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FE oGGe
FOLK-LORE
A QUARTERLY REVIEW or
MYTH, TRADITION, INSTITUTION, & CUSTOM BEING Tue TRANSACTIONS OF THE FoLKk-LorE Society
And incorporating THe ARCHAOLOGICAL REVIEW and Tue Fotx-Lore JouRNAL
VOL. XV.—1904.
LONDON:
PUBLISHED FOR THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY BY
DAVID NUTT, 55-57, LONG ACRE.
1904.
(LIV.]
PRINTED BY J, B. NICHOLS AND #oN8, PARLIAMENT MANSIONS, ORCHAND ST., VICTORIA 8T., &W.
CONTENTS.
I.—(Marcu, 1904.)
Minutes of Meetings: Wednesday, November 18th, 1903 . or Minutes of Meetings: Wednesday, December 17th, 1903 sua Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, January 20th, 1904 - oo; ‘Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Council 2 a . 5 Presidential Address. F. York PoweLL . . ~ ome ‘The Story of Deirdre. ELzaNor Hutt . 24 Arthur and Gorlagon. Translated by F. A. Minne and com- mented on by ALFRED Nutt . “. 40
Il—(Junz, 1904.)
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, February 17th, 1904 . + 129 Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, March, 16th, 1904. : 130 Minutes of Meetings: Wednesday, April 2oth, gq + 13r From Spell to Prayer. R.Maretr : + 132 Toda Prayer. W. H. R. RIVERS 2 . ‘ + 166
TIL—(Serremper, 1904.)
Minutes of Meetings: Wednesday, May 18th, 1904. . 247
Minutes of Meetings: Wednesday, June rsth, 1904. 1 aga
Folklore of the Basuto. Minnie CartwricHT 3 1 244
The European Sky-God. ARTHUR BERNARD Cook . 1 264 IV.—(DECEMBER, 1904.)
‘The European Sky-God, II. ARTHUR BERNARD CooK . = 369
Notes from Armenia, J. ReNpEL Harris. ‘ 2 427
FOCCH
iv Contents.
COLLECTANEA :—
A Witch Doctor’s Kit from Magila, East Central Afmca. R. Wess Wizardry on the Welsh Border.” Beatrix A. Wuerry Folklore of the Negroes of Jamaica Tibetan Charms. A. R. WRIGHT Some Superstitions of the Fifeshire Fisher- folk. Davip Rorie Royal Succession in Yoruba-land. Harotp G. Parsons Personification of a River. M. AGATHA TURNER. ‘A Corm-baby? Eprror 3 Some Jewish Folklore from Jerusalem. A Goopric# FREER. Notes on Miss Freer’s Paper. M.GasTER . . . Pembrokeshire Notes. M.S. CLARK . . Notes on the Stamford Bull-Running. Manet Peacock . Bantu Totemism. G. W. Stow, A. Lane, and N. W. THomas Folklore of the Negroes of Jamaica, continued . Greek and Cretan Epiphany Customs. R.M.DAawKIns Specimens of Somali Tales. J. W.C. Kirk . Notes from the Upper Congo, III. Joun H. Weexs- x ‘Tibetan Prayer-Wheels. A. R. WRIGHT ‘ % 3 Tibetan Drum and Trumpet. A. R. WRIGHT . The Shwe-hmu, or Burmese Tax-gatherer. Davip SHEARME Stories from Leitrim and Cavan. Bryan J. Jones Northumbrian Social Customs. CHARLOTTE S. BURNE . ‘A Buck Superstition. Epiror 5 ‘A Votive Offering from Korea. E,S, HarTianp | j Folklore of the Negroes of Jamaica, continued . ‘ Dairy Folklore and other ‘Notes from Meath rand Tipperary. A.H. SINGLETON . . 5 .
CorRESPONDENCE :—
Dr. Durkheim on “Social Origins.” A. Lanc The Corp Creagh. ALice B. GoMME ‘A Wager Lost. W. Henry Jewitt. : Braemar Saying. A. MACDONALD * . Midsummer Bonfires. A. MACDONALD . Fifth of November Customs. Cuartorre S. Burne . : Myth Making. W.H.D. Rouse. ; . Réponse 4 Monsieur Lang. E, Durkuerm Additional Variants of the Father and Soe ‘Combat. Murray A. PorreR . . . . Monmouthshire Notes. H. C Euus | . % ‘ . A Culture Tradition, A. WERNER. « .
107 215
216
vi Contents.
A. C. Haddon and W. H. R. Rivers’, &c., Reports of the Cam- bridge Anthropological Espaliton ‘to Torres Straits, N. W. THomas .
E, Durkheim’s Z’Année Sociologique. "E, Stoney HARTLAND
Axel Olrik’s Om Ragnarok. L. WINIFRED FARADAY
T. H. Weir's The Shaikhs of Morocco in the Sixteenth Century. W. CRooKeE . a
Ganeshji Jethabhai’s Jndian Folklore. W.CROOKE |
Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen’s Zhe Northern Tribes of Central Australia. E. §, HARTLAND
Paul Sébillot’s Le Folk-Lore de France. E.SiDNEY HARTLAND
W. Carew Hazlitt’s Faiths and Folklore, CHuar.otte S. BuRNE
Anseiger der Finnisch-Ugrischen Forschungen F
J. Fitzgerald Lee’s The Greater Exodus.
Walter Johnson and William Wrights Neolithic Man in North-east Surrey .
Herbert M. White's Od Ingleborough Pamphieis (No. 3)
John Nicholson’s The Capital of the Yorkshire Wolds
‘Scottish Historical Review, Part I. Journal of the Royal ‘Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Celtic Review, Part I. .
Osrruary :— Frederick York Powell. Epwarp Cropp.
INDEX. é . . . . .
Ruvzs anp List or MEMBERS. INDEX OF ARCHAOLOGICAL PAPERS PUBLISHED, 1902.
List or PLaTEs :—
I. A Witch-doctor’s Kit from Mapile Bas Central Africa. : ” face page II. Tibetan and other Charms" : x. oh ” III. A Corn-baby? » » IV. Necklace of Blue Beads and Two Eye Charms from Jerusalem . ” » V. Charm Necklaces from Jerusalem | ne » VI. Tibetan Prayer-Wheels : oo" ” VII. Tibetan Drum and Trumpet ” ” VIII. Stereoscopic View of West Australian Mask (Fig. 10 in Plate XV., Vol. XIV.) fe a, ” IX. A Votive Offering from Korea: Sa ”
PAGE
nm 95 185
189 191 332 333
368 447
ERRATA.
Page 1, line 14, for 67 read 95.
Page 208, line 4, for If your lose you read If you lose your. Page 234, line 24, for Keltic read alt
Page 243, line 23, for Indices read Appendices.
Ibid., line 26, for Schweitzerisches read Schweizerisches, Did, line 27, for Volkskiinde read Volkskunde.
Page 244, line 1, for Folkloke read Folklore.
Page 266, note 10, line 2, for Zeu read Zeus.
Page 335, line r1, for or read of.
2 Minutes of Meetings.
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 17th, 1908. THE PRESIDENT (Prof. York Powell) in the Chair.
THE minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of Dr. A. S. Cuming, Mrs. Cartwright, Miss Marsden, Mr. Carey Drake, and the Michigan State Library as members of the Society was announced.
The resignations of Mr. O. Elton, Mr. J. Rogers Rees, and Mr. R. Blakeborough were also announced.
Miss E. M. Grafton exhibited a corn-baby from Harston, in Cambridgeshire [Plate Ill], upon which Miss Burne offered some observations ; and Mr. P. J. Heather exhibited some post-cards with photographs illustrative of marriage customs in Brittany.
The Chairman read a paper entitled “Some Folklore from Jerusalem” by Miss Goodrich Freer, and exhibited several objects illustrative of the paper, and presented by her to the Society, including a metal (silver) amulet, and a picture of Rachel’s Tomb, with prayers encircling it, used as a charm ;* on which Dr. Gaster offered some observations.
The Secretary, in the absence of Mr. Nutt through illness, read a translation made by himself of the fourteenth-cen- tury Latin MS. discovered by Professor Kittredge in the Bodleian Library upon which Mr. Nutt’s promised paper on “ Arthur and the Werwolf” was based [p. 4v] ; and a dis- cussion followed, in which Dr. Gaster, Mr. Gomme, and the President took part.
The meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Miss Grafton, Miss-Goodrich Freer, Mr. Heather, and Mr. Milne for their papers, exhibits, and presentations.
The following books and pamphlets which had been presented to the Society since the 24th June were laid upon the table, viz.:
Towa Fournal of History and Politics, October 1903, presented by the Iowa State Historical Society; Bid/io-
+ [These will be detailed and figured on Plate IV.]
4 Minutes of Meetings.
The result of the ballot was then announced by the Chairman, and the following ladies and gentlemen who had been nominated by the Council were declared to have been duly elected, viz. :
As President : Professor York Powell, M.A. LL.D.
As Vice-Presidents: The Hon. John Abercromby, The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, D.C.L., LL.D. F.RS., E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B., F.S.A., Miss C. S. Burne, Edward Clodd, Esq., G. Laurence Gomme, Esq., F.S.A., A. C. Haddon, Esq, M.A, D.Sc, M.RLA, F.ZA., E. S. Hartland, Esq, F.S.A., Andrew Lang, Esq, M.A., LL.D., Alfred Nutt, Esq., Professor J. Rhys, M.A, LLD., F.S.A., The Rev. Professor A. H. Sayce, M.A., LLD., D.D., Professor E. B. Tylor, LL.D., F.R.S.
As Council: Miss Lucy Broadwood, W. Crooke, Esq., B.A., E. K. Chambers, Esq., M. Longworth Dames, Esq., F. T. Elworthy, Esq., Miss Eyre, J. G. Frazer, Esq., LL.D., &c., Miss M. Ffennell, Miss Goodrich Freer, Dr. Gaster, Miss Eleanor Hull, Professor W. P. Ker, M.A., E. Lovett, Esq., S. E. Bouverie Pusey, Esq, F.R.GS., T. Fairman Ordish, Esq., F.S.A., W. H. D. Rouse, Esq., LL.D., Walter W. Skeat, Esq., C. J. Tabor, Esq, H. B. Wheatley, Esq., FSA, A. R. Wright, Esq.
As Hon. Treasurer ; Edward Clodd, Esq.
As Hon. Auditors : F.G. Green, Esq,, N.W. Thomas, Esq.
As Secretary: F. A. Milne, Esq., M.A.
The Chairman then delivered his Presidential Address, on “Tradition and its Conditions” [which will be found in extenso pp. 12-23], at the conclusion of which a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to him on the motion of Mr. Brabrook, seconded by Mr. Nutt.
On the motion of Dr. Gaster, seconded by Mr. Nutt, a vote of thanks was also accorded to Messrs. E. im Thurn, R. R. Marett, J. L. Myers, and C. G. Seligman, the out- going Members of Council.
6 Annual Report of the Council.
April 22, “The Fabric of the Dream.” (A study of the Midsummer's Night's Dream.) Mr. 1. Gollancz. May 27. “ Ona MS. Collection of Exempla (Medieval Preacher's Moral
Tales) in the possession of the Society.” Professor W. P. Ker. +
June 24, “Some Notes on the Habits and Folklore of the Natives of Roebuck Bay, Western Australia, communicated by Mrs. J. A. Pegs.” Mr. C. J. Tabor. (Folt-Lore, Decem- ber, 1903.) Nov. 18.‘ Guy Fawkes in London.” Miss Burne.
“« The Story of Deirdre : a Study in Folktale Development.” Miss E. Hull (infra, p. 23).
Dec. 16. ‘Some Folklore from Jerusalem.” Miss A. Goodrich Freer.
“ Arthur and Gorlagon :” a Translation of a Latin MS. of the 14th century discovered in the Bodleian Library by Pro- fessor Kittredge. Mr. F. A. Milne.
The April meeting was held at the Theatre of Burlington House, in conjunction with the London Shakespeare League.
The following objects have been exhibited at the meet- ings, viz.
(1)* A selection of the Musquakie beadwork and costumes presented by Miss M. A. Owen tothe Society. (2) A Basuto pound sterling — an amulet used among the Basuto and Baronga Tribes to expel internal evil spirits—and astragalus bones, shells, and stones used in divination. By Mons. H. Junod. (3) A collection of Chinese Charms, By A. R. Wright. (4)* A drawing of the Well House at Headington Wick, Oxfordshire. By Mr. W. H. Jewitt. (5)° An Uist bone bodkin ; two sets of “‘chucks” from Applecross, Ross-shire ; and a photograph of (i.) magic and witch stones from Sutherlandshire and (ii.) “fairy arrows” from Islay. By Dr. R.C.
+ Maclagan. (6) A collection of weapons, fire sticks, charms, &c., from Mapoon, Cape Yorke Peninsula. By Mrs. M. M. Bankes. (7) A number of shields, swords, fighting-sticks, charms, omaments and other objects illustrative of the habits and folklore of the natives of Roebuck Bay, Western Australia, By Mr. C. J. Tabor. (8) Acollection of Tibetan charms. By Mr. A.R. Wright. (9)* A soul-cake baked in Shrewsbury on All Souls’ Day, 1903. By Mr. H.R.H.Southam. (10)* A Cambridgeshire “‘Corn-baby.” By Miss E.M.Grafon, (11) Some post-cards illustrative of marriage customs in Brittany. By Mr. P.J. Heather. (12)* Some amulets and charms from Jerusalem. By Miss Goodrich Freer.
+ This MS, has now (through arrangements kindly made by Dr. Ch. Bonnier) been collated with the Artois MS., and Professor Ker is at work on the text.
8 Annual Report of the Council.
the members of the circle, some 35 in number. This is a new departure for which the Stepney Council are much to be commended, and there is no reason why similar reading circles should not be formed in other parts of London ; if only a few other members of the Society were as energetic as Mr. Lovett.
The Society has issued during the year the fourteenth volume of its Transactions, Fo/k-Lore, and the Council's thanks are due to Miss Burne for the invaluable assistance she has so ungrudgingly rendered them in editing the volume. The Council have also again to thank Mr. A. R. Wright for the Index. With regard to the illustrations, the Council have decided not to place any particular limit on the expenditure to be incurred under this head. They feel that the Journal of the Society should be made as attractive as possible; and that the illustrations tend to make it attractive, there can be no doubt. So far therefore as the funds of the Society permit, and the subject-matter for illustrations can be secured, Folklore will in future be illustrated as copiously as possible.
The Society has also issued during the year the Orkney and Shetland collection of Folklore from printed sources, by Mr. G. F. Black, which is the extra volume for 1go1. The circumstances which led to the delay in the pub- lication of this volume were explained by the Council in their last Report. The additional volume promised for 1902 is Miss M. A. Owen’s monograph on the Musquakie Indians (selections from which were read at the February meeting), with a descriptive catalogue of the collection of Musquakie beadwork and other objects presented by her to the Society. The publication of this volume has been delayed in order to enable Miss Owen to make some necessary additions to the catalogue. It is hoped, how- ever, that the volume may be in the hands of members early in the year. As foreshadowed in the last Report, the additional volume for 1903 will be a collection of materials for the history of English Folk-Drama, edited by Mr. T.
Annual Report of the Counctl.
10
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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
TRADITION AND ITS CONDITIONS.
Ir is tradition, the oral handing on of oral knowledge, that is the means by which the most of our folklore material has been, and is being, preserved. Tradition as a process deserves examination. We ought to know what are its con- ditions, its limits, its possibilities. Little has been done, as far as I know, to investigate these matters. They have been left vague. The Benthamite, content with citing Russian scandal, is wont to deny the possibility of accu- rate tradition at all. The credulous sentimentalist of the Bernard Burke kind will set no bounds to the process. It has been gravely argued that because one of the names of the star Seirios may be interpreted the traverser, there is in this title a remembrance of the time, more than thirty thousand years ago, when Seirios was crossing the Milky Way; which (as Euclid would say) is absurd. And yet there are materials for the more accurate determination of the scope of oral tradition, as I hope to show by certain examples.
Now it is first to be noted that in many unlettered, that is, in my sense, bookless, communities, there are special means, pieces of social machinery, devised and practical for the preservation of the knowledge of the events and culture of the past. What Czsar tells us about the Druid school of the Gauls in his day is but an earlier description of what Dr. Hyde and Dr. Joyce tell us, from medizval Irish MSS., about the schools of ancient and medieval Erin. Says
14 Presidential Address.
system of philosophy, mythology, and history is carefully handed down orally from generation to generation. The Vedic schools of India, where the early Vedas have been handed down from the days of the collection of the Rishis’ songs, long before Alexander and Buddha, to our own days, by the carefully trained memories of master and pupil, give an example of the possibility of exact transmission in a stable society for many generations. Exact dates in the present uncertain state of Indian chronology are hard to get.
The secular or bardic schools of medizval Ireland com- prised a twelve-year course; that is to say, a pupil could not compass it in less than twelve years. These schools were undoubtedly the successors of the kind of school that Czsar’s Druids kept. We have some certain information as to the work they did? In the first year the pupils, memory was tested by the learning of twenty tales in prose, seven as Ollaire, three as Taman, ten as Drisac,so that when he became Fock/uc he had learnt elementary grammar, certain poems, and ten more tales, and was regarded as a person capable of the minor kinds of poetry. In his third year as Mac Fuirmedh he went on with grammar, philo- sophy, poetry and ten new tales. In his fourth year as
' Dr. D. Hyde, Literary History of Ireland, p. 528, &c., gives from the Memoria of Clanrickard, London, 1722, an account of a bardic school in the latest days. It began at Michaelmas lasted till the 25th March. The pupils all brought gifts to the chief Ollam&. Those who could not read and write Irish well or had bad memories were at once sent away. The rest were divided into classes according to their proficiency and past studies, the juniors to be taught by inferior professors, the seniors by the head Ollamh himself. They were only taught at night by artificial light, they composed and memo- rised each in his own dark windowless room where was only a bed, a clothes- rail and two chairs. Hence, Luidhe i leabdibh sgo/, to lie in the beds of the schools, meant to be studying to become a poet. Before the supper, candles were brought round for the student to write down what he had composed. Each then took his composition to the hall, where they all supped and talked till bed- time. On Saturdays and holidays they went out of the schcols into the country, quartering themselves on the country people, who supplied their daily food and that of their professors. Obviously there are remains of the older disviplina still to be recognised in this description.
16 Presidential Address.
curse performed in heathen fashion, with one foot, one hand, one eye, and one breath, could cause death. He was an augur and could interpret dreams and find lucky days. He could hide his clients from their foes under magic fogs or by means of shape-changing. He could make a /ethe- drink, could raise the elements, and by his magic wisp, the dui fulle, he could cause insanity or idiocy.’ The privi- leges of the poets were so great, and such full advantage was taken of them, that they were twice publicly attacked, and only saved by powerful intercession. Public banquets were made in honour of the poets as late as 1451, and their circuits were continual sources of easy emolument. There was every encouragement for a man of good birth, fine wit, to enter the Ol/amh's school, and become historian, poet, tale-teller, or judge, to his clan.?_ For from the ranks of trained scholars the hereditary poets and judges (brehons) were chosen, Remnants of this organisation went on to the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it passed away after at least 1800 years of existence from the days of Czsar to those of James II. The oral teaching in the little dark huts of the scholars that flocked from various quarters, the system of memorising vast masses of verse and prose, dealing with various natural and human phenomena deemed of the highest importance, the privileges of the doctors and the generous maintenance of the scholars, were alike under
" Ie is curious but not at all wonderful that much of the reverence and awe felt for the magus in Ireland has descended upon the priest, who is firmly believed to “know the word” and to be able to make anyone he wishes to afflict insane, or paralytic or epileptic, or to“ change” him. And this fear of the priest’s anger and secret powers is no small element in the veneration and obedience heunquestionably gets. In mid England I know of a case in which a village wizard was believed to be able to cause the falling sickness, and have heard an instance of his power and the way it might be defeated.
* It was not till the days of the high-king Concobhar Mac Nessa, at the beginning of the Christian era, that the office of foet no longer of necessity carried with it the position of brekon or judge, in consequence of the obscure pleadings of Fercertné and Neidé when they contende for the office of High ‘Ollamh of Erin, before the kings of Ireland.
18 Presidential Address.
of memory. Spells and legends formed the greater part of the course, much of which consisted in the learning of verse. No man could become a teacher in less than three years, inapt pupils were at once dismissed, which with con- stant tests secured efficiency, Besides the Red House there was a School of Star-lore, where priests and chiefs of the highest rank taught the omens, the calendar, proper times and observances connected with feasts, hunting, and the times at which crops should be planted and reaped. The teaching time was always night, the school was under tabu and opened and closed ceremoniously like the Red House, There was also a less formal establishment which one might call a School of Agriculture, where people of all classes learnt the necessary knowledge for the procuring of vegetable food, and the incantations which secured good supplies,
We have both in the Irish and Maori tales many examples of the regular formule that helped the reciter, just as the formal lines that so often recur in the Homeric poems and the Chansons de geste, descriptive of common operations, helped the rhapsode and the tronvere.
Among the Eddic poems we find examples of the poetic Dialogue, a form of didactic composition dating from the last days of Scandinavian heathendom in the ninth century, giving instruction of the kind then deemed most important. These poems prove that the Scandinavians had also their method of handing down folklore, though there were no Medicine-men or Druids in the heathen North, and though Scandinavia was never greatly given to regular supersti- tions, admodum dedtta religiontbus, like the Gaul of Cxsar’s time.
What comes out of all this (and there is much more that could be said on these archaic arrangements for securing the correct transmission of knowledge and science without the use of letters) is that, unless interrupted by a revolu- tion, such as the incoming of new religion and culture, con-
20 Presidential Address.
celebrations or remembrances of striking occurrences. These dramas were composed by regular pocts, hun- dreds of pcople took part in the performances, and if a drama was successful it was learnt and remem- bered by hundreds more. So that in the middle of the nineteenth century Mr. Gill was able to collect from his cultured converts a great number (probably the finest) of these plays. They were performed at night only, in time of peace, after preparations that sometimes took more than a year. They were played in groups, and some twenty would be played between sunset and sunrise by the light of fires and torches. They seldom extend beyond one or two hundred lines. They are as allusive as the odes of Pindar himself, and the explanation of many of the oldest could only be given by chiefs and priests who were constrained ta be- come acquainted with the legends gathered about the reli- gious functions which formed their daily duties or about the personal titles of their predecessors in office. That the Play of Captain Cook and Omai (made soon after their arrival in 1777) should be remembered a hundred years later is not surprising, though the accuracy of the native tradition as tested by Cook's own journals is noteworthy; but we have earlier instances proving the accuracy and scope of native tradition. At the end of the sixteenth century in the time of Shakespeare and Elizabeth, Tekaraka was exiled from Mangaia with his family and friends in two large double canoes, on the advice of the oracle-priest of the god Motoro. Nothing was known of the fate of these outlaws, until, after the conversion of the Hervey Islands, certain New Zealanders, Christians, were able to visit in peace a land that had always shown itself especially inhospitable to strangers. These Maoris brought the news of Tekaraka’s landing in their own islands, where many persons traced their descent to him and where many places kept the old Mangaian names he brought there.
Nearly fifty years later, Iro, of the Tongan tribe, raised a
22 Presidential Address.
vast body of romance grew up round oral legends attached to persons who, if they existed, must, some of them, have lived and died in the sixth century. In both these cases the foundation of the new literature was certainly oral. For the Britannic Book, like the British History, can but have contained the substance of oral traditions. It is true, as Carlyle said, that beyond a limited time (no greater perhaps than three centuries) all the past tends to be viewed as on one plane. These are the old times
“Far in the pristine days of former yore,”
as the parody has it; but even then a certain order is re- membered. The two Cromwells may be confused, but they are known to be later than the Danes, and the Danes themselves younger than the “old Romans.” In the far-off landscape only a few peaks catch the sun, only a few names survive, but we must remember that with us in England, since the Conversion which began in the late sixth century, there has been no systematic tradition, no organisation that secured the handing down of that great mass of heathen history and knowledge which the Teutonic settlers must have brought across the North Sea in the fifth century. Kings (like Alfred and his exemplar, Charles) may have busied themselves with the collection of the old songs, but the change in religion, in language and in culture, and the long disgrace under which all that had affinity to the Old Faith had so long lain, must have prevented their collections (of which so little now remains) from being at all adequately representative of the vast mass of tra- ditions that belonged to the past. Spells have survived in out-of-the-way places, and a few curious penmen (to whom we owe great gratitude) took the trouble to write down some few compositions in which they were personally in- terested. It is to such a stray Scandinavian collector that the preservation of the two chief collections of the Eddic poems is due. But the mass of old lore in Britain has
THE STORY OF DEIRDRE, IN ITS BEARING ON THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOLK.-TALE.
BY ELEANOR HULL. (Read at Meeting, 18th November, 1903).
A FOLK-TALE may be studied from two quite different points of view. It may be regarded as a single example of a larger or smaller world-wide class of folk-stories having points of resemblance to each other, or it may be studied historically in its relation to the social development of the country in which it has had its origin. There is adanger in the pursuit of folklore studies that this historic sense should be subordinated to the mere accumulation of examples, and the era of the historical development of the folk-tale can only~ recently be said to have begun. Yet we have perhaps no surer reflection of the mental and moral changes of attitude in a nation than that which the evolution of a popular folk- tale gives us. Do the folk believe firmly in the super- natural? The story assumes grave and weird proportions. Do they grow sceptical? The folk-tale dwindles into the comic or grotesque. Are they fierce and cruel? The folk- legend is gloomy and vindictive too. Does civilisation stamp out these qualities? The change is often well ex- pressed in the modern aspect of the tale. When the folk- story is studied wholly from the standpoint of its external similarities and ramifications, this most instructive side of its history is apt to be lost sight of, and its valueas a guide to the social and intellectual development of a people is impaired.
We propose, in this paper, to sketch the development of a well-known Irish tale through some of the changes which it has undergone during a steady course of popularity over six or seven hundred years.
26 The Story of Detrdre, in its bearing on the
in the mind of some gifted artist centuries ago and the time of its latest redaction.
Between these two Deirdres, the forceful, uncontrolled and barbaric Deirdre of the 11th and 12th centuries and the sobbing and fibbing Deirdre of the 17th or 18th centuries, we find Deirdres of many kinds, less fierce but not less resolute, more gentle but not less fearless.
The earliest existing version is that in the Book of Leinster; the latest with which we shall here deal is a manuscript copy recently discovered by Dr. Hyde in the Belfast Museum, and published by him in the Zeitschrift fir Celtische Philologie. Only the earlier portion of the tale is dealt with in the modern version, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to the same limits.
The general outline of the story is so well known that we need not linger over it. It is in brief as follows.
Conor, King of Ulster, and his warriors, are feasting, according to the custom of the day, in the house of one of the king’s courtiers, when, amid terrible signs and portents, there is born to the wife of the host a fairdaughter. Cathbad, Druid and Soothsayer, rises from the feast and utters a prophecy about the child so full of dismal warning to Ulster that the warriors, with one voice, determine to slay her on the spot. But the king intervenes. “It is not well,” he says, “to kill a helpless infant ; moreover, Cathbad has foretold that the maiden will be fairer than all women of the world ; the king will himself rear up the child, and will in due time take her as his one and only wife.” So spake the old chief, and none of his warriors dared oppose him.
Deirdre (so named by the seer) was thenceforward shut up in a lonely fort, strictly guarded. Every luxury was provided for her, but, save for her foster-parents (or accord- ing to the later versions, Cathbad), and Levarcham the Druidess, and the king himself, none dared approach her. So Deirdre grew up, increasing day by day in loveliness, until, come to years of discretion, she suddenly began to feel
28 The Story of Deirdre, in its bearing on the
marked with scoffing and disgrace, if you do not take me with you.
“« ‘Away from me, O woman!’
“¢T shall be thine,’ she said.
“Then Naisi began to sing. At the sound of his melodious voice the Ultonians arose and turned their arms against each other.
“ The sons of Usnach departed from their dwelling to find out what had become of their brother.
“*What are you about?’ said they; ‘is it not through your fault that the Ultonians are slaughtering each other ?’
“ Then Naisi told them all that had happened to him.
“*Nought but evil can come of it,’ said the warriors; ‘nevertheless, whatever may result, so long as we live we will not allow you to suffer an affront. We will take her with us to another province. There is not a kingin Ireland who will not bid us welcome.’
“So they resolved. They departed before nightfall with Deirdre, three times fifty warriors, three times fifty women, and three times fifty dogs and attendants.”
In one of the versions preserved for us by O’Flanagan in the pages of the short-lived Transactions of the Gaelic Society, 1808, the fierce allusions and barbaric action of Deirdre are somewhat modified. It is interesting to see the transition to gentler manners, to catch it half-way, as it were.
‘The passage runs as follows:
“ As Naisi was alone abroad, Deirdre threw herself in his way, but as she passed by, uttered not a word.
“Gentle is the dame who passeth by, says he.
“lt is natural for damsels to be gentle where there are no youths,’ she said.
“<The man of the province [#:e, the king] is with you,’ said he.
“Tf T were to make achoice between you twain, I should prefer a young man like you,’ she answered.
30 ©The Story of Detrdre, tn tts bearing on the
terously, he gave an unerring cast of his knife at the raven, so that he cut one foot off it, and taking up the bird, he threw it over beside Deirdre. The girl gave a sudden start, and fell into a faint, till Levarcham came to her aid. ‘Why art thou thus, dear daughter?’ said she; ‘thy countenance is piteous ever since yesterday.” ‘A desire that I chanced to have,’ said Deirdre. ‘What is that desire?’ said Levarcham. ‘Three colours that I saw,’ said Deirdre, ‘the blackness of the raven, the redness of the blood, and the whiteness of the snow.’ ‘It is easy to satisfy thee so far,’ said Levarcham; and she arose and went out immediately ; and she gathered the full of a vessel of snow, and half the full of a cup of the calf’s blood, and three feathers pulled out of the raven’s wing, and she laid them down on the table in front of the girl. Deirdre made as though she were eating the snow, and lazily tasting the blood with the tip of the raven’s feather, her nurse closely watching her the while, until Deirdre begged Levarcham to leave her alone for a time.
“So Levarcham departed, but returning again she found Deirdre shaping a ball of snow into the likeness of a man’s head, and mottling it with the tip of the raven’s feather out of the blood of the calf, and arranging the small black plumage upon it like hair. Until all was finished she never noticed that her nurse was scanning her.
“«Whose likeness is that?’ said Levarcham. Deirdre started, and she said, ‘I can easily destroy my work.’ ‘That work of thine is a great surprise to me, girl,’ said the nurse, ‘ because it is not like thee to draw pictures of a man, and, moreover, the women of Emania were not permitted to teach thee the similitude of any man but of Conor only.’ «] saw a face in my dream,’ said Deirdre, ‘ that was brighter of countenance than the face of the king or of Cailcin, and it was in it that I saw the three colours that troubled me, for his skin was white like snow, and the blackness of the raven was on his hair, and in his face the red tint of blood ;
32 The Story of Deirdre, in tts bearing om the
but seven yearsof age.” “ Seven bitter years," said Deirdre, “since I beheld the joyous sports on the green, and the games of the boys; yet even at that time Naisi surpassed all the youths of Emania.” “Naisi, the son of Usnach ?"" said Levarcham. “ Naisi was his name, he told me so,” said Deirdre, “ But I did not ask whose son he was.” “ He told you so!” exclaimed Levarcham. “He told me so,” said Deirdre, “ when he threw the ball, by a mis-cast, backwards, across the heads of the group of maidens who were standing on the edge of the Green, and I rose from among them all, and picked up the ball, and gave it back to him, and he pressed my hand joyously.” “ He pressed your hand, girl!” cried Levarcham. ‘ He pressed it lovingly, and said that he would sce me again, but it has been difficult for him, and not until yesterday have I seen him since ; and O gentle nurse, if you would not wish me to die, take a message to him from me, and bid him come and talk with me to-night, without the knowledge of Cailcin or any other person.”
Again Levarcham objects that the difficulties are insur mountable, and in especial that Naisi is much beloved of the king, who is his near relation. Deirdre will admit no impediment, and she ends by bidding her nurse remember that Naisi has great territories in Alba (Scotland), and that she would have her tell him how much greater is her love for him than for the king. “Tell him that yourself, if you can," cries Levarcham, as she ultimately goes away to do Deirdre’s bidding.
Finally Naisi carries her off, not to a painful circuit through various parts of Ireland, as in the earlier version, but directly to his own possessions in Alba.
Now, pretty as this modern version is, it has quite parted with the heroic elements of the carlicr romance.
This fanciful, sensitive girl, who trims snowballs into the shape of her lover's head, who dissolves into tears and betakes herself to the sofa, who falls into a faint at sight of the three colours that have possessed her imagination, is as
LL!
34 The Story of Detrdre, in its bearing on the
picking up information useful for the royal ears. We read that “everything good or evil that was done in Ireland she used to relate to the king in the House of the Red Branch at the end of the day.” When Conor was shut up during the famous Siege of Howth on the rocky heights of the peninsula, and unable to obtain a supply of provisions, he was sustained by a daily supply of food brought by Levar- cham on her back all the way from the royal palace of Emain Macha (#.c. Navan Fort, near Armagh). When undergoing these prodigious feats a fearful and horrible change came over the swift messenger. We read that “her feet and knees turned and went behind her, and her heels and thighs came before her!” while, besides her ordinary share of food with the warriors, she required a portion of 60 cakes which she baked at one time on the fire.’ Though only the child of a slave-girl and born in Conor's house, Levarcham was possessed of all the arts of druidism, She was that most dreaded being, a female satirist. Even the king stood in awe of her, for we read that he would like to have removed her from the vicinity of Deirdre, but he dare not, for he dreaded her incantations.
So radically dissimilar are the maiden Deirdre and her nurse Levarcham in the story of the 11th and that of the
* The same extraordinary description is given of Cichulalnn in moments of supreme action, and probably is meant, by some strange Aight of the savage Smoagination which eannot be followed by the modem mind, to denote great strength or swiftness of body. The same is said of Domboall, aterrible Amazon jin Albs, whom Ciichalainn met when he went thither to leam championship : and alco of the Devil, who when bidden by St. Moling to fast and pray, replies, thai he cannot kneel, because his knees are behind im, see Stokes! Goédeliea, and edition 1872, p. 180. In a series of articles on Ler PYeds et Genowe rebourt, published in Mélusine, wi. 172) vii. 39, 635 vill 77, M. Henti Gaidor shows that the idea, which is met with in various countties, generally. represents an evil genius or redoubtable person. There is a tiny tronee statuette in the Mritish Museam representing the grotesque figure of « youth ‘or man with the lower portion of the body from the waist to the ankles turned in an opposite direction to the head and fect. M. Perdrozet mentions 4 similar statuette in the National Museam at Athens,
36 The Story of Deirdre, in its bearing on the
girl of the modern Irish version, she is the sweet whole- some maid of the open hill and valley, moulded by the influence of storm and sunshine into their own fresh and changeful likeness. And beanty born of murmuring sound Shall pass into her face."
Deirdre had grown to womanhood, and as yet she had never seen aman. But one wintry gloomy night a hunter who had lost his way sank down, exhausted with cold and hunger and overcome with drowsiness, outside the green mound in which Deirdre dwelt.“ Sleep-wandering " came upon him, and he thought that he was at the abode of fairies, and that within he heard the fairies making music. In his dreams the hunter called out that if there were anyone in the house they should for the sake of the Good Being let him in.
“Deirdre heard the voice, and she said to the nurse- mother, * Foster-mother, what is that?’ ‘A thing of little worth,’ she replied; ‘it is the birds of the air gone astray from each other, and seeking to come together again, Let them hie away to the forest of trees,’
“ Again ‘ sleep-wandering’ came upon the man, and he called out in his sleep that if there were anyone within the knoll, for the sake of the Being of the Elements they should let him in. ‘What is that, nurse-mother?’ said Deirdre. ‘A thing of little worth,’ she said again; ‘it is but the birds of the flocks astray from each other, seeking one another and their home; but let them hie away to the forest of trees. There is neither house nor home for them here, this night.” Three times the benumbed and famished man called aloud, and three times the foster-mother gave her charge the same reply.
“Qh! nurse-mother, said the girl at length, ‘the bird is asking shelter in the name of the God of the Elements, and thou thyself didst teach me that whatever is asked in
38 The Story of Detrdre, in its bearing on the
Naisi and his brothers passed by. Though they did not look up, “the love of Naisi was so implanted in the heart of Deirdre” that she sprang up, gathered up her garments, and flew after them, leaving her companions astonished and displeased. Arden and Allen saw her following, and, knowing that she was affianced to the King, they hurried on, for they knew that if Naisi their brother saw her, he would have her for himself “seven times specially as she was not yet married to the King.” So they exhorted one another to walk well, secing that the distance was long that they had to travel and the darkness of night was coming on, Deirdre calls after him, “Naisi, son of Usnach, art thou going to leave me?” “ What cry is that in mine ears that I cannot easily answer nor yet easily refuse?” said Naisi. “It is only the cry of the lake-ducks of Conor,” they reply; ‘‘and let us hurry our footsteps, for the distance is great and the dark shadows of night are coming on.” Thrice Deirdre utters her cry and thrice they assure their brother that it is only the grey geese or the flute- like notes of Conor's lake-swans that he hears. But at the third plaintive call, Naisi turns hack and meets Deirdre, and she greets him with three kisses and one kiss to each of his brothers. And glowing blushes like fire were in her cheeks for shame, and the tremulous hues of her ruddy cheeks were coming and going as fast as the shaking leaves of the aspen tree of the stream, till Naisi bethought him that he never saw in bodily form so lovely a ‘blood-drop’ as this, and he gave her a love such as he never gave to vision or living form, but to herself alone.” Then he raised her on his shoulder and requested his brothers to walk well now, and that he would walk well with them, ‘The flight to Alba and the end of the story is much as in the medizval Irish version, except that the three brothers are drowned in the magic sea raised by the Druid, and that when they are lying in the grave side by side Deirdre calls
Social Development of the Folk-tale. 39
to them to make a place for her beside them. They do so, and she leaps into the grave, and d lying down close to Naisi, she dies at his side.
This Highland version contrasts well with that preserved in the Belfast manuscript. The one has all the character of a drawing-room recital, full of sentimentality and arti- ficiality ; the other has the freedom and freshness of the place of its preservation among the wild tribes and ocean solitudes of the Outer Hebrides.
ELEANOR HULL.
ARTHUR AND GORLAGON:! TRANSLATED BY F. A. MILNE, WITH. NOTES BY A. NUTT. (Read at Meeting, 17th December, 1903.)
(1) AT the City of the Legions King Arthur was keeping the renowned festival of Pentecost, to which he invited the great men and nobles of the whole of his kingdom, and when the solemn rites had been duly performed he bade them to a banquet, furnished with everything thereto per- taining. And as they were joyfully partaking of the feast of rich abundance, Arthur, in his excessive joy, threw his arms around the Queen, who was sitting beside him, and embracing her, kissed her very affectionately in the sight of all, But she was dumbfounded at his conduct, and, blushing deeply, looked up at him and asked why he had kissed her thus at such an unusual place and hour.
Arthur. Because amidst all my riches I have nothing so pleasing and amidst all my delights nothing so sweet, as thou art,
The Queen. Well, if, as you say, you love me so much, you evidently think that you know my heart and my affection.
Arthur. 1 doubt not that your heart is well disposed towards me, and I certainly think that your affection is absolutely known to me.
' The Latin original has been edited for the first time by Professor G. L. Kittredge, of Harvard, from the late 14th century Bodleian parchment MS. Rawlinson, B 49, in Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature, vol. viii published by Ginn and Co. of Boston. The MS. contains another Latin Arthurian romance, Historia Meriadoci regis Cambriae ; Historia trium Ma- gorum ; Narratio de Tirio Appolonio; Liber Alexandri . . de preliis; Aristo- teles de regimine sanitatis. Meriadocus is also found in the B.M. MS. Cott. Faust, B. VI., whence it has been edited by another American Scholar, Pro- fessor J. Douglas Bruce, in Publ. of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of America, vol. xv.
42 Arthur and Gorlagon.
Britain: and I wish to learn from you what are the Aeart> the nature? and the ways* of women, for have very often heard that you are well skilled in matters of this kind.”
Gargol. Yours is a weighty question, Arthur, and there are very few who know how to answer it. But take my advice now, dismount and eat with me, and rest to-day, for I see that you are overwrought with your toilsome journey; and to-morrow I will tell you what I know of the matter.
Arthur denied that he was overwrought, pledging him- self withal that he would never eat until he had learnt what he was in search of, At last, however, pressed by the King and by the company who were feasting with him, he assented, and, having dismounted, he sat at table on the seat which had been placed for him opposite the King. But as soon as it was dawn, Arthur, remembering the promise which had been made to him, went to King Gargol and said, “O my dear King, make known to me, I beg, that which you promised yesterday you would tell me to-day.”
Gargo?. You are displaying your folly, Arthur. Until now | thought you were a wise man: as to the heart, the nature, and the ways of woman, no one ever had a concep- tion of what they are, and I do not know that I can give you any information on the subject. But I have a brother, King Torleil by name, whose kingdom borders on my own. He is older and wiser than 1 am: and indeed, if there is any one skilled in this matter, about which you are so anxious to know, | do not think it has escaped him. Seek him out, and desire him on my account to tell you what he knows of it.
(4) So having bidden Gargol farewell, Arthur departed, and instantly continuing his journey arrived after a four days’ march at King Torleil’s, and as it chanced found the King at dinner. And when the King had exchanged greetings
" Mens, * Ingeniume, * Ars.
44 Arthur and Gorlagon.
for information on the matters about which he had come, King Gorlagon answered, “ Yours is a weighty question. Dismount and eat: and to-morrow I will tell you what you wish to know.”
But Arthur said he would by no means do that, and when again requested to dismount, he swore by an oath that he would yield to no entreaties until he had learned what he was in search of. So when King Gorlagon saw that he could not by any means prevail upon him to dismount, he said, “ Arthur, since you persist in your resolve to take no food until you know what you ask of me, although the labour of telling you the tale be great, and there is little use in telling it, yet I will relate to you what happened to acertain king, and thereby you will be able to test the heart, the nature, and the ways of women. Yet, Arthur, I beg you, dismount and eat, for yours is a weighty question and few there are who know how to answer it, and when I have told you my tale you will be but little the wiser.
Arthur. Tell on as you have proposed, and speak no more of my eating.
Gorlagon. Well, let your companions dismount and eat.
Arthur. Very well, let them do so.
So when they had seated themselves at table, King Gorlagon said, “Arthur, since you are so eager to hear this business, give ear, and keep in mind what I am about to tell you.”
(6) (Here begins about the wolf.) ‘There was a king well known to me, noble, accom- plished, rich, and far-famed for justice and for truth. He had provided for himself a delightful garden which had no equal, and in it he had caused to be sown and planted all kinds of trees and fruits, and spices of different sorts: and among the other shrubs which grew in the garden there
46 Arthur and Gorlagon.
been there even then late in the evening before taking food. The King answered that that was a matter which did not concern her, and that he was under no obligation to divulge it to her; whereupon she became furious, and improperly suspecting that he was in the habit of con- sorting with an adulteress in the garden, cried out, “I call all the gods of heaven to witness that I will never eat with you henceforth until you tell me the reason.” And rising suddenly from the table she went to her bedchamber, cunningly feigning sickness, and lay in bed for three days without taking any food.
(8) On the third day, the King, perceiving her obstinacy and fearing that her life might be endangered in conse- quence, began to beg and exhort her with gentle words to rise and eat, telling her that the thing she wished to know was a secret which he would never dare to tell anyone. To which she replied, “ You ought to have no secrets from your wife, and you must know for certain that I would rather die than live, so long as I feel that I am so little loved by you,” and he could not by any means persuade her to take refreshment. Then the King, in too changeable and irresolute a mood and too devoted in his affection for his wife, explained to her how the matter stood, having first exacted an oath from her that she would never betray the secret to anyone, and would keep the sapling as sacred as her own life.
The Queen, however, having got from him that which she had so dearly wished and prayed for, began to promise him greater devotion and love, although she had already con- ceived in her mind a device by which she might bring about the crime she had been so long deliberating. So on the following day, when the King had gone to the woods to hunt, she seized an axe, and secretly entering the garden, cut down the sapling to the ground, and carried it away with her. When, however, she found that the King was returning, she concealed the sapling under her sleeve, which
48 Arthur and Gorlagon.
aforesaid youth had become the father by his wife, playing by chance under the tower without anyone to guard them, he attacked and slew them, tearing them cruelly limb from limb. When the bystanders saw too late what had hap- pened they pursued the wolves with shouts. ‘The wolves, when what they had done was made known, fled swiftly away and escaped in safety. The Queen, however, over= whelmed with sorrow at the calamity, gave orders to her retainers to keep a careful watch for the return of the wolves. No long time had elapsed when the wolf, think- ing that he was not yet satisfied, again visited the town with his companions, and mecting with two noble counts, brothers of the Qucen, playing at the very gates of the palace, heattacked them, and tearing out their bowels gave them over to a frightful death, Hearing the noise, the servants assembled, and shutting the doors caught the cubs and hanged them. But the wolf, more cunning than the rest, slipped out of the hands of those who were holding” him and escaped unhurt.
Arthur, dismount and eat, for yours is a weighty question and there are few who know how to answer it. And when T have told you all, you will be but little the wiser”
(11) Gorlagon. ‘The wolf, overwhelmed with very great grief for the loss of his cubs and maddened by the great- ness of his sorrow, made nightly forays against the flocks and herds of that province, and attacked them with such great slaughter that all the inhabitants, placing in ambush a large pack of hounds, met together to hunt and catch him; and the wolf, unable to endure these daily vexations, made for a neighbouring country and there began to carry on his usual ravages, However, he was at once chased from thence by the inhabitants, and compelled to go to a third country: and now he began to vent his rage with im- placable fury, not only against the beasts but also against
“Arthur's refuval should follow, but there is no blank in the MS”"— G, L, Kirreeper,
50 Arthur and Gorlagon.
The wolf, utterly fearless of their cries, followed close after the King, and kept licking him gently. The King was wonderfully moved, and after looking at the wolf for some. time and perceiving that there was no fierceness in him, but that he was rather like one who craved for pardon, was much astonished, and commanded that none of his men should dare to inflict any harm on him, declaring that he had detected some signs of human understanding in him; so putting down his right hand to caress the wolf he gently stroked his head and scratched his ears. Then the King seized the wolf and endeavoured to lift him up to him. But the wolf, perceiving that the King was desirous of lifting him up, leapt up, and joyfully sat upon the neck of the charger in front of the King.
‘The King recalled his followers,and returned home. (13) He had not gone far when lo! a stag of vast size met him in the forest pasture with antlers erect. ‘Then the King said, “] will try if there is any worth or strength in my wolf, and whether he can accustom himself to obey my commands.” And crying out he set the wolf upon the stag and thrust him from him with his hand. The wolf, well knowing how to capture this kind of prey, sprang up and pursued the stag, and getting in front of it attacked it, and catching it by the throat laid it dead in sight of the King. Then the King called him back and said, “Of atruth you must be kept alive and not killed, seeing that you know how to showsuch service tous.” And taking the wolf with him he returned home.
Arthur, dismount and eat. For yours is a weighty ques- tion, and there are few who know how to answer it; and when I have told you all my tale you will be but little the wiser.
Arthur. If all the gods were to cry from heaven “ Arthur, dismount and eat," | would neither dismount nor cat until I had learnt the rest.
(14) Gorlagon, So the wolf remained with the King, and
* Bxercitu revocate.
52 Arthur and Gorlagon.
(15) Gorlagon. So the King set out, and the wolf re- mained with the Queen. But she did not show the care for him which she ought to have done. For he always lay chained, up though the King had commanded that he should be chained up at night only. Now the Queen loved the King’s sewer with an unlawful love, and went to visit him whenever the King was absent. So on the eighth day after the King had started, they met in the bedchamber at midday and mounted the bed together, little heeding the presence of the wolf. And when the wolf saw them rushing into each other's impious embraces he blazed forth with fury, his eyes reddening, and the hair on his neck standing up,and he began to make as though he would attack them, but was held back by the chain by which he was fastened. And when he saw they had no intention of desisting from the iniquity on which they had embarked, he gnashed his teeth, and dug up the ground with his paws, and venting his rage over all his body, with awful howls he stretched the chain with such violence that it snapped in two. When loose he rushed with fury upon the sewer and threw him from the bed, and tore him so savagely that he left him half-dead. But to the Queen he did no harm at all, but only gazed upon her with venom in his eye. Hearing the mournful groans of the sewer, the servants tore the door from its hinges and rushed in. When asked the cause of all the tumult, that cunning Queen concocted a lying story, and told the servants that the wolf had devoured her son, and had torn the sewer as they saw while he was attempting to rescue the little one from death, and that he would have treated her in the same way had they not arrived in time to succour her. So the sewer was brought half dead to the guest-chamber. But the Queen fearing that the King might somehow discover the truth of the matter, and con- sidering how she might take her revenge on the wolf, shut up the child, whom she had represented as having been devoured by the wolf, along with his nurse in an under-
54 Arthur and Gorlagon.
his cloak into his mouth, and by a movement of the head invited him to follow him. The King, who understood the wolf's customary signals, got up and followed him through the different bedchambers to the underground room where the boy was hidden away. And finding the door bolted the wolf knocked three or four times with his paw, as much as to ask that it might be opened to him. But as there wax some delay in searching for the key—for the Queen had hidden it away—the wolf, unable to endure the delay, drew back a little, and spreading out the claws of his four paws he rushed headlong at the door, and driving it in, threw it down upon the middle of the floor broken and shattered. Then running forward he took the infant from its cradle in his shaggy arms, and gently held it up tothe King’s face for akiss. (17) The King marvelled and said, “ There is some- thing beyond this which is not clear to my comprehension.” Then he went out after the wolf, who Jed the way, and was conducted by him to the dying sewer; and when the wolf saw the sewer, the King could scarcely restrain him from rushing upon him. Then the King sitting down in front of the sewer's couch, questioned him as to the cause of his sickness, and as to the accident which had occasioned his wounds. The only confession, however, he would make was that in rescuing the boy from the wolf, the wolf had attacked him; and he called the Queen to witness to the truth of what he said. The King in answer said, “ You are evidently lying: my son lives: he was not dead at all, and now that I have found him and have convicted both you and the Queen of treachery to me, and of forging lying tales, Lam afraid that something else may be false also. 1 know the reason why the wolf, unable to bear his master’s disgrace, attacked you so savagely, contrary to his wont. There- fore confess to me at once the truth of the matter, else 1 swear by the Majesty of highest Heaven that I will deli- ver thee to the flames to burn.” Then the wolf making an attack upon him pressed him close, and would have
56 Arthur and Gorlagon.
pressing close to his knees, showed by the expression of his countenance and the gesture of his whole body that the King had spoken the truth.
(19) Then the King said, “See with what gladness he agrees with what I say, and shows by unmistakable signs that I have spoken the truth. There can now be no further doubt about the matter, and would that power might be granted me to discover whether by some act or device I might be able to restore him to his former state, even at the cost of my worldly substance; nay, even at the risk of my life.” So, after long deliberation, the King at length determined that the wolf should be sent off to go before him, and to take whatever direction he pleased whether by land or by sea. “ For perhaps,” said he, “if we could reach his country we might get to know what has happened and find some remedy for him.”
So the wolf was allowed to go where he would, and they all followed after him. And he at once made for the sea, and impetuously dashed into the waves as though he wished to cress, Now his own country adjoined that region, being. however, separated from it on one side by the sea, though iv another direction it was accessible by land, but by a Aonger route. The King, seeing that he wished to cross over, at onve gave orders that the fleet should be launched aud that the army should assemble.
‘Arthur, dismount and eat. For yours is a weighty queation: and few there are who know how to answer it: and when [have told my tale you will be but little the wiver,
wtethar, The wolf being desirous of crossing the sea, je atanating: on the beach. I am afraid that if he is left atone he will be drowned in his anxiety to get over.
(a0) Ger dagen. So the King, having ordered his ship, and duty equipped his army, approached the sea with a great Rae ot suldiors, and on the third day he landed safely at Qee woll’s country; and when they reached the shore the
58 Arthur and Gorlagon.
the question I put to you at once, for I will certainly cause you to die of hunger and thirst and exquisite tor- tures, unless you show me where the sapling lies hidden with which you transformed your husband into a wolf. Perhaps the human shape which he has lost may thereby be recovered.” Whereupon she swore that she did not know where the sapling was, saying that it was well known that it had been broken up and burnt in the fire. However, as she would not confess, the King handed her over to the tormentors, to be daily tortured and daily exhausted with punishments, and allowed her neither food nor drink. So at last, compelled by the severity of her punishment, she pro- duced the sapling and handed it to the King. (22) And the King took it from her, and with glad heart brought the wolf forward into the midst, and striking his head with the thicker part of the sapling, added these words, “ Be a man and have the understanding of a man.” And no sooner were the words spoken than the effect followed. The wolf became a man as he had been before, though far more beautiful and comely, being now possessed of such grace that one could at once detect that he was a man of great nobility. The King seeing a man of such great beauty metamorphosed from a wolf standing before him, and pitying the wrongs the man had suffered, ran forward with great joy and embraced him, kissing and lamenting him and shedding tears. And as they embraced each other they drew such long protracted sighs and shed so many tears that all the multitude standing around were constrained to weep. The one returned thanks forall the many kindnesses which had been shown him: the other lamented that he had be- haved with less consideration than he ought. What more? Extraordinary joy is shown by all, and the King, having received the submission of the principal men, according to ancient custom, retook possession of his sovereignty. Then the adulterer and adulteress were brought into his presence, and he was consulted as to what he judged ought to be
60 Arthur and Gorlagon.
she has in front of her is the head of that youth for love of whom she wrought so great a crime against me. For when I returned to my proper shape again, in sparing her life, I subjected her to this penalty only, namely, that she should always have the head of her paramour before her, and that when I kissed the wife I had married in her stead she should imprint kisses on him for whose sake she had com- mitted that crime. And I had the head embalmed to keep it free from putrefaction. For I knew that no punishment could be more grievous to her than a perpetual exhibition of her great wickedness in the sight of all the world. (24) Arthur, dismount now, if you so desire, for now that I have invited you, you will, so far as I am concerned, from henceforth remain where you are.
So Arthur dismounted and ate, and on the following day returned home a nine days’ journey, marvelling greatly at what he had heard.
FRANK A. MILNE.
NOTES.
The foregoing tale, apart from a possible reference by Madden (Sir Gawayne, p. x. note), seems to have escaped the notice of all Arthurian students until Professor G. L. Kittredge of Harvard edited it last year, and made it the subject of what I do not hesitate to pronounce one of the most remarkable and valuable examples of storyological research known to me. In what follows I do little more than summarise and paraphrase Professor Kittredge’s investigation, with the addition of certain views of my own, and I would strongly urge all interested in medizeval romance and in folktale research not to content themselves with my sum- mary but to refer to and master the original. Professor Kittredge should not be held responsible for any imperfections in my expo- sition of his masterly argument, the plan of which I have not thought it necessary to retain.
It will at once be apparent to a storyologist of any experience that the task which Arthur has to achieve is one in which success is only possible by the aid, unwillingly given, of a supernatural
|
62 Arthur and Gorlagon.
recognise in Arthur amd Gorlagon an example of the genre. ‘Thus by the end of the fourteenth century at the latest, a Celtic and characteristically Celtic folktale was put into Latin, probably suffering in this transition from a vernacular to a learned language those modifications which are immediately apparent, as also, pos sibly, others. The Latin narrator had a Welsh original, as is proved by the forms of the names: this original was almost cer tainly complete and homogeneous, as is evident from the “folk” character of the incidents and framework.
Let us now turn to the consideration of parallels. ‘The closest is a folktale still widely current in Gacldom (Professor Kittredge bases his analysis on some ten versions ranging over the entire Gaelic arca from Kerry to the Hebrides), the type-example being Morrana (Larminie, West Irish Folk-Tale, reprinted in Jacobs, More Celtic Fairy Tales), Briefly, it runs thus:
The hero games with a supernatural being, wins twice, loses third time, has task laid upon him to obtain the sword of light and knowledge of the one story about woman. Acting on the advice of his (fairy) wife, hero rides to her father, is there fur- nished with another horse that brings him to owner of the sword of light, Niall. At a third attempt he secures the sword, and threatening the owner with it, learns, at the persuasion of latter’s wife, the story. Niall knew language of animals, and casually learnt thereby the existence of the magic rod; he laughed, had, on his wife's insistence, to explain why, was by her changed first into a raven, then into a horse, fox, wolf. As wolf he is hunted by, but secures protection of, King, guards the latter’s child against the attack of a monstrous hand, is accused, but, trusted by King, recovers the child, whose attend- ant he becomes, and whom he ultimately persuades to strike him with the magic rod and thereby effect his re-transformation to human shape. His wife offers to drown herself, but Niall says if she will keep the secret, he will, Niall afterwards tracks ‘the monster of the hand, slays him, recovers the elder children of the King, and directs the hero how to deal with his super- natural adversary, who is the brother of the monster of the hand.*
4 In this summary and in the references to MORRANA in the following pages, pe cee Bethe other variants ; no one version preserves al Ithe incidents
64 Arthur and Gorlagon.
of development. The framework is lacking, as are also any signs of contamination from the Gellert and Atack on the Child themes. It has, however, obviously been modified to fit it into the Arthurian cycle, Arthur sharing with the werwolf's father-in- law the réle of the protector-king. The hero's relation to this personage explains how it is that he finds his wife at the Court, a point which Moxkama has preserved, but for which it docs not account. In the treatment of the wife MmLION is nearer to Morgana than to ArTHuR AND GorLacon ; although pro- nounced guilty, she is spared. The most notable feature is that preserved by the opening ; the hero is wooed by a maiden who ‘comes from Ireland, and who returns to her own country when she has, as she eon tid of him. ‘The significance of this will be made plain present
In the Zaf de eee of Marie de France the story runs thus:
The hero is a born werwolf, compelled to pass three days of every week in his animal shape; the change is effected by putting off his clothes. The wife discovers this, hides the clothes, and marries a lover of hers. The hunt by the King takes place as in other versions ; the werwolf wins the King's favour, resides at his court, and whilst there attacks his wife's second husband, and, later, his wife. The mystery is disclosed, the wife is compelled under torture to give up the clothes, the werwolf regains his human form, and the wife is banished with her second husband.
Here then is a simple and straightforward version of ome of the themes, the main one, found in the allied stories. Tt cannot be derived either from Merton or from the common original which may be assumed to lic at the back of ARTHUR AND Gor tacon and Morrawa, On the other hand it cannot be their sole source. It proves that what may be styled the Werwo/f's Tate proper once existed apart from the other elements found in Mxtiox, Axriur anp GorLacon, and MorRana,
As regards the relationship of the other three versions, MEeLion cannot have come from the Welsh original of ARTHUR AND. Gortacon, as it lacks the framework, and as it has preserved an ‘opening of which no traces are found in the Welsh tale. For the same reasons it cannot be the direct source of that tale ; which again cannot have originated Morrana, as the latter has retained
66 Arthur and Gorlagon,
threefold gaming (an incident still found, though in different con- nection, in the current folktale), and carries her back to fairyland, whither Eochaid pursues them, ultimately recovering her.
A story, not necessarily the Wooing of tain, but one con- structed on similar lines, was, so Professor Kittredge assumes, amalgamated with the MWerwolfs Tale in somewhat the same stage of development as we find the latter in Biscuavener, and thus originated the postulated version X, The WertwoiPs Tale itself must have passed through different stages of development corresponding to altered feelings respecting the subject matter, Originally we must assume that the werwolf was a personage, firstly because in folk-story-telling the hero is sym- pathetic by definition, secondly, because in the culture stage to which we may fairly refer the first shaping of the story the half animal nature would not carry with it an idea of the repugnant or unhallowed. But such an idea undoubtedly did arise, and is reflected in the vast mass of werwolf stories and conceptions, A stage may thus be postulated in which the wife (unsympathetic originally as being opposed to the hero, but not morally culpable), becomes the sympathetic personage, Still later, sympathy would be shifted back by exciting pity for the hero (originally an object of envy as possessor of a highly desirable power), as one subject to a degrading liability, and by attaching moral blame to the faithless wife. The oldest recorded version of Marie's Brsclaverst belongs to this stage of development.
‘The fusion of these two story-types, the one concerned with the love-affairs of a fairy damsel ultimately won and lost by mortal and immortal lover, the other, the Werwol?'s Tale, dealing with the separation of husband and wife deliberately effected by the latter, offers, it will be seen, no theoretical difficulty. When it took place the tain type had already in all likelihood suffered considerable change. In the oldest stratum of Irish fairy mistress romances nothing is more notable than the position of the heroine. She woos; she bestows or withdraws her favours with absolute freedom ; the mortal lover neither acquires nor claims any rights. But even within the range of Gaelic romance, closely though it clings to ancient convention, slightly as it is affected by non- Gaelic culture, there can be traced a change from this superb, ‘over-moral attitude on the part of the woman to ane more con- sonant with ordinary human conditions. The free self-centred goddess, regally prodigal of her love, jealously guarding her inde-
COLLECTANEA.
A Witcu-Doctor’s Kit, From Macita, East CENTRAL AFRICA. (Read at Meeting, 20th January, 1904.)
Ir would be almost impossible to travel in Central Africa with- out coming into contact with the results of Witchcraft. Even the few months that I spent there in 1896 were sufficient to show me how real is its strength and how evil its influence.
But really reliable information on the subject is difficult to obtain. Those who practise it naturally prefer to keep their knowledge to themselves, and not lose a profitable source of in- come. Direct questions by a European to a native on such a subject, if answered at all, would only lead to false replies and confusion of ideas. There is also a further difficulty. The lan- guages are in most cases in a state of transition, and in order to convey a new idea to the native we either have to adopt words from English, Arabic, or Portuguese, or else to take a native word which may already have a special meaning of its own. In the latter case we attach our own meaning to it, and are apt to imagine that this will be conveyed to the native by the use of the word, whilst in his mind the word gives a different idea, although he may be unable to define it. The opportunities for error and misunder- standing on both sides are therefore very great.!
‘The following is a case in point. A newly-arrived member of the Univer- sities’ Mission recently created some little surprise by stating that while on a visit to another mission on Lake Nyasa, she had been shown two idols, and had been given “an account of the idolatry of the district” derived from a young native Christian, Now it is well known that there is no idolatry in East Centra’
7O Collectanea.
powerful “ medicine” is obtained by the use of vizu/u. These are simply bits of sticks about four or five inches long which have been charmed, then smeared over with some substance, the composition of which is uncertain! They are then wrapped round with white calico and are supposed after this to have the power of motion and of sucking the blood of the victim and thus causing his death.
‘There appears to be little doubt that witchcraft can cause death, either by the administration of poison, which the victim may sometimes take in his food, or by the state of abject fear into which he is thrown, when he will gradually pine away, unable to shake off the influence (possibly mesmeric) which has seized him.
In British Central Africa and in Equatorial Africa (I have not heard of it in German East Africa) witches practise the disgusting habit of exhuming and eating human remains. In the first-named country it is necessary on this account to take special precautions to guard the graves of those who are buried away from their huts in the Christian cemetery. (The native custom is to bury the dead inside the hut, where they are of course fairly safe from body-snatchers.)
II. The Witch-Doctor apparently does not resort to these abominations. Occasionally he may consult an oracle or use divining rods. The oracle sometimes consists of the skin of a small animal stuffed with herbs which act as “medicine.” He has two principal branches of his art, surgery and exorcism. ‘These are closely allied to each other, for nearly every disease is supposed to be due to evil spirits. I was fortunate enough whilst at Kologwé, in German East Africa, to see a witch-doctor at work. The sound of the drum one evening told us that some- thing unusual was taking place in the village near the Mission station at which I was a guest, and the nature of the noise told us also that the performance was not a “bad” dance; the grossly indecent character of which would deter any respectable European from being present at it without urgent cause. We went into the village. The clear light of the full moon was sufficient to show distinctly all that was going on. In an open space between the huts a fire of sticks was burning on the ground. Close by sat the patient, a woman who had rheumatism: in
* Canon Dale (of the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa) implies the use of flour, but Archdeacon Woodward ina letter written from Magila in 1903 states that they are covered with blood.
Pare -
A WITCH-DOCTOR’S KIT FROM MAGILA.
(EAST CENTRAL AvgiCA,)
Te foot p43 Th.
72 Collectanea,
his medicines, as they contain poisons, and are also charmed to have an evil effect on those with whom they come in contact. It is an antidote, with which he wipes his hands before operations.
“TI. contains a powder made from tree-roots and leaves ; its use is to protect cornfields from theft. The medicine-man per- ambulates the field singing and sprinkling the medicine on the ground, making the bell on the medicine-bottle [fig. 2a] ring as he foes round. The belief is that any thief who crosses the trail will die. (This is properly a Digo medicine, not Bondé.) It is also used for personal protection against witchcraft, The people desir- ing this assurance call the mganga, who sprinkles the medicine in a circle round them, using incantations to the effect that anyone who seeks to harm them with witcheraft will only harm himself ‘Often greater protection is ensured by being inoculated or tattooed —the skin is cut, and medicine like soot rubbed into cuts, This medicine is kept in
“IIL Xobo ya pac (bottle of the gazelle), so called from the fact that the bottle is made from the skull of a gazelle, and bound with banana leaf. ‘The stopper is at the nose.
“TV. is a choice medicine-bottle with a bell attached to it. ‘This is hung on the outside of the mganga’s basket, and when he is on the march the bell sounds, so that people may hear there is a medicine-man passing along the road, and call him in if required, or at least pay him due respect when they meet him. ‘The wooden stopper of this bottle is specially ornamented with a roughly carved head, which is meant to frighten people.' In early days of the Mission, dolls’ heads were objects of envy to the witch-doctors. The skin of a young goat on the neck of the bottle testifies to the skill of the mganga—that he works cures, so receives goats. The better bottles are generally gourds enveloped in skins—perhaps to give them the appearance of being alive, as well as to show that the doctor has carned many goats.
“ When arrived at his destination the wizard puts his basket down and takes out his various Aoba (gourds), &c. The large gourd
“ V., always stays in the basket, with the lid closed over it. It is the stock-bottle, and the medicines of Nos, IV. and VI. are
* [Ze to scare away thieves?—Eb.]
74 Collectanea,
with drugs and poisons unknown to us. The following story, told by Canon Dale in African Tidings for 1901, p. 41, seems to point to this conclusion. The Canon is writing of events during his residence at Mkuzi, a village about seven miles from Magila, in German East Africa, and perhaps 30 miles from the seaport of Tanga: “A man wished to get rid of his enemy, so he went to a native doctor and asked for some medicine of sufficient power to killa man. The doctor gave it to him. The man distrusted the doctor and the efficacy of his drug, so he thought he would try it on the doctor himself first. Accordingly he went to the doctor's shamba and hid the medicine in a hole under a papaw tree. Soon after, a slave-girl belonging to the doctor came along, reached the spot where the medicine was concealed, and fell down dead then and there. But some one had seen the man conceal the drug, and accused him to the doctor, and the doctor carried him before the native judge. The native judge refused to give any damages. He said, ‘No, my friend! if you deal in such medicines you deserve all and more than you have got. I abso- lutely refuse to consider your case.’ Then the whole district in the person of the elders went to this doctor and told him, ‘If ever we hear of a similar case we will either kill you or drive you out of the country.’ Now the significant point in the whole case is that of the accused, accuser, judge, and people, not a single person had the slightest doubt that the medicine really did ill the slave-girl. ‘The only sceptic in the district was myself, and I am still open to conviction one way or the other.” R. Wess. 4, Osborne Terrace, Virginia Road, Leeds.
76 Collectanea,
took the opportunity of asking her if she knew anything about Jenkyns, the wise man, in whom I was very much interested, having heard a great deal about him.
“ Lor’ bless you, me dear,” said she, “ Why, Jenkyns ’as been a comfort tome all me life. If T ever ‘ad a pain of any sort, rheuma- Letina esi cri Yoke ke take it away. Anything that were lost, in all the always find it. reat tid lar ahd jeckyen tial a Neat Oe and many's the time I've wished ‘im back agen.”
1 asked her what old Jenkyns’ appearance was, and gathered that he was an oldish man, with a long dark beard ; stooping, and walking with a stick. ‘He allus wore one o! those box ‘ats,” said Mrs. Pryce, “‘an' an old round coat about the house, but when ’e went to town ’e put on a long coat with tails.”
“ But have you ever seen any of his charming, Mrs. Pryce ?”
Lor’ bless you, yes, me dear,” said she; ‘ many an’ many @ time, but onst in particular I were dreadful skeered, an’ I'll tell you all about it. One day one of me brothers had a toothache, so him an’ me an’ me other brother went up to old Jenkyns to have it charmed away, Jenkyns could charm away anything ; many a time, when T’ve had rheumaticks or pain of any sort I'd go to Jenkyns an’ say, ‘Oh! Jenkyns, I do feel so bad, take away my pain, do now ;" ‘an’ ’e’d say,’ ‘Well now, d'ye believe?” ‘Oh, yes, I believe,’ say I, an’ there! the pain *ud be gone.
“Well, as 1 was sayin’, when the toothache was gone, Jenkyns went out o! the kitchen to fetch a drop o” cider, an' me brother see’d a big, big book on the comer of the table, an’ began to look at it. Jenkyns hollers out from the other side of the house, *Don’t you touch that book, or it'll be the worse for you!’ When 'e came back me brother says, ‘You must have got the Old Man ‘imself about ’ere to haye such like goings on,’ says "ce. Just then there came a great noise in the room above, about the floor, like as if a great big ball were rollin’ about. * All right,’ says Jenkyns, ‘if you don’t look out, you'll have him a bit closer.’
“With that ’e takes a candle an’ blows into it, puts it on the table, an’ draws a circle round it. ‘Then the light all burnt dim an’ blue, and the whole room got cloudy an' misty. Presently, we see’d a little old man sittin’ in a chair next to Jenkyns, 'e was rockin’ 'imself to and fro, and squeakin', 'Jenky, Jenky, Jenky !*
78 Collectanea.
“Why yes, me dear,” said Mrs. Pryce, “t'was old So-and-so ;” and with that she gave me her whole pedigree. “ An’ many a time have I seen that mark,” said she. “Oh, Jenkyns always punished people when they stole things; there was those folk down to Pen-y-van, they had a bad time of it, I'l tell you about that. ‘There was a farmer down by Pen-y-van, an’ ’e ’ad a lot o’ cider, but that all got stolen by four people. So ’e went to old Jenkyns to see what was to be done. But ole Jenkyns, ‘’Tisn’t no good,’ says he, ‘the cider’s drinked ; I can’t get it back for you, ’cos it’s all drinked ; but I'll tell you what I'll do,’ says ’e; ‘you come along to the green at six o'clock to-morrer evening, an’ I’ll make ’em dance ;’ an’ sure enough he coom’d, an’ there was these four people dancin’ away on the green, men an’ women, An’ they couldn’t help it, ’cos old Jenkyns ’ad put a spell on them, an’ they danced for two hours for punishment, till ’e tooked the spell off. An’ there was hundreds o’ people watchin’ ‘em. Old Ann Griffiths, she told me all about it, how they was dancin’ and jumpin’ about, an’ all the time ready to drop. Old Jenkyns, ’e was a watchin’ quite pleased like for some time ; then ’e got tired, tooked the spell off an’ went home.”
“ An’ it’s not the first time ’e’s punished people like that,” said Mrs. Briton. ‘Don’t you remember that ’ooman at the public down to Grosmont?” and she started on her story, Mrs. Pryce now and then putting in a nod of approval.
“One day old Jenkyns was going down town, an’ ’e stopped at a public, ‘ The Cock and Feather,’ to get some refreshment. ’E asked for bread an’ cheese an’ beer; when ’e’d finished ’e asked ‘ow much it was. ‘Oh,’ says the landlady, ‘let’s see, six an’ four’s ten, that’s tenpence, please.’ Jenkyns said, ‘twas too much, but ’e paid ’is tenpence an’ went off.
“ Presently the ’ooman came back into the room an’ went up to the place where Jenkyns had been sitting, an’ calls out,
“«¢Six an’ four’s ten, Here’s off agen?
“ An’ she started runnin’ round the table, an’ when she came back to Jenkyns’ place she called out again,
“© Six an’ four’s ten, Here’s off agen.’
80 Collectanea.
“One day some folk came to old Jenkyns about a witch ; they told ‘im ‘ow she used to tum herself into a hare an’ stand on an old gate-post an’ frighten folk terrible, Once there was some men goin’ by an’ they sce’d ‘er on the post, an’ she called out *Pee wow, pee wow!’ and jumped down ; an’ they all runned away. So old Jenkyns he says, ‘You follow after ber,’ says ’e, ‘an’ stick a knife into ’er ¢ird "eed-maré, then you'll be rid of her.’ Now this old witch had put a spell on a woman in the village, so er husband an’ ‘er brother said they'd pay er out.
“ They see’d the old lady goin’ along the road one day, an’ so in the third heel-mark from where she was they stuck a knife into the ground. She set up such a screechin’ you could a’ heard it for miles. ‘Oo told you to do that?” says she, an’ begins sayin’ things most awful. Then she went off limpin’ like, as if a knife was put right thro! ‘er foot, So you see old Jenkyns 'e knew ow to settle witches, ’e did. "Twas a pity he never see’d them on the Buckle. I'll tell you about them.
“ One day there was a man going down the Buckle pitch, an’ as 'e was goin’ along, all of a sudden ’e ’eard sumthin’ a comin’ down behind ’im, an' 'e looked an! there ’e saw an old ’ooman a comin’ gallopin’ down the pitch on a piece of an old hurdle. She come right past ‘im, an’ ’e tried to catch hold of the hurdle; but no, ’e couldn't touch it, nohow. Then there came along another old hag, leppin' an’ gallopin’ on a ladder, an’ behind her came another, as I’m alive, trundlin’ on a common grindstone | came right past ‘im, an’ on to a public beyond the pitch, an’ there they stopped, an’ them that wasn’t too frightened tried to shoot ‘em, but no, nothing couldn't touch ‘em, nobody could catch hold of that hurdle, nor the ladder, nor the grindstone neither ; an’ presently they called, ‘Pee wow, Pee wow !' an! was off again, so as nobody couldn't stop ’em.”
“Well, now I'd like to have seen that,” said Mrs, Briton, “T expect you'll be practising on one o' them old grindstones, won't you, to see if you can get along same as the witches ?”
“ Talkin’ of witches,” said Mrs. Pryce, “there was a wise woman way over the mountains some time ago, as I heard tell of. She could find anything that were lost. One day there was a man that had a very fine watch, an’ 'e put it on the table one day while 'e went to clean ‘isself, an’ when "e come back "twas gone. So ‘is mother went off ’way over the mountains to this old ‘ooman. Jes’ as she
82 Collectanca,
“cos they was goin’ to "ave some singin’ down at the “Boat”; but Seth she weil, 3 Thee, Miatnenk ge: Gown tetany tina ae stay at ‘ome ‘an ‘ave thee's supper.’
* Well, Tom, °e wouldint stay, so she said, ‘If thee goes down theer, thee bis'at comin’ ‘ome to-night.’ An’ she began to curse an’ swear, an’ say she wished the devil ‘ud run off with ‘im if ’e went down, but still "ce went.
“Well, 'e was a comin’ up again, about ten, with old Jacob Jones, an’ Jacob was a little way in front; 'e was a tellin’ me about it artcrwards. °E said, ‘It’s as truc as my hand's there,’ 'e said, ‘I felt myself goin’ up, up, an’ it took me breath away, it ‘was so swift, an’ I went up right over the hedge.’ It were onc of those ‘igh ‘edges all over dog-briars an’ blackberry branches, An’ "e went right over, sheer down into the meadow the other side. Presently ’e ‘card some ‘un swearin’ close by, an’ ’e said, ‘Tom, is that thee? What t’ devil art doin’ theer?’ An’ Tom said, ‘Jacob is that thee? What ’ devil art doin’ heer?’
“ An’ then they tied to get out, but they couldn’t, an’ they was all serat about, an’ bruised, an’ cut, an’ try as they might they couldn't get out, they was so buried in briars an’ brambles. They lay there swearin’ an’ talkin’ to one another till half-past five in the mornin’, when they ‘card Dan an’ Tom, their two boys, comin’ up home from the tinworks. Then Jacob ’e called out ‘Lor bless thee, Dan, is that thee? Coom an’ get us out o' this!”
“ An’ them two boys ‘ad the greatest difficulty in gettin’ ‘em out, they was so stuck in them briars an’ things. But at last they got out, an’ when they got ‘ome, there was old Sally boilin’ the Kettle, an’ she said, “I telled thee, Tom, thee cosn’t come ‘ome, an’ thee didn’t”
“There's another story I've just remembered about a witeb,” said Mrs. Briton ; “I'll just tell you about it.
“There was an old witch used to live "bout here, an’ she had a daughter. Now there was a young man very fond of this girl, and wanting to marry her, but her mother hated him, and would haye liked to have put him out of the way if she could.
“One day he came up to see his sweetheart, and there was her ‘mother a brewin’ somethin’ in a saucepan on the fire. She says,
do 'ee take t’ kettle an’ bring me some water from the well.’
lut the girl called out, ‘Don't 'ee go, Tom. Ob! don’t ’ee go.” ‘be quiet, ye interfering hussy,’ says the old ’ooman. ‘Here, take kettle.’
84 Collectanea,
“ Well, you may believe that made me feel bad, but when we got ‘ome the lamp was gone out of the window, an’
me how they'd got so tired an’ gone to sleep in woken up when it was dark an' come on home, ‘But that day a telegram come to say as my brother ’ad been killed by a railway truck. So, you see, it mas an omen, seeing that there dog.” ‘There is a funny old house on the way to Penallt called the “ Potash” ; it is said to be haunted, but Mrs. Briton is the only person I have met who has seen anything there, ‘This is her account :
“One night about twelve o’clock I was goin’ along the road down to Mitchel Troy, where we used to live; 1 was just ncarin” the ‘ Potash ' when I heard like a lot of people talkin’ in the air.
wasn’t gypsies ‘cos they weren't there, an’ I heard voices all around. Tran, an’ ran, I was so frightened, till at last I fell right into a sand pit at the bottom of the hill.”
Some other members of Mrs. Briton's family have seen visions too. Her son, Samucl, told me that one night, goin’ up through ‘Troy Woods, he had seen a great black beast with flaming eyes, and when be turned his lantern on it, it vanished with a sort of screech into a ditch.
Mr. Briton is said by his wife to have seen a black dog going nine times round a tree; I don’t know if that is true, but after much cross-questioning, and with additions from Mrs. Briton, I ‘made out that he really had seen something one night, when going to see his wife, who was nursing a sick woman in a farm some way ‘off. By the side of the road he saw a lady, dressed in a very old- fashioned way, holding her skirt up; her hair, of a sandy colour, was divided and arranged in two knots on the top of her head. ‘Though it was a pitch-dark night he saw her plamly, and said “Good night;” but she passed him without speaking, and vanished up the road. Mr. Briton rushed into the farm where his wife was, and told her he had seen the devil,
“ Had 'e got a tail?” said she, laughing.
“No, but ’a had horns,” he said; for he thought she had, from the way her hair was arranged.
,
86 Collectanea.
an’ straw, an’ the Devil got the roots, which of course wasn’t much
“Then they went to threshing. Jack was to have Bottoms this time, so he got the barn floor, and the Devil went on top; so he put up a hurdle for the Devil to thresh on, and as he battered away Jack had all the com on the floor.
“ Then they made a bargain that Jack was to build a bridge over Trothy Weir, Grosmont, before the cock crowed in the morning, but Jack did not before the cock crowed, and there the stones lie to this day, many a ton.
“Jack did some wonderful things in his time. Why! one day he jumped off the Sugar Loaf Mountain on to the Skyrrid (and there’s his heel-mark in the Skyrrid to this day). An’ when he got there he began playing quoits, he pecked (threw) three stones as far as Trelleck, great, big ones, as tall as three men (and there they still stand in a field), and he threw another, but that dida’t go quite far enough, and it lay on the Trelleck Road, just behind the five trees, till a little while ago, when it was moved so as the field might be ploughed ; and this stone, in memory of Jack, was always called the Pecked Stone.
“The Devil swore he'd have Jack's soul whether he were buried inside or outside the church ; but when Jack died he was buried just under the wall of Grosmont Church, with his head inside and his legs outside, and a great stone (which has since been moved) was put to mark the place, So the Devil never got him.”
In Monmouthshire there is a curious custom called "New Year's Gifts.” On New Year's Eve the village children bring round apples, with three sticks for legs, and surmounted by a sprig of box adomed with havel-nuts, fastened on by slitting the nut at the top and inserting a leaf of the sprig. I have heard, too, that in the spring, when the crops are just beginning to sprout, the men go into the field, taking cider with them, light a a fire, and “say something” over the com. On Good Friday it is right to bake a small Joaf, which is to be kept till the same date next year ; it will not go bad. Some of this loaf ground up is a certain cure for various illnesses.
Mrs. Briton says that if you kill an adder, and before sundown hold it over a flame of fire, its four legs will come out. She
has seen it! Bearrix ALbinia WHERRY.
88 Collectanea.
ride him, he makes friendship with the possessor of the deceased, in order to secure on the day of burial the first coffin shaving, ‘and the first portion of the od turned up by the gravedigger.
x Ifa man murders another he either drinks or burns the blood to hinder the duppy from riding him.
x To plant down the duppy they will cut a tree and invert it in
the grave. * If they believed that the person is killed by some one they will dres¢ him black for burial, put boots upon his feet, arm him with a knife and a horsewhip, a spur upon one of his boots to ride and kill the killer when he rises from the dead.
‘They believe that a man rises three days after death, when he will go about and take the shadow of all the things he possessed during life.
Ifa person dies where there are little children, after the body is put into the coffin, they will lift up each little child, and calling him by name, pass him over the dead body. In the case of an adult he will put his hand upon the chest and say a few words. ‘The common belief in this is, that the duppy will not hurt them,
When the coffin with the body is taken out, someone with a broom sweeps the house, casting all the refuse after it, saying he is sweeping out the dead.
When the body is taken out of the house it is generally placed ‘on two chairs while some devotional exercises are being per- formed. On lifting the coffin, the people have a belief to lift it two or three times before removing it altogether,
One common belief is, that a body ean run while on the way to be buried, and it can give weight, especially when the person who killed it carries the coffin. At this stage the coffin is believed to be dropping to the ground, when some one will rush up and say, “Come! don’t mind! come, let us go.” ‘The reason for the weight was nothing but the want of the proper balance of the coffin,
Another stupid belief is to throw the water that washed dead body [sic] upon the grave,
Ifa man dies and leaves his yam-heads, as he rots they will rot also.
When a person dies on a bed, the head of the bed is gencrally turned, and in some cases the doorway.
It is also said that any one who has a wound, regardless how
go Collectanea,
fa dog howls mournfully in the night it is a sign of death. If a wineglass break of itself on a table, it is also a sign of death, &c., &c.
The Duppy.
After a person has been dead for three days it is believed that a cloud of smoke will rise out [of] the grave, which becomes the
‘This duppy is a curious being, capable of assuming various forms of men and other animals. ‘This supernatural power which it is believed to have, enables it to turn into a shadow and vanish away, It is said that the duppy can attack and ruin both man and beast. For this characteristic it is utilised by obeah-men.
The duppy can do many things similar to a living person. It talks, laughs, whistles, sings, smokes, cooks, nurses the young, goes to market, to church, drives in a carriage with a reversed position to that of the living. It rides a horse with its head tured backwards, using the tail for a bridle. The duppy in human form generally moves along by spinning or walking backwards.
These are different kinds of duppies—“three-foot horse,” “rolling calf,” “long-bubby Susan,” “whooping boy” (the rider of the “three-foot horse "), and the “mermaid,” a kind of duppy that lives in the water,
If the duppy come at you and you call the name “God” it will not go away, but no sooner “ Jesus Christ" is called than it vanishes.
You can run the duppy by turning your dress wrong-side, carrying a book, a rule, gunpowder, sulphur, frankincense, myrrh, a blade or smoke a weed called “ Rosemary” in your pipe [sie].
In the case when the duppy is coming to your house and you want to keep it away you have to nail a horseshoe on the door, mark ten (X) with chalk (if it be the “Jong-bubby Susan”), put an open glass in the front of the doorway, &c. If the duppy is troublesome bum a mixture of cow’s hoof and horn, sulphur, Dlue-stone, duck-ant ness [sic], &e.
It is said that a duppy can stone, can poison, beat, bur, can drown any one, set a house on fire, &c. The obeah-men use them largely for these characteristics,
92 Collectanea,
He is unable to read or write, but he is always to be seen with a memorandum and a piece of black lead marking some strokes, saying he is writing a letter from God.
In order to see the so-called duppy on the patients when they are approaching, he ties long pieces of white calico all about his yard to let the duppy appear upon them as the image of a magic lantern upon the screen. He is always heard saying, “ Wet up the calico, Lord.”
He works with a spirit calls “ Cudjoe,” saying, “ Reap! stretch and set my “Cudjoe’ dia." He drills the people to, perform all ‘sorts of motion saying, “Stamp me the letter.” If they fail to stamp the letter to his taste he gives them a stroke saying, “Stamp me the letter! Massa God say gi you a lick.”
He believes that there is obeah in many people, especially in women. ‘To eradicate this obeah, he performs what he calls the “balm” when he beats the patient with wet calico and rams the abdomen with clenched fists.
He is a great hypocrite, pretends to love prayer, but during that time, if he hears the least noise, he jumps out and swears, speaking all bad words, and if possible punishes the offenders,
Kill the Thief.
Boil few neighbours [si] pot water with your own putting in a silver threepence. As the boiler begins to boil the person will begin to swell.
If the ground is wet, and the foot prints be left on the sod, dig up the foot-printed sod, and suspend it over the fire,
Take some of the refuse of the stolen things and cast into the sea ; as thesea is rolling, so the person’s intestines will roll.
Plant the “guinea yam” with a short stick to support the sprout, and a silver threepence in the sod, and in the case of larceny, flog off the leaves. Take care that in flogging off the leaves none drop on you, or else you will share the same fate.
Plant “pain-cocoa” or “dum-cane” with a silver threepence and in the case of larceny beat off the leaves.
Tf you suspect a person to be the thief, try the broom-weed gallows,
Burn a plant, called “* Wangra” and the person's skin will strip off,
94 Collectanea.
If your nostrils burn you, so that you sneeze, some one is backbiting you.
When going on a business, if you butt your right foot, it means good luck, the left means bad luck.
If a baker after setting up his leaven, go to a place where a dead person is, the leaven will not rise.
To hinder people from chanting [? sic] your money, put a gravel or a grain of com in it, or squeeze some lime juice upon them.
When plenty of roaches [cockroaches ?] are flying in a house, it is a sign of rain. There are some flies also, that indicate rain by their flying.
‘When you want to beat a duppy, first give it a stroke with the left hand, then afterwards you can use the right. If you use the right first, the duppy will paralize [séc] it.
If a hog plays with thrash in the mouth, it is a sign of rain.
If a cock after a shower of rain flies up on any raised place and crows, it is a sign that the weather will slack.
If you hear thunder rolls in dry weather rain will soon be coming.
To shoot the duppy, load the gun with salt, blue-stone and sulphur, in addition to the powder and shot. When the duppy is shot down, you will find it in the form of an animal, generally a clucking lizard.
If you sew dirty clothes, it dim your eyes.
If you plant the seed of a plant called “ mamy ” you will die.
If you plant a pumpkin vine your relatives will die.
If you are eating, and a piece of the food just drop suddenly from your hand, it is some of your dead relatives who knocked it out for themselves.
‘There are many more superstitions, &c., but many are not believed in, except by a few dark people. ‘The prevalent belief in these days is about the obeah-men and the duppy.
(Assisted by A— B— , teacher, — — School, and by his mother.) (To be continued.)
TIBETAN ANO OTHER
95
‘18th November, 1903. (See Plate 17. and p. 1.)
of charms (4) and a fifth roll (5) bound with and having attached to it some fragments or of a sacred image.
5). bronze amulet cases, one book-shaped, the
A. R. Wricur,
390), mention is made of the fact that most, of d were also current on the Fifeshire coast.
96 Collectanea.
rather contemptuously as being “ maist awfu’ supersteetious” and is a keen critic of him and his ways.
My principal informant, with whom I have gone over Miss ‘Cameron's paper in detail, is an intelligent elderly man who has alternately worked in the pit and the boat for over thirty years. His ‘acquaintance with the subject is thus pretty thorough, and many of the customs and beliefs have been impressed on him through his being “checkit” for breaches of them, I found that the great majority of “fraits” mentioned by Miss Cameron are still common to “the Kingdom.” Some small additions and differences I will mention here.
“ Buying wind,” if it ever existed in Fife to the same extent a5 in the Highlands, has now degenerated into cultivating the good- will of certain old men by presents of drinks of whisky, The skipper of the boat “stands his hand” (¢.¢., stands treat) freely to those worthies before sailing. “Of coorse it’s a’ a heap o! blethers,” said my informant, “ but a’ the same I've kent us get ‘some extra gude shots when the richt folk was mindit.”
Tf one of the crew while at sea carelessly throws off his oilskins so that they lie inside out, an immediate rush is made to turn the exposed side in again, Should this not be done it is apt to induce dirty weather.
At sea it is unlucky, as stated by Miss Cameron, to mention ‘minister, salmon, hare, rabbit, rat, pig, and porpaise. It is also extremely unlucky to mention the names of certain old women, and some clumsy round-about nomenclature results, such as “Her that lives up the stair opposite the pump,” &c.
But on the Fifeshire coast the pig is far exce/dence the unlucky
i “Soo's tail to ye!” is the common taunt of the (mon- fishing) small boy on the pier to the outgoing fisher in his boat. (Compare the mocking “ Soo's tail to Geordie!” of the Jacobite political song.) At the present day a pig’s tail actually flung into the boat rouses the occupant to genuine wrath. One informant told me that some years ago he flung a pig's tail aboard a boat passing outwards at Buckhaven, and that the crew turned and came back. Another stated that he and some other bays united to cry out in chorus, “' There’s a 900 in the bow 0” your boat!” to a man who was hand-line-fishing some distance from shore, On hearing the repeated cry he hauled up anchor and came into harbour. ‘There is also a Fife belief (although it is chiefly spoken of now in
98 Collectanea.
In the coast towns and villages of Fife a curious custom pre- vails with regard to the treatment of any carcase, say of a dog, cat, or sheep, that may be cast up on the beach. School-children coming across anything of the kind make a point of spitting on it and saying, “That's no my granny," or “That's no freend (£<., relation) of mine.” Others simply spit on the carcase, giving as a reason that it is done to prevent it “ smitting” (é¢., infecting) them. (Almost every one on perceiving a bad smell, spits.) But the probability is that the custom dates from the days when ex- posed human corpses were not of uncommon occurrence, and the underlying motive evidently is to free the spitter (for Juck) from the onus of being responsible for the unburied body and to appease the spirit of the departed.
Craigderran House, Cardenden, Fife.
Davin Roni, M.B.
Royal Succession iN Yorvsa-Lanp. (Communicated by Mr. T. A. Cook through Mr. J. G. Frazer.)
‘Tue present Acting Attorney-General here, Mr. Ross, late resident of Thadan, the biggest place in our hinterland, tells me that the late Bashorun or King of Ibadan died while he was up there. ‘The Bashorun's subjects having grown tired of his age and in- efficiency, he was poisoned, though this was never officially proved. His head was sent to his nominal overlord, the Alafin of Oyo (Awya), the King-Paramount of Yorubaland. ‘This was merely evidence of death. His heart was eaten by his successor, who, by the way, like King Peter of Servia, is not supposed to have been privy to his cutting-off, This custom has obtained in Yoruba-land since memory goeth not to the contrary. The Yoruba word meaning ¢o reign is Je-oba: Je-oba—ye = to cat; oba = the king.
Lagos, 28th Sept, 19053.
Haxoiv G. Parsons.
Collectanea. 99
PERSONIFICATION OF A RIVER. (Extract from a Private Letter to the Editor.)
goth January, 1904. “Tere has been a man drowned in the (Derbyshire] Derwent, and great excitement about finding his body. I tell you this because I was so struck with the way Mrs. Dale [a washerwoman] talked of the river, as if it was a living personage, or deity. I could almost imagine the next step would be to take it offer- ings! ‘He didna know Darrant’ (a kind of triumph in her voice). ‘He said it were nought but a brook.’ ‘But Darrant got im.’ “They never saw his head, he threw his arms up, but Darrant wouldna let him go.’ ‘ Aye, it’s a sad pity, seven children! but he shouldna ha’ made so light”of Darrant. He knows now! Nought but a brook! he knows now!’ It sounded as if Darrant had punished him for blaspheming and he had now been sum- moned before Darrant his judge !”
M. AcaTHA TURNER.
Ha
CORRESPONDENCE.
Dr. DURKHEIM ON “SocIAL ORIGINS.” (Vol. xiv., p. 421.)
x. A FULL reply to Dr. Durkheim's review of Social Origixs would occupy many pages of Folk-Lore. It must suffice to say that all Dr. Durkheim’s objections to my system are rebutted by antici- pation, and all the questions which he asks are answered by anticipation, in Socal Origins itself, Any one may convince himself of this by reading (as a specimen), in company with the review, Socal Origins, p. 56, Note 1.
2. Dr. Durkheim remarks (Folt-Lore, December, 1903, P. 423): that I object to the theory he has proposed (Z’ Année Sociologigue, vol. i., p. 6), namely, to see in the phratries the result of the sub- division of a primary horde, whereas, according to him, they were, as he has just remarked, two groups at first autonomous and distinct. He adds that my method “is indeed exposed to criticism when it consists in rejecting an explanation because it is irreconcilable with a preliminary postulate of one’s own. A theory must be discussed on its merits.”
3. In this passage Dr. Durkheim appears to confuse his own theory of the origin of “ phratries in the coalescence of two primary exogamous totem clans” (a theory which is much akin to my own), with his theory of the origin of the totem “clans” s# the phratries. The latter theory I rejected, after criticism, in Social Origins (pp. 83, 84). I did not reject it because it clashed with a postulate of my own, and, as I shall show (par. 5, below), Dr. Durkheim has himself proved that his theory of the origin of totem “clans” is inconceivable and impossible, —according to his own system.
102 Correspondence.
totem groups chose unto themselves new totems, new gods, new souls, new blood, thus accomplishing what Dr. Durkheim (vol. v., pp. tro, rrr) declares to be impossible, And impossible it was if Dr, Durkheim's theory of what a totem then was, be his theory still. The change was possible, however, if the animal names of groups were, as yet, no more than mere names.
A. Lans,
Tue Corr Creacu. (Vol. xiv., p. 373-)
‘The following instances of belief in the Corp Creagh were nar- rated by the Rey. Stopford Brooke in a lecture at which I was present at the end of 1901. I wrote to him immediately after- wards asking for particulars, and received the kind reply sub joined -—
“Dear Mapam,
“T have little more to communicate than I said in the Iecture, “a, When I was a curate in Kensington in 186r or 1862, I used to visit a girl in consumption who lived in one of the mews. She was a Devon girl, and had come to London on a visit or to service, She was convinced that another girl in Devonshire, who had taken her lover from her as she thought, hated her because he had loved her first, and had made a waxen image of her, into which, and especially into her breast, the girl drove pins every night; ‘and these,’ she said, ‘are killing me, She is a witch; will you send down and have her punished and forbidden? T shall then get well.” And this she talked of with full conviction every time I saw her. I did not worry the dying girl with contra- diction.
“3, Alady told me that, dining with a friend of hers in London (the story was told me about twenty years ago), her friend, after dinner, went to a cupboard in the room, out of which she brought a figure moulded in wax into the likeness of the woman who had seduced her husband from her, And she placed the figure inside
i
104 Correspondence.
‘The other variant I could not assign to any particular place, Tt was told me in the North, but 1 am bound to say it came from a man who knew “the road” well in coaching days from london to Manchester and Liverpool, and who moreover had spent his youth in Windsor, A company were one night drinking at a wayside inn, when, the conversation turning on a man who was gibbeted near, a bet was made that one of the company dared not go at midnight and offer him a glass of something to keep the cold out, The drink being prepared the man set out with it, bearing in his other hand a chair on which to stand while making his offering, and followed by the rest of the company, while his ‘opponent slipped along behind the wall or hedge, a8 in the other ‘stories. Climbing on the chair he held up the glass, remarking that he had brought the unfortunate something to warm him, “It's too h-o-t,” was growled out in sepulchral tones. “Then, d—n yer, blow it!” he rejoined, and won his wager.
Is not this a good sample of how wandering tales get localised? As the poor boy and cat myth has been attached, among us, to Sir Richard Whittington, as Boccacio localised old Indian tales in the city of Florence, and as Chaucer following assigned Boccacio’s stories to English localities (¢g “The Reeve’s Tale”), 80 the Queen of Navarre tells, as occurring in her own knowledge, a story in the Gesta Romanorum and Petrus Alfonsus,
W. Hexry Jowrrn
[The first version of this story is localised also in Shropshire, where it has given birth to a proverbial pl “ Cold and chilly, like old Bolas” (Shropshire Folklore, p. 592)—E.]
BRAEMAR Savinc.
The folks of Braemar, when annoyed by the noisy play of children, threaten them by shouting, “If you don’t keep quiet Tl put ma fit (foot) i? the fire.” ‘This is the very vigour of scolding, and usually has the desired effect. Will someone kindly give an explanation ?
A. Macpowatp, Durris School, by Aberdeen.
106 Correspondence.
‘The young men are in the habit of pushing cach other through the smoke and flames. This may arise from a belief that the person so “passed” would be charmed against disease during the coming year. Some would see in the action an indication of early human sacrifice. T have been at many “herds' fires" (about ten, I think), and have invariably seen it done. It is possible, however, that in this instance it is nothing but a display of animal spirits. But in any case I think there is enough evidence to show that the rite is a relic of pagan times, and that Mr, Hogg, in connecting it with his own name, did but follow, with a difference, the precedent of the early missionaries when they dedicated the ‘Midsummer fires to St. John the Baptist.
A. Macponatn.
Durris School, by Aberdeen.
Firrn or Novratume Cosroms. (Vol. xiv., p. 185, and eave p. 1.)
‘There were I think more Guy Fawkes effigies than usual in London this year; a sign, 1 fear, of want of work among the casual labourers. One procession, which I saw from my window in Kensington about the middle of the day, deserves notice. The “Guy,” an unusually large one, was mounted in a small cart drawn by a pony, It was preceded, first, by a man ringing a bell, and then by two dancers, wearing costumes resembling that of a clown and masks of the common painted kind sold in the shops at this season, who danced up the street in front of the effigy in the real ‘old style, lifting the arms in the air alremately, in time to the motion of the feet. For musicians they had a man playing a shrill long tin whistle or pipe, and another following the cart beating a drum, A man in woman's clothes walked beside the cart, occasionally cutting a clumsy caper, as well as his clinging skirts would allow. ‘The rear of the procession was brought up by the clown, capering and curveting and shaking his money-box.
It was a poor vulgar show, no doubt, but it retained in its debased state several of the principal features of the old morris:
REVIEWS.
AUTERSKLASSEN) UND MAnwersdNpE, Eiwe DaxsteuLvno DER GRUNDFORMEN DER GesELLscnarT, von Hxinktc Scuurtz, Berlin: G. Reimer. 1902 Pp. ix, 45% Price 8 at.
Iw this work Dr, Schurtz pursues and expands an idea which had already found a place in his Ursprung der Kultur, published two years earlier, Sociologists have devoted much time and labour to the discussion of clan and family relationships and their develop- ‘ments, which are in the main dissociative, and in so doing have frequently overlooked the associations built up on a broader basis, whose influence has tended to knit the tribe, and eventually the state, together by counteracting the influence of blood kinship and local patriotism. He divides social phenomena into two groups, at the same time admitting that in practice they rarely correspond. in all respects to a single theoretical type, but are more often “mixed forms.” We have in the first place the primary, natural organisations, which depend on blood relationship, real or supposed, membership of which seldom depends on the will of the individual, On the other hand we have the secondary organisations i ficial” is, as Dr. Schurtz admits, an unfortunate denomination for them), the existence of which is due to individual choice and the play of the social instinct,
Among the lower races these voluntary associations are sented according to Dr, Schurtz's view (1) by the “ Altersklassen,” the divisions into which primitive peoples in many parts of the world are grouped, at any rate roughly, according to age, and, especially in Australia, where the system is closely connected with marriage regulations, according to sex; (2) by male societies, which Dr. Schurt: is probably right in regarding as the direct outcome, in many cases, of A/tersklassen, with the Munnerhaus,
a er
religious side it tends to become the centre of a cul
with a possibility of development in the direction of which again the sexual liberty which ig the privilege of unmarried tends to turn into a temple of Venus.
fulfils the function of a lodging-house for strangers, thus have been the lineal ancestor of the modern inn.
which are found in North America, West Africa, and Melanesia, with the dance societies of North America, and with other volun- tary associations of primitive societies, all of which Dr. Schurtz is
Best a seare'cn crolvcd from tao fdnrat ites ‘On the whole it may be said that the book is a singularly clear ‘and stimulating presentation of facts and carefully worked out ‘theories. At the same time there are naturally numerous points ‘at which it is open to criticism. It seems, for example, mislead- to classify the Aiferskiassen and still more the Zecirads- of Australia among voluntary associations. Membership pearls fepends any, votunesry act of sop al
112 Reviews.
has the social importance which he attributes to it, As to the original connection of the classes with marriage, Dr. Roth’s view, that they were intended to regulate the supply of was: certainly worth discussing, especially in view of the fact that the class of young men, in Dr. Schurtz’s opinion the strongest and most active, had to submit to the greater number of food tabus, Singularly enough, Dr. Schurtz assumes that the totemistic food tabus are more important than those dependent on age, a complete reversal of the real facts.
‘The fact that marriage regulations based on the age-group arc, if found at all, limited to Australia also tells against his view so far as it is intended to apply to all the facts. At the same time it ig quite possible that such an extremely natural division of society developed in different parts of the world from different reasons.
Tt may be well to note some important and relevant groups of facts which Dr. Schurtz has noglected. In estimating the relative social importance of age groups and totem kins, we can hardly afford to overlook the evidence afforded by the sanctity of the kin and the bloodfeud, that the kin is the group to which allegi- ance is ultimately due. Again, the influence of sexual tabu in aiding, or perhaps even originating, the development of the Mannerhaus is a question that demands discussion. We may. also ask whether Dr. Schurtz has not overlooked the possibility that the warriors or hunters, forming what we may call an occupa- tion group, haye in many cases formed an organisation which for obvious reasons is indistinguishable from the age-group but can hardly be regarded as identical with it,
‘When he is dealing with the main thesis of his book Dr. Schurtz's views are intelligible, if disputable. The same cannot be said of his statements as to the family and the kin. He holds that the kin (Sipfe) arose from the decay of the family, and was due to the “social instinct” of the young men, and in a less degree of the maidens, of the primitive group. What constituted this family we are not told, nor is there any attempt to show in detail how social instincts would lead to the splitting up of a local group among several different kins, Equally unfortunate are the hypotheses as to the origin of exogamic rules and the phratry system, which call in the help of instincts against in-and-in breeding on the one hand, and against getting a wife from too great a distance on the other. These elements of the book are, however, independent of
114 Reviews.
female suffrage, as whether Jack Topper or Jenny Draggleskirt sits in Parliament and intones amen to the decision of the Panjandrums that be, is utterly indifferent.
For us English folklorists this report is comfortable reading. Justice is rendered to our work and to that of our American cousins with a large and cordial generosity that the present writer, at least, can only acknowledge with an uneasy blush, I do not think I am the least attentive reader of Fo/-Lore, yet I confess that the import and value of certain contributions to its pages have been made clearer to me by Dr, Krauss’ brief but pregnant commendations.
Questions of method and principle occupy Dr. Krauss very largely. With most of what he urges I am in full accord. But there are matters of disagreement, and as, like all first-rate talkers, Dr. Krauss is only happy when one disagrees with him, I will pick out one. In defining the respective relations of folklore and other branches of historical resource, Dr. Krauss discusses at length the question of language and race. Polemising vigorously against the older school of comparative philologists and the identification of race and speech, Dr. Krauss, in my opinion, goes, as is the mode of the day, far too much to the other extreme. He seems: to imply that speech—a mere énstrumend of culture, he styles it— is an altogether secondary element in the total mass of a racial culture. Facts do not, I think, justify this conclusion. The very instance he gives is dead against it. Etruscans, Gauls, and Keltiberians, he says, were Romanised and lost their native forms of speech, but they did not therefore abandon their racial essence, they did not become Romans. Now to me, on the contrary, it seems obvious that, differ among themselyes as they may, modern Frenchmen, North Italians, and Spaniards possess in common features that clearly mark them off from the Teutonic or Slavonic racial groups, and that these features are largely due to their possession of a common culture speech basis, Why should the Irishman differ so profoundly from the Frenchman? There is little difference between them from the physicoanthropological point of view; in both cases there exists a pre-Aryan substratum modified firstly by a Celto-Aryan, secondly by a ‘Teutono-Aryan immigration. But the one has retained a Celtic instrument of culture, the other has borrowed and independently developed a Latin instrument of culture. Here too, contrary to what com.
116 Reviews.
Dm Voixskuxpe ars Wissenscuart. Von E, HoryMann- Krarer. Zurich. 1902,
Iw this interesting and suggestive essay, dedicated to Mr. Hartland, the founder and President of the Swiss Folk-Lore Society ex- pounds the purport and scope of our study. His standpoint is, in the main, that of most English folklorists: the “folk” whose “lore” is to be studied comprises the backward, unprogressive elements of the people who have reached a high stage of culture; in contradistinction to culture-lore (Awlturgeschichte), which lays stress upon the individualistic dynamic forces of society, folklore is concerned with its communal static elements; the two studies have, however, much in common, and many subjects can only be adequately treated from the varying standpoints of both.
Folklore may seek to determine the specific characteristics of a people, or to trace the formation and development of belief and fancy as they manifest themselves in practice and myth; hence two main divisions of the study, racial and general folklore as they may be termed, the one concerned with the enumeration and description of specific groups of phenomena, the other with the exposition and interpretation of the principles deducible from the comparison of many such groups. These two sections of folklore study must receive simultaneous and equal attention, though it should never be forgotten that the synthesis of gencral folklore can only be securely based on the exhaustive and accurate analysis of racial folklore ; before we can explain and interpret we must know.
‘With these considerations, illustrated as they are by pertinent concrete examples and by illuminating analogies drawn from other branches of study, we English folklorists are not likely to quarrel. In the brief survey of the chief problems of folklore and in the indication of the solutions which he favours, the author seems to me to lay too great stress upon similarities and upon their explanation by direct transmission. 1 miss a clearer recog: nition of the view that transmitted influence is only effective where lending and borrowing cultures stand on much the same level, so that successful transmission is Jess the cause of similarity between two bodies of folklore than a proof of their essential identity.
* [What does Mr, Nutt say to the case of the West Indian negroes, ante, p-87?-Ep.]
—
118 Reviews.
from a profound and prolonged study of the religion, calendar, and cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans, a new solution of the problems with which she had been confronted presented itself to. her in the astronomical vision. The plurality of the gods, the mystical ceremonial, the curious social organisation with its seven powers ; in fact, everything connected with that ancient civilisation was now seen to have been based upon the old worship of the polar star and the Ursa major. Its circumvolutions round a fixed centre gave a satisfactory explanation of the Swastika, found as profusely on old Mexican and Central American sculptures and drawings as almost everywhere in the old world. ‘This pole-star worship is then traced back to Asia through China, Persia, Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia, even to Egypt, and then to Europe. ‘The author finds everywhere proofs for a deep-seated worship of the pole-star and the circumvolution of the Ursa major constellation, which produced the symbolism of the numerical value and basis ‘of one, four, seven, and twelve, Mrs. Nuttall discusses the question as to whether all these systems point to one centre whence they radiated and from which they were carried from place to place; and furthermore the relation in which American—notably Mexican—civilisation stood to Asiatic. She is inclined to believe that the Pheenicians played a decisive réle in the distribution of these astronomical conceptions, and that America owes to these Mediterranean seafarers its civilisation and its inhabitants. It is 2 bold conclusion, but the enormous mass of materials collected by ‘Mrs. Nuttall and the close comparisons instituted by her, resting ‘on the best available authorities, make her book a valuable con- tribution to the history of civilisation, The weakness of such investigations lies firstly in the undue weight given to apparent analogies, which, when examined in their respective historical developments, prove to have sprung from totally different origins ; and secondly in the generalisation of the results obtained by such comparisons, Too little is granted to human ingenuity, and too much stress is laid on one single source of influence upon primitive man and his more advanced successors.
It is not possible to reduce the whole mass of ancient faith and custom to one single set of ideas; one, moreover, which is of a very complicated nature, Extensive astronomical observations are the result of leisure and of an advanced intellectual develop- ment. In a more pritnitive stage, simple observations of changes
120 Reviews.
of the pages, and interspersed with innumerable scraps of paper containing notes, additions, and corrections. As Sir Edgar him~ self says in his preface, the items were written down as collected . + «» with noattemptat classification.” With a public spirit worthy of imitation, the Royal Court of Guernsey made arrangements for the publication of the MSS., and Miss Edith Carey was prevailed upon to undertake the task of editing them. ‘This task she has performed with the greatest care and thoroughness, transcribing the notes with her own hand, placing them “under their different
i as recommended by the Folk-Lore Society," enriching, them with numerous illustrations from photographs and drawings, and with additional notes collected in Guernsey and Sark by herself and her cousin, the late Miss Ernestine Le Pelley, a descendant of the former Scigneurs of Sark, These additions comprise some of the most interesting portions of the book, for while Sir Edgar is occasionally prosy and longwinded, nay, indeed, discursive, Miss Carey is always clear, terse, and definite: In the modesty which so strikingly characterises her editorship: ‘she has recorded her own portion of the work in tiny “pearl” type, while Sir Edgar's stands nobly forth in statcly “pica,” 4. a size larger than the largest type used in printing Fo/t-Lore, while srarl is four sizes smaller than our smallest type, and much too small for the comfort of most readers, Sir Edgar's own footnotes arc given in a medium type, with the result that three kinds of type, violently contrasted, are frequently displayed on the same page. ‘The effect is both unsightly and inconvenient; moreover, the book is too heavy to hold in the hand and requires a desk. It is a pity that it has been got up in a style so little calculated to recommend it, for, barring a little old-fashioned prolixity, it deserves to hold a high place among local collections.
‘Miss Carey must be congratulated on the skill with which she has reduced her chaotic materials to order, She has classified them under the following heads; Festival Customs, Local Customs, Prehistoric Monuments, Natural Objects, Chapels and Holy Wells, Fairies, Demons and Goblins, the Devil, Ghosts and Prophetic Warnings, Witches and Witchcraft, Charms, Spells, and Incanta- tions, Folk Medicine and Leechcraft, Story Telling, Historical Reminiscences, Nursery Songs and Children's Games, Supersti- tions Generally, Proverbs and Weather-lore ; besides an Appendix containing (fer alia) several ballads and songs in the dialect of
.
Reviews. 121
the Channel Istands. It will be seen that the work covers a wide field; and the matter is derived from many sources, from local records as well as from local informants.
We get some interesting glimpses of old Guernsey life. There isa fall account of the Chevawchée de St. Michel, the annual peram- ‘ulation for the purpose, not of beating the bounds, but of inspect- ing the roads of the island. ‘There is a photograph of Ze grand” guerrue,” drawn by (in this instance) five pairs of horses and onc of oxen, the affelage being the joint contribution of the neighbours, who will each in turn make use of the same “great plough.” It is ‘still in use. Moreover, at the subscquent feast provided by the farmer for his helpers, the men and the women eat separately, no ‘women sitting down till the men have finished. The wruic (sea- weed) harvest is strictly regulated by ordinance of the Royal Court. Tt is an occasion of festivity, of feasting in the household and dancing at the tavern in the evening, but no longer, unfortunately, to\the music of the old-fashioned ¢hifowrnie, the medimval rote, ‘Old French rondes, however, still prevail in Guernsey as in Canada. We hear much, too, of the jonguitre, dit de fowaille, or green bed, @ low pallet serving as “1a sort of rustic divan,” to be found in the living room of every farmhouse and cottage, “which at Midsum- mer, after the fresh fern has been cut,” is decorated with flowers and fern, ormerly a girl, elected from among the inhabitants of ‘the district, was seated in state beneath the floral canopy, “ where under the name of ‘La Méme,’ she received in silence the homage of the astembled guests” (p. §2). This custom is not altogether clearly described. We may note here that in Guernsey the house hold furniture belongs to the wife, not the husband. It is strange to find so little of fishermen’s folklore. A bumble-bee flying before the fisher on the way to the shore is a good omen, but if it meets him,a bad one (p. 505. Cf Folk-Lore, vol. xin p. 438). To see a cormorant before a gull has been seen is a very bad omen. Tt is unlucky to count the catch unl the fish have been landed, and currant-cake should not be taken in the boat (p. 506). It is customary to take off the hat when passing a curioutly-shaped rock called Le Petit Bonhomme a'Andrion, of which a photograph is given. Offerings of biscuit or wine, and even old clothes, were formerly made to it, by throwing them into the sea. Other rocks also are saluted by lifting the hats or lowering the topmast. We are persuaded that more may yet be gathered on this head.
i
122 Remews.
‘Turning to general beliefs, we find that the rude stone monu- ‘ments of the island are associated with the fairics, who are sup- posed to be a race of very little people, now extinct. The story (p. 222) of the wholesale suicide of the fairy race on the advent of the invading witches, sounds a little dem /rovato, but there scems in fact to be a clear tradition that the “black art,” in its full deve~ lopment was an importation into the island from France. It is evidently a living superstition in Guernsey, We have the witches who are born witches, and those who become witches by voluntary compact with the Evil One; we find the sorchedeurs and (as usual) the désorchelewrs who profess to vanquish them ; and further “many persons not usually considered wizards are Jooked upon with no favourable eye from their supposed possession of books relating to the black art, by the study of which they are thought to be able to control the elements,” to discover secrets, &c. ‘These books are called Addins, “ fe Grammaille" (or “le Grand- Mile” and “de Petit-Méle," “te grand Albert” and “de petit Albert”), vames obviously derived from that of Albertus Magnus. Anecdotes of these books abound; how the unskilful pupil of some wizard misused them, how some repentant wizard, or his heirs, tried to burn, bury, or drown them, and how they never- theless returned again to their own place, like the book of Michael Scott in the Last Minstrel. Onc old man owed his reputation as a wizard to the fact that he not only possessed books, but was seen playing cards without a visible adversary, a warning to any solitary folklorist addicted to “patience” !
The local nicknames are interesting, in view of recent dis- cussions. We have learnt already (FalkLore, vol. xiii., p. 396), that the Jersey men are known as Jersey Crapauds, Here we read that when St. Patrick visited the Channel Islands he was rudely received and pelted in Jersey, but made welcome in Guernsey, so he took the toads and snakes from Guernsey and banished them to Jersey, which thus got a double share. Miss Carey gives evidence (p. 602) to show “what close connection there was between Guernscy and Jersey before the wars of the Commonwealth, when—the islands taking different sides—was established a feud which bas neyer properly been healed.” But if derogatory nicknames are any evidence, the feud must be
for otherwise; for all the four islands, and even all the
124 Reviews.
Romantic Taves FROM THE PANJAn: witht ILLUSTRATIONS BY Nartve Hanps, Collected and edited from original sources by the Rav. CaarcLes Swyxngrton, F.S.A. Constable. 21s, net.
Mk. SwYNNERTON has already published one book of Indian stories which is probably known to readers of Fv/A-Zore, and the present work is of the same general kind, The style unfortunately is not very good, but although this somewhat detracts from the interest it does not lessen the value of the stories for scientific purposes. The illustrations are excellent, and present many points of interest for students in their details. Although there are faults in drawing, many of them are graceful and pleasing in them- selves, apart from extraneous considerations.
With regard to the tales themselves, it should first be observed that Mr. Swynnerton is not familiar with the literature of his subject. Regarded as a first-hand record, the book is none the worse for that. There is the less likelihood of the stories having been altered to suit preconceived ideas. Mr. Swynnerton does not disguise that he has played the editor in some cases, and indeed it is often necessary to do so unless the reader is to be regaled with a feast of scraps, Had he known of all the published versions of his stories, he might unconsciously have introduced into his versions what never was there. But his preface and notes have the air of knowledge, and it is therefore necessary to warn students that the Editor does not appear to have made a wide study. He gives (p. 30) three published series of the story of Rasflu, but omits the most important of all, that of Major Temple in the first volume of Legends of the Panjéd, Major Temple's work indeed contains parallels to H@ and Ranjha (No. 38), Mirza and Sahibanh (39), Parnan Bhagat (34), and others or parts of others.
Hit and Ranjhe is a charming love-story, which in this version ends happily, as it does in Temple's, but which in others (and probably in its original) ended in tragedy for the lovers, as Mr. Swynnerton himself divines. The swayamvara appears in it, and there are other incidents of interest. Mr. Swynnerton diffidently suggests that there may be more in common with Hero and Leander than the jingle of names; there is little or nothing in the story to suggest it, but a Greek echo is possible. More might be said for the remarkable episode of Mirshakdri, who, with bis lute,
Reviews. 125
made the wild beasts come to him, ran Bhagat is the Indian equivalent of Joseph, and is a most popular character in Indian tales: an episode so widely diffused cannot be easily traced to its ‘source, but here too we have the Greek parallel of Hippolytus, A shooting episode in Rasilu (p. 213) reminds one of Odysseus and the Axes. The princess set adrift ina chest, the parallel of Danae, is algo found in the person of Dilirim in the remarkable tale of Nek Bakht. The two parrots guarding their faithless mistress, the fate of one and shrewdness of the other, the tale of Rasiiu “Saree nares ea teenaapape Ragen Ranh Saar
Geta Romanorum, Human. sacrifice at founding a building, Cri ys.ceter ry aeartiengar eae ete ieee ghosts of the dead, are a few amongst many of the interesting episodes of the book. As a story, we think that of Gal Badshah bears the palm ; its fantastic setting makes it one of the best of fairy tales. ‘he book, in spite of the faults I have indicated, will be necessary to students of folk-tales.
W. H. D. Rouse.
Cones Porutatnes p’Arrigue, rar René Basset. Paris, E, Guinmoro. 1903.
Aw anthology of folk-tales gathered from the whole African con- tinent seents, at first sight, an undertaking so vast that any attempt to produce one in a moderate compass would be little likely to be attended with satisfactory results. However, we are agreeably dis- appointed in M. Basset’s collection, which, at any rate brings out the common elements underlying the folklore of a continent so far from homogeneous, ethnologically and philologically. ‘The tales are divided into nine sections, following the linguistic classification of F. Miller and Lepsius, except in the case of the “ Negro” and oR eterna Mca epee etre pel agree
as “ Nile,” “Soudan,” and “Senegambia and Guinea.” There are thus seven divisions, instead of Miller's six ; and in addition to these we have an eighth, consisting of tales from Madagascar (which does not, strictly speaking, belong to Africa), and a ninth, headed “ Contes des Négres des Colonies,” giving specimens from Mauritius, Louisiana, the Antilles and Brazil.
126 Renews.
M. Basset has indicated his sources with the most scrupulous care. He has drawn on many collections (including his own) which will be familiar to the readers of Fo/&Lore, from the older works of Kélle, Bleke, Schén, and Stecre to Dr. Stumme’s Twnisische Marchen, M. Junod’s Chants et Contes des Baronga, and M. Alcée Fortier’s Louisiana Folk Tales. Many stories have been gathered from periodicals, [rom the Zeitschrift fiir Afritan- dsche Sprachen, Melusine,and the Revwe des Traditions as well as from our own back numbers (¢.g. on pp, 236, 289, some of Dr. Elmelie’s Nyasa stories)! and the defunct fournad of the South
a fairly representative selection, though I cannot help thinking that in some cases a better choice might have been made. For instance, “ Agili ya waanawake,” the only story quoted from Dr, Velten’s Swahili collection, is much more Arab than African in character. It is true that only a few of the stories given by Dr. Velten are really indigenous, but most of them have assimilated more of the local colouring than the one in question, which strikes a note alien to the general tone of Bantu folklore. The nature ‘of this compilation, for obvious reasons, precludes any very detailed review; but one or two minor errors of classification may be pointed out, The storics from the Rev. Duff Macdonald’s Africana (pp. 292, 294) are not “ Zumbo” (which, by-the-bye, is a place and not, so far as we are aware, a language) but Yao, and should, of course, have been placed along with P. Ferstl’s under the latter heading. Nyasa (p. 286) and Chinyanja (p. 296) are the same language. The book will be found exceedingly interest- ‘ing a5 an introduction to the subject of African folklore, and is ‘moreover useful as a map or guide to the materials accessible in several European languages. A. Weennr.
1 Falk. Lore, vol. Si, p. 92.
128 Reviews.
They afford a description of country and village life in Sicily, on the coast between Messina and Palermo.
The subject of Vendetta is conjugal infidelity with the tragic end common in the island. Little, if any, folklore comes into the story.
Magheria, the play, abounds in it, as the title suggests. The heroine is compelled to fall in love with her suitor by a process of sympathetic magic belonging to a widely spread type. An orange containing some of her hair was bound with a cord, then dipped in virgin wax and smeared with the fat of a black hen. A pin having been driven into it, the orange was thrown down a well. The spell given in the story was recited during the rite. The victim is supposed to fall ill and to remain so until she yields, the fruit keeping sound until then. According to rule a counter-spell should rot the orange and save the girl. In this case the girl does actually fall ill and accepts her suitor, but as she had previously heard of what had been done against her, and may have fallen ill through fright, it seems probable that the author intended to ridicule the superstition. The priest condones it because of the motive. This sort of charm is used elsewhere, as at Mentone, simply for revenge, with the variation that the fruit is meant to and does rot, thus causing the victim’s illness. Love is usually,and more appro- priately, won by philters.
Much other folklore is to be found in this little drama : spitting as a protection from witches ; the broom reversed at the door to prevent their entering the house ; crossing oneself with the left hand against the devil’s power, the right hand being kept sacred to God ; ingratiating the devil by keeping his Lent, that is, by committing a mortal sin on each of forty successive days.
What with vendetta, magic, and maffa, religion must suffer in Trinacria.
In a preface to Magheria Signor Pitré, the distinguished Sicilian traditionist, vouches for the author's knowledge of the people. He lays stress on the spoken spell as an essential part of conjura- tions.
J. B. Anprews.
130 Minutes of Meetings.
WEDNESDAY, MARCH, 16th, 1904, Mr. E. W. Brabrook (Vice-PRESIDENT) in the Chair.
‘THE minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The death of Mr, C. H. Moore was announced.
The election of the following new members was also announced, viz.: Université de Nancy, Mercantile Library of St. Louis, Mr. A. T. Crawford Cree, the Rev. J. G, Bailey, D.D., the Rev. J. R. Olorenshaw, and Mr. T. Gilbert.
The following objects were exhibited, viz.: a crystal ball in silver bands said to have been picked up on the shore of Harris by a pedlar, and purchased from him by Captain MacRae of the Black Watch; a photograph of a Rushlight Stand and Fire-screen at the Hough, Eccleshall, Staffs., sent by Mr. W. Wells Bladen, and another of a Norwegian Stabbur, or Cheese-house, at Telemarken, said to be the oldest specimen of Runic carving in South Norway, sent by the Hon. Mrs. Sinclair. Miss Edith Cobham also exhibited (1) some Kentish pudding pies, (2) a gingerbread pig from St. Cloud, and (3) some old pictures representing (i) an offering before Captain Cook in the Sandwich Islands, (ii) the funeral pile of a husband in Hindostan, and (iii) a dance in Otaheite.
Mr. R. R. Marett read a paper entitled “ The Develop- ment of the Prayer out of the Spell” [p. 132], and, in the discussion which followed, Professor Westermarck, Mr. A. Nutt, Mr. N. W. Thomas, and the Chairman took part. The Meeting terminated with a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Marett for his paper.
FROM SPELL TO PRAYER. ‘BY BR. R. MARGTT, MAL (Read at Meeting, 16th March, 1904.)
‘Tus paper represents the fruit of somerather perfunctory, if only because interrupted, meditation on the broader and, 30 to speak, more philosophic features of the contrast drawn between magic and religion by Dr. Frazer in the second edition of his Golden Bough. Meanwhile, it is more imme- diately written round the subject of the relation of incan- tation to invocation, the spell to the prayer. I confess to having reached my conclusions by ways that are largely @ priori. By this I do not mean, of course, that I have excogitated them out of my inner consciousness, as the Teutonic professor in the story is said to have excogitated the camel. I simply mean that the preliminary induction on which my hypothesis is based consists pattly in con- siderations pertaining to the universal psychology of man, and partly in general impressions derived from a limited amount of discursive reading about savages. The verifica- tion of my theory, on the other hand, by means of a detailed comparison of its results with the relevant evidence is a task beyond my present means. As for my illustrations, these have been hastily gathered from a few standard books and Papers, and most of all, | think, from that house of heaped- up treasure, the Golden Bough itself. In these circum- stances my sole excuse for challenging the views of an authority whose knowledge and command of anthropological fact is truly vast, must be that in the present inchoate state ‘of the science there can be no closed questions, nor even any reserved ones—no mysteries over which expert may claim the right to take counsel with expert, secure from the
(hme
134 From Spell to Prayer.
comes to this. Magic is a negative, but not a positive, condition of the genesis of religion, The failure of magic is the opportunity of religion. Hence it may be said to help to generate religion in the sense in which the idle apprentice may be said to help to set up his more indus- trious rival by allowing him to step into his shoes. But it makes no positive contribution to religion either in the way of form or of content.
More explicitly stated, Dr. Frazer's theory runs some- what thus. (It is only fair to note that it is a theory which he puts forward “ tentatively" and “with diffidence."')! Originally, and so long as the highest human culture was at what may be described as an Australian level, magic reigned supreme, and religion was not. But time and trial proved magic to be a broken reed, ‘“ Man saw that he had taken for causes what were no causes, and that all his efforts to work by means of these imaginary causes had been vain. His painful toil had been wasted, his curious ingenuity had been squandered to no purpose. He had been pulling at strings to which nothing was attached.” Whereupon “ our primitive philosopher” (and truly, we may say, did that savage of “deeper mind" and ‘ shrewder intelligence" deserve this title of “ philosopher,” if he could thus reason, as Dr. Frazer makes him do, about “ causes" and the like) advanced, ‘very slowly,” indeed, and “ step by step,” to the following “solution of his harassing doubts.” “If the great world went on its way without the help of him or his fellows, it must surely be because there were other beings, like himself, but far stronger, who, unseen themselves, directed its course and brought about all the varied series of events which he had hitherto believed to be dependent on his own magic.”
Now the impression I get from these passages, and from the whole of those twenty pages or so which Dr. Frazer devotes to the subject of the relation of magic to religion
‘6G. 73 Hes FS
136 From Spell to Prayer.
regards the inquiry we are now embarked on, we may say that, so far as he goes, Dr. Frazer is against the view that magic is capable of merging in religion so as to become part and parcel of it, but that he does not go very far into the question, and leaves it more or less open to further dis- cussion. Wherefore to its further discussion let us proceed.
Now in the first place it would clearly simplify our task if we could find sufficient reason for assuming that, what- ever it may afterwards have become, magic was originally something wholly unrelated to religion, that, in short, it was originally sui generts. 1 may point out that this is by no means the same thing as to postulate, with Dr. Frazer, an ' Age of Magic,” when religion simply was not Our assumption would not exclude the possibility of some sort of religion having been coeval with magic. Which, let me add, might have been the case, even were it shown that magic can generate religion of a kind. For religion has all the appearance of being a highly complex and multifarious growth—a forest rather than a tree.
That magic was originally sui generis might seem a doc- trine that hardly calls for establishment, so universally is it accepted by anthropologists. Its peculiar provenance is held to be completely known, Thus Dr. Frazer tells us that magic may be ‘ deduced immediately from elementary processes of reasoning,” meaning the laws of association, or, specifically, the laws of association by similarity and by contiguity in space or time. ®
Now it seems to me that, once more, these statements need to be construed liberally. The psychological purist might justly doubt whether Dr. Frazer is literally able to deduce magic immediately from the laws of association. He would, at any rate, deny Dr. Frazer's right to describe the laws of association as “processes of reasoning” or “laws of thought” in any strict sense of these terms.? A
1 See G. Bath 73 * G BuPi, 70. Ch 62. * G. B,7i., 70 and 62
soles |
138 From Spell to Prayer.
“proceeds upon” such and such “ assumptions”; and so on. Now on the face of them these appear to be glaring instances of what is known as “the psychologist’s fallacy,” ‘The standpoint of the observer seems to be confused with the standpoint of the mind under observation. But there are indications that Dr. Frazer expects us to make the necessary allowance for his metaphorical diction. Thus one of the ‘assumptions ” of magic is said to consist in a “ faith” that whilst “real and firm” is nevertheless “im- plicit.”® Meanwhile, from the point of view of the psycho- logical purist, implicit, that is, unconscious, inferences, assumptions, and so on, are little better than hybrids. Now doubtless a considerable amount of real inference may be operative at certain stages in the development of magic. Nay, certain forms of magic may even be found to have originated in a theorising about causes that did not arise out of practice save indirectly, and was the immediate fruit of reflection. 1 refer more especially to divination, if divination is to be classed under magic, as Dr. Tylor thinks that it should2® But, speaking generally, the working principle we had better adopt as inquirers into the origin of magic is, I suggest, the following: to expect the theory to grow out of the practice, rather than the other way about ; to try to start from a savage Monsieur Jourdain who talks prose whilst yet unaware that he is doing so.
In what follows I shall seek to observe this working principle. Meanwhile, 1 cannot pretend to a systematic and all-inclusive treatment of a subject which, for me, I confess, has at present no well-marked limits. Dr. Frazer's division of magic into two kinds, imitative and sympathetic," is highly convenient for analysis, but T am not so sure that it directly subserves genesis. Not to speak of the question already touched on whether divination falls under magic,
"CB? 4 * G. B® Cf. Ga with 61. See his article “ Magic” in Encet. Brit. (ninth edit.) 9G, Baking %
_
=
140 From Spell to Prayer.
effect on the consciousness, the lover, who yesterday perhaps was kissing the treasured glove of his mistress, to-day, being jilted, casts her portrait on the fire, Here let us note two things. Firstly, the mental digression, the fact that he is for the nonce so “ blind,’ as we say, with love or rancour, that the glove or the portrait has by asso- ciation become substituted for the original object of his sentiments, namely his mistress. Secondly, the complete~ ness of the digression. This dear glove fit only to be kissed, this hateful portrait fit only to be burnt, occupies his whole attention, and is therefore equivalent to an irresistible belief that realises itself as inevitably as a suggestion does in the case of the hypnotic patient. Such at least is the current psychological explanation of the phenomenon known as “ primitive credulity.”
Now can the man who throws the faithless maiden’s portrait into the fire, simply because the sight of it irre- sistibly provokes him to do so, be said to be practising magic? I think, hardly. Since, however, it is better that the class-concepts of anthropology should be framed too wide rather than too narrow, let us speak of a “ rudimentary magic,” of which the act of primitive credulity is the psychological terminus a quo. 1 contrast such “ rudi- mentary magic '’ with the “developed magic” whereof the spirit is expressed in the formula: As I do this symbolically, so may something else like it be done in reality, In the former naive belief prevails, in the latter a make-believe. In what immediately follows we shall be concerned with the psychological history of the transition from the rudi- mentary to the developed form.
The feature which it is most important for our purpose to note in the act of primitive credulity is that, to coin a phrase, it is not projective, This is well illustrated by the case of the bull. The bull does not gore my coat with any ulterior motive prejudicial to me. On the contrary, it con- tentedly gores the coat, and, unless I am unfortunate enough
142 From Spell to Prayer.
lasts, Nay more, directly there is a nascent self-con- Sciousness, a sort of detached personality to act as passive spectator, the deluding passion may be actually accom- panied by an awareness of heing given over to unreal imaginings and vain doings. Doubtless your relatively low savage might say with Kipling’s philosopher of the barrack- i {L've] stood beside an’ watched myself Re'avin' like a blooming fool.
Make-believe, however, such as we meet with in developed magic, involves something more than mere con- current awareness that one is being fooled by one's passion. It involves positive acquiescence in such a condition of mind. The subject is not completely mastered by the sug- gestion, as in the act of primitive credulity. On the con- trary, he more or less clearly perceives it to be fanciful, and yet dallies with it and lets it work upon him. Now why should he do this? Well, originally, I suspect, because he feels that it does him good. Presumably, to work off one’s wrath on any apology for an enemy is expletive, that is, cathartic. He knows that he is not doing the real thing, but he finds it does him good to believe he is doing it, and so he makes himself believe it. Symbol and ulterior reality have fallen apart in his thought, but his ‘ will to believe” builds a bridge from the one to the other. Symbolic act and ulterior act symbolised are, we must remember, con= nected by an ideal bond, in that they are more or less alike, have a character partially identical which so far as it is identical is provocative of one and the same type of reaction. All that is required for the symbolic act to acquire projectiveness is that this ideal bond be con- ceived as a real bond. Since, however, the appearance of mere ideality can ex Aypothesi be no longer ignored, it must instead be explained away. Primitive credulity no longer suffices, In the place of a naive and effortless faith there is needed the kind of faith that, to whatever extent it is assailed by doubt, can recover itself by self-justification.
144 From Spell to Prayer.
the savage magician and his victim may become aware of the fact? I think we must. Of course the true reasons of the fact, namely that suggestion is at work, and so on, are beyond the ken of primitive man. But I submit that the projectiveness of the magical act is grounded, not merely ‘on a subjective bias that “fakes” its facts, but on one that is met half-way, so to speak, by the real facts themselves, 1 would even suppose that the kind of magic practised by man ‘on man, since it lent itself especially to objective verification, may very well have been the earliest kind of developed magic—the earliest kind to pass beyond the stage of impulse to that of more or less conscious and self-justifying policy. Were this the case, one would have to assume that the savage extended his sphere of operations by some dim sort of analogous reasoning. If, despite appearances to the contrary, magic really answered in the case of man, it would really answer in the case of the weather and so on, to vent one's spleen on the weather being, meanwhile, as a naive impulsive act, hardly, if at all, less natural than to do so in the case of one’s human foe. Thus I surmise that the proved effectiveness of the social department of deve~ loped magic gave the greater share of such logical support as was required to the meteorological and other branches of the business.
% It is high time that we address ourselves to the more immediate subject of our interest, the spell, the nature of which, however, could not fail to be misunderstood so long as the magical act was vaguely conceived on its psycho- logical side, that is, the side of its true inwardness, the side to which it is the supreme business even of an anthropology that prides itself on its “objective methods" to attend, To begin, then, at the beginning, why should there be an accompanying spell at all? Is it, in fact, an indispensable part of the true magical ceremony? Now it is true that
“Ch Burin 108-9,
146 From Spell to Prayer.
moment changed, It henceforth forms an integral part of the rite, since it helps the action out,
What do I mean by “helping the action out”? Let us recur to the notion of developed magic as a more or less clearly recognised pretending, which at the same time is believed to project itself into an ulterior effect. Now I cannot but suppose that such projectiveness is bound to strike the savage as mysterious. “But no,” says Dr, Frazer; “magic is the savage equivalent of our natural science.” This I cannot but profoundly doubt. If it is advisable to use the word “science” at all in such a context, I should say that magic was occwé¢ science to the savage, “occult” standing here for the very antithesis of “natural.” Dr. Frazer proceeds to work out iis parallel by formulating the assumption he holds to be common to magic and natural science. Bothalike imply “ that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency”; or again, “ that the course of nature is determined, not by the passions or caprice of personal beings, but by the opera- tion of immutable laws acting mechanically.” But the “necessity,” the “law,” implicit in developed magic as revealed by the corresponding type of spell, namely the type of spell which helps the action out, is surely something utterly distinct in kind from what natura! science postulates under these same notoriously ambiguous names. It is not the “is and cannot but be” of a satisfied induction. On the contrary, it is something that has but the remotest psychological affinity therewith, namely such a “ must’ as is involved in ‘May so and so happen,” or “I do this in order that so and so may happen.” Such a “must’’ belongs to magicin virtue of the premonitory projectiveness that reveals itself in the operator's act of imperative willing. Meanwhile so far as the process fails to explain
" G. Bin, 6t, 3 In ite, 459, however, the view that magic and ecience have any real presupposition in common seems virtually to be given up.
148 From Spell to Prayer.
with Mr. Lang that gods tend at first to be conceived as exercising their power precisely as a magician does. But it does not therefore follow, as it must if Dr. Frazer's theory of magical as mechanical causation be accepted, that in some sense the early gods came down to men “ from out of a machine.”
We have been hitherto considering the magical act from the point of view of the operator. Let us now inquire what sort of character is imposed by it on the other party to the transaction, namely the victim. If our previous hypothesis be correct, that to the operator the magical act is generically a projection of imperative will, and specifically one that moves on a supernormal plane, it follows that the position of the victim will be, in a word, a position compatible with vapport. As the operator is master of a supernormal “must, so the victim is the slave of that same “must.” Now surely there is nothing in such a position on the part of the victim that is incompatible with the possession of what we know as will. On the contrary, might we not expect that the operator, as soon as he comes to reflect on the matter at all, would think of his power as somehow making itself felt by his victim, as somehow coming home to him, as somehow reaching the unwilling will of the man and bending it to an enforced assent? On this theory a magical transaction ought, hardly if at all less naturally than a religious transaction, to assume the garb of an affair between persons. We shall see presently whether there is evidence that it actually does. On Dr. Frazer's view, however, magic and religion are systems based on assumptions that are as distinct and wide apart as matter and mind, their ultimate implications. Hence if magic and religion join forces, itis for Dr. Frazer a mere contamination of unrelated originals incapable of presenting the inward unity of a single self-developing plot. He is driven to allege a “confusion of ideas,” a “ mixture,” a “ fusion,” an
\ Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i., 120.
150 From Spell to Prayer.
exercise of will on the part of the operator will surely be submission, fe. of will, as we should say, on the part of the patient. For the rest, it would seem that Dr. Frazer bases his case for it being a kind of physical necessity that is ascribed by the savage to the workings of his magic on the explanation which the medicine-man gives of his failures, when he alleges that nothing but the interference of another more potent sorcerer could have robbed his spell of its efficacy.** But the excuse appears to imply, if any- thing, a conditionality and relativity of will-power, of mana, the analogy of the scientific law being manifestly far-fetched. And surely it is in any case somewhat rash to deduce the implicit assumptions of an art from such a mere piece of professional “ bluff.””
If, then, the occult projectiveness of the magical act is naturally and almost inevitably interpreted as an exertion of will that somehow finds its way to another will and dominates it, the spell or uttered “ must” will tend, I con- ceive, to embody the very life and soul of the affair. Nothing initiates an imperative more cleanly, cutting it away from the formative matrix of thought and launching it on its free career, than the spoken word. Nothing, again, finds its way home to another's mind more sharply. It is the very type of a spiritual projectile. I do not, indeed, believe that what may be called the silent opera- tions of imitative magic are ultimately sign-language and nothing more. I prefer to think, as [ have already explained, that they are originally like the fire drawn from an excitable soldier by the treestump he mistakes for an enemy, or, more precisely, miscarriages of passion-clouded purpose prematurely caused by a chance association; and that what might be called their prefigurative function is an outgrowth. But | certainly do incline to think that, when the stage of developed magic is reached and the projec-
* G BMi, 61. See, however, Sp. and G., $32, from which it appears that the medicine.man by no means sticks toa single form of excuse.
152 From Spell to Prayer.
the force it but transmits. Not unfrequently, however, the personal agency of the operator appears on the aurface of the spell, as when sunshine is made in New Caledonia by kindling a fire and saying: “Sun! 1 do this that you may be burning hot.”"7_ Here the sun is treated as a “ you,’ so that the operator is perhaps not unnaturally led to refer to himself as the other party to this transaction between persons. Meanwhile, hough our second instance is interesting as indicating the true source of the mana immanent in the spell, namely the operator's exertion of will-power, it is better not to insist too strongly on the difference between the instrument and the force that wields and as it were fills it. Both alike belong to what may be called the protasis of the spell. The important logical cleavage occurs between protasis and apodosis—the firing of the projectile and the hitting of the target—the setting- in-motion of the instrument and the realisation of the end. Every true spell, I submit, distinguishes implicitly or explicitly between the two. ! say implicitly or explicitly, for we find curtailed spells of the kind “ We carry Death into the water,” no mention being made ofthe symbol.” It would be quite wrong, however, to argue that here is no make-believe, no disjoining of instrument and end requir- ing an exertion of occult influence to bridge the gap, but a primitive credulity that simply takes the one act for the other, This is shown by the occurrence of the same sort of spell in fuller form, e.g. ‘Ha, Koré, we fling you into the river, like these torches, that you may return no more,” *” The participants in the rite know, in short, that they are “ only pretending.” They have the thought which it is left fo Mr. Skeat’s Malays to express with perfect clear- ness: “It is not wax that I am scorching, it is the liver, heart, and spleen of So-and-so that | scorch.” ®
154 From Spell to Prayer.
and sué generis, the mystery of human death may be set over against the miracle of the magical projection as at least as original and unique a rallying-point of superstition- On the other hand, I am quite prepared to believe that magical occultism was able of its own right to colour primi- tive supernaturalism to a marked and noteworthy extent. I suggest that the peculiar contribution of magic—at all events of the kind of magic we have been considering—to religion was the idea of mana. No doubt, the actual mana of the Melanesians will on analysis be found to yield a very mixed and self-contradictory set of meanings, and to stand for any kind of power that rests in whatever way upon the divine. 1 suppose it, however, to have the central and nuclear sense of magical power; and, apart from the ques- tion of historical fact, let me, for expository purposes at any rate, be allowed to give the term this connotation. The inwardness of such mana or magical power we have seen reason to regard as derived by the magician from a more or less intuitive perception of his projective act of will as the force which occultly transmutes his pretence into ulterior reality, But if the essence of his supernormal power lie in precisely this, then wherever else there be discoverable supernormal power under control of a person, will not its essence tend to be conceived as consisting in the same? Meanwhile, all manifestations of the super- natural are likely to appear as in some sense manifesta- tions of power, and asin some sense personally controlled. That they should be noticed at all by man they must come within the range of his practical interests, that is, be as agents or patients in regard to him; and, if he is in awe of them, it will assuredly be as agents, actual or potential, that is, as powers, that he will represent them to himself. And again, whatever is able to stand up against him as an independent and self-supporting radiator of active powers will be inevitably invested by him with more or less self- hood or personality like in kind to what he is conscious of
156 From Spet? to Prayer.
magician, then what more natural than that a humar magician when in difficulties should seek, by any one of the many modes of entering into relations with the divine to reinforce his own mana from the boundless store of self- same mana belonging to those magicians of a higher order whom, so to speak, he has created after his own image? All this, however, I confess, it is easier to deduce than to verify. When we try to study the matter in the concrete, we soon lose our way amongst plural causes and intermixed effects, For instance, it is clear that the savage has in- ward experience of the supernormal, not only in his feats of projective magic, but likewise in his dreams, his fits of ecstasy, and so on (though these latter seem to have no place within the sphere of magic proper). Or again we have been dealing with the act of magic from the point of view of the operator. But there is also the point of view of the victim, whose suggestibility will, we may suppose, be largely conditioned by the amount of “ asthenic ’ emotion —fear and fascination—induced in him. Hence any sort of association with the supernatural and awful which the sorcerer can establish will be all to the good. An all-round obscurantism and mystery-mongering is his policy, quite apart from the considerations that make his own acts mysterious to himself. However, the quotations cited by Dr. Frazer from Dr. Codrington seem fairly crucial as regards the hypothesis I am defending.* Mana is at all events the power which is believed to do the work in Melanesian magic, and to obtain mana on the other hand is the object of the rites and practices that make up what anthropologists will be ready to call Melanesian “ religion.” Or once more we seem to find exactly what we want in the following prayer of the Malay fawang at the grave of a murdered man: ‘ Hearken, So-and-so, and assistme . . . « I desire to ask for a little magic.” I submit, then, that
4G. By iy 65-6. CL. the same authority inf. A. J, xiy 309. ® AM, M, 6o-t,
158 From Spell to Prayer.
throw himself literally, as far as bis consciousness goes, into the work before him, He is so much one in idea with his instrument that the masa in him is as easily repre- sented as resident in it, Meanwhile the capacity of naive thought to personify whatever has independent existence must help out the transference, as may be illustrated abundantly from such a magnificent collection of spells as we get in the Golden Bough. Contrast the following pair of cases. In West Africa, when a war party is on foot, the women dance with brushes in their hands, singing “Our husbands have gone to Ashantce land; may they sweep their enemies off the face of the earth.” In much the same way in the Kei Islands, when a battle is in progress, the women wave fans in the direction of the enemy. What they say, however, is, “O golden fans! let our bullets hit and those of the enemy miss.” ® We must not make too much of such a change from impersonal mention to personal address. It implies no more than a slight increase in vividness of idea. Still, as far as it goes, J take it, it is all in the direction of that more emphatic kind of personification which gives the thing addressed enough soul of its own to enable it to possess mana, In the following Russian example we seem to see the instru~ ment first created, then invested with personality, and lastly filled with mana more or less from without: “T attach five knots to each hostile infidel shooter... . Do ye, O knots, bar the shooter from every road and way. . . « In my knots lies hid the mighty strength of snakes—from the twelve-headed snake." Here the mana is added more or less from without, for, though a knot is enough like a snake to generate the comparison, yet the twelve-headed snake sounds like an intensification definitely borrowed
9 33. # G. By iny 399 Ch. lil 360, which introduces us to « ten-headed verpent (Greek).
=
160 from Spell to Prayer.
versa, not to speak of the identification of arungguiltha with other manifestations of the supernatural embodied in stones, alcheringa animals, and what not? Simply, I answer, because magic proper is all along an occult process, and as such part and parcel of the “ god-stuff ” out of which religion fashions itself. And more than this, by importing its peculiar projectiveness into the vague associations of the occult it provides one, though I do not say the only, centre round which those associations may crystallise into relatively clear, if even so highly fluid and unstable, forms. We may sce why the medicine-man is so ready to press into his service that miscellaneous mass of * plant,” dead men’s bones, skins of strange animals, and what not; and why these objects in their turn come to be able to work miracles for themselves, and in fact develop into non- human medicine-men. But all these things were psycho- logically next door to impossible, if magic were in origin a mechanical “natural science” utterly alien in its inward essential nature to all religion, and as such capable only of yielding to it asa substitute, and never of joining forces with it as ally and blood-relation. Surely, if we look at the matter simply from this side alone, the side of the instru- ment, there is enough evidence to upset the oil-and-water theory of Dr. Frazer.
Before we leave the subject of the instrument let us finally note that concurrently with the personification and progressive deification of the instrument, as it may be called, the spell evolves into the prayer. Thus, on the one hand, the name of power associated with the spell, instead of being merely quoted so as by simple juxtaposition to add mana to mana, may be invoked as a personal agency by whose good grace the charm as a whole is caused to work. Dr. Frazer provides us with an instance of this from the Kei Islands. When their lords are away fighting, the women, having anointed certain stones and fruits and
Sp. and G., 550-1.
162 From Spell to Prayer.
the idea of which is that the thief may suffer from stones in the stomach like to these. These Borneo stones are similarly treated as personal agencies. They are called on to witness the anathema. Or again, if a friend of the pro- prietor wishes to pluck the fruit, he first lights a fire and asks it to explain to the stones that he is no thief In short, there is fairly crucial evidence to show how naturally and insensibly the charm-symbol may pass into the idol.'* All that is needed is that there should be sufficient personi- fication for prayer to be said.
It remains to speak very briefly of the corresponding personification and gradual deification of what in contrast to the “instrument” I have called the “end.” Now clearly the curtailed form of spell with suppressed protasis is to all outward appearance a prayer and nothing else. Take a single very simple example—the “Fruit, Fruit, Fruit, Fruit,” which we find at the end of various Malay charms connected with the practice of “ productive ” magic. According to our previous conclusions, however, this is no prayer so long as the force which sets the spell in motion is felt by the operator as an exertion of imperative will and an attempt to establish control. But, given a form of words which need suffer no change though the thought at the back of it alter, what more natural than that the mind of the charmer should fluctuate between “ bluff” and blandishment, conjuration and cajolery ?
Mr. Skeat provides us with examples of how easily this transition effects itself in the course of one and the same ceremony. Thus “ Listen, O listen, to my injunctions "— which is surely prayer—is immediately followed by threat backed by the name of power: “And if you hearken not to my instructions you shall be rebels in the sight of
Allah.” * And, that we need not suppose this transition to ® J. As Ty xiii, 161. = Cf. Dr. Haddon in J. A. /. xix., 324. * CE Mr. Skeat in Fict-Lore, sili. 161. % Folk- Lore, xiii. 142.
164 From Spell to Prayer.
“Mother Earth.”" Clearly the cults of the rice-mother, the maize-mother, the corn-mother, and so on, wherein magic is finally swallowed up in unmistakable religion, are the natural outcome of such a gradually-intensifying personi- fication. But this personification in its turn would follow naturally upon that view of the magical act which we have all along assumed to have been its ground-idea, namely the view that it is an inter-personal, inter-subjective transaction, an affair between wills—something, therefore, generically akin to, if specifically distinct from, the relation which brings together the suppliant and his god.
One word only in conclusion. I have been dealing, let it be remembered in justice to my hypothesis, with this question of the relation of magic to religion, the spell to the prayer, abstractly. It is certain that religion cannot be identified merely with the worship directly generated by magic. Religion is a far wider and more complex thing. Again, there may be other elements in magic than the one I have selected for more or less exclusive consideration. It is to some extent a matter of definition. For instance, divination may, or may not, be treated as a branch of magic. If it be so treated, we might, as has already been said, have to admit that, whereas one kind of magic develops directly out of quasi-instinctive practice, namely the act of primitive credulity, another kind of magic, divination, is originally due to some sort of dim theorising about causes, the theory engendering the practice rather than the practice the theory. Meanwhile, if out of the immense confusion of beliefs and rites which the student of savage superstition is called upon to face, we shall haply have contrived to isolate, and more or less consistently keep in view, a single abstract develop- ment of some intrinsic interest and importance, we shall have done very well. Every abstraction that is “won from the void and formless infinite” is of value in the present vague and shifting condition of anthropology.
GBS
From Spell to Prayer. 165
Dr. Frazer’s abstract contrast of magic and religion is a case in point. But abstraction needs to be qualified by abstraction that the ideal whole may at length be envisaged as a unity of many phases. My object throughout has been to show that, if from one point of view magic and religion must be held apart in thought, from another point of view they may legitimately be brought together.
R. R. MARETT.
TODA PRAYER.
BY W. H.R. RIVERS, LD. (Read at Meeting, 20th April, 1904.)
THE forms of words recorded in this paper are used during the ceremonial which attends the work of a Toda dairy. I have given elsewhere! a brief account of the dairy cere- monial. The milking and churning operations in connec- tion with the more sacred of the Toda buffaloes form a complex ritual which has evidently a religious character and at certain stages of this ritual formule are recited.
Not only is the daily milking and churning of a cere- monial character, but all the most important incidents of buffalo-life are made the occasions of ceremonies and in the course of these various forms of words are also recited.
I shall confine my attention in this paper to the for- mulz which are used in the daily ritual of the Toda dairy. The frequency with which these formulz are uttered varies with the sanctity of the dairy. In the lower grades of dairy, the prayer is offered only at the afternoon ceremonial. It is said when lighting the lamp before the churning, and it is repeated at the close of the day’s work when shutting up the buffaloes in their circular enclosure for the night. In the highest grade of dairy, the prayer is offered twice at the morning operations, once before begin- ning to churn when lighting the lamp and once when the milking is finished. At the afternoon ceremonial it is offered three times, two corresponding to those of the morning and again when shutting up the buffaloes for the night. The prayer is not the same for all dairies, but there are differences according to the clan and village to which the dairy belongs and according to the grade of dairy in which the prayer is used.
Man, 1903, p. 175.
168 Toda Prayer.
‘ével Ark md per kdrt pt mas pustht kirt pb ma may there beno may be kept from (falling may be kept from floods wild beasts (tigers, &c.) down) steep hills tut drk md md un md maj en ms pul po ma may there be no fire may we have rain may clouds rise may grass Aourish tr Or ma may water spring
The prayer then concludes with the names of two of the most important gods or objects of reverence followed by the words:
dtham idith emk Anenmd them for the sake of for (or to) us may it be well
There does not seem to be any strict regulation as to the clauses of the prayer, and in different versions some of those given above were omitted, while others were added, especially requests for protection against special animals, as pob drk md, “may there be no snakes,” and pirat drk md, “may there be no tigers.” One man concluded with the words erddrsink erddri ini, “I know half to pray, I know not half to pray,” but Ido not know whether this was an individual peculiarity or a special feature of the prayer of his dairy.
It seemed clear that the whole prayer referred to the buffaloes. It may be summarised as follows :
“May it be well with the buffaloes, may they not suffer from disease or die, may they be kept from poisonous animals and from wild beasts and from injury by flood or fire, may there be water and grass in plenty.”
I had much difficulty in obtaining examples of the first portions of the prayers. I finally obtained the complete prayers of four village dairies and two of the prayers of the most sacred or ¢# diaries. I will give here an example of each kind.
The following is the prayer used in the dairy of Kuudr, the chief village of the chief clan of the Teivaliol division of the Todas. In the first column are given the Awarsam,
' ‘The full record of these prayers will appear ina work on “ The Todas of the Nil iri Hills.”
170 Toda Prayer.
for the sake of the village of Kuudr; for the sake of the large dairy of Kuudr; .. .
This prayer begins with two éwarsam of the village or clan, followed by others referring to the dairies and dairy vessels, buffalo pens and buffaloes. Then follow certain kwarsam of pep or buttermilk which is of great ceremonial importance in the dairy ritual, and of stones of importance in the ceremonies attending purification of the dairy vessels. After the Awarsam of the dairy spring, there follow a number of Awarsam referring to certain incidents in the history of the dairy. Eikisiov is the kwarsam of a buffalo which was one day being milked at Kuudr when some of the milk was spilt on the ground. From that day the ground became swampy, and on digging, a spring of water was found which has ever since been used as the dairy spring. The two following Awarsam refer to incidents of which I have no record. Karstum is the kwarsam of a buffalo which was one day grazing on the hill Kakatha- mak. It began to bellow and could not be induced to stop. The people tried to take the buffalo back to the pen. It would not go, but died on the hill, and has ever since been remembered in the prayer. These Awarsam are followed by two referring to bushes or trees of ceremonial importance and then by the Awarsam of a hillnear the village on which there are cairns and that of the sacrificial place of the village. The prayer concludes with two twarsam of a different kind. The first refers to the act of the goddess Teikirzi who portioned the buffaloes and assigned to each clan its share. In so doing she touched each buffalo on the back with her wand or staff, saying in each case to whom the buffalo should belong, and this act is commemorated in the prayer in the form “for the sake of the dividing of the chief buffaloes with the wand.” The last Awarszam is that of the calf from which the ordinary buffaloes or putiir of Kuudr are descended, but I was unable
* See Aan, 1903, p. 175.
172 Toda Prayer.
kagh tr kde ‘crooked homed buffalo horn cut god.” Awaten ten
tbkiter at, tan “imitation buffalo homs took, his mother’s brother's lap mun madrik teu 2
mavel kdriten teu “sambhur from calved god.” (The last six Awarsam
refer to the story of Kuzkarv.)
pillnerkars buflaloes of if called pairstr.
tetntrkan buffaloes of #f called piirstr.
Pirsk muneki po ‘sun to facing that came buffaloes.” tith fr
nerk muncki po- “bell to facing that came buffalo.” tith tr
puttdr mun he.“ thdr tree back rubbed buffalo.” Aith tr
Kitheri kath eth.“ Kitheri stream to jumped buffalo,” ith tr
pdtdsh katith fr ‘desolate pen from made buffalo.” Werwark ethkith ‘ Warwar (stream) to jumped buffalo.” or khuberam kifj “seven heaps buffalo-dung fire setting buffaloes.”
erdith tram
Then there follow twenty-six more éwarsam referring to various objects at the different dairies of the ¢#, and then follows the prayer proper, “ tdnenmd, tdrmdmd. ... .”
The first sixteen éwarsam of the prayer are those of gods or of god-inhabited places. Then follow six Awarsam referring to incidents in the life of the god Kuzkarv or Korateu. The following is an abbreviated account of the chief events of this life :—
One day the goddess Teikirzi was going from one village to another when she gave birth to a son in a cave called Teivelkursh, by the side of the stream Kathipakh. The name of the child was Azo-mazo.’ The after-birth fell into the stream and was washed down to the river Teipakh (the Paikara river) as far as a place called Marsnavai, where two plants were growing called purs and #6 in which the after-birth became entangled. It then slowly
4 In the prayer two gods are mentioned, Azo and Mazo. It is possible that this is an example of the birth of twins. Unfortunately I omitted to make careful inquiry into this point.
174 Toda Prayer.
Soon after these events certain Todas went to Korateu and said, “We have no place; give us a place.” Korateu gave them a place and said that it should be called Keradr. The people then asked for buffaloes. Korateu gave them a sambhur calf and said that it should become buffaloes for them and that the buffaloes should be called minéapir and the calves should be called mdve?ar, and the sacred buffa- loes or wirsulfr of the Keradr clan are descended from the sambhur calf and are called mfnfepfir and their calves are called mévethar.
‘The six kwarsam referring to incidents in the life of the god Korateu are followed by two Awarsam of the buffaloes of the dairy, and then follow six Awarsam referring to certain incidents in the history of the foundation of the dairy at Makars. The legend runs as follows:—
When Anto created the buffaloes, one buffalo wearing a bell round its neck went to Makars to the place where the tidr tree nowstands, The buffalo rubbed its back against the tree, and some bark was rubbed off, and it is owing to this that the place became a #4, the dairy being built near the tree. When it reached Makars, the buffalo was very angry because there was no daityman at the place and it raged furiously. While jumping about with rage, it jumped over the stream called Warwar, and after jumping over some stones it fell into the stream called Kitheri, but it suc~ ceeded in getting out and did not die. The buffalo was also angry that there was no pen, and it pushed stones together with its horns and made a pen.
The kwersam following these refers to an incident in the history of the dairy. The Awarsam runs “ seven heaps buffalo-dung fire setting buffaloes,” The practice at the dairy was to make seven heaps of the buffalo-dung, and there was a law that this dung should not be sold. Once, however, the dairyman sold some and soon after the seven heaps broke out into fire, and the event has since been commemorated in the prayer. This is almost certainly an
176 Toda Prayer.
the acquisition of Toda folklore which might otherwise have remained undiscovered and no small amount of my collec- tion of Toda legends is due to clues given in the few prayers I was able to collect. If 1 had had time and persuasive power to collect the whole stock of the formula of the Toda dairies, I believe that I should have been put on the track of a collection of Toda folklore of which the legends I have actually succeeded in collecting would form an insignificant proportion.
Another of the interesting features of the formula is the change which has taken place and may still be going on in the relative importance of the two partsof the prayer. The first portion consisting of the Awarsam is now the most im- portant part, while the words which seem to be of the nature of actual prayer are now often slurred over or may even be largely omitted. It seemed to me that the prayer proper was cven now still undergoing a process of atrophy, and if it should disappear we should have only the series of £warsanr —a form of words which no one could recognise as prayer.
A further point of interest is that the Toda prayer sug- gests a possible explanation of some cases of meaning- less religious formule. It is a familiar fact to students of comparative religion that the words used in religious formule are sometimes entirely meaningless to those who use them. The commonly accepted explanation {s that the words of the formula belong to a forgotten language. We know that change or great modification of language is a very common phenomenon among primitive peoples, and it is supposed that the ancient language, or the more ancient form of the language, persists in connection with religious observances long after it has become entirely obsolete in ordinary life. There is little doubt that this is the correct explanation in many cases, but the nature of the Toda Awarsam suggests a possible alternative. There is little doubt that the Todas are now forgetting much of their mythology, or rather that their older legends are being
See
178 Toda Prayer.
I have in the title and throughout this paper assumed that the dairy formula are examples of prayer, and I have now to consider how far this assumption is justified. The essential feature ofprayer is supplication to a higher power, and in the dairy formula of the Todas there is no direct evidence of such supplication. The gods are not directly invoked; the name of no god is ever mentioned in the vocative form, and in some prayers there may be barely mention of a god at all, if the term ‘god’ is limited to the anthropomorphic beings who dwell on the Nilgiri hill-tops.
The exact relation between the gods and the formula largely depends on the exact meaning of the word idith, which is unfortunately doubtful. But, whatever the mean- ing of this word, it is quite clear that it is used in exactly the same way in the case of a god as in the case of a buffalo, a place, a dairy vessel, or other even meaner object.
Perhaps the clearest approach to an appeal to gods in the prayer is in the words at the end, in which the names of certain gods are mentioned followed by the words dthant idith emk tinenmd, “ for their sake may it be well for us."
Some light is thrown on the nature of these dairy formula: by a consideration of the incantations which are used in Toda sorcery. The following is one of several which I have recorded. It is employed by a sorcerer who wishes to injure one, richer than himself, who has not treated a request for assistance with the proper respect. ‘The words ran i—
Pithiotew Om idith, Teikirsim Tirshtim iqith, teu sath
udanddr; am midy nade udasmddr 5 if there be; his country county if there be; hisealf-sleep ‘so may an fr —thrgh pie pir mids ath on wily ud fuk thee
his buffaloes wings grow fly may; he I water drink as he alo wir un ma; — on mith ds fuk thm wbbhai iby on eirt
water drink may; I thirsty am as he also thirsty be may; I hungry pub Athn eirth mb; em mokhm darth fuk an mabhm itr ww8 ‘as he also hunger may ; my children cry as his children cry may 3 an tasmobh — ulm — pat pub an tarmokkm —biltm fbr md.
my wife ragged cloth wosr ax his wife ragged cloth wear may.
180 Toda Prayer.
representing a downward stage in the progress of the Toda religion. There is some reason to think (it is little more than surmise) that we have in the Todas an example of a people who have had a higher degree of civilisation than they now possess. It may be that some of the higher features of the Toda religion have disappeared; that with the great development of the ritual aspect, some of the higher aspects have suffered and that one of the features which has atrophied is prayer. As we have seen, it is in favour of this view that the part of the dairy formula which most closely resembles prayer is tending to disappear.
If the nature of the magical incantation of the Todas be held to afford indirect evidence that the dairy formula involves the idea of appeal to higher powers, there still remains the question whether this appeal is a supplication or a demand. In the case of the magical incantation, 1 have no information as to the mental attitude of the Toda sorcerer. I do not know whether he is asking the four gods to injure his enemy, or whether he imagines he can compel the gods to do what he wishes by merely using the formula. In the case of the dairy formula, I have also no clear information as to whether the dairyman is asking or compelling, but the way in which the people spoke of these formula gave me the general impression that they were asking benefits from the gods. There is no doubt that the Todas regard the gods as beings who have power to inflict punishment in the case of any infringement of the laws regulating the procedure of the dairy, and there can be little doubt that they believe the gods to be equally capable of conferring benefits and averting evil.
In addition to prayer and magical incantation, a third kind of formula probably exists. There is little doubt that people sometimes use forms of words which are regarded as having virtue in themselves without any idea of appeal to higher powers. The Indian mantra seems often to be a formula of this kind, The question arises whether the
kn Memoriam. FREDERICK YORK POWELL. 1850—1904-
‘Tue serious and rapid impairment of our beloved President's health, which was obvious to those who heard his Address in January last, prepared in some measure his friends for his un- timely end. Only in some measure, for it seemed a thing in- credible that a man of such splendid physique, and of such zest in life as lusty vigour imparts, would not pass to his grave full of years and honours. Dis afiler viswm. The honours are his; the years are denied him; he has died at the premature age of fifty- four, to the impoverishment of the world's stock of kindliness and learning.
An only son, whose mother survives him, his school life at Rugby was followed by matriculation as a non-collegiate at Oxford, where he was placed first-class in Law and Moder History. He became successively Law Lecturer, Tutor, and Student of Christ Church ; Oriel gave him a Fellowship; Glasgow University made him LL.D. and the Clarendon Press welcomed him as one of its most zealous and capable delegates. In 1894, twenty years after he had been called to the Bar by the Middle Temple, he accepted, at the call of Lord Rosebery, the Regius Professorship of Modern History at Oxford, which had been rendered vacant by the death of Mr. Froude. The “ outward and visible” results of this appointment are scanty. A slender treatise or two on Early English History, a goodly number of articles in Sactad England, in the Encyclopedia Britannica,and the Enyiish Historteal Review, and a heap of reviews in the Manchester Guardian and other high-class newspapers, fill the list. But, in collaboration with Professor Vigfiisson, whose death the big, tender-hearted comrade never ceased to mourn, he gave us, out of the lange store of his favourite study, Scandinavian history, the wonderful apparatus of
In Memoriam. 183
introduction and appendices which enrich the Corpus Paeticwns Boreade, while be had long had on the stocks a definitive edition of the Landndma doc (an historical work, gencrally known as the Book of Setuement), the completion of which his death makes doubtful. Multifarious interests filled and distracted a life into which little of method entered ; hence, unlike his predecessors in the chair, the non-production of any work of high interest and importance. An omnivorous reader, nothing seemed to escape the meshes of his net. He remembered most of what he read, forgetting in the process more than the ordinary student ever knows, and carrying his vast load of knowledge without parade. It was all and ever at the disposal of any inquirer in whom the sincere quest after truth was apparent, be he friend or stranger, aristocrat or anarchist. In fact, this readiness to impart all that he knew was alike his peril and his charm ; it took him off any scheme of con- secutive work; it made him the idol of the very miscellancous folk who crowded the Thursday night receptions of the most un- conventional and most delightful of Dons—a Don whose dress and demeanour and outspoken views were a protest against the stiffness and exclusiveness of university and clerical coteries, He passed without effort from topic to topic between which there was not the smallest relation ; from praise of George Meredith and Henry James and French poetry and French cathedrals to vivid narrative of famous fights, as of that between Sayers and Heenan ; from enthusiasms over Japanese prints to talk on the best sources of history, not of England alone, but of any country that might be named, till the long talks from “evening wore to morning.” As a young fellow he had helped Communist refugees. Stepniak was one of his closest friends. Let a man from oversea bring some story of adventure and peril undergone, and York Powell would feast him at the “high table” in the historic hall of ‘Christ Church, and then carry him off, with brief lookin at the “common room,” to his own den, whence would resound laughter that shook the walls within and sobriety without. Man of letters, be was, above all, man of action, and, in the denial to himself ‘of the thing that he loved most, he found.delight in the recital of deeds of the envied makers of history.
For the loss of so loveable a personality there is, there can be,
184 In Memoriam
no compensation, An aged mother, an orphaned daughter in whose future the father’s heart was wrapped up, are plunged in unavailing sorrow. In the thinning ranks of the friends who loved him “this side idolatry,” there is a gap that can never be filled. The influence which stimulated a host of pupils to the pursuit of knowledge and of lofty ideals has vanished. It is a memory which they will cherish, but what avails this to the number to whom that influence and guidance can never come? The pass- ing away of so nobly unselfish a nature, so well-equipped an intellect, made the more attractive by every quality that can endear a man to his fellows, is a source of abiding grief.
Epwarp Cuopp.
Piare HL.
A CORN-BABY ?
186 Collectanea.
Some Jewish FOLKLORE FROM JERUEALEM. (Read at Meeting, 17th December, 1903. Ante, p. 2.)
‘Tut Jews here have various methods closely resembling those of ‘the Outer Islands of the Hebrides for “ dodging ” the Powers of Evil. For example, when a sick person seems unable to die and unlikely to recover, they pray for him under a different name, using Isaac, for instance, if his name happens to be Benjamin, apparently on the theory that God will know who is prayed for, whereas it will perplex the Evil Spirit who has brought about his condition, so that when he enters the sick chamber to take possession of Isaac, he starts back in astonishment to find his old friend Benjamin, who is thus enabled to escape,
‘The story is current in Jerusalem that a certain Jew who had lost six wives in childbirth was anxious to propitiate the Angel of Death. When about to marry for the seventh time he bought a cow and tied her up outside his window, and then the marriage ceremony was performed between them, the ring being placed upon her horn, the contract of marriage being drawn up in due form. ‘This accomplished, he proceeded to matrimony with the girl of his choice, the cow was killed, her flesh distributed the poor, and the pair lived happy ever after and had a large family.
Many curious customs are connected with childbirth. The woman is at this time particularly exposed to the jealousy of Lilith and other “ Not-good Ones,” and in some households it is usual to attach verses from the Psalms to such spots as the Evil Ones would have to pass in gaining access to her: the window, chimney, door, and the curtains to her bed. It is, however, objected among the ultra-pious that it is wanting Jn respect to the Psalms to introduce them into a room ceremonially defiled.
‘The destroying angel on taking the life of a Jew, washes his knife in the water of six houses, so that on the occasion of a death every drop of water has to be thrown away in three houses, right and left; a serious loss where every pint of water has its definite
Collectanea. 187
money value. Last year (1901), when a water famine brought disease and death in its train, the custom became a really impor- tant social question,
‘Nail-parings (as in the Highlands) must be hidden in the cracks of the house-walls or burnt. Sometimes a Jewish woman will serve her hair or nail-parings in a pudding to be eaten by her husband, in order to increase his affection. Nails should be cut carly in the week so as not to begin to grow on the Sabbath.
Tris said that when a child dies, a plece of worsted, marked with the measures of his favourite playfellows, is put into his coffin, so that he may not be lonely, and so be tempted to call upon them to follow.
‘The “ conversionists," as the Jews call the missionaries, allege that the Jews believe in Moon-worship. As a matter of fact they have a certain ceremonial upon seeing the moon at seven days old, and in the open air, but it is fair to remember that they have special blessings not only for this but for many occasions; on drinking wine, on smelling sweet odours, on seeing the rainbow, &c, &e, On first seeing the new moon under the prescribed conditions, the Jew stands with one foot upon the other, and says, “Blessed be He who formed thee, blessed be thy Maker, blessed be thy Creator, blessed be thy Possessor.” ‘Then he skips three times, and adds, “ Fear and dread shall fall upon them by the greatness of thy arm, they shall be as still as a stone"; which he repeats twice. Some allege that he also repeats it backwards ; then he concludes with “David, the King of Israel, liveth and existeth.” After which he must salute the person he first meets.
‘The new moon, as with us, must not be looked at through the window. A reasonable explanation has been suggested in the fact mentioned in the Mishneh, that the evidence of a witness as to the appearance of the moon would not be taken if he first saw it through glass or reflected in water.
‘The Indulea, or Indulco, is a form of exorcism still practised in Jerusalem by the Spanish Jews (Sephandim) in extreme cases of such disease (madness, epilepsy, barrenness, loss of young children, &c.) as is regarded as incurable by ordinary methods. ‘There are two classes of Indulca, the great and the small,
‘The small is thus practised. The patient's room and the ad- Joining habitations are cleared out, cleaned, whitewashed, and decorated. All holy books are removed, and the patient is for-
188 Collectanea.
bidden to pray, to recite Holy Scripture, or to mention sacred words or names. The witch is then called in, and she prepares a little wheat, barley, salt, water, milk, honey, four or six eggs, and some sweetmeats or sugar. At midnight she mixes all these in- gredients together, and scatters some of the mixture round the sick-bed, on the threshold, and in the four corners of the room, reciting in a whisper as follows :
“My Lords, I beseech you to pity, compassionate, and have mercy upon the soul (or life) of your servant (or slave, if it be a woman) the patient (giving the name) the son (or daughter) of your maid (giving the mother’s name) and overlook his (or her) trespass; and if he (or she) have sinned, and done any evil to you, forgive and pardon his (or her) sins ; give him (or her) life, and restore his (or her) health and strength. (If to a barren woman, she adds), Open her womb and restore to her the fruits of her body. (If to those who lose young children), Give life to their sons and daughters, and let this honey (or sugar) be to sweeten your mouths and palates, the wheat and barley to feed your cattle and sheep, and the water and salt to establish peace, friendship, love, brotherhood, an everlasting covenant of salt between us and you.”
Here she breaks the eggs and pours the same in the aforemen- tioned places, kneels and prostrates herself, kisses the ground several times, and proceeds with these words :
“Here I offer you life for life, in order that ye may restore the life! of this patient.” This is continued or repeated for two more successive nights, and if the case is obstinate, for even seven or nine nights in succession.
If the patient cannot afford the necessary expense, or if the neighbours decline to leave the adjoining rooms, the witch may think it sufficient to go to a cistern, bath, or tannery, and there pour a little salt and water and pray as before, and say, “ Behold water and salt to be a covenant of peace between us.”
The Great Indulca only differs in being prolonged forty-five nights, the patient being required to dress in rich white garments, and the room to be handsomely decorated and well lit with wax candles. In addition to the ingredients above prescribed, there must be many savoury dishes, fruits, and spices.
The great influence upon which the Jews of Palestine depend
* Or his reason, or whatever may be the afifiction in question.
NECKLACE OF BLUE BEADS AND TWO EYE CHARMS,
(ROM JERUSALEM)
Th fece p. 189,
190 Collectanea.
and the blue beads fail of their object, there are still charms in the possession of the Rabbis which may avert ultimate catastrophe. ‘They are often suspended in a bag round the neck of the afflicted person. The following is one in common use. It will be seen by the enumeration that the mixing may be involuntary, and occa- sioned even by one’s nearest and dearest. The adjuration pre- ceding it is pronounced as the patient receives and is invested with the charm,
I adjure you, all kinds of evil eyes, a black eye, blue eye, hazel eye, yellow eye, short eye, long eye, round eye, broad eye, narrow eye, straight eye, hollow eye, deep eye, projecting eye, male eye, female eye, eye of wife and husband, eye of a woman and her daughter, eye of her relatives, eye of a bachelor, eye of an old man, eye of an old woman, eye of a virgin, eye of a maiden, eye of a widow, eye of » married woman, eye of a divorced woman, all sorts of evil eyes in the world, which looked and spake with an evil concerning N.
T command and adjure you by the Most Holy, Mighty, and High Eye, the only Eye, the white Eye, the right Eye, the open Eye, the most careful and compassionate Eye, the Eye that never slumbers nor sleeps, the Eye to which all eyes are subjected, the wakeful Eye that preserveth Israel, as it is written in Psalm exxi. 4: ‘Behold, He that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep,” and also as it is written, “The Eye of the Lord is upon them that fear Him, to those who trust in His goodness.” With that Most High Eye, I command and adjure you, all kinds of evil eyes, to depart, and to be rooted out and flee away to a distance, from N. and from all his household, and that you shall have no power whatever on N., neither by day nor by night, neither when awake nor in dreams, nor on any number of his two hundred and forty- eight limbs, nor on any of his four hundred and five veins, from this day forth Amen,
‘THe CuarM.
Nezah Selah. ‘Thou art my hiding place, Thou shalt preserve me from trouble : Thou shalt compass me about with songs of deliverance.” Selah. “He that dwelleth in the secret place of the Most High shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty.” Adam, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Enter Sini, Sansen, and Samenglorf. Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live. Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live. Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live. In the centre Psalm cxxi. is printed. The longer necklace figured on Plate V. is of a kind much treasured by Yemenite Jews, and never sold unless when, as now,
CHARM NECKLACES FROM JERUSALEM.
Th fare f 191.
192 Collectanea.
and the God of my fathers, to preserve this child from the evil eye, and sickness and all misfortune.”
IL. Reverse.—The letter 7 = He, for the name “ Jehovah,’ enclosing two hands symbolic of the priestly blessing (Numbers yi. 24). The central inscription is: “ Bless thee, 7 = (Jehovah’) and keep thee,” and underneath the word “ Jerusalem." The encircling legend is the blessing of Joseph (Gen. xlix. 22) = “Joseph is a fruitful bough, even a fruitful bough by a spring.” “ Ain.” Possibly the charm was made to be worn by a child named Joseph.
Rachel’s Tomb is on the road to Bethlehem, and this is a very good likeness of it, It will be remembered that she died in childbirth, and as her tomb is visible from Bethlehem one the better understands the reference to “Rachel weeping for her children." The tomb (restored by Sir Moses Montefiore) is of great antiquity, and on certain days one sees it surrounded by women, Jews, Christians, and Moslems, many of whom are offering prayers and vows in the hope of becoming mothers, others praying for the welfare of young children.
AG. FE
Notes on Miss Freer's Paper.
Ir is a somewhat dangerous procedure to call religious cere- monies “superstitions,” for then there will be no possible defini- tion for “superstition.” The outgrowth from or beyond the regular form of worship and the addition of principles not recog- nised by the ruling faith would appear to me to cover the ground, if we carefully abstain from confusing the one with the other. The so-called worship of the moon (p. 187) is an example in point. ‘There is not the remotest connection between the regular form of prayer to God as Creator of the moon and “ superstition,” for He is praised as in every other case and as on many other occa- sions. The renewal of the moon at the end of its evolution and complete disappearance is taken as an occasion for uttering a prayer, which is not by a single word directed to the moon. It must be remembered that the revolution of the moon is the basis of the religious calendar, hence the immense importance attached to its appearance and to the exact notation of that period, Connected with this calendaristic importance is the
Collectanea, 193
‘mystical Messianic idea ; henee the verse “ David liveth.” T can not enter into a detailed discussion of this complicated question, beyond that it has nothing whatsoever to do with “superstition,” and it docs not contain a single item of superstitious belicf or
practice.
The change of the name of a patient is part of the general system of ascribing the most potent value toa name, Readers of Ao/k- Lore have had the opportunity of studying the extremely suggestive article by Mr. Clodd on Rumpelstiltzchen, and on the mystical and symbolical value attached to names. The same idea is expressed in the change of the name of the patient, which is equivalent to a rebirth, and is expected to save the patient by endowing him with a new life-entity, not by deceiving the evil spirit who is his
enemy.
‘The ceremony described as an “ exorcism” is merely a “ pro- Pitiation ” or “disenchantment,” for it docs not drive out any malignant spirit. Nor can the person who pronounces the “ dis- enchantment” formula be called a “witeh,” for she does not refer in her practice to any connection with the “ Evil Ones.”"
‘The Evil Eye formula is borrowed from the Arabs, Miss Freer has evidently taken it fram the Jews who came from Yemen some thirty years ago after a terrible persecution they suffered at the hands of the Arabs when occupying Sanaa after their fight against the Turks. An absolutely identical formula bas been published ‘by me from Rumanian sources, which prove the extreme antiquity of this special form of “disenchantment.” It occurs also with slight variations in Assyrian tablets, and has been published by Lenormant and since then often by others.
‘The reference to Joseph in the amulet has a history of its own. It rests ultimately on the combination of two separate sets of ideas. In the blessing of Jacob (Genesis xlviii. 16), according to an old traditional interpretation of the Hebrew words, the
[' It is not expressly stated who ure the “My Lords” whom the witch addresses, but their mature may be inferred from the prohibition to pray, mention holy names, or recite Scripture. To serve other gods is of the very essence of the witch's crafi, a0 that Miss Goodrich Froer’s terminology here seems perfectly correct. But Dr. Gaster's criticiem of her application of the word “exorcism " to the ceremony seems justified, Exorcism is the banishment of spirits by the power of other mightier spirits ; the ceremony in question consists Sa pen el hin ie tang nee eos Ey
VOL. Xv,
194 Collectanea.
translation reads, not as in the Authorised or Revised, “let them grow into a multitude,” speaking of Joseph’s children, but “let them multiply like the fishes,” and it is further asserted that the evil eye has no power over the fishes, for they are protected by the sheen of the water. In every case where the effect of the evil eye is to be averted Joseph and this blessing are invoked, with the hope that the same result may happen now also to the afflicted one. It is a case of symbolical substitution.
The “hand” is an universal Oriental and Occidental sign for averting the influence of the evil eye (v. Jahn and Elworthy). The protection of a woman in childbirth against the attacks of Lilith and the formulas used on that occasion have been fully treated by me in the “ Charm of Two Thousand Years,” published in Folk-Lore vol. xi., pp. 129.
M. GasTER.
PeMBroxesuire Notzs. (Communicated through Mr. W. P. Merruk). Aw Oxp SourH Pemsrokesuire Harvest Custom.
“I7’s none used now, but when I were a young maid the farms was a deal bigger, and more com grown; there would be four and five men kep’ on a farm, beside day-labourers. There must be a foreman, maybe the farmer’s eldest son, maybe a hired man ; and he must take the lead in all things in the field. In harvest the foreman cut at the head, and the rest, reapers and binders, must keep time along with him. With neighbour-farms it would be a race, whiché one would first finish cutting corn. The fore- man would plan it out to finish in some corel, not for to be seen by the rest farms; then with the last handful he would make a wrach—leastways two wrachs. We called it by the Welsh name ; I don’t know, is there an English?” (I suggested “ wreath,” “posy”?) “No, not that ; it’s just a cry the Welsh have when they have finished a thing—they will say, ‘Wrach ! wrach !’ Now the foreman he must lay his wrach on the breid (swath) of the
Collectanea. 195
other all unbeknown. He will not go hisself, no, they would see him ; he will send a boy, anybody willing. He will disfigure (disguise) hisself, putting on the coat of another, so as if he shall be seen they shall say, ‘Oh, some stranger on a mestage !’ and no more thought about it. He will not go in by the gate; no, he will hop over the fence and creep through the standing corn, lay his wach on the breid, and off for dear life. If they catches him they will take him to their farm and shut him in the room under the stairs, that is dark always, and there he shall stop till they get together all the boots and shoes and clogs in the house, and he shall have clen every one afore he shall come out, Does he lay the wrach on the cut breid? No, in front, where the foreman shall come to it by cutting. The second wrach, yes, that is to go up to its own farm. Maybe the foreman will send it, but mostly he will take it hisself, and watch his time and pop in and lay it down and nobody see. They had a room in the big farms, not the kitchen, where they was used all to dine, with « lang table in, and benches. Mostly he would lay it on the table there 5 but if be seen his chance and nobody about, he would tie it to a crook over the table, and that was the grandest ; but should they catch him afore he laid it down, they would dash water upon him. Why for? Well, it was just a custom. Bur if a foreman could make his wrachs and get them both laid safe, that was great honour.”
My informant is a woman of about fifty, the daughter of a cooper. She lived in her youth on the borders of the Welsh- speaking district, but her name, Watkins, is unquestionably English. She has been in farmservice. I have seen the corm wrach that is brought home. It is a tightly tied bunch with the ‘stalks twelve or fourteen inches long.
‘The names of the places given me by B, Watkins as those where the has herself known the “ wrach” to be laid are all Welsh ones: Brydeth, near Solvach, not far from St. David's; then, nearer to the mountains, Penllan, Gellyole (pronounced Gethly-olly), and Liandicefn. Her mother had told her of a successful laying of ‘the wrach at the last-named farm.
"Twas t woman as done it. * I'll do it,’ she says’ So when abe comes to go into the ficld she strips off her gownd, and there abe was, look you, all in white—white petticoat, white bodice, and ‘over her bead, 1 cannot tel! was it an apern, but something white.
o2
196 Collectanea.
‘On she comes so stately as you please, and drops the wrach un- beknownst, and then she doesn't turn and run; no, she walks step by step apast them all and so out by the gate. And not one to lift foot nor hand, for they says, ‘Stop you, stop you! Look, look, look! Sure, 'tis a ghost!’ And so she come clean away. Ay, it made a good laugh after. That were in mother's time. I don’t know do they make the wrach there now.”
“ Piscon-Lep,” an Orp Prmuroxitssiim: Word.
“T can mind when I were a child, Uncle Day” (David, pro- nounced Daf-y) “he been down at night fishing in his coracle, and coming up the hill in the grey of the morning through the ficlds he gets into Lidget Snap—you knows which one that is— and round and round he goes in that field till he felt like one bewitched, for no such a thing could he find a way out; piscon- led they was used to call it or pisco-led it might bek——”
“ Pixie-led ?" I suggested, but she stuck to it
“ Piscomled, I believe it was. No, there's no meaning to it as T ever heard, it were just a word.
“ There's no talks of that, nor corpse-candles nor phantom funerals now. Why, when I were a girl—you knows that gate leading down to LlanShipping? Well, there was a headless woman sat spinning inside that gate! How come she there and no head to her? Oh, I never heard nothing, only there she were, You may be sure, if we youngsters was late coming home from Narberth, when we come to pass that gate, we run! I always did look in, all the same, But I never seen nothing. Lor, no! I don't believe in them things. I did then, though.
“The phantom funerals? Well, there was Evie Philips, he would have it that he seen old John Griffith his funeral, the night afore he died, going through the village at dead of night, horse and trap and mourners and all. People, they has spirits, we knows that, but a horse—you think a horse could? No, sure! But anyways a trap, it don’t have no spirit, so whiché way could it appear in a spirit-procession? No, I don’t hold to none of them things.”
A PEMBROKESHIRE CHARM,
“Toothache is a bad thing to cure ; would you like to know a
charm for it? I can tell you one. You know Dinah was home
198 Collectanea.
When first we came here “ New Year's water” was in vogue ; some daring spirit among the boys would hide behind a door, mug and sprig of box in hand, and dash out, sprinkling the water in my face ; the joy was to catch one unawares, and in this, as you will guess, they were invariably successful.
There was an old Epiphany observance which I saw but once. A little boy, with coloured paper streamers pinned to his cap, brought in a cage a wren, caught for the purpose and afterwards let go, and repeated something about
Come and make your offering
To the smallest, yet the king, of which I could learn no more, for he was inaudible outside the door, and within it silent from bashfulness.
The girls used to choose a May-Day queen and bring her round with garlanded hat, the others with posies and singing ; the pennies given were spent on a small feast of bread and jam and “lollies,” eaten out of doors. But this is falling out of use.
Harvest suppers are not given, there being no employers of regular labour ; but each family takes a day at the sea (eight or nine miles off) when the busy time slackens, and invites those who have given help in the field, not owed ; for every cottager pays in labour for the privilege of planting one or more rows of potatoes in the farmer’s land, the farmer ploughing the ground and carting home the crop. When allotments were offered here they were refused, all preferring this very feudal custom.
A bride may or may not have a bridesmaid, but the bridegroom never attempts to pull through without the support of a best man, called, whatever his trade, “the tailor.”
“ Why is the mason not here to-day?” “He is gone tailor to Benjy the Bush.”
These are not a proverb-loving people, but here is a pithy allusion to the spoiling of an only child: “One child, three fools.” And this of second childhood: “ Once a man and twice a child, and the last child is the worst.” A delicate way of saying that a man drinks: “Too fond of lifting his little finger.”
Mz S. Crark.
Robeston Wathen, Narberth, Pembrokeshire,
April, 1903.
200 Collectanea.
situated at the junction of three counties, Lincoln, Northampton, and Rutland, though it actually lies in the two former, Possibly the men of these shires anciently met by the Welland co observe traditional rites intended to secure the prosperity of their terri- tories.
According to legend, however, the sport was instituted as late as the reign of King John by Earl Warren, who looking down from his castle saw two bulls fighting for a cow in the meadows below, when a butcher, the owner of one of the bulls, set Iris mastiff on the beast tu force it into the town, which action caused: all the butchers’ dogs of the place to run together in pursuit of the animal, to the high diversion of the earl (Butcher's Stamford, 1646).
At the beginning of the eighteenth century the éuflards who chased the bull had “uncouth and antic dresses.” And in 2789 a bull was driven into the town by a woman named Anne Blades, who was attired in a smock-frock. “This,” observes the author of the Chronology of Stamford, p. 52, “appears to have been the origin of the Bull-woman, who unti} 1828 used on the morning of the 13th of November to dress in blue from top to toe, carry a blue bull-stick, and collect moncy from the inhabitants, which was appropriated to the purchase of the bull and her own benefit.” But notwithstanding this opinion, it may be held that the Bull- woman was an old institution, for at Mere, in Wiltshire, is a spot called the Bull-ting, where bulls were baited till 1820 or there- abouts,” and an old gentleman who died about 1891 asserted that he could recollect 2 woman named Dolby, who was the last person who rode the bull to the place for the purpose of being baited. She was called “Bull-riding Betty” (The Antiguary, vol, xxvii, p. 235, June 1893). Hence it may be concluded that Anne Blades and her successors were not the only women who acted as officials on such occasions.
A carefully-compiled and detailed account of the Stamford bull- running, collected from various sources, is given by Mr. Burton in Old Lincolnshire, vol. i. (1883-1885), from whom the following information is quoted :
“Hlogsheads were placed at various points, round which the bullards might manceuvre when hard pressed by the furious beast, and often unfortunate were they who could not fall back upon one of these redoubts.” So fond were the people of the
202 Collectanea.
ford bull was a prominent figure are extant. . the mode of expressing the local sentiment was not confined to canvas. We have seen how members of Parliament hit upon the fictile art in the shape of ‘bull-pitchers.’ Mr. Snarth, chemist, Red Lion Square, Stamford, has a drinking-vessel ..... made of part of a horn of the bull that was run in 1799.” Among other ornamentation this vessel shows the initials of Anne Blades, the famous bull-woman, and the lady herself wearing an elaborate crown. Another memento . . . . is a pair of beautifully polished sharp-pointed horns . . . . in the possession of Mr. H. Johnson, of Rutland Terrace, Stamford.” These horns “ were presented to Mr. Haycock, an enthusiastic bullard, who was indicted at Lincoln assizes for ‘ riot’—a term which the law applied to bull- running.”
I have not succeeded in discovering whether bull-baiting and bull-running, as distinguished from bull-fighting of the Spanish type, was ever a favourite amusement in continental Europe. Could foreign instances be studied some light might be gained as to the origin of the sport.
The Lay of Havelok the Dane, a poem of great local interest to Lincolnshire people, contains references to bull-baiting. When Havelok was knighted by Earl Ubbe great rejoicings were made. Harping, piping, romance-reading, wrestling, butting with spears, and other pastimes were indulged in. Moreover—
“Der mouhte men se be boles beyte, ‘And be bores, with hundes teyte.”—II. 2330, 2331.
And again, a little later we read of Godard—
“Dat he rorede as a bole, [pat wore parred in an hole With dogges forto bite and beite.”—Il. 2438, 2439, 2440.
No doubt many other allusions to this diversion might be found in the literature of the Middle Ages.
Perhaps I should add that Stamford had two bull-rings. Speak- ing of these, Mr. Burton says that bull-baiting fell off in the town « pari passu with bull-running.”
Manet Peacock,
204 Collectanea,
*. . .. From the foregoing facts it would seem possible that the origin of the Sidoko among these tribes arose from some sobriquet that had been given to them ; and that in course of time, as their superstitions and devotional feelings became more: these tribal symbols became objects of veneration and superstitibus awe, whose favour was to be propitiated, or malign influence averted, by certain rites and ceremonies, more-or less elaborate, with ablutions and purification, with solemn dances and singing, the kindling and distribution of the sacred fire, and placing ashes on the forehead as a sign of grief.” (MS. 819, 820.)
From MS. work entitled Zhe Races of South Africa, their Migrations and Invasions, showing the Intrusion of the Stronger Races into the Hunting-Grounds of the ancient Abatwa or Bush- men, the Aboriginal Cave-dweilers of the Counery ; by (the late) George W. Stow, I.GS, F.R.G.S,, of the Geological Surveys of Griqualand West and the Orange Free State. ‘Two vols., with ‘Tribal Genealogies, Maps, and TMustrations Quoted by kind permission of Miss L. C. Lloyd, author 4 Short Account of Further Bushman Material Coileted, (Third Report concerning Bushman Researches). D. Nutt, 1889. (Ep.)
On this Mr, Lang comments as follows :
“The myths here given, and the remarks of Mr. Stow, antici- pate my own hypothesis that group-names, given from without, were the germs of totemism. But the incidence is of no service to my argument. Zivbaf Sidoho represent the extreme not the primal form, of totems, and are probably the survivals of the totem of the chief fora? totem groups in a tribe reckoning descent in the male line, as among the Arunta; a method remote from the primitive mode of transmitting totems by female descent. Sideko could not arise in the manner suggested by the myth, among an advanced agricultural African people.
“may add that the name of the Arunta friée means “ White Cockatoos,” so given by Mr. Currin 1886. We do not hear that the whole tribe adores the White Cockatoo.”
Mr. N. W. Thomas sends us the following note =
“The myth is clearly post-totemic and setiological, and has no value as evidence of origin. It may be compared with that of the Banoukou kin of the Baperi given by Merensky (Beitri p. 133m.) Dr. J. G. Frazer (Aan, rg0r, No. 111) has quoted
206 Collectanea.
FOLKLORE OF THE NEGROES OF JAMAICA.
I. (Continued from p.94. See Prefatory Note, p. 87.)
Ir an owl screech over a house three times some one in that house will die. To prevent this you must cry out “Pepper and salt for your mammy.”
If your dog howls during the day or night it sees a duppy, and some one in that house will die.
If a scissors or knife drop from you and stick upright in the ground you will have a strange visitor.
If you are walking along a road through a wood and hear a noise as of something cracking you should look back, for there are two duppies following you, a good and a bad one; and the good one is trying to attract your attention, and if you look back it shows you are the good one’s friend, and no harm will come to you. :
When a person dies the water in which the body is washed must be put on one side, and as the funeral leaves the house it must be dashed after the hearse, otherwise the duppy will haunt the house.
To prevent a horse winning a race, collect the dirt from the hoof and wrap it up with assafcetida in a cloth tied with the wild slip plant. Put this under a very heavy weight, and the horse will be sure to lose the race. If the owner of the horse, however, collects the dirt first, the charm will not work, provided he throws the dirt away on the day of the races.
To take off a duppy, let the person on whom it is set sit on a Bible and jump three times over a fire. A goat or some other animal’s blood must be shed on the fire and the flesh partaken of by all present.
Do not put your hat on a bed, for misfortune will surely over- take you.
If the blinds of a jalousie drop in a house about mid-day, duppies are in the house and are then leaving ; it also denotes that you will have visitors.
If you have a death in your house turn all the looking glasses to the wall or cover them, for if the image of the dead be reflected it will cause another death in the family.
208 Collectanea.
If you wish a visitor to go away, take a broom and lean it up behind a door and sprinkle salt on it, and he will leave directly.
If a large blackbeetle fly into the house, alight on the floor, and fly off again, you will hear good news ; if it remains on the floor, it portends something bad.
If a flock of blackbirds fly over a house and one alights on the roof, some one in that house will die.
If the limb of any tree near a house suddenly breaks off, it is a sure sign of death in the household.
If any one sees a ghost and speaks of it immediately, the ghost will hurt him.
If peas are planted on a grave, the spirit of the dead person cannot rise to harm any one.
If your lose you wife, the young lady that put the crape on your hat will be your wife.
To make a duppy laugh, show it a firestick.
Ifyou want a person to sleep, make a cotta (a kind of pillow made of old soft cloth, or plaintain bark, very small) and put it under his head and stick two black pins in it, and he will sleep until you awake him.
If you meet a duppy and you wish to know whether it is good or a bad one, say, “ Jesus, the name high over all,” and if it is a good one it will help you to sing it, if bad one it will run away.
If you want to see duppies, take the water from a dog’s eye and rub yours with it.
Never sit at the threshold of a door at twelve o'clock, for the duppies will walk over and injure you.
If you are troubled by duppies, sprinkle sand before your door at night.
If you meet a funeral and want to see a ghost, run before it, stoop down and look between your legs, and you will see the ghost sitting on the coffin.
If you light your pipe at night do not throw the match on the ground, or duppies will take it up and trouble you.
If you meet a funeral you must take off your hat, or you will be sure to see the ghost.
If you and a dog are walking at night, never let the dog walk behind you, or a duppy will knock you down.
If you are walking by day or at night and feel a sudden heat, a ghost is there.
210 Collectanea.
Tf the eyes dance, something is going to happen that will cxuse you to laugh or to cry according as it is the right or the left, Tf both, then the person expects to do both.
Tf the cars ring, that is if there is a sort of buzzing in them, the Person is going to hear some news, bad or good, according as it is the left or right ear.
Tf the lips twitch, you may expect to kiss somebody soon.
When the palm of the hands itch, one is either about to receive money or to pay away some, according as it is the left or the right. If both, then he may expect to do both.
The itching of the soles of the feet betokes a journey.
Whenever a spider's web gets across one’s face, especially in the night, it is a sign that spirits are present.
Sneezing is always a token of luck toa woman. ‘his luck is poet pe bat iacooraing nt her ne ae the sneezer does or does not
Goo or bad Task is alee bobolecod by he bag oA or left foot.
When going out to receive money never return to the house after you have once left it, or you will not get it.
A child possessing small ears is sure to be poor, while one possessing large is sure to be rich.
Tf an infant is born with a caul, it will be able to see ghosts,
Relating to the House,
The opening of an umbrella in a house is uncanny ; it brings bad luck.
Tf a cock comes in and crows, it is a sign that misfortune is about to befall some member of the family.
‘The eating of the feet (the soles) by mice during sleep is an omen of a coming calamity.
Tf bats or birds enter the house, it is a sign that some stranger or a loved one will shortly visit it.
Tf an owl flies over the house, ora John Crow is seen near it after dark, a dire calamity may be expected.
‘The cracking of the house in the breeze is an ill omen, and the inmates must look out for trouble.
If a pair of scissors or a knife or a fork drops and sticks upright, a stranger will soon pay the house a visit,
212 Collectanea.
going to have some quarrel or other, or somebody is going to do him an injury. If he overcomes the difficulty in his dreams he will be victorious in the end.
‘The falling down or division of a house and the breaking off of a green branch of a tree is a doleful prognostication of coming death.
If trees shoot and grow, an infant will be born whose life will be a happy one.
Miscellaneous. >
Tt is not good to give away handkerchiefs, scissors, knives, pins, or needles. Ifa friend makes a present of any of these articles to a friend there will a rupture between them.
The breaking of a mirror betokens seven years of misery.
When a funeral is passing never bend your head down and look between your legs. The dead will break your neck for you,
Wakes and ninth nights are very common. Even in Kingston the practice is kept up by fairly intelligent persons. It may truth- fully be said, however, that the majority only do these “sitting up” business as a matter of mourning the loss of the departed ; but it is affirmed that many old people have the custom of spreading the bed and setting water, &c., for the reception of the “duppy,” who is sure to come at twelve midnight, They take good care also next morning to empty the vessels of the water that had been placed in them the evening beforc, and other foolish and superstitious ceremonies.
c,
Iv.
In all ages of the world’s history, from the ages of antiquity until the present time, we find that a great drawback to the people’s welfare and prowess is their superstition. It was to be found in all ranks and grades of society, from the peasant's fire- side, among sailors and soldiers alike, even in the mansions of the rich and great; and in many cases their superstitions ruled their will, Even at the present age, with our advance of civilisation on previous ages, there are incidents which happen
Collectanea. 213
frequently enough and yet are looked upon as signs of coming events. Of these the following are well known.
‘The breaking of a green bough without any external force, the flying of crows after dark, the lowing of cows at night, and Fats eating your fingers or clothes, all these are said to be sure indication of death or some such serious catastrophe. Besides these there are many which signify events of a less doleful nature, such as the following,
Ara iy feed re. omidege sOculd toch onl. GR bleak and wet day, the couple are said to be sure to live a miserable life; on the other hand, should it be a fine and quiet day, they may expect to live a very peaceful and happy life. Again should several persons be shaking hands together and one should cross over another, be sure one of the party will soon get married. Tt is said to be unlucky to marry on your birthday, as it prognosticates an unhappy marriage life. Should any individual five to his or her lover a pair of scissors, a pocket knife, a hand- kerchief, or a single pin, some unhappy affair will take place and result in their estrangement. Another is that if one should open an umbrella in a house, sit on a table, or put his hat on a table, he will never get married. ‘Then there are some which relate to the amassing of fortune, Should you have a large pair of cars it ts believed you will eventually become very rich, whilst a small pair indicates just the contrary. Also if you are travelling, and on your way as you are nearing your destination you should strike what is called your “good foot,” you are most likely to succeed in whatever undertaking you are going about. Ayain, should your right palm itch and you rub it against your pocket, you are sure to get some money in a short time, while the itching of your Teft palm indicates your spending money.
There are many others which are said to signify various illusions, of which the following may be mentioned. The man who at an early age drinks out of a pot will never grow a beard. If you show your money to a new moon you will never be out of cash, If you should happen to peel an orange without breaking the rind you will soon get a new suit of clothes. If two persons begin to tay the same thing at once (unintentionally) they will die together. Te is not good to throw anything outdoors at night, as you may hit some spirit. If you should scrape your finger nails you will become very poor. If yoy throw up a cat in the air and it
214 Collectanea.
happens to fall on the two front feet you are sure to die like a dog. If two fowls put their heads together for some time they are said to be talking, and this signifies the arrival of strange visitors. If your dogs howl at night there are ghosts in your yard, and if you do not wish them to come in the house put some grains or pebbles on your step ; they will try to count them, but can never count beyond three. Another most ridiculous is that if you do not throw out some of your punch at Christmas you will
be stoned by angry ghosts. D.
(To be continued.)
GREEK AND Cretan EpipHany Customs.
Ar Epiphany a priest goes in procession to a spring, river, cis- tern, or to the sea, and immerses a cross three times. At the same time a white dove is released. The cross is fetched out by a man who dives for it. The whole custom is now explained as a commemoration of Christ’s baptism in Jordan.
In an Epiphany song recorded in "Zyypappa Mepwodudy, ix., 341, the water with which Christ is baptised is regarded as con- nected with rain magic, and we may probably interpret the custom above mentioned as a rain charm.
In Crete the cross is covered with leaves and flowers (¢ Abbott, Macedonian Folklore, p. 119), but it is only used for making the sign of the cross over the sea, a silver cross being actually im- mersed.
R. M. Dawkins.
216 Correspondence.
d'un certain moment il aura lieu de telle fagon et non de telle autre. Mais mon assertion ne porte que sur ce cas particulier. Et des changements de totems restent possibles dans d'autres conditions comme celles dont il est question dans le Tome I. de PAnnée Sociologique. J’ajoute que méme ces changements r’ont jamais lieu, A mon sens, par mesure législative.
Jai, il est vrai, comparé un changement de totem a un change- ment d’éme. Mais ces changements d’ames n’ont rien d’impossible (pour ’homme primitif) dans des conditions déterminées. Seule- ment, ils ne sauraient avoir lieu par décret ; or, c’est tout ce que signifiaient les quatre ou cinq mots incriminés par M. Lang. Leur sens est trés clairement déterminé par tout le contexte comme je viens de le montrer. En tout cas, aprés les explications qui précédent, appuyées sur des textes, il ne saurait y avoir de doute sur ma pensé¢e, et je considére par suite le débat comme clos.
E. DurkHem
[My difficulty is to understand how, if “the totem is not a thing which men believe they can dispose of at will, at least while totemic beliefs are still in vigour,” men did dispose of it at their will, when, on Dr. Durkheim’s theory, they abandoned their old, and chose new totems @ volonté (L’Annbe Sociologique, i, p. 6, v., p. 110). This point appears to me to need elucidation.
A. Lanc.]
ADDITIONAL VARIANTS OF THE FATHER AND SON COMBAT ‘THEME.
In a notice of my book on the Epic Theme of a Combat between Father and Son in Folk-Lore, vol. xiv. p. 307, M. Gaidoz has called attention to two variants which had escaped my notice. To these I should like to add one or two more, the first of which. comes from the Sandwich Islands. It is told of Umi, one of the famous monarchs of Hawaiian traditional history. According to Fornander,! the story is as follows :
' Fornander, Abraham, Ain Account of the Polynesian Race, vol. ii , p-74- In this case as in the next I have quoted the stories almost word for word.
Correspondence. 217
Liloa’s first wife was Pines, a Maui chiefess, with whom he had a son, Hakau, and a daughter Kaputini, Later in life while travelling near the borders of the Hamakua and Hilo districts he spied a young woman named Akahiakuleana, with whom he fell in love and seduced. ‘The offspring of this liaison was a son whom the mother named Umi. On parting from Akahiakuleana Liloa gave her the ivory clasp of his necklace, his feather wreath, and his mavo or waistcloth,) and told her that when the child grew up, if it was a boy, to send him with the tokens to Waipio, and he would acknowledge him. The boy grew up with his mother and her husband, a fine, hearty, well-developed lad, foremost in all sports and athletic games of the time, but too idle and lazy in works of husbandry to suit his plodding stepfather.
When Umi was nearly a full-grown young man his stepfather once threatened to strike him as punishment for his continued idleness. ‘The mother, however, averted the blow, and said to her husband, “Do not strike him ; he is not your son; he is your chief.” She then revealed the secret of his birth, and produced from their hiding place the keepsakes which Liloa had left with her. The astonished stepfather stepped back in dismay, and the mother furnished Umi with means and instructions for the journey to Waipio. When he arrived there he proceeded to the royal mansion In accordance with his mother’s instructions, but contrary to the rules of etiquette observed by strangers or in- ferior visitors, instead of entering the courtyard by the gate he leaped over the stockade, and instead of entering the mansion by the (front) door he entered by the back door, and went straight up to where Liloa was reclining and sat himself down in his lap ‘Surprised at this sudden action Liloa threw the young man to the ground, and, as he fell, discovered his mado and his ivory clasp ‘on the body of Umi, Explanations followed, and Liloa publicly acknowledged his son.
The resemblance of this Hawaiian story to the New Zealand ones is very striking. The hostile encounter results from the breaking of the taboo, only in this particular tale there is even more of an actual struggle, While there is little more than an altercation of words in the Maori variants, in this case the father throws his son to the ground, and the sight of the tokens alone
4 Tn another version he gives her his dagger instead of the feather wreath.
2 8 Correspondence.
prevents further violence. It will be noticed the regular formula feature of the tokens is more developed in this story than in the ‘ones from New Zealand.
‘The next story is curious, and perhaps can hardly be called a variant of the theme. ‘There is no actual fight, but the son does seek the father, and the latter failing to recognise him, and boding no good to himself from the meeting with a stranger, flees pre- cipitately. The tale comes from Rotuma,? an island in the Pacific, where the natives, who are of mixed Papuan stock, have come into frequent contact with Polynesians from Tonga, Samoa, and other islands. It might be mentioned that the women are free to marry whom they please, and ft is their duty to attract to their Aoag men who will enter and become a part of it. Usually all overtures are made by the girl.
The legend, as given by Mr. Gardiner, says that a certain Pilhofu had a son whose name was Tokaniua, and whom be left fn Niuafoou when he first returned to Rotuma. After a time Tokariua, who had become a great warrior, came over to Rotuma to search for his father, from whom he wanted help ; he journeyed in a large double canoe and landed at Soukama. . . . . he first meets a girl called Leanfuda, whom he asks if she has seen his father. She refers him to Rosso ti Tooi, who tells him that he must ask Fetutoumal, a man living at ‘Tarasua. He
aos te ene) ne ey ae told that his father i is at Upsese, a stone in front of Teukoi point, combing his hair. Further, he is directed that if he desires to see his father he must quictly roll this stone back. But when near Upsese Tokaniua has to walk across the sand, and making a noise is heard by Pilhofu, who at once takes to flight. Tokaniua pursues, but Pilhofu dives through a rock, and Tokaniva in following has great difficulty in stretching himself out sufficiently to squeeze through. But Pilhofu has tamed himself into a stone, with the exception of one of his big toes, which Tokaniua seizes, and a conversation results.
4 J. Sunley Gardiner, “The Natives of Rotuma,” J: 4. Sy vol. 99 pp. 508-9.
Correspondence. 219
Tokaniua ? “1 ave done something you must help me in, We have been playing at throwing spears at bananas in Niuafoou. I haye hit nine and I must hit the tenth to win. You must help me." (At the same time a waterspout comes and drops both in Niuafoou.)
Pithofu: “Take me to where you have got to throw and bury me there. Your opponents will throw first, but as Iam a stone their spears will not stick in me or hurt me. When you throw, though, look at my left eye, which I will open, and there your spear will stick.”
‘The story goes on to tell of the spear-throwing, in which ‘Tokaniua follows his self-sacrifieing father’s advice. As will have been noticed, nothing is said about the mother. Another legend given by Mr. Gardiner speaks of her and the grandparents, [na way it is a variant of the story just quoted. Curiously enough it has much to say about hostility between father and son, only in this case there is no lack of recognition. The father simply makes desperate attempts to get rid of an undesirable child.
Another story destitute of formula features, but this time con- taining an actual tragedy, occurs in Niedrischu Widewuts
‘The hero, on his way to the land of the Zemgalians, is warned bya bird that when he arrives there a hare will run through the castle garden. This bare is the son of the old king, and will be slain by the lattcr unless some one interferes. He who does this ‘will be turned to stone up to his knees. The prophecy is ful- filled. Widewut warns the father as he is about to kill his child and receives the predicted punishment,
Again, it seems to me that the story of Theseus and his father ABgcus is really a very fair example of the theme. Algeus comes to Troezene and makes pregnant Aéthra, daughter of King Pittheus. When be departs he tells her that he has hidden a sword and a pair of sandals beneath a huge rock. Ifa boy is born, when be becomes old and strong cnough, he is to lift the rock, take the tokens, repair to Athens, and claim Aigeus as his father. Atthra gives birth to Theseus, and in due time the lad carries out his father's behests, On arriving at Athens, however, Medea, who is now the wife of Aigeus, fearing that she will lose her influence if
| Niedrivkn Widewuts, Epopte Latavicnne, 1. Wisseadorif de Wissukuok, Rewue des Tradivions Populaires, vol. xi, pp. 548°9.
220 Correspondence.
‘Theseus is acknowledged by his father, persuades the latter with her calumnies to present a cup of poison to the boy. ‘The tragedy is averted, however, by Atgeus discovering Theseus’ identity by means of his old sword.
At the time of publishing my book I overlooked the conjecture of Mr. George Henderson that in one of the versions of the Irish saga of the feast of Bricriu, Sualdam the father of Cuchullin was the person who tested that hero’s courage. This suggestion is interesting and quite plausible ; we have the father fighting with his son for the same reason in other variants of the tale,
Nearly all the previous lists of variants have included of hostile encounters between other relatives than father and son. As L have already said, I think that these should be kept apart, as they form a class by themselves. Those who are interested in them will find a rich field in the popular literature of the Balkan Peninsula and Modern Greece celebrating the exploits of Haiducks and Klephts. In the Servian and Bulgarian songs we have some interesting combats between Marko Kralievitch and his sister's son,
Lastly, I should like to call attention to an article entitled Die inanische Heldensage bei den Armeniern’ by Chalatiang, in which the writer has indicated another variant, one of the heroes of which is Bourzé, Here we meet once more with the marriage away from home, and in fact, the direct influence of the Sohrab and Rustem tale is evident. The great popularity of the Sohrab and Rustem episode in the Shak Mameh, caused it to be imitated in the later Persian epics, which form a Rustem cycle. In the Tahangir Namek, Rustem fights with his son Tahangir. Recog- nition prevents a tragedy. (Reference én note, Ethe, Mewpersische Literatur, p. 234, in Geiger-Kuhn, Grendriss der iranischen Philologie, I. Band.) Yn the Bourso Namek, Rustem fights with Bourzo, son of Sohrab (Noldeke, Das iranische Nationalepos, p. 209, Grundriss, IT. Band).
Murray A. Porrer.
» Zeitickrisy des Vereént fiir Volkstumde, vol. xiv, ps 4%.
REVIEWS.
Census oF InpIA, 1901. General Report by H. H. Risuey and E.A. Garr. Calcutta, 1903. 3 vols. Price 18s.
‘Tue report of the results of the Census of India for rgot pre~ pared by Messrs, Risley and Gait is a most important contribution to our knowledge of the religions and ethnography of the Empire. Mr. Risley, owing to his deputation on other duties, was unable to complete the report. His place was taken by Mr, Gait, who had recently compiled an excellent report on the Census of Bengal, and he, in spite of the obvious difficulties of the situation, has brought the work to a close in a most satisfactory way,
Perhaps the most valuable portion of the report is the admirable disquisition on the Indian dialects by Dr. G, A. Grierson, who has for some years been engaged on the Linguistic Survey. He works out in detail the interesting theory, originally formulated by Dr. Hoerle, that there were at least two Indo-Aryan invasions of India, one preceding the other, by tribes speaking different but closely connected languages. The later body of invaders entered the Panjab like a wedge, and forced their predecessors outwards in three directions—east, south, and west. ‘The inner and later group thus includes the Western Hindi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Panjabi, and the Himalayan dialects, while the outer and earlier division is represented by languages like Kashmiri, Sindhi, Marathi, Oriya, and Assamese.
‘The chapters on Religion and Ethnography are, in the main, the work of Mr. Risley, and are,as might have been expected, interest- ing and suggestive. Tf any criticism of the method may be per- mitted, it may be said that the elaborate dissertations on the history and general principles of Animism and Fetishism are out of place in a report like this. What we want from the Indian observer is
Reviews. 223
a simple record of fact; and theorising on these facts may better be left to the arm-chair philosopher of Europe. In dealing with | Fetishism Mr. Risley records as a curiosity the worship of office- boxes and ink-pots by the orderlies who carry the Government records to Simla. He might have said that this is the common form of worship of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning, which is carried out in this way in every village school of Bengal.
‘The survey of the multitudinous religions which prevail through- out the Peninsula is careful and interesting. Jainism, we now know, is not a development of Buddhism; on the contrary, both these sects arose independently about the same time, and repre- sented a reaction against Brahmanic monopoly of the ascetic orders. An interesting account is given of what is supposed to be a survival of Buddhism in Bengal in the form of Dharma worship. It seems doubtful, however, how far this is due to Vaishnava influence, which itself drew much of its inspiration from Buddhism. In the appendix to this chapter will be found a valuable account of the beliefs of the animistic tribes of Bengal.
The chapter on Caste, Tribe, and Race brings together such a mass of material and theory on the ethnography of the country as to make any analysis of it within a limited space impossible. Every student of the subject must consider itasa whole. Scientific opinion in Europe scems to be gradually accepting the conclusion that hitherto excessive stress has been laid on cerebral measure- ments as a test of race, and that the anthropometry of the future must take account of a much wider collection of physical measure ‘ments than those on which Mr. Risley bases his conclusions,
‘The discussion of the physical characteristics of the people of India is followed by a most instructive dissertation on their division into castes and tribes. There is, perhaps, nothing very startling jin the results of the inquiry, but the student has here placed at his disposal a mass of sociological facts of the highest interest, which were up to the present inaccessible in a readable form.
‘The final result of the investigation may be thus summarised, ‘There are seven main physical types in India, of which the Dravidian alone is possibly indigenous. The Indo-Aryan, Mon+ goloid, and Turko-Iranian types are, in the main, of foreign origin, The Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian, and Scytho-Dravidian are formed by the crossing of foreigners with the Dravidians. This crossing incvitably resulted from the physical seclusion of
224 Reviews.
the Peninsula, where the invaders, except perhaps the first Indo- Aryans, brought few women with them, and took women of the country to wife. Tribes and castes are subdivided into end- ogamous, exogamous, and hypergamous groups. Of the exoga~ mous groups many are totemistic, and both totemism and exogamy may be traced to the general law of natural selection. The Indian theory of caste was probably derived from Persia. Its origin is Patera ener deers rte aero > bably the correspondence between certain caste
bspt fhe bephdunpesaliihectecNareahas stocks of different colour ; lastly, the influence of fiction.
These results may, of course, be modified by the special ethno- graphical survey now in progress, Meanwhile the present report may be accepted as furnishing a compendium of valuable informa- tion on a most tangled problem of cthnology and sociology. In the third volume will be found a collection of monographs on the more interesting tribes and castes, which have formed the material ‘on which the general survey has been prepared. Some of these have previously been printed, but others supply new and valuable
material. ‘W. Crookes,
‘Tue Essentia, Karik, By Duptey Kipp. With 100 full- page illustrations from photographs by the Author. London: A.&C. Black. 1904. Pp. xv 436. Price 18s, net.
Ir the study of anthropology can be popularised in England by the issue of works whose superb illustrations alone would make the book interesting to every lover of art, Mr, Dudley Kidd deserves well of the Cinderella of sciences. Not only has he produced a work illustrated in a way that one only expects in official publications, where cost is only a secondary consideration {for examples of which we have to look beyond the shores of England), but he has accompanied it by a text which is popular in the best sense of the word, It is a lifelike character-sketch of our black fellow-subjects, based, as all such works, if they are to be successful, should be based, on long personal experience.
Reviews. 225
Mr. Kidd tells us in his preface that he has not approached his subject from the anthropological point of view, but from that of ‘broad human interest. He has none the less succeeded in pro- ducing a book which will appeal to every lover of folklore from its first page to its last. He has, itis true, consulted many works: in piecing together his mosaic, and we are unfortunately often left in a state of uncertainty as to what is based on Mr. Kidd’s personal testimony and what he has learnt from other English works, a list of which is given at the end of the book, with instructive notes on their value as authorities, In defence of the comparative absence of references Mr. Kidd explains that he has been unable to trace many statements to their original source, and bas therefore not stated from what source he himself derived them. It is unfortunate that the share of each author in the work before us is not duly labelled. Let us hope that in a second edition a contribution to science will also be among the author's objects.
The term Kafir has, as Mr. Kidd is aware, no i ‘significance, and merely means infidel (f¢., a disbeliever in Mahom- medanism). He has therefore no scruple in extending the mean- ing of it to include, not only all Bantu people, but also Hottentots and Bushmen. The latter, however, occupy but a small portion ‘of the book.
It is but natural that in a popular work we find no exhaustive discussion of any of the burning questions of anthropology which are raised perhaps without a knowledge that they have been the subject of much controversy. We read for cxample that Mornmo is the god of the Bechuana, but there is no hint that the author hhas heard of the view which makes Barimo, ancestral spirits, the original object of Bechuana worship, such as it was, and assigns to the singular of this word, Morimo, at any rate in the sense of God, a Christian origin. (But on this point see Nature, vol. xlvi, p. 79.) Of Unkulunkulu on the other hand we read that he is probably the generalised ancestor, so to speak, of the race, The Zulus go back in their genealogy about five genera- tions, and then Unkulunkulu makes his appearance in the list. The author supposes that no Zulu can remember the honorific names in his own family for more than five generations, and so gives this mame to all oldcr ancestors. The genealogy of tribal chiefs is carried back further, but here too we reach the
VOL. XV. e
ata
ay
226 Reviews.
Unkulunkulu ; finally we have an Unkulunkulu common to ull
with whom be deals had no single Supreme God
‘The contention that the memory of the Zulus fails them after a few generations is a surprising one. Not only is it quite inconsis- tent with the results achieved among the Papuans by Dr. Rider, but Mr, Kidd himself on an earlier page (4x) tells us that the Pondos carry back the genealogy of their chief about twenty-three generations, f¢., till about the early sixteenth century, without difficulty and practically without difference of opinion, although the old men who gave this information had probably not thought of the order for fifty or sixty years. One does nat see why the average memory should be so much worse, Probably if the state- ment is correct, the real reason is that the chief's power in the after life is regarded as considerably superior to that of the ordinary man.
Magic and the witch-doctor, the life of the individual from birth to death, war and hunting customs, the arts of peace, and the native legal code are among the other chapters of Mr. Kidd's book, which winds up, so far as folklore is concerned, with a selection of Mércken. In dealing with anthropological questions Mr. Kidd is not always very happy. His account of Hlonipa— avoidance—customs is not improved by the inadequate discussion as to its origin; nor is one's faith in the author's knowledge increased by reading that under a system of polyandry men are ata premium (p, 220),
On the vexed question of cattle marriages Mr. Kidd is in favour of retaining them in the case of non-Christian marriages, and regards them as a real safeguard to the women.
N. W. Tuomas.
Gorp Coast Native Instirurions. With Thoughts upon a Healthy Imperial Policy for the Gold Coast and Ashanti. By Casety Havrorp. London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1903.
Mx. Hayvonn, being himself a native of the Gold Coast, is an unimpeachable authority on native institutions, while his legal
Reviews. 227
Ee eae Lik eae oma ee practical account in dealing with administrative problems. These problems are the main subject of the volume before us, which should be attentively studied by every one anxious to see the government of our subject races carried on in a just and efficient manner, What chiefly concerns us here is the second chapter, giving a compendious view of native institutions, though interesting information occurs incidentally elsewhere.
‘The people dealt with in this work are the Ashantis and Fantis, who, though forming separate tribal organisations, are racially ‘one, and speak languages closely akin, if indeed the difference is not merely dialectical. marae kre ee pak cd speak the same language with only a difference of accent.” Both nations “once lived in the neighbourhood of the Kong Mountains, and were pressed southwards by external conflicts, and, subse- quently, by inter-tribal warfare.” But they would seem to have occupied their present territories for at least goo years. They are ae emeie boihs “Neg in contradistinction
to the ““Bantu” race; their language, certainly, has no discoverable affenities with those of the latter, and it is provisionally placed in m
“Negro” group, which still awaits further elucidation. With re- gard to customs and institutions, we find many points of simnilarity ; but, in general, those of the Gold Coast have a degree of fixity and definiteness not observable elsewhere. An organised priestly caste, an elaborate system of idol-worship, and the complicated machinery of a despotic government, seem, at first sight, utterly alien to every- thing we know of Bantu institutions. Yet, if we set aside the influence of a nomenclature adopted when ethnographical science was elementary and unctitical, we shall find, perhaps, that the two have more in common than we had supposed. Into the question of ethnic relationship we cannot enter here. It is a fayourite theory that the “ Negro” shows the unmixed race type, while the “Bantu” has been alloyed and improved by some admixture— Amb by preference. The late Miss Mary Kingsley, on the other hand, whose acquaintance with the Gold Coast people was some- what wider than that of writers who generalise from the worst characters gathered about the coast trading-factories, thought the Negro on the whole superior to the Bantu. But of the latter she
228 Reviews.
started from, they would appear to have travelled from the east, in successive waves, westward, and afterwards southward, so that the western members of the family would appear to have been longest scttled in their present homes. The Fantis and Ashantis, whether or not they belong to this family, seem to have been living in the igth century very much where they are now.
‘Mr. Hayford describes the native state as a kind of federal union owning “allegiance to one central paramount authority, the king properly so called.” ‘Thus the King of Kumasi was the paramount ruler of all Ashanti, including the Manpons, the Juabins, the Adansis, and other tribes. On the Gold Coast proper, we have the native states of Fanti, Ahanta, Ga, Wassa, and others; the paramount chief of the “Fanti Union” being the King of Mankessim.
Mr. Hayford says “the office of king is elective.” This must be understood in the somewhat restricted sense, that the man who would naturally be the next heir may be passed over if incapable or otherwise objectionable. The king, moreover, may be deposed, and another appointed from the same family, if his rule fails to give satisfaction to his people. The “natural” successor—showing a survival of the matriarchate, as we find it eg. among the Yaos— would be the “ younger uterine brother, cousin, or eldest nephew.” But the reigning king frequently nominates his successor, and his wishes are usually respected.
Where anything is known about the Bantu tribal institutions in detail they are found to be substantially the same as the above, allowing for the fuller development of the latter. “The centre and representative of every tribe is the chief, and where a district is inhabited by several tribes of one race, there is one who is para- mount chief over all the others.”! ‘This was the position of the Zulu kings, of Moshesh in Basutoland, of Kreli among the Ama Xosa. But here, as might be expected among tribes which, dawn to comparatively recent times, were still on the move, the position is apt not to be a permanent one. A conqueror, like Tshaka, or Moshesh, may extend his rule over other tribes besides his own, or, on the other hand, a kingdom may be divided—usually by the secession of some disaffected member of the royal house. Thus,
! The Natives of South Africa, edited by the 5. A. Native Races Com mittee (1901), p- 23.
| Wes
Reviews, 229
among the Thonga states of the Delagoa Bay country mentioned by M. Junod,! Mapute is an offshoot of Tembe, and Matolo of
‘The Mang’anja of the Shiré Highlands, before their tribal organisation was broken up by the Yaoson the one hand and the Makololo on the other, appear to have been subject toa paramount chief, known as the Lundu or Rundu. But we know little about them before this catastrophe overtook them.
Among the Thonga, as well as the Zulus and the more southerly tribes, it is a som (usually the eldest son of the “' great,” who is not the frst, wife), and not a brother, who succeeds.
The hierarchy of minor chiefs, councillors, and headmen,
described by Mr. Hayford, is found (under different names and usually less clearly defined) in nearly every African tribe which has not been broken up by wars or European influence. Ths important official known as the “linguist” or “ (pp. 68-72) may correspond to the Zulu imbongi, who is Public Orator, as well as Poet Laureate ; but his position appears to be a ‘more confidential and important one, resembling in some respects that of Great Induna or prime minister.
The “Company System” described on pp. 85-92 may be compared with that in force among the Zulus, and erroneously attributed to Tshaka, though no doubt he did a great deal to develop and perfect it; also what M, Junod says (Zes Baronga, pp 141, &c.) about the cornée (cultivating the chief's land) and the feast of firstfruits. These three matters are all intimately connected. ‘The most important Ronga festival (there are at least two) is that held when the masanye fruit, from which beer is made, is ripe, and on this occasion all the warriors of the tribe assemble at the chief's kmal to be “doctored” and dance the wardance. For the w&utshwama of the Zulus, see Colenso’s Zule-English Dictionary, p. 580,and Dudley Kidd, The Essential Besser Pi 00578:
The chapter headed “The Fetish System” (pp. 101-108) is exceedingly interesting, but does not tell us all we should like to know. It is evident, however, that the “priests” are merely the doctors and soothsayers whom we find elsewhere under various designations. With the Zulus, the Baronga, and no doubt other
i
Grammaire Bonga, p 9:
|
230 Reviews.
tribes also, the profession requires rigorous training and some- thing like an entrance examination. In some places it may be said to form a guild. ‘The priest appears to combine the know- ledge of herbs (which is sometimes a speciality of the impange emit’) with the ecstatic frenzy of the ssanusi. He goes through a three years’ apprenticeship, and then enters the corporation to which all the priests in the country belong. In Count Gétzen’s Durch Afrika von Ost nack West there is an interesting account ‘of a medical guild in Usumbwa.
‘There are many other points in this most interesting book which we should like to examine in detail, did space permit. But, as already implied, valuable as it is to the ethnographer, it should be still more valuable to the practical politician.
A. WERNER,
SUGGESTION UND HYPNOTISMUS IN DER VOLKERPSYCHOLOGHE Von Dr. Med. Otto Stoll. Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, Veit & Co, 1904. Pp. x, 738. Price 16 M.
Tr is one of the functions of the science of religions to discuss and determine how religion arose, but with the validity of the basis on which a religion is founded the scientific inquirer, as such, has nothing to do. While therefore we may legitimately examine how far hallucinations and other phenomena, conveniently grouped together under: the term psychical, have had a share in the genesis of religion, it is not the business of anthropology to discuss how far such phenomena ean be made to fit into any purely material: ‘istic scheme of the universe. On the other hand, materialistic theories of psychical phenomena are equally uncalled for.
Dr, Stoll sets out with the conception, derived from the con- temptation of the psychical processes of the individual and of the history of mankind in the mass, of a purely mechanical determin- jam, but as in this work before us he is concerned to suggest rational explanations of magical practice and belief, of religion and superstition, and of the psychical phenomena of mankind as dis- played in history, he bas embraced in his ficld of investigation
i
Reviews. 231
the science of religions. He holds that
its widest and Saiyan ie a ception of an invisible world, is a product of suggestion.
By this, owing to the somewhat wide meaning given to the
term suggestion, no more is meant than that primitive man
result of this “suggestion” arose the belief in a future life and good and evil spirits, the cult of ancestors, and the various burial ‘customs of savage tribes.
A further series of secondary conceptions arose from the daily alternation of light and darkness. Man is a daylight animal and connects the night with the awesome, the hostile, and the uncanny. ‘Then again, from the primary discovery of the soul is derived the animistic conception of nature and so on. Virtually the whole psychical life of man is for Dr. Stoll described by the blessed word “‘suggestion,” with the result that his book is made up of very heterogeneous elements,
It would not, however, be just to deny him the credit of having produced a highly interesting and in many directions “suggestive ” work. He would probably have given us a more detailed and therefore more valuable study if he had confined his attention to savage and barbarous peoples, who have been far too much neglected on the ‘‘psychical” side, Dr. Bastian and a few others have shown a sporadic and qualified interest in the spiritualistic phenomena of the lower races, but no field anthropologist has taken up this branch of study even to the extent of investigating the use of narcotics and stimulants, the greater or less susceptibility > Tonctiipn tie ar sted iy seen ein snieae
Dr. Stoll’s ‘laisdication efile [acts onan echnogrsphical tests renders his treatment somewhat disconnected. It would, for example, have been in many respects an advantage if he had discussed the phenomena of curative magic under one head, of divination under another, and so on, instead of his actual arrange- ment, which makes it a little difficult, in view of the size of the book, to get a clear idea of the comparative side of the question. ‘This difficulty is increased by the fact that on an average one entry in the index covers one and a half large octavo pages of
~ ey
232 Reviews.
print, so that actual search is necessary to unearth passages dealing with the same phenomena among the different races.
Tt goes without saying that Dr. Stoll has much to tell as on the subject of initiation fasts. He suggests with great probability that the apparent forgetfulness of the initiant on his return to his old life is, in some measure at least, real and of the nature of suggestive amnesia. It cannot be denied that this vicw throws 2 good deal of light on various questions of interest. In Australia the food-tabus work out to the advantage of the class of old men, in spite of the fact that the middle-aged are far stronger in numbers and able, if not restrained by fear, to enforce their will. Direct suggestion at the period of initiation may have played its part in making the rules operative,
Many other interesting suggestions are made by Dr. Stoll, for the discussion of which space is lacking. We can only hope that if it reaches a third edition Dr, Stoll will provide it with a better index, and perhaps deal with the phenomena among uncivilised races in a separate work.
N, W. THomas.
Das Jenseits im MytHos per Hecuenen. Untersuchungen itber antiken Jenscitsglauben, Von L. RaDERMACHER. Bonn: A. Marcus, 1903.
‘Tuis little volume is of interest to English folklorist as indicating to what lengths the younger classical scholars of Germany are pre- pared to go in the way of utilising existing popular literature for the elucidation of the most archaic Greek mythology; it is of special interest tu myself as dealing with the group of mythic con- ceptions and fancies studied in the first volume of the Voyage of Bran, Mr. Radermacher’s constant appeal is to the living folktale ; it is in the light of its fuller presentment that he completes and interprets the antique myth. But his reading has been confined. to Northern and East Central European folk-literature, The Celtic material brought together in the Voyage of Bran is unknown to him, and he has therefore failed to see the import of much that he observes, and he employs unnecessary energy in breaking in open doors.
234 Reviews.
Keuric Researcues. Studies in the History and Distribution of the Ancient Goidelic Language and Peoples. By E. W. B. Nicnotsox. London: H. Frowde. 1904.
‘Tus book deals for the most part with matters outside folklore research proper, but it should receive attention from the student of British folklore because of two theses maintained by the author, which, if correct, seriously modify much current speculation con- cerning the development of Celtic myth and romance, Bodley’s librarian holds that instead of, as commonly believed, the Goidelic branch of the Celts representing the first wave of Keltic immi~ gration driven westward by the later Brythons (Kymry is the term he prefers), the reverse ig the case. The Kymry came first, the Goidels later (partly from Spain in consequence of the movements among the Celt-Iberian tribes caused by the Roman conquests of the late 3rd century B.c.). He also holds (refashioning Skene’s argument) that the Picts were a Goidelic people, in reality clasely allied to the invading Scots, and that Scottish Gaelic is a descendant of Pictish, and not, as commonly held, of the language brought from Ireland by the Dalriadic Scots. As regards this last thesis, ‘one can only say that it explains much that is very difficult to understand otherwise.
Although mainly philological, there are numberless facts scattered throughout Mr, Nicholson's pages which are of moment to students of Keltic folklore.
I cannot refrain from a few remarks suggested by a passage in the writer's preface. Discussing the question of race, he says, “from the statistics of relative nigrescence there is good ground to believe that Lancashire . . . . and part of Sussex are as Keltic as North Munster... svhile Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire exceed even this degree and are on a level with South Wales and Ulster” Lam quite prepared to take the author's word for this ; but if so, does it not demonstrate the absolute futility of statistics of “relative nigrescence,” or, let me add, size of skulls, &c.? The Bucks peasant may be, physiologically, akin to the man from Kerry or Glamorgan ; psychically he differs profoundly, and it is the psy- chical traits that interest meas a folklorist. It is useless to assert that arecognisable English or Celtic type does not exist, because English- men and Celts are of all degrees of “relative nigrescence” and of
* ‘The italies are mine—A. N,
236 Reviews.
Medb (Maive) is represented as a woman of extraordinary vigour and foree of character. She openly prides herself on being the better half, both as regards birth, wealth, and fighting qualities, than her spouse, as before her marriage she boasted herself to have been the noblest in her father’s house,
The interesting “holster-conversation ” which forms the prologue to the Tin in L, L,, in which Medb sets forth her attainments and her superior position, is not given in the versions followed by Miss Faraday, and the story thus begins without a sufficient explanation, which this conversation provides, of the cause and meaning of the mid. “As regards wagegiving and largesse, I was the best of them,” says Medb ; “as regards battle, strife, and combat, T was the best of them, Before me went fifteen hundred royal merce- naries from the ranks of the sons of adventurers, and in the centre an equal number of native chieftains’ sons. . . . .” ” Medb is Queen of Connaught in her own right ; it is she and not her husband who leads the armies of Ireland, and Ailill has to acquiesce in taking ‘the inferior position of a mere prince-consort to his imperious wife,
Now there is, in the Book of Leinster version, a very dramatic contrast drawn between the setting forth of Medb, in all the majesty of a barbarian princess at the head of her armies, and the ignominious rout of their return. ‘This contrast, which is entirely lost in the versions followed by Miss Faraday, shows that the author of the Leinster version had in his mind a well conceived drama, with beginning, middle, and final catastrophe. To use a musical simile, the story presented itself to him not as a Suite but as a Symphony, not as 2 mere series of disconnected incidents, but a3. 4 whole whose parts followed each other in natural and necessary sequence.
For the whole year the hosts of Medb have paraded the north- eastern districts and the centre of Ireland, cut off and harassed at every point by the valour of Cuchulain; finally they break into flight and are driven back in utter rout across the Shannon by the ‘rising-out" of the men of Ulster. From noon to twilight they fly westward towards their homes, and nothing can restrain thom. Imperial Medb, undaunted by defeat, herself undertakes to cover their retreat, and to protect the rear of her army from the troops of ‘Ulster, who have descended into the fray at this late moment in all the ardour of a first onset, But at this crisis, when most she
Reviews. 237
needs her strength and vigour, this Amazon-Queen, who boasts herself better than a man, is overtaken by the physical weakness of a woman. She is stricken down, and forced to abandon her post of trust and seek rest and shelter behind the host. Here Cuchulain, returning alone from the glorious pursuit, finds her prostrate, ready to crave protection at the hands even of himself, her deadliest enemy. She does not appeal to bis chivalry in vain. He not only protects her, and canvoys her in safety across the river to rejoin her troops, but he himself takes her post and shields his fying foes from his own army until they have all recrossed the Shannon at Athlone. It is not Cuchulain, her enemy, but Fergus, her lover, who exclaims: “ Verily and indeed, the upshot of this day is a fitting outcome of a woman's lead ; for as a brood mare followed by her foals wanders, without choice of path or any fixed design, in a land unknown, such is the plight of this host to- day.” This passage, although it could not be literally rendered in English on account of the grotesque and exaggerated language of ‘the original, is in its conception a finely dramatic ending to the sor Tt reverses the positions that Cuchulain and Medb have the entire Thin. The weakness and youthful-
Lease oy eaegme mem tea pre mer natural simplicity and boyishness his feats are regarded as a constant marvel, while the pride and vigour of the Queen-General are equally marked. The sudden breakdown of Medb and the fear which makes her appeal to Cuchulain are therefore the more striking. The incident is not without a touch of that grim delight which the mediaeval writer always displays when he can drag ina remark upon a woman, and for which the Titin furnishes
ith abundant i
which are found in other books. In his mind the story probably presented itself as a scrics of isolated deeds rather than as a
three manuscripts, the Yellow Book of Lecan,
238 Reviews.
Among the more important variations in this version from of the Book of Leinster, besides those to which attention already been drawn, are the additional episodes in Boy-deeds, the death of Fracch, the discovery of Medb by Ailill's charioteer, the meeting of Cuchi Findabair, The Ferdiad episode is much briefer, and of its details is less insisted on, The fight of Calatin’s the curious explanation that accompanies it is omitted, play on the name of Fiacha is lost ; the deeds of the Boy-corps
u
Fd i
ate ee
copy unfortunately fails for this part of the story, and the final scenes are so briefly told in the Y. B. L. version that it is difficult
necessary where Cuchulain kills Medb’s waiting-woman, mistaking her for the Queen. This, the L. L. version explains, was because she had put on Medb’s “ mind,” or queenly coronet. In some places the sectibe seems to have mistaken the drift of his original; we can scarcely, for example, imagine the hero Cuchulain employed on a snowy day in “examining his shirt.” The later version here says that instead of sleeping to throw off his fatigue, he would be out in the open, refreshing himself by allowing the sun and wind to play upon his naked body—a much more likely method of invigorating himself.
Among the numerous interesting folklore superstitions are the belief in omens (p. 8), the whispering spells over a handful of grass to obtain a beard (p, 76), and the appeal to the elements, on page 45. An interesting expression to denote the heaps of dead after a battle is the “fold of Badb,” é.,, the goddess of war (p. $8), We would suggest a correction on p. rar, where Miss Faraday makes Eogan Mac Durthacht “King of Fermoy,” which is out of the line of the Tain altogether. Koghan was a northern prince, and it was he who slew the sons of Usnech. Fearnmhaighe is probably the present Barony of Farncy in co, Monaghan. Haliday gives it erroneously as Fermanagh.
Exeanor Hunt.
240 Reviews.
Arcuiv FOR RELIGIONSWISSENSCHAFT Edited by A. Digrericu and T. AcHELIs. Vol. VIL, Prospectheft. Leipzig: Teubner.
THE object of the editors of this excellent quarterly in sending a copy of their prospectheft to Folk-Lore is doubtless to call the attention of English-speaking students of “ folk-religion” to the reorganisation of the Archiv on international lines. Professor Dieterich informs me in a private letter that articles or notes may be written in German, English, French, Italian, or Modern Greek ; and in the prospectheft we have extracts from a very interesting paper written in English on “Sociological hypotheses concerning the position of women in ancient religion” by Dr. Farnell of Oxford. Each number will consist of three sections, one reserved for original articles, another for reports on the work done during the past year in this and that department of the science of religion, and a third for short notes and commu- nications of all sorts. Students will find the contents of the second section of great use. Thus we have from the able pen of Dr. K. Th. Preuss, of the Berlin Museum fir Volkerkunde, a con- cise summary of the world’s output for r902 and 1903 on the subject of American religion, a subject which he has made his own. From such a summary one gets a far better idea of where to seek fresh light than from any mere bibliography. Finally, a good word must be said for the Archiv on the score of its compre- hensive scope. Savage religion, folk-religion, and the religions of civilisation, Semitic, Egyptian, Indian, classical—all these interests receive equal attention at the hands of eminent specialists in its pages, and the international host of co-workers is reminded of the common end to which its multifarious labours tend.
R. R. Marett.
Folk=Dore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY.
Vor. XV.J SEPTEMBER, 1904. (No. II,
‘WEDNESDAY, MAY 18th, 1904. Mr. G. Laurence Gomme (VICE-PRESIDENT) in the Chair.
‘THE minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The death of the President, Professor York Powell, was announced, and on the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Professor Tylor, and supported by Mr. Clodd, it was unanimously
Resolved
“ That the members of the Folk-Lore Society assembled at their Ordinary Meeting in May, 1904, hereby place on record their sense of the loss the historical world has suffered, and the loss which the Folk- Lore Society in particular suffers, by the lamented death of Professor Frederick York Powell, President of the Society, and they beg to lay before Miss Powell and the Professor’s mother their expression of the love and respect which they one and all entertained for their late President.”
The Secretary read the following Resolution passed by the Council of the Anthropological Institute at their Meet- ing held on the 4th May, 1904:
Vol. XV. R
242 Minutes of Meetings.
“The Council of the Anthropological Institute having heard with much concern of the death of Professor Frederick York Powell, desires to express its cordial sympathy with the Council and Members of the Folk-Lore Society in the loss of so distinguished a President.”
It was resolved that the same be recorded upon the minutes, and that a letter of thanks be forwarded to the Council of the Anthropological Institute.
The election of the following new members was announced viz.: The Carnegie Library, Pittsburg, Mrs. Montague, Miss M. McCaskie, and Miss M. Wilson.
Mrs. Cartwright read a paper on the “ Folklore of the Basuto,” [p. 244] and exhibited a number of necklaces, cos- tumes, and arm and leg bangles worn by the people, a doll worn on the back by childless women, a pebble charm, and photographs of natives dancing at a race meeting, Bush- man’s cave paintings, a native doctor in full dress, and other objects of interest. Mr. A. R. Wright also exhibited a Basuto necklace and charm. In the discussion following, Mr. Clodd, Mr. Nutt, Mr. Bouverie Pusey, Mr. Tabor, Miss Hull, Miss Burne, and Mr. Thomas took part.
The Meeting terminated with a hearty vote of thanks to Mrs. Cartwright for her paper.
WEDNESDAY, 15th JUNE, 1904. Mr. A. R. WRIGHT in the Chair.
THe minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of Miss B. Rutherford, Mr. H. R. Andorsen, and Captain Foulkes as members of the Society was announced.
FOLKLOKE OF THE BASUTO. BY MINNIE CARTWRIGHT (née MARTIN.) (Read at Meeting, 18th May, 1904.)
IN olden days a certain portion of the Basuto were cannibals, but it is supposed they originally became so from starvation rather than from choice. Our groom’s father had been a cannibal, and had “eaten of the white man’s heart,” but no persuasions of mine would induce the old man to tell me anything about it. He was evidently afraid to speak, and I only heard about it from his son, who seemed rather proud to possess such afather. When first we were stationed at Thlotsi Heights, in the north of Basutoland, an old woman lived there who in her girlhood had a wonder- ful escape from a small band of cannibals. In those days she was fat and young, a truly tempting object, and one day she was all alone, walking from her home to the “lands.” The three cannibals seized and bound her, and carried her off to their lair. There they amputated both little finger top joints and removed her upper lip, then placing her in a pot of warm water they left her to bleed to death while they went to collect fuel ; but she, happening to be a particularly robust, determined damsel, managed to free herself from her bonds and escaped to her home, where her wounds were attended to and she quickly recovered. Many years after, as she was preparing the porridge for breakfast, outside her hut, two old men came up and asked for food. She looked up, recognised them as two of her former captors, and gave them breakfast, afterwards point- ing out the marks of their cruelty to her and telling them who she was. " See vol. xiv., pp. 204, 415.
246 Folklore of the Basuto.
middle age. Very few Basuto have been known to bear this “hall-mark.” It is very peculiar, generally beginning asa small round white mark, not as big as a marble, which increases in size and is joined by others until it is supposed to resemble a white hand.
Some sort of belief in the transmigration of souls is evidently indulged in by the Basuto, for they will tell you that such and such a snake is inhabited by so and so’s grandfather. Especially do they believe that the spirits of the departed take up for a time their abode in the bodies of cattle, which are called “the spirits (me/imo) of the wet noses.”
The efficacy of charms is firmly believed in. Certain portions of animals or human beings ward off the evil spirit or give courage or special strength, or again others endow with “second sight.” The charms are worn on the body ; the portions of flesh are burnt, then ground to a fine powder, mixed with some marvellous concoctions by the “ Medicine Man,” and drunk by those desirous of receiving the special quality it bestows. In the old days much wealth could be amassed by the medicine-men out of the heart of a white man, the people believing that to drink medicine made from it would endow them with the courage and mental abilities of /e khuoa (the white man). The Basuto still believe in witchcraft, in throwing the bones, in ghosts, in evil water spirits, and in the “evil eye.” Their traditions are handed down from generation to generation by men whose duty it is to learn all the folklore, history, superstitions, and customs of their race. They believe that their doctors can find out anything, and can call down the lightning god’s wrath upon any individual who, unless he is able to propitiate the deity, will be struck by lightning ere many days pass.
Near Thlotsi Heights there lived an old ’Ngaka (doctor) who once did me avery real service. On several occasions we had been visited by thieves. First of all my husband’s
248 Folklore of the Basuto.
others. From that day I have never been troubled by thieves. .
One of the most picturesque scenes imaginable is the setting forth of a large herd of cattle every autumn from the villages in the valleys on their way to the fertile table lands of the mountains, where they are sent to winter. The herd boys pack up enough meal, salt, mealies, and Kaffir corn to last for their own use through the winter, and securely fasten these provisions on the backs of the “ pack” oxen, which are kept separate from the rest of the herd, and are looked after by the younger boys of the party, who generally ride them, guiding them by hitting the horns. The older herds then take up their musical instruments which they play, leading the way and followed by the whole herd of cattle, and accompanied by several dogs. The pack oxen and boys bring up the rear. They never hurry, the cattle graze as they go, finding abundant pasture by the way.
At Butha-Buthe, in the north, there is a piece of swampy ground which, to the ordinary observer, seems merely a good place for ducks and frogs, yet to the native inhabitants of the country it is more or less sacred ground, for one spot in it is inhabited by a spirit. Some years ago, without any apparent reason, smoke was seen issuing from this Khapong as itis called. No one had set it alight, no sign of human interference could be found, nor did the ground consume away, yet, night and day, through rain and sunshine, for three whole months this streak of smoke was seen to ascend from the self-same spot with never even the smallest tongue of flame to be seen; consequently it came to be regarded as the abode of the Spirit! of Maternity,
»Sesuto, Molimo, “Molimo” is the singular, and is always used by Christian Basuto to represent God, and frequently by the heathen, when speak- ing of the Supreme Power whom they evidently believe in. Aelimo is the plural, and is used with reference to supernatural spirits. I am extremely
sorry that I cannot more fully explain the word Molimo, but I am trying to extort a definition from an old Mosuto, and sincerely hope I may be
250 Folklore of the Basuto.
man and beat him vigorously with their sticks. No word is spoken, but the unlucky man at once understands he is the father of a male child instead of the eagerly-hoped-for daughter. Naturally he is disappointed, but after all a boy is better than no child, and the spirits may be kind and give him a daughter next time.
If, on the other hand, the infant is a girl, there is great rejoicing? The news-carriers hurry off to inform the father- Great caution is observed as they approach the village lest he should see them coming. This time the messengers arm themselves with a pot of water, which they throw over the happy father, who immediately receives the congratula- tions of his friends. The water is supposed to act as a wholesome damper upon his joy, lest the good news might prove too great a shock.
It is not considered correct for the man to visit his wife and child, but when the latter is a month old the woman returns to her husband, bringing the baby with her. Basuto women often nurse their babies for eighteen months. When the first baby is weaned the mother takes it back to her parents, to whom it will belong in future ; the actual parents no longer retain any claim upon it, nor, should it be a girl, do they receive the dowry upon her marriage ; that also belongs to the maternal grand- parents.”
Should a doctor be called in at the birth of a child, the mother can neither wean it nor shave its head until the doctor has given his consent. Usually the infant's head is shaved on the second day after birth.
When other children are born there is no need for the mother to leave her husband's house, as no evil is likely to
Because she will on her marriage bring a dowry of so many head of cattle to the family, while a boy will correspondingly impoverish it.
7 I do not know whether there is any antagonistic feeling between son-in-law and mother-in-law, or any etiquette which demands that such a feeling should
exist, but I should imagine not. I have certainly scen great friendliness on both sides.
252 Folklore of the Basuto.
be most disrespectful. No; he gets up very early one morning and takes his father’s cattle out to pasture without milking the cows, letting the calves run with their mothers and drink all the milk. No notice is taken of this, so he continues to act thus for thirty days, His boon companions desert him and nickname him “silly one.” On the thirtieth day his father says, “Surely my son must want to get married.” This remark is repeated to the son, and he ceases to deprive his family of milk, but on that day he must do all the milking unaided, and must convert the milk into butter, which his mother boils and puts into a new pot, and keeps to anoint the bridegroom's face. No questions are asked as to which dusky beauty the youth desires to marry. If the wife chosen by his father does not happen to be the lady of his heart, he is at liberty to choose a second wife for himself as soon as he is in a position to pay the dowry, or persuade his father to pay it for him, for when he is a married man he is on an equality with his father and can consult him as an equal.
After the episode of the cattle the youth’s father will select a girl and go and talk over matters with her father. After they have agreed as to the number of cattle required for the dowry, a month is allowed to elapse at the end of which time the cattle are chosen, and the bridegroom’s father prepares a small feast, the mother makes a large quantity of “leting” or mild beer, and all the friends and relations on is side regale themselves. The bridegroom then takes out the remaining cattle to pasture, while his father and male friends start off with the dowry. Before they come too near the bride's village they pick out two animals, a young bull and a heifer, to represent the bridegroom’s
blamed for her death. In despair her parents came to me, and out of pity for the woman I did what I could to help her. After about three weeks she so far recovered as to beable tosit up. Then one night she was secretly removed to.a.cave, in order to break the evil spell which had been cast over her in the hhut. ‘The hut was then purified, and shortly after she was brought back.
254 Folklore of the Basuto.
to adorn the bridegroom’s wrist, thus signifying that they are now bound to each other. The bridegroom’s father then kills an ox, the skin of which is given to the bride’s mother. The feasting and merry-making continue yet another day, after which the bridegroom’s procession returns home, and from then for a period of from one to three months the bridegroom continues to herd his father’s cattle, and life goes on much as usual, except that the father and mother set about preparing their son's future home. At length the bride sets out for her new home, accompanied by two girl friends and two old women. On leaving home she must not say good-bye to her parents, nor must she speak or look back until she reaches her husband’s village. To look back would show regret and be an insult to her lord. Silence is enjoined, because her first words must be her greeting to her husband. As a rule a number of girls accompany her part of the way, laughing and singing and doing all in their power to make her speak or look back. When the party are well within sight of the bridegroom’s home the old women seat themselves on the ground, and decline to proceed until some suitable gift has been pre- sented to them. This generally takes the form of a sheep or goat. As soon as the sun sets the bride enters the village and is conducted to her mother-in-law's hut. She and her four companions must remain silent, nor must they accept any refreshment until the bridegroom’s father has offered them a portion of roasted sheep. Numbers of wed- ding guests assemble, and feasting and singing continue all night. In the morning the bride’s friends return home. Meanwhile the bridegroom endeavours by every means in his power to see and speak to his wife, but on no account must others see him near the hut during the month which follows, consequently he creeps round the scherm! when- ' Scherm, the fence bounding the enclosure round the hut. It is made of
reeds strapped together with grass-rope, and is generally in the shape of a semicircle. A reed door in the middle admits into the interior.
256 Folklore of the Basuto.
is taken out of the hut, if it is at all possible to remove him without causing instant death, as the spirits obtain easier access to the Scherm than to the interior of the hut. A hole is cut in the Scherm to enable the spirits! to enter, as they cannot do so through the doorway of mortals. ‘The friends of the dying man then take leave of him and seat themselves outside the Scherm to await the end. Two old women, blood-relations of the family, now take charge of the invalid. These heartless creatures resort to the most barbarous acts, which’ one really cannot fully describe. Suffice it to say that ere life is extinct they place their victim in the recognisedly correct posture, namely in an upright position with the knees drawn up towards the chin and the arms bent from the elbow, the hands resting under the chin. They then bind him securely so that he cannot move his limbs. In cases where the patient is becoming stiff before he is bound up, hot water is poured constantly over the joints to keep them supple. Where death has been unexpected and the limbs are too set to bend, the sinews are severed at the elbows, knees, and hips in order to be able to place the dead in the correct position for burial.?
As soon as death has occurred a skin is thrown over the corpse, and is not allowed to be lifted off it again. The old women then begin a dismal wailing cry which tells the watchers outside that all is over. They immediately throw ashes on their heads and join in the weeping, placing their hands on their bowed heads and prostrating themselves before the dead. All friends are then summoned, and each brings a present of grain for the departed, on his journey. They then kill an ox as a sacrifice, which is cooked after
1 Sesuto, Melimo.
7 An old heathen doctor talking to me on the subject of the resurrection said, “* Yes, but you white people are stupid. You put your dead ones lying down in the grave, so when the great call comes you will all be late, but we
put our dead ones sitting up ready for the call.” They bury their dead facing the east.
Folklore of the Basuto. 257
dark. The mourners weep, and gird their loins with strips of hard hide. Very little talking is allowed, the only per- missible subject being the good deeds and noble qualities of the deceased.
After dark a few of the nearest male relatives set off to dig the grave, which is a circular hole about four feet deep. The old men are buried near the cattle kraal, the women and children on a hill within sight of the kraal, but not too near. The doctor is called to pray for clouds that the night may become very dark. Shortly before midnight the corpse is carried, still wrapped in the skin, and placed at the entrance to the cattle kraal, which is left open all night, as he alone must guard the cattle on this his first night in the spirit world. Just before dawn he is placed in his grave with the grain, a small piece of meat, salt, and deting ; and a large stone, as nearly the size of the grave as can be pro-
_ cured, is placed in the aperture, 1 forgot to mention that Basuto are buried into a sort of shelf, so the stone does not actually rest on the dead body. The grave is then filled up with carth and stones, on the top of this is placed the entrails of the sacrificial ox, and the mourners depart. They then return to the dead man’s hut, when the sacrificial meat is divided between them, but before cating they wash themselves, and the near relations of the deceased fasten a piece of fat from the entrails round their neck as a symbol of mourning. In eating the meat great care is taken that no bones are thrown away or given to the dogs; they must be carefully collected and burnt, while the mourners stand round and cry, “ Molimo ea-rooma (our great spirit), hear us, oh! hear us we pray, and receive this dead brother in peace. ‘There is a light to our grandfather's father. May the old Molimo pray to the new Molimo for as.”"?
+ While at Batha:Buthe I went tosce a dying chili, the daughter of « heathen
policeman, Dstt Slee ant ore mate
Chriaianity, As the end drew near T felt impelled to say
<A ee cl ar a Denn oe, il VOL. XV.
|
258 Folklore of the Basuto,
The poles of the dead man’s hut are then pulled out, as ‘no one must live there again. Should any one be so heart- Jess as not to cry at the funeral, the spirits become enraged, and visit him with some terrible sickness as a punishment for his hardness of heart.
Amongst the older and less civilised Basuto there is a strong disinclination to mention the dead by name. Young people too, as a rule, give each other nicknames by which they are known to their companions. Also, whena woman becomes a mother, she is no longer known by her former name, but is called “ Mother of so and so;" thus, if the child’s name Thibello, the mother will be called Me-go-a- Thibello (pronounced Ma-Tibello), and no matter how many children she may have afterwards she is always known as Me-go-a Thibello, The man on the other hand, though he is known as “ Ra-go Thibello,” or father of Thibello, still retaing and js called by his former name.
I must now tell you who and what “ Thokolosi" is and how I came to see him. There is in Basutoland a little creature of whom all stand in awe. He is not much bigger than a baboon, but possesses no tail, and is perfectly black in colour, with a quantity of black hair on his body. He shuns the daylight and abhors clothing even in the coldest weather. Such is Thokolosi the poisoner, the evil onc, whose deeds of cruclty are cyen now told all over the country. He has power to kill, to send mad, to injure, to
* Little one, are you better? You sre not afraid, are you?” Oh, no," sho replied, while « little smile came to her lips; “I am not afraid. Molimo will take care of me." She died a couple of hours Inter. It is very difficult to get to the root of a Mosuto's belief. In the more civilised parts Christianity has become #0 mixed up with the hesthen beliefé that there is no reliable information to be found there} bat in the remoter regios the heathen are still ontouched, and T have gathered my information as much ax possible from the latter. OF courte nome are more ignorant of their own belief than others, just as In clvilised countries knowledge of the religion and historical tmditions ‘of their race varies with the individual. This may account for seeming dis crepancics in the statements of their belief
260 Folklore of the Basuto.
was on guard, and who slept every night on the Residency verandah, came and implored my husband to let him sleep inside the house, as Thokolosi was always in the garden at night, and he really was too frightened to stay outside. After about a week all was quiet ugain. Thokolosi had evidently taken himself off, My own impression is that Thokolosi is in all probability a very small Bushman em- ployed by the witch-doctors, and that the superstitions about him have been originated and kept alive by these doctors to enable them to carry on their magic. The body is no doubt stained black to disguise the little creature.
The following is one of the folktales which my nurse girl translated for me. I have chosen this one to relate here as it in some ways tells of doings contrary to the national ideas of etiquette, inasmuch as the hero asks his father for a wife, thus breaking the rule universally ac- knowledged by the Basuto, ée., that no youth must ever ask, save by signs, for a wife, nor must he so far forget the respect due to his father as to mention which maid he desires to marry. Both these rules are, as you will see, broken by Tsiu.
THE MAID AND HER SNAKE-LOVER.
When the fathers of our fathers were children, there lived in the valley of the rivers two chiefs; the name of the one was Mopeli and the name of the other was Khosi.
Now Mopeli had a son whom he loved as his own heart, a youth tall and brave and fearless as the lion. To him was given the name of Tsiu. When Tsiu was able to stand alone and to play on the mat in front of his father’s dwelling, a daughter was born to the chief Khosi, to whom was given the name of Tebogo. The years passed and Tsiu and Tebogo grew and thrived. Often Tsiu drove his father’s
Folklore of the Basuto. 261
cattle down towards the lands where Tebogo and her father’s maidens worked, and many happy days were spent while the love of Tsiu and of Tebogo grew greater even as they themselves grew older.
When the time came for Tsiu to take a wife he went to his father and asked that Tebogo might be given him. Gladly the fathers consented, and preparations were made for the marriage.
Now Tebogo had another lover upon whom she looked with scorn, but who had sworn that never should she be the wife of Tsiu; so he consulted a witch-doctor, who promised to help him. Imagine his joy when, before the marriage feast had begun, he heard that Tsiu had disappeared. “Now,” thought he, “ Tebogo shall be my wife,” but the maiden turned from him with anger in her heart, nor would her parents listen to him. Meanwhile the spirit of desolation hung over the home of the Chief Mopeli. “My son, my son,” cried the unhappy father; but no voice replied, no son came back to gladden his father's heart.
When the moon had again grown great in the heavens an old man came to the village of Mopeli and called the chief to him. Long they talked and greatly the people wondered. At length they stood up and, saluting each other, parted at the door of the chief's dwelling. Mopeli then set out for the village of Chief Khosi, where he remained all night. The next day he returned to his own village and ordered his people to prepare a great feast.
In the village of Chief Khosi also much wonder filled the people, for they also were commanded to make ready a marriage feast for the chief's daughter; the lovely Tebogo was to be married, but people knew not to whom, Chicf Khosi called his daughter and said, “ My child, your lover Tsiu has been taken away, so it is my wish that you should marry one who has pleased my eyes.”
262 Folklore of the Basuto.
“Tell me, my father” replied Tebogo, “ who is this man you have chosen for me? Only tell me his name.”
“No, my child, that I cannot do,” answered Khosi- Behold then her horror when she was brought forth to meet her bridegroom, to find, not a man, but a snake. All the people cried “ shame” upon the parents who could be so cruel as to wed their child to asnake.
With cries and tears Tebogo implored her father to spare her; it did not matter. She was told to take her snake hus- band to the new hut which had been built for them near the large water where the cattle drank. Trembling she obeyed, followed by her maidens, the snake crawling by her side. When she entered the hut she tried to shut out the snake, but it pushed half its body through the door and so frightened her that she ran to the other end of the hut. The snake followed and began beating her with its tail till she ran away to the trees which grew by the water (pool). An old doctor was sitting there, and to him she told her trouble.
“ My daughter,” he said, “return to your hut. Do not let the snake see you. Close the door very softly and set fire to the hut. When it is all burnt you will find the ashes of the snake in a heap in the centre of the hut. Bring them here and throw them into the water.”
Tebogo did as the old doctor told her. While the hut was burning people ran from the two villages to see ; but Tebogo called to them to keep away for she was burning the snake. When all was destroyed, she took the ashes of the snake, put them into a pitcher, and ran and threw them into the pool. No sooner had she done so than from out of the water came, not a snake, but her lover Tsiu. With a glad cry she flung herself into his arms and a great shout came from all the people.
As the lightning darts across the heaven so the news of Tsiu’s return spread from hut to hut. The story of how he had been made a snake and banished to the pool until
Folklore of the Basuto. 263
he could find a maiden whose father would give her to him in marriage, and of how the good old doctor ’Nto had revealed the secret to Mopeli, Tsiu told quickly. For many days there was feasting in the homes of Mopeli and Khosi, while in the hearts of Tsiu and Tebogo his bride dwelt a great content, but the wicked one ran to the mountains where he thought long of how he could revenge himself.
MINNIE CARTWRIGHT.
THE EUROPEAN SKY-GOD.
BY ARTHUR BERNARD COOK.
IN a series of six articles contributed to The Classical Review, 1903-1904, under the title of “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” I attempted to determine the original character of the chief Graco-Italic deity and the nature of his cult. The materials that I accumulated for this purpose, when pieced together, formed a reconstruction so unorthodox in its outlines that I should have hesitated to publish it, had I not found that in several important points it agreed well with the main argument of Dr. Frazer's Golden Bough. Encouraged by this support I pushed on ; and further study has convinced me that my conclusions with regard to Zeus and Jupiter hold good for the corresponding gods of the Celtic, the Germanic, and the Letto-Slavonic peoples, if not for those of all branches of the Indo-European stock. I must, however, at the outset frankly confess that beyond the limits of the classical field I have no claim to speak as an expert. Scholars who have specialised in any of the mythologies of northern Europe will, I doubt not, find much to criticise in my remarks, Indeed, it is precisely in order to “draw the fire” of such criticism and thus to test the validity of my hypothesis that I have ventured to put pen to paper. I propose, first to restate (with some modifica- tions) my general conclusions with respect to the ancient Greeks and Italians, and then to deal with apparently similar phenomena among the Celts, Germans, Slavs, &c., in each case considering how far cults evidenced by the literature or the monuments or both afford a real analogy to the results obtained in the Greco-Italic area.
266 The European Sky-god.
not always bright and brilliant. As the rustic Corydon puts it in an idyll of Theocritus :7
xm Zedc Brora ply wider alOpioc, Addora & be. Ay, Zeus is sometimes fine and sometimes wet.
Hence the Greeks at a very early date extended the notion of Zeus as a bright sky-god to cover that of Zeus as a weather god.® The man in the street said: “ Zeus rains,” “Zeus snows,” “Zeus sends the hail.”® The minstrel in the palace-hall was ready with high-sounding epithets : “He of the dark clouds” (xedawedyjs), “ He that rumbleth aloud” (épéySoumos), ‘He that hurleth the thunderbolt” (repmeeépavves). In various localities Zeus was worshipped under special weather-titles, eg. Zeus “the Thunderer” (Bpovrév), Zeus “of the Fair Wind” (Evdvewos), “Zeus of the Rain” ("Térws).° Marcus Aurelius has preserved the Athenian equivalent of our prayer “In the time of Dearth and Famine”: it runs as follows :-—
Boor, door, & pide Zed,
kara rij¢ dpobpac rijg "AOnvaiuy kai row wediow
Rain, rain, dear Zeus,
On Athens tilth and Athens plains. The same conception found an expression in art. On the Athenian acropolis Pausanias™ saw “an image of Earth praying Zeus to rain upon her.” And a bronze coin
7 Theocr., 4, 43-
* Preller-Robert, pp. 117 ff. ; Gruppe, pp. 1110 ff. ; L, R, Farell, The Cults of the Greek States, in, 44 f.
© Eg, Ih, 12. 25 £, 6 & dpa Lede | ovvexic; Babr., 45. 1, Gpev 4 Lede 5 Eur., 7roy 78 f., wai Zede piv SpBpov ai xédatav Gexerov | mipye dvogidn 1 aidipoc guovpara.
% On Zeus Bpovrasv of Phrygia, Galatia, &c., see Cumont in Pauly-Wissowa, iii, 891 £ On Zeus Eddvepos of Sparta, Preller-Robert, p. 118. On Zeu “Yérwog of Lebadea, Argos, Cos, &c., Gruppe, p. 1110, ». 2.
™ Marc. Aut. 5. 7+
™ Paus., 1. 24. 3, with Frazer's ,
268 The European Sky-god.
to a downpour, not only in legends, but in actual life, where a sudden storm was called Svoonula, “a sign from Zeus,” and a few rain-drops might suffice to postpone a public assembly” It would also explain more than one incident belonging to an early stratum of Greek mythology. Thus it was as a fall of golden rain that Zeus visited Danae.® And two similar epiphanies are recorded by Pindar, whose knowledge of the details of folk-lore was only equalled by his appreciation of their beauty. Thebes, he tells us, “received the lord of the gods in a midnight snow of gold,” what time he came down to woo Alcmena.** At the birth of Athena, too, “the mighty king of the gods once rained snow-flakes of gold upon the town” of Rhodes.* Pindar does not expressly assert that Zeus was in the wondrous shower: but, that he was, is almost certain; for another Rhodian tale made Zeus consort with the nymph Himalia 8:4 3uApou, “ by means of rain.”** The conception of Zeus-in-the-rainwater is important, because it led on to further developments. The rain formed rillets, and the rillets ran into brooks, and the brooks swelled into streams, so that Homer can call even large rivers “ Zeus- fallen” (Suzereis)*” and “ Zeus-nurtured” (8:orpedets).? The same connection of ideas can be traced in some of the principal Zeus-cults of Greece. The priest of Zeus Aveaios
" 2g. Parthen. narr. amat., 6. 6, gavrdoparoc Bt Belov yevopivov kai arivaing bearog IE obpaved woddod karappayivroc periyvw Kurd.
® Aristoph., Ack., 171 Stoonpia ‘ori cai pavic BéBAnxé ye, with Blaydes’ n.
™ Roscher, Lex., i., 947+
™ Pind., Jsthm., 7. § with schol.
* Pind., OL, 7. 34 with schol, Strab., 655,
* Clem. Rom. Aom., 5. 13.
* The Spercheus (//., 16. 174), the Xanthus (//, 21. 268, 326), the Nile (Od., 4. 477, $81). Cp. I, 17. 263 schol. A. Bumertog . . . of yap 3uBpo: éxd ‘Aude, Od., 4. 477 schol. E. H. Q. rt gpéoet of worapot dx Aide *Anpoivran, Sie ov én “ kai oguy Aude 5uBpog dike” (Od., 9.111), Eustath., 1505, 58, doy ‘yap tig 7d dxminroy Ubup Ik Aide 8 Lory dipoc moist Aumeri worapsy.
™ The Scamander (//., 21. 223).
270 The European Sky-god.
a wheel or chariot-wheel; sometimes, a golden cup or caldron or bed or boat or a magical ship; sometimes, a bird, a golden lamb, a golden ram, a bull: or again it is a glaring eye in the forehead of a giant, or a man of glowing bronze who makes his circuit once a day. But it will be observed that there is a tendency to connect most of these images with Zeus. The rayed disk of Lycia, the swastika of Crete, the ¢riskeles of Sicily, have all been regarded as his sacred symbols.* Ixion was bound to a fiery wheel by Zeus: nay more, Ixion was a by-form of Zeus himself, who at Chios was known as T'updyuos, “He of the round wheel.” When Prometheus dared to plunge his ferule into the solar wheel, #.e., to work the celestial fire-drill, it was Zeus whom he offended, for Zeus at Thurii was himself Tpopavevs, “ He of the fire-drill’*: according to the oldest version of the legend extant, Prometheus stole the fire directly from Zeus.“ The ship Argo was built by Argus, who has been already identified with the Argive Zeus,’ and had inserted in her framework a portion of the oracular Dodonzan oak‘'—obviously in order that Zeus might be aboard his own vessel to direct her course. Aeschylus,” thinking perhaps of Egypt, where the sun was symbolised by a phonix,!® makes Danaus say to
® For the rayed disk on Lycian coins see Class. Rev, xviii. 327. For the swastika in Crete, ib. xvii. 410 f., Annual of the British School at Athens, ix. 88 f. For the Sicilian trisheles, Class. Rev., xviii, 326 f.
© Class. Rev, xvii., 420.
© Tretz. in Lyc. Alex., 537.
Serv. én Verg. ecl., 6. 42.
© Teetz. in Lyc. Alex, 537- MpopavOetg is to be connected with the Sanskrit pramantha, “fire-stick” ; HpounBeig, with pramatha, “theft” (E. Kuhn die Herabkunft des Feuers, p. 18 £.).
“ Tes. 0.4 5tf
Supra, p. 265.
Apollodor,, 1. 9. 16, alib,
© Aesch., suppl, 213 f
D'Arcy W. Thompson, A Glossary of Greek Birds, s.v. point} E.A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, ii, 96 f,, 371 £.
. a
272 The European Sky-god.
to Heracles.” In Crete the sun was expressly called a bull, and it is probable that the son of Minos the Cretan king disguised himsclf as a bull (the Minotaur) when he wore the ritual costume of Zeus."7 There is also much to be said for the view that the Cyclops, whose fiery eye is rightly explained as the solar orb, was an early form of Zeus. Macrobius indeed—though his penchané for solar mythology must always be borne in mind—definitely states that “the ancients call the sun the eye of Jupiter.”
© Hat, 2. 42. The skin of the victim mcrificed to Zeus MeAlywe or to ‘Zavx Krijoiog was known as Sug esiliov, “the fevce of Zeus” (Polemon af. Hesych. 5.0), or Aloy widow, " the Zenr-fleece” (Polemon ap Athen, 478 Cy Hekker anecd, 24%, 26, cp. Eustath., 1935, 9): Suidas, if his text may be trusted, even says that the Groeks called it Ala, Zeer” (Suld. 5.0, dude gb8cov)e Miss J. E. Harrison (Prolepomena to the Study of Gree’ Kaligiom, p. 23 {f.),00 the strength of the verbs Suoropeite, dmogtorop ity, denies any connexion with Zeus, and refers us to the root appearing in the Latin divws. But why should not these verbs mean prectically what Eustathius says they mean—"to send away evil things In the name of Zeus ’ANEicxco¢” (Eustath, 1935, 13)? Hesychins too connected them with Zeus (Heayeh., diowepraiabar" eaBaipey. ‘ding de rb eadaipovrag roy mporrpéxmioy dia.); and if dior meant" the Zeus fleece,” as Polemon, Kustathins, é&e., agree that it did, Somopmeiv and drodonopmely would be perfectly correct formations for “to send away by means of a Zeus-fleece.” Rams'-skins were elsewhere used in the service of Zou, In the hest of summer, when the dog-star appeared, a procession of young men clad in fiesh rams’-skins made its way to the sanctuary of Zeus “Aaxpaiog on the summit of Mt. Pelion (Dicacarch., 2.8). And those who eon. sulted the dream-oracle of Zeus 'Awoudpaog (Dicacarch, 1. 6) at Oropus sacrificed ram and slept on the skin of it (Paus. 1. 34. 5, with Frazer's x,),
Bekker, aneciey 344, 10 fF, Adtoinog raipoc* § Wiuog bwd ry Keqroy ora Alyeran. gasi 7dp viv wow perorsitovra raipy mpoouxacdivea xponyitoar, cp. Apollod., 1. 9. 26, who says of Talos of 8 Taipor abrby
your.
© Clas Rev., xvii, 404-412, where I wrongly identified Minos himself with the Minotaur,
See W. Grimm, “Die Sage von Polypher," in A@hamdl. a, Berl. Abad. d, Wiscenschey 1857, p- 27 f-, and the literature quoted in Clars. Revs xviiiy 526, Me Zhe
© Class. Retn, xvill 325 ff
© Macrob., Saf, 1. 21. 12, solem Foyle oculum apprilat antiquitas, with Jan's re
274 The European Sky-god.
as asun-charm.” For the mainland of Greece the evidence of a solar Zeus is less conclusive. But an inscription from Thoricus, a town on the south-eastern coast of Attica, speaks of a Zeus Avavrfp, Zeus “the Scorcher.” > And there are some grounds for supposing that Zeus Avxaios was a solar deity : Lycosura, high up on the side of Mount Lycaeus was “the first city that ever the sun beheld” ;% and in the precinct of Zeus no shadows were cast by man or beast.> However that may be, it is undeniable that there was a tendency among the Greeks, especially among the Greeks of the Archipelago and Asia Minor, to connect Zeus the “bright” sky-god with that most striking mani- festation of his brightness—the sun. Rapp,” following the lead of Sonne and Roscher, argues that Zeus the daylight- god was naturally also a sun-god to begin with; but that, as the conception of Zeus developed, his solar character- istics split off from the rest of his attributes and were attached to a fresh sun-god, Apollo: that this process was repeated, Apollo becoming more and more spiritual until his physical function as a sun-god was taken over by yet another personification, Helios, who in turn was endued. with traits that are at least anthropomorphic and ethical. Without insisting upon every stage of this evolution we may well grant that Zeus had, so to speak, a solar side to his character. Now the nightly passing of the sun through the western “ Gates of Helios” ” seems to have led to the belief that the solar Zeus had his dwelling beneath the earth. Zeus”Appov, for example, was identified not merely with the sun but with “the seffing sun of Libya” ;” and
% Class. Rev, xvili., 80. ™ See Jessen, in Pauly-Wissowa, ji., 2264, s. v. “ Auanter.” % Paus., 8, 38. % Paus., 8. 38. 6; Theopompus af. Polyb., 16. 12. 7.
In Roscher, Zex., i, 1994 f. 7 Od., 24. 12, "Hediowo wodag. %™ Macrob., Saf., 1. 21. 19, Ammonem, quem deum solem occidentem
Libyes existimant.
—
276 The European Sky-god.
Zeus, with Persephone. Hesiod bids the Borotian farmer pray to Zeus yBéros, Zeus “of the ground,” along with Demeter. Zeus indeed was x0owes, a subterranean god, not only in poetry® but in actual cult, being worshipped under that title at Olympia,” at Corinth,” and in Myeonus.# Aeschylus™ makes Danaus assert that in the world below “another Zeus, so men say, judgeth sins with a last judg- ment among the dead,” while the chorus of Danaids declare: “If we cannot gain the ear of the Olympian gods, we will die by the noose and come with suppliant boughs to Him of the earth (rdv ydsov), the right hospitable Zeus of the dead.” An Orphic poem” speaks of the snake which guarded the golden fleece as “a portent of the earthy Zeus” (xamacbj\oro). And an epigram of Metro- dorus™ mentions ‘‘a sacrifice to Zeus of the ground” (ovSaios), In art too Zeus was sometimes represented as lord of the upper- and under-world alike. Thus a marble statuette in the British Museum shows him seated with the eagle on one side of his throne and Cerberus on the other.” In short, there is abundant evidence to prove that Zeus the sky-god had come, by whatever route, to be conceived as an earth-god also.
™ Hes. 0.D., 465.
® Soph. O.C, 16065 Orph. dymn §t- 7, 70.24 Nonn. Diotiy 27. 93, 36 98, 44. 258,
® Pans, 5. 14. 8.
* Pas, 2. 2.
* Dhtenb,' 615, 25, érip caprow Bul XOoviy, TF XBoviy, feprd ylAava frie.
Ww heck, suppl, 230 f, 156 tt.
* Orph. Ange. 929, ofa xapmtiproro Dube.
% Anth Pély th (23. 14 Motrodorus pétere a Ob8aiy Zari OunroXlny.
% Brit, Mus, Cot, Gk. Sculpt, 00. 1§31, Parnell, in 105, pl. tc. = see also J. Overbeck, Griechitche Kunstmythologie, i. 305 on “Sarapis.”
™ Farnell, ic, 66, suggests that “ This sombre character of Zeus was probably derived, in Attica at least, from his fonctions as a deity of vegetation.” Iam far from denying the possible influence of this latter conception. Sky-god may have become earth.god not only vid sun-god but also vid rain-god, farmer's- od, &e. But it is, T think, on the whole probable that Zeus aa an carth-god preceded Zeus as a farmer's.god, eather than vice versd.
278 The European Sky-god.
ground god? as in Il. 9. 457 ‘Both the underground Zeus? &c., sc. Pluto. (d) ‘The sun,’ as in Il. 13. 837 ‘Reached the upper air and the rays of Zeus.’” Eustathius™® too, whose knowledge of Greek mythology was immense, declares: “ Zeus or Zen is a name common to the brothers Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades.” If it be objected that these and other similar identifications ™ are all literary and may be merely metaphorical,}* it is possible to point to a few definite cults of Zeus-Poseidon and Zeus-Hades. A god who bore the compound title Zeno-Poseidon ! was wor- shipped in Caria, His temple stood beside a river in a place where thunderbolts were supposed to fall with especial frequency ;%” and he appears on coins of Mylasa holding an eagle in his left hand and resting on a trident with his right? As to Zeus-Hades, Dr. Farnell! justly observes : “The chthonian Zeus undoubtedly appeared in the group of Zeus-Hades in the temple of Athene Itonia at
1 Eustath., 763, 52, (80d rb Zele ijrou Zijy xowdy Svopa Aide eal Mooedivog rai"Addou rav ddedgiv.
¥™ Schol. Opp. Aal., 5. 423, Znvd¢ Adtyobmowo * Neptunus, Eur. Kpfirec frag, 904 Dind. Zeic ete’ "Atang | dvopatépevoc oripyeic, Orph. Aymn., 18. gf. Zei xOéve oenwroixe, 745" iepd dio xpoBipuc * | Hobrwy, dg earixers ng ednidag amdenc, Nonn. Dion, 27. 77, Znvi xarayBoviy dedaiyutvov, id, wipyu, Hesych. Zedg xaraxBévioc * 6 "Atbur, Hyouy 5"Aidne and x96r0¢ Zebg * 8"Audng, schol. ZL, 15. 188, 8 88 "Aidne . . . . eal Zede xaraxdbvog
«+ e+ Kai Dodo.
% Cp. Gruppe, p. 1094 f. “Wenn Poseidon Meerzeus heisst, so ist das zuniichst nur eine Vergleichung, die ausdriickt, dass er auf dem Meere dieselbe Macht hat, wie Zeus im Himmel. So ist wahrscheinlich auch die Bezeichnung des Hades als Zeus Chthonios oder Katachthonios zu verstehen; denn wenngleich Zeus ineiner sehr fernen Vergangenheit mit Ziigen des unterweltlichen Herrschers ‘ausgestatiet worden ist, so hat diese begonnene Theokrasie spiiter schwerlich mehr nachgewirkt.” In the words that I have italicized Gruppe grants at least half my contention.
1 Macho af. Athen., 337 ¢, Corp. inserr. Gr., 2700 add., Collitz, Gr. Dia- lektinschr. 5163 b., 12: see Roscher, Lex., s.v. “ Osogoa.”
401 Theophrast. ap. Athen., 42 A.
1 Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Caria, p. 132 £, nos. 31, 32, 37-
1 Farell, i., 105,
280 The European Sky-god.
modified Zeus, ‘a weak imitation of the ruler of Olympus, a shadow too in comparison with the living form of his brother Poseidon.” Art represented the three sons of Cronus as externally very similar, but distinguished them by a rendering of their characteristics and attributes.” Finally, I would venture to maintain" that the name of Zeus is an integral part of the names of both Poseidon and Hades. For, if the known varieties of these three names be arranged side by side, it will appear that they have a common element Da- or Dau-, which are forms of the name of Zeus:
Zeus. Arig Ady (acc.) Ady, &c. = The “bright” sky- Poseidon, wortl-bag rora-AéF-wy wort-Ady,&c.= ‘Zeus in the water” (wéroc). Hades. di-bebc@)™ di-Adag™™ at-Aac = “Zeus of the earth” di-Adwy"™ dt-Awy di-Awveic, &c. (ala).
The first element in these forms of the name of Poseidon™#! is probably zéret, the locative case of éros, “drinking- water,” so that Poseidon on this showing would be strictly “ Zeus-in-the-drinking-water,” a rain-Zeus or river-Zeus such as we have already detected. This corresponds, more-
™ Class. Reds, xvii, 175 £.
™ A doubtful form : see Roscher Lex., i., 1794 f., Gruppe, p. 1100, D. 1.
" Hesych. Aldéag (leg. "Aiddac) . &eonéenc ; Suid. ’Andae (leg. ’Aidzc) « 4 deoxérng. For deonérne as an epithet of Hades see C. F. H. Bruchmann epitheta deorum, p. 2. But further light is needed.
im Hesych. "Atdaov * ddov. But M. Schmidt (ed. maj.) cj. ’AtBao, which may be right.
1 HL L, Ahrens (Philologus, xxiii, 1 ff., 193 ff.) was the first to point out that HoosdGv means the Water-Zeus. Sonne (Zeifschr. f. vergl. Spry x 183) suggested that the moget- of Hoseéy was a locative case. It is, how- ever, necessary to derive forms beginning with worei- or morot- (see the list in Gruppe, p. 1152 n.) from *éroc, not wéouc.
282 The European Sky-god.
“the earth.” Hades would thus be “Zeus-of-the-earth,”"* a conception for which we have already found ample justi- fication.
In early times the Greeks, like other semi-civilized peoples, ascribed to their gods a plurality of heads, arms, legs, &c., with a view to expressing superhuman powers. For instance, Typhon had a hundred heads,’ Briareus a hundred arms, Scylla a dozen feet. Naturally the numbers differed in different myths, or even in different forms of the same myth. Without attempting to be exhaustive in the matter, we may here mark two main tendencies. (a) In the first place, the total was commonly reduced, sooner or later, to three. This reduction may, no doubt, have been due in part to artistic conveni- ence: to depict a hundred arms or even a dozen feet in a realistic or convincing way was difficult, if not impossible. But it was also due in part to a yet more elementary diffi- culty, viz., the primitive inability to count beyond two, which, as Professor Tylor’ long since showed, has left traces of itself both in the popular conception of the numeral three as a kind of superlative and in the gram- matical recognition of singular, dual, and plural. These
™ HL. Ahrens (Péilologus, xxiii., 211) hints at this derivation : in sup- port of Hoses = the Water-Zeus he says—' Diese deutung wird noch eine sehr kriiftige bestitigung erhalten, wenn es mir gelingen sollte den namen des dritten Zeus ‘Atdng in ganz analoger weise m deuten.” G. F. Unger (Philologus, xxiv., 385 ff.) attempted to explain ‘Atdng as the patronymic form of ala. My own belief (Class. Rev., xvii., 176) is that* al-l-Anc, Zeus-of-the- Earth,” passed into d-i-Ang, with initial a lengthened to compensate for the loss of «: see Hofimann, die griech. Dialekte, ii., 318 f.
™ Pind., Ol, 4.7, Pyth, 8.16; Aesch. P. V., 353; Aristoph., nub., 336. Ba Tht 402 £5 Plut, de amic. multit., 6; Apollod., 1. ™ Od, 12, 89; Tzetz. in Lyc. Alex, 650. tm See Roscher, Lex., ii., 1126, 11 ff. 18 E, B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,* i, 265.
15 Palaeph., 20.
284 The European Sky-god.
assigned to the Lernean Hydra by Greek authors varies from ten thousand down to one: Greek artists were content with from twelve to three Geryones was regularly three-bodied or at least three-headed,* in which peculiarity his hound Orthros sometimes resembled him. (4) A second well-marked tendency of Greek religious art in its early stages was towards the representation of divine power by means of a double or Janiform head. The Lacedz- monians had a cultus-statue of Apollo with four ears and four hands“ ; and small bronze figures with several arms holding a bow, &., have actually been found on Greek soil.“ On a fine stamnos in the Berlin collection the wind- god Boreas has a Janiform head.* Coins of Tenedos show a bearded and a beardless profile of Dionysus joined together in the same way™: coins of Thasos, a double-faced Satyr.1 Hermes, whose statue by Telesarchides in the Ceramicus had four heads,!* was represented in the Attic deme Ankyle
1218. 1. $4, quotes the following explanation of the proverb drove rod ra riocapa dra txovrog: “ Others say that the proverb bids men hearken to them that speak truly. None is less likely to lie than Apollo, whose statue the Lacedamonians erected having four hands and four ears, as Sosibius declares, because he appeared in that guise to those who fought at Amyclae.” Similar statements occur in Diog., 2. §, and Apostol., 1.93. Cp. Hesych. s.v. xovpidiovs “The Laconians give the name covpidioy to their four-handed Apollo,” so. rvvarlag: “ Kynakias, straps from the hide of the ox sacrificed to four-handed Apollo, which are given as prizes,” Liban.,i., 340, § Reiske Somep €& dupados rirrapes orody ovtvyiat kad? Exacroy rpijya rob olpavod riravras * olov ty *Anéddwvoc rerpaxelpou dydApyart.
1% Furtwiingler in Roscher, Lex., i., 449, 53
1 Annali del? Instit., 1860, xxxii.,pls. L.M. See M. Mayer, Die Giganten u, Titanen, p. 116, #. 151, and Rapp in Roscher, Zez., i., 808 fi.
w0 P, Gardner, Types of Greek Coins, pl. 10, 43.
™ Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Thrace, p. 221, no. 51 f.
w® Eustath., 1353, 7 ££; Phot. s.2. ‘Epic rerpaxigadoc, Hesych. tpurigadog, S. Reinach, Répertoire de la Statuatre, ii., 172, 2, 3.
“Bepiic
286 The European Sky-god.
Prevails :—whate’er the nations say, His purpose holds its darkling way. What thing his nod hath ratified Stands fast, and moves with firm sure tread, Nor sways, nor swerves, nor starts asidi ‘A mary thicket, hard to thread, A labyrinth undiscovered still, The far-drawn windings of his will. Down from proud towers of hope He throws infatuate men, Nor needs, to reach his boundless scope, The undistressful pain Of Godlike effort ; on his holy seat He thinks, and all is done, even as him seems most meet.
The other passage ' is put in the mouth of a chorus of old men, who are perplexed by what is virtually the problem of evil: Zeus,—by what name soe’er He glories being addressed, Even by that holiest name T name the Highest and Best. On him I cast my troublous care, My only refuge from despair : Weighing all else, in Him alone I find Relief from this vain burden of the mind.
One" erst appeared supreme, Bold with abounding might, But like a darkling dream Vanished in long past night Powerless to save ; and he™ is gone Who flourished since, in turn to own His conqueror, to whom with soul on fire Man crying aloud shall gain his heart’s desire,—
Zeus, who prepared for men The path of wisdom, binding fast Learning to suffering. In their sleep ‘The mind is visited again ‘With memory of affliction past.
Without the will, reflection deep Reads lessons that perforce shall last, ‘Thanks to the power that plies the sovran oar,
Resistless, toward the eternal shore,
8 Aesch. Ag., 160 ff. © Uranus. *® Cronus.
p=
ie. . |
288 The European Sky-god.
probably implied by a fragment of the Aegim#us" which speaks of him as “looking this way and that with four eyes,” Cratinus'! the comedian wrote a play called the Uavémras, in which the members of the chorus had “two heads apiece and countless eyes,” The vasc-painters also sometimes conceived of Argus as possessing a double set of eyes. An early Chalcidian amphora now at Munich !* gives him a pair of eyes in the ordinary position and an extra pair on his breast. A black-figured Attic amphora, now at Naples,! shows him with a Janiform head com- posed of a bearded and an unbearded face, united under a petasos, or flat felt hat: his body, wherever visible, is marked with a series of eyes.
It appears, then, that the Argive Zeus was sufficiently barbaric to conform to the multiple, the triple, and the dual types of divinity, Probably, however, it was the triple type that appealed most strongly to the popular mind and received the sanction of actual worship. For, on the one hand, threefold sight recurs as a family peculiarity among the descendants of Argus: his grandson was called Triopas, "the Three-eyed,"" And, on the other hand, the cult of a three-eyed Zeus flourished at Argos for well over a millennium, Pausanias,!” writing in the second century of our era, tells us that he saw on the Argive Larisa ‘a wooden image of Zeus with two eyes in the usual place, and a third eye on the forehead. They say that this Zeus was the paternal (watpov) god of Priam, son of Laomedon, and stood in the courtyard under the open sky; and when Ilium
1 Hes. Ag, frag. § Kinkel, rai ol Awiexomoy “Apyow ite mparepiy ve plyow rey | rirpamy 5p9adnotow Ipdipevor FvOa cui tyBa,
1 Meineke, frag. com. Gra, thy 102, xpdvia Tiead gopelv, bgGarpol & oie dpiOpnrot.
\ Wirner Vorlegeblatter, Y890-1891, pl 12, 1a. be
™ Revue Archlolngigue, ie 309 £; Daremberg-Saglio, Dict Art in 49) fig. 508.
eS 2. 16.1; Hyp. ftd., 124, 145.
™ Paux, 2. 24. 3, Fraser,
The European Sky-god. 289
was taken by the Greeks, Priam fled for refuge to this god's altar, In the division of the spoil Sthenelus, son of Capaneus, got this image, and that is why it stands here.” The cult thus attested for Argos and Troy probably ex- tended to other Pelasgian towns. It is significant that the name Triopas occurs again as that of a religious founder at the Carian Triopium.7* A Rhodian hero, the son of Helios and Rhodos, bore the same name.’ Triopas or Triops was also the father of Merops the Coan." Rhodes and Cos had alike in early days been peopled by Carians,™ and the Carians were but one tribe of the Pelasgian stock; 80 that the four personages named Triopas thus far men- tioned were all probably Pelasgians. Again, a certain Triopas was king of the Pclasgians at Dotium in Thessaly, where dwelt the clan of the Triopide.'*' Another king of the Perrhwbians, who occupied a part of Thessaly known as Pelasgiotis," was called Triopas." Lastly, the father of Pelasgus himself bore the same name." It can hardly be doubted that the name Triopas or Triops, wherever it occurs, has reference to the cult of the three-eyed Pelasgian Zeus. ‘The same deity figures in a Peloponnesian legend. When the Heraclid# returned to the Peloponnese, an oracle bade them take as their guide “the Three-eyed One” (zdv tpidOarpor). They followed a man driving a mule, which was blind of one eye,! apparently not real- ising the drift of the oracle. But on entering the promised land they built three altars to Zeus Tlarpd@os, “ Paternal”
Class. Rev, xvilly 76 f ™ Diod., 5. $6, 61s cp. schol. Pind. Of, 7. 131, Suid. 1.0, Aldwy, © Steph. By se. Mépoy schol, vet Theoer., 27. 68, 1 W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, ix 197 f i pactteched Calica, Aymnn. Demy 2§ t, m ech yp 256. ® Schol. /i, 4. 88; Eustath,, 448 11. ™ Hellanicus af. schol. JZ, 3. 75; Paws, 2. aa. t5 Tyg. fad, 145- ™ Pau, 53 5h; atgorecscs 83 Se. as: ontpheher VOL, XY,
The European Sky-god. 291
gests that the three-headed hound of Sarapis symbolised the evil spirit that made its appearance “in water, earth, and air.” The same explanation served for the three-eyed Zeus, Indeed, in his case it was peculiarly appropriate, since, as we saw at the outset, the primary conception of Zeus as a sky-god had actually given rise to the two secondary conceptions of Zeus as a water-god and Zeus as an earth.god. Hence Pausanias was no fool when, after describing the old image of Zeus on the Argive Larisa, he continued: “The reason why it has three eyes may be conjectured to be the following. All men agree that Zeus reigns in heaven, and there is averse of Homer which gives the name of Zeus also to the god who is said to bear rule under the earth :— Both underground Zeus and august Proserpine.
Further, Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, applies the name of Zeus also to the god who dwells in the sea. So the artist, whoever he was, represented Zeus with three cycs, because it is onc and the same Zeus who reigns in all the three realms of nature, as they are called.” At Corinth the same thought seems to have found a less grotesque expres- sion, ‘Of the images of Zeus,” says Pausanias,! “which are also under the open sky, one has no surname: another is called Subterranean ; and the third they name Highest.” It is commonly supposed, though the supposition is not
ite inevitable, that here too we have a sea-Zeus, an earth-Zeus, and a sky-Zeus.™
Zeus had a sacred tree, the oak. If we ask why the oak in particular should have been sacred to him, the later
Pans, 2 24 4, Frazer,
1 Pam, 2. 2. 8, Frazer,
1% For other possible examples of the Zewwtrisd sce Clast. Rev, xviiey 406 , (Coossus), 416 (Aphrodisins), 417 (Mylasa), xviii, 7§ f CXanthus), 79 (Phrygia and Galatia), 84 (Elewsis), 84 fl. (Athens),
'Né Schol. Aristoph.,ae 480, bel ody 5) dpc roi Aude Jory, Imaike mapa rijy ‘pin, Fh deny fig rod Anicy alt.
ve
——
292 The European Sky-god.
Greek writers reply that Zeus was the life-giving god, and that the oak, thanks a its acorns, was the life-supporting tree of primitive man.” But it is obvious that this ex- planation depends for is validity on an etymology that we now know to be mistaken, viz, the supposed connection between the words Zeds and fy, “to live.” More probable is the view! that the oak represented to the Greeks the Yggdrasill-tree of Germanic mythology. This world- tree (Welthaum), as it used to be called, or cloud-tree (Wotkenbanm), as it is termed nowadays, was an cnormous ash, which with its three stems‘ spread throughout the world towards heayen and earth and hell.” Itis described as an ash (askr), that being the highest leaf-tree of the north” But further south the oak was the principal tree. Consequently the name astr was transferred from the ash to the oak: Hesychius mentions &expa as a kind of oak,’ and Zeus “Acepaios was certainly an oak-god* It is,
Cramer anced. Gr. Partr,, ili, 213, 8 gnyde 9 Spic, dy rg Au de Lori dyipwaay of madmed Syorpipor purdv vicar. midm ydp ob Aviipwro1 apuedproug irpigovre, Kustath., $94, 33 ff, of wadaml tut rd rhe Sia, iiyour riv dipa, Swiic ava alrcoy rovoirov St wal rijy dptw waXae work omarion, rt ct HWpwror dpveiprons aneepipovre, bid eal gmc % Foie Myra mapt 7d payeiv, dub relvvy raira rg Ad riy épiv doipwoar rd Tporpigow gurov ry Lyoyimp, fd. 654, 35 Hf. On the Greet derivation of Yabo from iv, a derivation as old ay the sixth century m.c., see Gruppe, p. F101, =, Th. Gompere Greek Thinkers, |., 64,86. On the oak as the oldest food-tree, P. Wagler Dis Biche in alter w. newer Zeit, in, 34.
™ Advanced, though without adequate proof, by Prof. Angelo de Guber~ natis La mytholagie des planter, iin, 65 ff.
J. Grimm, Zentomle Mythology trans. Stallybruss, p. 796, says “ three roots"; but see B. IL, Meyer, Sudygermanische Mythen, ria 653, ** Vggdrasill mit den drei Stiimmen (nicht Wureein):”
Further details in Grimm Jee. eit,
* Bugge Stud, is, 528, ‘cited by E. Hy Moyer Germanische Mythologie,
Br.
™ Hesych., doxpa * jobc dxapmoc, ©. Schrader, Prehistoric Autiyuities of the Aryan People, p. 226, identifies attr with dovpa and further connects dormpos or do wp, a variety of oak spoken of by Theophr. Aust. pant, 3. 8. J.
” Infra, p 296.
The European Sky-god. 293
therefore, not surprising to find that the mid-European and south-European equivalent of Yggdrasill’'s ash was an oak. Throughout Finland, Esthonia, and other parts of Russia folk-songs and folk-tales tell of an oak the top of which reaches the sky and supports the sun, who lives on it or goes to rest on it Thus the Finns believe in an oak with golden branches, which cover the sky. The Estho- nians, in an oak on which is built a bath-house; the window of this bath-house is the moon, and on its roof the sun and stars disport themselves, Other Russian stories tell how an old man once climbed an oak that towered up to the sky, and found on it a bird, which could not be burnt with fire or drowned in water; how in the island of Bujan grows an oak on which the sun passes the night: &e., &c. In Anjou certain tree-shaped cloud-formations are known as “le chéne de Montsabran” and “le chéne marin'': they portend # rain~ storm and fine weather respectively“ That in the Greek area also the oak was at one time a world-tree is far from improbable. The fleece of the golden ram (=the sun ™*) hung on an oak in Colchis and guarded by asleepless snake™ certainly recalls the Russian oak on which the sun goes to rest guarded by the dragon Garafena.®” But more direct evidence is available. Clement of Alexandria has pre- served a fragment of a work by Isidorus, son of Basilides, in which he says: “ I would have our would-be philosophers learn the meaning of the winged oak-tree and the em- brotdered mantle upon it, in fact of the whole allegory which Pherecydes tock from the prophecy of Cham and
St A de Gubernatis, Atyih. des Plamtes, ly 94) te, 76 f, Ralston, Songe of the
Rossian People, p. 375 £. = BP. Sébillot, Le Foldtove de France, i. 128. 8 Supra, p. 271. * Apollod,, 1. 9. 16.
* A.de Gubernatis, Myih, der Plantes, ii. 77, after Mannhardt,
= Clom. Alex. rérom, 6 6, p 767, 32 fF. Polter, wal yip por ontt rote mpormoorplvove pdooogels, iva péOwat rl dorw i dmdmrepor ope wal x9 bx’ aitg wexoudpivor papas, mivra bea Bepixiinc édAnyephiaae 1Wiodbynew Aafia dd ric ToD Xa wpognrelac.
——
294 The European Sky-god.
used in his own theology.” Clement and Isidorus are alike intent upon showing that the Greeks borrowed all their wisdom from the Hebrews, so that we may probably discount “the prophecy of Cham.” It is at least as likely that Pherecydes of Syros, who was a prominent Orphic teacher at Athens about the middle of the sixth century B.C., worked into his philosophic speculations a bit of genuine Greek folk-lore. In another passage* Clement quotes a sentence from Pherecydes himself: ' Zas made a greatand beautiful mantle and embroidered thereon the earth and Ogenos and the abode of Ogenos.” Ogenos was Oceanus" so that the embroidered mantle represented both land and sea. Further light on the matter could hardly have been looked for. But, by a singular stroke of good fortune, a papyrus-scrap of the third century A.D., acquired by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt" for the Bodlcian Library, was found to contain a couple of columns from the Tevtéauyos, the lost work of Pherecydes; which columns give us the context of the very sentence quoted by Clement. It now becomes clear that Pherecydes was describing the marriage of Zeus and Hera Zas or Zeus, among other preparations for the ceremony, made a richly-dight mantle representing land and sea, and apparently spread the same (by way of bridal couch?) on the summit of a winged oak. In view of the
™ Th, 6.2, p. 74%, 16 ff. Potter, Beperding & Bpiog Aly * Lie wouek piipoc ubya ro Kal Kaddv wal by adr@ moceidAee yy eak “Qyijvov kal 7a ‘Qyivow SGpara. ™ Tzote. in Lye Alexy 251, rod ‘Qylvov eal ‘Oreavod, Hexych,, ‘yi * Qeaawig.
‘™ BP. Grenfell and A. 5. Hunt, Greet Papyriy Second Series, No. tt, p.2t fly ple 4.
™ Cp. Emtosth, catater, 3, Depurddne yap gyouy dre dyaustro ip "Moa trd Audgy pepdvrww abey rv Vedy Cdpa thy Kip AleTw plpovaay rd xoteree Hida" ovoay Gi mh "Mpar Cavpderar wai simeiv exrapuridom els viv nay Ouiv wijrory Be iw apd vi “Arhayni * dnd dt ray herivon rapOivuw del dpapounivur rain widuy xaviornee pOdaca riv bp bweppeyiOy Orta. Hore too we have a snake guarded tree brought into connesion with the supporter of the skys
The European Sky-god. 295
world-oak or cloud-oak of central and southern Europe, we may well regard the “winged oak” of Pherecydes as a similar cosmogonic tree.!!*
Both the sky-tree and the sky-god had their on earth. Corresponding to the celestial oak that formed the residence of Zeus, an ordinary terrestrial oak marked each centre of Zeus-worship among men. In the Classical Review for 1903-1904" I have collected most of the evi- dence bearing on this point. Here I may be allowed to quote a few typical or outstanding examples, premising that in every case, so far as I can judge, they may be referred to the Pelasgian stratum of Greek religion. The Pelasgian Zeus Ndlos at Dodona had a sacred oak growing in a sacred oak-grove: his oracles were given by the rustling of its branches, by an intermittent spring at its foot, by a golden dove (or two doves, or three) perched upon it, &c."° Zeus “Appov in the Libyan Oasis scems to have been the god of avery early Greck scttlement: he too had an oracular oak in an oak-grove, a variable spring, sacred birds (two ravens, ora dove), and methods of divination that resembled those of the Dodonwan Zeus." Coins of Phaestus in Crete fepresent Zeus Fedyavos as a youthful god seated in an oak and holding a cock on his knee; since Velchanos is commonly supposed to be the same word as Vodcanus, and
™ Gompers, Greet Thinkers, i., 89, conjectures “that the garment spread by Zas over the winged oak was merely a pictorial expression of the belief that the kernel or framework of earth was adorned by this first principle of life with the beauty that it now wears"
™ Class. Rew., xvil., 174-186, 268-278, 4o3-g2t ; xvill., 75-89, 325-328.
= ah Rviiny 178-186, 408.
Z£, xvlly 403 {To the pasiages that T have (here cited as proving the Ba araden ca peveatthe Amoonion (via, Clem. Alex. protr, 11 Dindorl = Euseb, pray, evang., 2. 3 Dindorf, yypdvdpvor bi vaypour Aohpan, rerynuivon eal xd abri@e parretoy abry Jot pypapacuivey wioieg ‘yernpaxto: caradelfart, Sil. Ttal., 3. 688 f., mox subitum nemus atque annoso robore lucus | exiluit, qualesque premunt nunc sidera quercus | a prima wenere ie + prisco inde panore | arbor namen habet coliturque tepentibus aris) should ‘be added Plin. mats Aistry 13.63, circa Thebas havc, ubi et querous et persea et oliaa, COC a Nilo stadils, siluestri tractu ct suis fontibus riguo,
ee |
296 The European Sky-god.
the cock—Pausanias tells us—was sacred to the Sun, it would appear that Zeus Fedyavos was a fire-god or sun-god conceived as residing in an oak? Zeus ‘Acxpaios, the “ Oak "-god of the Carians and Lydians, figures on coins of Halicarnassus as a bearded deity crowned with rays and standing between two oak-trees, on each of which is a bird : the rayed crown implies that Zeus was here solar, and the two birds suggest that he was oracular® In Pamphylia Zeus bore the title Aptos, “he of the Oak-thicket.” In Phrygia he was Bayaios, the “Oak”-god.% At Troy grew “the fine oak of «gis-bearing Zeus,” as Homer calls it, on which Athena and Apollo sat in the form of eagles. At Heraclea Pontica two oaks had been planted by Heracles beside the altar of Zcus Sxpdris. At Scotussa in the Pelasgian district of Thessaly Zeus was worshipped as Pryyovaios, “he who dwells in the Oak.”"' And in Aegina the oak beneath which Aeacus had prayed was “sacred to Zeus." In short, all round the Aegean Sea we come across traces of an oak-Zeus, f¢., of a Zeus believed to reside in or on an oak-tree,
But just as the world-tree varied from ash to oak in passing from north to south of Europe, so the tree that marked the residence of Zeus on earth differed in different localities. Substitutes for the oak were the poplar, the olive, the plane, &c., according to local changes of vegeta~ tion. It should, however, be remarked that all these trees were called by names elsewhere used to denote the oak; and further, that it is always possible to trace some botanical resemblance between the oak and its surrogate.
1 Class, Ret, xvily 413, fig. 8. BY 1h. xvtins 415 fy fig 10
© Thuy xvily 4196
Loy xviily 79.
™ 24, xviii, 78,
™ fb, xviii, 79 f
= 1b, xvii, 414.
© Thy ving 405
The European Sky-god. 297
Schrader™ points out that alyepos, “a poplar,” is derived from the same root as aiyiAwy , “the winter- or Valonia-oak,” aiyavén, “an oaken spear,” aesculus (*acg- sculus), “an evergreen oak,” Fiche, “an oak,''—is in fact the same word as our own oak. This change of meaning probably arose in some district where the poplar, not the oak, was the finest tree2% It would be facilitated by the fact that some sorts of poplar resemble in foliage some sorts of oak, Thus Pausanias,™? describing a species of oak called maidépws, says: “Its leaves are less than those of the oak, but larger than those of the evergreen oak: in shape they resemble oak leaves: one side of them is blackish, the other is white: their colour may be best likened to that of the leaves of the white poplar.” Nicander ™* speaks of ths same tree as “the equivalent of the white poplar.” This similarity between oak and poplar was in all proba~ bility the reason why the white poplar was sacred to Zeus at Olympia. When Heracles first sacrificed to him there he burned the victims “on wood of the white poplar” *? and ever afterwards the Eleans used no other wood for the sacrifices of Zeus. Indeed, at Lepreum, an Elean town some fifteen miles from Olympia, Zeus was surnamed Aeveaios, “he of the White Poplar” (Aeten)." Coins of Sardes show Zeus Avétos holding a sceptre and perhaps an
™ Schrader Aealtex., pp. 164, 207.
= Inthe opinion of Dr. W. Leaf the white poplar is nowadays the finest troe in Grecee + sce his note on Ji, 13. 389.
= Paus., 2. 10, 6, Fraser,
© Nicand, frag. 2. 55 £ waidig spurte | Adey ivardpevor
™ Pans, 5+ tas % Heracles had found the white poplar growing on the banks of the Acheron (ep. /.. 13. 389 dxqpwig and Eustath. 938, 62 &); for ‘Hades, the earth-Zeus, had carried off Leuce, the white-poplar nymph, to his realm below, and hail caused white poplars to grow in the Elysian fields (Serv. in Verg, ely 7. 61), See further C. Bétticher, Der Boumbulins der Hellenen, pesar
© Pas, $13. 3, $f. 2
™ Paus, §. 5. 5, with Frazer's w.
= rr
298 The European Sky-god.
eagle as he stands beneath a poplar tree. And sie mouth of the Idxan Cave, where Zeus
thought to dwell, there grew a marvellous poplar that aa said to bear fruit.
Elsewhere the principal tree was the olive, and Zeus was connected with olives, This was the case at Athens, where Zeus Mépios was guardian of the sacred olive-trees called. the popias édaia."* That the Greeks traced a similarity between the oak and the olive is clear from the fact that they sometimes called the Valonia-oak édats, fe. the “olive"-oak. Probably, as in the case of the white poplar, it was the combination of a light surface with a dark which suggested the comparison Similarly a species of wild-olive termed guAia is described as “ resem- bling the evergreen oak.” *7 The wild-olive was sacred to Zeus at Olympia, having been brought there by Heracles from the land of the Hyperboreans to supply a dearth of trees: it had this peculiarity, that the upper, not the under, side of its leaves was white.
In Crete the finest tree is the plane. Tradition said that Zeus had consorted with Europa at Gortyn under an evergreen plane, This tree, on account of its remarkable foliage, Theophrastus compared with an oak growing at Sybaris; and coins of Gortyn show a female figure seated in a tree that is sometimes a plane, more often an oak.2#
™ Class, Rew, xvii 428) Figg, 15.
ii frimplen of be poplar ab sate forth oak + 3VFiay 181, 273, 419 2. Je Ville, 76.
™ Hesych,, tatg * alyDup. * The word gavdia could denote both a kind of clive and the white poplar
Heaych. 2.0. pavdia). - Hesych. ». oudeing. i ‘xviii, 273. On the olive as a substitute for the oak soe
The European Sky-god. 299
The plane-tree by Agamemnon’s hut at Aulis, and the plane-trees planted by him at Delphi and at Caphyz in Arcadia, have probably a similar significance; for in Laconia, if not also in Attica, there was a cult of Zeus ve a
Other trees are connected with Zeus on occasion. Zeus ‘Svedotoy was named after the fig-tree®® Zeus ‘EArecvios, after Mount Helicon, which perhaps means the mountain of ‘willow "-woods (édey)."* Zeus bearing an eagle is enthroned with a palm-tree before him on a coin of Alex- ander the Great2” And the use of Atds @ddavos, “the acorn of Zeus,” asa name for the chestnut™ implies that the god stood in some special relation to this tree also.
As the celestial tree had its counterpart in the terrestrial, 80 the sky-god himself had a visible representative on earth. The traditional epithets of the Homeric kings, “Zeus-born” (Aueyenyis), “ Zeus-nurtured" (Acorpedyis), 4 divine” (Aios), “ god-like” (Beocsbijs, Bcoeixeros, dvrideos, teaGeos), and the stock phrase, “to honour such an one like a god” (Bedv dis), were doubtless conventional formule on the lips of the Pelasgian minstrel; but they were based on
‘™ 2, xvii, 277, Sev also Butticher, FawmAuitus, p. 117. The plane ata mythical equivalent of the oak occurs also in the story of Helen ep.the plane: tece of Helen at Sparta (Theocr., 18. 44 f£) with the oak-tree on which she hanged herself in Rhodes (Prolem. nee. Aist,, 4, p. 189 Westermann),
* Eustath,, 1572, 56. Myra fi aul ewndowe Zede raph ric wadauoigy 3 cofipmoe * rd yp ouKi) ixpivro, gaciv, tv xuDappoic : see Mifer in Roscher Lexy iin 2560. Hesych. £2. gudsing cays; “ gvAla is a kind of wild-olive, or according 10 others of fig-treo, while others again describe it as a species of tree resembling the evergreen oak."
™ For Zeus ‘Wedmwg vee Hes, sheng, 4, and schol. ad fx. Yet one name for the Valonia-onk was Wi (Hesych. si) ¢ Call. Aym#. Def., St ff, mentions ee anh 08 20 iin drip, he CANc= tr To Vi
MMW. de Visser, de Grarcorum dits nom referentibus spectem humanam,
p12 Cp Clars. Kev, xvii, 410. Stephanus, Ziesaurse: Gr. Ling. tay 69 od.
oo lll
|
300 The European Sky-god.
an old Pelasgian belief that the king was indeed divine, being none other than Zeus incarnate, That this was so, I infer partly from a consideration of several early Greek myths, partly from the occasional recrudescence of the belief in historical times, and lastly from the direct testimony of ancient authors,
Let us take the myths first. The story of Salmoneus is given with most detail by Apollodorus** who says: “Salmoneus . . . came to Elis and founded a town there. He was a proud man and fain to place himself on a level with Zeus; for which impiety he was punished, For he declared that he was Zeus, and depriving Zeus of his sacrifices he bade men offer them to himself. He attached to a chariot leather thongs with bronze caldrons and trailing them after him said that he was thundering; he tossed blazing torches towards the sky and said that he was lightening. Zeus therefore struck him with a thunderbolt and destroyed the town founded by him and all its inha- bitants.” The mythographer of course, judging from a later standpoint, regards Salmoneus as a paragon of impiety. But, that he was no such exceptional sinner, appears from the case of his own sister Alcyone, “Ceyx, son of Heosphorus, married Alcyone. They perished through their overweening pride. For Ceyx declared that his wife was Hera; Alcyone, that her husband was Zeus. Zeus then changed them into birds, making the onc a halcyon, the other a ceyx.’™" Apollodorus must needs tax them both with superhuman conceit; but in point of fact they were within their rights. The same primitive custom perhaps underlies the legend" that Polytechnus and Aédon
‘This belief ix rather near the surface in such a passage as J7., 24 2586, where Priam speaks of his son Heetor, who was a god (esc) among men, nor was he like unto the son of a mortal man, but of a god (@roio)
™ Apollod. te 9. 7:
Lb be Toe
‘™ Anton. Lib, 11, See Class Kev, xvili, 80 t.
The European Sky-god. 301
impiously claimed to love each other more fondly than Zeus and Hera, Again, Agamemnon king of Mycena was called Zeus in Laconia." So was Amphiarais son of Oicles at Oropus,** So was Trophonius son of Erginus at Lebadea,* where Zeus also bore the significant title, BaovAeds, “the King.”** According to Panodorus, Zeus reigned as a king in Egypt for twenty years; according to Manctho, for cighty2 ‘The tale that Zeus visited Alemena in the form of Amphitryon perhaps had a similar found- ation’; and this may have been the case with several other “ Liebesverbindungen” of Zeus.” Conversely, the re- lations of Ixion to Hera,"* of Tantalus to Dione,” &c., point in the same direction.
Even in historical times it was no unheard of thing for a man to be regarded as a god. Empedocles in the fifth century #.c, addresses his fellow-townsmen of Agrigentum thus: “Friends . . - - all hail! Lo, as an im- mortal god, no longer a mortal, | make my way honoured of
™ Lye. dies, 1124, Ztig Brapruirag aipi dor eryViorrayy 1369 £, mparoe
(ahaa a pecan cae eects Patiala pe) ™ Dicearch., 1, 6, rob ‘Aupuandov Aude lypod. See Rohde Peywhe,* iy 1254
m2
* Strab, 414, Aude Tpopuviow parretor. See Rohde, iby m, t-
™C. Michel, Aecwetl d’Sureripuions Grecques, 589, 99 ele Tov vadv Tod Aue rod Banding wr, 1115 Niwy Pacwi[viac] dywwoerslleag] ri Hawiua +d Dnoxpio[ror] dvirue rot [Ai] rok Bamde[te) e[¥ FA] wOd, 1992, 8 fri Di rW Banat wi) ri Tpepeeviv iapdr.
=. Miiller, Fraymeuta historicorum Griecersm, iky 531, E, Ae Wallis Budge, Hirt. of Rott, 5, 165.
™ Class, Rew xvii., 409. Just ax Heracles was the seed of Zeus, but Iphicles of Amphitryon, so in another myth Dardanus and Iasius were the sons of Electra, *'sed Dardanus de Jove, Iasius de Corytho procreatus eat" (Serv. im Verg. dem, 3. 167).
*7 On these ser Overbeck, Aunsimythologie Zeus, \., 398 fi.
= Hyg, fabs 9, $2, $3
‘™ Emped. frogy 112 Dicks, & poe. . . « xaloer’ * bpd UY itv Oude EpBpetoc, obsin Ornrte ed.
— —__
—
302 The European Sky-god.
all, as is fitting, crowned with fillets and green garlands. Wherisoever with them, both men and women, I come to a flourishing town, there am I worshipped. They follow along with me in countless throngs, fain to enquire what is the path to prosperity: some ask for oracles; others in all manner of diseases hear and hearken to my healing voice, albeit long pierced with sore pains.” Since the historicity of Lycurgus the Spartan law-giver is still a moot point," T will not appeal to the fact that in later days he was wor= shipped as a god (@eds)?" But after the battle of Aegos- potami in 405 B.C. another Spartan, Lysander, was certainly recognised as a god; altars were erected to him, offerings brought, and pieans sung, while the Samians actually changed the name of their immemorial festival, the Herma, to Lysandrea in his honour At Athens Cratinus more than once spoke of Pericles as Zeus, and a well-known passage in the Acharnians of Aristophanes * says : “Then Pericles the Olympian in weath Lightened and thundered and confounded Greece.”
‘These phrases of the comedians voiced a belief that had been latent among the Athenians for centuries. The popular champion was the embodiment of Zeus, Hence, when Demetrius Poliorcetes entered Athens in 302 B.C., “the people received him not only with frankincense and garlands and libations of wine, but also with processions
® G, Busolt, Gricckdsche Geschichte, i.) 569, m, 1.
Ly 578, Hs a
® Tut, vit. Lys 18, Athen., 696 x, Hesych., sv. Avedvipta,
™ Plu, vit. Fer, 3, 9 phy Kparivoc tv Xtipwo * “ Erdow Ot (gnot) eat xpesBvyonje Kpévog addjhocn peytyre piyworoy | tis ripawvoy, | by Oy expadnyepitay Grol xaXkover” - ai mid iv Nepiow - “por’, & ZO Live eat capa,” 13 nal raha Kparivog tv Bpgrrag waite mpdc atriv ** 5 exwo- xdoodoc Zede We mpootpxeras | Mepwdye” card. Aspacin he dubbed Hera, (Plot. 24. Fer, 24, sehol. Plat., p. 391), as did Eupolis apparently (Hesyeh. 12. Bosiamc).
* Aristoph., Ach, 530 f.
The European Sky-god. 303
and choruses and phallic companies, dancing and singing the while: as they sang and danced, they crowded after him, chanting that he was the one true god (eas), the other gods being asleep or away from home or non- existent.” Demetrius must have posed as Zeus; for on the spot where he descended from his horse was built a sanctuary of Demetrius Kavai@drys," as though he were Zeus KaraiBarns; his title Todopenrys was perhaps an ambitious imitation of Zeus Hovevs or Hodcodyus; * and mantle woven expressly for him is described as “a superb piece of work made to represent the universe and the celestial bodies," Alexander the Great was regarded not merely as the son of Zeus," but as Zeus himself: he was painted by Apelles holding a thunderbolt,” ée. with the universally acknowledged attribute of Zeus. Even Menecrates of Syracuse, court-physician to Philip of Macedon, assumed the title Menecrates Ze’s on account of his life-giving powers and went about wearing a purple robe and a golden crown to look the part.” Examples could be multiplied ; for among the Hellenistic successors of Alexander cases of deification are common If I am tight in my conjecture, they must be considered as due to a recrudescence of the early Pelasgian belief in the essential divinity of the king.
Finally, Tzetzes, whose authority in matters of mytho- logy is not small, definitely asserts that the ancient Greeks used to call their kings “ Zeuses” (Ales). Thus, for
Athen. 253 © The words of the ithyphallic song, a remarkable com- position, are quoted in the sequel.
= Clom, Alex., pretrapter + Shp Potter,
= Plat. ow. Demetr,, 42.
= B41.
™ Callisth. a. Strab., 814; Ephipp. a9. Athena $37 ©.
© Plin, mat, Atit, 35. 92. See furthor Cites. Revs, xvily 404, Mt.
® Athess, 289 4-290 A; Plut. wit, Ages. 20; Ael. tar. Athy 12. 51.
™ See eg. Dr, F. F. Hiller von Giiruringen in Pauly-Wissowe, ii., 186 ff, and the literature cited in Class. Kev. xvil., 278, a. 1.
— Tan
—=
304 The European Sky-god.
instance, after telling us that Minos was the son of Zeus ‘Aorépws, he adds; “In by-gone days it was customary to call all kings Zeuses.’’ This statement, which is repeated several times by him in different connections, was clearly one of his regular canons of interpretation. Nor does Tzetzes stand alone in the matter. The famous grave of Zeus on Mt. Jukta in Crete, which according to one account” bore the inscription—
ide Orin eeras Tai, Oy Sia euNjoeovew
" Here lies dead Zan, whens soem call Zeus,” —
according to others ** was the tomb of King Minos. On this and other grounds it is difficult to resist the conclusion that Minos was held to be a human embodiment of Zeus??? He was in fact one of those“ consecrated men whom the Greeks call Zanes”—to quote a much misunderstood phrase from Macrobius.* Further, if Minos was a man-god of this sort, we can understand the contention of Euhemerus *7? which took such a hold upon the imagination of the Romans *°—that Zeus had been a former king of Crete.
It appears, then, that mythology, history, and literature alike bear witness to the early Greek belict that the king was a human Zeus. Now we have seen that Zeus, primarily the god of the bright sky, became both a water-god and an
2 Trets. anche, 102, ol spl yp rt Alag wivrag mOuoy Basia, chily 1. 474 robe Barely & dvixade Siac dxidovy wivrag, 2 160 rd re miveac Samdtic ding deddovy, timo, ep. 164 ric Samdituc He atic, 174 6 Gabe txeivoc Baodebey 197 Zebe rie mdpyw Baodedsy 5.454 Slag yp mpi of KMAyveg tole Bawdtig leidowy, 9.454 role mpiv yap mivrag Ramage oe oi ply dndoury in Lyc. alles, 88 Slag ol waaiol wivrag tedouy robe.
rae.
Porph. vit Fyéh. 173 op. Enn., frag. 526 Bibrens,
®* Schol. Call. Aymin. Lov 8.
#7 Class, Rew, xvii 406 ff.
'™ Macrob, Saf 3- 7-6, animas vero sacratorum hominum, quos Zanas Grech Yocant, dis debits sestimatant. See further Class. Reva XViing 4126
™ Hock, Aveta, iii., 331 ff.
™ By. Lactant., div. énshy t. 1%y Firm. Maty 6. 1) 16. 16
The European Sky-god. 305
earth-god. Certain functions of the human Zeus too may be grouped under the same three headings. As vice- gerent of the bright skj-god he had control of the sun, and was expected to feed its flames. As representing the god of showers and storms, he could cause rain to fall or evoke asudden thunderstorm, As an earth-god incarnate, he was responsible for the crops in their season, and after death became a ruler in the underworld. Traces of all these powers can be detected here and there among the remnants of Greek legendary lore and ritual practice,
Minos, for example, married Pasiphae, a daughter of Helios, and received as a present from Hephaestus or Zeus the bronze man Talos,“* whose name means “the sun. Solar, too, in character were the Labyrinth, which was represented by a swastika pattern, and the Minotaur within it.** Minos, therefore, was believed to have the sun in his custody, Acetes also, whose father was Helios, possessed the fleece of the golden ram that symbolised the sun! Atreus prided himself upon a golden lamb, again a solar symbol, which he kept shut up in a coffer. Thyestes stole it by guile, and then declared to the people that the man who owned the golden lamb ought to be king. To this Atreus agreed; and it looked as though the kingdom would pass from him to Thyestes. But Zeus sent Hermes and bade Atreus make a compact about the kingdom, in- forming him that he was about to cause the sun to travel backwards, Atreus made the compact, and the sun set in the east. This miracle was accepted as proof of Atreus'
™ Rescher, Ler, ili, 1666, where Tirk observes that Hacepaije is an epithet ‘of Helios (Orph. Aymn, 8. 13 £, d0dvare Zev, | eblie, macpudg, ebopou miplipepov Sypa).
© Apollod, 1. 9.26; Ap. Rhod., 4. 1641.
* Supra, p. 2735 m- 62.
™ Chess Rev., xvii, 410 6
8 Thy 410, empra, p27.
Supra, pp. 271 £4 293 6
VOL. XV. x
The European Sky-god. 407
recalls Pausanias’* account of the bonfire on the top of Cithzron kindled once in sixty years at the Great Diedala, when the oak-brides of Zeus were burnt. ‘On the summit of the mountain an altar has been got ready. They make it in this fashion :—They put together quadrangular blocks of wood, fitting them into each other, just in the same way as if they were constructing an edifice of stone. Then, having taised it to a height, they pile brushwood on it.
‘The cities and the magistrates sacrifice each a cow to Hera and a bull to Zeus, and burn the victims, which are filled with wine and incense, together with the images (fe., the oak-brides) on the altar. Rich people sacrifice what they please: persons who are not so well off sacrifice the lesser cattle; but all the victims alike are burned. The fire seizes on the altar as well as the victims, and consumes them all together. I know of no blaze that rises so high, and is seen so far.” It is highly probable that both these bonfires were intended not merely as a means of sending food, &., aloft to the sky-god,™ but also as a sun-charm—the great conflagration replenishing the solar powers of the oak- Zeus.™ Coins of Amasia, which illustrate the Pontic rite show a large altar, sometimes of two stages and flaming: beside it are two trees with twisted trunks, and above it in gome specimens hovers an eagle or the sun-god in his chariot or both Appian’s phrase “ the kings themselves carry wood to the heap"’ tersely expresses the primitive duty of the sun-king2”
But this duty was not confined to an occasional bonfire on a big scale. Fires were normally burning before the tree that marked the residence of the god. Thus Silius Italicus says of the oracular oak in the Libyan Ammonium :
™ Paus, 9. 3. Off, Fruzer. ® Tylor, Primitive Culture, t,, 278, Roscher, Ler. i,, 2620. ™* Op, Frazer, Golden Bough? ily 300 ff. ™ Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Pontus, &e., pp. xvil., 12, pl 2, 26. Class, Rev, xvii, 180, 185, evil,
x2
308 The European Sky-god.
“The tree has a god within it and is worshipped with flaming altars.” This statement is borne out by the coin- types of Asia Minor. Coins of Aphrodisias in Caria repre- sent a sacred tree fenced in and flanked by two lighted altars: #7 coins of Attuda, a tree with a single lighted altar in front of it% Coins of Sardes show Zeus Avdios on a pedestal beneath a poplar-tree: before him blazes a large altar decorated with figures in relief; and amid the flames can be distinguished the heads of four bulls* On coins of Mastaura in Lydia a lighted altar stands garlanded beside a cypress-tree. Coins of Mostene have the same scene with the addition of a male figure on horseback carry- ing a double-axe and wearing a crown of rays: the radiate crown proves the solar character of the rider. An altar in front of a tree planted beside a temple of Zeus occurs on coins of Diocesarea in Cilicia% An altar by a tree figures repeatedly on coins of Amasia in Pontus. Acoin of Prusa in Bithynia represents Caracalla, sceptre in hand, sacrificing at an altar, which burns before a tree : above the tree is an eagle. And, lastly, a coin of Elaea in Aeolis shows a male figure in military costume, probably Herennius Etruscus, sacrificing at a lighted altar placed beneath a tree.
Between such altars and the perpetual fires or lamps of Greek religion no sharp distinction can be drawn. Plutarch does not mention the altars that flamed before the oak of the Ammonium; but he does tell us that a perpetual lamp
™ Sil. Ital,, 3. 691. See supra, p. 295, 1. 216.
1 Class Rev, xvii, 416, fig. 13-
™ Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Catia, &c., p. 66, pl 10, 17. ™ Class. Rev, xvii 418, fig. 15.
© Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Lydia, p. 159, pl. 17, 4
™ 16,, pp. Ixxvi., 162 ff, pl. 17, 10, 12, 14.
= 76, Lycaonia, &c., p. 72, pl. 12, 14.
% 78., Pontus, &c., pp. 8, 10, 11, 12,
™ Tb, p. 197; pl. 35) 7+
4 75,, Troas, &c., p. 132, pl. 26, 7.
The European Sky-god. 309
was burning there, and adds that every year it used less oil, whence the priests inferred that the years were getting shorter and shorter.“ Apparently they believed that the annual orbit of the sun regulated, or rather was regulated by, their lamps—a belief which might indeed “utterly abolish the science of mathematics," but was for all that by no means inconsistent with the pretensions of primitive man.** Now the cult of Zeus “Awpev was thoroughly typical of the Pelasgian Zeus-cult in general. It is therefore probable that the same simple-minded belief obtained elsewhere, and that the maintenance of the sun’s heat was commonly connected with (perhaps thought to depend on) the up-keep of the perpetual fire orlamp. This—and, I venture to hold, nothing short of this—will explain the consternation felt when the flame by some accident was extinguished: there was then a danger that the sun itself might fail, This enables us also to understand why such fires among the Grecks were tended by women past the age of child- bearing ; the perpetual fire represented the sun, and the idea that women may be impregnated by the sun is common to Greece and many other lands. Lastly, the same hypothesis will account for the method by which the Greeks re-kindled their perpetual fires when there was need to do so. Plutarch says: “In Greece where they have a per- petual fire, at Pytho and Athens for example, it is tended not by virgins, but by women too old to marry. Should it by any chance go out, as the sacred lamp at Athens is said to have done during the tyranny of Aristion and that at Delphi when the temple was burnt by the Medes, whilst during the Mithridatic and Social Wars at Rome the fire disappeared
% Viat, de dif. orac., 2.
Pluty Hey 30
© Fiarer, Goldew Bough? uy 115 fh
1b, MMe, 220 ff.
9 Plat. eit, Nam, 9, Similarly the need-fire of the Lemninns was fetched, not indeed from the sun, but from Delos, the laland of the sun-god (Philostrat., Aerotea, p. 740).
310 The European Sky-god.
along with the altar, they say that it must not be lighted from any other fire, but that they must make it fresh and new by rekindling a pure and unpolluted flame from the sun. They usually do this by means of concave mirrors, whose shape is determined by the revolution of an isosceles rect- angular triangle, so that all the lines from the circumference meet at a centre. When therefore the mirror is held over against the sun, it collects all the reflected rays and con- centrates them at this one point: the air here becomes rarefied, and light dry matter on being subjected to it is soon kindled, since the ray acquires the substance and active force of fire.” A perpetual fire of the sort here described was, as Dr. Frazer has shown,"° simply a survival of the king’s hearth, and as such it was regularly main- tained in the pryfaneum or residence of the king. It is therefore permissible to suppose that the Pelasgian king, who kept a fire constantly burning on his hearth, was the earthly counterpart of the sky-god who kept the sun alight; nay more, that the two stood to each other in the well- known relations of mimetic magic, and that the king, as often as he put fuel on his fire, was virtually making sun- shine for the community. If this be so, we can understand why the hearth was so intimately connected with the king on the one hand and with Zeus on the other. Aristotle $1! speaks of “offices which derive their honour from the public hearth: some,” he says, “call them archons, others kings, others again prytanes.” So essential indeed was the link between the public hearth and the king, that at Priene a temporary king (SaciAevs) was appointed solely for the purpose of performing the sacrifice at the Panionian festival? Zeus, too, was closely connected with the
© Journ. of Philaiogy, xiv. 145 ff.
mr Aristot., fol. 7. 8 1
% Suab., 384. Elsewhere he is called a prytamis: see Class. Rev xvii, ats.
The European Sky-god. gil
public hearth. At Aegae* in Acolis, for example, the oak-Zeus was worshipped side by side with Hestia, the per- sonification of the hearth: in the Odyssey™* an oath is several times taken by Zeus and the hearth of Odysseus: Pindar™ addresses an ode to ‘Hestia, goddess of the prytanea, sister of Zeus most high and of Hera who shareth his throne.” Some of the titles of Zeus are drawn from the same connection. He is the god “who holds the hearth" (éereoGyos),™ or “who is seated at the hearth” (édderios),"7 or “who shares the hearth with men” (duéer:0s Bpordiv)."° Secondly, the king represented Zeus as the god of the
stormy or rainy sky, As such he could himself cause a thunderstorm or a shower, In a recently recovered ode of Bacchylides *” Minos proves that he is the son of Zeus by praying:
Zeus our Father, mighty In strength, hearken. Ifin truth
the white-armed woman of Phoenicia bare me to thee,
yend forth now from the sky the swift
lightning with its fery curl,
thy token that all men know. Zeus in answer to “the immoderate prayer” at once hurled the lightning and thereby acknowledged his son. The scene, which is in fact a mythological commonplace, was probably based on the belief that the divine king could evoke a thunderstorm at will. In early days this would
Class, Kev, xvilly 78. So at Pergamum (Preller-Robert, p. 867). ™ Od, 14. 158 Brass Fens tear cao
14 1756, 26, 1814, 10, ep. Hesych., ferdxor * olcoupic » olecvak, «ai Leig map’ "lwew, Evstath,, 1575, 39, uses the form ierioixog. ™ Eustath., 1756, 27 taie igiorwe cui trloric, 1814, 9 éplorwe, 1930, 28 iv 9 ear’ oieoy tarig A lylvovro Duaiar, By ot piv AdXor ipiarioy, “Hpddorog Bi Luvucidg Nye Eniorior, row airiy Sure np doriotyy, Mat, 1. 44 driorwy. ™ Soph. frag., 4or Dindorf, ap. Steph. Byz,, sa. Audion: Audion vaiow ade dpboriog Bpordy. See Class, Rev. xviiy 183. ™ Wacchyl, 17. $2 ff, <p. Hyg, foot. astron., 2. 5.
312 The European Sky-god.
have been done not by a praycr to Zeus but by mimetic means: nor would the operator have been content to be called the son of Zeus; he would have passed for Zeus himself, The legend of Salmoneus, already related, is from this point of view highly interesting. It introduces us to the paraphernalia of a Primitive king, who claimed that he could thunder aud lighten fm propria persona. In his bronze caldrons and blazing torches subsequent ages saw only a grotesque imitation of the tempest. The study of comparative religion would teach us rather to recognise in the din and glare a genuine attempt to raise the storm by the ordinary methods {of magic. Almost equally primi- tive are the means by which the representative of Zeus Aveatos made rain for the Arcadians, Pausanias,“ speak- ing of the spring Hagno on Mount Lyceus, says: “If there is a long drought, and the seeds in the earth and the trees are withering, the priest of Lycwan Zeus looks to the water and prays; and having prayed and offered the sacrifices enjoined by custom, he lets down an oak-branch*™* to the surface of the spring, but not deep into it; and the water being stirred there rises a mist-like vapour, and in a little the vapour becomes a cloud, and gathering other clouds to itself it causes rain to fall on the land of Arcadia.” Here the rain-charm is used in conjunction with prayer; but otherwise the ritual might take rank with that of Salmoneus.™
Finally, as an embodiment of the earth-god the king was responsible for the fruits of the earth. Lycurgus, king of the Thracian Edoni, is described by Euripides ™* as
™ Supra, p. 300.
© Pous., 8. 38. 4, Frazer.
*! On Zeus Aveaiog as connected with the ouk see Class. Aes.y xvlil.y 87 th
Kainsmaking in yoneral is discussed by Frazer, Golden Bough i, 81-115, and roin-making among the Grecks in particular by Gruppe, pp. 15-834.
™ Bur Riss. 970 f dxIpunoluinuy ... . oepvde rolew vidiow Bebe. As the son of one Optac (the *Oak"sman) and the father of another, he appears to have been an oak-king of the usual type: sce Class, Rev, xvills, B2.
-
The European Shy-god. 313
a , “a man-god,” whose fate was to dwell as a prophet “ concealed in the caverns” of Mount Pangzus. His tale is variously told, the most instructive version being perhaps that of Apollodorus, who says: “ When the land remained barren, the god delivered an oracle that it would be fruitful, if Lycurgus were put to death. Here- upon the Edoni took him to Mount Pangweus and bound him. ‘here he perished according to the will of Dionysus, destroyed by horses.” Dr. Frazer,” rightly interprets this as an example of a king punished by death because he had failed to supply his people with the crops in their season. Somewhat similar is the opening scene of Sophocles’ master- piece, the Ocdipus Tyrannus. A blight had fallen upon the land of Thebes, withering the buds, and making the live-stock barren. The common folk repair to the king's palace with the branches and wreaths of suppliants. They are headed by the priest of Zeus, who implores Oedipus to help them. Sophocles is indeed careful to make the priest gay: ‘It is not as deeming thee equal to the gods that [ and these children are seated at thy hearth.” 7 But that is a concession to later piety. More primitive is the word- ing of his appeal: ‘Find for us some succour, whether thou canst hear it from the voice of some god, or haply. knowest it as a man.’ Plutarch’s™? account of the Delphic ceremony called Chari/a, is worth quoting in this connexion: “A famine once fell upon the Delphians in consequence of a drought; so they crowded to the doors of their king as suppliants along with their wives and children. He, since he had not enough for all, distributed barley and vegetables to those of them who were known to him. But, when a young orphan girl came and besought him,
eee 35-1 = Fracer, Gad Bonght 1981 Seth, es. yr 31 6
The European Sky-god. 315
personages three at least stood in some relation to the cult of an oak-Zeus.8 Perhaps, therefore, all Pelasgian kings had a claim to that posthumous distinction.
ARTHUR.BERNARD COOK.
(To be continued.)
™ For Triptolemus see Class. Rev., xviii., 843 for Aeacus ib., xvii., 405 ; for Minos 16, xvii., 404, ff.
COLLECTANEA.
Specimens or SOMALI TALES. (Collected by J. W. C. Kirk, Lieut, VI. Ring’s African Rifies.)
Tue following stories are offered to the student of folklore for what they are worth. He will perhaps be able to determine how far they are the genuine native product, and how far they are borrowed from Arabic or other sources. As a matter of fact the narrators were quite unacquainted with Arabic, with the exception of the Mullah of Burao, who told me the story No. XI. They were all collected from men of the Ishhak tribes from the Burao district, and I have in each case stated under the title the name of the individual narrator with his tribe and subtribe. Nos. I.-V. may be classified as romantic fiction, VI.-VIII. as gnomic or pro- verbial in their purport, and IX.-X. as beast fables. No. XI. looks like a variant of the story of the sons of Judah, and may, I dare say, have been derived by my priestly informant from Moham- medan literature.
I may add that all these tales were told me in the native language, and that I have in my possession copies of the Somali originals (except XI.), which I hope to publish shortly. There are no signs of the stories having been handed down word for word, their phraseology being that of the spoken language of the day, whereas Somali songs are full of obsolete forms and expressions, often unintelligible to the average Somali.
Dr. A. W. Schleicher’s Somali Texte, by Reinisch (Wien, 1900), contains an excellent collection of Somali tales.
1 Habiyo Butiya (Lame Habiyo).
(Mohammed Jibril, Habr Toljaala, Musa Abokr, clerk, aged about 26.)
There once was a Sultan who had a son, whose mother was dead. But the Sultan married another wife, and went on a
Collectanea. 317
pilgrimage. Now a certain Jew was a friend of the Sultan's wife, but the Sultan's son and the Jew were enemies. The Jew said to the woman, “Let us kill the bay.” So she mixed some poison in his food. But the boy had a mare, who knew everything, and the mare said to the hoy, “Don't eat the food"; and when the food was put before him, the boy refused it. The next day the Jew came to the Sultan's wife and said, “ When the Sultan comes back, say you are sick, and when he asks what will cure you, tell him the liver of the mare,” The next day the Sultan came, Then she laid the skin on the bed and placed under it some fig-leaves, and when she lay down the leaves crackled. Then the Sultan said, “What is the matter with you?” and she said, “I have a pain in my ribs.” “What will cure you?” he said; and she answered, “The liver of your son's mare.” The Sultan called the boy and said, “I intend to kill your mare for your stepmother.” And the boy said, “ Very well, but let me take a ride on her this evening.” In the evening the boy rode the mare, and said to his father, “Good-bye, Father,” and departed with the mare. He went toa town, and near the town he saw six girls washing at a well. The youngest of the girls saw him, and when she saw the man, she ran away from the well, being ashamed in front of the man, Then he singed the tail of the mare, who went up into the sky, The young man then pretended to be a cripple, and went into the town, and there became a servant.
Later on the daughters of the Sultan said, “We wish to marry.” The Sultan beat hig drum, and announced, " My daughters wish to marry.” Then the rich young men came together, and the girls were brought, and the people stood in the plain. Then the girls were asked, “Are the men you want all here?” And the young girl said, “The man I wanted is not here.” The slave girls who were summoning the men were told to call all the men in the town, so they called the young cripple, Lame Habiyo. Then the Sultan asked the girls, “Are the men all here?” And they said, “Yes.” The girls were given six oranges, and they were told, “Let each girl hit the man she wants.” The five other girls hit five rich young men; the young girl hit Lame Habiyo, ‘Then her father and mother were so struck with horror that they lost their sight, and the young man married the girl On the next day they were told, “That which will ‘cure the Sultan and his wife is rhinoceros’ milk.” And the young
Collectanea. 319
m. Perseus and Andromeda. (Mohammed Jibril.)
‘There were a brother and sister who kept a cow. They dwelt in a deserted place, and the brother used to go with the cow, while the sister used to sit in the house, and at night they met in the zariba, The sister was of great beauty, and men asked for her, but her brother refused to let the girl be married. One day some ‘men came into the house for the gitl, and they conversed; and the brother came in in the evening and found that men had come for his sister, but he said nothing. ‘The next day the men returned to the girl and said, “We think of killing your brother. When is he engaged?” And the girl said, “ When he is milking the cow.” Tn the evening they came as he was milking the cow, and jumped in over the fence, and when he saw the enemy he drew his sword, His sister seized his hair; but he cut it off, and jumped over the fence, which cut off his genitals, and he escaped. He went to a town where there was a girl tied to a tree, and he said, “Who are you, girl?" and she said, “ My father is the Sultan of the town.” ‘And he said, “Why are you tied up here?” and she said, T am tied up for a dragon which will come and catme,.” Then he said, “ When does it come?” and she said, “In the evening.” And he said, “ When the dragon comes, what will it do?” and she said, “ First it will drink the water, and afterwards eat me,” and he replied, “Very well” ‘Then the dragon came and went down to the water, but the young man drew bis sword and struck it on the head and it died, ‘Then be led away the girl and brought her to the town, and the people of the town came running to him as he Jed the girl, and they said, What is this?” and he said, “I have killed the dragon.”
‘Then he was brought to the Sultan, and they said, “This man has killed the dragon.” And the Sultan bade him many his daughter. So thereupon the man married her,
i, The Girl without legs. (Mohammed Jibril.) A Sultan had a daughter, and the daughter used to be taught
320 Collectanea.
the Koran, One day the Sultan went on a pilgrimage, and entrusted his daughter to a priest and said, “ Continue to teach that girl the Koran.” The priest coveted the girl, wishing to lie with her, but the girl refused. One day she said, “Come to me to-morrow.” On the day arranged she removed from the house the ladder by which the priest used to ascend. He then sent a letter to her father, and he wrote, “ Your daughter has become a whore.” The Sultan returned from the pilgrimage, and he was angry with the girl, and he handed her over to some slaves, and he said, “Cut that girl’s throat.” Then the slaves took the girl, and brought her to a wooded place, and they cut off her legs while they dug her grave. While they were digging the grave she crawled away, and went into some trees and hid. When the slaves had dug the grave, they looked in the place where she had lain and could not find her. Then they slew a gazelle, and the gazelle’s blood they poured into a bottle, and brought the blood to the Sultan and said, “ We have slain the girl.” One day later a caravan passed by the place and camped where the girl lay. In the afternoon as the party were loading up the camels, they saw the girl sitting under a tree. A man took the girl, and put her on a camel, and brought her to the town they came to. The man who took the girl put her to live in a house. Later on the son of the Sultan saw the girl’s face, and the young man saw that her face was beautiful, and he said to the man whose house she dwelt in, “Let me marry that girl from you.” And the man said, “The girl has no legs.” Then the Sultan’s son said, “I will marry her, give her to me.” And so the man said, “ Well and good.” And the Sultan's son married her. She bore two children, and while she was with child the young man said, “I am going on a pilgrim- age.” And he left her a ram, and went on the pilgrimage. While he was away on the pilgrimage his wife had a dream, and she dreamed that two birds sat upon her two legs, and her legs had grown out, and that she made the pilgrimage. In the morning at break of day she saw the two birds sitting upon her two legs, and the legs had grown out. After daylight she took her two children and the ram and the two birds and went on the pilgrimage. She came to a building at the half way, and there came to her her father and her brother and the priest and her husband, none of whom knew her. She told stories to her children, and she related all that had happened to her, and her father heard and the priest.
Collectanea. gat
‘Then the priest tried to run away, but the Sultan said, “Sit down until the story is finished.” Then the Sultan, the girl’s father, cut the priest's throat, and the girl and her father and husband they went on together and made the pilgrimage. And so the girl and her father were reconciled.
Iv. The Sultan's Wife. (Mohammed Jibril.)
‘There was a Sultan who had a son, and his son said, “I want to marry," So the Sultan gave him many presents, and also a ship. ‘The Sultan's son set sail and came to a town, and when he arrived at the town he became friends with a Sultan, and the Sultan gave him a house. The young man made a hole between the house he was in and the Sultan’s house, and he became friends with the Sultan's wife, One day the young man said to the Sultan’s wife, “Make some food for me just as you are accustomed to make it for your husband.” And he went to the Sultan, and said, “ To» night will you take food with me?" And the Sultan said, “ Well and good.” And the young man said to the Sultan's wife, “'To- night when I and the Sultan are having our food, I want you to serve us with the food." And the woman said, " The Sultan will know me.” Then he said, “He will not know you, I will say you are my wife." And she said, “ If he docs not know me, I will go with you and be your wife.” At night the Sultan came bome and dressed himself, and came to the young man’s house. And his wife passed through the hole in the house, and came to the young man’s house, Then she served the food to the Sultan and the young man. The Sultan recognised his wife, and got off his chair, and went to his house. Before he reached his house, the woman passed through the hole and sat upon her bed, and the Sultan saw: her, When he saw her he straightway came back to the house of the young man, while the woman came through the hole, and still he saw her. The young man, who was dining with him, said to the Sultan, “ Did you think this woman who is serving our food was your wife? ‘The woman is my wife,” he said, and the Sultan satdown. The next morning the young man said, ‘I am sailing.” “Very good,” he answered. And the young man arranged with
VOL. XV. v
22 Gollectanea.
the Schan's wife. and said. ~ Is the morning come through that place, Iam Zaz” So the woman came through and came to the yooss sus. and be took ber to sbe ship, and sailed. And the yoosg maa Saving roa away wih ste Sclzan's wife married her.
v. (Ismail, Habr Toijaala, Atmed Farah, professional poet, aged about 24)
There is a sory that a man was riding a horse, and there came to him an oid woman, who said, ~ Where are you going?” And he said, “I am goizg to that town.” And she said, “In that town people are slain and eaten ; do not go in lest they slay you.” And he answered, “Sl Iam going in.” Then she said, “The town has a Sultan, and the Suican bas a daughter, and the daughter's sash is a snake, and the snake eats the people. And there is a camel who eats the people; he sits in front of the house, over there upon a bed.” And she said, “See, my man, if you are going to the house, run and enter the house of the Sultan‘s daughter.” And he said, “The man told me the dog eats the people, and the camel eats the people, and the snake eats the people. How am I going to pass them?” And the woman said, “ Take this grass, and let not the camel eat you, but when you pass the hose you are going to, put the grass in at the door, iest it cat you. And for the dog, take this piece of meat, and put it near the dog, and let him eat it and not you. And for the snake, which is tied round the giri’s waist, take this stick, and place it on the snake's head, and then the snake will die. After you have done this, enter the house and go to the girl, and then marry her.” So he married the girl.
VL Misfortunes never come singly. (smail.)
There is a story that a man once loaded his water-camels and took them to the well, and went to draw water. When he went to draw water he tied his camels together. When he was in the nullah he left six camels behind, while he led the other six. When
Collectanca. 323
he was some distance off, the six camels that were left behind were not to be seen. So he ran back, and came up to find six lions cating the six camels. Then he left them, and retumed to the other six camels, and found six other lions eating these, Then he took a waterskin from the camels, and came to his home, to find his family looted by an enemy.
VIE. How to choose a wifes (Ismail.)
Aman had a son, and the son said to his father, “ Father, 1 want to marry a wife,” ‘Then his father said, “Do you take a widow.” So he took a widow, and his father said, Marry her." So he married ber. Then his father said, “Tie her with a rope, and when she speaks to you, untie the rope.” So he tied her with a rope, and the woman said, “This is not what I have been necustomed to see. What are you doing with me?” Thereupon he untied the rope. In the morning his father came and said, “What did she say?” And he answered, “She said to me, * This is not what I have been accustomed to see. Why are you doing that to me?’" Then his father said, “Send her away." ‘That was one.
‘The father said to his son, “Take another wife, take a grown gir” Then he said, “To-night tie her with a rope, and when she speaks to you, untie it.” So he tied her, and she said, “This is not what I have been accustomed to hear. Why are you tying me with that?” So he untied her. In the morning he came to his father and he said, “She said, ‘This is not what I have been accustomed to hear, What are you doing to me with the rope?’" Then his father said, “Send her away too.” And that was another.
‘Then his father said, “Do you go and take a nice young girl.” So he took one, and he said, “To-night tie her with a rope, and when she speaks to you, untie it.” So the young man did so and went to sleep, and was aslecp all night. In the carly morning the girl woke him up, and said, “The rope with which you tied me has fallen off and is not tied to me, tic it upon me.” And in the morning he told his father. “Father, she said, ‘The rope
va
324 Collectanea.
has fallen off and is not tied to me, tie it upon me’” Then his father said, “Keep that one, she is the right one.” So she was the one he afterwards married.
VII. The Blind Man.
(Ali Sumattar, Habr Yunis, Musa Arreh, officers’ cook, aged about 40.)
Ina certain place many men were talking, and there were two men, one of whom was blind and the other was not blind. The man with sight said, “Why do you talk with a blind man? He can see nothing.” And the blind man said, “‘ How do you know a blind man?” The other one said, “ We know a blind man, he is a man who sees nothing.” Then the blind man said, “ He that is blind is the man who knows nothing, he is blind.”
Ix. (Ismail)
It is said that the Hyzna owned flocks and Man had none. One day Man was looking after the Hyana’s flocks, and the Hyzna went to the council. After this Man thought, and he said, “Let us steal the Hyzena’s flocks while he is away at the council.” So Man put the flocks in a zareba; and night came, and when it was night they were driven off. The Hyzna howled, and went to the other animals, and he said, “See, I have been looted.” Then they said, “Let us attack.” They came along, and arrived at a pool of water, and the male Dikdik said, “If you do not let me come to the pool you shall not drink.” “Sir, we will drink ; leave us,” they said. Then he scratched sand into it until the water was gone; and they died of thirst when they found no water.
XxX. (ismail.)
It is said that a Camel possessed altogether a Snake, a Zareba, a Fire, a Flood, and a Lion, and Deceit, and Honesty. Those seven the Camel owned. One day Deceit said, “We might steal
Collectanea. 325
the Lion from that big Camel; Iet us kill the Lion.” The others said, “ How are we to kill him?” ‘Then she said, “Let the Snake bite the Lion, and when you have bitten him go into the Zareba.” So he bit him and went into the Zarcba, Then she said, “O Fire, burn up both the Zareba and Snake.” So the Fire bumed both Zareba and Snake. Then she said, “The Fire has killed the Snake and the Fence, let the Flood too put out the Fire.” After this Honesty said, “The Flood does not travel on the mountain, but only in the nullah ; let us travel on the mountain with the Camel.” So they travelled on the mountain, and then Deceit said, “Let us slay the Camel.” So they slew her, and cooked the steak, and gulped down the steak, and except the steak nothing elge of the Camel did they eat. And the ment stuck in their throats, for it was a big piece, and could not pass through their mouths. So they died.
XI. Gerhajis and Arab, (Haji Ali Mohammed, Habr Yunis, Abdallah Ismail, priest, aged about 50.)
Gerhajis and Arab were the twin sons of Sheikh Ishhak (the ancestor of one of the two great divisions of the Somalis) by his wife Magado. Before birth one child put out his hand, and the mother wishing to mark him wanted to puta ring on his finger, but, no ring being available, tied on a piece of thread round the little finger. Then the hand was withdrawn. Subsexquently one boy was born, but no thread was found on his finger; this child was called Arab, Later, the other was born, having the ring of thread, and called Gerhajis.
When they were grown up, there was a dispute as to which was the elder. For the elder son, besides becoming head man, must always be married before the younger is allowed to do so, But it was decided that the one that put his hand out, namely Gerhajis, was the first born
J. W. C. King,
Nort.—These Somali tales are interesting. Several of thera, however, are defective, which perhaps may be accounted for by
326 Collectanea.
the fact that they were told by men. Women are notoriously the best tellers of Marcher ; and a woman would have been more likely to remember and reproduce the details. In the first story, for instance, the omissions are numerous. The singeing of the mare’s tail is an incident I do no: remember reading before ; but why did Habiyo adopt this method of causing the magical beast to disappear? There must have been, as in other versions there is, a conversation with her. Probably she herself originally in- formed the hero of his stepmother’s plot, and concerted with him the measures he was to take. Again, why did the sultan’s youngest daughter choose the cripple fora husband? We know from other versions that she had previously seen him and penetrated his dis- mabe: But the incident, a necessary link in the story, is wanting
ree curious incident in the second story of the hero’s mutilation is paralleled in the ancient Egyptian Tale of the Two Brothers. It is also worthy of note that in the Japanese variant of the Perseus and Andromeda legend the dragon drinks before attacking his prey. (See Campbell, My Circular Notes, vol. i, p. 326; Aston, Nikongi, vol. i., p. 52.) The fourth story depends on the incident of the hero’s digging a tunnel from his residence to the heroine’s apartments in her husband’s house. It is obvious that this incident can hardly be natural among the Somalis. In fact, the story is well known in the Mediterranean area, and has doubt- less been brought, like several of the others, by Arabs to Somali- land. The modern phraseology of the originals, referred to by Lieutenant Kirk, strengthens the probability of importation.
E. S. HARTLAND.
Notes FROM THE Uprer Conoo, III. (Vol. xii., pp. 181, 458.)
I PURPOSE now to give you two of the legends told here about Libanza, the nearest equivalent we can get to God. It will be interesting to note, before passing on to the legends, some of the notions the natives have respecting God. Their ideas are very nebulous. To them apparently the Godhead consists of four
Collectanea. 327
persons, all seemingly equal, and cach supreme in his own peculiar department. Their names and functions are as follows —
1, Zibansa.—The Creator, the strong, all-powerful one.
2. Nsakoméa.—The Disposer of the hearts and thoughts of men. This deity is responsible for the good and bad thoughts in Ean for his kindly or evil disposition; for his morality or lack of it,
3. Mambe—The Destroyer. Death, sickness, cyils of all kinds emanate from this deity. Nrambi of the Lower Congo; Nyambe of the Bobangi people, and other forms in cognate languages. The definition of this name varies according to locality. N.B—Lower Congo, amhi=bad; Bobangi, df= bad; Monsembe, i= bad; and soon. Is this the root of Nzambi, &c.? J think it is very
4. Kumba.—Crooked sticks, deformed and semi-sane people, and all malformations in nature are placed to the credit of this deity, N.B.—winda, vet. to bend, to clinch, clench, curve, &c. ‘This is probably the root of Awmba.
The Birth of Lidansa.
Yondoka (a ‘mythical creature) having brought into subjection all the animals, was ac last conquered and slain by another Yondoko, who took his wife. They slept together, and the following morning when the wife went out to sweep the space before the house she saw a parrot that dropped a fruit called munsansalu,! which she picked up, roasted, and ate. She said to her husband, “Fetch me some minsansaév." He struck his fetish horn in the ground, and told his wife that if blood came ‘out of it she would know he was dead. He then took five satchels, and walking very far arrived at the fruit tree, A boy was sitting at the base of the tree. The man ascended, saying, “T am going to pluck minsansaéw." The boy said, “Pull me that one.” The man asked, “This one?” * No," said the boy, “not that one, but that there.” Man said, “This?” “No, that,” said the boy ; until at last the man becoming angry plucked one, threw it at the boy and hit him on a sore. The boy cried and threatened him.
» Afunsancesbu, phoral mrimssurabe. A fruit much liked by the natives. fn shape like a date. It grows on 2 beautiful tree.
Collectanea. 329
died there. Libanza thereupon sent the various swarms of flies, mosquitoes, &e., to fight against Nyandembe; but they were all conquered by Nyandembe, and became his slaves, Libanza then took his shield and spears, fought against Nyandembe, conquered him, got back his slaves, and made Nyandembe also his slave, Libanza returned to his town and sent the flies, &c., about their business.
The Adventures of Libanza,
‘Three persons went hunting, one of them turned aside and saw a boy, covered with yaws, sitting with his two sisters. The hunter said, “I have found some slaves," and the youngsters said, “ We have found a master.” The hunter conducted them to the camp, and by-and-by he made a clearing for snaring monkeys. ‘The boy said, “ Master, give me the traps and I will snare some monkeys." “ You are a little one, can you catch monkeys?” asked the master, He said, “Let me have them,” He took the traps and snared thirty monkeys, whereupon they returned to camp to share out the meat. That boy was Libanza. When they had divided the meat Libanza was feared, and they all sat very quietly, Libanza took his share of the meat and went away. Arriving after a time ata large town he changed himself into a boy with yaws. The people there were pounding sugircanes to make wine, One of them walking to the back of a house, came upon the boy and his sisters, and with surprise exclaimed, “I have found some slaves.” His friends said, “Bring them here." So he took them and sat them down on the mortar, and gave them sugar-canc to eat. After a time the boy said, “Give me a pestle, and I will pound the canes." “You are only a small boy, and do you attempt to pound the canes?” they asked. He took a pestle, and singing, pounded away, and the pestle snapped ; he took two pestles, one in each hand, and they broke with the force of the pounding, and thus he broke all the pestles until only one was left. He took that one, and they fearing him, he went off for good with it.
He and his sisters walked a long way, and came upon a man sitting. One of the sisters said, I will take him, and him only, for my husband.” His name was Koloimoko, As the girl was going out to the place where the man was sitting, Libanza entered into a horn. When Koloimoko came he said “ As I was at first
Collectanea. 331°
he took the parcel and alighted on the top of a tree; he tried to undo it, but heard a sigh come from the parcel, he flew off to another place, and attempted again to loosen ut again he heard the sigh. The hawk then flew to the place where Libanza was, and alighting, said, “Behold your parcel which your sister has sent you.” When he essayed to undo it his sister came out,
Libanza was blacksmithing. There was a person there named Ngombe, he swallowed people every day, so he was called Ngombe the swallower, When Libanza heard that he swallowed people he melted an ingot of iron. The tortoise worked the bellows, Ngombe cried, “Kililili”; Libanza shouted, “‘Alalalala”; Ngombe said, “Who is that mimicking me?” Ngombe again cried, “ Kililili" ; Libanza shouted, “ Ngalalala, [am Anjaka-njaka Lokwala lotungi, Liban, the brother of Nsongo.” Ngombe the swallower came with his mouth wide-stretched to swallow him. Libanza melted the ingot, the tortoise worked the bellows swiftly. Ngombe came with his lower jaw dragging along the ground that he might swaliow him, and Libanza threw the molten metal right into his mouth, and Ngombe fell fatally injured.
i
Only two or three remarks are all that I think are needed,
1. Pestles for pounding sugar-cane weigh from 25 pounds to 30 pounds,
a. Bianga-bianganga, a mythical monster of the forest.
3- Muntwontwa, a bird (a variety of the shrike) used in most native stories as a wizard of much wisdom and resource.
4. Anjakanjaka Lokwala lotungt, Libansa the brother of Neongo, This is Libanza’s full name='The exceedingly strong who can lift anything with his finger-nail, Libanza the brother of Nosongo.
Journ H. Werks.
Monsembe Station, B.M.S., Haut Congo.
Etat Independant du Congo.
Feb, 17, 1904.
332 Collectanea.
TIwETAN PRAYER-WHEELS. (Exhibited at Meeting of Society. Sce Plate VI. and p. 243-)
Tue table prayer-wheel shown to the right of Plate VI. has an outer cylinder of copper six inches high and omamented with bosses containing turquoises. In both the upper and lower panels formed by the central rib is embossed in ancient Indian ranja characters (of the seventh century), the well-known mystical formula, Om/ mani pidme hm! (Om! the jewel in the Lotus ! Hm!) The side handles may be intended to suspend the wheel or to facilitate carriage. On removing the dome-shaped lid, an inner brass cylinder (seen through the apertures of the outer cylinder in the Plate) is found, through which passes an axle resting in a footstep in the bottom of the outer cylinder and ending, above the outer lid as shown, in a tapering screwed part which can be easily twirled by the fingers. On removing the lid of the inner cylinder, a tightly packed mass of scrolls is visible, which is rotated when the axle is twirled. Seeing a prayer is thought to be as good as saying it, and passing it before one as good as seeing it (even if it is out of sight in a revolving prayer-wheel). The prayer scrolls are usually covered with numberless repetitions of the sacred formula already mentioned, which is expected to free the user from the pains and discomforts of a rebirth after the present life, and to end the illusion of existence. (See Waddell’s The Buddhism of Tibet, pp. 148-9, where an illustration of a formula is given.) Almost invariably the scrolls contain only repetitions of a single prayer to a single deity, but in the example shown the scrolls are filled with invoca- tions to four deities, the white, black, yellow, and green gods, who control the powers of evil at the four cardinal points. Each prayer opens with the proper invocations or mantras for these gods, viz. Om! mani pidme hm! (for Chi-ri-si (Avalokita) the white) ; Om! Vajrapdni hm phit! (for Cha-na-dorje (Vajrapani) the black); Om/ a-ra-paca-na-dhi! (for Jam-yang (Maijughosha) the yellow); and Om/ Ti-re tut-ta-re ture sva-hé! (for Dél- ma jan-k’'u (Tard) the green). The prayer itself, translated, runs, “The yellow god, the white god, the black god, the green god, please kindly to take us all up with you, and do not leave us unprotected, but destroy our enemies. Ye gods, who can do
iE Yamser “SUSBHNVHBAWSd NVLEBIL
TA
Pare VIL
TIBETAN DRUM AND TRUMPET. Te fact & 33%
Collectanea. 333
‘everything for us, and who are the owners of our souls and lives, keep us safe with you.”
‘The mantra or formula appropriate to the contained prayers must he repeated before a wheel is turned, and also at the end of the rotation, or else no merit will be gained. ‘The mantra should also be repeated as often a5 possible while the turning is going on, and the faster the turning the greater the merit. It is also necessary that the wheel shall be turned only in the direction in which a person would go keeping bis right side always to the axle. To turn in the reverse direction is to undo all that has been previously done by a right turning.
‘The smaller prayer-wheel, mounted on a long wooden handle and scen to the left of the Plate, is for hand use, and is kept in motion with very little effort by the help of the chain and weight. A hook and chain are also provided for the suspension of the wheel, which contains the usual formula, and has embossed on it the “cight glorious emblems” found in Buddhas footprints, viz. the golden fish, umbrella, conch-shell trumpet of victory, lucky diagram, victorious banner, vase, aN
A. R, Wricur,
‘Tisetan Drum AND TRUMTET. (Exhibited at Meeting of Society. See Plate VIT. and p. 243.)
Tie object to the right of Plate VIT. is a drum made of the ‘caps of two human skulls secured together at their apices, and with their bases covered by human skin. The drum is beaten by Jerking it from one side to the other by the supporting band, so that the two hanging leather bobs strike the skin coverings, ‘The other object shown is a Aavi./ia, or trumpet made of a buman thigh-bone, the lower part of which is covered with human skin. Such a trumpet “is sometimes encased in brass, with a wide copper flanged extremity, on which are figured the three eyes and nose of a demon, the oval open extremity being the demon’s mouth. In the preparntion of these thigh-bone trumpets the bones of criminals or those who have died by violence are preferred, and an elaborate incantation is done, part of which consists in the Lima eating a portion of the skin of the bone; otherwise its blast would not be sufficiently powerful to summon
Collectanea, 335
Ganan-pwas (I am not quite certain about these mames), and Ganan-mas were not, I was told, allowed to take part in a Ganan- fiwa struggle, or vice-versi, Presumably, therefore, there must have been two Siuve-Amus. The account of the lings as given to me, was this. The office of Shtwe-hmw depended on the possession of the pair of scales which was used for weighing the gold in which the tax was paid. With these went also the Shwe-dimu's saddle, spear, and the royal order of appointment for the original, or at any rate an early, Shaw fra; but the scales were the real thing. Any one who could Ret possession or them by fair means became Shmwe-Amu for as long as he could keep them. A man would therefore call his friends together and go to the Sfwev/imu's house and attack him. ‘The use of iron in the fight was prohibited, and, as I have mentioned above, Ganan-mas could not fight with Ganamprvas, nor vice-verst. Bamboos were apparently the usual weapons, If the claimant beat the S/we-Amu, and was able to carry off the scales by dint of fair fighting, he became Shzwesimy, but he could not steal them or get them by fraud. If the claimant was defeated the Shwe-Amw fined him, the amount of the fine being, I think, three vin of silver (say £20 nowadays, but of course of greater value before the annexation). There was no limit in elther direction to the time for which the Shwe-/muship must or might be held, and a man might be S/iwe-fmu any number of different times. I have seen men who were Shwe-hmus at three or four different times, and six months or a year was a very fair tenure. ‘One man I met was still a butt because, fifteen years before, perhaps, he had been Siaweinw for one day only
Inever heard of any superstitious beliefs attaching to any of the objects, and I do not know anything about the age of the custom or its origin. The origin of the Kadus themselves is obscure; they are supposed to be in part at any rate of Kachin origin, but their own story is that four generations ago they came up to Ganan from a large forest in the SAwedo or Monywe district ‘on the west of the Chindwin, T only heard of this custom as 1 was leaving Gavan for the last time, as it turned out, as I was immediately wansferred to another district. I had therefore no time to make any inquiries on the spot.
Davip Sazaeme, I. C. S., Burma, 12th November, 1902,
a
336 Collectanea,
‘Storigs rrom Leitrim anp Cavan.
The following stories were told to me in 1894 by a domestic servant named Ellen McKeever, the daughter of a small farmer living near the town of Cavan. Her mother, from whom she had obtained some of them, was a native of county Leitrim.
The Dead Letter.
‘This was a very poor old woman, she used to go about begging, and every week she'd give half-a-crown to the priest to saya token of a mass for some of the souls in purgatory, So this week she could only give a shilling, so she went to the priest and told him and asked him if he’d say it for her, and he said he would. The priest asked her who he'd say it for, and she said for the most needful soul?
One very cold morning not long after that she was sitting in a field praying and feeling very hungry, when a very old man with a long white beard came up to her, He pointed out a gentleman's place near there and gave her a letter, and told her to go there and to give that letter to nobody only the master of the house. So she went there and rung the bell, and the butler came to the door, So she asked to see the master, and the butler laughed at her, and said she couldn’t see him, and to send a message. And she said no, that she'd have to see the master himself. So the butler went and told him, and he said to show her into the room. I think ir was In his bedroom he was, So the old woman went up to the room, and gave him the letter, and told him that an old man gave it to her, He got very pale when he read it, and he told her to examine all the pictures round the room to see if she saw a face like the man that gave her the letter. So she pointed to one hanging over his bed and said that was it. So the gentle man said that was his father, that was dead for twenty years, and told her that what was in the letter was that he was to make her comfortable all her life, for she was the cause of sending him® to Heaven.
So he married her and she lived ever after there.
* Fy tho soul that needed it most. * bay the writer.
Collectanea. 337
The Dog Spirit
‘There were two brothers once who lived on two farms close together, and one of them had a pothook! making at a forge some distance away, and one evening there came a skiff of snow. So he said to the wife, as he couldn't do anything else he would go to the forge for the pothook. So he put ona heavy frieze coat and went to the forge and got the pothook and hung it round his neck, and started to come home.
When he came to the cross near his house, where one road went to his farm and one to his brother's, it was getting dark, but he could see by the light from the snow a big black dog lying by the roadside. And the brother's dog used to be there very often, many a time before he met him, and the man thought it was him that was there. So he called him by his name and the dog didn't stir; and he called him again three times, and the third time the dog jumped up at his throat. So he stooped down and the dog went over his head. And as soon as the dog was over, it ran round and made the same attempt for three times after each other. And the third time the man stooped along to the gripe? to see would he get a stone, and he laid his hand on a donkey that was there. And as soon as he did the donkey ran on, and the man held on to him and threw his leg over him and put his arms round his neck.
The donkey ran along the road with the man on him fora long way, and the dog after him. And they ran and ran till they came to a little running stream across the road. And the donkey crossed, but the dog couldn't, but he turned into the field and took half the hedge with him in a blaze of fire,
‘The man got home then all right, and he went to the priest next morning and told him, The priest told him it was the devil that was waiting for somebody else, and that he disturbed him,
‘The narrator of the foregoing story attributed the farmer's happy escape to the hook which he carried round his neck, iron being much dreaded by spirits. 1 have been told of a malevolent ghost that used to haunt a road in Kerry and that often injured
+ ‘The pothook ix S-shaped and used for suspending the potate-pot from the 4 crook,” which is an iron bracket projecting from the back of the chimney,
* hey the ditch beside the sou.
VOL. xv. z
Collectanea. 339
place one morning very carly, and he met a gentleman, and the gentleman asked him what he was doing out so early. So he said to him he was so poor he was doing all he could to try to live, So the gentleman asked him if he hadn't a very nice daughter, and he said he had. And I think he said he'd give him £20 if he'd sell him the daughter, and the man said he would. So this gentleman told him he must send her out with- out breaking her fast in the morning.
So the man went home and told the wife, and she was very glad to hear it, And the next morning she called the step-daughter very early and told her a gentleman was to meet her at a stile there was down from the house, and she was to go with him. ‘The step-mother hid everything, except a bit of oaten cake she didn’t notice, for fear the step-daughter would get a bit to eat. So when she was going out she got this bit of oaten cake on the table and eat it, and when she went to the stile there was no one there, The father went out at the same hour the next moming and met him there, and he told him he couldn’t take her because she broke her fast. But the gentleman told him the next moming she Was to sneeze three times and no one was to say, “ God bless her." So she riz the next morning just the same as before, and she sneezed three times, and when she sneezed the third time the step-mother forgot, and said, “God bless you!" So when she went out there was nobody there.
‘So the father went out the third morning, and the devil told him who he was, and showed him the cloven foot he had, and was in an awful temper because he didn’t get her, and took back the money off the man.
‘There is a belief in Ireland that it is dangerous to go outside the house in the morning before breaking one’s fast, as the devil has then special power over one.
The Fairy’s Question.
‘The priest came out this morning to say mass and he got the Chalice broken. So when he was on the altar a little man came up to him with a red jacket on him, and told him that he would mend the chalice if the priest would tell him, “If we, what they call the Good People, ill go to Heaven after the end of the
za
a |
world.” So the priest said that they would if there was the full of a writing pen of blood amongst the whole of them. So he went away and there was an awful noise after him like crying, and the chalice wasn’t mended.
340 Collectanea.
‘There is an anecdote in Kennedy's Legendary Fictions of 2 similar question being put to a priest, but the test that he imposed was a theological one. Ai to McKeever the fairies are one class of the fallen angels, the others being the air spirits, beings powerless alike for good or evil,
‘The last were in active rebellion, while the
word, and the fairies sinned in that they stood neutral in the contest. The fairies are often alluded to in English Gentry.” Te is worth noting that this story implies that was able to enter a church during service !
Pag 5
The Crock of Gold.
‘There was a man, and he was very poor, and a very good workman, and never used to lose any time. And he couldn’t make out how it was he couldn't be rich, and he such an honest working man—so industrious. He had a son daughter who was very handsome. He went out carly one morning and saw a little man in a red jacket making shoes under a tree, so he caught hold of him and asked him what he was doing there so carly. So he said, “I’m not any earlier out than what you are.” So the man said yes, and that he couldn’t make anything of that, he was always very poor and yet worked very hard, So he said, “ Well, I’ll tell ye where ye'll get a treasure, but as soon as ye take it out there must be a life lost afterwards, a dog or a cat will do.” He told him then to lift up a flat stone that was on his own hearth, and under it he'd get a crock of gold, and that nobody was to know anything about it only his own family, and when he took out the crock to throw in a dog or a cat and let down the stone.
So they gathered around the stone, and they riz the stone and took the crock of gold out, and they were about to close the stone without putting anything in, when the daughter fell in and never was seen or heard after,
And the man had the money, but it never done him any good,
=|
Collectanea. 341
‘The fairy mentioned in this story scems to have been the Leprechaun, but McKeever did not say so, and I omitted to ask her.
Bryan J. Joxxs.
Nonrivumurtan Soctar Customs.
‘Tae following notes were taken down by me, roth October, 1890, from the mouth of a member of the Roddam family of Roddam, an outlying estate in the parish of Ilderton, Northum- berland :-—
“There is a twenty minutes’ steep ascent up to the house which was my carly home. Behind it the moors stretch away to the Cheviots, and till a few years ago it was fourteen miles from the railway. Close to the back of the house runs a public road, leading past the “town™ of Roddam, as it was always called. ‘This consists of a square paved court (paved with pebbles, I think), having on one side three cottages, on the second, one cottage, on the third a big forie-cochére, and on the fourth a wall and some trees. All the houses look /wards upon the court, and must be approached through the gateway. I am inclined to think some cottages may have been pulled down, for an account- book of 1795 has an entry of ‘6d, each to the children of the town for a Christmas-box, 155.’ The cottages consist only of two ground-floor rooms each, containing box-beds, They are inhabited by the ‘hinds,’ or agricultural labourers. Each hind is bound to find so many women to help in the ficld-‘labour—harvesting, &c. ‘These women were formerly called ‘bondagers,' and are hired yearly at Wooler Fair (May 12th). They live in the houses of the hinds who hire them. The ‘herds,’ or shepherds, live in scattered cottages on the moor. The farms in the district are Jarge, and many herds and hinds are employed on one farm. The herds’ and hinds’ families do not intermarry.
“ Tiderton itself lies a mile and a half away across the moor (further by the road). It is a regular little village, not an enclosed court. ‘The Ilderton people always used to lock a wedding-party into the Church till they pushed one or more gold coins under the door, This was done at the wedding of a lady of our family in 1858. Then a form was placed in the church-porch, over
342 Collectanea,
which the party had to jump. I was a little girl of seven years old at the time, and I remember that the chimney-sweep lifted me over !!
“The garden-boys at Roddam used to get up morris-dancing at Christmas. It was simply dancing with wooden swords, there was no play.”
Thus far my informant. I may add that, according to tradition, the land on which the house stands was granted to the ancestor of the Roddams by King Athelstan, whose pacification of Northumbria (it will be remembered that he was the first West- Saxon king whose dominion reached so far north) has left more than one trace in the traditions of the country. There is a mound south of the house at Roddam known as “‘ Athelstan’s Mount,” which was opened about the middle of the nineteenth century, and two very perfect earthen vases (British, to the best of my judgment) were found in it.?
‘Athelstan’s gift is also rehearsed in the rhyming charter of Roddam :—
“T King Athelstan Giffis heir to Paulane ‘Odam and Roddam Als gude and als fair ‘As evir tha myne ware. ‘And yair to witness Mald my wyff.”
In this form the charter is said to have been produced to substantiate the Roddam rights when Robert Stewart, Earl of Fife, invaded England in the time of Richard II. On the Roddam pedigree it is written as follows —
“« 1 King Athelstan gives unto the Roddam, From me and mine unto thee and thine, Before my wife Maude and my daughter Maudlin and my eldest son Henry. ‘And for a certen truth T bite this wax with my gang-tooth. ‘As long as muir bears moss and knout grows hare, ‘A Roddam of Roddam for evermair.”
Rhyming charters such as this are generally associated with the
) Cf. vol. xiii., p. 229.
* The rhyming charter of Roddam is to be found in the Denham Tracts, but for want of better authority accessible at the moment, I quote from Murray's Handbook to Northumberland (A. J. C. Hare).
Callectanea. 343
name of the Conqueror? It is needless to say that they cannot possibly date back either to his time or to Athelstan’s. Professor Skeat refers the wording to the sixteenth A
Attestation of a deed by the impression of the author's teeth occurs in the legends of Asoka, the first Emperor of India, B.C. 272-232 (see footnote).
‘The last couplet is evidently a real local popular rhyme, tacked on to the charter and not understood by the scribe; for the nonsensical " Anouf grows Aare" roust undoubtedly stand for newt (singular number of neat cattle, horned beasts) grows Aafr, which is intelligible and appropriate,
Cuarvorie S, BuRNE,
A Buck Surersrinioy.
By the kindness of Mr. Rorie, a member of the Society, we have received a cutting from the Demerara Datly Chronicle of January 27th, 1904, containing an account of the trial of Christie, a Buck Shaman, for the murder of an Indian woman named Kaliwa, in May, 1902. Kaliwa had been the wife of a Buck Indian named Taruma, and after the birth of twins two years ago had been in ill health. Taruma had got marabuntas and ants to sting her at Christie's orders, but she had not improved. Christie, his uncle, a Aferinetw, told him be must burn her, because she was the wife of a bad spirit, otherwise other people in the village would die of the same sickness. He burt ber between one and two moons after in the bush, putting wood under her and more on the top before she was dead. When people died in a house it was burnt sometimes, but they buried dead bodies. ‘Twins we were regarded as the children of an evil spirit, Pernowhari.
‘The prisoner said that a spirit in the shape of a large Camoodie had possessed Kaliwa when she gave birth to the children and he had seen it himself, Only the Merinows can see spirits. Sentence of death was passed.
Eprror.
' CLG. L, Gomme on Rhythmical Laws" Jn The anne 0 ote,
Meira pli Vincent A. Smith, soba, Clarendon Press, tgot, p. 188).
CORRESPONDENCE.
A Curture-TrabiTion. (Ante, vol. iii., p. 92.)
Wuen at Ntumbi, West Shire district in 1894, I obtained from a girl named Mbuya, daughter of Chipanga of Nziza, the story of which a translation is given below. I could make little or nothing of it at first (as, probably owing to want of practice on the part both of reciter and reporter, it is incomplete, and per- haps, in some places, not correctly taken down), but on seeing Dr. Elmslie’s “Folklore Tales of Central Africa,” in vol. iii. of Folk-Lore, 1 recognised it in “The Man who lived by Over- reaching Others,” though as will be seen, there are some im- portant differences. Dr. Elmslie gives no more precise indication as to locality of collection than Lake Nyasa. My locality was about sixty miles to the south of the lake, and inhabited by so-called “ Angoni”—in reality Anyanja, with a sprinkling of migrants from other tribes. The general language was Chinyanja. Chipanga was, so far as I know, a Mnyanja, his wife, Mbuya’s mother, a Yao. The girl knew both languages, but usually spoke Chinyanja, in which she dictated this story to me. I was at first inclined to conjecture that it might be an older form than Dr. Elmslie’s version, some native Euhemerus about Kotakota or Bandawe having substituted a man for the rabbit as more possible. But it is also conceivable that where ‘“Brer Rabbit” is the hero of almost every “ Auchenjera” story! (as is the case in those I collected at Ntumbi and Blantyre—the tortoise and one or two other creatures occasionally takes his place) adventures originally not his own might be attributed to him.?
One involving cleverness.
* Mbuya makes the guinea-fowls eat ‘ sand,” while Dr. Elmslie has “ white ants”—the former seems to me to have far more point, white ants being rather a delicacy than otherwise, both to fowls and human beings.
Correspondence, 345
Mbuya's story is as follows
“The Rabbit took wild fruits (mpinjimpinye) and put them into his bag; and he came to [a man who was] eating earth; and he said, ‘Do not cat carth—cat my mpinjimpinji? (And he gave him some. And when the man had eaten them, he said], ‘Give me other things [in exchange].’ And he gave him a weaving- stick (fange), [And he went on and] found a man weaving cloth and benting it on the ground," and he gave him a weaving- stick. He said, ‘Give me something else, [since] you have taken my weaving-stick! And he gave him hoes (méasw). [And he went on and] found [people digging with pointed sticks (ncko&oti). He said, ‘Hoe with these hoes’; and his companions hoed. He said, ‘You have hoed with my hoe, [give me something instead of it}’ And they gave him arrows (midvz). [And he went op and] found people shooting with small arrows (nseqe),? and he said, ‘Shoot with these [proper] arrows,’ [And they did so, and] he said, *You have taken my arrows,’ [give me something instead)? And they gave him mapiva (millet). [And he went on and] came to some guinea-fow! eating sand, and he said] ‘Eat mapira! And the guinea-fowl left off cating sand [and ate the mapira, and he said,]*You have eaten my mapira.’ And they gave him some red clay (cfvkuée).> [And he went on] and found some frogs anointing themselves with mud. He said, ‘Anoint yourselves with this red clay.’ The frogs anointed themselves. He said, ‘Give me my red clay,” The frogs said ..4.. The rabbit just went away. ‘The frogs went into the water."
Tn Dr, Elmslie’s story it is a man who is the hero. He starts similarly, by finding wild fruit (this time figs) in the bush. He gives them to a man eating grass and gets in return (after having vainly demanded back his figs) a fishingnet. The remaining ‘steps in the series are as follows ;
' ‘The original is not quite clear here, but I thunk this must be the meaniog. ‘The panga is a stick used for pushing up the threads of the weft after they hhave been passed between thave of the warp.
sie al wow lb tn lay made om i of
SY Chile (ox Aunidrt s 4 Wind of red ochre, which ls mixed wht oll and smeared on the hair by Lake Nyasa women. A similar mixture is used among other tribes for anointing the body.
* Tere T fail to make semic of the text,
Correspondence. 347
Writsuntipe Fate.
(Vol. xii, p. 351.)
‘Taere is a good deal of information about Whilsuntide beliefs contained in Lady Wilde's Ancient Legends of Ireland, pp. x08 and 140. She gives no references or authorities, but 1 know from personal experience that most of the beliefs she records still exist among the country people. Whit-Sunday does not appear to be an unlucky day, but Whit-Monday js, and so to a lesser degree are the Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday following. It is most dangerous to travel or boat on Whit-Monday, and children or animals born on that day are evil-tempered and likely to take some man’s life. It was customary in Louth to bury a Whit- Monday foal or calf, but this method of breaking the charm is now almost forgotten, though such animals are still distrusted, ‘Only a few months ago a carter working near Dundalk, whose ‘mare was trying to bite every one who approached her, explained her conduet by saying that she had been foaled on Whit-Monday. In Cavan when a cow calved on Whit-Monday a hole was dug right through a “ditch” (42, a bank), and the calf was
along the tunnel thus made. A Kildare woman tells me that her grandmother invariably smothered chickens hatched on Whit- Monday. Louth people call a child born on Whit-Monday a “kingkisheen” (from Trish “cingels,” Whitsuntide), and say that a blow given by such a one is very dangerous, 1 have never heard of a kingkisheen being buried to avert ill luck, but it was believed in Louth and several other counties that if a live fly were placed in the child’s band soon after his birth and held there until it died, he would be freed from the curse.
Bevan J. Jonrs.
Mock Buriat. (iid.)
Mass J. A. Lonp (Tyre) writes as follows in Daugdters of Syria, the quarterly magazine of the British Syrian Mission, for April, 1904:
348 Correspondence.
“At the dispensary meeting, a few mornings ago, a woman brought a baby . . . . a thin, emaciated bag of skin and bones . Some Bedaween women also present were asking different questions about the child ; finally one of them said to the mother: ‘I will tell you of a remedy, which will not fail to make your boy fat and well . - You must take your son to the graveyard and put a basket over his head, lay him on a grave and say this: “Oh, you inhabitants of the grave, come and take your son, and give me back my son!” Repeat this several times, then leave your son there, and you retire a little distance away from him. Do this for some days, and you will see how your son grows fat and repays you for your trouble.”
A. WERNER.
“ BACK-FOOTED ” BEINGS. (Ante, p. 34, and vol. xii, p. 183.)
I can refer Miss Hull to an instance of this curious belief in Cornwall. John Stephens of Saint Ives, a man who by skilful trading laid the foundations of what became the biggest fortune in the Duchy, lived in the eighteenth century, and made his money by selling pilchards at Mediterranean ports. He was popularly and locally known as “the old Greek with his calves in front.” My History of Saint Ives ascribes this to crooked legs and foreign trade, but the story of Deirdre shews that there may be a deeper significance in the phrase. Joun Hozson MartHews.
MonmourusHirz FOLKLORE. (Ante, p. 85.)
Miss Wxerry’s charming Monmouthshire collections are a valu- able addition to the lore of a county whose literature is all too undeveloped in this direction. “The mythical person” known as “Jack Kent,” who is credited (p. 85) with so many diplomatic triumphs over the Evil One, is no other than Father John of
Correspondence, 349
Kentehurch, D.D., Provincial of the Franciscans, an Oxford pro- fessor, and a Welsh bard whose poems are yet extant in seven- teenth century MSS. He lived in the fifteenth century, and having scientific knowledge, could hardly fail (any more than his brother Bacon) to get credit for magical powers. Some of the feats attributed to him are obviously gigantic, and have no doubt been transferred to him from some forgotten giant. Suchiis his jumping off the Sugarloaf Mountain, near Abergavenny, on to the Skyrrid (the Sgiryd Fawr). His “ heel-mark” in the latter moun- tain is an extensive prehistoric landslip, and is usually ascribed to the earthquake which took place at the Crucifixion, The ‘Sgiryd Fawr was always regarded as sacred and mysterious. More than one Monmouthshire parish church was built on a mound formed of earth brought from this mountain; and it was the custom at the burial of Catholics, right down to the early nine- teenth century, to sprinkle on the coffin earth brought from the chapel of Saint Michael, which stood on the slope near the land- slip. Saint Michael's, or the Holy Mountain, were other names for the Great Sgiryd.
‘The belief (p. 86) that if one kills an adder and holds it over fire its four legs will come out, reminds one of the Jewish (radition that the serpent had legs and walked before Adam’s fall. I have heard this belief referred to a “race-memory” of antediluvian reptiles.
The Book of Baglan, a celebrated Welsh MS. of Gwentian
» Written 1607, twice mentions a certain giant, “Gigas Orgo” or “ Giginn Orgo," to whom it attributes the first building of Abergavenny Castle, I cannot explain the word Giginm unless it be some obsolete Welsh word for granf, but in any case the combination “Giginn Orgo” involves a radical form Gorgo, in which one is much inclined to recognise the Gworgwof or Werwolf of Arthur and Gorlagon (sec Mr. Nutt’s notes, p. 6x). I may add that Orgo is the only giant I have met with in the folklore of Monmouthshire.
Joux Hosson Matruews. Monmouth.
350 Correspondence.
CHARM AGAINST TOOTHACHE. (Ante, pp. 196.)
Tue following, which may well be identical with the Pembroke- shire charm above referred to, is in the Edinburgh Museum, marked No. 18.
“Petter was Laying and his head upon a marrable Ston weping and Christ came by and said what else thou Petter Petter answered and sad Lordgod my twoth Raise thou Petter and be healed and whosoever shall carry these lines in my name shall never feel the twothick.
Kerr M‘Autay.”
This is written on a piece of paper in tolerably clear though not cultivated manuscript. A description placed with it says that the paper is eight inches long, two-and-a-half broad, and that the charm was written and sold bya professional witch namedjKate M‘Aulay, residing at Kishorn, Lochcarron, Ross-shire, in 1855; also that it was folded small and was worn in a small silk bag hung round the neck of a shepherd, who had given half- a-crown to the witch for the charm, which, however, was to lose its efficacy when looked at.
HERBERT M. Bower.
[This is perhaps the commonest of all written charms found in the United Kingdom. The fullest version, a Latin one, occurs in Cockayne’s Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms, iii., 164.—ED.]
MipsumMER Bonrires. (Antz, p. 105.)
Tue Rev. R. Spark, M.A., minister of this parish, has kindly copied for me the part of Mr. Hogg’s will that refers to the Bonfire. The will is engrossed in the Session Records under date 1787. It is interesting to note that the fire (as I surmised) is referred to as an existing institution.
Correspondence. 351
“ Kirk Session Records ; Durris, Kincards. Anno 178}.
“Extract from the will of Alexander Hogg of Twickenham, in the county of Midlesex [si], gentleman, dated the 18th day of April, 1786;
“I give and bequeath to the Kirk Session of the parish of Durris, in the county of Kincardine, otherwise the Mearns, North Britain, and to their successors in office the Kirk Session, the sum of five hundred pounds old four per cent. Bank Annuities . . . . upon Trust and to and for the uses, intents, and purposes here- after mentioned . ... and the Kirk Session shall pay annally for ever [such and such sums] and also ten shillings annually for ever to the Herds round Caim-Shee for their mid-summer fire, as reside in Bogg, Upperton, Mains, The Mill Standing Stones, Quithlehead, two Newtowns, Barns, and Cairnhill’”
The herds—lads used for keeping cattle in Scotland (till sixty years ago) when the country was still unfenced—at these ten farms, got sixpence each.
A, Macpowatn.
‘Tne Perrinc-SToNe. (Vol. xiii., p. 226.)
I rorwarp the following cutting from the Newcastle Daily Sournal, 11 April, 1904.
“At the Parish Church, Eglingham, in the presence of a large congregation of relatives and friends, the marriage took place of Mr. Thos. Bowey Bum, eldest son of Mr, E. Burn, The Croft, Eglingham, and Miss Alice Maud Rogers, eldest daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Rogers, Upnor, Kent. . . . On leaying the eburch the newly-wedded couple were met with the usual shower of rice and confetti, and, again, on passing from the churchyard another ancient custom had to be observed, that of surmounting the ‘petting stool.’ Both ordeals having been successfully gone through, the happy couple drove to the Croft," &.
W. Crooks,
Reviews. 353
data as to terms of kinship and marriage regulations. Dr. Rivers has already pointed out in Journal of the Anthropological Institute (vol. x0x., p. 74) the multifarious uses to which these genealogies can be put; they will tell us, for example, the average fertility of a persia the relative fertility of marriages within and without the recognised intermarrying group, and many other things; they may be used as a framework for a history of the community ; and they will naturally give the fullest information as to terms of kinship and marriage regulations. Beyond this, where, as in the present case, extensive somatological observations have been made, material for the study of heredity is provided, especially if, as was previously the case with the Torres Straits islanders, until a paternal (or grandmotherly) Government interfered, it is the custom to preserve the skulls or bones of deceased relatives.
The volume before us, a large portion of the materials for which was gathered in Mabuiag, opens with a short introduction, giving a general account of the islands and definitions of a few native terms left untranslated in the subsequent pages. Then follow forty-six folktales collected by Dr. Haddon, including nature myths, culture myths, totem myths, spirit myths, bogey tales, comic tales, sagas, and narratives about people. The plots of these are summarised and an abstract of the anthropological incidents is also given.
Next come the genealogies, and a discussion of them by Dr. Rivers The method of collecting them was simplicity itself. Some one man was taken as a starting point, and the names of his family noted, then those of his parents and parents-inaw, and so on; and, in many cases, thanks to the small vocabulary required, Dr. Rivers was able to accomplish this without the aid of an inter preter. As a proof of the dissociation caused by European in- fluences, it is interesting to note that on Mabuiag the genealogies might be and were discussed in public with gusto and even fervour, whereas on Murray Island, which is comparatively un- touched, information could only be got from a native when he was out of earshot of other islanders. Complications occasionally arose; a8 for example when, owing to the custom of exchanging names, a number of individuals apparently figured in two quite distinct families; the custom of adoption, too, introduced an element of uncertainty that was more difficult to ¢liminate, But on the whole Dr. Rivers is satisfied that the records are sub-
VOL. X¥, za
Reviews. 355
has perhaps risen to a prominent position with some rapidity by virtue of unusual fertility; how far this was due to its foreign origin does not appear. Evidence was collected showing that there was a dual grouping of the clans; in Sabai the single village was formed of one long street, in which there were two clans on ‘one side and three on the other; and the bulk of the marriages took place across the street, As to Mabuiag the information was somewhat hary; our authors suggest that the two groups occupied separate localities, and that the ancient separation was obscured by local movements of population, ‘This view at first sight does not fit in with Dr, Rivers’ suggestion that female descent went out only a little more than a hundred years ago; for clearly there can be no local grouping unless the determinant spouse (¢.¢., the ‘one from whom the children take their totems) retains her or his residence, and the husband or wife, as the case may be, removes from among his own people. Of such a custom we might expect to find distinct traces in the law of inheritance, but the rule appears to be equal division of property between sons and daughters ; this and the large testatory powers may of course be due to the change from female to male descent, but a discussion of this point would have been useful. ‘The custom postulated by Dr. Rivers existed, however, and as a matter of fact it is still ‘usual for the husband to remove and live with his wife. ‘This is mentioned on p. 230, but it is by no means clear from the ‘expressions used there that it was ever a universal practice; there cannot well have been a local distribution, however, unless the exceptions were very few. Statistics on this point might readily have been prepared from the genealogies, and a fuller discussion of the question, together with that of the prior existence of matriliny, would have been very desirable. If, as appears to be the case, the clans were also localised (p. 173), it is not difficult to understand why a polygamist took his other wives from the same clan as the first (p. 244). This, and still more the marriage of sisters, would tend to secure that their landed property was Jess scattered than would otherwise have been the case.
An important question, on which no conclusion is reached, is that of subsidiary totems. By this is meant, the authors say (p. t$0), not anything analogous to Mr. Howitt's sub-totems, which he re- gards as nascent kin-totems, but an arrangement by which a man has as secondary totem an object which may be the chief totem of
2A2
Reviews. 357
purchase was the rule, and the value of the lady was variously rated at that of a canoe, a necklace of dog's tecth, or, in 1849, a glass bottle, The husband was bound to pay his wife's relatives for each child born to him, Possibly this is evidence of the prior matrilineal stage.
Dr. Rivers gives an excellent discussion of marriage regulations in section nine. On the whole intra-clan marriage was exceed: ingly rare, and seems to have been possible only when the sub- sidiary totems were different. Marriage between near kin was unknown, and very rare between remote kin. The evidence goes to show, however, that there was a differentiation in respect of the same legal degree of kinship, dependent possibly on a former identity of kinship and clanship. It is a worse offence to marry a éabat of the same than of another clan.
‘The funeral ceremonies are deseribed for each locality sepa- tately. In Mabuiag the thumbs and great toes of the corpse were ticd together, and it was sewn up in a mat. It was then carried out of the camp feet foremost, so that the ghost might not come back to trouble the survivors, A curious feature was that the marigef, who performed the funeral ceremonies, &c., must be of another clan to the dead man. The body was placed on a
sara, and the friends of the deceased summoned by pantomime, -
the movements of the totem of the dead man being imitated ; they brought bows and arrows, and shot at both the sara and the smarige?. These latter are stated to have been shot at because it was assumed they injured the corpse, but it seems possible that the original idea was that of driving away the soul who is near them. After much lamentation the garden of the deceased was devastated, and this closed the first day of mourning, After an interval of several days his relatives returned and beat the sara to drive away the ghost (“to drive rest of devil out”), and the head and lower jaw were placed in an ant’s nest. When the bones were bare, the wife or other near relative wrapped them up and deposited them in a crevice in the rocks. The skull was decorated and handed to the nearest relatives,
We pass over some interesting sections on Public Life, Morals, Personal Names, Land Tenure, ‘Trade, and Warfare, and come to Magic and Religion.
Elaborate ceremonies were necessary to prepare a canoe for turtle-fishing, and the dugong and eawfizh were also objects of
Reviews. 359
L'Annde Socionocique, publi¢e sous la direction de Emile Durk- heim, Professeur de Sociologie a l'Université de Bordeaux. Septigme Année (1902-1903). Paris: Félix Alean. 1904,
We have begun to look for the publication, year by year, in L’Annie Sociologigue, of important contributions towards the elucidation of obscure problems in connection with anthropo- logical science, This year, at all events, the expectation will be satisfied. The Mémofre presented to us by Messrs. Hubert and Mauss is in continuation of a series, commenced in previous volumes, having for its object the introduction of a certain num- ber of definite notions, and consequently of scientifie nomen- clature, into the study of religious phenomena, The authors complain, with no little reason, of the want of precise classifica- tion and an accurate vocabulary in the history of religion. Tt is this, they think, which bas retarded the progress of a study so rich in facts, and ¢o capable of yielding abundant results. Mem- bers of the Folk-Lore Society will recollect that some five years ago the same authors presented in L'Année Sociologigue an essay ‘on the nature and function of sacrifice. The present work may be regarded as carrying on the attempt at analysis and definition from the domain of religion into a parallel region. In it they attempt to formulate a general theory of magic,
Magic has been the subject of much discussion among anthro- pologists during the last few years. Asan outcome of this dis- cussion Dr, Frazer, in the second edition of Ze Golden Bough, put forward a formal theory. Definitions there had been before, but none so completely worked out—perhaps none so bold—as his. According to him and the school which he represents, magic is a sort of savage science. To quote The Golden Bough : “Wherever sympathetic magic [in which expression mimetic magic is also included) oceurs in its pure unadulterated form, it assumes that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably without the intervention of any spiritual or personal
agency... .. Thus the analogy between the magical and the scientific conception of the world is close, In both of them the succession of events is perfectly regular and certain, being deter- mined by immutable laws, the operation of which can be foreseen and calculated precisely ; the elements of caprice, of chance, and of accident are banished fram the course of nature. Both of
Reviews. 36r
magicias, and so regard him, even when not a professional but merely performing those acts casually, and whether for his own benefit or for that of others. Magical representations are the ideas and beliefs corresponding to the magical acts. The magical acts are rites, provisionally distinguished from religious rites, as not part of an organised cult, but private, secret, mysterious, and tending towards the prohibited. ‘This definition turns out in the sequel to be inaccurate, inasmuch as some magical rites are per- formed coram pubiico, like rain-making, or in the presence of a number of interested persons, like rites for the healing of the sick, or even by a large number of persons acting together, as in the case of the Dyak women who execute certain dances while their husbands are away head-hunting, to secure for them success. It is, however, not easy so to define a magical rite as to distinguish it infallibly from a religious rite. To define it as a sympathetic rite would be on the one hand to exclude rites of purification, rites of sacrifice, rites of preparation of magical instruments, and so forth, which are certainly magical. On the other hand it would include many religious rites which would be at once recognised as sympathetic, such as the ceremony at the Feast of ‘Tabernacles, when the high priest poured water on the altar “in order that the rains of the year may be blessed to you,” or as when the Hindu priest in the course of a solemn sacrifice pours a libation, and prolongs or shortens the life of the person on whose behalf he offers by lengthening or shortening the flow as he pours. Neither of these acts, forming part of a religious ceremony, can be regarded as simply magical, Moreover the distinction pro- posed by Dr. Frazer between a rite which operates directly of itself (magic) and a rite which operates indirectly by prayer and respectful persuasion is invalid, because a religious rite often has a value of its own, compelling even the gods to the will of the worshipper. Such, to enumerate only two instances, was the belief in the later days of classic paganism; and no reader of English literature need be reminded that it was upon this belief as exhibited in the Brahminical religion that Southey founded The Curse of Kehama. It ig not difficult to guess what Dr, Frazer would reply on both these points, and it must be said at once that there is no member of the definition given by the authors of amagical rite that is true for all times and all places, It is provisional definition only, put forth for the purpose of
Fe
Reviews. 363
powers, capable of all sorts of applications. Corresponding with this is the extreme vagueness of the designations applied to magical properties, such as divine, sacrex, mysterious, lucky, unlucky, and so forth, The notion of property passes over casily into power and spirit. Property and power are
terms; property and spirit are often confounded. The vires or properties of an object often belong to it ay the abode of a spirit. Spirits are indeed often the agents of magic. It is hardly too much to say that there is no magical rite in which their presence is not in some degree possible, though not expressly mentioned. Magic works in a special atmosphere, if not in the world of demons, at least in conditions in which their presence is possible, Beyond doubt, one of the essential characteristics of magical causality is that it is spiritual. Yet the idea of spiritual personalities ill represents the general anonymous forces which constitute the power of magicians, It gives no account of the virtue of words or gestures, the power of a look or of the intention, the influence or the mode of action of a rite, Tt does not explain why the magical rite controls and directs Spiritual existences, any more than the sympathetic formula ex- plains why the rite acts directly on the object.
In short, behind the sympathetic formula, behind the notions ‘of property and of spirits, there is another notion still more mysterious, the notion of power, vague, impersonal, always operating, irresistible, or depending for its efficaciousness on conditions not altogether at command. ‘This power is known to the Melanesians a3 sana, to various tribes of North America as erenda, or wakan, to the Malays as &ramdt, to the Indo-Chinese as deng. its very vagueness and impersonality this power enshrines ibilities ilimatable. It may be materialized, localized, personalized ; butit ceases not to be spiritual, to act at a distance, and that by direct connection, if not by contact, to be mobile and to move without movement, to be impersonal though clothed in personal forms, to be divisible yet continuous. Our notions of luck, of influence, of quintessence, of the Evil Eye, are pale survivals of a notion much richer and more fruitful. It is this notion which accounts for the phenomena of magic. Without it, magic is incomprehensible ; Eke a sentence without the copula, the action, the affirmation is wanting.
Dr. Frazer, of course, does not overlook this important notion.
364 Reviews. Bat he ascribes it toa “ fusion or confusion of magic with religion,” which he thinks is “not primitive ;* for he holds “ chat there was: a time when man trusted to magic alone for the satisfaction of such wants a8 transcended his immediate animal cravings." The entire trend of Messrs. Hubert and Mauss! argument contravenes: this opinion. For them the notion of sana is not merely the édée mire of magic; it is also the féée mbre of religion. In other words magic and religion are not opposed to one another as Dr. Frazer . would oppose them. Magic, it is true, has relations with technics and with science. But its deepest, its most intimate relations are with religion, for magic and religion grow from a common root, Such is in outline the theory of magic here Pally to appreciate the argument, it should be read #n exfenso, For want of space I have been obliged to omit, or pass lightly over, not only many of the details (some of them important links in the chain) but also some digressions throwing light on the main thesis. Much is said on magical rites, on magical contagion, on the limitation of the effect of the rite by attention to its object, an the dead and on demons as magical agents, and on the social aspects of magic, which would repay consideration. The argument, though lengthy, is well sustained ; and, to express my own opinion, the theory satis- fies the conditions more completely than any other hitherto put forward in a connected form. The nationalism of primitive man is incredible. Sceptical, using the word in the sense of hesitating: to believe anything which does not square with one’s prejudices, he may have been, ay the modern savage is sceptical, as the devout believer is sceptical. But the unknown must have pressed too heavily upon him, with all its terrors, to admit of mtionalism. From the condition of mind thus generated, the feeling of un- personalized power all around him, its possibilities and his com- parative helplessness, rose the stock, at first undifferentiated, but ultimately branching on the one hand into religion and on the other hand into magic, ‘There he found a present refuge and help in time of trouble, ‘The ‘fusion or confusion of magic with religion " is, in my view, primitive; their opposition is the result of the evolution of both. No other theory will explain the facts.
«The point i personal and unimportant, but Messrs. Hubert and Mauss seem to have mistaken my position. ane therefore, perhape be allowed te say that I have never regarded sympathetic magic as ‘more than 4 aingle aaa fal cagie und Phava wteeaceeynd te hanes fhabcagts ieee
: |
Reviews. 365
The reviews of books and articles in various periodicals, with which the rest of the volume is occupied, do not call for any remark, except for the purpose of drawing attention to their methodical arrangement and the careful criticism they contain. ‘This part of the volume forms an admirable guide for students to the literature of all sociological subjects published during the period to which it relates.
E. Smpwey HARTLAND.
Om Racwarok, Af Axe. Onrrk. (Saertryk af “ Aarbéger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie"). Kjobenhayn, 1902.
Mucs recent speculation on the origins of those pagan beliefs which survive in the Edda has taken the form of a fantastically ingenious endeavour to prove that the stories there given, instead of deriving from Northern paganism, are in the main literary per- version of borrowed material, or of heroic legend. Dr. Olrik docs not belong to this school, and his inquiry into the Ragnarok myth presents a genuine and scholarly arraying of parallels, together with deductions drawn therefrom as to the origin of the Doom of the Gods,
Ragnarok, by popular etymology translated “he Dusk, but more correctly the Destruction or Doom of the Gods, is the pivot of the mythical system given in the Edda and in such historical poems as the dirges of Eirkk Bloodaxe and Hakon the Good. That system, in all probability the growth of the Viking age, is at once a glorification of a life of warfare and an explanation of the misfortune that overtakes the brave. All things must end, the good is short-lived and quickly passing, valour meets disaster: that is the Northman’s faith, as read in legend, lay, and saga; and that a man should live while life lasts and fall fighting at the end is its outcome in practical experience. As a fate too strong thus shadows human life, so that necessity with which not even the Gods may strive waits for the higher powers; known to the silent
science. My opinion on the selation of magic and religion was expressed in my review of The Golden Bewgh in Man, 1001.
Reviews. 367
that he is right; but there seems to be no reason for questioning the pagan origin of Loki's share in the fall of the Gods. Like Prometheus an elemental spirit, he serves the Gods for a time; like Prometheus bound because of his real hostility, his share in their fall is foreknown, and he is chief agent and an essential part of the myth. The return of Balder is a different question. He has indeed no real connexion with Ragnarok, nor, in all pro- bability, with the Viking religion. There is no evidence of any worship paid to him in any heathen saga, as to Odin, Thor, and Frey, They were the living Gods of the Viking age, the Gods whose fall was doomed ; Balder was but a survival, and his return when the earth rises again from the deep is probably literary invention. L. Wixirerp Fananay.
‘Tue Suatkus or Morocco m tae XVIrn Century. By T. H. Weir, B.D, M.R.AS. Edinburgh: G. A. Morton.
1904.
‘To students of Muslim hagiology this book will be of considerable interest. It consists of a series of gossiping memoirs of a number of saints of the Safi school, mainly derived from the writings of Ibn Askar, who died in 1578, Mr, Weir calls him “a Moorish Boswell, or Jocelin of Brakelond, credulous and conscientious, and not hesitating to exalt his heroes at his own expense.” This Morocean Acta Sanctorum contains some curious folklore, and much quaint discussion, in a humorous vein, of Musalmiin theo- logical questions,
‘These saints deal largely in miracles. When locusts and sparrows attacked a village, the people would write to the Shaikh Ghazwini requesting their removal, and would fasten the letter upon a stick set up in the field, which immediately had the desired effect. When the Shaikh Abdallah was offended and decided to leave his village, all his doves accompanied him, and the people, in dismay, followed and begged him to return. Once a Jinni carried off the daughter of a poor man. He complained
Folk=Dore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY.
Van. XV.) DECEMBER, 1904. INo. IV.
THE EUROPEAN SKY-GOD. IL.
BY ARTHUR BERNARD COOK.
Tue primitive Greek king, as I showed in my last paper, was the human representative of the sky-god Zeus, and in that capacity was not only called by his name but also believed to act as his vice-gerent. Thus he was expected to control the sun and to feed its flames, partly by kindling periodic bonfires on a mountain-top, partly by maintaining a perpetual fire on his own hearth. Again, he was rain- maker for the district, and could, when he so desired, evoke a sudden thunder-storm. Further, he was responsible for the crops, and to him all eyes turned as often as the fruits of the earth were injured by drought or blight.
It must not, of course, be supposed that these were the sole obligations of the king. The accepted classification of his functions is that propounded by Aristotle,’ who saw
» Folk-Lore, xv., 299 ff.
* Aristot. fol, 3. 14. 1285 b. 22, erparnyée re yap iy kai ducaonie 5 Baoihele
kai rév xpdc rode Geode xbptog, ib, 1285 b. 9, Kipwt 8 joay ric re card 2B
The European Sky-god. 37!
Agamemnon as judge? bears the sceptre of Zeus. This was an oaken staff or spear (8pu) of peculiar sanctity, as we gather from the account of it given by Pausanias;* “The god whom the Cheroneans honour most is the sceptre which Homer says Hephaestus made for Zeus, and Zeus gave to Hermes, and Hermes to Pelops, and Pelops bequeathed to Atreus, and Atreus to Thyestes, from whom Agamemnon had it. ‘This sceptre they worship, naming it a spear; and that there is something divine about it is proved especially by the distinction it confers on its owners. - . » » There is no public temple built for it, but the man who acts as priest keeps the sceptre in his house for the year; and sacrifices are offered to it daily, and a table is set beside it covered with all sorts of flesh and cakes.” Now C. Botticher® has proved from this and analogous usages elsewhere that a tree-god was often represented by a sceptre, or lance, or staff. It may be regarded as certain, therefore, that the royal sceptre, which conferred the right of judgment, was simply a conven- tionalised form of the oak of Zeus: hence both in literature
* Cp, Eusiath,, 26, §, ompalow Of Bardelag xal yur ui dinye exrd rode madmag rd oxieepav iv. ‘Ayapipnwy v4 yap d sipueptiny Torara mejpeepoy Eqn, cal Trrewdny dnpnyvovirre didwoi rig exijrrper * howuriic wal "AyAACdc Aqunyopin axierpor xu. FF aire dbunOeie ear’ wirod Bava ive eup/6dov ‘rije dency 1198) 1, eal orijerpa 22 0d pbvor BaoiXtiour ANA wri aaansdoug - Ear yap rd axiirrpov ob wdvov Bacdrelag ddd Kar Olpstog ipBorov. In Sh, 9 155 £ Agamemnon promises that the people shall honour Achilles “ with offerings like & od, and beneath his sceptre shall full his bright judgments” Oid., 11. 3686, describes * Minos, the brilliant son of Zeus," as " holding &
“Tig said that she beheld our sire (Agamemnon), restored to the sunlight, at her side once mare ; then he took the seeptre—once his own, but now borne by Acgisthus—and planted it at the hearth ; and thence a fruitful boueh sprang upward, wherewith the whole land of Mycrns was overshadowed.”
aBz
The European Sky-god. 373
“the Leader”; and perpetual fire from his altar was carried along with them by an official called the fire-bearer.® On reaching the frontier they sacrificed again to Zeus and Athena; and from this sacrifice, too, perpetual fire was borne before them, while victims of all sorts followed after.” Similarly the kings of Epirus used to sacrifice to Zeus “Apetos, Zeus “the Warlike,” at Passaron in the territory of Molottis)? as Oenomaus king of Pisa had done in mythical times!” During the fight the king might be armed with the spear that symbolised his god; at least, Par- thenopieus of Arcadia, who seems to have boasted that he was the son of Zeus, “swears by the spear that he holds, trusting it more than a god for sacredness and better than sight"! If Zeus “the dispenser of war’ favoured him and he proved successful against the foe, he would erect a trophy, fe, an oak-tree™ lopped of its branches and covered with votive armour, This oaken trunk was regarded as a rough statue of Zeus Tpowatos, Zeus “the god of Rout.’”* It appears, then, that various duties towards
% Xen, de rip Lar, 13. 23 Nicol. Dam., wept dav af. Stob, serm. 44 P: 294 (p. 196 Orell., 278 Cor.) cited by Steph. Theswrus se dyirwp } trav AN orpartiuvrm fw xmpac, mip Ari row Swpod roi ‘Ayiropog Mie tvavodperog [0] mopginog Aeyipevog aSviore rq Bamdet Gofeoruw abrd
rapav. Nen. de rep, Lat, t3 3 opm Tite 6. 56 ™ Plut. wit, Syrrf., 5
" Acsch., 26% & They S20 £., with Verrall's
M Tiny 19) 224.
"So Bur. Pham, $71 fy 4250 £, of Polynices; Pans, 9. 40 8 of ‘Caranus ; Sc.
" Cp. Verg. dem, 14, §. ff, ingenterm quercum, decisis undique mmis, | constituit tumulo, fulgentingue indult arma, | Mecenti ducts exuviss, tibi,
tropacum, | Bellipotens, and Class. Kev, xviii. 364 f.
© Kur. Heracl, 9361 "YWAog piv obv % r dofbe “TéXewe Bplrag | dude rponaloy caXXivnoy Terannr, Phen 1250 f. Madveusec, év ool Zarie boPG0at Bpkrag | rpomaivy, 1472 f be FE dmedpew pdyy | od pw Bede pomatow
The European Sky-god. 377
Phlegy, who plundered them and held them to ransom. Wayfarers in the prime of life he challenged to an athletic contest, wrestling or running or the pancratium or quoit- throwing: and, having vanquished them, he cut off their heads and hung them on his oak, where they swung dripping in the wind—a ghastly sight. When he prided himself on the result of these Olympic sports (rate 'Odupmudae tavras), Apollo took upon him the form of a youthful boxer and smote the ogre to the ground, while a thunderbolt from the sky blasted his oak. The place where it stood was called the Oak-Heads (Apvds nedadal). From Hero- dotus ” and Thucydides" we gather that it was a pass of Mt. Cithwron on the way from Athens to Platea, and that the Basotians named it the Three Heads (Tpeis wedadai). The same story was told by the cyclic poets, who laid stress on the pride of Phorbas: “ By reason of his overweening conceit he was minded to pose as the peer of the gods themselves ; wherefore Apollo drew near and, standing up to him, slew him.’
There can, I think, be little doubt that Phorbas was a king who personated an oak-god “ and, in accordance with the primitive rule, defended his title against all comers. A somewhat similar figure is Cyenus, son of Ares, who established himself in Thessaly and waylaid travellers on the road from Tempe to Thermopyle. With their skulls he was building a temple to Apollo, when Heracles, whom he challenged to a single combat, shot him.* He was
© Hat, % 39
© Thucss jo 24s
* Schol. Zh, 23. 660.
™ Lf this Phorbas is to be identified with Phorbas the rival of Apallo {Ayrw, Tent. 3, 241), he was the son of Triopas (4, Paus., 7.26. 12, Ilyg. poetustr., 2. 14) and therefore a representative of the three-cyed Pelasgian Zeus (FalB- Love, x.y 288 f.).
Schot, Pind. Ol, & 147) 10. 19, Bar. Here. furs, 989 Mh, Paws 1. 27. 6 atid,
_— -=
The European Sky-god. 379
appears in the myth of Lityerses; this son of Midas, king of Phrygia, used to challenge people to a reaping-match with him and beat them if they were worsted; but one day he fell in with a stronger reaper and was himself put to death3*
‘The foregoing tales do not actually state that the victor became king in the room of the vanquished, But it is noticeable that in these and other similar stories the victor may take the wife, or more often the daughter, of the vanquished to be his wife, and that sometimes at least he receives the kingdom along with her. Theseus, after he had slain Cereyon, gave the kingdom (which must there- fore have been Ais by right of conquest) to Hippothous, whom Cercyon’s daughter Alope had born to Poscidon,* but himself consorted with Alope. So Heracles, when he had thrown Antwus, had intercourse with his wife Iphinoe ? or Tinge,** whose son Sophax became king of the country. According to Pindar, Antaus had a fair daughter—Alceis or Barce, the scholiast® calls her—who was wooed by many of her kinsmen and by many strangers too. “But her father gained for his daughter a marriage more glorious still. Now he had heard how sometime Danaos" at Argos devised for his forty and eight maiden daughters, ere mid-day was upon them, a wedding of utmost speed—for he straightway set the whole company at the race-course end, and bade determine by a foot-race which maiden each hero should have, of all the suitors that
Poll., 4. 54- Other versions of the tale wre discussed by O, Crasius in Roscher Lex., ii, 2065 l., Pozer, Golden Bough," il., 224 ., 248 th
* Hyg. fab., 187.
© Plat. wit. Thed, 29, Ister and Pherceydes ap. Athen, 557 A f. Pherceydes ap. Teets, i Lye. Alex. 663, and Ztrm, mayn., 679, a9 Mh Plut. vit. Sertor., 9.
© Pind. Zythy 9-181 fy Es Myers.
Sehol. Find. Pyth, 9. 183.
® The story is told by Pans, $ 12 %
»
The European Sky-god. 381
Mygdonia, and many others. At length, when he was not so strong as he used to be, he changed his rule and ordained that in future the suitors should contend with each other, not with him,—the penalty and the prize to be as before. Hereupon two suitors presented themselves, Dryas and Clitus. Pallene herself favoured Clitus; and an old servitor of hers induced the charioteer of Dryas to remove the linch- pins of his master’s chariot before the fray. Consequently, when Dryas drove against Clitus, his wheels came off: he fell, and was run over and killed by Clitus. Sithon, on realising his daughter's deceit, built a huge funeral pyre for Dryas, and was minded to slay Pallene upon it. But, according to one account,” Aphrodite appeared by night to all the townsfolk, and so rescued the maiden; according to another,” some portent and a sudden downfall of rain made Sithon change his mind. Anyhow, he prepared a wedding. feast for the Thracians who were present, and bestowed Pallene upon Clitus. At Sithon's death they succeeded to his kingdom, Nonnus® makes Dionysus demand Pallene of Sithon, who bids him wrestle with her. He is victorious and claims his prize; but, shocked at the skulls of the suitors with which the palace is adorned, slays the impious Sithon with a blow of his thyrsus. This yersion of the myth is probably later than the other: but in any case the whole tale furnishes a doublet to that of Oenomaus. The latter is thus told in the Epitome of Apollodorus.” Ocno- maus, king of Pisa, had a daughter Hippodamia, for whose hand he instituted a contest on the following terms. The suitor was to take Hippodamia on his chariot and flee to the Isthmus of Corinth. Qenomaus, clad in armour and
‘® The name i appropriate : it was natural for the “Oak”-man (Spbec) to claim the kingdom. Seo Class, Rew. xvili., $0 ff.
* Conon marr. 1%
™ Parthen, marr, amy 6,
* Nonn. Dien., 48. 99-237, sg i Ns ar: sini 163 15 i, Hyg fab, 84,
The European Sky-god. 383
was unequal to his duties used to be slain without mercy. Since old age is inevitable, it would appear that in remote times all priestly kings or human Zeuses must have been doomed to die a violent death. That this, however ini- probable it sounds to modern ears, was actually the case, is one of the main conclusions reached by Dr. Frazer in his Golden Bough We shows by a multitude of examples _ collected from widely separated lands that it has been the almost universal custom to kill the king as soon as he showed the first signs of advancing age,“ in order that the divine spirit, incarnate in him, might be transferred in unabated vigour to his successor." Of this barbaric custom traces can be detected even on Greek soil. /m primis | would cite the valuable evidence of Macrobius. ‘That writer is commenting on the passage in which Virgil describes the death of Halzesus :@
Halaosus? sire the fature feared,
‘And "mid the woods his dazling reared + When death bad glazed the old man's eyes, ‘The ruthless Parcae claimed their prise, Laid their cold finger on his heart,
‘And marked him for Evander's dart, Now, poising long his lance in air,
“Tis heard ; and while Halnesus shields Tmaon"s breast, his own he yields ‘Unguarded to the atroke.
Virgil, it will be seen, relates the combat between Pallas
and Halwsus in Janguage appropriate to the monomachia of an ancient oak-king. Macrobius, concerned to prove
® Frater, Gobien Bowgh," iin, 8 th By iley 59 ® Verg. Aem., £0. 487 ff, Conington.
The European Sky-god. 385
secrated souls, which they thought they could send to the sky, they would have go there without delay bereft of the body. The custom is discussed by Trebatius in the ninth book of his Religiones. I omit what he says, for fear of being tedious. If anyone desires to read it, let him be content with this indication of the author and the reference.” Unhappily the works of Trebatius, great jurist though he was and warm friend of Cicero to boot, have perished.™ We must be content with what Macrobius tells us, ois. = that the consecrated men whom the Greeks called Zanes, ie., Zeuses, were put to death as a sacrifice to the gods. If in the light of this statement we reconsider the examples of kings called Zeus that | have already cited,” it is inter- esting to observe how frequently they are said to have been slain or metamorphosed by Zeus, Salmoncus, king of Elis, who claimed to be Zeus, was killed by the thunderbolt of Zeus. Ceyx, whose wife called him Zeus, was changed by Zeus into the sea-bird ceyx.*' Polytechnus, who com- pared himself to Zeus, was transformed by Zeus into a wood-pecker.* A similar fate overtook Periphas, the early king of Attica. His story, as told by Antoninus Liberalis,™ is worth quoting at length: ‘“Periphas was an Attic autochthon before the days of Cecrops the son of Ge. He became king of the ancient population, and was just and rich and holy, a man who offered many sacrifices to Apollo and judged many disputes and was blamed by no one. All men willingly submitted to his rule and, in view of his surpassing deeds, transferred to him the honours due to Zeus and decided that they belonged to Periphas." They
On him see M. Schanz Geschichte der rimischen Litteratur, |.", 395-
™ Folt-lore, xv. 300 fh.
© Buy x¥.y 300, 312.
hey 2V5 JOO.
Ant Lib, tt.
* 2 6.
In the suburb Anlettos the Athenian jurors wed to swear by Apollo Marppoc, Demeter, and Zeus Banded (Poll, 8 23), The Pardeic of
VOL. XV. 2c
386 The European Sky-god.
offered sacrifices and built temples to him, and called him Zeus Swrjp and "Enéywos and Meidixios. Indignant at this, Zeus wished to consume his whole house with a thunderbolt. But when Apollo, whom Periphas used to honour exceedingly, begged Zeus not to destroy him utterly, Zeus granted the request. He came into the home of Periphas and found him embracing his wife. Grasping them both in his hands, he turned Periphas into an eagle (aierés) ; his wife, who begged him to make her too a bird to bear Periphas company, into a vulture (gv). So upon Periphas he bestowed honours in return for his holy life among men, making him king over all the birds, and granting him to guard the sacred sceptre, and to draw near to his own throne; while Periphas' wife he turned into a vulture, and suffered to appear as a good omen to men in all their doings.” In short, it appears that terrestrial Zeuses were either killed or, more often, metamorphosed into birds by the celestial Zeus. Is not this a trace of the primitive belief that the life of the divine king was forfeit to the god whom he represented ?
‘The full meaning of these transformations into birds cannot here be investigated. But I would suggest that
republican Athens, daring his year of office, sat in the Royal Colonnade (Paws. 1. 3. 1), which was dedicated to Zeus Namdete CHlesychy 4 0 Pasidewog arod), Cp. ale0 Cic, de nat. déory 3. 53; Anactes Athenis, ex rege Tove antiqulssimo et Proserplna nati, Tritopatreus, Eubuleus, Dionysus ; and Class. Kev,, xvii, 37%
4 Te would have to be considered in relation to two sets of facts (a) Certain tribes bearing bied-names claimed descent from an eponymous ancestor, This ‘Dryopa the * Wood-pecker (2pboy) was the eponym of the Dryopes or Wood pecker tribe: see Class Rev, xvii, 83 Phlegyns the "Eagle" (phzylac) ‘was the eponym of the Phlegye or Eagle tribe, Pelaegus, the eponym of the Pelasgians, may have been a “Stork”: for the word wehawyde appears In the Eretrian dialect as xidapybe (G. Meyer Grieck, Grants" p. 307), an extremely archaic myth speaks of Pularguswith the variant Pefsagus (Lact, Placs im Stat. Ties. 7. 256), 4 Delphic oracle called the Pelasgian fortification at the foot of the Athenian Acropolis ¢) IAapyieéy (Thuc.. 2. 17, ep. Aristoph. an., 832,
a
The European Sky-god. 387
such stories, and in particular the myth of Periphas, furnish an important clue to a problem left unsolved by Dr. Frazer, viz. the questionlHow precisely was the soul of the slain king transmitted to his successor? We have seen more than once that the man-god, instead of dying, was changed by Zeus into a bird (Ceyx the sea-fowl, Polytechnus the wood-pecker, Periphas the eagle) ; and other analogous cases could be quoted, For instance, the tomb of Zeus, alias Minos,” in Crete was, according to Suidas, in- ecribed—
dv0de esirax Davey Mijevg 6 ead Zeige, “ Here lies dead the Wood-pecker, who ts also Zeus.”
But indeed it would be tedious to collect all the examples of Zeus transforming kings and heroes into birds of one sort or another. A hexameter poem called 'OpyGoyovla, which dealt expressly with such transformations, was written in Alexandrine times and falsely ascribed to Boio an
Callim. frag: 28: tai Bethy a ne Hal, ant, Rom, ¥, 28.
Ait, Jnschr., Bon. rit, P: 227%. £799). (+) The Greeks believed that the soul left the body in the form of a bird : for literary evidence see e.g. the myths of Caneus (Ov. orer., 12. $14 ff.) and Cresylla (Ant. Lib., 1); for monumental evidence, G, Weicker, Der Seelenvegel, and J. E. Harrison, Prolegomenste the Stuedy of Greek Religion, p. 197 ©.
Frarer, Golden Fough,? ii,, 56," OF this transmission I have no direct proof; and so far a link in the chain of evidence is wanting. Dut if I cannot prove by actual examples this succession to the soul of the slain god, it can at Teast be made probable that such a succession was supposed to take place.” ae
Folk-Lare, xn 304 1% 275 fle
™ Suid.s.». Hjeog. Cp. the historian Beuttius /rag., 1, Peter 4 abrig ITixog 6 kai Zedg odoay rabmy (2. Danse) dy covBovedtly mapaserskyy 1G Oaddcoy AAG xpvog mulsag mrd. Crenser Symitolit,? lv., 364, cites from Nicetss epithet. deor. (Crourex Meletorn, i, 18) a description of Jupiter as dog wlcog ; and rightly brings him into connection with the Italian Picus, of whom I shall have more to say. Soe Clase. Rrv., xvii., 412.
2c2
388 The European Sky-god.
ancient Delphic priestess or, at a later date, to one Boios,” [twas one of the sources from which Antoninus Liberalis compiled his Metamorphoses, a valuable work
to us in a single manuscript at Heidelberg.” ‘The follow- ing samples of its contents must suffice. Aegypius the Thessalian was dear to the gods on account of his piety; to men, on account of his nobility and justice. He consorted with a certain widow ‘Timandra, whose son Neophron, disliking it, treated Bulis, the mother of Aegypius, in the same way, and even contrived that Aegypius should lie with Bulis in mistake for Timandra. When the facts were discovered, Bulis caught up a sword and would have blinded her son with it and slain herself, while Aegypius looked towards heaven and prayed that he and all con- cerned might vanish. Hereupon Zeus changed them into birds. Aegypius became a vulture (aiyumidés); Neophron, a smaller vulture of different colour; Bulis, another bird (wévyE); Timandra, a titmouse (abyl@aXdos).® Again, when Anthus, the son of Autonous and Hippodamia, was devoured by his father’s horses,” Zeus and Apollo out of pity for his fate turned the whole family into birds—Auto- nous into a kind of heron (Sxvos), Hippodamia into a lark (wopvdés), Anthus into a bird that imitates the neighing of a horse (dv@os), his brothers Erodius, Schceneus, and Acanthus into a heron (éppé.0s), a wagtail (axouddos), and a linnet or goldfinch (dxav6és), his sister Acanthyllis into a hen-linnct. Similarly certain Cretans, who attempted to
© Pauly-Wissowa, iti. 635 f-
Ub, 1, 2572,
M Ant, Lib. §, after Boios ormi/f., 1.
™ Cp. the fate of Lycurgus (Moll-Lore, xv, 313) and Hippolytus (Frazer Golden Bough, in 6, tiny $43 ff.) alo the man-devouring horses of Diomedes son of Ares (Roscher £4x., i., 1022), and the tradition attaching to Mount Lycweus in Arcadia (Frazer Pamsandar, iv., 382).
™ Ant, Lib., 7, after Boios ornith.. t, cp. Aristot. de Aést. am, 9. 1. Gop 14 f., Aal. dle nat. an., 5. 48, 6. 19, Plin, sat. Aitt, 10. 116,
The European Sky-god. 389
steal honey from the cave where Zeus was born, were named Laius, Celeus, Cerberus, and Aegolius, and were transformed by Zeus into a blue thrush (Adws), a green wood-pecker (xeAeds),an unknown species of bird (wépSepos), and an owl (aty)sds).%* “Two of these names occur else- where as those of kings. Laius was king of Thebes and perhaps passed for a human Zeus.” Celeus was the first king at Eleusis. Another source used by Antoninus Liberalis was Nicander’s "Erepotovpeva, a didactic epic on changes into animal and plant forms.’ From it he bor- rowed the following tale.*® Munichus, son of Dryas, was king and seer of the Molossi. He had by his wife Lelante a son Alcander, who was a better seer than himself, besides two other sons, Megaletor and Phileus, and a daughter Hyperippe. When robbers attacked them by night and burnt their house, Zeus in pity changed them all into birds. Munichus became a buzzard (rpwpxys), Lelante a wood- pecker of the sort that chops at an oak for insects (merw), their sons Alcander, Megaletor, and Phileus, a wren (épxiros), and two small birds (yveizav and «éwr), their daughter Hyperippe a large gull (al@va).
Taking into account these numerous transformations of the king into a bird, and especially that of Periphas, who, when turned into an cagle, was allowed “to guard the sacred sceptre,” [ would conjecture that the soul of the
™ Ant. Lib, 19, after Boios ormithy 2.
* The rape of Chrysippus, son of Pelops, which was commooly atteibuted to Laius (Roscher Fer. i. 903, ii, 1800), was deseribed by the Sicyonian poctoss Praxilla aa the work of Zeus (aA Athen., 603 A), Similarly the rape of Ganymedes, usually ascribed to Zeus in the guise of an cagle, was some+ times Inid to the charge of King Minas (Rchemenes af. Athen., 631 x).
Hymns. Homa 2. 105 th, ali. See further Clatt, Rev xviii, 84p
© W. A. Greenhill in Smith Dict, Bing. amd Mythy Uy 1175.
™ Ant. Lit, 14, after Nicander hvter., 2.
™ Note that the wren was also called BarAnic and Barianog by the Greeks (D'Arcy W. Thompson, 4 Glossary of Greek Binds, p. 39), and the goldverested wren riparwoe (id., p. 274).
390 The European Sky-god.
slain king was supposed to escape in the form of a bird, and that its transmission to his successor was fitly symbo- lised by the eagle-tipped sceptre handed down from king to king, Thus the soul of Agamemnon, according to Plato,’ became an eagle. His sceptre, according to Aristophanes and the scholiast,"' had an eagle perched upon it; and, as Pausanias™ states, was handed down from one member of the divine dynasty to another. Other early kings, such as Merops™ son of Triopas the Coan, and Periclymenus son of Neleus the Pylian, were transformed into eagles. And the eagle appears repeatedly as a portent in connexion with several lines of historical kings. Coins of Alexander the Great and his successors represent Zeus seated on a throne with an eagle in his right hand, a sceptre in his left On the day when Alexander was born two eagles perched on the roof of his father’s house, ‘an omen of his two-fold rule over Europe and Asia." Ptolemy Soter was exposed as an infant on a bronze shield; and a Mace~ donian tradition declared that an eagle hovering over him had by the spread of its wings protected him against sun and rain, driving off birds of prey and feeding him on the blood of quails. Coins of the Ptolemaic dynasty regularly symbolise the reigning sovereign as an eagle, or the sovereign and his consort as a pair of eagles.1
king of Epirus, kept a tame eagle which on the death of its
™ Plat. rep., 620 0,
™ Arlstoph, av., 510, with schol. ad Joc.
Baus. 9. 40. 1%.
@ Bustath, 1351, 29, sehol. M1. 24. 293, Hyg. feet art, 2. 16.
Ov. met, 12. 556 fl. Hyp. fab. 10. So Pandareus of Ephesus was changed by Zeus into a sea-eagle (Ant. Lib, 11, after Holos ornith.), a8 wees also Nisus king of Megara (Ov. met., 8. 146, Hyg. fats, 198, Céris $36).
1 Sec eg. B.V. Heat, Coins of the Ancients, p. 56 fa ple 27, 2, 498, 10, pl. 28, 12, 20, pl. 30, §-7, D-11, pl 3t, 12:14, 18.
i Fast. 12. 16. 5.
on Suid. 4. 2. Adyor.
§ Soe Sworonon’ Corpus of Plalemonie Coins, ili., pl. 2 Mf.
The European Sky-god. 391
master refused food and died” Achemenes, the founder of the famous Persian dynasty, was said to have been reared by an eagle. The royal standard of Cyrus and the kings that followed him on the throne of Persia was a golden eagle ‘on the top of a long staff"! Attached to the chariot of the Persian king was a golden eagle with extended wings, which was regarded as an object of peculiar sanctity" In fact the attendants of the Persian prince used actually to mould his nose into an aquiline shape in order that he might himself resemble an eagle Herodotus "* mentions eagle-tipped sceptres as used by the Babylonians, and Philostratus'* pictures the royal device of the Medes at Babylon as a golden eagle on a shield. Gordius, the founder of the Phrygian dynasty, when an eagle alighted on his plough, was bidden by a prophetess to sacrifice it to Zeus Baatreds."" In Egypt," too, and in other oriental countries," the eagle seems to have been recognised as a royal bird. Roman parallels will be adduced later; but 1 may here note the statement of Artemidorus,"® that it was an ancient custom to represent kings and great men when dead as riding upon eagles: indeed the part played by the eagle in the apotheosis of the emperor was to some extent
Ach. de mat, an, 2. 40. Huy 12. BE ™ Xen. Cyr, MF Curt, 3. 3. 16.
1 Olympiod. A lcibsy iny 16, p- 153, cited by D'Arcy W. Thompaon, Gloss, Gk, Birds, p. 4
W Hat, 1. 195-
Ws Philostr. Maj. images 2. 3%. 1, ep. Eteks, 17. 3, 12. The Rev. C, H.W. Johns informs me that a double-headed eagle occurs as an caly Batylonian standard: TL. Heuzey, Let origines oréensaies (article * Les armoiries chaldéennes”), Mowwments ef mimoires fondation Eugine Pit, tiny 204, Revue & Assyriologie, Ww, 36, De Sarace, Dicouwertes en Chaldée, pl. $y
WW Are, amah, 2. 3, Atl. de mat an, 13, ts
1 Died, 1. 87, Stmb.y $08, Horap., 2 $6, Ezek. 17. 5515; ep» the name ‘Aurdg for the Nile (Diod., 1.19), ‘Aerfa for Egypt (Eustath. fw Dionys, fer.
239). ™ Sce Bochast, Mieronoioon, ed. 1794) ihe, 769. ™ Artemid. oncirocr. 2 20,
392 The European Sky-god.
anticipated in the eagles with outstretched wings attached by Alexander to the pyre of Hephastion.” Also, if the younger Seneca™! is to be belicved, which is doubtful, the Greck chieftains who attacked Thebes had, like the Romans, eagles for standards, All these facts, unless I am mistaken, hang together with the belief that the soul of the monarch appeared as an eagle, and in this form watched over the fortunes of his empire. The regalia handed down from king to king represented the sacred foliage as a wreath or crown, the sacred tree as a sceptre,'™ and the sacred bird as an eagle perched upon it.
But, to return from our digression, we have seen that in Greece as elsewhere the divine king was probably doomed to die as soon as his physical strength gave way.
With increasing civilisation this barbaric rule was to some extent relaxed. Dr. Frazer, who first formulated it, has discussed various modifications of it, such as the sacri- fice of the king's son or of a criminal in place of the king himself."* Greek examples of these mitigations are not wanting. It will be remembered, for instance, that the Edoni put their king, the “man-god" (d»@pmmobaiyey) Lycurgus, to death because their land remained barren.!* Dr. Frazer" points out that a modification of this rule is well attested in the case of King Athamas, the brother of Salmoneus. His story was told by Sophocles as follows. Athamas had two children, Phrixus and Helle, by the cloud- goddess Nephele. Afterwards he married a mortal woman, and Nephele out of jealousy sent a drought upon his land. Envoys despatched to the Pythian Apollo were bribed by
™ Diod. 17. t15. See Creuzer Symbolit,* iii, 757. "2 Sen. Phaw., a8.
1 See Clas. Rev., xviii, 418, supra, p. 371 f.
® Frazer, Golden Bough? ly 55 1.
8 Folh-Lort, x¥.y 313.
® Frazer, Golden Bough,? Ue, 34
‘ Schol. Aristoph. mné., 257, Apostol., 11. 58.
The European Sky-god. 393
Nephele to report that the drought could only be stayed if Athamas sacrificed Phrixus and Helle. This he was about to do,#? when a ram speaking with human voice warned them of their danger and they fled along with the ram. Helle fell off its back into the sea and gave her name to the Hellespont; but Phrixus got safely to Colchis and sacrificed the ram to Ares or Hermes. Meantime Athamas himself was garlanded like a victim and led out to be sacrificed. In the nick of time he was rescued by Heracles. Herod- otus™* further informs us that at Alus in Thessaly Athamas was said to have been saved by the arrival of Cytisorus, the son of Phrixus, from Colchis—an intervention which drew down the wrath of Zeus Aagierio¢ upon his descendants. ‘The eldest son of the family had to refrain from entering the prytaneum. ‘Should he enter it, he must not leave it till he is about to be sacrificed.” Many of those who were thus condemned to die bad fled the country in terror. It is tolerably certain that here we have an example of the king's death being commuted into the death of the king’s son. In other places a stranger or a prisoner was substi- tuted. When the land of Egypt remained barren for nine years, Phrasius,a Cyprian seer,told King Busiris that the famine could be stayed, if he would sacrifice a stranger to Zeus every year. Busiris promptly began by sacrificing Phrasius himself and afterwards other strangers who visited the country, Heracles, when he came thither, was gar- landed and led out to the altar of Zeus: but, turning on his captors, he slew them all, including Busiris and his son Iphidamas or Amphidamas.!
"7 Pherecydes @f. achol. Pind, Ayeh., 4. 288, stated that Phrixus offered himself as a voluntary victim when the crops were perishing.
™ Mdt., 7. 197-
"9 Cp, Plat. Affnas, 315 Cy schol. Ap, Rhod., 2. 653+
™ Apollod., 2. 5. 11.5 Hat, a 45, Pbevecyd. ag. schol. Ap. Rhod., 4, 1306. ‘The scene is graphically depicted on a Aydria from Caete, now at Vienna {Furtwiingler-Reiehhold, Gricelische Farewmalerel, pl. 51).
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religious observances. Among other things it fixed the length of the king’s tether. “As . . . the dignity of the kings," says C. O. Muller," “ was founded on a religious notion, so it was also limited by religion, although the account we have is rather of an ancient custom, that was retained when its meaning had been lost, than an institution of real influence. Once in every eight years (8¢' éréw évvéa) the ephors chose a calm and moonless night, and placed themselves in the most profound silence to observe the heavens: if there was any appearance of a shooting star, it was believed that the kings had in some manner offended the Deity, and they were suspended until an oracle from Delphi, or the priests at Olympia, absolved them from the guilt." If this custom . . . is compared with the frequent occurrence of this period of nine years in early times, and especially with the tradition preserved in a verse of Homer,” ‘of Minos, who reigned for periods of nine years, holding intercourse with Jupiter,’ it is easy to perceive that the dominion of the ancient Doric princes determined, as it were, at the period of every eight years, and required a fresh religious ratification. So intimate in early times was the connexion between government and religion.” The case of Minos merits more than a passing mention, ‘Tradition said that at the expiration of each period of eight years he repaired to the cave on Mount Ida for a personal interview with Zeus, who then communicated
© ©. O. Miller of. cil Tiny 104.
1 Phat, wif, Agi ths
™ [B.g. the famine of Busitis tasted for nine years (sufra, p. 393). Anius, ‘the priestly king of Delos, bade the Achans on their way to Troy stay with him for nine years (Lye. Aler., $71, ivmlupow .. . . xpdvor, ali). The werwolves of Arcadia retarned to buman shape after'nine years (Plin. mot, Aste, 8. 816),
© [Oik, 19. 178 frp S lnk Koworig, payin widis, THla we Mivwe | Jvviepag Beoitve Stic peydrov dapreriic. |
acm
396 The European Sky-god.
to him the laws that he was to give the Cretans In other words, Minos renewed his divine commission as king and law-giver at intervals of cight years. This custom he is said to have borrowed from a more ancient ruler, Rhada- manthys by name, so that doubtless it was an extremely archaic Cretan institution. It was also every ninth year that the Minotaur received his tribute of human victims, a usage which probably implies that the solar powers of the king needed renewal at the same recurring period. These examples lead us to conjecture that the restriction of the Athenian kings (Aacseis) or rulers (dpyorres) from a life tenure, first to ten years, and then to one year,” was due not merely to political but also to religious motives. A suggestive tale is told about one of the old life-kings named Thymeetes.“" In a war between the Athenians and Beeotians he was challenged to a single combat by Xanthus, king of Baotia, but declined the challenge through old age or cowardice and offered his kingdom as a reward to any man who would venture to fight the Beeotian champion. Melanthus the Neleid, a recent immigrant from Messenia, undertook the task and, thanks to divine assistance, succeeded. The throne thus passed from the Theseids to the Neleids, who had proved themselves physically com- petent to reign. But the new dynasty did not remain sans peur et sans reproche for long. Melanthus was followed by a son worthy of him, the heroic Codrus: Codrus’ son Medon was lame of one leg and therefore had much ado to
i Plat, Min., 319 Cy Megs, 624 R., Strab, 476, 762, Enstath., 1861, a5 ff, Val. Max, 1.2 ext I
¥© Ephorus af. Strab, 476, Bustath., 1861, 25 ff.
1 Plut. wit, Thes., 15, Diod. 4. 6t, Ov. met., 8. 171; ep. Hock Xela, ii.,
i Ba Class. Reva xvil., 410 f.
1© Busolt, Grieeische Geschichte, Ml. 135.
8 Con. 39, schol. Aristoph. Ach, 146, pa, 890, cp. Hat. 5.65, Paus, 2 18. 9, Strab,» 393, Ephor. fray. 25 Milles, adi,
al
The European Sky-god. 397
retain the sovereignty”; indeed, according to the usual tradition, he and his successors were known as archons for life rather than kings.” The Medontide in turn were followed by a series of archons who bore office for ten years only. But even this limited rule was no safeguard against moral degeneration and consequent physical incom- petence. A fragment of Heraclides Ponticus de redus publicis states that the Athenians “ceased to choose their kings from the descendants of Codrus because they appeared tohave becomeenervated through luxuriousliving,” and adds that Hippomenes the Codrid, whom we know to have been one of the ten-year archons,'” was anxious to vindicate his character against this charge. Aristotle" likewise asserts that the office of polemarch was instituted “owing to the fact that some of the kings have proved cowardly in warfare,” Finally the kingship became an annual magistracy, tenable only by those who were bodily perfect, while the polemarch continued to discharge the military duties once undertaken by the king” It is not improbable, therefore, that the gradual restriction in the tenure of the Athenian kings was intimately bound up with the question of their physical competence,
However that may be, we have seen that among the Greeks in general two methods of ensuring a satisfactory succession were in vogue. On the one hand, the king as strongest man in the district was expected to challenge all comers to an athletic contest; if vanquished, he yielded his place to the victor, who reigned in his stead, On the other hand, the king might be forced to abdicate at the end of a fixed period, after enjoying his office say for one year, or
Mt Supra,p. 375.
Busolt, Griechische GereAichie, tL, 132 1.
W Horacl. Pont. de reb. publ, 1. 3 Miller,
% Busolt, Grieeldsehe Geschichte, lin? 130, 135+ © Aristot, de rep. ATA. 3. 2
om Supra pe 375 f
i
398 The European Sky-god.
for cight. It now occurs to us that a combination of these two. methods may well have produced one of the most remarkable and characteristic institutions of ancient Greece, vis., the great public games, I venture to suggest that these were at first merely a means of selecting the man best fitted to become the priestly king of the locality in which they were held; and that the enormous importance attached to them is to be explained as due, not to any exaggerated or excessive devotion to athletics, but ratherto the religious issues involved in the choice of one who should worthily represent God to men.
The greatest of all Greek games were those celebrated at Olympia; and it so happens that at Olympia the evidence in favour of my hypothesis is particularly clear, The earliest king of Elis, according to Pausanias,!™ was called Aéthlius, “the Prize-winner,” a name which presumably implies that he had won the kingdom as the prize in a public contest. He was the father of Endymion, of whom we read! “Endymion . . . offered his sons the kingdom as a prize to be won in the race at Olympia,” and again“ Endymion set his sons to run a race at Olympia for the kingdom ; Epeus won the race and obtained the kingdom.” About a generation after Endymion Pelops, who had already won Pisa from Oenomaus by victory in the famous chariot- race," “acquired not only the land of Pisa, but also the border district of Olympia, which he severed from the territory of Epeus,’* and “celebrated the games in honour of Olympian Zeus in a grander way than all who had gone before him.” Later, the claims of Dius and Oxylus were
Mt Cp. Class. Revo, xvii, 275 m. 1.
2, 5.8.2
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settled by a single combat, the former being represented by an archer, the latter by a slinger!® “ After the reign of Oxylus, who also held the games, the Olympic festival was discontinued down to the time of Iphitus. When Iphitus renewed the games , . . people had forgotten the ancient customs, and they only gradually remembered them." “ Iphitus presided alone over the games, and after [phitus the descendants of Oxylus did likewise.” Tradition, therefore, manifestly points to the conclusion that the Olympic games originated in a contest for the post of local king.
Further, there are reasons for believing that the Olympic victor or local king at one time posed as a human Zeus, Tt was in Elis that Salmoneus pretended to be Zeus™: Virgil describes him as a victor (ovans) who claimed divine honours ; and a fifth-century vase now at Chicago! shows him decked with olive sprays and fillets as an Olympic victor, while he brandishes a thunderbolt in his right hand, a sword in his left, apparently as an cmbodi- ment of Thunderbolt Zeus and Warlike Zeus, two forms of Zeus connected with Ocnomaus at Olympia Even in historical times, when “people had forgotten the ancient customs” and the victor no longer carried a thunderbolt, there are indications that he was in effect both king and Zeus. To begin with, he was crowned ; and his crown resembled that of Zeus himself,!” being a wreath cut from
4© Apollod., 1.9. 24 ep. Fold-Lore, x¥.y 300, 312.
M4 Verg. Aleit 6. 589-
™* Class. Revy xvil.y 275 fy figs 5.
% Paus., 5 14.6£ It is cxproly stated (i,, 6) that Ocaumaus used to sacrifice on the altat of Warlike Zeus a Olympia, * whenever he was about to ‘engage in a chariot-race with any of the suitors of Hippodamia,” i.e, whenever be offered his kingdom and his daughter to the man who should beat him in personal prowess (rajpra, p. 381 £).
“7 Pokey 5. 3%, 1.
— |
The European Sky-god. 4or
fellow-countrymen. Another trace of the same conception may be found in the rule that athletes who cheated in the games at Olympia were fined, and that from the fines thus levied bronze statues af Zeus called Zanes were made and set up in the sacred precinct.” When we recall Macro- bius’ statement that ‘the souls of consccrated men, whom the Grecks call Zanes, they regarded as owed to the gods,” it is tempting to suppose that we have here the final commutation of what was originally a death-penalty imposed on the would-be king who could not beat his opponent in fair fight." Lastly, the belief that the Olympic victor was an incarnation of Zeus will serve to explain two myths, which I append without further comment. Pausanias, when discussing the origin of the games at Olympia, makes the singular statement; “Some say that Zeus here wrestled with Cronus himself for the kingdom ; others that he held the games in honour of his victory over Cronus.” Tzetzes‘™ preserves a yet more singular legend bearing on the same subject: ‘Heracles vanquished in battle Augeas king of Elis, the son of Helios and Iphiboe, because he had not received the reward due to him for the cleansing of the byre; and, having sacked Elis, he formed of the spoils thercof a contest in honour of Olympian Zeus and called it the Olympian contest. It was held every four ycars or, to speak with more precision, every fifty months, The athletes contended in the pentath/on (boxing,
Philippus of Croton heroified (Hat. §. 47); Cleomedes of Astypalea heroified (Paus., 6. 9, 8) Polydamas of Sootussa invoked as healer (Lue, deor. concil., 12); Euthymus of Loctl in Taly deified during his We-time (Plin. mat. hist, 7. 152, Pans., 6. 6. 16); Theagenes of Thasos worshipped as a god in Thasos and elsewhere (Paus., 6, 11. $f, Luc. deer, conet 12). See Class. Rete, xvibey 275)
™ Trots. iv Lyc. Alex., 43. VOL. X¥. 2D
_— =
The European Sky-god. 403
sandal; it was then taken off by the principal Thyiad to a rocky glen and buried with a cord round its neck. The tale told to account for this rite spoke of a certain drought during which the king had failed to provide food for his subjects and had beaten a young girl who begged for it: she had gone away and hanged herself, and famine and disease had followed until the king at the bidding of the Pythian priestess undertook this expiatory sacrifice (neuron teva Kaban Guelav). In order to grasp the meaning of these peculiar ceremonies we must compare a few other passages in which reference is made to them. Plutarch ? elsewhere gives us further information about the Stepterion, though he does not describe it by that name. Apollo, he says, once fought with a snake for the possession of the Delphic oracle; and he proceeds to indicate various details in the ritual representation of the fight. “The hut (xaduds) which is erected here near the threshing-floor at intervals of eight years is not a cavernous serpent’s hole, but an imitation of a royal or kingly dwelling.” At this point Plutarch’s text has suffered corruption ; ¥* but it is clear that certain persons, taking with them a boy whose parents were both alive, made a silent and stealthy attack upon the hut, and, having fired it with torches and upset the table-altar, fled through the doors of the precinct without looking behind them. In substantial agreement with this is the account of Ephorus,* who stated that Apollo shot with his bow a fierce man named Python and surnamed Serpent, the Delphians burning his hut (oxy) ; in memory of which achievement the ritual was still kept up. Pausanias' too records the statement that Python was not a mere snake, but “an over- bearing son of Crius, a chieftain of Eubcea, who rifled the
We Phat. ae def. orae., 15. Conjectures are collected by A. Mommaen Delis, p. 208 n. 2 f, ™ Ephor. a. Stra, 422. Paus., 10. 6. 6f 2bo2
air.
404 The European Sky-god.
sanctuary of the god and the houses of wealthy was shot by Apollo. Plutarch further speaks of “ the wanderings and the service of the boy and the purifications that take place at Tempe,” which in connection with his statement that the god fled to Tempe to obtain purifica- tion makes it clear that the boy in the religious drama played the part of Apollo, The sequel is told by others. Aelian ' in his description of Tempe says: “The sons of the Thessalians declare that here too the Pythian Apollo was purified at the bidding of Zeus, when he had shot the serpent Python that guarded Delphi while Ge still occupied the oracle. Apollo crowned himself with this laurel of Tempe, took a branch of it in his right hand, and came to Delphi, where he took over the oracle as the son of Zeus and Leto . . . . And down to the present day at intervals of eight years the Delphians send a procession of high-born youths, and one of themselves as leader (dpycémpos). On their arrival they offer a magni- ficent sacrifice at Tempe and return again when they have wreathed crowns of the same laurel with which the crowned himself in the past. They traverse the road that is called the Pythian way -... And the crowns that are given to the victors at the Pythian games are made of this laurel.”
So, then, the culminating act of the Stepterion was the wreathing or crowning with laurel of the youths who acted the part of the victorious god; and we are expressly told that victors in the Pythian games, which followed almost immediately, were crowned with the same laurel. Two inferences are obvious. On the one hand, Stepterion
1 Phat. des deft ortay 15.
"9 Supra, p. 402.
© Acl. ware dir 3+ Ty ep. schol. Pind. Fyth,, p. 298, Béckh.
™ A. Mommsen Defphita, pp. 211, 214, from a comparison of Plt de def, rainy 2, Nlyor mpd HoBiwy and sy 15, pre.
The European Sky-god. 495
means the “Coronation” rite (otemrds, “ crowned ”’).!% On the other hand, the Pythian victor was crowned king as the triumphant representative of the god. Morcover, when we recollect the stealthy attack made by Apollo's repre- sentative upon the “royal or kingly dwelling” of the human Serpent, it becomes highly probable that the Pythian victor originally succeeded to the crown as being the champion who had slain the previous king. These inferences are materially strengthened by the fact that the Pythian games were at first held, not every fourth year, but every eighth year: they are indeed termed “an eight-year festival’” (éxeernpls)—the very word used by Plutarch of the Step- terion. Also it is known that the carliest form of the Pythian contest on record was “the singing of a hyma to the god” ;!% and that this hymn, the famous vépos Tivduxds, described the fight of Apollo with the Serpent. Now Pausanias,” in his description of the temple at Delphi, says; Not far from the hearth stands the throne of Pindar; it is of iron, and they say that whenever Pindar came to Delphi he used to sit on it and sing his songs to Apollo.” From this it may be inferred that the Pythian victor was not only crowned king as personating the god, but actually sat on a throne beside the sacred hearth.
% Cp. Heaych. eremrijpia * orijparm, & ot intra te rdv haduy ifjerov, Dittenberger Sy/t. ducer. Gris" 616, 29 (Cos) > [rod Znwde horde ori(w ra eriga,, Anth, Plan. 306. 2, bwroi axpemriv (Jacobs and others cj. orerrbv’, Sareplle AiDov,
™ Demetrius of Phalerum ap. schol. Out. 3. 267, rére deni ebv dvmeerqpiciy: roy Hotliaw dyiva dyevoberti Kphuw, dvica M Anudlonog Adawy, Eustath., 1466, 7, dywwoBrradvroc Kplovrog rhy kvvernpuiy dydva roy LuOlow * iy Pivica Annédorse Admwy, schol, Pind. Pyth, p. 298 Bockh érehitre di 6 dyiov warapyie ply dub rvsernpidoc, pariorn @ tig Tevrerypila mtd Censorin. de die nat, 18. 6, Delphis quoque ludi qui vooantur Pythia post annum octavum olim conficiebantur,
4 Paus., 10, 7. 2, Strab., 421.
™ Strab., 421, Poll, 4 84, cchol. Pind. Pythy p. 297, Boekh.
1 Pausy 10. 24. $.
———— ll
406 The European Sky-god.
Further confirmation of my conjecture, that a priestly king once reigned for eight years only at Delphi and that he was chosen as victor in the Pythian contest, is fortunately forthcoming. Aristotle” states that the king who presided at the common hearth of the people was sometimes called their archon or “ruler.” And an inscription™ found in 1892 at Magnesia on the Mwander mentions a certain Xenyllus, who lived about 1090 8.C,, as proarehon or “ ruler of the eight-year festival at Delphi.” It thus appears that, just as at Athens we saw first kings, then ten-year archons, and lastly annual archons, so at Delphi the annual archons were preceded by eight-year proarchons, and the eight-year proarchons by kings : also, that it was the express business of the eight-year proarchons to preside over the eight-year Pythian festival.
With regard to the second part of this festival, the Herois, its name the “hero-feast"’ coupled with Plutarch’s state- ment that its ritual resembled the evocation of the earth- goddess Semele suggests that it portrayed the resurrection of the Delphicheroes, But whowere the heroes? Possibly the whole line of Delphic kings and victors. “At Delphi,”” says the scholiast on Pindar, “ an entertainment for heroes takes place, at which the god appears to invite the heroes to a banquet.” This is said @ propos of Neoptolemus, who, according to Pausanias,™ was slain on the sacred hearth by
2° Supra, Pr 370M. 3+
™ 0, Kern, Die Grimdungegeschichte von Magneria am Madandros, Beslin, 1894, p.7- Sie Gl mepi dySouiov! Irn work viv dpew ipalyneay oi Mveol] wipacrs, eiBing Apa Ovola xapirrnpious [i}rip[pOneay sig Axh]godg ipwriaovreg ipl rie te Tv tify] iwavddely tepupivnc] ty “Aya Oquarode, ampodpxovrog év [AeA]pote rw ef « Zevidov. The text is given: also by Sakolowski in Mythopruphi Grucci, 1, p xxi, and Michel Recmeit inser. grecques, $5 For the last lacuna Kern af. cit, p. 10, suggests rv efvaboror'] 2. dpxiiv i but riv ér|veeryplta] is more likely; see Pauly- Wissowa, iv., 2590 and 2605.
‘™ Schol. Pind. Nem, 7. 68.
Paus., 10, 24. gand 6, op. 1. 11. 1, 1. £3. 4 ET. 4 “ Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, slew Priam at the altar of the God of the Courtyard, and by a
=|
The European Sky-god. 407
the priest of Apollo and being buried close by was wor~ shipped with annual” sacrifices as a hero2 Euripides*” in a well-known passage describes how single-handed and armed with the weapons of the god he had fought for his life against the joint attack of the Delphians—" a sword-bearing. band shaded with laurel.” Have we here a reminiscence of the priestly king killed at bis hearth on the expiration of his term of office ?™ However that may be, Pindar, of whose enthronement at Delphi 1] have spoken, took rank with the Delphic heroes and was specially invited to the
of the god (@coféa)™*—a distinction conferred on his descendants after him Pindar, then, if any one, would be likely to know the true significance of the Herois held every eight years at Delphi, A fragment of his poetry preserved by Plato™ runs as follows :
“For from whomscever Persephone hath accepted the atonement of ancient woe, their souls she sendeth up once more
notable coincidence he was himself slaughtered at Delphi beside the altar of Apollo, Hence to be treated as one bas treated others is called the retribution of Neoptolemus.” We are reminded of Zhe priest who slew the slayer, and shall himself be slain.
™ He was struck by “a man with « knife" (dvjp paxaipg, Pind. New, 7. 61) usually called the “Knifeman” (Mayayric Ascleplades af. schol, Vind. Nem. 7. 62, Stab. 421, Sophocles af, Evstath. 1479, 13. dpellod. apilom, 6 14). Another version made him slay himself with a knife (Phere~ oydes af, schol. Eur. Or, 1654. dauriw db erelver paxaipg, if the text is sound). See further Roscher Len,, iil., 172 and 176.
™ Heliodorus speaks of sacrifices paid to Neoptolemus every four years at the time of the Pythian contest Aethiap, 2. 34, dt Ovoia eal H Orwpla, rerpacenplta rate. tre map nat 4 MuOiwy dysy (fort dt suri se otaGa) ripwovaw Alvuiives X.omrodipy rg "yw,
© On Neoptolemus as the hero fur excellence at Delphi see A. Momauen
Ps 225 fe.
=” Kur. Andr., 1085
™ J. Topficr, Beitrdge, py 132, suggests that Neoptolemus' death was sacri- ficial, and compares it with the human sacrifices to Apollo at the Athenian festival of the Thargelia.
Kumath. wit, Pind., p. civ., 14 ff, W. Christ,
"9 Plut, de sera mumeinis wimdleta, 15
Plat. Aono, 81 06.
The European Sky-god. 409
used in early days to send a sacred embassy to Delphi, a custom which having fallen in desuetude was revived in the second century #.c. and thenceforward maintained in accordance with the old eight-year cycle: an extant inscrip- tion records a long list of Delian priests who together with certain Attic magistrates paid first-fruits to the god on that solemn occasion. Of more importance is the account given by Proclus*"* of the Bocotian Daphnephoria or “Laurel-bearing.” This rite, which is best known nowadays through the noble painting of Sir Frederick Leighton, was enacted in the following fashion. ‘In Beeotia at intervals of eight years (8i’ dyvcernpléos) the priests used to carry laurels to the precinct of Apollo, extolling him by means of a choir of maidens. The custom sprang from this cause. The Aeolians who dwelt in Arne and its neighbourhood migrated thence at the bidding of an oracle, and laying siege to Thebes, which had previously been occupied by Pelasgians, captured the town. When a festival of Apollo common to them both occurred, they made a truce and, having cut laurels, the one side from Helicon, the other from the river Melas, brought the same to the god. But Polematas the leader of the Boeotians dreamed that a young man gave him a complete set of armour and bade him offer prayers to Apollo along with a company of laurel-bearers once in every eight years. Two days later he attacked and van- quished the enemy. So he himself performed the rite of laurel-bearing, and the custom has been kept up ever since, In it they wreath a piece of olive-wood with laurels and various flowers. A bronze ball is attached to the top; and from it hang smaller balls. About the middle of the staff
** Corp. imserr, Attic. El, Sh, 90. O85, p. 432 Tip irae ier] «aes rdg dmopxde [7]8 "amido rg] Hedy. une 4 Geschichte, i..8 670 m. 2.
3 Proch. chvestemathia, 25, p. 352 1 Gaisford, (Cp. the Pindarie
Bagyngomedy (Cxyrhyrichws Papyri, iv. $0 ff, no. 659, Berk philol Wachewsrhr. Now. 19, 1904, fp 1476 (f.).] Schol. Clem. Alex., p. 944 Kote.
=
410 The European Sky-god.
is a ball of less size than the ball at the top: this they bind with purple fillets, The end of the staff they deck with a saffron-coloured stuff. They take the topmost ball to denote the sun, regarding Apollo himself as # sun-god; the ball beneath, to denote the moon, the small balls attached being the stars and planets, and the fillets, of which there are 365, being the year. A boy, whose parents are both living, is the ruler (@pyes) of the laurel-bearing. His nearest relative carries the wreathed staff, which they call opo (xm) 7; but the laurel-bearer himself follows hold- ing the laurel. He has his hair long, and wears a golden crown, He is robed in a glittering costume reaching to his feet, which are shod with military shoes (ipimparias)!* A choir of maidens follows after him, holding out branches while they chant hymns of supplication. The laurel- bearing procession used to go to the shrines of Ismenian”® and Chalazian™ Apollo.” According to Proclus, then, the first laurel-bearer was a victorious Bocotian leader, whose successors at intervals of cight years were said to “ rule” the laurel-bearing, and were dressed as kings (golden crown, &c.). Moreover, they obviously represented the sky-god or sun-god—witness not only the long hair and glittering costume, but the staff tipped by a bronze sphere to denote the sun, with others to denote the moon and
*7 The name kw might denote “the thing held," cp. sémy “ handle" (connected with the root of eapia, capuius). But cod. HI reads cosy as did
the first hand in cod. A.; and xomd would presumably mesn the thing cut" (from the root of ebrrev), £e. the branch lopped. 4 "teurparidec were military shoes called after the Athenian genera] Tphicrates; cp. our ® Wellingtons” or ** Bluchers.” 4 On the Theban Apollo "tahoe see Wernicke in Panly-Wisown, fh, 54- Codd, A. H. have xeAation, which would signify Apollo as the averter of hail-storms (x#Aua, “hail”), Codd. B. C. have the yoution, Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa, ii, 73, takes XaXdZuc to be » by-name of Apollo “Jopiyviog at Thebes ; but thinks that TaAdEiog, a name formed from the place Galaxium on Mt, Libethrius in Boootia (%4., ii, 4§), may be the right reading.
™ Max. Tyr, & 8, mentions a similar castom of the Ponians: Naloreg
eiBova piv "Woy, dyadpa Ui “HXiov Maori diecog Bpaxie bmp
The European Sky-god. 4ir
stars. At Thebes, as at Delphi, the tenure of this priestly king was reduced from eight years to one. Pausanias™ says: ‘The following custom is still to my knowledge observed in Thebes. A boy of good family, handsome and strong, is made priest of the Ismenian Apollo for a year. His title is laurel-bearer, for these boys wear crowns of laurel leaves."" Dr. Frazer, in his commentary on this passage, suggests that the Theban laurel-bearing may have commemorated the slaying of the serpent by Cadmus, who was said to have served Ares eight years, as expiation for his offence.™* If this be so, the parallel between Theban and Delphic usage is complete; for Thebes, like Delphi, had a tradition that its monster was no mere animal, but a king called Serpent. Palaphatus” declares: “ The king of Thebes at that time was Serpent, the son of Ares, whom Cadmus slew, thereby obtaining the kingdom,” and a frag- ment of Dercylus, the Argive historian, states ‘that Harmonia was the daughter of a Theban king named Serpent, and that Cadmus married her after slaying her father.” Indeed, an archaic vase in the Louvre collection?
TWAov. Cp, the monetary types of Uranopolis in Macedonia. Obv, the sun ‘5 a rayed globe or rayed star : sometimes the sun and moon together. Rev. fae pee at a aot a ae ee and holding @ long sceptee topped by « ball from which hang two fillets (Brit, Mus. Cat. GR. Coins, Macedonia, &o., p. 133 £.).
™ Paws 9 10. 4
= Apollod., 3. 4. 2. Suid. and Phot. 1.0, Kadpela wey,
=* An argument in favour of Dr, Frazer's suggestion is furnished by a vase
Iaarel ; Nike, Athena, and Eros hold Innrel-wreaths: Apotlo has a lausrel- wand and the blank spaces of the design are filled In with laurcl-trces Roscher Ler. ii, 837 £}. A vase from the Crimea, now at St. Petersbung. nlvo shows Cadmus erowned with laurel before he attacks the serpent (8 i.,
= ap. schol. Eur. Phan, 7 = Miller frag. Aist. Gry Iv.» 387. * Arch, Zeity 1881, pl. 12,3 = S, Reinach ripertoire der vexer peinty, by 43804
The European Sky-god. 4t3
seated by the omphalos in conversation with an enthroned Zeus, Apollo being absent altogether. It was Zeus who had established Apollo as his inspired mouthpiece” and the Pythian priestess invoked Zeus immediately before taking her seat on the prophetic tripod" The promi- nence thus accorded to Zeus at Delphi is readily intel- ligible if Apollo himself was the solar (and therefore chthonian and mantic) form of the sky-god.
But on this showing one would expect to find Apollo, like Zeus, connected with the oak, not with the laurel, at any rate in the remote past. And that is actually the case. The oldest of the Apolline myths is the story of the god's fight with Python at Delphi. Ovid,?" after telling it, adds that to keep in memory this signal victory the Pythian games were instituted, and that “whosoever had won with hand or feet or wheel received the honour of oaken foliage (wsenlew ... frondis): the laurel as yet was not, and Phebus crowned his brows, fair with their flowing tresses, from the nearest tree.” It appears, then, that the laurel had been preceded by the oak at Delphi. Now the earliest worshippers of the Delphic Apollo were “Cretans from Minoan Cnossus”;* and in Minoan Cnossus the oak was regarded as the tree of Zeus. | infer that the Delphic Apollo had inherited the oak of the Cretan Zeus. Agree- ably to this we read that, when the Cretans dedicated at Delphi an image of Apollo, it was simply a natural bough.
Acsch. Bum, 17 1.
= 7, 28f.
* Ov. met, 1. 445 ft.
* Hymn. Hom. Ap. Pyth,, 218,
1 Clavi, Revs, xvile, 408
% Note also the legend that the sccond temple of Delphi was built by one Premas, after whom Aptenel in Crete was named (Paus., 10, 5, 10).
% Pind, Pyth, § 42, calls it tiv pavidporoy gurdy, i.e. the statue * which ‘Bed been torn aesay with a single wrench (cp. Hesych. povoppit* direppaypivos, dmvomanplvoc) Aaving grown" into shape on the tree. Herwerden (Ler. suppl. £0. povileAog) would read porddpvoy rior, “a figure carved from one block
-
The European Sky-god. 415
Zeus appear, one on either side of it, in a marble relief from Sparta”? and on coins of Megara™® and Cyzicus,*! while a coin of Patara*” and a Graeco-Etruscan cist”™ show a single eagle perched on the top of it. This disposition of the birds recalls that of the doves at Dodona,™ where Zeus still had a living oak-tree, not a petrified stump. The omphalos was decked with prophylactic fillets and fillets dangle from the apex of Apollo-pillars on coins of Ambracia®* and Apollonia in Illyria“? The agrenen or net-work of wool, in which the omphatlos was dressed,” was a mere mesh of fillets and is found in combination with them on the xeanon of Zeus at Mylasa. Lastly, the word omphalos (dudadés) itself has been rightly connected with ompha (Gua) the “oracular voice,” ®? and again points to an oak like that of Dodona.™ I take it, then, that the common art-type of
2 Journ. of Hell. Stud, viil. 14, fig. 2, after Mittheil. Arch. Inst. Ath, 1887, pl. 12.
wEcardoer um. Comm Pit heb
= Journ. of Hell. Stud, viii. 14) figs ty after Num. Chron., set. WL, vii ph 4, 23.
™ Overbeck Kunstnyth. Apollo Miinataf. 5, 6, ep. ids 10.
* Daremberg-Saglio Dich, Ants ie, 32065 fig, 383, 6p. Reinach Rép. der suater points, f., 313. 3-
4 See the bronze coin of Epirus figured in Clazr. Kee xviiy 408, figs 4: Most authors speak of three doves at Dodona (Jeb on Soph. Zrucsh p. 204)5 bbut Sophocles mentions two ( 7vaA., 172),and Philostrarus Major one (agp. 31).
* Bur, Zom., 225 orippact y’ tydurdvy Strab. 420 reracmmplyoc, Cp egy Baumeister Denbmiler, \o, 104, fg. 110, ti, 1009, fig. 1215, 1110, fig. 1307.
2 Overbeck Aumstmyth. Apollo Minetaf,, 81,13. 7 Jb, 4,7
MW. de Visser de Gr. dis nom referentitns speciem kumanant, p. 64 1.)
© Cp. aidugadag = rioquoc from dupa= day. There is then no connection between the Delphic ompAales and duparse, “navel,” except by popular etymology.
2% Argos too had an oracular bupaXse (Berl philol. Wockensclbr, NOV. 9 1904, P+ 1504), The name *OppaXec occurs in an inscription from Dodona (Collie, Sammlung der gricih. Diatedtinschrifier, 1347), ‘There was a plain near Cnossus called ‘Opgddcoy (Call. A. Zoe 4, aéil.) | and towns in Bpiras (Ptol.y 3+ 14, 7) and Thessaly (Steph, Bye, # ® “OupéAiov and Tapavaee) bore the same name. In each case the oult of an oak-Zeus existed within oasy reach, vis,, at Argos, Coossus, Dodona, and Scotussa respectively.
(mm
The European Sky-god. 417
tripod** was tantamount to Apollo seated on his omphalos. Again, we have seen that the cult of the Pelasgian oak-Zeus gave rise to the names 7riofas and Triops2™ It is, then, a fair conjecture that the Pythagoreans, who preserved so much Pelasgian lore, called the Delphic tripod ériops™* because it was originally the symbol of the Pelasgian oak- god. Well might bronze tripods be given as prizes at the games of Apollo Tocris," whose cult had been founded by the Thessalian Triopas.”
But Delphi was not the only place where Apollo was connected with the oak. A fine tetradrachm of Catana signed by the artist Chcerion, shows a full-faced head of Apollo crowned with oak-leaves and flanked by bow and lyre” Golden crowns of oak-leaves were dedicated in the temple of Apollo at Delos by Lysander and L. Cornelius Scipio. Beside Zeus "Acxpatos, oak-god of Caria and Lydia” we find Apollo "Agxpaios, oak-god of Phrygia. Homer describes Apollo as leaning against an oak outside the walls of Troy™ or perching in the form of an eagle on the oak of his father Zeus. At Miletus too Apollo was called Aptuas or Apupaios, the god “of the oak-wood.""*" To one interesting cult-title we can unfortunately assign no locality. Two consecutive glosses in the lexicon of
44 #° Diod., 5. 61.
in the Hunteran eclocdon at
See Chast. Revs, xvii, 416,
Thy 28. 549.
1, 7B
™ Apbuar Lye. Alex. 522, with Tzets. ad loe., cp. Strab., 321: Apipaoe schol. vet. ad Lye. Ald, 522, ep. Trete. 4. Spnpatog.
VOL. XV, 25
418 The European Sky-god.
Hesychius run: "EpiguAov * roy 'ArrdNAo@va wal rov “Eppry and épigurros Bpis * 9} mdartpudros, kal 3 xadoupivy Parrds, ie. “The very-leafy, a title of Apollo and of Hermes” and “ The very-leafy oak, the broad-leaved species, and the so-called cork-oak.” From this it is clear that the Greeks had a cult of Apollo named after a par- ticular variety of oak-tree. Again, the connection between Apollo and the oak comes out clearly in themyth of Dryope.* Dryops, king of (Eta, the son of Sperchelis and Polydora?™ had an only daughter Dryope, who tended her father’s flocks, The Hamadryads loved her exceedingly and taught her how to hymn the gods and to dance. Apollo, who saw her dancing, was enamoured of her and, to attain his ends, became first a tortoise, which she fondled and put into her bosom, and then a snake. The second change scared away the nymphs, who left Dryope and her lover alone. Shortly afterwards Dryope was wedded to Andremon, son of Oxylus; but the result of her union with Apollo was the birth of Amphissus. He grew to man's estate, built the town of (Eta, and established a temple of Apollo in DoE When Dryope visited this temple, the H. her off and hid her in the forest. tn hes place ep ee a poplar to spring from the ground and a fountain to gush forth beside it, Dryope nowbecame anymph. Amphissus founded a Nymphwum in her honour and a contest in running, which is still kept up. From this contest women are excluded, the reason given being that, when Dryope was carried off by the nymphs, two maidens revealed the fact to the natives of the land and thus incurred the anger of the nymphs, who transformed them into fir-trees.
In this myth Dryope, the “ oaf-maiden,” is replaced by a poplar—a change that we have already met with in the
2 Ant. Lib, 32, from the “rapovodpeve of Nicander. © Another version made Dryops the son of Apollo and of Dia, a daughter of Lycaon (schol. Ap. Rhod., 1. 1283, Siym. mags, 288, 34, Teeta af Lye Alex, 480)
The European Sky-god. 419
case of Zeus at Olympia, Lepreum, Sardes, and Cnoseus.™ The same transition occurs in connection with Apollo him- self. We have seen him as an oak-god. It remains to see him as a poplar-god. A Roman coin of Alexandria Troas shows Apollo Sy:8evs standing before a poplar-tree with a tripod in front of him#? Another coin of Apollonia in Illyria, struck by Caracalla, represents the statue of Apollo inside his temple, behind which appear the tops of three poplar-trees* The local cult was primitive in character; for autonomous coins of the town figure an aniconic Apollo- column crowned and filleted. I would suggest, therefore, that the three poplars visible on the coin of Caracalla are a triad of sacred trees, in which the deity was thought to reside.” Apollo himself was probably represented by a priestly king with an annual tenure. For Herodotus” states that the cattle of the sun-god were kept there by the richest and noblest of the citizens, who mounted guard over them, each man for a year in turn. So sacrosanct was the man in charge that, when the citizens blinded one Evenius for neglect of his duties, their flocks and fields became barren, and oracles from Dodona and Delphi bade them make ample restitution to the injured man. This Evenius and his son Deiphonus had the gift of prophecy. The Apolloniates regarded Apolloas the founder of their town.” when, therefore, Nero on coins of Apollonia describes him-
> Folk. Lore, xv., 297 £
™ Overbeck Kunstmyth Apollo Miinstaf. 5, 32, from a specimen in Taihoof's collection. The vak too perhaps figured in the local myths of Alexandria Troas: for a coin simick there under Commodas represents a herdsman with cb/amys and pedir and a horse benesth a clearly-defined oak- tree (Brit. Mus, Cat. Gt. Coins, Troas p. 175 ph $7)
* Overbeck Aunsimyih, Apollo Miinztal 4, 36, from a specimen in
* Overbeck #4. Mlinztaf. 1, 48 Supra, pe 416, m. 264. ™ That, 9. 93 & @ Pansy § 2% 5+ 2n2
a
-
The European Sky-god., 420
latter apparently on behalf of girls at their marriage and of infants received into the phratry. The inscription gives us more than one formula of swearing used by the Labyade, whose oaths prove that they recognised a triad of gods, Zeus, Poseidon, and Apollo. We have met with the same triad before™ as a variation on the original Zeus-triad, viz. Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. 1 am thus strengthened in my belief that Apollo at Delphi was the chthonian® form of the sky-god, in a word the local Hades. But this in turn supports my contention that he was a poplar-god. For the poplar, as Bétticher®' has shown, was the tree sacred to Hades, Suidas®® states that it was “a chthonian tree,” adding that it was said to grow on the banks of the Acheron and hence was called 'Axepwly in Homer Some held that the dyepwis was a kind of oak**; but it was commonly identified with the white poplar or Xetxn. Its legend is told by Servius. Leuce, daughter of Oceanus, the fairest of all nymphs, was loved by Pluto, who carried her off to the world below. With him she spent her life; and, when in due time she died, he solaced his love by causing the tree Aeven to grow in the Elysian fields. If my speculations are in the main correct, Hades the lover of Aevan is to be identified, not only with Zeus Aevxaios, but also with Apollo the god of the poplar (dsreAAdv),
The foregoing argument is strengthened by the fact that the same alternatives, oak and poplar, occur in the case of other solar personages. The Heliades, daughters of the
30 Folk Lore, xt 279.
= Porphyrius af, Serv. im Verg- ecly 5. 66, declares ““triplicem esse Apollinis potestatem : et eundem esse Solem apud superos, Liberum patrem in terris, Apollinem apud inferot.” Vediovis, the chthonian form of the Roman Jupiter, “* was commonly said to be Apollo” (Gell., 5. 42. 12).
™ Ratticher, Baumdudtns, p» 44a fh.
7 Suid. 4. 0. Deven.
© Cp. Ktym. mag., 180, 49 fy Serv. ae tot 9
Schol. 12... 16. 482 puyol vidoc,
™ Serv. tu Verge thy 7- Ot,
_
The European Sky-god. 423
now in the British Museum, represents him wearing a poplar-wreath,*!§ as does a fine marble head in the same collection. In fact, as Virgil™ puts it, “ popudus Alcideo gratissima.” Hence in the Rhodian Tlepolemea—games held in memory of Tlepolemus son of Heracles—the victor's wreath was of white poplar"
Another surrogate of the oak was the laurel, or, to speak more accurately, the bay. Professor J. R. Green informs me that the species of oak most likely to flourish in northern Greece, the guercus tlex or holm-oak, bears a decided resemblance to the bay. He has kindly furnished me with specimen leaves of the two trees, and points out that they approximate to each other alike in shape and in colour. The bay-leaf, like the ¢/ex-leaf, is ovate-lanceolate, the former being minutely dentated, the latter minutely serrated. Both have a glossy dark-green uj and a lighter under-surface, In fact, the untrained observer might readily confuse the two, It should also be noted that the Delphic bay came from Tempe,™ where it was called Svapeia,"* 2 name perhaps comparable™ with ddpuXos, the Macedonian word for “oak.” Indeed, various philo- logists have held that names of the laurel or bay are related to names of the oak. If that be so, we have found an
™ Brit, Mus. Cat. Browses, p. 219, No. 1297, *' a poplas-wreath (7),”
™ Rowcher Lex. 166,
© Verg. tcl, 7. 6t-
© Tues, én Lye. Alex,, 914, schol. rec, Pind. Ol, 7. t4t-
™ Schol. Pind. Lyth, p. 298 Bickh, Pans, 10. § 9
= Hoaych. 1. 0. dvaptia.
™ If we may assume that deapela should be written Gapvela, Bet mow
Hesych. 5.0. Sépuddoce ™ So L. Meyer very! Gram.*i., 70, Hollinann Gr. Diah, th, 429, Lindsay Lat, lang, p- 286, ep. Schmader Reailer. p. 505, Stole Hist. Gram. a. Lat, Sprisin 238 Tiaasesae fu Gueilsns 16) Cae Heaych. ddpuhdog * 4 tobe md Macedévuw. Trish dair, dawr, (0) Laurel, Lat. laurws. Hesych. Adgon * déguy, Tlepyator, Heaych. Svapela i dv rote Tipmees Sagem.
a
The European Sky-god. 425
solar powers. The name “lion"-tree points in the same direction, for the lion was a common symbol of the sun.™ Again, Ptolemacus,** who records the Rhodian version of the myth of Helen, vis. that she was the daughter of the sun and hanged herself on an oak, mentions in the same context that she went by the name of Acovrj, “ Lioness.” One of her suitors was called Aeovrevs, “ Lion,” so that once more we find the sun connected with the lion, and both of them with the oak. Further, there is reason to believe that in Rhodes the mistletoe stood in close relation to the sun, For, not only was there a cult of Mistletoe Apollo ("IEias ’AgdAmw) at Ixiai, a Rhodian town named after the mistletoe ;™ but Leonteus, the suitor of Helen was by some*? regarded as the father of Ixion, whose
See Proller-Robert, p. 455, Gruppe, p. 798 The former quotes from Clem, Alex, froir., 47, p. 41 Potter, the statement that at Patara in Lycia the statues of Zeus and Apollo had lions set beside them. Cp. the rock cut tion inscribed ‘Axium Zrepernddow in the precinct of Artemidoras at Them (/userr. Graee., xil., 3 suppl. 295 f., no, 1346). The latter cites Ael cde Wat, dir 12. 7, dvd) dd Syav wupBdic dory oleoy HKiow pasiv sivas, Lact. Plac. fs Stat, 7heb., 1. 720, Pense in speleis Solem colunt ost autem ipse Sol feonis vultu cum tiara Persico habitu et utrisque manibus bovis cormua comprimens, &c., Lyd, oe meri t 2a, bri Tpepor of orparnyol trl raw FoR pu Aide eat “HAiov eal Zediwnc, “Hepod r6 ead “Apeos abppoda * kal Aube piv deriv “HAlov 8 Morray XeNpae d Bodr, “Aptog de Adnoy, "Eppod WM Spacavza, Serv. ém Very. georg., 1. 33, sciendum deinde est voluisse maiores in his signis (xii) ewe deorum domicilia s ut Solis est Leo, Lung vero Cancer, Add Mactob, Saf, 1, 20. 12, capti indicaverunt apparuisse sibi Ieones protis Gaditanw classis superstantes ac subito suas naves tnmissis sadiis, quales In Solis capite pinguntur, exustas, &e., t. at. 16, propterea Aegyptii animal in codiaco consecravere ¢a cxli parto qua maxime annuo cursa sol walido effervet calore, Leonisque inibi signum domiciliam sotis appellant, quia id. animat igroderiees intima ts ‘Other evidence is collected
Crourer, Symbolih,? iv, 85, cp. Budge, Ze Gods of the Beypiams, ii, 359% psa Hii, 253 ff, “Nengal als Gott der verzehronden Sonnenglut und ale Lowengott.”
™ Prolem. mov. Misty dy ps 189, Westermann,
= Apollod., 3. 10. 8, Hyg, fads, 81.
™ Steph. Bys. 1.0, "tian.
Typ fal 62,
426 The European Sky-god.
name, as I have elsewhere®* pointed out, is an obvious derivative of the mistletoe (’Igiwv from ifés), and whose nature, as is commonly admitted," was that of a sun-god. Thus both mythology and ritual attest the connection between mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, and the sun.
ARTHUR BERNARD COOK.
(To be continued.)
NOTES FROM ARMENIA, In ILLustration oF The Golden Bough.
RY J. RENDE! HABEIS, TL.D,
‘THe following Notes are the result of inquiries recently prosecuted by myself during a journeyin Asia Minor. The matter which they contain is not necessarily new, and is necessarily slight, owing to my own inexperience as an explorer and folklorist, but a cairn is often built by the stones thrown by successive passers-by; and although the Golden Bough is itsclf a large cairn, and might be thought not to need augmenting, I venture to throw my little con- tribution on that already monumental “Heap of Witness.” In reading Mr. Frazer's volumes, it is a temptation some- times to think that the evidence is unduly in detail, and that the artistic presentation of the argument suffers from the defect of over-elaboration; but a closer knowledge of the matters discussed convinces one that while there is some- thing to be said in favour of such a grouping and restrict- ing of the evidence as would avoid unnecessary or mis- leading repetitions, it remains of the first importance that every kind of testimony should be collected even at the risk of repetition, for one never knows where the missing link in the evolution of a belief or of a custom may turn up amongst a series of apparently similar statements. Students of folklore know this so much better than J, that they will easily be able to tolerate my saying from a fresh point of view things which Mr, Frazer has already said from almost every coign of vantage in the whole ou
landscape of human history. And I will do my best to arrange the matters which [ have to report so as to place
— wo
Notes from Armenia. 429
occur. So we will begin with periodicad religious attempts fo secure rain,
Annual Rain-Charm.
Amongst the Armenian people it is the custom, on a pare ticular day in the year, to throw water over one another. The day of this exercise is the Feast of the Transfigura- tion, and the festival itself is called by the name of Vartevar. Although in its modern form the custom of water-throwing is little more than a sport of boys, the evidence is abundant that the throwing of water was originally a religious exercise, and that it goes back to very early times.
Its religious character is attested by the fact that in the Armenian Churches there is an aspersion of the people by the priests on the Transfiguration festival ; while the boys are throwing water out of doors the priests are throwing water indoors; and since the custom prevails all over the Armenian Churches and, as I shall presently point out, in the Syrian Churches also, we have sufficient evidence of the antiquity of the custom, apart from the folklore parallels and the illustrations drawn from other and ancient religions. We are, therefore, entitled to say that there was an ancient annual Rain-Festival, held on a given day in the summer, probably throughout Asia Minor. Now for some details.
The custom can be verified all over Armenia; we found it at Moush, at Pirvan,! at Egin,* at Harpoot, at Ourfa, and practically in every place where we made inquiry.
But in no place did they seem to know the meaning of the term Vartevar, and when questioned they offered false etymologies, connecting the word with the name Rose
¥ Acillage not far from Kebana Maden, an ancient mining town on the somewhat Tower down than the junction of the Upper Euphrates with the Lower Euphrates or Murad Sa, = A much-desolated city on the Upper Euphrates.
- =
Notes from Armenia. 431
come to the subject of occasional rain-charms, such as are used in times of drought.
Occasional Rain-charms.
The Turks have a rain-charm which consists of throwing pebbles into water. At Egin they gather pebbles and place them in two bags; in their extravagant way, they say that there must be 70,001 pebbles, of which I do not see the meaning. Over these pebbles they say some incan- tations. The bags are carried down to the Euphrates by two men and suspended in the water. This is done regularly at Egin in dry seasons,’ At Ourfa the Turks carry stones to be blessed by the Hodja at the Mosque of Abraham. They then take the stones and throw them into the Pool of Abraham (Birket cl Khalil), where the sacred fish are still kept and fed. This does not seem to vary much from the custom at Egin.
At Ourfa we came across a survival of the custom of throwing a man into the water; for we were told that in dry seasons they dig up the body of a recently buried Jew, abstract the head and throw it into the Pool of Abraham. We shall have another instance, later on, where the head of a saerificial animal does duty for the whole body.
{come now to a rain-charm which is much nearer to the forms recorded in the Golden Bough, which appears to be very widely diffused.
At Egin, when rain is wanted, the boys take two. sticks in the form of a cross, and with the addition of some old clothes and a cap they make a rain-dolly. This figure they carry round the town, and the people from the roofs of the houses throw water on it. They call the dolly the “Chi-chi Mama,” which they interpret to mean “the drenched mother.” As they carry the dolly about they ask, “What does Chi-chi mother want?” The reply is, “She wants wheat, boulgour” (cracked wheat), &c. “She wants
+ (CL W. R. Paton in Fold-Lorey xii, at6 (June, 1991)—En,)
Notes from Armenia. 433
some other appropriate manner.” Instances are given from New South Wales, Central Africa, and Mongolia. Our Turkish cases may now be added to these. The Golden Bough gives in connection with these charms the closely related one of water poured over the sacred stone, which leads naturally enough to the rain-charm in which water is poured over a sacred stone image, or in which the image itself is thrown into the water,
To return to the rain-charms reported from Ourfa, we have the singular case(I think it was Turkish) of the exhumation of a Jew, and the throwing of his head into the sacred pool. 1 was much puzzled over this custom, and do not even now feel able to elucidate it perfectly. The first thing, however, is to collect the parallels. Reference to Golden Bough, i., 99 s¢q., will show a number of cases “ where the rain-charm operates through the dead.” For example, in New Caledonia they dig up a dead body and pour water over the skeleton.
In Russia until lately the peasants used to dig up the corpse of some one who had drunk himself to death and sink it in the nearest swamp orlake. An example is given from a village in the Tarashchausk district, where the body of a Raskolnik or Dissenter was dug up, beaten about the head with the exclamation, “Give us rain,” while water is poured on the exhumed body through a sieve. Here, then, we have close and convincing parallels to the exhumation of the Edesgan Jew. It remains to be seen whether there is any thought of substituting the dead Jew for a living one, All that I am prepared to say at present is that the Edesean parallel should be added to the cases in the Golden Bough#*
Now turn to the Armenian and Syrian cases of water» throwing and of the drenching of the corn-dolly. Most of the cases which I have collected can be seen to belong to a common tradition. But the case of water-throwing at Aintab calls for special notice, because while, in the com-
* [Ch also Foié-Lore, ai., 437) and all, rot, 216.-—Ep.) VOL. XV. aF
=— =
Notes from Armenia, 435
It remains to discuss the question of the “rain-dolly,” or “Chi-chi Mama,” or whatever be its real name. This figure I take to be a corn-dolly minus the corn; in ordinary times the corn-maid or corn-mother is drenched at the time of har- vest. Thus in the case previously quoted from Wallachia, the drenched maiden with the last ears of corn on her head, personifies the cornespirit, and is drenched with a view to the next season. But the corn-spirit is also commonly represented in effigy, and this is the form which we have in the Armenian and Syrian rain-charm. It is simply the corn-mother or corn-child out of harvest time, and docs not require a separate inventory except under the head of rain-charms. As an effigy it need not be regarded as any- thing new. When the effigy, a3 at Harpoot, is regarded as male, it stands for the spirit of vegetation in such forms as the “ Green George,” the King of the May, and the like, For this spirit may be regarded as either male or female; sometimes it appears as one and sometimes as the other. ‘The drenching of the Harpoot rain-dolly is of the same class as the drowning of the Green Man and a host of simi- lar practices, for which again see Golden Bough passim, What made it easy to use the drenched dolly in the interem manner required by seasons of drought is at once clear from the consideration that the effigy of the spirit af vege- tation was commonly preserved throughout the year. It was thus always on hand to be treated as occasion might require. Cf. Golden Bough, ii., 133. “We shall see that the effigy of the corn-spirit, made at harvest, is often preserved till it is replaced by a new effigy at next year’s harvest.” The Armenian Chi-chi dolls are thus of peculiar interest, for, so far as | have yet inquired, there is no trace of the harvest-doll in Armenia. If there is, I have not found it. It survives from its occasional usc in seasons of drought, though, unless 1 am mistaken, its regular use has been lost sight of. Perhaps a closer inquiry will bring the harvest-doll to light.
are
perfect
Tiers ls'36 cul about ks culvalence Candlemas. The Go/den Bough is b
as to the customs which belong to the lowing extract will show.
“In the Armenian Church the sacred
not at Easter, but at Candlemas, that i February, or on the eve of that Festival. T for the bonfire are piled in an open space | won thy a essen Seuited Ey ound been married within the year. However, ae His HAE WH Tiptls the Saale married pairs sct fire to the pile, When over the people eagerly pick up charred
the bonfire, and preserve them at home with. stitious veneration."—Golden Bough, ii., 249,
Notes from Armenta. 437
‘Our notes will show something more than the adoration and conservation of the New Fire.
In Moush, on the day in question, they burn wood, and from the smoke derive auguries of plenty or famine for the coming year, They keep the wood ashes and spread them on the fields to make them fruitful. They mix them with water and give the water to sick sheep; they spread them on the sheep to make them multiply. Bridegrooms and brides jump over the fire (this means young married people, not necessarily persons of quite recent marriage). The people burn their own bodies with the fire, which is reckoned to be holy.
At Pirvan they call the Candlemas festival Moded (which appears to be a Syriac word, and to mean either “ birthday,” or else to be a causative term for what brings to birth). They build bonfires on the roofs of the houses and dance round them, the ntw bridegrooms of the year taking the lead. They knew nothing about making any use of the ashes from the bonfires. Their explanation of the custom was that “it came down from the time when we were fire- worshippers.” But this is their common explanation for peculiar customs. At Egin they light candles in the church and on the roofs of the houses, and every house where there has been a wedding in the previous year has a big bonfire on the roof; the new bridegrooms dance round the fire, and sometimes the brides dance round the fire also and jump over it. Children less than a year old are carried round the fire and songs are sung over them. Women belonging to houses where bonfires are made give away candles in church and elsewhere. They also give sweets, They do not make any use of the ashes from the bonfire,
At Ourfa the fire-festival is called Meled, There are bonfires everywhere—on roofs, in yards, &c. They call it the Burning of Winter.
From the foregoing, with the aid of the Golden Bough, it is easy to make parallels with other purificatory rites
=_— oo
Notes from Armenia. 439
beare on the same page, we find that such sacrifices were offered on the leading ecclesiastical festivals. Mr. Cony- beare also shows that this mafab was repudiated by the Paulicians, as an animal sacrifice offered in expiation of the sins of the dead (Key of Truth, p. clxiv.).
At Archag, not far to the east of Lake Van, I took the opportunity of inquiring from the priests of the village with regard to this custom, They readily admitted the fact; the sacrifice occurred at leading festivals such as Easter, but especially, if 1 understood rightly, on the Feast of the Assumption of the Virgin. The victims were usually lambs. Their blood was poured out upon the ground and the meat given to the poor. The sacrifice was not, how- ever, performed in the church, but outside, They also informed me that it was done in remembrance of the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham! This statement was con- firmed to me elsewhere. I do not know whether there is a memory of human sacrifice lurking in the illustration,
At Egin I found these sacrifices were also made, but especially on the Festival of the Assumption of the Virgin (August 17th this year). They buy sheep from the church funds, collect dowdgour (cracked wheat), &c., and on leaving the church each person has a piece of bread and meat given tohim, The sacrifice does not occur inside the church; some people perform it at their own homes.
From Egin I learned that this festival of the Assumption was also a festival of first-fruits, and that before that time it was not lawful to cat of the new grapes. 1 did not gather that there was any expiation of the dead in the sacrifice referred to, but it is quite possible that my ques- tions were not suited to elicit this fact, of which the Armenian literature quoted above furnishes decisive evidence. ‘The impression made upon my own mind was that the custom was more like an early Christian agapé, and I see that Mr. Conybeare in one place makes a some+ what similar suggestion.
—
Notes from Armenia. 44
loaves of bread had been placed upon the body, Inquiry as to the meaning of this elicited no other explanation than that the bread was for the church mice and to keep them from eating the corpse. I did not feel satisfied with the explanation, Some months later, on mentioning the incident to some intelligent Armenians in Constantinople, they frankly admitted that in former days the custom was to eat the bread, dividing it up amongst the friends of the deceased. Whether this is a case of sin-eating I leave Mr, Frazer and Mr. Hartland to decide.
Foundation Sacrifice.
Much attention has been given in late years to the custom of establishing the security of a building or the prosperity of a city by means of a sacrific offered on the foundation or immured in it. These vitalizations and re- vitalizations (for in the case of cities the sacrifice was often renewed annually) are attested for many ancient cities, such as Antioch of Syria, Laodicea of Syria, &c., where a primitive and annually repeated sacrifice of a virgin gave way, in course of time, to the sacrifice of an animal, such as a stag, offered on the birthday of the city, Of such sacrifices it is known that survivals still exist. Perhaps the most amusing survival is the case of the immuring of a live bee on the occasion of the consecration of a new bee-hive, a custom still in vogue in Bulgaria. (Scc Krauss, Velés- glaube der Siidsiaven, p. 160.)
By a happy accident I stumbled upon a case of founda- tion sacrifice just where one would have least expected it, viz, in the laying of a foundation of a new Protestant church at Mezreh near Harpoot, During the past summer this progressive step—for it must be clear to any unpreju- diced observer in Armenia that Progress and Protestantism are bound up together—was taken by the people, and the American missionaries at Harpoot unwittingly took part in the sacrifice of the foundation. When the usual prayers
- =
Notes from Armenia, 443
sanctifying of such first-fruits is a religious rite of the first order, and “after partaking of the sanctified fruits, a man is himself sanctified for the whole year, and may imme- diately get in his crops” (Gofden Bough, ii, 326, &c.). ‘The custom commonly marks the beginning of a new year amongst the tribe that practises it, and is associated with the purification of the home and the production of the new fire. The custom will, however, vary both as to the time of the year when it is practised and in the manner in which it is carried out, according as the harvest is one of corn, wine, oil, or other products; and in the case of a vintage it may either be the first-fruits of the grapes or it may be the permission to drink the new wine of the year which has been produced from the new grapes.
‘Thus at Rome, if we may judge from the existence of two festivals by the name of Vinalia in the calendars, April agrd and August rgth, there was a day in spring for the sanctifying of new wine and a day in autumn for the sanctifying of the ripening grape. (See Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals, under Vinalia.)
It was my good fortune accidentally to light upon the Jacobite Syrian festival of the consecration of the grapes, and to take part in it. In passing through Adiaman I made the acquaintance of the priest of the old Syrian ‘Church, and was invited by him to assist in the celebration of St. Thomas’ day by reading a sedra at the Church service. This I consented to do, without reflecting that, even if I could decipher the Syriac of the hymn, [ should be quite guiltless of the tune to which it ought to be sung. The result was, as might be expected, an ignominious break- down, and the going up higher of a more worthy guest, who made the welkin ring with the praises of the apostle. In the course of the service I was surprised to see bunches of new grapes brought forward, offered on the altar with appropriate prayers, and then disintegrated and given, berry after berry, with small fragments of blessed bread,
Notes from Armenia. 445
virtue, and consequently that the eating of them is a sacra~ ment or communion."” Holy Trees.
There are a few minor matters that may be worth a passing reference. The existence of holy trees hardly needs to be further demonstrated; they have, however, an especial interest for me, in cases where I have recorded their existence, and none the less because my present dwelling-place (Selly Oak) is evidently the site of an ancient holy tree in England.'
The first holy oak which I came across in Asia Minor was on the plain of Moush. Its living branches were hung with bits of rag in the conventional manner, it stood in a graveyard, and it was taboo, I found, upon inquiry, that no one would dare to make a fire from the wood, because it was holy.
Elsewhere there were traces of the holy thorn as a sacred tree. One such tree grows in a valley leading up to Harpoot. I watched a woman transfer a rag from her clothing to the tree, after which she threw a stone upon a neighbouring heap. The conjunction of the cairn and the tree was interesting.
Curious Customs connected with Childbirth.
At Egin I found some curious superstitions which can probably be paralleled elsewhere by those who have an acquaintance with the subject.
After a childbirth, and before the conventional forty days have elapsed, they put a pair of shears under the pillow. They say this is done to keep off certain evil spirits called ‘Ad, who would otherwise tear out the woman's liver. They also put an amulet with the shears. Sometimes the ‘Ad steals and changes the child. The child must not be taken out of the house during the forty days, unless it be protected
' Ithas left its name on one of the roads, Oak Tree Lane, and om the pubille~ house (the Oak Tree) at the crass-roads.
446 Notes from Armenia.
by making the sign of the Cross over it. When a child is born, a piece of bread is said to be placed under its pillow. These constitute the little sheaf of first-fruits of my observation which I have ventured to throw upon Mr. Frazer's heavily-laden harvest-wain. Some, knowing the directions in which I have recently been investigating, may perhaps wonder to find nothing on the subject of twins, either heavenly or earthly. The reason is that I am reserving some very interesting and important observations under this head for the second edition of my tract on the Dioscuri, if it should ever reach such a distinction.
J. RENDEL Harris.
Pray IX.
A VOTIVE OFFERING FROM KOREA,
To face page 447
|
Collectanea. 449
only ascribe to him all the mighty forces and characteristics of which he is actually possessed, but popular superstition attributes to him the powers of flying, of emitting fire and hurling lightning. He is the symbol of strength and ubiquity, the standard of com- parison with all dangers and dreadful forces, and the paragon of human courage. . . . . In ancient time he was worshipped.”?
Our information about Korean religion is very vague. One writer, who lived for some years in Korea, goes so far as to say, “Tn religious matters the Koreans are peculiar in that they may be said to be without a religion, properly speaking.”* If we are to understand this literally, we know the value of such assertions, Indeed his own pages show that the Koreans are not without religion, Buddhism was at one time prevalent. Ancestor worship is certainly practised. In these and other directions the influence of China may be seen, But beneath these comparatively civilised cults there lies that animism which is at the base of all religions, and which peopled Korea, as it has peopled other lands, with a multitude of gods and spirits. Nor have these gods and spirits passed away ; on the contrary, they are still worshipped. “The god of the hills,” says Mr. Griffis, ‘is, perhaps, the most popular deity. The people make it a point to go out and worship him at Ieast ones a year, making their pious trip a picnic, and, as of old, uniting thelr eating and drinking with their religion, ‘Thus they combine picty and pleasure, very much as Americans unite sea-bathing and sanctification, croquet and camp-meeting holiness, by the ocean or in groves. On mountain tops, which pilgrims climb to make a visit for religious merit, may often be scen a pile of stones, called stong-wang-fang, dedicated to the god of the mountain. The pilgrims carry a pebble from the foot of the mountain to the top. These pilgrims are among those held in reputation for piety.”*
Under what form the god of the hills is conceived, Mr. Griffis does not say. If the tiger was worshipped in ancient times it is probable he is worshipped to-day. The passage I have quoted concerning his powers compels the inference. Whether the shrine on the Charyong Pass is dedicated to the tiger, or to the
* Griffis, Corea: the Hermit Nation, pp. 323 ff. * Allen, Avream Tiles, p. Es » Griffis, op. «iL, p. 327.
VOL. XY, ac
450 Collectanea.
mountain-god under the form of a tiger, I can only guess. One of these alternatives seems likely.
‘The custom of depositing a stone or a stick or a rag on the shrine is well known all over the world. It is unnecessary to consider it here.
E. S. HARTLAND.
FOLKLORE OF THE NEGROES OF JAMAICA. (Continued from p. 214. See Prefatory Note, p. 87.)
v.
‘Tu following are chiefly from the southem districts of St. Andrew. ‘An endeavour has been made to render the classification, in some respects, compatible with that indicated by Mrs. Daniel’s pro- spectus.
Those relating to the Human Body.
‘A mole on the lip, abdomen, leg, or neck indicates a lying tongue, edacity [si], love of travel, and wealth respectively.
Open teeth indicates lechery.
White spots on the finger nails indicate good luck.
A trembling of the lips prognosticates kissing.
“Dancing” of the right or left eye prognosticates laughter or weeping respectively.
If a first born strikes his right foot against a stone it betokens good luck, and vice versd. If the person be not first born the left foot is the fortunate one.
If sugar-cane be broken on the knee you will be estranged from a dear friend.
“ Ringing” of the ears signifies that somebody is calling your name. If you call the names of your acquaintances successively, you may hit on the one who is calling your name, and the “ringing ” will cease.
Collectanea, 451
Friendship, Marriage, and Lovers.
‘Turning down the hollow of a hat on a table prognosticates a single life.
A rainy wedding-day betokens an unhappy marriage life; and vice versi.
If a friend offers a pin, penknife, or pair of scissors to another their friendship will be broken.
If one picks up pins or sits on a table he will for ever be single.
‘The breaking of a wedding-ring vaticinates an unhappy marriage life. If lovers offer money to cach other they will soon be separated,
Birth and Death,
The flying of crows in funeral procession prognosticates death in the district over which they fly.
‘The presence of a firefly or the chirping of a cricket in a house betokens sudden death in that house.
‘The sudden fall of a green tree prognosticates sudden death at the spot.
Cackling of fowls in the early morning, cooing of a ground dove, the flight of crows at twilight, the screeching of an owl, or the crying of a pond-coot at night prognosticates death in a certain vicinity.
The crying of a pond-coot also prognosticates birth.
Miscellaneous,
‘The flight of swallows in large numbers indicates approaching rain,
Walking on salt in a house prognosticates contention among the members of the family.
If a pair of scissors, a penknife, or a needle falls accidentally from the hand, and sticks up vertically, or two fowls put their beaks together, expect a stranger.
If a promise be made over running water and not ratified the defaulter will encounter a misfortune,
‘An itching of the palm of the hand betokens the reception of money.
202
—
Collectanea. 453
Death, the Corpse, the Funeral.
When ants take a house someone is about to die.
A louse on a clean person's head indicates coming sickness.
The howling of a dog foretells the death of someone.
‘The lengthy bellowing of a bull foretells the death of someone.
‘The assembling of many blackbirds together in some place where they do not often frequent foretells the death of someone,
‘The crowing of a hen foretells the death of someone.
‘The crying of a cricket in the house foretells the death of one of its occupants,
The screeching of a cricket near to the house foretells the death of a friend of the occupants.
The screeching of owls near to the house foretells the death of someone in the house,
‘The breaking of a green branch indicates the death of someone near by,
‘The moaning of a cock indicates the death of someone,
Piecing a house causes the death of someone of its occupants,
Tf the corpse is not stiff a few hours after the person has died some near relative is going to follow,
Tf the grave sinks soon after it has been moulded some near relative will follow.
Ifa person dies with his eyes open someone is going to follow soon,
Good people die and are born again as babies somewhere else ‘or as some good animal.
Wicked people are born again in shape of some savage animal.
‘The person who shaves the dead must take the razor or he will be haunted.
Knives, pipe and tobacco, &c., should be put in the coffin for future use by the dead.
Tf you meet a coffin in the road you must return some distance with it or you will be haunted.
When a dead body wishes to go forward is easily carried; when it does not wish to go gives great trouble [sic].
When a good person dies we have a fair day; when a wicked the day is rainy.
‘The death of an animal prevents the death of a person.
454 Collectanea.
Vegetation. If you roast yams the vine is injured. If you roast breadfruit with the heart the tree will in future bear smaller breadfruit than it used to. When pepper bears plentifully there will be hard times, scarcity of food. If you put pepper in your pocket you will become poor.
The Body.
The Ear.—Big ears are signs of riches.
‘The tingling of the ear tell that some one is calling your name.
The Head.—A bald head indicates coming riches.
The Feet-—If you knock your right foot it is a sign of good luck.
If you knock your left foot it is a sign of bad luck.
The Eye.—Dancing of the eyes indicate that you will soon cry.
The Lips.—Dancing of the lips tell of a coming quarrel.
The Hand.—Scratching of the hands tell that you are about to get some money.
The Knee.—Itching of the knee tells that you are about to sleep in a new bed.
The Elbow.—ttching of the elbow foretells that you are going to shake the hand of a stranger.
The Nose-—Itching of the nose foretells that you are going to kiss a fool.
The Hair—Dropping of the hair tells of coming illness.
Births, Babies, and Children.
If the person who finds the baby’s first tooth gives it nothing its teeth will rot as it gets them.
If you want a baby to walk soon, sweep his feet with a broom.
If you want a baby to walk soon, draw its feet in wet grass.
If you want your baby to be good, give it pot-black in milk to drink.
When a baby has hiccup, put a scrap of wet paper on its head.
Don’t give away firesticks when you have a young baby, or else it will produce a bad effect on the baby.
When a woman has a young baby she must speak to no one outside.
Collectanea. 455
Washerwomen must not beat the baby's clothes, lest it give it a pain in the bowels.
If you take a child through a window it will become a thief.
Tf an insect is killed in a house where there is a young baby, it will have a bad effect upon the baby:
Miscellaneous,
‘The barking of a dog while it is asleep tells the hunter of success in the coming day's chase,
If you shut a penknife half-way when a horse is galloping away from you it stops him immediately.
‘The removal of firesticks from side to side while boiling nut-oil diminishes the quantity of oll.
‘The peeling of an orange near to a sugar works diminishes the quantity of sugar.
A cricket in the house at night tells of a coming stranger.
Fireflies and moths in the house at night tell of coming
strangers.
Ifa bug drops dead before you it is a bad sign.
fa cock crows in the early part of the night ships are near.
If a cock crows near to the door it is an indication of hasty news,
If two cocks put their heads together male friends are coming to see you.
If two hens put their heads together female friends are coming to see you.
If you turn over your money at new moon it will increase as the moon grows.
‘The vomiting of a pig in the early dry morning indicates coming showers of rain.
If a looking glass gets broken it causes seven years’ trouble
If anything is broken during a marriage festival the marriage life is going to be an unhappy one.
‘The flogging of a prickly pear situated in a provision ground causes a person who has stolen something from the ground to split up and die just as the beaten plant splits up.
If a certain plant called wangva is in a provision ground every thief that visits the field will dic.
People who take false oaths die from swelling.
456 Collectanea.
If you want to find out and kill a thief go to a grave-yard twelve o’clock at night, and push a walking-stick into one of the graves. Then say what is your request, and carrying the stick to the field which has been plundered stick it up in it.
If after leaving your house you forget anything only return as far as the gate, or bad luck will follow you.
If you are going into an uninhabited house say something before you enter, so that the spirits may know you are coming.
If you see a ghost tell no one of it for some time, or you will
sick.
People who die unbaptized become wandering spirits.
Never credit out the first thing you sell in the morning for it gives you bad luck.
Whatever you do on the first day of the year you will have to do it every day in the year.
All people who are born on the rst day of April grow up fools.
If milk is thrown away in the fire the cow will get dry.
If you drink coffee it prevents you from studying.
If ghosts are haunting your house nail a horse-shoe over the door.
If a phantom is following you mark the letter X on the ground.
If you are travelling and do not want phantoms to interfere with you turn the inside of your coat out.
If you dream of gold it is a sign of success.
If you dream of silver it is a sign of disappointment.
A circle around the sun tell of coming rain.
A circle around the moon tell of coming dry weather.
Red clouds in the morning indicate a dry day.
Red clouds in the afternoon indicate a coming rainy day.
When the sun is shining during a shower the devil and his wife are fighting.
‘A mole on the neck indicate that you will be hung.
A mole on the wrist indicate that you will be handcuffed.
EF: (Zo be continued.)
Collectanea. 457
Damry Forktorg, aNp ornzr Notes PROM MEATH AND ‘Tirrenary.
Most of the following superstitions have long been familiar to me, but one or two I have only lately heard. Our cook is a mine of wealth as far as folklore is concerned, and, like myself, she comes from county Meath, 80 she is able to confirm my testimony as to Meath superstitions.
Tt must be remembered that from the very earliest times Ireland was noted for cattle, and Meath, with its rich pastureland, is still an essentially grazing county ; therefore nearly all charms and superstitions deal chiefly with good or bad luck with cows, milk, and butter,
With Irish peasants May Day is very important, as the good or bad luck of the year depends much on various points to be care- fully observed then,
On May Eve the threshold must be strewn with May-flowers” (marsh-marigolds). On last May Eve, only a few days ago, I saw our cook coming in with a great bunch of May-flowers, which she told me she intended strewing on the thresholds of all the entrance doors of the house, as, being May Eve, the fairies would have great power, and the May-flowers are a potent charm to prevent their entering the house. “ Besides," she said, “ whoever comes across the threshold, particularly that of the kitchen, must step on the flowers, and bring good luck and plenty of butter to the house.”
One should always try to be the first to draw water at a well or
spring on May morning. It brings good luck to the house, and i peartot bxiteall te yes
No one (who keeps cows) likes to be the first in the neighbour- hood to light his fire on May morning, as the witches (not the fairies) take the first smoke that appears, to work spells where- with to take the butter off the milk for the whole year,
It is very unlucky to take fire out of a house on May morning, Ifa passer-by wants a light for his pipe, he must not carry away the sod of turf. If he does, he must bring another to replace it.
‘The belief that certain evil-minded persons are able to “over- look” those they wish to injure, or their possessions, is as universal in Ireland as the dread of the evil eye is in Italy,
_
Collectanea. 459
going on must give the chum “a brash,” that is, either turn the handle or take a few turns with the dash. This will prevent their taking the butter off the churn.
A red rag tied round a cow’s tail will prevent her being over- looked,
I have lately come across a paper on superstitions which was sent me by a friend living in county ‘Tipperary in the year 1888, ‘That all local superstitions had not entirely died out she found when she tried to make butter under the superintendence of their old cook. Up to that time she thought it was merely to churn the cream, but it appeared that there were still “Luri+ gadauns ” to be circumvented :—little men, dressed in red jackets peaked all round, and jockey caps, and wearing swords, which they use instead of wands, These “Lurigadauns” have a tiresome habit of jumping down the air-hole of the churn unless you are exttemely careful, and spiriting away the cream, leaving you to churn away at the skim-milk in blissful ignorance for hour after hour, They have ‘4 great objection to the smell of turf-smoke, so the best plan is to puta sod of smouldering turf under the churn and drop a few ashes into the cream, repeating a short incantation which my correspondent did not feel competent to spell. If however, not- withstanding your precautions, you have cause to suspect that the “Lurigadaun "has got into the churn, it is advisable to drop a pinch of salt into it, and he will at once decamp.
“A lady was in the habit of getting a ‘wise woman’ in the village to churn for her. Strange to say, she always succeeded in filling the firkin even when there was less cream than usual. One day the woman asked the lady to put off the churning till the next morning as otherwise she would not be able to come. The lady declined, and sent for a man from the yard to churn the cream. He churned, and churned, but no butter came. A second man was called in with a like result; so they sent for a third, and the three men kept on churning for the whole day, ‘an niver a tashte of the butter did they see.’ Shortly after this the woman died. ‘The priest was called in, and she confessed to being a ‘ pishogue,’ and to having a dead man’s hand with which she wrought her spells. It was solemnly delivered up to the priest, as otherwise her soul could find no rest.
“A farmer in county Limerick married a ‘ pishogue’ a few years ago. So long as she lived she made him any amount of butter,
I i
Collectanea. 461
1 was talking the other day to an elderly woman whose memory is full of old tales. Our conversation turned on the subject of the new moon, and she gave me this charm to find out who one's future husband would be.
“If you want to see whom you will marry, miss, you must go out of the house in the first quarter of the new moon (Hallows Eve is the best, but the moon must be in its first quarter, if not you will see nothing). And you must sce it for the first time. When you get a sight of it kneel down, and with a d/ack-handled Anife lift a sod from under your right knee and from under the toe of your right foot, repeating;
“«*New moon, tie moon,
“Then repeat the Lord’s Prayer ; lift a sod of earth, and with the earth you took from under your right knee and foot, hide it somewhere outside the house till you are ready to go to bed, then bring it inside. You must not speak a word to a living soul once the earth is brought into the house. Then put the earth into the rightfoot stocking, and put that under your head. But be sure you speak to no one till morning. A lady my mother knew did this and told nobody till afterwards, but she dreamt of the gentle- man she married, though at the time she did not know him and had never set eyes on him. Well, my mother told me that she did it too at the same time as the lady I told you of. And my mother dreamt that she went down to the kitchen, and what did she see but a tall dark young man sitting by the fire. She asked him what was he doing there, and when he would not go away she tried to push bim away with the poker, but he would not go for her. She was a young girl then, and it was many years after that that she first saw my father. He could only have been about nine or ten years old when she dreamt about him, for my mother was eight years older nor him, He asked her to marry him many times, but she said he was too young for her. At last he ran away with her and then she had to take him.”
Here are a few superstitions given me by the same person.
“They say that if your cycbrow itches it is a sign that you will get drink ; or your nose, that you will drink with strangers; or your
.
CORRESPONDENCE,
Ecos i Witcucrart,
(Vol. xiliy p. 431+)
Tite following story, abridged from the newspaper report of an inquest held at Scarborough, on the 24th of September last, ought, I think, to be preserved in JoliZore. The body which formed the subject of the inquiry was that of a child of seventeen months, and was in a dreadfully emaciated condition. The mother being asked how she accounted for this, said, “I think the child is bewitched”; and on further questioning stated that she knew the woman who did it, one who had lived next-door to her up to August, 1903.
‘The examination continued as follows : “ The Coroner: She bewitched the child before she went ?— Witness ; Yes, Six, I think she did. It has never done any good since, Was she in your house when she bewitched it?—No ; but she was once in the back yard, I have heard the woman in the house ever since she went away. The child was a lovely one when it was born.
How did she bewiteh the child ?—By the witchcraft she prac- tised. I know what she said.
What was that?—She said she would bewitch it by boiling eggs and mashing them.
Did she give the child the eggs?—No; she never saw it.
How could she bewitch it then?—I don't know. The talking continues when she is not in the house.
‘You say that she frequently appears in your house ?—I don’t know whether she appears or not, but there are queer shadows.
‘Then you mean to say the house is haunted ?—Yes, Sir, There are queer shadows, and noises that nearly frighten me to death sometimes.
We must have a look at it—It would not start when you were there, Tt is only when I am alone.
_— =
464 Correspondence.
Through her instrumentality, I suppose ?—Yes, Sir."—Lindsey & Lincolnshire Star, Oct. 1, 1904.
The witness further explained that the landlord tumed the woman out in consequence of something that she (witness) had told him, and that the child was bewitched in revenge. The medical evidence was that death was caused by convulsions, due to rickets, the result of improper feeding. A verdict accordingly was returned.
Epwarp Peacock, F.S.A.
A Harvest Custom.
WuiLe stopping recently in East Kent I witnessed a curious harvest custom. Passing through the village one Saturday night about the time of sunset I heard sounds of cheering which, repeated in regular intervals, grew nearer as I approached a large rickyard about the middle of the village, and presently there appeared a wagon loaded with corm from the harvest-field; on the top of the wagon was lying a man holding, and every now and then waving, a large bough of a tree, and shouting, “ Hip! hip! hurray!” The wagon entered the rickyard followed by a man who closed the gate after him ; the wagon came to a standstill and the shouting ceased. In the road were children and others, some of whom also cheered and laughed when the man on the top of the load cheered.
Upon making inquiries the following day as to what I had seen, I was informed that the ceremony was a usual one in that district when the last load of corn was carried from the last field of a farm, and that the last field would also be the biggest field, as it was usual to begin cutting the smallest field first and to end up with the biggest. The green bough carried by the shouting man ‘on the top of the load was taken from the evergreen oak (/éex) tree, the common oak, or an elder-tree. I was also informed that it was usual to durn the last sheaf of the harvest.
H. W. UNDERDOownN.
(Cf. “Bonnin’ awd witch” in the East Riding of Yorkshire, vol. xiv., p. 92—Ep.]
Reviews. 467
‘that “the customs of the Arunta and Kaitish tribes probably represent most nearly the original customs common to the ancestors of the central and north-central tribes.” The more northerly tribes differ in many respects from the Arunta. While the part played by the father in bringing into the world a mew human being is not understood by any of these tribes (nor, it may be added, by some of the North Queensland tribes studied by Mr. Roth), and every new child is held to be the incarnation, or re- incarnation, of spirit-children left by remote ancestors,! still in all the tribes north of Lake Eyre and its immediate district, descent is counted for some purposes in the male line. The totem, for instance, descends thus. With rare exceptions which appear to follow the haphazard rule of the Arunta and Kaitish, male descent of the totem is found among the Warramunga, their immediate neighbours to the north. In the tribes beyond the Warramunga the rule is invariable. In all the tribes each totem has a headman (called bythe Arunta A/afsnja) ; and the headship of the totem like- wise passes by male descent. Its importance, however, diminishes from the Arunta northward, In the Arunta nation the Alatunja has two very important functions: he is responsible for the per- formance of the Intichiuma ceremonies, and he has charge of the Sacred storehouse where the chwringa (sacred stones and staves) ‘of the totem are hidden. But among the Warramunga there is no sacred storehouse, the churinga are fewer in number, are not connected, as among the Arunta, with the spirit-part of individual members of the totem, and are litle used in ceremonies. North- ward and eastward of the Warramunga the use of cburinga and the legends about them gradually die away. The Warramunga, it is true, still perform Tntichiuma as magical ceremonies for securing the increase of the totcmic animal or plant. But they are not comparable in importance to those of the Arunts and Kaitish tribes. In fact, save the Worgnia tribe, the Warramunga group, or nation, only yielded “mere vestiges of this magical part of the Intichiuma.” Beyond them, there are indeed traces of such cere monies among the Binbinga, but the headman is not of necessity associated with them. “In the coastal tribes the social aspect of
' The Gaanji, however, are an exception, holding that wornen have no splsit- art, and cannot be rincaruated (p. 170) Then, whence do the baby gist come
aH
Reviews. 469
except in very dry scasons the natives have no difficulty about food-supply, About 10 miles from the coast of the Gulf of Car- pentaria the watershed is reached ; and from that point there is no lack of water. It thus appears that it is precisely in the most desolate region that the strange customs and beliefs which startled the scientific world five years ago are most fully developed. This region has not always been so sterile and frequently im- passable as it is now. “In what were probably Pleistocene, even Late Pleistocene times, at all events Post-Tertiary, the climatic conditions of Central Australin were very different from those of the present day." The mountain ranges were loftier, the rainfall was much greater, the fauna much richer. The change to the conditions of to-day is due to the gradual desiccation of the inland basin of Lake Eyre, As the climate thus became more and more unfavourable any human population must have become more and more segregated, leading to the formation of the present tribes clustered at and around the localities where human life is still, though with difficulty, maintainable. The authors do not say whether there is evidence of the existence of a human population before the present climatic conditions prevailed. It is clear, how- ever, that the Intichiuma rites are such as are likely to have been developed in a barren country. The better supplied the country ig with food and other means of livelihood, the less need would there be for magical ceremonies to produce them. Consequently we find that as we get further and further away from the Arunta country thé Intichiuma ceremonies assume less and less import- ance, until their magical aspect practically disappears altogether on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Now, either the ancestral Arunta carried them into the interior when they first peopled the country, or they have developed them there. The authors suppose, and it is a reasonable conjecture, that Central Australia was peopled from the north. But whatever was the condition of the climate in the interior, is there any reason to believe that further to the north on the Arunta track it was more arid and
had their present home carrying totemic ceremonies at a time when the climatic conditions were more favourable, it is quite probable that such totemic ceremonies
Reviews, 470
arguable that the Wollunqua ceremonies on the one hand, and the Intichiuma on the other, have diverged from a common root of totemic ceremonies entirely free from économic inten- tion. If the magical and economic aspects of the ceremonies were ¢qually prominent on all sides of the Warramupga, it might be reasonable to speak of the Wollunqua ceremonies as 8 modification of those of other totems. But this is not so, ‘The further we go from the Arunta and their arid land, the fainter become the traces of the Intichiuma. Even among the Warra- munga the ceremonies are not identical with those of the Arunta, Unmatjera, and Kaitish tribes. One part of them—that which is the most important, the magical part—is, as we have seen, hardly ever present, or as our authors put it “has almost entirely dis- appeared,” leaving the Zha/ameinéa, as they are called by the Warramunga, simply a series of rites representing the Alcheringa history of the totemic ancestor, though it is true a magical purpose is attributed to them. ‘Arson. ie coaial tsbea the Isticein can hardly be said to exist at all. “ These tribes have the same totemic ceremonies as those of the interior so far as their fiemda- mental significance [the italics are mine) is concerned—that is, they are one and all concerned with the Alcheringa history and doings of the old ancestors of the totems ; but none of them are performed, either as they are amongst the Kaitish or as amongst the Warramunga and Tjingilli, for the purpose of increasing the food supply. Further still, we do not find that it is in any way obligatory for the headman of the totem to perform ceremonies for the increase of the totemic animal or plant, the idea being that this will take place without the intervention of any magic on their part. At the same time they can, if they care to do so, secure the increase by means of magic." ‘Two examples of magical ceremonies are given, with neither of which are the totem-kin, who: would in the interior be charged with the office, solely concerned. ‘This absence of Intichiuma, in the sense in which they are practised by the Arunta, is attributed, no doubt rightly, by the authors to the different and much more favourable conditions of life enjoyed by the coastal tribes, rendering efforts to increase the food supply needless. But this in effect to concede my contention.
‘The conclusion scems to me irresistible that, 30 far from the Intichiuma being any part of the original stock of customs of the Central Australian natives, they have really been evolved by the
Reviews, 473
there are contradictory statements, cf. pp. 14,603), Mara, and other tribes . . . . the daughter is given away by her mother's brother.” Corresponding with this, while among the Arunta, Unmatjera, and Kaitish, the son-in-law is charged with the duty of avenging the father-in-law’s death, among the Warramunga that duty falls to the husband of his sister’s daughter, and among the Binbinga to his mother’s brother's son, The position of the mother's brother in the family is an infallible index of the present or past existence of motherright. The power of the mother’s brother over his sister's daughter cannot arise during father-right; and wherever we find it coexisting with father-right we must infer the former existence of motherright. Similarly in these northern tribes “after a man’s death his chattels pass into the possession of men who are his mother’s brothers or his daughters’ husbands—that is, everything goes to men of the moiety of the tribe to which the dead man’s mother belonged.”
Space does not permit of any discussion of other beliefs and institutions, otherwise I think it could be shown that all alike they point in the same direction, namely, that the Arunta are the most advanced and not the most primitive of the Central Austra~ lian tribes. ‘The advance which they have made is not necessarily in the direct line of civilisation; but at all events it has brought them a long way from the primitive condition of the race—much further than tribes in more favoured environment; and it is due ‘mainly, if not entirely, to the climatic influences of the central
steppes.
It will be understood that what I challenge is not the state ments of the distinguished authors of these volumes, but their inferences. Doubtless, for a student who has never come into personal contact with any savage mec, least of all with the race under discussion, to challenge the inferences of travellers who have seen so accurately and recorded so much, is to exhibit no little audacity. The scientific importance of the conclusions to be derived from the study of the present volume, as well as of its predecessor, must be my excuse, as it has already been that of students of more commanding authority than I can pretend to, for desiring to have the phenomena considered from a different point of view.
Like its predecessor, the new volume will be indispensable to anthropological students, Like its predecessor, it is 2 model of
_
Reviews. 475
Le Forx-Lone pe France. Par Paut Stutior. Tome Premier: Le Ciel et la Terre. 8vo, pp. vi., 491. Paris: E. Guilmoto. 1904.
M. Paut Séettior, the indefatigable secretary of the Socitéé des Traditions Populaires, bas mace for himself a new claim on the gratitude of students by the comprehensive work on the folklore of France, of which this is the first volume, The object of the work is to form a cyclopedia (M. Sébillot modestly calls it an inventory) of the folklore of France and French-speaking countries at the beginning of the twentieth century. In an interesting pre~ fics be: gfvéal uh’ account Of Wis ahepa Gy which Ua seas Sad oA a compilation of so important a collection, and of the problem that confronted him in dealing with his materials. Apparently the easiest way, and in some respects the most satisfactory, would have been to transcribe the texts or, where these were very diffuse, to give summaries from all his authorities, numbering each of the extracts consecutively, He tried this plan at first, but found it inconvenient. It Jed to tiresome repetition, or to still more tire~ some references to and fro. It was difficult to make use of traditional elements which had found their way into literature and there taken literary, rather than traditional, form. Where the tradi- tional clements consisted of tales, there were often superstitions and customs in intimate relation with them. ‘The stories and the ‘superstitions or the customs helped to explain one another ; and yet by what may be called the textual method there was no oppor- tunity of showing their relations. M. Sdbillot, therefore, abandoned it for the more delicate and laborious task of writing what virtually constitutes a series of monographs arranged in a systematic order. In this way he has been able to develop each subject more exactly, to weave his citations more closely together, to give them sometimes nearly complete, at other times to reduce them to their really useful and trustworthy elements, and thus to forge, as it were, one after another, the links of a chain of traditions.
The first volume is divided into four books, treating respectively of the Heavens, Night and the Spirits of the Air, the Earth, and the Underworld. These books or primary divisions are subdivided into chapters, in each of which a single department of the subject is treated. The method is to give first the stories, then the beliefs,
=
476 Reviews.
leading on lastly to practices of various kinds. It needs but a slight examination to show that in the hands of M. Sébillot the plan adopted for the book, which in less exact or experienced hands would have been perilous, has been eminently successful. He knows the comparative value of the various collections of which he has availed himself; and he occasionally offers useful remarks upon them. Where writers of fiction, poetry, or other forms of literature have manifestly been drawing upon folklore, he does not hesitate to cite them. Exact references to all citations are given in the footnotes, so that the reader may check every statement. Information obtained by the author's own inquiries, and not previously published in any of his numerous works, and information resting on the authority of informants, but not pre- viously published, are also indicated. It is promised that the final volume shall contain a full index, and a bibliographical list of the works consulted.
From this slight sketch of the plan of the work and enumera- tion of the contents of the instalment before us, it will be be seen how valuable a contribution it is to the record of European folk- lore. Alike as a criticism and a collection it will be indispensable to the library of every real student, who will earnestly hope that the distinguished author may have health and leisure to complete his task. I ought to add that although the main object is to present the folklore of France as it is to-day, or has been in the immediate past, the references to writers who have recorded that of earlier centuries are numerous and important. M. Sébillot has wisely avoided travelling outside French-speaking peoples, except where some very pertinent illustration could be given.
E. Stoney HARTLAND.
Reviews, 477
Farrns anb Forkiore. By W. Carew Hazurr. 2 vols. Reeves and Turner, 1905,
Ti1s work is described on the title page as “a Dictionary of National Beliefs, Superstitions, and Popular Customs, Past and Current, with their Classical and Foreign Analogues, described and illustrated. Forming a new edition of ‘The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain,’ by Brand and Ellis, largely extended, corrected, brought down to the present time, and Now first alphabetically arranged." One rubs one's eyes on reading this, wondering whether there is any use in the continued existence of the Folk-Lore Society, if so vast a design has already been carried out, and carried out too by the colossal efforts of one man, achieving more in his own single person than a whole society has been able to accomplish in a quarter of a century. But further examination enables us to reassure our members, There is still work to be done, there is still room for us to justify our existence ; there is indeed still room for that great Dictionary of British Folklore of which Mrs. Gomme's Traditional Games remains as yet the only instalment. The present work consists of a sort of mincemeat, composed of chopped Sand, enriched with some items of pure Hazlitt, ranged under headings of which the first page will be a sufficient sample. It treats of Abbot of Bon Accord, Abbot of Unreason, Abingdon (Berks), Abraham-Men, Advertisements and Bills, Adventurer, Admiral of the Blue [a sobriquet fora tapster], Adoption, Zpiornis, Aérolites, ‘There is much folklore and something of trivial popular fallacies, but nothing of “faiths” in the sense of serious or religious beliefs, unless the articles on Jmdulgences and Mary ef Nazareth count for such, We find, moreover, many purely glossarial entries, correct and otherwise ; as for example, “ Avenor, from Fr. avoine, the person who, in great towns, formerly had the superintendence of the horse-meat. See Halliwell in v."... . “Lich-gate, or gate of the dead. The gate at or near the entrance to a church, where the funeral service was in former times often conducted.” ‘The “classical and foreign analogues” cited consist chiefly of the parallels already adduced by Sir Henry Ellis and by Aubrey, but
no references to Ellis’s Srand are given, so we are left to conieaeene or to research in Sir Henry's three volumes, to inform us whether he or Mr. Hazlitt is to be cited as the authority for such statements as, “Luck-moncy, a payment sfil/
(mm
Reviews. 479 Sort Norices. Anseiger der Finnisch-Ugrischen Forschungen. Band. U., Heft. 12. 1g03.
Bibliographies are always useful, especially when, as in the pre- sent case, they throw a light on researches the results of which appear in tongues not understanded of the people. The part before us is the classified bibliography for eas thsiaeatees and folklore of the Finns, Lapps, Magyars, with an index of authors,
who finds the brief contents note in the pages before us insufficient, but who cannot tackle the publication in the original, The Greater Exodus. By J, Frrzoxnaty Lee. Elliot Stock. ‘This is an attempt to show, from similarities of custom, &ey &c.,, between the Jews, Mexicans, and Peruvians, that South America was the original home of the human race, or at least of the Semitic family of mankind; and that the story of the Exodus is a legendary presentation of the “greater Exodus” by which the Semitic peoples migrated through South America, crossing the ocean at Behring’s Straits, and thence traversing Asia till they artived in Egypt, having thrown off numerous and important swarms by the way. ‘The theory may at any rate boast of novelty: Neolithic Man in North-east Surrey, By Waurer Jounson and Wittsam Wricir. Elliot Stock. 6s. net.
the customs of those far-away times, when neolithic man chipped his flints on Putney Heath or dug bis hut circles on Wimbledon Common. They have carefully gone over and examined the district of which they treat, and they have also consulted many authorities (and in especial Mr. Gomme’s FolAlore Relics of Early Village Life) whose works might in any way further illustrate the facts and theories with which the book deals. It is evidently ‘written con amore, and is furnished with a copious list of authorities referred to, and an excellent index: the illustrations also of the various flint implements found in the district are numerous and clear,
a
480 Reviews.
Old Ingkborough Pamphlets, No. 1., by Harsert M. Waite (Elliot Stock, 1904), is also a “popular” archeological brochure, reprinted from the Lancaster Guardian, and prettily illustrated.
The Capital of the Yorkshire Wolds, a lecture delivered to the Hull Literary Club by Joun Nicwotson (Observer Office, Driffield), contains, infer alia, the writer’s note on “ bonnin’ awd witch,” in Fo/k-Lore, xiv., 92, and a few other items of local folklore.
We have also received the first part of the Scottish Historica: Review ; the current number of the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, now in its fifty-sixth year of issue (a publication which ought to be searched by collectors of Irish folklore) ; and the first number of the Ce/tic Review (Edinburgh, Norman Macleod), containing an article by Mr. Nutt on the Critical Study of Gaelic Literature, in which he lays stress on the correspondence between the “runs” in Irish and Scottish folktales, orally collected, as evidence of the superior age of the oral versions to those contained in the Irish MSS., where a different set of formulas prevails.
GENERAL
Abatua of Bushmen, see Bushenes:
Abbot of Aten se Baca nd Dee eee See
yi into Iinnet, seals eortniee ‘Achomenes, King, see King ‘Ache me
Adder, see Snake
Additional Variants of the Father and Son Combat Theme, by M. Ay Potter, 316-20
Adinman: folklore from, 428; grapes, weeration
com Admetus, King, Admetus Adonis, eros ‘esial 8 Adoption: 4774 custom of,
INDEX.
i i! i it
H i d ih
u i
T i he
ae a
; a iG
Hy ne is agE
iE : ag J
“] i
i :
k i Hi i
Ah King, Ring Aili
‘Aube floret, 38 Vasko
vat festival, aga) waterthrowtog ‘son of Python, 402, x
ss
96 ai a le id He ae fee de ait.
; Hite Hilal : me ai 3 EB at anneal tu ais whl i ih) iif ft iia || filttaa* in = dite alee: uh Hy we ile Et Baan 33 ue ae trait z at ? Hid a aL Pe) HUE etl Ha iy a iene satltatlelaui alist alli
Be Rion! clos! wm, oot the, ou aa9
Hotoam ¢ follelore Fmd
Mays Delphic bay from Tempe,
Jamaica, 88 Seayotcl of am Grete 370)
i a
I E i 7
£
i i.
= i ray
i
: i t i
i i i
iF
i j i
; :
: a
snye fe ait
fie
f i i
i it :
%
3
1;
ed He 14K oe iF
i fl ii He nl ste ratte uu eld vi
foes ‘tte dd alt it tg HU Rr ee ate
= He & iad i i : lh il : salt ih Li ites i ce it i fel Inti a een ii fll eda
He a aa la ft Paddles iy re afi ie iit ais atte F HG ili ni a eee * ft ge Ye ues fi m4 (al ee a cae tii ft Hi ay HH lh flea! si it gait! ie Hans dl si pled dtl ea, ‘edt nati a
nt | eee 30re
= ree Borneo; ae dou koe oe + from ieee fe 130
Index. 497 Feammbaighe, in foray of Queen { before oak of 3 perpetual, A A fay eee eee eet beckicchedndey of Resse enid fee i, i a ic ea aso 48 Pre named 28 a0) |) canter tes een Reade omen fr Gz 1265; Zeas and the fire<ill,
F a Fears be ight lee) 2378 younit baby Jamaica, 354 5
‘hire, 221; bonfires, Candlemas, | Flour smeared on magic sticks, E. : ‘Ste John's Central
eee in hibaish | Womens ta hire) oo ate one Zeus, 306-7, Bithynis, 273, and | Marsh snarigold iy oken pene ity Guar TL ie tlle, Upper Coy 133; elemental, identitied Ss) seme ctans See eae ‘Zens, 265 ; ext ymin. | p45, ae totem, Hu peas oe — used to free Whit ae olag oat Yalshite a18t | Fok wsiisse VOL, XV, ak
=
if il Hee
12 see, Jmaea,
* eee it ay seete | tie aati idee nena oe ca at
ft & iad nae i seat
bY 4G
FF] ae iif anal ity i
Fi
Index.
398 name Kinship, in Torres Steaits, f and plane Kuk SWC, Syecimea ot Soma | ie 3595 Zee itn vom go 3H
Kishorn
Index.
Louse omen from, Jamaica,
Louth (irelsnd}s Cia ate Dania Whit Monday calf or foal 347; Whit y child, about, 347
Lick flags, Tibetan,
Lock money, 477°8
cr amt ie
437; Jn 93-4) 2069) 2103,
Lata, paramount chief of Mang’snja
tribe, 229
Ly Candlemas a substitute
ace M. sinteds bigeye | ant : (ise
“iyo Taincharm, $ta% trade
yea: ode Pata} enlist
Xanthus river) ; rayed disc on coins,
i
if : Ha Ce He il H
HEE
y ty aE # util
, i _ Mis Es ed ia ioe ge dbl ita! a
iit eet len a Gil ie 4 aaa st lai itil ribet ce
BLN HIE Hd aE oT) scien nk ne ull ig died ‘i i Aide ile ae el ie i
§ ty bene aa aa iil lk
5 Hey] isk Ml Wate ait} a Ba slik i aie tig bi: it sili feria: ae sae a it inl, Ree Terai errant
i Rescl whh which dead shared peo
ts hauntis Retirth bells er Relnetaalon beliefs Red: of calf’ blood in story of
pas 27, ey sae jacket,
fia kepedinn eo errer Stat,
3 Snake; Toad 5 i
(pce ry batenvical Ruling’ whip of state, canted bp ‘Bills Hretand 15
eH Herder" pn
Teel
i ih im
& h
ls i i : Ht
Hl cl
: e :
Fela
pe
y LE
T EF
i
es iG
caplet i ik
i q
=
%
af aReb ese Bey et 7 (88 if uf Fi i 38a iH iit i
ee
ee
inj! 2H ae : faldeailyl HE Ady vl ig
mya We iff Bu a Tad aed a ai pa lig is ils a, oi a Tha i li a Hae ane 8 ip i a at al fH iljguyneeded ald fag dig HET
I
Ea By ! H
:
: fi i
i
EI : i :
f ‘3
H i
i :
ig i i
nf ie i
HI
i i i
2 Ae
ins
if
Index.
Lee Be H Li
it H i u ed Ba 2
ier of aeeate cate iii fa i ey ie ita ili fesidlntl Ga
an
ie
528
reincamated, like men, Gnanji tribe, 467: separate pr 'y of, Basutos, 255 ; the ways of, in story of Arthur and Gorlagon, 40-67
‘Woodpecker : as eponym, 386 ; my of, Greeks, 385, 389; as Zeus, Crete, 387
ceremonies, ‘Wrach made’ from last of corn cut, Pembrokeshire, 194-6
‘Wren : carried round at Epiphany Pembrokeshire, 198 ; gold~ ciated
name of, Greeks, 389; myth oy Greeks, "389; names of, Greeks,
wage, A. R.: Tibetan and_ other 1, 95 (plate); Tibetan Drum and Trumpet, 333-4 (plate) ;
Tibetan Prayer-wheels, ~ 332-3 (plate) Wrong side: dress or jacket so
turned “runs” or stops duppy, Jamaica, 90, 207
Xanthus : Zeus triad, 291
Xanthus, King, see King Xanthus
Xanthus river “ Zeus fallen,” 268
X sign duppy away, Jamaica, 90-1, 45 nas
Xenyls, ruler of Delphic festival,
Yam: “guinea yam” planted with silver coin and leaves flogged to kill thief, Jamaica, 92; roasting injures vine, Jamaica, 454; rots as owner's corpse rots, Jamaica,
Index.
Yam island : totem heroes, i
Yao tribe: broke uj ‘Srpusastion, 29; folltale, Sore matriarchate, survival of, 228
Yellow: Jam-yang, Tibetan deity, 332
‘Yemen: (see also Sanaa); evil eye formula, Jews, 190, 193 ; necklaces, charm, Jews, 190-1 (plate)
Yegdrasili-tree : oak as, Greeks, 292
Yondoka, mythical erature, Conge,
2 Youloko, mythical creature, Congo,
327, Yorkshire : (see also Beverley ; Guis- bore Scarborough ; amd Shef-
Seld); East Riding, harvest custom, 464; kitchen fire going out un- lucky, 47% jort notices of Nichol- son's The Capital of the Yorkshire Wolds, and White's Old Ingle borough Pamphlets, 480
Yorubaland, see Ibadan ; and Oyo
Zan or Zeus, see Zeus
Zanes or consecrated men, Greeks, 384-5, 401
Zanes ‘or statues of Zeus, Olympia,
401
Zanzibar : charm, 73
Zas or Zeus, see Zeus
Zemgalians, in folktale, 219
Zeus’: name, meaning of, 265 ; oaths of jurors to, Athens, 385; as sky god, 265-315, 369-426 ; as sun god, 269-75,,277 8, 296 tomb of, Crete, 304, 387; as underground god, 275°8 ; as weather god, 266-9
Zulus, see Amazulu
‘Printed by J. B Sicuota & Som, Putlament Mansonn, Wletorta Street, 8,7,
The Folk-Lore Society.
(1904,)
‘President.
‘Vice Prescoents,
‘THE HON, JOHN ABERCROMRBY, THE RIGHT HON, LORD ‘AVEBURY, D.C.L, LLD., FBS, BAY
.G.8,, ¥.L.8. arg BRABROOK, ne FSA, § CHARLOTTE 8, BOURNE.
A Pia, ELD. D.D- PROFESSOR EDWARD B, TYLOR, LL.D, D.CL, ERS. Council, MISS LUCY BROADWOOD. MI | EK. CHAMBERS, PROFESSOR W, P, KER, MLA, W. GR ‘A. #, LOVETT, M. LONGWORTH DAMES. 8, E, BOUVERIE PUSEY, P.B.GS. ¥. T. ELWORTHY ‘T. FAIRMAN ORDISH, MISS EYRE. W. H. D. ROUSE, M.A., Lip. MISS M,C, FYENNELL. WALTER W. MAL
G. FRAZER, M.A., LL.D., Litt. . Mass GoopRICH FREER. f B.
N. W. THOMAS,
Deeretary. F, A. MILNE, M.A, 11, Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, Londou, W.C.
‘Committers, PUBLICATIONS COMAIITTEN, MISS C. 8. BURNE; E. K, CHAMBERS; M. LONGWORTH DAMES ; G. L.GOMME pM PROEFBSSOR W, P.KER | A.NUTT; T. F. ORDISH; A. R. WRIG! ae Sry MISS M. C. PFENNELL + MRS, G. L. GOMME; A.C. HADDON; E. 8. HARTLANINS | Et LOVETT. ENOTURE COMAMITTER.
‘MISS L. M. EYRE; MISS M,C. FFRNNELL; MRS. GUMME; MISS M, ROALYE COX; A. NUTT; . ¥. ORDISH.
‘The President and Treasurer aro ¢a-aflicio members of all Commitices,
RULES,
As amended by Special General Meeting held on the 17th January, 1900.
I. “The Folk-Lore Society ” has for its object the collection and publication of Popular Traditions, Legendary Ballads, Local Proverbial Sayings, Superstitions and Old Customs (British and Foreign), and all subjects relating thereto.
IL The Society shall consist of Members being subscribers to its funds of One Guinea annually, payable in advance on the Ist of January in each year.
III. A Member of the Society may at any time compound for future annual subscriptions by payment of Ten Guineas over and above the subscription for the current year.
IV. Every Member whose subscription shall not be in arrear shall be entitled to a copy of each of the ordinary works published by the Society.
V. Any Member who shall be one year in arrear of his subscription shall cease to be a Member of the Society, unless the Council shall otherwise determine.
VI. The affairs of the Society, including the election of Members, shall be conducted by a Council, consisting of a President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and eighteen other Members. The Council shall have power to fill up any vacancies in their number that may arise during their year of office.
VII. An Annual General Meeting of the Society shall be held in London at such time and place as the Council, from time to time may appoint. No Member whose subscription is in arrear shall be entitled to vote or take part in the proceedings or the Meeting.
Rules, iii
VIII. At such Annual General Meeting all the Members of the Council shall retire from office, but shall be eligible for re-election,
TX. The accounts of the receipts and expenditure of the Society shall be audited annually by two Auditors, to be elected at the General Meeting.
X. The Council may elect as honorary Members persons distinguished in the study of Folklore, provided that the total number of such honorary Members shall not exceed twenty,
XI. The property of the Society shall be vested in three Trustees,
XI. The first Trustees shall be appointed at a Meeting convened for the purpose,
XIIL. The office of Trustee shall be vacated (i.) by resigna- tion in writing addressed to the Seeretary, and (ii.) by removal at a Meeting of Members convened for the purpose.
XIV. The Meoting removing a Trustee shall appoint another in his place, Vacancies in the office arising by death or resig- nation shall be filled up by the Couneil.
XV. The Trustees shall act under the direction of the Council.
XVI. No Trustee shall be responsible for any loss arising to the Society from any cause other than his own wilful act or default,
XVII No alteration shall be made in those Rules except at a Special General Meeting of the Society, to be convened by the Council or upon the requisition of at least five Members, who shall give fourteen days’ notice of the change to be proposed which shall be in writing to the Secretary. The ‘alteration proposed shall be approved by at least three-fourths of the Members present and voting at such Meeting
aes
| | |
iv List of Members.
MEMBERS (corrected to 1st September, 1904).
The letter ©. placed before a Member's name indicates that he or she has
compounded,
Abercromby, Hon. J., 62, Palmerston Place, Edinburgh ( Vioe- President).
Aberdeen Public Library, per G. M. Fraser, Req., M.A., Librarian.
Aberdeen University Library, per P. J. Anderson, Eeq., Librarian,
Addy, 8. 0., Eoq., M.A., 3, Westbourne Road, Sheffield.
Aldevham, Right Hon. Lord, St. Dunstan’s, Regent's Park, N.W.
Amersbach, Prof. K., 13, Erbjwinzentrasee, Freiburg in Baden, Germany.
American Geographical Society (New York), per B.¥. Stevens and Brown, 4, Trafalgar Square, S.W.
Amery, P. F. 8., Eaq., Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
Amsterdam, the Univ. Library of, per Kirberger & Kesper, Booksellers, Amsterdam,
Andorsen, Harold, F., Eaq., Balliol College. Oxford.
0. Andrews, J. B., Esq., Reform Club, Pall Mall, 8.W.
Anichkoy, Professor E.,
Antiquaries, the Society of, Burlington House, W.
Arnold, Professor E. V., 10, Bryn Seiriol, Bangor.
Asher, 8. G., Eaq., 30, Berkeley Square, W.
Aston, G. F., Esq., 52, Tregunter Road, South Kensington, 8.W.
Avebury, Rt. Hon, Lord, D.C.L., L.L.D., F.RS., FS.A., ¥.G.S., F.L.S., High Elms, Farnborough, R.8.0. ( Vice-President).
Backhouse, Sir Jonathan E., Bart., Bank, Darlington.
Bailey, Rev. J. G., M.A., LL.D., F..A., Upnor Vicarage, Rochester,
Baker, Judge Frank, T., 3543, Lake Avenue, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A.
Baldwin, Alfred, Esq., M.P., Wilden Honso, Stourport.
Banks, Mrs, Mary M., Ladies University Club, 32, George Street, Hanover Square, W.
Basset, Mons. René, L'Agha, 77, Rue Michelet, Algiers.
Battersea Public Libraries, Lavender Hill, S.W.
Beanchamp, Right Hon, the Earl, Madresfield Court, Great Malvern.
Beer, W., Esq., Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans, U.S.A.
Bell, Sir J., 135, Buchanan Street, Glasgow.
Bensusan, 8. L., Esq., Royal Societies Club, St. James’ St., S.W.
Berlin Royal Library, per Asher & Co., 13, Bedford Street, Covent Garden, W.C.
Billson, C. J., Fsq., M.A, The Wayside, Oadby, Leicester.
Birmingham Free Library, Ratcliffe Place, Birmingham, per T. Gilbert Griffiths, Esq.
List of Members. v Birmingham Library, care of C. BE, Scaree, Eaq., Librarian, Union Streets
Birmingham, Bishop, Gerald Bf, Beq.; 15, Queen's Square, Bloomsbury, W. Black, G. ¥., Bay, Naw York Public Library, PerepMae
Prince Roland, 10, Avenun d’Tina, Paris, Bond, Mrs. C, A., St. John’s Lodge, St. Swithin's Road, Bournemouth. Porlosss Calvert Lita por A. Sehuls, 3, Place de la Sorbonne,
Boson Athonaom, ‘The Bode, UALA., pee Kogan Panl/Tresch, Tether & Con Td, $3, Gerrard Street, We
Boston Public Library (Muss.), U.S.A, per G. FE. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, ! Carey Stroot, W.C.
Bowditch, C. B',, Exq., 28, State Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Rowen, H. Courthope, Faq, M.A, & York Street, Portman Square, W.
Bower, H. M., Baq., Trinity Hall, Ripon.
Bmbrook, E. W., Esq, C.B., F.3.A., 178, Bedford Hill, Balham, 5.W. ( Views President).
Bradford Free Public Libeary, Darley St., Bradford, per Batler Weod, Eeq.
Brighton Towa Quuxeil, per the Town Clerk, Town Hall, Brighton,
Britton, James, Eaq., 41, Boston Rond, Brentford,
Brix, M, Camillo de, Caon, Calvados, France,
3 iterton, Devonshire, ‘urwe, Mio ©. 8, 6,Tveron Gardens, Resiogton, W. (Mer Presiden) Caddick, E., Baq., Wellington Road, Raghaston, Birmingham, Cambridge
Carey, Miss Kdith F,, Le Vallon, Guernany,
Camegio Proo Library, Aeghuny, Pay USA. pe 6. E, Stechert, 2, Star Yanl, Carey Street, W. |
cuiegia eacegy SSOSg PATOL. hash s) ates SL ae |
Street, W.C, Caren ESN enantio
Carson, Cartwright, Mmm 18, Carlingford Road, Hampstead, N.W. Chase, Charles H., Esq. 68, Park Street, Somerville, Mass, U.S.A.
xii List of Members.
New Jereey Free Public Library, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey Street, W.C.
New York, College of the City of, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey Street, W.C.
New York Public Library (Astor, Lenox, & Tilden Foundation), per B. F, Stovens, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C.
‘New York State Library, per G. E, Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey Street, Ww.
Ninnis, Belgrave, Esq., M.D., F.8.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.8., Brockenhurst, Aldrington Road, Streatham, 8.W.
Nottingham Free Public Library, per J.E. Bryan, Eaq., St. Peter’s Church Side,
Natt, Alfred, Esq., 67-69 Long Acre, W.C. (Vice-President).
O'Brien, Captain A. J., Deputy Commissioner, Mianwali, Punjab, India.
Oldfield, Capt. F. H., RE., Scottish Conservative Club, Edinburgh.
Olorenshaw, Rev. J. R., Rattlesden, Bury St. Fdmunds,
Olrik, Dr. Axel, Martinsvej, 9, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Ordish, T. Fairman, Esq., F.S.A., 16, Clifford's Inn, E.C.
Owen, Miss Mary A., 806, North Ninth Strect, St. Joseph, Missouri, U.S.A.
Packe, Miss Penelope, Hawes Down, West Wickham, Kent. Parker, Mrs. K. Langlob, c/o Langloh Parker, Esq., Union Club, Sydney,
‘New South Wales.
Paton, W. R., Esq., Ph.D., Maison Camus, Place Maze, Viroflay, Seine et Oise, France.
Peabody Institute, Baltimore, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28, Henrietta Street, W.C.
Poncock, E., Esq., F.S.A., Wickentree House, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincoln-
ire. Public Library of, per G. E, Stechert, Esq., 2, Star Yard, Carey Street, W.C. Percy, Lord Algernon, Guy's Cliff, Warwick. Philudelphia, Free Library of, per B. F. Stevens and Brown, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Philadelphia, The Library Company of, U.S.A., per E, G. Allen, Esq., 28, Henrietta Street, W.C. Phipson, Miss, 64, Bell Street, Reigate. Pineau, Mons. Léon, Villa Roche Close, Chamalidres Clermont Ferrand, Puy-de-Déme, France. Pitts, J. Linwood, Esq, ML, F.S.A., Curator Gnille-Allés Library Guernsey. Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society per C. 8. Jago, Esq., Plymouth Public School.
xvi List of Members.
Weimar Grand Ducal Library, per Dr. P. von Bojanowsky.
Weston, Miss J. L., Heatherlea, West Dulwich, 8.E.
‘Wheatley, Henry B., Keq., F.8.A., 2, Oppidans Road, Primrose Hill, N.W.
Williamson, Rev. Charles A., 9, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin.
Wills, Mins M. M, Evelyn, Heathfield, Swansea,
Wilson, Miss Mary, 123, Victoria Road, Kilburn, N.W.
Windle, Professor B.C. A.,M.A.,M.D., D.Sc., Dean of Queen's Faculty of ‘Medicine, Mason College, Birmingham.
Wisconsin State Historical Society, per H. Sotheran & Co., 140, Strand, w.c.
©. Wissendorff, H., 19, Nadeschkinskara, St. Petersburg, Russia.
‘Wood, Alexander, Esq., Thornly, Saltcoata, N.B,
Woodall, E., Esq., Wingthorpe, Oswestry.
Woreester Free Public Library, Mass., U.8.A., per Kegan Paul, Trench, ‘Triibuer, and Co., Ld., 48. Gerrard Street, W.
Wright, A. R,, Esq, H.M. Patent Office, Southampton Buildings W.C.
Wright, W. Aldis, Esq., LL.D., Trinity College, Cambridge.
Wyndham, The Right Hon. George, M.P., 35, Park Lane, W.
Zervos, Gorasimos, Esq., c/o Ralli Brothers, Khamgaon, Berar, India.
‘Prioted ty 2. D, Nicuous & Bom, Parlament Mannion, Vitoria treet