford (Derby) : Barmote Court, 395
Asia: {see also Aleutian Islands: Amur district ; Asia Minor ; Balu- chistan ; China ; India ; Japan ; Palestine : and Persia) ; fire walk, red-hot charcoal used for, 453
Asia Minor : {see also Boudroum ; Myndos ; Smyrna ; Symi ; and Syria); animal superstitions, 129, 189-92 ; rain charm, 216
Aslacoc : new moon not to be seen between wood, 166
Ass: demon, Assiut, 329; in Greek folktales, 92-3, 320-3 '
Assiut : stories from, 329-30
Aston, W. G., Japanese Gohei, 260
Astragals, The Ancient and Modem Game of, by E. Lovett, 257-8,
Index,
a8o-93 : neta by M, Longwonh Dames, D. F. de I'Hoste Kuiking, Miss C. Violei Turner, &c., sSg. 93 i 106, 21S
Asttoli^ : uncienl Irish, 47-8 ; Persia, 264
Aslronomical folklore: {tee also Moon; Signs of zodiac i Sur:;; uni/Sun); G. Si. Clair's Mylhs of Cruet (bused on aslronomy) retiewed,
s theories con- cerning, 363-4. 470 Athens : Diouyiiac possessions. 476 Ath Maighne : laboo of King of Eire
at, 47 Athmore : laboo on Cormac coiiloiagts
al. 63 Auditors, election 6f, 4 August : IM, Annenians free pigeons
and insects, 70 ; second Monday
unlucky, Ireland, 4S Aurora borealis : " lire-dnikes," N.
Lincolnshire, 166 Ausceul. ancient Pnissian god, 396 Australia 1 (ju alsa New South Wales
and Tones Straits) ; Notes and
Queries on Totemism, 385-93 ;
personal totems, Varatkanna tribe.
Cape York, 131 ; peltOTTaphs, 383 ;
totemism in Aninta tribe, 331 Austria : (i« aha Bukowina ; and
Hungary) ; cakes in animal Tonn,
St. Nicholas' day, I ; gales portend
result of trial, 165-6 Avalokiia, in Buddhist Wheel of Life,
69 Axe, scratched on Cnossos Palace,
"3 , .
Axbolme, Isle of: giant at, 170-3;
witchcraft, 173 Azrael (the angel), ghouls attend on,
Fersia, 262
Babylo
Bag-Enderby : loiiiesat, 170 Bagn^ies de Luchon : Midsummer
Eve ceremony. 315-7 Bahia : negro felichlsm, 253 Bakalla, Bcchuana tribe. 31 Bakuena, Bechuana tribe, 31, 36 Balance Sheet of Folk-Lore Society,
rds ' south ' and ' lef\ ' con-
Ball games ; buana, 135
Baliilore: mock burial, 351 1 Whit- Sunday child kills or is killed, 351
Balolo tribe : why death continues on earth, 461
Baluchistan: (f»a/itfAibi; Manish; OHf/Kuh-i-Chehel-Tun) ; gambling by knucklebones, 289: sanclnary taken among horses, 369 1 riarxts or
Banatc, Bechuana tribe, 31 Bangala tribes : charms, 185 ; dis- semination of tieliefs among, 463 ; language and tribal mark o^ 46I-2 Bannock In diAns : games, 379 Bannu, see Akra Banoga, Bechuana tribe, 31 Banoku, Bechuana tribe, 31-3 Bantu : {su alia Amandebelei Ania- xulu 1 Bangaln ; Basuto; Bayeye; Becbunna; Hottentots; Ovnhcreti; and Woganda) ; inslilulions, 3S-9 ; mother-right, JJ ; shape-shitling, 35-6; tolemism, survivals of, 3I, 33. 35-6 Baperi, Bechuana tribe, 33, 36 Baptism cures convulsions, Wakefield,
Barberries ; charm against tvQ eye,
Lincolnshire, 178 Bards, Irish : symbolic brinchei
borne by, 43Q-40 Earimo, spirits of dead, Bechuana, 25 Boikway (Herts) : origin of quit-rent
«. 30s Barley burnt in love charm, Poland,
193 Barmole Couits of Derbyshire, 395,
403-4 Bamslcy : head of corpse between
Baronga : ideas of deity and heaven, 36-7
Batotse: dead chief appears as hippo- potamus, 36
Barrows : associated with spectral bunt, Wilu, 74
BarstuccK, ancient Prussian gods, 396-7
Basket work, California, 133
Basuio : amulets, 378 ; bridal an
5i6
Index.
n H
« ■I
■i
N I
'■ . -L
I
1 L
funeral customs, 39, 378 ; mother- righty txmces of, 29; sacrifice to ancestors in sickness, 25
Bat : bone brings luck, Asia Minor, 191
Batau, Bechuana tribe, 31, 36
Bath water for in&nts, heated by hot iron, Lincolnshire, Notts, and Leicestershire, 472, or by dnders, 472
Batlapi, Bechuana tribe, 31
Batlou, Bechuana tribe, 31
Battas, Sumatra : free swallow to avert curse, 70
Bayeye tribe: mother-right among, 30
Bear : Christmas, carnival, and wed- ding disguise, Poland, 193 ; human wife of, roland, 194; transformed man, Poland, 194 ; weathercock in shape of head, Greenford, 99
" Beardless One,** Persian festival of the, 228-9
Beasts in folklore, see Animals in folklore
Beating, ceremonial, see Whipping, ceremonial
Bechuana (jsu also under names of tribes) \ ancestors invoked and sacrificed to, 25 ; belief in a god absent, 23-6; mother-right, traces of, 33 ; totemism, traces of, 31, 33 ; women degraded, 29
Beckenham : weathercock at, 99
Bedouin : {see also Arabs) ; moiuming and burial, 383 ; right of sanctuary, 269-70
Bee : bumble-bee in magic, 103 ; humble-bee in rhyme, Wiltshire, 332 ; not killed, Poland, 193
Belgium : (jee also Brabant, South ; Hainault ; Li^ge ; cmd Walloons) ; game of astragals, 280, 284-5 * guns fired, Christmas, 120
Bells : Bell-lore, by E. Farrer, 480 ; camel bells on ziarats or shrines, Baluchistan, 272 ; church, rhymes about, Wilts, 81 ; worn by ancient Lithuanian &c. virgins, 299
Beltaine, taboo on Kings of Eire on
Monday after, 47 Berkshire, see Aldermaston ; and
Compton Bertha type of folktale, 203-7 Berwickshire, see Duns ; and Lamber-
ton Tollbar Berwickshire Kim-Dolly, A, by Mrs.
A. B. Gonune, 129, 215-6
Betsileos: totemism amoi^ 14^3* 47'
BiUe: Dehme lesends* SL m; Chme 1^ BlsdL's MnryH^eAm BikUea reviewed, 347.8; ^ther. Book of, 336-30^ 248 1 ~ ■ Book of, refereuces in
stoi7to,499; Jephthah's ^—.^
248 ; Jonah legend, 346, 34S ; J. G. Fiaier's views on the CraciiaioB disCTMed, 33^-30, 336^, 3^-3 ; J. G. Fiasers views on 3 Kufiji in. 27 discoased, 347. 476
Bibliographj, 136-8, 353^ 376^ 506-12 ; m L'Ann^ T ' ~ ' 481
Bisby: copper kettles before use, 473
Bihar : proverb, 313.4
Birds in folklore: {sea aha Chickcs; Code; Crane; Crow; Cndoo; Dove; Dock; Eagle; Goose; Hawk ; Hen ; Heron ; Jiqr ; Laik ; Magme ; Nightingale ; Owl ; Pulndce ; Peacock ; Pigeon ; Plo- ver ; (>iaa ; Sea-guU ; Sparrow; Stork ; Swallow ; Swan ; Trampet- bird ; Vulture ; owdT Wren) ; cdca in shane of, Christmas, 356 ; cfaikl- ren's rhyme on pairing, Asia Minor, 190; day, sold at fidr, Alsace, 508; in Cuchulainn sagas, 48-9^ 63 ; on Easter cakes, A«a Minor, 192 ; in Greek folktale, 92 ; medi- cine bird, Shoshones, 379 ; orna- ments on musical instruments, Guiana, 157 ; as sex totems, An^ tralia, 387 ; weathercock in shape of, Clovelly, 99
Birth customs and belief : Biblical rites, 248 ; birth typified in Budd- hist Wheel of Life, 68 ; Egyptian, 383 ; groaning-cake, 249 ; in Jutaka, 246 ; lying-in rhyme, Wilts, 80 ; stork brings children, Poland, 194 ; totem determined at time of conception or birth, 386 ; twins attributed to " Tilo," Baronga, 26 ; water heated by poker or cinders to wash newly-born, 340, 472 ; water in which iron cooled given to newly-born, Derbyshire, 472 ; Whit -Sunday child fated to kill or be killed, Ballitore, 351
Bisclaveret, j^^ Werwolf
Bison : astragali from N. America, 258, Arizona, 283, and Arkansas, 283
517
•
Black animals : (sa aha Cat -, Cock ; Dog ; Goal ; and Pig) ; in dream bad omen, Asia Minor, igi
Black o[ unlucky days, Persia, 265
Blacksmilhs: Blacksmiths' Festival, by MissC.S. Bume, »i7-8, T. W. E. Higgcns, 344-6, and W. Percy Mer- rick^ 346; King Solomon and Ihc Blaclumilh, by M, Gastcr, 47S'6 ; smithy vfork and workers, chntins for. Upper Congo, l8j ; water in wluch lion slaked used as remedy, Scotler and Swabia, 473
Blackthorn : globe of, burnt on New Vcnr'i morning, Herefordshire, 349-Si
Blood : avenging of, Z4S ; in cup pre- sages Cuchulainn's death, 64; drawn to cure witchcraft, Lincoln- shire, 177-8 ; given to horse tram own tail, Germany, 97; smeared on Huiclio] sacred discs, loS ; of turtle gives strength, Asia Minor, 191
lue : key flower in Barbarossa legend, 445 ; wards off evil eye, Persia, 168
Blyboroueh : biries, 170
Bi^, wild: Diarmuid's foster-brother changed into, 48 ; hunting tabooed to Diarmuid, 44; slaying causes Diarmuid's death, 44-5 ; weather- cock in shape of head, Greenfotd, 99 (flaU)
Boating g^ime, Macusi Indians, Guiana, 136-7 (plat')
Boats in festival processions, 308,315, 476-7
Bolivia : mock buU-liehl, Chrisltnas
Bol[un-le>Moois : game of jacks, 391 Bombay ; Pacsees, account of, 176-S Books presented to Folk- Lore Society,
2, g, 130, 259 Boots and the Ttol! type of folktale,
95-7 Bordeaux : astragalus from, 284 Border Marriages, by F. A. hlilne,
352-3 Borehom : sabbath-breaking story
from, 79 Borrowing customs &C., theories of,
3S7-8 Borneo, l« Sarawak Borussi, su[t«rstitions of, 293-302 Bollesfotd; salt Bfiainsl witchcraft, 174 Boudroutn : folktales from, 317-25
Boulogne-sur-Mer : weathercocks at,
99 Bourg-sui-Gironde: game of astragals,
"*!
Bow and arrow of Vishnu, m magic Rgure for rice- thrashing, Ceylon, 4S«
Bow Church, weathercock of, too
Bowls, votive, in Huichol temples, 108
Brabant, South, let Brussels
Brabrook, E, W., II. M. Queen Victoria, 98; review by, FraKer'a The Goldat BQUgk, 119-za
Biadwell : "cucking"at Easter, 407 ; embankment near, 4t)4-5 ; fevourile dishes, 421 ; (lowers carried. May 19th, 435-6 : " foot-ale " levied on stranger wooer, 406 % garland cere- mony, May 29th, 416 iliousegardea Recalled " the privili^e," 398 ; in- sulting lines used on Gotland Day, Castlelon, 431-3; "ladder-steads" reserved on sales, 398 ; miners said 10 descend &om convicts, 400-3 ; name system at, 399 ; nickname for foolish person, 42a : place rhyme, 423 ; wakes, special lUshes at, 412
Brahma, in Buddhist Wheel of Life, 69
Brahmans as a caste, 483, 485
Brahmaputra volley, folklore of
Brains of king of Leinster hardened
as trophy, 55 Brailmaier, M., Cutting off the Head
Brandon, the. Midsummer Eve cere- mony at Bagniresdc Luchon, 315-7
Bran's voyage to Elysium, 436-8
Brazil, sie Bahia
Biegia ; taboo on lung of £in* al, 47
Brendan's voyage, 443
Brent Pelham : A Hertfordshire St. Geo^, 303.7 [flail)
Brelagne, iw Brittany
Bridal customs and beliels, m Marriage customs and beliefs
Bride W^er type of folktales, 87-93
British Guiana, ui Guiana
Brittany t folklore colleclions itata, reviewed, 352, 37(3-2 ; lais of,
Brixton Deverill : haunted house, 73 1 king Alfred and the cftket localised, 77
Si8
Inde^c.
■hj
I- • ,
I ..
Broadsides, SfMUsish, 3 Broom in magic figure for rice-thrash- ing, Ceylon, 458 Brugh on the Boyne: Diarmuids
foster-brother transformed to wild
boor, 48 Bruises, cure for, Asia Minor, 192 Brumby Common : fairies, 170 Brussels : festival processions, 315 Buckhurst Hill (Essex) : game of
knuckledowns, 291-2 Buckinghamshire, su Chalfbnt St
Giles Buddha : Rouse's Tke Jiiaka^ or
Stories of the BtuUke^s firmer
Births reviewed, 245-6 Buddhist Wheel of life from Japan,
A, by N. W. Thomas, i, 67-9, 123,
214 (^frontispiece) Buffalo : Bechuana. tribe named after.
Building : trade customs, locally, 104 Bukowina : folklore of Jews, 509 Bull : (see also Cattle ; and Ox) ; bull
fight, mock, Christmas Eve,
Bolivia, 2^6 ; in Cuchulainn sagos,
65 ; in Wiltshire rhyme, 332 Bumble-bee, see Bee Bumblebee in Magic, The, by E. F.
Carey, 103 Burial customs and beliefs, see Death
and funeral customs and beliefs Burials, mock, 271, 35 1 -2 Buried treasure, see Treasure, hidden Bume, Miss C. S., Blacksmiths'
Festival, 217-8 ; Customs Relating
to Iron, 474-5 ; review by, Frazer's
The Golden Bought 240-3 Burning herbs for traveller's success,
Persia, 266 Burning of dead, su Death and
funeral customs and beliefe Burns, cures for, Persia, 271 Burnt offerings, see Sacrifice Bush-hog, see Peccary Busso : spectral light, 105 Butterfly: first seen, caught for riches,
Poland, 193 ; lucky in house, Asia
Minor, 190 Buying, luck money in, Lincoln,
179-80
Cairene folklore, see Cairo
Cairns or shrines, Baluchistan, 272-3
Cairo : Cairene story, parallel to,
loi ; in story from Upper Egypt,
329-30
Caistor : folly oC ofiendiiw nlcr cf weather, 163 ; stone changed to cornsack^ and vice vmrtdf 165-4
Cakes : in animal form, i ; In faiid fbnn, I, 70, 256 ; Ana Minor, 192 in snake form, Asia Minor, 192; ai New Year omen, HerefonUuic^ 3^; with pins, bnint to brmg witches, Lincolnshire, 176; Vide docs, NewcastleK»-Tyne, 131 ; Yule loaves, Derbyshire minen, 407
Calendar ioikloKe, jw Days ud Seasons
Calendar, knotted string or notdwd tree as, Guiana, X42, 15a
Calf: ear slit against witchcnfk, Helmsley, 97 ; phantom, haunts place of murder &c., Linoolii- shire, 172
California : basketwork, 123; Barrows' The Etknc-lUim^ ^ the Coahmlla Indians of SmOkem California reviewed, 366-8
Callert : spectral lichts near, 343
Caljrmnos : cure for choking from bone, 191-2; folktales from, 93-97, 197-200, 201; omens fiom gfa»- hopper, 190, from moth, 190; pigeons unludcy, 190
Camel : blue boids &c. worn against evil eye, Persia, 268; killed and eaten on solemn occa- sions, Asia Minor, 192 ; Persian ghoul appears as, 262 ; in Persian proverb, 279
Ounel bells, on ziarats or shrines, Baluchistan, 272
Cameron, M. L., A Sorvival of Tree-worship, 455-6
Canada, see Great Bear Lake ; and Hudson's Bay
Candles : burnt on Christmas Eve, Derbyshire miners, 407 ; hung on bush near holy well, Persia, 272 ; left in lead mine for "owd man," Christmas Eve, Derbyshire, 407 ; letting church land by, Berks and Wilts, 76
Canoes, protected by seed pods &c.. Upper Congo, 185
Cape York (Aus.) : personal totems, Yaraikanna tribe, 23 1
Carey, E. F., The Bumblebee in Magic, 103
Carib Indians, Guiana, 1 32-3
Carnival customs : Poland, 193 ; pro- cessions, 476
Caroline Mount, Chingfoid : weather- cock at, 99 Catp : eaten fur luck, Japan, 71;
ficlure hung on j»U, May Icitlval, span, 71; symbol of vicloiy or power, japan, 71 Carson, Has K., Cusloms telalirg
to Iro:
. 473-4
1.203-7.
^^H bres
^^H Ihrc
^^v folk
Cassabi, folktales from. 207-8
Caste : Bnihnnans as a, 4S3, 485 1 castes in Baiar.jSl: why Mala caste is Ihe lowest, Central Provinces (India), 3S0 ; nature, prevalence, and relationships of, 48l<5
Castleton : Garland Day at Costle- ton, 394-430 (//ofri)
6/aci, — foretells weather, Japan, 70 ; jinn appears a,s Persia, 263 ; used in love charm, Poland, 193 ) witch appear) as, Poland, ■94) breath cures choking from bone, Asia Minor, Cos, and Calj'mnos, 193 i clothes on which cat killens 1 away, Asia Minor, 189; off for cream-stealiojg. High- lands. 97 ; flesh and skin cure consumption, Poland, 193) in Greek folktales, 95, 207 ; jinn and afreet appeal ais, Persia, 163) maimed, not admitteij to Sah^l, Tinchc- bray. 97 ; in rhymes, Compton (Berks), 331, Wills, 332; three- coloured, powerful in magic, Japen, 70 ; wilch as, Lincolnshire,
Cataract, charm for, Poland, 193 Caihbad the Druid, 57-8, 63. iiS Cattle: {see alia Bull; Calf; Cow ;
ami Ok) : associated with St.
Bridget, Kildare, 314; blessed in
May at chapel, Frijus, 313 j ears
incised by Bakuena, 31 Caves : food oflered lo P<ri-I>an<m in,
Persia, 272 '. Huichol sacred images
in, 108 Cayuses : games, 379 Celt, Irish literature enshrines belief
and customs of the, 42-3 Celtic and Mediitval RtmioKt, by A.
Nutt, reviewed, 121-2 Cdtk FelilBrt, Wehk and iiaruc, by
J. Rhys, reviewed, 114-6 Cet, chief of Connaught, 55 Ceylon : {tte aiso Tamils ; and Ved-
dahs) ; thrashing i
for, 457-8 Chairs,votive, for Huichol deities, to8 Chalfont St. Giles : game of dabbers,
Champ d'louz C^ivemais) : wren r«-
leased annnally, 70 Channel Islands, see Guernsey Chapalanga river, Huichol Indians of,
107-9 Chapel -en-!c- Frith ; fine on stranger
Ckarltmagne and his Peers, The Hi- manee Cycle of, by J. L. Weslon, reviewed. 375 Charles' Woin constellation, su
Great Bear constellation Channs and spells : agaimi cataract, Poland, 193; clouds obscuring sun, I^nguas, 216 : convulsions, Wakefield, 473 : disease, I'ersia, ayi i drought, Asia Minor, atS ; eclipses, ai6 ; evil eye, 383, Lincolnshire, 178, Penia, 268-9: evil spirits, Ceylon, 458 ; loss of articles, Persia, a7S ; rheumatbmi Newton Abbot, 351-a; scorpion biles, Persia, 272 ; smallpox, Gloucestershire, 35a ; sore feet, Poland, 193 ; staring, injury to children from, Magyars, 472 ; tarantula bites, Peisil^ rja ; water on the brain, Penia, 271 ; witchcraft, Lincolnshire, 173. Persia, 271, Upper Congo, 185; children, lo obtain. Persia, 272 ; churning, for, Compton Clerks), 330. Lincolnshire, 173; dugong, model of, Torres Straits, 230; Eskimo, 508; fort, to render im- pregnable, Baluchistan, 274 ; geese, to ensure good brood of, Poland, ■93 > hunting and fishing, for, Ujiper Congo, 185-6; leaden, Lincoln's Inn, ia8 ; love, Lincoln- shire, 167-9, Poland, 193 i Persia, 263 ; rwnbow, to destroy, Grcy- souttien, 479-80 ; rice-thrashing, Ifor, Ceyion, 450; toad's bone as, Lin- colnshire, 168-9; tooth, for pulhng out, Wilts, So ; Veddah, 37? ! wocU louse, to moke curl up. Wills, So Chaviaras, D., animal superstitions from Asia Minor, collected by.
[
' 1. 1 ■I ' .
.1 ■' n
I
I
h I*
I
S20
Index.
Cheshire, F. J., Rainbow Magic,
479-80 Chevalier de la Charrette, romance of
the, 488.9 Chicken : imitated in Macusi nme, Guiana, 139; water from chiocen's dish cures night-bUndnen, Asia Minor, 191 Childbirth customs and belief, see
Birth customs and beliefr Child-life, folklore of^ 120-1 Children lucky, Upper Congo, 187 Children's diseases, cures for, see
Medical folklore Children's games, see Games Children's rhymes, see Nursery rhymes China : {su also Foochow ; Honan ; and Hupeh) ; one boot of dead in coffin and one left in house, 71 ; the continent di " men," 68 ; death signs, 512; Records of Women*s Conference on the Home Life of Chinese Women reviewed, 504-5 ; shrines, 512 ; swastika on grave- clothes, ^; tomb find, 123 Ching[ford : weathercocks at, 99 {plate) Choking from bone, cures for, Asia Minor, Cos, and Calymnos, 191 -2 Christmas : animal diseuises at, Poland, 193 ; cakes in bird form, 256 ; customs, 507 ; geese-dance, 249 ; guisers, 249 ; guns fired, Bel^um, 120 ; sunlight on apple trees foretells heavy crops, Lincoln- shire, 167 ; Yule doos (cakes), Newcastle-on-Tyne, 131 Christmas Eve : bull fight, mock, Bolivia, 256 ; candle &c left in lead mines for " owd man," Derby- shire, 407; oxen kneel, Wilts, 76; Yule candles, loaves, and posset, Derbyshire miners, 407 Chuckies, game of, 284, 285-6 Chuckie-stones, game of, 284 Church : alphabet used in conse- crating, 100- 1 ; chancel, garland hung from, Hope, 424 ; morris- dancing associated with, 427 ; porch, wraiths of those to die enter out do not leave, St. Mark's Eve, Lincolnshire, 169 ; tower, ^rland hung from, May 29th, Castleton, 410,412, 416, 419-20; wall, burial in, Brent Pelham, 304, {plate), Tolleshunt Knights, 465 ; weathercocks, 99-100 Church bells, rhymes about, Wilts, 81
Ghnrchyud gfaoits, 9m Death aad
fanenl cnstoms and bdiefii Churchjrard bnriftl i*MfffflBW and be> liefr, Mr I>eAth and fiuwnd cnrtoH andbdidGi ChuichyBrd toad, hort givai fto^ «
love qpell, lAicolmfaife, 16S Churning: charm lor, Ornip" (BerksK 33^; OLlt piotocKs fioai witch, Linoolnahire, 173 Cigar ash as narootic, Loniion, 475 Cinderdla type of Iblktale, aoo-i Qndeis» redlxyt : in fiitt water Ibreov after cal^ong, Scotland, 472; to hot bath for newly-bom, 47a ; to heit water for removing taint £ram mett, 474; to season cooking atenik, Scotland, 473-4 s water in wUdi thrown as remedy, Maerais and Wakefield, 472-S Cinder tea as cure, 472*3 QvU Wars, traditions oC Wilts, 77 Clan names among Bantu, 31-3, JS Clan, relations of guild and caste to^
484 Clay Hill, Beckenham : weatfaeroodc
at. 99 i^late) Qeena, sympathetic wave of, 51-2 Qey Hill, Warminster : tiaditioDil
origin of, 7^-9 Clovelly : weathercock at, 99 Cluain-Finnabhrach : taboo on Cormac
conloinges at, 63 Cnossos, palace at, 123 Coach with headless dnver, ^^ts, 73 CoahuUla Indians of Soutkem Cali- fomioy The Etkno-Botanty «^ iff D. P. Barrows, reviewed, 366-8 Coal-mining customs and belief: coal left for fairies, Derbyshire, 407 Cobolds, amongst ancient Pmstians^
297-8 Cock: black, in cure for cataract, Poland, 193; cakes in form of, Austria, I ; crowing lucky and un- lucky at certain hours, Persia, 265 ; crows the hour, Wilts, 75 ; as omen of future of deceased, Ispahan, 278 : in rh)rme, Wilts, 332 ; weather- cocks in shape of, 99 ; whistles in shape of, Poland, 193; wooden heads on houses, Poland, 194 Cockchafer : if common, sign of good
millet year, Poland, 193 Colair Lake, legend of, 380 Colds, cure for, Asia Minor, 191 Coleridge, Miss Christabel, Whitsun
J.iA
Mock Burials,
■e For, Lincolnshire, 472 Collectanea, 67-97, 1B1-Z09, 303-35,
446-66 ColonUI Secretniy, memorial I0, 11,38 Colours, ill Black 1 Blue : Purple ;
Red; am/ White Colt, j« Horse Combangree tribe, legends &c. nf,
Combats, ceremonial, 247 Comtnunion bread, sa Host Compass, points of, used for direc-
Complon (Berks) : churning charm, 330 ; rhymes, 331
Coiuulle-Muirlhemnc : Clichulainn s tight at, 57-S
Conception, lolems determined by place of, 386
Conchobhar sagas : cause of death of king, 55-6 ; gcas« more prominent than in Os^anlc cycle, 43-5 ; king a lerrestrial god, 65 ; Nessa, mother of king, llS t shield roars when king in danger, 51-3; taboos on
^ king. S3-SS
Congo : Stories and other Notes from the Upper Coogo, by J. H. Weeks, i8t.9, 45S-64
Conta Ruodh, sloir of, 440-3
Connaughl, ste Cet ; Connemara ; Mayo ; and Meave
Connemata, sa Salnick
Consecraling church, alphabet used
Constance : plague at lime of Council
of, 314 Consumption, cute for, Poland, 193 Convulsions: allribuled lo "Tilo,"
Baronga, 26 ; cures for, WakeHeld,
473 Conybeare, F. C, The Paganism of
ihe Ancient Prussians, 393-3OZ Cooke, J., Irish Burial Custom, 104 Cooking : utensils seasoned by hot
dnders, Scotland, 473-4 Copper kettles "baptized" before
use, Bigl)y, 473 Coptic folklore, lee Egypt Cora Indians, Mexico, loS Cormac tanloingis : adventnie in the
Land of Promise, 438-9 ; taboos on,
63
Com devil,
t wood to keep ufT,
Com, ear of, in magic figure for rice- thrashing, Ceylon, 458
Com -spirits, vegetation souls, and the like: blackthorn globe burnt and replaced, New Year's morning, Herefordshire, 349-Jl ; Prater's The GoltUn Bough revievi^, 219-43, 355-^. 43'-4S : Grass King proces- sion, Whitsuntide, Grossvorgula, 428; ancient Italian fire- walkers re- presented corn-spirit, 453 ; " kjra maiden," Berwickshire, 129, 3I5'6 ; " reaping maiden," Argyllshire, I ; old Tamil god thrown into river, and replaced, before rice harvest, Ceylon, 457; old whips placed with new ones for whipping game, Guiana, 143
" Com sack, stone in Lincolnshire, 163-5
Cornwall : {sa also Helston); liilile task stories, 131 ,- pebbles xt astragali, 2S4
Corpses, customs and beliefs concern- ing, ste Death and funeral customs and beliefs
Corpus Chrisli : ship-carrying pro- cession, Plymouth, 476
Correspondence, 99-106, 210-8, 336- 53. 467-80
Corsica, sa Busso
Cos : cure for choking from bone, ■()>
Costa Rica : game with knucklebone, 383
Coles du Notd ; folklore colleelions from, reviewed, 370-2
Cotton reels, see Reels, cotton
Council, election of, 4
Counting lambs unlucky, Lincoln-
shire,
"79
Couniing-oui rhymes, 508
Counting years of raja s reign, Uriya States, 347
County Falk-Lare, colleclionB (or, 9-10
Courting customs and belief : (na aisa Charms and spells); "fool- nle" levied on stranger wooer, Dertyshire, 406 ; " pilchering, Deepcar, 406-7
Coavade, 58, 60-1
Cow; (J« a/m Calf; and Cattle) ! bewitched. Market Rasen, 177-8, Wilts, 75 ; calving, ember put in first water given after, Scotland, 472 : dung used in magic figure for rice-thrashing, Ceylon, 45S ;
532
Index.
■
I
knucklebone, nune with, Cotta Rica, 283 ; in Mew Year's omen, Herdbrdshire, 350; in rhymes, Compton (Berks), 331, Wilts, 333; tail slit to ensure conception, Dep. de rOme, 97.
Cimb : claw charm against evil eye, Asia Minor, 191
Crane: respected by Turks, 193; white, children's rhyme on seeine, I^^cc*^* 333 * wooden, in Aiawuc dance or game, Guiana, 144
Creation myths : Shoshones, 379 ;
Wits, 77 Creator : early conceptions of,
113-4; idea foreign to Amasuhi,
23, and to Bechuana, 24
Cremation of dead, see Death and jfimeral customs and beliefs
Crete, discoveries in, 123
Crich : Barmote Court, 395
Cricket : lucky, Asia Minor, 190
Criminab : chips from gravestone of lucky, Japan, 71 ; intestines eaten, Japan, 71
Crockerton Revel, 76
Crocodile: Bechuana tribe named Bfttx, 31, 36 ; hunting ceremonials. Upper Congo, 186; souls of middle- class pass into, Madagascar, 342; totem, Yam Island, 231
Crooke, W. , reviews by, Cheyne and Black's Encychpctdia Biblica^ 247- 8 ; Rouse's The Jdiaka, or Stories of the Buddha s former Births j Arnold's The Rigveda^ and Rice's Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life^ 245-7
Crook's Moor (W. Riding) : building house &c. in one night gives title to land, 397
Cropping Animals' Ears, by N. W. Tnomas, 97, 208, and W. R. Paton, 2o8-9
Cross : equal-armed, in magic figure for rice-thrashinj;, Ceylon, 458 ; swastika, 69 ; wicken-tree sprigs in form of, against witch- work, Lin- colnshire, 175
Crow : carries wood for hell fires, negroes (U. S. A.), 252 ; cawing a bad omen, Asia Minor, 190 : Parsee corpses exposed to, 278 ; unlucky in house, Poland, 193 ; witch appears as, Poland, 194
Croydon: astragali, 284; '*five -stones," 258
«
Crucifixion at Pocklii^loii in 1648 217
Cmdfixioo of JeMH» J. G. FnoeA views on dixnawd, bf M. Gaitar, 226-30, A. Long, 256-7, and Mw C S. Burae, 241-3
Crustacea in foUdoffe, sm Grabs '■<' Lobster
CAchulainn «is : Cdchnlainn a an h«n>, 58, £k-3p 65; nua bor pfominent than in Omhuuc c|cfc^ 43-4 i moCfaer of Qidmlaintt and her maidepi appear as 1iiid% 48-9; peiiodioal prottiation of Ulster warriors, 56-9$ taboos rand Cdchulainn, 49-509 6«-3» and dnef jpersonaees, 61-5 Cocking^ custom, Easter, Biadwdl,
407
Cuckoo : becomes hawk in winter, Poland, 194; when first bend, moner turned, Poland, 193; sayiw;, Wiltshire, 82; transformed ^, Poland, 194
Cuckoo-flower : used in garland, May 29th, Bradwell, 426
Cmtntos BreUmes : CuttUms P^pwhns de Campesinas Ascad^nes j Aim^ msfws, trans, by M. Machado^ re* viewed, 252
Cumberluid, see Greyaouthen
Cupid and Psyche type of folktales,
»7-93 CuHcsitfs de la Vie Bnfamtvu:
Etudes de Folklore^ by A. Gitt^
reviewed, i20-i Curonenses, customs of, 299-302 Customs in the Building Trade, by
W. H. Jewitt, 104 Customs relating to Iron, by H.
Colley March, 340-1, Miss M.
Peacock, 472-3, Miss K. Carson,
473-4» and Miss C. S. Bume, 474-5 Cutting off the Head of a Corpse, fay
M. Braitmaier, 214 Cuzco: knucklebone from, 283 Cypress tree, in Greek folktale, 208
Dabbers, game of, 284, 292 Daisy : divination by, 256 Damaraland, see Ovaherero Dames, M. Long worth — , note on The
Ancient and Modem Game of
Astragals, 289 Dances : Bagn^res de Luchon, 316 ;
Baluchistan, 273-41 grass dancei
Yankton Indians, 379; Greece,
^^ 16;
K
. 146-50. '55-6' ■Ilupa, 379; Mayo, 158 {Jilalc) mollis, sei Morris-dancing ; teir used for animal tribes uf Bechuina, 31 1 loiem, 391 ; Veddah, 379 Days and Seasons : April, 4S, 8a, 167, 169, 264 ; August, 48, 70 ; Beltaine, 47 i Chinese years, names of, 504 : Cbrislmas, 130, 13I, 167, '93i ^9i 356, J07 1 Chrislmas Eve, 76, 256, 407 ; Corpus Chrisli, 476 ; December, 1,48, 76, 1Z9> I3l> 167. 193, 314, 249> 15^1 4071 5^ ' Sasler, 192, 407 : February, 57, ■JD ; Friday, 252, 264 ; Hallow- e'en, 47, 57, 167; Januar}', 167, 349-S'. 507; July. 70, 76; June, , 72, 120, 214, 476 ; Lucky and unlucky, 47, 264-S ; March, 70. 80, 275-6; May, 47, 71, 76,
Midsummer Day, ISO : Midsummer Eve, 315-7 ; Midsummer Night, 72 ; Midwinter, 120: Monday, 47- 8 ; New Year's Day, 70, 227, 275-6, 349-51, 507 ; November, 193, 217. ■J41 ; October, 47, 57, 395 ; Palm ^Sunday, 74-S, 189 ; St. Agnes' e, 167 ; St. Andrew's Eve, 193 ; Clement's Day, 217, 249, 344-6 ; Si. Mark's Eve, 167, 169 ; St. Nicholas" Day, 1 i St. Thotnas' Day, 249 i Samhain, 47, 57 : Shrovetide, 81 ; Spring, 296; Tuesday, 47 ; Wednesday, 47, 164 i Whitsuntide, 351, 428; Winter, 57-8, 508 ; St. Clair's Mythi of Gruce (based on calendar), re- viewed, 362-4, 469-71 Dead, land •A\\M,!ce lEades Deatii and funeral customs and beliefs T \sie alio Graves ; and Omens) ; Biblical, 247 -. body must
. ; body thrown into sacred lake, Madagascar, 343 ; burial customs and tolemism, 393 ; burial customs, Baiir, 381, Bedouin, 383, Greece, 125, Jews of Bukowina, 509, and KaJiiaginiDule whalers, Aleutian Islands, 571; burial in church wall, Brent Pelham, 304, Tolles- hunt Knights, 465 ; burial mark of Mycenaean age, burning of Homeric age, 361-2, 468-9,- buriaj ol slave
wife with husband, Upper Congo, 459-60; burials, mock, 351-21 churchyard custom, Salruck, 3, 104, 258 {Jilaie viii.j; cull of dead among Amarulu, 23, 37, 34, and Bechuana and Bomlo, 25 ; dead assume form of 10. tern animal, N. America, Mada- gascar, ac, 36-7, 342-3 ; dead avenge insult. Upper Congo, 1S4; dead cause abnormal events, Upper Congo, 464 1 dead cause diseases, E. and W. Prussia, 214 ; dead visit house if one boot left there, China, 71 ; death signs, China, 512 ; death lypifi^ in Buddhist Wbeet of Ufe, 68 : fairs and feasts comniemomlive of deaths, Greece and Ireland, 60 ; food lor dead, Kerman, 278, ancient Prussians, 300-2 : funeral feasts, Asia Minor, 192, ancient Prus^tis, 30O-2; ghosts, lit Ghosts j ghouls attend Azrael, Persia, 262 1 future life, Tahiti, 3S4 ; gifts to corpse, ancient Prussians, 300- 1 ; graveclolhes, swastika on, China. 69 ; head ol corpse cut off, E. and W, Prussia, 214: head of corpse between thighs, Roj-sion, 101-2; joumcy money (or dead, ancient Prussians, 300-1 : maternal uncle presides at funeral, Bosulos, 19 ; rnouming. Bedouin, 383, Biblical, 247, Egyptian, 383 : name of dead not spoken. Upper Congo, 1S4; name of dead used for children. Upper Congo, 462 ; swallows released at funeral, Japan, 70 ,- totemism in connection with death and burial, 391 ; whipinng game of Arawaks, Guiana, 141-2; why death continnes on earth, BaJolo legend, 461 ; Wiedemann's The Realms of Iht Egyptian Dtad reviewed, 364-6 j young buried, but old burned. New South Wales, 469
Death, the city of the Road of, Greek folkwle, 317-20
Death to be avoided h^ keeping awake, Upper Con^ folktale, 460
Deccan : ^see also ^tecunderabad) ; name means both 'right ' and
December : {set also Christmas ; Christmas Eve ; and St. Nicholas'
524
Index.
!
II
Day) ; Japanese Oharai in, 214 ; third Monday unlucky, Ireland, 48 Dechtire, mother of Cuchulainn, 64-5 De diis in locis editis cultis aptid Grmi-oSt by C. Albers, reviewed, 500-2 Deeixrar : ** pitchering," 406-7 Deer : astragali from, Arkansas, 283 ; blood consecrates Huichol sacred discs, 108 ; cakes in form of, Austria, i ; if eaten by dogs, guardian spirit offended, Hudson's Bay, 208 Deitv, conceptions of : Amazulu, 23,
26-7 ; Bechuana, 23-7 Deluge legends, 383, 503 Demavend, legends of, 274 Demon possession, see Possession Demons : (see also Devil) ; appear as black dogs or pigs, Asia Minor, 191, as cat-head^ men,. Persia, 262, as donkey for sale, Assiut, 329 ; Demon of Impermanency in Buddhist Wheel of Life, 68 ; divs, Persia, 262-3 ; dwell in pipal tree, India, 213-4 ; iron to ward off, Ceylon, 458 ; Japanese, 68 ; powers greater in darkness, Persia, 263 ; spoil at night food cooked in day, Persia, 263 Denmark : futile task stories, 131 Derby : game of snobs, 291 Derbyshire : (see also Abne>- ; Apple- tree ; Ashford; Bradwell; Castle- ton : Chapcl-en-le-frith ; Crich ; Derby ; Eyam ; Hamestan ; Hathersage ; Hope ; Litchurch ; Little Hucklow ; Matlock ; Mony- ash ; Morleston ; Pindale : Repton and Gresley ; Scarsdale ; Shatton ; Smalldale ; Stoney Middleton ; Thomhill ; Tideswell ; Walecros ; and Wirksworth) : Barmote Courts, 395; game of " snobs," 258, 290-1 : The >Iill of the Twelve Apostles, by S. O. Addy, 2l8: wapentakes, 395 ; water in which hot iron cooled given to newly-born, 472 Deverill district (, Wills), folklore
notes from, 71-83 Devil : (see also Demons) ; appears as dog. Wilis, 74. as hare at hang- ing, Wilts, 74 : burial in church wall to outwit. Brent PelhAm, 304, Tolleshuni Knights, 465 : change of site by, Tolleshunt Knights, 465-6 : combat with knight, Tol'*^-
hunt Knights, 465; " DcvU's paid-, dock," V/ilts, 78 ; the devil who married a wife, loi, 213^ ; in Pistoian drolls, 372 ; word deri tabooed while rice - thiashin^ Ceylon, 458 Devil Outwitted type of folktales,
I25» 372 Devil Tales, by V. F. Bqyie, re- viewed, 251-2 Devizes, devil's plot against, 78-9 Devonport: ship-canyin^ processioii.
May Day, 470 Devonshire, see Clovelly ; Devon- port ; Monkleigh ; Newton Abbot ; Plymouth; a#t^ Wool borough Diarmuid O'Duibhne : foster-brother transformed to wild boar, 48: taboos in story of Diarmuid and Grainne, 44 ; wicket-gate tabooed to, 61 Dibs, game of, 284, 290 Dice, knucklebones as, 281*2 Dinn Riogh : taboo on King of Lein-
ster at, 46 Dion3rsiac processions, 476 Discs, sacied : Dischi Sacri, by F. T. Elworthy, 259 ; of Huichol Indians, 108 Diseases : cures for, see Medical folk- lore ; due to dead relative. El. & W. Prussia, 214, evil ghosts and spirits, Upper Congo, 184, 463-4, jinns, Persia, 263, and ** Tilo." Baronga, 26 ; modes of drinking to avert. Upper Congo, 188-9; removal or disguise to outwit spirit* causing illness. Upper Congo 463-4 ; sick share food with spirit causing sickness, Upper Congo, 46' Diss: "roaring" of bell foretelli
death, 480 Dives and Lazarus, parallel to parabh
of, 499 Di\-inaiion : (see also Charms anc spells ; and Omens) ; daisy pick ing, 256: by ephod. 24S ; b knucklebones, Greeks and Romans 2S2, 290 : by wax poured in water ancient Prussians &c. , 298 ; divina tion wands of Druids from yew 437 : of harvest, ancient Prussian* j 295 : of marriage, Lincolnshire I 107. Poland. 193 '- Veddah, 379 I DivminT rod: in Grimm*s Germa ; MythMog)-, 445; for metali ' L.S.A-, 102-3
I70 Dog : bite from cured by rcmovinE hair from, Asia Minor, 191 : ' biLch' QOE opprobrious in Greek, 330 i black, demons or vam-
B'les appear as, Asia Minor, 191 ; ack, haunts place of murder &c, IJncolnshiic, 172: breath of puppy cures choking from bone, Asia Minor, Cos, and Calymnos, 19a r clolhes thrown away over which Inlch passes, Asia Minor, 1S9 ; corpses of ancient Persians lorn by, xjS ; devil appears as, Wilts. 74 ; car or tail cropped if enls deei meal, Hudson's Bay, loS ; llesh tabooed toCuchulainn, 49-50 ; in Greek folktale, 91 ; hawUng a death omen, Asia Minor, 190 ; jinn and afreet appear as, Perida 163 : licking by cures wound, Asia Minor, 191; in marriage divination, Poland, 193 ; nickname for, A^ Minor, 192; proverb, Persia, 279; reverenced by Parsees, 277-8 ; in rhyme, Secunderabad, 334-5 ; souls of diowned appear as, Poland, 193 ; in story from Upper Egypt, 330 ; used to decide if man dead, Parsees, 277 ; whistles in shape of, Poland, 193
Donkey, set Ass
Donkey-skin, Greek folktale, 320-3
Doorways tabooed, Marquesas Islands, 62
Dove : in Buddhist Wheel of Life, 67
Dragon : aurora borealis as, N. Lincolnihite, 166 ; the Fight with the Dragon. 511 ; A Henrord- shire Si. George, 303-7 (/>/ati) ; myth connected with Jonah legend, 248 ; weathercock in shape of, 99- 100 f^/altj
Dreams : Persian belief in, 2G3 ; spirit helpers announced in. Sea Dyaks, 231-2; totems ascertained by. Cape York, 331
Drinking customs. Upper Congo, i3S-9
Drolls ; England, 477 ; P^toia, 372-3
Drought, averting, ut Rain
Drowned : bodies found by floating paper, Japan, 71, 314 : bodies found by spectral lights, 344 i some fated to be, on Midsummei Day,
Walloon, 120; souls of, appear as
horses or dogs, Poland. 193 Druids : Cathbod the Druid, 57, 63,
iiS; divination wands from yew,
437 Drummond, R. J., The Rice Harvest
in Ceylon. 457-8 Duck : vicissi duck imitated in
Macusi game, Guiana, 13S Dugung: ceremony to obtain npply
of, Torres Straits, 230-1 ; model of
used as charm, Torres Straits, 230 ;
as totem, Torres Straits, 230-1 Dumb, folklore of the. 353 Dung of cow used in magic figure for
rice' thrashing, Ceylon, 45S Duns : kirn maiden or dolly from.
Dust not swept out of door, Lincoln-
shire,
179
Dutch folklore, i« Holland
Dwarfs, Shoshones, 379
Dyaks, Nynrong or spirit helper nf.
Eagle: in Greek folktale, 318-9; nailed la house front, Polantf, 194 ; with Charles H. in oak, Castleton, 41*. 417
Eating : weathercock at, 99
Sar/y Age af Creete, tht, by W, Ridgcway, reviewed, 360-2, 336-9, 467-9
Early-Rising JesI, by W. H. Jewitl, 477
Ears of animals, cutting or cropping, 31,97,208
Ears of trespasser cut off, Farlhin and Gelhsemane, 209
East Anglia, /« Nofrolk ; aid Suffolk
Easter : cakes in snake form, Asia Minor, 192 1 cakes with bird orna- ments, Asia Minor, 192 ; " tuck- ing " custom, Brodwell, 407 ; 3rd Sunday after, festival at "Gratefiil Fr^ius, "307-15
East Hallon, see Halton, East
East Indies, let Bali ; Borneo ; Java ; Mabuaig ; New Guinea ; Papuans ; Sumatra ; Sundanese ; Torrci Straits ; and Yam Island
East o' the Snn and West o" the Moon type of folktale, 86.93
East Prussia, sie Prussia, East
Sa6
Index.
I
i
1'
Eating intestines of criminal, Japan,
Eclipses, solar, magical rites for, 216 Edmonton : weathercock at, 100 Edom, sacrifice of son of king of,
347. 476
Eel : in Greek folktale, 205-6; souls of lower classes pass into, Mada- gascar, 342
Eggs : not brought into house after sunset, Lincolnshire, 167 ; in charms against disease and witch- craft, Persia, 271 ; single basket of for market unlucky, Lincolnshire, 179 ; yolkless eggs unlucky in house, Lincolnshire, 179
E(^'pt : (see also Abdul FCida ; Assiut ; Cairo ; and Luxor) ; birth customs, mourning, &c. , 383 ; Upper, orien- tation by fellahin, 210, and stories from, 329-30;
ancient — Wiedemann*s The Realms of the Egyptian Dead reviewed, 364-6 ; society not perfectly analogous to that of caste, 482 ; Griffith's Stories of the High- priests of Memphis reviewed, 497-500
Elaine, in Arthurian romances, 495-6
Elburz mountains, see Demavend
Eleusinian mysteries, 432-4
Elephant : Bechuana tribe named after, 31 ; charms for hunting. Upper Congo, 185-6
El worthy, F. T., Dischi Sacri, 259
Elysium, see Iladcs
Emain Macha : apple-tree of, 436, 438 ; palace at, 57, 438 ; taboo on Cuchulainn at, 63 ; weapons fall from racks when Conchobhar in danger, 51-2
Emania, see Emain Macha
Emeralds : powdered, as remedy, Persia, 270
Emslie, J. P., Weathercocks, {plaie)^ 99-100
Encyclopivdia Biblica, by T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, reviewed,
247-8 Enj;land : (^see also under names of
counties^ ; futile task stories, 131 Eni^lish Dialect Dictionary^ The^ by
J. Wright, reviewed, 248-9 Epileptic fits, caused by jinns, Persia,
263 Erdinenlen, ancient German gods,
296
Eskimo: charm» 508 ; if dogi eat deer meat, their ears &c. cropped, ao8 ; primitive orientation, 210-2
Essex : isu eilso Buckhnrst Hill ; Chingford ; and ToHeshuit Knights) ; ** five stones," 258
Esther, Book of : 248 ; J. G. FrMcr's views discussed by M. Caster, 226-
Esthonia : Kallas' Achttig Marchem
der Liut%iner Esten reviewed, 124-5 Etain, Irish goddess, 65, 118 Ethno-Botany of the CoaknUU
Indians of Southern CaJiforma^
The, by D. P. Barrows, reviewed.
366.8 Ethnoli^cal Significance of Burial
and Cremation, The, by N. W.
Thomas, 468*9 Evil eye: charm against, 383; Asia
Minor, 191 ; Italy, 259 ; Lincoln-
shire. 173, 175, 178 ; Persia, 268-9 ;
Portugal, 259 Evil spirits, see Demons Evolution of customs &c. may be
differential, 232 Ewerby Wath (Sleaford) : weather
rhyme on stones, 165 Executioners and their &milies have
unlucky faces, Persia, 265 Exhibits, I, 3, 7-8, 129, 131, 257-8,
259-60
Exodus, Book of, references in Egj-ptian story to, 499
Exogamy: amongst Bantu, 32-3: connected with totemism, 385, 389- 90
Eyam : Barmote Court, 395 ; no garland ceremony, 426 ; morris- dancing, 426
Eyes : fish gall remedy for disease of, Persia &c., 248 ; omen of soul's destiny from eye attacked by birds, Persia, 27S : ordeal applied to, Upi^^r Congo, 187 ; symbolic, in Hiiichol temples, loS
Eyre, Miss M.. rhymes collected bv,
Jj2-3
Fables: Marchiano's /^'Or/Ww^ 7'"* raryia Orem c t ."it/os ra/^/i^^rti icn ic favole oricniali reviewed, 2 5a-i : Kamaswami Raju's /nMan /-a^Us reviewed. 503 : Ske.it \s Fi2l>:es and Fo/.i'ta.'cs r'rci an E.zs/,r,t /-Vn :: reviewed, 502 -3
Fabli.aux, A. Giitee on, lao-i
Fuce paintings of Hiiichol Indians, 109
Faces, lucky and unlucky, Persia, 265
Fairies : cool left in pit for, Derby- shire, 407 ; fairy dwellinm^or Mdh of Ireland, 50-1 ; Null's Tie Fairy Mftkehgy of Shakesfcart le- viewed, ili-z ; in lais di Brc- laigne, 118-9: Lincolnshire, 170; morris-dancing borrowed from, Derbyshire, 42G ; rtick-&jries, Arapahoes, 379; Wales, 1 14-6
Fairs : Alsace, 5(^ ; andeni Irish, So ; Warminster, 8z
Faith cures, Persia, 270
Familiar spirit, fly as. Guernsey, 103
Family : in Bible, 348 ; evolution of the, 1 10 ; kraal family system among Amandebele, 326-9
Fasting before sacramental meal, 34E
Favcrdiam : astragali from pig, 284
Feafts : ancient Irish, 60 ; funeral, Asia Minor, 193 ; ancient PruS' sians, 300-3; Greece,moileni, 135; Jews of Bukowina, 509; marriage, Wataveta, 256
February: Ciichulainn st rubles with Meave's hosts till Wednesday after Imbolc (isl), 57 ; Japanese Obarai in, 70, 314
Feet-washing, sa Marriage customs atid beliefs
Feilberg's Seventieth Birthday, Dr.. by Miss M. R. Cox and E. W. Brabrook, 477-9
Fergus, laboo on in Cuchulitinn cycle, 61
Fern : used in Garland, May 39th, CatlletoD, 41S
Festivals and Saints' Days, see Days and Seasons
Fetishism : negro, Bahia, 353 : Stein' meU' views on, Iio-I ; de Visser's
ilh c
views on, 243-4 Feudalism os compared ■
Fifteen: tSth of all months lucky,
Persia, 265 Fig-tree ; in Greek folktale, 92 Fiji Islands : fire walk rile in, 446,
Fingen, Conehobhar's leech, 55 Finger-nails, ut Nails, Gngcr Fingers of children, Wilts sayings lor.
Finn sacas : geasa less prominent than in Cuchulainn cycle, 43-5 1 wicket- gale tabotwd, 61-2
Fire ; brought to earth by Above-folk, Upper Congo, 460 ; burning thatch b-om witch s house, Lincolnshire, 1 76 : Iluichol god oF, loS ; kindled to end witchcraft, Lincoln, 177 : kindled on last Wed- nesday in SafTar, and children jump over, Persia, 264 ■, origin of, Combangrce tribe, 3B3 ; perpetual, in honour of god Pa^n, Samogilx, 398; talisman to avert, Foochow, 512 ; word tabooed while rice- thrashing, Ceylon, 458 1 worship- pers, see Paisees
Fire drakes, see Dragon
Fire festivals, 316, 315-7
Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti, The, by S. P. Langlay, 446-55 {plate)
Firstborn, Semitic sacrifice of : J. G. Fraier's views discussed, 347
First foot in new building lucky, Persia, 365
Firstfruils : cooking preceded by the lire walk, 453-3 ; given away, Upper Congo, 1 86
Fish i Ute also Carp t Eel ; o«rf Octo- pus) i Bechuana tribe named alter, 31 ; gall cures eye disease, Persia &c, 248 ; prickle used as toothache cure, Asia Minor, 193 ; lacred, Wales, 1 1 J : weathercock in shape of, 99 (/^"ie) '■ worship of, 348
Fishbone, choking from, cures for, Asia Minor, C^, and Calymnos, 193
Fishing ; (.see aim Sponn-lishing j and Whaling customs and beliefs) ; charms, Upper Congo, 185-6 ] human sacnfice for luck. Upper Congo, 187-8; proverb, Pistoia, 372-3 : Sebillofs Le Folk-Ure des r/eieurs levicvted, 371-I
Five : criminal sacriRced on fifth day of feast, Ashanti, 237 : human sacrifice on fiflh day of Sacea, Babylon, 336-7 ; nol used on an- cient knucklelxme dice, 283
Five-bones, game of, 384
Five-stones, game of, 384
Fivies, game of, 284
Flail in magic figure for rice-thrash- ing, Ceylon, 458
Flatulence, cure for, 474. Lincoln-
I
• r
i
!i.
f
528
Index.
Fkz coltivatioii : GimM King pio- oeisiony Whitsuntide^ GrottrnguU, 428
Florida, su Murphy BUnd
Flowers in folklore : (imo^ Cuckoo- flower ; Daisy; Goose-^rus ; Haw- thorn ; Hyacinth; Lilacf Lily; Marigold ; Mayflower ; Monka* hood ; Nippkwort ; Orchid ; Primrose; Red campion; Sweet- flag iVTulip ; Valerian ; Wallflower ; muL Water-lily) ; not broug^ into house after sunset, Lincolnshire^ 167; key flower in Barbaiossa legends, 445 ; Peigrubrius, ancient Prussian (^ of flowers, 295-6
Fly : as fiuniliar spirit, Guernsey, 103
Ffying carpet in Greek folktale, 325
Foal, su liorse
Folk-dnuna : (ju also Christmas [guiiers ftc]) ; passion play, Persia,
Folkestone : Fifth of November cele- brarion, 241
Folklore : bibliography, su Biblio- gr^)hy ; collection of mateiiak cannot wait, 40 ; dissemination by slavery and war. Upper Congo, 463 ; its importance for proper government of native tribes, 38-9 ; progress of study in nineteenth century, 17-8
Folklore of Lincolnshire, The, by Miss M. Peacock, 3, 161-80
Folklore Notes from South-West Wilts, by T. U. Powell, 3, 71-83
Folklort : IVhat is it, and what is the Good of it, by £. S. Hartland, reviewed, 12 1-2
Folk medicine, see Medical folklore
Folk-rhymes, su Rh3rmes
Folk-sayings, see Proverbs
Folk-songs : Balochee, 289 ; Flet- cher's Indian Story and Song from North America reviewed, 368-70 ; Abbott's Songs of Modem Greece reviewed, 125 ; Wilts, 77 ; words for Garland Day tune, Costlelon, 421-2
Folktales : {jsee also Folktales from the y«:gean); Brittany, 252, 370-1; Combangree tribe, 383; Derbyshire, 218 ; English droll, 477 ; Estho- nian, 124-5 ; formula for opening, Wilts, 76 ; Hindu, 503 ; Husband and Wife Story, loi, 213-4; Lin- colnshire, 163-5 \ Malay, 502-3 ;
ncobii dioUa. 3y».3; tUAt 3S4; Uoper Congo^ igs^ 45841 ;
Folktales from the i^eui,fawW.R. Paton: The Aoconed Sdod- mutcr» 84-6; Me&doiii, 86-93; Thirteen, 93-7 ; The Woodatfler Lad, 197-aoo ; The Three Siila% MO-i; The Rinic, joi-j; 1^ Fkwon, ao3-7; FoK-ddn. Ja74; Ulum-Sdier, 317*30; Iloracf^fcab
Fonafay Top (Guator) : feUfoi OHBd-
ing ruler of weather, 163 Fond-ploiigh, 249
Foochow : taliwnan to avert fire^ 5U
Fool-ploogfa, 249
" Foot-ale," fine on stnuMer wooo^ High Peak, 406 ^^
Fonep Und, SotMic, 249
Fonpeak, to, 249
Fortunate Younger Son type of fioOe^ tales, 124
Foude^ the Gnmd, Shethmd^ 249
Founfhition lacrificea, 248
Fountain, in Greek lolktale, 92
Fourteen : X4th day of all monte lucky, Persia, 265
Fos: in Buddhist Wheel of Lifeb 214; in Greek folktale, 207^; in test of future of deceased, I^- sees, 278 ; weathercock in shape of, Neasdon, 99
Fox-skin, Greek folktale, 207-8
France: {su also Alsace; Brittaay; Corsica ; C6tesdu Nord ; Gironde ; Haute Garonne \ Herault t Lan- guedoc ; Lot-et-Garoime ; Nivcr* nais ; Ome, Dep. de 1' ; Pas de Calais ; Provence ; Seine ; emi Var); carnival procenions, 476; Weston's GuingamoTy Lenrrai, TyoUt, The Werewolf (Bisclteveret) reviewed, 116-9, 344; Weston^ The Legend of Sir Lancelot dm Lac, reviewed, 486-497 ; Weston's The Romance Cycle of Charle- magne and his Peers reviewed, 375 ; Vine^afting in Southern France, by C. A.Janvier, 194-7
Frazer, T. G., New Year Customs in Herefordshire, 349-51
Free-bench tenure, 249
French folklore, see France
Fr^jus : " Grateful Frt^jus," by E. M. Jones, 307-15
Friday : jay carries wood for hell fire
Index.
529
negroes (U. S. A.). 1$! ; unlucky, Persia, 364 Friern Bamet : weathercock at, 9Q Frog; when firsi heard, money turned. Poland, 193 ; pounded to cure hand, Asia. Minor, 191 ; irce-frc^ in hand cures excessive perspiration, Poland. :93 ; witches appeal as, " ' ■,194
Fniils in folklore, i« Apple; Bar- berries ; and Pomegianale
Frunuty-Rower, lu Cuckoo-flower
Funeral customs and beliefs, see Death and Funeral customs and belief
Future life, beliefs about, set Death and funeral customs and beliefs
Fylfot, let Swastika
Gabres, He Parsees
Gabriel ratchet, lee Spectral bunt
Gael, Irisb literature enshrines heMtU,
and customs of the, 42-3 Galahad, ioArthutiaD
496
Gales, lee Storms
Games : astragals, 106. 315, 257- S, zSo-93 : hall. Persia, 274 ; children's, in English Dialect Dic- tionaiy, 149, A Gilt^e on. I30. Wilts, 76; Cayuse, 379; defined, 1341 dice Kames, 2S1-1: Guiana, 130, 131-61 ifilaies); Hupa, 379; Makab Indian, 379 : in nuuriage riles, 5. India, 347 ; on Palm Sun- day, Wills, 75 ; sacred animal, Bannock Indians, 379 ; Persia. a74-5 i Ule. 379
Games of the Red-men of Guiana, by E. F. im Thum, 130, 132-61 iplates)
Gardoael, ancient Prussian god, 296
Garlanrl Day at Castleton, by S. O. Addy, 394-430 If/ales]
" Garlands " in Midlands, 3^0
Garlands, feasts known as, 427
Caitree : sua Ice. not to be pointed at, )66
Gaster, M. 1 King Solomon and the Blacksmith, 475-6 ; " Moab or Edom," 476 i review by, Fraxer's TAt Geldta Baugh, 236-30
Gates, see Wick«t-galM
Gateways tabooed, Marquesas islands, 63 VOL XII. 2
Gawain. in Arthurian rt
490, 493>4 ; lale of his marriage -""— ';ted with the Wife of Batffs
Tale, 374
Gaielle; unlucky if ci left, Persia, 266
Geosa, see Old Irish Tabus or Geua
Geese-dance, 349
Genovcva type of folktales, 84-6
Georgia, see Ossabow Island
Geris^, W. B., A Henfordsbiie St. George, 303-7 [flate]
Germany : (set also Alsace ; Baden j Heligoland ; Prussia : Saxony ; diuf Swabia) ; gales portend result of trial, 165-6 ; hoise giveti blood from own (ail, 97 1 ship processions, 476-7
Ghcais ; (see atsa Death and funeral customs and belieli) : in animal form, 172 ; Asia Minor. 191 ; Assiut, 339 ; Buddhist, 67-8 ; "ghosi -keeping," Yanklon Indians, 379 ', of inanimate objects, 169 ; Lincolnshire. 169-70 ; Upper Congo, 184 ; Wilishire, 72-5
Ghouls, Persia, a6l
Giants: Aswut, 329; Hertfordshire. 305 1 William of Lindhohne, 170-1
Gilliver, see Wallflower
Gilyaks. Amur district, 68
Gingerflowers. jm Ked campion
Ginns, i^Jinns
Gironde : (see aisa Bordeaux ; and Bourg-sur-Gironde) : astragali, 258
Glencoe : spectral lights, 343
Gloucestershire : smalipoi cured by mock burial, 352
Goal : black she-goat, head of eaten for nigbl -blindness. Aua Minor. 191 : children enchanted as goats, Baluchistan, 374 ; in Jltaka, 246 : kepi for luck, Poland, 193: sacri- ^ced at end of harvest, ancient Prussians, 295-7 ■ sacrificed to prosper traveller, Persia, 266
Goblin foal, Lincolnshire, 172
Godarville: unlucky lo lell age, 179
Godden, Miss G. M., The Legend of ihe Sand-Rope and other Fuiile Tasks. B.C. 400— A.D. 1900, 131
Gods, conceptions of, «e Deity
Goldchild type of folktales, 124
Gold Coast : taboos of time. 59
Gcldm B0Hgk, The, a Study in Magic and Rtligion, reviewed by E. W. Brnbro.ik, G. L. flomme, M Ga».
S30
Index.
i i t
ter, A. C. HaddoD, F. B. Jevons, A. Lang, A. Nutt, and Miss C. S. Burne, 2x9-243, 355-6 ; Moab or Edom?, by Miss J. L. Weston, ^7, and M. Caster, 476; The Silver Bough in Irish IJigtndi, by Miss Eleanor Hull, 431 -4S
Gomme, Mrs. A. B., A Berwickshire Kern-dolly, 129, 215-6
Gomme, G. L., review by, Frazer's Tfu Golden Bough, 222-5
Gooding (collecting gifts), 249
Goose : means to ensure good brood, Poland, 193 ; wild, witch appears as, Poland, 193
Gooseberry or feberry loaves. Brad- well, 421-3
Goose-grass, Wiltshire name of, 82
Gotham stories, 503
Grafting of vines, S. France, 194-7
Gran Chaco : sun charm of Lenguas,
2X6
Grape vine, see Vine
Grass from grave used against witches,
Lincolnshire, 176 Grasshopper: children's rhyme on,
Asia Minor, 190 ; lucky, Asia
Minor, 190 ; omen from, Asia
Minor and Calymnos, 190 Grasshopper of Royal Exchange, 100 Grass King procession, Whitsuntide,
Grossvargula, 428 " Grateful Fr^jus," E. M.Jones, 307-
Grave : child laid in, as remedy for water on brain, Persia, 271 ; chips from gravestones bring luck, Japan, 71 ; feasts to gravediggers, Asia Minor, 192 ; grass from, used against witches, Lincolnshire, 176 ; lying in, remedy for rheumatism, Newton Abbot, 351
Graveyard : {see also Churchyard) ; haunted by ghouls, Persia, 262
Great Bear constellation : water-filled jars to represent, Foochow, 512 ; Wiltshire name, 81-2
Croat Bear Lake : charm, Eskimo, 508 ; hunting superstition, 508
Greece, see /Egean ; Athens ; Greek civilisation ; Greek folklore ; and Mycenrtan civilisation
Creek civilisation : Prof. Ridgeway's views on, discussed by A. Nutt, 336-9 ; Ridgeway's The Early Age of Greece reviewed, 360-2, by W.
H. D. Rottse» 467-S, and N. W.
Thomas, 468-9
Greek folklore : (jue mif Athens; iCgean; and Mjroccae); animal superstitions, 189^ ; Albeis Dt diis in locis ediHs emltis etftd Graces reviewed, 500-2 ; de Viaer's De Graecorum diis mem rrfertmtibm speciem humanum reviewed, 243- 5 ; dice, 282 ; futile tasks oo vases, Iji ; game of astragals, 257, 280-1 ; St. Clair's Myths of Grma reviewed, 362-4, 469-71 ; Maidu- an6's VOrigine detia Faoda Grtm e i Suai rapporti ecm le fntU orientali reviewed, 250-1 ; tfcri- fice to avert shipwreck, Z05 : Ab* bott's Sot^ of Modem Gneee reviewed, 125
Greenford (Midfd.) : weathercodc at, 99 {plate)
Greg, W. W., review by, Weston's The Legend of Sir Ixauelot du Lac,
486-97 ''Greybeards" used against witdi-
cran, Lincolnshire, 176 Greysouthen : rainbow magic, 479-80 Griggling, 249 Grindstones, new, folklore of^ India,
380 Grossvargula : Crass King procession,
Whitsuntide, 428 Grove, Miss F., death of, 260, 349 ;
Horses' Heads, 348-9 Grovely Wood (Wilts), villagers'
rights in, 76 Cuebres, see Parsees Guenevere, Queen, see Queen Gaene-
vere Guernsey : fly as familiar spirit, 103 Guiana : Games of the Red-men of
Cuiana, by E. F. im Thum, 130^
132-61 {plates) Guilds as compared with caste, 484 Guirtgamory Lanval, TyoUt, The
Werewolf {Bisclaveret), by J. L.
Weston, reviewed by Miss Eleanor
IIulU 1 16-9, 344 Guisers, 249 Gujerat : game of astragals, 258, 285
Haddon, A. C, leview by, Fraiers The Golden Bough, 230-3
Hades : {^see also Hell) ; Celtic Elysium, 435-43 ; The Silver Bough in Irish Legend, by Miss Eleanor
Index.
. head.
Hull, 431-45 ; Upper Congo ideas,
.84-S Hafiz, volume of, used In laking tots,
264 Hainaull, see Godorville Hair: cui of! from bride's
ancient Pnissians, agg Hall, common surname at Castleton,
396 Hallowe'en : Cliehulninn's simple
with Mcave's hosts begins Mon
before, 57 ; love divination
Lincolnshiie, 167; taboo on King
of Eire on Tuesday after, 47 Hallon, East : Hob-Thnist spiiit, 170 Hamestan, wapentnlte of Detby-
sbire, 395 Hampshire^ {lee alte Ilursley; anJ
Twyford) : blacksroiths' festival, St,
Clement's Day, 317, 344-6 Hand : amulet against evil eye in
form of, Penis, 269 ; cure foe aib
mcnls of, Asia Minor, 191 Manger Hill, Ealing ; weathercock
at, 99 iplafe) Hanging : devji appeati as hire al
Wilts, 74: wcalher unselUed i
" hanging assiie," Lincoln, 165-6 Hanunuin, pilgiimage to shrine ol
^
Haie : deiil as, at hanging. Wilts, 74; bunting tabooed to Cortnac cenhingts, 63 ; witch as, Lincoln- shire, 173, Wales, 114
Harp : of Craiphtine, £3 ; of the Dagda, SI
Hartland, E. 5.: Husband-and-Wife Story, 213-4 ; Preiidcniial Addreii (Some Problems of Early Religion in the light of South African Folk- loie), 4, 15-40; The Transition ftom Totemism to Aneeslor-wor- (hip, 471 ; reviews bv, VAunls Sedehgique, 110-2, 481-5; Sfbil- lot's ConUi dis LaniUs tt des 1 Gri-ve!, Lis Coquillagti di Mir, and Lt Folk-ten des Plckcun, 370-2 ; Machado's translation in- to Spanish of Sjbiltot's Breton tales, 353 : Gitt^'s Curiesi- Us de la VU Enfantim, lio-l ; Albers' De diis in lads editis mitis ofud Gracas. 500-3; de Visser't Z>e Graecamm diis mm refertttlibus speciem kanmnum, 343-5 i Barrow's Tke Etkne- Botany gf Ike Ciaknilla Indians sf SuHthern California,
366-8 ; Fletcher's Indian Story and ScHg/rem North America, 368-70; Heeords ef Women's Canferente OH tie Home Life of Chinae Ifomen, 504-5 : Lumholu' Symioliim aftht ffuicfiol IniHani, 107-9; Nerucd's Tradiiioni Popotari Pistmsi: Roiconii Popotari Pisteiesi in v*r- ttacalo Pisteiesi, 373-3, 477 Harvest customs and bcliek : {sa also Coni-ipiiils, vegetation souls, and ■be like] ; Berwickshire, 115-6 ; Ceylon, 457.8; Lincolnshire, 163; Fraier's The Golden Beugh re- viewed, 219-41; Prussians, acdent, 29J-6 ; Veddahs, 379 Hasbngden: game of jaclcs, 393 Hatchiman, clan god, Japan, 70 Hathersage : no garland ceremony,
■■ of, 446-7.
Hawaii : lire walk,
4S4-5. (/'<"'<) Hawk : cuckoo becomes, in wintei,
Poland, 194: itniiated in Macuii
game, Guiana, 139: nailed 10
house front. Poland, 194 Hawthorn : as love-charm, Kirton-io-
Lindsey, 167-8 Head: child with Iwo "ctowni"
will travel, Wills. 75 ; immodest to
uncover, Parsee women, 377 Head of Corpse between the Thight,
by S. O.Addy, loi-s, 3t4 Headless ghosts, WillK, 73 Heart disease, cure for, Atia Minor,
191 Heart stuck with pins, against
witches, Lincolnshire, 176 Hearth : bride led round, ancient
Prussians, 299 Hebrides, see South Uiit Hector du Marais tn Arthurian
romances, 491, 494 Heligoland : primitivi
Hell : {see also Journey to Hell type of folktales) -. in Buddhist Wheel of Lite, 67 ! jay and crow carry wood for fires, negroes (U. S. A.), 353 ; Poccl, ancient Prussian god of, 396
Helios, Greek deity, superseded by St Elias, 5QI-3
Hclmslcy ; ear of enlf slii ngoinst witchcraft, 97
532
Index.
r
i
Elelston : Hal and Tow tune, 429
lien : {see also Chicken) ; cataract called "hen-blindness," Poland, 193 ; crowing, must be killed, Asia Minor, 190 ; hen-setting, 507 ; white, Japanese belief concerning, 214
Hendon : weathercock at, 99
H^rault, see Montpellier
Herefordshire : New Year customs,
349-51 Heron : wooden, used in Arawak
game, Guiana, 144 Hertfordshire : i_see also Aldenham ;
Bark way ; and Brent Pelham) ;
A Hertfordshire St. George, by
W. B. Gerish, 303.7 (J>late^ Heytesbury : laying spirits, 73 Heywood : building trade customs, 104 Hides, raw, patients sewn in, Persia,
271 Higgens, T. W. E., Blacksmiths*
Festival, 344-6 Highlands : {see also Argyllshire ; and
fnvemess-shire) ; ear of cream- stealing cat cut off, 97 High Peak, Derbyshire : Garland
Day at Castleton, 394-430 ** High places," worship of Greek
divinities in, 500-2 Hill (Wilts) : churchyard ghosts, 72 Hill Deverill, folklore notes from,
71-83 Hills : {see also Alpilles ; Cley Hill ;
Kingsettle Hill ; Lord's Hill ; and
Usnech) ; deities of Huichol
Indians, 108 Hindon (Wilts) : ghosts, 72 Hindu customs and beliefs, see India Hippopotamus : dead Barotse chief
appears as, 36 ; hunting beliefs,
upper Congo, 186-7 ; omen of a
family, Upper Congo, 463 History and folklore, relations of,
359-60 History, Tradition, and Historic
Myths, by A. Nutt, 336-9 ; by
W. H. D. Rouse, 467-8 Hobby-horses : Frejus, 308-9 Hob-Thrust, spirit, Lindsey, 170 Holland : game of astragals, 280,
284 Holy places, Tanganyika, 379 Holy wells, see Wells llonan : custom in, 504 Honolulu: fire walk rite at, 454-5
{piatf)
Hoodoo, see Wizard
Hope: garland ceremony, 423-5
proverb, 423 Hopi Indians : winter solstice cek
bration, 508 Hop-o*-my-Thanib type of folktale
93-4 Homingsham : saying of bells, 81 Horns : of ibex or moufflon offered a) shrines, Baluchistan, 272 ; of 01 and stag over doorways, Abi Minor, 192 Horoscopes, ancient Irish, 47-8 Horse : bled from tail, to settle in new home, Germany, 97; blue beads &c worn against evil qre> Persia, 268 ; Christmas and Car- nival disguise, Poland, 193 ; colt in Norfolk rhyme, 332, 477; country of horses, in Buddhist Wheel of Life, 68 ; goblin foal, Lincolnshire, 172 ; head foond under flooring, Poyston, 348; heads put under flooring for echo, Jordanston, X48-9 ; hobby- horses at Frejus, 308-9 ; in Persian proverbs, 279; may '* become a sacrifice " for rider, Persia, 267-8 ; souls of drowned appear as, Poland, 193 ; stable as sanctuar>', Persia, 269; talking, in Greek folktale, 95-6 ; unlucky to name after person, Persia, 267, or to praise, Persia, 269 ; weathercocks in shape of» 99 {plaf&r wild pig in stable protects from jCvil eye, Persia. 269 Horse-chestnut : cubes from as
knucklebones, Aldenham, 290 Horses* Heads, by Miss F. Grove,
348-9 Horse-shoe nails used against witches,
Lincolnshire, 176 Horse yoke of ash tabooed to Cormac
con hinge Sy 63 Host, sacred : given to toad as love
sp)cll, Lincolnshire, 168 Hottentots : mother-right, traces of,
30 ; women, position of, 30 lloundsditch : ''marble and dubs,"
258, 285 Household spirits : ancient Prussians,
297-8 Houses : charms, Upper Congo, 185 Hucklehoncs, game of, 293 Hudson's Bay : Eskimo dog's ear or
tail cropped, 208
Huichol Indians ; symbolism and
mythology, 107-9 Hull, Miss Eleanor : Old Irish Tabus,
□I Gea^ 2, 41-66 1 The Silver
Bough in Irish Legend, 431-45 ;
review by, Weslon^ Ctiingamer,
Lanval, Tyolet, Tht Wtri-molf
{Bisclavtrel), 116-9, 344 Human sacrifice, la Sacrifice, human Humbic-bce, see Bee Hungary, set Magyars ; and Ruthenia Huniing : charms. Upper Congo, 1H5-
6; "likundu" or abnormal luck
in, Upper Congo, 186-7 i Greal
Bear Lake region, 508 Hunt, spectral, lee Spectral hunt Hupas, folklore of, 379 Hupch, custom in, ^04 Huisley : blacksmiths' festival. Si,
Clement's Day, 344-6 Husbind-and-Wife Story, by W. R.
Palon, loi. and E. S. Haitland,
Ib« ; enchanted prince, Persia, a?! ; hardened tears antidote to scorpion &e. bites, Persia, 272 ; horns offered at shrines, Baluchistan, 373
Idols, ae Images, sacred
Images, sacred : gohei, Japan, 160 ; of Huichol Indians, toS ; Maori, 2j6 ; thrown into river as scape- goat, japan, 70 ; bound with cords in drought, Japan, 70
Im Thurn, E. F., Games of the Red- men of Guiana, 130, tta-fii iplaUs)
India : (i« also Bannu; Bailr j Bihar; Bombay ; Brahmans ; Biahmapuira valley; Ceylon; Colair Lake; Deccaa; Gujarat ; JSts; Juangs ; Malabar; Meriah ; Santals ; Savalas ; Todas; and Uiiya States) ; animal super-
lence, and relationships of, 481-5 ; Gre-walk, red-hot charcoal used for, 4S3; game with tamarind seeds, 2S5 ; grindstones, new, 380 ; Ramaswami Raju's Indian FabUs reviewed. 503; Vio-as^i Tht Jataia, ar Sleric! 0/ Iht BuddhJs farnier Birlks, reviewed, 345-7 ; nail parings. 380 ; N. W. Provinces,
345-7 ; Arnold's The Rigveda re- viewed, 345-7 '• same Sanscrit word for 'right' and ' south,' ill
Indian FabUs, by Ramaswotoi Raju, reviewed, 503
Indians, set North America ; and South America
Indian Story and Song from North by A. C, Fletcher, re-
B-70
Insects in folklore : (i« abo Ant ; Bee ; Butterfly ; Cockchafer t Cricket ; Fly ; Grasshopper ; Moth ; Spider ; Wasp ; and Wood- louse) j released, Aug. Isl, Ar- meoians. 70
Intestines of criminals eaten, Japat), 71
Invercoe : spectral lights, 343
Inverness-shire, sti Mam6re ; atd Onich
Invisible clothes troe of folktale, 372
Ireland : (i« als« Connaught ; Lein- ster : Shannon ; Ulster ; and sifia- rate counties) : Celtic l^end in- fluenced by Nurse by wayor Ireland) llS ; Old Irish Tabus or Geasa, by Miss Eleanor Hull, 2, 41-66 : pebbles as astragali, 284 ; on sea- coasl, directions given by compass, zil ; same word for 'right' and ' south,' 3 1 1 ; The Silver Bough in Irish Legend, by Miss Eleanor Hull, 431-45 ; ' west ' used in bad sense, 312; Wife of Bath's Talc, Irish source of, 373-4 -
Irish Burial Custom, by J. Cooke, 104
Iron (Kt alia Knife ; Nails ; Needles ; and Pins) ; Customs relating to Iron, by H. CoUey March, 340-1, Miss M. Peacock, 472-3, Miss K. CarsoQ, 473-4, and Miss C. S. Burne, 474-5 ; ghosts got rid of by iron pots, Lincolnshire, 170 ; used against devils, Ceylon, 453 ; used against wilchcioft, Lincolnshire, 176
378
Italy ; [set alio Aricia; Nemi ; Pisioia ; Pompni ; and Romans) ; Carnival processions, 476; evil eye charms, 2591
534
Indeic.
■T "J \
% '
i.. i
«
I
«M»Miii— fire wmlk magical in pur- poM, 4^3 ; fire inilk» red-hot charcoal used for, 453 ; fire- walkers represent sun or com- spirit, 453
Itch, cure for, Swabia, A72
Vnxtf Coast ; magic in hinteriand 0^
579
{ackal : in Persian proiverb, 279 ack and the BeanAtlk type of folk-
tiJe,9S-7 . « facks, game of, 284f ^^
[ack-o'-five-stones, game of, 991
f ackstones, sei Astiajfgtls
facky-five-stones, game of, 284
[ad^stones, game o^ 291
faguar: imitated in Hacnsi gpune,
Guiana, 137-8
{anuaiy, Mf New Year's Day anvier, C A., ^^e-grafting in Southern Fhmce, 194-7 Jraan : A Buddhist Wheel of Life firom Japan, by N. W. Thomas, 1, 67.9, 123, 214 CfiytUU^iiCi) \ Japanese Gohei, by W. G. Aston, 260; Stray Notes on Japanese Folklore, t^ N. W. Thomas, 69-71,
214 JStaka, The, or Stories of the Buddkds fornur Births, by W. H. D. Rouse, reviewed, 245-6; parallel stories, ^03
{its, marriage customs of, 483 ava : wonU ' left ' and ' south ' &c connected, 2x1 Jay: carries wood for hell fires,
negroes (U. S. A.)> 252 Jealous King, The, Greek folktale,
323-5
{ephthah's daughter, 248 evens, F. B., review by, Frarer's The
Golden Bough, 233-5 Jewels, see Emeralds; Pearls;
Rubies ; and Turquoises Jewitt, W. H. : Customs in the
Building; Trade, 104 ; Early- Rising
Jest, 477 Jews : folklore in Bukowina, 509 ; in
Greek folktale, 202-3 Jinn, Persian ; assumes animal shape,
263 ; causes epileptic fits, 263 ;
whirling sand spouts called jinns,
Kerman, 263 Johnston, M. F., Whitsuntide Fate
and Mock Burials, 351
{
Jouh tefondL jM3 i ladni
oC 246 Jones, E. M^ "Gntcfid A^"
J ordinslon : hoffid' head pat
floorii^ for ediOb 34S-9 Jonnwj: oenmoolin oa Fmm, a66 ; nfts neomuwat «ailp iqp, Penin, s66 ; ihoaU kwelKwe with fece to door. Penis, atfS; ^ogle mecy at ataitiiv ohkkf .
enia, 200*7 oomey to Hell type ofWkfW, 12$ oaags (India), kafcJothuy oft 246 nhr: CrockertoQ Revd^wilt^ Tfi\ Japanese Ohaiai in, 70^ 214 June: (Mt o/w Corpaa Chriid ; IGd- snmmer Day; mmd MidsoanBer l^t) ; Ji^MUMse Ofaani in, 214 ; 2ist (BdtaineK tnboo on Kk^ of Eire on Kondi^ after, 47 Jummr TtmpU Rmekr^ TX^^hyCL. Thompson and £. E. Spe^pit^ ie»
Juniper-tree type of lolktale, 206-7
Kaniagmionte wfaalen, custouia oft 371
Keaiy, A. A., Whitsnntide Fate and Mock Burials, 352
Kent : {^see also Beckenham ; FaTcr- sham ; tfin/ Folkestone) ; "odbUes* and '* five-hones," 358; garlands, feasts known as, 427; game of astragals, 284-5
Kerman : food for dead« 278; gifts necessary on starting journey, 266 ; holv well and cave near, 272; owls unlucky, 265; Panees, ac- count of, 276-8 ; staUe as sanctiaiy, 269 ; whirling sand spouu called jinns, 263
Kidson, F., note to Garland Day at Castleton, 429-30
Kildare : stolen cattle and St. Bridget,
314
Kildare county, su Ballitore; Kil- dare ; and Naas
King : {see also Conchobar sagas OMd other entries under King) ; must have no blemish, 209; countii^ years of raja's reign, Uriya States, 247 ; of Edom or Moab, sacrifice of son of, 347, 476 ; of £^e, taboos upon, 45-7 ; on Garland Day, Castleton, 408-10, 411-9 (/Atfi), Hope, 424-5** of Raodope^ in
Index.
f Greek folktale, 204-7 "■ people I Hilfer fium defect or illnc^ of, J ; J. G. Frazei's iheoiy of
snnual sacrifice of, A. Lang <
236-7 King Alfred and the cakes, t&Ie
localised in Wilis, 77 King Arthur : Weston's CuiHgamor,
Lanval, TyoUt, The Wirc-violf
{BUclaueret) reviewed, 116-9, 344;
Weston's King Arlhur and his
tCiiigkls nrnevitA, lzl-2; Weston's
The Ug»Hd ef Sir Lancelot du Lac
reviewed, 4S6-97 King Falertn and Guenevere, 48S King Mesgegra of Leinsler : brajas
of hardened as trophy, 55 King Solomon and the Blacksmith,
by M. Outer, 475-6 King Salomon : associated with
blacksmiths' festival, Hampshire,
217, 344'6, 475-6 i in Malay folk- King Valcrin and Guenevere, 4S8 Kingsetlle Hill, Stourtnn, King
Alfred connected with, 77 Kingsley, Miss Maiy H., remarks on,
Kingston Dcvetill ; invisible agency.
73 Kirby, W. F., review by, Kallas'
Achliig Mdrshta dtr Ljutxintr
EiUn, 124'^ Kim maiden 01 dolly, m Corn-spirits,
vegetation souU, and the liiie Kirlon-iD-Lin<lsey : love chamu, 1G7-
S Kiwai (Fly River) : totem clans, 233 Kletropoulos, J., animal superstitions
from Aidin collected by, 192 Knife : not sharpened or left lying
after sunset, Lincolnshire, 167 j not
used at funeral banquets, ancient
Prussians, 301 Knotted string as calecdai, Guiana,
142 Knowlh (Boyne) ; tumuli associated
with Tuatha De Danann, 50 Knucklebones : as dice. 281-3 ; in
divination, 2S3 ; games of, 2SO'93 Knuckle -downs, game of, 2S4, 291-2 Kobolds, amongst ancient Prussians,
297-8 Koom ; right of sanctuary, 269 Kraal Family System among the
Amandebele, The, by P. Prestage,
326-9
Krishna saga, variant of, 246 Kuh-i-Chchel-Tun (Baluchistan) :
children enchanted as goats, 274 Kuh-i.Shah(S.E. Persia}! explosions
caused by saint, 274 Kyra Ftotou, Greek folktale, 203-7
Labba (rodent); referred to in Arawak
chant, 149 Lady-grass, see Ribbon grass Lady of the Lake, the, 487-8 Lady's smock, sit Cuckoa-RoweT Lakes, see Colair ; Great Bear Lake ;
and Tanganyika Lamb, see Sheep Lamberton Tollbar : maniagES at,
3SI-3 I^me Devil, Sicilian stoiy of, 113 Lancashire : {see also Bclton-Ie- Moors ; Haslingden ; Heywood ; Manchester; and WliiteSeld) ; rush-bearing tune, 429 T roorris- dance aii, 430 Lancelot du Lac, the legend of, 486>
97 Land tenure ; foriep-land, Sussex, 249 ; free-bench, 249 ; right ob- tained by building house &c in angle night, Sheffield, 397 Lang, A- ; The Fire Waik Ceremony in Tahiti, 452-4 ; The Making of Ktligion discussed by E. S. llail-
4 ; Spectral Lights, 343-4 ; review by, Fruer'i The Golden Bough, 236-7
itsuntide, 438
Langley, S. P-. The Fite Walk Ceremony in Tahiti, 446-52 (plali)
Languedoc, set Montpellier
Lantern left on table at night un- lucky, Lincolnshire, 179
Lantern slides, scheme for providing,
Lanval, romance of, 116-9
Lark : cakes in form of, Ukraine, 70 ;
not injured, Poland, 193 Launch of ship, pigeons (reed at,
Japan, 70 Lauiifal, romance of, II6-9 Laying spirits ; Wills, 73-4 Lead-mining customs and beliefs,
Derbyshire, 396-8, 403-4, 407, 42a Leaves as clothing, 246 Lecture committee, work of, S-g,
■ 1-3
536
Index.
••
Lee, Mn. IC, ifajmes collected by,
330-2
Leecfaamft, see Medical folklofe
Left : gazdle croniiig rider on, un- lucky, PersiA, 266; left foot un- luckj to start with, Persia, 266 ; left-hand direction named firom compass point, 210-2
L^;end of Sir Lancelot da Lac, The, fy J. L. Weston, reviewed, 486-97
Lmnd of the Sand-Rope and other Futile Tasks, B.& 400— A. D. 1900, by Miss G. M. Godden, 131
Leicestershire : water heated by hot iron to bathe infiuts with thrush,
Leinster : {sm aUo Dinn Riogh ; Kil- dare; Lon^brd ; Meath ; West* meath ; tmd V^ddow) ; brains of lu^ hardened as trophy, 55 ; taboos on king, 46
Lemke, E., Stone-catching Game, 106, 215, 2S7-8, 280-93
Lei^aas (Gran Chaco): astngali, 283 ; sun charm, 216
Lesbos, folktales from, W. R. Paton,
84-93 Letters: a comer should be cut off,
Peisia, 265
Liars, origin of : Upper Congo folk- tale, 182-3
Li^ : guns fired, Christmas, 120
Lilac : used in Garlandi May 29th, Castleton, 418, Hope, 424
Lily : used in Garland, May 29th, Castleton, 417
Lincoln : luck-money at sale, 179-80 ; weather unsettled at *' hanging assize," 165-6 ; wise man at, 177-0
Lincolnshire : (see aiso Aslacoe ; Ax- holme, Isle of ; Bag-Enderby ; Big- bv; Blyborough; Bottesford; Bruml^ (Common ; Caistor ; Ewcrby Wath ; Fonaby Top ; Gartree ; Halton, East ; Kirton-in-Lindsey ; Lincoln; Manley ; Market Rasen; Scotter; Sleaford ; Somersby ; Winterton ; Wroot ; and Yarborough) ; cinder tea as remedy, 472 ; folklore of, by Miss M. Peacock, 3, 161 -180
Lincoln's Inn : leaden charm found at, 128
Linder, £., note on the Ancient and Modern Game of Astragals, 291-2
Lindholme, William of, (giant), 170-2
Lion : Bechuana tribe named after, 31, 36 ; in Greek folktale, 324-5
Litdmidi handrBd of Dafeyrineb
LithuaniA: nciifioeB and ritn cf
ancient UtliiiMiiaiH* SM^jn Little Hockkyw : nidmamen^ 402;
people 0^ 40SI Liatsin : miirclicnp 194-5 - Lifooia: iBorifioes and
andent livoniansy Llama
283 lian&ir
aty 99 Lobster : in Giedc iolktafe, Sy-i^ 99 LochLo: tihnn nn rminar tmlri^ti
«t,63 London: ^mt «6» Bow CfaaRk;
Hoimdsditdi ; Lincoln's Ian ;
1^4 I cwar adi as cotic, 475 i "marble and dabfas," 858,285; weatheroocki, 99-100
Longbfidge Devcrill, laUdoce notes from, 71-83
Loagfotd,iM Teffia, North
Lookiog^laas : shown to. tmcOeriv luck, Feisia, 266
Loid's Hm(Wilu): headlmcoadh
num>73 Lot-et-Garonne : vine-grafiii^ 197 Lots, casting : Persia, 263-4 Love charms, su Charms and spdb Lovett, £., The Ancient and Modem
Game of Astragals, 2(7^ >&^3 Lower Moesia, see Mcesia, Lower Luccombe : weathercock at, 99 (/(&*) Luck-money, Lincoln, 179-80 Luck of Mycenae, The, 1^ W, H. D.
Rouse, 147-8 Lucky and unlucky days and deeds :
ancient Irish, 47-8 ; linmlndriTe,
178-80 J Persia, 263-7; Sienub,
Poland, 193 ; Upper Congo, i86-7 ;
Uriya States, 247 Lugh Lamhfada, Irish sun deity, 65 Lullabies : Wilts, 79 Luxor: festival processions, 315;
story from, 329-30 Lying-in, rhyme for, Wilts, 80
Mabinogion, taboos in, 65-6 Mabuiag Island: primitive orientation,
2IO-2 ; totemism, 230-1 Mabi!^ the magician, 488 Macquari game of Axawaks, Guiana,
141-50
Index,
MacDU Indians, Gui&na, 133, 136-9,
Madagascar : (j« aha Betaileos) ;
animals Ireeu and buried, 70 :
lotemisni, 342-3 Maelduia. voyage of, 444 Magh Bieagh : taboo on King of
Eta .1, 47 Magh Cuitlinn : labooonKing of Kire
1.47
Cormac
Magh-Slinhh : Utbuu lOHloinges al, 63
Magic : (see also Amulets and talis- mans ; Charms and spells ; Wiich. cinft i nnrfWiiards) ; bumble-bee in, I03;ti[e-walk ceremony, Tabiti&c. , 446-55 ; geomctncal figures and ceremonies before thrashing rice, Ceylon, 457-8 ; in hinterland of Ivoiy Coast, 379 ; rainbow magic, Greysoulhen. 479-80 ; as related to religion, J. G. Fraier's views on, J20-1. a34-S.3SS-6i sun, rites to rekindle, Lenguas &c., 216 ; thiee- colouied cats in, Japan, 70
Magic and Riligim, by A. Jjing, reviewed, 3S4-60, 433
Magpie : unlucky in house, Poiand, 193 : witch as, Lincolnshire, 17a
Magyars 1 water in which live coal thrown as remedy, 472
Maiden Bradley : proverb, 81
Maize : girls plant lirsl row, Navajo
Indii
1. 197
Makah Indians, (biklore of, 379 Mating af Retigian, TTu, by A,
Lang, reviewed. JII-4 Malabar, set Nayadis Malaysia : Skeal's Fablts and FbU- lalts from an Bailtrn Forest re- viewed, 50Z-3 : harvest riles, 330; Falani words ' south ' and ' left ' connected, 31 1 Malduz the magician. 4S8 Mamore : spectral lights, 343 Man. origin of, according toAmaiulu,
13, Bcchuana, 34 Man, reviewed, 13Z-3 Manannon mac Lir, ruler of unseen
world, 43S.9 Manchester : rush-bearing tune, 429 Mandrake : melhod of gathering,
Manish (Baluchistan): cairn or shrine.
Manx folklore, /« Isle of Mao Mapuche milk taboo, 512 Marble and dubs, game of, 3S4 March 1 3lsl, Persian New Year's
Day (No nil), 375-6: 22nd,
caJies in laik form, Ukraine, 70 ;
rhyme. Wills, 80 March, K. Colley, Customs relating
to Iron, 340-1
Marcoppol, ancient Prussian god,
196-7 Mardukmylh, 510 Maietl. R. R., *
Market Rosen : witchcraft, 177-8
Marcii, Tamil deity, 457
Mirgosa wood keeps off corn-devil,
Ceylon, 458 Marigold : used in garland, Mope,
*H Marquesas Islands : door and gale
ways tabooed, 62 Marriage customs and beliefs : Aidin (Turkeyt, 193 ; Baluehisiaii, S73-4 ; Barir. 38i;Basuto29, 378; Biblical, Z48 ; Border marriages, 351-3: litahmapulra valley, 5101 by cap- ture, 299 ; ciste and clan in relation In, 484-5 ; feasts, Watavela, 356 ; feet-washing, 349, 199 ; Greece, 135; Jit, 483; in Jalaka, 246; Jews of Bukowina, 509 ; Lincoln- shire, 16S-9 ; Malabeleland, 328-9 ; Mayo, 358 (fi/ate); Nayidis ( MalabarJ, 355 ; Murray Island (Torres Straits), 333 ; New Guinea, 3331 Poland, 193; Prussians, ancient, 399-300 ; by purchase, 328-9 ; South India, 347 ; tolemism in connection with, 3S5-6, 389-90 ; Waganda, 33 ; Vaiaikanna tribe. Cape VorkCAus.), 333 Marsh marigold, see MaySawer Masks : tortoiseshell, representing totem, Vam Island, 331 ; weddiog- donee. Mayo, 358 Malabeic, see Amandebele Matlock : game of snobs, 391 Matriarchy, lee Mother-right May : (j« aisa May Day ; and May Eve) ; cattle blessed at chapel of Si. Brigita, Frijos, 3131 rhyme. Wills, Soi5tb, May festivil, Japan,
S38
Index,
yi I a^dt, Gariand Day at Caatle-
Umt Daj : guUDd* ovet doon, AboejFi 436 1 ihip'^UTTiiif pcoce*- non, Dmnport, 476 ; taboo od Kiv of Biieon Mondajr after, 47
Maf Ere : time for love chumi, tin- ednAiie, 167-8
Idajra pletnre writiiigi ponible origlii «t K19
Hajr btoiaoa, itt Hawthorn
Bfa)4ower; earned on Haj 19th, 4J6', med in Gatland, Cutletoa, 408, and iu houe [arlaiKU, Abn^, 436
Uajo : weddJng'daaee maik, 358 iflaU)
Mmole, Tharnhill, 435
Uealh, Mf Bngia ; Knowth ; High Braij^ t Kew Gnoge ; Tan t mrf
tiMMCh
Heave, nueen of Connaariit, 56-7 Uedkal JolkloK i (m aU» Charma ■ndqteUf};
dbtaia tKd ii^nria Inaltd:— " bad IcKi" 471 ; bcniMa, iga ; bimif, >7t ; dtokiDC, 191-3 ; coldi, 191 ; ooKe, 473 1 coaauwp- lion, 193 ; convoiaioni, 473 ; ie- bilily, 37C»-l ; dog-bile, 161 ; Ay- ■enleij, 47a ; ofejre, 348; flatu- lence, 473 ; of baod, 191 ; heait diieaK, 191 ; itch, 473 ; night- UindncB, 191 ; perquadon, ex- cetaive, 193; rhcnmatimi, 191, 193 1 Mane, 191 ; thnuh, 349, 473 I toothache, 19a ;woand(,i9i ItotiitUi: — Aaia Minor, 191-3 ; Calfinooa, 193; Cos, 192 ; LeiixMeidiin:, 473 ; IJncoln- •hire, 47a ; Loodoa, 475 ; Not- tingtianuhire, 472 ; Penda, 34S, 370-3 ; FoUod, 193 ; ancient Kumani, 473 ; Swabia, 473 ; Wakefield, 472-3 remtdits : — tncatli of puppy or cat, 19a ; cat fiesfa and sliut, 193 ; cigai aifa in water, 47J ; diider tea, 472 ; dogi Udiing t^, 191 ; d(% whkb tat, bair of, 191 ; emeralds, powdered, 270; fish gaU, 248; frog, 249: froc, poonded, 191 : goat, bead of Nack she, 191 ; owl feadiers c fle*h, [93; ox's e*!! l*)*^ none &MU, 191 : peaik, pv
*JOi piceea. B*c hent oC i«
- '33 __,,.... -- Rp lih primitiTe onentMMO, a\o-» Melidcmi, Greek folktale, 86-93
i, IS-*; J
Hen : are ion* of Huicdiol eoda, lot
Heriah taoifidal post, 355
Meriino, ict Morinio
Merrick, W. Percjr. Bbuismith^
Fettival, 346 HcTton (Surrer): wcatbercati at.
99 Me^^ra, king of LeinitcT, 55 Henco : (see aita HuicJiol Indiaw:
ami Maya) ; goddess evolTcd hito
mnt,382 Middleaex, /« Ealine; Edmonton ;
Fnem Bamet ; Gieenfbrd ; Haiw-
er HiU : Hcndon : London ■ N^
doD ! ami Twyfoid Midsummer Day: always some
drowned on, Walloons, 130 Midsummer Eve: Bagaires de
Luchon, 315-7 Midsummer fires, 216, 315-7 Slidsummer Night : churchyaTd
ghosts. Wilts, 73 '^
Midsummer in the P}-reiiee. b*
J. C. G. Speakman, 315.7 '
Midwinter : feast of dead, Belgium,
Hapqche taboo, cts
"ft Poland, 193 J coltira-
lion hy Gilyaks, 68 ; quul asso- cialcd wilh. Japan, 71
Mill of the Twelve Apostles, The, by S. O.Addy, 218
MUlaiones should turn sunwise, Lin- colnshire, 167
Milne, F. A., Border Marriages, 352-3 i Sione-caiehine Games, ais
Mlninp cuslomEi and beliefs, ju Coal- mining customs and beliefs ; Leaxl' mioing customs uid belie&
Micror. Jie Loolung-glass
Miss Weston's " Guingamoi," by A. Nuti, 344
Mistletoe : the " Golden Bough," 222; net the "Golden Bough," 437
Moab, sacrifice of son of king of, 347. 476
Mcesia, Lower : celebration of Salumalia, ZI9
Mohnmmed and the spider, parallel to story of, Asia Minor, 191
Molimo, i« Morimo
Molluscs, su Shellfish
Monday : (after Bel(aine), taboo of King of &irt on, 47 ; Irish biblical explanation of unlucky Mondays, 4«
Monerabeau : vine-grafting, 197
Monkey : Bechuana tribe named after, 31 ; Christmas and Carnival disguise, Poland, 193 1 imitated in games, Guiana. 138 (flaii), 13^, 140 1 lypihing consciousness, m Buddhist Wheel of Life, 68
Monklcigh : " witch's bottle," 137
Monkshood, Wiltshire name of, 83
Monklon Deverill : saying about bells, 81
Monsembe (Upper Gingol : stories and other notes from, lSi-9, 458-64
Montgomeryshire, lie Llanfair Caer
Month rhymes. Witts, So Montpellier, St. Roeh of, 314 Monyash : Great Barmole Court, 395 Moon : full moon time of games and dances, Guiana, 142 ; new, figure of, in magic figure for rice-thrash- ing, Ceylon, 458 ; new, "fortunate" face should lie seen with, Persi, a65i
wood. Lincolnshire, 166: I Kry rhyme, Secundetabad,
Guiana, 157 ; not (It, Garlrec, 166
Mordrcd in Arthuri 489-90
Moria (n. Mylilcne) : b Creek folk- tale, 86
Morimu, malignant being among Bechuana, 34
Moileston hundred of Derbyshire,
and Lancashire, 430 ; Castlelon. 408, 4'0-2. 415-9. 421. 437!
churches, associated wilh, 427 ; Eyam, 426 ; from fairies, Derby- shire, 49i5 ; Tideswell, 436 ; tunes for, 426, 429*30
Mosulo : sacrifice lo ancestor in sickness, 35
Moth -. humming-bird hawk-moth omen of good tidings, Calymnos, 190 : lucky in house, Asia Minor, 190
Mother-right ; change to father- right evolves totemism into an- cestor worship, 33-7 ; disappears with higher oi^anisation, 38-9 ; totemism in connection with, 390 ; traces among Bantu, 29-30, 33
Moufflon : boms offered at scnnes, Baluchistan, 271
Mountain ash : against witchcraft, Lincolnshire, 175
Mountains ; (iw aim Demavcnd 1 Hills 1 Kuh-i-Chehel-Tun ; Kuh-i- Shnh : Olympus 5 Pacanjma moun- tains : ami Rorsima) ; cull of Greek divinities in mountain topi, Soo-2 ; perpetual fire in honour of god Pargn. Sami^ta:, 39S
Mourning customs, in Death and funeral customs and beliefs.
Mouse : in Greek folktale, 95
Mouse-deer : in Malay folktales, ^03
Muirthemne, great defeat of PJiun of, 56, 64
Mule ; blue beads &c, worn against evil eye, Persia, 268; ghoul appears as. Persia, 262
Mummers, Christmas, itt Christmas
Murder : phantom animali haunc place of, Lincolnshire, 172
Murphy Bland (Florida) 1 ulragaloi from, 28]
Murray Island, Torres Stiaiu : mar- riage restrictiona, 133
540
Index.
Music : Fletcher's Indian Story ctnd \ Song from North Anurica reviewed, 368-70 ; musical instruments, Guiana, 149, 156-7, and for morris- dancing, 429 ; tune for Garland Day procession, Castleton, 420-1, 425, and for morris-dances, 429-30
Musquakie beadwork, 260
Mycenae, The Luck of, by W. H. D. Rouse, 347-8
Mycensran civilisation, Prof. Ridge- way's views on, discussed by A. Nutt, 336-9 : Ridgeway*s The Early Age of Greece reviewed, 360-2. by W. H. D. Rouse, 467-8, and N. W. Thomas, 468-9
Myers, C. S., Stories from Upper
Eg>Tt. 329-30
Myndos (Asia Minor): rain charm, 216
Mythology and Folktales : Their Re- lation and Interpretation y by E. S. Hartland, reviewed, 12 1-2
Myths, historic, discussed by A. Nutt, 336-9, and W. H. D. Rouse, 467-8
Myths of Greece^ by G. St. Clair, reviewed, 362-4, 469-71
Mytilene : folktale, 201-3
Naas : residence of kings of Leinster, 46
"Nabby" Colt, A, by Miss M. Peacock, 477
Naguals, 386
Nails, finger : decoction from drunk, Japan, 71 ; parings, folklore of, India, 380; rhyme to cranes to obtain spots on, Deccan, 333
Nails, horse-shoe, used against witches. Lincolnshire, 176
Names: "dummy" names used for tools tS:c. in rice -thrashing, Ceylon, 458; namesake of horse suffers same injury as animal, Persia, 267 ; nicknames for holders of same surname, Derbyshire, 396, 399 ; of dead not spoken, Upper Conj;o, 184; of dead given to children, Upper Congo, 462
Nauuassa river : perpetual fire near in honour of god Pargn, Saniogita?, 298
Navajo Indians : girls plant first maize, 197
Nayadis : marriage customs, 255
Neasdon: weathercocks at, 99
Needles, used against witchcraft, 176
Negro folklore, see Africa : Bahia;
a$ui United States of No
America Nemi : Frazer's The Gulden Bn
reviewed, 219.41, 355-6, 431^5 Nerthus, see Niord Nessa, mother of Conchobar, 118 Neuchfitel : astragali, 358 : game
astragals, 286-9 Newcastle-on-Tyne : Yule docs, v New Grange (Boyne): tumuli as
dated with Ttiatha D^ Daoann. New Guinea, see Fly River; a
Papuans New Jersey : building trade costoa
104 New South Wales : magic stoo
Manning River tribe, 3; natit
bury d^id if young, bum if d
469 Newton Abbot : rheumatism, mo
burial cures, 351-2 New Year Customs in Hereforddiii
byj. G. Frazer, 349-51 New Year's Day : Armeniai
(Aug. 1st), 70 ; Babylonian Zakmi
227 ; customs, 507 ; Herefbrdshii
349.51: Persian ATe rtf* (Mai
2ISt), 275-6
New York : building trade custoo
104 New Zealand : fire walk rite, 45
Maori sacred image, 256 Ngala language, Upper Congo, 46; Ngami, Lake, see Baveve Ngu6n-Son, vallev of: lolklore, 50; Niddftasy in Buddhist Wheel of Li
68-9 Night-blindness, cure for, A
Kfinor, 191 Nightingale : not injured. Polar
193
Nile : corn thrown into, in story fn Upper Egypt, 329
Niord, ship of, 477
Nipple-wort, Wiltshire name of, S:
Nirvana^ in Buddhist Wheel of Li 68
Nivernais, see Champ d'loux
Norfolk : {see also Diss) ; astraga 258 ; nursery rhyme, -^-^2 ; i Passing Bell, 4S0
North America: (sec also Aleuti Islands : Canada ; Costa Kic Ilopi Indians ; Mexico ; Mi quakie ; Navajo Indians ; Omai Indians ; and United States North America); astragals, 25J
Fletcher's Indian Slery and Song from North Ameriia reviewed, 368-70 5 Notts and Queiies on TotcmiEin, 3S5-93 Notth Teffia, see Teffia, North Norlhumberland, stt Ncwcaslle-on-
Tyne A'li rtls, Persian New Year's Day,
Norway: connection between Lincoln' shire and Scandinavian beliefs,
161 :! Notched slick or tree as calendar,
Guiana, 142, 153 Notes and Queries on Totem bm.
385-93 Notlinghaiushire : south, game of
snobs in, 291 ; water healed by
hoi iion for bathing infants, 472 Nought or zero : omitted in counting
Rajn's reign, Uriya Slates, 247 November : l_stt also Si. Andrew's
Eve ; and St. Clement's Day) ;
5lh, Folkestone celebration, 24I Numbers in folklore, tti Fifteen ;
Five: Fourteen ; Nought; Seven;
Thirteen ; and Two Nursery rhymes : Asia Minor, 1S9-
90 J Berkshire. 331 : Deccan,
333-S ; A. Gitlie on. Iso ; Norfolk,
332 J Wilts, 79-81,332
Null, A., Alphabet used in Conse- crating n Church, I'lO-i g History, Tradition, and Historic M^tlu, 336-9; Miss Weston's "Guinga- mor," 344 ; review by, Frazer's Tkt Golden Bough, 237-40
Nyarong or spirit-helper of Sea Dyaks, 231-2
Oak
May 29th, Wills, 76 ; leaves symbols of victory or power, 71, used in May festival, Japan, 71 ; primitive Aryan wor- ship asiodaled with, 122 ; used on GarUnd Day, Castletun. 40S, 415. 417-9, and Hope, 414, 416 1 wor- ship, survival of, Tuscany, 455-6
Oaths: by crocodile, Bakuena, 31 : by eldest sister, Hotlentols, 30; by porcupine, Banoku, 3a ; forfeits Cor breach, Hodcnlots, 30
Obituary notice : Miss F. Grove, 349
Occasiattal E^ays f" JValivt Seulh Indian Lift, by S. P. Rice, re- viewed, 245-7
Occopim, ancient Frusiian god, 296
Ochain, shield of Conchobar, 51-2
October: {see alie Halloween : and Samhain) ; Barmoie Court, Mony- ash, 395
Octopus : ill omen to sponge fishers, Asia Minor, 189
0(;reG and ogresbes in Greek folk- lales, 84-6. 88-93, 93-7
Ohnrai, semi-annual Japanese, 70, 2:4
Old Irish Tabus, or Ceasa, by Miss Eleanor Hull, 2. 41-66
Olympus, Mount, and Greek worship, 501
Onmha Indians : personal totems, 231. 387
Omens: from animals, Asia Minor, 189-90, Herefordshire, 350, Persia, 278, Poland, 193 ; from birds, Asia Minor, 189-90, Persia, 278 ; from snakes, andeni Lithuanians and Samogitie, 29S ; from lolems, 391 1 of death, Asia Minor, IQO,
509 : of New Vear. Herefordshire,
350-t ; in Pcrna, 264 Onich : spectral light, 343-4 Orange Itiver Colony: memorial on
OrdcaU : shield games of Womus,
Guiana, 150-5: UpperCongo, 187
" ■ * Primilive, by W. H. R.
River
131.;
Origine delta Fovola Greia e i Suoi rapporle ion It faitle aritnlali, L', by M- Marehian6, reviewed, 250-I
Orne. Dep, de I' ; [see also Tinche- hray} ; tail of cow slit lo ensure conception , 97
Osiris, moral element in worship of, 365-6
Ossabow island : asltalagus, 283
Ossianic sagas : geass less prominenl than in Ciichulainn cycle, 43-5 Oitin in Tir-na-nog, 443-4: Null's Ossian and the Ossianit Litera/urt reviewed, 121-2
Ovaberer6 : mother. dght among, 29- 30,33
Overlooking, see Evil eye
54«
fydtif*
Owen. Wm U. A.;
I
Owl: ehOdicn's rikvow aod
An Minor, 189; feathcn aod
193; not n^wed, Pbhnd. 193; infled to Iwnifriraiitt Poluid« 194; maimkf^ Penii. 965; in Upper €0000 fDlktale, 183-4; wooM hamoa fv-trft Poluid« 194.
Ox : astnfUnt from bot kMunfroBt, Switfgfwnd, acS ; oountnf 01 oxen, in Boddhiit meel of life^ 68; iMrns over doots, Asa Minor, 191 ; kneeb on night- of nativity, Wilts, 76; knaddcbooe, gune with, OMta Rica, 283 ; Mone from
Bll bladder cuei itone, Asa inor, 191 Oxfbfdshire: OMRis dance nntic, 4J9
Pacaiaina moxntaini, Guiana : gune of Maaua Indians, 136-7 (/Mr)
Pi^nnism of the Andent Prussians, The, tnms. fay F. C Conybeare,
Pdestine, stt Bedonin ; ami Djebd Nabloos
Palm : seta palm used by Wanus, Guiaoa, 150-3, and in parasheera dance, 151 ; plant tied to house post, Upper Congo, 185
Palm Sunday : associated with owl in children's rhyme, Asia Minor, 189 ; customs on, WUts, 75 ; devil as dog at gathering on, mlts, 74
Pamphlets presented to Folk-Lore Society, su Books
Panther (of W. Asia Minor): in Greek folktale, 324-5 ; killer pun- ished and rewajrded by Turks, 192
Papago Indians : game of Tan-wan,
283 Papers read at meetings of Folk-Lore
Society, 2, 3, 7, 129-31, 257-60 Papuans : marriage restrictions, 233 ; no personal totems, 23 X ; totemism among, 386-7 Parasheera dance, Guiana, 155-61 Pargn, ancient Prussian god, 296, 298 Paris : swallows released, 70 Parsees : account of, 276-8 ; cere- monies on starting journey, 266; children Jump over fires at end of Saflfar, 264 ; 13th of all months un- lucky, 265 I
15S-61 Pn5i4t»: Ufad.
I3S
if V vdiy fcn red. Am ICiBor. 1981 k
Upper CoMo fclktale. i8>4
^jiWJMf Folk FiatoB, W. R., Onm Ban, ao8^i Folfitelei horn tte
Hvabniid-uid-Wae Stoiy, na;
Rain Chum m Arfn ifinor, si6 FUiiaidiy or patifaadnl goiWMMil :
camei nitnppfnmire of tofeBHlM,
33 1 not identknl widi fitfhBM^
35 ; looaens des of mother-it^ 3S Penoodc : in Fbibui ptovobb M;
wwlhereoA m diuie o^ Hate,
99
FMood[, E.» SncriSoe at Yoik^ itfA
817 PiModCf E., Spectial L%>l ii
*o } Sopg— twi
«o5 , - Cbaqget of SScs, jfiir^
rMeock. Uhm MnbSTcMiiMn* ladqg to Inm, 472-3 ; TheFoUoN of Lboofairiiire. 3, 161.180; A
•«Nabby»C61t»477 Pearb: groond, as ranody, tmrn,
270 Peccary: imitated in paraaheom danee,
Guiana, 159-60 Pelham Am, su Brent Pftlham Pelham Samers, jm Brent Pdham Pembroke, stt Jordanstoii; and
Poyston Penance, N.W. Pitmnces, India, 50! Pentamerone, Greek pandlel to sten
in, 197-aoo Perceval, in Arthnrian
490
Peignibrias, ancient Prnssian 295-6
Perkunos, Slavonic god, anpeneded by St Elias, 502
Persia : {see also Ispahan ; Kerman ; Koom ; Teheran ; and Yezd); eye disease, cure for, 248 ; J. G. Frazer's views on Sacaea discussed by A. Lang, 236-7 ; game of astragals, 293; knucklebone dice, 282; Persian Folklore, by Miss E. Sykea, 258, 261-80
Perspiration, excessive, cure for, Poland, 193
Perthshire : *' doing her hair ai2
543
Peni : Indian guiae wilh knuckle- bone, 1S3
Perun, Slavonic god, superseded by St. Eliss, 502
Peruonto (tale in Penlamerone), Creek parallel to, 197-100
Pelrographs, Australia, 383
Phaistos, palace at, 1x3
Piatkowslia, M. I. de, animal super- ililions from Sietadi cuDcclcd by, 193-4
Pier uie- writing, Maya, possible origin of, 109
Pip : astragali from. FaTCisham, 284 ; black, demons or vampires appear as Bi nigbt, Asia Minor, igi ; in Buddhist Wheel of Life, 67 : names for, Asia Minor, 192; {»g<killing, 507 ; whistles in shape of, Poland, 193 ; wild, kept with hoisea [o ward off evil eye, Persia, 269
Pigeon : eaten by bride and bride> groom, Aidin (Turkey), 192 ; not eaten, Japan. 70 ; heart eaten for heart disease, Asia Minor, 191; released, at launch of ship, Japan^ 70, on Aug, is(, Armenians, 70 ; unlucky, Asia Minor and Calymnos. 190, Poland, 193 ; while, sacred bird of clan, Japan, 70
Pilgrimages : to shrine of Hanuman, SoS
Piluit, ancient Prussian god, 196
Pindale : place rhyme, 423
Pinkney's Green : rhymes from, 331
Pins, used against witches, Lincoln-
Pipal tree : residence of demon in Tales ota Parrot &c, 213-4
Pipe and labor, for morris- dancing, 429
Pistoia : Nemcci's Tradaioni Papo- lari Fiiloitsi: Raccmli PopolaH Pistoitsi in vtntatelo Pt'siffitsi re- viewed, 37z-3i 477
Pitl-Rivers, I Jeut-Gen. A, services of, 15.6
Place rhymes : Derbyshire, 423
Plagae : procession to avert. Fr^jus, 307-15
Plants in folklore : (set also Fern ; Flax ; Hawthorn j Maiie ; ^" drake ; Millet ; Mistletoe ; Palm ; Ribbon-grass ; Rice ; Rosemary 1 Sage 1 Silk-giass ; Sugai cane ; Thorns ; Vine ; anii Yam. wild) 1 not brought inio house ^ei sur
Lincolnshire, 167 ; Barrow*' 73* EfkHtBolany ef the CeaJmilla ludians of Strut Atm CaKfomia reviewed, 366-8 ; Greek plant superstitions, 243-5 ■ Pergrubius, ancient Prusaan god of plants, '95-6 1 totem, i« Tolcmism
Ploughing customs and beliefs : annual festival, Jaiaka, and in China, 246 ; fond-plough and fool- plough. 249 : site of new village ploughed and sown, S. India, 246-7
Plover ; whistles in shape of, for whipping game, Guiana, 143-4
Plymouth : ship-canying procession. Corpus Christ!, 476
Poccl, ancient Prussian god. 296
PoccoU, ancient Prussian god, 296
Pocklinglon : crudlixion and burnt sacrifices, 217
Poland. i« Sieradi
Polynesia, set Marquesas Islands ; Raiatea ; Raralonga ; Sandwich Islands; am^ Tahiti
Pomegranalc; juice remedy for hums,
Pompeii: game of astragals, 381 Popular Paltry ofl/ie Pinni, Tke, by
C, J. Billson, reviewed, rai-a Papular Studies in Mythalegy,
Romance, and Folklort reviewed,
r2i-2, 24S-6, 375 Porcupine : Becliuana clan named
after, 31-3, 36 Portugal ; Carnival procession, 476 ;
evil-eye charms, 359 Possession : among Bechuuia, 35 ;
in Persia, 371 ; on Upper Congo,
184-S Poliphar's wife story, Indian vanants
of; 246
Potiymp, ancient Prusaan god, 296-7 Pottery : charms for. Upper Congo,
i8j Powder-puff, ghost of, Winterton
Hall. 169 Powell, r. U, : Folklore Notes feom
Soulh-Wesl Wills, 3. 71-83 Power of Speech, The, traditions
concerning. 153 Poyslon: hones head under flooring,
348 Praise unlucky, Lincolruhire, 178,
Persia, 268-9 \ 'o "forspeak," 049
544
Index.
on, discussed by EX S. HartUnd,
20-I President, election of, 4 Presidential Address (Some Prob- lems of Early Religion in the light
of South African Folklore), by
£. S. Hartland, 4, 15-40 Prestagc, P., The Kraal Family
System among the Amandebele,
326-9 Pnmitive Orientation, by W. H. R.
Rivers, 131, 210-2 Primrose : used in house garlands.
May 1st, Abney, 426 Proserpine, rites of, see Eleusinian
mysteries Provence, see Fr^jus Proverbs : Bihar, 213-4 ; Derbyshire,
396,423 ; Jews of Bukowina, 509 ;
Persia, 275^80 ; Pbtoia, 372 ; Wilts,
81-3 Prussia, see Prussia, East and West ;
Saxony, Prussian Prussia, East and West : diseases
caused by dead relatives, 214 ;
head of corpse cut oflf, 214 Prussians, Ancient, The Paganism of
the, translated by F. C. Conybeare,
293-302 Puberty : personal totems acquired
at, Australia, 386-7 ; rites at, 391 Publications of Folk-Lore Society,9- 10 Purim, feast of : J. G. Frazcr's views
discussed by AI. Caster, 226-30,
A. Lang, 236-7, and Miss C. S.
Bume, 241-3 Purple key- flower in Barbarossa
legends, 445 Putscaet, anaent Prussian god, 296-7
Quail : associated with millet, Japan,
71 Queenhithe: weathercock at, 100
Queen, on Garland Day, Castleton, 408-11,413-9, 427 (//a/0. Hope, 424-5
Queen Guenevere, in relation to Lancelot du Lac, 487-8, 494, 496
Queen Victoria, death of, 98, 129,
257
Rabbit : white, haunts place of murder &€., Lincolnshire, 172
Races, annual : Eastern Vorubaland, 508
Rag bushes near holy well, Persia, 272
Rags on sticks at ziumts or shrine
Baluchistan, 272-3 Raiatea : fire walk, rite of, 446-7 Rain|: attributed to *'Tilo,'' Baroog
26; follows ^'kUling of godi
Ceylon, 457 ; idol tied to obtai:
Japan, 70 ; rain-making and totea
ism, 386; torchlight processioc
for, Japan, 70 Rain Charm in Asia Minor, by W. I
Paton, 216 Rainbow : magic to destroy, Grej
southen, 479-^0 ; not to be pointe
at, Gartree, 166 Rainbow Magic, by F. J. Cheshire
479.80 Rim&yana, variants of, 246 Ranking, D. F. de L'FIoste, note ct
The Ancient and Modem Game c
Astragals, 289-90 Raratonga: fire walk, rite ci, 446
454 Rat : revenant as, Wilts, 74 Rattles : in Arawak whipping game
Guiana, 144 ; in parasheeia danoe
Guiana, 157 Realms if the Egyptian Dead^ The
by K. A. Wiedemann, reviewed
364-6 '* Reaping Maiden," Ar^leshire, I Re-birth, see Re-incamation belid^ Records of Womet^s Conference cm tk
Home. Life of Chinese IVomen re
viewed, 504*5 Red : used by dugong-men in magica
ceremony, Torres Straits, 230 Red campion : used in garland
Castleton, 408 Red Sea: ghosts laid in, WilU
Reels, cotton, tied to keys, Lincoln shire, 175
Re-incamation beliefs : in Egyptiai story, 408-500 : in Irish sagas, 49 64-5 ; Upper Congo, 462-3 ; Va lave, Madagascar, 70
Religion : beginnings of, discussed 1 12-4, by E. S. Hartland, 19-28 definitions of, 356-7 ; its relatioi to magic, J. 0. Frazer's views on 220-1, 234-5: ling's Magic am Kcligioft reviewed, 354-60
Report of Council, 5-14
Reptiles in folklore, see Frog : Snake Toad ; Tortoise ; and Turtle
Repton and Gresley hundred 0 Derbyshire, 395
Reviews, 107-25, 119-52, 3S4-7S. 481-505
RheumnLiiiin, cures for: Asia Minor, 191; NewlonAtibol, 351-2; Poland, "93
Rhodesia: The Kraal Family System among the Amondehele, by P. Prestage, 326-9
Rhodope, king of, ■□ Greek folktale, 204-7
Rhymes : (sa alia Coun!ing-oul rhymes ; Nursery rhymes ; Place rhymes ; Rhymes, English and Hindu: aWRiddlcs): W, Sussex, 346
Rhymes, English and Hindu, collected by Mis. K. Lee, M. Eyre, S. O- Addy, and M. N. Venlcalaswami, 330-S
Kibbon-gra£s : used in Garland, May 29ih, Ciislleloti, 418, Hope, 424
Rice Harvest in Ceylon, The, by R. J. Drummond, 457-S
Riddles : Morley (Yorks), 333 ; Secunderabad, 333
Right foot of bride must touch house entrances, ancient Prussians, 299
Right-hand direction named from com- pass point, 21D-Z
Rigveda, The, by Prof. E, V. Ainotd, reviewed, 145-7
Rjng, The, Greek folktale, 201-3
Rivers and streams: (m« a/n> Chapa- langa ; Nauuassa; Nile; and Shannon): negro hoodoo and his charms cannot cross, U-S.A., 2521 pnlluled stream taboos, 61 \ Polrymp, ancient Prussian god of, 296; stones thrown into, u rain chann, Asia Minor. 116
Rivers, W. H. R., Primitive Orienta-
Kobin Hood saga : parallel to death
and burial, Hertfordshire, 305 Rocks : deities of tluichol Indians,
108 ; roc!< fairies, Arapnhoes, 379 RsmaHci Cycle of CharliitiagHt and
his FecT!, Tki, by J. L. Weston,
reviewed, 375 Romans.ancient; astragali, 258, 281-2;
dysenlery, cure for, 473 ; vestiges
of in Derbyshire, 399-404 Ropc-pu11ing,BrahmapulravBlley,5l0 Roraima: boll game near, 135 Rosemary : used in vinegrafling, S.
France, 196 Kosnarec, battle of, 51-3 Rouse, W. H. D.. History, Trtidilioa.
and Historic Mylh, 467-8; The
Luck of Mycenoe, 347-8 ; Sacrifice
to avert Shipwreck, t05 Royal Exchange, grasshopper of, too Royston : head of corpse between
thighs, 101-3 Rubies: powdered, as remedy, Persia,
Lithuania ; Livonia ; Poland ; Ukraine ; and Vitebsk Rilslum, Persian villages named from,
Sabbat, i« Witchcraft Sabbath-breaker, rain damages hay
crop of, Warminster, 79 Sacaea. T. G. Fraier's views on, dii- cussed, by M. Gaster, 226-30, and A- Lang, 336-7. 355 Sacrifice :
animal: — burnt, Pocklington, 317; goat, for harvest, ancient Prus- sians, 395-6 ; in Midsummer lire, Bagoires de Luchon, 316-7; for prosperity of traveller, Persia, 366 ; of totem, 392-3 ; beec-drioking to god of plants &c., ancient Prussians, 295 ; Biahma- puua valley, Jio: foundation sacri- fices, 348 ;
Aumaa : — burial of slave wife with dead. Upper Congo, 459-60 ; criminal sacrificed on 5th day of feast, Ashanti, 337 ; of liritbom among Semites, 347 ; fishing, far luck m, Upper Congo, 187-S ; Jepbthoh's daughter, 348 ; of one- year king, J. G. FraieHs theories on discussed, 226-30, 336-7: Meriah sacri^cial post, Z55 ; at Saturnalia, 219 ; shipwreck, to avert, ancient Greece, 105 ; of god, 331 : sacred days for. Gold Coast, 59 ; lo spirits of dead, Bechu- ana and Basuto, 35: of totem, 393-3 Sacrifice at York, 1648, by E. Pea- Sacrifice lo avert Shipwreck, by W.
H. D. Rouse, 105 Sage 1 gathered as love spell,
lincolnshire, 1 67 Sailtirs' beliefs and customs, iie Sea belief and customs
546
Index.
St. Agnes' Eve : love divination on,
Lincolnshire, 167 St. Andrew's Eve : lovo chann on,
Poland, 193 St. Bridget at Fr^jus, 309-1$ St Clair, G., "Myths of Greece,"
469-71 St. Clement's Day: blacksmiths'
festival, Hampshire, 217, 344-6 ; gooding, 249 St. Elias as successor of Greek deity
Helios, 501 -2 St. Fran9ois de Paule at Fr^jus, 309-14 St. George, A Hertfordshire, 303-7,
{plate) St. John's Day, see Midsummer Day St. Mark's Eve : church porch visions, Lincolnshire, 169 ; love divination on, Lincolnshire, 167 St. Nicholas' Day : cakes in animal
form, Austria, I St. Raphael, Angel of Healing, 3x4 St Roch of Montpellier, 314 St. Thomas' Day : gooding, 249 Sakkeya, sea-shell as emblem of purity
of, in magic figure, Ceylon, 458 Salruck : burial customs, 3, 104, 258,
iplate) Salt, used against witchcraft, Lincoln- shire, 173-4 Samhain ( Hallowe'en) : Cuchulainn's struggle with Meave's hosts begins Monday before, 57 ; taboo on King of fiire on Tucs«lay after, 47 Samogitae, ancient sacrifices and
rites of, 294-302 Sanctuary, right of : in burial ground of toiem clan, 393 ; in Persia, 269 ; sanctuary trees, 356 Sand-rope, the legend of the, 131 Sandwich Islands, see Hawaii Santals refuse food cooked by Brah-
mans, 483 Santa Brigita at Fr^jus, 309-15 Sarawak : nyarong or spirit helper of
Sea Dyaks, 231-2 Sarmatians, worship and customs of,
294-302 Saturnalia : J. G. Frazer's views dis- cussed, by M. Gaster, 226-30, and A. Lang, 355 ; in Lower Mcesia, 219 Savaras (India), 246 Saxony, Prussian, see Grossvargula Sayce, A. II. : reviews by, Wiede- mann's The Realms of the E^ptian Dead, 3646 ; Griffith's Stories of
the ffigk'Priests if Mempl
500
Scandinavia : (x«r aise N(
connection oif Lincolnahi
Scandinavian belief, i6i-2
Scapegoat: birds as, 70; id
nver as, at Japanese Q^xtx
superstitions connected with
Scarsdale hundred of D^faysh
Schoolmaster, The Accursed,
folktale, 84-6
Scorpion : antidote to bites, 272
Scotter : water in which iron as remedy for bad leg, 472
Scotland : (jse€ aUo Argyi Berwickshire ; Hebrides ; lands; Inverness-shire; Per and Shetland Islands); as pebbles as, 2S4; chuckies, g 285-6; compass points u giving directions, aii-a; put in first water given to a calving, 472 ; feet-washing ding), 249; "fivies," 258 task stories, 131 ; toest tmc west, red-hot cinders to cooking utensils, 473
Sea beliefs and customs : sacrifice to avert shipwreck, ' 105 ; Japanese sailors fee< cats, 70; orientation by c points, 212 ; pigeons freed at of ship, Japan, 70 ; ancient 1 gods of sea and sailors, sacr 296 ; S^billot's L€ Folk-l Pccheurs reviewed, 37 1 -2; thrown into sea as rain char Minor, 216
Sea Dyaks, nyarong or spirit of, 231-2
Seaford : weathercock at, 99 (
Sea-gull, in Greek folktale, 2C
Seal : unclean, Asia Minor, i<
Sea, Red, see Red Sea
Sea-shells, see Shells
Second sight : rare in Linco 169
Secretary, election of, 4
Sccunderabad : rhymes from.
Seeds : (J« also Millet ; Ric Tamarind seeds) ; Pcr^ ancient Prussian god of seed
Seine, Dcpt. of, see Paris
Serpent, see Snake
Serpent Child type of folktale,
Seven : 77,000 stones as rain
Asia Minor. J i6 : omilled in count- ing raja's leign, Uriya Slates, 247 Shag loal. goblin, Lincolnihirc, 172 Shakefpeari. TAi Fairy Mylkohgy of,
hy A. Nmt, reviewed, ia:-a Shnmani, we Medicine -men Shamii, Ihe legend of ihe, 44S. 475 Shannon ; passing dry-fool labooed
to Cormac eonloingts., 63 Shape-shifting ; among Bantu, 35-6 ; belief in, one of elemenla of tor —
. 35i '
o pnmuive
, 49, and
. . , . 1 Greek folktale, 87-93. 205-7, a(D7-8 ; IJncolnihir< 172: by Per^an ghouls, ifti, and jinns and afreets, 363
Shark : hammer-headed, loletn in Yam Island, 3JI
Shatton : lead-mining custom, 396-7
Sheep : (i« also Moufflon) ; astragalus from lamb, Bordeaux, 384 1 dice from knucklebones of, Arabs, aSz, and N.W. froQlier of Indl,i, sSi) ; ewe ia nursery rhyme, Secundcra- ^^1 334; eye worn as amulet, Persia, 36S ; in Greek folktale, 3'9 ; goldeo lamb the luck of Mycemc, ^7-8 ; lambs not I ' counted, Lincolnshire, 1791 1 iltin applied for bruises, Asia Minor, 191: skin protects from spirits, Wilts, 741 weathercock in shape of lamb, Hendon, 99
Sheffield : building house &c in one night gives title to land, 397
Shell : emblem of pmitj? ofSakkeya, in magic ti^re for ricc-thraihing, Ceylon, 45S ; white, is charm against loss of article, Parsee, 378
SheUlish : S^billol's La Coquiliagts dt Shr reviejved, 371
Shetland Islands: "Grand Foudc"
I, J49
Shield : '
s when Conchobhat i
I of
, L, ncn 1 shield
Huichol temple . . Ship Processions, by N. W. Thomas,
476-7 Ships: in festival processions, 315, 476-7 ; launch of, pigeons freed si, Japan, 70 : weathercocks in shape
Shipwreck, human socrifice lo aveii.
^
Shoshone Indians ; (i« aAc Coohuilla
Indians) ; folklore of, 379 Shrines : Anions, 154 Baluchistan,
272-3; China, 511 Shrovetide : rhyme, Wilts, Si Sickness, see Diseases Si'lh or fairy dwellings of Ireland, 51 Sieradz : animal lupetstiiions, 193-4 Signs of lodiac : water drunk from
basin inscribed with, as remedy,
Persia, 270 Silk-grass : used for whipping game of
Arawnks. Guiana, 143 Silver Bough in Irish Legend, The,
by Miss Eleanor Hull, 43'-4S Singing Bone type of folklnlci, izj
Sisters : special position amongst Hottentots, 30
Skins : (r» aho Cat ; and Sheepl : of sacrificial animaUi worn by Jacob, 248
Skulls of animals as garden scare- crows, Asia Minor, 192
Slave Coast : holy days, 59
Slavs. r«Borus!.i ; Russia; Ruthenia; oHi/Sami^tEe
Sleaford : weather rhyme on stones near. 165
Sleeping cily, in Greek fQlktale, 319-
Sloth : badge in whipping game of
Amwaks, Guiana, 144 Smalldalc: " bye-names" used, 399 ;
place rhyme, 423; Roman vestiges.
399 Smallpox, mock burial to curCi
Gloucestershire, 353 Smiths and smithy work, see BUck-
Smyma : Dionysiac processions, 476
Snake : Bechuana lube named after, 31 ; in Buddhist Wheelof Life, 67 j burnt in Midsummer fire, Bagnirei de Luchon, 316-7; cakes in form of, Asia Minor, 192 ; house guardian, Asia Minor and Lesbos, 191 ; omens for year from house- hold snakes, ancient Lithuanians and SamogilK, 298 t respected by Turks, iQz ; souls of nobles pass into, Madagascar, 342 \ Iravellers pass between divided body, Per^a, 166 1 worshipped, ancient Lilhu- nians and Samt^t^e, 298
Sneezing : Persia, 366-7
Snobs, game of, 3;8, zgo-i
r,
I I u
i
I.
i
■
■i
I
!
II ij-j
1'! ■■ .
if. '-i ■
■i
'«
1
1
J
548
Index.
Sodetieit humsiii daiiHicatfcin o(
1 10-3 Solar edipao* i« Kdipaet* aobr Solomon, Kind jm King Solomoo Some Ptohkmf of Eai^ ReHgioQ in
the light of Sooth African Folkloie^
by E. S. Hartland, 4, 15-40 Somenbgr : fiuriet at» 170 Somenetihiie, jm Loccombe Songs, JM Folk-ioon .S^ftfT rf Mfdtm Gn$e§^ hf G. F*
iUibott, reviewed, 125 Soot as remedy for born, Penla, 17s Sore feet, charm against, F6land, 193 Sartes VirgiHama : volwne of Hans
and knife, Perna, 263-4 Sools : {se$ als9 Death and funeral
customs and beliefr); leaving
sleeping body, Wales, 11^ 1 omens
of tiiture state of, Pttsia, 178;
taboos to keep in body, 221 South Africa, sa Africa South America: {su alt9 Amntine
Republic; Bolivia ; Brsail ; Guiana ;
Mapodie ; amd Peru) ; cures, 256 ;
gaines widi knucklebones, 2&1-3 South Uist : collection of folklore in,
358-9 Scming customs and bdiefr : diurlidi
sower punished, Lincolnshire, 164 ;
folly ot offending niler of weather,
Lincolnshire, 163; site of new
village ploughed and sown, S.
India, 24(5-7 Spain : broadsides, 3 ; Carnival pro- cession, 476 " Spanish Alleluias " (broadsides), ^ Sparrow : killed with whips, Poland, - 193 ; in story of William of Lind-
holme, 171-2 Speakman, J. C G., Midsummer in
the PVrenecs, 315-7 Spectral hunt : Gabriel ratchet, 249 ;
Wilts. 74 Spectral Light in Corsica, by £.
Peacock, 105-6 Spectral Lights, by A. Lang, 343-4 Speech, folklore as to power of, 353 Spells, ste Charms and spells Spider : not killed, Asia Minor, 19X,
Poland, 193 Spirit of Vegetation, The, by E.
Tregcar, 260 Spitting : for luck, I jncolnshire, 179 ;
on grave, Upper Congo, 1S4 Sponge-fishing, octopus of ill omen
to, Asia Minor, 189
Spring, nncieBt FfeMrivB fod o( : Sprigs: dw^^p of HneUdsi
pd ct 396 1 toA briiy cfca
Stable : as Mmctmy, Bniat 1 wild pig in, piolaels hooBt i evU eve, Piffila, 2^9
Stafibtddiire s^f «&» lUba
Slag: horns oiver doon^ ArialQ 192; Inntiw oi ma^ with gri hocns tahoocq, 63 ; ipcailicnBC shape of, Neudoa, 99; wm heads on hoiiaca, Pcdsnd, 194
Stammering^ folklore o( 253
Staring at diild, core for iqi caused by, Memia, 47a
Stais : (jM mit0 Great Bear eoa* tkm) ; myth, Mnll^anib j83;a ment on aanaical inibMB Guiana, 157 ; not to he poa at, Gartree, 166
State, evohitioii of tfac^ no
Stone-catdiing Game, hf E, Lea 106, 815, 1S7-8, a8o^3
Stone, cure for, Asia lunor, 191
Stonehenge, 133
Stones: (iw oAa Rocks); p thrown by, Linocdnshne, 1 Greek superstitions ooocera 243-5 ; ^th holes, cfaanns agi witchcraft, Lincolnshire^ i legends connected with, TJnr shire, 163-5: magic, Man River Tribe (Aus.), 3; charm, thrown into water as, j Minor, 2x6 ; totem may reskk Yam Island, 231
Stoney Middleton : Barmote Co
395 Stools: channs for. Upper Coi
185; votive, for Iluicholdeities, Stories and other Notes from
Upper Congo, by J. H. Wo
181-9, 458-04 Stories from Upper Egypt, by C
Myers, 329-30 Stories of the Higk-^ritsts cfMem^
by F. U. Griffith, reviewed, ^
500 Stork : child-bringer, Poland, v
flesh cures rheumatism, Poland, I
when first heard, money tun
Poland, 193 ; not injured, Pols
193 ; luck or ill-luck from
Poland, 193
••
549
Storms ; accompuDy trial for capital offence, 165-6 ; atlribuled to " Tilo," Baronga, 26; Paign, ancient PruBsian god of, 296, 298 ; show fury of devil, 1 66
Slourlon, King Allrcd localised at, 77
t Rivcf
Sualtach, Fnlher of Cuchulainn, 57 Sudini, customs of, 299-301 Suffolk ; BstnLgali fiom pebbles, 2S4,
from polsberds, 184 ; the Passing
Bell, 4Sa
;r Congo, 188-9 Suicide : phantom animals haunt
(llace of, Lincolnshire, 172 Suitenglj, Japanese god of water and
heaven, 214 Sumatra ; Batlas free swallow to
avert cuise, 70 ; harvest riles, Z20 Sun : Cuchulainn a sun-hero, 58, 6a-
3, 65 ■, eclipses and clouds, magical
musical instrument, Guiana, 157 ; passage of, magicajly imitated by ancient Italian fire walk, 453 ; not to be pointed al, Gartree, 166 ; shining on apple-trees al Christmas foretells heavy crop, Lincolnshire,
Sun Charms, by N. W. Thomas, 216
Sundanese Words 'south' and 'left, connected, 211
Sunrise : prayer granted at, on Whit- suntide morning, 351
Sunset ; unlucky to bring <^gs &c. into house after, Lincolnshire, I67
Sunwise : millstones should so turn, Lincolnshire, 167
Supernatural Changes of Sites, by E. Peacock, 464-6
Surnames, sec Names
Surrey, j« Croydon : and Merlon
Survival of Tree- Worship, A, by M. L. Cameron, 4SS-^
Sussex : tin aJm Seaford) 1 astragals, fioishefds us. 284 ! blacksmiths fes- tival, 346; forrep land, 2491 wit, funeral bell may portend anolher funeral, 480; iiitit, rhyme from, 346 Iton Veney ; rhymes about bells.
Swabia : water in which iron cooled as remedy for itch, 472
Swallow : not injured, Poland, t93 ; lucky, Aua Minor, 190, Persia, 265 ; released by Ballas (Sumnlra), 70, japan, 70, Paris, 70; respcclcd, Asia Minor, 190, Turks, 192 ; when 6rsl seen, sore feel averted by silting down, Poland, 193 : transformed girl, Poland, 1941 weathercock in shape of, Frietn Barnet, 99
Swan : shape assumed in Irish legends.
Swan-maiden type of follilales, I17-8,
458-9 Swastika, 6g. 214 Swearing. i« Oaths Sweeping dust out of door unlucky,
Lincolnshire, 179 Sweet-flag : medical powers, Japan,
71; used in May festival, Japan, 71 Switzerland : {ste ala Neuchilel) ;
astragalus from Lake dwellings,
258 Sykes, Miss E., Persian Folklore,
258, 261-80 ; nole en The Ancient
and Modem Game of AslragaU>
293 Symbolism efike Huhhel /ndtans, by
C. Lumholli, reviewed, 107-9 Symi : animal niperslilions, 189-92 Syria : children's games, 2S1
Taboos ; animal, among Bechuano, 31 -I; of canoe -builder. Upper Congo, 185 ; on man whose house lakes fire, Japan, 70; milk, Mapuche, 512 ; on names of dead, Upper Congo, 1S4 ; Old Irish Tabus or Geosi, by Miss Eleanor Hull, 2, 41-66; polluted stream, 61 ; during rice- thrashing, Ceylon, 458; toy^ and priestly, 221 ; in Welsh Mabinagion, 65.6
Tahiti : The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti, 446-SS (/'o")
Tails of animals cropped, 97, 20S, slit or bled, 97
Takoisi Nakawe, Huichol goddess of growlh, 108
T^dismans, ui Amulets and talismans
Tamarind seeds, game with, Gujcnit, 258, 285
Tamils : old god thrown into river, and new one found, before rice harvest, 457
•550
Index.
I
w I
f
Tanganyika, Lake : folklore from,
379 Tara: taboo on King of Ireland at, 46 Tarahumara Indians : games with
knucklebones, 283 Tarantula : antidote to bites, Persia,
272 Tasks set in Greek folktale, 91-3 Tatevali, Huichol god of fire, 108 Tatterfoal, goblin, Lincolnshire, 172 TeaffOts seasoned by hot cinders,
Scotland, 473-4
TefBa, North : taboo on king of £ire concerning, 47
Teheran : evil eye, belief in, 268 ; Parsees, account of, 276-8 ; witch- craft, 272
Teigue, Son of Cian, story of, 442-3
Tempests, see Storms
Tennessee : astragali in stone graves,
283 Tenos, folktale from, 197-200
Texas : divining rod, 102-3 Thermi, village in Greek folktale, 87 Thirteen : 13th of SafTar unlucky, of other months lucky, Persia, 264 ; unlucky, Persia, 264-5 Thirteen, Greek folktale, 93-7 Thomas, N. W. : Animal Supersti- tions, 129, 189-94 ; A Buddhist Wheel of Life from Japan, i, 67-9, 123, 214 {^frontispiece) ; Cropping Animals' Ears, 97, 208 ; The Ethnological Significance of Burial and Cremation, 468-9 ; Ship Pro- cessions, 476-7 ; Stray Notes on Japanese Folklore, 69-71 ; Sun Charms, 216 ; The Transition from Totemism to Ancestor Worship,
341-3 Thornhill : maypole, 425
Thorns in Greek folktale, 92
Thrashing rice, ceremonies for,
Ceylon, 457 -8 Three Sisters, The, Greek folktale,
200-1 Threshold : bride touches, ancient
Prussians, 299 Thrush : cure for, Leicestershire and
Notts, 472 : frog or thrush, 249 Thunder, ancient Prussian god of,
296, 298 Thundercloud : at execution, Lincoln,
166 Thunderstorms, see Storms Tideswcll : no garland ceremony,
426 ; morris dancers, 426 ; nick-
name fbr» 407 ; predomimuit name, 407
Tiger : saperstitions, Ngii6n- vaUey, 507 ; word tabooed w rice-thrashing, Ceylon, 458
Tilo, heaven and deity of Baroi 26-7
Tinchebray : cats with falemisfa admitted to Sabbat, 97
Toad : bone has magical poa Lincohi, 168-9 ; burnt in Id summer fire, Bagn^res de Lachi 316-7; in love charms, TJnm shire, 168-9
Tobacco pipes left on grave, Salru 3, 104, 258 {pUUe)
Todas, account of, 255
ToUeshunt Knights : Barn-Hall gend, 464-6
Tooth : charm for pulling, Wilts. S loss portends relative's deal Japan, 71
Toothache, cure for, Asia Minor, I
Torres StraiU : marriage restrictkN 233 ; primitive orientation, 210- totemism, 230-1, 233
Tortoise : {see also Turtle) ; fl< gives strength, Asia Minor, 191
Totemism : m Arunta tribe (Ans 232 ; evolved into ancestor wi ship, 35-7» 341-3, 471 ; flesh hound tabooed to Cuchulainn, 41 J. G. Frazer*s views discussed A. C. Haddon, 230-3 ; ma Greek superstitions referable 1 243-5; li^e of totem may be stone, Yam Island, 231 ; Notes a Queries on Totemism, 385-9 origin may vary, 232; no p sonal totems, Papuans, 231 ; n sonal totems. Cape York, 23 survivals amongst Bantu, 31-3, 3 territorial, Arunta tribe (Aus 232 ; territorial grouping of tote clans, Torres Straits, 233 ; tote animal, dead clansman assum form of, 36 ; totem clan Hves long house, Fly River, 233 ; tote represented by mask. Yam Islan
231 Tradition and historic myths in th(
relation to history, discussed 1
A. Nutt, 3J6-9, and W. H. :
Rouse, 467-8 Tradition, credit due to, 359-60 Tradizioiii Popolari Pistcies
Racconti Popolari Pistoiesi
Index.
m
vemaceta Pistaitst, da R. Neiucd,
reviewed, 371-3, 477 Tnnsronnaunn inlo beails 01 birds, tc Shape-ihifting tTiansition from Tottmiim lo
ccsloi Worship. The, by N. W.
Thomas, 341-3, and E. S. Ilarl-
land, 4;t Tronsvaal : memorial on native cus
lomsund instiiutinni, 11,38,40 " TtBp," played on Pitim Sunday,
Wi/ts, 7S Treasure, hidden : Wilts, 75 TtcBsiucr, eleciion of, 4
Trees in folklore ; (la aisa Ash ; Black- thorn; Cypress; Fig-lree; Hone- chestnut I Mountain ash ; Oak ; Palm ; Pipal Uee ; and Vew) : binh-trees, 246 ; ssncluary trees, 356 ; worship of, Brahmapulia valley, 51a, Jllaka, 346, and Tus- cany, 4SS-6
Tiee-spirils : Fraier's TTu Golden Boiigh reviewed, 219-41
Trcgear, E., The Spirit of Vegeta- tion, 260
Trident -armed cross in magic figure for rice- thrashing, Ceylon, 458
TrifiUn, romance of, 488, 49a
Triimpet-lnrd ; imitated in Arawak game, Guiana, 139-40
Tmmpcls, used in pu'nsheetH dance, Guiana, 157-S
Tuadh Inbhir, sympalhetjc wave of.
Turning back unlucky. Lit
Turq
s amulel, Persia,
itha D£ Danann : can transform birds or beasts, 48 \ govern under world like upper world chieftains, 50-1; re-incamaled
Tuesday : Paisees ri J»; 0
Tulip : used for garland. May aglfa,
Castleton, 409, 411, 415-7 Turkey : {set also Metan ; Aiilin i
Armenians; Asia Minor 1 Crete;
and Myiidoi); Turkish knuckle- bone dice, aSi Turmeric in magic figure for rice-
Ihnuhing. Ceylon, 458 Turner, Miss C. V., tioU en The
Ancient and Modern Game of
Asuagals, 290-1
Turtle : {see a/ie Tortoise} ; blood gives strength, Asia Minor, igi ; ceremony 10 obtain supply of, Torres Sfralls, 231
Tulbury : game of jacky-five-slones, 191
Twelve Apostles, the mill of the, 21S
Twin Brothers' type of folktales, 124
Twins, altribuied (o "Tilo," Ba- ronga, 26
Two ; not lued on ancient knuckle- bone dice, iSa
Twyford ( Hants) : blacksmiths' festi- val, St. Clement's Day, 317, 344-6
Twyfotd (Middlesex): wealbercock 1,99:00
Ukraine : cakes in form of larks, March 22nd. 70
Ulster : (i« a/io Btiigh ; Conehob»r sagas; Cilchulainn sagas : and Emain Macha) i the Champions of the Royal Branch, 43S; the king's post of peace, 440 ; periodical prostration of warriors, 56-61
Ultonian cycle, sa Conchobhar sagos ; dui/ Ciichulainn sa^^
Ulum-Scfcr, Greek folktale, 317-ao
Uncle, malernal ; influence among Basuto, 29
Underworld, r« Hadcs
United Slalesof North America : (see 01^^ Aleiuian Inlands; Arapahoes ; Arizona; Arkansas; Bannock Indians ; California ; Cayuses ; Florida ; Georgia ; lIap>E;Makah Indians; New Jersey ; New Votk; Shoshone Indians; Tenneuee; Texas; Uies; and Vankton Indians); astragali, sS] : lu^o folklore, — Boyle's Devi/ Tales reviewed, 151-3
Unkulunkulu, Amazulu ideas of, 33
Unlucky days and deeds, see Lucky and unlucky days and deeds
Upper Congo, see Congo
Uriya Slates: counting years of raja'g teign, 347
Uanech, hill of^ Conla's adventur« on, 440
Ulw ; folklore of, 379
5Sa
Index.
ValW, tbdipKu, belkA ot. Jo Vilerun, ted ipiiT : WUuIutc nuw
ol, Sa VsmpiKs : ■Ppw » tiUek dogi oc
[Mft, Am Hinot, 191 Vanei or weatbocockt, jm WMthcr-
V*r, M* Frfjni Veddalu, utide on, 379 V«dic mjUioloKr : Amold'i 71* RigMOt leWnred, 345-6 enkatummi, M* N., Rindn ilm&ai
collected bj, 3J3-5 Vice-PieiidenU, election e£ 4 ^neU diK^, M> Dock inctoiu, Qoeen, Mf Qaecn Victotk \^iie-n*ftuic in Sotttaem Fnutec^ \i]
C A. Jmnvier, 194-7
boodoo, 153 i wUd, BeAniM tnbe
r.Jl
Vlihan, bow uid urov of, ia nngic figwe foe itee-thndimt Cejrlon,
Vit^
I in TTnii-Knl tenplci,
Vnlture : &I cores eoldi un tjlm, Aiu Hioor, 191 ; by Turltg, 192 ; Ftknee c poeed to, 378
Wi
'upu)da : 1 'akelield ;
»i3* ,
convulrions, cures for, 471-3; K»ine of utragnls, 393 Wakes, let Death and funeral customs
and belief Walecros wapentake of DerbTihire,
395 Wales : (set ait» Montgomemhire ; and Pembrokeshiie] 1 Rhys' Ctllit Folklore, Wtltk and Manx, re- viewed, 114-6; taboos in MaUno- gion, 65-6 ; same word (or " right " and "south," 3ii-a Wallflower : used in Garland, May
39th, Casllelon, 417 Walloons ; some always drowned on
Midsummei Day, I30 WapenUkes of Derbyshire, 395 Wapiana Indians, Guiana, 133 Warau Indians, Guiana, Iji-J, 150-1 Warmiiislei : origin of Cley HUl, 78'
WMwlcfcHtira : HMe oT "id Wariter >£ the ^d, aaa k< blan,64
Gtdua, 139;
TOb:L
Sckt Rnwn and abM^ ; $
2h?*'- **^ y*"*i ^^
Penia, X70; dnnk mn 1 iBKribad bMin. M roMdh 370; finycr iMili tNilB
eUdtoi'i diih, .^M wa^gd
bf iMt iron or diri Ktnedy, DerbyAiic, LdCMh IJnwiliaWre, HuvanL SooUand, and SmEN, «] for miluiiB Bewtr^ociL (Notts), 47a; aSaed lo U far hck, Pnu, 306; taba canoe-boDder, Uppa Conn Water god : pucr wub name <
391b, < Water spiiits :
Congo, 463; Banum neriC
Upper Congo, 187-8; the t
the Ldke as water U17. 487 ;
Gee lo torrivci in Wallooa
Mition, I30 ; source of
biries, 116 Waves ; the three ^npatlietie
of Erin, 51-3 Wax poured into water fix it
telling, andcDt Pnmiaiia Ac Weather : Ibretold by black
Japan, 70 ; Lincolnshire fo
162-7 i weather sayings, Wil Weathercocks, by J. p j
99-100 C/Wb/<J Wedding customs and belie
Marriage customs and bcLefi Wednesday : last W. of Saffar 1
Day of Judgment, Persia,
taboo on King of j^ire on 4]
lucky, Persia, 364 Weeks, J, H., Stories and
Notes from the Upper Cocua
9, 458-64
Well : from blow of All's hand, Persia, 171 : offering on bushes near, Persia, 272 ; stork beings children from, Poland, 194 ; water from causes conception, Persia, 172 Wensleydale : rhyme from. 332-3 Werwolf : romance ol Bisclavctct,
West Indies : taboos of time, 59 Wcstmealh, la Alh Majghne Weslon, J. L., "The Golden
Bough": Moab 01 Edom 7. 347,
476 ; review by, Maynadier's TAe
iVift of Balk's Tali: its Simnts
and Analopits, 373-4 West Prussifl. ste Prussia, West Whaling customs and beliefs : Kooiag-
mioute, 371 : Makah Indians, 379 Wheel of Life, Buddhist, 1, 67-9,
laj. U4 {frBulispitci) Whipping, ceremonial : of bride,
aiicient Lithuanians, 300 Whipping game of Arawaks, Guiana,
141-50 Whistles : in animal shapes, Poland,
193 ; used for whipping gimc of
Arnwaks, Guiana, 143 ; in para-
sheeia dance of PaitamoDBS,
Guiana, 156-8 White animals, sa lien; Pigeon;
and Rabbit Whilelield
Whi
lilelield ; game of jacks, 292
lite key -Sower in Batbaiossa
legends, 445 While 01 lucky days, Persia, 265 While pigments used for paiasheera
dance, Guiana, Ij6 White shell as chaim, Parsee, 378 White witches, sa Wise women Whitsuntide Fate and Mock Burials,
by M. F. Johnston, C R.
Coleridge, and A. A. Keary, 351-2 Whitsuntide : child born on Whit
Sunday wUI kiU or be killed, Balll-
tore, 351 ; Grass King procession
at, Grossvargula, 41S Whitton (Lin.): chattn against evil
Wicken-tree, sa Mountain ash Wicket-gates, tabooed in Finn lago,
61-3 Wicklow: wren bush, 131 Widows : free-bench tenure, 249 Wife if Bath's TiU. The: luSeurtts
and Analogues, by G. H. May-
nadier, reviewed, 373-4 Wild Hunt, i« SpecUal hunt
Wilishirc : (sa alto Borehim ; Briit- ton Deverill; Crockerton; DeveriU; Devizes ; Grovely Wood ; Ileyles- bury; Hillj Hill Deverill: Hindoo; Homingsham ; Kingsettle Hill 1 Kingston Deverill ; Longbridge DeveriU; Lord's Hill: Maiden Bradley; Stouilon; Sutton Veney;
rhymes fr
Wind : {sa alia Storms) ; cursing of, putiudled, Lincolnshire, 163
Winnow, in magic ligure for rice- ihrashiDg, Ceylon, 45 S
Winter : Ciichulainn holds back Meave's hosts during, 57-8 : winter solstice celebration, Hopi Indians, S08
Winterton : ghost of powder puff, 169 I lovecbarm, 16S
Wirkswonh ; Barmnte Court, 395 i lead-mining customs. 396-8
Wise men or wizards, ste Wirards
Wise women 1 Lincolnshire, 178
Wishfotd Revel, 76
Witchcraft : cat with blemish not admitted to Sabbat, 97 ; cured by eating food of enemy, Persia, 271, or by throwing e^ into running water, Persia, 271 ; ear of calf slit against, Helmsley, 97 % Lincoln* shire, 173-8 i Persia, 263, 271-2 : Wilts, 75 ! " witch's bottle," Monkleigh, u/
Witchw : drawitig blood from, Lin. colnsbire, I77'8: sha|>c-shifting by, Lincolnshire, 172, Poland, 194
Wives : husband and wile stories, 101, 213-4 ; Upper Congo folktale, l8a-3
Wiiards; negro, U.S.A., 252: powers of, Lincolnshire, 177; alsis witches, Louth (Lin.), 176-7
Wolf ; [sa also Werwolf) ; in Greek folktale, 324-5 ; unlucky in house, Poland, 193
Women : (j« a/w Mother-right i Sisters; Widows; Wise women; Witches; and Wives); are daugiiters of Huichol goddeuet, loS ; degraded position among Bantu, 29 ; excluded from para- sheera dance, Guiana, 160 ; high position among Hottentots, 30 ;
1'
554
Index.
madze planting begun by girls,
Navajo Indians, 197; old, have evil
eye, Persia, 268; Parsee, 276-7;
taboo on Cormac conhinges^ 63 ;
in Upper Congo folktales, 182-3,
461 ; vine-grafting begun by girl,
S. France, 196-7 Woodcutter Lad, The, Greek folktale
197-200 Woodlouse : charm to curl into ball,
Wilts, 80 Wooing ciistoms and belie£i, see
Courting customs and beliefs Woolborough : rheumatism cured by
mock burial, 3SI-2 Worcestershire : astragals, 258, 284 ;
" jack o' five stones," 258 Wounds, cure for, Asia Minor, 191 Wren : released annually, Champ d' loux, 70; wren bush and box, 131 Wright, A. R-, The Divining Rod in
U.S.A., 102.3 Wroot : grant at, 170-2
Yam Island : life of totem in stone, 231
Yam, wild: used in orda Congo, 187
Yankton Indians, folklore o
Yaraikanna tribe, Cape Yot personal totems, 231
Yarborougb : grass from § against witches, 176
Yew : Druid wand firom, Hertfordshire legend, jpk
Yezd : Parsees, accoimt (2,
York : crucifixion and bomi in 1648, 317
Yorkshire : (jeealso Bamale^ Moor ; Deepcar ; Helmd ley ; Pocklington ; Royst field ; Wak^eld ; We and York); astragals, as, 258, 284 ; compass p for indicating directions, Riding, sword-dancers' s<
Yule, su Christinas
Zakmuk, Babylonian : J. C views on discussed by li 226-30
Ziarats or shrines, Baluchisi
Zulus, su Amazulu
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
Names of Authors of Articles in Periodicals are in ordinc type, names of Authors of Books in italics, and Titles of Peri small capitals.
See also separate Index of Archxological Papers published in 1899,
Abhandlungen and Berichte des K. Z. UND A. E. Museums zu Dresden, 507
Adler, C, 383
Aegerlein, J. V., 379
Ainslee's Magazine, 507
Alters , C, 506
Al Machriq, 377> 5°?
Alviella, G. d', 511
American Anthropologist, 254,
377, 507 American Antiquarian
Oriental Journal, 254,
507 Amersbachy K., 370
Amery, P. F. S., 127 Andrews, H., 5 II Anglo-American Magazine, 377 Annke Sociolociquk, L', 377 Annual of the British School at Athens, 254, 377
AND
377,
Anthropologie, L', 127, Antiquary, 127, 377, 507 Anyut, Y, 383 {ter) Arch/eological Repos
TARIO, 254
Archiv FiJR Religigi
SCHAFT, 127, 254. 378
Arlington, L. C, 508 Arnold, E. v., 126 Asiatic Quarterly Revi Aston, W. G.. 510 (^bis) Aubert, A., 381 Axon, W. E. A., 127, 377
Baildon, W. P., 128 Baldensperger, P. J., 383 Ball, A. H., 127 Ballard, S., 510 Barlow, T. L., 127 Barrows, j9. /'., 253 Bastian, A., 254, 508 (^bis^
|
Al^ |
1 |
|
|
^^^^^M 555 |
1 |
|
|
Baty, T., Sio |
Campbell, Sir J. M,, 127. nS, 380. |
|
|
Belchct, B.,511 |
509 |
|
|
Bell, J. M,. soS |
Caparl, J., 51 1 |
|
|
Beoham, W. G., 378 |
Caius, P., 382(i/i), SIO |
|
|
Wrard, A., 3S3 |
Casanowici. J. M., 383 |
|
|
Bbrlin MusgoM FiJi VoLKES- |
Cassidy.J., 378 |
|
|
KIINDB, 154 |
Car/™, IV., 116 |
|
|
Besi. E., 381, 383 |
Century Magazine, The, 378 |
|
|
BevaD, E. R., 50S |
Cesaresco, Counleas Mirtinengo-, 37B |
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ChadwLck, H. M- ISS |
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BlELlA, 507 |
Chamberlain, A. f.. aS4, 377 Chambers' Journal, 378 |
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BlJDRACE NTOT DE TAAL— , LAND-, |
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BN VOLKBNKUNDE, 378, SO? |
Chaipenlier, L., 382 |
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£laci,/.S.,m |
Chaube, R. G., 3S0 (ftr) |
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Blacltman, E, E., 377, 383 |
Chavannes, E., sn |
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Bbden. W. W., 384 |
Chcynt, T. K., 253 |
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Blait, 0. Hunter—, 511 |
China Review, 378, 508 |
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Blcchel.E., S06 |
Church Mission akv IktAlli- |
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Boas, F., 356 |
GBNCBB, 378, S08 |
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Bwldine, P. 0., 381 |
Church Quarterly Review, 354 |
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Bockcnoogen, G. J., S" |
Clari-Jiall,/. X.. 153 Clemens, WTm., 381 |
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B<^oras, W., 377 |
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Bouchier, J.,511 |
Cock, A. de. Sii |
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Bougl*. C, 377 |
Conard, E. L. M., 118 |
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Bouwi, D. W., 378 |
Contemporary Review, 378 |
|
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Bowdiich, C P., 377 |
Conybearc, F., S'l |
|
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Boyle, D., 380 |
CORRttSPONDANT, LB, 50S |
|
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BayU, V. F., ia6 |
Cprrespondkniblatt, soS |
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Breodes, J., Si2(#") |
Courboin, A„ 378 |
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Branky, F., 254 Bray, J., 383 |
Cranworlh, Lady, 378 (*m) |
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Crooke, W.. 127 |
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BriEBS, G. W., 379 |
Crowfool. J. W., 3S0 |
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Brinckcr, P.H.,2S6 |
Culin, S., 254, 379 U"-) |
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Bristowe, L. W., 380 |
Cumoni, F.,2S6,38l |
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Brockelmatui, C, 510 |
Cumanl, F., 376 |
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Blown, R., 3S1 |
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Bryant, T. II., isS |
Dale, E. R., 381 |
|
|
BCLLBTIN DB LA SOCI^Ti d' |
Davey, F., 512 |
|
|
Etudes CoLONiALBS, 378 |
Dairidson, O., 128 |
|
|
Bulletin db la Soci^te Rovalb |
Davy, A. J., 128 |
|
|
DB Geockaphie d'Anvbks, 378 |
Delafosse, M., 254 |
|
|
Bulletin de l'Ecolb Fran^aisb |
Dielcrich, A„ iz8 |
|
|
^ d' ExtrImb Orient, 507 |
Docsbcrg, y.van 381 |
|
|
Bulletins bt Memoires db la |
Doncieu*, G., 128 |
|
|
Soci^Tt d'Anthropolcxjib db |
Dorsry, G. A., »S4. 377. S08 |
|
|
Paris, 507 |
Draper, W. H., 382 |
|
|
^ BUlow, W. voo, liS ' Bunker, J. R.. SIO |
||
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East Anulian, 378 |
||
|
Bureau of American Ethnolocv, |
Eastern Counties Macaeihb, 378 |
|
|
Rbports of, SS4, 378 |
Edge- Partington, — , 256 |
|
|
Burgess, J., ass |
Edisburoh Rbvibw, 50S |
|
|
Bushdl. S. W.. 3S1 |
Elworthy, F. T.. 383 |
|
|
BVECONES, S07 |
English Historical Review. 137, soS |
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Cadiire, L.. 507 |
Essex Review, 3 78 |
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|
Calliard, E. M., 378 |
Ethnolociischks Notizblatt, so8 |
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Calcutta Revibw, 378 |
Evans. A. J., ass |
556
379
FewkM, .
FiBLO Columbian Hdixum, Ah-
THBOrOLCXlICAL SBUII, JtA
Ftmit, I., 507 FiunDB, 379, S08 Fliher, 0.,S1I Flttiktr, X. d ta6 Fordc, P., 509 V^tvxnuta, E., 379 FOR-n(ioHTi.T Rkviiw, 117, S54 Foncait, G^ 511
Foy. w., 507
Rmncke, A. H^ 380, jog
Fnndce, H^ 509
Fniet, A., ^3 ijHi)t 511
FtMei, J., su. m
Fmir,J. G., ia6
Fsn MunoK of Sctwcx Ain>
A", 379 Falleboni. F., 508 FurncM, W. H., 379
Gutder, K., 383
G<'<ili>«'> !*■> 355
Gartxnijidbb, 379
Gebhardt, A., 509
GKHTLKUAH'a Maoaziks, 379. 508
GbOCKAFHICAL JODKHAL, JOS
Gerde, C J. van, 511
Gintd, 11., 377
Globus, aM. 379. S**
GoddArd, P. E., 379
GoDIt, T., 383
Grace, — , 510
Greenway, G. C 511
Crimih, F. U., 506
Grube, W., 254
Gnlnwedel, — , 379
Gunkel, H., 38a(«w),Sil
Habbenea, J., 378 Hahl, — . 354 Hoig, W., 381 Hail,/., S06 Ilamillon, F., 354 Harding, D., 51Z
Harpbr's Month lv Macazinb. ass. 379. S09
■— ■■■■■■■*, CL v., 51s
He.11.^,' ir-f!r^s»7. BaHmml, r. T!, jS IlauT, T.i 3S1 HCTtc(«,A.,5a8
HOkr. iCft.. 379 Hfldei^kL, sotf^ Holb, A. CL, X56 (MfL sb Hdkc Haqaums or Mi
38(^509 Hopewell, Y., 384
"' "^ *"Aa "•"■■"■'■> C., 506 HdmamitI NoovBtxa, jl HuntcT-Bfaur, O., (11 Hyde, IX, 511
IMVIKUI. Aire CausKm lira, 380
IKDIAM AirtTQDAKT, 137.
r *^
INTXXHATIOKAIJH AKCH
Etsnoguphis, laS. '
S09
IimKNATlONAI. HOMTHLV
Irish Ectlxsiastical Rbi Islamic Wobla, 380
IsrOUTCHKSKII ViBSTNIK, lyei, S. A., ass ■too. P., 377
eakei,T. L, 511 , eTOns,F.BL. 380, 38a
■WISH QUARTBRLY RbVIK
cwitl, W. H., 377-8 («»*), 1 John, I. B., 506 "ohn$, C W. H., 379
one*. F. M., 508
, OHRHAL DB LA SOClAri OUCRIBNKB, 381
Journal op Hellkmic I
128. 2SS, 510 Journal OF thbApsican*
Journal of thb Anthkc cal Institutr, ass, 380,
Journal op th« Anthkc CAL SociRTT OP Bombay,
557
ouKNAL OP THE Anthropologi- cal Society of Tokyo, 380
ouknal op the asiatic socibtv OF Japan, sia
■URNAL OF THB POLYNaSIAN
Society, 3S1, 510 lUkNAL OF THB Royal Asiatic Society, 510
lurkal of the royal asiatic Society of Bsngal, 381, 510 [uynboll, H. H., 509
Ksiiidl, R. P., 354, S09 liii) K&rutz, — , 379 Keighiley, B., 511 Ketn, R., 511 Kinesmill, T. W., 378 Knowledge, 381 Koch, T., 138 Kohlei, E. M., 384
Koeitlitt, R^ 355 Kohlbnigge, I. H. F., Krelschmer, P., 510
W
Lady's Rbalu, 381 L« F.rp,T.,384 Lalienais, R. M., 509 LAfirange, — , 3B3 L«GrasseTie, R. de, 511 Laidlaw, G. E,, 507 Lang. A., 127,354.355.381 Lang, A., 136, 376 Lange, R., Zj6 La Sailt, L. dt, 136 Luch, R., 356, 509, 510 Laufer, B., 354 Law Magazine, 510 LftwrcDce.J. M.,511 Lawson, J. C, 354, 377 Leclerc, A., S07 Lcd«rb^n, W., 510 Lee, E.M., 513 («i'i) LeRvie, A„ 383 Leg", ' "
\^1
Leisure Hour, 381
Lindiey, E., 383
Lipfihcott's Monthly Magazine,
381 LiTBBARV Guide, 355 Longman's Magazine, 355 Latch, F., 137
McDcn^aU, A. C, 383 (ftrj
McGuire, I. D., 507 Maclean, J., 377 Mocmillan, H , 383 McNaii, F., 137
Madras Govrrnuent Museum Bulletin, 355, 510
Anthropological Science, laS,
356, 38" Marillier, L, 511
Maninengo-Cesaresco, Countess, 378 Morwick, W., 379, 508 Malthes, J. C, 51a MaKhewE, R. H., 507 Matthews, W., 380 Mayhew, , 138
MaynaditT, G. H., 376 Mays, C. H., 383 Meeker, L. L, 379 Merrinun, H. S., 3S3 Meyer, A. B., 507 Mindelcff, C, 254 Milra, S. C, 380 ibis), 381 Milter, H. M., 379
MITTHEILUNGEN DER AKTHROFO- LOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT IN WlEN, SIO
MITTHEILUNGEN DER DEUTSCHEK
Gesbllschaft FiJR Naturund-
VOLKERKUNDS OST-ASIBNS, 38 1 MtTTHBILUNGEN DBS SEMINARS
FiJE Oribntalische Sprachrn,
as6, SIO Modi. J. J., 380 Monde Moderns, 381 Monist, 510 Moncelius, O., 383 Monthly Review, 356 Mooncy, J,, 509 Moore, %. B., 381 Mori, U.. 380
Navorscher, ! , , Negflein, J. v.,so9 Nelson, E. W.. 378 Ntntai, R., 376 New Ikrland Review, 511 Niiiitr, H.J., 136 NlBDBRLAUSI-RBS HltTHBlLDN- OBN.3»I
558
Index.
Nina-Rodfiguts, Dr,, 253
NORDISK TiDSKRIFT, 382
Northern Counties Magazine,
Notes and Queries, 128, 256, 382,
Notes and Queries for Somer- set and Devon, 382 NouvELLE Revue, 382 Nuttalt, Z., 376
Oldham, C F., 510
Open Court, 382, 511
Oppert, G.,511
Oratn, A,t 253
Osmond, £. L., 378
Outing, 382
Overland Monthly, 383, S"
Owen, E., 512
Ozaki, , 254
Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 383,
5" Pantulu, G. R. Subsamiah, 509
Panzer f F., 253
Parker, W. T., 382
Partington, — Edge-, 256
Patai, J., 377, 507
PatkanoVy S., 376
Peacock, E., 511
Pedlow, M. R.,380 iUr)
Pedroso, Mise. de San Carlos de, 50
Peet, S. D , 377
Pereira, G., 384
Perrig, A., 509
PetscA, ^., 253
Pi9arra, L., 384
Pinches, T., 51 1
Pleyte, C. M., 254
Pommerol, F., 507
Pope- Hennessey, H., 255
Popular Science Monthly, 256
Postma, G., 381
Preen, v, 510
Prestage, P., 384
Preuss, K. T., 254 (*«), 379i 3^4
Price, J. M., 511
Proceedings of the Cotteswold
Naturalists' Field Club, 127 Proceedings of the Society of
Antiquaries, 128 Proceedings of the Society of
Antiquaries of Newcastle,
383 Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical ArcH/EOLogy, 383
Pulman, 11. N., 5i» Porpos, C. A., 379
QuiVML, 383
Ramaswami Raju^ 506 Ray, S. H., 510 Reformer, The, 511 Reinach, S., 127, 256 Reinecke, F., 384 Reliquary and Illusti
ARCHiBOLOGIST, 1 28
Report of U.S. Nati
Museum, 383 Revue (Ancisnnb Revue
Revues), La, 383 Revue Biblique, 383 Revue de l'Ecole d'Aici
POLOGIE, 383
Revue d'Histoirk bt db
tAraturb RBLIGIBUSBS, 29
Revue db l'Histoirb des ] gions, 128, 256, 511
R^VUE F^LIBR^ENNB, I28
Rhenisches Musbum fur ]
ologie, 128 Rhys, J., 128, 51a RhySyJ.^ 126 Ricty S, p., 253 Ridgeway, IV., 376 Robertson, J. M., 255 Robinson, G. L., 507 Rolland, E., 126 Roscher, iV, H., 126 Roscoe, J., 510 Roth, H. Ling, 128, cio Rouse, W. H. D., 510 Rome, W. H. Z>., 126 Rousself A.y 253 Royal Magazine, 511 Rozan, C, 381
Sabbe, M., 512 St. Clair, G. , 379 St. Clair, G., 376 Salmon, A. L., 379 Schellhas, P., 254 Schliz, A., 508 Schmidt, K., 506 Schroeder, L. v., 512 SchulU, P., 126 Schurtz, H., 380 Schwarzfeld, M., 506 Science of Man, 383, en Scobell, E. C, 127 Scottish Antiquary, 383 Scottish Review, The, 128
-.iJ
Index.
Sckibnbr's Maoazinb, 3S4
Segnll, J., 511 Seidel, H., 379 Shaw, C. G.. 377 Si«nch, O., 118, IS5, 3S0 Singer, — , 379 Singh, G., 380
SlTZtlKGSHBRlCHTS DBB B. PREUS- SISCHBN AKADEMIB, 383
Skeai, W. W , 381
Steal, IV. , 506
Skinner, C. M„ 381
Sour A A/ruan Native Races Cem-
mitlet, 253 So'-TH AuERicAK Missionary
Magazine, 3S4, 512 StadUng, J., 378 (4ii) Suit, F„ 507 Sleinthal, H., 117 Stenin, P. V., 509 Stopford, Col. J. G. B., 509 Strand Magazinb, 513 Scnmge, t-, 255 Suronei, W. G., 510
Taveta Chronicle, 356, 3S4, jis
Taylor, F. E., S06 Taylor, I.. 13S Tchitai, M., jii Temple, R. C, 127, 3S0 Theal, G. McC, 376 Thbologische Tijdschrift, 513 Thhosofkical Review, 3S4, 513 Thonias, N. W., iz8, 356, 508, 510 Thocason, B., 510 Tkumtyien, R., yi6 Thurslon. E., i55 [Us) TiJDSCHRlFT VOR Indischb Taal-, Land-, eh Volkbnkundb, 384,
Toiil, R., 381 Tradi;ao, a., 384 Transactions or the Honour- able Society OF CvHHRODORioN,
Transactions of the North Staffordskirb Field Club. 384
Transactions of the Devon- shire Association, 127
Tregear, E , 510 Tribe, W. H., ass. 379 Tulub, P. A., 380 Tycr, K. S., 380 Tyer, S. A., 381
VansiClart, E. C, 508
Vellen, C, 256
Venkalaswami, M. N., 355 {Mi), 380
Vemes, M., 511
ViBNNA Oriental Journal, 513
Visser, M. W. di, 126
Volkskundb, 513
Voth, H. R., 508
Waddell, L. A., Jio
WadE. G. A.. 381
Wallace, R. H., JII
Watson, A,, S07
Weber, A., 509 (bU)
Wdneck, F., 381
Weipert, H.,381
Westcn,/. L., 353, 377
While, A. D., 382
Whileway, A. R., 137
Wichmann, v., 381
Wide World Magazine, 511
Wiedemann, K. -4., 353 Wilson, T. P., 5H Wcltskire Notes
384
Windsor Magazine, 3S4 Winter, A. C, 379 Wire, A. P., 378 Wright, T., S08
Vamasaki, N., 510 Yeo, W. C, 511 Vmer, 511
Zambesi Mission Rbcord, The,
384 Zeitschbift FliR Afrikanische
UND OCEANISCKE SFRACHBN, 384
Zbitschrift fur Ethnologib,
384
Zbitsckrift fItr Socialwissbn-
SCHAFT, 356
Zoologischbr Garten, 384
QUEI
The Polk-Lorc Society.
(1901.)
yiHttrent.
B. W. BRABBOOK, C.B., F.8.A., 178, Bedford Hill. BalbMii, 8.W.
VicfUttsAtBll.
THE HON. JOHN ABERCROMBT.
THE RIGHT HON. LORD AVEBOET, D.C.I. , LLJJ., FJI.S., F.SJk.,
F.O.S., F.L.S. MISS C S. BURNE. EDWARD CLODD. G. LAURENCE GOMME, E.S.A. E. SIDKEr HARTLAND, F.S.A. ANDREW LANG, M.A.,LL.D. ALFRED NUTT.
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Cottictl.
H. C. BOWEN. M.A.
MISS LUCY BROADWOOD.
E. K. CHAMBERS.
F. C. CONYBEABK, M.A. J. E. CROMBIE.
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DR. GASTER.
MISS F. GROVE.
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MISS E. HULL.
E. F. lu THORN, C.B.
A. F. MAJOR.
R. R. MARETT, M.A.
J. L. MYRES, M.A,, F.S_A.
S. E. BOUVERIE PCSEY, F.E.G.8.
T. FAIHMAN URDISH.
C. G. SELIGMANN.
PROF. B. C. A. WIHDLE, M.A.,
M.D., D.Sc. A. R. WRIGHT.
Kon. €tu.*Mnt. EDWABD CLODD, 19, CArlstoii Boftd, Tofnell Park. N. Aon. flnbiltn. F. Q. GREEN. N. W. THOMAS.
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MISS C. S. BURNE LAND A. it. WRIGHT.
tTiptniftKH :
PUBLICATIOHS OOMMITTB*.
E. K. CHAMBERS : G. L. GOMME ; E. 8. HART- W. P. KER 1 A. NUTT ; C. G. SELIGMAMN ;
BIBLIOaKAPHT OOHMITTBB.
■ h 5.0??K?J W- ^- KIRBY ; T. F. ORDISH ;
N. W. THOMAS ; A. R. WRIGHT.
UUSEtni COMMITTBK. . P. EMSLIB ; MISS M. C. FFENNELL ; G. L. GOMME i MRS. G. GOMME 1 PROFESSOR A. C. HADDON ; J. L. MYRES.
MBS. GOMME ; MISS F. GROVE ; D. MESCAL ; A. NUTT. Tb* Prwident and Treararer am fm^ffieie ■m.vtt&Mn r\ ^\ f^xsvxasA
RULES,
As amended by Special General Meeting held on tlu
nth January y 1900.
I. " The Folk-Lore Society " has for its object the eolle and publication of Popular Traditions, Legendary Ballads, 1 Proverbial Sayings, Superstitions and Old Customs (Britisl: Foreign), and all subjects relating thereto.
II. The Society shall consist of Members being subecri to its funds of One Guinea annually, payable in advanc the 1st of January in each year.
III. A Member of the Society may at any time oompc for future annual subscriptions by payment of Ten Qui over and above the subscription for the current yeaF.
IV. Every Member whose subscription shall not be in ai shall be entitled to a copy of each of the ordinary w published by the Society.
V. Any Member who shall be one year in arrear of subscription shall cease to be a Member of the Society, ui the Council shall otherwise deteiinine.
VI. The affairs of the Society, including the electioi Members, shall be conducted by a Council, consisting < President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and eiglr other Members. The Council shall have power to fill up vacancies in their number that may arise during their j of office.
VII. An Annual General Meeting of the Society shall held in London at such time and place as the Council, from t to time may appoint. No Member whose subscription ia arrear shall be entitled to vote or take part in the proceedi:
or tln' Mooting.
VIII. At such Annual General Meeting all the Memhers of the Council shall retire from office, but shall be eligible for re-election,
IX. The accounts of the receipts and expenditure of the Society shall be audited annually by two Auditors, to be elected at the General Meeting.
X. The Council may elect as honorary Members persons distinguished in the study of Folklore, provided that the total number of such honorary Members shall not exceed twenty.
XI. The property of the Society shall be vested in three Trustees.
XII. The first Trustees shall be appointed at a Meeting convened for the purpose.
XIII. The office of Trustee shall be vacated (i.) by resigna- tion in writing addressed to the Secretary, and (ii.) by removal at a Meeting of Members convened tor the purpose.
XIV. The Meeting removing a Trustee shall appoint another in his place. Vacancies in the office arising by death or resignation shall be filled up by the Council.
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XVI. No Trustee shall be responsible for any loss arising to the Society from any cause other than his own wilful ac or default.
XVII. No alteration shall be made in these Rules except at a Special General Meeting of the Society, to be convened by the Council or upon the requisition of at least five Members, who shall give fourteen days' notice of the change to be proposed which shall be in writing to the Secretary. The alteration proposed shall be approved by at least three-fourths of the Members present and voting at such Meeting
iv List of IfemAers.
HEMBBRS {eomeUd to Alrwvy, 1901).
Abennmbr, Hob. J., CS, FalmHitcM FIms, IMlnTwiuli ( Him rtwMrt AbcrdMd PDblie lAhnrj, ptr Q. W. AMor, B^, M * Tibnite. Abardani TTBlmri^ Llbniy, par P. J. Aad«Hoa, Baq^ Ubm^ AdJy, 8.0-B«q.,lLA.,gBitort B»tM^^inelilM»Mi^ flliirtiM AldMihun, Bl^ Hon. Lcrd, St. Doiwtui'a, H«ganf« Pack, N.W. Allan, Um E. W., S9, Lamiui ttiMt, E.a AUktp, Hob. A. Pm?. Btfnhan Hon^ mh WonMtBr. Amiwhttli, Fnd. K., 14, Sdnlte 8bM«a, Badon B«dai, ff— -mj Aviarieu Qoosr^Ueal Sodat^ (Now ToA), par B. V. BtonnB a^ ftm
4, Itatalcar Sqaan, 8.W. Aiiiaf7, P. i;. &, Zaq., Dnld, AdlMrton, Bmn. AuiMardMi, tha UbIt. Ubauj at, per Kbbai'iar ft TTMpiu, TTiiiili^
O. Asdmn, J. &, Baq, Bafont Clnb, Pall Hall, 8.W. AnieUoT, Fmfaaaor K, Inpatlal UnlTant^ of Vbdlmir, KteL AntlqnarlM, tha Soeietr ot BnUigtan Bona, W. Arnold, Profewor B. T., 10, Biyn Satrio), Bangor. A^ST, a O., Eu]., 89, Wigmore Straat, W.
Alton, G. F., Baq-, OS, ^vsiintBr Boad, Sonth Kenaingtnti S.W. ATabiuT, Bt Hon. lord, S.C.L., I1L.D., 7.B.S., P.S.A., F.O.S. F.Lf High Klma, FambOTDogfa, B.S.O. ( Vlte-Pretiilatf), ' • • ■
Backhonie, Kr Jonathan G., Bart, Bank, Darlington.
Baker, Judge Frank, T., 364S, Lake Afenne, Chicago, HI,, U^g j^
Baldwin, Alfred, Eni., M.P., Wjldnn Houe, Stonrport.
Balfour, C B., Esq., Hewton Don, Eelto, N.B.
BalfoDT, tin. H. C, 22, Momingude Gardeni, Gdinbni^h,
Basset, Mods. Ben£, L'Agha, T7, Hne Mirhelet, Algiere.
Beanchamp, Right Hon. the Earl, Hadre«field Conrt, Great Ma1*em
Beer, W., Eeq^ Howard Memorial Library, New Orieans, U.S.A.
Beer, Mra, 7, Chesterfield Gardens, Hjrde Park, W.
Belt, Sir J., 101, Vincent Street, Glai^^iaw.
Berlin Rojal Library, par Asher and Co., 13, Bedford Str««t, Connt
Garden, W.C. Besant, Sir Walter, Frognal End, Hampstead, N.W. Bllleon, C'J., Esq., M.A., St. John'" Lodge, Clarendon Pbi* Bflai
Leicester. Birmingham Free Library, Ratcliffe Place, Birmingham. Birmingham Library, care of C. B. Sraree, Eeq., Librarian, Union Strttl
Birmingham.
List of Members. v
Black, G. ¥., Esq., New York Tublic Library, Lafajette Place, M.Y., U.8 A.
Blakeborongb, R. Esq., 24, Trent Street, Stockton-on-Tees.
Blind, Dr. Karl, 3, Winchester Road, Soath Hampgtead, N.W.
Bolicho, T. H., Esq., Trengwainton, Hea Moor, R.S.O. Cornwall.
Bonaparte, Prince Uolaud, 10, Areone d'ltna, Paris.
Bond, Mrs. C. A., 3, Beaufort Baildingg, Gloacesler.
Bordeaux UuiierBitj Library, perM.Jnles Peelman, 2, Rne Autome-Dnbois,
Boston AtbeuieDm, The, Boston, U.S.A., per Kegau Pan), Trench, Triibner,
k Co., LJ., Charing Cross Boad, W.C. Boston Public Library (Mus.), U.S.A., per G. E. SCechert, 2, Star Yard,
Carey Street, W.C. Bourdillon, F. W., Esq., M.A. , Bnddington, Midhunt, Sntsex. Bowdilch, C. 1'., Esq., 28, State Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. Boiren, H. Conrthope, Esq., M.A., 3, York Street, Portman Sqnare, W Bower, H. M., Esq., Elmcrofts, Kipon. Brabrook, E. W., Esq., C.B., F.S.A., ITS, Bedford Hill, BaUiMn,S.W.
(Preaidenl). Brighton Town ConncU, per the Town Clerk, Town Hall, Briijhton. Britten, James, Esq., 126, Kennington Park Boad, S.E. Brix, M. Camillo de, 13, Kue Victor Hugo, Donai, France. Broadwood, Miss Lucy E., 61, Carlisle Mansions, S.W. Brockhaos, F. A., Esq., Leipzig, per H. Williams, 4S, Old Bailey, £.0- Brooke, Kex. Slopford A., I, Maucheeler Square, W. Brown, Col. Henrj Thomas, Koodeye Uonse, Chester. Browne, John, Esq., Cherisey House, Park Hill Rise, Croydon. Bmshfield, Ur. T. K., The CllS, Bndleigh-Salterton, Devonshire. Bnme, Miss, 6, Ivema Gardens, Kensington, W. ( Viee-Prerident).
Caddick, E., Esq., Wellint^n Road, Edghaslon, Binningbam. Campbell, Lord Archibald, Coombe Hill fann, Kingston-on-Thames. Campbell, W.J. Douglaa, Esq., F.S.A. Scot., Innis Chonain, Loch Awe,
Argyll. Cardiff Free Libraries, per J. Ballinger, Esq., Cardiff. Carnegie Free Library, Alleghany, Pa., U.S.A., per O. E. Stechert, 2, Star
Yard, Carey Street, W.C. Carpenter, Professor J, Estlia, 109, Banbury Rood, Oxford. Caraoo, Miss E., Park Lane, ClisBold Park, N. Charencey, Comte de, 2i, Rne de la Cbaise, Paris. Chase, Charles H., Esq., G8, Park Street, Somerrille, Mass., U.S.A. Chambers, E. S.., Esq., Board of Education, Whitehall, S.W. Chelsea Public Library, Manresa Road, S.W., per J. H Qnuin, Esq. Chicago Public Library, Blinois, U.S.A., per B. F. St^rena, 4, Trafalgar
Sqoare, W.C. Chicago University Library, Illinoi*, U.S.A., per G. B. Stechert, 2, Star
Yard, Carey Street, W.C.
List of Members.
Cborlum, Thomu, Ewi., 32, BruennoM Street, A CiDcinnati PdMm libTary, p«r B. F. Sterena, 4, Xr&f&lgsr Sqt CI*rk,Oi*c&rW.,EBq.,M.A.,M.B., 8t.LDke'a Honse, SpaBokd Cl&rke, Ber. E. Wraoglea, Cb. Ch. Vicuage, FuadBj £
K«D8iDglOII, W.
Cli>dd,Edwud, Esq., 19, Carleton Road, Tnfnell Puk. N. ( 1%
*Qd Treatttrtr), Cobb, Rer. Dr., 1, Linden Gudens, Horatej Iadb, N. Cubhuo, Min E. M, B.A., 1, Edwin Street, Qr«*eBen(L Coleridge, Misi C. R., Cheyne, Torqakf. Colfox, W„ Esq., Weetmeid, Bridport. Colnmbia College, New York, per G. E. Slechert, 2, Star '
Street, W.C. ConKTew, The Library of, WMhingtoa, U.S.A., per B. Q. AH
Henrietta Street, CoTent Garden, W.C. Conybcare, F. C, I'>q,, M.A., 18, Norham Gardens, Oxford. Cornell Universitj Library, per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28, Henrietta Corry, Miss L. M., 39, Park Hill Road, Eiut Croydon. Coeqnin. M, Emannel, Vitry-le-Franfoia, Manie, Prance. Cox, Min Mariao Roalfe, 107, Earl's Conrt Road, W. Craigie, W. A., Emi., M.A., DaDeaiead, 226, Iffley Road, Oxfoi Crombie, James E., Esq., Park Hill Uonse, Dyr*, Aberdeen. Crombie, John W., Esq., M.P., 91, Onslow Sqaare, S.W, Crooke, W., Esq., B.A., Langton House, Charlton Kings, Chell
Dabis, Miss A., 13, Glebe Place, Chelsea, S.W. Dames, M. Longwortb, Esq., Ategria, Enlicld. Dampicr, G. R., Esq., 20, Neville StrMt, Onslow Gardens, S.W Davie, Lieut.-Col, John, Wliitniead, Famham, Surrey. DetifDham. Mies Amy, CheBhunt Park, Herls. Debcnhain, Mie-i Mary H., Chcshutit Park, Herts, Dofries, Wolf, Esq., B.A., Weyliridge, Surrey. Dempster, Misa C. Hawkins, 2-i, Portman Square, S.W. Dennett, R. B., Esq., Loango, Congo Frangais, S.W. Cot (Parcels rid Lisbon, St. Thomi-, and Gaboon.)
List of Members.
Eggots and Co., MessTB., St. Vetersbnrg, per Sampson Low and Co., Fetter
Lace, K.C. Elliot, W. Sco.tt, jnnr., t^sq., i, Stanley Crascent, KeDBingtOD Park, W. Elworthy, F. T., Esq., F.S.A., Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset. Elton, O., Eiui., B.A., 6, Ueaton Koad, Witbington, Manchester. Empeon, C. W., Esq., 1 1, Palace Conrt, W. Emelie, J. P., Esq., 50, Kestrel ATenite, Heme Hill, B.E. Enoch Pratt Library, Baltimore City, U.S.A., per E. O. Allen, Em;., 28,
Henrietta Street, W.C. Erant, A,, Esq., Grammar School, Galway. Erlangen Unirersity Library, per Sampson Low & Co., Fetter Lane,
E.G. Erans, Arthur J., Esq., M.A., P.S.A., Aahmolean Idbrary, Ozlord, Eraos, E. Tincent, Esq., 64, ChaDcely Lane, W.C, B»«ns, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.8.A., Nash
Mills, Uemel Uempatead. Eyre, Miss, The Hndnalls, St. Briarels, QloDcsstershire.
O, Ffthie, J. J., Esq., c/o. F. A, Milne, Esq., 11, Old Square, Liticoln'« Inn, W.C. Faraday, Miss W., Bamsay Lodge, Levenshnlme, Manchester. Fawcett, F., Esq, , care of Messrs, Arbnthnot Jc Co., Madras. Feilberg, Ber. H. F., Askor, Vejen, Denmark, Ferryman, Lieut.-Col. A. F. Mockler, F.R.G.S,, F.Z.S. Oak Grore Honse,
Royal Military College, Camberley, Surrey. Ffennell, Miss Margaret C, 172, The Grove, Hammersmith, W. Fitzgerald, D., Esq., care of J. Fitigerald, Esq., Mayfwd Honse, Baniea,
S.W. Forbes, Henry O., Esq., LL.D., Free Public Museums, William Brown
Street, Liverpool. Forlong, Major-Gen. J. G. B., F.B.G.S., P.B.S.E, 11, Douglas Cre««nt,
Edinburgh. Fraser, D. C, Esq., M.A., 3, Buckingham Road, Wallasey. Frazer, J. G,, EBq„ M.A., LI,.D., Litt.D., Incb-ma-bome, Cambridge. Freer, Miss A. Goodrich, The Laurels, Itaahey Heath, Herts. Freer, Wm. J,, Esq., Stoneygate, near Leicester. Fresbfield, W. D., Esq., The Wilderness, Beigate,
Gardner, F. L,, Esq., U, Marlboro' Road, Gnuuersbury, W. Garrett, A. S., Esq., 27, Ererett Street, Cambridge, Mbk., U.B.A. Goiter, Dr. M., 37, Maida Tale, W.
George, Charles W., Esq., 61, Hampton Road, Clifton, Brfstol. Qerisb, W. B., Esq., Ivy Lodge, Bishops Slortford, Herta. Gibaon, W. B. P., Esq., 3, The Sweep, Clapham Common, S.W. Gladstone, Dr. J. H., FJi.S., F.C.S., 17, Pembridge Square, W. Glasgow UniTetuty Library, per Messrs. Mactehose, 01, Si. Vincent Sti«et,
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Godden, Miss Gertrude M. Kidgfield, Wimbledon.
GoldmersteiD, L., Esq.
GolUuicz, L, Esq., M.A., Christ's College, Cambridge.
Gomme, G. L., Esq., F.S. A., 24. Dorset Square, N.W. ( ^lee-I'^^^idemty.
Gomme, Mrs. G. L., 24, Dorset Square, N.W. {Honorary Memtiery
Gottingen Uniyersitj Library, per Asher and Co., 13, Bedford Street,
CoTent Garden, W.C. Gowland, T., Esq., 12, Taristock Road, Harlesden, N.W. Green, Frank G., Esq., iTyhurst, Wallington, Surrey {Auditor}. Greeren, R., Esq., B.C.S., c/o Mrs. E. Oldendorft, 201, Tlia Grove,
Denmark Hill, S.E. Gregory, H. E., Esq., Boarzell, Hawkhurst, Sussex. Greig, Andrew, Esq., 36, Belmont Gardens, Hillhead, Glasgow. Glmneden,
Bothvrell, Lanarkshire. Grierson, Geo. A., Esq., Lyndhurst, Camberley, Surrey. Grore, Miss Florence, 10, Milton Chambers, Cheyne Walk, S.W. GnildhaU Library, E.C. Gutch, Mrs., Holgate Lodge, York. G Wynne, James E. A., Esq., F.S.A., Folkington Manor, Polegmte, ILS.O.,
Sussex.
0. Haddon, Prof., A. C, M.A., D.Sc, M.R.I.A., F.Z.S., Inisfail, HiUn Roed, Cambridge. Hamilton, Bernard, Esq., M.A., Hindhead Brae, Haslemere. Hamilton, Miss Katherine, Fort Wayne, Indiana, U.S.A.
Hampton, G. H., Esq , Cleveland Brass and Iron Works, Middlesboro'-oa-
Tee«. Hannah, R., Esq., 82, Addison Road, Kensington, W.
Hardy, G. F., Esq., 1, King William Street, E.C.
Harris, Miss Emily, 14, Tavistock Square, W.C.
Harris, Rev. H. A., Diss, Norfolk.
Harrison and Sons, Messrs., 59, Pall Mall, S.W.
Hartland, E. Sidney, Esq., F.S.A., Highgarth, Gloacester ( Vufe,
President), Hartland, J. Cole, Esq., care of Messrs. Hunt and Co., Yokohama, Japan. Harvard College Library, per Kegan Paul and C/O., Ld., Charing Cross
Road, W.C. Heather, P. J., f^sq., Elthorne, New Maldon, Suirey. Henderson, Miss A. B., Ormlie Lodge, Thurso. Hensman, W. M., Esq., 32, Demgate, Northampton. Uervey, Hon. D. F. A., C.M.G., The Residency, Malacca, per U. S.
King & Co.
Hewitt, J. F., Esq., Holton Cottage, Wheatley, Oxford. Higford, Miss K., 23, Eaton Place, S.W. Higgens, T. W. E., Esq., 1, Edith Terrace, Chelsea, S.W. Hinuber, Miss, 34, Linden Road, Bedford.
Hirschfeld Brothers, 22 and 24, Bream's Buildings, Fetter Lane. E.C. C. Hodgkin, John, Esq., 12, Dynevor Road, Richmond, S.W.
List of Members.
Howard, DuriJ, Ktiq^ Ilevoa lloase, Bacthumt Uill, Eettex. Uowell, Geo. O., Ksq,, 210, KgUntoii Road, Flamste*d, Kent. Uowitt, lA\sa Mar? K B., Finch Street, East Malvern, Melbourne
Victor^, Aiulralia. Ualt, MiBs Eleanor, 20, Arundel GardenH, W.
Hnsaef, A., Ksq., Clan Road, Tunkerton-on-Sea, Whitetable, K«nt. Uatchinaon, Rev. U. N., F.G.S., 37, Vini:ent Square, Westminster, ^.W. Hutchineon, Dr. Jonathan, F.R.S., 15, CaTendish Square, W.
India Office Library, Whitehall, S,W., per C. II. Tawiiey, EHq.
im Thnm, K. F., Esq., C.B., 23, EdvardeB Sqnare, Kensington, W.
lutva State Library, Dee Moioea, Iowa, U.S.A., per B. F. Stevens, 4,
Trafalgar Sqnare, W.C. Isaac, D., Esq., Brjntavre, Heathfield, Swansea.
Jaciuon, A. M. T., Ksq., Bjcnilah CInb, Bombay (Assistant Collector, Ifasilc, Bombay).
Jacobs, Joseph, Esq., B.A.
James, C. H., Esq., J.P., 6*, Park Place, Cardiff.
Jailvier,Thos.A., Esq., c/o Messrs. Brown Bros, & Co, Bankers, New York, U.S.A.
Jeffrey, P. Shav, Eiq., 32, College Road, Clifton, Bristol.
JcTons, F. B., Esq., M.A., LittD., Hatfield Hall, Dnrbam.
Jewitt, W. U., Esq., 4, Torriano Cottages, N.W.
John Uylands Library, Deanegate, Mancheiter.
Johns Hopkins Unirersity Library, Baltimore, per E. G. Allen, 28, Hen- rietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.
Jones, Bryan J., Esq., Wellington Barracks, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Jones, D. BrynmSr, Esq., Q.C., MP., LL.B., 27, Bryanslon Sqnare, W.
Jones, William, Esq., Abberly Hall, Stoarport.
KarlowicE, Dr. John, Jasna, 10, Warsaw, Poland.
K^an Paul, Trench, Triibner, & Co, Ld., Paternoster [lonse, Charint;
Cross Itoad, W.C. Kennedy, Miss L., Fairacre, Concord, Mass., O.S.A, Ker, C, Esq., 1, Windsor Terraoe, West Glasgow. Ker, Professor W. P., M.A., SB, Gower Street, W.C. Kirby, W. F., Esq., F.L.S., F.E.S., Hilden, Sntbin Cunrt Road, Chiswjck. Kitta, E. J., Esq., Saharanpar, N.W.P,, India. Klincksieck, C, Paris, per Th. WohUebeu, 46, Gt. Rnssell Street, W.C.
Ladbnry, Miss E. J., Qoldness, H&rtlebnry, Kiddenuinst«r. Lang, A., Esq., M.A., 1, Marioes Road, Kensington, W. ( Vief-Preiiient'). Lee, Mrs. Knte, 8, Victoria Road, Kensington, W. Lee, Timothy, Esq., St. John's, Limerick, Ireland.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, per G. Hnll, Enq., Chnrch Hill HouM, Clarendon Park Uoad, Leicester.
List of Members.
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Leland, C. G., Esq.i Uombarg- lee-Bains, Gemumy.
Lemcke & Buechner, Messrs., 812, Broadway, New York, U.S. A.
Letto, C, Esq., 8, Bartletf s Buildings, E.G. *
Levy, G. £., Esq., Boundstoue Lodge, Famham, Surrey.
Library of the Supreme Gouncil of the 33rd Degree, etc., for EngUu
& Wales, and the Golonies, 33, Golden Square, W. Lindsay, Lady, 41, Hans Place, W. Liverpool Free Public Library, per Gilbert G. Walmsley, 60, Lord Stree
Liverpool. Lockhart, The lion. J. H, Stewart, Registrar-General of the Legislativ
Council, Hong Kong. London Institution, Finsbury Circus, E.G. London Library, St. James's Square, S.W. Lyall, Sir Alfred, K.C.S.L, 18, Queen's Gate, S.W.
Macbean, E., Esq., Fullarton House, by ToUcross, Lanarkshire. Macgregor, A., Esq., Stamford Brook House, Hammersmith, W. Mackenzie, W., Esq., Crofters' Commission, 6, Parliament Square, Edin
burgh, c. Mackinlay, Dr., 6, Great Western Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow. Maclagan, R. Craig, Esq., M.D. 5, Coates Crescent, Edinburgh. McNair, Major R. C, C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Scotia, Preston Pari
Brightt>n. Maitland, Mrs. J. A. Fuller, 39, Phillimore Gardens, Kensington, W. Major, A. F., Esq., Cromwell House, Croydon. Manning, P., Esq., M.A., F.S.A., 6, St. Aldates, Oxford (Beechfield
Watford). Manchester Free Library, King Street, Manchester. March, 11. Colley, Esq., M.D., Porte«ham, Dorchester. Marctt, R. R., Esq., Exeter College, Oxford. Marriage, Miss M. E. (Ph.D. Heidelberg), Ellerby, George L^ne, Soutl
Woodford, E. Marsh, K. 11., Esq., Ingleside, Epping, E.ssex. Marston, E., Esq., St. Dunstan's House, E.G. Masson, 1). P., Esq , Managing Director, The Punjab Bank. Lahore, pe
11. S. King and Co., of Comhill, E.C. Matthews, Miss Elizabeth, The Hollies, Swaffham, Norfolk. Max, J., and Co., 21, Schweideritzerstrasse, Breslau. Mendham, Miss Edith, Shepscombe House, Stroud, Gloucestershire. Mercantile Library, Philadelphia, U.S.A., per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard
Carey Street, W.C. Merrick, W. P., Esq., Manor Farm, Shepperton.
Mescal, Daniel, Esq., H.M. Patent Office, SouthampCcm Baildingg, W.CL Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y.,n.8.A., per G. B. StedMrt, fiO^ Wdling^
ton Street, Strand, W.C.
..Lidk
List of Members.
Mejrick Libnuy, JesDs Collegs, Oxford, per A. W. Hazel, Eaq.. Librarian.
Middleaborongh Free Libraiv, per Baker Hndeon, Esq., Middleaborongh.
Milne, F. A. Esq., U.A., 11, Old Sqaare, Lincoln's Inn, W.C. iStcretary).
Minet, Mies J., care of Mira Jnlia Dfke. QloTere, Sittingboarne, Kent.
Minnesota, Uniienitj of, MinneaiwIiB, U.S. A ., per G. £. Stecbert, 2 Star Yard, Carej Stjeet, W.C.
Mitehell Librai7, ai, Uiller Street, Glai^ow, care of P. T. Barrett, Esq., Librarian, c. Mociitta. F. D., Esq., F.8.A., g.Connangbt Place, W.
Mond, Mrs. Frida, 20, Avenue Boad, Begent's Park, N.W.
Moore, C. H., Vm^., Clinton, lU., U.S.A.
MorisOD, Theodore, Esq., Aligarb, N.W.P., India.
Munich Rojal Library, per Asher and Co., 13, Bedford Street, W.C.
Myert, C. S^ Esq., B.A., M.B., 62, Holland Park, W. C. Mjrea, J. L., Esq., M.A., F.S. A., 3, Hanover Square, W.
National Library of Ireland, per Uodges, Figgis, and Co., 104, Orafton
Street, Dublin. Najlor, Mrs. F. L., Crypt Qrammar School, Gloucester. C. Neslield, J. P., Esq., Stratton Uoose, 2, Madley Bood, Ealing.
Newark Free Pnhlic Library, New Jersey, U.S.A. per G. E, Stecbert,
2, Star Yard, Carey St., W.C, Newberry Library, Chicago, per B. F. Stevens, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Newcastle Literary and Philoeopbical Socie^, Newcastle -on- Tyne. New Jersey, The College of, Princeton, N.J., U.S.A., per E. C. Osbom,
Esq., Treasurer. New Jersey Free Pnblic Library, per G. B. Stecbert, 2, Star Yard, Car^
Street, W.C. Newton, Mrs. Arthur, 28, Crondace Road, Fulhaoi, &W. New York, College of the Ci^ of, per G. E. Stecbert Z, Star Yard,
Carey Street, W.C. New Y(vk Pablii: Library (Astor, Lenox, & Tilden Foundation), per B. If.
Stereos, 4. Trafalgar Sqnan, W.C. New York State Library, per O. B. Slechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey Street,
w.a
NicbolsoD, C. N., Esq., SB, Hanrington Gardens, S.W.
Ninnii, Belgrade, Esq., H.D., F.8.A., F.B.A.S., F.R.G.S., Brockenhnm,
AldringtoQ Road, Streatham, S.W. Nottingham Ftw Fnblie library. Nntt, Alfred. Biq., ST-«S Long Acre, W.C. ( Vitn-Pruident).
CWmr, H. Kq, UJL, PhJ>., 81, HoUuid TlUaa Koad, Kendngton W. OUML (L,B!B.,8aattlibOoiMerTatiTeanb, Edinbnrgb.
1 Hmhij, >, Oopmhagao, Denmark.
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Ltsi of Members.
Ordish, T. Fairman, Esq., F.S.A., 16, Clifford's Inn, E.C. Owen, Miss Mary A., 306, North Ninth Street, St. Joeeph, Misaoi U.S.A.
G. Paris, M. Gaston, Membre de I'Institnt, Directeur da College de KraiM
Rue des Ecoles, Paris. Parker, Mrs. K. Langloh, Banyate, Walgett, New South Wale8. Paton, W. R., Esq., Ph.D., Calymnos, Tnrkey, via Smjrna. Peabody Institute, Baltimore, U.S.A., per £. G. Allen, Kaq^ 28, Henri
Street, W.C. Peacock, E., Esq., F.S. A., Danstan Uouse, Kirton-in-Ijiudaej, Lincolnsi] Peoria, Public Library of, per G. E. Stechert, Esq., 2, Star Yard, O
Street, W.C. Percy, Lord Algernon, Guy's Cliff, Warwick. Philadelphia, The Library Company of, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq.,
Henrietta Street, W.C. Philpot, Mrs. J. H., 61, Chester Square, S.W. Phipson, Miss, 64, Bell Street, Reigate.
Pineau, Mons. Leon, 60, Boulevard Beranger, Tours, France. Pitts, J. Linwood, Esq., M.J.I., F.S.A., Curator Gaille-AUes Libn
Guernsey. Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural Historr Sodi
per C. S. Jago, Esq., Plymouth Public School. Pocklington-Coltman, Mrs., Hagnaby Priory, Spilsby, Lincolnshire. Powell, Professor F. York, M.A., F.S. A., Christ Church, Oxford ( Vi
Prcftuhnt). 0. Power, D'Arcy, Esq., M.A., M.B., F.S.A., 10A,Chandos Street, CavenJ;
Square, W. Price, F. G. Hilton, Esq., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 17, Collinghi
Gardens, S. Kensington, S.W. Price, Mrs., W. E. Pen Moel, Chepstow.
Providence Public Library, per G.E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carev St.. W. Pulling, Alexander, Esq., The Croft, Hitchin. Pusey, S. E. Bouverie, Esq., F.R.G.S., 18, Bryanston St., Portman Sq., )
Rankinj^, D.F. del'IIoste, Esq., 49, Primrose Mansions, Battersea Park, S.^ Uaynbird, 11., junr., Esq., Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basic
Biisingstoke. Keade, John, Esq., 270, Laval Avenue, Montreal, Canmia. Rees, J. Rogers, Esq., l*cnarth, Cardiff.
Hennos University Library, per H. Welter, 4, Rue Bernard, Palisoy, Paris Reynolds, Lljwarch, Esq., B.A., Old Church Place, Merth^-r Tydvil. Rhys, Professor John, M.A., LL.D., Jesus College, Oxford {Vic
Prcii'uhmt). Rislcy, The Hon. II. II., M.A., C.I.E., care of Messrs. Thacker, 2, Cre€
Lane, Ludgate Hill, E.C.
List of Members. xiii
Rivera, W. H. R.,M.D., SL John's College, Cambridge. Robncheid tod Ebbecke, Messrs., BachhtuidlQaK, Am Hof, SB, Bonn. Rom, H. a., Esq., I^hore, Ponjab, India. Rossall. J. H., Esq., Cbarleville, Roscrea, Ireland. Kotb, H. Ling, Esq., 32, Prescot Street, St. Halifax. 3. Ronie, W. H. D., Esq., M,A., 4, Billon Road, Rngbj. Rofsl Irish Academy, per Hodges, Figgii, and Co., 104, QraftoD Street,
DDblin. Riicker, Mien, 4, Vwibmgh Terrace, Blackheatfa, S.E. Radmose-Brown, T. B., Esq., 62, Beaconsfield Place, Aberdeen.
Salford Public Library, Manchester.
Sanoders, J. E Esq.. F.S.A., F.Q.S., 4, Coleman Street, B.C.
Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A., St. Thomas' Vicarage, Dunglos, Isle of Man. C. Sa;ce, Rev. Prof. A. H., M.A., LL.D., D.D., Queen's College, Oxford (4, Whitehall Conrt, 8.W.) ( VKce-PrttHmt').
Scbolten, Mrs., 6, Milton Cbomberit, Che:nie Walk, Cbelsea, S.W.
Scott, J. G., Esq., per R. F. Scott, Esq., St. John's Colleitu, Cambridge.
S^billot, Mons. Pan!, 80, BouleTard St Marcel, Paris.
Seebohm, F., Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., The Hermitage, Hitehin, Herts.
Seligmann C. G., Esq., 33, Vincent Square, S.W.
Sessions, F., Esq., Monkleighton, Alexandra Road, Oloncceter.
Sheffield Free Public Library, Surrey Street, Sheffield, per S. Smith, Esq.
Shewan, A., Esq., Seehof, St. Andrews, Fife.
Shirley, R., Esq., Heath Cotttge, Weybridge.
Signet Library, Edinbnrgh.
Sikes, E. E., ^., St. John's College, Cambridge.
Simpkins, J. E., Eaq., Musenm of Antiquities, F.dinbui2h.
Sinclair, The Hon. Mrs,, 1, Brunawick Gardens, Keniington, W.
Singer, Professor, 9, Falkesplats, Bern, Switzerland.
Skeat, Walter W., F^., 2, Salisbury Villaa, Cambridge.
Skilbeck, J. H., Esq., 6, Carlton HU1, N.W.
Skipwith, G. H., Esq., The Polytechnic Institute, William Street, Wool- wich, S.E.
Skiine, H. D., Esq., ClaTerton Manor, Bath.
Sneddon, O. P., Esq., 8, Merr; Street, Motherwell, N.B.
Speakman, Mrs. J. O., presso Signora Rusconi, 30c, ria di Porta Piuciana, Rome.
Speight, Ernest E., Esq., Temple Hoose, London. E.C.
Speth, G. W., Esq., La Tnya, Edward Road, Bromley, Kent.
Stanbery, Miss E. 8., 433, Adair Arenne, Zaneevtlle, Ohio, U.S.A.
Stephenaon, C. H., Esq., 84, Kew Road, Birkdale, Lancashire.
St Helen's Corporatioii Free Libraif, per A. I^mcaster, Esq., Lihruian Toiwii Hall, Si H«l«nV
XIV
List of Members.
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I,
Stockholm, Royal Librarj of, per Sampton, Low and Co., St Bunikaii'
House, Fetter Lane, EC. Stokes, Whitley, Esq., C.S.L, CLE., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A^ 16, GrenTil]
Place, S. Kensington, W. Struben, Mrs. E. Sorgeon.General's Office, Washington, U.S.A., per Kegan Paul, Traocfa
Triibner, and Co., Ld., Charing Cross Road, S.W. Swainson, Rer. C, The Rectory, Old Charlton. Swansea Public Library, per S. E. Thompson, Esq., Librarian. Swynuerton, Rev. C, Port St Idary, Isle of Man. Sydney Free Public Library, per Young J. Pentland, 38, West Smitl
field, E.C.
Tabor, C, Esq., The White House, Knotts Green, Leyton.
Tate Library, University College, Liverpool, care of J. Sampson, Esq.
Taylor Institution, Oxford, per Parker and Co., 6, Soathamptou Stiee
Strand, W.C. Taylor, Miss Agnes, 115, Ladbroke Grove, W. Taylor, Miss Helen, Avigpnon, France.
Temple, Lieut-Colonel R. C, CLE.., F.R.G.S., Government House, Po
Blair, Andaman Islands, India (parcels, per H. S. King and Co., &
Comhill, London, E.C). Thomas, N. W., Esq., Anthropological Institute, 3, Hanover Square, "V!
{Hon. Avditor). Thompson, Miss, 7, Newport House, Great Newport Street, W.C. Thompson, Miss Skeffington, Glenelly, Chislehurst Common, Kent. Thorp, T., Esq., 4, Broad Street, Reading. Todhunter, Dr. J., Orchardcroft, Bedford Park, W. Tolhurst, J., Esq., F.S.A., Glen brook, Beckenham, Kent. Toronto Public Library, per C D. Cazenove & Son, 26, Henrietta Streei
Covent Garden, W.C. Toronto University Library, per C. D. Carenove & Son, 25, Henrietti
Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Torquay Natural History Society, care of A. Somervail, Esq. Townshend, Mrs. R. B., Derry Illawn, Banbury Road, Oxford. Tozer, W. H. Esq., 67, Elms Road, Clapham Common, S.W. Traheme, G. G., Esq., Coedarhydyglyn, Cardiff. Traherne, L. E., Esq., Coedriglan Park, Cardiff. Travancore, His Highness the Maharajah of, Huzier, Cutcherry, Trevan
drum, India. Turubull, A. 11., Esq., Klibank, Wellington, New Zealand, per A. L. Kldoi
and Co., 7, St. Helen's Place, E.C. Tylor, Professor E. B., LL.l)., D.C.L , F.H.S., The Muneum House, Oxford
( Vioc-PreMent).
List of Members. xv
Udal, The Hon. J. S., Antigua, Leeward Islands, West Indies. Upsala Uniyersity Library, per C. J. Lnndstrom, Upsala, Sweden. Usener, Professor, Bonn, Germany.
Van Stocknm, W. P., and Sou, 36, Bnitenhof , The Hagne, Holland.
Van Genneppe, Professor A.> Crenstockowa, Rnssia, per A. Schnlz, 4,
Kae de la Sorbonne, Paris. Vassar College Library, Pongnkeepsie, N.Y., U.S.A., per H. Sotheran
& Co., 14C, Strand, W.C. Venkataswami, M.N., M.R.A S., Esq., The Hermitage, Secnnderabad,
Beccan. Voss* Sortiment (Herr G. Haessler), Leipzig.
Walhouse, M. J., Esq., 28, Hamilton Terrace, St. John's Wood, N.W. Walker, Dr. Robert, Budleigh-Salterton, Deron, per E. W. Watson, Esq.,
22, Highbury New Park, N Wallis, Mrs., Burnbrae, 19, Fairhazel Gardens, London, N.W. Walpole, Sir H. G., India Office, Whitehall, S.W. Warner, S. G., Esq., Elmside, Bolingbroke Grove, S.W. Watkinson Library, Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, 28,
Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Weimar Grand Ducal Library, per Dr. P. von Bojanowsky. Weston, Miss J. L. , Banavie, Lansdown Road, Bournemouth. Wheatley, Henry B., Esq., F.S.A., 2, Oppidans Road, Primrose Hill, N.W. White, Miss Diana, Old Priory, Sydenham. Williamson, Rev. Charles A., 14, Upper Mount St., Dublin. Wills, Miss M. M. Evelyn, Heathfield, Swansea. Wilson, R. H., Esq., 23, Cromwell Crescent, S.W. Windle, Professor B. C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, Dean of Queen's Faculty uf
Medicine, Mason College, Birmingham. Wisconsin State Historical Society, per H. Sotheran k Co., 140, Strand,
W.C. C. Wissendorff, H., 19, Nadeschkinskara, St. Petersburg, Russia. Woman's Anthropological Society, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., care of Mrs.
M. P. Seaman, 1424, Eleventh Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Wood, Alexander, Esq., Thomly, Saltcoats, N.B. Woodall, E., Esq., Wingthorpe, Oswestry. Worcester Free Public Library, Mass., U.S.A., per Kegan Paul, Trench,
Triibner, and Co., Ld. Wright, A. R., Esq., H.M. Patent Office, Southampton Buildings W.C. Wright, W. Aldis, Esq., LL.D., Trinity College, Cambridge. Wyndham, George, Esq., M.P., 35, Park Lane, W.
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