TORONTO
FOLK-LORE
A QUARTERLY REVIEW
MYTH, TRADITION, INSTITUTION, & CUSTOM
The Transactions of the Folk-Lore Society
And incorporating The ARCH.ii:oLOGiCAL Review and The Folk-Lore Journal
VOL. XIIL— igo2.
Aller et Idem.
LONDON
i\
^^
PUBLISHED FOR THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY BY
DAVID NUTT, 55—57, LONG ACRE, 1902.
[L.]
PRIXTED BY J. B. NICHOLS AKD SOXS,
PARLIAMENT MANSIONS,
ORCHARD ST., VICTORIA ST., S W.
V. (3
CONTENTS.
I. — (March, 1902.)
Minutes of Meetings Minutes of Meetings Minutes of Meetings
Wednesday, November 6th, 1901 Wednesday, December 5th, 1901 Wednesday, January 22nd, 1902
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Council
Presidential Address. E. W. Brabrook .
More Folklore from the Hebrides. A. Goodrich-Freer
Unlucky Children. H. A. Rose . . . .
I
2
3
5
12
29 63
Minutes of Meetings : Minutes of Meetings : The Letter of Toledo.
II. — (June, 1902.)
Wednesday, February 26th, 1902 Wednesday, March, 26th, 1902 M. Caster
Malay Spiritualism. Walter Skeat
113
114
115 134
III. — (September, 1902.)
Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, April 23rd, 1902 Minutes of Meetings : Wednesday, May 28th, 1902 The Lifting of the Bride. W. Crooke . Balochi Folklore. M. Longworth-Dames
225 225 226 252
IV. — (December, 1902.)
Minutes of Meetings Minutes of Meetings Minutes of Meetings
Friday, June 20th, 1902 . Wednesday, July i6th, 1902 Saturday, October 25th, 1902 The Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition E. Lovett ......
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. A. Lang Discussion of the Above. A. C. Haddon, G. L. Gomme, R. R Marett ......
Australian Marriage Systems. A. Lang .
337 339
339
340
347
393 398
iv Contents.
Collectanea : —
Boer Folk-Medicine and some Parallels, I. Alice B. Gomme 69 The Sister's Son in Samoa. A. C. Stanley . . -75
Rice Harvest, and other Customs in Ceylon. R. J. Drummond 77 Puli Raja, or the Tiger Prince. jNI. N. Venkatasvami and W. Crooke . . . . . . -79
"Long Ju-ju." . . . , . .166
Folklore Notes from St. Briavel's. Margaret Eyre . .170
Harvest Customs. Alice B. Gomme, E. H. Binney, and Clara J. Jewitt . . . . . -177
Boer Folk-Medicine and some Parallels, II. A. B. Gomme and E. Peacock . . . . . . .181
Goblins. A Lang, Elizabeth Taylor, and William ]\Iartin 183 Some Notes from North- Western India. W. Crooke. . 186
Scottish Charm against Witchcraft. Fred. R. Coles . -275
Burial Custom in Japan. J. C. Hartland and E. S. Hart- land . . . . . . .276
Rice Harvest in Ceylon, II. R. J. Drummond . -277
Unlucky and Lucky Children and some Birth-Superstitions. A. J. Rose ....... 279
An Indian Ghost Story. W. Crooke . . . .280
Myths Current in the Sahara Desert. W. J. Harding-King . 284 Stray Notes on Oxfordshire Folklore. Percy Manning . 288
Some Native Legends from Central Australia. M. E. B. HowiTT ....... 403
Folklore in the Kennet Valley. L. Salmon . . .418
Hohday Gleanings. I. Cornwall, Margaret Hall. II. Shrop- shire, F. A. Milne ...... 429
How to Annul " Blood-Brotherhood." Charlotte S. Burne 430
Correspondence : —
History, Tradition, and Historic Myth. Lame Gods. Louise Kennedy Fire-walking in Southern India. A. C. Tree Worship. A. Lang Jingle Sung at Castleton. Mabel
KiDSON
A Written Charm. A. C. Bell
The Vessel Cup. E. Lovett and E. W
Yew Wood. N. W. Thomas .
The Sources of some Ballads in the
A. Lang ....... 191
|
Alfred |
NUTT |
84 88 |
|
Haddon |
• |
89 90 |
|
Peacock |
and Frank |
91 92 |
|
\ Clarke |
• |
94 96 |
|
" Border |
Minstrelsy." |
Contents.
Unlucky Children, H. A. Rose .... 197
The Sister's Son in Samoa. W. H. R. Rivers . -199
Yew. H. A. Rose ...... 201
Charm Against the Evil Eye. Charlotte S. Burne . . 202
The " Calenig," or " Gift." Mabel Peacock . . . 202
London Eolk-Etymology. F. A. Milne and A. B. Gomme . 203 The Mumming-Play and other Vestiges of Folk-Drama in the British Isles. T. Fairman Ordish .... 296
The Collection of Folklore. Sidney O Addy, Charlotte S. Burne, W. Crooke, Walter Skeat, C. G. Seligmann, and John Roscoe ...... 297
Garland Day at Castleton : Addenda. S. O. Addy . '313
Eggs in Witchcraft. E. Peacock . . . '431
Butterfly Charm. S. O. Addy ..... 432
Reviews : —
Frederic Seebohm's Tribal Customs i7j Afiglo-Saxon Law.
G. Laurence Gomme . , . . '97
Alfred C Haddon's Head-Hunters, Black, White, and Broivn.
W. Crooke ... .... loi
Gustaaf A. v. d. B. van Eysinga's Indische Invloeden op Oude
Christelijke Verhalen. E. Sidney Hartland . .104
W. Wells Bladen's Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire.
E. Sidney Hartland ..... 106
Isaac T. Headland's Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes. Alice B.
Gomme ....... loS
Robert Petsch's Formelhafte Schlilsse i?n Volks-Mdrchen.
N. W. Thomas . . . . . .110
'^.T\mxnQy?,en's Sagen aus dem alien Irland. Alfred Nutt . no '^ose^'^YiaW^ King Horn. Alfred Nutt . . .111
M. Schvvarzfeld's Cilibi Moise, Practica si apropourile lui.
M. Gaster . . . . . . .Ill
Ernest Crawley's The Mystic Rose. E. Sidney Hartland . 205 Ch. Letourneau's La Psychologic Ethnique. R. R. Marett . 209 Carl Horstman's Nova Legenda Anglie. E. W. Brabrook . 212 T. K. Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black's Encyclopedia Biblica,
vol. LLL. ; and A. Keane's The Gold of Ophir, Whence bi-ought
and by Whom. W. Crooke. . . . .218
G. Dottin's Contes et Legendes d'Lrlande, Traduits du Gaeliqne.
Alfred Nutt ...... 220
Karl Amersbach's Licht- 2ind Nebelgeister. E. Sidney
Hartland . . . . . . .221
VI
Contents.
Jessie L. Weston's Morie?i, Reiidered into English Prose, and
Edith Rickert's Marie de France, Some of her Lays done
into English. W. W. Greg John R. Clark Hall's Beoivulf and the Fight at Finnsburg.
Albany F. Major ..... Winifred Faraday's The Edda, I. The Divine Mythology of the ^ North. Albany F. Major .... Emile \)\!ixV\\€\vc^''& L Atmee Sociologique, 1 900-1 901. E. Sidney
Hartland .... W. G- Wood-Martin's Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland,
Eleanor Hull ..... Whitley Stokes's Notes on the Togail Bruidne Da Derga
Eleanor Hull . ■ . . .
Ivor B. John's The Mabinogion. Eleanor Hull Alfred Nutt's Ciichulainn, the Irish Achilles. Eleanor Hull Lady Gregory's Ciichulainn of Muirthenme. Alfred Nutt Seumas MacManus's Donegal Fairy Stories Fernand Nicolay's Histoire des Croyances, McBurs, Usages, et
Coiitumes {selon le Plan die Decalogue). R. R. Marett T. F. Henderson's Sir Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border. Charlotte S. Burne W. H. Furness's The Home-Life of Borneo Head-Hunters
its Festivals and Folklore. E. Sidney Hartland . General Augustus Pitt-Rivers's Antique Works of Art from
Benin. Margaret Eyre .... J. F. Hewitt's History and Chronology of the Myth-Making
Period ......
L. B. Paton's The Early History of Syria and Palestine ; and
A. Duffs The Theology and Ethics of the Hebreivs. A. H
Sayce ......
M. a. Potter's Sohrab and Riistem. W. Crooke
Jessie L. Weston's Sir Cleges, Sir Libeaus Desconus. W, W
Greg ......
Alexander PuUing's The Sin of Witchcraft
223 223 314
327
330 -^ ^ ^ 00-
'7 ^ -?
335
433 436 439 441
442 445
447 448
Index
449
Rules and List of Members.
Index of Arch.^ological Papers Published, 1900.
Contents, vii
List of Plates
I. Charm found at High Fernley Farm . To face page 93
II. Plan of the Long Ju-ju of the Aros . ,, ,, 169
III. Cottage with "Bogle "Charm, Nairnshire, N.B. „ ,, 275
IV. Specimens of "Trade" Charms . • j> n 338
ERRATA.
Page 169, Hne 11 from bottom, for nianher read nujiiber. Page 174 ;;, for Albrigthon read Albrighton. Page 192 «, for ** read *[*.
W1
3folk*Xore-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY. Vol. XIII.] MARCH, 1902. [No. I.
WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 6th, 1901. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of Mr. H. H. R. Southam and Mr. Gerasimos Zervos as new members was announced.
The deaths of Mr. G. W. Speth, Miss F. Grove, Mr. D. Mackinlay, Sir W. Besant, Miss E. Harris, and Mr. H. D. Skrine, and the resignations of Mr. B. Hamilton, Mr. P. S. Jeffrey, Dr. Cobb, Mr. R. H. Wilson, Sir H. Walpole, Mrs. Corry, Mr. Oelsner, Mr. Scott Elliot, and Mrs. Newton, were also announced.
Mr. E. Lovett read a paper on " Tallies and their Survi- vals," which he illustrated by a collection of original speci- mens, and in the discussion which followed Mr. Gomme, Miss Freer, and the President took part.
Miss Goodrich Freer read a paper on " Hebridean Folklore" [infra, p. 29], which was followed by a discussion in which Mr. Nutt, Mr. Lovett, and Mr. Gomme took part. Votes of thanks were accorded to Mr. Lovett and Miss Freer for their papers.
The following books and pamphlets; which had been
VOL. XIII. B
2 Minutes of Meeting.
presented to the Society since the last Meeting, were laid on the table :
Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities in the Madras Government Museum, by R. Bruce Foote ; Report on the Admiiiistration of the Madras Government Museum and Connemara Public Library, 1900-01 ; Nayars of Malabar, by F. Fawcett, and Todas of the Nilgiris, by E. Thurston and others, all presented by the Government of Madras ; Annual Report of British New Guinea, 1899, 1900, pre- sented by the Government of Queensland ; Wotjakische Sprachproben, vols, i and ii., by Yrgo Wichmann, presented by the Societe Finno-Ougrienne ; Die Wiederholungslieder der Estnischett Volkspoesie, by Oscar Kallas, presented by the Author; The Annual Report of the Biireau of American Ethnology, 1895-96 and 1896-97; The Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and Place Names of Cambridgeshire, by W. W. Skeat, by exchange ; The Transactio7is of the Cymmrodorion Society, 1899-1900^ pre- sented by the Society ; and The Americati Antiquarian, vol. xxiii. part iv., 1901, presented by the Society.
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 5th, 1901.
Joint Meeting of the Folk-Lore Society and THE Viking Club.
The Chair was taken by Mr. E. W. Brabrook, the President of the Society.
The minutes of the previous Meeting of the Society were read and confirmed.
The Secretary of the Society exhibited a parchment charm sent by Mr. C. C. Bell of Epworth, Lincolnshire, and read a note thereon [infra, p. 92, and Plate I.].
Mr. Lovett exhibited several sets of astragals, and also a
Minutes of Meeting. 3
Vessel Cup from Whitby in Yorkshire, upon which he read a note [infra, p. 94]. In the discussion which followed, Miss Burne, the Rev. E. W. Clarke, and Mr. Janvier took part. Mr. Lovett having intimated that it was his intention to present the objects he had exhibited to the Society, a vote of thanks was accorded to him.
Mr. N. W. Thomas exhibited some stones from the valley of the Avon in South Hants, sent by Mr. Auberon Herbert, and alleged by him to be totem-stones. The Chairman having offered some observations on the exhibit, a vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Herbert for having given the Society an opportunity of inspecting the stones.
A communication from Mr. H. A. Rose, Superintendent of Ethnography in the Punjab, on the subject of " Unlucky Children" was read \_infra, p. 63].
The chair having then been vacated by Mr. Brabrook, and taken by Mr. G. M. Atkinson, President of the Viking Club, Mr. Clarence A. Seyler read a paper on " The Beowulf Legend," upon which Mr. Nutt offered some observations.
The Meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to Mr. Seyler for his paper.
WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 22nd, 1902.
The 24th Annual Meeting.
The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Annual Report and Balance Sheet for the year 1901 were duly presented, and upon the motion of Professor Haddon, seconded by Dr. Caster, it was resolved that the same be received and adopted.
4 Minutes of Meeting.
Balloting papers for the election of President, Vice- Presidents, Council, and Officers for the year 1902 having been distributed, IMessrs. Holmes and Tozer were duly appointed scrutineers for the ballot.
The President then delivered his Presidential Address [which will be found in extenso on pp. 12-28].
The result of the ballot w^as then announced by the President, and the following ladies and gentlemen who had been nominated by the Council were declared to have been duly elected, viz.: —
As President : Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
As Vice-Presidents : The Hon. J. Abercromby, the Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, Miss C. S Burne, Mr. Edward Clodd, Mr. G. Laurence Gomme, Mr. E. Sidney Hartland, Mr. Andrew Lang, Mr. Alfred Nutt, Professor York Powell, Professor J. Rhys, the Rev. Professor A. H. Sayce, and Professor E. B. Tylor.
As Members of Council : Miss Lucy Broadwood, Mr. E. K. Chambers, Mr. W. Crooke, Mr. F. T. Elworthy, Miss Margaret Ffennell, Dr. J. G. Frazer, Dr. Gaster, Miss Eleanor Hull, Mr. E. F. im Thurn, Professor W. P. Ker, Mr. R. R. Marett, Mr. J. L. Myres, Mr. S. E. Bouverie Pusey. Mr. T. F. Ordish, Mr. W. H. D. Rouse, Mr. C. G. Seligmann, Mr. Walter W. Skeat, Mr. C. Tabor, Mr. H. B. Wheatley, and Mr. A. R. Wright.
As Hon. Treasurer : Mr. Edward Clodd
As Hon. Auditors: Mr. F. G. Green and Mr. N. W. Thomas.
As Secretary : Mr. F. A. Milne.
On the motion of Mr. Clodd, seconded by Mr. Hartland, a vote of thanks was accorded to the President for his address, and on the motion of the President, seconded by Mr. Gomme, a vote of thanks was accorded to the outgoing Members of the Council, viz. : Mr. Courthope Bowen, Mr. F. C. Conybeare, Mr. J. E. Crombie, Professor Haddon, Mr. A. F. Major, and Professor B. C. A. Windle, for their services
THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
22nd January, 1902.
The Council have the honour to lay before the Society their twenty-fourth Annual Report.
The number of members now on the roll is 393. While it is much to be regretted that there should be any diminution, however small, in the number of members, upon which the Society has to rely to fulfil its main function as a publish- ing Society, this is not surprising; for the present is not a favourable time for the expansion of learned societies, the calls upon the public purse during the past two years having been so abnormally heavy, and being likely to be still further increased. The Council would impress upon every mem- ber the necessity of enlisting recruits if the work of the Society is to be kept up to the level of past years.
During the past year the deaths of members of the Society have been beyond the average.
In the death of Miss Grove the Council have lost one of their most active and energetic members. The formation of the Lecture Committee was entirely due to her initiative, and she was ever to the fore in devising means for spread- ing a knowledge of the Society and its work in quarters where but for the existence of the Committee that knowledge would have been little likely to penetrate. Among other losses by death the Council have to record those of Sir Walter Besant, Mr. J. L. Andre, and Mr. H. D. Skrine, all old members of the Society.
The resignations have been somewhat more than in previous years, and there has been also a slight falling off in the number of new members.
The following meetings, at which papers were read before the Society, were held in the course of the year 1901, viz. : —
S Atuiual Report of the Council.
Jan. 1 6. The President's Address: "Some Problems of Early Religion
in the Light of South Afirican Folklore." Feb. 20. "Some Notes on Animal Superstitions from Asia Minor.' Mr. N. W. Thomas. "The Games of British Guiana." Mr. E. F. im Thurn. March 20. "A Note on Primitive Orientation." Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.
"The Legend of the Sand Rope and other Futile Tasks." Miss G. M. Godden. April 17. "On Astragals." Mr. E. Lovett.
" On Persian Folklore." Miss E. Sykes. May 15. "Dischi Sacri." Mr. F. T. Elworthy. fune 19. "Japanese Gohei." Mr. W. G. Aston.
" The Spirit of Vegetation." Mr. E. Tregear. Nov. 6. " Tallies and their Survivals." Mr. E. Lovett.
" Hebridean Folklore." Miss A. Goodrich Freer.
Dec. 4. " Notes on Unlucky Children." Mr. H. A. Rose.
" The Beowulf Legend." Mr. Clarence A. Seyler.
Several of the meetings have been enlivened by the exhibition of some exceedingly good lantern slides, and at the meeting in April Miss Violet Turner gave an exhibition of the game of Astragals (locally known as " snobs ") as played in Derbyshire.
The following objects have been exhibited at the meet- ings, viz : —
(i) A Kirn Maiden or Dolly copied from one made at Duns in Berwickshire fifty years ago. By Mrs. Gomme. (2) A Wren-bush from county Wicklow. By Dr. Haddon. (3) Two specimens of Yule Dos (Christmas cakes) from Newcastle-on-Tyne. By Dr. Haddon. (4) Photographs and drawings illustrative of "The Legend of the Sand Rope and other Futile Tasks." By Miss G. M. Godden. (5) Photographs of (a) the old pipe graveyard at Salruck, Connemara, and (b) a wedding dance-mask of plaited straw still used on the west coast of Ireland. Mrs. W. Price. (6) A number of Astragals, including illustrations of the modern game. Mr. E. Lovett. (7) Photographs of terra-cotta and marble groups in the British Museum representing girls playing with Astragals. Mr. E. Lovett. (8) Crescents and discs used as amulets and charms in various parts of the world. By Mr. E. Lovett. (9) Some charms against the Evil Eye from Portugal and Italy. By Miss Burne. (10) A collection of original specimens of tallies. By Mr. E. Lovett. (11) A parchment charm from Bradford, Yorkshire. By Mr. C. C. Bell. (12) A vessel-cup from Whitby, Yorkshire. By Mr. E. Lovett. {13) Stones described as Totem- stones from South Hants. By Mr. Auberon Herbert.
Annual Report of the CoiinciL 7
On the igth June a joint meeting of the Anthropological Institute and the Society was held at 3, Hanover Square, when the valuable collection of Musquakie beadwork and other objects presented to the Society by Miss M. A. Owen was exhibited, and discussed by Mr. Hartland, Dr. Haddon, Mr. Henry Balfour, and others.
The Council have deposited the collection in the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge for exhibition, where it is available for purposes of study.
Several of the objects exhibited at the evening meetings during the year have been presented by the exhibitors to the Society, and placed in the Society's case in the same Museum. The thanks of the Society have been given to the respective donors, and also to the authorities of the Museum for receiving the deposit.
The attendance at the evening meetings of the Society has been good throughout the year.
The Council desire to impress upon members once again that any friends they may like to bring with them to the meetings are always welcome, and that the interest of the meetings will be much enhanced by the exhibition of any Folklore objects which either they or their friends may have in their possession.
By the courtesy of the Council of the Anthropological Institute the books forming the Society's library have been removed from the Secretary's rooms in Lincoln's Inn and placed in the shelves of the Institute at 3, Hanover Square. The thanks of the Society are due to the Institute for undertaking to house its library, and it is hoped that the books may be found more serviceable to members of the Society than they have been heretofore.
The Council are glad to announce that Mrs. Kate Lee has most kindly undertaken to fill Miss Grove's place as Hon. Secretary of the Lecture Committee. The Commit- tee has met, and endeavours are being made to organise courses of lectures, which it is hoped may prove successful.
The Society has issued during the year the 12th volume of its new Transactions, Folklore, and the Council desire
8 Annual Report of the Council.
to thank Miss Burne for the valuable assistance she has rendered to the Society in editing the volume, and Mr. im Thurn and Mr. Gerish for their liberal contributions towards the cost of illustrating their respective papers. The growing interest evinced in the Transactions is shown by the fact that during the year there were 65 contributors as against 40 in 1900, while the number of articles, letters, and reviews contributed was 116 as against 99.
The Council venture to think the journal has not been unworthy of the Society, and are confident that so long as it remains under its present editorship it will keep up to its general level of excellence. The Society is again indebted to Mr. A. R. Wright for the Index to the volume.
In addition to the Transactions the Society has issued two other volumes during the year, viz. County Folklore, vol. ii., North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty, by Mrs. Gutch, being the extra volume for 1899 ; and The Games of Argyteshire, by Dr. R. C. Maclagan, being the extra volume for 1900. Mr. Seligmann has also at the request of the Council prepared a number of Queries on Totemism, which have been published with a Preface by Mr. Hartland. It is proposed to distribute these queries, along with copies of Mr. Hartland's last Presidential Address, among missionaries and others working in Africa ; and in this way it is hoped that much useful information may be elicited.
As announced a year ago, the extra volume for 1901 will be a further instalment of County Folklore, consisting of Mr. Black's Orkney and Shetland collection. The work is now in the press, and will, it is hoped, be in the hands of members by the middle of the year. The Council have not yet finally decided what is to be the extra volume for 1902, but hope to be in a position to do so at an early date.
The Society was represented at the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow by Mr. Crooke, Mr. Elworthy, Sir John and Lady Evans, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Mr. J. L. Myres, Professor Rhys, Mr. W. W. Skeat, and Mr. Brabrook.
Annual Report of the Council. 9
The conditional grant referred to in the last report as having been made by the Council in aid of the scheme for providing lantern slides representing scenes and objects of scientific interest in co-operation with the Anthropological Institute has been duly met by a grant of like amount from the funds of the Institute. The Council regret that the joint committee appointed to carry out the scheme have not drawn on the Society for any part of the grant during the past year, but this circumstance is no doubt due in a great measure to the work of the Lecture Committee having been interrupted by the sudden death of Miss Grove, and to the considerable interval which elapsed between her death and the appointment of an Hon. Secretary of the Lecture Committee in her place.
The Council have appointed Mrs. Kate Lee as a member of the joint committee as well as Hon. Secretary of the Lecture Committee, and have little doubt that the work of both committees will be pushed vigorously forward.
The joint committee appointed by the Society and the Anthropological Institute to consider the question of secur- ing a common home for the two Societies has met, and submitted a series of recommendations for the consideration of their respective Councils, but in the absence of any definite proposals the Council have felt themselves unable to accept these recommendations unreservedly. It is hoped, however, that in the course of the year they may have some practical proposal before them, and that there may be no serious obstacles, financial or otherwise, to their being favourably entertained.
The Council submit herewith the annual accounts and balance sheet duly audited, and the balloting list for the Council and officers for the ensuing year.
By order of the Council,
E. W. Brabrook,
President.
lO
Annual Report of the Council.
N C\vO VD O O fO O
^?
O O VO o o O O lo o ^
s?
H J.
P-l^ o SCAJ
?^
^^
"o '>< ^V, o ■ > • c ^-^ '
'^ ?» ci S; rt
I :f< ti « ^ t«
o ui
5: o
■^ OJ^
M
.S •■£
:=: S o "^ S wi; o o :
cu to 2 ^"g S.S "T'^.S rt
— > '^ i; ^ ^
o o
TfOO
• o • : vo vo . g: : :
*" o o
|
00 •-• |
O^ |
|
|
►"■ |
||
|
u-100 |
Tf |
|
|
*"* |
||
|
O M |
ro |
|
|
►1 u-l |
||
|
r^ |
||
|
s? |
u) :CJ
■^ f" i:
: S ^
• a ^
o
O g
IS ^p
. S 'S . <u I §5 :5
- ? ^ H S . K m rt cj
■^■B <
C O c -o OJ
oj ,) (u ji -^
SO
w wKw
o ^
y "5^^ >^S^
■ >, g dj ,^
-i-> vh rt o O
<^ o
u
M
o o
H a cAjp^
Q Q O
u
S2
O ON O O CT> u-i ■^ •*
|
o |
ro |
0 0 |
0 |
00 |
iO |
: :5^ : |
|||||
|
o |
" |
vnvo 00 |
vo |
Ov |
^ |
||||||
|
oco |
li^ rnoo |
r^ |
r^ |
• .2 |
|||||||
|
vn ■* |
11 |
M |
10 |
■ j5 ■ |
|||||||
|
IV! |
_o |
||||||||||
|
Si- |
: : |
S2 |
1) |
E? |
|||||||
|
Cl, « |
<u |
kH |
>^ |
3 |
|||||||
|
c3 |
cj |
||||||||||
|
w S : |
• ; |
s |
: s |
0 |
t-H |
*j^ |
|||||
|
u 2 • |
• • |
J_^ |
O' |
■o> |
• I*- • |
0 |
|||||
|
w^ |
-o |
^^ |
0) |
1n |
^ ° • |
||||||
|
Pi'H |
•"^ |
^ |
'O |
0 0 |
-a |
||||||
|
rt " |
• c |
•^ 0 |
c |
||||||||
|
.05 |
3 0 |
M M 0 ON Cn 0^ |
0 |
: 0 u C/2 |
0 |
||||||
|
^ (J |
u |
'ci |
Cj |
c |
|||||||
|
1< |
C 0 |
3 |
C ca |
C |
0 S |
||||||
|
0 0 |
1) |
a. „ |
„ |
eu, |
1. |
T3 1m |
8^ |
a |
c |
5 S g .0 ^ |
0 |
|
Balanc OnD OnC |
0 |
0 |
^ |
Ic |
H-l 1», |
" |
rt |
r^ rt ^< |
0 |
||
|
V3 |
3 |
H |
£ |
C 0 Q |
0 Q |
s?
-■ CO
M
Annual Report of the Council.
II
o
W W
u
Q H
W
u
<
< pq
s?
s?
|
o n- |
;;;; |
m |
00 |
||
|
00 onoo |
O |
IT) |
|||
|
t-i |
v" |
||||
|
ONVO |
M |
i_i |
O |
^ |
|
|
CS ■'J- uo |
i^ |
o |
|||
|
p) |
S |
||||
|
: o G |
S? |
||||
|
. O rt |
E^ |
||||
|
cT *^ |
|||||
|
0) |
|||||
|
t/i c |
O |
||||
|
►J |
|||||
|
o |
|||||
|
5 1) |
Q |
||||
|
'fi |
>4-l •-> |
Pi |
|||
|
_o |
. o ^ |
<; |
|||
|
rt |
■n o |
^ |
|||
|
o |
Q |
||||
|
3 |
.i2 *^ |
U-, |
W |
|
^ . *-< |
■2 . |
.;5 |
U-, |
|
|
OI ai for" |
o |
c o u |
-^3 O 2H |
|
|
^ . « |
" |
G O |
||
|
" : c |
<u |
■73 |
• ^ •— |
|
|
•*-' 01 |
||||
|
riptions for standing Subscriptio |
4; a |
. 1) |
3 o |
S5E |
|
O iJ |
> |
y; |
||
|
l§i |
T3 |
J2 |
O X |
|
|
d |
> <u |
|||
|
w t-1 |
H |
s?
s?
o ^
O 9
„ be > - C
3^ -I^U
IH 0) kr-l
0-1 U2»^
tL p
v2
w
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Our excellent friends and fellow labourers, the members of the Society of Anthropology of Paris, who have lately been so genial and kindly in their expressions of goodwill to this Society, and its sister Society the Anthropological Institute, change their President annually, and take the opportunity of getting two addresses, one from the retir- ing President and one from the new one. I mention this because I find that in the address which my friend Dr. Chervin delivered last January, when he ascended the fauteiiil de la Presidence that he has filled with so much distinction, he used words with regard to his Society which I desire to adopt as fitly expressing my own opinions with regard to the Folk-Lore Society. He said : " We recruit our adherents from the four cardinal points of the scientific horizon. The very diversity of our origins, of our professions, of our education contributes powerfully to our strength, for the smallest fact is examined by each of us with his personal pre-occupations for the greatest benefit of all. It appears to me that we are a veritable Society of Mutual Help — a Friendly Society — applied to scientific researches." When I read this I derived some much-needed light on the problem how it came to be in the contemplation of my brethren of the Council and of the last General Meeting that there could be any fitness of things in my elevation to this chair. I assure you that I have risen to address you under an oppressive sense of the greatness of my predecessors.
I do not specially refer to those noble Earls — Verulam, Beauchamp, and Strafford — who were influenced by our founder and first director, Mr. W. J. Thoms, when he was deputy librarian of the House of Lords, to honour us with the patronage of their historic names in the first few years
Presidential A ddress. 1 3
of the existence of our Society. I do refer to Andrew- Lang, whose literary skill has made folklore popular, while his enlightened scepticism has kept it discreet ; to Laurence Gomme, who may be called our co-founder, and whose ad- dresses contributed so much to form our scientific methods ; to Edward Clodd, who boldly asserted the principle of con- tinuity as the key to the history of religions ; to Alfred Nutt, a past-master in the poetry and literature of our subject ; to Sidney Hartland, the zealous advocate of its practical utility. What message have I to offer which has not been better told by these ? I have none, and I will not therefore attempt to do more than to repeat what I said when I had the honour to address the Anthropological Section of the British Association in 1898, and to draw your attention to anything bearing upon the views I then expressed which is afforded by recent researches of our members and others.
I then said that a generalisation for which we are fast accumulating material in folklore is that of the tendency of mankind to develop the like fancies and ideas at the like stage of intellectual infancy, akin to the generalisation that the stages of the life of an individual man present a marked analogy to the corresponding stages in the history of mankind at large, and to the generalisation that existing savage races present in their intellectual development a marked analogy to the condition of the earlier races of mankind. The fancies and ideas of the child resemble closely the fancies and ideas of the savage, and the fancies and ideas of primitive man. I further ventured to say that I did not see anything inherently unreasonable in the generalisation that the group of theories and practices which constitutes the great province of man's emotions and mental operations expressed in the term " religion " has passed through the same stages and produced itself in the same way from the earliest rude beginnings of the religious sentiment in primeval man as every other mental exertion ;
14 Presidetittal Address.
and that it is not an exception to any general law of progress and of continuity, which may be found to prevail in any other part of man's nature.
I am well aware of the logical weakness of any argument based upon mere analogy. As Darwin says, " Analogy may be a deceitful guide." What we require in this branch of science, as in every other, is a large basis of facts for induction. Analogy, however, is a very useful handmaid to science ; and these particular analogies are led up to by the establishment of similar analogies in regard to the physical nature of man. It is seventy years since von Baer discovered that in the life of the embryo you have a represen- tation of all the stages of animal existence, from the lowest to the highest, and later observers have traced in the life of a single embryo the several appearances of animal life in, successive geological epochs. It is true in physical matters therefore, as well as in psychical matters, that the individual and the general pass through the same phases of continuity. In seeking to apply this analogy to the province of religion, I must ask you to allow as wide a boundary and as liberal a definition to that province as you can, so as to include all man's dealings with the unknown.
Our illustrious member, Mr. Frazer, between the writing of the first edition of the Golden Bough and that of the second edition, experienced some change of view on this subject, and with that candour which is the distinguishing characteristic of men like Darwin and himself, has frankly stated it. Originally, he was of opinion that magic was a part of religion ; lately, he has learned to distinguish between them. Now he defines magic as that which assumes the expected result to follow as a necessary consequence of the means prescribed to secure it ; religion, as that which seeks to obtain what it wishes by propitiation or conciliation of the higher powers who may either grant or withhold the gifts at their pleasure. May 1 venture to suggest that this definition is hardly a perfect one ? Does the idea of propitiatory in-
Presidential Address. 15
vocation never enter into a magical ceremony ? and does that of necessary consequence never enter into a religious observance ? With regard to the first question, Mr. Frazer himself quotes cases where in magic an attempt is made to win the favour of spirits by prayer and sacrifice, but he re- gards these as exceptional, and exhibiting magic tinged and alloyed with religion.
Every devout believerin any religion necessarilythinks his own religion the absolutely true one, and probably considers himself bound to the logical conclusion that every other religion is false. How far that may be so is not for us to inquire. For the purpose of tracing out the development of religion we place all religions on the same plane. For the sake of illustration, we may have to refer to the religion of the civilised world with which we are most familiar. We shall do so with all respectful reverence, but with perfect freedom. Perhaps, after all, the blessed Sir Thomas More was right when he asked, " An varium ac multiplicem expetens cultum, Deus aliud inspiret alii?" "Whether the different forms of religion may not all come from God, who may inspire men in a different manner, and be pleased with this variety?" That, however, is not a question for us.
Acting on this principle of taking the most familiar
illustrations, I would ask whether the idea of constraint and
coercion, which is part of Mr. Frazer's definition of magic,
is absent from the narrative of Jacob wrestling with the
angel or from the words —
"God's hands or bound or open are As Moses or Elijah prays."
In other words, whether, if the definition suggested by Mr. Frazer is adopted as generally correct, both magic and religion are not parts of one great province of man's mental operations, which interact on each other, and must be viewed as a whole.
Mr. Frazer speaks of the principle of make-believe as " so
1 6 Presidential A ddress.
dear to children," and gives many examples of its adoption by savages. It points to one of the analogies we have suggested as existing. Let us see whether the analogy does not go further. In the life of a child there is a long time previous to birth and a short time after birth of apparently absolute unconsciousness. So there was probably a time in the early history of man when he had not formed any religious idea whatever. The child presently becomes conscious of the existence of beings, friendly rather than hostile, to whom he can communicate his wants by means of cries. These beings either give him what he cries for, in which case he generalises that he can always get what he wants if he cries loud and long enough, and that is magic ; or they do not give him what he cries for, but give him something else, in which case he learns the advantage of propitiating them, and that is religion. Both these operations can go on very well together, the nurse being coerced and the mother propitiated, or vice versa ; and this is what we find among the religions of savages.
We may now turn for a while to the writings of another honoured folklorist, my predecessor Mr. Andrew Lang. In his Making of Religion he collects together the evidences of the first dim surmises as to a Supreme Being, leading to belief in a kind of germinal Supreme Being among Australian and other savages. He offers no opinion as to the origin of their surmises and beliefs, but thinks it probable that as soon as man had the idea of making things, he might conjecture as to a Maker of things which he him- self had not made and could not make. He sums up the evidence as to Australian beliefs and ethics as follows : " A watchful being observes and rewards the conduct of men ; he is named with reverence, if named at all ; his abode is the heavens ; he is the Master and Lord of things ; his lessons soften the heart ;'' and Mr. Lang holds that " the religion patronised by the Australian Supreme Being, and inculcated in his mysteries, is actually used to
Presidential A ddress. 1 7
counteract the immoral character which natives acquire by associating^ with Angrlo-Saxon Christians." He thinks that the conception of a Creator thus formed is original, or is very early, and that it has been succeeded by conceptions which are less noble ; and he accounts for this by a recurrence to the " old degeneration theory." Advancing social conditions, he says, compelled men into degeneration. Granting a relatively pure starting point, degeneration from it must accompany every step of civilisation to a certain distance.
Mr. Hartland, in his address last year, dealt with this subject at length in a masterly manner, and I should not again refer to it except for the consideration that the degeneration theory to which Mr. Lang has reverted seems to imply a contradiction of the general law of continuity which we expect to find ruling in matters of religion as much as in other matters. It sounds almost a paradox to say, as Mr. Lang does, that progress in civilisation neces- sarily involves degeneration in religion. What he has said in answer to criticisms on his work, " I doubt if we have a single ethical or religious idea which the lowest savages do not possess among their ideas" ( F. L. x. 43) is, perhaps, profoundly true ; but if it is true of the " lowest savages," it must be equally true of all mankind. These dim surmises of a germinal Supreme Being cannot have been altogether lost, but will surely develop as other ideas develop.
In his original inquiry into the beliefs of the Australian aborigines in the first edition of his work, Mr. Lang had not before him the collections made by Mr. Curr from the reports of local observers, and he does not appear to have used them in the preparation of the second edition. It may be interesting to see how far they confirm his views. Many of them are simply negative, and these we are justified in disregarding, for there can be no proof of a negative. Others are more in point. Thus, Mr. Foelsche said of the beliefs of the Larrakia tribe at Port Darwin, " A VOL. xiii. c
i^R
18 Presidetitial Address.
very good man called Mangarrara lives amongst the stars at a place called Teeladla. He made all that there is upon earth except the Blackfellows. He never dies, and loves the blacks. Another good man called Nanganburra lives in the bowels of the earth at a place called Abigooga. In past ages he made one blackfellow and taught him how to make other blacks. He takes account of their good and bad deeds, and marks them down. When blacks die, if they have been good, he gives them a pass to Mangarrara, with whom they live amongst the stars ; those who have been bad are sent into a place far into the interior of the earth called Omar, where there is a large fire. Deep under this is a large lake called Burcoot, where lives always a black named Madjuit-madjuit, who regulates the tides by means of the moon and never dies." That these savages should be aware of the correlation of tides with the moon is interesting. Mr. Green said of the Dieyerie tribe north of Mount Freeling, 630 miles to the north of Adelaide, that they suppose that man and all other beings were created by the moon at the bidding of the Mooramoora, that man was first created in the form of a lizard, and prayed to Mooramoora for heat to enable him to catch the emu, when the sun was created in compliance. (This duplication of sound in names is another curious point of analogy between savao-es and children.) Mr. Valentine said of the Doora tribe at Mount Remarkable that they believe in the existence of God. Mr. Fowler said of the tribe at Yorke's Peninsula, South Australia, that they believe in a future state and that the dead go to the west, where there is abundance of fat fish. Mr. Reid said of the Milya-uppa tribe at Torrowotto that they believe in the existence of God, and that after death they will be transformed into birds. Mr. Teulon said of the Bahkunjy tribe at Bourke on the Darling River, that they believe in one God, the ample-handed maker and preserver of all things, but have neither knowledge nor desire for knowledge of him.
I . \
^\'\
-» '«
Presidential Address.
19
nor does any man expect to see him. They believe also in an evil one, in a god of the winds and a god of thunder, and hold that the spirits of the departed walk the earth after dark. This tribe would seem to be in a position that Mr. Lang would consider one of degeneration. Mr. Heagney said of the Birria and other tribes at the Thomson and Barcoo rivers, that they believe in the existence of invisible beings, who can make them happy or miserable, who hover about the burial places of the dead and severely punish those who break the laws relating to food restrictions and to marriage, who are prayed to for rain, and sung to for vengeance on enemies. This tribe seems to introduce Mr. Lang's ethical element. Mr. Armstrong said of the Mungerra tribe at Cape River, that they have a great fear of a supernatural being, and also of the dead. Mr. MacGlashan said of the Koombokkaburra tribe, between Cape River and Belyando River, that they have a religious belief of some sort, and a strong dislike to hear the dead mentioned. Mr. Fuller, missionary, said of the aborigines of Eraser's Island, that they are firm believers in ghosts and in a devil, but have no idea of a God. Mr. Mathew said of the Kabi tribe on the Mary River that they have a vague belief in water spirits and an apprehension of ghosts, but know nothing of a supreme being, and perform no acts of invocation or propitiation. Mr. Bucknell agreed with the late Rev. Wm. Ridley, that the Kamilaroi on the Guyder River believe in the existence of an Almighty Creator and in spirits, and Mr. Ridley derived the name for God in the Wodi-wodi language from the word for " sky." Mr. Bulmer said that the Gippsland or Kurnai tribes, as far as can be ascertained, have no knowledge of God, and certainly no worship or religious belief of any kind ; but he said that they practise sorcery, believe in magic, and devote victims to destruction with what he called "cabalistic" ceremonies, which were so much dreaded that, not unfrequently, men and women who learned that they had been made the sub-
C 2
r
V 1 I 1
I \ » I,
tit)
i s t ».
V.V.
^^^^
I
-^r^
I J
i8 Presidential Address.
very good man called Mangarrara lives amongst the stars at a place called Teeladla. He made all that there is upon earth except the Blackfellows. He never dies, and loves the blacks. Another good man called Nanganburra lives in the bowels of the earth at a place called Abigooga. In past ages he made one blackfellow and taught him how to make other blacks. He takes account of their good and bad deeds, and marks them down. When blacks die, if they have been good, he gives them a pass to Mangarrara, with whom they live amongst the stars ; those who have been bad are sent into a place far into the interior of the earth called Omar, where there is a large fire. Deep under this is a large lake called Burcoot, where lives always a black named Madjuit-madjuit, who regulates the tides by means of the moon and never dies." That these savages should be aware of the correlation of tides with the moon is interesting. Mr. Green said of the Dieyerie tribe north of Mount Freeling, 630 miles to the north of Adelaide, that they suppose that man and all other beings were created by the moon at the bidding of the Mooramoora, that man was first created in the form of a lizard, and prayed to Mooramoora for heat to enable him to catch the emu, when the sun was created in compliance. (This duplication of sound in names is another curious point of analogy between savao-es and children.) Mr. Valentine said of the Doora tribe at Mount Remarkable that they believe in the existence of God. Mr. Fowler said of the tribe at Yorke's Peninsula, South Australia, that they believe in a future state and that the dead go to the west, where there is abundance of fat fish. Mr. Reid said of the Milya-uppa tribe at Torrowotto that they believe in the existence of God, and that after death they will be transformed into birds. Mr. Teulon said of the Bahkunjy tribe at Bourke on the Darling River, that they believe in one God, the ample-handed maker and preserver of all things, but have neither knowledge nor desire for knowledge of him.
Presidential Address. 19
nor does any man expect to see him. They believe also in an evil one, in a god of the winds and a god of thunder, and hold that the spirits of the departed walk the earth after dark. This tribe would seem to be in a position that Mr. Lang would consider one of degeneration. Mr. Heagney said of the Birria and other tribes at the Thomson and Barcoo rivers, that they believe in the existence of invisible beings, who can make them happy or miserable, who hover about the burial places of the dead and severely punish those who break the laws relating to food restrictions and to marriage, who are prayed to for rain, and sung to for vengeance on enemies. This tribe seems to introduce Mr. Lang's ethical element. Mr. Armstrong said of the Mungerra tribe at Cape River, that they have a great fear of a supernatural being, and also of the dead. Mr. MacGlashan said of the Koombokkaburra tribe, between Cape River and Belyando River, that they have a religious belief of some sort, and a strong dislike to hear the dead mentioned. Mr. Fuller, missionary, said of the aborigines of Eraser's Island, that they are firm believers in ghosts and in a devil, but have no idea of a God. Mr. Mathew said of the Kabi tribe on the Mary River that they have a vague belief in water spirits and an apprehension of ghosts, but know nothing of a supreme being, and perform no acts of invocation or propitiation. Mr. Bucknell agreed with the late Rev. Wm. Ridley, that the Kamilaroi on the Guyder River believe in the existence of an Almighty Creator and in spirits, and Mr. Ridley derived the name for God in the Wodi-wodi language from the word for " sky." Mr. Bulmer said that the Gippsland or Kurnai tribes, as far as can be ascertained, have no knowledge of God, and certainly no worship or religious belief of any kind ; but he said that they practise sorcery, believe in magic, and devote victims to destruction with what he called "cabalistic" ceremonies, which were so much dreaded that, not unfrequently, men and women who learned that they had been made the sub-
C 2
20 Presidential Address.
jects of incantations quickly pine away and die of fright. The Creator of all that has life on earth they believe to have been a gigantic blackfellow, who lived in Gippsland many centuries ago, and dwells among the stars. Many of the stars are named after people long since dead. This tribe has also the tradition of a deluge.
A writer of no great authority, Mr. Augustus Oldfield, in the 3rd volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society (1864), said of the aborigines of Australia that the number of supernatural beings that they acknowledge is exceedingly great ; every thicket, most watering places, and all rocky places abound with evil spirits. Heaven is the abiding place of two great divinities, one of whom has a son who performs many wonderful actions, but is spoken of with little reverence. The spirit of evil dwells in the nethermost regions and is the author of all the great calamities that befall mankind. He is represented as havinor lonsf horns and a tail.
The general result of all these testimonies is that while the idea of a maker of things might well have been one of those present in the savage mind, and while the con- venience of attaching an ethical value to religious belief might well have been an early discovery, there was no intimate connection between the two. The ethical value was equally attachable to the ghostly idea as to the idea of a maker, and equally or more convenient when so attached, for, as Mr. Lang says, the idea of a maker soon became associated with that of non-interference.
Mr. Lang's principal authority is Mr. Howitt, on whom he is justified in placing reliance; but Mr. Howitt himself does not appear to have attached all the importance to his statements that Mr. Lang derives from them, and Mr. Hewitt's statements are associated with others relating to the belief in spirits, the practices of wizards, and other observances that have to be considered in connection with the beliefs to which Mr. Lang attaches the special character
Presidential A ddress. 2 1
of purity. There is no evidence that the one preceded the other. There is evidence that there were in the savage mind a number of ideas which crystallised into beliefs and observances of various kinds and of different religious and ethical significance.
All that can be said to have been established, therefore, is that, side by side with the impressions from ghosts and from dreams, there has been a vague and evanescent idea of a maker. Its ethical value has been no greater than that of the other beliefs, and is due indeed to the necessity of finding a sanction for enforcing upon the young those obligations which are to be imposed upon them in the interests of the community. The impression produced upon the savage mind by the awful fact of death is likely to be more intense than that produced by speculations how the world was made. Those produced upon the mind by dreams are constant in their recurrence. As the late Rev. J. G. Campbell wrote in his delightful book on the Super- stitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland^ " Dreams have everywhere been laid hold of by superstition as indications of what is passing at a distance or what is to come, and considering the vast number of dreams there are it woifld be matter of surprise if a sufficient number did not prove so like some remote or subsequent event interesting to the dreamer as to keep the belief alive." Messrs. Vaschide and Pieron have recently laid before the Society of Anthropology of Paris a study of the prophetic dream in the beliefs and traditions of savage peoples. They say that the dream is one of the first phenomena to surprise and astonish the savage or the primitive man. He believes in its objectivity. He thinks it something distinct from the sleeping body by which it is experienced. He assumes from it the existence of a separate spirit, that wanders away and enjoys a higher form of being, superior to hunger and to fatigue. He thinks the vision has a purpose, useful for his future guidance. He establishes a faith in the prophetic
22 Presidential Address.
value of dreams on this abstract reasoning. These ideas are the same among savages in all parts of the world. In Africa, dreams are supposed to convey messages from ancestors, in Madagascar from good spirits, and so forth. In religion, the prophetic dream is of constant occurrence. A king of the Malayan Archipelago saw the prophet of God in a dream, who told him that on the morrow a ship would arrive at his coast, and enjoined him to comply with the directions of the men who should land from it ; and so it happened. The authors assert that the data furnished by ethnology as to the mental condition of people with regard to dreams, do not differ much from those furnished by infantile psychology as to the beliefs of children with regard to dreams, before they are brought under the influence of education. This observation appears to us to be very sound, and goes far to cover the whole ground of the ques- tion under consideration. If a child observes the mystery of death, if a child speculates on the origin of things, he arrives at much the same conclusions as uncivilised man arrives at in the same circumstances. The child forms for himself the same sort of fantastic theories, rejoices (as Mr. Frazer puts it) in the play of " make-believe," and even establishes a sort of ethic — you ought to do or to be so- and-so, and I qught to do or to be so-and-so. Professor Tylor puts the savage theory of dreams very clearly when he says, "When the sleeper awakes from a dream, he believes he has really somehow been away or that other people have come to him. As it is well known by experience that men's bodies do not go on these excursions, the natural explanation is that every man's living self or soul is its phantom or image, which can go out of his body and see and be itself seen in dreams." We shall look forward with interest to the promised work of Messrs. Vaschide and Pieron on the psychology of the dream in the psycho-social life of savages.
Meanwhile, do not these considerations largely dispose of
Presidential Address, 2^
Mr. Lang's theory of degeneration ? Here are savages who, like children, form theories of death, of dreams, and of creation. The infancy of human life corresponds with the infancy of civilisation. As human life goes on, and as civilisation goes on, the early childish theories are shed, and theories based upon more accurate observation of facts and sounder reasonings take their place. Is this degeneration ? Surely not : it is evolution. Mr. Lang's ascription of a superior purity to the savage idea is the same as an ascrip- tion of superior purity to the ideas of a child. If the man throws them off, and adopts others less artless and more commending themselves to his reason, that is not degenera- tion. The religious systems of the Greeks and Romans were not less pure than those of the Australian savages. They were only more developed.
I am not concerned to assert, and therefore I do not assert, that this progress of which I speak is constant and regular, or, as Miss Kingsley has happily put it, " in a neat tidy line." As one of our Council says, it is rather like the tide, forwards and backwards ; but as the result is on the whole forwards, there is no room for *' the old degeneration theory " :—
" For while the tired waves, vainly breaking, Seem here no painful inch to gain, Far back, through creeks and inlets making, Comes silent, flooding in, the main."
A. n. Clough.
Turning from this subject, upon which I apologise for having detained you so long and in so controversial a manner, I ask leave to ofTer a few observations on some of the papers that have been read before the Society during the year. Mr. im Thurn's excellent paper on the Games of the Red-men of Guiana, affords further examples of the charm which attaches to " make-believe." In one of the games the players imitate the forward rolling motion of along and well-manned canoe; in another, the incidents of the
24 Presidential Address.
voyage are dramatically rendered ; in another, a jaguar hunt is enacted ; a fourth represents a troop of monkeys suddenly alarmed and angered ; while in a fifth the action of a jaguar trying to get an agouti out of a pen is simulated. Mr. Thomas's collection of animal superstitions from Asia Minor illustrates, among other things, the interpretation of the appearance of animals when seen in dreams. Mrs. Gomme's harvest doll from Berwickshire, which she has kindly presented to the Society, throws light on those super- stitions connected with the last standing sheaf which have been investigated by Mr. Frazer. Mr. Lovett's researches into the ancient and modern game of astragals and Miss Turner's demonstration of the variant now played in Derbyshire show how the games of children are correlated with the more serious play and perhaps the attempts at divination of ancient races. Miss Sykes's collection of Persian folklore enforces the lesson she draws that Persians of all ranks are like children in their love of stories. Mr. Aston's important paper on the Japanese Gohei, and the Ainu Inao, which has been published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, tells a wonderful story of the manner in which religious ideas are modified by time. In the old nature-worship of Japan, pieces of cloth and raw material for the manufacture of clothing were offered to the gods, who were supposed to derive as much pleasure from such gifts as human beings would experience. At first these propitiatory offerings consisted of so many ounces of hemp or bark fibre or so many pieces of cloth ; but later they assumed a more specialised and conventional form, and were made with paper or cash. With the alteration of form came a change in the mental attitude of the worshipper. These offerings came to be looked upon, as they are now, as representatives of the deity. Instead of the worshipper bringing them to the shrine, they are now given out by the priest to the worshipper, who takes them home and sets them on his
Presidential Address. 25
god-shelf. Other objects have passed through the same changes from offering to emblem, and in this respect are comparable with ideas prevalent in other religions. Among the ruder and poorer Ainu population, who are supposed to be the aborigines, similar things are used made of willow wands in the like manner, but the evidence is con- flicting whether the Ainu have arrived at the final stage of believing them to embody their god. An instance of the generalisation that in these matters the human mind works in the same way at the like stage of development is noted by Mr. Aston in the fact that the ceremony which Julius Caesar asked Mark Antony to perform at the Lupercalia :
" Forget not in your speed, Antonius, To touch Calphurnia ; for our elders say The barren, touched in this holy chase, Shake off their sterile curse : "
Act i. Sc. 2
has been performed for the last thousand years in Japan with the same objects. Mr. Tregear's paper on the Spirit of Vegetation, also published in the Journal of the Anthro- pological Institute, describes the ceremonies formerly con- nected with the worship of that spirit among the Maoris of New Zealand, and shows that the same sentiments operate to produce corresponding methods of thought among a people to whom corn was unknown, as lie at the foundation of the harvest ceremonies investigated by Mr. Frazer. Mr. El worthy's exhibition of numerous casts of the Dischi Sacri illustrated another group of religious ideas. The papers by Miss Godden, Miss Goodrich Freer, Dr. Rivers, Mr. Rose, and Mr. Seyler shed light upon other branches of our great and complicated subject; and we have in many respects to thank all those who have taken part in the proceedings at our evening meetings for very considerable contributions to knowledge in folklore.
I must not omit to notice as one of the most important events of the year. Miss Owen's generous gift of her fine collection of Musquakie beadwork. We have not yet
26 Presidential Address.
received from her the detailed description which will enable us to illustrate it as it deserves, but I hope that in time we may be able to produce such a record of it as may rank worthily with Professor Starr's Catalogue of his Mexican collections.
The publication by the Society during the year of Dr. R. C. Maclagan's Gajnes and Diversions of Argyleshire adds a gre^t quantity of valuable material to the accumula- tion of facts upon which we base our generalisations, and affords an excellent model of the manner in which such work should be done.
Among the events of the year which most strongly affect the student of folklore, I count the death of Leon Marillier. From a touching notice in the Revue de V Histoire des Religions (xliv., 167), by M. Jean Reville, who was his colleague in the direction of that review, it appears that on the 22nd August he was returning to Trequier with his wife and her young sister in a vessel which suddenly capsized in sight of land. The ladies perished the same day. Marillier, who could not swim, was thrown by the current on the rocks in an exhausted condition, which resulted in an attack of congestion of the lungs and of pleurisy, from which he died in Paris on the 15th October, at the early age of 38. Though not a Protestant, he had commenced his public career as teacher in the faculty of Protestant theology at Paris, a circumstance which M. Reville rightly thinks to be honourable both to the largeness of mind of that faculty and to the perfect independence of thought of the young professor. In 1887-88 he lectured on psychology in its relations with religion ; in 1888-89 o" religious phenomena and their psychological basis ; and in the following year on the religions of uncivilised peoples.
By his articles contributed to the Revue in question, his memoir on the survival of the soul and the idea of justice among uncivilised peoples in the Report of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes for 1893-94, and his preface to the trans-
Presidential Address, 1^
lation of our colleague Mr. Andrew Lang's Myth, Ritual, and Religion (which was honoured with a place in the Index Expicrgatortus), he displayed wealth of knowledge, width of view, and sanity of judgment. For a detail of his labours in other fields reference may be made to M. Reville's article. His activity in favour of moral and social movements, for liberty of conscience, the protection of the rights of aborigines, peace, temperance, and popular educa- tion, is there referred to in terms of warm appreciation. The calamity of his early death put an end to many schemes he had formetl for future work. He was buried at Trequier by the side of his wife, who is described as a good and noble-minded woman.
My first act as President last year was to endeavour to interpret the sentiments of the members of the Folk-Lore Society on the occasion of the death of Queen Victoria, of which to-day is the anniversary. It is a curious example of the w^arp and woof of mixed emotions that form the web of human life, that the anniversary of the Queen's death is necessarily also the anniversary of the King's accession.
I must say a few words in conclusion as to some of the colleagues and friends who have been lost to us during the year. You have heard in the Report of the Council how valuable to the Society were the services which the late Miss Florence Grove rendered to it, though it was part of the unassuming modesty that marked her character that they attracted little notice. It was not alone in this respect that she devoted her life to good works. She was a true friend of the struggling and hard-working poor, and expended a very considerable portion of her income in the support of measures for elevating them and bettering their condition. Sir Walter Besant in many of his admirable works of fiction displayed an earnest purpose, and with regard to some of them was rewarded by seeing the realisation of his brilliant fancies ; he was a devoted archseologist, and had the faculty of making topography
28 Presidential Address.
interesting. He was also untiring in his efforts to obtain just recognition for his fellow workers in the field of authorship. Mr. James Lewis Andre, also, was more specially devoted to archaeolog)' than to folklore in the stricter sense of the word. He was learned in that branch of it which concerns the mediaeval legends of saints, and even in that respect his knowledge may have contributed to support the generalisations I have presumed to discuss. I recollect, years ago, having the pleasure of a corre- spondence with him on the legends of St. Paula and St. Wilgefort, two ladies who were favoured with a miraculous growth of beard upon a sudden emergency : —
" Crevit barba facie, quod obtinuisti A Christo pro munere, quod sibi voluisti ; Te volentes nubere sibi confudisti."
Would Mr Frazer class that as Magic or as Religion ?
I trust that the places of these most worthy members may be filled by others, and that the Folk-Lore Society may flourish and prosper for many generations to come.
E. W. Brabrook.
xMORE FOLKLORE FROM THE HEBRIDES.
BY A. GOODRICH-FREER.'
{Read at Meeting of ^th November, igoi.)
I BELIEVE that I may venture to claim that a good deal of the folklore contained in the following pages has never before been printed, and that even in the case of such traditions and beliefs as are so far widespread as to have been gathered together elsewhere, that, at all events, they are here given for the first time as collected in the islands of South Uist and Eriskay. In the very few cases in which I have presented examples already published by Mr. Carmichael in his Carmina Gadelica, it is because we have both borrowed from a common fount, the Rev. Allan Macdonald, who has long had access to sources of information entirely inaccessible to all others, and to whom I acknowledge the deepest obligation. As priest, and even more as friend, to a people whose hearts can never open fully but to one of their own faith and living in their midst, he has had, and has used to the full, opportunities that are in the most literal sense unique, and without him — his know- ledge, sympathy, and erudition — the folklore, songs, hymns, customs, and tales of these islands could never have been collected.
I. — Dangers and Precautions.
Among the more remote islands of the Outer Hebrides one is constantly confronted with the phrase, " It is not right," literally, " It is not ordered." Thus, it is not right to mend clothes while upon the person. It is an inter- ference with the rights of the dead, to whom alone belongs
' Copyright reserved by the Author.
30 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
the privilege of having the clothes stitched upon the body. If it should, however, be necessary, it is well to say (as usual, with the idea of dodging the Powers of Evil) : ^
" I am sewing about the grey stone yonder And about the carlin of the priest."
It is for orood fortune, and not merelv of ofood manners, that if you go to a house to ask for anything, vou should begin with a little general conversation. If you fail to do this, those around should say :
" Ask it of the ravens, And of the hoodie-crows, And of the ridge-beam of your father's house."
In the same way, and possibly also with the idea of diverting the attention of the Powers of Evil, if anyone should relate, as news, that a neighbour has lost a cow or a horse, those sitting by should say :
" Pluck the hair out, Put it into the fire, And may all be well where this is told."
If a person makes a very brief call, it is usual to say, " Did you come for fire? " which is sarcastic, and equivalent to, " I suppose you want something."
It is not right for a woman to comb her hair at night : every hair may become entangled in the feet of a friend who is sailing in a ship. Nor is it right to count the teeth of a comb — that means you are numbering the years of your life ; nor to throw a comb to anyone. There is a saying, " Do not throw a comb but at an enemy."
It is not right for a person to cut his own hair. There is a saying about •' raising scissors above one's breath" — possibly some allusion to cutting the breath of life.
It is not right to put a sieve on the head, as it stunts the growth. Short people are often taunted with having done
' See " The Powers of Evil in the Outer Hebrides," Folk-Lore, x., 265.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 31
this. If a person were to go out at night with a sieve in his hand, he would require to have a piece of coal in the other hand, to prevent his being carried away by the dead.'
It is not right to use the stein of docken, the most natural switch in these treeless islands, to drive either horses or cows. Children are much impressed wath horror of docken. A mother said that if she threatened to beat her children with it " they would fly through the seven worlds."
It is not right to touch a wound with finger or thumb. They are venomous — one would say, sometimes, for obvious reasons ! — but the reason given is that with them Adam took the forbidden fruit.
It is not right for a child to walk backwards, it is shorten- ing his mother's life.
It is not good to sleep on the back, as the heart and lungs and liver may adhere to the back.
It is not right to press a person to stay late, if con- trary to his inclination. The theory is, that he may have what the Society for Psychical Research would call " a subliminal monition," which others ought not to oppose.
It is not good to recall a person starting on a journey. If it is really necessary, it is always done with the formula, " It is not calling after you I am." And if the person starting finds he has forgotten something, he must remain a little while when he goes back to the house, before seek- ing it. I have observed both of these customs many times, the latter at some inconvenience. Fortunately there are no trains or even omnibuses to catch in these islands.
The reeds which grow so abundantly in all the lakes (and
' Meeting the Sliiath, the procession of the wandering dead, is a very com- mon experience in the islands. It is said to be not unfrequent for persons to return home at night bruised and soiled by the crowd which has passed over them on its way to the churchyard.
32 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
the islands are more water than land), must not be used for thatching the houses, though apparently very suitable for the purpose, and freely used for making mats and baskets, horse-collars, and even chairs ; but if put on the roof of house or byre, death will certainly follow. Father Allan Macdonald notes on October i6th, i8g6, that he was con- sulted as to the danger of thatching a house with reeds, and if it were really running any risk for man or beast. It was alleged that reeds had been cursed ever since one was used at the Crucifixion of our Lord.
Branches of yew are kept in the house as a preservative against fire — it may be a survival of keeping the Palm Sunday boughs. (In Spain they are placed in balconies against lightning.)
If a child loses a tooth, it should be hidden in the earth that forms the padding of the loose walls, or he will not get another.
If a child's first tooth comes in the upper jaw he will be a bard. Others say, if he is born with a tooth he will be a bard.
It is not right to take fire out of a house where there is a child who has not got a tooth yet, otherwise it will get no teeth at all. When a child's first tooth is coming through, something that has life should be apportioned to him, a calf, or a lamb, or a cock.
It is not right to whistle on board a boat, it may call up the wind. The same informant, who is very definite on this score, says also that " no islander would put a knife into the mast for wind, though he would get Uist." One cannot wonder at the islanders showing fear of any methods of raising the wind, they have too many wild winds in their storm-beaten islands.
"A whistling woman and a crowing hen" are as little tolerated in the Hebrides as elsewhere. The cure for the hen is, to cut off part of the tail.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 33
On seeing the new moon it is right to cross yourself and
say :
" He that created you created me White be thy light to us, If it be well at thy beginning May it be sevenfold better at thy end."
Here, as elsewhere, it is a good thing, and a sign you will not want, to have something in the hand when you see the new moon.
If two or more marriages take place at the same time, each couple will try to be first for luck. A bride must wear something borrowed for luck. The young wife used to go round the township collecting wool, which was freely given by her neighbours.
It is not right to return the leavings of the meal to the chest after baking.
It is not right for a woman to fan a fire with the skirt of her dress, for when the nails were being prepared for Our Lord's Crucifixion, the smith's daughter roused the fire of the smithy in that way.
When the ashes rise and whirl in little eddies, it is a sign of a storm.
When you have singing in the ears, you should pray for
the dead ; it is a sign that someone is dying at the time.
Others say :
" May all be well for us and for our friends, If it was you that heard, may it not be you that will weep."
To prevent ill consequences from the prick of a needle
it should be thrust three times into the earth.
II. — Animal Lore.
The sort of story which, in A^sof s Fables, is attributed to the fox, is in the Outer Hebrides, where foxes are unknown, related of the cat.
Two old cats went down to the shore one day, and found a large lump of butter. After much quarrelling as to ownership, it was agreed that the oldest should have it.
VOL. XIII, D
34 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
" I am the oldest," said the one who had made the sugges- tion, " I am the cat that Adam had." The other said, " You are undoubtedly elderly, but not so old as I, for I was on the earth before the hempen feet {i.e. the rays) went under the sun. Hand over the butter." He ate so much that he began to swell, and became so heavy that he could not run, and so when a hungry wolf came down to the shore he fell a victim. " It is not good to be telling lies," as the cat said when the wolf ate him.
When Lazarus died, nasty creatures (rats and mice) threatened to devour the body. Our Lord came, and baring the breast of His friend, breathed upon the hair, and there appeared a little cat, which is why a cat likes to sit upon a person's chest.
The first milk of a cow after calving should be drunk by a dog. The cat must certainly not have it first, for the dog has ordered the cow to have milk in four teats, but the cat ordered only three.
The cat does not flourish in damp or draught, and is con- sequently a very degenerate animal in the Outer Isles, but that it does sometimes reach a mature age is shown by the saying that "his first seven years are passed joyously and pleasantly in the sun, but his last seven years are passed heavy-headed, large-headed, sleepy, by the fire." The cat's more ordinary length of life is denoted in the saying, " Three ages of a cat to the age of a dog, three ages of a dog to the age of a man, three ages of a man to the age of a deer, three ages of a deer to the age of an oak-tree," though what the people in the Hebrides know about oak- trees it would be hard to say.
If a cat goes into a pot, it is a presage of fish coming to the house. If a cat scratches on the ground it is a sign of death, for it is looking for a corpse.
A dog howling by day without sufficient cause is said to be observing a phantom funeral, a warning of a real one to follow.
More Folklore from the Hebrides, 35
The last words of the sheep when he left Paradise, where the beasts had the gift of speech, were, " Do not burn my bones." Since then it has not been considered right to throw any sheep-bones on the fire.^
Where there are nine otters, there is the dohhar chti, the male otter. There is a spot under his breast, and he can only be killed by wounding this. The rest of his body is protected by enchantment. The smoke of him will fell a man sixty yards away.
If the field-mouse (in Gaelic called the grass-mouse) passes in front of a cow or horse, it betokens ill-luck to the creature.
Formerly, if people wished to have she-calves, they buried the matrix at a boundary-stream.
The bee, the corn-crake, and the stone-chat and the cuckoo, are all enchanted creatures — possibly because they disappear in winter, unlike most of the sea-birds, more familiar to the islanders.
A wren is lucky about a house. There is a Gaelic saying, " No house ever dies out that the wren frequents."
When eggs are set, an odd number should always be placed under the hen, for one will not hatch, it goes into the tithe {deachanch.) The wren never pays tithes, and all her twelve eggs are hatched, but she pays more than the full penalty, for only one will survive, and, moreover, she always has an ooze in her nest.
The crow cannot be put to shame. The lapwing, who, as everybody knows, has a trick of repeating himself, said to the grey crow, " I never saw your like for stealing eggs, for stealing eggs." The crow, rubbing his beak on the grass^ replied, "Nor did we ourselves, though it is we who are older."
Knowledge of the whereabouts of the lost, if dead, is called "raven's knowledge." When Cuchullin was dying the host of his enemies dispatched a crow [jiannag) to see
' [Cf. Folk- Lore, x.. 262.— En.] D 2
36 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
if he were dead. His dying attitude was so life-like, propped up with spears, that the raven, returning, could
only say :
" The eye looks askance, And the mouth is awry."
Everyone knows how intent the lapwing is upon mis- leading you as to the whereabouts of its nest. The words of its shrill cry are " Little Murdoch, don't harry my nest" {Mhurchadh bheg, na creach mo nid).
The crested lark is held sacred and is called endearingly " tcisiag Motre,^' lark of Mary.
The hedge-sparrow [glaissean) is blessed, though not lucky. Often before the death of a child two or three will come about the door every day for a fortnight.
The seal, like the swan, is the bewitched child of a king, and its hand-like paws are all that remain of its human state.
It is dangerous to eat the head of an eel, for eels are subject to madness and liable to communicate the disease. Our informant was asked if he knew of any definite case of such infection, and he instanced a friend of his own who was saved only by being caused to vomit just when his head was beginning to go wrong. He told us also the story of a man who killed a trout and an eel ; he gave his wife the trout and ate the eel himself. He shortly became insane, but not before he had warned his wife to fly to her brother's house for safety. The brother went next day to visit his afflicted relative, and found that he had killed his horse and was eating the raw flesh, so, to prevent further mischief, he shot him. It was considered best for himself to leave the country, and he went to Ben Mohr in South Uist, where his descendants still live ; one of whom — our informant — is still known as Mac Ian, Mac Ian, Mac Donald of the Horse (the son of Ian, the son of Ian, the son of Donald).
A man, fond of fishing, was asked what he had taken. " Devil a fin," said he, though his creel was full of trout.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 2>7
That was how the devil came to remove the side-fins from the trout.
The herring is the king of fishes, but the fish from which St. Peter got the tribute money was the haddock.^
St. Columkille is very much mixed up with beast stories. There is a story of how the flounder got a crooked mouth, which belongs to the folklore of many countries, but is here associated with the saint, who was one day wading through one of the sandy fords common in the islands, when the flounder, who was resting on a stone, mocked him, and had a crooked mouth for ever after.
It is not right to remove any fish found dead upon the shore of loch or sea. Three Eriskay men were landing in a boat a little below the chapel-house, when they saw a dead salmon and some large trout on the shore. All made a rush for it ; but the one that got it was thereafter sorry, for a near relative soon died.
It is not right to put a whelk to roast on the fire, it will produce seven years of famine.
There is a little univalve shell the people call fuoitrag, which it is lucky to carry in the pocket, and three of them will save one from being lost in a mist.
We heard of a little black-beetle that strikes a smart ticking blow. Children call him " the little smith," and they call " Little Smith, little Smith, strike the hammer," and then they listen for the little blow.
The bare-footed children are expected to wash their feet in the burn before coming indoors to bed. If they omit this duty they are threatened with the centipede, which is called " Martin of the knives," or " the lad of the knives," sometimes " the red fox," from his colour.
The children apparently understand the habits of the
' [Off the American coast there is a fish called the King-fish ; a kind of herring, clad in glistening silver scales, a most beautiful object, six feet long. It is not good for food, however. — E. S. H.]
38 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
aphis, for putting one on the back of the hand they cry, in Gaelic rhyme :
" Carlin of the whey,
Whey-pail, whey-pail, Give me of your whey Or I will take head and feet off you,"
and the creature leaves a drop of liquid on the hand.
The natives dread a caterpillar, said to be fatal to cows, and which they call " The clothed one," from its handsome appearance.
III. — The Weather and the Church Seasons.
In a land where there are few artificial methods of noting the progress of the year, where clocks,^ almanacs, and news- papers are, in certain districts, practically unknown, the landmarks of time are, naturally enough, the weather and the Church seasons. The following are among the sayings most frequently heard.
" A short short month between St. Andrew's (November 30th) and Christmas." " Autumn lasts till Christmas, and Winter to St. Patrick's." " Christmas to-day. May-day to- morrow," i.e. if Christmas fall on a Monday, May-day will fall on a Tuesday.
" The calf-killer of Patrick feast," is the name given to the cold east wind, which prevails so often in the early
' When, as is not infrequent, fog and mist obscure the light, the cock, the usual time-keeper, is often much disconcerted and put out in his calculations, sometimes with curious and inconvenient results, such as the arrival of the congregation for mass at twelve instead of nine, or of failure to put out to meet some passing steamer prepared to drop passenger or cargo into a small boat in open sea. There are, however, certain of the initiated who, given a sufficiency of daylight, are wonderfully successful by the following method, which we saw practised by a fisherman. Take the sea horizon as a base, gaze fixedly at it, and place the closed fist perpendicularly on the base, then the other fist upon that, and so on alternately until a fist comes between you and the sun. The number of times }'ou have placed the fist is the number of hours to sunset.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 39
spring. As the year goes on, and the temperature of the water becomes less chill, there is a saying :
" Brigid put a foot in it, Mary put a hand in it, Patrick put a stone in it."
St. Brigid's Day is on February ist, Candlemas (February 2nd) is more temperate, and St. Patrick's Day, March 17th, takes away all the venom. St. Patrick's stone is probably a hail-stone.
The hail-stone is also called " stone of Mary." This association with the Blessed Virgin has always an endearing quality : the lark is called " the bird of Mary ; " a Molucca bean, valued as a charm, the " nut of Mary ; " the sea, upon whose gifts all depend more or less, is the treasury of Mary, and so on ; from which one concludes that the appear- ance of hail has in it something not wholly unwelcome.
There is a rhyme said about the time of St. Patrick's
feast-day which is sometimes quoted as a charm against
serpents :
" Patrick's feast-day — half of spring, Ivar's daughter will come out of the hole. I will not ' be at ' (hurt) Ivar's daughter, No more will she ' be at ' me."
However, as there are no serpents in the islands, an explanation suggested by Father Allan strikes one as far more probable. As is well known, the common nettle always tends to spring up around the places occupied, or which have been occupied, by man, and however carefully extirpated it is one of the most common of the many weeds which grow in the crevices of the houses and byres both indoors and out, and the appearance of its first tender leaves is hailed as one of the first signs of spring. What the phrase " Ivar's daughter" may mean it is interesting to inquire, but the hint that she does no harm if let alone might well point to the conduct of the common nettle.
One of the feasts most regarded, especially in earlier
40 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
times, is that of the Annunciation, as to which there is a saying :
" Mary's feast-day of Patrick's feast,'
The noblest day that will come,
The noblest that has gone."
The direction of the wind on New Year's Day presages the prosperity or failure of fish and crops for the whole year, as that will be the prevalent wind for the year.
There is a month in mid-winter known as the " dead " month, probably from the arrest of all growth. It is believed that no indigo dye should be used at this time, as the cloth would not take the colour properly.
The last fortnight of January and the first of February com- pose the month known as Gobag, the beaked or venomous one. Two proverbs apply to this : " Gobag, the beaked one, mother of the cold {Faoilleach), that will kill the sheep and the lambs." " Better the foray came to the land than a smooth morning in the cold Faoilleach (that is a frost)."
On Easter Sunday, the sun dances with joy three times to testify to the glory of the Resurrection, and hundreds go up every year to the hill-tops before sunrise to witness the phenomenon. An intelligent tacksman declared solemnly that he had seen this when sailing in his schooner near the Isle of Man.
Pace eggs are used in Uist on Palm Sunday, not at Easter.
May-day is spoken of as the Yellow (or golden) Beltane, and is hailed with joy. It is said that on this day " The cuckoo comes from her winter home," later, it will be observed, than the "April," when "come he will," of more genial climates. However, the cuckoo is a bird of very short and of merely occasional passage in the treeless Hebrides, and indeed in some islands is practically unknown. On St. Peter's Day (June 2gth), the cuckoo will go to her winter home, is another saying which shows that only a short visit is, at best, expected.
Agricultural operations done about Beltane {bhealltuinn) ' It is a week later than St. Patrick's.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 41
are especially lucky. The period extends over the first sixteen days of May.
The Beltane bannock is smaller than that made at St. Michael's (see infra, p. 44), but is made in the same way; it is no longer made in Uist, but Father Allan remembers seeing his grandmother make one about twenty-five years ago. There was also a cheese made, generally on the ist of May, which was kept to the next Beltane as a sort of charm against the bewitching of milk-produce. The Bel- tane customs seem to have been the same as elsewhere. Every fire was put out and a large one lit on the top of the hill, and the cattle driven round it sunwards [dessil], to to keep off murrain all the year. Each man would take home fire wherewith to kindle his own.
For some reason, not obvious, an old saying invites us to " Pity her who is the mother of silly children, when Bel- tane is on a Thursday." ^ In the same way, and with equal mystery, " When All Saints' Day is on a Wednesday there is lamentation among the children of men."
On All Souls' Day it is believed that " Holy Souls
stretch out their hands for alms; " and it is a pious custom,
universally practised to this day, for the people to give
alms to their poorer neighbours.
" She who combs her curling tresses On the night of Sunday-Monday Did not on earth as much good As would get mercy for her soul."
" What is done on Monday will be quickly or slowly
undone" (hence an unlucky day to begin anything).
" It is on Monday the world will end."
' [This saying possibly contains a reference to human sacrifices at Beltane, when the " silly " children would naturally be the first to be chosen as victims. For human sacrifice among the Celts, see the Voyage of Bran, vol. ii., and cf. the descriptions of Beltane ceremonies in the Statistical Account of Scotlaitd. It is possible, though there is absolutely no evidence of it, that Thursday was sacred to the Thunderer among the Celts, as well as among the Teutons, and that a Thursday Beltane would therefore be a day of special solemnity. — A. NUTT.]
42 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
It is not right to kill a sheep on a Friday.
" Flit on Saturday northward, Flit on Sunday southward, If I had only a lamb
It would be on Monday I would go away with it."
The saying " Bright Sunday, rough Monday," is more or less equivalent to our " Sunday rules Tuesday." We have also an equivalent to the theory " Mackerel speckles on the sky, and a good day to-morrow."
It is well known that the rain of the Flood came slanting down from the S.W., as is easily seen by the fact that all the mountains and hills in the Western Isles are bare on their south-west faces.
A saying in Uist with regard to the harvest is, " The year of the coilchean (short-grown straw) never brought famine to Uist." Coilchean is straw stunted by drought, and would imply a dry season.
Owing to the indifference of certain proprietors, there is an immense waste of human life and energy spent in herding sheep and cattle, for want of fences. In former times the cattle grazed on the hills and the low-lying ground was all arable, but now the hill-grazing has been taken away from the poor, and in the islands of South Uist, Benbecula, and Barra, all on the Gordon estate, there is no provision for keeping the cattle from encroaching upon the poor little crofts or cultivated ground, the more tempting to the wretched half-starved creatures, that owing to lack of drainage such grass as they can reach is sour and without nourishing qualities. The following rhymes are common among the herd-boys, who pass so many hours in charge of sheep, cows, and horses on the treeless, wind-swept marshes, and to whom rain is a melancholy aggravation of their tedium and discomfort.
" RainL>ovv ! Rainbow " Shower bow ! Shower bow I
Go away, go away, Go away home,
Yonder is your mother on the And strike three strokes
gibbet, With the tawse
She will be hanged before you On thy person,
reach. And the rain will go away.'
More Folklore frojn the Hebrides. 43
The following are variants, the first as used in South Uist, the second in Benbecula :
" Poor herd-boys In the shelter of knowes, A dog at their knees, And a staff at their breast, And a pin on their chest,' Asking God To put sun and drying in it."
In Benbecula they say :
" Shower-bow ! Shower-bow ! Passing shower ! passing shower ! Many a poor herd-boy Out at the shelter of a knowe Asking the great God To put the great rain away."
The Will o' the Wisp (called in Gaelic Tcine biorach = sharp fire) is said to be of quite modern appearance, at least in South Uist. It was first seen, it is said, in 18 12, and is the haunting spirit of a young girl from Benbecula, who frequented the machair, or sandy plain beside the sea, in search of the galiuni verum, used in the dyeing of the local cloth or tweed. Her sin was that of seeking to get an undue share of a product which should have been equally divided for the common good, and which has at all times to be husbanded as one of the plants which bind the sandy soil together where it has been redeemed from the sea. There is, however, another story as to the origin of the Jack o' lantern. The haunting spirit is that of a blacksmith, who could get no admittance even into hell. He was very cold, and begged for a single ember to warm himself, and at last one was given him, and he has gone shivering about with it ever since."
A special interest of this story is that it tells against the common Hebridean tradition of a cold hell, a tradition one
i.e., drawing their cloak or plaid together as a defence against the weather.
- [See Shropshire Folklore, p. 34.]
44 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
soon learns to accept in South Uist, the land of cold mist and sweeping winds, and damp, and draughts, and rain, where even the nether regions with a fire in them have a suggestion of comfort. Hell is therefore discouragingly known as " the place of the wind of the cold passages, or the wind of the cold channels."
The Aurora Borealis is called in Gaelic the Firchlis- neach or " the darting ones ; " and when the lights are seen flashing about the sky they are fighting among themselves, and their blood is found upon the rocks in the form of a lichen known as " the blood of the darting ones." Their history is, that when the angels were falling out of heaven, Saint Michael noticed that heaven would soon be emptied of its inhabitants, and God ordered that the contest should cease, and everything remain as it was at the moment ; so those that fell on the earth or on the rocks or into the pit remained there, and those that were falling from the sky stayed where they were. Those that fell among the rocks we hear sometimes as Echo (called in Gaelic the Son of the fall of the Rocks), and those who fell upon the earth are the Fairies.
St. Michael is believed to have saved many of the angelic host from joining in the rebellion of Lucifer and the punishment that followed, by throwing holy water over them as they were hastening after him. All who were touched were unable to move, and so stayed where they were and were saved. The epithet min, gentle, is applied to St. Michael, and he is the saint most invoked in South Uist after Our Lady. A bannock specially prepared for his festival, "the size of a quern" in circumference, is called the St. Michael's Cake, Striithan na K eill Micheil. It is kneaded simply with water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with buttermilk, is
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 45
spread first on one side, then on the other, and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a triangle with the corners cut olT. A struthan or strudhaji (the word seems to be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an early patch of corn is mown on purpose for the struthan. St. Michael's Day is so far a festival that it is almost as important to have a bottle of whisky in the house then, as it is at a wedding or a fulling, and even yet, so I am told by a priest, the people ask if it is not a holiday of obligation.
On this day wild carrots are presented by the girls in a house to male visitors. An old woman named Campbell describes how " All the week before St. Michael's Day we gathered wild carrots^ and each of us hid our store on the machair. On St. Michael's Day we took them up, and we girls had a great day cooking and eating them and dancing and singing. The boys had their own fun. They used to try to find and to steal our carrots. We had always to give some to the first person we met after pulling them up, and also to the first person we met coming into the house when we got home."
Hogmany Night has naturally its especial customs. The children go round to the houses on New Year's Eve to ask their Hogmany. It appears from the fourth line of their rhyme as if the custom obtained formerly on ChristmasY,\&, as among the Spaniards, who keep then their Noche Buena.
" I to-night am going a Hogmanying, Going to renew the shout of the Kalends, To tell the women of the township That to-morrow is the Day of Christmas. I need not be telling it,
It was in existence in the time of my grandfather, Climbing at the lintel over the door And descending at the door, Giving my diian (rhyme) orderly, Courteously, knowingly, as I knew how to."
46 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
" There will be a ' Caisean ' ' Of the Calands in my pocket. Good is the smoke that will come from it. I will give to the man of the house in his fist, And he will thrust its nose into the fire. He will put it ' sunwards ' over the children, And especially over the woman-of-the-house. The woman-of-the-house well deserves that — The hand that provides the Caland-cakes."
It used to be the custom for one of the merrymakers to
have a dried hide on his back, and for the rest to smite the
hide with their shinties, saying :
" Since there is a drought in the country We will hope for a dram. A little thing of the gift of summer [butter], I expect along with the bread. If you have got it at all [lit. ' of the world '], If you may give, do not keep delay upon us ; I am in the open door, so let me in."
If they considered themselves well treated, they would pronounce the following blessing upon leaving the house :
" If it be well to-night, May it be sevenfold better a year from to-night ; May God bless the house and all in it, Between man and wife and children, Much food and plenty of clothing. And the wealth of men be in it."
The following is recited on Hogmany night :
" Three men to-night As on Easter night.
[The next line is unintelligible, probably half forgotten] To-night is the night of the hard hangman. The hard cruel tree to which Christ was hung ; Christ, the Clerk above us. [Another obscure line follows.] High is the cake, and high the poor. And high is He of to-night's night. Brigid went upon her knee. The King of the elements sat on her breast."
The New Year's Candle {Caisean Cullaig) was made of a sheep's tail, wrapped in a rag, and steeped in grease.
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 47
IV. — Divination.
The taking of the Frith or horoscope is still practised. It is practically the observation and interpretation by certain recognised rules of such natural objects as are accidentally present. It is especially in favour in relation to the fate of absent friends. Where postal service is still unfrequent and uncertain, and till lately was almost unknown, and where for long there was practically no written language, one the more easily makes allowance for empirical methods such as these, and many striking stories of coincidence are told in various districts.
The first Monday in every quarter was said to be the right time for casting friths ; but an old woman named Catriona MacEachan, who died lately, and had special skill in this direction, made them at all times. The following account of the methods employed was given by another very old woman, who also had had long practice : —
" To make a frith, you look forth towards the sea, or over the country, to see omens or signs of good or ill luck to men, women, or cattle. Looking forth on to the sea is not so easy as the others. First, in the morning, you say a prayer and a Hail Mary. The Frith is holy, and was practised by Our Lady and St. Joseph when looking for the Holy Child when lost for three days. The person proceeds with closed eyes till he reaches the door-step. Then he opens them, and if he sees a sacred symbol, if only two straws crossing each other, all will be well. When he gets outside he walks round the house, dessil [sunwards] looking straight in front of him through the loosely-closed hand, as Mary looked through the hand of Brigid. As he goes along he says :
' God be before me,
Mary after me,
And the Son whom she bore, the King of the Elements,
And whom Brigid placed in her hand.
May I be upon Thy side, O God,
And may God be on my track,
48 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
May the Son of Mary, who is the King of the Elements, Enlighten each thing of this. With His grace before me.' '
" It is not always what you would like to see that you will see," continued our informant. " A man coming to- wards you, or a cock or a foal looking towards you, would be good, but if one were to see a beast lying down he might go and get the funeral feast ready. I have seen it happen so always. If while you are making the frith you should see a woman, you should bless yourself at once, it is always bad, and will mean death or something equally bad. There is a little bird, too, which is not lucky, but it is blessed, the glaissean^' and another bird with a white collar about the size of a lapwing that will call two or three times about the end of the house. It is at the evening twilight that he will come, and I never saw him coming that death was not after him."
Many other things she told us, and putting them into some sort of sequence we were able to classify them after the following fashion.
All women are not equally unlucky ; one passing or returning is not so bad, it is standing that she is fatal. One with red hair is worst, ^ but black hair is fairly lucky, and dun-
' The following variant is used in Benbecula : " I going forth
On thy path, O God. God before me ! God after me ! And God in my step ! The charm that Mary made for her Son. Brighid breathed strongly through her palm. Knowledge of truth [ = true knowledge] Without knowledge of falsehood [not false knowledge] As she obtained ;
May I see the semblance Of the thing that I myself am seeking." ■ Said by some to be the hedge-sparrow (see supra, p. 36). ' This unfortunate being is also disastrous to fish. One is inclined to speculate as to the possibility of the connection between this augury and the Highland antipathy to the sandy Scot.
More Folklore form the Hebrides. 49
coloured is the best. A man or beast standing are (in relation to a sick person) a sign of recovery ; lying down, of continued illness. A bird on the wing is a good sign if coming towards you. A skylark, ptarmigan, dove, or widgeon is always good ; a crow, raven, or stone-chat bad. A ptarmigan seen by a sailor means safety from drowning. A cat is bad except for a Macintosh, a Macpherson, or any other of the clan Chattan (whose cognisance it is). A calf and lamb are good, and if facing you very good. " A pig is a sign of a Campbell coming, which is never good except for a Campbell." A horse signifies land, and is lucky ; dun horse is best, and signifies a farmer ; a grey horse means the sea, and foretells a sailor; a red horse, the grave, i.e. death ; a black horse, sadness ; and a yellow horse, a Mackenzie.
There is a fragment of an old raiim or song in South Uist.
" I rose early in the morning, yesterday, I plucked yarrow for the horoscope for thy tale, In the hope that I might see the desire of my heart.
[literally, the secret of my creel\. Ochone ! there was seen her hack towards meP
This, it is said, refers to the story of a certam bard whose fate deserves to be related as a warning to those tempted to extravagance in this direction. He fell in love with a girl in Stornoway who married another, and by means of the frith he was constantly calling up her image. Every Wednesday he composed a song to her, till he pined away and became so small that his father used to carry him in a creel on his back. It was whispered that the one he con- jured up was the devil.
There is a special gift which exists in certain families which may perhaps be described as a capacity for casting the frith by spontaneous rather than empirical methods. The following are among the signs by which they are able to presage the common events of life for themselves and others. We have personally met with several instances — in
VOL. XIII. E
50 More Folklore fro7n the Hebrides.
some cases, of intelligent and pious persons — all of whom could relate a great number of coincidences. The left ear hot betokens praise. The right ear hot betokens blame. Itching in the right sole, going to a strange place. Itching in the left sole, going to a dance. Itching in right palm, blessing from a stranger. Itching in left palm, going to get money. Itching under eye, going to weep. Itching upper lip, going to get a dram. Itching under lip, going to get a kiss. Itching in right elbow, going to sleep with a stranger. ^ Itching in nostril, going to be angry. Eye winking much is a presage of joy. White spot on nail, going to get some- thing new. Black spot on tooth, a lie. Moth or butterfly, a letter coming. Shoe-tie loose, someone remembering you. A fly in one's mouth, going to get fresh fish. Moth on the sleeve, going to have new clothes. Spider on clothes, going to have new clothes. Three sneezes portend a letter cominor. A sino-le hair on a woman's face is luck. Food accidentally choking you shows it is grudged.
Divination by the shoulder blade of a sheep is a very old method, and seems to be practised in all parts of the world, notably among the Afghans. As practised in the Hebrides it seems to be analogous to crystal-gazing, and the bone serves for what the French psychologists call a point de repere, that is, a focus for concentration of gaze. One tribe in the islands was specially notable for the slinnean- achd. Angus Macdonald Mohr, who died at South Loch- boisdale about 1885, and Murdoch, who died in Eriskay in 1888, were of the family, and descended from a common ancestor, said to have been born by the Csesarean opera- tion after his mother's death.
Some men were cutting peats, and their employer pro- vided an abundant feast, including plenty of mutton. Taking up the shoulder bone, he asked one of the party to make a. fosachd. The first invited said he could not, that
' This is a not improbable circumstance in a country where beds are few, and tlie stranger, seeking hospitality, has to share or go without .
More Folklore front the Hebrides. 51
he had not the gift, whereupon the host invited a second guest, adjuring him by the Evil One. " Hand me the shoulder blade," said Thomas, son of Duncan. " There then, you devil, take it," said the host ; whereupon he received the bone and uttered the oracle. "You have got my wether boiled for the peat-workers, you thief," said he, " and the rest of it that you did not boil is in your grain- kiln; and this turn would have gone well with thee, like more of the kind, if you had not conjured me by the devil."
Divination by dreams is of course common in the Hebrides as elsewhere, and a certain amount of importance is attached to them, but less than to waking visions, whether spontaneous or empirical.
A dream seen on the night of Sunday means nothing unless realised before mid-day on Monday.
A priest seen in a dream is, in Eriskay, the sign of a storm ; in Uist, of sin.
To dream of a bull is a sign that a person is to get assistance from a proprietor or a landlord. It is to be hoped that under the influence of the Congested Districts Board the islanders may often dream about bulls.
To dream of water streaming down the inside wall of a house, or of a person dressed in grey, or of yourself on a fresh-water lake, or of a wedding-feast, or of a girl-baby, or being under an upturned boat, or the cock crowing when it is dark, are signs of death. Seeing the sea near you is a sign of weeping. Losing the heel off a boot, or losing a tooth, or seeing a girl-baby, are signs of losing support ; while seeing new boots, or a boy-baby, are signs of support coming. Laughter is a sign of sorrow ; a funeral, of a wedding ; a red dress, of anger ; a sheep, of something holy ; a flock of sheep, of angels about one. A fish, a seal, or a priest, is a warning of bad weather; sea-water means strength — a good sign ; fresh water, illness — a bad sign ; eggs or chickens, of irritating small talk ; iron means strength ; silver, sin, (possibly associated with Judas) : fire,
E 2
52 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
a hasty message; being barefoot, losing one's nearest friend ; boat on shore, a coffin ; new house, a grave ; a hole in the house, death coming to it ; people dressed in blue, of good luck coming; in grey, of bad luck, sickness, or going to sea.
If a person in a dream sees himself losing a tooth, it is a sign of the death of a near friend. Our informant had had such a dream three times, and she mentioned the names of those who died thereafter. Her sister has had a similar experience.^
There is among the Islanders a good deal of what one may call "domestic" divination, apart from the professional seers, who divine by the shoulder-blade of the sheep, or by the making of horoscopes, just as there are charms in con- stant use against the Evil Eye, quite apart from the profes- sional making of spells or snaitheans.
The following saying sums up various signs of ill-omen :
" I saw a snail on ground fiiU of holes, I saw a stone-chat on a bare rock, I saw a foal with his back to me, I heard the cuckoo ere I broke my fast, I knew the year would not go well with me, I lost the wife of the house, and the children."
There is some part of the sheep called the diiilleag, which I think must be that used in the south for the decoration of carcases, especially lamb. When a sheep is killed, this is thrown up to the roof of the barn or shed for luck. If it stick up, it is good luck, but the reverse is merely nega- tive, not positive bad luck. Each person present throws it up till it does stick up, and the last, the successful ones will be the " man of many sheep," and wealthy. If it happens the first time it is very lucky.
' [Many of these interpretations may be found in the printed " Fortune- Tellers" and "Dream Books," circulated among maidservants in all parts of the country. A fire means " hasty news," and the loss of a tooth " the loss of a friend," among most observers of dreams. Much the same remarks apply to the personal omens detailed on p. 50 — Ed.]
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 53
As elsewhere, the finding of a four-leaved shamrock, with- out looking for it, brings luck. The following charm is said for this purpose :
" Shamrock of the leaves and the virtues, I dearly wish thou wert under my pillow, At the time of my falling into deep sleep."
To ascertain if you will marry a certain person, put two straws on the embers at the same time ; if they burn towards each other it is a good sign, if they turn away, aversion or separation.
The number of seeds on a stalk of corn taken from a stack in the dark will show the number of a prospective family.
If you put a cabbage-stock under your pillow, the person you will see in your dream removing it, will be your husband or wife as the case may be.
Hallowe'en is of course the great time for looking into the future, and it may be interesting to quote such methods as we have met with, for the sake of comparison with similar customs elsewhere. The following notes have all been taken at first hand from those who have practised or seen in practice the divinations in question.
There is a saying :
" Hallowe'en will come, will come, Witchcraft [or divination] will be set agoing, Fairies will be at full speed, Running in every pass. Avoid the road, children, children."
On Hallowe'en six plates were placed on the floor each with separate contents, and the girl of the house came blindfolded. The first she touched foretold her fate.
1. Pure water portended an unexceptionable husband.
2. Salt, a sailor, 3. Meal, a farmer. 4. Earth, a death. 5. Dirty water, a disreputable husband. 6. An empty plate, no husband.
54 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
Another Hallowe'en divination is known as the Pollag na Samkna = the little hole of Hallowe'en. The person seeking a revelation of the future digs a little hole in the ground about the size of a saucer, and then loosely replaces the earth, which he removes again next morning. If he find a live w^orm in it, it is a sign he will be alive next Hallowe'en, if a dead one, that his career is ended. A girl called Kate, who had found a dead worm in her hole, had recently died of measles within the year. In some places the Pollag is turned to another account. Three are dug, representing three eligible young men, or maids, as the case may be. The one in which a live worm is found indicates the name of the sweetheart assigned by fate.
Another method is to take a glass half full of water and and an egg perforated at the bottom, through which the white is allowed to drop into the water. If it falls to the bottom and remains there, ill-luck will follow ; if it rises, it rises slowly, and the method is to hold the glass between the eye and the light and divine the future according to the shapes it may assume. If little round globules come up they should be counted, for they indicate the number of the future family. A variant was, to break an egg into the water, and then, closing the tumbler with the palm of the hand, to turn it quickly upside down and back again, and then watch the forms assumed while the egg is in movement.
Another custom was for young women to go to a stream that was a boundary, and to wash or dip their shifts into the stream and afterwards place them at the fire to dry. All must be done in strict silence, and the man of whom they dreamt, or whose image they saw as from time to time they turned the garment at the fire, was the man they would marry.
Another custom was to 2.0 alone to the kiln where erain is dried (nothing gets much chance to dry naturally in such a climate as Uist), taking a coil of heather rope, of which one end was inserted down the fiue. The girl then asked, "Who
More Folklore fro7n the Hebrides. 55
is that at the end of my rope?" and the name given in answer was that of the future husband.^
If a girl went to a house and listened at the door, the first man whose name she heard would be her husband.
There is a mysterious method of divination which consists in carrying an apple on a fork against the Father^ the Son, and the Holy Ghost on Hallowe'en, the first person met to be considered one's fate. The custom was quoted with much expression of horror and explained as an importation, not a local practice, which, as forks and apples are alike modern innovations, is very probable.
A favourite dish on Hallowe'en is called Fuarag, and suggests the Yorkshire frumenty or furmenty. It is made of churned cream, oatmeal, and sugar. A ring is put into it — on the same principle as into a plum-pudding \v England.
A salt cake called Bonnach Salainn is eaten on Hallowe'en to induce dreams of the future in store. Not a word must be spoken after taking it, not even prayers if they don't happen to have been said previously, and no water must be drunk. The cake is made of common meal, with an inordinate quantity of salt. A variant on this is to eat a salt herring roasted on the fire. It must be consumed in three bites, bones, fins, and all, and the same conditions observed.
There is one custom observed on Hallowe'en of which unless it be the survival of some ceremony of blessing, one does not see the import. It was thus described. The boys of the house, urged by their parents, take a peat from the fire, and proceed round the house, the stackyard, and the barn, sunwise. In going round the stackyard one must enter, and place a stone on each stack on the inside of the heather rope going round the stack.
' There was a somewhat similar custom in the Lowlands, where the girls on flallowe'en used to put their garters outside the window, and pulling them in gently would ask in the same way, " Who is at the end of my garters ? "'
56 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
The girls too have their special game, which has probably some interesting historical origin, if one did but know it. They call it Mathair M'hor, " the big mother." All but one sit in a row inside the house, one at the end acting The Big Mother. The remaining child hops in on one foot, and the Mother asks what she has come for. The reply is : "Dloj'a, Dioj'a, Diasgan" (nonsense words, pronounced Cheeka, Cheeka, Chelusgan), " Macleod sent me to ask for a piece of pork." The game is to see how many times this can be said on one leg. It should be remembered that the true Highlander scorns pork, and even when (which is still not often, and was formerly yet more rare) he keeps pigs, it is usually for sale, not for his own use.
V. — Leechcraft,
A man who has three times licked the liver of a freshly killed otter when it is still warm, has the power of curing burns and scalds by applying his tongue to the injured part before a blister has had time to rise. Father Allan says that on February 26th, 1896, he saw a man who had burned a finger go to have it licked by two men who had gone through the otter ceremony. The men declared the belief to be very old, and were surprised that he had not seen it done before.
There is a cure for erysipelas almost as nasty. Anyone who has crushed between his hands a young rat before it has any hair, and rubbed the raw flesh all over his ow^n hands, can cure erysipelas and rose-rash for the rest of his life. A man who lately died in Eriskay was in great request to relieve both man and beast in this manner. ■ .- An effectual remedy for inflammation in the udder of a cow is to hold a burning peat underneath, and to milk upon it until the peat is extinguished.
A cure for epilepsy is to kill a black cock, and to bury it where the patient first had a fit.^
' [See Folklore, xi., p. 446.]
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 57
Na barrin is a children's illness that shows itself beneath the tongue, and is accompanied by diarrhoea. There is a charm for it still used in Mingulay, and in Uist a young man aged thirty testifies to having been cured by it when a child. The ceremony consists of putting nine green leaves about the neck of the child with a charm.
An intelligent schoolmaster relates that when the whoop- ing-cough was in his family, a friendly neighbour asked his mother to send her any child that had not yet taken it. The eldest boy was sent, and the woman, who had an ass, passed him three times over the back and under the belly of the creature in the Name of the Blessed Trinity, and then took a piece of bread, which she broke in half, and gave one part to the boy and one to the donkey, and the boy never took the whooping-cough.
An old woman stated that she was once cured of illness many years ago by having cold water made to trickle over a sickle on to her bare back.
If the nature of an illness is not understood, it is a good plan to give the patient three strong pinches of snufT or pepper, and if he does not sneeze the case is undoubtedly fever.
There are many ailments which can only be removed by charms. The following is in use by nursing mothers : " Look Thou, O Christ, at the breast,
How painful it is.
Tell it to gentle Mary,
Since it was she who bore the Son.
Whole may the breast be,
Small may the swelling be,
Run away, O (giving the name of the complaint)."
Our Lord was walking with His Mother one day by the side of a stream, when a trout was seen jumping out of the water which had lost one eye. Our Lady restored the eye at the intercession of Her Son — hence the charm for the Greinn Giilmain, or acute pain in the eye. Three Hail Marys are said, the eye is anointed with spittle put on
58 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
three times with the palm of the hand, and the following words are recited :
" The charm that Mary put
To the eye of the fish at the pool.
Against 1
. 1 -J (here name the special ailments).
And against the dry scorching ashes,
The spittle of Mary,
The spittle of God,
The spittle of the Mother of the Son of God.
Thou Who didst shape the eyelid,
Hale be the stone (pupil) about which it (the eyelid) is."
A charm for a stye in the eye was made by saying the following words, while a sharp-edged tool, such as a knife or axe, is held edgewise towards the eye, as though threatening the ailment or the spirit causing it.
and so on to
" What put one stye there Without two styes ? "
What put eight styes there Without nine styes ? "
This, if necessary, is nine times repeated.^
Here is a charm for removing any foreign matter which has got into the eye :
" A pin for piercing Stuck in a rock That sprang from a ling, The thing that is in thine eye May the King of the Elements Put it upon thy tongue."
Another was as follows :
" The dust of a particle of dust. The fraction of a particle of hair, Coming swiftly as the roe from the grass, However small the thing in thine eye, May the King of the Elements put it out.'
' [Cf. Folklore, xi., p. 446.]
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 59
The following very ancient charm was given to us by the daughter of the merchant at Balivanich, in Benbecula, one of the few persons living on the spot, familiar with the people and acquainted with their language, who has in- terested herself in any practical way in the customs and beliefs which she has had so excellent an opportunity of noting.
" I have a charm for bruising And for blackening (i.e. livid black marks made by witches) And for enchantment, For illness (that comes) in a known way, And for illness (that comes) without Icnowledge. May there be no injury Among thy four quarters, Thou living creature. That may not be taken away With north wind, And with the swiftness of water A bit and a sup. If you be alive 'tis well And if not you will be let alone."
VI. Death and Drowning.
Some Uist people were watching a cattle-fold at night near a graveyard. The watchman had occasion to go across to the burial ground when he observed that all the graves were open, and he went to tell his friends. When the dawn came they saw troops of people hurrying back to their graves, which, as they went in, closed after them. Long after the rest came one woman, and they stood in her way, and asked her why she came so late. She owned that she had been a weaveress, and that her feet Vv^ere hindered by all the threads she had pilfered when weaving her neighbours' yarn. They let her pass by, and the grave closed over her again.
A second wife is liable to suffer from the Dead maji^s nip, probably a visitation from her predecessor. In the same
6o More Folklore from the Hebrides.
way a first wife will see the person of her successor beside the husband.
Some of the people in the islands have such a horror of the dead that there is sometimes a difficulty in getting a corpse prepared for burial. It is said that those who have once handled a dead body are never afraid again. There are so many superstitions connected with death that one cannot wonder that the entire subject should, even more than elsewhere, have painful associations of mystery and fear.
When one comes into the presence of a corpse, it is wise to lay one's hand upon it ; otherwise one may have to see it again.
After a death, the sea-grass of which the bed is made is burned, and the ascending smoke is a sign to the neighbours that they should pray for the deceased. This bed is not made up in a case, but the grass is simply placed in the bottom of the box-bed to the depth of a foot, and a sheet spread over it. This is quite comfortable, and is easily renewed, or even cleaned by being left out in the rain.
In the south end of Uist, the corpse is not laid out on a bed, but on a board or planks, generally in the kitchen. The wall alongside is draped with a white sheet. Sacred pictures, and holy water, and rosary-beads are left beside the body.
A bowl of water is sometimes placed in a bed from which a corpse has been removed, the reason given being that the corpse may be thirsty. A plate with salt upon it is always placed upon the breast of a corpse.
The bands- which tie the toes of a corpse when stretched, out for burial, and the bands on the face and hands, are all unloosed when the body is put into the coffin, so that it may not be detained on its way to Judgment on the Last Day. There is a curious euphemistic phrase in Gaelic, " after the tying of the toes," e.g., " many a thing will be known after the tying of the toes." The common form of execration is
More Folklore from the Hebrides. 6 1
''Spriolag ort ! " The spriolag is the band tied about the head of a corpse.
If a person's feet feel unaccountably tired, it is a presage of having to go and invite people to a funeral. These invitations are always personal, and necessarily so where there is no written lanafuase, and where the means of communication are rudimentary. There is much ceremony observed, and to be neglected in the invitations is a serious slight. On the other hand^ no one, however intimate, would attend without being asked.
Alms are given to the poor when any relative dies, for the sake of his soul.
The etiquette of mourning is somewhat elaborate. The pipes are silent for at least a year in a house where there has been a death. On one occasion when we were privileged to be present at the ceremonial of " fulling the cloth," i.e. dressing the home-made tweed, the owner of the web sat by silent, taking no part in the labour, though it concerned what she had herself spun and woven. A relative had died in the meantime.
There are some curious beliefs about drowning, a subject naturally ever present to the islanders in thought and speech.
There is a little black spot which everyone has on some part of the body. Those who have it " above the breath," i.e. above the mouth, can never be drowned. It is called the "otter spot," ball dobhra'ni.
In Gairloch there is a belief that no one was ever drowned while the sun was visible in the sky.
It is believed in Uist that idiots cannot be drowned, as it is the weight of brain that takes a man to the bottom. Many stories are told in support of this. Father Allan tells of an idiot, well known to him, that he was one day sent down to the shore to soak a heather rope to make it tough. He threw it out on to the surf and then went in after it, but the tide swept him off his feet and carried him out to sea in a sitting
62 More Folklore from the Hebrides.
posture. He would have been thus conveyed, probably, say his friends, to America, if a lobster boat had not picked him up. Another idiot in Tochar was carried so far out to sea that he was only discovered by the sight of the sea-gulls hoverinof over him. He was found stretched out at ease singing songs.
The above miscellaneous gatherings are, so to speak, the flotsam and jetsam of the wild seas of the Outer Hebrides. They present, I believe, considerable material for the commentator and the comparative folklorist, but the task of discussion is one for which the present writer lacks — among other things — at this moment, leisure, though she looks forward to the attempt on some future occasion, and is content for the present to hope that others, better equipped, may find texts or illustrations for collections made in other fields, or stimulus to pursue further her own attempts in this.
A. Goodrich-Freer.
UNLUCKY CHILDREN.
BY H. A. ROSE.
{Read at Meetings j^th December, 1901.)
There appear to be a number of customs and superstitions connected with the place each child occupies in the family which, as far as I am aware, have not been fully recorded or explained.
These superstitions are apparently quite distinct from any of those which attach to children born under certain stars, or in certain months, or on certain days of the week.
The First-Born.^
The first-born has always held a peculiarly sacred position, especially if born in answer to a vow to parents who have long been without offspring, in which case sacrifice of the child was common in India.- The Mairs used to sacrifice a first-born son to Mata, the small-pox goddess/'^ while Mohammadans throughout Northern India believe that iirst- born children can stop excessive rain by certain rites. ^ On the other hand, a first-born son will in Telingana attract lightning.^
Twins.
Twins, as is well known, are peculiarly uncanny, but in Dahomey a boy born after twins has a special name [dosti), according to Burton [Mission to Gelele King of Dahotney, i., p. 99, Me?norial Edition^
The Trikhal. Bwt many remarkable ideas cluster round the third co7i- ception, or round a child of one sex born after three children of the other sex.
' A first-born child (Jesth) must not be married in Jesth. Piiiifab Notes cCnd Queries, vol. iii., § lo.
- Moore's Hindu Infanticide . pp. 198-9.
^ Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, iii., p. 66.
* Punjab Notes and Queries, 1883, vol. i., 116 and 463.
' North Indian Notes and Queries, 1891, vol. i., 378.
64 Unlucky Children.
Thus in the South-west Punjab on the borders of Sindh the former superstition prevails ; and its results are thus described : " Trikhal is the third conception after two births (without regard to the sexes of the former children). It is a Jatki word, literally meaning third, and implies contempt. This conception is considered unlucky among Hindus, especially in Jampur. Every effort is made to effect abortion, and many cases of abortion take place. It is suspected that the third child is killed at birth if the attempts to cause the abortion have failed. Dread of the law prevents any attempt to kill the child when it has sur- vived its birth."
This, however, appears to be a local variant, as the other superstition is far more prevalent ; and its effects, and the measures taken to avert them, are thus described by an intelligent Punjab official :
" A child of one sex born after three children of the other sex is called, in Punjabi, Trikhal, as for example, a boy born after three girls. Such a child is considered unlucky, and its birth portends —
(i) the death of a parent ;
(2) loss of wealth by the parents ;
(3) the taking fire of the house in which the child was
born ; or (4) some other calamity, such as lightning or snake- bite. " If this child grows up without the parents suffering any injury, and is taller than the parents, they are benefited in- stead of injured by the birth, i.e. their lives are prolonged, or, if poor, they become rich, and are protected against all misfortunes.
" Many Hindus believe that the children born after a Trikhal cannot live long.
" The following remedies are adopted at the birth of such a child, to avert the evil effects of the birth :
(i) The father pours a quantity of ^)ii down the gutter
Unlucky Children.
65
of the roof of the room in which the child was born.
(2) A brass tray is broken in the centre and the child
passed through the hole.
(3) A horse-shoe is painted with sandiir (red oxide of
mercury) and scented with gugal (a drug) and attached to the bed of the mother. The shoe is re-painted with sandiir and scented every Tuesday.
(4) If the third day after the birth be a Sunday, a
ceremony known as Trikhal Shanti (propitiation of the Trikhal) is performed. Green leaves from seven trees are collected and put in an earthen pitcher with 10 1 holes in its bottom. Another pitcher is filled with water taken from seven wells. The mother, with her child, sits under the drain of the roof of the house in which the child was born. A Pandit recites to her a hatha from the Trikhal Shanti Shastra, while a female relative of the mother holds a sieve over her head. The pitcher containing the green leaves is placed on the sieve, and the father pours the water of the seven w^ells down the drain of the roof, so that the water passing through the pitcher and the sieve may trickle slowly over the mother's head.
(5) If the charm whose figure is given below be set
in gold and tied to the neck of the mother all evil is avoided.
Terijan men ya najan men mere kharne kojagak de.
|
ya meri sunnat |
1 ya meri sunnat ya meri sunnat |
|
|
ya meri sunnat |
ya meri sunnat |
ya meri sunnat |
|
ya meri sunnat |
ya meri sunnat |
ya meri sunnat |
VOL. XIII.
66 Unlucky Children.
" The belief relates chiefly to the first Trikhal born in the family ; it applies to boys more than to girls (and indeed it is said in Kasur ^ that a girl after three boys is not unlucky at all),^ and evil is to be feared by both parents, but principally by the parent of corresponding sex. More- over, a boy born after three girls is also apt to be himself unlucky."
The ceremonies used to avert the evil effects, are often those employed when a child is born under an evil nakshatra ; but L. Lachmi Narain (Gurdaspur) states that for a trikhal, five earthen pitchers filled with water, containing golden images of Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh, Indra, and Rudra, are worshipped ; whereas in the case of a birth under the asterisms of Jyesta, Mula, Ashlekha,'and Magha, the leaves of seven trees ^ are used as described in No. 4 above ; and in the case of a child born in Karttik, four images of Brahma, Indra, Rudra, and Suraj, are placed in four pitchers covered with red and white cloth, and a little of the water sprinkled over the mother and child. Lastly, for a child born during an eclipse, three gold images, one of the nakshatra of birth, another of Rahu, and a third of the sun or moon (as the eclipse may have been) are worshipped.
Another name for the trikhal is tretar (said to be derived from Sks. tri, three, and attar, enemy"*), and in Hoshiarpur the performance of a fire-sacrifice with the aid of a Brahman after the si'itak period, is usual. Pala ° wood is burnt, and sugar, &c., thrown on to it.
In Karnal and Rohtak, a son born after three girls is usually called telar, (or named Telu Ram) ; and in
' See Punjab Notes and Queries, 1886, vol. iii., 453.
- And in Amritsar a girl so born is called " bukhal" or " lucky" child. Cf. ibid., 1885, vol ii., § 824, also § 136 (in Bombay).
' They should be male trees (katha, anar, tut, &c.) according to the Jhelum note.
* [I* merely means " third." — \V. Crooke.]
•' \_Falasha.—\N. Crooke.]
Unlucky Children. 67
Rohtak various ways of averting the evil he may bring are described. In one, the parents sit on a plough and bathe from an earthen vessel containing 108 or loi holes with water from the Ganges and 27 wells, 108 medicines (!) and milk. The water is passed through a sieve, but in some places a sieve is held to be unlucky. In another ceremony the parents bathe in water (passed through a sieve) drawn from 27 wells, and in which stones from 27 places and leaves from 27 trees have been placed. This must be done 27 days after the birth. 27, 14, or 7 Brahmans are also feasted. After these ceremonies a pair of snakes are made of a precious metal, and given with seven kinds of grain to the Dakaut Brahman.
In another rite, a horse-shoe, painted with vermilion figures, is burnt on the third or tenth day after the birth. It is lucky if this day falls on a Sunday.
The superstition appears then to take various forms, and the rites practised are very diverse, those used to avoid other unlucky births being often resorted to, though it appears that, strictly speaking, special rites should be per- formed. It is said to be confined in Nahan to immigrants from Hoshiarpur.
It is possibly connected with the astrological doctrine of trines, but the powers of the first-born are not thereby explained.
Several correspondents mention that the belief and rites are described in the Shastras, but no references are given. In 1885, a Sanskrit book called " Trikhal Shanti'^ was published at Lahore, giving an account of the belief. The sage Pushkar asks Bhargat how a Trikhal can be propi- tiated. The reply is that it should be abandoned, as it will cause the death of its parents and viaternal uncle^ within seven months, and also destroy itself.
' The part which the maternal uncle plays in marriage rites is well known. He is in grave peril if his sister's child cut its upper teeth first.
F 2
68 Unlucky Children.
The Eighth Child.^
The eighth child [i.e. the one after the seventh ?), is very unlucky if a son, as he is sure to cause his father's death.^ But in Karnal the eighth child is peculiarly dangerous to the mother.
The remedy is, to pass a charkha, or spinning-wheel, thrice round the mother, and give it to the midwife. The charkha must be in perfect order.
Dhai Sira OR " 2\ Head."
Mr. Talbot writes that in Jhelum, a Trikhal is drilled with 2\ holes — a local expression meaning two holes in one ear and one in the other, or one in each ear and one in the nose. In Mozaffargarh a dhai-sira, mula or sat-sira is a child whose head has not been properly shaped.
How is the use of the number " 2| " to be explained ? ^ The information obtained requires to be still further sup- plemented and the various forms of belief explained.
H. A. Rose, Superintendent of Ethnography, Punjab. Simla, July 2gth, 1901.
' Connected apparently with the eight names of Rudra. Muir's Sanskrit Texts, iv., pp. 383 et sqq.
^ Indian Notes and Queries, 1886, vol. iv., § 94.
* \Savdi^= \\, i.e. one-quarter better than other people, is a name of good omen, implying superiority and good luck. Double this is Dhdi^=.2\ i.e. better still.— W. Crooke.]
COLLECTANEA.
Boer Folk-Medicine and some Parallels.
In the Blue-book containing the Reports on the Working of the Refugee Camps in the Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Cape Colony, and Natal, mention is made by three or four of the doctors inspecting the camps of the treatment and remedies for iUness they found in use among the Boers. I have thought it worth while to put together the following extracts, as it is interest- ing to find that the methods used are similar to such as were general here many years ago and are still occasionally to be met with.
Unfortunately, few of the inspectors enter into details, but all agree that the Boers, especially the poorer classes, have little or no knowledge of sanitation or hygiene. To the use of soap and water they have a particular aversion. A schoolmaster related the following incident to Dr. W. M. Brown. An old Boer with six children attending school said to him in conversation quite seriously, that since his children had been to school in the camp they were so cleanly and changed in their habits that he himself was obliged to wash his face and hands before meals to be in countenance with them (p. 335).
This aversion is especially pronounced in illness. Neither children nor elders are apparently allowed when ill either to drink water or to be washed, except occasionally the face and hands. " In one tent at Irene Camp," says Dr. Kendal Franks, " the children were in their ordinary clothes lying on mats. One child had peritonitis. In order to see the abdomen, I had to undo some of the clothes ; the skin beneath was as black as a Kaffir's, covered with accumulations of dirt. To see the skin it would have been necessary to scrape the dirt off." He says children generally were put to bed with their clothes on. The clothing
JO Collectanea.
was changed once a week ; but when ill, nothing would induce the mother to take off or change the child's clothing. With fever cases, the higher the fever, the more clothing or rugs are piled on (pp. 163-164).
" I saw a girl," says Dr. Kendal Franks elsewhere, " in Tent No. 10 1 in camp at Middelburg, with Dr. Spencer. The girl was suffering from renal dropsy, supposed to be due to a chill when convalescing from enteric fever. She was about eighteen years old. From her hips down to her feet she was wrapped up in a poultice made of horse-dung, which her mother, who was present, explained was taking the sweUing down from her face." (Middel- burg Camp, p. 333.)
Dr. Kendal Franks also notes that the Boers prepare the fioors of their tents by smearing them with cow-dung, as they are accus- tomed to do in their own houses. (Balmoral Camp, p. 324.)
In the camp at Krugersdorp, two cases of pneumonia were found when admitted to have been freely smeared with ordinary green house-paint, and there is no doubt that death was due to arsenical poisoning (p. 250).
In another report from Dr. Franks on the Refugee Camps at Krugersdorp, Potchefstroom, and Klerksdorp, he says : "A recent remedy among the Boers, no matter what is the ailment, is to paint the part affected with green paint. Three children suffer- ing from a complaint which I was unable to ascertain were painted all over with green paint, with the exception of the face. All three of the children died from acute arsenical poisoning. Another child, aged two, was given by its mother at the same time patent medicines, comprising Hoffman's drops, containing ether; Essenz dulcis, containing opium; Red powder, containing tartar emetic ; Jamaica ginger and ' Dutch drops,' composition unknown." Tinned sardines he , found were given to another child, aged four months, instead of milk (p. 193).
Dr. G. S. Woodroffe says that in one instance, when he had prescribed for a child, the next morning the mother took it to another doctor, who also prescribed for it. The next morning she called in yet another. This doctor refused to prescribe. She was then giving the child the medicines alternately which had been prescribed by the first two doctors, and had the third pre- scribed the child would have been taking medicines prescribed by three doctors all at once. " The most famous ' quack ' doctor
Collectanea. 71
in the camp [Irene] is a cripple, whose sole qualification is that he was an attendant on one of the Boer ambulances. He parades a great red cross on his sleeve and another on his hat " (p. 334).
In another report from the Burgher Camp at Irene, Dr. G. S. Woodroffe states that the method among the Boers when a patient's temperature is high is to put all the blankets on to the bed in the hottest part of the day. The idea is that a patient with a high temperature must be kept so ; further, medicine of one sort or another must be given every hour. On two occasions Mr. Wood- roffe found young children asleep with pin-point pupils, suffering with bronchitis. The medicine prescribed by him had not been given. In one of these cases the mother had given the child ten drops of essence of paregoric every half-hour, the child being six months old. The child died. He adds, " No one can imagine the difificulty a medical man has in preventing these people using their dangerous, useless, and disgusting remedies. , Goat's dung and wormwood made into a decoction and drunk in quantities is the favourite ' drippel ' or ' middel ' for bringing out the measles. Pieces of raw meat are bandaged over each eye in acute con- junctivitis, and most of these cases are caused by dirt. Babies' ears are receptacles for an endless variety of rubbish, and conse- quently otorrhoea is very common. Rags wetted with human urine are used for open flesh-wounds, and so on. The patients and their relations need watching. Food, especially in typhoid cases where the patient is hungry, is brought in by the mothers ; or a mother may watch her child, and the nurse as well, and as soon as the nurse leaves the ward for a minute or two she may return and find child and mother gone. This actually happened here," (p. 240).
Dried peaches and bags of Boer biscuits were constantly being given to the patients in hospital at Middelburg Camp, which would have caused certain death if eaten in the invalids' then condition.
Dr. Henderson, reporting on the camp at Pietersburg, says he found it an article of faith with the Boers that water applied to a patient, unless as a drink, is absolutely fatal, and especially in the form of a poultice. " Each and every one had their own par- ticular treatment, and from the filthy decoction of goat droppings in oil and all ordinary Dutch remedies, as well as a liberal supply from our own ' apotheek,' all had a turn. In dieting, comforts supplied in the shape of brandy, port wine, milk, soup, &c., were
72 Collectanea.
disregarded, and Chinese figs and sardines given in cases of vomiting and diarrhoea," (p. 263).
" A girl was convalescing from enteric. She was given dried peaches, which the child ate, and nearly died. A woman and her son were in hospital suffering from enteric. A friend came to visit her carrying something under her apron. The sister asked what it was. The woman produced a bottle containing a brown looking fluid which she said was very good to relieve thirst. The sister asked what it was, and the woman told her it was horse- dung cooked in water and strained. ' It is very good ; you can taste it if you like.' The invitation was not accepted, and the woman was sent away, very indignant that her remedy was not appreciated. A similar infusion made with goat's dung is a very favourite drink given by the Boers to bring out the rash in measles. The matron has seen it several times employed in this camp." (Middelburg Camp, p. 333.)
Dr. Kendal Franks, writing on the Heidelberg Camps, also says that " Neglecting their children is the result of a certain fatalism which is common among them. "It is God's will," is the excuse or reason they give for sitting by a sick child and never moving as much as a finger to give it food or medicine ordered by the doctor. A misdirected energy often enables them to make shrouds, &c., for their children while they still live, and while, in my opinion, there is still every hope for them" (p. 299). In the Report on Belfast Camp, he says, "It is a well-known custom with the Boers to keep coffins ready for use in their houses, a wise precaution, considering the hot climate and the isolated condition of the farmhouses. Two old Boers brought their cofifins with them, and propped them up against the outside of their tents," (p. 327).
The following examples illustrate some of the foregoing points : —
I. I heard some years ago from a nurse in a Children's Hospital in London, of one case where a child was found to be so dirty that ordinary washing was of no use to cleanse the child's skin. Bread poultices had to be applied to the child's feet to remove some of the dirt, and the child was thoroughly frightened when the nurse washed his body all over. After having a bath for the first time, he told his parents when they visited him of the extra- ordinary thing that had been done. He regarded it, and possibly the parents did also, as undergoing a serious operation.
I
Collectanea. 73
When some of my own children were ill with measles, a nurse I had in the house told me that children with measles should not be washed nor their bed-linen changed for the first week ; and that the sun should be excluded from the room, otherwise they might be made blind for life ; and that in her mother's time the children would be put to bed in their clothes, and these would not be changed until after the third day.
II. I do not know any instances of people here giving their children such a variety of medicines as the Boer women give theirs, but I have frequently heard of medicine left over from one illness being given to another child with an entirely different com- plaint ; on the ground that it had done so much good to the first, and it was a pity to waste it.
III. A lady told me a short time ago that she had known Dutch- women make a decoction from the leaves of a plant, and with this liquid, which was of a greenish colour, rub the bodies of their children who were ill with measles or fever. Perhaps the green paint used by the Boer women is a substitute for this green liquid, the knowledge of which is forgotten.
IV. A short time ago a monthly-nurse told me she knew of a man who had had ulcerous sores on one of his legs for years. He walked about with crutches. He was first an out and then an in-patient at St. George's Hospital. Here he was told his case was incurable and advised to have his leg amputated. To this he objected, saying, " I came into the world with two legs and I won't go out of it with one only." He did not then expect to live more than a few months. This nurse had known the man for years, and when she heard of his resolve to die rather than have his leg off, she told him she believed she could cure him if he would submit to her treatment and would promise to let her carry it out for a certain time. The man agreed. The case, she said, was one of blood-poisoning, and the remedy used was cow-dung. The nurse told me she went herself to the place where the cows were kept, and by arrangement with the cowkeeper took the freshly-dropped dung and applied it as a poultice to the wounds, having first carefully washed them. She did this twice a day for a short period, then less frequently. In a fortnight the wounds had begun to heal, and in another week or so the patient was able to walk without his crutch and resume his work. The nurse further said this happened about two years or more ago. The
I: h
now.whcn
It
9
rk It
vie
abtutn
the |>rct«rBd
of thitcan
«hcn, mAny >iir doctor fur tervaiii h«mg
«r would Otr
(the doctoral
1
#
4cv«r bu bouse, t few davs after
!hc
.. vOW
TT>c uncle
|
■ |
■ |
|
%-x |
■ |
|
% |
H |
|
1 |
H |
|
f-ij^ |
^^^H |
|
F^P |
|
|
i |
^JE |
|
? |
|
|
f^- K |
|
|
fej*, |
^ v«^
74 Collectanea. '
man has continued well and has been constantly at work since, and has had no further trouble with his leg. She occasionally sees him now, when he always remarks on the cure she had made. During the time she was attending him the patient had to abstain from malt and spirituous hquors, only drinking light drinks she prepared for him. The nurse told me she got her knowledge of this cure from her grandmother, who was a village doctress, much resorted to by villagers for miles round the place where she lived in York- shire. She had stayed with her grandmother when a child and had seen her perform cures and set broken limbs.
The story of this cure brought to my mind that when, many years ago, a relative of mine was being treated by our doctor for an open wound caused by blood-poisoning, a maid-servant living with us at the time expressed to me her wish that we would use the proper remedy of solutions from dung, instead of the doctor's lotions and ointments.
Miss Burne has kindly given me the following notes of similar remedies, both for external and internal use.
" Cow-sham, s. cow-dung .... It is still used by the lower orders as a cataplasm for bruises and sprains, being applied to the parts affected as hot as the patient can bear it. In fact, whilst these lines are written, I am told that a similar poultice has
just been laid upon Miss J 's leg." Rev. C. H. Hartshorne,
Salopia A?itiqua (1841), p. 376, s.v.
" Coiv-sharn [kou shaar'n], sb. cow-dung. (Shrewsbury. Pulver- batch.) 'The best thing as ever I met 66th fur bad legs is a coiv- sharn pultis.' ' Aye ; 'ow dun 'ee mak' it ? ' ' Tak' a 'antle o' wutmil an' as much cotv-sharn as '11 mix well together, an' piit it on the leg, it '11 swage the swellin' an' mak' it as cool as a cowc66mer.' . . . 'They say that bull's sherne is an excellent complexion, forsooth, to set a fresh rosat or vermilion colour on the ball of the cheeke.' Holland's Pliny, vol. ii., p. 327." G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Word-Book (1879-1881), s.v.i
'■'■Blood-poisoning. — A quantity of dung is caught as it falls from a cow and applied hot to the wound. Oban." (MS. note by the late Dr. Gregor.)
' "Wutmil" is oatmeal. A cow-dung poultice was a remedy known at Edgmond (Salop) in my youth, and considered particularly "drawing" and "searching." These various examples fairly represent the area of the county of Salop.— C. S. Burne.
Collectanea. 75
" A laxative. — ' Sheep-pearls,' i.e. the droppings of sheep dis- solved in water and drunk. My informant has seen mothers administer this dose to their children. Near Lochlomond." (MS. note by the late Dr. Gregor.)
" Tricklings [tr'ik-linz], sb. sheep's dung — Pulverbatch. It was formerly — before the age of vaccination — a popular belief that ' ship's tricklin's,' duly administered, would cure the small-pox. ' Bessy, yo' mind as Granny dunna put ship's tricklin's i' my yarb- tay. I canna tak' it if 'er does — nod if I'm marked ever so.' " G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Word-Book^ p. 453, s.v.
I hope to deal with the information given in the second Blue- book in a future number.
Alice B. Gomme.
The Sister's Son in Samoa. {Co/nmiaiicated by Mr. A?idreiv Lang.)
When I was at Apia in Samoa with Commodore Goodenough in the Fear/, in 1873, I met the American Consul, who had married a Samoan, and who told me the following story of a custom called Vasu which prevailed in the islands as regards the rights of a nephew to his uncle's property.
There was a chief called " Bullamacow," who came to see his uncle and admired very much a bread-fruit house ^ he had just put up. The uncle said it had cost him a great deal, in fact nearly ruined him. Bullamacow said he thought it would look well in his " square." The uncle then said, " Pray, don't say that." However Bullamacow would not change his mind. All this meant that the uncle was to give Bullamacow his house, which he did not quite see.
So the nephew goes away disappointed. But a few days after this someone comes to the uncle's house, and says to one of the children, "Where is your mother?" and he answers, "Bullamacow has taken her away," as is the custom in these cases. The uncle
' A house for the storage of bread-fruit.
76 Collectanea.
bears it for a few days, but at last, longing to have his wife home again, makes up his mind to give up the house. This, however, is not enough now ; he must take a present as well. So he trudges off with some baked pigs. When he arrives at his nephew's, Bullamacow says to him, " Why did you take the trouble to come all this way? I was just going to take your wife down to you to-morrow, but, however, as you have come, you will be able to stay here and take her back then yourself." Then when he sees the pigs he says, " How very unnecessary it was for you to bring these things."
However, he allows himself to be persuaded, and accepts the present. Now the uncle has to do the rest of the business, and it has to be done with delicacy. So he says, " Now, how do you think the bread-fruit house would look in that place ? I think it would suit well ; " and so the matter is settled. Next day the uncle takes his wife home, and a few days later Bullamacow comes down and carries off the bread-fruit house. So the poor uncle is ruined.
In the same way, if a nephew takes a fancy to a gun of his uncle's, he comes and takes it. Should the uncle naturally object to part with it, the nephew goes home and tells his mother, who says it will be all right : she will arrange matters. So she pro- nounces a curse upon the other family, saying the children shall die of elephantiasis. This so works upon their fears that they are ready to give anything up. It is to be noted that only the children of the eldest sister have the privilege of Vasu.
The Consul said that during the fighting, men used often to bring guns to his house to hide them from their nephews ; and sometimes they have slept with guns lashed to their legs ; but the nephews have come and taken them away even then.
I give this account from a journal kept at at the time.
A. C. Stanley. Rome, 4/// December, 1901.
Collectanea. 77
Rice Harvest, and other Customs in Ceylon.
{Com implicated by Mr. A. Latig and Mr. J. G. Frazer.)
(See vol. xii., p. 457.)
[The first part of the following Notes, dated 31 December, 1901, was impartially sent by the writer to both Mr. Lang and Mr. Frazer, and reached the Editor's hands from both sources on the same day : the rest was addressed to Mr. Frazer alone.]
At Kattaragam, near Hambantotta (Ceylon), is a temple of the Tamil or Hindu god Madu Sami, the Road or River god. In the hot weather, about April or May, after the rice-harvest is in, the priests seek out a shallow place in the river, about one foot deep, and dig a hole in the bottom of the river large enough to hold tightly a bag of paddy (rice). The dry paddy is packed in a sack, put into the hole, tightly jammed in, and the god is placed on the top of it under about one foot of water. The paddy swells in the water, and cannot expand laterally, so rises upwards and carries the god with it. It takes, say, fourteen days to reach the surface. On the 13th day the priests come at night, and finding the god near the surface, proclaim that the new god will rise to- morrow and have an assembly
The Tamils at Pongul "boil the rice"' in the cattle-shed, and they also decorate the cattle with flowers, ribbons, and handker- chiefs ; and they get one bullock and decorate him, and goad him to run and butt them, and the bravest coolie runs up and snatches a ribbon. The god here worshipped is Madu Sami, and he lives in the phallic emblem under the pipul or fig-tree. Tufts of dried grass are hung like tufts on a kite's tail from trees all round, and form festoons (to keep away evil spirits?).
You will find an account of the Perahera procession, by A. E. Souter, in the English Illustrated Magazine (August, 1901, p. 474).
[We give a brief abstract. The festival takes place annually at Kandy, in May, June, or July, usually July. The first night the new moon is visible, the priests of the four temples of Vishnu, Natha, Pattini (goddess of small-pox), and Kataragama, take a young jaktree not yet fruited (its fruit is one of the principal foods
' [The first-fruits of the rice-harvest? — En.]
7 8 Collectanea.
of the natives), and the priest-woodcutter of Vishnu cuts it into four parts, which are carried ceremonially to the four temples, and for four days the bows and arrows of each deity are carried daily round his log. On the fifth day the bows and arrows are carried in shrines on elephants, escorted by devil-dancers (cf. F. L.,yi\., 456) to the temple of Buddha's tooth. (The connection of Buddha with the festival is known to date only from 1775.) The empty shrifie of the tooth is placed on an elephant and the whole com- pany march round the town for nine successive nights. On the second and following nights a sword and a golden water-vessel are carried in a palanquin immediately after the weapons of each god. On the fifteenth night the shrine of the tooth is deposited at the Gedige, a college of priests ; the rest of the company repair to their respective temples, where offerings of curry, rice, and cakes are made to the gods and then eaten, and the procession re-formed, without the shrine, goes outside the town to the bank of the river. " The chief priest of each of the four dezvales (temples), bearing the four swords of the gods, and accompanied by four attendant priests carrying the golden pitchers, go down to the water's edge, where they find a boat. They embark and row into the middle of the sullenly-flowing river. With faces turned towards the east, they wait, motionless and quiet, amid the perfect silence of those on the shore. Then the first streak of dawn steals into the sky ; immediately the priests strike the waters with their swords, de- scribing a circle in honour of Krishna, the sun-god, and at the same moment the attendants empty the golden pitchers and refill them from the waters within the charmed circle. With much re- joicing the boat returns to shore ; the water-vessels are replaced in their palanquins with the swords, and the whole procession goes back in the early morning sunshine to the Gedige, where the pro- cession of the tooth joins them, when all return to Kandy and dis- perse." Religious dancing and feasting are carried on in the temples for fourteen more days : then the pieces of jak-tree are thrown into the river. (" They have an idea that if any possession flows steadily down a river, it means prosperity to the owner." Cingalese women when they cut their hair throw the ends into a river that their tresses may be long and flowing as the stream.) The Perahera closes with a final procession on the thirty-first day. This account, though referred to by Dr. Drummond him- self, shows a slight discrepancy with the remainder of his letter.]
Collectanea. 79
In answer to the question, what becomes of the water after it is "cut" from the river at sunrise? I have found out that it is kept untouched in the temple for a year, and when new water is again " cut " and brought next year, the old " vintage " is put into a second^reserved vessel and used to cure diseases, act as charms, land-devil-dispellers, &c. But note that it is kept a year before using it in that way.
R. J. Drummond.
Belgravia, Talawakelle, Ceylon.
PuLi Raja, or the Tiger Prince.
A Hindu Folk-Tale from vSouth India. Recorded by M. N. Venkatasvami, M.R.A.S., and edited by W. Crooke.
There was once a King who, though he paid many a vow, had no heir. At last, in despair, his Queen urged him to retire to the forest. So he made over the kingdom to his Wazir and they went off to the forest, in which lived many tigers, but none of them harmed mankind. One day the Queen saw a tigress with her cubs, and she said, " Would that God would bestow on me even a tiger cub ! " And as she prayed her wish was granted, and in due time she bore a tiger cub, which they named Puli Raja, the Tiger Prince. They had a nice cage made and put him in it, and he was brought up there, and they did not go to see him for many a long day. But when at last they visited him he said, " It is time I were married. Get me a wife."
The King was much distressed at this, and consulted his Wazir. " Be not troubled," he answered. " Give me four bags of varas} and I will get him a bride." The King gave the money to the Wazir and he started off. By-and-by he came to an inn, so he went in to eat, and when he paid for his meals he opened the bags in the forecourt of the house and began counting the money. "Why have you brought this money?" the innkeeper asked. " I am come to buy a girl to be wife for the King's son." " Take my eldest daughter," said she. So he brought the girl back, and the King had a marriage booth made as high as the sky
' A coin worth about seven shillings.
8o Collectanea,
and a marriage platform as large as the earth,i and the girl was married to a knife,^ thinking piteously all the time, " Why is this ? The King is said to have a son, and I am married to a knife ! " In the evening she was taken to the Tiger Prince and put into his cage. But next morning they found that he had torn her in pieces.
Again the Tiger Prince prayed to his father for a wife. And the Wazir engaged to buy one for eight bags of varus. Again he went to the innkeeper, who said, " Is my daughter well ? " The Wazir answered, " She is well. But I want a second wife for the Prince." " Take my youngest daughter," said the innkeeper. So the Wazir mounted her on the elephant which carried the money and set out with her for the palace.
On the way he got down to bathe, and while he was away a party of women passed by to draw water, and the girl heard them say, " The other day a girl was married to the Tiger Prince and he gobbled her up. Now a second girl is going to him, and he will serve her in the same way." At this the girl began to weep, and just then the Lord Siva and Parvati his spouse were flying in the sky. The goddess heard the cry of a woman, and brought Siva to the spot, who said, " Daughter, why dost thou weep ? " " Because I am to be married to the Tiger Prince," said the girl, " and he killed my sister, and I fear he will kill me." And Siva answered, " Take a garland of kasinda flowers,^ a bowl of water, and a handful of sand. When you are taken to the Tiger Prince put the garland round his neck, sprinkle the sand and water over him, and he will turn into a beautiful young man." But she objected, " When his parents see the man with me they will ask whence he came and why I have driven the Tiger Prince into the jungle. How can I clear myself?" The Lord Siva answered, "Take off the garland from his neck, sprinkle sand and water over him again, and he will turn into a tiger once more ; then they cannot help believing you."
' All Indian marriages are conducted in a booth made of bamboos and decorated with plantain-leaves and flowers. In this is erected a platform of earth in which the bride and bridegroom are seated. After their robes are knotted together they are led round the sacred fire lighted in the booth, while appropriate mantras, or holy texts of the Veda, are recited.
- The usual ritual in proxy-marriages among high-caste Hindoos. Some- times a sword is used.
^ Cassia occidentalis ; flowers yellow. Kasinda = cure for itching.
Collectanea. 8 1
So the girl was brought to the palace, and wedded with the same ceremonies as her sister, and on the bridal night she was placed in the cage of the Tiger Prince. When he saw her, he sprang upon her to rend her, but she put the garland on his neck, and sprinkled the sand and water over him, and behold ! he was turned into a young man, and they enjoyed each other's society till the morning. Then the King and Queen came to visit them, and were amazed when they saw a young man in place of the Tiger Prince. " Do you want your Pidi Raja ? " the bride asked ; and turned him into a tiger again, and then again restored him to human form. His parents were overwhelmed with joy, and the pair lived happily for many days.
By-and-by the Princess became with child, and her girl-cousin, who envied her, came to Puli Raja and said, " Her mother desires to see her ; let me take her to our own people." He gave his consent, and the two girls set out together. On the way they came to a well, and the cousin proposed that they should look at their reflections in the water, " I am not beautiful, as you are," said she, " but let me put on your jewels, and let us look again, and you will see what a difference that makes." The Princess gave her the jewels, but when she came to the brink of the well to look again, the cousin pushed her in.
Now there lived an old snake in this well, who was then afflicted with a great boil just on his hood, and who suffered greatly. When the Princess fell in, she dropped just on the neck of the snake ; the boil burst and he was cured. In his joy the snake dived with her down, down through the water, till they came to Nagaloka, the snake kingdom beneath the earth. He took her to his wife. " This is our daughter, who has healed me of my painful disease. Tend her well and treat her with honour." So the Princess remained in the under-world with the snakes, and there in due time she gave birth to a son.
But the cousin went to the Tiger Prince and pretended to be his wife. " How can this be? " said Puli Raja to himself. " My wife was ruddy and beautiful, not like this one." But at last, though with great misgivings, he accepted her as his wife, and in course of time she also bore him a son.
Some time passed by, and one day a bangle-merchant went past the well, crying, " Bangles ! lacquered bangles ! glass bangles I who wants bangles ? " Then the Princess called to him out of
VOL. XITI. G
82 Collectanea.
the well, and said, " Merchant, fit a set of bangles on my wrists." " How can I come into the well ? " he asked. " Come down the steps," said she.i So he came down, and while he was fitting on the bangles her son cried, and she sang to him thus :
" My darling ! my princeling ! the tiger's own son, No garland was needed to make thee a man, O hush thee, the old man will do thee no harm While he fits pretty bangles on mother's soft arm." -
And the bangle-seller was amazed at her gentle words.
He then went to the palace of the Tiger Prince, and began to cry, " Bangles to sell ! Who wants bangles ? " The false Prin- cess called to him to come in, and as he was fitting the bangles on her wrists her baby cried, and she cursed him as low-born mothers are wont to curse their children. The bangle-merchant reproved her, and said, " Why do you curse your child as the low- born use to do, and you a Princess ? But lately I saw in the under-world a lady who soothed her child when he cried, and sang thus to him :
" My darling ! my princeling ! the tiger's own son, No garland was needed to make thee a man, O hush thee, the old man will do thee no harm \\Tiile he fits pretty bangles on mother's soft arm."
The Tiger Prince was close by and heard his words. Then he bethought himself of his tiger-birth, and of his wife and the gar- land ; and when the bangle-merchant left the pretended wife's room he called him and said, "Lead me to the lady of whom you just now spoke."
So they went to the well, and the merchant caused the Prince to put two strings of bangles round his neck that he might look like a brother bangle-seller ; and descending the steps of the well he called, " Bangles to sell ! who needs bangles ? " The lady called
' The well was what is called a badli, with long flights of steps down to the water.
2 " Puli kadupuna puttina bhupati kumara,
Kasinda puvuluku anda kudan puttina kunda kumara, Ravayya Vyankajya vonkulu tonduk kundam."
" King's son, tiger-begotten. Bom without touching the kasinda-^o\stxs, my darling child. Come, father Vyankayya, let us put zigzag bangles on our wrists."
I
Collectanea. 83
him, and the child cried, and she hushed him by singing to him as before. Instantly Puli Raja rose from his seat and took hold of the lady's hand and asked her how she came to be there, and she told him how her cousin had plotted against her life, and how the snake had befriended her.
Then the twelve-headed snake ^ came up, and the Princess said to him, " Your son-in-law is come, father ! " So the Tiger Prince asked his leave to take his wife home. " That cannot be," said the snake; " my wife will soon be delivered, and it is my daughter, your wife, who must name the young ones. Afterwards I will gladly send her to you." So by-and-by the snake's wife gave birth to a lot of little snakes, and on a fortunate day the Princess named them, and the biggest she called by one fine name, the next by another, and so on ; but the smallest she called Chinna Nagannah, " he is that is short by a head."
When the little snake heard his name he was angry, for he thought the Princess mocked him, and he muttered to himself, " When my brother-in-law the Tiger Prince takes her home by- and-by, I will bite her." So he hid in a melon, and came back with them to the palace. And when they got there the Tiger Prince hastened to his father to arrange for the execution of the false Princess. Then the snake said to himself, " My sister will go to the bath, and then I will bite her." And when she had bathed, he said to himself, " I will let her eat, and wash her hands, then I will bite her." But when she had eaten and washed, he said, " Let her suckle her child first, and then I will bite her."
Meanwhile the Tiger Prince returned home and began to play at chess with the Princess. By-and-by he said, " I have won," and she said, " No ! I have won ; I swear it by the head of our child Chinna Nagannah ! " So the snake knew she had meant no scorn to him when she gave him the same name as that of her own son. So he came out of the melon and confessed his designs ; and the Princess was rejoiced at his escape and feasted him royally, and he returned to the under-world.
So the Tiger Prince and the Princess lived happily ever after ; and by-and-by the old King yielded his throne to his son, and the reign of Puli Raja was long, happy, and prosperous.
' Some of the Indian gods are represented by a snake with many hoods, but the epithet above is probably an Oriental exaggeration only.
G 2
CORRESPONDENCE.
History, Tradition, and Historic Myth. (Vol. xii., p. 467.)
I MUST have succeeded singularly well in darkening my meaning when my friend Mr. Rouse could read into my letter the belief "that all traditions should be discarded as worthless." To a life-long defender of the value of tradition such an accusation is, to say the least, surprising. But I am reassured by noticing that in one respect at least Mr. Rouse has completely misapprehended my argument. I was urging, it may be recollected, that Professor Ridgeway before making the large use he did of certain Greek traditions should, as an indispensable preliminary, have examined them critically. To drive home the plea that as there is faggot and faggot, so there is tradition and tradition, I instanced one famous set of traditions of which we know the origin and history, and which we know to be baseless. Such an instance, I argued, should make us cautious in dealing with traditions of which we do not know the origin and history. Mr. Rouse tells me that my examples are "not parallel to the Greek tradition." Of course they are not. If they were there would have been no necessity for my adducing them ; they were not adduced as parallels, but to enforce the claim for a particular critical method.
As an expert in Greek literature as well as in Greek archaeology. Professor Ridgeway can only be judged by experts. I should not be presumptuous enough to attempt such a judgment. But I cannot help noticing that experts in Greek literature {e.g. Mr. Monro in his recently published edition of the Odyssey) make precisely the same kind of objections to his use of certain Greek traditions as had immediately suggested themselves to me ; and that an expert in Greek archaeology like Mr. Myres, {see his
Corresponde?ice. 85
lengthy notice in the Classical Revieiv, vol. xvi., No. i), brings forward numerous and strongly-urged objections against his inter- pretation of the archaeological evidence involved. And I cannot refrain from commenting upon Mr. Rouse's statement that " Pro- fessor Ridgeway deduces his theory from archaeological and ethno- logical evidence, and then points to the remarkable fact that the traditions agree in the main with the evidence." Undoubtedly Professor Ridgeway believes that this is so, and undoubtedly Mr. Rouse is led by his brilliant and ingenious argumentation to believe so likewise. But would it not be nearer the mark to say that as a rule Professor Ridge way's interpretation of the traditions agrees with his interpretation of the archjeological evidence ? and is it not the case that th-is agreement is produced by entirely ignoring other traditions ? I have no doubt Professor Ridgeway has good reasons for so doing ; but as a reader desirous of forming an opinion upon his hypothesis, I want to know those reasons. I repeat my criticism, a criticism, be it noted, of principle and method: throughout the book the implicit criterion of the validity of a tradition is whether or no it lends support to the interpre- tation of certain arch^ological facts. I hold that that is not sufficient.
Mr. Rouse makes a couple of statements which induce me to return to the illustration, the significance of which I unhappily failed to make clear to him. " Genealogical legends," he says, " were of supreme importance to the Greeks." Granted, but certainly not more so than to the Celts of Britain and Ireland. Even when we first meet with Greek society, it had passed out of and beyond that archaic tribal organisation which is revealed to us by the native laws of the Irish Goidels and the Welsh Brythons. Number- less traces of it survive no doubt ; amongst them the importance of the " genealogical legend." But status as determined by the family and tribal genealogists was, if I mistake not, of less im- portance as a still active legal factor to the Greek of 800 b.c. than to the Irish or Welsh tribesman of 800 a.d. The Celts had thus every reason for keeping their genealogies with as much care as, in the absence of an elaborate system of written record, they pro- bably could be kept. As a matter of fact, when we can test the immense mass of extant Irish and Welsh genealogical material it is found to be of surprising accuracy. And yet (this is my point), the paramount importance of accurate genealogies and the exist-
86 Correspondence.
ence of a highly-favoured and well-remunerated class of pro- fessional genealogists, did not prevent the introduction and diffu- sion of alien traditions about the early history of the race ; tra- ditions which, as I have said, we know to be absolutely baseless. If the genealogically-minded Celts admitted, and ultimately came firmly to beUeve in, an ahen and baseless theory of racial origins, the Greeks may have done the same.
But in another and a more positive way Celtic tradition illuminates the problems which the investigator of Greek tradi- tions has to solve. In the latter case we have a great body of heroic legend standing, apparently, in some relation to a series of local and tribal traditions. In Celtdom also we have great bodies of heroic legend ; in Wales the Arthur cycle, in Ireland the two great cycles of Cuchulainn and Finn. Now in all these three cases the heroic legend stands outside of, and disconnected from, the main stream of tribal genealogical tradition. So much is this the case in Ireland, that the Four Masters, the last and greatest representatives of the official-historian class, barely allude to the great Cuchulainn cycle which dominates all Irish mediaeval litera- ture, although (significant fact ! ) they fully set forth the alien, baseless tradition of Irish origins invented in the early Middle Ages. In Wales, Cunedda, a fwniinis iifnbra so far as poet and storyteller are concerned, is the source to which the chieftain traces his descent, not that Arthur with whose fame the world is filled. I cannot but think that these facts may be of some signifi- cance to students of the Homeric problem.
Mr. Rouse further remarks that " the conditions (of tradition) are different in a world which has been accustomed to the common use of writing for two thousand years; and in the world of two thou- sand years B.C., when writing was known indeed, but was certainly not common." Here the question, which is precisely whether the Greek traditions relied upon by Professor Ridgeway do go back " two thousand years B.C.," is entirely begged ; not to speak of the fact that many of them cannot ex hypothesi refer to a period ante- rior to 1400 B.C. What, however, I would ask, is, whether there is really any such essential difference, depending upon difference of conditions, between tradition in the Middle Ages, especially in the more barbaric portions of Europe, and tradition in the world of pre-fifth century Greece ? Greek traditions, when we seek their source, prove not infrequently to be reported by Pausanias and
Correspondence. 87
even later writers ; if we further question their sources, we find ourselves in contact with local traditional records kept chiefly by the priestly class. In Greece, as in medijeval Europe or ancient Egypt, the priest was the chief recorder of past events. Next to the priests, we have the families, hereditary as a rule, of tribal minstrels and genealogists, generally attached to the chieftain, the head of the tribe. In what may be called non-barbaric mediaeval Europe, that portion of Europe which was specially influenced by Christian-Classic culture, the importance of this last class was greatly diminished, whilst that of the priestly class was enhanced in a corresponding degree. In barbaric Europe on the other hand, (Celtdom and Northern Teutondom) the reverse process may be observed ; the Christian priest fights shy of the pre- Christian traditions, and the part played by the minstrel- genealogist is increased ; a state of things which has a natural tendency to magnify the romantic, and restrict the record element in the traditions. But differing from each other as did the two divisions of mediaeval Europe, and differing as both did in the respect indicated from pre-fifth century Greece, I cannot see that as regards the practice of writing there was any vital difference in the conditions under which the three sets of tradition have been handed down to us.
I had hoped that some notice would be taken of my request for information about, or discussion of, "historic myth." I would again ask to be referred to any well-vouched example of historic myth; of myth, that is, summing up concretely the actual historical relations of groups of men in the form of stories about individual men and women. The historico-mythopoeic process is still at work in a rudimentary form, and results in such personifi- cations as John Bull, Uncle Sam, der deutsche Michel. Did it ever go any further ? A priori^ there is no reason why it should not have gone further. But did it go further when the mythopoeic function was still fully active among all races, the advanced as well as the backward ? or does it now go further among those backward races with whom alone the function is still active ? I may say that I do not wish to be referred to the Romulus and Remus story, to that of the Hebrew Exodus, or to such modern examples as Dame Europd's School.
Alfred Nutt.
88 Correspondence.
Lame Gods. (Vol. ix., p. 295.)
In Mr. Hartland's article on " The High Gods of Australia " {Foik-Lof-e, December, 1898), the following passage occurs: "The name of Daramulun is a secret known only to the Murring tribes and their congeners. It is said to mean leg-on-one-side, or lame, probably from a personal peculiarity, like Tsuni|lgoam among the Hottentots."
Whether a personal peculiarity can be the occasion of these recurring epithets is a point of doubt, to say the least. Tsuni||goam is said to mean, literally, wounded knee. This is precisely the attribute of the Finnish divine hero Wiiina-moinen, who, it was said, was building a boat when he wounded his knee with his own hatchet. He was thereafter appealed to for healing, like Tsuni||goam or Wounded Knee.
Lame gods are, in fact, not infrequent in mythologies. It is hardly necessary to remind readers of Hephaistos, the Fire-god of the Greeks, who was cast forth from heaven by the Thunderer and lamed by the fall, and who thenceforth worked as a smith in the nether regions. But I would draw special attention to a curious wood-cut in Mrs. Nuttall's recent study of ancient Mexican religion. ^ It reproduces a Mexican drawing repre- senting a divine figure on one leg, the foot of which is held in a fire-drill. The other leg stands free, so that " the only action possible is that of hobbling on one foot in a circle." Here we have a pictured Leg-on-one-side. This divinity, the chief god Tezcatlipoca, is " usually represented with one foot." When shown walking, one foot planted and the other following, he is within a circle of carefully-delineated footsteps. His foot is said to have been bitten off by an alligator {cf. the Fenris wolf and the god Tyr in Scandinavian mythology) ; and " the broken end of the leg-bone is commonly depicted with its hollowness accentuated, and puffs of air or breath issuing from it." It was " in descending to the water " that the catastrophe occurred.
' Zelia NuUall, "The fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilisations : " Arch, and Ethnol. Papers of the Peabody Museum (Harvard), vol. ii. (1901), p. 9 ; fig. I, p. 10, and fig. 59, p. 279.
Correspondence. 89
The fire-drill or flint-stone was the symbol of the North in Mexican usage, because the polar point, there and in many regions, was regarded as the primary fire-stone ; the central hearth where was perpetually born the divine spirit animating all created forms.
Louise Kennedy.
Fire-walking in Southern India.
(Vol. xii., p. 446.)
In the recently issued Bulletin (vol. iv.. No. i, 1901, p. 55) of the Madras GovernJiieni Museum, Mr. E. Thurston, director of the Museum, reprints from the Madras Mail (no date given) a full account of a ceremony which took place recently at St. Thomas' Mount, near the city of Madras. The following is a summary of all the essential features. Fire-walking has been observed as an annual festival at Allandur, near St. Thomas' Mount, for more than half a century, and always in connection with the local temple of Draupati, the heroine of the Mahabharata. Draupati successfully passed through the ordeal of walking through fire in order to prove her chastity, and ordained that whoever, placing implicit faith in her powers, should undertake to walk over fire, should get rid of any maladies he might be subject to, and attain all objects of his desire. In Southern India anybody and everybody, with the exception of Pariahs and others occupying a similar status in Hindu society, takes part in the fire-walking ceremony, provided that he or she has any vow to fulfil. The vow-takers are pre- viously purified. First the temple servant walked with measured steps and quite calmly on a platform upon which the fire had been evenly spread to a depth of a few inches, and the space thus covered, about 20 feet square, was ablaze with burning charcoal and embers. The other devotees then rushed in a body up on to the platform and walked over the glowing cinders to the other side, where they cooled their feet in a puddle of water {\he pal-kuli or milk pit). A boy of about eight years old walked over the fire, while a still smaller child was hurried over, hanging on to the hand of its father.
90 Correspondence.
The anonymous writer interviewed a few of those v.ho took part in the ceremony as to whether they felt any pain or whether they protected their feet by rubbing them with the juice of plants. (Mr. H. Beauchamp, editor of the Madras Mai/, says " the most common explanation of the immunity from burning is that a decoction of the A/oe indica is used " ; he gives an account of this process.) This suggestion was received with resentment and considered profane. One young man asked in astonishment what greater protection could be needed than that of the god- dess, in whose saving power he had the greatest faith. He explained that the majority of the performers, at the time of the actual fire-walking, are beside themselves with religious fervour and feel absolutely no burning sensations while crossing the fire, and all the after effects amount but to a feeling similar to that caused by being pricked with a pin. Any mishap is attributed by the devotees to their own frailties, rather than to any want of a saving power in the goddess. The author states that he is " entirely satisfied that this fire-walking is no fraud perpetrated by professional people."
Mr. Thurston also quotes Mr. H. J. Stokes, India7i Antiquary, ii., 1873, for the Tanjore district, the Abbe Dubois for Malabar, and the records of the Madras Government {1854), for other cases in Madras, Ganjam, North Arcot, Salem, Tinnevelly, Godavari, Nellore, and Kistna, but these do not give any new facts of importance. It is worth noting, however, that the cere- monial is (or was) not confined to the Hindu community. A reference is made to a paper by Mr. M. J- Walhouse, in the Indian Antiquary, 1878, for analogous customs in other lands.
A. C. Haddon.
Tree Worship. (Vol. xii., p. 455.)
I venture to suggest that this curious case — a collective hallu- cination, by night, of the Madonna in an oak-tree — is neither one of " tree-worship " nor of worship of " wood-spirits." In the Dor-
Correspondence. 91
dogne, in the eighties of the last (nineteenth) century, the French peasants used to gaze for, and some used to " see," the Madonna in a dark hole in a wall, an ordinary field wall. M. Marillier communicated a paper on the subject to the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. Perhaps nobody will call this " stone-worship " ? I give an analogous case. Last autumn a friend of mine, a scientifically-trained man, having heard of " crystal-gazing," made several experiments. To prevent the ex- istence of reflections in glass or water he took a common table glass water-jug, surrounded it with dark cloth, covered his own head with a cloth, and gazed down into the neck of the jug, which thus became a perfectly dark funnel, answering to the dark hole in the wall in the Dordogne. He found that the funnel became full of brilliant light, in which he viewed pictures of people and landscapes. I was present at this experiment, and tried the funnel, which was quite black. He then tried the common glass ball in the usual way, with similar results. My friend is a young athlete in good training, and has this peculiarity, that he never once has dreamed, as far as his conscious memory goes. I there- fore submit that both the hole in the wall and the dark nocturnal oak are mere gazing points, like the dark funnel, and that religious suggestibility did the rest. The Knock case in Ireland is really more curious ; here the visions of saints and the bright lights were witnessed by the people of Knock both by day and at night, on the outside wall of the parish church (Catholic). Wood- spirits and tree-worship are not in question, I think.
A. Lang.
Jingle Sung at Castleton. (Vol. xii., p. 421.)
A similar jingle was not long since repeated to my father here in Kirton-in-Lindsey. G. VV., a man of North Lincolnshire birth and descent, asked him if he had ever heard :
" You don't know, nor I don't know, What fun we had at Grantham ; A roasted pig, a salted cat, A pudding in a lantern."
92 Correspondence.
In connection with the name " frumity-flowers " for cuckoo- flowers, can frumity formerly have been a festival dish on Garland Day ? In Lincolnshire, the proper seasons for eating it are Yule- tide and sheep-shearing.
Mabel Peacock.
About 1820 or 1830, an old man, a barber in Leeds, used to sing to an air something like "Pease upon a Trencher" {i.e. T. Moore's " The time I've lost in wooing ") the following :
" Pudding in a lanthorn, Pudding in a lanthorn, Cheese and bread in a linen beg (bag), And pudding in a lanthorn."
Frank Kidson.
A Written Charm.
{Supra, p. 2, and Plate I.)
The parchment charm exhibited on my behalf was sent to me by the Editor of the Chemist and Druggist, who had received it with others like it from a firm of druggists at Bradford, to whom they were brought by a customer who had recently found them in " an old hall " in the neighbourhood, and supposed them to be old medical prescriptions. I found them to be undoubtedly charms ; all were exactly alike, but so far illegible that it was only with great difificulty and by collating the lot that I succeeded in making them out. The words run as follows :
Aon -I- hora + Cammall ^ -f -f Naadgrass -|- Dyradgrass -|- + + Arassund + yo -f Sigrged -t- -|- + dayniss + Tetragrammaton E Inurmed E Soleysicke + -|- -|- domend + Ame -f dias -\- hora -|- -|- M. Fiat.
Mr. Peacock judges it to be uritten in a legal hand not earlier than the reign of George III. Professor Skeat says : " I do not
|
N |
|
|
<^-. |
|
|
^ |
|
,1-
■^
^^
UJ
Ll
I
g
I- <
Q
Z
o
Ll
Correspondence. 93
think anything can be made of it, or that it ever did mean any- thing. There are two or three Hke it in the Anglo-Saxon charms in Cockayne's Book of Leechdoms, iii., 290. Some of them, though much older, are quite as nonsensical. Here is a bit of one : ' Dev, ev, dev, deev, las, druel, bepax, box, nux, bu.' It ends : ' lera, lira, tota, tanta, uel, tellus, et, ade, uirescit.' It is quite certain that this never made sense. In the one you send Tetragrainmato7i is of course a real word. Aon no doubt meant ceon, and a7ne is for Ame = Amen."
Tetragrammaton is a well-known conjuration, but some of the words appear to me mere gibberish. Unless, however, some clue to their meaning can be discovered it is useless to conjecture the intended purpose of the charm.
C. C. Bell.
Epworth, Lincolnshire.
[Since the above was in type, some further particulars have reached us. We learn from the Bradford Daily Telegraph (15 February, 1902) that the "old hall" where the charm was found was High Fernley Farm, Wyke, near Bradford. The farmer, Mr. Josiah Lightowler, was whitewashing the " mistal " (translated to us as "the lathe," and further explained as "a place where cattle are kept "), when the fancy struck him to remove some square pieces of wood nailed to the rafters. Behind each of these, seven in number, he found a piece of parchment inscribed as above. The " mistal " was originally part of the dwelling-house. A stone over its doorway bears the date 1696 and the initials of the builders, William and Mary Richardson of North Bierley Hall; the parents, we are told, of Dr. Richard Richardson, F.R.S., a noted botanist and antiquary in the early eighteenth century (1663-1741), the friend of Sir Hans Sloane, of Boerhaave, of Ralph Thoresby of Leeds, and other notable men of his day {Dictionary of Nationa/ Biography, s. v.^). The first idea of the finders was that the charms were written by him, a point which could easily be ascer- tained, were it worth while, as many of his letters remain among the Sloane MSS. in the British Museum.
But it appears that there is another old house on the wind-
' Dr. Richardson's mother's name is here given as Susanna. The discre- pancy is unimportant for our present purpose.
94 Correspondence.
swept hill-top — High Fernley Hall; built in 1678, and once a large mansion, but now much reduced in size. Mr. James Parker, of Great Horton, near Bradford, a writer on local history and tradi- tion, informs us that in the eighteenth century it was occupied (under the Richardsons) by a family named Bevers, of whom two brothers loved the same lady. The rejected suitor, after witnessing her marriage to his brother in Kirkheaton Church, 5th ]May, 1742, rode home to High Fernley and told the servants that some mis- fortune was going to happen to him, but that he would " come again " without his head. He then deliberately cut his head off (!): and afterwards kept his word, appearing every night in the guise of a headless horseman. His family quitted the Hall : it stood empty for many years : no one dared even pass by it at night : and at last the portion of the house where the suicide had taken place had to be pulled down and the mansion reduced to its present size, before a tenant could be found for it. With so active and grewsome a ghost for their only neighbour at the Hall, what is more likely than that the inhabitants of the Farm should have resorted to charms to prevent his entrance into their house ? The charms, which were folded and wafered, appear to us to be in a woman's handwriting. Mr. John Hobson Matthews, writing from the Town Hall, Cardiff, to Notes and Queries (9th Series, ix., 158), suggests that the words "Naadgrass Dyradgrass" are meant for a well-known Welsh bardic motto " Na ad dy ras, Dyro dy ras," (or, Duw dy ras), meaning " Prevent not thy grace, give thy grace," (or, God Thy grace). " Mediaeval charms of this kind," he says, "made up of phrases from Latin and Greek liturgies interspersed with Welsh words, were common in the Principality right down to the early part of the nineteenth century." — Ed.]
The Vessel Cup.
{Supra, p. 3.)
An interesting old custom still exists in Whitby, Yorkshire, at this time of the year known as the carrjnng round of the " vessel cup." This consists of a common little wooden box, probably a sweetmeat-box, containing a doll reposing on a bed of dried stained moss interspersed with sprigs of holly, bits of tinsel, and
Correspondence. 95
models of fruits. This curious object is carried round, carefully covered with a cloth, from house to house by elderly women, and it is considered exceedingly unlucky to dismiss these vessel-cup bearers without a small donation. A few lines, a corruption of a very ancient ditty, are sung, the covering is removed with reverence, and the contents of the sweetmeat-box, a miserable survival of former grandeur, displayed.
A few years ago this was much more religiously observed in the Yorkshire Dales. The box had several coverings, the inner one being of blue satin. The figures represented the Virgin and the Child Christ, the former always in blue with golden stars, the latter with a halo. At the feet rested a lion and lamb, whilst around were displayed fruits and other offerings, no doubt repre- senting the gifts of the Magi.
The very old women who were privileged to carry these and beg, chanted the lines :
" God bless the master of the house, The mistress also. And all the little children Who round the table grow,"
and were generally regarded as witches in their country. Com pare the \\.dX\?i\\ presepio and the French creche.
E. LOVETT.
I was acquainted with this custom at Hull, 1850-60. Two or three girls would bring to the house-door a box containing a doll,i dressed in blue and set off with tinsel, holly, and holly-berries. A few red apples were also deposited with it. They first sang a few lines of Christmas greeting and then opened the box and asked for money, and became very abusive if refused.
E. W. Clarke.
[The customs of wassailing and carrying a vessel-cup are noticed in Ellis's Bra7id, i., i, 454, Henderson, 2nd ed., pp. 64-66^ and Gent. Mag. Library {^Popular Superstitions)., pp. 16, 76. The information given may be summarised as follows. Wassailing, or
' Another correspondent, Miss Phyllis Dawson, lately of Swine, near Hull, says, unprompted, " I think there were sometimes two dolls in the box. The words began ' God rest you, merry gentlemen.' "
96 Correspondence.
health-drinking from a bowl or loving-cup, was a usual accompa- niment of Christmas feasting, sometimes extended to the orchards and the oxen. The favourite liquor was " lambswool," a mixture of ale, spices, and roasted apples. In many places parties of wassailers went about visiting the neighbouring houses singing their good wishes and carrying a bowl with apples, which the hosts were expected to fill with ale, or money to purchase it. But the custom of carrying a representation of the Madonna seems to have been confined to Northumbria, where the name " vessel- cup " and the apples are the only relics of the wassail-bowl which, one supposes, once accompanied it. — Ed.]
Yew Wood.
Dr. Conventz of Danzig read a paper before Section K of the British Association at Glasgow on " The Past History of the Yew in Great Britain and Ireland." He called attention to the large number of prehistoric and early historic implements made of yew wood in the British Museum and the Science and Art Museum of Dubhn. He also showed a so-called Toll-hoh of yew ; this imple- ment, which was used in Germany, consists of a die with signs and letters cut in it, with which cakes are marked, which are then given to mad dogs in order to cure them. In Sweden patterns for printing wall-papers were formerly made of yew ; in several countries shuttles are made of this wood ; on the Aland Island the may-poles are decorated with yew twigs. Dr. Conventz has also studied the names of uninhabited places {Fhir-namen) with the assistance of Dr. H. R. Mill and the Rev. C. H. Close. In Ireland there are more than a hundred place-names compounded with " yew ; " at some of these places he has found sub-fossil yew below the surface. Dr. Conventz would be glad to have notes of English parallels to the above usages, details of any finds of yew wood or yew implements, and information as to the folklore of wood in England and other countries.
N. W. Thomas.
REVIEWS.
Tribal Customs in Anglo-Saxon Law. By Frederic Seebohm. Longmans. 1902.
Like all Mr. Seebohm's studies, this is mainly economical. It takes us through the maze of continental coinage at the time of the foundation of barbaric states on the ruins of the Roman empire, and it shows the changes, and also the equations which help us to understand those changes among the various Teutonic peoples whose laws were then superseding the Roman law in the government of the new social foundations. All this is very excellent, of course. It is a study which those who have not been able to work up the subject for themselves will welcome in several ways, and it opens the way to a correct understanding of the relationship of the several barbaric codes of law to one another. It occupies more than half Mr. Seebohm's book, and indeed forms the prin- cipal portion of his new study.
This seems to suggest that the title chosen by Mr. Seebohm does not altogether convey the true intent and result of his book; and indeed we object to the use of the word custom in this respect. Surely at this stage in the study of anthropology custom has assumed a certain definiteness in our vocabulary. Custom properly so called is not law, it is not a body of codified rules, it is not the governing force of any given social group, it is not sanctioned by the state or by the sovereign. And yet the custom which Mr. Seebohm deals with is all this. The point may be a small one, perhaps, but we cannot help thinking it has led to a confusion of thought which has its effect upon Mr. Seebohm's work. Let us take the passage on page 187 : " Moreover," says Mr. Seebohm, "it is clear from internal evidence that the laws as we have them are by no means of one single date. They form, in fact, a collection of the customs of the three districts into which Frisia was divided, with modifications and various additions made to the original collections at different times." Or again, at page 337 : " Special laws issued at various times by
VOL XIII. H
98 Reviews.
Saxon kings do not profess to cover the whole ground of existing and well-understood custom. Rather should special laws be re- garded as modifications of custom made necessary at different periods by new circumstances. Thus no one set of laws can be expected to give a general view of custom as a whole." The custom Mr. Seebohm is alluding to in these passages and through- out his book is, of course, that body of unwritten law which governs the people as much in tribal society as the codes of written law govern the people in more developed societies. Custom is not the equivalent of unwritten law, and we get a limited view of tribal custom when it is used to connote that important body of tribal rules which, when the state has evolved into some sort of stability, have to to be codified as one of the recognised governing forces in the hands of the sovereign power. Indeed, but for this limitation of the term custom, Mr. Seebohm could have found many important illustrations which would have helped his elucidation of tribal conditions — illustrations not appearing in the codified laws, but which nevertheless may more properly be called tribal custom than the usages and rules of tribal society upon which alone he has relied for his evidence.
Mr. Seebohm has taken up this part of the evidence at the wrong end of his important studies. In the last chapter of his new book he labours to fit in its results with the results of his former studies. The English Village ComnuDiity and The Tribal System ifi Wales. Our readers will remember that the former of these two brilliant essays was published just when students were beginning to feel the want of details wherewith to fill up the lacunar left by Sir Henry Maine's remarkable generalisations. It seemed to be so perfectly logical, and so well-reasoned on a basis of firm fact, that there was little hope for those who had not till then subscribed to the doctrine that Roman civilisation in Britain was the source of almost all our early economic and social life. The appearance a little later of Professor Vinogradoffs Villei?iage in Efigland. Mr. Andrews' Old English Manor, and some other studies, brought back the subject to the higher level of comparative jurisprudence ; but not, we think, completely, because Mr. Seebohm's weighty conclusions still stood in the way. Now, however, Mr. Seebohm himself appears in the field against his earlier work. It is true that he strives to point out where this last study confirms his earlier, but he leaves out of account the points where it not
Reviews. 99
only does not confirm it, but is actually in opposition to it. We would venture to say that had Mr. Seebohm begun his valuable work with the present volume, he would not have written his first work on the lines we know so well. It would have been impossible. The tribe with all its forces, its influences, and its principles was not present to him when he studied the survivals of the English village community. The only great economic and political force to which he could appeal was that of the Roman empire ; and to this he went for the foundations of the English village system. But the village system is but a phase of the tribal system. It is as impossible to prove as it is impossible to conceive the village system with its limited economical conditions fitting into the Roman political system with its fully developed economical con- ditions. At the best there may be said to have been an apparent harmony with some features of the Roman system at the very fringes of the empire ; but this is not enough to have founded a whole system such as is presented to view in Britain. It is possible, on the other hand, to trace many of the stages in the development from tribe to village, that is, in other words, from the tribe as an unstable group to the tribe as a settled community — from the Teutonic tribe to the Teutonic state ; just as it is possible even now to perceive the main outline of the development from the Roman tribe to the Roman state.
This then appears to us to be the chief value of Mr. Seebohm's new study. It restores to view the tribe in the English system ; and that, too, at the hands of the same scholar who in earlier days could not get back to the tribe in his progress from the known facts to the unknown ancestors of those facts.
Mr. Seebohm fixes his attention almost entirely upon the wergild of early tribal society — Celtic and Teutonic. V/ith a masterly hand he points out how this system of payment for crime against an individual penetrated to the recognised members of that individual's kin, and that in this recognised kinship is to be found the Celtic and Teutonic tribe. In particular the dis- tinction, which is best illustrated in Beowulf, between the crime of killing a non-tribesman and the crime of killing a fellow- tribesman, is a very important illustration of the tribal system. The former case exposes the homicide's kin to the payment of the wergild, reckoned originally in cattle, and allows the kin of the dead man to receive the wergild, both payment and receipt
lOO Reviews.
being made upon rules which reckon within the kinship all who are of the tribe. The latter case is an unspeakable crime. There is no kin to compensate and so no compensation is possible. The criminal goes forth from his tribe a tribeless man, and henceforth neither the property of the tribe nor its pains and penalties have anything to do with him. Another phase of the subject which is most ably dealt with is the aspect which tribal law assumes when it is in direct contact with the Roman state. Tribal law does not succumb, but it applies only to peoples who are living in tribal society. Roman law does not succumb, but it applies only to its own people ; and thus both systems are seen to flourish side by side. Of course they begin to react on each other, and equally of course the tribal laws have many Roman conceptions worked into them. In the hands of so acute an observer as Mr. Seebohm this is a fruitful source of information, and he strips the tribal laws of their Roman accretions only to show the places whereon was formerly written the original tribal law and the words, or at least the principles, of the original.
There are a few graphic instances of tribal customs to which Mr. Seebohm alludes, which will be particularly interesting to folk- lorists. The extra penalty if the blood reaches the ground is most striking, as although the condition may be a means of determining the extent of the injury, in terms it is that of primitive thought, and doubtless illustrative of one of the oldest parts of tribal law. All the rules for getting rid of tribal duties are particularly interesting. They are all primitive and not Roman in character; they are therefore a concession of the tribe to a tribesman and not a pressure of Roman law upon tribal law. House-rites, the influence of sonship, the sanctity of the hearth, the wife's knowledge of pagan rites, and many such incidental lights upon tribal life are mentioned here and there, and perhaps deserve more investigation.
This is Mr. Seebohm's third study of early English and Celtic life. We hope he will proceed with the work. It is so thorough, that even if some of us are inclined to think it is limited none would willingly do without it. It is not often that a scholar so well equipped will devote himself to thorough investigation of a small section of a great subject. When he does so our homage should go out to him whole-heartedly, for his work not only paves the way to such larger fields of study as others may indulge in, but it sets up many of the warning signals which are
Reviews. loi
so necessary when travelling into the depths of the unknown past. Early man was a product of his own time, not of ours. To understand him and his ways we must project ourselves as much as possible into his surroundings, both physical and psychological. Studies such as Mr. Seebohm has given us enable us to do this far more effectually than most others of the same kind, and we can think of no better introduction to the proper conception of early Celtic and Teutonic Britain than the mass of minute details which Mr. Seebohm has transformed into briUiant flashes of light.
G. Laurence Gomme.
Head-Hunters, Black, White, and Brown. By Alfred C. Haddon. Illustrated. Methuen and Co. 1902. 15s.
The first knowledge which Professor Haddon gained of the people of Torres Straits was in 1888, in the course of an expedition which had for its primary object the study of the coral-reef and marine zoology of the district. His incomplete examination of the races occupying these islands supplied the materials for an interesting contribution to the Journal of the Anthropological Institute and to Folklore, and suggested a more complete survey of this region from the anthropological side, which was carried out in 1898-9 under the auspices of the University of Cambridge. The present volume is an introductory and popular sketch of the results of this survey, the detailed records of which are in course of publication. The main interest of this inquiry lies in the fact that it was largely devoted to the field of experimental psychology. The leader of the expedition and his colleagues were provided with a complete set of ingenious apparatus designed to record observa- tions on questions such as the visual acuity, colour-blindness, estimation of time, acuteness of hearing and smelling, sensibility to pain, and so forth. This is a field of investigation which in the case of races which we conventionally class as savage is almost unworked soil, and the value of such an inquiry conducted by competent scientific men employing the most advanced methods is sufficiently obvious. But besides what may be called the physical questions to which special attention was devoted, the volume before us everywhere shows the zeal with which ethno-
io2 Reviews.
graphy, the social condition of tliese races, their customs and superstitions, folklore, and mythology came under observation.
The chief centre of operations was the Murray Islands, a most inaccessible group, where social life must, until the arrival of Christian missionaries, have developed with little interference from outside. A number of journeys were also made to the ' neighbouring islands of the Archipelago and the adjoining shores of New Guinea, Borneo, and Queensland. It is pleasant to note that the expedition received cordial assistance both from the Government officials and members of the missionary com- munities, among whom the late lamented Dr. Chalmers held a leading place. It is ample proof of the tact and ability which marked the conduct of the expedition that the physical examina- tion of these savage or semi-savage races, as well as the inquiry into customs which have now, under the influence of Christian teaching, become almost obsolete, was not only carried out with- out any friction, but produced the most friendly relations between the explorers and the natives.
The psychological experiments on the whole confirm the observations of other students of savage races. Their visual acuity is little superior to that of normal Europeans, but it is better directed, and hence results the belief in the acuteness of savage eyesight which has been so often noticed. Short-sighted- ness is, as might have been expected, practically unknown ; " there were definite names for red, less definite for yellow, and still less so for green, while a definite name for blue was either absent or borrowed from English." In hearing there was no superiority over normal Europeans ; but here the difficulty of the investigation at Murray Island was increased by the noise of the sea and the rustle of the coco palms.
Paganism in these islands is in a state of active decay, due partly to the rapid conversion of the people to a form of Christianity, but perhaps more to economic changes resulting from extended trade. It is fortunate that the expedition was undertaken while there were still many people living who were familiar with the older state of things and willing to impart their knowledge to sympathetic observers.
Much that is interesting is said about totemism. The case of the dugong-men and turtle-men of Mabuiag seems (as Professor Haddon has already told us, Folk-Lort\ \ii., 230) to corroborate
Reviews. 103
the hypothesis of Dr. Frazer and Professor Baldwin Spencer that totemism is mainly an economic custom intended to preserve or increase, by means of magical rites, particular food-stuffs or objects of general utihty to the community. But besides this, by the protection afforded to their fellows by the members of a totem-clan, it exercises an ameliorating influence in social inter- course and tends to minimise tribal antagonism. On the strength of his vaccination-marks Professor Haddon was himself recog- nised to be a member of the fraternity. A point perhaps hitherto unrecorded in the case of a living people is that " it seems as if it may be possible to trace some stages at least between pure totemism on the one hand and hero-worship on the other, and a hero-worship that is suspiciously like the origin of a god."
Another valuable part of the book is the elaborate account of puberty rites and the reconstruction from native evidence, with careful drawings, of the sacred enclosures in which these rites were performed. We hear much, of course, of the bull-roarer, and Professor Haddon seems to be very close to Dr. Frazer's identification of its primary purpose, to promote fertility.
Sorcery here, as elsewhere, is almost a speciality of the degraded races which preceded their present native rulers. We have accounts of rain-charming and disease-exorcism ; of the curious divination from stones arranged on a sacred site known as diZogo; of the method of asking advice from the skulls of deceased relatives, and the mode of divination from the appearance of a pig's liver, the last being commonly resorted to when a marriage is being arranged. Full details are given of marriage rites, the principle underlying many of them indicating a transition from the matriarchal to the patriarchal system. Children's games were carefully investigated, and in particular the string-tricks, like our " Cats' Cradle," at which they are experts. To some of these little songs are sung, which seem to be relics of some magical formulae, a fact which will corroborate some of Mrs. Gomme's speculations on English games.
These few examples from the preliminary record of the expedi- tion will serve but to whet the appetite of anthropologists for the full record of an enterprise happily conceived and carried to a successful issue.
W. Crooke.
#*
I w
fffj
I
104
Reviews.
Indische Invloeden op Oude Christelijke Verhalen. By GusTAAF Adolf van den Bergh van Eysinga. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 1901.
The question of Indian influences on early Christian narratives is of much importance to folklore students in reference to the general problem of transmission of folktales. To us, the consideration of the question seems an odd subject for a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Nor could it be treated under existing con- ditions in England with freedom from bias or without the strongest suspicion of the advocacy of a foregone conclusion. In Holland, however, people think differently. There it is possible, as this essay shows, for a student of divinity to investigate scientifically, and to set forth without fear the results of his inquiries into the materials of the canonical and apocryphal Gospels, even though his conclusions may seriously qualify the evidential value of those documents.
Dr. van Eysinga begins by a criticism of his predecessors in the same field. Students of Buddhism have frequently noticed coin- cidences between the legend of Buddha and the narratives of the Gospels, canonical and apocryphal. The latest and most syste- matic attempts to prove a connection are by Professor Seydel of Leipzig. They are embodied in his Das Evangeliuin Jesii in seine7i Verhdltnissen zu Buddha-Sage und Buddha-Lehre (1882), and Die Buddha-Legende und das Leben Jesu nach den Evangelien (1897). Dr. van Eysinga has examined afresh the passages alleged by Seydel and other scholars as proofs of Buddhist influence, together with other parallels. Each parallel is analysed in detail. The textual resemblances between the Christian and Buddhist writings are noted, the resemblances of incident and circumstance are discussed ; and where the story as told in the Gospels appears inconsistent or needing explanation, the author turns to the Bud- dhist legends to seek for light.
He then considers the intercourse between India and the West in pre-Christian and early Christian times, both by sea and land. Intercourse there certainly was before the time of Alexander the Great. But the invasion of India by that conqueror and the establishment of a Greek realm in the Panjab led to much coming and going, increased trade and exchange of ideas between the East and the West. The author traces the various routes, and he
^'rS
■»««#•*• ^J«.^^
I
/Reviews.
105
refers to the influence of Greece on Indian art, and the traces of Indian influence on Greek mythology and literature, especially on the cycles of Dionysos and Alexander and the development of fables. Coming down to a later period, he shows unquestionable Buddhistic material in Christian legends, such as the Ylepiobni Qwfid, a legendary account of the Apostle St. Thomas, and the Barlaam and Joasaph. He argues that Indian (mainly Buddhist) influence on the apocryphal Gospels is certain, and that this fact renders probable some Indian influence on the canonical Gospels. Alexandria was by no means the only focus of speculation and thought in the first two centuries. Antioch, for example, from early times a noted Christian centre, was also a centre of trade, the terminus of one of the great roads to the East. The concourse of East and West in that city must have led to the exchange of ideas and of stories.
When, however, we cast an eye over the parallels accepted by Dr. van Eysinga as exhibiting a correspondence too close to be explainable by anything short of conscious or unconscious bor- rowing, we find that their total number is but small. They occur chiefly in the earlier part of the life and ministry of Christ ; and " it cannot escape our attention," he says, " that the. narratives wherein we consider Indian influence probable are precisely such as belong to a Gnostic form of Gospel." I am inclined to doubt whether most of the undoubted coincidences in the apocryphal writings which the author accepts are really of Buddhist origin, though some weight must of course be attached to their number. Of those in the canonical writings (and they are not many) the most probable seems the story of the Temptation, which has always been a difficulty to Christian expositors and apologists, but is certainly in place in the legend of Gautama.
Gnosticism was the product of the clash of Greek philosophy with oriental speculation. If it was mainly through Gnostic channels that Buddhist incidents and conceptions filtered into Christian narratives, and those incidents and conceptions them- selves were comparatively few in number, then the importation of Eastern stories and ideas into the West may have been more limited than we are sometimes called on to believe, and the pro- bability is strengthened that the transmission of fable from East to West, which admittedly took place, was mainly a literary process. The subject, however, of the intellectual influence of
^
o
i i i.
r-'t'j'J
I04 Reviews.
Indische Invloeden op Oude Christelijke Verhalen. By GusTAAF Adolf van den Bergh van Eysinga. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 1 90 1.
The question of Indian influences on early Christian narratives is of much importance to folklore students in reference to the general problem of transmission of folktales. To us, the consideration of the question seems an odd subject for a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Nor could it be treated under existing con- ditions in England with freedom from bias or without the strongest suspicion of the advocacy of a foregone conclusion. In Holland, however, people think differently. There it is possible, as this essay shows, for a student of divinity to investigate scientifically, and to set forth without fear the results of his inquiries into the materials of the canonical and apocryphal Gospels, even though his conclusions may seriously qualify the evidential value of those documents.
Dr. van Eysinga begins by a criticism of his predecessors in the same field. Students of Buddhism have frequently noticed coin- cidences between the legend of Buddha and the narratives of the Gospels, canonical and apocryphal. The latest and most syste- matic attempts to prove a connection are by Professor Seydel of Leipzig. They are embodied in his Das Evattgelium Jesu in seitien Verhdltnissen zu Buddha-Sage U7id Buddha-Lehre (1882), and Die Buddha-Legende und das Leben Jesu nach den Evangelien (1897). Dr. van Eysinga has examined afresh the passages alleged by Seydel and other scholars as proofs of Buddhist influence, together with other parallels. Each parallel is analysed in detail. The textual resemblances between the Christian and Buddhist writings are noted, the resemblances of incident and circumstance are discussed ; and where the story as told in the Gospels appears inconsistent or needing explanation, the author turns to the Bud- dhist legends to seek for light.
He then considers the intercourse between India and the West in pre-Christian and early Christian times, both by sea and land. Intercourse there certainly was before the time of Alexander the Great. But the invasion of India by that conqueror and the establishment of a Greek realm in the Panjab led to much coming and going, increased trade and exchange of ideas between the East and the West. The author traces the various routes, and he
Reviews. 105
refers to the influence of Greece on Indian art, and the traces of Indian influence on Greek mythology and literature, especially on the cycles of Dionysos and Alexander and the development of fables. Coming down to a later period, he shows unquestionable Buddhistic material in Christian legends, such as the Ilep/oc^ot Qio/id, a legendary account of the Apostle St. Thomas, and the Bar/aam and Joasaph. He argues that Indian (mainly Buddhist) influence on the apocryphal Gospels is certain, and that this fact renders probable some Indian influence on the canonical Gospels. Alexandria was by no means the only focus of speculation and thought in the first two centuries. Antioch, for example, from early times a noted Christian centre, was also a centre of trade, the terminus of one of the great roads to the East. The concourse of East and West in that city must have led to the exchange of ideas and of stories.
When, however, we cast an eye over the parallels accepted by Dr. van Eysinga as exhibiting a correspondence too close to be explainable by anything short of conscious or unconscious bor- rowing, we find that their total number is but small. They occur chiefly in the earlier part of the life and ministry of Christ ; and " it cannot escape our attention," he says, " that the narratives wherein we consider Indian influence probable are precisely such as belong to a Gnostic form of Gospel." I am inclined to doubt whether most of the undoubted coincidences in the apocryphal writings which the author accepts are really of Buddhist origin, though some weight must of course be attached to their number. Of those in the canonical writings (and they are not many) the most probable seems the story of the Temptation, which has always been a difficulty to Christian expositors and apologists, but is certainly in place in the legend of Gautama.
Gnosticism was the product of the clash of Greek philosophy with oriental speculation. If it was mainly through Gnostic channels that Buddhist incidents and conceptions filtered into Christian narratives, and those incidents and conceptions them- selves were comparatively few in number, then the importation of Eastern stories and ideas into the West may have been more limited than we are sometimes called on to believe, and the pro- bability is strengthened that the transmission of fable from East to West, which admittedly took place, was mainly a literary process. The subject, however, of the intellectual influence of
io6 Reviews.
India upon the ancient world requires to be dealt with as a whole by some competent scholar. Meanwhile, Dr. van Eysinga's thoughtful and judicious essay and his collection of parallels will be appreciated by all who are interested in the problems of storyology. quite as much as by theologians.
E. Sidney Hartland.
Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire, Chiefly Collected at Stone. By W. Wells Bladen.
These notes, contributed by Mr. Bladen to the North Stafford- shire Field Club, and reprinted from their Transactions, are a sample of what may be done by local inquiry to save the rapidly vanishing folklore of the English counties. Naturally they include a good deal that is common to many counties, if not to all England. But they are hardly the less valuable for that, since one of the most important questions to be determined in a country which has been occupied by so many different peoples as ours, is, what are the geographical limits of the different items of belief and practice. As a criterion of race, evidence from folklore is pro- bably to be received with caution, but at all events it will help to show to what extent the folk has been penetrated by the succes- sive cultures.
Mr. Bladen begins his collection with the legend of St. Wulfad and St. Rufin, the scene of whose murder is laid near Stone : but neither he nor Mr. Poole in his Staffordshire Folklore (a poor performance reprinted from the Wolverhampton Chronicle) gives any authority for the legend, for which I have searched several old chroniclers in vain. I would warn local collectors generally against this too common error. It is a grave omission. And let me further beg them not to speculate on the origins of the customs and superstitions they may find, but to content themselves with simply recording them. Even those who have made the longest and most earnest study of the subject are often led astray on the question of origins : it is no wonder therefore if others err when they derive the throwing of old shoes after a newly-wedded pair from the Mosaic law, or ascribe the practices of All Fools' Day to
Reviews. 107
reminiscences of the mockery of Christ by the Roman soldiery. I should like to know also what reason there is for believing that the practice of lifting the hat when meeting a funeral was " origi- nally intended to propitiate the evil spirits which may be in attendance."
These, however, are after all minor blemishes. Mr. Bladen's important collection of Counting-out Rhymes, his collection of Singing-games, and his diagrams of Hopscotch as played at Stone (which should be compared with the Danish collection of Dr. Feilberg and the Sicilian collection of Dr. Pitre) give him a sub- stantial claim on our gratitude. It is a pleasure, too, to con- gratulate him on recording the words of the Guisers' Play as performed at Stone, which differs materially from the version performed at Eccleshall, only six miles away, and recorded by Miss Burne {Folk-Lore Jot/r/ial, iv., 350). This again differs noticeably from that of Newport, nine miles distant. Were a collection made of these plays from all parts of the country we might by collation and careful comparison be able to form some opinion as to their origin and the influences which have modified them at various times and places.
The speedy growth of tradition is illustrated by Mr. Bladen's note on the circumstances attending the death of Mr. Stanier of Peplow ; and the transference of custom from place to place by his statement that notice of Mothering Sunday is given out on the previous Sunday in Eccleshall Church, which Miss Burne informs me is a recent innovation, dating only from the incum- bency of the present vicar, who comes from South Staffordshire, where great store is set by Mothering Sunday. These may seem small points, but they touch great questions.
In fact, Mr. Bladen's success in collecting folklore in a very limited area should act as a stimulus to those members of our Society who, living in places as yet little touched by the spirit of the age, nevertheless tell us they would fain help us, but they never hear of anything likely to be of use !
E. Sidney H.\rtland.
io8 Reviews.
Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes, translated and illustrated by Isaac Taylor Headland, of Peking University. Fleming H. Revell Co., New York, Chicago, Toronto.
Professor Headland in his preface to this interesting collection of rhymes says, " There are probably more nursery rhymes in China than can be found in England and America. We have in our possession more than six hundred, collected for the most part in two out of the eighteen provinces, and we have no reason to believe that we have succeeded in getting any large proportion of what those two provinces contain." Professor Headland in this book has made no attempt at literary style in translating the rhymes. His desire has been to make a translation which is fairly true to the original, and one which will please English- speaking children. He gives in each case the Chinese original.
Many of the rhymes have features in common with our own nursery rhymes. Many might be sung to and by children of almost any nationality ; in fact, were it not for the illustrations of Chinese children and adults, and Chinese versions of the rhymes, it would be difficult to determine from whence they were collected. There are some which show local colour. The Wedding Feast, the Wedding, the Pagoda must refer to Chinese customs, but the majority would appeal to all children. Some of the rhymes, judging from the illustrations, must be sung to actions, and re- mind us of some of our own nursery games. We recognise " Turning the Mill," " Buying a Lock," " Forcing the City Gates," as old friends; also "The Flower-seller" and " Making a Flower- pot." It would be interesting to know the directions for playing these, if they are regarded as games. " Blind-man's Buff" is here, and also a version of " This little pig went to market." The rhyme when counting a Chinese child's toes is :
This little cow eats grass,
This little cow eats hay,
This little cow drinks water,
This little cow runs away,
This little cow does nothing but just lie down all day ;
We'll whip her.
Reviews. 109
Another, said when blowing a thistle-seed in the air :
Thistle seed, thistle seed, fly away, fly,
The hair on your body will take you up high ;
Let the wind whirl you around and around,
V'ou'll not hurt yourself when you fall to the ground.
Apparently there is here no trace of the thistle-seed being blown for divination purposes ; this rhyme is very similar to the one said by English children to the dandelion-seeds. There are also " Pat a cake " rhymes, and cumulative rhymes, and many are humorous. The illustrations from photographs of Chinese children at play have been prepared purposely for the book, and are of special interest. Some are particularly pretty, and illustrate for children some Chinese customs and costumes.
It may perhaps be permissible here to draw attention to some articles, by Professor Headland, in The Home Magazme of New York, published in February, 1901, on "The Games of Chinese Children." In this article Professor Headland describes the visit of Dr. Luther Gulick to him at Peking. Dr. Gulick wished for information regarding the play-life of children of the East, in order to discover what relation exists between the games of oriental and those of occidental children, and thus to learn the effect of play in the mental and physical development as well as the character of children, and through them in the human race as a whole. The result of the calling of the boys together for play was the collection of many games, some so like to some of our own that they might almost have been transplanted from here to Peking. Photographs of these are given. Professor Headland notices in this same article that the games played in Central and South China are different, partly because of climatic conditions, partly because of the character of the people. A large number of the games played there as here are but reproductions of the employment of the children's parents ; farming, carpentry, housekeeping. Near the river or sea, fishing is the favourite game. During the Chinese- Japanese War, children organised battalions and played at war, retreating when the leader reported the Japanese coming in true soldier-fashion. A. B. Gomme.
I lo Revieivs.
Short Notices.
Formelhafte Schlilsse im Volks-Mdrchen. By Robert Petsch.
Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1901. The author of this Httle book has undertaken to consider the closing formulas of the Marchen, as a step towards a complete philosophy of folktales.
He distinguishes two main divisions, the internal and external endings, which he subdivides into two and three classes respec- tively : (r) the simple close, in which the good are rewarded and the bad punished; (2) the "happy-ever-after" close, which tells us something of the future life of the characters ; (3) the recapitu- lating close, which summarises the main contents and often includes a moral ; (4) the formal close, announcing in set terms the close of the story ; (5) the personal close, in which the narrator removes the centre of interest to himself. The author's material is drawn from the nations, civilised and savage, of the Old World, and of them mainly from the Teutonic peoples ; the preface gives a list of the works, about a hundred in number, which he has consulted.
Dr. Petsch truly remarks that the literature of folktales is too extensive for the single inquirer to cover, but he has given us an examination neither of folktales in general nor of a single national type in particular. His collection or division of the human race does not cover any single known area of the world's surface. Conclusions must either be drawn from the whole mass of Marchen, or the field must be examined bit by bit, and the author should have drawn his limits in such a way as to make the inquiry within them more or less exhaustive. As it is, we have an interesting study of a point hitherto Httle noticed, but not much addition to our knowledge as the result of it. — N. W. Thomas,
Sagen mis dem 'alien Irland, iibersetzt von R. Thurneysen. 8vo xii. 152 pp. Berlin : Wiegandt und Grieben. This volume contains the following stories : Macdatho's Pig ; The Fate of the Sons of Uisnech (the L. L. text) ; The Weakness of the Ulstermen; Bricriu's Feast; The Birth Stories of Cuchulainn and of Conchobor ; the Death Stories of Mess-Gegra and of Con- chobor; Connla ; The Wooing of Etain ; Cuchulainn's Sickbed ; How Ronan slew his Son ; The Wooing of Findabair by Fraech ;
Reviews. 1 1 1
The Seafaring of Snegdus and MacRiagla ; MacConglinne's Vision. Professor Thurneysen's introduction and notes are, as might be expected from a scholar of his standing, adequate, but one expected more from him. As all the stories have been trans- lated into English or French, his work appeals exclusively to the German reader, who may fairly complain of the Professor's choice of the shorter version of MacConglinne instead of that longer version, the gem of Irish humorous story-telling and the finest example in all literature, outside Rabelais himself, of the Rabe- laisian style. — Alfred Nutt.
King Horn. A Middle English Romance, edited from the MSS.
by Joseph Hall. Demy Svo., Ivi. 240 pp. Oxford : Clarendon
Press. Whilst the interest of this admirably executed edition is mainly linguistic, the student of English romance cannot but be glad to possess a perfectly faithful text, in the three extant versions, of what may be called the earliest English romance, and of the much later handling of the subject, Horn Childe. The section of Mr. Hall's Introduction which deals with the story, whilst very brief yet suc- cessfully vindicates the anteriority of the English poem over the Anglo-Norman Horn et Rimenhild, and traces it back ultimately to a saga " based on events which actually occurred in the south-west of England during the English Conquest," and adapting an earlier British tradition " arising out of some temporary success in which the Cornish, aided by the Irish, checked the westward progress of the English." The various features of folklore and romance interest are adequately dealt with in the notes. — Alfred Nutt.
Cilibi Moise, Practica si apropourile lui, Vestihd hi Teara
romaneasca, adunate si aranjate dupa materii si precedate de
Biografia lui Cilibi Moise De M. Schwarzfeld. Ed. ii.
Bucuresti, 1901.
A systematised arrangement of popular saws and aphorisms,
mostly the product of a man whose education had been quite
neglected, who was unable to write, and who had to dictate to
the printer many of these sentences and wise aphorisms. They
appeared in yearly small volumes, in an edition of upwards of
10,000 copies, thus enjoying fabulous popularity in Roumania.
The folkloristic value of this collection consists in the fact that a
large number of these aphorisms have entered the popular mind.
1 1 2 Reviews.
and have now become Roumanian popular proverbs. It is not always easy to trace the immediate source of popular literature. Here we have one. — M. Gaster.
We hear with regret that the issue of our contemporary M'elusine will cease at the end of the present volume. M. Gaidoz has lost the assistance of his fellow-worker M. E. Rolland through ill- health, and finds that advancing years make it impossible for him to carry on the publication single-handed. So the oldest purely folklore serial comes to a close.
Notice.
The Council of the Folk-Lore Society, acting'on the recommen- dations of the Publications and Bibliography Committees, have decided that the Bibliography of current folklore literature shall in future appear annually instead of quarterly. Books and articles published in 1902 will therefore be catalogued in March, 1903, and no Bibliography will appear in the intervening numbers.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY. Vol. XIII.] JUNE, 1902. [No. II.
WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 26th, 1902. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the Meeting of December 4th, igoi, were read and confirmed.
The election of Mr. N. M. Broadbent, Mr. Harry Lucas, Mr. W. Wells Bladen, Miss A. M. Steward, Miss B. T. Steward, Miss P. Packe, Mr. Harding King, and Messrs. Ceroid and Co. as new members was announced.
The resignations of General Forlong, Sir A. C. Lyall, Mrs. M. C. Balfour, Mr. T. Rudmose Brown, Dr. Todhunter, Mr. Greig, and the Rev. C. Swynnerton were also announced.
On the motion of the President a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. A. R. Wright for his work on the Index of Folk-Lo7'e.
Miss Burne exhibited a charm against the Evil Eye from Syria, sent her by Miss Bunbury {infra, p. 202] .
The Secretary read three notes on Harvest Customs (i) by Mrs. Gomme, (2) by Mr. E. H. Binney, and (3) by the late Mrs. W. H. Jewitt {infra, p. 177], upon which the President, Miss Burne, Mr. Gomme, and Mr. Bouverie Pusey offered some observations.
VOL. XIII. I
114 Minutes of Meetings.
Dr. Gaster read a paper entitled " The Letter of Toledo " [infra, p. 115], and in the discussion which followed the President, Mr. Gomme, and Mr. Ordish took part.
The Meeting terminated with a hearty vote of thanks to Dr. Gaster for his paper.
The following books and pamphlets which had been pre- sented to the Society since December 4th. igoi, were laid upon the table, viz. :
The History and Chronology of the Myth-making Age, by J. F. Hewitt, presented by the author ; Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, parts 21-30, pre- sented by the German Society; Schiveizcrisches Archiv filr Volkskunde vol. 5, presented by the Swiss Society ; Bulletin, vol. iv., No, 2 {Anthropology), of the Madras Government Museum, presented by the Government of Madras ; The Journal of the African Society, No. 2, pre- sented by the Society ; North Queensland Ethnography Bulletifts, Nos. i, 2, and 3, presented by the Government of Queensland.
WEDNESDAY, MARCH 26th, 1902. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and con- firmed.
The election of the Gloucester Public Library as a mem- ber of the Society was announced.
The resignations of the Mercantile Library of Phila- delphia and Mr. C. B. Balfour were also announced.
Mr. P. Manning read a paper entitled, " Stray Notes on Oxfordshire Folklore," which was illustrated by lantern slides, and exhibited several objects illustrative of his paper.
Miss L. M. Eyre read a paper entitled " Folklore Notes
The Letter of Toledo. 115
from St. Briavel's, Gloucestershire," and exhibited an object locally known as " The Gift " in illustration of it [infra, p. 174] .
Mr. W. W. Skeat read a paper entitled, " Malay Spiritual- ism {infra, p. 134), which was illustrated by lantern slides.
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to the readers of the several papers.
The following books which had been presented to the Society since the last Meeting were laid on the table, viz. :
The Peabody Museum Papers, vol. ii., presented by Miss L. Kennedy; The i^th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, edited by J. W. Powell, presented by the Smithsonian Institution ; and Folktales from the Indus, by Barlow and McNair, presented by the Authors.
THE LETTER OF TOLEDO.
BY M. GASTER. PH.D.
[Read at Meeting, 2^th February, 1902.)
In the year 1 184 the world was startled by a letter purport- ing to come from the sages and astrologers of Toledo. It was sent to Pope Clement III. and to other men of weight, informing them of the impending doom. The world was to be destroyed in the year 1186 through wind and storms, drought and famine, pestilence and earthquake. The people were advised to forsake their houses and well- built m.ansions, and to try and find safety in mountains and caverns, to protect themselves against the storms of sand with which the inhabitants of the sea coasts would be visited ; notably the towns of the East. The air (con- tinued the letter) will be darkened and poisoned by that fearful wind, and in the midst of it a voice or sound will be heard, which will destroy the hearts of men. All towns
I 2
1 1 6 The Letter of Toledo.
close to the shore will be covered with sand and earth. All this is to happen through the conjunction of all the planets in the sign of the Scales and in the tail of the Dragon, and will take place in the month of September. The sun also will enter into the same conjunction. Such a rare occurrence can only occur by the will of God, in order to be as a wonderful sign of the change to which all mutable things are to be subjected. The premonitory sign will be an eclipse of the sun, immediately before the conjunction of the planets^ obscuring the whole body of the sun ; and the moon in the opposition will also be totally eclipsed. The sun will appear liery red and distorted during the eclipse, which, moreover, signifies approaching bloodshed in the neighbourhood of a river in the East and similarly in the West. Doubt and ignorance will seize Jews and Muhammetans until they forsake their synagogues and " mahumeries." Their sect will then be utterly destroyed by the will of God. Know ye therefore to leave the land so soon as you see the eclipse.
This letter or message was sent in the first place in the name of the astrologers of Toledo, and especially in the name of the Magister Johannes Davidis Hispalensis. There are many variations of the letter, and it has a historv of its own, which I intend discussing here. It mav appear somewhat remote from the immediate object of our investigations. It has apparently nothing of the folk in it. It is neither a tale nor a custom, nor does it lend itself to any of the metaphysical speculations so much in favour in so many of the more recent researches in the field of folk- lore. The general inclination seems to be to go to the very remote and necessarily obscure origins of all the manifestations of spiritual folklore, and to attempt thereby to solve the manifold problems which the study of the folk presents. I do not undervalue the merit of these specula- tions, nor do I intend criticising the work accomplished hitherto : but each of us looks upon these problems in the
The Letter of Toledo. 1 17
light of his own investigations or predilections, and takes a different path towards the ultimate goal.
Everything with which we come in contact or in which we move is the result of composite forces, and so also is what we call the mind of the people. It is not the simple unfolding in a direct and straight line of any embryonic mental force, but a highly composite product of centuries of development under the most varied influences. The warp and woof of the human mind and of the lore of the people is not woven of one strand or of one colour, it is a multicoloured design of many strands and of many origins. The more we try to unravel this composite design, the more we find that patient following up of each separate thread is the only safe plan, unless we choose to lose ourselves in the labyrinth of metaphysical speculation. We must follow the thread that leads to the skein left at the entrance, and not try to unite ends which are separated in time and history. The historical investigation of each custom, tale, superstition, or charm is the primary condition for the solution of some of the problems of folklore. We shall never solve the riddle of the human heart ; and we dare not ignore (as is often done) all the intervening chains and links which bind nations and organizations together, nor content ourselves with finding sufficient ground for new elucidatory theories in a single casual parallel, or even in a number of parallels. Our Society, happily, is not wedded to one single dogmatic teaching, and I contend that in the variety of opinions and views there lies a better prospect of approaching the ultimate truth, than in following one single beaten track. Because of this, 1 have taken the Letter of Toledo as a typical subject for investigation. It appeared in the middle period of the Christian Era, and started from one of the most famous centres of mediaeval learning. It will therefore be useful to study the question of this letter upwards and downwards ; to follow its further spread from the twelfth century onwards, and to attempt to trace its origin back to older sources.
ii8 The Letter of Toledo.
The principal questions which engage our attention are necessarily : in how far has this or any such letter contributed to enrich the stock of popular knowledge and belief? and inversely, how much in it is due to such belief? When we are asked to look upon every item found among the un- lettered as a remnant of an old state of mind, independent of, and in some points contrary to, the modern state of the church and of what we call civilisation, it behoves us to make it perfectly clear that no other influences have been at work, and that it cannot be traced to more recent sources of tradition, either by word of mouth or by written literature (which last merely facilitates the spread of the elements of knowledge). One of the greatest delusions, to my mind, is the belief that any nation, nay, any hamlet, has ever lived in absolute isolation from the rest of the world. No such thing has existed, at least in Europe ; and I am inclined to extend the possibilities of intercommunication also to other nations and countries. Each kingdom in the East has had a period of great culture and of powerful intercourse between one part of it and another. Whoever has studied, even cursorily, the wayfaring life of the Middle Ages, and the manifold means of carrying tales and news from one place to the other, will not, and in fact cannot, entertain for one moment the theory of isolation. And where is the influence of the Church ? and of the Christian apocryphal literature, which is so full of legendary and miraculous matter, and so well fitted to win the heart of the hearer ? All these sources of popular inspiration must first be laid bare, their influence examined, their changes followed up, and their multifarious combinations described, ere we are in a position to pronounce any specified element in folklore to be an old tradition derived from pre-scientific times, a " relic of an unrecorded past." In this process of sifting, time and patience are required, and however slow the process may be, it is, at any rate, sure and safe. How much can we not learn from studying our own life, our daily experience, especially
The Letter of Toledo. 1 1 9
when unmistakable historical evidence fortifies our observa- tions ! From these we start as from a stable basis venture into more remote speculations upon metaphysical or psychical origins.
To turn now to the Letter. It presents itself as a message sent from the astrologers of Toledo to Pope Clement, informing him that the peculiar combination of the planets in their course prognosticates a serious catastrophe for the inhabited world. Let us note at once two facts. The Letter is sent from Toledo by astrologers. The echo of the Letter is heard almost in every chronicle of the time. Its fame and the dread it produced can be traced through- out Christendom, without limit of time or space. We meet with it in English Chronicles as well as in French, in German, and Italian, with some modifications, which, though slight, are yet of sufficient importance for my thesis.
The profound effect which this letter produced upon the people's imagination proves then, in the first place, how deeply the belief in the influence of the stars had penetrated into human thought in the Middle Ages, much more generally than in older times. An unexpected conjunction of the heavenly bodies was sufficient to terrify both the learned and the unlearned masses. The belief was universal and undisputed. How tempting it would be to discuss here the history of astrology and astrolatry throughout the world, lasting so many centuries ! How strongly this belief has ruled over man and has influenced him in many important acts of his life ! How many battles have been fought, how many political actions undertaken, under this influence only! And when we speak now of a man being born under a " lucky star," are we not standing under the shadow of the old astrological belief? Are we not still worshipping at the old shrine ? One can follow the slow growth of this belief through the old systems of worship, and prove that astro- logy proper — that is, the science of nativities and of the systematic exposition of the influence which each star, by
I20 The Letter of Toledo.
itself and in conjunction with others, has upon man's career — is an artificial and " scientific" development from more primitive conceptions. Yet it is this highly-developed and artificial belief which was spread and accepted in Europe and still clings to the masses. Shall I mention Zadkiel and Moore, the modern reflex of similar mediaeval calendars and almanacks with prognostications and nativi- ties ? Astrology was imported directly from the East in all its details, and yet we find it in every home and hamlet exercising a far deeper influence upon the unlettered than the prognostications of our modern weather-prophets and the teachings of our astronomers. It is found, I repeat, amongst the masses, and it is contrary to our modern science, yet it is not a " relic of an unrecorded past." We can trace it to a special centre, Toledo — a great university, whither men flocked from all parts of the world desirous of being instructed in the higher branches of knowledge. There was no man who aspired to a high position, or who was eager to slake his thirst for knowledge, who did not repair to that centre of learning and tolerance. Alchemy and astrology were soon added to the curriculum of teaching. Necromancy became by popular etymology nigrofnancy, the Black Art, and scholars like Michael Scott and Albertus Magnus, who had to pass a course of education at that famous university, soon became identified with nigromancy in the eyes of the people. The teacher at that heathen school could then onlybe the devil in persona. Among the peculiar Virgil- legends of the Middle Ages, we find one which represents the Devil as the teacher of nigromancy in Toledo, obtaining as the price of his tuition one of twelve scholars who on a certain day had to sit on a flying wheel which turned rapidly, and the one who flew off was quickly snatched up by the teacher as his lawful fee. We can therefore understand the consternation which seized the world when from that centre of mysterious learning such a warning was sent to foretell the impending doom.
The Letter of Toledo. 1 2 1
It may be of interest to ask how it came about that a belief of this kind should strike such deep roots in the mind of the nations ? Why should people give credence to asser- tions not easily proved ? A legitimate question to put, when once we have reached the starting-point of the belief. The credulity of the masses is no answer. Even credulity presupposes a mental disposition to accept a teaching in which there is no control possible, except it be the chance accomplishment of one or another prediction. When once the belief is established, the mass concludes, by a chain of loose reasoning, that what has proved true in one case may be true in other cases also.
I am not bold enough to deny the possibility of the stars and planets exercising a certain influence upon man and earthly beings. Sun and moon produce the great and stirring movements of the seas known as the tides, and w^hy should they not exercise some similar influence upon the blood, causing it also to ebb and flow ? The quick or slow movement of the blood stimulates or neutralises our activity, it makes us sluggish or enthusiastic, and thus determines our action. The whole electric power stored in the earth, of which we now' begin to get a faint glimpse, is derived directly from the sun ; the X rays, invisible to us, mould our life pro- foundly; and wireless telegraphy may be carried on in space with greater effect than we are as yet aware. There may be an elementary basis of rudimentary experience at the root of the vastly-developed science or pseudo-science of astrology. But between the premiss of a possible influence oftheheavenlybodies,andthetheoryand practiceof astrology with its systematised interpretation of that influence, yawns the gulf which modern science attempts to bridge. But the people had no clear conception of these truths, or apparent truths. To them sufficed the example of the great, of the kings and the aristocracy ; and the authority of the masters stood in place of individual reasoning. Thus, therefore, the Letter spread consternation far and wide, and one of the
122 The Letter of Toledo.
chroniclers, a shrewd observer of events, connects the stir- ring of the Third Crusade with the deep emotion produced by these forebodings, which in one version of the Letter are directly connected with the Holy Land and the attacks ot Saladin on Jerusalem. No less a personage than Giraldus Cambrensis connects the Crusade with the emotion pro- duced by this Letter. Roger of Wendover, in his Chronicle, under the year 1229, mentions not only this Letter but three similar letters, the oldest being the one under our immediate consideration. So does Gervasius (to mention only English chroniclers), and so also Benedict of Peterborough. All these ascribe the Letter to Magister Johannes Toletanus.
The period at w^hich the Letter was circulated for the first time was favourable for the publication of such auguries of evil and of catastrophes threatening to destroy the world. The public spirit w^as then in a state of elTervescence, half frightened and half disappointed. The dreaded time of the Second Advent of Christ was expected to take place at the end of the first thousand years ; and the expected appear- ance of the Millennium was one of the factors which had often, especially in ancient times, produced ecclesiastical, social, and political convulsions. The year 1000 had been awaited by anxious multitudes, dreading the terrible signs and wonders which were to come upon the world. The year 1000 had just past, and neither had the terrible events come to pass, nor had the enthusiastic expectations been realised. A state of subdued excitement remained. Some of it spent itself in the Crusades, the rest in apocalyptic and mystical literature and in sectarian movements, on which I do not intend entering here. They belong to Church history proper, and are only mentioned here in connection with this astrological Letter.
Man must have something in which to trust, and on which to rely, to strengthen his failing courage and to lift for him, if possible, a corner of the veil that covers the future. Man is alwavs anxious to know that which a wise Providence
The Letter of Toledo, 123
hides from him : '"' the next day " ! Here now stepped in the new science, which professed to be able to foretell not only what would happen on the morrow, but to give to the inquirer an answer as to what w^ould happen to him in the course of his life, and even foretell the length of that life and the way in which he would spend it. Backed by the authority of science and by the magic of the great names of men acquainted with all hidden mysteries and possessed of all the knowledge which canny and uncanny wisdom could grant, the belief was accepted as a key to the future, and the utterances of the astrologers were implicitly believed. It so happened that these forebodings did not come to pass. This is the psychological moment which invests these Letters with a peculiar significance from the point of view of folk- lore. They shared the fate of all unfulfilled prophecies. The first stage is, that ingenious devices are invented in order to explain the non-fulfilment. The penitent mood of the people, the mercy of God, the intervention of other unforeseen causes obviated the threatened event, and thus the W'Orld was saved for the time being. In the case of the Letter of 1 186, no doubt can exist of the truth of the remark- able conjunction of the planets in that particular part of the skies. Professor Grauert, who has studied the later history of this Letter, has been able to ascertain through the in- strumentality of the Astronomer-Royal in Berlin that this really happened. Minor occurrences which otherwise would have passed unnoticed were magnified into great heavenly or earthly convulsions. Winds were transformed into raging storms, and slight skirmishes sanguinary battles. In spite of all these devices the world felt that the prophecy had not been fulfilled. They did not hear the crack of doom.
The second stage is the reappearance of the Letter soon afterwards, i.e. about thirty years later. But it has already undergone a slight alteration. It is still ascribed to the astrologers of Toledo, but the name of the eminent man
1 24 The Letter of Toledo.
who forwards it is now the Cardinal Johannes Toletanus, and the date of the prophecy is now 1229. This Cardinal Johannes has been, if I may say so. rediscovered by Professor Grauert, who published quite recently a monograph on Meister Johannes von Toledo (Munich, 1901), and who studied this letter in extenso in connection with the Cardinal John. To this monograph I must refer for the biblio- graphical notes referring to the Letter. Curious to know who the author of this remarkable writing could be, Professor Grauert has succeeded in unearthing a large number of variants, but he has neither traced its origin nor perceived its bearing on other questions. He is forced to own that the first appearance of the Letter preceded by thirty or more years the life of the Cardinal. This Cardinal John was of Ensflish oricrin and had also studied in Toledo. We are not interested here to follow up his political activity, and to relate his fight against the Emperor in favour of the Pope. His dabbling in alchemy brought down upon him the suspicion of nigromancy and astrology, which went hand in hand in popular imagination. He is credited, therefore, with the authorship of this Letter, in which also a prophecy is inserted about the death of a mighty Emperor in the East, and the appearance of an "Emperor over the whole universe." His contemporary Michael Scott, of the same school, is credited with the authorship of another prophecy in favour of the Emperor Frederic IL against the Pope (about 1244). He is mentioned by Dante as a nigromancer {Inferno, cant. XX., v., 116 ff.). We see now what had happened to the old Letter. In spite of the fact that the planetary conjunction was no longer tenable, it is still repeated as a justification of the events which are foretold ; merely the date of the occurrence is altered to suit changed circumstances ; and instead of the old and forgotten name, a new one, very much like the old one, also Johannes Toletanus, is substituted. Whilst in the former case it was Johannes David Hispalensis, it is now another pretended Spaniard of the same name, but
The Letter of Toledo. 125
a Cardinal ! Roger of Wendover prints this Letter also under the year 1229, and takes it very seriously.
This time also the prophecy is doomed to failure. The Cardinal did not prove more reliable than the older astro- loger. But what did it matter? No sooner do new occur- rences again cause great excitement than the Letter reappears with almost mathematical regularity. The writer of the fresh Letter does not invent anything new, just as little as did the Apocalyptic writer in ancient times ; but he applies old imagery to suit the new requirements. About one hundred years pass away, and in the years 1322-29, during the period of the great commotions in Italy and Central Europe, when great floods sweep the Continent and famine ravages many cities, the Letter is circulated again, still ascribed to Magister Johannes of Toledo. The great storm which raged in Naples in 1343, graphically described by Petrarch, had, according to the latter, been foretold by a bishop living close to Naples who was very much addicted to the study of astrology, who, however, had prophesied an earthquake, and not a storm. Grauert sees in this prophecy the reflex of the same Letter.
The year 1345 was considered by the astrologers as one full of evil portents. In it many conjunctions took place; notably one on the 8th of February, when Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, and Mercury were all standing in the same sign. Villani, in his Florentine Chronicle, testifies to the profound impression which these astrological conjunctions produced, and how much they were believed to have caused all the troubles which then visited Italy. The medical faculty of Paris declared these conjunctions to be one of the causes of the plague (the Black Death), and they repeat in their report almost the very words of the Toledo Letter, without mentioning it by name.
The centre of learning had meanwhile been shifted from Toledo to Paris. The old school of necromancers had disappeared, and new authorities occupied the place as-
126 The Letter of Toledo.
signed to the men of those schools of old. Hence when the Letter reappears it is made to fit the new condition of things. In 1395, about two hundred years after its first appearance, it is found in a Codex at Eichstadt, from which Grauert has reprinted it in full. The main points are absolutely identical. The same events will occur in con- sequence of the conjunction of the planets in the Cauda Draconis in the month of September, — floods and storms will rage, buildings will be destroyed and valleys sub- merged. Terrible and long-lasting eclipses of the sun will darken the day, and fierv signs and the eclipse of the moon signify the destruction of nations. Sanguinary battles in the East and in the West, shedding of blood and earth- quakes will happen. A mighty emperor will die. Few will survive. The Mohammedans will be seized with doubt and join the Christians. The only safeguard against the impending evils will be to hide in caves inside of rocky mountains provided with food for thirty days. In this prophecy joined the philosophers of Greece, Arabia, His- pania, and Francia. It was signed by twenty-one Magisters in Paris on the ist of April. Professor Grauert asks whether the date of the " ist of April " does not point to the fact that this Letter may be the work of a wag who intended to play a practical joke. I do not think so. The people at that time were not much given to practical joking, and the year 1395 was anything but favourable for it. The world was too much distraught by internal strife and foreign wars, and minds were under the strong influence of mystical and apocalyptic literature.
I will pass over the other parallels iound in the course of the fifteenth century, and will mention only one more variant of this letter, dated 1480, and published by Grauert from MSS. in the Florentine Library. This last version is of the utmost importance, for it helps us to recognise the elements out of which it had grown. It is not, as Professor Grauert suggests, a reflex of the Toledo Letter.
The Letter of Toledo. i 27
mixed up with other elements gathered from different sources. Before I give an abstract of this somewhat lengthy document, it will be of interest to notice that a German translation of the Letter exists of the same year, and if my memory does not entirely deceive me, I remember having seen a variant of it in an English chapbook. I have not been able to trace it now, but hope with the assistance of others to find it yet. This shows how long the Letter has been able to exist. In its latest form it has lost its name and does not mention any authority, but the principal features, the storm and the eclipse of the sun, the death of an emperor, and the terrible phenomena in heaven and upon earth, are faithfully reproduced. It is still an astro- logical message, though much toned down as far as the astrology is concerned. It is now a simple chapbook.
But to return to the Florentine variant. No Johannes and no David are any longer mentioned. Neither is Toledo or Paris referred to. Similarly, little is heard of philosophers and astrologers. The letter comes as a message from a pious hermit from behind Mount Sinai, and also from a certain Rasis of Antiochia, who have both got their information from Arabic writings. The chief points are as follows : " Great tribulations will begin with the year 1447 ^^^ ^^^ continue until 15 10, growing steadily all the while. The land of the Christians will be filled with more anguish and pain than can be described. Wars and bloodshed in the East and West, famine, plague, dearth, and death. The Pope will cry in vain asking the kings to make war in the Holy Land. The kingdom of the Franks {Francorunt) will be destroyed through their ignorance. Heresies will terrify the world, and not even three Cardinals will be left in Rome, the Pope himself fleeing from the city. Many clerics will deny their faith, and the altars of Paul and Peter will be defiled. Earth- quakes v.'ill destroy many towns. The planets will produce much poison among the nations, and the air will be filled with exhalations which will cause human bodies to shrivel up.
128 The Letter of Toledo.
Storms will raise the sand in sandy places and will cover men until they be suffocated. A total eclipse of the sun will envelop the whole world in darkness, and the moon will appear ruddy and dark. All the nations will be seized with ignorance and doubt. The Saracen will relinquish his synagogues and " mahummerries." A mighty emperor will die seven months after the eclipse. The sea will overflow- its border, and the winds will blow so strongly that no ship will be able to withstand their force. Trees will be up- rooted and houses overthrown. The only way to escape will be to go into the open plain and to build houses of wooden beams, covering them with earthy and taking care to be far away from trees, so that they should not fall upon these habitations and crush them. Daniel had already fore- seen the coming forth of the Ishmaelites at the end of the sixth sign of the centuries {sic), who would cause wide- spread misery and confusion. Many Christian nations would be delivered into their hands, because of their sins. The Ishmaelites will conquer and subdue Greece, Gallia, Hispania, Germania, Aquitania, the Islands of the Sea, even Jerusalem and the Land of Promise. (The cruelties to be perpetrated by the Ishmaelites when they break forth from the desert are then minutely described.) Their power will be the greatest in Spain, and they will go about decked in silver and gold and covered with precious stones. The elect of the Christians will then appear, and will show by their sufferings and martyrdom their steadfast adherence to their faith. God will then remember His promise and free them from the yoke of the Saracens. A Roman emperor will then be raised anew, who will smite the Ishmaelites with the edge of the sword and drive them away. In Persia, Egypt, and Spain he will visit on them their iniquities seven- fold, and peace will reign in the lands of the Christians. Then will appear the two nations Gog and Magog, and divide Asia among themselves. The frightened inhabitants will hide in the crevices of the mountains and in caverns.
The Letter of Toledo. 129
for the heathen eat also human flesh, and no one will be able to contend with them. The Roman emperor will then besiege Jerusalem for seven years, at the end of which the Son of Perdition will be born. Antichrist will be born in Babylon^ brought up in " Denceaym (Grauert thinks Corozaim) Bethsaida," and will rule in Cafernaum. As soon as he makes his appearance the Roman emperor will go to Golgotha, and, taking off his crown, will place it upon the spot of the Crucifixion. He will pray and give up his soul in prayer. In 15 16 Antichrist will proclaim himself king, and will do marvellous things and perform wonders and signs almost as God ; fire will he cause to fall from heaven, the demons will obey him, the hidden treasures will be revealed to him. The sun will be darkened, and the moon will appear like blood, and he will deceive many. He will then kill two servants of Christ and leave their corpses unburied for three days, after which they will be quickened into life and ascend to heaven. But in the year 1520 Christ will kill Antichrist with the breath of his mouth on Mount Olivet, and the archangel Michael will destroy the heathen nations of Gog and Magog and burn them with fire in the eyes of all the nations, so that they be consumed. In 1540 there will be one flock and one shepherd.
Thus far the abstract of this curious Letter. Its full signifi- cance can only be gauged if we remember the time of its appearance. The Middle Ages are drawing to a close. The Reformation is beginning in the Church. Dissatisfaction is rife everywhere, and the Church of Rome is beginning to be identified with the Antichrist of the old Christian tradi- tion. The approach of the Millennium is taught by many, and preparations are made for the Second Advent of Christ. I am leaving the dogmatic questions severely alone, and I point merely to such developments of Millennary hopes and inspirations as we meet with among the Anabaptists and the Rosicrucians ; not to speak of many other similar move- ments elsewhere. Many sects with similar views appear
VOL. XIII. K
130 The Letter of Toledo.
in England in the 17th century ; notably through the efforts of Joseph Mede, and more so through Jane Leade, who established the well-known Philadelphic Society, a society of the elect to await the coming of the " Bridegroom." Dates are fixed for the reappearance of Christ ; and, as a corollary, for that of Antichrist, in spite of the fact that he was identified with the Pope and the Church of Rome. This and similar letters were implicitly believed in, and taken to convey oracles and prophecies which confirmed the people in their expectation of impending events. The period is saturated with mystical and apocalyptical litera- ture.
It is idle to assume that such writings have remained out- side the sphere of the " people ; " on the contrary, if any- thing, they were and are potent factors in moulding the spiritual life of the masses, for their influence has been deep and lasting. How deeply it has sunk into the mind of the people can easily be seen if we examine the popular belief in such premonitory Letters and in astrological predictions, and co-ordinate popular notions with the principles that are presupposed, or are expressly mentioned, in these mystical messages.
They were eagerly taken up and easily believed, be- cause they chimed in with a large mass of similar tradi- tion that had filtered down from ancient times. The Letter of Toledo became again merged in what I conceive to be the main stream of apocalyptical tradition, which permeated the ancient Christian world. It had formed for a short time a branch of the river. The non-fulfilment of the Millennium at the end of the year 1000, which had been so eagerly and faithfully awaited since the days of St. Augustine (who gave that interpretation to the classical passages in the Gospels and in the Apocalypse of St.John),had somewhat discon- certed the faithful. Now there arose another source of terror, based upon the new science of astrology. The people in moments of extreme fear remember the old
The Letter of Toledo. 131
dark sayings of the past ; they turn to the old literature, discarded for a time. What was then more natural than to turn to the old formula of the Antichrist, with the signs and portents which were to announce the dread event to the terrified masses? The old imagery is revived under different circum.stances, and thus a letter from the astro- logers of Toledo is the form in which it now appears. The setting is somewhat different but the substance is the same- The old Antichrist legend had meanwhile become thoroughly assimilated. The nations of the West knew it. It was known to the old Eddaic writer of the F'^7;/i-/^, as has been shown by recent investigations. The Ragnarok and the Muspilli are evidently derived directly from the Antichrist Saga. The Doomsday of the so-called Saxon mythologv is the result of the Christian apocryphal teaching. The end of the world is introduced for the first time to the heathen nations. The Christian element is presented in a mytho- logical form ; only the names are altered, not the substance. Instead of a mythical, there is an astrological background, and at once we have the letter evolved out of the Antichrist legend. Suppose for one moment that the chain of evidence had broken, and that we found ourselves face to face with modern chapbooks and astrological prognostications, so absolutely identical in form with the Voluspa, what would be more natural that to assume that these two belong to one and the same old mythical European tradition, and that the chapbook must be the remnant of the old form of belief, so c. iitrary to the modern notions of astronomy and of a "Doomsday"?
For this Antichrist legend, with the signs and wonders in it, is of a very complex origin. It is the growth of centuries, during which many of the features with which we are familiar in its European shape have been slowly added. Bousset and others have described the history of this growth, and have attempted to trace the various elements which enriched it to their primary source?. Phrases from
K 2
132 The Letter of Toledo.
the Sibylline Oracles as well as well as from the Bible and the Gospels, peculiar interpretations of the classical passage in the Revelation, crystallised slowly round a central idea, which may be even older than Christianity. Gunkel sees in it the reflex of old Babylonian myths, of the tight of the Dragon with God. But we are not now concerned with eschatological origins. The problem with which we are dealing is the question of the more recent growth and the spread of the developed form. It is therefore not devoid of interest to point out that Bede in the eighth century, one of the oldest chroniclers of the fifteen signs of the Antichrist, and of the Crack of Doom, presents a very complete system and theory of Antichrist. It is this very composite form, the result of hundreds of years of development, with which both the Northern writers and the authors of mediaeval apocalypses were acquainted. They knew, not the single scattered elements, but the complete legend. They give the same imagery in almost the same sequence, as we find in the Letter of Toledo, both in its earliest and latest versions. In all these versions, as in the Antichrist Saga, the scattered elements are focussed into one sustained narrative. Each of the parallels and each single item can be traced to the writings of the Fathers of the Church. The different signs existed separately, and were only at a later period added one after another to the central figure of Antichrist. It is not necessary to quote the parallels to that passage in the Florentine version which gives a description of Antichrist, his rule over the world, the appearance of Gog and Magog, the slaying of God's two witnesses, for they speak for themselves and unmistakably betray their origin. Of greater interest it is to find the parallels to such portions in the Letter of Toledo in 11 86 as are connected with Doomsday. Let us take the hurricane and storm. We find them in Sibyll, viii,, 203. " And the sun shall appear darkling by night, and the stars quit the sky, and with great fury a hurricane shall lay waste the
The Letter of Toledo. 133
earth, and (then) shall be the resurrection of the dead." (Bousset, 247). Lactantius quotes another Sibyl saying: " A trumpet shall send forth from heaven a sound of much wailing" {ib. 248). The conversion of the Jews and Saracens, a constant figure in the Letter, is clearly taken from a fairly developed form of the Antichrist legend {y. Bousset, p. 214, ff.). In the Letter the conversion has no meaning whatever, for that is intended as a warning to the people to beware of a catastrophe which is to overtake all without distinction of race or creed ; but by tracing the incident to its source we see the true meaning of the reference.
To sum up. The legend of Antichrist, starting from one centre and from one spiritual medium, gathers strength and volume before it reaches Europe, when it is quickly taken up by the imaginative portion of the population. After a time it is thoroughly assimilated. The idea of the End of Days, which may or may not have previously existed among the European nations, obtains a definite shape under its influence. Other circumstances drive these newly-acquired conceptions into the background. Unfulfilled prophecies, expectations which have turned out vain, contribute to the partial obscuring of the legend in its original and complex form. Under other circumstances one part of it, however> is revived under a somewhat altered shape. The limitless dark future is replaced by immediate fixed dates. Instead of the end of the whole world, a partial impending destruc- tion is described. Credulity is revived, spiritual forces are again at work, astrology joins hands with mysticism and apocalyptic visions, and thus secures a new lease of life for the old set of hopes and fears. The legend is circulated under changed names, adapted to new situations. Another political and religious change brings the old legend to life again, and gives it another interpretation, as happened to the Antichrist legend at the time of the Reformation. The intermediate form is then merged again into the older
134 Malay Spiritiiausm.
and truer one, and both contribute to enrich popular fancy and poetry.
Only a careful first-hand investigation of documentary evidence will succeed in sifting the so-called ancient rem- nants existing in the minds of the people, and in determin- ing whether they are to be looked upon as such " relics of an unrecorded past" or as fragments of recent origin. I have tried here to join link to link in the chain of tradition in order to show how deep the influence of this form of the Antichrist legend has been, and how far-reaching in its results upon the religious and political development of the nations of Europe during the last thousand years, in the course of which the Letter of Toledo has played an impor- tant part. Other investigations will doubtless show how much it has enriched the people's knowledge and has con- tributed to bring about that state of mind which strikes us as archaic and " folkloric."
M. Gaster.
MALAY SPIRITUALISM.
BY WALTER SKEAT, M.A.
{Read at Meeting, 26th March, 1902.)
When I recently had the honour of being invited by the Council to read a paper before this Society, I had nothing ready which seemed suitable for the purpose. It appeared to me, however, that it would be a useful piece of work to bring together in one paper the main facts concerning the spiritualistic beliefs of the Peninsular Malays, with special reference to motor-automatisms of the type of the Divining- Rod, where the motions of an inert object in contact with a human being may be regarded as externalisations of sub- conscious knowledge. Out of this idea the present paper
Malay Spiritualism. 135
has grown. ^ I shall therefore now endeavour in the first place to put the details of the Malay performances before you as clearly as possible. I shall then proceed to state the problem, in so far as it concerns ethnology, and shall only refer incidentally to the few, and, I fear, somewhat negative results which may be of general psychical interest. Speaking generally, most forms of spiritualism known to us in Europe are most likely known in some form or other to Malay magicians, even though they may not all have been yet recorded. Devil-dancing is practised, and appari- tions, and what maybe called Pelting Spirits {Poltergeistern) are certainly most strongly believed in. Houses are left uninhabited on account of phenomena of the classes referred to, and I myself once lived for many months in a Malay house which, according to the Malays, was unmis- takably haunted.
Of spirit-writing and levitation, no purely Malay accounts are yet to hand. It would be unsafe to assume the absence of the first till we know for certain if there is any really automatic form oi planchette practised in China, beside the case described by Professor Giles as long ago as 1879, in which a poem was composed for the writers. As to the second, there are many references in Malay literature to the flying performances of Malayan heroes, whilst to this day it is alleged in Selangor that people possessed by the Pontianak " (one of the tremendous birth-demons of Malay
' For many of the notes, and for much valuable assistance in the compiling of this paper, I am indebted to Mr. N. W. Thomas.
- In tlie Malay Peninsula the Pontianak (or Mati-anak) is usually dis- tinguished as the ghost of a child who has died at birth, the ghost of a wo/nan who has died in child-birth being called "langsuir," and credited with all the attributes which elsewhere belong to the Pontianak. Cf. Col. J. Low on Siamese Customs iny. A. I., vol. i., p. 361, which I had not seen when I wrote to the above effect in Malay Magic, pp. 318 and 327. There is no doubt that the two are often confused, but the belief in the langsuir, as distinguished from the Pontianak, is certainly the usual explanation in the Peninsula. [Cf. Kruijt in Med. Ned. Zend., xxxix., p. 17, and xlii., p. 433 ; also Riedel, 57, 58, 81, 184, 239, 267 (and in several other passages), though in none of these is the langsuir once mentioned. N. W. T.]
136 Malay Spiritualism.
tradition), acquire supernatural powers, enabling them to climb trees of immense height and to walk in safety along branches which are no thicker than a man's thumb, a manifest impossibility under normal conditions. A similar power is also claimed for the young girls who perform what the Malays call the Monkey-dance, in which, however, they are possessed by the Monkey-spirit.
The burning of incense and recital of a charm called Peruang enables Malay magicians to walk upon water without sinking in it beyond the ankles. A similar charm in the case of the Malay form of ordeal by diving enables the innocent party to remain under water for an incredible period, which, according to the Malays, sometimes extended to "almost" three-quarters of an hour, in fact in some cases (it was declared) he would remain under water until the spectators lost patience and dragged him out, whereas the guilty party begins to choke immediately. A magician from Perak informed me once that he had used the power of causing a sandbank to rise at sea between his own boat and that of his pursuers. I at once made him a sporting offer of twenty dollars if he would give me an exhibition of it, but he informed me that it could only be done when he was really in danger, and not for " swagger." The same man, moreover, claimed to possess the power of clair- voyance, but failed in an easy test which he himself proposed.
The first class of spiritualistic ceremonies, which happens to be the one to which I specially wish to direct your attention to-night, consists of a simple form ot automatism, as represented by the movements of inert objects. No form of tabie-turning is of course practised by the Malays, who pass their lives for the most part in scattered com- munities, either in the jungle or at sea, and who do not therefore make any appreciable use of such luxuries as tables and chairs. Nevertheless a fairly close parallel to our own table-turning exhibitions may be found in the dance-ntual of inanimate objects which the Malay magicians
Malay Spiritualism. 137
exhibit, though we do not as yet possess any clue as to the real purpose of such performances.
A second class of automatisms, allied in form to these dances, includes a large number of ways of divining bv means of the apparently intelligent movements of inanimate objects /// contact with the magician.
A third class, which requires to be distinguished to some extent from automatic phenomena, consists mainly of cere- monies by which certain demons, animals, or even inert objects, are made to act upon persons at a distance. This kind of ceremony corresponds to what is usually known as a " sending."
The fourth and last class of ceremonies to which I shall refer includes such rites as are mtended to induce posses- sion either for divinatory purposes or for that of exorcism. These four classes will now be taken in the order in which I have mentioned them.
I. In the first class of motor-automatisms I place those ceremonies of which the purpose does not lie on the surface, and can only be inferred by the P^uropean observer.
The Palm-blossom Dance is a very curious exhibition, which I once saw performed in the Langat District of Se- langor. Two freshly-gathered sprays of areca-blossom, each about four feet in length, were deposited upon a new mat near a tray containing a censer and three special kinds of sacrificial rice. No particular season was specified. The magician (''Che Ganti " by name) commenced the per- formance by playing a prelude on his violin, and a few minutes later Che Ganti's wife (an aged Selangor woman) took some of the sacrificial rice in her hand and began to chaunt a weird sort of invocation, addressed to the seven sister spirits, probably the souls of the palm. She was almost immediately joined in the chaunt by a younger woman. The invocation consists of four separate sets of seven stanzas, each stanza containing four short lines,
138 Malay Spiritualism.
which rhyme alternately. The first set begins as follows :
" Thus I brace up, I brace up the palm-blossom,
And summon the elder sister to descend by herself. Thus I brace up, I brace up the palm-blossom,
And summon the second sister to descend with the first."
The same words are repeated mutatis mutandis until all seven sisters have been summoned to descend, the witch then covers the two sprays of palm-blossom with a Malay plaid skirt or wrapper and five cubits of white cloth, folded double and fumigated. The chaunt now changes abruptly into the second set of seven stanzas :
" Borrow a hammer, borrow an anvil to forge the neckbones of this our sting-ray {i.e. the sheaf of blossom). Borrow an orchard, borrow a courtyard, To bring down upon earth the fairy sisters."
Six stanzas follow, in which the names of six other parts of the sting-ray, i.e. the head, wings, tail, gills, &c., are successively substituted. At this point rice is thrown over one of the two sprays, its sheath is opened, and the contents fumigated. Then the old woman takes the newly-fumigated spray between her hands, holding it upright at the base with her hands just resting on the ground, and the third set of stanzas commences with the words :
" Dig up, O dig up the wild ginger-plant,
Dig till you get a finger's breadth or two of it. Seek for, O seek for a magnificent domain Into which to bring down the fairy sisters."
The remaining six stanzas of this set are similar to the first, with variations appropriate to each one of the six remaining spirits. During the chaunting of this third set, the erect spray of Palm-blossom, held between the witch's hands, commenced swaying, at first almost imperceptibly, to the tune of the music, its motion becoming more and more accentuated as the chaunt proceeded.
Malay Spiritualism. 139
The last set of stanzas proceeded with the words :
" Bear on high the betel-rack, bear on high the betel-dish, Bear them on high in the midst of the pleasure garden. Come hither, my love, come hither, my life. Come hither and seat yourself in the courtyard's centre."
The last six stanzas vary only in the invitations addressed to the spirits, which are requested to ascend the house-ladder and wash their feet, to 'take their seat upon the mats that are spread for them, and to enjoy to the full the good things {e.g., betel-leaf, &c.), which their hosts have provided for their refreshment. The invocation concludes with an appeal to the spirits not to be too rough, but to be mild and gentle, and as its wailing notes die away, it is believed that the seven spirits descend and "perch" like birds upon the palm-blossom. At this point the fiddle stopped and tambourines were substituted, the spra}' of blossom forthwith proceeding to jump about on its base, as if it were indeed possessed, until it eventually dashed itself violently down upon the mat-covered floor of the dwelling.^
After one or two repetitions of this performance, with Che Ganti's wife as the medium, other persons present (myself ahiongst them) were invited to try their luck with it, and did so with varying success, which depended, I was told, upon the impressionability of their souls, as the palm- blossom spray would not dance for anyone whose soul was not impressionable. I myself must unfortunately have been one of these people, as I never experienced the slightest tremor, and the palm-blossom remained motionless until I got tired of waiting, and mo\ed it myself, when my doing so was of course hailed as the manifest work of the spirit.
When the first blossom-sheaf had been destroyed by the rough treatment v/hich it had to undergo (as each time at the conclusion of the dance it was dashed upon the ground),
' If I remember rightly Che Ganti's wife retained her hold of the spray until it had dashed itself upon the ground two or three times, when she dropped it and let it lie.
140 Malay Spiritualism.
the second was duly fumigated and introduced to the company, and finally the performance was brought to a close by chaunting of a set of stanzas in which the spirits are requested to return to their own place. These latter commenced as follows :
" I slip the palm-blossom, I slip il. I slip it into the white bowl. Escort the fairies, escort them. Escort them unto the white heaven."
The remaining stanzas are precisely similar, with the ex- ception of the colours assigned to the bowl and the heavens, which are described successively as black, green, blue, red, purple, and yellow. The two sheaves were then carried out of the house and deposited on the ground underneath a banana-tree. I was told that if this closing part of the performance were not carried out with scrupulous care the spirits w^ould not leave the house, and its inmates would be strange in their head for days, even if, indeed, none of them went mad.
The Dancing Fish-trap is a spiritualistic performance in which a fish-trap {tukafi) is employed instead of the spray of palm-blossom, and a different invocation is used. The fish-trap, moreover, is dressed up much in the same way as one of our own " scare-crows," so as to present a rude sort of resemblance to the human figure. Its " dress " con- sists of a woman's jacket and plaid skirt {sarong), both of which should (if possible) have been worn previously. A stick is then run through the upper part of the trap to take the arms of the jacket and a cocoanut-shell (prefer- ably a sterile one) is clapped on to the top to serve as the fish-trap's head. The trap, when fully dressed, is held a few inches above the ground by two or three people, each of whom applies both his hands to the bottom of the Fish- trap, in a manner similar to that employed in our own table-turning performances, and the invocation is forthwith chaunted in the same manner and to the same accompani-
Malay Spiritualism. 141
ment as that used in the palm-blossom performance. At the close of the invocation the magician whispers, so to speak, into the fish-trap's ear, bidding it not to disgrace him, but rise up and dance ; and presently the fish-trap begins to rock to and fro, and to leap about in a manner which, of course, proves it to be possessed by the spirits.
The invocation used on the east coast is a much more elaborate affair than that used in the western states, and as it is important to the argument, as well as graphic, I give it verbatim :
" Old Mother Banding, I know your origin I Old Mother Banding,
Vou sprang from the bamboo-clump, on the lonely sand-bank. Old Mother Banding, Your pointed growing-shoots came From the earth's forefinger, This stem of yours proceeded From the ' Prince ' that standeth. Your branches came From the ' Prince ' that spreadeth. Your foliage sprang from The sheath of palm- blossom. Descend now hitherwards From the lofty mountain. What are you looking for ? Looking for hot embers As well as incense. Here you have embers As well as incense. What are you looking for ? Looking for my skirt-cloth As well as my jacket. Here is your skirt-cloth As well as your jacket. Now you are going To the booths of the Chinamen, Looking for palm-wine. As well as hemp-juice. Here is your palm-wine As well as hemp-juice.
142 Malay Sbiritualism.
You have lasted the palm-wine As well as hemp-juice. You are drunk with the palm-wine As well as hemp-juice. You are fairly delirious ! And utterly distracted ! Bending 3-our body And leaping like a roe-buck, Jumping like prawn-fry, You are thoroughly overcome ! Leap now your loftiest, And bound like the sarnbhur Sway from this side to that, Oscillate to and fro, Bowing to the left hand. To the right hand bowing."
At the end of the performance an incantation was chaunted, in order to cause the spirits to return to the place whence they came out:
'• Ye who came from the crags return to your crags. Ye who came from the hills return to your hills, Ye who came from the plains return to your plains. And let not one of you lose the road. Let not one of you lose the footpath. Ye who came from the palace return to your palace, Ye who came from hut-rooms return to your hut- rooms. And let not one of you mistake your palace. Let not one of you mistake your hut-rooms. Return now each of you. return now all of you. Little ones, tiny ones, and old and young ones, Lame and halt, and blind and eyeless. Return now each of you, return now all of you. And let not one of you stray or wander, But urge each other to return in a body. Listen, O listen, to my injunctions. Listen, O listen, to my instructions, And if you hearken not to my instructions, You shall be rebels in the sight of Allah, But may I be cool as the sacred serpent ! "
Of the Dancing-Spoon of the Malays we are told in Prhnitive Culttire, ii., 152: "Mr. Darwin iraw two
Malay Spiritualism. 143
Malay women on Keeling Island, who held a wooden spoon, dressed in clothes like a doll ; this spoon had been carried to the grave of a dead man, and becoming inspired at full moon, in fact lunatic, it danced about convulsively, like a table or a hat at a modern spirit seance." This is of course an automatism, not a case of movement without contact.
II. In the next class I place these motor-automatisms in which a definite purpose, easily discernible by the un- initiated, is consciously pursued. In this case also the objects are put in motion bv the unconscious muscular action of those in contact with them.
The Divining Lemon. — For divinatory purposes the Penang Malay takes a " rough-coated " lemon, a hen's ^^^, a wax taper, four bananas, four cigarettes, four rolled-up quids of betel-leaf, several handfuls of sacrificial rice, one of the prickles of a thorn-back mudfish, a needle with a torn eye (selected from a packet containing a score of needles, out of which, however, it must be the only one so damaged), and a couple of small birches made of the leaf- ribs of palms — -one with seven twigs and the other with twelve. From among the foregoing articles, with the excep- tion of the lemon, the fish-prickle, and the needle, two equal portions are made up, one portion, together with the birch of seven twigs, being deposited under a tree outside the house. When deposited, the &^^ must be cracked, and the cigarettes and the taper be lighted. The taper is then taken up between the outspread fingers of the joined hands, and "waved" slowb/ towards the right, centre, and left. It is then depo- sited on the ground, and the taper presently commences to burn blue, this being regarded as an " acknowledgment " on the part of the spirit. The fish-prickle and the needle are now thrust horizontally through the lower part of the lemon, at right angles to each other, and left so that their four ends are slightly projecting. A silken cord of seven different- coloured strands is then slipped round these ends, and
144 Malay Spiritualism.
serves as a means of suspending the lemon over the brazier of incense, the upper end of the cord being held in the left hand and the birch in the right. Everything being pre- pared, the magician, after the customary scattering of rice and fumigation of the birch and the lemon, recites the appropriate charm, and presently commences to put ques- tions to the lemon which the spirit is now supposed to have entered, rebukino- and threateningr it wuth the birch when- ever it fails to answer directly and to the point. The spirit's conversational powers were, however, extremely limited, being confined to tw^o signs expressing " Yes " and " No." The affirmative was indicated by a pendulum- like swing of the lemon, which rocked to and fro with more or less vehemence according to the emphasis with which the reply was supposed to be delivered. The negative, on the other hand, was indicated by a complete cessation of motion on the part of the lemon. When the lemon is required to discover the name of a thief, the names of all those who are at all likely to have committed the theft are written on scraps of paper and arranged in a circle round the brazier, when the lemon will at once swing in the direction of the name of the guilty party. The most pro- pitious night for the performance of this ceremony is believed to be a Tuesday.
The Cup and Ring Ordeal. — x\nother and perhaps a commoner form of the foregoing ordeal is described by Maxwell, as follows : " Supposing that a theft has taken place in a house, all the inmates are assembled, and their names are written on the edge of a white cup, on which some sentences of the Koran are also inscribed. A ring is then suspended by a maiden's hair and held right over the middle of the cup. It is then swung round gently, and the name which it hrst strikes is the name of the thief."
In a slightly different form of the divination, the instrument is a bowl, which is tilled with water and covered over with a white cloth, on which the scraps of paper with the names
Malay Spiritualism. 145
are successively deposited. The bowl is supported by two men on their knuckles, and a passage from the Koran is read. When the scrap of paper containing the name of the thief is laid on the cloth covering, the bowl twists itself off the men's knuckles, and falls to the ground with a crash.
The Sieve Ordeal. — In some cases a sieve [nyiru) is similarly used. Mystic sentences are written upon it with turmeric, and when all the household is assembled a man grasps the sieve by the edge and holds it out horizontally. Presently it is seen to commence oscillating up and down, and pulls away from the man who is holding it, the latter following its lead until it reaches and touches the thief.
The Divining-rod. — The last object of this class is the Malay divining-rod, which is similarly gifted with the power of making supernatural movements. This is a rod or birch of rotan sega (the best marketable variety of cane), which may consist either of a single stem, or of any odd number of stems up to nine. The handle of the rod or rods is bound with a hank of "Javanese" yarn, which may or may not be stained yellow. The sorcerer who wishes to use it grasps the butt-end of the rod in his right fist, and after burning incense and scattering sacrificial rice, repeats the appropriate charm^ which commences with a summons to the spirit to descend from the mountains and enter into his embodiment. If the invocation is properly performed, the spirit descends, and entering the sorcerer's head by way of the fontanel, proceeds down his arm and into the rod itself. The result is that the tip of the rod commences to rotate with rapidly increasing velocity, until the sorcerer loses consciousness, in which case the rod will point in the direction of any sort of lost or hidden treasure, which it may be the object of the operators to discover. Even underground water could, I was assured, be thus discovered.
III. We now come to the third class — that of demons, animals, and even inert objects, which are made to act on
VOL. XIII. L
146 Malay Spiritualism.
persons at a distance — a class which, as I have already said includes sendings of every description.^
Sendings. — One form of sending is described as follows : " When one individual has animosity against another, he constructs a dagger upon magic principles, and recites a prayer over it. Then, if his adversary lives at a distance, the sorcerer, seizing the dagger by the handle, stabs with the point in the direction of his enemy, whereupon the latter immediately falls sick. Blood gathers on the point of the dagger, and this the man sucks' exclaiming : ' Now I am satisfied,' whilst his adversary becomes speechless and expires."
Another form of Tujti, in which the bow appears to have been employed as the instrument, was related to me by a Malay magician as follows : If you wish to abduct another person's soul, you must go out of the house either at day- break or " when the newly-risen moon looks red," and standing with the big toe of the right foot resting upon the big toe of the left, make a trumpet by putting your right hand before your mouth, and recite through it the charm, which runs as follows : —
" Om, I loose my shaft, I loose it, and the moon clouds over, I loose it and the sun is extinguished, I loose it and the stars burn dim. Yet I shoot not at sun, moon, or stars. But at the heart-strings of a child of the human race, so-and-so,
Cluck, cluck ! soul of so-and-so.
Come and walk with me,
Come and sit with me,
Come and sleep, and share my pillow."
The text of this charm would, I think, be conclusive proof, even if there were no other, that the form of magic
' [The magician is regarded (sometimes at any rate) as sending his magic bone or stone in propria persona into the body of his enemy. Cf. Nys, Chez les Abarambos, p. 117. N. W. T.] Among the Malays, however, these cere- monies are called not sendings but pointings, and I am not at all sure how far this view applies.
-■ [Cf. Lcs Missions Catkoliques, 1893, P- 345- N. W. T.]
Malay Spirttuahsm. I47
called arrow-sending, or rather, arrow-pointing, was formerly in vogue among Malay magicians.
The next three sendings are taken from an old but valuable authority on the Peninsula named Begbie. One form of sending it is called Tuju Jantong, or the " heart- sending" ■,jantonghemg the Malay name both for the human heart and also for the cordiform top of the newly-opened bunch of bananas. The person who employs this form of withcraft has to search for one of these cordiform tops and perform a magic rite under it. He next has to tie the banana-top, and having recited a prayer over it, burns the point which communicates with the heart of his adversary, inflicting excruciating agony. When he is tired of torment- ing him he cuts the jantong, and the man's heart simul- taneously drops from its proper situation, blood issuing from the mouth of the expiring sufferer.
In the remaining instances the sendings apparently con- sist of insects.^ The Tuju Jindang is a kind of sending in which the sorcerer employs an evil spirit in form of a cater- pillar, which is carefully reared in a new vessel and fed upon roasted padi. It partakes of the appearance of the silkworm. Its keeper directs it to attack the enemy, saying : " Go and devour the heart and entrails of so- and-so," or words to that effect, whereupon it departs and flies against the ill-fated individual, entering generally either at the back of the hand or between the shoulders. At the moment of contact a sensation is produced as if a bird had flown against one's body, but it is invisible, and the only sign of its presence is the livid hue of the spot where it has entered. On entering, it forthwith performs its mission, inflicting intolerable torment. The body gradually becomes blue, and the victim expires.
One of the spirits most dreaded by the Malays is the Polong, whose shape is described as resembling nothing in
' \Cf. Martius, Zur.Eth. Brasiliens, p. 78 ; Les Missions Catholiques, 1889, P- 377 ; Tonend, South African Bantu Languages, p. 292, &c. N.W.T. ]
L 2
148 Malay Spirttnalism.
the animal world, but whose head is formed very much like the handle of a kris ; the eyes being situated at either end of the cross-guard, and the upper part of the blade representing the neck, from the extremity of which branch out two spinous leg-like processes, running nearly parallel with is spiral filiform body, widening out at the insertion, and gradually approximating at the extremities ; at least such is the form of the Polong which a Malay physician and dealer in the black art will rudely sketch if requested to do so. It is difficult to believe, although we are so assured, that this demon, with whose figure the Malays are so well acquainted, is nevertheless always invisible. It is death by the Malayan code to keep one, but it is never- theless asserted that several females are in the habit of doing so, as the possession of a Polong imparts exquisite beauty to its owner, even though she be naturally ugly. The men seldom keep one of these spirits unless they have some revenge to gratify, though occasionally they keep them for hire by others. The Polong is kept in a small earthen bottle, whose neck is sufficiently wide to permit the introduction of a finger. As it feeds upon human blood, its keeper cuts his finger once or twice a week, either on Friday or Monday night, and inserts it in the bottle for the Polong to suck. Should this be neglected the demon issues from his confinement and sucks the whole body until it becomes black and blue. Directly anyone is attacked by a Polong^ he either screams out, and falls down in a swoon, or becomes death-like and speechless. Some- times possession is shown by incoherent raving, and in other cases by acts of violence on the by-standers. Oc- casionally, even death itself ensues. The Polong is under strict management, being obliged to inflict the punishment in that kind and degree which his master directs. The Malays say that this form of possession (like that of wer- wolfism ^) is infectious, at least in some cases, as people who ' [Cf. Tijdskrift, xli., 458. N.VV.T.]
Malay Spiritualism. 149
have been so incautious as to ask the sufferer the simple question, "What is the matter? Have you got a Po/o%^? " are instantly affected in a similar manner. Mr. Thomson (of Singapore) saw a man who positively assured him that he had seen no less than twenty individuals thus seized at the same time.
The soothsayer or physician is called in to the patient in order to exorcise the spirit. He draws a representation of it in a white basin, and pouring water on to it, desires the patient to drink the same. He then holds the ends of the possessed person's thumb, in order to prevent the escape of the Polojtg (that being the door by which it makes its exits and entrances), and questions it as to its motives for tormenting the individual. Having received its replies through the mouth of the possessed, he proceeds to search all over the body for the lurking place of the spirit, which, notwithstanding its invisibility, is supposed to be perfectly tangible, and to be lodged between the skin and the flesh.' As soon as the magician has discovered the spot in which the Polong is concealed, he exacts an oath of it to the effect that its previous replies were true, and that it will never re-enter the body of the person from whom it is about to be expelled. The sorcerer sometimes, indeed, exerts so great a power over the Polo7ig, as to compel it to enter into and destroy its own master.
According to Malay accounts, the proper way to secure a Polong is to deposit the blood of a murdered man in a small bottle or flask, and recite sundry conjurations over it for the period of seven or fourteen days, when a noise will be heard in the bottle resembling the chirping of young birds. The operator then cuts his finger and inserts it into the bottle, when the Polong sucks it. This is repeated daily, and the person who thus supports the Polong is
' [Something analogous appears to be the Japanese belief in possession by foxes, which enter the body under the finger-nails. N.W.T.]
150 Malay Spiritualism.
called its father, if a man, or its mother, if she happens to be a woman. ^
The Polong is, I was assured, invariably preceded by its pet or plaything, the Pelesitj- which appears to be usually identified with a species of house-cricket, of which I was once shown a specimen by a Malay in a small glass bottle or phial. Whenever the Polong is commissioned by its adopted parents to attack a new victim, it sends the Pelesit on before it, and as soon as the latter, flying along in a headlong fashion, and usually tail foremost, enters its victim's body and begins to chirrup, the Polong follows.
The Pelesit appears to be occasionally kept either as a substitute for, or as actually identical with, the Polong, and I was told that it was, like the Polo7ig, occasionally caught and kept in a bottle, and fed either with parched rice or with rice stained yellow with turmeric, or with blood drawn from the tip of the fourth finger, and that when its owner desired to get rid of it, it was buried in the ground. One of the most widely recognised ways of securing a Pelesit, which is regarded in some parts of the Peninsula as a valu- able species of property, consists in exhuming the body of a child and carrying it at full moon to an ant-hill, where it is reanimated and presently lolls out its tongue ; when this happens the tongue must be bitten off and buried in a place where three roads meet, when it will eventually develop into a Pelesit.^
The Polong is also sometimes identified or confused with a familiar spirit called Bajang in Kedah, which appears, however, to have originally been regarded as an entirely distinct conception, since its usual embodiment is stated to have been a polecat or rather civet-cat.
We have, then, in the list of Malay familiar spirits, the
' Another Malay superstition is that the blood of murdered men turns into
fireflies : cf. Malay Magic, 329.
- [Ci. /ourftal Indiajt Archipelago, 307; J. A. I., xxiv., 288. N.W.T.] ' [Cf. Crooke, Introduction, p. 360. For magic properties of tongue, cf.
Report Bur. Eth., 1881-2, p. iii ff. N.W.T.]
Malay Spiritualism. 151
Polong (or Bajang) and its plaything or messenger the Pelesit, the latter of which occasionally appears to be actually regarded in some cases as the Polong^ s embodi- ment, although it is more usually considered as distinct from the Polong. During the Cambridge Expedition of 1899 we came more than once on the track of these pecu- liar demons. At a village near Trengganu I succeeded, by some strategy, in obtaining a snapshot of a woman who kept a familiar spirit, but most probably she guessed that something was up, for next morning my Malay friend who had helped to arrange the matter came and told me she had just been to see him, and had complained that she had dreamed that a great white magician from over the sea had stolen away her soul. I sent her a present of a little gold dust which I had recently purchased, but even then she was only pacified wdth difficulty, as she complained that I had not sent her quite enough of it.
It is interesting to note the symptoms displayed by the supposed victims of the demons I have just been describing. In various Malay accounts w'e are told that a person possessed by a Polong, whether a virgin or a married woman, either falls into a death-like swoon, or cries out and loses consciousness of what he (or she) is doing, and tears and throws off his or her clothing, biting and striking bystanders, and blind and deaf to everything. A certain sign that one of these fits is coming on is for the sick person to rave about cats. Wnen the Polong has been exorcised, the sick person at once recovers conscious- ness, but is left weak and feeble ; but if the means adopted for exorcising it are unsuccessful, the person w'ho is attacked yells and shrieks in anger, and after a day or two dies. After death blood comes bubbling forth from the mouth, and the whole body is blue with bruises.
At a place on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula I came across a different belief, viz., that in a particular species of vampire. At Patani, one of the members of the
152 Malay Spiritualism.
expedition (Mr. Gwynne-Vaughan) informed me that he was walking down the main street of the town when he was stopped and asked if he wished to see some skulls. He had the presence of mind to reply in the affirmative, and was taken outside the town and there shown two skulls which had been feeding, it was alleged, upon the soul of a Malay woman. I myself then went to see them, and bought the two skulls for a couple of dollars, and brought them home.
Those who are familiar with T. Lockwood Kipling's fine work on Man and Beast in India will doubtless remember the beautiful specimens which he gives of the caligraphic pictures of which oriental penmen are so fond. Pictures of this kind are occasionally employed by Malay magicians for various objects, and form one of the methods adopted for guarding a house against the entry of the familiar spirits which I have been speaking. They consist, as in India, of the names of God and of various prophets, and prayers cleverly woven into a design, which is believed to furnish a complete protection against the spirits referred to.
IV. Of the ceremonies of the fourth class^ viz. Possession and Devil-dancing, I have seen, perhaps, altogether about half a dozen performances, though I need scarcely remark that it is a most difficult task for a European to obtain permission to attend such ceremonies at all, and it can only be done by possessing a strong friend (so to speak) at court.
At these performances the magician and a large number of his friends and relations being assembled in the sick man's house, the magician seats himself on the ground facing an attendant who chaunts the invocation, accompanying himself upon the Malay three-stringed viol. After much burning of benzoin and scattering of sacrificial rice the spirit descends, entering the magician's body through the fontanel. The magician is at once seized with convulsive twitchings which seem to spread all over his body, and these are accompanied by a rapid rotatory motion of the
Malay Spiritualism. 153
head, which he makes revolve from right to left at a tremendous pace,^ shaking at the same time his shoulders and thighs, and getting more and more violent until the whole body is quaking like a jelly, thus producing an almost painfully vivid imitation of an epileptic fit. Soon, however, he falls down in a state of what is doubtless real exhaustion, and after an interval rises again and com- mences to dance. The entire process is repeated several times ; and a quiet interval then follows, during which the magician, sitting on the ground, replies in a high, squeaky, unnatural voice to any questions that may be put to him, not merely as regards the welfare of his patient, but even as regards private and personal matters, which are of interest only to the patient's friends and relations. In the course of this catechism the magician expounds the cause and nature of the sick man's illness, as well as the remedies which should be adopted for his recovery.
Among the oracles thus delivered at a performance attended by Mr. F. F. Laidlaw and myself in Kelantan, there was one which is perhaps well worth recording. We had arranged next day to attend a Malay bull-fight, to which we had been invited by His Highness the Raja Muda. These bull-fights are not fought on the unequal lines of the spectacles called by that name in civilised Europe, but con- sist of a fight on equal terms between two powerful and carefully trained bulls, which seldom do each other or any- one else much injury, and which as exhibitions of strength are exciting to watch. During the catechising of the magician to which I have alluded, he was asked to give what I believe is called the "straight tip" as to the probable winner of next day's contest, and gave as his selection a bull named Awang Ranggong. On the following after- noon Mr. Laidlaw and I were sitting on the dais next to His Highness, and when the bulls were brought on the field His Highness asked me which bull I thought looked most ' [Cf. Wetterstrand, Hypnotism, p. 33. N. W. T.j
154 Malay Spiritualism,
likely to win. Remembering the sorcerer's tip, I replied " Awang Ranggong," though I did not know one bull from the other, and in the result ''Awang Ranggong" certainly won hands down, breaking his opponent's horn in a few rounds and driving him off the field in most ignominious fashion. The sorcerer's reputation as a good " judge of cattle" naturally went up, though I must confess that it would take a great deal more proof than was actually forthcoming to make me believe that there could have been anything supernormal about the sorcerer's tip. The sorcerer appeared to remember what he had said when we talked with him afterwards, and I am inclined to look upon the performance as a very clever piece of acting, the voluntary or " conscious " element being often probably far greater than is imagined.
In this connection, I see that in the papers of March i8th a case was reported of a man who had the power of increasing the pulsations of his heart to 105 per minute, and of throwing himself into apparent convulsions as a means of extracting money from soft-hearted people.
We may here leave our facts and come to the question of their interpretation. And here, as I have already said, it is the ceremonial import of the first class of ceremonies in which I am personally most deeply interested. This is a problem which cannot be answered or settled off-hand, and I propose to leave this class to be dealt with last, as I can at present only vaguely indicate what I venture to think is a possible solution. The inductive method is our only guide through the gloom, and I will therefore com- mence by examining the three classes of ceremonies whose import we know.
First among these come objects admittedly used for divi- nation, and I will commence with the Divining Lemon as the most instructive ceremony of this kind. In this case we have a tree whose spirit is the object, so to speak, of a special cult ; the spirit of the lemon, equally with the lemon-tree.
Malay Spiritualism. 155
being looked up to and revered almost as a tutelary spirit by the travelling players of Penang. The invocations addressed to this tree show that, as in most branches of Malay magic, every part of the tree possessed its appropriate alias. Thus the root was called the " seated Prince," the trunk was called the " standing Prince,'' the bark the " Prince stretching himself," the leaves the " beckoning Prince," and so on, as in the address to the Fish-trap spirit.
To this I may add that one of the Malay methods of abducting another person's soul was by causing it to enter into a bunch of seven lime-fruits on a single stalk ; that limes are used by Malays for ceremonial bathing, &c., &c. I think we have here an instance of the invocation of a vegetation spirit, whose close association with man in the minds of Malay magicians most probably originally arose from the great practical utility of the acrid juice of the lime for cleansing purposes ; the divinatory power at- tributed to it arising out of the generally sacred character which it acquired from its happening to be used in ceremonial purification.
We next come to the Divining-rod and the Divining- sieve, both of which being inanimate as well as inert objects differ from the Divining-lemon (which is always used when fresh and green), but which are nevertheless admittedly used for divination.
Of the Divining-sieve I will say but little, as the charm employed to work it has not yet been recorded, and hence we have no information as to the kind of spirit invoked. In the case of the Divining-rod, however, the spirit invoked is that of the tree (in this case the rattan, a cane-creeper or calamus), from which the living rod was obtained. The reference in the charm is to the long feathery growing shoots of the rattan, which, armed with formidable prickles, are frequently to be seen projecting like lightning conductors or waving about in the wind, above the top- most branches of the loftiest trees in the jungle. The
156 Malay Spiritualism.
Divining-rod of the Malays appears to me to be the close counterpart of the Divining-sticks of the Zulus, Maoris, Melanesians, and many others ; and I think I may say that it would not be surprising to find them all worked more or less on the same general principles.
One point that I wish to bring out in the case of the Divining-rod is that the spirit which agitates the rod is believed by the Malays to enter the magician's head, and descending through his arm and hand, to take up its quarters in the rod itself, and is not supposed to remain, as has sometimes been thought^ in the body of the magician so as to guide his arm or hand. The oscillation originates with the spirit in the rod, the magician being obliged to follow so long as he grasps it, whithersoever the spirit in the rod m.ay lead him.^ It is obvious from this description that a conception of the Malay Divining-rod differs widely from a conception of the Divining-rod to be met with in Europe, where the " dowser" regards the rod merely as a convenient external index of his own inner consciousness, so that his finding water does not really depend on his use of a hazel-twig, and any other kind of equally long and light object would do.'"' I believe this is not the orthodox water-finder's opinion, but at least it is a reasonable one ; and the point is that whereas in this case it is the involun- tary muscular action of the man that moves the rod, the Malay idea is that the spirit in the rod, so to speak, moves the man, dragging him after it to the spot where the treasure lies hid ; which is. also the view taken by the majority, and perhaps the less reasonable, of the dowsers.
The cases of the Divining-bowl and the Ring are a little different from the preceding, as they are clear instances in which the animated object is neither of animal nor vege- table origin. Nevertheless ihey are entirely in keeping with Malay ideas about inanimate objects, i.e. that they
' [Cf. Macdonald, Africana, i.. i6r. N. VV. T.] ■ [Cf. Folklore, xi., 434. j
Malay Spiritualism. 157
may be, and very frequently are, possessed by spirits, and that when so possessed they may be moved by the latter's agency. It is probable that neither of the rites is of Malay origin, but unfortunately it is impossible to classify them, as we do not possess the charms.
As regards the Sendings, one of the principal ingredients of the idea underlying these ceremonies appears to consist in employing certain objects or insects which, thanks to their bizarre appearance or otherwise suggestive charac- teristics, have acquired an evil reputation, such as would no doubt work strongly, through suggestion, upon the minds of a superstitious people. Thus magic rites of the Polong or Pelesit types most probably owe their origin to the peculiar shape, colour, or perhaps even notes, of certain strange insects, such as the Malay lantern-fly, grasshopper, caterpillar, and house-lizard. The last-mentioned is in fact an almost certain instance, as it is regularly classed with the crocodile, obviously on account of its shape ; and the same may perhaps be said of the Tuju Jindang or cater- pillar-sending ; a belief in whose attacks may perhaps account for the terror with which Malays regard a certain swelling of the foot, which they attribute to the bite of a caterpillar.^
The suggestiveness of shape comes out, however, yet more clearly in the employment of the heart-shaped blossom- tip of the banana, but most clearly of all, perhaps, in the use of arrow-points and daggers, for which, in North America and Australia, the use of the magic bone appears to be the almost universal equivalent. On the other hand,
' [These ideas, however, are not confined to insects, for in other parts of the world we find horned animals similarly employed, as for instance deer in Java, and antelope amongst the Fanti, and even harmless animals are occasionally utilised, though there are doubtless in each case special reasons for so doing. All these cases appear, however, to be merely local variations of the werwolf idea, and as such should be classed with the wer-tiger beliefs, which are held very strongly by the Peninsular Malays, and in many other parts of the Malay region. N. W. T.]
158 Malay Spiritualism.
it is possible that the familiar demon called Polong, which is described as so minutely resembling a kris-handle, may really represent the spirit of the kris, as Mr. N. W. Thomas has suggested. Such " manufactured " spirits are, as he points out^ found in America (vide Bureau Am. Ethn., 1884-5, P3-ge 591. I am inclined, however, to think that more direct evidence is required on this point, and that the Polong and the kris-spirit are not necessarily connected.
In ceremonies of the fourth class, which include posses- sion and exorcism, the purpose of the ceremony appears to be, in the first instance, divinatory and diagnostic ; but in many cases the magician invokes the spirit of some power- ful wild beast, such as the elephant or tiger, which it may be presumed is strong enough to conquer the evil spirit with which the sick man is possessed ; and though the simulated struggle in such cases is often a severe one, the magician generally succeeds in carrying his purpose of frightening or driving the evil one out of the sick man's body; a form of exorcism which is obviously parallel to the practice described in the Scriptures as the driving out of devils through " Beelzebub," their " prince."
We now come to the ceremonies of the Fish-trap and Palm-blossom class. I venture to think there are good prima facie reasons for supposing them to have been per- formed, in the first instance, for a practical purpose. Stated in the form of a syllogism the argument is —
1. These particular ceremonies are animistic ceremonies.
2. All other Malay animistic ceremonies have some practical object.
3. These particular ceremonies should also have some practical object.
This argument, however, does not carry us very far, but I think that the best results can only be obtained by the comparative study of more or less homogeneous, as well as contiguous, groups ; and perhaps the most satisfactory
Malay Spiritualism. 159
way of attempting to get at the true inner meaning of these ceremonies is to compare them, not with the cere- monies of any distant and unrelated race or races, but with the ceremonies of the Jakuns of the Peninsula itself, who are an unconverted branch of this same Malayan race though in a much more backward and undeveloped state of culture.
I will take the Fish-trap first, as being the more difficult performance to explain.
The Besisi are one of the more important of these Jakun tribes, and I have on several occasions been fortunate enough to be present when they were engaged in their tribal feasts, which took place at the sowing of their rice- crops, as well as when the padi began to bloom, and again at the beginning, middle, and end of the rice-harvest. On occasions of this sort a simple kind of fermented liquor was brewed from various wild jungle fruits, such as the f rah^ and a banquet follows, after which both sexes, crowning themselves with sweet-smelling wreaths of fra- grant leaves and flowers, and covering their persons with cunningly-plaited leaf-festoons and tassels, indulge in sing- ing and dancing to a late hour; the proceedings terminating in a sexual orgy.^
Before the commencement of the banquet, when all the tribe have been called together, benzoin is burnt by the chief of the tribe, a portion of cooked rice deposited on the top of a tree-stump in the neighbouring jungle, and the spirits of the animals and insects which are designated as the " enemies of the rice " are at the same time invited to a solemn truce by the following charm which the chief himself pronounces :
" Partake, O 'Round-foot' (a taboo-name for the elephant). Partake, O Rats, Partake, O Blight,
' Possibly analogous to the "Bandana" ceremony in India, vide Hopkins, Religions of India (1896), p. 533-
i6o Malay Spiritualism.
Partake, O P^inches,
Partake, O Stink-bugs,
Partake, O Caterpillars,
Partake, O Green Fly,
Partake, O Wild-deer,
Partake, O Wild-pig,
Partake, all of you of the top of the Year {lit. the Year's eldest-born)
I have not eaten yet.
But am just about to do so."
Of the songs that were chaunted, or rather acted, on these solemn occasions, I myself collected no fewer than thirty- six, and their character has, I think, an important bearing upon the argument. Most of them commence with an enumeration of the most striking characteristics of some particular wild animal, bird, or reptile. The singer then proceeds to describe the incidents of its pursuit by men from his own encampment, the eventual slaying of the quarry (with poisoned darts, knives, or spears, as the case may be), and the cooking and apportioning of the meat thus obtained among all the members of the tribe, " young and old, and big and little." In a number of other cases the chief characteristics of various kinds of fruit are chaunted, together with the various methods of Catherine them, and their final apportionment in the same impartial manner as the flesh of the animals.
That one of the principal objects of these performances
is to increase the yield of the soil appears I think from
cumulative evidence, which is rather difficult to set forth
adequately. Each of these songs at least concludes with a
wild shout of " Fruit ! fruit ! fruit ! " And fruit, moreover,
it must be remembered, is a far more important article of
food to these tribes than to ourselves. In most cases this
peroration is much fuller, and distinctly specifies the kinds
of fruit the productiveness of which they wish (as I think)
to influence. Thus the peroration of the Roe-deer song
runs :
" To dance the Roe-deer is the young folks' custom. « * ♦ ♦ «
To-morrow and always be years of plenty,
Malay Spiritualism. i6i
Plenteous be our fruit, our rice-crops be plenteous. Fruit, fruit, fruit, fruit, hurrah ! "
The conclusion of the song about the Kledang (a kind of fruit) runs :
" Plenteous be durians, mangostins be plenteous. Plenteous the rambai, plenteous the pulasan. Plenteous the tampoi, plenteous the kundang. So for nine years may fruit not fail us."
And the conclusion of the Monkey-song runs :
" Tell ye of the monkey, that fruit may be plenteous.' Fruit, fruit, fruit, fruit ! "
There are, however, two other songs which refer to
different subjects; the first is a Bathing-song for the little
maidens of the tribe, which concludes with the following
passage :
" The ' little folk ' - dance within the Balei, Fruit be plenteous, the season plenteous, Fruit be plenteous, fruits that are diverse, Every day be fruit in plenty. Every month be fruit in plenty, Every year be fruit in plenty ! Go not back from the solemn promise, From the rites that in the Book are written, Fruit ! fruit ! fruit ! fruit ! Such is the custom of Jungle-dwellers, The custom of folk that with drink make merry."
A passage which brings it into line with the animal and fruit songs. I think these passages are conclusive as to the connection for which I contend.
But the song that interests us most nearly is that of the Fish-trap [lukah), which seems to me to have a distinct relation to the Fish-trap dance of the civilised Malays.
" Ting ting hat is the small- waist ed Fish-trap, The trap that was made by Mamat Alang. The trap is set in the river yonder. Enter it, O fish, that with scales are covered. The Tapah fish, and the fish Sabarau,
' Lit., Fruit plenteous. - I.e., the maidens or girls of the tribe. VOL. XIII. M
1 62 Malay Spiritualism.
The Ruaii fish, and the fish called Bujor,
The Lentbat fish, and the fish Pepiiynh,
May all these enter the small- waisted Fish-trap.
Bear the fish home, throw them down on the hut-floor,
And cut them in slices, these fish so many.
Stew them and cook them very very carefully
And when you have cooked them, call your comrades.
And give to eat a little to everyone.
And when with fish you have filled your belly,
Rise to your feet, O Mamat Solong,
And stamp on the long floor of the Balei,
Stamp on the broad floor of the Balei,
Big sisters and little will watch you gladly.
Such is the rite of the small-waisted P'ish-trap."
Is it SO unwarrantable a conclusion to draw from all that I have said (that is, from the words of the song taken in conjunction with the character of the feast), that we here have a case of what I may perhaps be permitted to call, for want of a better name, stimulative magic, such as might be calculated to increase the eflectiveness of the trap as a means of obtaining food ?
If this view be taken, we may perhaps say that this form of magic has something in common with what has been called productive magic ; in that the object in both cases is to increase the general store of the food of the tribe, which after all is, and must always remain, the chief consideration of these Malayan aborigines. And if so, is it too much to say that we have here a case of survival, and that the Fish -trap performance of the civilised Malays, even though its purpose may now have been forgotten, may well have taken its origin in some such practical attempt at stimulation as that I have here described ? It is perhaps an important point that the Malays themselves are actually described by their old writers as indulging in periodical drinking festivals and orgies, not unlike those which are still practised by their pagan fellow-countrymen.
If I have not yet made my position altogether clear, I may say that I regard the feast itself, with the singing and dancing which accompanied it, and the sexual orgv with which it concluded, as the really important part of a probably " pro-
Malay Spiritualisin. 163
ductive " rite. The introduction of any given subject into the songs, although it might be essential to the proper stimulation of the object thus treated, was not essential to the rite itself, and might be omitted or inserted at will, the effect of such chaunting upon the object itself being analogous to the declared effect of what is called the laying- on of hands by a priest or bishop.
In discussing the ceremony of the dancing palm-blossom, I should, perhaps, explain that the Malays believe strongly in a seven-fold soul, which is not confined to human beings or animals, but is extended to embrace all other depart- ments of nature, including vegetation, whether live or dead. The influence of this belief may be clearly seen in the ceremonies performed by the Malay collectors of jungle produce (such as eagle-wood, camphor, malacca cane, and rubber), in the ceremonies used for taking home the soul of the rice-plant at harvest-time, and in many other cases too numerous to mention, the object in every case being to increase the yield of some vegetable product. For example, in the ceremonies employed for making fruit-trees more productive, the magician delivers several shrewd blows upon the trunk of a tree Avith an axe saying :
' ' Will you now bear fruit or not ? If you do not I now shall fell you."
To which the soul of the tree is supposed to reply, through the mouth of a man perched in the lower branches :
" Yes, yes, I will now bear fruit,
Only I beg that you will not fell me."
It is unfortunately impossible to compare the ceremony of the dancing palm-blossom with any such ceremony among the Jakuns, as the latter do not plant palms and have no ceremonies connected with them. We have, however, a parallel in the charm used by the Malay manufacturers of palm-wine, who, in collecting the sap of the cocoa-nut palm, repeat the words :
" Peace be with your Highnesses, Princesses of the shorn hair and perpetual distillation ;
M 2
164 Malay Spiritualism.
Who are seen in the swelling and subsiding of the Blossom-sheath.
The Blossom-sheath that is called Si Gedeheh,
Seven Princesses who are Blossom-sheath's handmaidens."
The close parallelism between this latter charm and the charm employed in the ceremony of the dancing palm- blossom will, I think, be sufficiently obvious. It is, in each case, the soul or spirit of the palm which is invoked ; in the one case that of the areca-palm, and in the other that of the cocoanut. In each case the spirit is seven-fold and female. And as in the case of the cocoanut-palm the object of the ceremony is to increase the yield of the cocoanut- palm, it seems a fair deduction to suppose that the areca- palm ceremony may once have been intended to increase the fertility of the palm in question.
In the case of the Dancing Rice-spoon described by Darwin, our information, for w^ant of the charm, is too slight to enable us to conjecture with any certainty to w'hich class of ceremonies the performance would belong. I should on the w^hole, how'ever, be inclined to assign it to the first class, together with the ceremonies of the Dancing Pestle and Mortar, as a probable survival of a performance in- tended to conciliate the spirit of the rice, which, it must be remembered, is taken into the house at harvesting. The Rice-spirit itself is a good spirit, and the rice-spoon is con- sequently used not unfrequently as a weapon of defence against the Powers of Evil. Thus, a woman who is in labour at the time of an eclipse is seated in the doorway of the house with this implement in her hand to protect her from evil spirits. So, too, by way of protection from the spirits of the tempest, seafaring Malays are accustomed to fasten a spoon horizontally across the mast of their vessel, so that it points towards the centre of the storm cloud, repeating a charm as they do so. These last instances, however, belong to a different category, and are only cited as showing the ceremonial use of the rice-spoon as a pro- tective implement in magic.
Malay Spiritualism. 165
I trust I have now said sufficient to show at least the possibility that these "dancing" ceremonies may have originated in some custom of treating ceremonially at periodic intervals the implements and objects which are connected with the food supply of the tribe; in which case they should be regarded, of course, as survivals in magic.
The moral with which I should like to conclude is, that it is for ethnologists to try and impress upon all who are in a position to collect, the absolute and vital necessity of finally abandoning, before it is too late, the "gibberish" theory of savage incantations, an idea which I find has still plenty of vitality. In the present instance, my greatest difficulty has been throughout the insufficiency of our infor- mation in this very respect. From the point of view of language alone, the archaic forms which charms so often con- tain would make them worth the attention of serious students, and as a factor in the interpretation of folklore they are, when properly collected and collated, simply invaluable. It is only through the study of incantations that we can ever hope satisfactorily to settle such problems as those here raised, and I am confident that it is only through the study of incantations that we shall ever be able to decide definitely many of the knotty points which at present con- front the folklorist at every turn. It is perhaps not too much to say, that we can no more hope to reconstruct savaofe reliafion on reallv sound lines without a close and laborious studv of savage incantations, than we could hope to reconstruct Confucianism without the writings of Con- fucius, Mohammedanism without the Koran, or Christianity without the Scriptures. Moreover, from all of these latter there is incontestably far less of importance still remaining to be learnt bv those who are interested in studving the evolutional growth and development of the human mind, than from those products of a more untutored imagination for the study of which I appeal.
\V. Skeat.
COLLECTANEA.
" Long Ju-Ju " {see Plate II.).
By the kind courtesy of the proprietors of the Daily Graphic we are enabled to give the accompanying sketch-plan (drawn by Reuter's Correspondent with the Aro Field Force) of the " Long Ju-ju," which Count di Cardi {Ju-J^i Latvs atid Customs of the Niger Delta, in y. A. /., vol. xxix , p. 52) describes as "the great oracle of all the tribes dwelling in the Niger Delta." " To it," he says, " all family disputes are referred, and its decision is recognised as final ; it is also appealed to to decide the guilt or innocence in cases where a man of position has been accused of
murder, witchcraft, or poisoning Human sacrifices are
not made to this Ju-ju after the manner of the sacrificial rites practised in Ashanti, Dahomey, and Benin. Still, a certain amount of slaughtering of human beings goes on at the Long Ju-ju to this day, for when two men go to Long Ju-ju for the settlement of any dispute between them, it is customary for the losing party to be destroyed by its power ; but in many cases to my certain knowledge the priests have found it much more re- munerative to sell the losing litigant into slavery."
Only one man among such slaves questioned by the Count expressed a wish to return home ; the others " being satisfied that their own people would never acknowledge they were anything else but spirits." Count di Cardi's own ship was considered to be so thoroughly defiled by the presence of " the spirit of a man from Long Ju-ju" (namely, the exceptional man just mentioned), that none of the natives would visit the vessel till the Ju-ju King had " made ju-ju " on board.
The ensuing descriptions of the place by correspondence with the Aro expedition supplement each other, and seem well worth
Collectanea. 167
putting on record here. We quote the following from the Morjt ing Post, 2 1 St January, 1902 : —
"Arochuku, Christmas Day, 1901. " Colonel Montanaro entered Arochuku with No. 4 Column, under the command of Major Heneker, on Christmas Eve, driving the enemy in front of him. The town itself was occupied without resistance, but beyond the town constant fighting has taken place between our advance posts and the enemy. Arochuku, which is the chief town of the hitherto unconquered Aro nation, is very extensive, occupying an area of about five square miles. For a race who are supposed to possess, for West Africans, remarkable intelligence, as instanced by the long lines of the admirably- constructed trenches which opposed our advance, surprise was generally expressed at the filthy state of the houses in the town,i and as the town will now be permanently occupied by the British, Montanaro decided on sanitary grounds to burn the whole place and to construct bush houses for his troops. The destruction of the town was carried out under a dropping fire from the enemy. The famous bogey called the " long ju-ju " lies about half a mile from the east entrance into the town of Arochuku. The six chiefs who are now prisoners in our camp describe " the long ju-ju " as the " life and breath of the Omo-chuku " {Ang/ice — Sons of the Great God, i.e., the people who inherit Arochuku). The " long ju-ju " is approached by narrow a path with very thick bush on either side. The path ends in a small clearing, and at the far end of this is a large grass and cloth screen. On the other side of this is the mouth of a deep gorge about forty yards long, thirty yards wide, with almost perpendicular sides seventy feet high. At the bottom of the gorge is a running stream, on either side of which altars are erected, which are adorned with skulls, white fowls, &c., while on one of them a white goat was tied down
[' Compaie Miss Kingsley's account of negro habits {West African Studies, p. 422) : " Africa, so far as I know it. namely, from Sierra Leone to Benguela, smells generally rather strong, but particularly so in those districts inhabited by the true negro. This pre-eminence the true negroes attain to by leaving the sanitary matters of villages and towns in the hands of Providence. The Bantu culture looks after the cleaning and tidying of the village streets to a remarkable degree, though by no means more clean in the houses, which, in both cultures, are quite as clean and tidy as you will find in England." — E. S. H.]
1 68 Collectanea.
and dying from starvation. Ti:iis last was apparently the latest sacrifice of the priest, and presumably intended as representing the defeat of the white raan.^ Further on there are two more screens similar to the first, and inside the second one is a small island, on which there is an altar with about fifty guns stuck in it, and decorated with skulls and the usual "ju-ju" horrors. About fifteen yards from the last screen the ravine ends abruptly, and here water bubbles out from a spring which feeds the stream. Over the place where the water comes out is a large roof made of human skulls, with which trophy nearly everything in the ravine is adorned. Under the roof and almost touching the water hangs a large curtain of grass and cloths, but there is nothing behind it. One of the skulls is fairly fresh — being the head of a victim sacrificed two months ago — and naturally it smells horribly. In the water are a lot of large grey tame fish with big yellow eyes, which come up and smell your feet and legs. The main wealth of the Aro nation is derived from slaves, and the " long ju-ju " is used as a bait to entrap confiding and superstitious natives. People come from all parts to consult the "ju-ju," and most of them never get further than the small cleared place in front of the first screen, as they are seized and smuggled away, being afterwards sold into slavery. If at any time an unusually large number of people come to consult the oracle, one or two are sacrificed as a thank-offering, but in a thriving commercial community like the Omo-chuku it is wasting money to kill a slave. The slaves are divided among the fourteen elders of the Aro nation, each elder receiving a certain proportion, and any slaves over and above are sacrificed. The outside world is made to believe that everyone taken to consult the 'ju-ju' is eaten up by it."
Reuter's correspondent accompanies his plan (Plate II.) with the following description {Daily Graphic, 24th January, 1902) : —
"The approach to the Long Ju-ju is through dense bush, which gradually becomes thicker and thicker until one arrives at the entrance of a deep oval-shaped pit, seventy feet deep, sixty yards long, and fifty yards wide. One then climbs down the precipitous sides of the rock into a narrow gorge and into running water, up which one wades, passing under two fences, until one
[' Caution must be exercised in receiving this conjecture.— E. S. H.]
~ ^ -^ bD 1, rt £1.
7^ JS S
-^ t^ br *-3 ,
W „• W HJ s
^-i
e1
f!^
t>
- ^ ^ ^ CI ^? '^ " d
> ^> ^' c^ d ^i ^ , o; '^
s> 't' >*■ '
f;
^ ;i
i> ^
<J cJ
^ ^
i <i ^ ^ ^ ^
•t^
i>
i:»
^
^
4
^
>> a C» A -^ ^
■ o -^ 0 ^ •<
A
■y
p^ ^ ?, ^ <^ ^ ^^
ii
» fi
^ <x> iaC
|
3 X |
5 |
;3 |
o |
5 |
"3 |
o |
o |
o |
|
|
< |
m |
o |
Q |
W |
Ph |
O |
Collectanea. 169
finally comes to a place where the water comes out of the solid rock in two big streams, which unite below a small island, on which are two altars, one made of many trade guns, stuck muzzle downwards into the ground and topped with skulls, the other being of wood and supporting more skulls, bones, feathers, blood, eggs, and other votive offerings to the Ju-ju, including the head of the last victim. Over the rock, where is the source of the water, is a roof of human skulls with a curtain, the top part of which is composed of clothes and the lower part of native matting, screening the rock and hanging just short of the water's edge. The lower portions of the rock composing the other side of this crater are draped with mats only. On the left of the entrance, centrally situated, and opposite the island, has been hewn out of the rock a flat-topped ledge for sacrificial purposes. The water, about twelve inches deep, is full of tame grey-coloured fish, about two feet in length, with long suckers and glaring yellow eyes, which have a most bizarre appearance as they glide noiselessly through the clear water in the dim light of this charnel-house of fetish lore, which is roofed with densely intertwined creepers. These fish are regarded as sacred. On the left of the exit lies another pile of human skulls and other relics of Ju-ju rites, and on the left the last sacrifice — a white goat, trussed up in the branches of a palm tree and starving to death. The conducting of a visitor to the Ju-ju is usually a somewhat lengthy process, and when he arrives in its proximity he is led by a circuitous route and finally marched in backwards. It would seem to be a fair estimate to put the number of pilgrims down at about five hundred annually, all of whom pay dearly for the advice or decree which is vouchsafed to them. Probably the number of human sacrifices does not reach a total of fifty per annum, while about 200 people are sold into slavery, and the remainder are allowed to go away free.
An officer with the Aro Field Force subsequently sent to the Daily Graphic an outline drawing of the place, which was published on the loth February. It does not seem quite to tally with the descriptions, but the sketcher's observations add some- thing to the previous accounts. He writes : —
" The story of how the Aro chiefs played on the superstition of the Ibo and other races, luring them to consult the mysterious being (or god) who lived in the spring, is, I suppose, well known.
170 Collectanea.
The result, of course, was that the supplicants were either sold into slavery at Bende and the Misi Aro slave-markets, or, if old and unfit for slavery, or even too powerful chiefs, they were sacri- ficed. All sorts of stories are told of this mystery. Hundreds of people visited the place yearly, and never returned. Some who never absolutely saw the grotto, being blindfolded, stood in the water by the cave, and heard mysterious voices talking all round them, while the catfish nibbled at their feet and splashed about in the pool. If they were to die the water was supposed to pour out of the source the colour of blood. This was probably done by some rascally old priest inside the cavern. There is an entrance into the cavern at the back of the Ju-ju, and there are to be seen the scaffold and sacrificial knife. The most loathsome thing about the place is the altar of skulls, the stack of captured arms, surmounted by a skull, and the alligators and catfish, which were fed after the sacrifices."
" Ver}', ver>' little," says Count de Cardi, writing to us, '" has ever come to light as to what was actually carried on at the spot, and now that the whole place has been destroyed and the fetish priests scattered, I am afraid no more complete account will ever be compiled." — Ed.
Folklore Notes from St. Brla.vel's.
{Read at Meeting, 26th March, 1902.)
The village and common of St. Briavel's stand on the edge of the Dean Forest, and though the common has long been enclosed, the old castle of the Constables is still the scene of Courts Leet, and the Crown officers go round yearly to spy out encroachments and the ravages of disforestable beasts. Seeing that the forest was at one time a sort of gathering place for gypsies, outlaws, and other turbulent folk, it is only natural that the present race should be small, dark, and untidy, whereas the people of the more fertile country are fair and rather pale. They are all expert poachers, but, outside the mining centres, share little interest in games or sports. Flower gardens, such as delight one in Kent, are
Collectanea. 171
of the rarest occurrence, and generally belong to a " foreigner," that is, any person from another county. Such folklore as I have collected comes from my own village, or from places within six miles' distance. With the miners I am not in touch, and so could get nothing from them.
Tradition has it that St. Briavel, after whom the place was named, was once a Cornish king of such exceeding wickedness that his subjects rose and drove him out. After many wanderings he came to the Wye Valley, and, settling down, became a hermit, acquiring by his holiness great power over the wolves and other wild beasts of the forest. The site of his supposed hermitage is still known. A few stones in a wood go by the name of St. Margaret's Chapel, and to her the church is dedicated, but I have been unable to find out anything more about her. St. Briavel's Wells are three excellent springs on the hilltop, but have no con- nection with the Saint, who lived in the warm damp valley.
Offa's Dyke runs through the country side and is still plainly traceable, rising in some places to a height of fifteen feet, though almost ploughed away in others. The people call it the Devil's Dyke, but have no stories about it ; nor have I been able to find any meanings for the queer names given to the different parts of the village — such as the Mork, the Meen, or Tumpkin's Ailes.
There are old Roman iron workings near by, with a Devil's Chapel and a Devil's Kitchen ; also a stone put up to commemo- rate the murder of one of the Constables of the Forest (this bleeds if you stick a pin into it) ; and many other interesting places. These do not, however, belong properly to St. Briavel's.
Of the local omens, charms, folk-medicine, customs and sayings, witchcraft and fairy legends, most will probably be known already to the Society, but one or two things are, I think, new.
First comes the usual list of crows or magpies : one, for ill ; two, for good; three, a disappointment; four, a letter; five, something better; six, a wedding; seven, a burying. But there is a small local variant which says that although one crow in the morning brings ill-luck and two good, yet one after dinner brings good fortune.
If a bee comes into the house, a stranger will soon arrive. In the spring, if you see the first young lamb back first, it is unlucky, you will go backwards all the year.
The small egg first laid by a pullet should never be brought
172 Collectanea.
into the house, but should be thrown over the roof, that the ill- luck may pass over the household.
When there is a letter in the candle, you thump on the table until the spark falls off — so many thumps, so many days before the letter will arrive.
It is very unlucky to be offered money for any object ; if a fair price be offered you should sell, as ill will come if you refuse.
It is " dreadful bad luck " to put a lanthorn on the table, but if you should have done so foolish a thing, throw salt on the fire, " for if you do waste the salt, you stop the luck." This applies also to other ill-omened actions.
There is a curious and unexpectedly tidy custom of drawing a line of white round the walls of the living-room and round the top doorstep, or the stone sill should there be no steps. The line must be unbroken, for then the evil spirits cannot enter the house.
Should you be troubled by unexplained illness and death amongst your pigs, you should bury the poor victims toes upwards, and the trouble will cease.
There are various death-omens ; for instance, should an owl sit on the roof and whoop, or if a bird enters the house, or even when one " fetches up " against the windows, it bodes ill. " An old man did die along of Louie Jones, and I could not drive that bird away along until him was dead," as an old woman told me in proof of this last omen. A winding sheet in the candle of course bodes ill, and should you hear a sound like the stroke of a stick on a chair, you may be certain that there will be a death in the family shortly. Finally, should it thunder and lighten at a funeral, it does not speak well for the future happiness of the deceased.
Weather sayings are few and commonplace — cats playing about, cows lying down, valley-fog climbing the hill, all mean rain. When the mist lies fiat, there will be hot weather. Pigs can smell the wind, and geese flying over forecast rough weather at sea.
Medicine of course comes naturally to the seventh son of a seventh son, but if your child has whooping-cough, and you do not wish to consult a doctor, wait until you meet a man leading a piebald horse, "and whatever him do say will cure the cough." Or pass the sickly child nine times over and under a bramble that is rooted at both ends.
Collectanea. 173
To secure freedom from toothache you should always carry in your pocket one of those mossy balls that are often found growing on wild rose trees. We used to call them "King o' the Roses." I do not know the real name.^ But if you have toothache, it can be cured by sitting under an ash-tree and cutting your toe-nails.
The forefoot of an unt (or mole) should be carried as a pre- servative against rheumatism, and a drink of Barrow Well water, on going to bed, is good for a cold.
A Good Friday cake is good for internal troubles. You grate a little into water, and take it so. There is nothing special about the making of this cake, except the date, nor is it cake in the ordinary sense, being merely a lump of dough from the usual baking. The remnants left over are always made into small, flat, cheese-shaped loaves called " batch-cakes," and I fancy the Good Friday cakes are of the same type.
The following charms are used, first, to prevent a wound from festering, the second, to stop the flow of blood. They should be said " over " the injured part : —
Charm for a Thorn. — Our Saviour was born in Bethlehem, pierced with spears, nails, and thorns. Whose wounds never gathered, smarted, nor festered, no more than this thorn. In the name of the Father [etc.]. Amen.
Charm for Blood. — Our Saviour was born in Bethlehem, baptised by John the Baptist in the river of Jordan. Although the waters was wild the waters was good. Christ commanded the waters to stand and the waters stood — so stand this blood. Ribaduck'- go no more. In the name of God, I stop this blood. Amen.
The Local Customs are some of them very commonplace, such as sitting up with a corpse until it be buried, and opening all the windows of the house where it lies, that the spirit may escape. But instead of telling the bees of a death, they lift the hives as the corpse is raised to go to the churchyard. If this be neglected, they will die. On Cox Hill there is a stone, where burying parties always rest and set down the corpse. Up to this point volunteers may carry the coffin, but thence to the churchyard the proper bearers take up their duty.
St. Thomas' Day is locally known as " Gooding Day," for then
' [The gall of the wild rose, formed by the insect Cyvis Rosce, is what is meant. — Ed.]
- I cannot explain this word. It was not given when the charm was repeated to me, but appeared in the written copy sent me afterwards.
174 Collectanea.
poor people go from house to house begging : " Please to give against a good day." Wheat for bread was often given.
On Christmas Eve at midnight, the cattle kneel and the rose- mary bursts into flower — " people used to sit up to see it, down in the Meen." It is also said that where the rosemary grows well " the mistress is master."
First foot, either on Christmas or New Year's Day, should be a man, for luck's sake.
Those watching in a churchyard between twelve and one at night on New Year's Eve, will see the people who are to die withm the year.
On New Year's Day you should get the newest pin you can and drop it in the water, " because it is the blood of Christ." I can get no explanation of this saying.
There is a very pretty custom that is now dying out, which I can, however, illustrate by an exhibit,^ of presenting on New Year's Day, what they call " The gift." It is an apple set on three wt)oden legs, and having a sprig of box, hung with hazel nuts, stuck into it after the manner of a Christmas tree.
In old days, it used to be customary to light twelve small fires in the cornfields on Christmas Eve that there might be a good crop.
On old New Year's Day you should burn the Christmas holly. On " Soft Tuesday " there should be pancakes. Mothering Sunday is a well-established custom with us, and the following is Fathering Sunday. Sweet cakes are made for both occasions.
Palm Sunday is called " Flowering Sunday," and all graves are dressed with flowers. It is a very pretty sight, and there is some rivalry between the different villages as to which shall turn out the best decorated churchyard. Parties go round visiting from church to church, looking and comparing.^ I was told the origin of the custom is this : " It says in the Bible, that the day Jesus Christ was buried, people strewed palm-leaves on the road
' [See ante, p. 115 ; infra, p. 202 : and the Report of International Folklon Conp-ess, 1891, p. 452. — Eu.]
- [Noted in Wales by Mr. A. J- C. Hare, Life of Baroness Bunscn, ii., 392 ; and a sporadic (?) instance at Albrigthon, near Wolverhampton, Shropshire Folklore, 330. — Ed. I am quite familiar with the custom, which is practised everywhere in Wales. — E. S. H.]
Collectanea. 175
they were taking Him, and made wreaths and crosses of them, and they called it Palm Sunday."
" Cursed is the woman that wash and dry of a Good PMday."
People used to run for dresses and little things at Easter and Whitsuntide, but now we have a regular sort of fair, called the " Revels," at which there are races.
The Society knows, from Mr. Hartland's Gloucestershire Folk- lore, that we rejoice in a local variant of the Godiva story, and that from the reign of John the Commoners have had certain rights in the free wood of Hudnalls. The Society has also read that it was customary to throw bread and cheese to be scrambled for on Whit Sunday. The connection between the two is this : " The Lady did give it, and the bread and cheese was throwd a' Whitsun Sunday to keep this charter up. People did go round the houses to collect a penny each to buy the bread and cheese."
Ghosts there are in plenty. The Castle naturally has its White Lady and its Man in Armour. At Lindors there is a phantom fiddler. " Things with eyes like saucers " and men in " they old box-hats " are met in the lanes, and funerals are seen at three a.m. of a summer's morning.
Witchcraft is still a power, and I will begin by telling you how to become a witch ; it is fairly easy, as all you need to do is to walk twelve times round a church backwards, at midnight. Then when you are a witch you can " run " as a hare or a rabbit. Witches used to tie the manes and tails of the horses at Lindors. If a witch be refused anything at a house, she will have revenge on the ani- mals or children, and will cause them to bleed to death or become paralysed. To prevent a witch from coming into the house, nail a cross of quicken (hawthorn) behind the door, or a yew stick, and plant quicken-trees near your yards and pig-cotes. To find out a witch, get a piece of leather, and fill it with pins ; stick them in different ways, and burn it. At the time of burning, the person who is the witch will come to the door.
There is now a very malevolent witch in the village of White- brook, who brings to sorrow those who do not cheerfully give her whatever she may ask for. One poor woman refused some request, whereupon the dame swore that the ungenerous creature should lose all her cows. Now. she had no cattle. But so great was the power of the curse that she went mad, and wanders about the
176 Collectanea.
woods seeking and calling the phantom cows that she thinks her- self to have lost.
Again, in St. Briavel's itself, some years ago a cottager offended his neighbours, and one fine Sunday afternoon when he and his family tried to re-enter their cottage after a walk, they found the door so fast shut that it had finally to be broken open with a pickaxe. This was undoubted witchcraft.
The vicar of the neighbouring parish of Newlands one day called his man in from mowing the hay to see to something that was needed in a hurry. To his surprise, instead of coming at once, the man stopped to carefully sharpen the scythe, and to set it aside, edge upwards. On his return he said to the parson, " You don't know why I sharpened my scythe before going? I'll tell 'ee. If I'd ha' left that there scythe unsharpened, look see, and an old witch had come along and seen it, she'd ha' rid that scythe round and round the field, and it wouldn't never have had no edge to cut with no more ! " " And I went from there," said the clergyman, in telling the story, " to the churchwarden's house, and found him, with all his family, standing round making charms to make the butter come."
Old people have told me various tales of witches in their young days ; how they gave charms that were better than any doctor's stuff, and notably one story of how a young girl put up for the night with a widow and her daughter. The cottage was small and the guest shared her hostess's bed. It was a fearful night and the noise of the storm kept the young girl awake. In her restless turning, her hand happened to touch the old woman, who was stone-cold, and in her horror she cried out: "Oh ! your mother be dead." " J^ead," laughed the daughter, " her ben't ^md', her be out and about now ! "
Passing from Witches to Fairies, the belief is weaker. They have not been seen for many years, though they used to dance in the Mork, and were "like little soldiers." But we can boast of one fairy-tale which is, I think, quite local.
There was once a farmer of the name of John Jones, who lived in the Mork. He had had a bad year and was hard put to it to pay his rent, so he decided to sell some cider, and started out with the intention of offering it round. As he left the house he met a man who said, "John, do you want to sell some cider?" "Yes," said John, and after some discussion they settled on a
Collectanea. 177
price. " Very well," said the man, " now this is what you must do. Carry a hogshead of cider down to the Fairy Ring in the Big Meadow, and pour it out there on to the grass within the ring." With that he paid and went away. As soon as he was gone, the farmer began to think what a shame it was to waste so much good cider, and the more he thought the less he felt inclined to do it. He had the money safe, and the Fairy Folk would never know the difference, so when evening came he rolled down a hogshead of water and poured that out within the ring. No sooner, however, did he step outside the ring than he saw the same man who had bargained with him in the morning, very angry and threatening. He cursed John Jones and all his family, saying that as he had tried to cheat, the curse should not be lifted until he and his had lost as much blood as water had been poured down the ring. " And they do say," my informant told me cheer- fully, "as how a power o' that family did bleed to death ! "
There is only one nursery rhyme that I have found, and to my mind it explains why some of the local babies look so pale and
sad.
" By, By, Baby Bunting, Your Daddy gone a-hunting, Your Mammy gone the other way To beg a jug of sour whey For little Baby Bunting."
I will conclude with a rhyme obviously composed by our envious neighbours.
" St. Briavel's stands upon a hill. It has a church without a steeple, I^ooks down on the River Wye, With most deceitful people."
L. M. Eyre.
Harvest Customs.
{Ante, vol. xii., p. 215, and supra, p. 113.)
Continuing my notes on Berwickshire Harvest Customs, I send the following extracts from a letter of Mr. W. Lockie of Kelso, recently forwarded to me by Mr. A. Falconer of Duns.
VOL. XIII; N
1/8 Collectanea.
" In reference to cutting the last straws of corn during harvest at Spottiswoode (Westruther parish) the term ' cutting the queen ' was almost as often used as ' cutting the kirn.' The process of cutting the kirn at Spottiswoode was as follows. After dinner on the rig, all the shearers being assembled, one of the shearers sub- mitted himself to be blindfolded ; then a reaping-hook was put into his hand. After being turned twice or thrice about by his brother shearers, he was ordered to go and cut the ' kirn.' His bamboozlement in failing to reach the standing corn as well as his often going in the opposite direction and cutting imaginary straws added greatly to the hilarity. After he had tired himself out or given up his task as hopeless, another man took his place ; this continued until the ' kirn ' was cut. The successful competitor was tossed up in the air with ' three times three ' on the arms of his brother harvesters. To decorate the room in which the kirn supper was held at Spottiswoode as w^ell as the dancing-room (granary) two women on the Spottiswoode estate every year made ' kirn dollies ' or ' queens.' From the great number of kirn- suppers and dances held at Spottiswoode the large number of kirn dollies looked like a rustic portrait gallery." [This implies that the kirn queens were kept from year to year.]
" In Westruther parish it was considered a most unlucky thing for a mower or shearer during hay or corn harvest to cut with his scythe or reaping hook while making his first swathe a grey or coloured snail through the middle. Such a thing was looked upon as making the scythe or hook so blunt that in spite of the most prodigious efforts the worker might make his whole day's work would be effectually retarded. The only way to break the spell was to leave work and go home and rest for that day. An old man, now dead many years, who was parish beadle, firmly believed in that. If he cut a snail in the morning he immediately knocked off and went home saying ' his scythe was as blunt as a bittle ' (an instrument used for beating or beetling clothes) ' and wodna cut a winnelstrae ' (flower-stalk, or withered grass). The reason he assigned was that grey or coloured snails as well as grey cats were great favourites of the fairies. He said the fairies often held their revels in the stubble-fields. The harvesters coming early to work often disturbed the fairy revels, upon which the fairies, to conceal themselves, hid in the shells of the snails; the latter always making room for them. He said if you cut a grey or
Collectanea. 179
coloured snail the fairies cast a spell on the scythe for the rest of the day. The only way to remove this was by leaving work, thereby showing your sorrow for the offence. If you did this and were careful not to injure a snail the next morning you would have one of the luckiest of days, which would quite make up the previous day's loss."
I was not previously aware that the snail was in any way associated with harvest customs. It is not, I think, mentioned by Mr. Frazer. I shall be glad to know whether any members of the Society have met with it in this connection elsewhere.
Alice B. Gomme.
Mr. J. G. Frazer in the Golden Bough quotes (ii., 264) an expression used in the north-east of France. "When a harvester, through sickness, weariness, or laziness, cannot or will not keep up with the reaper in front of him, they say, ' The White Dog passed near him,' ' He has the White Bitch,' or ' The White Bitch has bitten him.' "
I remember, when living at Culham, near Oxford, some fifteen to twenty years ago, hearing almost exactly the same expression used by (among others) a labourer, whom I know well, and who used it at hay-time of anyone who was lazy in the hayfield. My impression, however, was that the saying was " He has lost that little White Dog," and accordingly I took the opportunity of seeing the man in question at Culham this last December and asking him what the expression was and what it meant. At first he could not remember much about it, and was inclined to think that the form " he has lost the Little White Dog " was the phrase used, but on my happening to see him again a few days later he told me he had since remembered it all, and the usual expression was " He's got the Little White Dog." (I took these words down verbatim at the time ; this also applies to all of the following that is between inverted commas.) He added that they " used to say it sometimes in haymaking," chiefly at harvest and hay time and " when the weather's hot," of a lazy man, " or one as wouldn't work ; " but the expression was sometimes used on other occasions. It is still in occasional use I understand. " Some say ' the Dog got 'old of 'ee,' you know ; that means you can't get to work." Again "they say sometimes 'the Lawrence got 'im ; ' it means
N 2
i8o Collectanea,
just the same thing." He said he did not know what the " Dog " or the " Lawrence " meant. The latter, he told me, was meant for the proper name.
I should explain that I was most careful to ask no leading questions and to mention no other form of the saying to him than the one which he had at first on the spur of the moment thought to be the right one (viz. " he has lost that Little White Dog "), so that it may be taken as certain that the form which he gave afterwards, " He's got the Little White Dog," is the correct one, and that it could not have been suggested by what I said. There seems no reason to doubt then that we have here a true parallel to the French examples given in the Golden Bough, although they are used at harvest time, whereas in the Oxford- shire case the use is more general.
E. H. BiNNEV.
3, Tackley Place, Oxford.
The following particulars were told me in the June of 1898, in Oxfordshire, by our landlady, who was then just over 70 years of age. When a little girl, there was in her village (Ducklington, near Witney) an old farmer who was, she thought, the last in the parish to observe the ceremony. On the last night of harvest, when the last load was to be carted, it was the custom to send down to the field a number of band-boxes containing women's dresses and a good deal of finery for the men and horses. Four young men then dressed themselves up, two to represent women, and they sat in couples on the four horses that drew the load. Some of the village children sat on the top of the load (my in- formant said that she and her sisters had often done so), and on reaching the house were treated to cakes, &:c. The old farmer himself was bedridden, and lay on the ground floor of the house. On these occasions his bed was drawn up to the window, and the wagon stopped in front of it for the old man to see, but as the window was small they had to stop three times for him to see both pairs of horses and the wagon. After this I believe the men had a'supper.
ClAR.'^ T- JEWITT.
Collectanea. i8i
Boer Folk-Medicine and some Parallels. II.
{Continued from p. 75.)
In the Blue-book entitled Further Papers i-elating to the Work- ing of the Refugee Camps in South Africa, in the report on the Bloemfontein camp, Dr. Kendal Franks writes : " We know that in the United Kingdom, amongst the lowest classes, the ideas re- garding the treatment of the sick and the remedies employed are primitive in the extreme, and some of them belong to the period of the dark ages. But these primitive, ignorant, and frequently revolting methods are almost universal among the Boers, and are found among every class. I found many instances of it in the camp at Bloemfontein. There is here a Mr. J. Kruger, a nephew of the ex-president. Being a man of superior intelligence he has been selected for one of the higher offices in the camp. One day he told the superintendent that his wife was suffering a good deal from rheumatism, and he requested Mr. Randle to use his influ- ence with Dr. Baumann to allow him to give his wife a cow- dung bath, which he stated was ' the best thing for rheumatism.' Mr. Randle one day visited Abram Strauss, a man who had been selected as one of the head-men of the camp, and in virtue of his office was housed in a marquee. Mr. Randle was surprised to see a cat running about the tent with all its fur clipped off. He inquired the cause, and was informed that the fur had been cut off and roasted and then applied to his child's chest as a remedy for bronchitis. Dr. Pern, the medical officer, told me that he was once sent for to see a child who was ill in one of the tents. When he entered the tent, for some moments he could not make out what he saw. He then discovered that the parents had killed a goat and cut it open, removing all the internal organs. They had then put the child bodily inside the goat, with its head alone protruding through the opening made by removing the breast- bone."
A favourite remedy for jaundice, Dr. Franks found, "is to rub the patient's body with cabbage seeds. The seeds are then sown. When they come up the jaundice disappears. The tooth of a horse worn on a string round the neck is believed to cure rheu-
1 82 Collectanea.
matism. A piece of potato put into each ear and a necklace made of square pieces of the same is said to cure earache. Tooth- ache is cured by cutting the finger- and toe-nails of the sufferer off short. These parings are put into a bottle with a lock of his hair and some water. The bottle is then corked and buried and the toothache disappears. A black fowl opened and applied hot and bleeding to the chest is a cure for inflammation of the lungs. These are only samples of treatment culled from the experiences of the medical officers in the Bloemfontein camp;" (p. 7).
Parallels. — Some years ago I knew a woman who told me the best cure for inflammation of the lungs was to take a full-grown fowl (cock or hen), chop off its head and cut open the body, then place it at once on the patient's chest and keep it there for two hours, or as long as there is heat in the body of the fowl. She explained that the feathers on the bird kept the heat in a way nothing else could do, and the thicker the feathers and healthier the bird, the better would be the cure.
Many members of the Society will remember that at the time, about thirty years ago. when the King (then Prince of Wales) was suffering from typhoid fever, it was asserted that the only cure would be to wrap him in a sheep's skin immediately after it had been taken from the animal while still quite hot, all the wool of course being left on. It was believed by many people at the time that this remedy was actually used and was the means of saving the Prince's life. Only a short time since, during the illness of the Queen of Holland, I heard it referred to as a matter beyond doubt. I had a note of this remedy of the sheepskin being used for the cure of " the shivers " {i.e. the ague), but have unfortunately mislaid it and cannot remember when and where the case occurred.
The remedies used by the Boers for jaundice, toothache, and earache are practically the same as those in use some years ago in many parts of England, and recorded in various collections of folklore. The cat plays an important part in folk-medicine, but I do not remember an instance of its hair being cut off and applied in the manner described.
A. B. GOMME.
In the earlier years of the last century my father knew a Mrs. Wells who lived not far from Gainsborough. She was the
Collectanea. 183
wife of a considerable landowner, and from what I have heard I presume had received a good education. She had five or six children, and there were in the household many servants, as Mr. Wells was a farmer on a large scale. She told my father, evidently without having any notion that she was exposing her ignorance, that she kept by her two bottles, into one of which she poured what was left of the doctor's medicine which had been prescribed to be taken internally, and into the other the remainder of such lotions as had been sent. She assured my father that she herself and those dependent on her had many times {)rofited by the use of these strange blends. (Cf. supra, p. 73.)
I do not think that the practice of mixing medicines intended for different diseases was at all uncommon in Lincolnshire in former days, and from remarks which I have heard, I believe it to be still not infrequently done, though I confess that I have not satisfactory evidence in proof thereof.
Edward Peacock.
Goblins. I. /;/ Chitral.
I received the following lately from a young officer who was quartered at Chitral for some time. It is interesting to meet again with the '" back-footed " beings on whom M. Gaidoz be- stowed so much learning in Melusine.
A. Lang.
" Fairies in that part of the world [the Chitral valley] are only of one sort — bad ; which rather limits the field. Their abode was on the slope of a gigantic snow-peak, 26,000 feet above the sea, Tirich Mir by name. This they made their headquarters, and many of the inhabitants of the valley ' allowed ' they had seen them flitting to and fro on their marauding expeditions, some on horseback, some on foot, of both sexes, and usually clad in white.
184 Collectanea.
Strange to say, they had no knee or ankle-joints, and their feet grew to the rear instead of to the front.
" There appears also to be a kind of Banshee in Chitral, which wails round the walls of Shoghrot Fort, a week or so before the death of the Melitar or King of Chitral, and differs from the Irish variety in not being [ ? haunting] a residence of the doomed man."
11. — Iti the Faroe Islands.
[The following notes are from the pen of an American lady who has been spending the last ten or twelve months in one of the most northerly and inaccessible of the Faroe Islands. The allusion in the opening sentence is to her correspondent's previous reference to the Rev. J. G. Campbell's Superstitions of the High- lands and Islands of Scot/and, p. 191, where he classes "the Niagruisar of the Faroe Islands " with the Scottish Brownie, as a " drudging goblin." — Ed.]
I think your Niagruisar must be the same word as our Ni3a- grisur, but the Faroe creature is not a Brownie. A Brownie is a Vattrir ; he lives about houses and cow-stalls, and comes out in the twilight and sits under the eaves, and careful housewives when they throw out the dishwater call out a warning to him and his fellows. Like the Brownie he, if well-treated, will perform little friendly services for the family.
A Ni^agrisur is the spirit of an unbaptised child (generally a murdered illegitimate child), that takes the shape of a round- bodied creature that often goes on all-fours and is as a rule malignant, lying in wait for people in the dark and doing them harm, though just how I have not learned. Sometimes they haunt a pastor, begging to be given a name, and to be buried in sanctified earth ; a former pastor here was haunted in that way. Long ago, a servant-girl here had an illegitimate child, killed it, and buried it in a stocking belonging to a serving-man called Pisli (he was not the father). Some time afterwards she married Pisli ; and the bride's dance was under way in the big kitchen
Collectanea. 185
when suddenly a NiSagrisur rolled into the circle, and danced about, singing : —
" My mother bears gold, I dance in wool, I dance in Pisli's hose."
(It rhymes in Faroese). Then he ran on all-fours to his mother; but she fainted, and the festivities were at an end. I think this little tale must go back to the days when brides wore at the wedding dresses embroidered with gold thread, as they do still in Iceland.
Your black dog is common here.^ He can be a Nikkiir (a wicked water-spirit) who has taken that shape, or a Troll, or the spirit of a dead enemy who has come to haunt or avenge a wrong. He often carries a light at the end of his tail. Somehow that light seems a very chilling touch.
On "Old Holy Kings' Night" [Old Twelfth Night] black troll-bulls come up from the sea and visit the byres. Dreka was afraid to go to milk that night, and had to ask Joanna to go with her.
If a girl wishes to know the name of her future true-love, she must go out some very dark night quite naked, taking with her her sark^ dip it into running water (there is always a little burn close by), wring it out, and put it, rolled up, under her pillow. Then she will dream of him.
Elizabeth Taylor. ,^ Videreide i Videro (Faroe Islands), January 29th, 1902.
' ["We had an old nurse, who was sixty years in the family, and when any of the nursery party showed signs of temper, she woukl exclaim : ' Lord sake ! there's that black dog again ! Wait till I get hand o' him ! ' After a protracted struggle at the child's back, which usually ended in a laugh, the 'dog" was
flung downstairs and serenity restored. Mrs. tells me that her old
Barbadoes nurse had the same habit : "' writes the Lowland Scottish lady to whom this interesting letter was addressed. " I think you have got the black dog on your back " is, or was, said in rebuke to cross or sulky (rather than passionate) children in some English nurseries also. — Ed.]
1 86 Collectanea.
III. In the Isle of Man.
I gathered the following folklore during a holiday in the Isle of Man in the summer of 1887. It has not, I believe, appeared in print before, except in a contribution of my own to the Brighton Herald^ 31st December, 1887.
One evening during the summer months of 1884, the driver of the mail-cart from one of the towns in the island started on his rounds to collect the mail-bags from the surrounding district in the usual manner. He was due at his destination about half-past one o'clock in the morning, but did not arrive until nearly half- past five, when he appeared dreadfully scared and agitated. Being asked to account for his delay, he solemnly related that when about six miles from home he was beset by a troop of fairies, all of whom were particularly well-dressed in red suits and provided with lanterns. They stopped his horse, threw the mail-bags into the road, and danced around them in the well-known manner usual with fairies. The poor postman 'struggled with them in vain. No sooner did he succeed in replacing a bag than it was again immediately thrown out. This continued until the appear- ance of daylight, when the fairies apparently thought it was time for them to take their departure, which they eventually did, leaving the postman in a highly nervous and exhausted state. After rest- ing a short time to collect his scattered wits, he succeeded in replacing the mails in his cart, and reached the end of his journey without further adventures. When I made acquaintance with him some little time afterwards, he did not strike me as a person likely to fall a victim to his own fertile imagination. As for doubts with respect to his condition at the time, it can only be said that he had left the post office that night in his usual condition of sobriety, and did not appear the worse for drink when he returned. Moreover, his character for sobriety and honesty was of many years' standing.
In another part of the island I was told the following story by an old inhabitant, who stated that he knew the parties to whom it occurred and that he received the account directly from their lips. Not far from Port Erin, a village on the south-west coast, a mountain called Cronk-ny-Irey-Lhaa, 1449 feet in height, slopes steeply to the sea. On the seaward side a chapel and cemetery are situated, both of which have now fallen into disuse. Some years back, as a fishing party were sailing one night near
Collectanea. 187
this spot, they were startled and alarmed by hearing violent and distracting cries as of someone in great distress. This was told to others of their companions on arriving at home. They, with natural curiosity, determined to sail near the same spot, and if possible discover the cause of the sounds. They succeeded in hearing them, but failed to decide their origin. One night, however, one of the party, believing that they were uttered by the perturbed spirit of someone who had died without baptism, shouted in reply, " My she Ihiannoo mac 00 ta mee dy enmys 00 Juan ; as my she inneen 00 ta mee dy enmys 00 Junay." (" If thou art a boy child, I name thee John ; if thou art a girl, I name thee Judith.") The cries were never heard again.
Not so very long ago, so other informants told me, a female spirit, commonly known as a hifionshaa, frequented the island.^ The lanonshaa seems to have been a kind of unbidden familiar spirit, for it permanently attached itself to its victim, and nothing could be done to get rid of the unwelcome companion. In one case it attached itself to a big strong burly man, who was compelled to share his food with his lationshaa. At other times he would place behind him the vessel from which he was about to drink, in order to satisfy its thirst. He was often seen when on horseback laughing immoderately, presumably with his ghostly companion, and throwing his hat into the air to catch it again. On some occasions he was heard carrying on conversations, seemingly with nobody. One night after he had retired to rest a party of curyus boys gathered round his bedroom to catch, if possible, some portion of his solitary conversation. In this purpose, how- ever, they were defeated, for no sooner had they got into position than the spirit informed its master, saying in Manx, " They are listening now." "Listening, are they?" replied he. "I will give them listening." Upon this he jumped from his bed and snatched up a stick to inflict summary chastisement upon the intruders, but the boys had fled before he could get near them. When these spirits are visible it is said that they appear as women dressed in white.
William Martin, M.A., LL.D.
' [Spelt Lhiannan-Shee by Mr. A. W. Moore ^Folklore of the Isle of Man, p. 50), who tells a similar story on the authority of Mr. J. F. Campbell. — Ed.]
1 88 Collectanea.
Some Notes from North-Western India.
The First-born {see ante, p. 6-^. — To the west of the North- Western Provinces it is a very general belief that if, during a thunderstorm, two persons who are first-born children stand together, they will certainly be struck by lightning. This belief is so strong, that if husband and wife be first-born children, they separate at once and run into different corners of the house when- ever they see a flash of lightning.
Worship of the Monkey god. — In the western part of the North- Western Provinces it is very common for people who are in any special difficulty, or desire to attain some particular object, to arrange a special worship of the Monkey-god, Hanuman ; this is known as the Pchichmukhi Hanuman ki piljd, or the worship of the five-mouthed Monkey-god. It should commence on Tuesday, which is the day sacred to this deity. Early on that morning the worshipper bathes, and unless there happen to be a temple of Hanuman close by, he plasters a small piece of ground with mud and cow-dung, and on this places a little brass image of the god. He then bathes the image and ties a scrap of cloth, to serve as a loin-cloth, round its waist, and after offering a Brahmanical cord, such as all Brahmans wear over their shoulders, he daubs the image with a mixture of oil and vermilion and makes an offering consisting of betel-nuts and cardamoms. With each article offered he repeats the invocation " Om Hanumate naniah" i.e., "I salute Hanuman!" Next he offers cake and sweetmeats, but only so much as he can eat himself. And this he does after he believes his offering has been accepted. • If there chance to be any rem- nants of the offering, he carefully buries them without letting any one see him doing so : in no case must he throw them away care- lessly, lest a witch may work evil by means of them. Then the worshipper puts on a red waist-cloth and repeats the following invocation : " O king of the monkeys, who removest all anxiety, O helper of the helpless, destroy my enemies and protect me who now bows in supplication before thee ! "
He goes through the same ritual for forty days. On the forty- first day he calls Brahmans to do a fire-sacrifice, or Homa, in
Collectanea. 189
honour of Hanuman, and entertains them to dinner after it is over. While this ritual is being performed the worshipper must keep pure and continent ; he sleeps on the ground, and eats only once in the twenty-four hours food which he cooks with his own hands ; and he must be careful that no stranger see him doing so.
A Charm to avert Cattle Disease. — The following is one of the most popular charms employed in Northern India when cattle disease is prevalent. It is technically known as the Ajay- pdl Jantra, i.e. "the charm of the Invincible Protector." This is one of the titles of Vishnu, but it is also applied to the Earth- god, Bhilmiya, with whom in many places Vishnu is identified. In this form he is specially concerned with the protection of cattle and crops. Along with Ajay-pal, Mari Mata, the goddess of death, who presides over cholera, is also often invoked. The charm is made in the following way. A rope is twisted of clean straw ; and at even distances, about every two feet or so, a chip of wood is twisted into the strands. Properlj-, these wooden chips should be five in number ; two of which are supposed to represent respectively a mace and a bludgeon, and the other three, three pairs of sandals — those of the god, goddess, and their attendant. In the centre of the rope is suspended an earthen platter, inside which an incantation is inscribed with charcoal, and beside it is hung a bag contnining seven kinds of grain. These are supposed to represent all kinds of produce grovn by the performer of the charm.
This rope is then suspended on two poles at the entrance of the village through which the cattle are driven to and from pas- ture. Occasionally, when the plague is very severe, the rope is let down when the cattle come home in the evening, and the earthen vessel is made to touch the back of the bull which is the leader of the herd. Sunday and Tuesday are days considered specially lucky for performing this charm.
I had one of these charms for some time, and the incantation inside the saucer, being interpreted, ran thus : " O Lord of the Earth on which this cattle-pen stands, protect the cattle from death and disease ! I know of none, save thee, who can deliver them."
190 Collectanea.
Attached to it was a magical arrangement of figures, as follows :
|
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
|
|
II |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15 |
16 |
17 |
18 |
10 |
|
21 |
22 |
23 |
24 |
25 |
26 |
27 |
19 |
20 |
|
31 |
32 |
33 |
34 |
35 |
36 |
28 |
29 |
30 |
|
41 |
42 |
43 |
44 |
45 |
37 |
38 |
39 |
40 |
|
51 |
52 |
1 53 |
54 |
46 |
47 |
48 |
49 |
50 |
|
61 |
62 |
63 |
55 |
56 |
57 |
58 |
59 |
60 |
71 72 64 65 66
67
68 69
70
81 73 ■ 74 ! 75
76
77
78 79
80
36
36 36
36
This is one of the magic squares which are so commonly used in Eastern charms. Many examples of such squares will be found in Herklots, Qanoon-e'Islam, but none, I think, quite like this. Almost every " cunning man," or village exorciser, has a pre- scription of his own for making such things. The exorciser is usually the village Brahman, and while the charm is in operation it is advisable that he should do daily a Homa, or " fire-sacrifice," in honour of Ajay-pal and the other local deities associated with
him.
W. Crooke.
CORRESPONDENCE.
The Sources of some Ballads in the " Border Minstrelsy."
When writing the life of Lockhart I received from a member of the family of Sir William Laidlaw, the amanuensis and friend of Sir Walter Scott, some unpublished letters of Scott, Hogg, and Lockhart. These throw a little light on a difficult subject, Scott's method of editing the Border Minstrelsy. In the summer of 1800 Scott made the acquaintance of Laidlaw, at Blackhouse on the Douglas burn, a tributary of the Yarrow. Sir Walter was then collecting the ballads, and received much aid from Laidlaw, who was helped by James Hogg, then a shepherd. I found a letter of Scott's to Laidlaw, dated July -20, 1801. He was trying to recyver the ballad of The Outlaw Murray. This ballad is much of a mystery as to any historical grains of fact which it may contain. 1 Hogg had an uncle who remembered a few verses, including the Outlaw's boast as to his landed property :
" I took it irae the Soudan Turk, When you and your men durst na come see.""
' [This ballad professes to relate the origin of the Hereditary Sherift'dom of Ettrick Forest, in the family of Murray of Philiphaugh. The King of Scot- land hearing that " there was an outlaw in Ettrick P'orest, counted him nought, nor all his courtrie," sends a messenger desiring him to "come and be my man, and hold of me that forest free," or else " I will cast his castle down and make a widow of his gay ladye." The Outlaw Murray refuses (" ' The lands are mine ' the outlaw said, ' I ken nae King in Christentie ' "), backed by his wife, who fears treachery in Edinburgh. The King sets forth with 5,000 troops, halts on the borders of the Forest, and trysts Murray to a parley. Finally, Murray is " made Sheriff of Ettrick Forest, surely while upward grows the tree ; and if he was na traitour to the King, forfaulted he should never be." — Ed.]
1 92 Correspondence.
"Who the devil," asks Hogg, "was this Soudan TiirkV In an Abbotsford copy in Laidlaw's hand, is :
" I took it frae the Souden Turk
Where nae sic cuckold king might be."
The orthodox reading is :
" Frae Sondron I this forest won, When the king nors knights were not to see."
We can only conclude that the ballad was fairly old in 1801, when a reciter had already confused the English, " the Southron," with the " Soldan " or " Soudan Turk." Hogg at this time was anxious to make songs of his own on the lines of the ballad fragments, but doubted if this would be fair to Scott, himself busy with the subject.
Hogg is connected with the most puzzling of all the ballads, Auld Maitland, which I cannot find in Professor Child's great collection. On January 21, 1803, Scott writes to Laidlaw, in the unpublished correspondence : " Whenever the third volume is finished you shall have a copy, and you will see how very much it owes to our Selkirkshire collections. Auld Maitland^ laced and embroidered with antique notes and illustrations, makes a most superb figure." In his notes to the Minstrelsy Scott says that Hogg's mother got the ballad " from a bUnd man who died at the
advanced age of ninety She" (his mother) "sings or rather
chants it with great animation." ^ Scott thought that a modern ballad-maker could not have introduced archaic words like " sprmgalds," "sowies," and " portcullize," in which he rejoiced
' ["This ballad, notwithstanding its present appearance, has a claim to very high antiquity. It has been preserved by tradition, and is, perhaps, the most authentic instance of a long and very old poem exclusively thus preserved. It is only known to a few old people upon the sequestered banks of the Ettrick, and is published as written down from the recitation of the mother of Mr. James Hogg,** This old woman is still alive, and at present resides at Craig of Douglas, in Selkirkshire] who sings, or rather chaunts it, with great animation. She learned the ballad from a blind man, who died at the advanced age of ninety, and is said to have been possessed of much traditionary knowledge. Although the language of this poem is much modernised, yet many words which the reciters have retained without understanding them still preserve traces of its antiquity" (&c.). Introduction to Auld Maitland, Border Minstrelsy, 5th ed., iii., 15.
The ballad relates how "young Edward," apparently an unhistorical per-
Correspondence. 193
like his own Antiquary over " chafron " in Elspeth's ballad of the Red Harlaw.
Moreover, the three heroic sons of Auld Maitland, who lived till the wars of Scotland against Edward I. (1296), are mentioned in a poem addressed, about 1575, to Sir Richard Maitland, father of the famous Secretary of Queen Mary, Maitland of Lethington. Again "Auld Maitland upon auld beard gray " is mentioned by the poet Bishop of Dunkeld, Gawain Douglas (circ. 1410). More- over another poem to Lethington's father (circ. 1560- 15 70) actually declares that the three sons of Auld Maitland
" Are sung in monie far countries Albeit in rural rhyme."
These Maitland poems, in iSoi, were unpublished.
Thus there undeniably was a romantic Maitland legend, sung in rural verse, as early as 15 60-1 580. Yet the ballad chanted by Hogg's mother (and, according to Hogg, known to " most of the old people hereabouts ") has a most dubious aspect. Hogg, in 1 80 1, suggested that reciters had modernised it as the language altered. He specially marked such interpolations of his own as were meant to fill up lacunx. Scott backed Hogg's statements, which include the fact that the ballad was known to many old
sonage, sister's son to King Edward, demands 1,500 picked men to ride against the S^ots. His foray is checked at Thirlestane, Maitland's castle, and after besieging it in vain for fifteen days, he takes ship to rejoin the King in France. Here Auld Maitland's three sons, who are "learning at school at Billop-Grace," by a daring rush carry off the English standard to their uncle's castle ; and, hearing that the feat is ascribed to the French, avow themselves the raiders and demand to be matched with three English champions, whom they slay and hang on the drawbridge. Young Edward then attacks the eldest Maitland, who grapples with him, throws him, and, refusing the King's entreaty for his life, stabs him and hangs him beside the other three. The last two stanzas seem to be put into the mouth of the King. They contain a well- known detail of folklore :
" Now take frae me that feather-bed ! Make me a bed o' strae ! I wish I had na lived this day To mak my heart sae wae.
" If I were ance at London tower, Where I was wont to be, I never mair suld gang frae hame
Till borne on a bier-tree." Ed.]
VOL. XIII. O
194 Correspondence.
people in the Forest. Yet even in 1801, before the ballad was published, Hogg writes to Scott: "I am surprized to hear that this song is suspected by some to be a modern forgery." Pro- fessor Child, in his early ballad collection (1861), says, "it is with reluctance that I make for it the room which it requires." Later, he omitted the piece. In 1859, Aytoun gave his reasons for scepticism. " The ballad refers to remote events little likely to have been selected as a theme by a minstrel, even of the sixteenth century." But that, in the sixteenth century, Auld Maitland, "and his nobile sonnis three" were really topics of ballad, Scott proves by quotations from the Maitland MSS. Aytoun next sees no proof that Scott or Leyden " had heard the ballad recited by old Mrs. Hogg. I find no such statement. On the contrary it is expressly said " (by Scott writing to Ellis) " that the ballad was written down from her recitation ' by a country farmer.'" But in this letter to Ellis, Scott says that, not Mrs. Hogg, but "an old shepherd," was the reciter. Leyden was with him, he says, when he received this ^'' my firsi copy." {Lockhart, ii., pp. 99, 109.) The phrase, "my first copy," implies that Scott obtained more than one copy, and the copy which he published is not that recited by the "old shepherd," but that chanted by old Mrs. Hogg. It is certain that Scott knew her, and had heard her ballad chants.
Everyone knows Hogg's account of his first meeting with Scott. " My mother chaunted the ballad of Old Maitlaii' to him, with which he was highly delighted, and asked if it had ever been in print. And her answer was, ' O na, na, sir, it never was printed in the world, for my brothers and me learned it and many mae frae auld Andrew Moor, and he learned it frae auld Baby Metlin ' (Maitland), 'who was housekeeper to the first laird' (in the Anderson family) 'of Tushilaw.'" This sounds veracious enough; it was written in 1834.
As to Scott's letter to Ellis; probably the "country farmer" who wrote the ballad from " the old shepherd's " recitation was Laidlaw. Aytoun himself published MS. notes of Laidlaw's, in which he says that he first heard of the ballad from one of the girls on his own farm, who communicated several stanzas of which he kept the copy. The girl said that Hogg's grandfather could repeat the whole, but this was obviously an error. It was from his uncle, Will of Phawhope, and his mother that Hogg
Correspondence. 195
got the ballad when Laidlaw asked for it. They, again, learned it from their father, Hogg's grandfather, and from another old man, Andrew Moor, who had been in the service of the famous Boston, minister of Ettrick. The blind reciter mentioned by Scott was probably this Andrew Moor.
This is the external evidence for the authenticity of Auld A'laitland. Laidlaw's good faith is undoubted. Scott, he says, had not made previous inquiries as to Auld Matt/and. Laidlaw first heard of it from a girl on his farm who knew some verses. Laidlaw is clearly the "country farmer" who took the song down from the lips of "the old shepherd," Hogg's uncle, the man who made the confusion about the " Soudan Turk" in The Outlazv Murray. This was Scott's " first copy." He preferred to publish the piece as recited by old Mrs. Hogg, sister of " the old shep- herd."
Laidlaw reckoned this "a good pedigree for the old ballad, though it is possible that Hogg may have dashed in a few stanzas ' to trap the Shirra ' and evince his own powers."
Aytoun adds that there was a rival collector, Jamieson, in the field, and that the advent of a collector stimulates forgery. But where are we to look for the forger ? A literary hoax was notori- ously dear to Hogg. But, if there was no real ballad, how could Hogg hit on the theme of Auld Maitlandl No inquiry by Scott for the piece gave him the hint, and Scott heard of the ballad from La:/^'Jaw. Clever as he was, Hogg could not, in 1801, have read the Maitland MSS. in the Library of the University of Edinburgh and reconstructed a ballad on the hints supplied in MSS. of the sixteenth century. Even if he had read Gawain Douglas's Palace of Honour, nothing is said there of Maitland's three sons. How, then, and whence, could Hogg draw his materials ? Is it probable that he made the ballad, and taught it to Laidlaw's servant girl, to his old uncle, and his old mother, "and the same with intent to deceive " ? If a forger there was, Hogg alone can have been the man ; and the difficulties of the hypothesis are immense. If there was no real ballad, he must have been acquainted, in 1801, with MSS. in an old hand which he could not read, and must have laid a complicated plot, involving his uncle, his mother, and a rustic maid. Even if the old people were likely to lend them- selves to it, we can hardly believe that the memory of old age could have acquired a long new poem. Thus, on the whole, it
o 2
iqb Correspondence.
seems probable that there really existed, in the memories of old people, a ballad of Auld Maitland.
What Hogg did to it, if anything, we can only conjecture. If he did much, it is not easy to see how his old mother and uncle learned his additions off by rote. But Scott overlooked the obvious circumstance that a forger could have found the old words which impressed him in an accessible source.
The ballad has : —
" They laid their sowies to the wall, Wi' mony a heavy peal, But he threw ower to them agen
Buith pitch and tar barrel. With sprlngalds, stanes, and gads of Aim, Among them fast he threw . . . . "
Now Scott himself cited, as an illustration, Blind Harry's
" \^^ pitch and tar on fail S07vis they lest .... Stones on springalds they did cast out so fast And goads of iron made many grone agast.'"
Blind Harry was probably well known to Hogg; it was a favourite of the peasantry. If he wanted local colour he would go to Blind Harry. Thus there is a balance of probabilities. The shepherd loved a hoax, but I fail to see how he would obtain a base for his operations ; for in 1801 it is all but physically im- possible that he would have even heard of the Maitland MSS. of 1560-1580.
The ballad of Otterboiirne has caused many searchings of heart, and Scott has even been charged with writing in,
" Take thou the vanguard of the three And bury me by the bracken bush That grows upon yon lilye lea."
If SO, he foisted them into his first edition, where the Douglas is killed by his own page. This variant of the tale Scott later rejected. His final edition, in place of
" Earl Douglas to the Montgomery said Take thou the vanguard of the three,"
has
" My wound is deep, I fain would sleep. Take ihou the vanguard of the three."
Co rresp o n de nee. 1 97
In this latter verse the first Hne may be Scott's own, but the rest is certainly traditional. In 1802 (no date of month), I find Scott writing to Laidlaw, " I am so anxious to have a cornpleat Scottish Otterburn that I will omit the ballad entirely in the first volume, hoping to recover it in time for insertion in the third." His sources were Herd's version (1774), and "two copies obtained from the recitation of old persons residing at the head of Ettrick Forest," possibly Hogg's mother and uncle.
Hogg, in his letter of July 20th, 1801, professed his readiness to supply the story of " the unnatural murder of the son and heir of Sir Robert Scott, of Thirlestane, the downfall of the house of Tushielaw, and of the horrid spirit that still haunts the Alders." Probably the tale alluded to is that of the death of Thirlestane's third son in a duel with his brother-in-law, Scott of Tushielaw ; the ballad on the subject is The Doivie De?2S of Yarrow. The inscribed stone near the spot, however, is probably a thousand years older than the event which Scott thought that it commemo- rated. Scott's version of the ballad is certainly " contaminated." In writing to Laidlaw he admires, in Tajnlane, " the highly poetical verses descriptive of fairy land," but attributes them to " some poetical schoolmaster or clergyman." However, he re- tained the stanzas, which, he justly remarks, "seem quite modern." Among these notes, that on Auld Maitland is the most significant. As y/e have MS. evidence, which Hogg could not have known, that the ballad was current in Queen Mary's time, I must dis- believe that Hogg was the forger, and must regret that Professor Child decided to omit this enigmatic poem.
A. Lang.
Unlucky Children.
[Supra, pp. 32 and 6t,.)
Referring to the superstition noted as existing in the Hebrides {supra, p. 32) that a child born with a tooth, or which cuts its first tooth in the upper jaw, will be a bard, the following notes may be of interest. (I take it that a bard among the Celts was a sacer vates, and had a quasi-sacred character.)
#l»
f I t « ■« ■-* «••-* * ijiai^i.n.! ' " « « ■ « « ji « « Ji« ji 4tji t^
It
1 98
Correspondence.
The origin of the Suthra Shahi sect of Faqirs is said to be this. A boy was born with its teeth already cut, and its parents exposed it, as a child so born is unlucky. The tenth Guru, Hargobind, happened to find the child, and told his disciples to take up the child, but they refused, saying it was kuth-ra, or dirty. The Guru replied it was suthra^ or clean, and they then obeyed. This boy was the founder of the Suthra Shahi sect.
The story is noteworthy as showing how unlucky children were exposed, or possibly given to faqirs. The poet Tulsi Das was born in Abhukta-mula, at the end of the asterism Jyeshtha, and in the beginning of that of Mula, and he was in consequence aban- doned and probably picked up by Sadhus. The Jogis, according to one legend {^Indian Antiquary, 1893, p. 265), originated in a similar way. For an instance in Kumaon folklore see Saturday Reviezv, May 12th, 1877 {North I?idian N. &• Q., iii., p. 30). It would be interesting to know how far the various sects of faqirs are recruited from unlucky children, or from children vowed to the gods.
The above notes suggest a point for inquiry. Are " unlucky children" (see p. 63) devoted to the gods? If so, is a child born under particular circumstances devoted to a particular deity ? For example, would a child born with its teeth already cut be ipso facto dedicated to any special deity or to the Suthra Shahi sect ? The custom of giving an unlucky child to a Brahman and then buying it back again may have originated in this way.
Further, is there any custom by which children are vowed to a deity, or to (what perhaps comes to the same thing) the sect of faqirs or devotees who worship that deity? There is one well- known instance of such a custom in the Punjab, according to the received explanation. But is the custom general ?
It would be interesting to obtain parallels to these Indian instances of unlucky children being devoted to deities, and I should be grateful for any references or notes on the point.
H. A. Rose, Superintendent of Ethnography, Punjab.
p
I
% 4 M
Mm « « It
«^ lit ■• HM lA
-J-
|
m^ |
I
*»''»^ • • t • • * • •.'«■» 1 If 1 lilt I *_*
i ^/ 1 -^Q^/
199
of "The e or two js. The t exactly
customs son who for some
customs therefore were not I customs
even to I positive
we have
." Cows
' V • f ■
C.IVERS.
# ly, 1902):
3, written mmodore lere, who ly stories about the speaking
^^^ ^ _ ^ ___ lave done
so." Mrs. Goodenough, with whom Monsignor Stanley kindly communicated on the subject, refers us to the following passage in \h^ Journal of Commodore Goodenough (ed. 1875), pp. 197, 199, which, besides throwing light on the disputed point, affords so curious an example of the way in which two persons, writing in all good faith, may differ in their accounts of the same incident, that we subjoin it in full.
{Apia, Samoa, November qth, 1873.) '" In p.m. I sent to all the English residents to come on board, and also the American
J J
198 Correspondence.
The origin of the Suthra Shahi sect of Faqirs is said to be this. A boy was born with its teeth already cut, and its parents exposed it, as a child so born is unlucky. The tenth Guru, Hargobind, happened to find the child, and told his disciples to take up the child, but they refused, saying it was kuthra, or dirty. The Guru replied it was suthra, or clean, and they then obeyed. This boy was the founder of the Suthra Shahi sect.
The story is noteworthy as showing how unlucky children were exposed, or possibly given to faqirs. The poet Tulsi Das was born in Abhukta-mula, at the end of the asterism Jyeshtha, and in the beginning of that of Mula, and he was in consequence aban- doned and probably picked up by Sadhus. The Jogis, according to one legend {Indian Antiquary, 1893, p. 265), originated in a similar way. For an instance in Kumaon folklore see Saturday Revieiv, May 12th, 1877 {North Indian N. c^ Q., iii., p. 30). It would be interesting to know how far the various sects of faqirs are recruited from unlucky children, or from children vowed to the gods.
The above notes suggest a point for inquiry. Are " unlucky children" (see p. 63) devoted to the gods? If so, is a child born under particular circumstances devoted to a particular deity ? For example, would a child born with its teeth already cut be ipso facto dedicated to any special deity or to the Suthra Shahi sect ? The custom of giving an unlucky child to a Brahman and then buying it back again may have originated in this way.
Further, is there any custom by which children are vowed to a deity, or to (what perhaps comes to the same thing) the sect of faqirs or devotees who worship that deity ? There is one well- known instance of such a custom in the Punjab, according to the received explanation. But is the custom general ?
It would be interesting to obtain parallels to these Indian instances of unlucky children being devoted to deities, and I should be grateful for any references or notes on the point.
H. A. Rose, Superintendent of Ethnography, Punjab.
Correspondence. 199
The Sister's Son in Samoa. {Supra, p. 75.)
I have read the account given by Monsignor Stanley of "The Sister's Son in Samoa" with interest, but there are one or two features of the account which make me a httle suspicious. The customs described by Monsignor Stanley agree almost exactly with certain customs in Fiji, the Fijian name for these customs being Vasu. (The Vasu is the name for the sister's son who exercises the special privileges.) It happens that I have for some time been searching accounts of Polynesian life for customs analogous to the Vasu customs of Fiji, and I should therefore welcome Monsignor Stanley's account very heartily if it were not for the suspiciously close resemblance between the Fijian customs and those described by him, a resemblance extending even to identity of name. I am not in a position to express a positive opinion on the matter, but I cannot help suspecting that we have here an example of a custom assigned to a wrong locality.
The name " Bullamacow " is probably " pidgin English." Cows are called " bullamacows " in the South Seas sometimes.
W. H. R. Rivers.
[To this criticism, Monsignor Stanley replies (19th May, 1902) : "I have looked into my journal of 9th November, 1873, written at Apia, Samoa, and I find in it that I went with Commodore Goodenough to pay a visit to the American Consul there, who had married a Samoan wife, and that he told us many stories about the customs of the country ; among them that about the custom of Vasu. There is nothing to show that he was speaking about Fiji, and it does not seem likely that he should have done so." Mrs. Goodenough, with whom Monsignor Stanley kindly communicated on the subject, refers us to the following passage in \k\Q. Journal of Commodore Goodejiough (ed. 1875), PP- ^97' ^99' which, besides throwing light on the disputed point, affords so curious an example of the way in which two persons, writing in all good faith, may differ in their accounts of the same incident, that we subjoin it in full.
{Apia, Samoa, November ^th, 1873.) '• In p.m. I sent to all the EngUsh residents to come on board, and also the American
200 Correspondence.
Consul, to whom I paid a visit with Hastings. He told many stories, which were very good, particularly as to the value of mats.
.... He then gave us a sketch of a marriage Also an
imaginary case, to show the power of the sister's son, the vasu, as it is called in Fiji. The men of a family being foreigners, the vasus, or sister's sons, and indeed all the female branch, are more or less spoilt children, and can have what they like, any goods they can lay hold of. For instance, a boy asks his uncle (mater- nal) for his gun, and the uncle says no. The boy goes crying to his mother, ' My uncle won't give me his gun.' The mother says, ' His children shall rot, my curse is on them ; their legs shall swell, they shall die.' And she goes out and tears her hair, and curses aloud, 'They shall die, my curse is on them.' The people say, with their hand in awe upon their mouth, 'What is this ! how dreadful ! A curse is upon them ; they have the sister's curse.' And by-and-bye this comes to the brother's ears, who says, with his wife, ' This is dreadful ! Get mats, bring presents ! ' And they heap up all they can and carry it to the sister, and lay it before her and say, ' Have pity ! have mercy ! see us humble ourselves. Take all we have, but forgive and let us live, us and our children — take off the curse.'
" But not only the sisters son, but all the family have a right by custom to all that there is in a man's house, and even to the house itself; and he told us that a chief, just the other side of the first stream, east from Mataatu, built for himself a very good bread-fruit-tree house — a very good house. His wife was a niece of old Bullamacow, chief of Saluafata ; and Bullamacow, coming down one day, says, ' Dear me, what a nice house ! ' ' Yes,' says the other, ' and I have spent all I had, my savings and earnings, and all that I had, to build it, and pay the carpenter's wages, and I have nothing left.' ' Dear me,' says Bullamacow, ' how nice that house would look on one side of my square ! ' for he has a square at Saluafata with houses round it. ' Oh, don't say that ! ' says the chief, ' don't say that ! ' beginning to see what is up ; but Bullamacow goes on hinting, and at last goes away. The chief hopes it is all over, but in a week he suddenly misses his wife, and finds from his son that Bullamacow has taken her away, and that she is not to return ; so after a bit he collects mats, and a lot of goods to fifty dollars' value, and goes up to Bullamacow, who says, ' Ah, how d'ye do ? Your wife is up here imrsing her sick rela-
Correspondence. 201
tions, and she is going back to-morrow to you. What is all this ? ' ' Ah, this is a present for you, Bullamacow, to console you for parting with my wife again.' ' Oh,' says Bullamacow, ' what a pity that you should take such trouble, and your wife going back to you to-morrow ; but you have ati empty canoe! and she can now go back with you. She is all ready.' So she gladly enough comes back to her husband, who, as he leaves Bullamacow, says, ' Where did you think of placing your new house ? ' for he is afraid that his wife will be taken again ; and sure enough his fears increase, and the whole house goes bodily to Saluafata, and is put up for Bullamacow, who has it now .... His [the Consul's] wife, a half-caste, speaks English perfectly well, making intelligent remarks about the people."
This passage, writes Mrs. Goodenough (23 May, 1902), "makes it possible that though the custom existed in Samoa, it was my husband who applied the particular name of vasu to it in that locality. At the time of my husband's visiting Samoa he had not yet been to Fiji, but as he was entrusted with an important Government inquiry with regard to those islands he had, I know, been closely studying everything in connection with the people and their customs."
We should be glad to hear further particulars of this custom from any member or other correspondent who has a first-hand acquaintance with Samoa. ^ — Ed.].
Yew. {Supra, p. 96, cf. p. 175.)
The god of the dwelling in Kula in the Punjab Himalayas is called Bastar, and a sprig of yew is oftered to him. The yew is called rakhal.
H. A. Rose.
202 Correspondence.
Charini Against the Evil Eye.
{Supra, p. 1x3.)
Miss L. M. Bunbury, who formerly lived for some time in Syria, has sent me two flat, round, blue discs of about the diameter of a sixpence, but much thicker, painted with a rude representation of an eye and pierced through the circumference to form beads, which she bought in the native bazaar at Haifa, in May, 1900. " It is not always easy," she writes, "to purchase them, as months may sometimes elapse before any are to be found for sale. They are used by natives as charms to nullify the effects of the Evil Eye ; a beautiful child, a valuable horse, or even a tree, is often adorned by one of these beads for this purpose. They are always blueT (Cf. Folklore, vol. xii., p. 268.) A Syrian woman, a native of Jerusalem, but living at Haifa, frequently (i 899-1 900) told Miss Bunbury that people with blue eyes, or with teeth wide apart, have the Evil Eye. This is also noticed by Mr. Frederick Sessions {Folklore, vol. ix., p. 10). The use of blue beads as a charm against it is then evidently a piece of sympathetic magic, while the ascription of the power (in an Eastern country) to blue- eyed people looks like a racial superstition.
Charlotte S. Burne.
The Calenig or Gift. {Supra, pp. 115, 174.)
It may perhaps be worthwhile recording in connection with the Calenig, that apples stuck with oats are, or less than half a century ago were, used to decorate the Lincolnshire Christmas-bough, which is sometimes called the kissing-bough, or mistletoe-bough, though in my young days mistletoe was too rare a plant to form any actual part of it.
At Bottesford, during my childhood, the maids, generally aided by their lovers, used to make such a bough to hang in the kitchen. The skeleton of it was formed of willow-rods, I think, and it was usually like a beehive in shape, though sometimes a hoop at the
Corf'espondence. 203
top and bottom were connected by bow-shaped bars bending in- wards to a central point equidistant from the two circles. When the evergreens used to cover it had been secured to the frame- work various ornaments were added ; for instance, coloured tapers in tinsel holders, little gutta-percha negroes ^ and other dolls hanging from elastic strings, bags of sugar-plums, oranges, nuts, and apples bristling with oats. Each nut, I remember, had to be pierced, and a box-leaf was then deftly inserted into the hole till the box- twigs were laden with strange fruit. The apples used to look like miniature hedgehogs, they were so closely set with oaten spines. On the chimney-piece of the kitchen stood a row of coloured candles in sockets cut out of potatoes, and the walls were " bushed " in the usual way with evergreens.
It is many years since I saw a Christmas-bough, but a Kirton- in-Lindsey woman, whom I have just consulted, says that they are still made here, and that " the children are wild to buy things to put on them," but she never saw the apples stuck with oats. " Old Mrs. W., when she was younger, used to hang all the middle of her house-top (ceiling) with evergreens covered with ornaments, and we used to go to see it because it looked so beautiful."
Mabel Peacock.
[The nuts decorating the box-sprigs stuck into the apple in the " gift " exhibited by Miss Eyre (see reference above) were fixed exactly as described by Miss Peacock. — Ed.]
London Folk-Etymology.
In the Westminsfer Gazette for March 21st last, the following story was told. Two giantesses were each building a church on opposite sides of the Thames. Between them they could only muster one hammer, so when the Surrey giantess wished to drive a nail in, she called to her friend, " Put it nigh" and when the Middlesex giantess next dealt with a nail she shouted, " Send it full home." Thus the churches and then the districts came to be known as Fulham and Putney. I communicated with the writer
' The slavery-war was going on, or only just over, in America^
204 Correspondence.
of the paragraph, and learnt that he had obtained the story from an old resident in Chelsea, who knew it as a matter of local tradi- tion. A friend of mine, Mr. Herbert M. Broughton, of the Chancery Bar, has furnished me with the following variant. "An old general," he writes, " who had fought at Waterloo, told me that a boatman had informed him, when a boy, that Putney and Fulham were respectively named from a throwing encounter between two men, one of whom put his stone nigh and the other sent his stone full home."
F. A. Milne.
Do you know this story ? Queen Elizabeth in one of her " Progresses " passed through Hammersmith, and her horse cast a shoe there. A smith was sought for, and desired to shoe the Queen's horse. He was very nervous, and not so quick as the Queen wished ; and she called out to him, " Hammer ! hammer, smith ! hammer ! '" and the place was ever afterwards called Hammersmith.
A. B. GOMME.
REVIEWS.
The Mystic Rose : a Study of Primitive Marriage. By Ernest Crawley, M.A. Macmillan. 1902.
Mr. Crawley has chosen a singularly inappropriate title. The first half of it is derived from the phrase applied by fantastic devotion to the Virgin Mary. Its relation to the real subject is, to say the least, far-fetched. The second half is accordingly necessary, not so much to explain, as to explain away, the first half. Yet even the second half does not succeed in correctly expressing the contents of the work. Properly speaking, the author has given us not a study of Primitive Marriage, but a study of Taboo in relation to Marriage. As such, it is an important contribution to the discussion of the many questions connected with the evolution of the human relation known as Marriage.
The influence of Taboo in savage life is undeniable. If the term law may be used in this connection, peoples in the lower culture do not distinguish between moral and ceremonial law. Taboo is the consecration of savage custom, both moral and cere- monial. Among some races, the Polynesian for example, it was elaborated into minute and multiplex rules. As the sanction of the moral and ceremonial law, there is a sense in which it is every- where the bond of society. It was eminently desirable that mar- riage should be studied in relation to this potent factor of savage life, and Mr. Crawley has rendered a signal service to anthro- pologists in doing so. But after all. Taboo is not the whole pre- occupation of the savage mind. We must never forget that in concentrating the attention, as it is necessary to do, on any subject which we happen to be investigating, we cannot avoid throwing the surrounding subjects out of perspective. Before we can arrive at a just estimate of the value of the subject we are studying, and its relation to other subjects, the perspective must be corrected. This, I hold, is just what Mr. Crawley has omitted to do ; and
2o6 Reviews.
the omission prevents his book from being anything more than a study of one aspect of the marriage relation. For him, the entire fabric of human institutions, if I understand him correctly, rests upon " the taboo of personal isolation, which is implicit in all human relations." " Owing to the taboo of personal isolation and egoism," he tells us, "all society, as such, is dangerous." "As man was perhaps not always gregarious, so in early society he had none of the solidarity of clan, tribe, or kin, which is often attri- buted to him." Taboo arises, in fact, out of the intense indivi- dualism of every human being, and the terror and distrust which every other human being inspires. The terror and distrust are not merely directed against violence and conscious magic. What is equally dreaded is the unconscious infection of personal qualities, or accidents. As between the sexes this dread is em- phasised. Consequently, one of the two principal objects of mar- riage-rites is to avert the danger of contact.
It is obvious, however, that " the taboo of personal isolation " cannot be a foundation for society. It must have resulted in the speedy extinction of the race, if, indeed, the race could ever have come into existence. Mr. Crawley, of course, perceives this. He admits that " man's desire for social union and harmony is very keen ; " but he uses the fact that ceremonial methods are em- ployed to produce both social union and union between individuals (the distinction is fine) as an argument against the solidarity often attributed to the tribe or the clan. " Why," he asks, " these anxious methods of wielding together the body politic, if the ' tie of blood ' was instinctively so strong ? " The truth is that, so far from the methods used being " anxious " or unexpected, they are by Mr. Crawley himself derived from " a physiological impulse " — the impulse to assimilation, to union. If this be a physiological impulse, as undoubtedly it is, if it be an impulse of universal range, as equally undoubtedly it is, it must be as natural to man as " the taboo of personal isolation," or the individualism on which that taboo (assuming it exists in the manner and with the force here ascribed to it) rests. What then is the ground for deciding " that in primitive society, as now, individualism still shows itself above a?iy connection of marriage or relationship " ? It is surely going too far to assert that so intense is the egoism of primitive man that a// society, aii intercourse, is dangerous. This is not the testimony of travellers, and Mr. Crawley's own pages bear
Reviews. 207
witness to the strong social feeling within the community. Indeed, while denying, or undervaluing, the solidarity of the kin, he insists on sexual solidarity, which of course is no less incompatible with the intense individualism he sees everywhere than is the solidarity of the kin. But the examples of sexual solidarity he chooses are not carefully distinguished from examples of sexual timidity. At their highest they are very far from proving sexual solidarity as a general characteristic of humanity, while some of them might fairly be adduced as examples of the solidarity of the kin.
It would be interesting to know how far Mr. Crawley's theory of the marriage-relation is the result of his own independent in- vestigation, and how far he has been swayed by Dr. Westermarck's History of Human Marriage. That book, which marks a reaction against the theories of Bachofen and McLennan, has rightly had an important influence on anthropological inquiry. Yet Dr. Westermarck's conclusions on almost every point require the closest scrutiny. They are too often founded on special pleading, or imperfect acquaintance with savage modes of thought and practice, or on far too limited an induction. Mr. Crawley does not always follow him. He recognises his shortcomings where they are concerned with psychology and ceremonies, and agrees with MM. Langlois and Seignobos in criticising him for applying biological analogies to the explanation of social evolution. But he evidently goes the whole dista'nce with him in his rejection of and departure from " the old theory of primitive communism and the matriarchate." Probably no one now holds McLennan's opinions in their entirety, still less Bachofen's, or either of these subjects. The change is in part due to Dr. Westermarck's criti- cisms. But I venture to think that on both subjects Dr. Wester- marck is at least as far from the truth as McLennan. It is not necessary to consider his arguments here. It must suffice to say that they are seriously challenged on anthropological as well as on biological grounds. Mr. Crawley simply follows him on these points. He repeatedly asserts, but never proves, primitive mono- gamy. He tells us that " there is no evidence that the maternal system was ever general or always preceded the paternal system." But from cover to cover his book may be searched in vain for evidence that he has attempted to investigate for himself the facts on which the arguments for the priority and meaning of " the maternal system " are based.
2o8 Reviews.
His theory of " the taboo of personal isolation " colours his view of the entire subject of marriage and marriage-rites. The second principal object of marriage-rites to which he refers is union. To establish union on the one hand and to avert the dangers of contact on the other are, so far as I can gather, the main objects of the ceremonies of marriage. The rites of union are, he says, " essentially identical with love-charms ; " they are intended to secure the permanence of the marriage -relation. These love-charms arise from the physiological impulse mentioned above. The bride and bridegroom become " one flesh," " but," we are assured, " this is union of two individuals only." " The object of marriage-ceremonies is not, and never was [tlie italics are mine], to join together the man or the woman, as the case may be, with ' the life, or blood, or flesh of the tribe.^ " I may observe incidentally that the author does not distinguish between the tribe and the kin. If he mean here the tribe, the entire local band, he is doubtless correct. If, however, we are to understand the kin, or the clan, this is by no means so clear. Among the savage tribes of Bengal, some of the most vivid rites of union are practised. They correspond to the blood-covenant, and certain of them are in fact modifications of it. Our information is express that the bride does become a member of the husband's clan. On the island of Bonabe, in Micronesia, the wife is tattooed with marks representing her husband's ancestors. In the Society Islands a blood-covenant-rite caused the two families (namely, of the bride and bridegroom) to regard themselves ever after as one. On a higher plane of civilisation the Roman bride entered the familia of her husband. The ceremonies were not quite the same ; but they included the confarreatio, which is analogous in its meaning to the blood-covenant. These instances, the first that occur to me, are enough to induce caution in accepting Mr. Crawley's assertions.
Speaking generally, indeed, he is too dogmatic. He holds a brief for primitive monogamy, for primitive individuahsm. On behalf of his theory an assertion, clear, unqualified and emphatic, is too often all that he considers necessary to establish his case. A complete examination of the book would involve writing a treatise on marriage and marriage-customs almost as long as his. I have perhaps said enough to show that his theories are far too broadly stated. He would have done better to be more cautious
Reviews. 209
in his interpretation of many of the ceremonies he describes. One would like to have seen a little more careful weighing of evidence, a little more consideration of opposing arguments.
Notwithstanding this, the work has solid merits. As a study of Taboo, especially on the sexual side, it will prove of much value to the student. The author's use of psychology, his insistence on the relation between modern civilised customs and those of savages, his criticism of Westermarck (where he does criticise him), are excellent points. He does not refer to Mr. Payne's admirable History of the Neiv World; but he sees that kinship originated in relation — the relation of contiguity, or (as Mr. Payne puts it) in the food-group. He has thrown light on the taboo of the mother-in-law, though I am not sure that he has quite solved the mystery. His view of the object of marriage-ceremonies appears not to include the fertility of the union ; and his dis- cussion of marriage in relation to the family is quite inadequate, if indeed he can be said to have discussed it at all. He flings altogether aside, as no concern of the investigator of primitive marriage, its legal effect and its relation to the constitution of society. These are important omissions. They bring into relief the limited character of his work. But within its limitations, as a study of Taboo in its bearing on Marriage, it will materially help towards the right appreciation of the complex subject of the origin and development of marriage.
It would greatly have facilitated the use of the book if Mr. Crawley had supplied a list of works cited. The reader desiring to verify a statement has often to hunt through the notes for many pages, in order to arrive at the title of a work subsequently cited simply by the name of the author, with the addition of op. cit.
E. Sidney Hartland.
La Psychologie Ethnique. Par Ch. Letourneau. Paris : Schleicher Freres. 1901.
Professor Letourneau is a well-known writer who has pub^ lished almost as many volumes as there are sides to human culture. Marriage, property, government, law, literature, slavery, VOL. xiii. p
2IO Reviews.
war, religion, commerce, education, morals, of each of these in turn he has traced the specific evolution. And now he under- takes to correlate his manifold results in an ethnic psychology which shall expound the history of the human mind from every point of view at once. Or rather, from every point of view bar one. There is to be no introspection, no prating of "soul," "free will," and such like. We must fix our regards on "tangible, observable, controllable reality." This apparently means that the culture of each grade of society is to be studied in its objective manifestations, in the institutions in which it clothes irself. An " appreciation," it is assumed, of the " mentality " involved is obtained without further ado. Hence ethnic psychology in our author's hands resolves itself into a loose concatenation of such appreciations, so designed as to present an ascending scale of " mental values." Which scale runs thus : Australians, Africans, Papuans, Polynesians, Americans (Southern, Central, and Northern), Mongols (including Esquimaux and Malays), Chinese, Egyptians (including " Periegyptians," such as Tuaregs, Kabyles, and Hovas), Semites, Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Europeans of the Middle Ages. Seeing the immense difficulties of the task, it would perhaps be ungracious to object that the logic of this classification is some- what mixed. Whereas its declared object is to exhibit a scheme of graduated values, it is obvious that geographical, chronological, and ethnological considerations have largely influenced the order- ing and grouping. Meanwhile, as regards the manner of the separate appreciations, no one at any rate is likely to complain that Professor Letourneau cannot see the wood for the trees : whereas a less skilful artist might well have failed to reduce some of the groups, for instance the Africans or the Americans, to any sort of specious unity. The book winds up with a so-called " synthesis of mental evolution," -which, however, confines itself to generalities such as these : that biology provides the key to the history of mind, that the clan is the cradle of human morality, that religion arose in animism, and that in all its forms religion is destined to go down before natural science — the science which shows it to be true " beyond criticism " that " consciousness is a function of the nervous centres."
The English reader will admire the airy grace with which the practised litterateur disports himself amid the mazes of a subject the scope of which approaches to that of the Teufelsdrockhian
Reviews, 2 1 1
AUerki-wissenschaft. He may likewise take pride in noting how- many of Professor Letourneau's authorities hail from this side of the Channel. It is matter for regret, however, that these autho- rities belong, anthropologically speaking, to a previous generation. For example, it is next door to labour lost to seek to appreciate the Australian mind and character, whilst utterly ignoring the testimony of Spencer and Gillen. Or again, there are no signs that our author is aware of the fresh light that has been shed on the religious consciousness of early man by such works as The Golden Bough and The Legend of Perseus. Indeed, his whole treatment of religion as a psychological force must be judged decidedly inadequate in the light of the most recent research. It does not belong, perhaps, to the anthropologist as such to decide whether it is historically and psychologically sound to describe Christianity as simply a noxious bacillus which ate its way into the Roman system only when luxury and vice had impaired the national vitality. But the expert will be up in arms when he hears it dogmatically asserted that the couvade was a utilitarian device for bringing home the responsibilities of his position to a savage who had escaped his own notice in becoming a father. Due allowance, however, being made for a certain want of modernity, the book may be recommended to those whose tastes are for a synthetic philosophy of the type which in this country we associate with the name of Mr. Herbert Spencer. Meanwhile, it would seem that there is also room for another kind of ethnic psychology — one that should seek, in so far as the primitive mind is concerned, to lay bare its inwardness as revealed in what may broadly be described as folklore. Such a psychology might at any rate aspire to tell us what the savage is to himself, leaving it to an omniscient positivism to round off his history with the declaration that in " reality " he is but a piece of matter su]ier- fluously self-conscious.
R, R. Marett,
p 2
212 Reviews.
Nova Legenda Anglie : as collected by John of Tynemouth, John Capgrave, and others, and first printed, with new Lives, by Wynkyn de Worde, a.d. mdxvi. Now re-edited with fresh material from MS. and printed sources by Carl Horstman, Ph.D., editor of Altenglische Legetiden, Richard Ro lie of Ham- pole, The South English Lege?idary, &c. 2 vols. Pp. Ixviii., 506 and 731. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press. 1901. 36s. net.
John the Englishman, who modestly called himself John the Sinner, and was distinguished from other Enghshmen as John of Tynemouth, where he was vicar in the early part of the fourteenth century, was not only a great admirer of sanctity and of the saints, but a thoroughly patriotic fellow. There might be excellent saints in foreign countries, but the saints of his own land were good enough for him ; and accordingly he devoted himself to collecting all he could find about them into a Sanctilogium Angli?e, Walli^e, Scotise, et Hibernise. He did his work with wonderful industry and amazing success. It was revised and rearranged by Capgrave in the fifteenth century, and re-edited and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the sixteenth. De Worde held the doctrine of the " predominant partner " so strongly that he dropped all mention of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and called the book Nova Legenda Anglie. It has now been reprinted by the University of Oxford, after careful collation with the MS. of the original in the Cottonian collections, with valuable notes and a very scholarly and interesting introduction by Dr. Horstman. The editor apologises for the incompleteness of the introduction, and the delegates of the University Press explain why they thought it better not to wait until he had finished it. We. confess we doubt whether they have exercised a wise discretion. This is a monumental and probably a final revision, and it seems to us, having regard to the excellence of the work Dr. Horstman has been able to do, that it would have been better worth while to allow him fully to complete it than to press forward the publication while incomplete. Possibly Dr. Horstman may still be able to proceed with it and to publish it in its completed form as a separate essay or in a second edition. There are three ways in which a sanctilogium may be arranged. John of Tynemouth naturallv adopted the calendar as the basis
Reviews. 213
of his arrangement. Capgrave and De Worde rearranged the Uves in alphabetical order, and thus they appear in this edition. For the purpose of indicating, as we propose briefly to do, the matters of interest to the student of folklore which these volumes contain, a chronological order would appear to be more convenient. Dr. Horstman has given a summary of the collections in that order, as far as regards England, andconcludes it with the very apposite comment : " The collection is as complete as possible, and the amount of materials brought together by one man is truly astonishing : but it is always the ' one man ' who does things."'
" Of early British saints, the collection contains Mello, first bishop of Rouen, died about 280," his pastoral staff having been given to him by an angel in the presence of Pope Stephen. " Alban, the protomartyr of Britain, and Amphibalus, both martyred at St. Albans, 304." The relation of the miracles at the translation of St. Alban has some curious details. De Worde's edition adds " Joseph ab Arimathia and Helena " — the first life consisting of extracts from the chronicles of John of Glastonbury, the second made up from different ingredients. The Anglo-Saxon Church is represented by Lethard, who accompanied Bertha of France on her marriage with Ethelbert of Kent, and who is styled the precursor and janitor of the coming Augustine : and by the first bishop of Canterbury, Augustine, who landed in the Isle of Thanet in 597, and was bishop of Canterbury until 605. This life is founded on Bede, and contains the correspondence throwing light on Anglo-Saxon manners familiar to us from his Ecclesiastical History. Laurentius, 605-19 — mention is made in this life of a visit from St. Terenanus, archbishop of Ireland, a man of such sanctity that it is said he revived three dead people, but he is not one of the Irish saints in the collection, which indeed in this respect is not complete; Mellitus (619-24)— a '" narratio " of the birth of Latro and Vulpecula is appended to this life ; Justus (624-7) — to this is appended a narratio of a temptation of demons; Honorius (^627-53) — the narratio to this is a story how in 1181 a man was punished who refused to return a pledge the church had deposited with him ; Deusdedit (653-64) — the narratio gives the punishment of two men for using language provocative to anger ; Theodorus (668-90) — the narratio is a story of a bishop "clarus religione sed turpis corpore." Tatwin, Nothelm, and Cuthbert, the succeeding bishops, are omitted.
ii4 R6viei£)s.
The next is Bregwin (759-765) — the narratio is of the tragical consequences of a Christmas dance in 1012. Other Anglo-Saxon saints are Felix, bishop of Dunwich in Suffolk, the narratio is of John Damascenus ; Birin, of Dorchester, near Oxford, discussing the translation of his body to Winchester and its probable re- translation to Dorchester; Ithamar, of Rochester, to whose life are appended two narrationes ; Erkenwald, of London, brother to Ethelburga, abbess of Barking ; Egwin, of Worcester, born of the royal stock ; " Aldhelm, of Sherburn, died 709 : the preceding bishop of Wessex, Hedda, is omitted ; King Ethelbert, of Kent, baptised 597, died 616 ; his granddaughter, Eanswida, about 633, abbess of Folkestone ; Ethelred and Ethelbrict, grandsons of King Eadbald, and their sister Domneva's daughters." These are Milburga, abbess of W^enlock, died about 670, Mildred, of Minster, and Mildgyth, but the latter is omitted. Edberg, third abbess of Minster, is described by John of Tynemoulh as a daughter of King Ethelbert of Kent, but it appears that she was really a daughter of King Centwin of Wessex. The East Anglian saints are Etheldreda, died 679, foundress of Ely ; Ethelburga — the narratio is a story of abbot Pastor and an old man in Egypt ; Withburga — her life is supplemented by incidents relating to Dacius, bishop of Milan, and Venancius Sabinus : Sexburga — the narratio is the life of Erkengoda, her daughter by Earconbert, King of Kent — these four being daughters of King Anna : Erme- nild and her daughter Werburg of Ely, and Erkengoda, the two daughters of Sexburg ; Ethelbert, king and martyr, 792 — appended to this life is an edifying narration of the life of St. Peregrine. The daughters of King Penda of Mercia, Kyneburga and Kynes- wida, are included with Tibba in one biography, to which is appended a narratio of Margarita dicta Pelagia. Rumwold, the grandson of King Penda, about 660, has a biography, to which is added a narratio of Abbot Anthony. Wulfade and Rutin, sons of Wulfere, are omitted, but their lives are contained in a contem- porary collection of 47 lives made for Romsey Abbey. Werburgh of Mercia, daughter of King Wulfere, is also omitted. Ositha, virgin and martyr, is described as a granddaughter of Penda, and her life is followed by a curious and somewhat inappropriate narratio relating to St. Epiphanius. Frideswida of Oxford, died about 735, has for narratio another story of Abbot Anthony. To the life of Hildelitha of Barking is appended a narratio of the
Reviews. 215
appearance of the devil to St. Pachomius under the guise of a beautiful woman. Cuthberga of Wimborne, Wessex, daughter of Kenred, king of the Mercians, and sister of Ina, is described as the virgin wife of Alfrid, king of Northumbria.
The Northumbrian saints are Paulinus, bishop of York till 633, to whose life is appended a narratio of Eufrosina, a maiden of Alexandria, who entered a monastery under the name of Smaragdus; "King Edwin, baptised 627, killed in the battle of Hatfield, 633 ; King Oswald, died 642," with a narratio bearing on the evils of drunkenness; King Oswiu, died 651, buried at Tynemouth, where his remains wrought many wonderful cures ; Abbess Hilda, of Whitby, died 680, in whose life her sisters, Hereswida and Bega, are mentioned ; Ebba, of Coldingham, died 683, with an account of the cruel conduct of the Danes towards her nuns ; Aidan of Hy, bishop of Lindisfarne, died 651, with a narratio dated 1093; "Chad, bishop of York from 664 to 669 and of Lichfield till 672, and his brother Cedd, the apostle of Mercia and Essex ; Wilfrid, bishop of York, with a narratio from Bede of the death of Hedda, bishop of the West Saxons in 707 ; Eata of Hexham ; Cuthbert of Lindisfarn ; John of Beverley, died 721, with a narratio from Bede of the epitaph of Csedwalla, king of the West Saxons ; Brithun, abbot of Beverley, with a narratio longer than the life ; " Benedict Biscop, the founder of Wearmouth in 674 and of Jarrowin 682 ; Abbot Esterwin, with a narratio of the con- version of Taisis meretrix ; Abbot Colfrid, with a narratio relating to St. Goar and Rusticus, archbishop of Treves ; Beda, with a narratio of the martyrdom of a virgin named Maria in the time of Hadrian; Guthlac, died 714, with a long narratio from the Legenda Aurea. The life of Guthlac is abridged from that by Peter of Blois, which Dr. Horstman prints at length from a MS. belonging to Trinity College, Dublin, in the Appendix. A separate life of Bertellinus, disciple of Guthlac, is added in De Worde's edition. Egbert, died 729, has for narratio the illustration of the Trinity from three drops of water forming one.
The Saxon saints of the eighth century include " Willibrord of Northumbria, the apostle of the Frisians, bishop of Utrecht 696, died 739 ; " Hewald the white and Hewald the black, martyred in Westfalia, Odulf and his brother Botulf, who gives his name to Boston in Lincolnshire, where he was abbot, and indirectly to Boston in the United States of America, of which he never
2i6 Reviews.
dreamed : "Boniface, archbishop of Maintz, died 754; Walberga, abbess of Heidenheim, in the diocese of Eichstadt." Alcuin occurs only in a narratio.
The saints of the ninth century include Fremund, with a nar- ratio about Frigdianus, bishop of Lucca ; Edmund of East Anglia, king and martyr, 870; Kenelm of Mercia, king and martyr, 819, with a narratio about Saint Florencius : Wistan, with incidencia that fell " not much before " 849 ; " Edwold, hermit at Shaftes- bury; Swithin, bishop of Winchester, died 861 ; Neot, hermit at St. Neot's in Cornwall, died about 877 ; Clarus, hermit at St. Clair in Normandy, died 894; Grimbald, a monk of St. Bertin, who became abbot of Newminster at Winchester, and died 903 ; Ositha, martyred about 871."
The saints of the tenth century include King Edgar, died 975, one of those added in De Worde's edition : " Edward, king and martyr, murdered at Corfe Castle, 978 : Bishop Odo, died 958," with a narratio of events supposed to have happened in 840 ; Dunstan, died in 988, with a narratio of a sermon by Abbas Macharius ; Elphegus, martyred 1012, with a narratio of a boy Theodore ; Oswald, died 992, with a narratio of the monk Ammonius; Ethelwold, died 984, whose life begins, like many others, with a dream by his mother of his future greatness ; Wulsin, with a nar- ratio about a certain hermit ; " Efleda of Rumsey ; Wlfhilda of Barking, died about 980; Editha of Winchester, daughter of Edgar, died 984 ; Walstan of Bawburgh near Norwich, died 1016, added in De Worde's edition."
The saints of the eleventh century include Edward, king and confessor, 1042-66, with a narratio and prophecy ; Wulstan, bishop of Winchester, 1062-95, with a narratio derived from the chronicles of his time ; " Wallevus, count of Northumberland, beheaded by William the Conqueror in 1075 and buried at Croy- land " — he, however, has not a separate life for himself, but an extract from the chronicles about him is appended to the life of Lanfranc, 1070-1089; Anselm, 1093-1109, with a narratio about Pope Leo; Osmond, bishop of Salisbury, 1078-1099 — this life consists of a series of lections in commemoration of the saint.
The saints of the twelfth century include " the hermits Henry of Coquet, of Danish descent, died 1 127 ; Bartholomew of Fame," with a narratio of a certain proud and ambitious cleric who had supplanted St. Maurice in a church ; Caradoc of St. Ismael's, died
Reviews. 2 1 7
1 1 24, with a narratio of Bishop Anianus ; Ulricus of Hasel- borough in Dorset, died 11 54; Godric of Finchale, died 1170, servant of God and hermit, born of devout parents at Walpole (?) in Norfolk; Malachias, archbishop of Armagh, died about 114S, with a narratio of a devout father and his method of disciplining his son to resist temptation; "William of York, died 1154; Thomas Becket of Canterbury, died 1170 ; Hugo, bishop of Lin- coln, died 1206; Robert, abbot of Newminster, near Morpeth, died 1 159; Wallevus of Mailros, died 1160; Ailred of Rievaux, died 1 1 66; Gilbert of Sempringham, died 1190; the boy-saints William of Norwich, died 1137, and Herebertus, died 1180." In an appendix to the MS. the scribe has added an account of Christiana, otherwise called Theodora.
The saints of the thirteenth century include Edmund, arch- bishop of Canterbury, died 1241, with a narratio relating to cer- tain relics; Richard, bishop of Chichester, died 1253, with a narratio from Bede ; Thomas, bishop of Hereford, died 1282; Hugo of Lincoln, died 1255 ; Thomas de la Hale or Thomas of Dover, died 1295.
The collection is particularly rich in Welsh saints. Of Scottish saints, it contains Ninian of Whithern, Kentigern of Glasgow, Columba, and Queen Margaret, who died 1093. There are eighteen Irish saints.
If this enumeration of the contents of the Sanctilogium be thought to be wearisome, it is hoped it will be forgiven, as there did not appear to be any better way of indicating to the readers of Folk-Lore what a storehouse of legend and tradition John of Tynemouth collected for their benefit, than to draw attention not only to the lives, but to the narrationes appended to them, which for the most part relate to wholly different matters. To the pious and patriotic John, who gave up so large a part of his blameless life to the task of making these collections, to Dr. Horstman, who has given labour without stint to the work of collating and editing them, and to the delegates and printer of the Clarendon Press, who have done their part by bringing out these volumes in a manner worthy of the reputation of their great establishment, folklorists will often find reason to express their gratitude.
E. W. Brabrook.
2 1 8 Reviews.
Res Biblic;e.
ENXYCLOP-iiDiA BiBLiCA : A Critical Dictionary of the Literary, Political, and Religious History, the Archseology, Geography, and Natural History of the Bible. Edited by Rev. T. K. Cheyne, M.A., D.D., and J- Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D. Vol. iii. London : A. and C. Black. 1902.
The Gold of Ophir, Whence brought and by Whom ? By Professor A. Keane. London: .Stanford. 1901.
I have already in these pages (Folk-Lore, xi. 99; xii. 247) called the attention of students of Anthropology to this important Biblical Cyclopjedia. The third volume (L to P) is quite as valuable as those which preceded it. I can only briefly indicate the articles which are specially interesting from our point of view. The student of historical geography will refer to the articles on "Nineveh," " Palestine," " Persia," the " Philistines," " Phoenicia," for the latest knowledge presented in a condensed but quite readable form. The development of institutions is discussed in exhaustive articles by Professor L Benzinger on " Law and Justice," and " Marriage " among the Hebrews. Dr. Creighton deals with " Leprosy " (under which the Hebrews classed ring-worm) and with " Medicine," where we find the use of occult methods — astrology, amulets, charms, healing by the "Word" addressed to the patient, and by means of saliva. To this may be added the use of " Mandrakes " to procure conception. Stone-worship is fully discussed under " Massebah," where the cairn is regarded as a means of preventing wicked spirits from wandering, in opposition to Dr. Frazer's view {Go/den Bough, iii. 8) : "To rid himself of that [death] pollution, which, as usual, he conceives in a material form, the savage seeks to gather it up in a material vehicle and leave it behind him on the hazardous spot." Dr. Benzinger, in dealing with the " Passover," discusses the offering of first-fruits and the sacrifice of the first-born, which is also treated in connec- tion with the " passing through the fire to Molech." Articles on " Moon-worship " and the " New Moon " bring together much information on an obscure form of religious cult ; that on "Magic" deals with it in its various forms, the " sympathetical " or " symbolical," as in the story of Jacob and the peeled wands. The articles on " Paradise " and " Moses " give Dr. Cheyne the
Reviews. 219
opportunity of discussing the new and startling theory that the Exodus took place, not from Misr or Egypt, but from the Arabian Musri, a fact which, if established, will have momentous influence on the criticism of the Pentateuch.
Among other noticeable questions considered are the explana- tion of the use of unleavened bread in worship : " In the view of all antiquity, Semitic and non-Semitic, panary fermentation repre- sented a process of corruption and putrefaction in the mass of the dough ; "' the view of " hair-growing " and " hair-cutting " in connection with the '' Nazarites ; " serpent-worship and " Nehushtan ; " the liver " contesting with the heart the honour of being the central organ of life : " the oath on the thigh, in which the view of Professor Robertson Smith is followed ; and " Nativity," in which Mr. Hartland's exposition in The Legend of Perseus (vol. i.) is accepted. " Ophir " is placed on the east coast of Arabia, with a necessary reservation as to the derivation of the Hebrew term for " peacock,"' as advocated by Professor Max Miiller, from a Tamil root. And here I may incidentally call attention to Professor Keane's excellent book noted above, which deals with the gold supply from the Rhodesian mines, and contains much interesting information on early trade between the East and West.
I close with one word of reservation. Professor Cheyne seems so engrossed with the new theory that fixes the beginnings of Hebrew national life among the Jerahmeelites of Arabia that he is tempted to undertake an almost wholly new recension of the Hebrew text, and particularly in the case of the most familiar proper names. These identifications are sufficiently startling in themselves, and suggest the impression that views so largely based on conjectural emendations must be accepted with caution. But these are questions with which we, as students of anthropology and folklore, are not immediately concerned, and exclusive of matters of this kind, readers of Folk-Lore may be safely recom- mended to study this great work, in which practically for the first time the principles of their science have been invoked in the attempt to solve the many weighty problems which the " new criticism " has brought to light in connection with the study of the Bible.
W. Crooke.
2 20 Reviews.
CoNTES ET Legendes d'Irlande, traduits du Gaelique. Par G. DoTTiN. 8vo. 2i8 pp. 1701. Le Havre (f. 3, 50).
M. DoTTiN, to whom Gaelic storyology owes so much, has in this volume translated thirty-eight tales which have been issued in the Gaelic Journal (Dublin) during the last twenty years, and has thus furnished students of Celtic folktales who are ignorant of Irish with what is in some respects the most valuable collection of Irish- Gaelic material yet published (and in saying this I neither forget, nor do I in any way wish to depreciate, the volumes of Kennedy, Curtin, Larminie, and Hyde). It is specially interesting and valu- able because it contains nine tales (Nos. 7-16) which as regards style and mode of narration are closer to the Scotch Gaelic tales than even the best tales of Curtin or Larminie. In particular the " runs " are almost exactly the same. Some of these are Con- naught stories, but others from Munster.
When I began to study Celtic folktales twenty-three years ago, I was at once struck by the fact that the Scotch Gaelic tales had a far more primitive aspect than those collected in Ireland. At that time there was nothing Irish to compare with Campbell save Carleton and Kennedy. Then, as the Irish storytellers came to be more faithfully reproduced by Curtin, Hyde, and Larminie, I noticed a closer approximation alike in subject matter and form between the tales of the two divisions of Gaeldom. But still I could find no exact parallels to a number of " runs " in the Scotch tales — " runs " which, as pointed out by my friend Dr. Hyde in Beside the Fire, stand in some as yet undetermined rela- tion to similar passages in Irish MSS. of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. As to what that relation was, I differed from Dr. Hyde. He looked upon the "runs" of the hving Scotch Gaelic tales as derived from those found in Irish Gaelic MSS. of from 150 to 200 years old: to my mind, the Scotch "runs" were, although noted so much later, in reality older. I now find in these Munster and Connaught tales collected within the last twenty years exactly the same "runs" (as far as one can judge by com- paring translations) as in the Scotch tales which Campbell collected forty or more years ago, instead of, as might more naturally be expected, derivations more or less degraded of such "runs" as Dr. Hyde has printed. The conclusion which I draw is that the oral " run " represents the basis upon which Irish scribes, as far
Reviews. 221
back as 200 years ago at the latest, constructed the infinitely more elaborate and more "literary" 7nanuscript "runs." Otherwise we must conclude that the manuscript " runs " were degraded in pre- cisely the same way in Cork, in Galway, in Argyleshire, and in Inverness-shire, a conclusion which strikes me as infinitely more unlikely, a priori, than the other one. But the question is one which can only be settled by trained linguistic examination of the originals. The particulars in which the various Irish dialects differ among themselves, and in which all differ from Gaelic as it has differentiated itself in Scotland during the last 300 years, are fairly well known. A careful examination, such as is now possible, of the same ^ra/ "run" in half a dozen different dialects of Gaelic, both Irish and Scotch, cannot fail to reveal whether it is, as I believe, older than the oldest similar manuscript " run " we possess. If it proves to be so, the further conclusion (which I maintained in the first paper I ever read before the Folk-Lore Society) follows as a matter of course ; viz., that the living folk-tale is substantially older than, and is presupposed by, the Irish manuscript romance of which we have examples dating back to the early sixteenth and even the fifteenth century.
I warmly commend M. Dottin's volume to all storyologists.
Alfred Nutt.
Short Notices.
Licht und Nebelgeister. Ein Beit rag zur Sagen- utid Mcirchen- kunde. Von Professor Karl Amersbach. Baden-Baden ; Kolblin. 1901.
This interesting paper is an attempt to determine the origin of the superstitions in reference to various kinds of apparitions. The author begins with the ignis fatuus. He has no difficulty in explaining as forms of either the ignis fatuus or St. Elmo's fire many fiery appearances which the imagination of the peasant has clothed in the form of animals of various kinds, or of human beings or evil spirits in their likeness. He ingeniously explains the apparition at night of a dark body with shining eyes, or accompanied by a light, as the negative after-impression produced
2 22 Reviews.
by the light on the retina. All this part of the paper is excellent. When, however, he goes on to apply the theory to such tales as those of Polyphemus, King Laurin, the adventure of Theodelinda with the sea monster, and so forth, I cannot follow him. Do such apparitions beget children ? If King Laurin on his goat be nothing more than a spectral light surrounded by a mist, what becomes of Walter Map's tale of King Herla ? It is a pity that Professor Amersbach has driven so far a theory which affords a probable explanation of a large class of stories. He should rest satisfied with convincing us as to these. He cannot unlock a whole mythology with the same key. — E. Sidney Hartland.
(i.) Morien, A Metrical Romance rendered into English prose from
the Mediceval Butch. By Jessie L. Weston. (ii.) Marie de France ; Seven of her Lays done into English. By Edith Rickert. David Nutt. 1901. Two volumes have been added to the attractive series of Arthurian Romances published by Mr, Nutt, which already in- cludes some very interesting works. The first is a translation from the pen of Miss Weston of the Morien incident in the Dutch Lancelot. This adventure is not known in any other version. It is therefore impossible to say definitely whether it was an inven- tion or at least original composition of the Dutch translator, or whether it existed in some French lai or episodic romance now lost ; though the latter is distinctly the most likely of the two views, and is supported both by M. Gaston Paris and Miss Weston. The central idea of the story, however — the appearance of a Moorish knight who is closely related to Percival — reappears in Wolfram von Eschenbach's poem. In the latter case the Moor is Parzifal's brother, in the case of the Dutch romance his nephew, though we are told that by some he was said to be his son. Miss Weston regards the relationship in Wolfram as the earlier conception, suc- ceeded by that of son, — the Moorish hero being ultimately fathered upon Percival's brother Agloval ; but though suggestive, her argu- ments, cannot be regarded as conclusive upon the point. In any case, the story must owe its origin to a period before the introduction of the ecclesiastical Grail tradition.
The other volume consists of a translation of seven of the lais of Marie de France, furnished with copious introduction and notes. This does not strictly belong to the series with which
Reviews. 223
it is uniform, since the lais chosen are mostly unconnected with the Arthurian cycle — Guigemar, Lc Fraisne, Les dons Amanz, Yonec, Lawsfic, Chievrefoil, Eliduc. It forms, however, a welcome supplement and companion volume to Miss Weston's translation of four of the lais, published in the series in 1900, and is a pleasing and handy version of Marie's delightful work. It is of course hopeless to attempt to render in prose the fascinating quaintness and happiness of Marie's verse, but on the other hand the translation of these lais into their original metre is an almost impossible task. The introduction, dealing with the whole ques- tion of Marie's work and its relation to sources, though of course not attempting to treat the subject in scientific detail, is ample for the needs of the general reader ; so also are the notes, in which the relation of the lais to analogous tales elsewhere pre- served is discussed fully and satisfactorily. — W. W. Greg.
Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. A Translation into modern English Prose. By John R. Clark Hall, M.A., Ph.D. Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 5s. net. The list of versions of, and books on, this old English poem, which have appeared in English, cuts a sorry figure beside the work of German scholars, and any addition to it deserves a welcome. The latest, now before us, will be valuable to any who desire to gain a knowledge of the poem, or who want a handy key to the various theories about it. The text is inter- spersed with a paraphrase in distinct type, designed to elucidate obscure passages. There is an exhaustive bibliography and useful indexes, genealogies, &c., and a few well-chosen illustrations of Scandinavian weapons, ornaments, &c. The translator in his introduction distinguishes carefully between the facts and theories about the poem. His own conclusion is that the story belongs to Denmark and Southern Sweden, but was brought to England by the Angles, or Jutes, and the poem probably composed by a Mercian, a converted heathen, about the year 660. It would form an admirable text-book, if English schools thought the early literature of their race worth study. — Albany F. Major.
Popular Studies In Mythology and Folklore. No. 12. The Edda : I. The Divine Mythology of the North. By Winifred Faraday, M.A. D. Nutt. 6d. This is an excellent and scholarly account of the Asa-Faith
2 24 Reviews.
and of the various channels through which it has come down to us. The author perhaps hardl}^ attaches sufficient value to Snorri's Edda, which may not unfairly be described as a transcript in longhand of the shorthand notes of the poetic Edda. Of course there are amplifications in some of the tales, where Snorri lets himself go as a story-teller ; but, seeing how saturated with mythology was the poetic speech of the Scandinavian lands, it is clear that a knowledge of the origin of that speech must in the main have been preserved by the skalds, and must have been known to Snorri, who made it his business to explain in his Skaldskaparmdl the kejinings of the northern poetic tongue. Miss Faraday sketches clearly the main points of the mythology and the attributes of the chief gods, touching but lightly on con- troversial questions, which obviously could not be discussed in a brief handbook. The main points over which issue is joined are, however, indicated sufficiently to guide inquirers who may wish to go more deeply into the subject.- — Albany F. Major.
jfolk^Xore.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY.
Vol. XIIL] SEPTEMBER, 1902. [No. III.
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 23rd, 1902. Mr. Alfred Nutt (Vice-President) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. Crooke read a paper entitled, " The Lifting of the Bride" [infra, p. 226], and a discussion followed, in which the Chairman, Mr. Gomme, Mr. Bouverie Pusey, Miss Thompson, Mr. Tabor, and the Rev. H. N. Hutchinson took part.
The Meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to Mr. Crooke for his paper.
WEDNESDAY, MAY 28th, 1902. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The election of Mr. G. Maxwell, Messrs. Holliday & Co., and the Bradford Free Public Library as members of the Society was announced.
The resignation of the Women's Anthropological Society of Washington was also announced.
Mr. M. Longworth Dames read a paper on " Balochi
VOL. XIII. Q
226 The Liftmg of The Bride.
Folklore " \_infra, p. 252], which was followed by a dis- cussion, in which Miss Burne, Mr. Bouverie Pusey, Miss Hawkins-Dempster, and the President took part.
The Secretary read a paper by Mr. S. O. Addy on the Collection of English Folklore [infra, p. 297] , upon which Miss Burne and Miss Hawkins-Dempster offered some observations.
The Meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. Longworth Dames and Mr. Addy for their papers.
The following books, presented to the Society since the last Meeting, were laid on the table :
Christ Church, Canterbury, being No. 34 of the Publi- cations of the Cambridge Antiqtiaria?i Society; the Journal of the African Society, No. j ; Die Sprichworter Hendyngs, by Dr. Karl Kneuer (presented by the author); and Transactions of the Glasgow Archseological Society, vol iv., part ii. (N.S.).
THE LIFTING OF THE BRIDE. By W. Crooke, B.A.
{Read at Meeting of 22,rd April, 1902.)
In the course of this paper I propose to discuss three groups of early custom, all more or less connected with marriage. Although these groups of custom present some superficial marks of resemblance, which have induced some writers to treat them as identical, they are, I venture to think, in conception distinct, though occasionally, as in the case of most primitive rites, the ideas on which they are based tend to converge, and thus ultimately become identified or reg4rded as similar in origin.
The Lifting of the Bride. 227
The first group of custom to which I shall refer is that known in the Border Counties (where alone it seems to prevail in this exact form) as the rite connected with the " Petting " or " Pettin " Stone.
One of the best accounts of this rite which I have seen has been kindly communicated to me by Mr. D. D. Dixon, of Rothbury, Northumberland.^
" Some 25 or 30 years ago this custom was performed at Whittingham Parish Church (Similes from Alnwick) in the following manner. Directly the wedding party was safely within the church, the doors were shut, and the young men of the village proceeded to erect the ' Petting Stone ' within the porch, which, despite the incongruity of the articles, consisted of three short stone pillars, which at one time had been the supports of an old ' trough ' tombstone. These were placed ' Stonehenge ' fashion immediately in front of the church door, and two of the most sprightly among the young men, generally intimate friends of the bride and bridegroom, were told off to 'jump ' the bride over the ' Petting Stone.' These two gallants waited patiently in the church porch, keeping watch and ward by ' keeking ' through the keyhole, until the ceremony was concluded, when, as soon as the marriage was duly entered in the church books, and the priest was seen coming from the vestry, the church doors were thrown open. Very often when the vicar (the late Rev. R. W. Goodenough) was in a gleeful mood, he joined in the fun, and thoroughly enjoyed the joke of being the first to jump over the ' Petting Stone.' The bridegroom and the rest of the party were next vaulted over in the same vigorous manner, each of the ladies being saluted with a kiss by the two knights of the ' Petting Stone.' If the fair young bride was foolish enough to demur, and with pouting lips and frowning face objected to the ordeal, she was said to have ^ taken the pet, ^ and
' This is reprinted from an account by the writer published in the Newcastle Cotirant of December, iS8S.
Q 2
2 28 The Lifting of the Bride.
her conduct was for some time the theme of gossip through- out the village. When all the party was safely over the barrier, it was customary for the bridegroom to give a fee to the two young men." The money thus obtained was spent in jollification in the evening. Sometimes the church door was tied, and not opened till blackmail was paid.
The present vicar of the parish of Whittingham, who kindly replied to an inquiry from me, gives much the same account of the rite. According to him the bride used to be "jumped" over the "Petting Stone" placed in the church porch on two little pillars opposite the main entrance. He says that the rite has fallen out of use for the last thirty years.
Again, from Bamburgh, Northumberland, the vicar, the Rev. E. Williams, writes : " The custom to which you refer still prevails in this parish. Strange to say on the very day your letter reached me, we had a ' big ' wedding in the church, and the custom was duly observed. My wife attempted to photograph the scene, and she thinks she got a satisfactory ' snapshot ' of the bridal party in the very act of ' jumping.' Should this turn out well I will gladly send you a copy. It seems that a stool is taken to the church- yard by the villagers, and the bride is ' jumped ' over, a man taking hold of each arm to help her over."
I regret to say that this photograph, which I hoped to have the pleasure of exhibiting here this evening, has not turned out successfully. I have made many attempts to secure a picture of the rite, but so far without avail. It would be well if some of our members residing in districts where the custom still survives would endeavour to have the scene photographed, particularly as the custom seems to be rapidly falling into disuse.
Again, Miss E. Lamb, of Chathill, Northumberland, to whom I was referred as one of the best local authorities on rural customs, has been kind enough to send me the follow- ingr account.
The Lifting of the Bride. 229
"The custom of the bride and bridegroon jumping over the ' Petten Stone,' or ' Petten Stool,' is followed in nearly- all the old villages of this county when the wedding is that of natives of the village, that is, among working folk. Just above the common folk the custom is considered 'vulgar,' and the throwing of rice, &c., is indulged in, in imitation of the customs of the upper classes. I have made a point of asking all very old people for years now for an explana- tion of the custom, but the origin of the rite, or the meaning of it, is hopelessly lost. I gather from my own observation that it is 'etiquette ' for the bride to appear to be unwilling to 'jump,' and that the ordeal is made easier if she and the bridegroom have a coin ready to drop into the hand of one of the persons in charge of the ' Stone.' If any stingi- ness is apprehended, the ' Stone ' is raised to a formidable height, but all is done in good humour. When the bride is young and lively she 'jumps' over 'just for fun' very often. The ' Stone ' was really a stone in former times ; but I see that a four-legged ' form ' is often used now. I can remember when I was a very little girl, forty years ago, seeing some young lads erecting the ' Stone ' at Belford Church door. It consisted of three upright stone flags set on edge, with one laid flat on the top like a step. When the bride appeared, two young fellows, one at each side of the bride, lifted her bodily over the barrier. The bride- groom leaped lightly over after her, and dropped a coin into the hand of one of the ' bride-lifters.' The custom is much the same now, but is performed often at the gate of the churchyard. Unsympathetic vicars are shocked at the merriment so near the church, when it is done at the door of the building. But the church door is the proper place."
At Ilderton, Northumberland, as I learn from another cor- respondent,^ the village people always lock the wedding party into the church till they have pushed gold under the
' From a note forwarded by Miss C. S. Burne, to whom I am also indebted for other valuable references.
230 The Lifting of the Bride.
church door. This was done at a wedding in 1858, and a " form " was placed in the porch over which the party had to jump. The lady who records this case was a little girl at the time, and distinctly remembers at her sister's wedding being helped over the " Stone " by the village chimney- sweep. She was indignant at the dirty man's touch, partly on account of her new white frock, partly because she was quite able to jump over without help, but the man insisted on helping her over.
Lastly, Miss Saidie Thompson has kindly sent me the following account.
" The custom of brides being ' jumped ' or being ' lifted ' over the ' Petting Stick ' was, until quite recently, observed in my native village of Ford, Northumberland. I have been present many times in my childhood at the ceremony, and can recall the mode of procedure distinctly. It was cus- tomary at a village wedding for the young men of the place to take a long pole, known as the 'petting-stick,' and hold it across the principal exit from the churchyard, thus barring the bride's exit unless she chose to jump over the obstacle, which, of course, was never held to a very formidable height. The idea was that if the bride was cheerful and agreeable about this hindrance to her pro- gress, and skipped over it with a good grace, the husband was to be regarded as a lucky man, whose partner's amiability was well calculated to make him happy. If, on the other hand, the bride pouted and hung back, or made a difficulty of observing the custom, the poor husband was to be commiserated on the possession of a shrew, whose ill- temper would probably make him smart in the future. I have occasionally seen a bride demur, but eventually yield to persuasion. Only once have I seen one absolutely refuse, and the subsequent result amply justified the belief in the superstition. Most of the brides were only too pleased to ' jump,' and thus create a favourable impression among the assembled company. I^he husband usually
The Lifting of the Bride. 231
offered his hand as a support to the bride in her leap, but not infrequently an independent bride preferred to jump over unassisted. The bridegroom then distributed largesse in accordance with his circumstances, and the crowd scrambled for it. The name ' Petting Stick ' I have always understood to be connected with the bride's attitude towards the ceremony, since ' taking the pet ' in North Country parlance signifies a sort of sullen hanging-back with the object of being ' fussed ' with and persuaded, and no other expression can half so well describe this par- ticular species of ill-humour."
There are numerous printed accounts of the custom, but none which I have seen are, I think, quite so graphic as those which I owe to the kindness of correspondents who have kindly communicated with me on the subject. Thus Henderson^ speaks of the "petting" or " louping stone at Belford, Embleton, and Bamburgh. Hutchinson "" writes of a cross near the ruins of the church in Holy Island : " It is now called the petting stone. Whenever a marriage is celebrated at the church, after the ceremony the bride is to step upon it, and if she cannot stride to the end thereof it is said the marriage will prove unfortunate." So wdth the socket stone of St. Ethelwold's Cross in Durham Cathedral Cemetery: "Whenever a marriage is celebrated at the church, after the ceremony the bride has to step over it."'^
In the cases of Rothbury and Ford noted above, it will be seen that a part, or a modification or addition, of the rite was to bar the church door against the married pair until they submitted to pay blackmail. We have numerous instances of similar proceedings. Thus, in Wales : " After leaving the church where the marriage was celebrated, the
' Folklore of the Northern Comities, 38.
- History of Durham, i., 33, quoted by Brand, Observations, ii., 167; Denham Tracts, ii., 213.
' Allen's note in Hogg, Legend of St. Ciithbert, quoted in Second Series Notes and Queries, v. , 264 seq.
232 The Lifting of the Bride.
bride and bridegroom were besieged by a small knot of people, having ropes in their hands, who had gathered together for the purpose of carrying out the old custom of ' chairing.' The young couple struggled to get free, but were ultimately bound hand and foot, and a somewhat serious dis- turbance took place." ^ From Glamorganshire, again, we have a case of the newly-married pair being stopped in the village by people holding a band of twisted evergreens and flowers, which the pair could not pass till they paid toll." A friend writes : "The ceremony, I may mention, was practised at my wedding in a country parish adjoining Swansea. No sooner had we got outside the church than we found a string across the path. This was repeated three or four times before we got to the house where the wedding breakfast was held. It was a perfect running of the gauntlet." In Somerset we hear of the gates of the churchyard being barred in the same way.^
Customs of the same kind prevail widely in India. Thus according to the standard ritual in Bihar : " The couple then leave the courtyard and go into the house where the family deity is put. This house is called kohbar. At the door they are stopped by the sister of the bride, who requires the bridegroom to repeat certain verses. The bridegroom demands a present for doing so, and on this being given he repeats the verses."'* More usually in Northern India the married pair are stopped at the door of the house of the bridegroom by his sister or some other near female relative, who will not permit them to enter until she receives a gratuity.
I mention these cases, and many other instances might easily be collected, not as indicating any belief that the customs of "lifting," or "barring," or "chairing," or
' Sixth Series Notes and Queries, xii., 186.
^ Ibid., Second Series, v., 48, 178.
* Ibid., Second Series, v., 178.
■* Grierson, BiliAr Peasant Life, 369.
The Lifting of the Bride. 233
"chaining" the married pair are identical, but because, as we have seen, one rite seems occasionally to merge into the other, or to be combined with it. It is not easy to give a definite explanation of such rites, and it is quite possible that more than one line of thoug-ht has contributed to establish them. The Indian cases may possibly be based on the feeling which would naturally prevail among a com- munity which rigidly practises the law of exogamy, that the newly-married wife is an outsider and must pay some fee to the women of her husband's house before she can be allowed to enter. Again, the fact of the money being pushed under the church door, the blackmail levied on the newly-married pair, and the privilege asserted by the bride- lifters of claiming a kiss from the bride, may suggest the payment of a bride-price to the community, in other words what Lord Avebury would call the commutation for the rights connected with Communal Marriage. Further, the performance of these rites at the church door may repre- sent a pagan or pre-Christian rite of marriage, to which the actual service in the church was a supplement. We know that in ancient times the church door was the place where the marriage rite was performed, and that it was only in the sixteenth century that the service was first done within the church. The same idea may still be traced in the rule that the rite should be performed outside the chancel.^
At any rate, it is hardly possible to trace in these rites of bride-barring any suggestion of marriage by capture. Of this we miss the most characteristic note in the fact that the opposition to the removal of the bride is not confined to her own immediate relations. It seems probable that while capture was certainly one and perhaps not an uncommon mode of securing a bride, its effect, on the actual ritual of marriage, which was a matter quite separate from the method by which the bride was won, may have been less
' See Brand, Obsei-vations, ii., 133.
234 '^he Lifting of the Bride.
potent than writers of the school of the late Mr. McLennan asserted.
Hence Mr. Crawley/ the latest writer on the subject, would apparently connect these customs of bride-barring with the idea of sexual taboo, on which he has perhaps laid excessive stress, or he would regard them as symbolical of the barring out of evil influences from the married pair. But it is, perhaps, safer to connect the cases where the married pair are confronted by a physical obstacle, which they cannot pass without paying blackmail, with the principle w^hich has been so fully investigated by Dr. Frazer/- who shows that " the magical effect of knots in trammelling and obstructing human activity was believed to be manifested at marriage not less than at birth."
To return to the " Petting Stone " rite. We notice in some of the more modern forms of the observance that a stool or bench takes the place of the single stone, the transition of usage being found in the cases where stones more or less invested with some degree of sanctity are raised in what Mr. Dixon calls " Stonehenge fashion." But there can be little doubt that in the more primitive form of the rite it was over a sacred stone that the bride, and in some cases her newly-wedded husband, or even members of the wedding party, had to ''jump" or were " lifted."
Now in many cases such sacred stones are very closely associated with marriage, or wdth the union of the sexes. I may give a few examples out of a large collection which might easily be made. Thus, according to ancient Hindu custom,^ the bride stood upon a stone, a rule which still prevails in Esthonia, and is, as will be seen, now part of the ordinary marriage ritual in modern India. There is, again, a considerable amount of evidence that marriages
' The Mystic Rose, 226.
- The Golden Bough, Second Edition, i., 394 seq.
' Folklore Congress Report, 1 891, 269 seq.
71ic Lifting of the Bride, :235
were once performed at dolmens. Thus, one in North-west Holstein, near Albersdorf, is situated in a plain called " De Brut's Camp," a name which is interpreted to mean " The Bride's Plain," where, according to tradition, marriages used to be solemnised.^ Young girls come to French dolmens to pray for a lover, and young brides to make vows in the hope of bearing a child, just as girls in England still go to the Rollright Stones to procure oracles of marriage.'^ With such stones in many places an aphro- disiacal cultus is associated, and a visit to them is con- sidered efficacious in cases of barrenness.^ In England we have the stone at Guisborough in Cleveland on which brides are made to stand, and the Wishing Chair in Finchale Priory Church, of which we are told that " tradi- tion says that this seat was formerly of great repute, and though of stone, it appears much worn by frequent suitors for pregnancy ; " Bede's Chair at Jarrow is believed to be efficacious in the same way, and probably most of the chairs used for this purpose were originally of stone, or contained a sacred stone, like the Coronation Chair of Westminster."* It is only quite recently that the " Plechting " or " Plighting Stone o' Lairg" has been removed from Sutherlandshire to Canada,^ and every Irish girl knows that at a dolmen she can never refuse to allow herself to be kissed.
Similar customs connecting marriage with stones are widely spread m India. The Mangs and Kolis of Bombay make the bride stand in a basket in which a stone is placed ; and among the Berads the bridegroom stands on a stone, and the bride in a basket of millet.*" In Bengal, the Kayasth
' Borlase, Dolmens of Ireland, ii. , 496.
- Borlase, op. cit., ii., 580; Folk- Lore, vi., 29.
' Borlase, op. cit., iii., 846.
'' Denham Tracts, i., 109 seq.
^ Folk-Lore, viii., 399. The Gothic custom was: " Uplandi dicunt j-/(?/rt breda sten, lapidi lato insistere, quod est foedus jungere." Ihne, Lex S. Goth, i., 262.
* Bombay Gazetteer, xx., 173, 155; xxiii., 95.
236 The Lifting of the Bride.
bride puts her foot on the stone used for grinding spices, which the bridegroom removes,^ and the same or very nearly the same customs prevail generally at marriages in Northern India.
We reach the explanation of such rites in the rule of the Deshashth Brahmans of Dharwar. Among them the couple first walk thrice round the sacred fire. A stone called the Ashma, or " Spirit Stone," that which is used at the funeral rites of the tribe, and into which, like the Churinga of the natives of Australia, the spirit of the dead man is supposed to enter, is kept near the fire, and at each circuit, as the bride followed by the bridegroom approaches this stone, she stands on it till the priest finishes reciting a hymn." Here it seems clear that the idea underlying the rite is that the spirit of one of the tribal or family ancestors occupying the stone becomes reincarnated in her, and so she becomes " a joyful mother of children." For it must be remembered that according to Indian popular belief, all conception is, as the Australian natives believe, the result of a process of this kind, one of the ancestors becoming reborn in each succes- sive generation. Hence, as we have seen, the dolmen which is the home of the spirits of the dead becomes connected with the union of the sexes and the birth of children. By a natural process of development in custom, the rite of stepping over the stone becomes in some places a kind of chastity test, a lady in an " interesting condition " being supposed to be unable to perform the feat of jumping over the stone. ^
Hence it seems not unreasonable to infer that one at any rate of the ideas on which rites such as those of the " Petting
' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, i., 450.
- Bombay Gazetteer, xxii., 81.
' With this may be compared the Mabinogion story quoted by Hartland, Legend of Perseus, i., 127, and the Lorik tale in Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore, ii., 161. Among the Manchus, the bride, on coming out of the bride- groom's house, has to step over a miniature saddle, as a sign that she will never marry a second husband {Folk-Lore, i., 487). In Cumberland women
Tlie Lifting of the Bride. 237
Stone" are based is that the bride, by jumping over or standing on the sacred stone, absorbs from it some fertilis ing influence. This idea has now naturally fallen into the background, but curiously enough the substitute which people who once used to practise this rite have chosen to replace it, that of throwing rice in imitation of the customs of the upper classes, is probably based on the same train of thought.
What the real origin of the name " petting stone " may be it is impossible to say. We may at least be certain that the explanation now offered for the observance, that the bride may never "take the pet,^' is a case of folk-etymology. ^
If the explanation which I have suggested be correct, the rite of the " petting stone " falls into line with the many other fertility charms of the same kind which have been so well illustrated by Mr. Sidney Hartland.^
Stepping over things is in popular belief a very serious matter, and the effect of so doing may be illustrated by a few examples Thus, in the West Indies, an enceinte woman will not step over a rod or small branch laid in her path, and it is the rule in India that no one should step over a fallen broom lest he may cause some woman to suffer in labour.^ In Fife, if a woman step over a " Cutty's Clap," that is a place where a hare has lain, her next child will suffer from hare-lip ; in Syria no one must step over the dough while baking, lest some evil influence be communi- cated to it."^ On the other hand, in Madagascar, if a woman steps over a palanquin-bearer's pole, the skin of
jump over a pail placed on the door-sill as a chastity test (Fifth Series Notes and Queries, vi., 24), [See the Berkshire collection of Miss L. Salmon, read at meeting of 20th June, 1902, to appear in our December number. To detect a witch, lay two brooms across the doorway. The woman, if a witch, will jianp over them, otherwise she will simply step over.] ' Denham T^-acts, i., 67.
* Legend of Perseus, i., 173 seq.
^ Sixth Series A^(3/f^ and Queries, iv., 165; Ptinjab Notes and Queries, iv., 28.
* Folk- Lore, ix., 286, 17.
238 The Lifting of the Bride.
his shoulders will peel off the next time he raises his burden ; in South Africa, " if a woman steps over her husband's stick he cannot aim or hit anyone with it in a village brawl ; it is simply useless for its proper purpose. If she steps over his assegai it will never kill or even hit an enemy, and it is at once discarded and given to the boys to play and practise with."^ In these cases the influence is twofold — in some it affects the person who steps over the article, in others the thing stepped over is influenced.
But it is in relation to marriage and fertility charms that the idea is most prominent. Thus, the Jewish bride and bridegroom step seven times over a fish, and the Targum Onkelos on Genesis (c. xlviii.) recites the prayer : " As the fish of the sea, so may they multiply among the sons of men." ^ The virtue of the fish charm is familiar to all students of folklore.^ With the same object the bride in Egypt leaps over a sword, and the gipsy bride in East Anglia jumps over the bough of a tree laid on the ground in the presence of the chiefs of her tribe. We all know that jumping over the besom or broomstick is a popular form of left-handed marriage.
I pass on to the second group of custom which I propose to consider, that of lifting the bride over the doorstep or threshold on her arrival at the house of her husband. Since the time of Plutarch people have asked : "What should be the reason that they would not permit the new-wedded bride to passe of herselfe over the doore-sill or threshold when she is brought home to her husband's house, but they that accompanie her lift her from the ground, and so convey her
' Folk-Lore Record, ii., 39 ; Joitnial Anthropological Institute, xx., 130.
- Sixth Series Notes and Queries, ix., 134 seq. ; viii., 513.
3 Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology, i., 249 seq.
•* Dalyell, Darker Superstitions of Scotland, quoting Light, Travels in Egypt, 40 ; Third Series Notes and Queries, iii., 461. In India if any one leaps over you he communicates his diseases to you. The counter-charm is to make him leap back again, Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay, i., 359 ; and com- pare Crawley, Mystic Rose, 113, 207.
The Lifting of the Bride. 239
in ? " ^ The common explanation here is, of course, that we have in this custom a survival of marriage by capture. But, as in the case of the Petting Stone rite, it is difficult to admit that this mode of gaining a bride affects marriage ritual. Further, the fact that in many cases the lifting of the bride is done by members of her own kindred who escort her to her new home, and the absence in most cases of even the pretence of force, throw doubt on this explana- tion of the practice. I venture to suggest that we must look in other directions than that of capture marriage for an explanation of the question which Plutarch proposes.
We are on safe ground when we assume that the threshold is a sacred place. " That the door or the threshold is the seat of a tutelary spirit or genius is a belief familiar enough in folklore; the door must not be banged, nor wood chopped on the threshold, for fear of disturbing him. He is apt to disappear, taking the luck of the house with him, if a cat is buried under the door-sill, or if human hair be so buried." ^ The temple threshold was naturally peculiarly sacred. The priests of Dagon dared not touch the threshold of his shrine; to leap over the threshold was a grievous form of insult : " and in that day 1 will punish all those that leap over the threshold, which fill their master's house with violence and deceit." ^ Why it is sacred is a question difficult to deter- mine, and need not detain us here. According to Dr. Trumbull its sanctity is connected with the hearth placed at the door of the hut of the savage or the tent of the nomad. It has also been regarded as marking the limit which separates the friendly house-spirits from the vagrant hostile ghosts, which flit about the outer darkness and beset the household. But when we find that it is specially the abiding place of the family genius or guardian spirit, we may guess that both the threshold and the foundation stone (both being
' Komane Questions, cap. 29. - Ibid., ed. Jevons, Intro., xcv. seq.
^ I Samuel v. 2 ; Zephaniah i. 9. Also compare the Passover rite, for which see Ejicyclopadia Biblica, iii., 3595-
240 The Lifting of the Bride.
possibly originally identical) were analogues of the Ashma stone of India and of the Churinga of the natives of Australia, to which reference has already been made : — in short, that they represented the sacred stones in which the ancestral spirit was confined. Hence it may be suggested that in some cases, as in the instances which we have been considering, the rite of lifting the bride over it may have been regarded as a charm intended to promote her fertility.
Reviewing other cases of lifting, it may be noted that it is not confined to marriage. Thus, in Central Asia, when a boy is about to undergo the rite of circumcision, he is carried to the place where the operation is to be performed on the shoulders of another boy.^ The same is the rule at the cruel initiation ceremonies of the natives of Australia.''^ Among the Tsinyai of Central Africa, after a funeral one of the wives of the deceased is carried from the burial place on the shoulders of a man.^
The only reasonable explanation of these practices seems to be that persons undergoing such rites are in a state of taboo. Now this conception of taboo acts in two quite different ways. In the one, as in the case of the girl at the period when she reaches womanhood, the tabooed person is supposed to communicate some dangerous influence which is prejudicial to the land and its inhabitants. Hence she is suspended in a cage and her feet are not allowed to touch the ground.** In the other, the person under taboo is himself or herself regarded as specially liable to be affected by the Evil Eye or other dangerous influences, and one source of danger is supposed to lie in his or her touching the ground. With this latter belief we may compare the
' Schuyler, Turkistan, i. , 141.
- Roth, Ethnographical Studies, fig. 415, and pp. 170 seq. \ Journal Anthro- pological Institute, xiii., 455.
^ Journal Anthropological Institute, xxiii., 421.
^ Frazer, Golden Bough, Second Edition ; i., 326 ; iii., 304 seq. ; Crawley, Mystic Rose, 99.
The Lifting of the Bride. 241
cases of the girl who is going to graft vines, whose hair must not touch the ground, and of the healing water of Scotland — " if it once touches the ground its healing virtue is gone." ^ The other possible solution, that the lifting over the threshold may depend on the idea that the bride is by virtue of her state of taboo in a condition of impurity, and that it would be offensive to the threshold spirit and conse- quently dangerous to herself to touch the sacred stone, seems on the whole less probable. As the bride is touched and kissed by the persons who take part in the " petting-stone " rite, the idea that she is in a state of ceremonial impurity does not seem tenable. The suggestion of Mr. Craw^ley that the lifting is associated with " sexual taboo," " woman's shyness, timidity, and modesty, accentuated by the physio- logical sensibility w^hich resists physical subjugation," seems still less likely.^ It seems questionable how far such feelings are potential in savage life ; and in the case of the threshold lifting, the ceremonial character of the rite tends perhaps to increase the difficulty of accepting this sug- gestion.
In some cases, again, the idea of luck may have influenced the practice. It may have been considered essential to the happiness of the bride's married life that when she enters for the first time the house in which she is to spend the rest of her days she should tread on, or be lifted over, a sacred stone. For the same reason it was considered essential that in crossinor the threshold the bride and brides^room should do so right foot foremost, an idea which is as old as the Grihyasiitra of India.^ In Wiltshire up to quite recent times it was the rule that the bride's feet should not touch
' Folk-Lore, xii., 196; xi., 448. A cloak was also spread for the girl to kneel upon. The idea seems to be that the earth might get the benefit of the " virtue " which is wanted elsewhere.
- Mystic Rose, 350.
^ Folklore Congress Report, 273 ; Journal Anthropoligical Society Bombay, i., 294 ; Lobel, Hochzeitsbraiiche in der Tiirkci, 143, 171, seq. For the last reference I am indebted to Mr, Hartland.
R
242 The Lifting of the Bride.
the threshold when she returned from the honeymoon, and the same is, or was, the rule in Scotland.^ But this idea was probably a later conception based on the older cere- monial observance.
The lifting over the threshold may then be in some cases a fertility charm ; in others it may have been intended to protect the bride from some contamination, or to avoid ill- luck.
Cases of bride-lifting are specially common in India, and though the meaning of the rite is now obscured by the fact that the bride is usually quite a little girl, whom it is neces- sary to carry to the marriage pavilion, the explanation above suggested seems to be the most easy method of accounting for the observance. At any rate^ the fact that the lifting is done by the near relations of the bride, and that it is not connected with even the vaguest pretence of a scuffle, puts the suggestion that it is a survival of marriage by capture out of the question. Thus, at the wedding dance of the Oraons, the pair are borne round seated on the hips of two of their friends, and they must not touch the ground." The Khond bride is covered with a red blanket, perhaps as a protective against the Evil Eye, and is carried astride on the shoulders of her maternal uncle to her husband's village, accompanied by a procession of the other young women of her clan.^ Among the Kattais, a tribe of leather-workers of Ahmadnagar, on the wedding night the bride and bride- groom are lifted by their respective maternal uncles, and a
' Eighth Series Notes afid Queries, x. , 328 ; Dalyell, Darker Superstitions of Scotland, 291. An instance is quoted from Lincolnshire in 1888. *' When the carriage containing the bride and bridegroom drove up to the door of the bride- groom's father, the husband lifted his wife from the carriage and carried her up the steps and into the house." Eighth Scr. N. and Q., x., 328.
"^Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, N.S., xxxv., pt. ii., 180. The custom, of course, is not peculiar to India. It prevails among the native American races, for instance the Nahuas and Californians. — Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i., 411 ; ii., 261.
' Mallby T.cman, Manual of Ganjam District, 69
The Liftmg of the Bride. 243
sort of war-dance, known as the Jhanda, is performed.^ Among the Kanjaris, a begging tribe in the same district, the father or some elder of the bridegroom's family lifts him on his shoulders, while the bride's father lifts her ; they dance in a circle seven times, after which the clothes of the pair are knotted together, which is the final act of the marriage service." The Varlis, a jungle tribe of the Thana district, vary the rite by making one of the bride's relations lift the bridegroom and convey him to a booth, where they seat him on their shoulders and dance.^ At a marriage among the Bhils the maternal uncle of the bride takes the pair on his shoulders and dances to the rhythm of a wedding song.* The same customs generally prevail among many of the lower castes throughout India. As might be expected, they can give no intelligible explanation of these rites. " The bridegroom is a king and the bride aqueen "on this occasion, some say, and should be treated accordingly. But it may be safely assumed that such rites^ now classed as honorific, were in origin precautionary, and intended to provide pro- tection of persons in a state of taboo against some form of demoniacal influence, one and the chief of which would naturally be that which tended to prevent the marriage from being fertile. Generally, however, the stereotyped answer is that they do it because their forefathers did it before them. This appeal to well-established custom is from their point of view quite conclusive.
In this connection, where we may suspect a transition from precautionary or protective observances to those which have now come to be regarded as simply honorific, the large chapter of folklore which prescribes the things on which the bride may or may not sit, stand, or walk, is instruc-
' Bombay Gazetteer, xvii., 109.
^ Ibid., p. 180. Here the knotting of the clothes is merely symbolical of the union of the couple in marriage, and is apparently quite distinct from the " chaining" rite referred to above.
' Ibid., xiii., pt. i., 185.
* Ibid., vi. , 31.
R 2
244 ^^^^ Lifting of the Bride.
tive. Most of these appear to fall within one or other of
the classes which we have been considering, that is to say,
they are either due to the belief in some kind of fertility
charm or are connected with taboo.
Thus, among fertility charms we may class the seating of
the bride on a bull's hide, which was an ancient Aryan rite
still prevailing among the Hindus of South India and the
Gypsies of Transylvania.^ Other Hindus, probably with
the same object, seat her on a mat made of sacred grass, or
of the leaves of some holy tree ; or she is placed on a stool
which is sometimes provided with a cushion made of sacred
grass, and the Manchu bride sits on a special red chair.^
In some parts of India a bullock-saddle or a plough-yoke is
selected as the seat of the bride, or she is made to step over
it, thus claiming a share in the invigorating life of the cattle
and field-crops.^ Or again, she stands in a basket such as
is used in garnering the grain on the threshing-floor, a
custom which is very common in Northern India, where a
line of baskets is often laid on the ground from the place
where she leaves her litter to the door of the house, and
stepping on these she makes her ceremonious entry into
her husband's household. It is a comical sight to watch the
bride performing this feat ; it is rather like the crossing
of one of our fords, where the current is strong and the
stepping-stones placed unpleasantly far apart. In order
to intensify the charm, these baskets are often half filled
with millet or some other grain.^ In some cases the
charm seems to be supposed to act vicariously, as when
the influence reaches the bride through her mother, who
' Folklore Congress Report, 273, 340 ; Boswell, Mamtal of Nellore District, 23 ; Hartland, Legend of Perseus, i., 124, note.
* Risley, Tribes and Castes 0/ Bengal, i., 449, 503 ; Crooke, Tribes and Castes of the North- Westerti Provinces, iii., 141, 290 ; ii., 291 ; Bombay Gazet- teer, xvii., 205.; XX., 163 ; Folk-Lore, i., 491.
' Nelson, Manual of the Madura District, 82 ; Bombay Gazetteer, xx., 93 ; xxii., 14 ; Risley, op. cit., i., 508, 467 ; for the Manchus, Folk-Lore, i., 487.
* Bombay Gazetteer, xvii., 177 ; xviii., pt. i., 350, 442 ; xxiii., 95 ; Crooke, op. cit. ii., 87.
The Lifting of the Bride. 24.5
stands in a basket when the bridegroom comes to claim her daughter.^
We have possibly a hint of the same idea of vicarious influence in the cases noted above where members of the wedding party, and even the vicar himself, join in the jump over the Petting Stone. We have another similar case among the Greeks of Turkey, where the Kumbaros and Kumbara, the persons who stand behind the bridegroom and bride during the ceremony, are lifted into the air when the marriage rite is concluded. ^
In India, again, the pestle used in pounding grain, for reasons which are sufficiently obvious, is often selected for the bride to tread on, or she is seated on a blanket, thus associating her with the fertility of the flocks, while among the Namburis of Malabar, as the pair are escorted into the nuptial chamber, a blanket is spread on the ground with a white cloth over it, and hemmed in with edges of rice, on which the pair are seated by the officiating priest. ^
While all or most of these are probably fertility charms, the English cases are less easily explained. I have no evidence to show what the history of these practices may be. But if they do not prove to be comparatively modern inventions, part of the ordinary amusements or buffoonery accompanying a village marriage, they are possibly worn- down survivals of some primitive usages. Thus, at Knuts- ford, in Cheshire, silver sand, locally called " great," " greet," or " grit," is spread before the bride's house in the form of wreaths of flowers, on which she is expected to tread. '^ In Sunderland this is now replaced by sawdust, or even by a strip of carpet. ^ At Cranbrook, in Kent,
' Crooke, op. cit, ii., 91.
- Lobel, op. cit., 143
' Bombay Gazetteer, xvii., 105; xxiii., 168; xxi., 195 ; Logan, Majiual of Malabar, i., 151, 128.
^ Fifth Series Notes and Queries, v., 186.
'" Ibid., First Series, viii., 617 ; Second Series, x., 246. Cf. also Newcastle- on-Tyne, in Henderson, p. 40.
246 The Lifting of the Bride.
again, "when a newly married pair leave the church, the path is strewed with emblems of the bridegroom's calling. Thus carpenters walk on shavings, butchers on sheepskins^ shoemakers on leather parings, and blacksmiths on scraps of old iron." ^ On the other hand, chaff or straw seems to have an evil significance when used in this way. It was threatened in the case of Babelchen in Goethe's Faust, and in England such substances are habitually sprinkled before the doors of wife-beaters. ^ The final stage is reached when brides in our time walk on a red carpet or village maids strew flowers in their path. These customs have now become purely decorative or honorific, but, like most popular customs, it is possible from the analogies which have been quoted that their origin and significance may lie much deeper than is commonly supposed.
The same specialisation of custom appears in connection with another group of usages of the same kind — those which regulate the conveyance of the married pair. In India it is regarded as very important that the Jangam bridegroom, who once used to ride on a bullock at his wedding, now follows Brahman custom in using a horse ; that the Charans go on ponies or walk, but may not ride in a cart; that the Mall bride goes in a palanquin, the groom on a pony, or in a sort of sedan-chair; that the Marwari bridegroom is mounted on an ass ; that the Kharwar bride goes in a litter which must be in the form of a boat. ^ All this has, or once had, some significance ; but the explanation, whatever it may have been, is lost, and no one can give abetter explana- tion than : " It is the custom ; if we did otherwise bad luck would surely follow." The Marwari custom of mounting the bridegroom on an ass is said to be connected with the propitiation of Sitala, the smallpox goddess, whose sacred
' Murray, Handbook to Kent, 128.
^ Henderson, Folklore of the Border Counties, 32 ; First Series Notes and Queries, 245, 294 ; Seventh Series, v., 405 ; Eighth Series, iii., 327.
' Bombay Gazetteer, xxii., 112 ; xii., iii. ; Risley, op. cit., ii., 60: Crooke, op. cit., iii., 481, 246.
The Lifting of the Bride. 247
animal this is. Possibly some ideas of the same kind may account for similar practices.
The third and last group of customs connected with lifting need not detain us long, and I refer to them here because it has been sometimes considered that they are in some way analogous to those other classes of "lifting" which we have been considering. This is the custom of men lifting women, or women lifting men at certain special seasons of the year. Most of the cases which I have noted come from the north-western counties, where it would almost seem that the usage has become specialised. Thus, in Westmoreland, on New Year's Day, women were, or are, lifted on a ladder or pole, or occasionally on a chair or " swill " (which, according to Halliwell, is a large wicker basket used for carrying fish), and taken to a public-house, where they were obliged to provide ale for the company. If this was not given, the woman's shoe was taken off and left as a pledge with the ale-wife, from whom the owner had to redeem it by paying the bill.^ In Shropshire, according to Miss Burne," the practice was common ; Easter Monday and Tuesday being known as " Heaving " Monday and Tuesday. On Monday the men " heaved " the women, and on Tuesday the women the men. " An old bookseller," she writes, " told me in 1881, that in his 'prentice days at Ludlow he and his companions were accustomed to ' heave' all the young girls of their acquaint- ance. Parties of young men went from house to house carrying a chair decorated with evergreens, flowers, and ribbons, a basin of water, and a posy. ' What were the basin and the posy for? ' I asked, and the old man smiled with amusement at my ignorance. ' Oh,' said he, ' it's quite plain you have never been heaved ; ' and he pro- ceeded to explain that the posy was dipped in water, and
' Denhain Tracts, li., 31. The forfeit of shoes, spurs, or buckles seems common, see Henderson, op. cit., 84 ; Brand, i., 93 ; and Hone, Year Book, 751. ^ Shropshire Folklore, 336 seq.
248 The Lifting of the Bride.
the young woman's feet sprinkled with it ' by way of a blessing/ while she was held aloft in the gaily decorated
chair Others give more details of the ceremony.
The chair must be lifted from the ground three times and turned round in the air, .... and the feet then sprinkled with the bunch of flowers dipped in water. The heaving party were rewarded with a kiss, and generally when the men were ' heaved,' by a gift of money. Those
who refused to be ' heaved ' had to pay forfeit In
Durham and Yorkshire * heaving ' is disused, but the forfeit for its omission is still exacted. The boys may pull off the shoes from the girls' unblessed feet on Easter Sunday, and the girls may retaliate on the boys' caps on Monday."
The same proceedings take place at Easter in other places also. The Rev. Peter Roberts, writing about 1815,^ says : " On Easter Monday and Tuesday a ceremony takes place among the lower orders in North Wales which is scarcely known, I believe, elsewhere. It is called ' lifting,' as it consists in lifting a person in a chair three times from the ground. On Monday the men lift the women, and on Tuesday the women lift the men. The ceremony ceases, however, at twelve o'clock. The ' lifters,' as they are called, go in troops, and with a permitted freedom seize the person w^hom they intend to * lift,' and having persuaded or obliged him (or her) to sit on the chair, lift whoever it is, three times with cheering, and then require a small compliment. A little resistance, real or pretended, creates no small merriment ; much resistance would excite contempt, and perhaps indig- nation. That this custom owes its origin to the season needs no illustration."
And so on the Welsh Border, a writer in the Mont- gomery Collections of the Powys-land club,~ speaking of the "lifting" or "heaving day," says: " * Pullye, haul
' Cat/ibrian Popular Antiquities, p. 125.
- Quoted in Fourth Series Notes and Queries, viii., 328.
The Lifting of the Bride. 249
ye ' Monday and Tuesday were observed thirty years ago
at the beginning of April The custom was originally
meant, it is said, to represent the Crucifixion of Our Saviour — the dressing (in gay ribbons) being intended to set forth the clothing of our Lord with the purple robe; the lifting, the nailing on the Cross ; the kiss, the betrayal ; the reward, the thirty pieces of silver."
There is some difference among the authorities as to the day on which these proceedings occurred. Mr. Sidney Hartland writes that he remembers the ceremony of '' lift- ing" being performed on Easter Monday and Tuesday in the early " fifties." As far as he recollects it was the men who were lifted on Monday, and the women on Tuesday. Brand -^ also fixes Easter Monday at Warrington, Bolton, and Manchester as the day on which women heaved the men. This also appears in perhaps one of the earliest accounts, as given by Miss Strickland. - " There is an old custom, still remembered in Warwickshire, called ' heaving.' On Easter Monday, the women servants of every household clamorously enter the chamber or sitting- room of the master of the family, or any ' stranger beneath his roof,' and, seating him in a chair, lift him therein from the ground, and refuse to set him down till he compounds for his liberty by a gratuity. Seven of Queen Eleanora's (of Castile) ladies, on the Easter Monday of 1290, un- ceremoniously invaded the chamber of King Edward (the First), and seizing their majestic master, proceeded to ' heave him ' in his chair till he was glad to pay a fine of fourteen pounds to enjoy ' his own peace,' and be set at liberty."
There are numerous accounts of similar practices in the North of England and in parts of the Midlands.^ A fort-
' Observations, i., 182.
^ Lives of the Queejis of England, Fourth Edition, i., 441, quoting Ward- robe Book of Edward I., fol. 456. Also see Brand, op. cit., i., 181, quoting a paper by Lysons communicated to the Society of Antiquaries.
^ Hone, Everyday Book, ed. 1878, i., 211 seq.; Chuivaheis, Book of Days, i.,425, 429 ; in Lancashire, Fourth Series Notes and Queries, i., 327; Salop,
250 The Lifting of the Bride.
night after Easter similar ceremonies were, or are, per- formed on what is known as " Hocktide Day, " or " Kissing Day," as it is called at Hungerford, on the eve of which this paper was read before the Society.^
It will be noticed that part of the rite is the ceremonial lustration, which Dr. Tylor describes as the " transition from practical to symbolic cleansing, from removal of bodily impurity to deliverance from invisible, spiritual, and at last moral evil." '-^ It would thus be a suitable rite for the New Year; and many customs practised in some places at the New Year, as for instance the " new lire " rite, are in other places practised at Easter.
The proceedings are also supposed to be in some way emblematical of the final tragedy of the Christian faith ; or, as Hone chooses to put it, " handed down from the bewildering ceremonies of the Romish Church." It is, of course, possible that the idea may have been in some cases derived from one of the mediaeval mystery-plays. But the occurrence of such ceremonies at seasons connected with pagan spring rites makes it sufficiently clear that they must have a different origin.
This view is strengthened by the fact that in some parts of the country celebrations of this kind are specially per- formed at harvest-time. Thus, in Berwickshire, what is known as the " Bicker-rade," or " Up in Air," consists in " bumping " women at harvest time.^ Those who have made themselves popular during the season of reaping are let off lightly ; but those who have made themselves
Sixth Series, viii., 234, where, as in the cases referred to above, the woman's legs and feet were brushed with a bunch of box ; Cheshire, Sixth Series, vii., 308 ; Ripon, Ibid., viii., 94 ; xi., 404 ; Crewe, First Series, vi., 194 ; Shropshire Fifth Series, iii., 465 ; v., 453. A woman's shoe was taken off at Gateshead on Easter Monday because she refused to give an egg, Folk- Lore Journal, vii., 318.
* Folk- Lore, ix., 281 seq. ; Chambers, Book of Days, \., 498 seq.
- Primitive Culture, ii., 429.
^ Bicker apparently meaning " quarrel, contention," for which see New English Dictionary.
The Lifting of the Bride. 251
obnoxious to their comrades suffer more severely.^ So, in Yorkshire, it is or used to be the custom to shake in a sheet every newly married woman the first time she came a-gleaning; and in Fife and Kinross to seize and " dump " any person who happens to pass the harvest field. This is called "Dumping," or " Benjie," and "head-money" is demanded from the victims."
It seems clear that all or most of these customs, which as we have seen are associated with the seasons of sowing and reaping, are survivals of those forms of Saturnalian observances which in all parts of the world take place at the sowing or first springing of the seed and the garnering of the harvest, when more or less sexual licence is tolerated.^
The conclusion which I venture to suggest is that these customs connected with " lifting " fall into two classes. What may be called the " Petting Stone " group of rites are probably fertility charms. Those connected with the thres- hold are based either on the same belief, or are intended as protectives against various forms of evil influences which beset the bride at the commencement of her married life. Quite distinct are the Spring and Autumn "lifting" rites, which probably fall within the Saturnalia class. All three seem to be worn-down survivals of customs which, when viewed in the light of similar usages among people whom we are pleased to call " savages," lead us back to a series of conceptions dating from the very infancy of humanity.
W. Crooke.
' Second Series Notes and Queries, iv., 144.
- Ibid., ii., 352; Folk-Lore, vii., 52.
* Frazer, Golden Bough, Second Edition, iii., 78, 306.
BALOCHI FOLKLORE.
BY M. LONGWORTH DAMES, I.C.S. (retired), M.R.A.S.
{Read at Meeting of 2^th May, 1902.)
The Balochi race is spread over a wide extent of country, from the valley of the Indus in Sindh and the Panjab to the southern part of the province of Kirman in Persia, and occupies a great portion, though not the whole, of the intervening country shown on our maps under the name of Balochistan. I do not intend, on this occasion, to enter into questions relating to its ethnological affinities, but will merely state that it appears to belong to the old Iranian stock, and that the Balochi language is certainly an Iranian dialect. The branch of the race with which I am concerned is that inhabiting the mountain country west of the Indus Valley, and spreading into the plains of the country known as the Derajat, and especially those tribes which still re- tain the use of the Balochi language. I must confess that my collections of materials were made originally mainly for purposes of philology, and only indirectly for reasons more strictly connected with folklore. I was very anxious espe- cially to preserve from destruction, while it was still possible, the remnants of the popular poetry of the Baloches before it disappears from the world along with their language, and I am happy to think that I met with some success in this object. I also took down, without modification or doctoring, a num- ber of stories in prose, and translations of about twenty of these were published some years ago in " Folk-Lore."^ I am glad to say that the collection of poems has now been taken up by the Rev. T. J. M. Mayer, of Dera Ghazi Khan, and I hope that we have succeeded in rescuing the greater
' Vol. iii., 517 ; vol. iv., 195, 285, 518; vol. viii., p. 77.
B aloe hi Folk lore. 253
portion of the heroic ballads, as well as a good deal of more modern poetry. These ballads are the most valuable material for the legendary history of the race. They date probably for the m.ost part from the early part of the sixteenth century, and relate mainly to the last great migration of the Baloches which led them to their present positions. Some of the prose narratives are also derived from ballads, and occasionally embody fragments of poems which are now lost. There is less foreign influence in these than in the majority of the prose stories, which are evidently to a great extent borrowed from Persian or Indian neighbours ; picked up, perhaps, in the bazaars of Kalat, Quetta, Shikarpur, or Dera Ghazi Khan, from Per- sians at Bampur, Arabs at Gwadar, Panjabi soldiers at Rajanpur or Bombay sepoys at Jacobabad.
The ballads, though never hitherto written down, yet have a distinct style of their own which may be called literary ; and new ones are still composed and sung on the old pattern. There is a stock of poetical or archaic words and phrases which are not used in the language of common life, but which inevitably appear in the war-ballad or the love-song. Every tribe has attached to it a few families, called by the Indian name Do7n or the Persian Lori, who are not Baloches by blood or in features, but live among them and speak their language. The Doms are of Indian origin, probably aboriginal. Among the Baloches the tribal Dom quite identifies himself with the tribe, and sings their war-songs with great spirit. But the Doms do not them- selves make the ballads. The poets are invariably pure- blooded Baloches, but it is not consistent with their dignity to sing them in public, so the poet always gets a Dom to whom he teaches the words. The Dom sings them in public to the accompaniment of the dambiro or sarindd. Both of these are stringed instruments, the dambiro being played with the fingers like a guitar while the sarlnda, a more elaborate instrument with six or seven gut strings.
254 Balochi Folklore,
is held upright like a violoncello, and played with a horse- hair bow.^
Another instrument, the nar or pipe, is used for accom- panying the short love-songs known as dastdnagh, to which I shall allude later. The style of singing with the nar ac- companiment is peculiar to the hill-tribes. The singer and player sit on the ground with their heads close together, and the singer drops his voice to the pitch of the instru- ment, which seemed to me to be an octave below the natural voice. He takes a long breath and sings the whole song through in one breath, ending with a deep gasp when exhausted, the voice seeming to proceed from the stomach. The effect is very peculiar, but not at all disagreeable, and the accompaniments are very pleasant embroideries on the original air. This style of singing is never used for the long ballads, which are accompanied on the stringed in- struments.
The poem often begins with an invocation to the minstrel, addressed as " sweet singing Lori," to bring forth his instrument and sing; the instrument being alluded to by the name of the wood it is made of, either the phdrpugk (Tecoma) or the Shdgh (Grewia). Then the song com- mences a ballad, perhaps of recent tribal wars or one of the old heroic ballads of the Balochi Iliad, the great thirty years' war between the Rinds and Lasharis over the fair Gohar, the Helen of the tale. She was the mistress of great herds of camels, and Mir Chakar, the Rind Chief, and Gwaharam, the Lashari Chief, contended for her hand. Gohar pre- ferred Chakar, and there was wrath among the Lasharis, but the final outbreak was brought about by the incident of the horse-race. Two young chiefs, one on each side, backed their mares for a prize, a fat sheep belonging to a Mochi, and the Rinds by trickery made out that their champion had won. It is worth notice, that though most of the
' The sarinda sometimes has sympathetic wires under the gut strings, like the Indian sarangi.
Balochi Folklore. 255
ballads reach us from a Rind source, it is always admitted that the Rinds acted dishonestly on this occasion. The Lasharis went off in wrath, and some hot-headed young men, coming across Gohar's herd of female camels with their young ones, killed some of the young camels. As they came back in the evening, the female camels in their distress stirring up the dust, the milk dripping from their udders, Chakar also arrived at Gohar's tents. He asked what had happened, and Gohar tried to put him off, saying that the young camels had died from eating poison bushes ; but he quickly got the truth out of the herdsman, and swore an oath to take revensfe on the Lashari, to " oramble with hair and heads and turbans." So the war began, and lasted for thirty years, till the " teeth dropped from their heads." The Rinds had ultimately the worst of it, and Chakar led them to the Panjab, where other tribes had already gone before. Another set of ballads deals with the wars which took place there, and their attack on Delhi with Humayun. There is a certain amount of real history mixed up with all this. Chakar was a real leader of the Baloches, and was living in Humayun's time, but history does not tell us whether the Baloches took part in his expedition to recover his kingdom. If they did, it is evident that their share in it was not quite so important as their poems represent it. Chakar figures in the ballads as a man of wonderful powers : we are told how he fought with an elephant, having no weapon except a dog which was lying asleep in the road; and other surprising adventures. He looked back on Sibi from a hill still called Chakar-Mari, although Sibi is not really visible from it ; he was fleeing through the Chakar- tankh, or Chakar' s defile, with a herd of buffaloes, which were turned into stones to obstruct his enemies. They are still to be seen in the form of boulders scattered about the pass.
There is perhaps a mythological element in some of the stories, which may go back to pre-Muhammadan times.
256 Balochi Folklore.
Noclhbandagh) father of Gwaharam, is the Giver, the gold- scatterer, the typical generous man, who made holes in his money-bag, so that every one might pick up the gold, and gave all his clothes to a ragged Dom, taking his old shirt in exchange. This shirt he divided into two parts, one for his wife and one for himself. In the night a laden camel came and sat down in front of his tent. He told his wife to go out and smell the camel, as if it had a pleasant smell, and not the ordinary smell of a camel, it was sent from heaven ; and so it was. The camel was laden with gar- ments of every kind both for man and woman. The name Noclhbandagh is an almost literal translation of the Greek " cloud-compeller," and it is impossible not to suspect that we have here a fragment of some forgotten mythology. Nodhbandagh's son was Gwaharam, one of the heroes of the poems, and his name represents in Balochi the Middle Persian Varahran, that is the Avestic Verethraghna, the Vritrahan or Indra of the Veda, the deity of the storm- cloud.
Some of the ballads go further back than the sixteenth centurv, and profess to account for the origin of the Baloches, who are said to be descended from Mir Hamza, uncle of the prophet Muhammad, and to have their com- mencement at Halab, or Aleppo. Mir Hamza was married to a Peri, who saw him while he was bathing in a lake, but their child was for some reason abandoned in the wilderness, whence the story-tellers derive the name Baloch from bar, wilderness, and luck, naked, i.e., naked in the wilder- ness. This bit of popular etymology is, perhaps, not of great antiquity, and the old ballads do not mention the Peri, but simply say that the Baloches are descended from Mir Hamza. A more interesting story relates to their ad- ventures in Sistan, where historical traces of their presence may be found from the tenth century onwards. They were well received by the King Shamsuddin, but another king demanded brides from them, one from each of the forty-four
Balochi Folklore. 257
clans of which they then consisted. This was an insult to the Baloches. (Even in the nineteenth century the Khosas went to war rather than give a bride to the Nawab of Baha- walpur.) So they temporised, and sent forty-four boys dressed as girls to the king. As they were still young they were made over to the care of nurses, but as they grew up in the king's zenana, the king's suspicions were raised, and the nurses in charge of the boys were put to the question by an original and, I believe, unique method. They were clothed in leathern shalwdrs, or trousers, loose garments fastened tight at the ankles, and inside these cats were turned loose ! The eldest of the boys, to save them, then made a clean breast of it on receiving the king's promise of pardon. The king kept his word, and sent the boys back to their clans, but immediately pursued them with all his forces. He was, however, defeated, and their exodus to Mekran was safely accomplished. There they had a great chief named Jalal Khan, who had four sons and one daughter who have given their names to the five principal divisions of the race. The story goes that Rind, the eldest son, had been appointed heir by his father and proceeded to perform the funeral ceremonies by erecting an dsrokh, or platform ; but Hot, the second son, refused to join him, and started a separate ceremony for himself. Thereupon the others followed suit, "and there were five asrokhs in Kech." The forty-four clans distributed themselves, some joining one and some another, and hence the five great tribes: Rind, Lashari, Hot, Korai, and Jatoi, to one of which nearly all the modern tribes trace their descent.
Thus we find a reproduction in modern times of the fiction of descent from an eponymic ancestor, for there can be little doubt that the tribal names are older than those of their supposed ancestors. Many so called patronymics are in reality either local names like Lashari, from the country called Lashar, or nicknames like Rind, a vagabond. The bards of each modern tribe delight to trace the genealogy
S
258 Balochi Folklore.
of their chiefs to the heroes of the ballads, and many stories are told to account for the names the tribes now bear. For instance, the Legharis are said to be descended from a Rind named Koh-phrosh, or Stone-crusher, from his strength. In the course of the war with the Lasharis, a number of Lashari women who had been taken captive by the Turks were made over to Chakar for safe custody, and he arranged for their protection in accordance with Balochi custom (for up to the present day in tribal warfare the Baloches respect and protect women and children). Chakar every night set a trustworthy warrior to guard the women, but Koh-phrosh betrayed his trust, and was accused by the women in the morning. Chakar then said that henceforth he was not to be called Koh-phrosh but Leghar, i.e.^ foul or dirty. It is hardly necessary to state that the Legharis do not admit the truth of this story. They do admit that Leghar was a nickname bestowed upon their ancestor by Chakar, but say it was an honourable appella- tion, given to Koh-phrosh when he came out of the fight covered with blood and dust. Two other tribes, the Drishaks and Gishkhauris, are said to be descended from warriors w^ho w^ere placed on guard over the same w^omen, who distinguished themselves by holding up the roof of the shed in w^hich the women were, when it threatened to collapse in a storm. Drishak is said to mean '*' strong man " (in some unknown tongue, not Balochi), and Gishkhaur is said to mean "house-post," although there can be little doubt that in reality it is a territorial name, from the Gishkhaur, the name of a stream. The Lunds are similarly said to be descended from 'Ali, a relation of Mir Chakar. He stole the water from an embankment which Chakar had thrown across a stream to water his crops, and turned it on to his own fields. When called to account, he replied, " I only broke your embankment to feed your oven," i.e., to supply Chakar's kitchen with food ; on which Chakar said, " You are a great idiot" (Lund).
Balochi Folklore. 259
One legend as to the origin of the Gurchanis represents that a certain Hot, who was with Mir Chakar, went out to hunt the wild ass in the desert, but met with no success He, however, found a child in the desert and brought him home. The women called to him to know whether he had killed a wild ass, on which he pointed to the child and said, "This is the wild ass" (in Balochi, " Gor esh"). Hence the child was called Gorish, and the Gorishani or Gurchani are his descendants. Most legends, however, represent this Gorish as a descendant of Doda and a branch of the Dodai tribe. Doda was a King of Sind of the Somra tribe (for this there is probably a historical basis). He was driven out of his country and had to swim across the Indus, and came half frozen to the tents of Salhe, a Rind, who, to revive him, put him between the blankets with his daughter Mudho. Salhe afterwards gave Doda his daughter in mar- riage, and adopted him as a Baloch, although he w^as a Rajput. It is somewhat remarkable that a real Somra Doda, King of Sindh, lost his kingdom and had to flee across the Indus, and a remarkable story, evidently of folklore origin, is told of his adventures by the chroniclers.^ It is perhaps allowable to identify the legendary Baloch Doda with this personage.
A few names suggest what is possibly a totemic origin, although I cannot offer any definite opinion on this point Two sections of the Durkanis bear such names, viz., Szah- phadh, or Blackfeet, and Gandu-gwalagh, or small red ants. The Mazari tribe (meaning Tiger's sons) has perhaps some such origin. It is noticeable that the device on the banner of the Baloches, as mentioned in Firdausi's great poem, the Shahnama, written at the end of the tenth century, was a tiger.
, Sometimes the ballads turn on religion, and tales of the saints are told, or legends of the celebrated shrines. The
See Elliott and Dowson's History of India, vol i., pp. 221-223, where the whole story is given.
S 2
26o Balochi Folklore.
best known of these shrines is that of Sakhi Sarvvar, which, though situated in country now occupied by Baloches, is certainly of Indian origin, and goes back to the days, per- haps, of the Buddhists ; certainly long before the Baloches had entered the country. The Mujawirs or custodians of the shrine are Panjabis, not Baloches, and Hindus as well as Muhammadans still resort to it. The shrine has been often described, and I shall not here give any account of it, as it is not really Baloch. The Baloches, however, venerate it, and have made Sakhi Sarwar into one of their national saints. They connect him with the Holy Prophet 'Ali, and tell a legend to the effect that 'Ali, with his slave, Kambar [i.e. " the coloured man "), was once travelling with a caravan of camels laden with gold, when a blind mendi- cant by the wayside asked him for bread. 'Ali told Kambar to give him bread, but Kambar replied that it was impos- sible, as the bread was in a bale forming part of a camel's load. Then 'Ali said, " Give him the camel and its load." "But," said Kambar, "it is the leading camel of the string." 'Ali said, " Then give him the w^hole caravan." At this Kambar was so startled that he fell off his camel's back. 'Ali laughed at him and said, "Oh, Kambar, w^hy do you bury your noble countenance in the dust?" Kambar replied, " In my youth my parents told me that I was the household slave of my lord's horse Duldul, and now, seeing your generosity, I was astounded, fearing lest I, with the other gifts, might be sent wandering in the desert with faqirs." So the beggar received the whole caravan, and his sight was restored, and afterwards he emulated 'Ali's generosity, and became known as "Sakhi Sarwar," the Generous Lord. At one time he was persecuted and had to flee from his enemies along the parched-up country at the foot of the Sulaiman Hills where water is scarce. Whenever he needed water, he drove his stafif into the sand, and at those points (such as Choti Bala) fresh water may always still be found by digging in the sandy beds of the torrents. Once while
Ba lo ch i Fo Iklo re. 261
riding with a party of Baloches along one of the long narrow valleys or tokhs, which run parallel to the main range of the mountains between the upheaved strata of sandstone, we passed an abundant spring, a rare thing in those parts; but it was salt and undrinkable. A little way off we came to a flat sheet of sandstone, from a small hole in the centre of which fresh water was trickling ; and I was told that this place was known as Nezagh-Khushta, or " struck by the spear," for Sakhi Sarwar, on coming to this spot and finding that the spring was salt, drove his spear in wrath into the rock, and the fresh water immediately flowed forth. Not many miles from this spot is Zinda Pir, or the " Living Saint," so called because there Sakhi Sarwar, like Elijah, finally disappeared from the earth, without having died. The place is marked by a hot sulphur-spring, and the saint's influence makes this beneficial to rheumatic subjects. The story of the hawk and the pigeon is of a decidedly Buddhist complexion 'Ali had just been saying his prayers when a hawk struck down a pigeon in front of him. The pigeon appealed to him for protection, but the hawk said : " Oh, my Lord 'Ali, King of men, I left my young ones starving beyond the seven seas at the top of the deep rooted tree, and I have long been seeking some booty to satisfy their hunger. Do not take my only capture from me." Then the pigeon said : " Oh, my Lord 'Ali, my sad state is this. I left my starving children on the cliffs of Mount Bambor, and was pecking a few grains to take to them, when I was seized by this monster, who will slay me. Do not give me to this voracious hawk, for thou art lord of all." Then 'Ali called to Kambarfor his knife, and plunged it into his thigh, saying to the hawk, " Come, I will give you flesh to eat," and with that he cut a piece from his thigh, equal in size to the pigeon, or even larger ! Then the pigeon burst into tears, saying: " He is not a hawk, nor am I a pigeon, we are Angels of God sent to try you, and well have you borne the test."
262 Ba lo ch i Fo Iklo re .
In various narratives, persons who wish to obtain the favour of the saint, go to the shrine and labour at fetching water for the pilgrims. Balach did this when his relations had been exterminated by the Bulethis. (I may mention that at Sakhi Sarwar there is only one well, 200 feet deep, and to supply many thousands of pilgrims with water is no easy task.) After three years the saint appeared to Balach in a dream, and told him to get a bow. At night he left his bow unstrung, but in the morning he found it strung, and the saint said : " Now thy bow is strung, go and fight thy enemies " ; which he did with great effect.^ In the same way, when Samri was carried off by Muhabbat Khan of Kilat, her husband went to the shrine of Jive Lai at Sehwan in Sindh, and fetched water for the pilgrims, until the saint told him what he was to do.^ This shrine, called Lai Shahbaz as well as Jive Lai, is also much resorted to by Baloches. A description of it is given by Sir Richard Burton in Sind Revisited?
A more modern shrine, now much resorted to, is that of Sulaiman Shah of Taunsa Sharif. This Saint was a Jaafir, one of the aboriginal tribes of the mountains, which have resisted absorption by both Baloch and Pathan ; and a fine white marble domed shrine has been in recent times erected to his memory. This is a strictly Muhammadan shrine of the nineteenth century, and not like the others, a relic of pre-Muhammadan religions. Perhaps the only shrine sacred to a thoroughly Baloch saint is Pir Sohri, situated at Sohrl Khushtagh [i.e., Sohri's slaughter) in the country of the Bughti tribe. Sohrl was himself a Bughti, and bestowed his only goat on the four companions of Muhammad, who presented themselves to him disguised as beggars. In recompense, he found a miraculous flock of goats in his enclosure, and was also given the power of finding water
' Folk- Lore, vol. iv., 201.
' Folk- Lore, iv., 519.
' Sind Revisited, 1S77, ch. xxv.
Balochi Folklore. 263
everywhere by thrusting his staff into the ground. Ul- timately his head was cut off by his enerwies, but he took it in his hands and pursued them until they made restitution, when he finally died. Offerings of goats are still made at his shrine.^ In the wildest part of the country of the Bozdar tribe I once came across a small shrine to a local saint. Around the tomb a number of large fossil shells had been placed, which were held sacred. I was in favour with the Bozdars just then, as I had succeeded in settling some old feuds among them, and the Chief of the tribe, who was with me, solemnly presented me with two of these shells, which I still have.
These Bozdars are among the wildest and least sophisti- cated of all the Baloch tribes. The ordeal by fire still prevails among them, and the Chief once reported a case to me officially, asking for sanction to the proceedings. A man had been accused of theft, and offered to clear himself by the fire-ordeal. A trench was filled with burning char- coal, and he had to walk along it from end to end. He did this, but his feet were burnt, and his accusers said that this proved his guilt ; but the Chief and all the head men of the tribe held that this was immaterial, and that the real test was to walk from end to end without climbing out of the trench on either side. As there was no evidence w^hatever against the man, I concurred.
An allusion to the ordeal by fire will be found in the story of Naina Bai.'-^ The test was somewhat different from that in the Bozdar case. Naina Bai had to clear herself of an accusation of being false to the king, her lover. She, too, had to walk from end to end of a trench filled with live charcoalj but as she really had been false it was necessary to circumvent the ordeal. Her actual lover accordingly dis- guised himself as a half-witted faqir, and just as she was
' See the whole story in Hetil Ram's Biluchi Naina (Douie's translation, Calcutta, 1885), p. 77. - Folk-Lore, iv. 290.
264 Balochi Folklore.
about to enter the fire he threw his arms round her, calling out to the king not to burn such a beautiful woman. Naina Bai acted on the hint given her, and swore that she had never been embraced by any man save the king and this mad beggar. This was literally true, as the beggar was her lover, and apparently the oath was quite satisfactory to the powers which preside over ordeals, for she went through unscathed and was cleared. In neither case does the ordeal seem to have been quite a trustworthy test of guilt or innocence.
Belief in omens, in divination by soothsayers, in the casting of lots, and in witches, is very general. One of the omens which I have most frequently noticed refers to the black and white shrike, or giydnchh. If this bird is seen on the left-hand side on starting, the omen is inauspicious, and the party will often turn back and make a fresh start. It is supposed to mean bloodshed, perhaps the death of one of the party. But if hunting or shooting is the object of the expedition it is all right, as blood is what is wanted, and the shrike on the left-hand means good sport. The left is always the unlucky side. A bad omen is always called chapi, that is left-hand, or sinister. The soothsayer, or augur, is a well-known institution. Men who have this gift are known as rammall. The augury is generally made by inspecting the blood-vessels on the shoulder-blade of a sheep [hinjri or bardast) just after it is killed. For draw- ing lots, dried goat's or sheep's dung is generally used. Every man drawing, marks his own piece with his nails so as to recognise it.
It may be said, as a general statement, that the Muham- madan religion, though nominally followed, has not much effect on the wilder and nomadic Baloches. Sayyids and MuUas are not found everywhere, as among the Afghans ; on the contrary, they are hardly known except among the more settled tribes. The oath on the Qur'aii is, however,
BalocJii Folklore. 265
regarded with great awe, and is much more binding than among most Muhammadan races.
The aversion of the Baloches to fish is certainly not part of the Muhammadan religion. The fish is generally believed among Musalmans to be hatal, or lawful, without the ceremony of throat-cutting with the words " bismi ^Idlh " necessary in the case of all other lawful animals. The gills of the fish are believed to be specially provided as an equiva- lent for the throat-cutting. The Baloch, however, will not eat fish, or touch it with his hands if possible, a fact by which the angler profits greatly. Eggs are avoided also by Baloches, as carrion, for although they contain life they cannot be killed in the legal manner. I do not think, how- ever, that this is universal.
The superstition about the ?namm, or black bear, is, I believe, peculiar to the Baloches, although of course it is akin to the wer-wolves, tigers, &c., of other countries. It is difficult to get the people to speak about it freely, but I ascertained that the ma^nm frequently takes the form of a beautiful woman at night, and hugs men to death if they are not wary ; but by day it is never seen except as a bear.
I have not come across any cases of persons recognised as wizards or witches, although such no doubt exist. In the stories the dden, or witch, is a well-known institution. She is a woman who obtains magical powers by digging up and devouring dead bodies at night.
Sacred trees are occasionally found among the Baloches, as throughout India, and are occasionally hung with rags, bits of the clothes of the passers-by. This custom may pos- sibly be borrowed from the other tribes with whom the Baloches have been in contact.
A universal custom is the erection of cairns [chedhagh] to mark the site of any memorable event, a fight, a murder, a banquet, &c. Passers-by often add stones to these cairns. The word chedhagh, or chedag, as it is pronounced in Mekran,
266 Balochi Folklore.
is perhaps descended from the Buddhist Chaitya, to which it seems to correspond according to etymological rules. Another kind of cairn is known as a dambul. This is a cairn of mockery, erected in scorn of some contemptible action, something contrary to the ndmilSh or Baloch code of honour. I remember once seeing a pile of stones in the Chachar Pass and asking what it commemorated. After some hesitation and a good deal of laughter I was told it was a dambul put up against a certain chief of a neighbour- ing tribe w^ho had proved faithless, and turned back from an expedition on which he had set out.
Tombs in the hill country are much more elaborate and permanent than houses. The grave is generally covered with a pile of stones arranged in lines, black and white alternately, and these stones are often carried long distances. The chiefs' tombs are masses of masonry, solidly built, and the more wealthy and civilised chiefs erect elaborate monu- ments. Nawab Sir Imam Bakhsh Khan Mazari has built a group of domed tombs covered with blue and white Multan tiles, which will compare . favourably with anything of the sort I have seen built in modern times in Northern India. The habit is an old one, for the tomb of Ghazi Khan Dodai at Churatta, of about the year A.D. 1550, is a fine octagonal brick building in the Persian style, wdth remains of coloured tiles.
I once saw a tomb erected to a dog — at least there was a legend to that effect. This was in the country of the Marris, and the story told me was that of a dog and a wolf, almost identical with the Beddgelert story. This is certainly remarkable, as the Indian version of the story, found in the Hitopadesa, contains nothing about a dog and a wolf, but a mungoose and a snake figure in it.
Among the more settled Baloches the position of women is much the same as among other Muhammadan races. The principal men have zenanas, and the women do not appear in public, but this restriction is not strictly observed among
Balochi JP'olklore. 267
the less wealthy, and among the hill-tribes a good deal of liberty is allowed. One of the customs is for the women to form bands, to which no man is admitted, and to roam about the mountains together. They are never molested, and one of the most honourable characteristics of the Baloches is that they never kill or otherwise molest women or children in their raids. A boy may not be killed until he has been formally declared to be a man by being invested with the Baloch equivalent of the toga virilis, that is, the shalwdr or baggy trousers worn by men. This garment he assumes at the age of about fifteen. He is then a man, and may legitimately be killed.
Any insult to women is gravely resented. I once met with a case among the Lasharis. Two men had a quarrel, and one of them went to the other's hut in his absence, found only his mother there, and insulted her by tearing off her phashk, or bodice. Her son thereupon challenged him to fight. A spot was appointed, and each came to the rendezvous with one companion. They were armed with swords and shields, but threw away their shields and carved at each other with their swords as long as they could stand. I heard of the fight, but too late to prevent it, and after a twenty-mile ride through a fiery hot wind I arrived in time to see two corpses and two wounded men being carried into the little frontier fort of Sabzilkot. They had fought on the bare smooth plain, known as patt, a little way from the fort, and the ground was saturated with their blood.
In quite recent years a desperate feud between the Leg- hari and Gurchani tribes followed upon an insult in connec- tion with a breach of promise of marriage put upon the Chief of the Gurchanis. This Chief had a blot in his pedigree, owing to his father's mother having been a dancing-girl. His own mother was Baloch, but he was still not quite rein- stated as of the true blood, and was very anxious to get a bride of good family. He succeeded at length in getting
268 Balochi Folklore,
betrothed to a relation of the Leghari Chief ; but at the last moment the engagement was broken off, and the girl married to a Leghari living in Bahawalpur across the Indus. This Leghari was promptly killed by some Gurchanis and a renegade Leghari, and although the Chief's complicity could not be proved, there was no moral doubt of it ; and it was so generally believed that I found it necessary to recom- mend Government to deprive him of his powers as a magistrate and judge — a very serious matter with the chief of a tribe. War broke out between the independent sections of the tribes living in the hills, and years passed before the affair had blown over. Even now I should not be surprised to hear of its breaking out afresh. Feuds regarding women are frequent and severe, and are difficult to deal with. Love among the Baloches is, I believe, more spiritual and less gross in its manifestations than among most Oriental races, and the tone of the numerous love- poems is often of a genuinely romantic character. I may allude to the story and poem of Dosten and Shiren, of which I have published a translation ; ^ the poems of Jam Durrak, some of which also I have translated ; - Rehan's lament over the death of Salo and Bivaragh's love-song, both translated by the Rev. T. J. Mayer ; ^ and others still untranslated which I have in MS.
The little poems called dastdnagh, of a few lines only, which are sung to a flute accompaniment, are often of this type. The following are a few examples, but I need not say that they lose a great deal in translation :
Wandering maid, I am on thy track, For three years past I am on thy track, I am lame with wandering on thy track, A pain in my breast, I am on thy track. A fool in my heart, I am on thy track, Hopeless in soul, but on thy track.
' Folk- Lore, vol. viii., p. 79.
■•^ Sketch of North Balochi Language, \\
' Balochi Classics, pp. 13 and 15.
Balochi Folklore. 269
Friends, give me flowers for my hair And take my message to Sheran. My golden ring for my finger bring And give me flowers for my hair. Give me my fine camel-saddle And the fine scabbard of my sword. Come to the well to draw water And take my message to my love, " I am thy slave with joined hands."
My ring is on thy finger, do not now go back, With thy beautiful hair, do not now go back. Thy pledge is on my finger, do not now go back. And thou wast never false, do not now go back.
Janari is my soul !
If she be old, she is my soul,
If she be far off, she is my soul.
Thy head is mine, 'tis on my soul.
Thy head is mine, do not be sad.
Thy head is mine, I am not sad,
I am not sad when thou art with me,
To see thee move, I am not sad,
To look on thee, I am not sad.
I trusted in thee, false one ! I made thee my love, false one, Give back my pledge, false one ! May'st thou be blind, false one, Mays't thou go lame, false one. Maimed of thy hands, false one ! No fault was mine, false one !
Marriage is an affair of contract ; and where girls are bought and sold without any regard to their own consent it is inevitable that most of the love-affairs should be with married women, and that the husband should be regarded as an enemy to be got rid of. This feeling is found in the songs, and sometimes takes a comic form.
Tie up your husband with a rope, and come to your tryst, Tie the rope to a log, and come to your tryst. Throw the log into the river, and come to your tryst. He watches you by day, put on your shoes, Girl with the hair, and come to your tryst !
270 Balochi Folklore.
Savi's husband must be caught,
He must be caught, he must be beaten,
He must be sent for a ride in the train.
And put into the Sibi gaol.
The barber must be sent for,
His beard clipped and his hair shorn.
And only his skin left him to rub.
And then let him get a new wife !
This was no doubt composed when the railway to Sibi was first made and the gaol opened by the British Govern- ment. The unfortunate husband is to be entrapped and sent to prison, where he will have his hair cut off. It is a national custom among the Baloches never to cut hair or beard^ except to trim the moustache as a sign of orthodoxy. (The Balochi's orthodoxy consists of little else !) It is a great disgrace to have the hair cut ; so much so that in the Dera Ghazi Khan gaol the rule about cutting the hair is suspended in favour of Baloches, as it is in favour of Sikhs in other places.
Another little song, which is invariably greeted with great laughter, has for its burden —
" Aimt, the child's cap is lost !"
Where the lady who wishes to meet her lover is trying to find an excuse for getting out of the house at night, and pretends that she has dropped her boy's cap, and must go out to look for it.
It need hardly be added that elopements are very frequent. The Baloch code of honour is very severe, and demands that the husband should kill his wife and her lover, and this he must do without waiting for proof, if it even comes to his knowledge that her name has ever been mentioned in connection with that of another man, in however casual a way. The consequence is that the woman and her lover always elope as soon as they can, and escape into the terri- tory of another tribe or clan. If the lover belongs to this other clan his cause is espoused by his fellow-clansmen, and even if he does not belong to it, the laws of hospitality
Balochi Folklore. 271
forbid the surrender of refugees. If one of the fugitives is slain in the territory of another clan, a blood-feud may probably be started. There is, however, a remedy in pecuniary compensation, which our administration has utilised and reduced to a system in the management of these wild tribes. The woman is regarded as a piece of property, worth four or five hundred rupees, stolen by one tribe or clan from another, and compensation may be accepted without loss of honour — compensation in kind if possible, but estimated in cash terms. Thus it may be arranged that the fixed sum is to be paid by the injuring to the injured party, but in fact money seldom passes. A suitable bride is given by the defendant's family to a member of the plaintiff's family, and the aggrieved party then gives in a receipt for the sum awarded as compensa- tion. The Qur'aii is brought in, and everyone swears to keep the peace, and the incident is closed. Of course such a result requires long and troublesome negotiations, which are carried on under the supervision of a.jirga, or assembly of chiefs and leading men, who settle the final terms to be submitted for the British officer's sanction.
Not only cases about women, but murders of other sorts, springing out of old feuds, disputes about boundaries, cattle thefts, rights in water, are similarly dealt with. This system is followed with Baloch tribes whether in our territory or partially independent, and as I had many years' experience in working it, I may be allowed to say that it has proved successful. To the late Sir Robert .Sandeman the princi- pal credit of this is due. We used to have a sort of parlia- m^ent of tribes annually at Fort Munro in the Sulaimans, where the chiefs of the different jurisdictions with the officers in charge would meet to discuss all the cases which had arisen during the year ; and when all had been settled, the proceedings would conclude with a general feasting and merrymaking. Scores of sheep would be slain and roasted by long lines of wood fires along the hill sides ; and far
272 Balochi Folklore.
through the night the minstrels would sing old songs of war and love round the fire ; and the hill-men would dance in, circles, expanding and contracting with their flowing clothes and springy gait.
These dances of the mountaineers (known as dris) are graceful and dignified, and are accompanied by a kind of chant, a Dom playing the drum sitting in the middle of the circle. Among the camel-men from the plains, the dances {jhatnar) often take a comic and less dignified form. As the fun grows fast and furious the drummer becomes inspired with a fiendish excitement, and the circle breaks up into a number of groups ; some dance in couples and some singly, but all continue to revolve round the centre. Some sit down on the ground, squatting and hopping like frogs ; some hop round on one foot, and all shout out " Whash en whash ! " some making strange squeaking and piping noises with their mouths. But the hill-men do not indulge in these antics, but rather despise them.
The Doms belonging to the various tribes are much in evidence on these occasions, and are generally well rewarded by the chiefs. Sometimes other performers appear. I re- member an old mountaineer, a DurkanT, who was celebrated for his powers as a mimic. He was known familiarly as " Gurkh," or Wolf, and had a son, a boy whom he called " Tholagh," or Jackal, who was very nearly as clever as his father : these men would personate some well-known cha- racters among the Baloches, each impersonation being greeted with shouts of laughter. They would also imitate English officers, but this it was not easy for us to get a sight of ; they were shy, and perhaps the performances were not always complimentary. But once I witnessed a representa- tion of the great Sandeman, or Sinneman, as they called him. He had a big bag of rupees in one hand, and a thick stick in the other, and gave money to some while he whacked others, which gave a popular idea of his method of combining conciliation with punishment.
Balochi Folklore. 273
I have already alluded to the unwillingness to surrender refugees. This is a prominent feature in the tribal system. The baut^ or refugee, who flees for safety to the tribe, is sacred and must not be given up. The strength of this feeling is still very strong ; the ballads contain many allu- sions to it. In one of those relating to Mir Chakar and Gohar, Bagar Jatoi calls out to Chakar, " When did a hero ever fail his refugees ? " and proceeds to tell the story of Bibari and the lizard. Bibari sat in front of her hut and some boys came by. A lizard dropped out of a dwarf-palm and the boys pursued it, driving it into the house. Bibari stood in front of them, and begged them to spare the lizard, as it was her refugee; but they paid no attention to her and killed it. She went to her husband and said to him, " If you do not go to war on account of this lizard, I am your sister and you my brother," and he proceeded accordingly to take revenge.
Another case often quoted is the behaviour of Chakar to the Lashari women, already mentioned, and the conduct of Nodhbandagh towards Mir Chakar himself, when he mounted him on his own mare Phul, and allowed him to escape from the other Lasharis. A favourite story bearing on this point is that of Doda Gorgezh.^ A certain man who possessed a miraculous herd of cattle took refuge with Doda, and died bequeathing his wife Sammi and the cattle to Doda's pro- tection ; Doda sacrificed his life in the cause, and his tomb is shown at Garmaf, where he was killed. Doda's wan- derings in the mountains are vividly described in a poem attributed to his son Balach, who ultimately, with all the rest of the family, met his death at the hands of the Bulethis. One passage in this poem expresses the very spirit of the born mountaineer :
"The mountains are the Baloches' rampart, the cliffs are better than an army ; the lofty heights are our comrades, the pathless gorges our dearest
' See Balach and the Bulethis. Folk-Lore, iv., 200. VOL. XIII. T
274 Balochi Folklore.
friends. Our drink is from the flowing springs, our cup the leaf of the phish, our bed is the thorny bush, the hard ground our pillow. My white sandals are my steed, my son is the sharp arrow, my son-in-law the pointed dagger, my brethren the broad shield, my father the wide- wounding sword."
The same spirit is expressed in another poem :
" We will not dwell in the Indus plain ; Phailawagh will be our pasture. The salt stream of the Chachar is our friend, it will taste sweet in our children's mouths, for these are the forts which keep the marauding Turk far from us."
So I am brought back again to the old legends and ballads with which I began, and I cannot do better than close with another quotation which gives the true spirit of all folklore. After relating the history of his tribe, the bard says :
" This is our track and story, this is the home of the true Rinds, a name exalted among tribes. If you do not believe it, no one has seen it with his eyes, there are no ancient documents or witnesses to attest it, but there are tales upon tales ; everyone says that so it was."
M. LoxGWORTH Dames.
s
^
COLLECTANEA.
Scottish Charm against Witchcraft.
The accompanying illustration (Plate III.) represents a very old cottage on the Cawdor property, Nairnshire, which is inhabited by an old dame whose family have occupied it for four generations in succession. Leaning against the thatched roof may be seen an implement called the Bogle. It consists of the slim stem of a dead fir; devoid of branches, except at the very top, which is decked out into the semblance of a rude figure, like a scarecrow, with a white cap and an old jacket. The Bogle is set on the ground leaning against the wall and roof, overnight; and it is shifted every evening from the right to the left — et vice versa — of the doorway, in the belief that the house and its inmates will thus be secure from harm by the witch. These particulars were com- municated to me through Dr. J. Simpson.
The word Bogle is traced by Lye ^ to the Welsh Imgul, fear, bwgwly, to frighten. Its primary meaning is a spectre, a hob- goblin ; and in this sense we find it used by Burns : —
" Ghaist nor bogle shalt thou fear ; Thou'rt to love and heaven sae dear, Nocht of ill may come thee near,
My bonnie dearie."
Its secondary meaning is a scarecrow, and in this sense the n2iXi\.Q potato-bogle is common throughout Scotland.
Fred. R. Coles. Soc. Antiq. Scot,
National Museum, Edinburgh.
[Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary gives both meanings of bogle, viz., hobgoblin and scarecrow. For the history of the word see the New English Dictionary, s.v. We have to thank Dr. Sclanders, of Nairn, for a copy of the photograph. — Ed.]
' Edward Lye, Diet. -Saxon. -Goth. -Lat., 1772.
T 2
276
Collectanea.
Burial Custom in Japan.
On the 31st March last I found, at the roadside between Atami and Odawara, a structure of which the following is a rough diagram : —
It consisted of four bamboos with a sheet of white cotton cloth stretched somewhat loosely between them. The cloth was tied on the posts with cotton tape. The dimensions of the structure were about a foot and a half square by 18 inches to 2 feet high. Beside it stood a common wooden bucket filled with water, and in the water was a dipper. On the cloth is written in Japanese characters, " Naniu a?nida Butsu" and on the name tablet (A) is written in Sanskrit the posthumous name {Kaimyo) of the deceased.
The above is erected in commemoration of a woman with child who dies before delivery. The place of erection is usually over the grave, but it is also placed near running water or by the wayside, in both cases near to the grave. If placed by running water the bucket is not necessary. Passers-by pour a dipperful of water over the cloth. I cannot ascertain quite clearly whether they are supposed to benefit the dead woman or themselves by so doing. All I can gather is that " they are considered to have done a good action." The period for which the above is erected is three weeks.
J. C. Hartland. Yokohama, 2nd April, 1902.
Collectanea. 277
Mr. W. G. Aston, whom I have consulted upon this custom, kindly refers me to a quotation by him, in a note to his transla- tion oi \h.& Nihongi (London, Japan Society, 1896), vol. ii., p. 150, of the description of the practice in Yamada's ya/aw^i'i? Dictionary. The practice is called Nagare-Ka?ijd {Katijo meaning baptism, or head-sprinkHng), and is thus described : " Four posts are set up near water, on which white cloth is hung. To this are attached leaves of lign-aloes, &c., as offerings for the benefit of the souls of the friendless dead, of drowned persons, or of women who have died in childbirth." Mr. Aston informs me that the expression here given as " women who have died in childbirth " is ambiguous in the original, and may mean " still-born children " ; and by an accident he so rendered it in the Nihojigi. He is satisfied, how- ever, that " women who have died in childbirth " is intended. He also informs me that another Japanese authority states that the four pillars on which the cloth rests are, or represent, sotoba, i.e., the commemorative laths or posts, inscribed with Sanskrit characters, which are set up at graves. The practice, he adds, has been described in Our Neigiibourhood, by T. A. P. (the late Dr. Purcell, of Tokio), a work subsequently republished in London under the title of A Suburb of Yedo.
E. S. Hartland.
Rice Harvest in Ceylon.
(Communicated by Mr. J. G. Frazer.)
{Siipra, p. 77.)
On an estate in Ceylon near here, in February, the Tamil coolies (Hindus) drowned the god Madu Sami in the river. For three days he was drowned, and during that time Mooniandi the devil reigned supreme. The men got sticks and beat the women, calling out, " You have the devil in you ! " and chasing them all over the estate. Then they fixed on one old woman, beat her, made her carry a large stone on her head, and made her run three times round the coolie-houses. Then they threw stones and chased her to the Mooniandi Sami stone, and there they had incantations ; and pushing her to a tree, near the Mooniandi
2/8 Collectanea.
shrine, nailed her hair to the tree, and then cut it from her head. The woman was free then, and the hair remained there. On the third day they resurrected the Madu Sami doll, and peace reigned as before. This was done after the rice-harvest was over. Mooni- andi Sami is always propitiated by a sacrifice or thank-ofFering or scapegoat. They say : " Here, devil, is your portion, or sacrifice, now leave us alone, you have had your share."
R. J. Drummond. Belgravia, Talawakelle,
23rd March, 1902.
Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Superstitions.
{Supra, pp. 63, 188, 197.)
The First-Born. — In the Punjab the first-born son of a wife is peculiarly uncanny, especially subject to magical influences and endowed with supernatural powers. On the one hand his hair is useful in witchcraft, and on the other its possession would give a wizard power over him. He himself possesses considerable magical powers, for he can stop hail by throwing a stone back- wards from, or by cutting a hailstone with, a knife ; and he can stay a dust storm by standing naked in front of it. He is also pecuharly subject to lightning, and is not allowed to go out on a rainy day. Snakes also become torpid in his presence. (Fuller notes on this or similar ideas would be welcome.)
A first-born child, whether a boy or a girl, should not be married in Jeth ^ (or, one account adds, in Magh), nor should the mother eat first-fruits in that month, because as she devours them so too will the fates devour her first-born. The position of the first-born is probably due to the fact that, if a son, his father is born again in him, so that the father is supposed to die at his
' But according to the Matha-Khatra Granth, sloka 15, of Bhardwaj Rikhi, it is only necessary to avoid marriage in Jetb, if both parties he Jit It as, i.e., bom in Jeth, or if it is not possible to avoid Jeth the ceremony should not be held in the Kirt Nackshatra during that month.
Collectanea. 279
birth ; and in certain Khatri sections, e.g.^ the Kochhar,i his funeral rites are actually performed in the fifth month of the mother's pregnancy. Probably herein lies an explanation of the dev-kdj, or divine nuptials, a ceremony which consists in a formal re-marriage " of the parents after the birth of their first son. The wife leaves her husband's house and goes, not to her parents' house, but to the house of a relative, whence she is brought back like a bride. This custom prevails among the Khanna, Kapur, Malhotra, Kakar, and Chopra, the highest sections of the Hindu Khatris.^
These ideas are an almost logical outcome of the doctrine of the metempsychosis, and it inevitably results that if the first-born be a girl she is peculiarly ill-omened.
Twins. — There appear to be no superstitions in the Punjab connected with twins (ditld or jonkri) ; but in one part of the Kangra district the child born a/iter twins is called laiihka or "little."
The Sequence of Births. — There is little to be added to the notes already given (pp. 63, 68), but the following details may be of interest. In Kangra a child of one sex born after hvo of the other sex is called trelar,^ and with that primitive confusion of thought which makes no distinction between that which is holy and that which is accursed, we have the proverb : " Trelar rele ya sangek,'' i.e., "a trelar either brings evil or good fortune."
In the same district a child of one sex born after three of the other is called cholar, and is, especially if a boy, propitious. As such he is presumably an object of jealousy to the fates, and his nose is drilled, like a girl, or he is given away to a low-caste man (a Barar or a Chuhra), from whom the child is redeemed by the parents by paying money or grain.
' According to one account, a Kochhar wife in the sixth month of her pregnancy pretends to be displeased and goes away from her home. Her husband shaves his head, beard, &c., and goes after her with a few men of his brotherhood. On finding her, he entreats her to return and promises her a present of jewellery, whereupon she consents to come back home.
'•* Should a wife bear twenty children (!), she must also be remarried to her husband. The ceremony of remarriage is precisely the same as that of a first marriage, but it is performed on the roof of the house.
^ The Mohammedan Gadhiok Sheikhs of JheUim also retain it. It costs about half as much as a real marriage.
■* Trel^a. third ploughing ; Jukes, PVesfem Punjabi Diciio7iary . s.z:
28o Collectanea.
The Pokhu. — (i.) Of three male children born one after the other, the middle one is said to be lucky. Of three successive female children the middle one is considered unlucky.
(ii.) A boy following and preceding a girl is regarded as in- auspicious. A girl following and preceding a boy is believed to be lucky.
An inauspicious child is termed bhdrd-pokhii-wdld} while an auspicious one is called halka-pokhu-wdld. When a woman com- mences to grind wheat, to spin, or to churn milk she will not allow one of the former to stand by her, because she believes that the presence of such a child will render the work difficult or im- possible. She will either send him away or ignore his presence. On the other hand, the presence of one of the latter children is considered a good omen, and women believe that their work will be easily finished, if such a child be sitting by them.
Birth Superstitions. — There are some curious customs con- nected with births at particular times or after certain periods. For instance, a child born in the month of Bhadon is lucky (unlike a calf), while one born in Katik is inauspicious. In the latter case it is considered sinful to keep the mother in the house, and she should be expelled from it, but instead she may be made over, temporarily, to a Brahman and afterwards redeemed from him.
" According to the Shastras " a wife who has no child for some years is called sujidh ; one who does not bear a child for ten years, kai budhia ; and after twenty-one or twenty-four years, suf budhia. If then she bears a child, a fire of dried cowdung is burnt in front of the house, and the woman is sent away out of the village to live for forty days (a period called the parsuf) in a thatched hut, after which Brahmans are fed and she is allowed to return.
A. J. Rose.
30th June, 1902.
An Indian Ghost Story.
The following account was given to me some years ago by Babu Akhaya Mohana, a respectable Bengali, at that time
' Pokhun in Multani = an omen or augurj- ; Jukes, Western Punjabi Dictionary, s.v.
Collectanea. 281
employed on the North Western Railway at Saharanpur, in the North Western Provinces.
Several years ago, his brother, who was then employed as a clerk in the secretariat office at Calcutta, proposed to pay a visit to his wife, then living in the family of his father-in-law, whom he had not seen for some years. He started on his journey to one of the easiern districts of the Presidency of Bengal, and when he arrived within a short distance of the village in which his father-in- law lived, he halted at the shop of a confectioner by the wayside. He entered into conversation with his host, who asked him where he was going. The Babu told him that he was on his way to visit his father-in-law. On this the confectioner expressed as- tonishment, and told him that some short time before his father- in-law and the other members of his family had been carried off by cholera, and that it was commonly reported that they still lived in the house in the form of Bhuts, or malignant spirits, because no one was left to perform the necessary funeral rites.
The Babu, an intelligent man, who spoke and wrote English well, laughed at this story, and continued his journey to the house of his relations. All was quiet when he reached the house ; but he entered and found his father-in-law sitting in the reception- room. There was nothing unusual in his appearance, and the only thing he noticed was that the old man answered him in nasal tones. This the Babu supposed to be merely the result of old age. Soon after the ladies of the family appeared, who washed his feet and entertained him with sweetmeats and sherbet, as Bengali women do when a relative pays them a visit. He was surprised, however, to observe that they too spoke with a nasal twang. But when he remembered what the confectioner had told him, he could not help feeling some anxiety.
When evening came, the ladies told him to go and cook his supper for himself. This again was unusual, as the cooking for a guest is always done by the ladies of the family. He asked the reason, and they told him that they were under a vow of fasting and could eat nothing that day. Of course, as he afterwards saw, their real objection to cook was the dread of fire and the aversion to touch iron cooking utensils, which all Bhuts feel.
So he set about cooking for himself, and as he was boiling the rice and was about to salt it, they shouted to him to desist, as under their fasting vow the use of salt was forbidden in the house.
282 Collectanea.
Then they gave him some fish which he cooked for himself, and when it was ready he laid it in a dish. But no sooner had he laid it down than it disappeared. The fact was that the Bhuts, unseen by him, ate it as soon as it was cooked.
At this his alarm increased, and he began to think how he could manage to escape from this uncanny house. Finally, he deter- mined to appeal to his wife, though he knew that she had become a Bhut herself. As he entered the room in which she sat she instantly vanished, and soon after he saw her sitting in another corner. He approached her again, and she again disappeared. At last, when he appealed to her for mercy, she said : " My dear husband, as you see, we are all Bhuts, and our bodies are being eaten away inside by worms. But in spirit we are Bhuts, and we intend to kill you to-night." When he asked how they had be- come Bhuts, she answered : " Our father died, and there was no one to perform his funeral rites ; so he became a Bhut, and he killed us one by one. This he did because he had to serve the Bhuts who were senior to him, and when he killed one of us that one took his place in servitude. And so each one, as he became a Bhut, killed another of us, till there was none of us left. Then we began to kill our neighbours, until the remnant, finding out who we were, abandoned the village. We cannot follow them now as we are unable to leave our own district, and we have to depend on any stranger like yourself who happens to visit the village."
When he heard the story, the Babu was beside himself with fear, and implored her to point out some way in which their bondage might be put an end to, and he might save his life. She answered : " Your only chance of safety is to go at once and perform our Sraddha (funeral rites) at Gaya, and then we can go to heaven. But you must marry me again when I am reborn in the family of my father's brother. When we pass out of the state of Bhuts the Pipal (sacred fig) tree which stands in the courtyard of the house will fall down of its own accord. Now take a lota (brass cup) of water and go out. While you hold it in your hand none of us can touch you, and you can make your escape. Good- bye, my former husband."
He took her advice, filled a lota with water and rushed out of the house. The Bhuts called on him to stop, but he paid no heed, and ran until he was well out of their district. He passed
Collectanea. 283
that night at the house of the confectioner, and next morning hastened home. He raised money and went to Gaya, where he performed the Sraddha in due form.
When he revisited his father-in-law's house some time after he found that the Pipal-tree in the courtyard had fallen down. So he took his wife's advice and married the daughter of the brother of his late father-in-law, and since then he has lived in prosperity.
This curious story illustrates the popular beliefs about life after death, and especially about Bhuts. The Bhut is a malignant spirit, and one common cause why people become Bhuts is that their funeral rites have not been performed. The Homeric parallel is the case of Patroklos {Iliad, xxiii., 71); on the contrary, the shade of Elpenor, though his body is unburied, passes into the house of Hades {Odyssey, xi., 51-83). "The spirit-voice is a low murmur, chirp, or 'whisper, as it were the ghost of a voice " (Tylor, Primitive Culture, second edition, i., 452 seq). Indian ghosts speak with a nasal twang (Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-Lore, i., 237 seq.). The fact of the new-coming dead serving those who have preceded them is a common belief in Ireland (Lady Wilde, Ancietit Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland, 82 seq.. Folk-lore, iv., 363), in Scotland (Rogers, Social Life, iii., 342), and in China (Giles, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, ii., 365). I have illustrated elsewhere the pro- tective powers of iron, brass, and salt, which are all well-known scarers of ghosts {Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern India, ii., 11 seq.; 15 seq.; 23). That Bhuts have a well-defined district, outside which they are unable to pass, is a well-known folk-belief. To marry a second wife is dangerous, as she is exposed to the malignant spirit of her predecessor. Here the danger is avoided by the woman being re-born in another family, and then re-married to her former husband. The incident of the Pipal-tree rather looks as if it were one of those cases in which the tree is the "Life Index" of the family. It falls on their release from the form of Bhiits and their entrance into Paradise. Bhuts, however, as Mr. Hartland reminds me, often take up their abode in trees, and Pipal-trees seem to be their favourites ; see Bhut Nibandh, by Dalpatram Daya, translated by Alex. Kinloch Forbes. Bombay (1849), PP- 8, 19, 45) 47-
W. Crooke.
284 Collectanea.
Myths Current in the Sahara Desert.
I picked up the following stories while on an expedition into the Sahara in 1900; most of them from Arabs of my caravan, or from the Touareg nomads whose camp I visited. They are all, I think — with one possible exception — of Touareg, that is to say of Berber, origin. Some of them I afterwards found reproduced in Le Sahara francais, by Bissuel, published in 1891 by Jourdan, Algiers, from which I have added a few items, distinguishing them in each case from what I gathered at first hand.
" Somewhere in the Touareg country " there is a valley strewn with stones which shine at night. It is infested by deadly snakes which can spring as high as the hump of a camel from the ground. They sleep among the rocks during the daytime, but emerge and attack anyone who enters the valley during the night, which is the only time when these stones can be distinguished from ordinary pebbles. The men who collect these stones enter the valley at night on camel-back and sew fleeces, with the woolly side out- wards, all over their camels, and over themselves up to the waist, for protection from the snakes. They carry a hollow reed and a bag of powdered charcoal, and when they see a luminous stone they place one end of the reed over it and pour a handful of charcoal down the tube, so that when they return during the day- time to gather the stones, they may be able to identify them from those which surround them. (From my Arab guide.)
In the Air district there is said to be an enchanted oasis {cf. the Garden of the Hesperides), some of the trees in which bear precious stones instead of fruit. In its midst is a magnificent palace with walls of porphyry, jasper, and jade. Splendid ara- besques cover the walls, lace-like tracery fills the windows, and its golden domes and minarets flash and sparkle in the sun. Foun- tains play all day in its courts and gem-like singing birds warble continually around it. It is inhabited by women " more beautiful than hoiiris" who appear on its roofs and beckon to those who visit the oasis to enter {cf. the Sirens). But no human being has yet entered that palace ; for whenever any one attempts to cross the threshold the building recedes before him, and continues to do so while he follows it about the oasis ; until at length, fascinated by those beautiful women, he wears himself out by following the palace round the oasis and falls exhausted and dies under its walls.
Collectanea. 285
Only one man ever succeeded in escaping from the spot. He was a greedy and avaricious fellow who, when he saw the women beckoning, turned his back upon them and busied himself in filling his kerratas (camel-bags) with the precious fruit of the oasis. He then set out for his tent. He marched the whole day, but in the evemng found himself back again at the point whence he had started. On the second day the same thing happened again. He then realised that the oasis belonged to the genii, and that they were preventing him from carrying away their fruit. He accordingly emptied his kerratas and made another attempt to return to his home. But the result was the same as before : in the evening he found himself back again at his starting point. An examination showed that a single date which he had over- looked still remained in one of his kerratas, and it was not until he had thrown this out that he was able to return to his tent. (From a Touareg herdsman of the Hoggar tribe, and some Arabs of my caravan ; the account of the palace is from my Arab guide. The oasis is mentioned in Le Sahara francais, p. 153.)
The Touareg women, when they wish to get news of their lovers who are absent on some expedition, put on their best clothes and go and he down on one of the old tombs in the desert and invoke a spirit called Idebni, who appears in the form of a man. If the woman pleases him, he gives her the news she wants ; if not, he strangles her. {Le Sahara f ran fats, p. 153.)
There are some hot springs in Algeria (at Hammam Meskoutine, I thi?ik, though there is another legend of this place), which are used by the Arabs as a cure for rheumatism. The Arabs say they are heated by a furnace stoked by some genii, whom Solomon condemned to the work on account of some crime they had committed. In order that they should not see, hear, or repeat anything that went on at the baths, he made them deaf and blind, and deprived them of the power of speech. As, owing to these infirmities, the other genii have not been able to acquaint them with the fact of the death of Solomon, they still continue the labour imposed upon them, fearing that if they should cease to do so he would punish them still more severely. I am sorry to say I have not kept a note of my authority for this story, which, it will be observed, is not localized in the Sahara.
" Sand-devils," i.e. whirls of sand raised by the wind into the air, are said by the Arabs to be caused by a genius amusing himself.
286 Collectanea.
I was told a story by an Arab of a man who made some slighting remarks to his companion about a passing " sand-devil." The Devil immediately wheeled round and came swirling and roaring towards him, knocked him down, tore the burnous (cloak) from his back, and carried it up into the air until it was lost to sight.
A curious droning sound known as " the song of the sands " is heard sometimes on a still night in the Sahara. The Arabs say that this sound is the genii talking. (From an Arab of my caravan • and from one of a gang of Sha' ambah Arabs under arrest at Tougourt for raiding the Touaregs.)
There are two species of fabulous snakes in the desert. The one was described as being about eighty feet long, three feet wide, and having long hair on its head " like a woman." It springs upon travellers from an enormous distance or kills them by breathing fire at them. (Touareg name ashshel; Arab name hatiesh — both words mean simply " snake." I have also heard it called Tharaben by an Arab.) The other is smaller, the length of six men. It also has hair on its head, and has besides two horns like a goat. Its cry resembles that of a goat : it is called a Tanerhouel. This account, which I had from several Arabs, is con- firmed in Le Sahara f radicals, p. 154, where it is further said that in the Ahnet mountains of the Sahara there is also a creature called a Tatier'ouf. It is globular in shape, and " as large as a camel," and quite black. It moves occasionally from place to place, but generally lives in the caves of the mountains, where it sleeps all day long. It has a great objection to being disturbed, and if aroused by any one entering the cave, squirts boiling water at him from its mouth, which not only kills him but cooks him as well. The Taner'out then devours him and immediately falls asleep again. Can this myth refer to some volcanic phenomenon ?
Some of the better-class natives of course quite recognise the fabulous nature of these various creatures, but others firmly believe in them. One reason of my journey into the Sahara was to inquire into the existence of the tharaben, as I was collecting natural history specimens at the time, and thought that perhaps the " long hair " might be some sort of hood like the cobra's, and that it might be a new species. I was told at Biskra that one had been seen at El Wad (El Oued), but of course when I got there I could hear nothing of it. The horns of the tatierhouel vax^^ be only an exaggera-
Collectanea. 287
tion of the two " horns," or short spikes, on the head of the Lafaa, or horned cerastes viper, a snake which runs to about two feet long.
In the same district there is a class of beings called " the people of the sand " (Touareg Ahl-et-Trab, Arab Kel-es-Souf). They claim possession of everything below the surface of the soil. They are of a mischievous disposition and drink up the water of the wells when they see a thirsty traveller approaching, and bite off the roots of the plants and so cause them to die and reduce the amount of pasturage for camels. They sometimes take a bodily shape and come above ground, i)ut never show themselves to more than two persons at once. So said one of the Hoggar (Touareg) herdsmen previously mentioned. In Bissuel's Les Toua- reg de /'6^;/^i-/ (jourdan, Algiers, 1888), there is (p. 32) a story of two Arab brothers, extremely attached to each other, who were travelling together in the desert. In the evening they halted and killed a sheep for their supper. The spot where they had halted was a sand-dune district with no vegetation. While looking for some fuel to cook the meat, one of them found a Touareg tomb. The Touareg usually mark their graves by placing a slab of wood or stone (called Shouahed, or " witness "), upright in the ground, at the head and foot of it, with the name of the deceased upon one of the slabs. The slabs in this case were of wood. Thinking these would make good fuel, the elder brother sent the younger to pull them up. He was unable to do so, for at every wrench which he gave to the slabs a heartrending groan proceeded from the grave. Thoroughly scared, he returned to his brother and told him what had happened. The latter laughed at him for his fears and set out to fetch them himself He was met when he attempted to do so with the same heartrending sighs and groans. But he was not to be easily daunted. " These slabs are of no use to you," he called out to the deceased Touareg : " I want them to cook my supper, and I mean to have them." He wrenched them out and brought them back to the camp. Find- ing his brother fast asleep he set to work to cook the dinner so as to be ready for his awakening. Just as the meal was ready and the cook was about to arouse his brother, the form of the dead Touareg emerged from the grave and came and sat down between the two brothers, claiming that as he had supplied the means of cooking the food, he had a right to a share in the supper. The
288 Collectanea.
cook admitted the justice of his claim and began to divide the meat into three portions.
" Why are you cutting that meat into three ? " asked the Touareg.
" Because there are three of us — you, I, and my brother."
" No, there are only two. Your brother is dead."
" No, he is only asleep."
" I tell you he is dead."
" He is not, you fool ; he is asleep." And they began to quarrel about it.
At last the cook, becoming enraged at the insults heaped upon him by the dead Touareg, snatched up his gun and fired point blank into him. The Touareg with a triumphant laugh sprang to his feet and, closely followed by the Arab, ran to his grave, where he immediately disappeared. The Arab, immensely pleased with himself for having got the better of a ghost, returned to the camp, stooped down and shook his brother to awaken him, but found to his horror that he was quite dead, having been killed by the shot which he had fired at his shadowy guest.
W. J. Harding King.
Stray Notes on Oxfordshire Folklore.
Compiled by Percy Manning, M.A., F.S.A.
The following notes, which were in part read at the meeting of March 26, 1902 (see p. 114), are largely based on the collections of my old friend Thomas James Carter, who was born at Baldon-on- the-Green, Oxon., on June 11, 1832. His parents moved in 1836 to St. Clement's, Oxford, where he has lived ever since. In early Ufe he worked for some years in the old St. Clement's brick- fields, now long since built over. Here he began in his spare moments to hunt for fossils, and by degrees he acquired a con- siderable practical knowledge of the subject. At length he was disabled by rheumatism from hard work, and took to the collec- tion of fossils for his living. For many years he ranged the country round Oxford, going from quarry to brickyard, until he attained a very intimate acquaintance with the geology of the
Collectanea. 289
district ; and many geologists, not to mention candidates for " the schools," owe much to Carter's knowledge. Some of the finest specimens of local fossils in the University Museum were collected by him, notably the series of Trigonia claveliata, and of Ammonites catenaia, f'-om the calcareous grit of Marcham, Cidaris Smithii from the grit of Headington, Glyphea Stricklandi and Rampho- rhyncus, from the Oxford clay of St. Clement's.
It was as a collector of fossils that I first met Carter, but subse- quently on turning my attention to folklore, it struck me that I might avail myself of his rambles over the country. He applied to his search for " old superstitions, stories, proverbs, words, &c." — such was his commission — the same keenness and shrewdness with which he had hunted fossils. In every case he wrote his information down before bringing it to me, and it is a selection from his MSS., copied practically verbatim, that forms the main body of these papers. I have added some items collected by myself at first-hand, together with explanatory notes where they seemed necessary. These are distinguished by square brackets, or are given as footnotes. For all else Carter is my authority. The dates give the time when he obtained the several items, and in most cases I have added the names of his informants.
I. Witchcraft.
Many years ago there lived in the village of Kirtlington an old woman called " Sarey Bowers," said to be a witch. She was the terror of all the children and young people, and something was sure to happen to any one who incurred her displeasure. She lived in an old hut at the top of the village, called Fox Town's End, which was a noted place for the hounds to meet at. A fox had been started from Town's End many times, but had never been caught, and Sarey was accused of bewitching both hounds and fox ; but on the last day of the season the fox was run so close it could scarcely get away. It found shelter, however, in Sarey's hut, and when the hounds were whipped off and the door opened, Sarey was sitting by the fire. They say that Sarey was herself the fox. — (June, 1894.)
About fifty years ago there was an old woman living at Newn- ham Murren, named Frewin, who was reckoned to be a witch. Many people while walking in the twilight were frightened by seeing a white cat that was said to be the old woman, and it was
VOL. XITI. U
290 Collectanea.
a common saying, " Don't stay out late, or you'll see the white cat."— (1898.)
Old Mrs. Joseph Cooper, aged ninety-one, of Barton, near Headington, remembers when she was a child a woman called Miriam Russell, who was a witch, and the terror of the place. She was often seen riding about in a dough-cover [a bin for kneading dough]. She once went to ask for something of a family named Powell, who lived at Stovvford Farm, and on being denied said she would remember them. A few days after, the cows and calves all suddenly ran about as if they were going mad, and several calves were found at last on the top of the thatched barn. Old Miriam made it known that this was her work. The Powells then willingly gave her what she wanted, and then the cows were quiet and the calves came down off the barn.
Although Miriam was so formidable, she is said to have been very fond of children. — (August, 1897.)
Some forty years ago there lived at Salford, near Chipping Norton, an old woman named Dolly Henderson, a notable witch. One day she fell out with a woman named Ann Hulver, and bewitched her, so that she was very ill for a long time and could get no cure. At last she went to a cunning man named Manning, who told her that she would meet a woman as she went home, and that she was the person who had caused her illness, but she was not to speak to her, or say anything to anyone about her. But she did ; she told some women that worked in the fields what the man said, and so she got worse and worse till she was like a skeleton. About this time a boy was also be- witched by old Dolly, and his brother threw a thorn stick at her, which tore her arm and made it bleed a good deal. The woman and the boy then soon got well, but the old witch died, and the terror of the village was got rid of, — (From Mrs. Jinny Bigerstaff, of Salford, aged 63, who knew the people mentioned.^ — (9th October, 1897.)
' Salford is at the foot of the hill on which the Rollright Stones stand. Mr. A.J. Evans (^F. L., vi., 20), mentions the belief current in Long Compton — which is just on the other side of the hill — that the drawing of a witch's blood breaks the spell that she may have cast over her victim. As late as 1S75 ''^^ inhabitant of that village was convicted of manslaughter for stabbing an old woman with a pitchfork, causing her death. He gave as his motive that she was a witch — one of sixteen witches in the village- and that he was trying to break her spells. Vide an article in the Birmingham iVeekly Post, on " Manners and Customs of Shakespeare's Greenwood," by Mr. George Morley, quoted in the Oxford Ttines, 22nd July, 1899.
Collectanea, 291
Old Mrs. Snow, aged seventy-six, of Stanton St. John, says that when she was a girl, her father, John Turner, used to tell her of an old woman named Betty Cann, who was a witch, and lived at the top of the village in an old thatched cottage long since pulled down. When she met the villagers she always had something to say to them. She once asked Turner where he was going, and he told her, " To the wood to get some services " [service-berries]. When he got to the wood old Betty was up in the tree, and shouted out, " Hold your hat, here's plenty ! " And she filled his hat.
The boys and girls were afraid to go past her cottage for fear of being bewitched. Some of the older boys and men would go and look in at her window, or through the keyhole, and said as a fact that the old woman was dancing half-naked, and her old chairs were dancing too.
In summer time she would meet the farmers and tell them not to carry their hay ; if they did so after being told not, something was sure to happen — a horse would go lame, or a waggon would break down. She would also ride on hurdles, and send the cows and other cattle full tear down the village. She would tell the young men and girls where they had been last night, and what time they got home. — (17th February, 1898.)
About sixty years ago there lived at Tetsworth an old gipsy woman called " Mother Buckland," who got her living by begging.i She was known as a witch, and it was thought unlucky to refuse her anything, as something bad would happen to those who did. One day she called at a house where a woman called Phoebe Hawes was hanging out a shawl to air on a clothes-line in the sun, and Mother Buckland said she would like the shawl. She was refused, and then she threatened the woman and told her " Look out ! You'll know ; look out ! " From that time the woman was bewitched, becoming like one lost, and this went on till the old gipsy came back some weeks after ; then the shawl
' [The following obviously imperfect story among Carter's MSS. comes from Buckinghamshire, but as its locale is only a mile or so from the border of Oxfordshire it may be added as a note.] — Forty years ago an old gipsy woman called "Old Pretty Maid" was used to beg at Marsh Gibbon. She was a witch, and she bewitched a boy called Helton, who lived in a cottage now pulled down, at the top of the town, so that he became a perfect pest to the town through his mischievous tricks. After she bewitched the boy she could not rest, and she could not make water. Being in much pain she came to the house again where the boy lived, and found him up the chimney. So she took pity on him, and then she soon found relief. The boy got well, and she died. — (lOth September, 1897.')
U 2
292 Collectanea.
was given to her, and the woman soon recovered. — (From widow Linders, of Tetsworth, 12th September, 1897.)
[A figure of an old gipsy woman telling fortunes, said to repre- sent Mother Buckland, appears in the foreground of a very scarce lithograph drawn and printed by Plowman, of Oxford, in 1839, entitled " Commemoration of the Conservative Fete and Regatta held at Nuneham on the 13th August, 1839 . . . ."]
II. Prehistoric Monuments.
[The Rollright Stones and their folklore were the subject of an exhaustive paper by Mr. A. J. Evans, printed in Folk-Lo?-e in 1894 (vi., 6-51), but the following items were collected quite inde- pendently, and may therefore have some value for purposes of comparison. It will be remembered that the stones consist of a circle, a ruined dolmen called " The Whispering Knights," and a single standing stone called " The King," which are popularly said to be an invading king, five of his knights, and his army, turned into stones by a witch. If they could have topped the hill on which they stand and looked down on Long Compton, which lies just the other side, the king would have become King of England. Mr. Evans (p. 19) quotes the traditional verses which embody this story. In my own copy of Dr. R. Plot's Natural History of Oxfordshire, 2nd ed. 1705, are some MS. notes in a contemporary hand, and among them what is probably the earliest recorded version of these rhymes : —
" Said the Danish General,
If Long Compton I cou'd see Then King of England I shou'd be. But reply'd the [" British" erased] Saxon General. Then rise up Hill & stand fast Stone — For King of England thou'lt be none."]
[The stones are said to go down the hill to drink at a spring Evans, I.e. p. 24.] It was formerly said [writes Carter] that they went down to the brook on New Year's Eve to drink at twelve o'clock. Now the saying is, that they go down when they hear the clock at Long Compton strike twelve.
[Though often moved, the stones would always have to be brought back; Evans, I.e. p. 27.] The old king that stands by himself on the side of the road was drawn by eight horses to Long
Collectanea. 293
Com. {i.e., Compton), and the people were so miserable, they were obliged to bring him back ; but the eight horses could not move him ; they tried more, but could not succeed, till they brought a white one, and then he was brought back.
[A variant of this story is as follows] : The stone was taken to Long Compton to form a bridge over a stream ; but they could not rest, and were obliged to bring him back ; but when they got to where he is, they were so frightened, they ran away, and left him standing.
[The following story does not relate to the " King Stone," but apparently to one of the "Knights"; Evans, I.e. p. 27]: They took one large flat stone to Long Com. {i.e.., Long Compton), to put over a ditch, and had to bring it back ; but no amount of horses could do it, so they left it in the field at the bottom of the hill.
[The following relates to the difficulty of counting the stones in the circle twice ahke; Evans, I.e. p. 26] : A Charlbury man told me about a baker, who tried to count those stones at Long Com. ; he got over the difficulty by placing a loaf on each stone, and then counted the stones, and found seventy-two.
[Bad luck would come to anyone who injured the stones; Evans, I.e. p. 23]: A friend of mine, some years ago, broke a piece off one of the stones, and called at Chapel House (near Chipping Norton) to have some beer ; he showed the stone, when the landlady begged him to take it back, as there would sure to be something bad happen to him. — (1894.)
[The DeviVs Quoits at Stanton Harcourt are three large standing stones, which are all that remain of what was probably a circle considerably larger than that at Avebury, and which doubtless gave their name to the neighbouring village (Stanton = A.S. Std?i- tun, the stone enclosure).^ Beacon Hill is a very conspicuous landmark, just above Eynsham Bridge, on the Berkshire side of the Thames, about two and a half miles in a straight line from the " Quoits." It is very steeply scarped on three sides, and it has been suggested that it was the British fortress of Egonesham, captured by the Saxons under Cuthwulf in 571."^]
' J. Y. Akerman, "Ancient Limits of the Forest of Wychwood," Archaeo- logia, xxxvii., 430 ; A. J. Evans, " RoUright Stones and their Folklore," Folk- Lore, vi., 10.
- J. Parker, Early History of Oxford {OxL Hist. Soc), p. 81.
294 Collectanea.
The devil was playing quoits on Beacon Hill on a Sunday, and in a rage at being told it was wrong, he threw these three to where they are now.
One of the quoits standing in Walker's Field was once taken away, and put over a ditch called the "Back Ditch" in the "Farm Close" to make a bridge ; but it was always slipping, and although often put back, it would not rest, and they were obliged at last to take it back to where it now stands. Wheel marks can still be seen on it. — (From Chas. Batts, labourer, of Stanton Harcourt, aged 35, who had it from his father. January i, 1898.)
[Mr. Akerman,^ in 1858, records a rationalised version of the same story, as follows : " There is a tradition in the neighbour- hood that the northernmost stone was once removed by an occupier of the land, and laid across a watercourse, where it served as a bridge over which waggons and carts for some time passed, and that it was restored to its old locality at the request of one of the Harcourt family. A groove in this stone, eight inches from the top, seven inches in width, and about three inches deep, is believed to have been caused by the wheels of the vehicles when it lay prostrate."]
[Joseph Goodlake of Stanton Harcourt (now of Yarnton), aged 63, in March, 1901, gave me the following particulars which he had from his father: "When the war was in England, the fighting ended at Stanton by those stones, and from there across to Stan- lake Dovvn by Cut Mill. Harcourt was the general; he was Emperor in England; he is buried in the church with his sword and gun and clothes." Further : " When the war was in England the officers used to hide behind them " (the Devil's Quoits) " from the bullets," and the men used to pick the bullets out of them when my informant was young.]
[The legend connecting the Quoits with a battle is confirmed by a story told by Tom Hughes : ~ " An old man in that
' Akerman, I.e. p. 431.
* T. Hughes, Scouring of the White Horse (1859), p. 32. There are several monuments to the Harcourt family in the church, the most conspicuous of which are two altar tombs with effigies in full armour ; one to Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., and his wife Margaret, 1471, the other to his grandson, Sir Robert, who was Henry VH.'s standard-bearer at Bosworth, and died some time after 1501. One of these two is apparently assigned to "' the general."
The story of the fighting may well have arisen from the numerous dis- coveries of British and Anglo-Saxon remains that have been made in the
Collectanea. 295
village" (Stanton Harcourt) "told me that a battle was fought there, which the English were very near losing, when the general rode up to one of his captains, named Harcourt, who was in the thick of it, and called out, ' Stan' to un, Harcourt, stan' to un, Harcourt,' and that Harcourt won the battle, and the village has been called Stanton Harcourt ever since."]
Near Enstone is a ruined cromlech known as the " Hoar Sto?ie" The villagers say that "it was put up in memory of a certain general named Hoar, who was slain in the Civil War. It was put there, as that was a piece of land no one owned." ^
[Near Steeple Barton is another ruined cromlech, also called the " Hoar Sto^te,^^ which is now only a confused heap of small stones, having been broken up by an ignorant farmer. Some fifty years ago it was much more perfect, and two of the side stones were standing about four feet out of the ground. " They used to say that whenever they tried to drag them two pebbles away with horses, they would roll back of their own accord. Them two pebbles growed out of little uns ; at least that's my way of thinking." — (From George Nevill, of Yarnton, aged 74, March, 1901.)]
neighbourhood. A tumulus close to the "Quoits" was destroyed by the grandfather of the present farmer, and on Stanlake Down many Anglo-Saxon burials have been found.
' A letter signed Zas? in the Oxford Times of March 29, 1902, mentions this story, and adds that " there was a battle over there, Lidstone way." Lidstone being a hamlet of Enstone, about one and a half miles to the north- west. Mr. W. Harper in " Observations on Hoar-Stones," printed in Archaeologia (1832), xxv., 54, speaks of the "War Stone at Enstone. This conspicuous object is said by the country people to have been set up ' at a French wedding.' " There is evidently here a confused version of some legend such as that belonging to the stones at Stanton Drew, Somerset, which were " vulgarly called the Weddings, and they say 'tis a company that assisted at a nuptial ceremony thus petrify'd." Stukeley's Abury, quoted by Evans, Folk- Lore, vi., 31.
CORRESPONDENCE.
The Mumming-Play and other Vestiges of Folk-Drama in THE British Isles.
The Council of the Folk-Lore Society have decided that it is desirable to bring together the scattered material bearing on this subject without further delay, and I have undertaken to edit the collection, which will form one of the issues of the Society. Members who have collected notes and versions are invited to send them either to the Secretary or to me direct, and they may rest assured that their contributions will receive careful attention, and in every case will be suitably acknowledged in the work which is now in active preparation.
Contributors will oblige by taking note of the great importance of locality, action, and dress in these traditions. Of mere ver- sions of the words of the mumming-play we already possess a considerable number ; but no version which includes a note of the place where collected, or anything descriptive of the action of the piece, or of the dress of the players, will be either super- fluous or valueless. Another point of great importance is the date of collection. The earlier the date the greater the value of the record. If careful inquiry be made by the collector, it may be found that there exists an old MS., or possibly a printed copy, from which the current version has been adapted. Transcripts of both should be obtained, but the old copy is the most important ; and a consultation with the most ancient inhabitants of the place may result in valuable descriptive notes.
Lastly, pictorial illustration. Local magazines may contain illustrations, and these will mostly refer to bygone observances of our old dramatic customs, and will be very useful. But for current purposes the camera is a valuable ally. Let the time
Correspondence. 297
chosen for exposure be some point of action or grouping of characters ; photographs of detail can be taken afterwards. In the absence of a camera, I have known a quick-sketching pencil, with notes for subsequent completion of the picture or pictures, to achieve an excellent pictorial record.
T. Fairman Ordish. H.M. Patent Office,
Southampton Buildings, London.
The Collection of Folklore.
{Supra, p. 226.)
I cannot help expressing my surprise at the little attention which is paid to the collection of the folklore of our own country. It appears to be assumed by everybody that there is nothing to collect. Mr. Craigie writes to that effect in his admirable paper on the Danish collector, Kristensen.^ My experience is entirely opposed to this view. It is not the want of material, but the want of collectors that we have to contend with. It is so much easier, and so much pleasanter, to theorise than to collect ! I felt at Castleton last summer that I was merely on the fringe of a great subject, and that with more time and opportunities I might have done much. I beheve that ballads, even in a fragmentary form, are rare. Folktales are much commoner, but as a rule very much worn down. That is probably owing to the spread of popular education, and to the diffusion of cheap newspapers. But \vhen you come to the customs and beliefs which form the stock-in- trade, as it were, of the collector, the material is yet abundant. For instance, there is a great variety of Christmas mumming- customs which nobody has ever attended to.~ I am trying to do something in the way of collecting them myself, but I feel that it is a big undertaking for one man. To do it as it ought to be done, I should have to go into a hundred villages, and write down all that the mummers do and say. But this kind of work, even when imperfect, seems to me to be more useful, and more likely
' Folk- Lore, ix., 194. ^ [But see preceding Letter. — Ed.]
298 Correspondence.
to advance the cause of science, than printing extracts from county histories and guide-books.
I rather doubt whether anybody can be taught how to collect. Obviously a man must not go round in a carriage and pair, and give himself airs. The collector should not discuss the subject, if he can help it, with an absolute stranger, unless he happens to hear that the stranger is interested in the subject of custom and antiquities. Many people in quite humble life, who live in villages, are interested in these things, especially the old, who love to talk of the things done in their childhood. If a man is determined to get the information, he can overcome all difficulties by perseverance. He must not go about in the expectation that the information will come to him. The collector is in the position of a man who is about to get up evidence in a pedigree case. If in such a matter he expects the plums to fall into his mouth, he will be very much mistaken. His conversation must lead up to the subject on which he desires information, and he should not begin by asking direct questions. You can begin by talking about the weather, and make the conversation lead up to anything you like. But in order to lead the conversation in the right direction, the collector must know what he wants ; in other words, he must know what evidence is worthless, and what is valuable. At the same time he should write down everything that is likely to be of the least use.
Perhaps it need hardly be said that the collector should try to get on easy and familiar terms with his informants. He should go in his oldest and plainest suit. If the informant keeps a shop, he should deal with that shop. He should give toys and little presents to the children. He should interest himself in the lives of his informants, talk as they talk, and try to think as they think. That may be rather difficult at first, but the student of folklore should be acquainted with old-fashioned ways of thinking. He should know how to project himself into habits of thought to which he is strange himself. In doing this he need not be a humbug. He need not pretend to believe, but he must show sympathy with his informants, and must not laugh at them. If they see that he is genuinely interested in old beliefs and practices, they will not be slow in the end to tell him what they know.
I always use a small note-book myself and write everything down in pencil. But I do not begin to write until I have obtained leave to do so, and until I have obtained some little acquaintance
Correspondence^ 299
with my informant. We must first of all get on terms of easy conversation. It is much better not to press questions, but to pause and wait for answers, as the best things are generally volunteered. A good deal depends on the humour in which the collector happens to be for the time being. If he finds that he is not able to smile, joke, and make himself agreeable, he will not make much progress. The thing must be done easily, naturally, and without importunity.
I think it is impossible to lay down any rule as to what class of people best preserve folklore. The people who preserve it worst are the voluble busybodies who think they have read something and know something. I should say that the people who seldom or never read know most. It is a good thing to employ a maid- servant whom one can trust to make inquiries about beliefs and magical charms, as those are the matters on which people are most reticent. What she reports can then be written down and afterwards verified. I find that people are much more ready to talk to one of their own class, for the educated can never be quite in touch with the uneducated.
In writing a thing down it is best to use the very words ond dialect, if possible, of the narrator, and one should try to avoid translating into conventional or literary form.
The whole art consists in perseverance, and setting people at their ease. These are things which cannot be taught. I have sometimes failed in setting people at their ease, because I have been in too great a hurry. In small country villages people are never in a hurry, and the habits of precision and of getting at once to the root of things, which are practised in taking evidence in courts of justice, would be out of place in deahng with such a tender plant as folklore.
I have sometimes made presents of books dealing with folklore to show people that I am in earnest, and that what they are going to tell me is by no means a matter for ridicule, but a subject for serious inquiry. I have got some of my best things in that way. The book reminds people of other things which they cannot think of all at once.
Sidney O. Addy.
My own (purely English) experience of collecting leads me to draw a great distinction between the collection of the different
300 Correspondence.
kinds of folklore. Folktales in England are few, except in the form of anecdotes (generally told as true), in which shape I con- fess they do not greatly attract me, and I cannot therefore say much about collecting them. But localised legends are plentiful, and quite easy to collect. How came those mounds and stones on yonder moorland ? Why is that hill called Hangman ? Why does the figure on that monument rest his feet upon a dog? The rustic has little fear or shyness in answering such questions, courteously put, if time be given him to collect his ideas. Unless some dread of pronouncing the names of supernatural beings restrains him, he is rather proud to show his knowledge of local history, as he deems it. With care in introducing the subject, and with a due show of seriousness, you may get even local ghost- stories without much difficulty. Local customs, again, are matters which may naturally come under the observation of new-comers or temporary sojourners ; and old inhabitants, whcfi once you have established friendly relations tvith them, like to talk of these things, to describe the ways of their own youth, and to descant with endless variations on the theme that " times were different theti" to any sympathetic listener. People who from official position or other reasons cannot easily put themselves on really confidential terms with the villagers, may still do a great deal of good work in these departments ; but they should be careful to re- member that they are not really " behind the scenes," and should not indulge any instinctive disbelief when some one with better opportunity or greater personal gifts discovers veins of " supersti- tion " of which they are ignorant.
For the region of belief is naturally much more difficult to ex- plore than those of custom and legend. People do not understand the inquirer's object ; and they are suspicious, reticent, afraid of being laughed at, in proportion, I might almost say, to the sincerity of their secret belief in " such things," even when they affect to despise them. I have, it is true, read a list of omens to a peasant woman, checking those she knew and adding others from her information (I think she imagined that I was nervously superstitious) ; and there are persons of the peasant class, like Mr. Manning's Oxford fossil-gatherer, who can be employed to collect such matters. But for the most part "superstitions " have to be gleaned gradually, as years roll on and opportunity incident- ally brings them to light. Anything savouring of magic or witch-
Correspondence. 301
craft, especially, is not readily revealed to new acquaintance, nor to anyone not thoroughly trusted. The people have not yet for- gotten the days when witchcraft was a crime of which the law took cognizance, and they are very careful how they avow any knowledge of the subject. I once upset a most promising apple- cart by asking with too eager interest, " And did you really know — ? " (a certain reputed witch who was the subject of con- versation). My interlocutor " dried up " on the spot. She recollected that there was such a person. She had heard that she did tilings ; but she never had no dealings with her, in fact she didn't know that she had ever spoken to her in her life ! And I found it would be waste of time to continue the conversation.
In like manner, when some years ago " a trained scientific observer " 1 travelled into Somersetshire to inquire into the history of the " Witch's Ladder " found in the loft of an old house there, he found that the very men whose unguarded exclamation at the time of its discovery had given the clue to the nature of the imple- ment, would only say that they had never seen the ladder in use, that they did not know to whom it had belonged, that they had never seen another specimen, nor could they explain how they knew what it was. Probably they would have said that there were no witches in the county of Somerset, and that they had never heard of the subject outside the Bible, had the strange gentleman's inquiries been pushed so far !
As to the credibility of witnesses : if they are annoyed by what seems to them impertinent curiosity (" prying into other folks' business "), or puzzled by their visitor's manner and conscious that they do not comprehend his object, or afraid of exposing them- selves to ridicule, of offending an influential neighbour, or in any way getting themselves into trouble with the powers that be, English poor people will feign ignorance, and deny knowledge that they really possess. Otherwise, you may trust their word, negative or affirmative, though not always their accuracy. They will exaggerate their own adventures, the favour expressed to them by their superiors, the number of persons in an assemblage, and so on, but they are not imaginative or ingenious enough to hoax an importunate questioner by inventions, as it seems the Scots of the western islands are capable of doing.
' F. L. J., I quote the story, of necessity, from memory only.
302 Correspondence,
Lastly, I want to urge the importance of collecting folklore historically. Tough as popular tradition is, it yet undergoes modification from age to age. Every item of folklore, as we see it and know it now, has a "life-history" and a past — usually an unrecorded past. Only in European countries, where present-day evidence can be compared with historical records, can this process of modification now and then be studied, and some light thrown thereby upon that unrecorded past. Only in Europe, and not often there, can we learn what external events, what economic changes, what local personalities, have contributed to shape the folklore of the present day; and thence, reasoning by analogy, form some tentative hypothesis of the probable life-history of the folklore of uncivilised races. This to my mind is one of the strongest arguments for pressing forward with the collection of English folklore. The Society's series of County Folklore reprints forms a basis for the collector's inquiries. Present-day notes of {e.g.) the Plough Stots and Sword-dancers of Egton Bridge would be rendered doubly useful by comparing them with the perform- ance in 1817, as recorded in Young's History of Whitby (Gutch's County Folklore, p. 232), and endeavouring to trace the reasons of any changes. If the qualifications of the folklore collector and the local historian cannot be united in one person, let two join in collaboration. Especially should attention be paid to the local history of that most important of all historical centuries for our purpose, the seventeenth. I write strongly, because I feel strongly. History is far too much neglected among us. Even Mr. Addy's otherwise exhaustive monograph on the Castleton 29th of May festival, tells nothing that can throw light on popular opinion in Castleton in 1660 or 1662 : and the absence of an historical method of treatment of the ritual of Nemi is to me a regrettable flaw in the majestic fabric of the Goldeti Bough itself.
Charlotte S. Burne.
My experience in the collection of folklore is almost entirely confined to India.
In the first place, I venture to think that it is necessary to distinguish between the quest of folktales and of folklore pure and simple. By the latter I mean popular beliefs and superstitions Information on such matters comes usually, I think, not from
Correspondence. 303
direct inquiry, but often in a casual, unexpected way. For instance, some reference to a quaint custom or belief will often occur in the course of a trial in court, and any one interested in such things will do well to keep a notebook at hand in which a point may be noted for future inquiry. But most will be learnt in the course of the annual tour in camp which forms an important part of the life of the Indian civil officer. Walking through the fields attended by the village greybeards, you will often come across a rural shrine containing curious fetishes, images, or offerings, about which any one who knows the people and their language and displays a sympathetic interest in their customs and beliefs, can usually with- out much difficulty obtain information. It is quite different in the grander shrines, like those of Benares or Mathura, for instance, where the officiants have a much higher idea of their purity and importance, look on all Europeans with more or less suspicion, and are decidedly disinclined to say much about their gods or their worship.
I need hardly say that the best chance of learning anything is to chat quietly with the people in their own villages, without the company of native officials, and particularly under circumstances, shooting for instance, where the gulf that lies between the " Sahib " and the native is temporarily bridged over.
It is fatal to success to lean exclusively on the educated native gentleman or on the higher native official. The former is usually puffed up with a belief in his own importance, despises the rustic and his ways, and considers it a sign of refinement to feign ignorance of " superstitions " which his women-folk may believe, but from which he would fain dissociate himself. The class, again, of educated or semi-educated natives, such as those engaged in the lower grades of official work, are as a rule untrustworthy informants on matters of popular belief. They do not perhaps always desire to deceive ; but they are generally so obsequious and anxious to gain the favour of a superior that they try to follow his lead, to say " of course " or " without doubt " in answer to any assertion he makes. This pliability of temper is in Northern India most marked among the Bengalis, and is less common among manlier races such as the Rajput, Jat, or Sikh.
Inquiries of this kind can seldom be carried on side by side with official work. If the " Sahib " comes into a village to inquire into the assessment of the income tax, for instance, or to fix the
304 Correspondence.
revenue on a piece of alluvial land thrown up by the river, the sight of his note-book puts a sudden check on conversation, and he will observe that any questions he asks are met with coldness or distrust, or will suddenly find himself unable to make himself intelligible in the local dialect.
It is also a great help to know something about the matter beforehand and to bring it out in a casual way. The rustic with the natural suspiciousness of his nature thinks you know a great deal more than you would have him suspect, that if he lies he is very likely to be detected. So he becomes much less shy and reticent. Above all things the searcher after folklore must know the people and their ways ; he must speak the village patois well ; he must not seem to be too eager for an answer; he must not cross-examine; he must not ostentatiously take notes. He must simply store away in a corner of his mind whatever the people choose to tell him, let the matter rest there, and later on a judicious question will elicit further information. He must seem to have a kindly but not patronising interest in their ways ; he must remember that they are not "savages," but people possessing a well-developed form of culture much more ancient than his own; in particular he must never laugh at them, or show that he despises their ways of life and thought.
Collecting folktales is quite another matter. To begin with, the best tellers are women, and in the East women are taboo to the male foreigner. It is impolite to recognise their existence, so much so that it is not etiquette to ask about a visitor's family unless the gentleman of the house be more than a mere acquaint- ance ; even then it is rash to make more than a casual reference to the "house-folk," which include all the female belongings. Hence it is practically impossible for the European officer to approach those who would be best able to assist him. There are very few English ladies who know the women's patois well. The Eurasian lady does of course know it, but she has a hearty con- tempt for such things as folklore. If we had more ladies as well versed in the native ways and language as Mrs. Steel, no doubt much might be learned from the women, who are the main depositaries of knowledge of this kind.
When I first began to be interested in the collection of folktales I sent for the best professional story-tellers, the Qissa-khwdn, to use the Hindustani word, who are to be found in every large
Correspondence. 305
town. I have listened to them for hours telling long stories of a type like those of the "Arabian Nights" or the "Bagh-o-Bahar," about Rajas and Shahzadis, fairies and demons. But such tales are seldom worth much. They are of too literary a type ; many of them, it is true, are good traditional stories, of which most of the incidents are genuine folklore, but these are worked up again and again in a myriad fresh combinations according to the fancy of the narrator.
Next I turned for assistance to a native Christian clerk in my own office, who, of course, knew the vernacular Hindustani, but little or no English. In selecting such aid as this it is essential that the recorder should know no tales in a literary form; if he does he may make up " Cinderellas " and " Ali Babas " by the yard. This man had the excellent quality of being too great a fool and possessed of too little imagination to render it possible for him to do much harm. He got me a number of tales from an old cook- woman who officiated in the Mission Compound. She was by way of being a Christian, but I fancy that her belief was little more than skin deep. At any rate she had not reached the stage of despising " pagan " beliefs and traditions.
After a while I discovered by sheer accident that one of my own orderlies was a mine of stories. This I learned by casually hearing him holding forth to my other servants one night round the camp fire. When I asked him about tales he was quite ready to help, only venturing to express a mild degree of wonder that a " Sahib " should interest himself in such things. But then " you never know what strange thing a Sahib may do." He of course knew Sahibs and their ways, had no nervousness or shyness, and knew that he could come to no harm by telling any tales he knew. He could neither read nor write, so I had to get a native clerk to sit beside us and take down what he said word for word. My orderly seemed to regard this as a sort of semi-legal process, and it was amusing to see how anxious he was to have his " deposition " read over, and how careful he w^as to see that the record was drawn up correctly.
Later, again, when I came in contact with the wild hill people of Mirzapur, I found the difficulty of communicating directly with these ignorant and timid tribes almost insurmountable. But I was fortunate enough to find a village accountant who knew their particular kind of Hindi, and who having lived for years among
VOL. XIII. X
3o6 Correspondence.
them had gained their confidence and respect. He collected a number of curious Beast Tales, and soon after unearthed a quaint old blind man, Akbar Shah Manjhi, who used to support himself by going about to marriage and other feasts and amusing the people by his tales. This old man came readily to my camp, and was quite pleased to stay there indefinitely so long as the camp suttler had an order to provide him with food. He would sit at my tent-door at night and reel off tales ad libitum. The difficulty of understanding his curious patois was successfully overcome, and a large number of tales was taken down in the usual way and translated as opportunity occurred.
If I were asked : " What are the essential qualifications for the work of a collector of folklore ? " I would say that, to begin with, you must know more than a little of the people and their ways, you must speak the usually crabbed patois with reasonable facility, you must not show over-anxiety in the quest of information, you must not ask too many questions, you must not carry on the inquiry too long, becauses the rustic easily gets tired, loses the power of attention, and his memory fails if the session be pro- tracted. You must have infinite patience, and the power of listen- ing to a heap of rubbish before you find anything worth recording. It is better to put down, or pretend to put down, all or most of what you are told if the people are found to be communicative, and leave the task of selection to be done at another time.
As to whether the people are intentionally deceiving you or not. — The villager where his immediate interests are involved is a master-liar, and will do his best to mislead you. But this is not so much the case, I am inclined to beHeve, where his immediate interests are not involved, and when no special eagerness for infor- mation tends to make him suspicious. I doubt whether there is any real test to prove whether he is lying or not. People will tell that a rustic always twitches his toes when he is lying. But this is hardly a universal habit. His general demeanour when under examination will usually be significant to one who knows him well, and who is gifted with the not very common power of minute ob- servation. But it is always safe to assume that he will try to mislead you if he thinks he has anything to gain by deceiving you.
One thing is quite certain, there are many facts which no native will disclose even to a countryman, or even to his own tribesman or dearest friend. He lives in a world of reticence
Correspondence. 307
and mystery, and this though under his normal conditions of social life there are no people who have more " solidarity " between members of the same caste and clan. The " bed-rock " idea in the mind of the rustic is that he is surrounded by demon- iacal influences against which he knows no mode of protecting himself except by the use of sundry spells and talismans which he must keep to himself if they are to retain any efficacy. Even his own name, and that of his wife or child, he often does not care to disclose, and he usually has a second name in reserve which no one but his Guru, or spiritual adviser, quite another person than his officiant Brahman priest, knows. When you reach a higher grade than that of the mere rustic, the tendency to this kind of reticence is still more clearly marked. This is especi- ally the case with the officiant Brahman and the Jogis, Gusains, Sannyasis, and other mendicant friars whom we class under the general and inaccurate name of Fakir. These people possess all sorts of secret beliefs, spells, and mystical observances, to which no European has ever secured the key, and it is hardly likely that, in our time at least, any Englishman ever will do so.
Lastly, I would say that, as far as Northern India is concerned, we have, I believe, as yet only very superficially examined the upper strata of the vast accumulations of folk-belief current among the people. The number of unrecorded tales, songs and ballads, proverbs and popular beliefs current among the rural population is immense, and will provide ample fields for inquiry for many a long year to come.
William Crooke.
As far as I can judge from my own experience, the art of collecting folklore is very much the same, and needs very much the same qualifications, whether the scene be an English county, a West Indian island, or a Malay or Siamese village.
The first requisite of a collector is that he should be in the highest degree sympathetic, and able instinctively to put himself on the right footing with his informant. Not an inferior footing : that would be to make himself despised ; on the other hand, the smallest assumption of the inferiority of his informant will lead to certain failure. The second requisite is that he should have some knowledge of strategy, sufficient at least for him to know by instinct when to make a " flank," and when a " frontal," attack.
X 2
3o8 Correspondence.
The " savage idea," as Mary Kingsley used to say, has to be stalked, and that warily, if any real success is to be obtained. The third, and the most important requisite, is that the collector should be ready, as Huxley said, " to sit down humbly before his facts."
The country people as a rule afford the best field for enquiries : the townsfolk are too often irredeemably self-conscious, sophisti- cated, ignorant, and ashamed of their old customs. Two cardinal rules should never be lost sight of; viz., ist: If you want to get information, begin by giving it; 2nd: Get rid of all your pre- conceived ideas.
I will try to exemplify what I mean. You happen to be travel- ling, and find an old hunter among your guides. Talk to him in an easy friendly manner, kindly but not over-familiar, as an English squire might to his gamekeeper. The Malay hunter has his " trade secrets," like any European gamekeeper. Say, for example, you want to get hold of a charm for harking on hunting-dogs. If you ask a Malay hunter for it straight out, he will say he " knows nothing " about it. So begin with general conversation, and lead up gradually to the subject of hunting. Tell him about European wild animals, the reindeer, the red deer, the roebuck ; then enquire about the different kinds of Malay deer, what sort of toils or snares are used for each ; the different kinds of dogs, which is the best, and how to get the best work out of a dog. Is there no kind of charm, such as is used elsewhere, which will enable a dog to work better ? He, as a good Moham- medan, of course says he doesn't know any charms, which are works of Iblis. (Here bring up your heavy guns.) " Oh, but old What's-his-name, the deer-wizard in the next district, told me to say so-and-so " (here you repeat or improvise a few lines), " and people say he is very clever." This puts him on his mettle. "That's not true, Tuan," he says: "people have told you wrong." By this speech of course he gives his case away, and with a little more of the lightest pressure apphed judiciously according to cir- cumstances, out comes the very charm you are in want of.
This illustration is intended of course rather as a sample of method than of matter. But most races require at first some such diplomatic pressure as I have described. You never get two absolutely identical versions of any charm from two different wizards. If you do not know any charm to begin with, get a
Correspondence. 309
medicine-man to treat you for headache or something of the sort, and ask him what charm he employs, for your own future benefit. Check your information by going to the next man interested in the subject in hand ; tell him (indirectly or otherwise), what you have heard, and ask him if that is right. By collating the various versions you may be able to discover a key to the meaning of any doubtful words. The evidence required to establish a fact of folklore is the same in kind as the evidence required to establish a fact in a court of law. In some cases the testimony of a single witness may be taken, but in most, corroboration is required, and the less direct the better.
The people in authority in any district are not those to go to for unbiassed information. Expressions of opinion by a chief or a Raja are usually tinged by political or social considerations. A Raja or Sultan will often think it infra dig. to admit that he knows anything about magic ; a peasant has no position to lose, and his information will be ten times more trustworthy. Again, the religious authorities are fairly certain to try to conceal from a stranger the existence of any form of magic or superstition twt countejianced by their professed reiigio?i, even though they may practise it themselves continually.
Country people are more truthful than townsfolk, whose evidence is not nearly so worthy of consideration. Ninety per cent, of my best information came from country people. Up-country people in savage lands will not as a rule tell Hes, if you only know how to get hold of them and approach them gradually in the way I have tried to indicate above. Undue and undeserved suspicion of their statements will destroy confidence and defeat its own ends by drying up the flow of conversation. I should like, too, to endorse what Mr. Addy says about the importance of being able to laugh and joke with them (not, by the way, at them!) to set them at their ease. Again, it must be remembered that if the natives are approached in the wrong way, they will get puzzled, suspicious, frightened, and will take refuge in point-blank denials to protect the?iiselves, as they imagine. And a European cannot always tell what mistake he has made. I remember a case in point. I once went up river to a district inhabited by a wild jungle tribe who had been little visited by white men. On going ashore, I visited the chief at his house, and later on began to question him about his tribe, their language, and so on ; and among other things I asked
3IO Correspondence.
him what was their name for " wild pig." He gave the Malay word. " Not that," I said : " that is Malay. I want your word." He asserted positively that they had no other word, that they always called wild pig by the Malay name (which I knew to be in the last degree unlikely), and I could get nothing more out of him than, " Don't know." A little later on, when going down river again, we met two men of the same village in a " dug-out," and began bargaining with them for a blow-pipe they had. As they were about to leave us after being paid, I said casually, " By the way, what do you call wild pig in your village ? " They gave me the word without hesitation, and expressed great surprise at having heard the chief deny its existence. I had probably been too abrupt with the old man, and had made him nervous and suspicious. But anyhow I got that pig's name !
Etiquette forbids any serious subject to be entered upon early in an interview. Often the real object for which it is sought is only disclosed on taking leave, perhaps after an ordeal that has lasted for an hour or more.
Some things, as for instance the words of incantations, are often only disclosed to the initiated. If you want to see a secret ceremony, you must procure a friend at court. In other words, you must make it worth the while of some petty chief or other influential man, to introduce you under his wing as a friend of his own. But in some cases you must be initiated first.
There is hardly any one who, if he would cultivate the necessary "sporting" spirit — would "play cricket," as the saying goes — could not collect somethtfig in the way of folklore as he goes about the country, say on his holiday excursions. But much better results would be attained, I think, if people would collect more systematically, each devoting himself to one special subject : say for instance, wedding or burial customs, any particular class of legends, local rhymes, or stories — always whatever interests him most. Cover as wide a field as possible, but specialise in a parti- cular subject ; thus by degrees you accumulate a real body of valuable information, not an ill-considered mass of scrappy details.
Walter Skeat.
From the experience gained in accompanying the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits and New Guinea in 1898, I should say that methods of obtaining information vary
I
Correspondence. 3 1 1
according to the kind of information sought and the people under examination. Usually different methods are necessary in investi- gations among people with whom you have had previous dealings, and who look upon you as a friend, and people in new villages to whom you are a stranger. In the latter case every effort should be made to pay your first visit in the company of a white man, — by preference a government official or a missionary of the best type, — in whom the villagers have confidence. Under these cir- cumstances a very few minutes will often see you and your hosts on friendher terms than could be reached by your own unaided efforts in a much longer time.
When seeking information about games, arts, and crafts, etc., among people who know you, I believe the best way is to pay the most approved exponents liberally, saying something to the effect that "different folk do these things differently, and I want to see how your method differs from ours."
With information bearing on secret beliefs or ceremonies more care is necessary, and usually it is only when the enquirer is well known to his informants that open enquiry is likely'"to succeed, although even without this, showing a general knowledge of the facts you expect to elicit will often produce useful information. Thus I have found the telling of true or spurious variants of stories or ceremonies under investigation a valuable aid, and this will often be sufficient to start a discussion. If this occurs, and a capable interpreter, who will remember without interrupting, is available, many valuable hints may often be picked up.
In investigating native magic and medicine a medical training is a great advantage. A few doses of some simple laxative or tonic, or a httle ointment, distributed about the tribe, will often prove useful, even if the drug produces no very marked effect. A curious feature I noted more than once among Papuans was that it was not necessary for treatment to be successful for the patients to appear pleased and satisfied. Again a little midwifery talk immensely pleases some of the older women, and on one occasion enabled me easily to obtain an account of a female puberty ceremony, the very existence of which had been previously denied.
Natives themselves are usually the best judges of whom to question to elicit particular information, and will often, when friendly terms have been established, volunteer information as to
312 Correspondence.
whom to consult, and even fetch the most likely informants. As a general rule you should begin to talk to the young men first ; through them the older men and women can usually be reached. Of course if a " chief " or some one possessing unusual influence can be successfully approached in the first instance, so much the better.
With few exceptions I have not found natives tell lies when judiciously approached ; though they may sham ignorance from laziness, fatigue, shame, or desire to keep their own counsel. I believe it is rare for them to affect knowledge which they have not, to please an enquirer, and rarer for them to be led into telling lies by leading questions, though when they are partially civilized they become more prone to these vices. The most satis- factory method of testing the truth of any statement is to examine a number of other witnesses independently, using minor details to test the completeness of your original account. When this is im- possible, cross-examining the original witness after the interval of a day or two is often useful.
C. G. Seligmann.
I herewith send you a brief account of the manner and difiiculties of obtaining folklore in Uganda.
There are two chief difficulties to surmount, arising from oppo- site parties of the people. First, from the Christian converts. They are ashamed of their old beliefs and practices, and are either ignorant, or affect ignorance when questioned. Information gathered from them is scrappy, and must be obtained from general conversation. Sometimes a subject can be introduced in a circle of friends who take it up and talk freely about it. In such a case it is advisable to allow them to talk, and not to feel that they are being questioned. Secondly, those who still adhere to the old customs are most reticent, because they are looked down upon by their more enlightened brethren, • who laugh at and ridicule the old customs. Then, again, many of the ceremonies are sacred and secret.
The language presents another difficulty. So many travellers rely upon their interpreters, who as a rule have only a smattering of English, and guess at their master's meaning. They seldom know more than a few words of other languages than their own, so that they neither know how to express the imperfectly-grasped
Correspondence. 313
question of their master to the native, nor to understand the reply the native makes.
The ordinary Muganda is given to lying, exaggerating, and tell- ing what he thinks will please, when speaking on indifferent topics,
but he is reticent about his religious practices.
John Roscoe.
Garland Day at Castleton : Addenda.
(Vol. xii., p. 421, and supra, p. 91.)
A lady, who desires that her name shall not be mentioned, has lately told me that instead of the lines : —
" If thou'd been wed as long as me T' pudding would ha' been wanted,"
what she heard some years ago was : —
" If thou'd been wed as long as me Thou wouldn't ha' been so wanton."
This second version makes sense, for it will be remembered that the morris-dancers at Castleton were old men. If correct, it tends to prove, as may already have been guessed from analogy, that Garland Day at Castleton was formerly a day of licence.
On the 29th of May, 1902, I sent my clerk Frank G. Jacobs to Castleton to get a photograph of the nosegay called " the queen," which, it will be remembered, is fixed into the top of the garland. Mr. Jacobs did not succeed in doing this : he was told that " there was not much time," and that the men who had charge of the nosegay were " afraid of its being knocked about and spoilt." One of Mr. Potter's sons told him that they were now going to call the nosegay " the king," in honour of King Edward VII. But they were not all agreed about changing the name, and there was a dis- pute about it.
Mr. Jacobs saw the garland hoisted to the top of the church tower. A great number of visitors were present. It is intended to " hold the garland " next year in a more sumptuous way than it has ever been held before.
S. O. Addy.
REVIEWS.
L'Annee Sociologique, publiee sous la direction de Emile DuRKHEiM, Professeur de Sociologie a la Faculte des Lettres de rUniversite de Bordeaux. Cinquieme Annee (1900- 1901). Paris: Felix Alcan, 1902.
The fifth yearly volume of LAnn'ee Sociologique is in nowise inferior to its predecessors in variety or interest. The critical accounts of the publications of the year lack nothing of the acumen previously displayed. Every effort is made to render them complete ; and they are rapidly causing L^ Annee Sociologique to become indispensable to every student of anthropology, to whatever branch of the subject he may render allegiance.
Of us who are specially interested in the behefs and institutions of mankind, Professor Durkheim's Mhnoire on the totemism of the Arunta demands careful consideration. The first volume of L^A7in'ee Sociologique was signalised by an essay from the same writer on Exogamy, which it will be remembered he traced to the universal prevalence of totemism, and to superstitions in close connection with that institution. His arguments are not yet generally accepted ; but the ingenuity of his theory and the erudition and eloquence with which it was expounded must be recognised, and will prepare us to listen with respect to his dis- cussion of the new problems evoked by the remarkable work of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen.
In the Memoi?-e now before us he boldly attacks, not of course the statements of fact made by those discoverers, but certain inferences which they have drawn, and the elaborate theory which Dr. Frazer has built upon the discoveries and the inferences. As members of the Folk-Lore Society know, Dr. Frazer regards the Arunta as representing, more nearly than any other people whose practices have been scientifically investigated, the primitive savage. He finds among them no traces of religion properly so called.
Reviews. 3 1 5
On the other hand, magical practices are strongly developed, and are found in direct connection with totemism. By means of certain ceremonies, called Intichiuma, the regular reproduction and multiplication of the totem are assured for the benefit of the entire people, who depend upon it for sustenance and well- being. For although the clansman (if we may for convenience call him so) is only allowed to eat sparingly of his totem, there is no restriction absolutely forbidding him to partake, and at the Intichiuma ceremonies he 7mist partake, otherwise the supply would fail. Corresponding with the absence of prohibition against using the totem for food, there is an absence of prohibition of marriage within the totem-group. In the traditions of the tribe, moreover, their ancestors are represented as habitually, if not exclusively, both feeding on the totem and marrying within the totem-group. In both these particulars the totemism and tradi- ditions of the Arunta are in diametrical opposition to totemism wherever it has been hitherto known to us and in full force. And the question is whether the totemism of the Arunta is anything like a representative of primitive totemism, either in its organisa- tion or its objects. If not, then Dr. Frazer's theories as to the priority of magic to religion, and the object and meaning of totemism, are deprived of the support which they receive, or appear to receive, from Messrs. Spencer and Gillen's discoveries.
M. Durkheim devotes the chief part of his space to discussing the matrimonial peculiarities of the Arunta. As a preliminary to the discussion he challenges the denial of religion to this extra- ordinary tribe. He contends, (without, however, defining religion), that the Arunta live in a thoroughly religious atmosphere, and that this atmosphere is in origin essentially totemic. The sacred trees and groves, the mysterious caves where the churingas and other objects are piously hidden, are holy places, approached with truly religious awe, places of refuge which impart sanctity to man or beast seeking an asylum there. Totemic legends are attached to these spots ; totemic rites are celebrated there. The sacramental communion of the Intichiuma is indistinguishable in principle from those of a multitude of religions. The rites of the Arunta are in all points comparable to those found in systems incontestably religious. They must therefore proceed from the same ideas, the same sentiments ; and it is arbitrary to deny them the same title.
But the theory of the magical purpose of totemism rests on the
3 1 6 Reviews.
denial of the primitive character of totemic exogamy and food- restriction, and the assertion that the present practice and tradi- tions of the Arunta more nearly represent the original customs. These propositions M. Durkheim proceeds to traverse by elaborate arguments, the bare outline of which is all that can be reproduced here. So far from the civilisation of the Arunta being primitive or archaic, he says, they are among the most advanced of the Austra- lian peoples. They have a sentiment of unity, whatever may be its cause, far more highly developed than is usual on the Australian continent. Every local group has its chief, and the dignity of chief is hereditary. The sacred places are already a sort of temple. Matrimonial relations have passed beyond the coarseness and indefiniteness characteristic of those of many other tribes. All these things are indications of a society which has certainly not been arrested in the first stages of evolution ; and it is to be pre- sumed that the institutions of such a society have themselves been transformed as the society has developed, losing some character- istics, and gaining others, so that their actual condition only imper- fectly recalls their original nature.
This presumption, he continues, is confirmed by a close con- sideration of the facts. Taking first the question of exogamy, it is manifest that exogamy as an institution is not unknown to the Arunta, since there actually exist two exogamous divisions, each composed of two sub-classes. M. Durkheim calls the two divisions phratries. Similar divisions exist almost all over Australia, and are by English writers usually called classes. The origin of these classes has been a subject of discussion ever since the publication of Morgan's Ancient Society. M. Durkheim considers them to have been totem-clans. Mr. Howitt, whose authority few will be inclined to dispute, came several years ago to the same conclusion.! These divisions, and not the present totemic groups, are in M. Durkheim's opinion, the fundamental institutions of Arunta society. A minute examination of its structure, as well as of the legends, renders it certain that Arunta society has under- gone considerable changes, that the exogamous classes or phratries are the original divisions, and the present totemic groups are secondary ; that none of the present totemic groups is confined to one of the two exogamous classes, but is divided more or less
' Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xviii., p. 39.
Reviews. 3 1 7
unevenly between them ; that at one time it must have been so confined, and marriage within the totemic group or clan was then prohibited ; and finally that totemism is now in decay, while the exogamous classes or phratries remain powerful institutions.
How did the revolution come about? M. Durkheim finds its cause in the change of the system of fihation. The Arunta, he contends, have once been like their neighbours in the stage of mother-right ; now, the child belongs to the father's phratry — they have adopted father-right. An elaborate argument follows, to show that this was deliberately done, and that it was effected by shifting one of the sub-classes from phratry A to phratry B. The same result would indeed have been obtained if, instead of changing the phratry, it had been decreed that the child should follow the totem of the father. But by the hypothesis the totemic system was then in full force as regards the clan, though it had (perhaps, let me interject, by the complication of the phratry or class into sub-classes for the purpose of avoiding too close inter- marriage) begun to fall into desuetude as regards the phratry. The religious, or quasi-religious, rites and beliefs attaching to the totem, therefore, would not be as easily forsaken. In making the change the line of least resistance would be followed ; and that would lie in the direction where religious sentiment had ceased to point. Assuming the argument to be correct, one consequence of the procedure would be to shift part of each totem-clan from one phratry to the other. This would lead to marriage being permitted within the clan, that is to say, within such parts of the clan as remained in the complementary phratry, for each of the phratries continued to be exogamous. M. Durkheim thinks that the further subdivision of the phratry into four classes or more, which is found in some Australian tribes, may have been due to the change from maternal to parental filiation, in order to preserve totemic exogamy. This does not seem quite in accord with the evidence. In New South Wales, where there are two phratries and ten sub-classes, mother-right is still in force.i Further inquiries, however, may throw light upon the point. Meanwhile, it is clear that a relaxation of the marriage-rules would inevitably lead to disintegration of the totemic clan.
If it be asked what were the causes of the change of filiation,
' Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow, p. 103.
3i8 • Reviews.
M. Durkheim replies that the custom by which the wife goes to live with her husband produces inconvenience as long as mother-right is retained. In the principal circumstances of life son and father are separated. The father belongs to one phratry, the son to the other. When the people assemble, each phratry assembles by itself, its camp is placed at a distance from the other, and wherever possible a natural barrier, like a stream, is placed between them. Nor is the physical division all. Whenever any question in which the phratries were severally interested came up, father and son would be found to have different interests, whereas at other times they w^ould share a common life with its common burdens and ex- periences. This situation would be full of difficulty and contradic- tion. Yet it would not have become wholly intolerable, but for the existence of a more lively sense of solidarity among the Arunta than usually obtains among the Australian tribes. If Arunta society be one in which the sense of unity is strong and growing, it is easy to see that the change of filiation may have been a step deliberately taken for the purpose of promoting unification or at least of removing a hindrance to it.
From matrimonial M. Durkheim turns to alimentary prohibi- tions. If the foregoing reasoning be accepted, it follows that the present regulations concerning food are a relaxation of earlier restrictions. Just as the relaxation of the restrictions on marriage within the totem-clan would be a necessary, though perhaps gradual, consequence of the change of filiation, and the removal of part of the totem-clan to the complementary exogamous phratry, so the prohibition of the totem as food would gradually fail. It has not quite passed away. Members of the totem-group are expected to eat of the totem, but with moderation, and not to the extent to which they may indulge in other articles of food. It is easier to explain this partial restriction as a survival of a restriction total save for ritual purposes, than to believe that it has been subsequently imposed. I may perhaps reinforce the argu- ment here. If the partial prohibition had not been primary, if the restriction had been subsequently imposed, it is almost incon- ceivable that there would not have been some tradition to account for it. For it would be unnatural, and would call for explanation. On the other hand, a gradual relaxation of restrictions might attract no notice, it might be insensible. Now, although the ancestors in the Alcheringa are represented as feeding on the
Reviews. 319
totem, Messrs. Spencer and Gillen have unearthed, so far as we know, no traditions accounting for the present restrictions. What, then, is the meaning of the stories of the ancestors feeding on the totem ? Messrs. Spencer and Gillen mention, only to reject it, the theory " that in the traditions dealing with the eating of the totem we have nothing more than another attempt to explain the origin of the totem name." M. Durkheim makes the following most ingenious suggestion. The ritual eating of the totem at the time of the Intichiuma ceremonies is really a sacramental com- munion. Now the traditions we are speaking of are nothing else than this rite, transported by popular imagination into the mythic period when the eponymous ancestors lived, and at the same time amplified by reason of the heroic and quasi-divine character of these ancestors. It was, in effect, inconceivable that such ancestors could have been subjected, as their descendants are, to such an obligation — indeed, one may almost say to such a physical necessity— as a sacramental communion with the totem. Nay, more. As an exceptional nature, a nature which is not that of common men, is attributed to them, it would appear proper that the means they would take to support it would be in accordance with their high religious dignity. Hence, and not because the totem was the exclusive, or even the usual aliment of the totem- clan, the traditions represent the latter as feeding on it. There is force in this reasoning ; but with regard to this, and indeed to all the traditions of the Arunta and the questions raised thereby, we must suspend final judgment until the publication of the results of the new expedition by the explorers to whom we owe all that we yet know of one of the most enigmatical tribes ever discovered. The Intichiuma rites remain to be considered. M. Durkheim distinguishes the rites themselves from their present inter- pretation. While admitting that they may have been prac- tised from primitive times substantially as they now are, he submits that the interpretation has changed with the changes above indicated. Now they are practised with a view to assure to the whole tribe a sufificiency of food. But this could not have been a primitive conception. It argues an organisation far above the capacity of primitive man, who could not have had the idea of co-ordinating so many diverse activities for the common good. It is an instance of extended and complex co-operation, which can only become effective when the sentiment of solidarity
320 Reviews.
is developed. It is in contradiction, too, with all we know of the constitution of genuine totem-clans. Such clans are essentially autonomous societies, each having its own life and morale, and attached to similar societies by a very loose bond — a bond which can only become strengthened according as the individual clans tend to merge one in the other, and lose with their autonomy their specific nature, in order to serve as material for a social organisa- tion of another and a higher kind.
The rites then must have originally had some other object. They must have been practised by each clan in its own exclusive interest ; and since the use of the totem for food was forbidden to the clan, the practice must have been of a religious and not of an economic nature. No doubt it was intended to perpetuate the species, though not for the purpose of forming an agreed contribu- tion to the alimentary resources of the tribe. The totem is hterally the condition of the existence of the clan. In order to have a Kangaroo-clan there must be kangaroos. The men who bear that name must be able to revivify their kangaroo-quality at intervals by sacramental communion. They cannot do so if the kangaroo-species die out. The Intichiuma rites were destined to prevent this mis- fortune. They were rites analogous to those which, in higher reli- gions, are intended to cherish and continue the life of the god. In course of time, however, the idea changed. The rites were still practised ; but they became magical. A nascent ancestor-worship intervened, itself a transformation of totemism. That totemism undergoes transformation into ancestor-worship, let me observe parenthetically, is a development not unknown elsewhere ; and the transformation, as I have tried to show, is found to be con- nected with the change from mother-right to father-right, and the consequent evolution of social organisation. ^ Among the Arunta, too, M. Durkheim argues, the Intichiuma have been developing into a tribal rather than a totemic ceremony. The members of the totem-group, it is true, still take the active part in the ceremonies, but the other tribesmen are admitted as reverent spectators, and they are subjected to ritual prescriptions with regard to the totem, to which they were formerly strange. The clan-religion has in fact become to a great extent tribal. The different cults are on their way to merge in a new system more general and more unified.
' Folk-Lore, vol. xii., p. 33.
Reviews, 321
There is no need, therefore, to reform our conception of totemisrn from top to bottom. Instead, we must submit to look upon the Arunta as in a special stage of civilisation. According to M. Durkheim's phrase, we find among them at one and the same time the preparation of the future and the perpetuation of the most distant past. It is a mistake to see in them belated representatives of humanity at its first appearance ; it would be no less a mistake not to recognise all the relics that subsist among them of the most primitive social forms it has been given us to know. The very complexity of their civilisation constitutes its scientific importance, for it is a rare case and one exceptionally fertile in information and suggestion. A transformation usually wrought only at a much later epoch has, among them, passed over totemic institutions at a moment when they were still strongly organised. By virtue of the reform some of these institutions have been con- solidated and have thus become able to maintain themselves more easily and to survive. But they have only survived after changes which give us a glimpse of how totemism is connected with the religious systems which have succeeded it elsewhere.
The length of this analysis of M. Durkheim's luminous M'emoire must be excused by the importance of the essay. The Memoi7-e itself should be read in order to appreciate the full force of the argument. If I might venture to express an opinion, it would be on the whole one of concurrence, at least in the main lines of his exposition. But it must be remembered that when the results of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen's new journey are published, all these conclusions may have to be reconsidered.
M. Durkheim has in the last paragraph alluded to the survival of archaic conditions in the midst of the advance in civilisation which he claims for the Arunta. I think that this survival might have been insisted on with advantage to his explanation of some of the peculiarities of their organisation. For example, one of the most archaic features of the Arunta traditions is the want of recognition of the physical relation between father and child. The father is merely the master of the mother and provider of food for her and for her relatives. He is not the cause of the child's existence ; or if a cause, he is a very indirect cause. The per- sistence of this view of birth (which I had been led some nine or ten years ago to infer as a primitive condition of thought, but hardly hoped to find surviving in any savages of the present day), in
VOL. XIII. Y
322 Reviews.
the face of the change of filiation, is certainly very remarkable. It affords one more proof that during a long period of human history, legal descent and relationship have little to do with physical fact. But since it has persisted, it is not difficult to see that it may have aided the break-up of the totem-clan and its transformation into a totem-group of a different character. The change of filiation did not in the first instance affect the totem-clan : it only affected the exogamous classes. As before, the totem continued to be derived through the mother. But the totem-clan was no longer an exo- gamous body, since one portion of it remained in each of the intermarrying phratries. The effect was to weaken more and more the consciousness of kin within the totem-clan. Autonomy was lost, and, with autonomy, community of interest was in danger of perishing. If the true physical relation between father and child had been apprehended, the totem-clan would simply have passed over to male descent. This is what has happened elsewhere. But the physical relation not being appre- hended, the totem-clan could not pass over to male descent. Some other provision was, therefore, required for its continuance. That provision was supplied by a development of the theory of reincarnation. Reincarnation is not an uncommon theory among savages, or for matter of that among civilised peoples, and no doubt it existed among the Arunta prior to the change of filiation. But where the totem-clan is a living institution the deceased member must be born again in his own clan (if at all), and it is because a child is born in a certain clan that he is conjectured to be a returned ancestor. The developed Arunta theory is very nearly the converse of this. A child born of a woman of any totem is conjectured from extrinsic circumstances to be such and such an ancestor returned, and his totem will depend upon that of the ancestor whom he is supposed to be. The result of the developments was that the totem-clan was gradually transformed into a fortuitous group which continued to exist simply for the purpose of performing the religious rites. The blood- bond was finally dissolved ; the autonomy was gone. Nothing remained of the community of interest, but such as resulted from the posses- sion of religious, or quasi-religious rites, which the totem-group alone had the power to perform, but which were now performed for the benefit, not of themselves exclusively, but of the entire tribe. I jjut this forward as no more than an hypothesis illustrating
Reviews. 323
the suggestion that the archaic features might have been empha- sised to explain the pecuHarities of the evolution of Arunta society. It seems to me to explain the curious position of the totem-group to which I find great difficulty in applying the term " primitive," even by courtesy.
In conclusion, I may point out that the theory, that in the development of human thought and practice magic preceded religion, does not depend on the primitive character of the Arunta. In Dr. Frazer's hands their practices, regarded as primitive, have indeed lent substantial support to it, but if, as M. Durkheim tries to show, they cannot be regarded as primitive, the theory in question, whether right or wrong, rests on other grounds, independent of Arunta support. It may be argued further that the development of the magical side of religion among the Arunta is an additional and striking example of a process which is always going on, and illustrations of which are to be found in the highest as well as in the lowest religions of the world. On these points, however, I will not here express any opinion.
E. Sidney Hartland.
[We would direct the attention of readers to the address of Professor Haddon as President of the Anthropological Section of the British Association Meeting at Belfast, 1902.— Ed.]
FABULiE Celtics.
Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland. A Folklore Sketch. A Handbook of Irish Pre-Christian Tradition. By W. G. Wood-Martin, M.R.I. A. With illustrations. Two vols. Longmans.
The author of this voluminous work seems to share that tendency to agglomeration which has made works dealing with the folklore, history, and traditions of the sister-island so repellent to the ordinary reader, whether Irish or English. He begins at a sufficiently remote period with what he calls " Speculative Geological Archaeology," and he devotes some chapters to a semi-imaginative reconstruction of the period of the Mammoth and the Cave-dweller, illustrated
Y 2
324 Reviews.
by pictures of imaginary scenes in the life of Neolithic man. From this period he passes on to what he calls the borderland of history and to a discussion of the beliefs of Pagan Ireland. The second volume contains a mass of information on well, animal, tree, and stone worship, and on marriage and fairy lore. This is to a folklorist, the only useful part of the book. It contains a vast accumulation of examples, many of them already well-known, but some few the result of the author's own observation. As a repository of data his work may have a certain value, but he lacks the critical and constructive faculty, and the book is rambling and ill-digested, full of untenable theories and of misunderstandings of evidence. To choose a few points. In speaking of the Druids he remarks :
' ' The peculiar character of the Druidic organisation precluded the existence of any very abnormal difference in the Druidism of Gaul, Britain, and Erin. Nay, further, if we assume, as Coesar states, that Druidism had not only its origin but even its chief seat in Britain, we cannot but conclude that at what- ever period we may fix on for its first introduction into Ireland there could have been but little difference between it and the Druidism of Gaul. There is, there- fore, little in Ccesar that might not be applied to Irish Druidism., as that religion is faintly depicted in alleged early Irish manuscripts. Casar styles the priests by the general name of Druids," &c.
Here are a series of assumptions made on the sole authority of a foreigner, a Roman general, who however accurate an observer, could have been only imperfectly informed of the religious beliefs and social practices of the peoples among whom he came as con- queror ; and who, moreover, never was in Ireland. As regards Irish Druidism, it would seem that the observations of Caesar stand in need of modification. The popular idea derived from him of the Druid as a sacrificing priest, cutting the sacred mistle- toe in the recesses of the woods and offering holocausts of human sacrifices, is totally unlike any conception that we get of the Irish Druids from the more purely pagan records, or indeed from any Irish records. In Britain the religious functions of the Druid were the prominent feature of his office ; in Ireland he is hardly ever, if at all, connected with religious ceremonies. He was soothsayer and diviner of the future, wizard possessed of super- natural powers, but not, so far as we know, priest or sacrificer. This function, if he possessed it, does not definitely appear in the Irish records. The Druid is not mentioned in connection with
Reviews. 325
the offerings to the great idol Crom Cruach, which demanded human sacrifices, but he is the author of all foretelling dreams, he has power over mists, and winds, and waves, and in the later Christian tales he is the determined foe of Christianity. He is, too, the guardian of the sacred fire, whose rites St. Patrick ruth- lessly trampled upon when, within sight of Tara, he lighted the Christian Pascal fire. If, as is possible, the Druid in Ireland assumed in later pre-Christian times the functions of a priest, it was probably added to his original office. Again, as regards the original home of Druidism, it is at least as likely that it passed over to Anglesea from Ireland with the Irish settlers from thence, as that it came the other way. Druidism is connected with the very earliest stratum of Irish folk-tradition, and appears in the most primitive tales. It may have adopted fresh forms in Britain. The mistletoe rites, at all events, were not Irish, as the plant did not grow in Ireland.
"We may infer," says our author, "that Druidism was never thoroughly established in the kingdom [of Ireland] ; that the Druids, whom Roman perse- cution in Gaul and Britain drove over to Ireland, were regarded as magicians, and were taken under the protection of the various petty kings and chiefs. Irish Druidism was in the act of spreading and organising itself, but had not time for universal development before the arrival of St. Patrick."
With this inference we see no grounds whatever for agreeing. There is absolutely no ground for supposing that the Druids were driven to Ireland from Gaul and Britain. On the contrary, they formed part of the oldest system of things we know anything of in Ireland, and held an established position in the remotest pagan times. The author seems to have failed to find Druidism in old Irish legend because he sought for the sacrificial and priestly form of Druidism with which Caesar had familiarised him, and which was not the form which Druidism, so far as we know, adopted in Ireland. In its Irish form as wizardry its presence is everywhere felt. The functions of law-giver, arbitrator, and instructor of youth, which belonged to the Gaulish bards, seem also to have been performed by the Irish Druid, although there was, as in Gaul, a subdivision of these duties among three or more grades.
To take another point. In speaking of the Irish literary re- mains, which the author loses no opportunity of decrying, he says :
" If it be granted that the country possessed a literature prior to the arrival of the Christian missionaries, surely the Pagan priesthood were quite capable
326 Reviews.
of continuing its custody and attending to its accretions ; but they were dis- established and disendowed, and the pen was torn from their grasp by the propagators of the new faith. If, on the other hand, Hterature and writing were only introduced into the kingdom along with Christianity, it must be at once admitted that the monks were the true and only custodians of literature. The admission, however, dissolves the basis on which rest the alleged glories of ancient Erin. Let us bring simple common sense into play, and not acquiesce in statements solely because they appear in Irish MSS. of by no means ancient date — records such as that of the peopling of Ireland before the flood, of the total extinction of this race, who yet left behind them a record of the event, and the thousand and one other absurdities which it is considered unpatriotic not to believe."
The author seems here to be confusing between the Hterary material and the means of its preservation, between Hterature proper, or the body of romance, poetry, and other material which forms the matter to be preserved, and the writing in which it was handed down. Writing on parchment was probably introduced into Ireland with Christianity, though, the date of the first in- troduction of Christianity being probably much earlier than is usually supposed, this still brings us back to a very early period. We have no direct evidence of its existence in Pagan times, though writing of some sort on sticks, stones, and wooden tablets was certainly used, and the latter was continued as a common form of writing far into Christian times. But the author must surely be aware that the Pagan literature that has come down to us was handed on, like the genealogies and tribal records, by word of mouth, by a specially trained body of reciters, until it was rescued from possible destruction by the monks, who collected and wrote it down in large books, which are thus repositories of a pre-existent literature. The monks did not create either the romance or the annalistic records, though they altered and added to them to suit their own conceptions of things. But, fortunately, their alterations in the tales can, in most cases, easily be discerned ; the spirit and breath of Paganism abides in them still, and it is the survival of a literature pre-Christian in spirit, though some- what modified in form, that gives its special value to Irish romance. When Colonel Wood-Martin says that the story of Cuchulainn has been re-modelled on that of Christ, he is carried away by an imaginative exaggeration of a few incidents in the hero's career. Both in outline and in detail, as in spirit, the story is essentially Pagan.
Reviews. 327
Not only the monks, but the whole nation, were the custodians of their literature, as is shown by the number of copies of all ages that remain of the old romances that have never seen the inside of a monastery. They have been copied and re-copied by the people themselves. With an extraordinary constancy, the national inheritance of the Pagan tales has been handed on by village scribes and hedge schoolmasters. This constancy may have checked original invention, but it has had the good effect of preserving for us at greater length many tales of which only an outline exists in the monastic records. In several instances, the later versions are the fullest.
With regard to the author's remarks on the moribund condition of the Irish tongue, we can only here say that he does not seem to have kept himself au coura?it with the events of to-day. The eagerness with which a whole nation is rising to reclaim its mother- tongue is one of the most extraordinary movements going on about us. Even in and about London there are some twenty weekly classes for the study of the Irish Gaelic language and of Irish songs, each attended by something like forty or fifty persons on an average. All over Ireland classes are being held, voluntarily taught by the native speakers to the younger generation. The establishment of new Gaelic Publishing Societies, the output of books in Irish Gaelic, their considerable sale, the large sums of money collected for these purposes, are unmistakable signs of the same enthusiasm. The leaders are embarrassed and well-nigh overwhelmed by the mass of work entailed by the unexpected development of the movement. Has the author not heard of these things ? And if he has heard of them, is it fair to ignore them ?
Notes on the Togail Bruidne Da Derga. Edited with Translation by Dr. Whitley Stokes. Libraire fimile Bouillon, Paris.
In his edition of Togail Bruidne Da Derga, or " The Destruction of the Great House of Da Derga," Dr. Whitley Stokes has placed before the public another of those famous stories drawn from the romance of ancient Ireland, in which the 7?iotif of the tragedy is the breaking of the tabus or geasa set round the person of a native monarch, Conaire the Great, King of Tara, who reigned, accord- ing to the Irish annalists, about the beginning of the Christian era.
328 Reviews.
The story, which is preserved in eight or more manuscripts ranging from the twelfth to the fifteenth century or later, belongs to that stage of development when the mythical and the historical meet, and we cannot tell where imagination ends and fact begins. It preserves for us, however, certain indications of the ancient Irish belief in tabus and in totemism which deserve attention.
In brief outline the story is as follows. The kingship of Tara was vacant, and guidance in the choice of the succeeding monarch was sought according to the ancient mystical rites. A bull was slain, and a man having partaken of the flesh and broth sank into slumber. Over him was chanted a " spell of truth," after which on his awakening he should announce publicly whom he had seen in his dreams. Whoever he had seen must be accepted as king ; but an error was punished by the death of the soothsayer. 1
On this occasion the dreamer announced that he saw in his sleep at the end of the night a man stark-naked, passing along the road to Tara, with a stone in his sling. The man who answered to this description was Conaire, whose origin is related in the earlier part of the story. Conaire was of semi-divine origin, the grandson of that Etain of the Sidh who had wedded the mortal monarch, Eochaid Feidlech. The beautiful description of this immortal goddess, earth-descended, is repeated in this tale from the separate story of the " Wooing of Etain," in which the contest between Eochaid and her invisible spouse, Midir of Bri Leith, for her possession, is recounted. Eochaid had died, leaving but one daughter, called after her mother, Etain, and wedded to Cormac, King of Ulster. She too has only one daughter ; and the king, disgusted at the want of a son, gives the babe to two slaves to cast into a pit. But the babe laughs up into their faces just as they are about to destroy her ; their hearts relent and the child is saved. They carry her into the sheds where the cows of Eterscel, King of Tara, are kept, and there she is brought up among the cowherds. Like Deirdre, she is enclosed in a house of wickerwork without window or door, but the king's folk espy her through the skylight and report her beauty to the king, who carries her off and marries her. He was childless, and it had been prophesied to him by his wizards that a woman of unknown race
' At /Egira in Achaia the priestess of Earth drank the fresh blood of a bull before she descended into the cave to prophesy. Frazer, Golden Bough, i., 134, quoting Pliny H. N., xxviii-147, editor's note.
Reviews. 329
should bear him a son. That son was Conaire, whose mortal descent and immortal origin alike fitted him for the position of supreme King of Erin.
Now on the night before Conaire's mother went to Eterscel, an Immortal in the guise of a bird had visited her, and he had laid upon her the injunction that the boy whom she would bear must never kill birds, because he himself would be of bird descent.^ This passage, as the editor remarks, indicates the existence in Ireland of totems, and of the rule that the person to whom the totem belongs must not kill the totem-animal. It was the beginning of Conaire's ill-luck that on his way to Tara, when he himself was as yet ignorant of the totem-law under which he was bound, he should have slain birds. As in the story of the " Birth of Cuchulainn," and again of " The Sick-bed of Cuchulainn," great white speckled birds of unusual size and colour and beauty fly before him. He was going northward on his way to Tara from the plain of the Liffey, south of Dublin, when the birds appeared. Unable to strike them with his spear, he pursues them to the sea-side and lets fly at them with his sling. The birds quit their birdskins and turn on him with spears and swords. One of them protects him, and addresses him, saying, " I am Nemglan, king of thy father's birds. It hath been forbidden thee to cast at birds, for there is no one here who should not be dear to thee because of his father and mother." " Till to-day," says Conaire, " I knew not this." Then Nemglan directs him to go to Tara naked, with the stone and sling in his hand, as the soothsayer was at that very moment seeing in his dream, when he should be chosen King of Tara. On the night of his election solemn tabus are bound upon him. It was he himself who uttered them as he had been taught by the man of the wave. " Thy reign," Nemglan had said, " will be subject to a restriction, but the bird-reign will be noble. And this is thy restriction or thy ges {i.e. tabu). Thou shalt not go right-hand-wise round Tara and left-hand-wise round Bregia (the plain of Meath). The evil beasts of Cerna must not be hunted by thee.^ And thou
' In like manner Cuchulainn, "the Hound" (as his name signifies), was forbidden under any circumstances to taste the flesh of a dog. The endeavour of the two crones to persuade him to do so prefigured his end.
- These seem in the sequel to have been beasts set upon his track by the elves.
330 Reviews^
shalt not go out on every ninth night beyond Tara.^ Thou shalt not sleep in a house from which fireHght or any hght whatever is manifest,"- &c.
The main portion of the tale, which is full of interesting and archaic detail, need not occupy us at any length. It relates the infringement, one by one, of the tabus which bound the monarch, and his own consequent fall. As in the kindred tragedies in which the same motif is at work, Conaire, whose reign had been signalised by abundant prosperity and the love of a contented people, is unconscious of the breaking of his own tabus. He violates them in following the path of duty, and by the machinations of the elves, who had never forgiven the wedding of Etain to a mortal and who took these means to revenge themselves on her descendant. It is the inevitableness of fate that stirs us in these Irish tragedies. The remainder of the story is of more interest to the lover of old literature and to the artist than to the folklorist. It recounts the destruction by fire of the great house, or "Bruiden," in which Conaire had taken shelter after his fight with the pirates off the Hill of Howth. The terrible conflict within the burning house is pictured with a certain rough tragic grandeur that reminds readers of " Burnt Njal " of the parallel in Icelandic story. " And hardly a fugitive escaped to tell the tidings to the champions who had been at the house."
The Mabinogion. {Popular Studies, No. 12.) By Ivor B. John, M.A. D. Nutt. 6d.
Mr. John treats only of the four stories which form the true Mabinogi, and which in Lady Charlotte Guest's edition are printed with a number of tales belonging to other cycles. The main interest of these four stories lies in their close relationship, both in character and incident, to the romance of Ireland ; especially because they belong to a cycle of which, in its mythical stage, very few Irish examples remain, viz., the legends of the Tuatha De Danann (called in Welsh Uterature the Children or Tribe of Don). Many of the romances belonging to the Cuchulainn cycle, and many of the miscellaneous romances of Ireland, contain
' Probalily intended to secure attention to his kingly duties. ' Evidently a protective tabu.
Reviews. 331
allusions to legends of these early tribes or gods, evidently familiar at the time the later stories were penned, but now altogether lost. The fact that it is the remains of this very remote cycle that are found in Wales, and not those of the later and very popular Cuchulainn cycle, is certainly a strong argument for the belief that at a very early period the Gael of Ireland and the Goidel of Wales were one undivided race. For had the intermixture been merely one of settlement in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries from Ireland, it is not to be doubted that the later cycle would have been the one to establish itself in Welsh Legend, whereas allusions to Cuchulainn in Welsh literature are extremely rare. The Irish began to euhemerise the Tuatha De Danann cycle as early as the tenth century. Therefore the Welsh stories, which treat them still in their mythological aspect, must certainly be older. Mr. John does not consider them, as we understand, to be purely Goidelic tales at all, but to belong to a common Celtic mythology, which Goidel and Brython shared in common. He says : " We shall therefore treat the four branches of the Mabinogi as the degraded Brythonic development of early Celtic myth- roots, owing their deeper resemblances to Irish tales to original community of myth, and their more super- ficial resemblances to late influence from Irish sources," thus try- ing to combine the opposing theories of Professor Rhys and Dr. Kuno Meyer.
With his argument against the late borrowing of the tales from Ireland we cordially agree. They could not have been so borrowed in their entirety; but we do not see that his explanation throws any fresh light upon, or in any way militates against, the theory of a common Goidelic, as distinct from a Brythonic, origin. For if all the tales spring fron] one common Celtic origin, why have we not in Ireland a large number of tales resembling the other portions of Welsh romance ? Mr. John says : " Are we to sup- pose that the whole jealous bardic system of Wales existed for the sole purpose of retailing exotic Irish legend ? " Certainly not, but that they should retail Goidelic legends in those parts of the country in which Goidelic traditions and races lingered and were reinforced by later immigrations, is as natural as that they should have recited Brythonic tales in the more purely Welsh districts. The tales that we have are, in any case, mere specimens of a body of romance of which much has been lost to us.
332 Reviews.
CucHULAiNN, THE Irish Achilles. By ALFRED NuTT. (Popular Studies in Mythology, Romance, and Folklore. No. 8.) D. Nutt. 6d.
Mr. Nutt's statement of the age of the main body of the Cuchu- lainn romances is as follows : —
The great bulk of this literature is, as I have said, certainly older than the twelfth centuiy ; but we can carry it back much farther, apart from any con- siderations based upon the subject-matter. Arguments of a nature purely philological, based upon the language of the text, or critical, based upon the relations of the various MSS. to each other, not only allow, but compel us to date the redaction of the principal Cuchulainn stories, substantially in the form under which they have survived, back to the seventh to ninth centuries. Whether or no they are older yet, is a question that cannot be answered with- out preliminar}' examination of the subject-matter. In the meantime it is something to know that the Cuchulainn stories were put into permanent literary form at about the same date as Beowulf, some one hundred to two hundred and fifty years before the Scandinavian mythology crj'stallised into its present form, at least two hundred years before the oldest Charlemagne romances, and probably three hundred years before the earliest draft of the Nibelungenlied. Irish is the most ancient vernacular literature of modern Europe, a fact which of itself commends it to the attention of the student.
Mr. Nutt gives us an admirable summary of the many tales in which his hero's career is unfolded. The parallel drawn between Cuchulainn and Achilles is wonderfully close. There are even some points which might be added, such as the warning to Thetis that if iVchilles went to the siege of Troy he would gain immortal glory but meet an early death, while if he remained at home he would live to a good old age. On overhearing a similar prophecy made to his father by a Druid, Cuchulainn at a tender age assumed arms and went forth on his first exploit.
We are not, however, fond of parallels between classic and mediaeval mythology. The setting of the classical hero belongs to another stratum of society and another conception of life. What is borne in upon us more than any other fact in considering the early myths of Celtic Britain is their primeval flavour. They are gropings of the untutored human mind in his early con- ceptions of the world, and in the ruder stages of his existence. The civilisation of the Greek is not only many stages beyond them, as Mr. Nutt points out ; it is in every way opposed to them. The Greek who gave us our modern conception of Achilles, a conception near to his own time and order of society, was probably
Reviews. 333
unable even to conceive of the original Achilles upon the traditions of whom his work was based, and who belonged to a totally different order of things. He could no more reproduce the original Achilles of his people's myth, than we could re-create to-day such a character as Cuchulainn or Siegfried. The change of feeling is more and deeper than the change of outward life.
Eleanor Hull.
CUCHULAIN OF MuiRTHEMNE : THE StORY OF THE MeN OF THE
Red Branch of Ulster, arranged and put into English BY Lady Gregory. With a Preface by W. B. Yeats. Demy 8vo. XX. 350 pp. Murray. 1902.
Lady Gregory's book is intended primarily to put the old Irish romances before the general reader in such a way as may com- mand his attention and win for them his admiration Those who, like myself, love these romances, cannot but feel the deepest interest in such an attempt, beset as it is with many and great difificulties.
Up to now the English reader who has not had a specialist library at his command has only had Miss Hull's Cuchullin Saga to refer to if he wished to form a general idea of the contents and nature of the Ulster or Cuchulainn cycle. Many who wish to know something about the Irish heroic tales will doubtless turn to Lady Gregory's book. They will find a more complete repre- sentation of the cycle than is afforded by Miss Hull. Lady Gregory has embodied about a dozen tales which Miss Hull had omitted, though she has omitted four to be found in the latter's work. She has indeed included at least one (the "Togail Bruidne da Derga," enghshed as "The High King of Ireland") which does not really belong to the cycle at all, the connection being ob- viously later and artificial, the product of a time when the Cuchulainn cycle had overshadowed and attracted to itself many originally independent stories.
It may have been necessary to the object Lady Gregory has in view to leave the requirements of the student entirely out of account. But in reviewing the book as I have to do here from the special standpoint of the student, I am bound to point out : (i) the absolute inadequacy of the bibliographical indications; (2) the fictitious air of consistency and uniformity imparted to
334 Reviews.
the cycle ; tales of diverse date, origin, and nature, being thrown into an harmonious chronological sequence, which distorts when it does not disguise their real character. I must further express my regret, and also my surprise, at Lady Gregory's occasional choice of version and incident. The older version, for instance, of Deirdre's fate in the Children of Usnach is incomparably grander, sterner, more fraught with tragic passion, than that which she has selected.
It is, however, specially in connection with two characteristics of Lady Gregory's work that the would-be student must be warned against accepting her presentment of the Ulster tales as adequate or exact. In the first place she has (legitimately perhaps, from her point of view), omitted or softened what may be called the barbaric traits of her original, such, for instance, as Deirdre's drinking the blood of her dead lover. Many of these omissions and changes are made in deference to modern delicacy (as is also the case in Miss Hull's book). Personally, I feel that greater occasion is given to the enemy to blaspheme by the suppression than by the frank recognition of the fact that the Irish heroic romances are the outcome of very archaic social conditions. In any case the student loses such valuable detail as the final incident of the Wooing of Emer, proving as it does the existence of the droit du Seigneur amongst the early Irish. In some cases the editor's reticence tells against her hero from our point of view : thus Cuchulainn rejects Emer's suggestion that he should court her sister rather than herself, upon the specific ground that he holds none but a virgin worthy of his attention. Lady Gregory omits this. In the second place, the changes which she makes affect our estimate of the mythical element in these stories. In some cases there is room for difference of opinion. Thus there are two versions of Cuchulainn's birth ; in one, it is due to his mother's swallowing an insect in water, the insect, as is implied, being the god Lugh transformed ; in the other, she is carried off by a supernatural being, and when she is found again by her kinsfolk the birth takes place. Lady Gregory has thrown these two accounts into one, the swallowing incident preceding the abduction. The original versions are so fragmentary and obscure that one cannot say that this interpretation is an im- possible one, but it does not strike me as probable. Again, Lady Gregory places the hero's birthplace at " Brugh na Boinne, the
Reviews. 335
dwelling place of the Sidhe." The original Irish merely states that Dechtire and her companions, transformed into birds, flew away " beyond Sliab Fuad." Miss Hull inserted in her translation the following gloss of her own, which she bracketed : " i.e., towards the fairy dwelling of Brugh on the Boyne;" and this gloss seems to be the origin of Lady Gregory's statement. It is a possible nay, a legitimate, deduction from the Irish text, but it is not found in that text. My most serious criticism on this score bears upon the final passage of the book. " But the three times fifty queens that loved Cuchulainn saw him appear in his Druid chariot going towards Emain Macha ; and they could hear him singing the music of the Sidhe." In the original the words I have italicised run : " and they heard him sing tidings of Doomsday and the coming of Christ." Lady Gregory may here quote from some unpublished MS., but if so, it was of the greatest importance to give her autho- rity. Failing such authority, the version she gives can only be a guess, and should have been put forward as such.
I am conscious of the unfairness of judging a book by a standard which the author never had in view. I can only plead the immense importance of early Irish literature — the oldest and most archaic vernacular literature of modern Europe — -for our studies, and the consequent necessity for students to become acquainted with its contents in as accurate and faithful a manner as possible. If Celtic myth and saga were as familiar as Teutonic there would have been no need to deal with Lady Gregory's book in the pages of Folk-Lore. Alfred Nutt.
Donegal Fairy Stories : collected and told by Seumas Mac Manus. Isbister & Co.
Regarded as a fairy-tale book, this is simply delightful. There is something quaint and fresh about the manner of telling, the tales are unhackneyed, and there is an all-pervading humour of the real Irish type ; while the pictures are quite as delightful in their way as the stories. What their value for the student may be it is impossible to say, because the compiler gives no authori- ties ; he does not tell us either where he heard the tales, or how faithful he has been in recording them.
1l« f
I
i
ct"^»^ri
:<:s :t
or •r'.c;r ^v-iL^r-irT ^ ,::«-
n jimiHn to jutting. Here 8
'OBMs St ammaBcu oestxip-
ocxsas aod Tom Hfo;'' aov «c
this Bprtrr tne gcoenl
^mmimhMK Aad so ic is with
T^" " ::a: \f. Nicobj bss JLBUSKCL TlfeCIC
(.■ftpA ^fr>*'r.-' r cnhienhat, m tibe otdaing of s are tbeae of any use to the :. they are Tcry incomplete. :ct of festirals, and not one
r; and there is a long
r'-^" ""hich knows nothing
^s later writings. On the other
' the afore-
. ^ ^^'e. Some-
ther, at other times no page
of the books quoted are
to him who tries to find
R. R. Marett.
t
1 t » • •
r- w^-^
re.
LOJ^E SOCLTY
fo. IV
I
I
1902.
in the Chir.
A and contmcd.
ml \alley " Wt read
iscussion follovtd, in
uiverie Puse) Mr.
Mr. I,ovett, ail the
led to Miss Smon per entitled The t lent Superstion "
exhibited the ri..\\-
n Plate \\ .
'Is, worn by cmels.
mounted in Iver,
\(\v Guinea. ' rthern Indin
an amulet fro the
:bron.
HhS^
336 Reviews.
HiSTOIRE DES CROVANCES, SUPERSTITIONS, McEURS, USAGES ET COUTUMES (SELON LE PLAN DU DeCALOGUE). Par FeRNAND
Nicola Y. 3 vols. Paris : Retaux.
This book is not written for the scientific student of folklore ; and to him it will not appeal. Its object is to show that man is, and always has been, one and the same the whole world over in respect to his ultimate spiritual nature ; that the essence of this consists in such intuitions as that God is one, that the soul is immortal, and that there are eternal principles of morality corre- sponding more or less exactly to those delivered from Sinai. Meanwhile, the religious and moral sense of man, it has to be admitted, is capable of "regrettable aberrations " in all directions. These, then, our author undertakes to chronicle, bringing them as best he can under one or other of his ten heads, the influence of the theatre and the novel, for instance, being discussed in con- nection with the text, " Thou shalt not commit adultery." As aberrations they are for him but so many detached "curiosities," and no laws are invoked to account for their development or dis- tribution. We pass on aimlessly from jotting to jotting. Here is a disquisition on " lynch law," next comes an animated descrip- tion of a prize-fight "between Jackson and Tom Hyer," now we are on the subject of electrocution — all this under the general heading provided by the sixth commandment. And so it is with the anthropological material that M. Nicolay has amassed. There is no discernible method, genetic or otherwise, in the ordering of his facts. Nay, not even as bare facts are these of any use to the scientific student. On the one hand, they are very incomplete. There is a whole book on the subject of festivals, and not one allusion to the researches of Dr. Frazer; and there is a long chapter on " La Croyance au Grand Esprit" which knows nothing of the " high gods " of Mr. Lang's later writings. On the other hand, when not borrowed from some other collector, the afore- said facts are at best of obscure and doubtful parentage. Some- times the reference is omitted altogether, at other times no page is mentioned, and, for the rest, the titles of the books quoted are given in such a mutilated form that woe to him who tries to find them in the catalogue of a library.
R. R. Marett.
i|Folk«=Xorc
TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY
Vol. XITI.] DECEMBER, 1902. [No. IV.
FRIDAY, JUNE 20th, 1902. The President (Mr. E. W. Brabrook) in the Chair.
The minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
A paper on the " Folklore of the Kennet Valley " was read by Miss L. Salmon [p. 418 ], and a discussion followed, in which Miss Jessie Weston, Mr. Bouverie Pusey, Mr. Gomme, Miss Burne, Mr. Higgens, Mr. Lovett, and the President took part.
A vote of thanks having been accorded to Miss Salmon for her paper, Mr. Lovett read a paper entitled " The Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition " [p. 340], in illustration of which he exhibited the follow- in objects, some of which are figured in Plate IV.
1. Neck charms of large blue beads, worn by camels. Syria.
2. Crescent charm of boar's tusk, mounted in silver. Tunis.
3. Crescent charm of shell (disc). New Guinea.
4. Stone beads of phallic design. Northern India.
5. Jewish phylactery.
6. Inscribed scroll in silver case, an amulet from the
Soudan.
7. A series of Evil Eye charms. Hebron.
VOL. XIII. z
338 Minutes of Meeting.
8. '' Trade " amulets of glass, inscribed with Arabic
characters.
9. Cornelian arrow-points, worn as charms by the Arabs.
10. " Trade " charms of glass, made to resemble the apex
of a cone shell, the whorl of which is regarded as representing the rotary motion of the sun. This series is of various coloured glass, with variations in celluloid-
11. "Trade" charms of glass, made to resemble cornelian
in various forms and patterns, copied from very old Arab types.
12. "Trade" charms of glass made to resemble large arrowheads. This series comprises copies in white glass (chalcedony), brown (cornelian), and others in blue, red, yellow, &c. Lines across the base repre- sent the lashing to the shaft, whilst the flaking is indicated by a row of notches on the cutting edge. More elaborate forms show coloured designs with svmbols of the Crescent, and others of the Cross. Others again have views and other pictures upon them.
13. Another series of the above in celluloid, but without
designs or decoration of any sort, evidently a de- graded type.
14. "Trade" charms of "tigers' teeth," (so called), well
modelled;^ also others in coloured glass, unnatural.
15. "Trade" charm of tigers' teeth in form of crescent,
attached to a necklet of cowrie shells, all of glass.
16. Tigers' claw\s of glass, good copies; others of the
same form in various coloured glass.
17. Small tish, made of glass, for Burmah and India.
18. Laree " shell " discs of dense white olass for trade in the Pacilic,
ig. Large bead of imitation amber, for trade with the West Coast of Africa.
' Fig. 14/^ represents a wild cat's tooth.
Plate IV.
to
'7
1^"
\r
SPECIMENS OF "TRADE" CHARMS.
To face p. y:,'i.-
Mill iites of Me c ting. 339
In the discussion which followed, Mr. Whittaker, Mr. Longworth Dames, Mr. Higgens, Miss Burne, Miss Jessie Weston, and the President took part.
The Meeting terminated with a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Lovett for his paper.
The following books which have been presented to the Society since the last Meeting, were laid on the table, viz. :
Finnisch-Ugrische Forsclutngen, by E. N. Setala and Kaarle Krohn, presented by the authors; and the Trans- actio7is of the Cyjumrodorion Society, 1900-1, presented by the Society.
WEDNESDAY, JULY 16th, 1902.
The President (Mr. E. VV. Brabrook) in the Chair.
This being a Special Meeting no minutes were read.
The President called on Mr. Lang, who read a paper on the "Origin of Totemism " [p. 347], on which Professor Haddon, Mr. Gomme, Mr. Clodd, Miss Burne, Mr. R. R. Marett, and Mr. H. H. Raynbird offered some observations
[P- 393]-
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Lang for his paper, which having been unanimously carried, Mr. Lang replied with thanks.
The Meeting then terminated.
SATURDAY, OCTOBER 25th, 1902.
By kind permission of the Rector and Fellows of Exeter College, Oxford, a Meeting was held in the Hall of that College on Saturday, October 25th^ 1902, Professor Tylor, a Vice-President of the Society occupying the Chair.
z 2
340 The Modern Commercial Aspect of
Mr. Andrew Lang read a paper entitled " Exogamy and the Australian System " [see p. 398] ; and a discussion followed, in which the Chairman, Mr. Hartland, Mr. Gomme, the Rev. G. A. Simcox, and Mr. Snow took part. The Vice-Chancellor of the University, the Rector of Exeter College, and many other Oxford dignitaries were present at the Meetincr.
THE MODERN COMMERCIAL ASPECT OF AN ANCIENT SUPERSTITION.
By E. Lovktt.
Read at Meetina^ of 20th June, 1902.
A FEW years ago, whilst preparing a paper upon the evolution of coinage and prehistoric trading, I considered that the subject would not be complete without a reference to trade beads. With this end in view I placed mvself in communication with some Bohemian manufacturers of these articles, and readily obtained what I required for my pur- pose. I noticed, however, in going over samples of their glass work, that there were many objects of considerable interest besides beads ; and upon further inquiry I learnt that these objects were known as " charms," and that they enjoyed, from a commercial standpoint, the same value and advantages as the beads already referred to.
These specimens were very varied, and in most cases represented objects quite familiar to me. In many instances, however, the colouring was abnormal, and even absurd ; but I shall consider this more fully, later on, in describing the specimens upon the table. ^ Meanwhile I
' See list of exhibits, supfa, pp. 337, 338.
an Ancient Superstition. 341
will briefly deal with the subject of charms and amulets in general, and then with the very interesting differentiation of form and design which obtains in these objects.
I think we may take it as a fact that the human dread of the unknown is practically universal, though it is naturally far more general amongst primitive races than amongst civilised people. This fear may, for our purpose, be sub- divided into dread of the directly mysterious, such as death by lightning ; secondly, of death, or injury and disease, from intelligible causes ; and lastly, of the power of one person over another by what is known in a general way as the "Evil Eye"; that is, "overlooking," and thus causing mischief of some kind. The natural result of such a state of terror prompted the seeking of an antidote, and such antidotes are to be seen in the varied forms of charms and amulets to be found in every country of the world.
These charms are as diversified indeed as the supersti- tions themselves, or even more so, but for the purpose of the present paper they may be roughly classified under three heads, all of which may be regarded as prophylactic.
Firstly, we find a group of charms and amulets repre- senting either in a concrete or abstract form the deitv, fetish, unknown power, or origin of life ; secondly, objects of a sympathetic form ; and thirdly, objects which from their abnormal appearance are regarded as of mystic origin, and in consequence regarded as possessing the power of warding off the Evil Eye, protecting their owner from lightning, and such like.
The charms under the first head take the form of the solar disc (sometimes the svastika, as representing the rotary motion of the sun), the lunar crescent, and the large variety of well-known phallic symbols.
Of the second type there are very numerous forms, of which we may mention for our purpose the following. Thunderbolts, as a safeguard from lightning. The subsili- cate cornelian, regarded by the Arabs as a preventive of
34.2 The Modern Commercial Aspect of
injury to the flesh. (In Northern India, the garnet enjoys the same repute, and the turquoise, I believe, in Persia: see exhibit No. i). In like manner, too, the teeth and claws of certain predatory animals are worn as charms against the animals themselves. I have ascertained that men engaged in menageries and wild-beast-shows w'ear upon their watch chains teeth and tusks of dangerous animals as a " danger charm," which brings this belief down very close to our own doors. ^
Of the third group, I may mention such abnormal objects as arrowheads, polished celts, &c., certain fossils, such as ammonites, belemnites, &c., stones perforated (probably fossil sponges), nodules of iron pyrites, and many others, all of which, being unintelligible to the primitive mind, are usually regarded with superstitious awe, and worn as luck charms, or as a defence against the power of the Evil Eye."^ Charms of this latter group are usually worn in such a position as to be readily seen ; they act, or are supposed to act, as a sort of lightning conductor, so that the first glance of the Evil Eye, which I believe is the dangerous one, is received by the charm instead of by the individual wearing it On the other hand, amulets, which usually take the form of some extract, however small, from the holy books of the wearer, are invariably hidden from sight, as in the case of the phylacteries of the Jews and the scrolls in silver cases worn by the warriors of the Soudan. Every Neapolitan carries a charm (in some cases several), but they are likewise hidden away, and not even referred to or
' A marine-store dealer, who looked out for curious things for me, ha some teeth roughly mounted as pendants. He told me that they were pur- chased by wild-beast-showmen, who wore them for luck and to save them from being attacked by the animals.
^ I once heard of a collector of flint implements who labelled all his speci- mens with oil colours upon the flint itself. He was overhauling his collection and threw several specimens away. The country people found these, and not understanding the mysterious marks upon them, regarded them as charms, and treasured them accordingly.
an. Ancient Superstition. 343
talked about. This has all been fully described by Mr. Ehvorthy in his book upon the Evil Eye.
The types, however, to which my paper specially refers are worn by the races of various parts of the African conti nent and the islands of the South Pacific. They are un- doubtedly charms and not mere ornaments, for it is a most significant fact that an object possessing the mystic power in the eyes of one tribe has no value or meaning at all v,'ith the people of even a neighbouring part of the country or of an adjacent island.
As will be seen from the specimens before you, a con- siderable number of forms are symbolised ; I am speaking now of the original forms selected, altered, or adapted by the natives. Large discs are cut from the great shells of the Tridacna ; the apex of the shell of the genus Comis is cut so as to show the spiral of the whorl (No. lo). Both these forms seem to suggest the solar disc, the spiral pattern of the latter suggesting rotary motion. The teeth and claws of certain animals, besides the symbolism already alluded to, are, I consider, worn as a protection against the very animals represented by these teeth and claws, as in the case of the menagerie attendants already referred to. The human teeth worn so abundantly by certain tribes in the neighbourhood of Ashanti are, in my opinion, so worn with the idea of absorbing the bravery of the slain foe by the wearer. The same principle is found to exist in the case of cannibalism. The fish-charm (No. 17) is curiously interesting, as also are the arrow, or spear, heads. This latter object has always apparently been regarded as of mystic origin by those who did not understand what it was; usually under the titles of "Elf-darts" and " Thunderbolts," in Europe. It is, however, curious to find natives of Africa holding this superstition, as the knowledge of iron in a crude form seems to have been of great antiquity, and the African native was using a native- made manv-barbed arrow when the North American
344 ^^^ Modern Co'nimercial Aspect of
Indians were "making arrowheads of jasper, arrowheads of chalcedony," (Hiawatha).
Beads, although generally regarded as merely ornaments, are also charms. Indeed, I am of the opinion that all beads were originally worn as such, for I think \\& may take it that the first bead worn by prehistoric man was simply a stone with a hole through it, which being in his opinion uncanny and unaccountable, was at once invested with mystic power ; besides, many naturally perforated stones are exceedingly suggestive of eyes, and even now holed stones are worn as charms ao-ainst the Evil Eve. The cretaceous fossil organism Porosphora glohularis, has been found in France as a necklet associated with a burial of the Neolithic period ; and portions of the stems of Encrinites, sometimes called St. Cuthbert's beads, help to throw light upon the origin of modern beads. But this is too wide a subject to discuss in this paper.
Having thus referred to the various charms and amulets bearing upon the remarkable revelation which I came upon with such surprise, and at the same time with such real regret, I will now proceed to describe the collection of specimens before you.
It seems to have occurred to some dreadfully ingenious individual that if he could only get a quantity of the highly- prized objects worn by the natives of countries where such things as ivory, skins, gold-dust, and similar trifles were obtainable, it would be uncommonly good business. So original specimens were got and copies carefully made — in Bohemia,, of course ! Curiously enough, the native took to the innovation, although with that keen sense of his he must have known that his tiger-tooth or his shell-disc was not of the orthodox material.
But now comes a still more remarkable point. Not con- tent with really beautifully-made facsimiles of these charm objects, in which even the colours showed that those who copied these teeth and shells were real artists, fancy colours
an Ancient Superstition. 345
became introduced, so that we find cone-shell tops, cowries, tiger's teeth and claws made up in variously coloured glass — blue, green, pink, &c., &c.
And what is still more remarkable, the natives, I under- stand, positively prefer this novel idea ! Again, glass is giving way to celluloid, also in varied colours ! and also to the, apparently, great satisfaction of the native. In respect to amber, however, this material is very effective as a sub- stitute, and I very much question if a native, unaware of the electric test, would be able to detect the fraud. Real amber beads of large size are of considerable value^ so that here we have an appreciable example of the advantage to the trader in such a cheap substitute as the example before us.
Perhaps, however, the most interesting examples of the collection are to be found in the series of arrowheads. Some of them are really large enough to be regarded as spear- heads, but I think this merely an exaggeration in size. This form seems to have commenced as a fairly accurate copy in glass of an arrowhead of white chert, chalcedony, or red cornelian, but with the curious addition of a hole, which, I understand, is for the finger, these charms being worn on the hand. A very important feature, indeed the only mark of decoration, consists of three parallel lines across the base of the arrowhead, doubtless a survival of the lashing by which its prototype was fastened to its shaft. We next find this arrowhead merging into blue and other coloured glass, quite unlike any natural stone, and therefore becoming devoid of meaning (Plate IV., fig. \2a). The next type is of white glass, bearing the Ottoman symbol of the Star and Crescent in gold (fig. i2(5.) Then we have gorgeous colouring of no apparent motive, one bearing the picture of a horseman, another a view of an x\frican settlement, another a star arrangement, another the sign of the Christian Cross, two others again have the Crescent mixed up with other designs. Then we get still further advanced
34^ Modern Aspect of an Ancient Superstition.
types in metal to imitate gold, one of which has a sham diamond let into the Star and Crescent device. Now in all these remarkable ramifications in which the arrowhead has run riot, one thing remains persistent throughout, and that is the three lines symbolical of the lashing to which I have referred. This persistent retention of an obsolete part of an object undergoing a process of evolution is very interesting and has been observed in many other forms, and indeed may be seen in designs of decorative art common around us.^ Again, we have here also the intro- duction of the celluloid article, and undoubtedly in a very degraded form. The shape is becoming confused, the colours are unnatural for the most part ; they bear no decorative ornament, and even the three " fibre '' lines are absent (fig. 13). I should have mentioned that most of the glass forms bear notches on their cutting edge ; this I con- sider to be a survival from the serrated chipping of the original arrowhead of flint.
There are one or two points for consideration suggested by this curious collection. We have seen, even in this small series, how a type differentiates, and how such changes and innovations meet with the approval and even the encouragement of the natives. When and where will it stop ? \s!'\\\ it be possible, in a few years, to say what a certain charm originally was ? Will the native, if he remains as he is long enough, be able to recognise the rubbish made for him in the European markets, or will these charms, as is usually the case, become degraded into mere ornaments to be worn by the natives upon the inartistic European clothing which seems to be the inevit- able costume of the future ? Another regrettable feature is the lamentable destruction of aboriginal design by these
' An interesting illustration of this exists in the two buttons fixed to the back of a man's coat. These have, now, no meaning or use whatever, although they formerly were for buttoning up the tails of the coat when on horseback.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs 2)47
cheap European trade goods. Already our museums are gradually acquiring specimens illustrating the influences of the European markets ; and necklets and ornaments chiefly composed of German beads, but of native arrangement, are commonly met with. The traveller of the near future will, I fear, find in his anxiety to obtain collections illustra- tive of aboriginal art, that his most valued examples will prove to have simply been " Made in Germany."
Edward Lovett.
THE ORIGIN OF TOTEM NAMES AND BELIEFS.
By a. Lang, m.a., ll.d., etc. {Read at Meeti^ig of \bth Juty, 1902.)
[These pages have been a good deal altered since the draft was read to the Society. They are meant to form part of a book not yet named, my own portion being introductory to " Primal Law," a treatise left in MS. by my cousin, the late Mr. J. J. Atkinson.]
Totem names are the titles of groups of kindred, real or imagined ; they are derived from animals, plants, and other natural objects ; they appear among tribes who reckon descent either on the sword or spindle side, and the totem name of each group is usually (but not in the case of the Arunta) the mark of the exogamous limit. None may marry a person of the same totem name. But, in company with this prohibition, is found a body of myths, superstitions, rites, magical practices, and artistic uses of the totem. ^
' As to the word " totem " but little is certainly known. Its earliest occurrence in literature, to my knowledge, is in a work by J. Long (1791), Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter. T-ong sojourned among the Algonquin branch of the North American Indians. He spells the word
348 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
Sacred Animals in Savage Society.
Savages, both in their groups of kin, in their magical societies or clubs, and privately as individuals, are apt to regard certain beasts, plants, and so on, as the guardians of the group, of the society, and of the private person. To these animal guardians, whether of the individual, the society, or the group of kin, they show a certain amount of reverence and respect. That reverence naturally takes much the same forms, the inevitable forms; as, of not killing or eating the animal, occasionally of praying to it, or of burying dead representatives of the species, as may happen. But I am unaware that the savage ever calls his personal selected animal, or plant, or the guardian animal of his magical society (except among the Arunta, where the totem groups are evolving into magical clubs), by the same term as he applies to the hereditary guardian of his group of kindred — his totem, as I use the word. If I am right, this distinction has been overlooked, or thought insignificant, by some modern inquirers. Major Powell, the Director of the Ethnological Bureau at Washington, appears to apply the the word totem both to the chosen animal friend of the individual, and to that of the magical society in America, which includes men of various group-totems.^ He also applies it to the totem of the kin. Mr. Frazer, too, writes of (i) The Clan Totem, (2) The Sex Totem (in Australia), (3) " The Individual Totem, belonging to a single individual, and not passing to his descendants," and even indicates that one savage may have five totems." The third rule, as to the non-hereditable character of " The Individual Totem " has, since Mr. Frazer wrote in 1887, been found to admit
" Totam," and even speaks of " Totamism." Mr. Tylor has pointed out that Long in one place confuses the totem, the hereditary kin-name, and pro- tective object, with what used to be called the vianitii, or " medicine," of each individual Indian, chosen by him, or her, after a fast, at puberty. Remarks on Toteiiiisiii, 1898, pp. 139-140 (in y. A. /. , vol. xviii).
' Man, 1902, No. 75.
-' Totemism, p. 2, 1887.
The On'j^ui of Totem Names and Beliefs. 349
of more exceptions than he then knew. In a few cases and places, the animal selected by, or for, the private individual is found to descend to his or her children. In my opinion it is better, for the present at least, to speak of such protec- tive animals of individuals, by the names which their savage proteges ^w^ to them in each case: nyarongs (Sarawak), "bush-souls" (Calabar), naguals (Central America), mani- tus (?) as among the Algonquins, and so forth. '^ I myself here use "totem" only of the object which lends its name, hereditarily, to a group of kin.
Proposed Restriction of the use of the Word Totem.
This restriction I make, not for the purpose of simplifying the problem of totemism by disregarding " the individual totem," "the sex totem," and so on ; but because I under- stand that savaees evervwhere use one word for their here- ditary group-totem, and other words for the plant or animal protectors of individuals, of magical societies, and so forth. The true totem is a plant or animal, the hereditarv friend and ally of the group ; but all plant or animal allies of individuals or of magical societies are not totems. Though the attitude of a private person to his nagual, or of a magical society to its protective animal, may often closelv resemble the attitude of the group to its hereditary totem, still, the origin of this attitude of respect may be different in each case.
This is obvious, for the individual or society deliberately adopts an animal protector and friend, usually suggested in a dream, after a fast ; whereas we can scarcely conceive that the totem was deliberately adopted by the first mem- bers of the first totem groups. Savages look on animals as personalities like themselves, but more powerful, gifted
' So also Mr. Hartland writes, Alan, 1902, No. 84. But inaiiitii is perhaps too wide and vague a term. It usually connotes anything mystical or super- normal.
350 T^^^ Ovifrivi of Totem Names and Beliefs.
with more zvakan, or niana, or cosmic rapport : each man^ therefore, and each organised magical society, looks out for, and, for some reason of dream or divination, adopts a special animal friend. But it is hard to believe that the members of a primeval human group of unknown antiquity consciously and deliberately made a compact to adopt, and for ever be faithful to, this or that plant, animal, element, or the like : to be inherited in the female line.
We cannot prove that it was not so, that a primitive group of rudimentary human beings did not make a cove- nant with bear or wolf, as Israel did with Jehovah, and as an individual savage does with his nyarong, or nagual, or ■manitu. This covenant, if made and kept by each group, would be the origin of totemism. But I am not certain that this theory, involving joint and deliberate selection and retention of a totem by a primeval human group, has ever been maintained, unless it be by Mr. Jevons. " The primary object of a totem alliance between a human kin and an animal kind is to obtain a supernatural ally against supernatural foes."^ The term " supernatural " seems here out of place, both the animal kind and the human kin being natural ; and one has a difficulty in conceiving that very early groups of kin would make, and would adhere to such alliances. Indeed, how could they adhere to their totems, when these descended through women of alien totem groups ? But there seems to be nothing otherwise impos- sible or self-contradictory in this theory, nor can it be dis- proved, for lack of evidence. Only such theories as are self-contradictory, or inconsistent with the known and admitted facts of the case, are capable of absolute disproof.
It may, of course, be objected here that though totems, in actual savage society, descend sometimes in the female line, still, descent in the male line may be the original rule ; and that thus a group, like an individual, could seek, make
' Introduction to the History of Reh\^on, p. 214. Major Powell has said something to the same effect, hut that was in a journal of " popular science."
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 351
a covenant with, and cleave to, a grub, or frog, or lizard, as a supernatural ally. But, for reasons already indicated, in an earlier part of the work whereof this is a chapter, I con- ceive that, originally, totems descended in the female line only. One reason for this opinion is that, as soon as descent of the totem comes by the male line, a distinct step in the upward movement towards civilisation and a settled life is made. It is not very probable that the backward step from reckoning by male lineage to descent in the female line, has often been taken. On the other hand, tribes which now inherit the totem in the male line, exhibit in their institutions many survivals of female descent. An instance is that of the Mandans, as recorded by Mr. Dorsey.' Among the Melanesians, where female descent still exists, there is at work the most obvious tendency towards descent through males, as Dr. Codrington proves in an excellent work on that people. Dr. Durkheim, too, has pointed out the traces of uterine descent among the Arunta, who now reckon in the male line.^ On the other hand, where we find descent in the male line, I am not aware that we discover signs of movement in the opposite direction. In this opinion that, as a general rule, descent was reckoned in the female, not the male line, originally, I have the support of Mr. E. B. Tylor.^ For these reasons the hypothesis of the selection of and covenant with a " supernatural ally," plant or animal, by the deliberate joint action of an early group, at a given moment, involving staunch adherence to the original reso- lution, rather strains belief ; and a suggestion perhaps more plausible will be offered later. But, given the general savage attitude towards the lower and inanimate creation, this theory of the original choice and retention of a plant or animal guardian by a primitive group seems to be one which may be held wdthout disrespect to logic. At all events, it
' Bureau of Ethnology, 1893-94, p. 241.
- UAnn^e Sociologique, v., pp. 93, 99, 100. As far as the proof rests on Arunta traditions, I lay no stress upon it. *_/. A. /., vol. xviii., No. 3, p. 254.
35 2 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
makes the totem name, from the beginning, a group name, which I conceive to have been the actual state of affairs.
The Word " Totem."
As to the precise original meaning and form of the -word usually written " totem," whether it should be '• totam," or ■' todaim," or '' dodaim," or " ododam," or " ote/' philolo- gists may dispute.^ They may question whether the word means " mark," or " family, or tribe," or clay for painting the family mark.- When we here use the word "totem" we mean, at all events, the object which gives its name to a group of savage kindred, who may not marry within this hereditary name. In place of " totem " we might use the equivalent murdn of the Dieri, or ga lira of the Kunundaburi.^
The Totem " Cult."
The " cult," if it deserves to be called a " cult," of the totem, among savages, is not confined to abstention from marriage within the name. Each kin usually abstains from killing, eating, or in any way using its totems (except in occasional ceremonies, religious or magical), is apt to claim descent from or kindred with it, or alternations of metamor- phosis into or out of it, and sometimes uses its effigy on memorial pillars, on posts carved into a kind of genealogical tree, or tattoos or paints or scarifies it on the skin, in different cases and places.
To what extent the blood-feud is taken up by all members of the slain man's totem, I am not fully aware ; it varies in different regions. The eating or slaying of the totem by a person of the totem name is, in places, believed to be punished by disease or death ; a point which the late Mr. J. J. Atkinson observed among the natives of New Cale- donia {yiS. penes me). Mr. Atkinson happened to be con- versing with some natives on questions of anthropology,
' Frazer, Tote mis in p. i.
- Major Powell, Man, 1901, No. 75.
* Howilt,/. .-/. /., xx., pp. 40-41, 1S91.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 353
when his servant brought in a lizard which he had killed. On this one of the natives exhibited great distress, saying, " Why have you killed my father : we were talking of my father, and he came to us." The son (his name was Jericha) then wrapped the dead lizard up in leaves, and reverently laid the body in the bush. This was not a case like that of the Zulu Idhlozi, the serpents that haunt houses, and are believed to be the vehicles of the souls of dead kinsfolk. The other natives present had for their " father," one a mouse, another a pigeon, and so on. If any one ate his animal, " father," sores broke out on him, and Mr. Atkinson was shown a woman thus afflicted for having eaten her " father." But I do not find in his papers, that a man with a mouse for father might not marry a woman of the mouse set, nor have I elsewhere been able to ascertain what is New Caledonian practice on this point.^ When Mr. Atkinson made these observations (1874) he had only heard of totems in the novels of Cooper and other romancers.
Tendency to find Totemism where it does not
EXIST.
This example is here cited because, as far as I am aware, no other anthropologist has observed this amount of totemism in New Caledonia. Students are divided into those who have a bias in favour of finding totemism everywhere, and those who aver, with unconcealed delight, that in this or the other place there are no totems. Such negative state- ments must always be received with caution. An European may live long among savages before he really knows them,
' The Marquis d'Eguilles kindly sends me extracts from an official " Notice sur la Nouvelle Caledonie," drawn up for the Paris Exhibition of 1900. The author says that the names of relationships are expressed by the Kanaka "in a touching manner." One name includes our "Uncle" and "Father," another our "Mother " and "Aunts " ; another name includes our " Brothers,' " Sisters," and " Cousins." This, of course, is " the classificatory system." About animal "fathers " nothing is said. VOL XIII. 2 A
354 ^'^^^ Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
and, without possessing totemism in full measure, many races retain obvious fragments of the institution.
Mr. Tylor has censured the use of the terms " totems " and " totem-clans " with respect to the Fijians and Samoans, where certain animals, not to be eaten, are believed to be vehicles or shrines of certain gods. It is a very probable conjecture (so probable, I think, as almost to amount to a certainty) that the creatures which are now the shrines of Fijian or Samoan gods of the family, or of higher gods, were once totems in an earlier stage of Samoan and Fijian society and belief. As I have said elsewhere, " In totemistic countries the totem is respected himself, in Samoa the animal is worshipful because a god abides within him. This appears to be a theory by which the reflective Samoans have explained to themselves what was once pure totem- ism." ^ But I must share in Mr. Tylor's protest against using the name of " totem " for a plant or animal which is regarded as the shrine of a god. Such thorough totemists as some of the North American Indians or the Australians do not explain their totems as the shrines of gods, for they have no such gods to serve as explanations. That myth appears to be the Samoan or Fijian way of accounting for the existence of worshipful and friendly plants and animals. Thus, at all events, and unluckily, the phrase "the totem- god " is introduced into our speculations, and the cult of the "totem-god" is confused with the much more limited respect paid by savages to actual totems. However attractive the theory of "the totem-god" may be, we cannot speak of " totems " where a god incarnate in a plant or animal is concerned. Such a deity may be a modified survival of totemism, but a totem he is not. Moreover, it is hardly safe to say that, in the Samoan case, the god is " developed from a totem," we only know that the god has got into suspiciously totemistic society. On the whole, we cannot be too cautious
' Tylor, Remarks on Totemism, pp. 141-143. Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii., pp. 56-5S. Turner's Samoa, p. 17 {1SS4).
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 355
in speaking of totems and totemism, and we must be specially careful not to exaggerate the more or less religious respect with which totems are, in many cases, regarded. The Australians, as far as they have the idea of a creative being, Baiame, Nooreli, and so forth, do not regard their totems as shrines or incarnations of him. That appears to be the later speculation of peoples who, probably by way of animism and ancestor worship, are already in the stage of polytheism. Totems in their earliest known stage have very little to do with religion, and probably, in origin, had nothing religious about them.
Savage Speculations as to the Origin of Totemism.
Peoples who are still in the totemistic stage, as we have seen, know nothing about the beginnings of the institution. All that they tell the civilised inquirers is no more than the myth handed down by their own tradition. Thus the Dieri or Dieyrie, in Australia (as we have elsewhere remarked), say that the totems were appointed by the ancestors for the purpose of regulating marriages after consultation with Mura Mura, or with "the" Muramura. The Woeworung, according to Mr. Howitt, have a similar legend.^ It is not necessary, here, to ask whether Mura Mura is " the Supreme Being" (Gason, Howitt) or "ancestral spirits" (Fison).^ The most common savage myth is of the Darwinian variety : each totem-kin is descended from, or evolved out of, the plant or animal type which supplies its totem. Again, as in fairy tales, a woman gave birth to animals, whence the totem kins derive their descent. In North West America totems are often accounted for by myths of ancestral heroes who had adventures with this or that animal. "The Tlingit" (Thlinket) " hold that souls of ancestors are reborn in children, that a man will be reborn as a man, a wolf as a wolf, a raven as a raven." Nevertheless the totems are
" Howitt, Oil the Organisation of Australian Tribes, p. 136, note, 1S89. '■^ See Miss llowitl's paper, infra, p. 403.
2 A 2
35^ The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
regarded as " relatives and protectors," and it is explained
that, in the past, a human ancestor had an adventure with
this or that animal, whence he assumed his totem armorial
bearings.^ In precisely the same way a myth, a very late
myth, w^as invented about the adventure of a Stewart with
a lion, to account for the Lyon of the Stewarts." The
Haidas and Thlinkets, believing as they do that human souls
are reborn human, cannot hold that a bestial soul animates
a man, say, of the Raven totem. The Arunta, on the other
hand, suppose that the souls of anmials which evolved into
human beings, are reincarnated in each child born to the
tribe. " Two clans of Western Australia, who are named
after a small opossum and a little fish, think that they are so
called because they used to live chiefly on these creatures."^
This myth has some support in modern opinion ; the kins,
it is argued, received their totem names from the animals
and plants which mainly formed their food supply, though
noiv their totems are sparingly eaten by them. These
legends and others are clearly astiological myths, like the
Samoan hypothesis that gods are incarnate in the totems.
The myths merely try to explain the original connection.
between men and totems, and are constructed on the lines
of savage ideas about the relations of all things in the
universe, all alike being personal, and rational, and capable
of inter-breeding, and of shape-shifting. Certain Kalaman-
tans of Sarawak will not eat a species of deer, because "an
ancestor became a deer of this kind."'^ All such fables, of
course, are valueless as history ; and, in the savage stage of
the intellect, such myths were inevitable.
Modern Theories.
Mr. McLennan himself at first had a theory, which, as far as I heard him speak of it, was more or less akin to my
' Tylor, Remarks on Tote mis /ii, p. 134.
^ So also to explain the crests of the Hamiltons, the Skenes, and many others.
' Frazer, Totemism, p. 7.
* IIo.se and McDougall,y. A. /., vol. xxxi. (1901), p. 193.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 357
own. But he abandoned it, says his brother, Mr. Daniel Mc Lennan, for reasons that to him appeared conclusive. I ought to mention that Mr. A. H. Keane informed me^ several years ago, that he had independently evolved a theory akin to mine, of which, as it then stood, I had published some hint. Mr. Keane's printed statement of his theory I have not read. In 1884^ I wrote, " People united by contiguity, and by the blind sentiment of kinship not yet brought into explicit consciousness, might mark themselves by a badge, and might thence derive a name, and, later, might invent a myth of their descent from the object which the badge represented." But why should such people mark themselves by a badge, and why, if they did, should the mark be, not a decorative or symbolic pattern, but the representation of a plant or animal ? These ques- tions I cannot answer, and my present guess is not identical with that of 1884.
Meanwhile let us keep one point steadily before our minds. Totemism, at a first glance, seems a perfectly crazy and irrational set of beliefs, and we might think, with Dr. Johnson, that there is no use in looking for reason among the freaks of irrational people. But man is never irrational. His reason for doing this, or believing that, may seem a bad reason to us, but a reason he always had for his creeds and conduct, and he had a reason for his totem belief, a reason in congruity with his limited knowledge of facts and with his theory of the universe. For all things he wanted an explana- tion. Now what he wanted a reason for, in totemism, was the nature and origin of the connection between his own and the neighbouring groups and the plant or animal names which they bore. Messrs. Spencer and Gillen write " what gave rise, in the first instance, to the association of particular men with particular animals and plants, it is impossible to say." But it is not impossible to guess, with more or less of probability. The connection once established, savages
' Cusloin and Mytli^ y. 262.
358 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
guessed at its origin ; their guesses, as always, were myths, and were of every conceivable kind. The myth of descent from or kinship with the animal or plant, the Darwinian myth, does not stand alone. Every sort of myth was fashioned, was believed, and influenced conduct. Our business is to form our own guess as to the original con- nection between men and their totems, a guess which shall be consistent with human nature.
Mr. Max MOller's Theory.
Many such guesses by civilised philosophers exist. We need not dwell long on that of Mr. Max Miiller, akin, as it is, to my own early conjecture, " a totem is a clan-mark, then a clan-name, then the name of the ancestor of the clan and lastly the name of something worshipped by the clan." ^ We need not dwell on this, because the kind of "clan-mark" referred to on a pillar outside of the quarters of the clan, in a village, is peculiar to North America, and to people dwell- ing in fixed settlements. Among the nomadic Australians, we have totemism without the settlements, without the totem- pillar, without the " clan-mark " on the pillar, which, thus, cannot be the first step in totemism. Again, the " clan- name," or group-name, must be earlier than the "clan- mark," which merely expresses it, just as my name is prior to my visiting card, or as the name of an inn. The Red Lion, is prior to the sign representing that animal. Obviously we have to ask first, -whence comes the clan-name, or group- name ?
Mr. Herbert Spencer's Theory.
The conjecture of Mr. Herbert Spencer, again, need not detain us.- He supposes a man named by an animal name or nickname, like Wolf the Unwashed in the Saga, or Sitting Bull of the Sioux. Such personal names, or nicknames, are very common. The man dies, and, on the hypothesis, is
' Contributions to the Science of Mythology, i., p. 201. - Principles of Sociology (1876), i., pp. 359-368,
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 359
worshipped as an ancestor, wider his animal name. A confusion arises, people come to think that the animal which they revere is not the dead man, but the creature whose name he bore.
As totem, names usually, and at first, probably always, come through the maternal side, and as ancestors in low savagery are easily forgotten (their very names being tabued), and as personal names derived from animals continue to be every- day affairs, this derivation of the totem is highly improbable. No confusion was likely to arise. Again, this derivation is impossible, where the totemists, as in Australia, are not ancestor-worshippers at all, as certainly the Australians are not. Mr. Spencer's theory does not quite explain how in really primitive society with descent in the female line, the name of a male ancestor became hereditary..
Mr. Frazer's Theories.
The hypotheses of Mr. J. G. Frazer are purely provisional. He starts from the idea so common in Miirchen, of the person whose " soul," " life," or " strength," is secretly hidden in an animal, plant, or other object. The owner of the soul wraps the " soul-box " up in a mystery, it is the central secret of his existence, for he may be slain by any one who can discover and destroy his " soul-box." Next, Mr. Frazer offers many cases of this actual belief and prac- tice among savage and barbarous peoples ; and as a freak or survival, the idea is found even among the civilised. We meet the superstition in the Melanesian group of islands (where totemism is all but extinct), and perhaps among the Zulus, with their serpent Idhtozi, whose life is associated with their own. Mr. Atkinson's New Caledonians, however, did not think that death inflicted on their animal " fathers " involved danger to themselves, though it distressed them as an outrage to sentiment. Then we have the " bush- souls," (one soul out of four in the possession of each individual), among the natives of Calabar. These souls.
360 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
Miss Kingsley wrote, are never in plants, but always in wild beasts, and are recognisable only by second-sighted men. The "bush-soul" of a man is often that of his sons : the daughters often inherit the mother's "bush-soul": or children of both sexes may take after the bush-soul of either father or mother. The natives will not injure their bush- soul beasts. Nothing is known as to prohibition of marriage between persons of the same bush-soul. Here we have really something akin to the totem, the bush-souls being hereditary, at least for one generation. But this is among a house-dwelling, agricultural people, far above the state of real savagery : not among a primitive people.
The Zapotecs of Central America, again, choose, by a method of divination, " a tona or second self," an animal for each child at its birth. It is, by the nature of the case, not hereditable. The nagtcal, usually a beast, of each Indian of Guatemala is well known ; and is discovered on the monition of a dream, by each individual. Therefore it cannot be hereditable. The sexes, in Australia, have each a friendly and protecting species of animal ; say a bat for all men, a nightjar for all women : indeed, in Australia, all the elements of nature have their place in the cosmic tribe. To injure the animal of either sex, is to injure one of the sex. There is no secret about the matter.
Mr. Frazer then argues " the explanation which holds good of the one," (say the " sex-totem," or " personal totem''), "ought equally to hold good of the other," (the group-totem). " Therefore the reason why a tribe," (I venture to prefer to say " kin," as there are many totem in each "tribe") "revere a particular species of animals or plants .... and call themselves after it, would seem to be a belief that the life of each individual of the tribe is bound up with some one plant or animal of the species, and that his or her death would be the consequence of killing that particular animal, or destroying that par- ticular plant." Mr. Frazer thinks that "this explanation
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs, 361
squares well " with Sir George Grey's description of a Kobong or totem in Western Australia. There a native gives his totem " a fair show " before killing it, always affording it a chance of escape, and never killing it in its sleep. He only does not shoot his kindred animal sitting ; and his plant he only spares " in certain circumstances, and at a particular period of the year." Mr. Frazer writes that as the man does not know which individual of the species of plant or animal " is specially dear to him, he is obliged to spare them all, for fear of injuring the dear one." But the man, it seems, from Grey's account^ does not " spare " any of them ; he kills or plucks them " reluctantly," and in a sportsmanlike manner, " never without affording them a chance of escape." In a case of Sir George Grey's, the killing of a crow hastened the death of a man of the crow totem, who had been ailing for some days. But the Australians do not all think that to kill a man's totem is to kill the man. Somebody's totem is killed whenever any animal is slain. Mr. Frazer now finds that the Battas, for example, " do not in set terms affirm their eternal soul to be in their totems," and I am not aware that any totem- ists do make this assertion. They freely offer all other sorts of mythical explanations as to what their totems originally were, as to the origin of their connection with their totems, but never say that their totems are their " soul-boxes."
Mr. Frazer has an answer to this objection. " How close must be the concealment, how impenetrable the reserve in which he," (the savage), " hides the inner keep and citadel of his being." The giant in the Marchen, tries to keep the secret of his " soul-box," much more then does " the timid and furtive savage." " No inducement that can be offered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul by revealing its hiding place to a stranger. It is therefore no matter for surprise that the central mystery of the savage's life should so long have remained a secret, and that we should be left
362 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
to piece it together from scattered hints and fragments, and from the recollections of it which linger in fairy tales."
On reflection, we cannot but see the flaw in this reason- ing. No savage has revealed to European inquirers that his totem is his " soul-box." But every other savage knoivs his fatal secret. Every savage, well aware (by the hypo- thesis) that his own totem is the hiding-place of his soul, knows that the totems of his enemies are the hiding-places of their souls. He wants to kill his enemies, and he has an easy mode of doing so, merely to shoot down every specimen of their totems. His enemies will then die, when he is lucky enough to destroy their " soul- boxes." Now I am not aware, in the destructive magic of savages, of a single case in which a totem is slain, or tortured, for the purpose of slaying or torturing a man of that totem All other sorts of sympathetic magic are practised, but where is the evidence for that sort, which ought to be of considerable diffusion ? ^ The supposed " secret " of savage life is no secret to other savages. Each tells any inquirer what his " clay " or totem is. He blazons his totem proudly. The nearest approach to invidious action against a totem, with which I am acquainted, is the killing by the Kurnai women, of the men's " sex-totem," when the young men are backward wooers. The purpose is to produce a fight between lads and lasses, a rude form of flirtation, after which engagements or elopements are apt to follow.-
Mr. Frazer tentatively suggests another, a rival or a sub- sidiary solution of the problem Among the Arunta and other tribes, " the totemic system has a much wider scope, its aim being to provide the community with a supply of food and all other necessaries by means of certain magical ceremonies, the performance of which is distributed among
' I am haunted by the impression that I have met examples, but where, I know not.
- \\o\\\\.'i, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xviii., p. 58.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 363
the various totem groups." That is to say, these totemic magical ceremonies tiow exist for the purpose of propagating and preserving animals or vegetables, which, by the former theory, were " soul-boxes," but are later to be killed for food. This would endanger the lives of the tribesmen, but to risk that is quite in accordance with the practical turn of the Arunta mind. Mr. Frazer has, indeed, suggested a probable method of reconciling his earlier hypothesis, that a totem was a soul-box, with his later theory, that the primal object of totem-groups was to breed their totems for food. ^
Mr. Frazer observes '' it is not as yet clear how far the particular theory of totemism suggested by the Central Australian system is of general application, and . . . . in the uncertainty which still hangs over the origin and meaning of totemism, it seems scarcely worth while to patch up an old theory which the next new facts may perhaps entirely demolish." He then cites the Arunta belief that their ancestors of " the dream time " (who were men evolved out of animals or plants, these objects being their totems) kept their souls (like the giant of the fairy tale) in stone churingas, which they hung on poles when they went out hunting. We thus have a va et vient between each man, and the spirit of the plant or animal out of which he was evolved. That spirit (in origin the spirit of an animal or plant) is handed down with the stone chiiringa, and is reincarnated in each child, who is thus an incarnation of the original totem. Such is the Arunta theory, and thus each living Arunta is the totem's soul-box, while, to savage reasoners, the totem-soul may, perhaps, seem to also tenant each plant or animal of its species.
This is a logical theory of totemism, but so far, we know
the facts on which it is based chiefly among one extraordinary
tribe of anomalous development We have still to ask, what
w'as the original connection of the men with the plants and
' Golden Bough, iii., p. 416, note 3.
364 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
animals, which the Arunta explain by their myth. Was that connection originally one of magic -working by each group, for its totem species, and, if so, why or how did the groups first select their plants and animals ? Mr. Haddon's theory, presently to be criticised, may elucidate that point of departure.
Suggestion of Mr. N. W. Thomas.
As I am writing, a theory, or suggestion, by Mr. N. W. Thomas appears in Man (1902, No 85). Mr. Thomas begins with the spirit which dwells in an African fetish, and becomes the servant of its owner. The magical apparatus " may be a bag of skin containing parts of various animals. Such an animal may be the familiar of the owner, his messenger, or an evil spirit that possesses him ; " similar beliefs are held about the werwolf. Now the American Indian has his " medicine-bag." '' The contents are the skin, feathers, or other part of the totem animal."
Distinguo : They are parts, not of " the totem-animal," but of the chosen animal of the individual, often called his manitu. If we say " the totem-animal " we beg the ques- tion ; we identify the totem with the manitu of the individual. It may be true, as Mr. Thomas says, that "the basis of individual totemism seems to be the same as that of fetishism," but I am not discussing " individual totemism," but real group-totemism. Mr. Thomas also is clear on this point, but, turning to Australia, he says that " the individual totem seems to be confined to the medicine-man." From information by Mrs. Langloh Parker, I doubt the truth of this idea. A confessedly vague reminiscence of Mr. Rusden does not help us. Speaking of an extinct tribe on the Hunter River, N.S.W., he says that he " does not recollect ail their class divisions, they distinctly had the great divisions Yippai," (Ippai) "and Kombo " (Kumbo). "Apropos of the generic names," (whatever these may be), " the Geawe- gal had a superstition that every one had within himself an
The Origin of Totem Naiiies and Beliefs, 365
affinity to the spirit of some beast, bird, or reptile. Not that he sprung from the creature in any way," (as is a common totemic myth], " but that the spirit which was in him was akin to that of the creature." This is vague. Mr. Rusden does not say that his native informant said, that the " spirit " was the man's totem in each case.^ But Mr. Thomas, on this evidence, writes, " This belief suggests that the interpretation suggested for individual totemism can also be applied to clan totemism ; " apparently because, among the extinct tribe, not only sorcerers, but, in this case, every one was the receptacle of an animal (not a plant) spirit. But even granting Mr. Thomas's notion, (unsup- ported, I think, by evidence), that an American Indian thinks that the spirit of his animal manitu dwells within him, obviously the animal spirits of the Geawe-gal may be the spirits — not of their kin-totems, if they had any — but of their individual nianitus, which we do not know to be confined to sorcerers. Every one is a sorcerer, better or worse, in a society where every one works magic.
Next, the werwolf has a way of returning "to look at" (to eat, I think), the body of his victim. Now in North Queensland, as in Scotland, the body of a dead man is surrounded with dust or ashes, (flour in Scotland), and the dust is inspected, to find the tracks of some bird or animal." From such marks, if any^ " the totem of the malefactor is inferred." The malefactor is the person who, by the usual superstition, is thought magically to have caused the death of the tribesman. " These facts seem best interpreted if we suppose that in North Queensland the sorcerer is believed to return in animal form, and that the form is that of his totem, for in no other way does it seem possible to identify the man's totem by observing the footsteps."
Is the man's kin-totem meant? If so, the process could not identify "the malefactor" — there are hundreds of men
' Kamilaroi and Kttrnai, p. 280. * /. A. L,, xiii., p. 191, note i.
366 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
of his totem. Is his manitu or " individual totem " meant? Then the process might be successful, but has no concern with the origin of hereditary kin-totemism. Indeed Mr. Thomas " leaves the applicability of the theory to group- totemism for subsequent consideration." We shall show — indeed, in Mr. Herbert Spencer's case we have shown — the difficulty of deriving kin-totemism from the manitii, or " obsessing spirit " if Mr. Thomas pleases, of the individual. This point, as is said, Mr. Thomas reserves for later con- sideration.
Dr. Wilken's Theory.
We now come to a theory which exists in many shapes, but in all is vitiated, I think, by the same error of reasoning. Mr. Tylor, however, has lent at least a modified approval to the hypothesis as mooted by the late Dutch anthropologist. Dr. Wilken, of Leyden. Mr. Tylor writes, " If it does not completely solve the totem-problem, at any rate it seems to mark out its main lines." Unluckily the hypothesis of Dr. Wilken is perhaps the least probable of all. The materials are found, not in a race so comparatively early as the Australians or Adamanese, but among the settled peoples of Malay, Sumatra, and Melanesia. By them, in their tables of precedence, " the crocodile is regarded as equal in rank to the Dutch resident." Crocodiles are looked on as near kinsmen of men who, when they die, expect to become crocodiles. To kill crocodiles is murder. " So it is with tigers, whom the Sumatrans worship and call ancestors."
Mr. Tylor observes, " Wilken sees in this transmigration of souls the link which connects totemism with ancestor worship," and thinks that Dr. Codrington's remarks on Melanesian ways add weight to this opinion. In Melanesia, as Dr. Codrington reports, an influential man, before his death, will lay a ban, or tabu, on something, say a banana, or a pig. He says that he " will be in " a shark, a banana, a bird, a buLterfly, or what not. Dr. Codrington's informant,
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 367
Mr. Sleigh, of Lifu, says, " that creature would be sacred to his family," they would call it " papa/' and " offer it a young cocoanut." "But they did not adopt thus the name of a tribe^ The children of papa, who chose to be a butterfly (like Mr. Thomas Haynes Bailey) do not call themselves " The Butterflies," nor does the butterfly name mark their exogamous limit. Mr. Tylor concludes " an ancestor, having lineal descendants among men and sharks, or men and owls, is thus the founder of a totem.-family, which mere increase may convert into a totem-clan, already provided with its animal name." This conclusion is tentative, and put forth with Mr. Tylor' s usual caution. But, as a matter of fact, no totem-kin is actually founded thus, for example in Melanesia. The institutions of that region, as we can show, really illustrate the way out of, not the way into, totem- ism. Moreover the hypothesis as expressed by Mr. Tylor in the words cited, must be deemed unfortunate, because it takes for granted that "the Patriarchal theory " of the origin of the so-called " clan," or totem group, is correct. A male ancestor founds a family, which swells, "by natural increase," into a " clan." The ancestor is worshipped under the name of Butterfly ; his descendants, the clan founded by him, are named Butterflies. But all this can only happen where male ancestors are remembered, and are worshipped, where descent is reckoned in the male line, and where, as among ourselves, a remembered male ancestor founds a house, as Tarn o' the Cowgate founded the house of Haddington. In short Dr. Wilken has slipped back into the Patriarchal theory. Now, among totemists like the Australians, ancestors are not remembered, their names are tabued, they are not worshipped, they do not found families.^
Miss Alice Fletcher's Theory.
An interesting variant of this theory is offered, as regards the Omaha tribe of North America, by Miss Alice Fletcher,
' Tylor, Remarks on Toicinisiii, pp. 146-147, 1S98. J. A. I., .wviii.
368 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
whose knowledge of the inner mind of that people is no less remarkable than her scientific caution.^ The conclusion of Miss Fletcher's valuable essay shows at a glance, that her hypothesis contains the same fundamental error as that of Dr. Wilken : namely, the totem of the kin is derived from the manitu, or personal friendly object of an individual, a male ancestor. This cannot, we repeat, hold good for that early stage of society which reckons descent in the female line, and in w^hich male ancestors do not found houses, clans, names, or totem-kins.
The Omaha men, at puberty, after prayer and fasting, choose nianitus suggested in dreams or visions. Miss Fletcher writes, " As totems could be obtained but in one way — through the rite of the vision — the totem of a gens must have come into existence in that manner, and must have represented the manifestation of an ancestor's vision, that of a man whose ability and opportunity served to make him the founder of a family, of a group of kindred who dwelt together, fought together, and learned the value of united strength." ^
It is needless to remark that this explanation cannot explain the origin of totemism among tribes where descent is reckoned in the female line, and where no man becomes " the founder of a family." The Omaha, a house-dwelling, agricultural tribe, with descent in the male line, with priests, and departmental gods, a tribe, too, among whom the manitu is not hereditable, can give us no line as to the origin of totemism. Miss Fletcher's theory demands the hereditable character of the individual manitu, and yet it is never inherited.
Mr. Hill-Tout's Theory.
Mr. Hill-Tout has evolved a theory out of the customs of the aborigines of British Columbia, among whom "the clan
' The Import of the Totem. By Alice C. Fletcher. (Salem Press, Mass., 1S97.) - Op. cit., p. 12.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 369
totems are a development of the personal or individual totem or tutelar spirit." The Salish tribes, in fact, seek for " sulia, or tutelar spirits," and these " gave rise to the personal totem," answering to matiitu, nyarong, nagual, and so forth. " From the personal and family crest is but a step to the clan crest." Unluckily, with descent in the female line, the step cannot be taken. Mr. Hill-Tout takes a village-inhabiting tribe, a tribe of village communities, as one in which totemism is only nascent. " The village community apparently formed the original unit of organisa- tion." But the Australians, who have not come within measurable distance of the village community, have already the organisation of the totem-kin. Interesting as is Mr. Hill-Tout's account of the Salish Indians, we need not dwell longer on an hypothesis which makes village com- munities prior to the evolution of totemism. What he means by saying that " the gefis has developed into the clan," I am unable to conjecture. The school of Major Powell use "gens" of a totem-kin with male, "clan" of a totem kin with female, descent. Mr. Hill-Tout cannot mean that male descent is being converted into descent in the female line ? As he writes of " a four-clan system, each clan being made up of groups oi gentes," he may take a " clan " to signify what is usually called a " phratry " or " class division." ^
Messrs. Hose and McDougall. Among other efforts to show how the hereditary totem of a group might be derived from the special animal or plant friend of an individual male, may be noticed that of Messrs. Hose and McDougall.- The Ibans^ or Sea Dyaks, of Sarawak are probably of Malay stock, and are "a very imitative people " of mixed, inconsistent, and extravagant
' "The Origin of the Totemism of the Inhabitants of British Cohmibia," Transactions oj Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, vol. vii., 1901-1902. Quaritch, London.
* /. A. /., vol. xxxi., p. 196, ct scq. VOL. XIII. 2 B
370 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
beliefs. They have a god of agriculture, and, of course, are therefore remote from the primitive ; being rice-farmers. They respect Nyarongs, or " spirit-helpers," though Mr. Hose lived among them for fourteen years without knowing what a Nyarong is. " It seems usually to be the spirit of some ancestor, or dead relative, but not ahvays so .... " The spirit first appears to an Iban in a dream, in human form, and the Iban, on awaking, looks for the Nyarong in any casual beast, or quartz crystal, or queer root or creeper. So far the Nyarong is a fetish. Only about two per cent, of men have Nyarongs. If the thing be an animal, the Iban respects the other creatures of the species. " In some cases the cult of a Nyaro?ig will spread through a whole family or household." Australian individuals have also their secret animal friends, like nyarongs and naguals, but these are never hereditary. What is hereditary is the totem of the kin, which may not be altered, or so seldom that it would be hard to find a modern example ; though changes of totems may have occurred when, in the pristine " treks " of the race, they reached regions of new fauna and flora. "The children and grandchildren," our authors go on, " among the Ibans, will usually respect the species of animal to which a man's Nyarong belongs, and perhaps sacrifice fowls or pigs to it occasionally." Of course " primitive " man has no domesticated animals, and does not sacrifice anything to anybody. " If the great grandchildren of a man behave well to his Nyarong, it will often befriend them just as much as its original protege." It is not readily conceiv- able that among very early men and where the names of the dead are tabued, the wisest great-grandchild knows who his great-grandfather was. Still, though the great-grand- father was forgotten, his Nyarong — it may be said — would be held in perpetual memory, and become the totem of a group. But this is not easily to be conceded, because there would be the competition of the Nyarongs of each genera- tion to crush the z.wcx^wi Nyarong : moreover, the totem, in
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 37 1
truly primitive times, is not inherited from fathers, but from mothers.
Our authors say that, in some cases, " all the members of a man's family, and all his descendants, and, if he be a chief, all the members of the community over which he rules," may come to share in the benefits of his Nyarong, and in its rites. But all this of chiefs, and oreat-g-randchildren of a known great-grandfather, all this occurring to-day among an imitative and agricultural people with departmental deities and domesticated animals, cannot give us a line to the Origin of Totemism among houseless nomads, who tabu the memory of their dead, and, as a rule, probably reckoned descent on the female side, so that a man could not inherit his father's totem. We must try to see how really early men became totemic. Mr. Frazer observes " it is quite possible that, as some good authorities incline to believe, the clan-totem has been developed out of the individual totem by inheritance," and Miss Alice C. Fletcher has been cited as holding this process to be probable in North America.^ All such theories are based on the beliefs and customs of modern savages advancing, like the American Indians of to-day, towards what is technically styled " bar- barism." It was not in the state of barbarism, but in a savagery no longer extant, that totemism was evolved. Totemism derived from inheritance of a male ancestor's special " spirit-helper " is checked by the essential condi- tions of people who are settled, agricultural, and given to reckoning descent in the male line. No more can be produced, in such a state than " abortive beginnings of totemism." '-' Exogamy is never reached on these lines, and totemism is behind, not in front, of all such peoples. Totemism arose in the period of the Group, not of the family-founding male ancestor.
Messrs. Hose and MacDougall, it is to be noted, do not
' Golden Bough, iii., p. 419, note 5. ■ Hose and MacDougall, op. ciL. p. 211. 2 B 2
3/2 Tlic Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
say that totemism is now being developed in Sarawak, out of nyarongs. They only say that it perhaps might be so developed " in the absence of unfavourable conditions." If there existed "prosperous families," each with a nyarong, other familes would dream of nyarongs, and it would become rather disreputable to have none. " So a system of class totems would be established." But male kinship, agricul- ture, metal-working, chiefship, and large houses were cer- tainly non-existent when totemism was first evolved. We must not look in such advanced society for the origin of totemism. In Sarawak is a houseless nomadic race, the Punans. Among them totemism has not yet been observed, but they are so little known, that the present negative evidence cannot be regarded as conclusive. Mr. Hose knew the Ibans for fourteen years without learning what a nyarong is, and it was by mere accident that Mr. Atkinson discovered the animal " fathers " of the Kanakas.
Mr. Haddon's Theory.
Mr. Haddon has suggested a theory which he has printed in the Proceedings of the British Association (1902). On this scheme, at a very early period, groups, by reason of their local environment, would have special varieties of food. Thus, at present, in New Caledonia, the Sea branch of a tribe has coco-nuts, fish of all sorts, and so forth, while the Bush branch has bananas and other commodities, and the Sea and Bush moieties of the tribe meet at markets for pur- poses of barter. But, in a really primitive state, there will be no cultivation, as there is in New Caledonia. Still, a coast savage might barter crabs for a kangaroo, and, if landed property is acknowledged, owners of plum-trees, or of a spot rich in edible grass-seeds, might trade these away for lobsters and sea-perch. Not having any idea of real culti- vation, or of pisciculture (though they may and do have *' close" seasons, under tabu), the savages may set about working magic for their specialities in food. Thus it is con-
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 373
ceivable that the fishers might come to be named " crab- men," "lobster-men," "cuttle-fish-men," by their neighbours, whom they would speak of as "grass-men," "plum-men," " kangaroo-men," and so on. When once these names were accepted (I presume), and were old, and now of un- known or rather forgotten origin, all manner of myths to account for the connection between the groups and their animal names would arise. When the myth declared that the plants and animals were akin to their name-giving creatures, superstitious practices would follow. We have seen two cases in which Australian totem-groups averred that they were named totemically after a small species of opossum, and a fish which their ancestors habitually ate. But that is an explanatory myth. Man cannot live on opossums alone, still less on sardines.
My own guess admits the possibility of this cause of giving plant and animal names to groups, among other causes. But I doubt if this was a common cause. In Australia, every thing that can be eaten is eaten by all the natives of a given area, each group having only a tendency to spare its own totem, while certain other tabus on foods exist. In this condition of affairs, very few groups could have a notable special variety of food^ except in the case of certain fruits, grass-seeds, and insects. For these articles the season is almost as brief as the season of the mayfly or the grannom. " When fruits is in, cats is out," as the pieman said to the young lady. During the rest of the year, all the groups in a large area will be living on the same large variety of reptiles, roots, animals such as rats and lizards, birds, and so forth. It does not seem probable that, except as between the Sea and Bush parts of a tribe, there could be much specialisa- tion in matters of diet, during the greater part of the year. Therefore I do not think that the derivation of totem-names from special articles of food can ever have been common. But local knowledge is necessary on this point. Are the totem-kins of Australia settled on lands peculiarly notable
374 '^^^^ Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
for the plants and animals whose names they bear? If so, that circumstance may account for the totem-names of each group, and — granting that the origin of the names is long ago forgotten, and that native speculation has explained the names by myths — the rest is easy.
It will appear, when we come to my conjecture, that it varies from Mr. Haddon's only on one point. We both begin with plant and animal names given by the various groups, from 'without. We then suppose (or at least I suppose) the origin of the names to be forgotten, and a connection to be established between the groups and their name-giving objects ; a connection which is explained by myths, while belief in these gives rise to corresponding behaviour — respect for the totem, and for his human kins- folk. The only difference is that my theory suggests several sources of the names, while Mr. Haddon offers only one source, special articles of food and barter. Kindreds, to be sure, are now named, not from what they eat (scores of things), but from the one thing which (as a kindred) they do not eat. But this, when once the myths of kinship with the totem arose, might be a later development, arising out of the myth. In essentials, my conjecture appears to be in harmony with Mr. Haddon's — the two, of course, were independently evolved.
On one point I perceive no difficulty and no difference. It has been suggested that Mr. Haddon " commences with the commencement," whereas, in the hypothetical early age which we both contemplate, people had scarcely a sufficient command of language to invent nicknames. Why more command of language is needed for the application of nick- names, than of names, I do not perceive. In Mr. Haddon's theory, as in mine, names already existed, names of plants and animals. In both of our hypotheses, those names were transferred to human groups ; in my conjecture, for a variety of reasons ; in his, solely from connection with special articles of food eaten and bartered by each group. I am
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs, 375
not convinced that, so early, the relations between groups would admit of frequent barter ; nor, as has been said, am I certain that many groups could have a very special article of food in an age prior to cultivation. But, granting all that to Mr. Haddon, no more command of language is needed by my theory than by his. Each conjecture postu- lates the existence of names of plants and animals, and the transference of the names to human groups. If gesture- language was prior to spoken language, in each case gesture- names could be employed, as in North America, totem names are to this day expressed in gesture-language. In my own opinion, man was as human as he is to-day, when totem-names arose, and as articulate. But if he was not, gesture-language would suffice.
I shall illustrate my theory from folklore practice. We might do the same for Mr. Haddon's. We talk of " the Muffin-man,'' the man who sells muffins. A Volkslied
says :
" She fell in love with the cat's meat man, The man who sells the meat ! "
We call one person " The English Opium Eater," another " The Oyster Eater," another "The Irish Whiskey Drinker." Here are nicknames derived from dealing in, or special consumption of, articles of food.
Many others occur in my folklore and savage lists of group-names. They all imply at least as much command of language, as the names, ultimately totem-names, given for various reasons in my theory. Thus Mr. Haddon and myself do not seem to me to differ on this point : his theory goes no farther back in culture than mine does : nay, he assumes that barter was a regular institution, which implies a state of peace, almost a state of co-operation.
Statement of the Problem.
Let us concentrate, now^ our attention on the character of the genuine totem, the totem of the group or kin. It is
376 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
not adopted by the savages on a dream-warning ; each man or woman for himself or herself : nor is it chosen for each child at birth, nor by a diviner, as is the nagual, bush- soul, nyarong of Saraw^ak^ or ihe secret animal friend of each individual Australian. A savage inherits his group- totem name. The name of any plant or animal which he may adopt for himself, or have assigned to him as a per- sonal name by his parents, or, so to speak, godparents, is not his totem. My meaning is, I repeat, that my con- jecture is only concerned with hereditary group-totems and hereditary totem-names of kindreds. No others enter into my conjecture as to origin. What some call "personal- totems," adopted by the individual, or selected by others for him after his birth, such as the Calabar "bush-soul/' the Sarawak nyarong, the Central American nagiial, the Banks Island tamaniii, and the analogous special animal of the Australian tribesman (observed chiefly, as far as I know, by Mr. Howitt^ and Mrs. Langloh Parker), do not here con- cern me. They are not hereditary group-names.
The Author's own Conjecture. I now approach my own conjecture as to the origins of the genuine, hereditary, exogamous totemism of groups of kin, (real or imagined). Totemism as we know it, especially in some tribes of North America and in Australia, has cer- tainly, as a necessary condition, that state of mind in which man regards all the things in the world as very much on a level in personality : the beasts being even more powerful than himself. Were it not so, the totem myths about human descent from beasts and plants — about friendlybeasts, beasts who may marry men, and about metamorphoses — could not have been invented and believed, even to whatever extent myths are believed. So far, there is probably no difference of opinion among anthropologists. The same mental condition reveals itself in the habit of adopting, as we have
' J A. I., vol. xiii.
Tlic Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs, 377
seen, usually after a fast and in consequence of a dream or of an omen, a special bird or beast or other thing as the protector and friend of the individual man or woman, after which the creature is more or less sacred to the individual and their relations are peculiarly close. If we grant that, in various places, one or other individual man was reckoned sacred after death, that he was believed to reappear in the guise of his protecting animal or plant (as in Melanesia), and that his sons and grandsons especially revered the brute or plant and came to claim descent from it, and to name them- selves hereditarily from it (wolves, trout, frogs, or what not), we should get something very like a germ of totemism. But the objections to this theory have been stated.
The Connection between Groups and Totems.
In all theories, the real problem is, how did the early groups get their totem-names? The names once accepted and stereotyped implied a connection between each kindred and the animal, plant, or other thing in nature whose name the kindred bore. Round the mystery of this connection the savage mind would play freely, and would invent the explanatory myths of descent from, and kinship or other friendly relations with, the name-giving objects. A measure of respect for the objects would be established ; they might not be killed or eaten, except under necessity ; magic might be worked by human emus, kangaroos, plum- trees, and grubs for their propagation, as among the Arunta and other tribes ; or against them, to bar their ravaging of the crops, as among the Sioux. As a man should not spear a real emu^ if the emu was his totem, so he should not marry or have an amour with a woman who was also of the emu blood. That is part of the tabu.
All these things, given the savage stage of thought, would inevitably follow from the recognised but mysterious connection between men and the plants and animals from which they were named. All such connections, to the
378 The Orio-in of Totem Names and Beliefs.
savage, are blood relationships, and such relationship in- volves the duties which are recognised and performed- But how did the early groups come to be named after the plants and animals; the name suggesting the idea of connection, and the idea of connection involving the duties of the totemist to his totem, and of the totem to the totemist ?
No " Disease of Language."
The names, I repeat, requiring and receiving mythical explanations, and the explanations necessarily suggesting conduct to match, are the causes of totemism. This theory is not a form of the philological doctrine, nomina niimina. This is no case of disease of language, in Mr. Max Miiller's sense of the words. A man is called a cat, all of his totem- kin are cats. The language is not diseased, but the man has to invent some reason for the name common to his kin. It is not even a case of Folk-Etymology, as when a myth is invented to explain the meaning of the name of a place, or person, or thing. Thus the loch of Duddingston, near Edinburgh, is explained by the myth that Queen Mary, as a child, used to play at " dudding " (or skipping) stones across the water, " making ducks and drakes." Or again, marma- lade is derived from Marie malade. Queen Mary, as a child, was seasick in crossing to France, and asked for con- jiture of oranges, hence Marie malade — " marmalade." In both cases, the name to be explained is perverted. There is no real "stone" in Duddingston — " Duddings ' town," the ton or tiln of the Duddings ; while " marmalade " is a late form of " marmalet," a word older than Queen Mary's day.
An example of a folk-etymology bordering on totemism, is the supposed descent of Clan Chattan, and of the House of Sutherland, from the Wild Cat of their heraldic crests.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 379
Now Clan Chattan is named, not from the cat, but from Gilla Catain, " the servant of Saint Catan," a common sort of Celtic personal name, as in Gilchrist.^ The Sutherland cat-crest is, apparently, derived from Catness, or Caithness. That name, again, is mythically derived from Cat, one of the Seven Sons of Cruithne, who gave their names to the seven Pictish provinces, as Fib to Fife, and so on. These Seven Sons of Cruithne, like Ion and Dorus in Greece (lonians, Dorians), are mere mythical " eponymoi " or name-giving heroes, invented to explain the names of certain districts. In totemism this is not so. Not fancied names, like Dud- dingstone, or marmalade, are, in totemism, explained by popular etymologies. Emu, kangaroo, w^olf, bear, raven, are real, not perverted names ; the question is, why are these names borne by groups of human beings ? Answers are given in all the numerous savage myths, whether of a divine ordinance, (Dieri, Woeworung), or of descent and kinship of intermarriage with beasts, or of adventures with beasts, or of a woman giving birth to beasts, or of evolution out of bestial types ; and all these myths suggest mutual duties between men and their totems, as between men and their human kinsfolk. It will be seen that here no disease of language is involved, not even ?iVolks-etymologie (a vera causa of myth).
If it could be shown by philologists that many totem names originally meant something other than thev now do, and that they were misunderstood, and supposed to be names of plants and animals, then "disease of language" would be present. Thus Xu/co? and apKro<i have really been regarded as meaning, each of them, " the bright one," and the Wolf Hero of Athens, and the Bear of the Arcadians, have been explained away, as results of " disease of language." But nobody will apply that obsolete theory to the vast menagerie of savage totem-names.
' Macbain, Etymological Dictiotiaty, 1896, quoting MS. of 1456.
380 Tlic Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
Hypothetical Early Groups before Totemism.
But, discarding this old philological hypothesis, how did the pristine groups get their totem-names? We ought first to try to conjecture what these pristine groups were like. They must have varied in various environments. Where the sea or a large lake yields an abundant food supply, men are likely to have assembled in considerable numbers, as "kitchen middens" show, at favourable stations. In great woods and jungles the conditions of food supply are not the same as in wide steppes and prairies, especially in the uni- form and arid plateaux of Central Australia. Rivers, like seas and lakes, are favourable to settlement, steppes make nomadism inevitable, before the rise of agriculture. But if the earliest groups were mutually hostile, strongly resenting any encroachment on their region of food supply, the groups would necessarily be small ; as in Mr. Darwin's theory of small pristine groups, the male, with his females, daughters, and male sons not adult.^ A bay, or inlet, or a good set of pools and streams, would be appropriated and watchfully guarded by a group, just as every area of Central Australia has its recognised native owners, who wander about it, feeding on grubs, lizards, snakes, rats, frogs, grass seeds, roots, emus, kangaroos, and opossums.
The pristine groups, we may be allowed to conjecture^ were small. If they were not, die hypotheses which I venture to present are of no value, while that of Mr. Atkinson shares their doom. Mr. McLennan, as far as one can conjecture from the fragments of his speculations, regarded the earliest groups as at least so large, and so bereft of women, that polyandry was a general rule. Mr. Darwin, on the other hand, began with polygamy and monogamy, " jealousy determining the first stage." "^ This
' Descent of Man, ii., p. 362.
* Studies in Ancient History, Second Series, p. 50.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 38 1
meant that there was a jealous old sire, who kept the women to himself, as in Mr. Atkinson's theory. As we can scarcely expect to reach certainty on this essential point, anthropology becomes (like history in the opinion of a character in Silas Marner), "a process of ingenious guessing." But, embarking on conjecture, I venture to suggest that the problem of the commissariat must have kept the pristine groups very small. They " lived on the country," and the country was untilled. They subsisted on the natural supplies, and the more backward their material culture, the sooner would they eat the country bare as far as its resources were within their means of attainment. One can hardly conceive that such human beings herded in large hordes, rather they would wander in small "family" groups. These would be mutually hostile, or at least jealous ; they could scarcely have established a modus Vivendi, and coalesced into the friendly aggregate of a local tribe, such as Arunta, Dieri, Urabunna, and so on. Such tribes have now their common councils and mysteries, lasting for months among the Arunta. We cannot pre- dicate such friendly union of groups in a tribe, for the small and jealous knots of really early men, watchfully resenting intrusion on their favourite bays, pools, and hunting or browsing grounds. As to marriage relations, it is not improbable that "sexual solidarity," (as Mr. Crawley calls it), the separation of the sexes — the little boys ac- companying the men, the little girls accompanying the women — and perhaps also "sexual tabu," coupled with the jealousy of male heads of groups, may already have led to raids for women upon hostile groups. The smaller the group, the more easily would sexual jealousy prohibit the lads from dealings with the lasses of their own group.
There might thus, in different degrees, arise a tendency towards exogamy, and specially against son-and-mother, and brother-and-sister marriage. The thing would not yet
382 The OrigiJi of Totem Names and Beliefs,
be a sin, forbidden by a superstition, but still] the tendency might run strong against marriage within each group.
How THE Groups got Names.
Up to this point we may conceive that the groups were anonymous. Each group would probably speak of itself as "the men " (according to a well recognised custom among the tribes of to-day), while it would know neighbouring groups as "the others," or "the wild blacks," But this arrange- ment manifestly lacks distinctness. Even " the others down there " is too like the vague manner in which the Mulligan indicated his place of residence. Each group will need a special name for each of its unfriendly neighbours.
These names, as likely as not, or more likely than not, will be animal or plant names, given for various reasons ; among others, perhaps, from fancied resemblances. It may be objected that an individual may bear a resemblance to this or that animal, but that a group cannot. But it is a pecularity of human nature to think that strangers (of another school eleven, say) are all very like each other, and if one of them reminds us of an emu or a kangaroo, all of them will. Moreover the name may be based on some real or fancied group-trait of character, good or bad, which also marks this or that type of animal, such as cunning, cruelty, cowardice, strength, and so forth. We have also to reckon with the kinds of animals, plants, trees, useful flints, and other objects, which may be more prevalent in the area occupied by each group ; and with specialities in the food of each group's area, as in ]Mr. Haddon's theory. Thus there are plenty of reasons for the giving. of plant and animal names, which, I suggest, were imposed on each groupyVc'w ivithout. It is true that place-names would serve the turn, if they were in use. But the " hill-men," " the river-men," " the bush-men," " the men of the thorn-country," " the rock-men, " are at once too scanty and too general. Many
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 383
groups might fall collectively under each such local name. Again, it is as society moves away from totemism towards male kinship and settled abodes, that local names are given to human groups, as in Melanesia; or even to individuals, as in the case of the Arunta. Among them a child is "of " the place where he or she was born, like our de and Von} The piquancy of plant and animal names for groups probably hostile must also be considered. We are dealing with a stage of society far behind that of Mincopies, or Punans of Borneo, or Australians, and in imagining that the groups were as a rule hostile, we may or may not be making a false assumption. We are presuming that the jealousy of the elder males drove the younger males out of the group, or at least compelled them to bring in females from other groups, which would mean war. We are also assuming jealousy of all encroachments on feeding-grounds. These are the premises, which cannot be demonstrated, but only put in for the sake of argument. In any case no more hostility than our villages have for each other is enough to provide the giving of animal sobriquets.
On this point I may quote MM. Gaidoz and Sebillot {Blason Populaire de la France j Paris, Cerf, 1884) • " ^^^ all ages men have loved to speak ill of their neighbour: to blazon him, in the old phrase of a time when our speech was less prudish and more gay. Pleasantries were exchanged, not only between man and man, but between village and village. Sometimes in the expressive word, the defect, or the quality (usually the defect), the domi- nant and apparently hereditary trait of the people of a
race or a province, is stated in a kind of verbal
caricature Les hommes se sont done blasonnes de
tout le temps!^
De tout le temps ! MM. Gaidoz and Sebillot were not thinking of the origin of totemic names, but their theory
' Spencer and Gillen, p. 57, note.
384 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
applies to all ages, even the most primitive. Among their village sobriquets I note at a hasty glance :
|
Largitzen |
Cows |
|
Houneal |
Frogs |
|
Angouleme |
Lizards |
|
Artois |
Dogs |
|
Aire |
Pigeons |
|
Avalon |
Birds |
Eaters of Old Ewes ,, Onions
,, Crows
and we shall see that many Sioux groups, many English villages are blazoned, as in Mr. Haddon's theory, by the names of the things which they eat. Thus, among very early men, the names by which the groups knew each others' neighbours would be names given from without. To call them " nicknames " is to invite the objection that nick- names are essentially derisive, and that groups so low could not yet use the language of derision. I see no reason why early articulate-speaking men (or even men whose language is gesture-language) should be so modern as to lack all sense of humour. But the names need not have been derisive. If these peoples had the present savage belief in the wakan, or mystic power, of animals, the names may even have been laudatory. I ask for no more than names conferred from without, call them nicknames, sobriquets, or what you like.
We are acquainted with no race that is just entering on totemism, unless we agree with Mr. Hill-Tout that totemism is nascent among the Salish tribe, who live in village com- munities. Consequently we c3.v\not prove that early hostile groups would name each other after plants and aninials. I am only able to demonstrate that, alike in English and French folklore, and among American tribes who reckon by the male line, who are agricultural and settled, the villages or groups are ndsatd, from without, after plants and animals, and after what they are supposed to be specially apt to use
The Origin of Totem Names atid Beliefs. 385
as articles of food, and also by nicknames — often derisive. What I present is, not proof that the early groups named each other after plants and animals, but proof that among our rustics, by congruity of fancy, such names are given, with other names exactly analogous to those now used among settled savages, moving away from totemism.
Illustration from Folklore.
I select illustrative examples from the blason popidaire of modern folklore. Here we find the use of plant and animal names for neighbouring groups, villages, or parishes. Thus two informants in a rural district of Cornwall, living at a village which I shall call Loughton, found that, when they walked through the neighbouring village, Hillborough, the little boys " called cuckoo at the sight of us." They learned that the cuckoo was the badge, in folklore, of their villagre. An ancient carved and o-ilded dove in the Loughton church " was firmly believed by many of the inhabitants to be a representation of the Loughton cuckoo," and all Loughton folk were cuckoos. " It seems as if the inhabit- ants do not care to talk about these things, for some reason or other." A travelled Loughtonian " believes the animal names and symbols to be very ancient, and that each village has its symbol." My informants think that " some modern badges," such as tiger and monkey, " have been substituted for more ancient ones," There is apparently no veneration of the local beast, bird, or insect, which seems often, on the other hand, to have been imposed from without as a token of derision. Australians make a great totem of the witchetty grub (as Spencer and Gillen report), but the village of Oak- ditch is not proud of its potato-grub, the natives themselves being styled " tater-grubs." I append a list of villages (with false names) and of their badges :
Hillborough Mice
Loughton Cuckoos
Miltown Mules (it used to be rats)
VOL xin. 2 c
3S6 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
Ashley Monkeys
Yarby Geese
Watworth Bulldogs
Brailing Peesweeps
Wickley Tigers
Fenton Rooks
Linton Men
Oakditch Potato-grubs
St. Aldate's Fools
At Loughton, when the Hillborough boys pass through on a holiday excursion, the Loughton boys hang out dead mice, the Hillborough badge, in derision. The boys have even their " personal totems," and a lad who wishes for a com- panion in nocturnal adventure will utter the cry of his peculiar beast or bird, and a friend will answer with his. If boys remained always boys (that is, savages), and if civilisation were consequently wiped out, myths about these group-names of villages would be developed, and totemism would flourish again. Later I give other instances of village names answeringtototem-names, and in an Appendix (p. 391), I give analogous cases collected by Miss Burne in Shropshire, while others, we saw, are to be found in the blason popu- laire of France.
It appears to me that group-names may, originally, have been imposed from without, just as the Eskimo are really Inuits, Eskimo being the derisive name conferred by their Indian neighbours. Of course I do not mean that the group- names would always, or perhaps often^ have been, in origin, derisive nicknames. Many reasons, as has been said, might prompt the name-giving. But each such group would, I suggest, evolve animal and vegetable nicknames for each neighbouring group. Finally some names would " stick," would be stereotyped, and each group would come to answer to its nickname, just as "Pussy Moncrieff," or "Bulldog Irving," or "Piggy Frazer," or " Cow Maitland," does at school.
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 387
How THE Names became known.
Here the questions arise, how would each group come to know what name each of its neighbours called it, and how would hostile groups come to have the same nicknames for each other ? Well, they would know the nicknames through taunts exchanged in battle.
" Run, you deer, run ! "
" Off with you, you hares ! "
" Scuttle, you skunks ! "
They would readily recognise the appropriateness of the names, if derived from the plants, trees, or animals most abundant in their area, and most important to their food supply ; for, at this hypothetical stage, and before myths had crystallised round the names, they would have no scruples about eating their name-giving plants, fruits, fishes, birds, and animals. They would also hear their names from war captives at the torture-stake, or on the road to the oven or the butcher. But the chief way in which the new group- names spread would be through captured women, for, though there might as yet be only a tendency towards exogamy, still girls of alien groups would be captured as mates. " We call you the Skunks," or whatever it might be, such a bride might remark, and so knowledge of the new group-names would be diffused.
TOTEMIC AND OTHER GrOUP NaMES, ENGLISH AND
North American Indian.
It may seem almost flippant to suggest that this old mystery of totemism arises, in the first instance, only from group-names given from without, some of them, perhaps, derisive. But I am able to demonstrate that, in North America, the names of what some American authorities call ^^ gentes" (meaning old totem-groups, which now reckon descent through the male, not the female line) actually are nicknames — in certain cases derisive. More- over, I am able to prove that, when the names of these
2 c 2
388 The Origin of Totem Nmnes and Beliefs.
American " genfes" are not merely totem-names, they answer, with literal precision, to our folklore village sobri- quets, when tliese are not names of plants or animals. The late Rev. James Owen Dorsey left, at his death, a paper on " The Siouan Sociology." ^ Among the '^ gentes'^ (old totem kindreds with male descent) he noted the '^ genfes" of a tribe, " The Mysterious Lake Tribe." There were, in 1880, seven ^' gentes." Three names were derived from localities. One name meant " Breakers of (exoga- mous) Law." One was " Not encumbered with much bag- gage." One was " Rogues " (" Bad Nation.") These three last names are derisive nicknames. The seventh name was " Eats no Geese," obviously a totemic survival. Of the Wahpeton tribe all the seven ^' genfcs^^ derived their names from localities. Of the Sisseton tribe, the twelve names of '^ gentes" were either nicknames (one^ "a name of derision ") or derived from localities. Of the Yankton '' gentes," five names out of seven were nicknames, mostly derisive, the sixth was "Bad Nation" (Rogues), the seventh was a totem name, " Wild Cat." Of the Hun- patina (seven "^^«/^j- ") three names were totemic (Drift- ing Goose, Dogs, Eat no Buffalo Cows), the others were nicknames, such as " Eat the Scrapings of Hides." Of the Sitcanxu, there were thirteen ^' gentes.^' Six or seven of their titles were nicknames, three were totemic, the others were dubious, such as " Smellers of Fish." The Itaziptec had seven " gentes" ] of their names all were nicknames, including " Eat dried venison from the hind quarter." Of the Minikooju, there were nine '^ gcntcs." Eight names w'ere nicknames, including " Dung Eaters." One seems totemic, "Eat No Dogs." Of five Asiniboin "gentes " the names were nicknames from the habits or localities of the communities. One was " Girls' Band," that is " Girls."
Now compare parish sobriquets in Western England.'"' In this list of parish or village nicknames twenty-one are
' Report of American Bureau of Ethnology, 1S93-94, p. 213 ^/ scq. ' Thirteenth Report of the Committee of Devonshire Folklore, Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, 1S95, xxvii., pp. 61-74.
The Origin of Totem Na^ncs and Beliefs. 389
derived from plants and animals, like most totemic names. We also find "Dog Eaters," "Bread Eaters," " Burd Eaters," " VVhitpot Eaters," and answering to " Girls' Band" [Gens des Filles) " Pretty Maidens," answering to " Bad Nation," " Rogues," answering to " Eaters of Hide Scrapings," " Bone Pickers," while there are, as among the Siouans, names derived from various practices attri- buted to the English villagers, as to the Red Indian ^^ gentesy
No closer parallel between our rural folklore sobriquets of village groups, and the names of old savage totem-groups (now reckoning in the male line, and, therefore, now settled together in given localities) could be invented. I conceive, therefore, that my suggestion — the totem names of pristine groups were originally given from without, and were accepted (as in the case of the nicknames of Siouan ^' gentes,^^ now accepted by them) — may be reckoned no strain on our sense of probability. It is demonstrated that the name-giving processes of our villagers exist among American savage groups which reckon descent in the male line, and that it also existed among the savage groups which reckoned descent in the female line, is, surely, a not unreasonable surmise. I add a list in parallel columns.
English Group Names. Siouan Group Names.
Rogues Bad Sorts
Stags Elk
Bull Dogs Common Dogs
Horse-heads Warts on Horses' Legs
Bone-Pickers Hide-Scrapers
Whitpot j
Cheese f
Eaters Fish \ Eatei
Dried Venison
Barley Bread Doe
Dunj
Pretty Girls Girl Folk
Animal and Vegetable Animal and Vegetable
Names Names
390 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
Theory that Siouan Gentes-Names are of European Origin.
To produce, from North America, examples of group- names conferred from without, as in the instances of our English villages, may, to some students, seem inadequate evidence. For example, an unconvinced critic may say that the nicknames of Mr. Dorsey's " Siouan gentes " were originally given by white men ; the Sioux^ Dacota, Asini- boin, and other tribes having been long in contact with Europeans. Now it is quite possible that some of the names had this origin, as Mr. Dorsey himself observed. But no critic will go on to urge that the common totemic names which still designate many ^' gentes^^ were imposed by Europeans who came from English villages of " Mice/' ''Cuckoos," "Tater grubs," "Dogs," and so forth. We might as wisely say that our peasantry borrowed these village names from what they had read about totem names in Cooper's novels. To name individuals, or groups, after animals, is certainly a natural tendency of the mind, whether in savage or civilised society.
If we take the famous Mandan tribe, now reckoning descent in the male line, but with undeniable survivals of descent in the female line, we find that the '' gentes" are —
Wolf
Bear
Prairie Chicken
Good Knife
Eagle
Flat-Head
High Village.
Here, out of seven ^' gentes" four names are totemic; one is a name of locality, " High Village," not a possible name in pristine nomadic society. While there are hundreds of such cases, we cannot reasonably regard the manifest nick- names as generally of European origin. Still more does
The Origin of Totem Names and Bdiefs. 391
this theory fail us in the case of Melanesia, where contact with Europeans is recent and relatively slight. Among such tribes as the Mandans, and and other Siouan peoples, we see totemism with exogamy and female kinship waning, while kinship recognised by male descent, phis settled conditions, brings in local names for gentes, and tends to cause the substitution of local names and nicknames for the totem group name. Precisely the same phenomena meet us in Melanesia.
But this is " matter for a separate dissertation." Perhaps I ought to add that the kind of group names used in totemic circles are peculiarly adapted to being signalled in gesture language, as we know that they actually are, and are thus peculiarly serviceable in savage life.
A. Lang.
APPENDIX [see p. 386). English Rhymes on Village Sobriquets.
Edgmond, Shropshire, where I lived for the first half of my life, is a large parish containing besides the village itself (Edgmond), where the church is situated, a number of small scattered hamlets or townships, and isolated farms. Tibberton, Cherrington, Adeney, Butterey, and Wall, are some of these.
A tradesman of the neighbouring town of Newport, who was a bit of a local antiquary, one day early in 1884, when taking a country ramble in the neighbourhood of Tibber- ton, "came upon an old lady nursing a baby, and singing the following ditty :
' Tibberton tavvnies, Cherrington chats, Adeney dogs and Butterey rats, Four bulldogs fast in a pen Dare not come out for Edgmond men.'
" On inquiry," the hearer adds, " I found out this to be a very old nursery rhyme, handed down from generation to generation." He sent it to Salopian Shreds and Patches,
392 The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs.
the then-current local A^. &' O. column (Feb. 13, 1884), where I saw it.
I was not then living at Edgmond, but I made inquiries there through trustworthy channels, and discovered that two old people, natives of Edgmond, gave the first two lines as
follows :
" Tibberton tawnies, Cherrington chats, Edgmond men, and Adeney cats."
They further said that in their young days, children used to annoy persons who came from these outlying townships to be married at Edgmond parish church, by shouting these words at them. (1 have no note of the date at which Tibberton and Cherrington were formed into a separate ecclesiastical district, but this must refer to a time before that event. I could find out the date, probably, if it were thought desirable.)
" Chats," which are explained in the Shropshire Word Book as " sticks for firing," were said by some of the old Edgmond people to mean gossips. Tawnies are ex- plained in the next note. I sent the above to the local paper aforesaid, and its publication brought me the follow- ing letter. " To Miss Charlotte S. Burne,
"From an old Tibberton Tawnie.
" I myself being bred, born, and reared at Tibberton, seeing your sketch in the Newport Advertiser concerning Tibberton folks, and as you would like to know the meaning of Tibberton Tawnies, the people of Tibberton years ago were remarkable for being very dark looking, and the real Tibberton-bred folks show their breed to this day. Now I beg leave to correct your rhyme, which perhaps you will please correct in the Advertiser. The old true rhyme runs as follows :
" ' Tibberton Tawnies, Cherrington Chats, {sic Edgement Bulldogs and Adeney Cats,
spelling) Edgement Bulldogs made up in a pen
Darna come out for Tibberton men.'
Tlie Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 393
"I myself, with between fifty and sixty others, have collected together many a time to shout out this rhyme if we have seen any Edgmond folks come down Tibberton street, as the oldest man now living in the dear little village of Tib- berton will speak to the truth of my statement.
" A. B. C."
The remark on the dark complexions of the Tibberton people is true as regards the only family I had any particular knowledge of.
I also got an Adeney version, I forget from whom, but I believe from the old churchwarden, who owned one of the two farms there. This omits both Edgmond and x\deney. It is —
Adeney. " Tibberton tawnies, Cherrington chats Wall dogs, and Buttery rats."
Cf. the other versions, which I repeat here.
Edgmond. " Tibberton tawnies, Cherrington chats, Edgmond men, and Adeney cats."
Edgtnond. " Tibberton tawnies, Cherrington chats, Adeney dogs, and Buttery rats, Four bull-dogs fast in a pen Darna come out for Edgmond men."
Tibberton. "Tibberton tawnies, Cherrington chats, Edgmond bull-dogs, and Adeney cats, Edgmond bull-dogs made up in a pen Darna come out for Tibberton men,"
C. S. BURNE.
NOTES OF DISCUSSION.!
Dr. A. C. Haddon : Mr. Lang has cleared the ground of his adversaries as drastically as savages clear the land for culti- vation, by burning all they find growing on it ! I agree with him that the nagual and " personal totems " are a separate subject from group-totemism, and that the group- names must have preceded the group-marks ; while the fact
' Only the more elaborate speeches are recorded. See p. 339.
394 The Origin of Totem Names mid Beliefs.
that, so far as we know, savages never deliberately destroy the totems of their enemies is a strong point against the "soul-box" theory. In Torres Straits, as in Australia, a group (or, as one is more in the habit of saying, a "clan") may have one chief totem and a number of sub- sidiary totems ; though the exact relation of these to each other is at present obscure. Mr. Lang's hypothesis, or, as he says, '' guess," is that the people of any small group call themselves " men," and call one another by animal nick- names. The " guess " which I should like to make is as follows : Primitive man moved about in small groups, and each small group was necessarily composed of related individuals. No savage peoples have an unlimited amount of space to wander in ; their area is limited by their coming in contact with similar groups, and almost every part of the savage world is marked out into hunting-grounds beyond which the proprietary groups do not go. Thus there would be a certain number of families living along a coast, others up the river, others in the jungle, and so there would come about groups of people each living mainly on one kind of food. In Australia and New Guinea we find there is a distinct idea that food of any kind can hardly grow naturally by itself, but that it is necessary to assist nature by means of magic ; hence a number of magical ceremonies are practised for the purpose of increasing the food-supply. Of course the most important fact in life for man, whether savage or civilised, is his food ; so the first aim of man would always be to get enough food for him- self. Therefore each group of people would naturally direct its magical ceremonies to the increase of the par- ticular kind of food on which it chiefly depended. When these groups, by force of circumstances, came to mingle together, there would be family groups each having, in addition to its own speciality in food-magic, a peculiar sympathic relation with a particular group, or groups, of a;nimals and plants ; because the livelihood of each de- pended on the knowledge of the habits of particular animals, or of the flowering and fruiting seasons of particular trees. I have myself seen shrines for making fruitful coco-nut trees, bananas, and other plants, and I know that this is the business of definite groups of people. Thus we get departmental group-magic, for, when these primitive totem- groups came to be synthesised into tribes, each would still
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 391^
have some natural product which was its special charge, of which the members of that group would naturally know more than anybody else, and which they would continue to increase (as they thought) by means of magical ceremonies. But although man, doubtless, very early performed magic for the increase of his food, I am of opinion it cannot strictly be termed a "primitive" custom. I venture to think that the sympathetic relationship of a group of men with a group of living beings was yet earlier.
Now as to the question of naming. In restricted localities the possible varieties of food were also restricted, and the men and the food became associated in name. The men who constantly caught crabs would naturally be called the " crab-men." Those whose speciality it was to catch kangaroos or turtle, or to collect coco-nuts, would be known, and would most probably regard themselves as kangaroo- men, or turtle-men, or coco-nut-men. A man who had a lot of wild plums and wanted a little fish-diet would say, " We will go to the crab-men and exchange our plums for their crabs." So the names would arise naturally, and myths as to their origin would spring up as a matter of course. I suspect that hunger is really at the bottom of totemism, though naturally other elements have entered into it at various times. I should know more than I do about totemism, as I happen to be a " crocodile " myself!
Mr. GOMME : It appears to me that a great deal too much stress has been laid on the after-results of totemism. The myth-making period is of course long after the origin of totemism, and in studying its origin we must remember that not only Australians and North Americans, but African and Asiatic peoples have totem beliefs and ideas. The mere existence of such beliefs and ideas does not constitute totemism. They are almost universal, but they have been taken up into a social system among a few tribes only. That such a social system could have been framed on the mere custom of naughty boys calling each other nicknames seems to me a theory which can hardly be accepted. In no totem system with which I am acquainted do I come across one whole group of people so separated from other groups and called by a separate orroup-name, as to make such a theory possible. My own Tdea would rather be to take first such groups as are not totemists at all, to discover what totem beliefs and ideas exist among them, to compare
396 Tlie Origin of Totem Natnes and Beliefs.
them with peoples among whom the totem system had been developed, and to observe how some peoples took up these ideas and used them as the basis of their political and social system. Such a comparison, I think, would show us a great deal. Anthropologists have, 1 think, paid a great deal too little attention to the economic side of primitive m.an's necessities. I know of no treatise which deals exhaustively with the economical conditions of primitive man, and I cannot help feeling that when we understand what these economic conditions were, we may find in that direction an explanation of the origin of totemism. In the meantime, the admirable way in which Mr. Lang has put aside a large number of interesting ideas which have passed for good scientific theories of totemism is exactly what was wanted. He has done for these theories of totemism what he did in previous years for other theories of mythology.
Mr. Marett : I come from a place which I make bold to compare with a Greek city-state, and in which clannishness reigns supreme, the island of Jersey. There they always refer to the Guernseymen as " donkeys," whilst the Guern- seymen return the compliment by speaking of the Jersey- men as the " crapmids " ; crapaiid being the name of the enormous toad that frequents every lane in the island.^ Now when I was four or five years old, I had already come to realise that I was a crapaud, and the member of a society of crapaiids. And this, I fancy, rather altered my views as to the nature and status of the crapaud. Though objectively and in itself it might seem a somewhat odious beast, it became henceforth for me undoubtedly interesting, and, perhaps I might say, something towards which I had dim feelings of kinship. There were a certain number of superstitions that prevailed in my native place in regard to crapauds. I certainly was made to understand as a child that to hurt one of these animals in any kind of way would somehow be fatal to my future prospects. And this, I think, is, or was, the belief of the average Jerseyman.
Now the English and French,' in whom, so to speak, we islanders are not immediately interested, have, as far as I know, no animal nicknames amongst us. We keep these intimate sobriquets for home use, as it were. Wherefore I would hazard the conjecture that, supposing Mr. Lang's
' [The Guernsey people have a legend relating how St. Patrick banished all reptiles from their island. — Ed.]
The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs. 397
general theory that totem-names are originally nicknames to be correct, such names arise amongst groups closely related in some way or other, and friendly on the whole rather than hostile. Indeed, how otherwise would such groups come to understand the meaning of the nicknames fastened on them from without — by the stranger ?
Mr. Lang : They always took wives from one another.
Mr. MaretT: Ah, that assumes exogamy to have been prior to totemism — a somewhat big assumption. To esta- blish such a view one would have, I take it, to cast about on the one hand for instances of tribes that were exogamous but non-totemistic, and on the other for instances of tribes that displayed totemism of some more or less recognisable kind without exogamy. Now if the former class of cases turned out to be decidedly commoner than the latter, this would look as if exogamy were the more fundamental institution. But if contrariwise a totemism free of exogamy was common and an exogamy free of totemism rare, then we might guess that totemism had begotten exogamy. And I may add that in attacking such a problem of distribution one must beware against defining totemism too narrowly, even if philologically the name "totem" applies to the group symbol only. If totemism were cause and exogamy effect, such totemism, we may be sure, would cover a good many forms of theriolatric belief and custom. Meanwhile, I believe that this question whether exogamy is cause and totemism effect, or vice versa, is the prime difficulty we have to face in connection with the subject broached by Mr. Lansf.
*,* With regard to the Cornish evidence on pp. 385, 386, Mr. Lang writes to us that he communicated it to the Athetixuiii three years ago, using the same pseudonyms ; and that the real names, which he thought it unadvis- able to make pubHc, may be found in the authority cited in Note 2, p. 388. Neither he nor his informants knew, when writing to the Athenxiim. that the facts had akeady been published in 1895. — ^^-
AUSTRALIAN MARRIAGE SYSTEMS.
By a. Lang.
{Abstract of Paper read at the Meeting of 2^th October, 1902, in the Hall of Exeter College, Oxford.)
[This note briefly represents what I had to say at Oxford. Circumstances made it impossible to read out the large mass of facts and arguments. What is here said of Messrs. Fison, Howitt, Spencer, and Gillen is especially, and perhaps it may be thought unfairly, condensed, above all as the statements of these authors waver to some extent. They were fully stated in the original copy of a paper too long and complex for delivery to the Oxford audience, but later to appear in the book already mentioned. The ideas expressed, except where suggested by the MS. of Mr. Atkinson, are my own, but I find that Dr. Durkheim, the Rev. John Mathews (in Eagle-Hawk and Crow), Mr. Daniel McLennan, and Herr Cunow have, in different de- grees and with modifications, anticipated some of them by undesigned coincidence. — A. L.]
A.
The so-called " class system " in Australia presents many Various forms, and may occur where descent is reckoned either in the male or female line. But, speaking roughly, the following bars on marriage exist : —
1. Each man and woman in a tribe belonors to one of two
o
divisions, or '' phratries," within the tribe, say, Matthurie and Kirarawa ; Kirarawa must never marry Kirarawa, but always Matthurie, and vice versa.
2. Each man and woman also belongs to a given totem. Under Matthurie, say, six totems are ranged, under Kirarawa six others (except among the Arunta). Persons of the same totem may never intermarry.
Australian Marriage Systems. 399
3. Each of the two " primary divisions/' Matthurie and Kirarawa, is divided into two or more apparently no}i- totemzc " clsisses," the members intermarry as in a cross- figure in a reel, and their children (as regards " class ") take a name which is that of the "class " of neither father nor mother; the grandchildren returning to the "class" name of a grandparent.
B.
What has led to the evolution of these rules? If we take (i) we find the majority of inquirers (say Messrs. Howitt and Fison) alleging that the native names for the two primary divisions are, when they can be translated, usually names of animals. The two primary divisions would thus seem to be totemic But, on the other hand, most authors, following Mr. Morgan, insist that an original commune or horde existed in an "undivided" shape at first, and that it was deliberately "bisected" so that half of its members might never marry with the other half : each half taking an animal name.
Why this law was deliberately made we do not know, and every guess hitherto offered is transparently futile.
However, the bisection was made, each half of the now divided commune received a totemic name, and, next, each half was again " segmented " into so many smaller groups. Each of these (2) was also given a totem-name, and members of each totem-kin must marry out of it.
Why was tkz's done ? Nothing was gained. Already, by the " primary division," no one might marry withm his or her totem-name. We receive no light on the motives for this new " segmentation," and are, moreover, puzzled by being told that the totemic divisions existed before they were exogamous, before they regulated marriage. W/iy they existed, for what conceivable purpose, we are not told (unless they were for magical purposes), any more than we are told why they were made exogamous.
These ideas are unsatisfactory ; they may be found in the
400 Australian Marriage Systems,
works of Messrs. Fison, Howitt, Spencer, and Gillen, and many others, which, of course, must be consulted. My own provisional theory I give without compromising any allies.
I take it that very early man did not live in an undivided commune or " horde," of indefinite but considerable size, whose members without jealousy and without shame married " all through other." I think that difficulties of food supply made a big horde then impossible, and that sexual jealousy, in an age so animal, made promiscuity improbable in a high degree.
I conceive, with Mr. Darwin, that men then lived in small knots, probably under one polygamous male. He would drive away his sons as they approached puberty, and all the females, including his daughters, would be his harem. All such male heads of groups would resent poaching on their game, the area of their food-supply, and their female mates.
Here we have a rude exogamy. No young male may marry in the group or " hearth circle." But suppose that senescent or good-humoured patriarchs allowed, here and there, young males to bring in female mates captured from without, probably going shares in them at first. Groups in which this was done would extend their area, being stronger, through the young males in war. Such groups would increase in size and in area of food-supply, while the com- bined young males would confirm their several rights to their captured females.
Such groups would need names for all the other groups in their radius ; these names would be gwew from ivithout, and (by the analogy of blason popiilaire and of the names of American and Melanesian post-totemic groups) would probably be names of animals and plants.
Once accepted by each group, these sobriquets would give rise to speculation. " Why are we here Emus, Crows, Hawks, Frogs?" Myths would be invented, "Emu, Crow, Hawk, or Frog is our ancestor, or ancestral friend, or we
Australian Marriage Systems. 401
are evolved out of him. He (the type) is our friend, and is more or less sacred. We must not eat him, nor touch a woman also of his blood."
Here, under a taboo, are evolved exophagy and exogamy, each with a superstitious sanction. Now we have two marriage prohibitions, if we suppose that children of a woman of the Hawk or Crow group keeps her group-name when she is brought into the Emu group. As daughter of that local group, the Hawk woman's daughter is an Emu, and may not marry an Emu man. But as, by female descent, she is a Hawk, the girl may not marry a man of the local group Emu, who is also a Hawk, as son of a Hawk woman in the Emu group. A man. Emu by local group, Hawk by female descent, must catch a woman. Frog (say) by female descent. Kangaroo by local group. But to get her while local groups are hostile may imply shedding kindred totem blood in battle.
In these circumstances two local groups. Emu and Hawk, may make alliance and connubium. If they do, each local totem-group now becomes a " primary division " or " phra- try," each phratry containing different totem-kins by female descent, as, in fact, the two-linked intermarrying phratries always do (except among the Arunta). The local totem- taboo, and the taboo of totems by female descent, are both now respected, and a tribe with lawful brides accessible within itself is evolved. There has been no motiveless bisection, no equally motiveless segmentation into new totem-groups, no legislation enforcing exogamy on totem- groups not previously exogamous.
3. There remain the " classes," whose names are not apparently totemic, and whose members do not bequeath the class-name, either on the male or female side, to their children, who revert to grandmaternal or grandpaternal class- names. Of this arrangement, peculiar to Australia, Herr Cunow (1894) offers an explanation which seems to have plausible elements. These " classes " originally conveyed,
VOL. XIII. 2 D
402 Australian Marriage Systems.
in a rough way, a prohibition on marriages within the generation. Each name denoted coevals ; "the old ones," " the young ones," their names often mean (Gunow). In Australia the young and the old are marked out by degrees of initiation, by duties and services, and by taboos on certain sorts of food. These taboos in the wear and tear of the struggle of the young men and the old, also applied to marriage. The strong point of HerrCunow's theory is that the names for the classes do, in many cases, mean "big" and "little," or "young" and " old," a point omitted by Dr. Durkheim in criticising the hypothesis. Dr. Durkheim pre- fers a theory of residence with the tribe of the female parent, shifting in each generation. Meanwhile, what is needed above everything is philological analysis of the names of the "phratries," "classes," and terms for relationships, supposed, I think erroneously, to denote a past of " group marriage." Without this analysis all our theories must be tentative and hazardous.
Meanwhile, by this time, the tribes perfectly understand, and can express, real relationships by blood, as understood among ourselves, and also, as a rule, object, as we do, to too near consanguineous marriages of " too near flesh." This is the result of training in the rules, and of reflection on them.
A. Lang.
COLLECTANEA.
Some Native Legends from Central Australia."^
{Selected by Mary E. B. Howitt.)
The following legends are taken from a large collection made by the Rev. Otto Siebert, for a comprehensive work on the abori-
' [The special interest of these legends lies in the fact that " Mooramoora" was described by a previous witness, Mr. Gason {The Dieyerie Tribe in Mr. Curr's Tlic Australian Race, ii., 44-107), as a single being, not as a race of beings. " Mooramoora is a Good Spirit or Divine Being ; and although they have no form of religious worship, they speak of the Mooramoora with great reverence." In a language which possesses no article, and, apparently, no verbal plural Csee Curr, The Atisti alian Race, i , 10, il), it is obvious that a noun of multitude might easily be mistaken by a foreigner for a proper name. Mr. Gason's further statement, that the Dieri "have no form of religious worship," is hardly consistent with his description of the rain-making cere- mony, part of which he says is designed to be seen by the Mooramoora, " and immediately he causes clouds to appear in the heavens." If none appear, "they say the Mooramoora is cross with them." Mr. Howitt, moreover (y. A /., XX., 92), quotes Mr. Gason for the following : " In the rare seasons which are too wet, the Dieri also have recourse to supplications to Mura Mura to restrain the rain, and Mr. Gason has seen the old men in a perfect state of frenzy, believing that their ceremonies had caused Mura-mura to send too much rain."
Otherwise the account of the Muramura by Mr. Gason (who was a police- trooper stationed many years in the district) agrees in the main with Mr. Siebert's setiological myths. He gives Dieri legends crediting " the Moora- moora" (sing, no.) with the making of the sun, emus, mankind (who were first black lizards, made to walk erect with their tails cut off), the organisation into tribes and families, the marriage rules, the foundation of the various ceremonies, of the custom of knocking out teeth, &c. Some of the ceremonies are per- formed within a circle traced with sand, within which the Mooramoora "is" supposed to be present, but which keeps out an evil being called Kootchie, which Mr. Gason translates by flfez'// ("the devil is called Kootchie"). Mr. Gason's evidence is cited and discussed in the Golden Bough, i., 72;?., 86, S7, and in Magic and Religion, pp. 50, 56, 57, 62, 63. — Ed.]
2 D 2
404 Collectanea.
gines of South-east Australia, which my father, Mr. A. W. Howitt, is now preparing for pubhcation. Mr. Siebert is a missionary to the aborigines at Killalpanina, on the Cooper River, in Central AustraHa, and is a very zealous student of their laws and customs.
To any one familiar with the legends of other parts of Australia, with their half-animal, half-human actors, fabled ancestors of the modern race, these legends of the Dieri and kindred tribes will present some novel features, chiefly through the appearance of the Mura-muras.
These were beings of distinctly human form and actions, but always endowed with greater magical powers, and seemingly capable of more astounding feats, than the people of the present day. The perfecting of human beings out of shapeless creatures, the naming of the totems, and the institution of the sacred cere- monies are ascribed to them and duly recorded in certain of the legends.
The constant wandering of the Mura-muras is remarkable. They seem to have been possessed with the spirit of travel, and to have bestowed the present names on all natural objects, rocks, rivers, &c., that they came across. They are now not infrequently pointed out by the blacks as solitary rocks or petrified tree trunks, whose shape they took when their work was done — perpetual wit- nesses to the aboriginal mind of the absolute truth of the legends. This wandering spirit is so constant in the Mura-mura legends that one is tempted to believe it to be a faint crystallised recollection of the first great spreading of the native race over the continent.
The interesting legend of the dark and light-coloured children is illustrated, as Mr. Siebert says, by the present differences in colour between the tribes in that part of Australia. He tells us that in spite of the fusion of the tribes caused of late by the settlement of the country by the whites, the Wonkanguru and Wonkamala, northern neighbours of the Dieri, have a bluish-black tint of skin ; while the Dieri themselves are reddish-brown, and the Tangara, who live on the western side of Lake Eyre, towards the West Australian boundary, are said by those of the Dieri who know them to be as light coloured as half-castes, and to be spoken of as Kana maralye or " light-coloured men."
In the legends of Warugatti, and of Woma and Kapiri, we are told of the origin of the emu, carpet-snake, and lizard, and their respective totems, while the legend of Pirinti is typical of the
Collectanea. 405
purely animal legends of South-eastern Australia. Nganto-warrina, the old Mura-mura who was turned into the moon, has his counter- part in many other moon legends ; and it may be noted that we always find that the moon was once a man in the opinion of the Australian aborigine, while the Jack-and-the-Beanstalk incident of the tree growing up to the sky through magic is also frequently encountered.
The tract of country occupied by the Dieri tribe is on the delta of the Cooper, on the east of Lake Eyre. The Wonkanguru and Yaurorka are their immediate neighbours on the north, and the Urabunna occupied a considerable tract on the west side of the lake.
I. — KuYiMOKUNA. A Legend of the Uieri.
A Mura-mura was once out by himself hunting in time of great drought, but could find no food. There was no game to be found, and as he sought for it in vain the Mura-mura Kuyimokuna, a clever boy, came to him and asked what he was looking for. " Kapiri and Woma," was the reply. " Follow me," said the boy, walking forward ; and all at once he said " Dig there." The man dug deep into the earth and found a zvoma (carpet-snake), and in like manner the boy showed him other places where woma were hidden. Thus he helped the elder Mura-mura on several days, till the others of his people envied him when they saw him return laden with game each night ; so they asked him where he had got it. He told them to come with him, and his boy would show them where to find woma and kapiri (iguana). This they did, and the boy led them hither and thither to dig.
While they were doing this the boy became thirsty and drank out of their water-bag, forgetting to shut it up again, so that the water ran out. The people were all very angry at this and agreed to kill the boy, and did so when his friend and guardian was not there. Now this man felt in his liver that something was wrong with the boy. He could not sleep all night, and in the morning he set about following their tracks, till he came to where his friend lay dead. He wept bitterly for his boy. Then he separated the flesh from the bones, divided these from each
4o6
Collectanea.
other, and with them separately he killed all the people who had killed his friend.
This is how the Dieri got the custom of killing by " pointing the bone."
Notes by the Rev. Otto Siebert.
The liver is regarded by these tribes as the seat of the affections. The Woma, or carpet-snake, is prized as an article of food. The reptiles hide in cracks in the sun-dried earth, from whence they are dug by the blacks. The Kapiri is the iguana, or lace-lizard.
A second "patron" of the boy Kuyimokuna was also associated in the " pointing of the bone " in some versions of the legend. Both avenged the death of the boy by "giving the bone" in common to the murderers of Kuyimokuna. For this reason it is almost always the case that two persons act together in " giving the bone ; " one who points with it and also ties the end of the hair-cord which is fastened to it, tightly round his upper arm, in order that the blood may be driven through into the bone. The other person holds the end of another cord fastened to the bone, and goes through the same motions as he who is holding the bone. The bones of Kuyimokuna were divided into pieces and sent, as we would say, " to all points of the compass," carrying death wherever they came.
When all those who had taken part in the death of the boy Kuyimokuna had been done to death by his two champions, these two met the survivors of the people at a place called Nari-wolpu {nari'is "death" in Dieri, and woipu, "bone," in Won- kanguru). When the murder was discussed at this meeting the principal champion of Kuyimokuna took two small staves of wood in his hand, tied them fast together with a cord, and buried them in the earth. " See," said he, turning to one of the survivors after the other and addressing each in turn. " Thou mournest for thy nejt (elder brother), thou for thy ngaperi (father), &c., and I for my tidnara (sister's son). We are all alike mourning for relations, let us now once more live in peace with each other and bury the whole affair." Out of this arose the custom called Pinti madi ya figiirzi, fast and unbreakable agree- ment— from pifiti, agreement ; niadi, heavy, weighty ; ya, and ; nguru, strong.
II. — Nganto-warrina who became the Moon.
Two young Mura-muras were annoyed with their father, the old Mura-niura Nganto-warrina, because ho had gathered some nardoo
Collectanea. 407
and given none to them. One day their father saw them busy making long hooks {ngami) to pull out grubs {kuyikinka) from their holes in the gum trees. They told him they knew of a tree full of kuyikinkas, and the old Mura-mura climbed up to get some. As he climbed his sons ke'pt urging him to go on higher, and all the time the tree raised itself or grew up further from the ground by reason of their magic. Then they set it on fire, and, as the burning tree rose up carrying Nganto-warrina, the sons saw that their father was being roasted, and one of them threw up a skin by his boomerang so that the old man might shelter himself from the heat.
Nganto-warrina still hangs in the sky as the moon, and the Dieri say the dark mark on its face is the place where the old Mura-mura covered himself with the skin.
Notes by M. E. B. Howitt.
Ngami are like long slender crochet-hooks made of wood, with which the blacks skilfully extract the grubs from their tunnel-like holes in the gum tree trunks.
Nardoo forms a staple article of food with these tribes, and has been well known to the whites since the unfortunate explorers Burke and Wills tried unsuccessfully to live on it, when Wills wrote in his diary that it was " not unpleasant starvation." Some of the seed actually collected by them, and afterwards found by INIr. A. W. Howitt's rescue party, is before me now. The so-called seeds are spore-cases of a species of Marsilia, a genus common to many parts of Australia. The " seeds " are oblong and flattened in shape, about an eighth of an inch in width and a quarter long, and chocolate-brown in colour.
ni. — Warukatti the Emu. A Tale of the Dieri.
Two Mura-muras, who were husband and wife, once remarked that both had feathers on their bodies and that more were grow- ing. They began to dance, and, as they did so, they went by accident into the fire, so that their legs were shrivelled up. The other Mura-muras noticed this, and said : " Go out from among us ; you do not belong to us ; you are Warukatti." And they drove them away to run about as emus.
4o8 Collectanea.
IV. — Origin of the Woma and Kapiri. A Wonkanguru
Legend.
Naiyenimirara, Kurkali, Bulu-bulu, U'atylina, and other Mura- muras wanted to make some Womas. They consulted about the colours a Woma should be, but were not agreed about it, so Watylina went away, and the others drew long wavy lines on the ground and stuck sticks at the ends marked with the woma
But they had scarcely done it when a fierce wind obhterated the marks and blew away the sticks. Then they drew a long straight
line so : | — [
with Woma sticks at the ends, but as before a great wind came and swept away their work. The same thing happened again when they drew intersecting lines like this : [=occo«=oc=co.=r,c.«=c«=od But all their trouble was in vain, for Watylina sent a wind each time to destroy their work.
At last they made a line so broad and so long that it made a great ridge, at each end of which they planted several Woma poles. While they were doing this the Mura-mura Mantandara came by and asked what they were all doing there. Instead of telling him they laughed at his ignorance, so that he turned away ashamed and went away with a grudge against them. To have his revenge he turned himself into a fire and burnt up the other Mura-muras with their camp. After he had burned the Woma Mura-muras he also burned the Kapiri Mura-muras, Kumari- Puntali and Taraburuna, who had also made lines and set up sticks with Kapiri colours at the ends.
Out of the ashes of the Woma and Kapiri Mura-muras came Womas and Kapiris, and after these had returned to the ground countless young Womas and Kapiris came to light.
Notes by the Rev. O. Siebert.
Naiyeni-mirara means " sluggard," from Jiaiyeni, slow, and mirara, comrade or mate.
Kurkali, derived from kurka, a kind of kangaroo-rat (Dieri and Wonkanguru).
Bulu-bulu, the designation of young Womas (Dieri and Wonkanguru).
Watylina, to cook.
Collectanea. 409
Manfandara, a bush, in Dieri IVirra, the leaves of which are dried in the ashes, and being rubbed up are mixed with the pitcheri for chewing.
Kumari-puntali means " blood-drinker," from kumari, blood, 3.\\d pujita/afo, drink (AVonkanguru. In Dieri Dapand).
Taraburuna means " he with the leg," i.e. having something the matter with his tara., or thigh. 1
Certain bands of alternating red and yellow earth which show on the surface in serpentine curves not far south of the Queensland boundary are said to be the markings which the Mura-muras made.
Notwithstanding the burning of these Mura-muras they are spoken of as rocks " near the great lake," which may be Lake Eyre.
V. — Kadiwonkuru. a Legend of the Yaurorka.
The wife of an almost blind Mura-mura named Makatakaba, who lived at Wityigurawimpa, went with her two daughters to collect nardoo for food. The two girls played about while their mother worked busily ; and when she had gathered a quantity she dug a hole in the ground, poured the seeds in, and stirring them up let the wind blow the husks away. To prevent the good seed from being blow^n away she built up a breakwind of boughs. Next morning the three went out again for seed. The mother was busy as before collecting it, and the children played about, when they suddenly saw a great fire, of which they told their father when they returned to camp. When he heard of it he stood up, and lifting a child to each of his shoulders, asked them to point out the direction in which they had seen the fire. He said to the elder, " Can you see the fire ? " and she answered, " Yes, father, I can see it quite plainly."
Then the old Mura-mura opened his eyes, and he who had been quite blind until then could see the smoke of the fire lying on the horizon like a great rain-cloud. His wife made him some paua from the nardoo, which he ate, and then lay down to sleep.
In the early morning he took a fire-stick, threw his bag over his shoulder, got ready to start, and said to his children, " I have a long journey before me, but you must not trouble about that ; "
' [Seewz/ra., p. 88.— Ed.]
4IO Collectanea.
and to his wife he said, " Take care of the children, so that no one may do them any harm." Then he stood up with his bag over his shoulder, a fire-stick on one arm and a small boomerang in his hand. With his first step he began to sing his wapaia and to travel singing into distant parts.
His wapaia song commenced thus : " Dama-inda ngurpa, dama-inda ngurpalina^'' which means " leaving those belonging to me, I am going forth into the far-away ; " and as he travelled along he put all that he saw — birds, snakes, kangaroo tracks, trees, bushes, and whatever else he came across — into his song.
After travelling for a month he came to a great sandhill, from the top of which he saw a vast water. He went down the hill and waded into the water, seeing his own image reflected in it. He came back to land by a narrow passage which was being covered by the waters driven by a fierce wind. Then he climbed the highest hill near, and saw from it a great fire surrounding him. He sought to find out who had lighted the fire, but could see no traces of men, and thought it must have sprung up of itself. Even now, men say, this fire is always in that part, which is called the Wiluma country, and the people in it are the Yero- zviraye, or " fire-people."
Having gathered some hot coals from the fire, the Mura-mura went on his wanderings to the south, making his song, which is sung by the Urabunna.
While he was travelling thus, his wife and daughters were out one day gathering nardoo, and the mother was mending the katu or breakwind, to make it stronger before winnowing the seed, when one of her children came to her, and said, " See, mother, the great whirlwind coming up. Quick ! make the katu strong, 50 that the wind cannot blow it away." So the mother used all her strength to make the katu fast, and when the whirlwind struck it they all three cowered behind it for shelter. But the wind blew stronger and stronger till at last it carried off the youngest girl. Then the other child was carried off, and finally the mother was lifted up by the furious blast.
Each night as the whirlwind swept along, carrying the woman and her two children, it rested, and wherever it did so a water hole was formed, not in a channel or hollow, but on the open dry tableland. Each morning it carried them further and further till it Ijuried them at last in the distant northern sands.
Collectanea. \\l
The Mura-mura Makatakaba travelled all the time towards the south carrying the hot coals which he had got in the Wiluma country and in time reached the Macumba country, where he came to a camp of people who were rubbing up and eating paiia from the seeds of one of the gum trees. He was hungry, and asked for some of the food ; but they took no notice and laughed at him because he was nearly bald, with a long lock of hair hang- ing down behind, and had a small pointed beard. They also ordered him roughly away, and took no notice of his threats, when he said, "Do you think I have no wolkadra in my arm- pits ? "
But they only shouted at him, " Yidfii kntchi, yidni worana.^^ Which means, "Are you a Kutchi ? are you a Worana?" And they took up spears to throw at him.
The Mura-mura went sadly away with his finger on his lip, thinking of revenge. He did not go far away, but took a couple of coals out of his bag and set fire to the grass, saying to the flames, "Spread with great quickness." He put out the fire with his hands and went near to the camp again. There he took out more coals and again set the grass on fire, and in a moment he was standing in the midst of the flames. The people in the camp tried to escape, but the quickly-spreading fire burnt them all up.
The old Mura-mura went on from camp to camp, but the people were all unfriendly to him and made fun of his bald head, so he avenged himself by burning them up.
Notes by the Rev. O. Siebert.
Kadhvonkiiru comes from kadmiarn, lizard.
Makatakaba means " fire " in Wonkanguru. The Yaurorka name for this old Mura-mura was Kadiwonkuru, and the Dieri called him Kadiwaru (lizard) or " the Kadiwaru." The name Makatakaba was given to him later when he burned up the Wonkanguru and Ngarabana in their camps. It is only the latter part of the legend that is known to these two tribes, and is sung at their ceremonies.
Wityguru-wimpa from ivitygurii, a whirlwind, and zvimpa, a track.
Faua is food made from the seed of various plants. It is collected, cleaned, and stored away in pits, which are closed by a cover made of rushes and smeared on each side with clay to hold them together. The paua when taken out of the pits is placed in
412 Collectanea.
bags {ivotidiirii) and either carried by ttie people or hung up in trees.
Nardoo is not ground, but pounded to a fine powder, and made into a kind of cake. When fish is plentiful, it is also stored up in the following manner. The fishes are first baked in the hot ashes, then the bones and insides being removed, they are laid on bushes on the ground to dry. When dry the skin is also removed, and the flesh is further dried till it is quite hard and can be pounded to powder and packed away in bags.
Wapaia is a song of travel which is sung at some of the sacred ceremonies by the tribes north of the Dieri and north of the Queensland boundary. The exact meaning of the opening phrase " Daina-inda-ngurpa " cannot be obtained, for the several informants are not even agreed as to the proper sound of the words, and give them different meanings. For instance the Yaurorka and Marunga sing the words, " Lamaa Lamatida ngiirpa^'' &c., without knowing their meaning at all, as is often the case with far-travelled songs.
Yidni kutcht, yidtii worana. Yidni is the vocative " thou," and kutchi a " debble-debble " that is believed to travel about in whirlwinds on mischief bent. Worana is a fabled creature, half man, half beast, living on an island in Lake Eyre.
Wolkadra is the same as the sacred churinga of the Arunta, and is carried concealed from all uninitiated persons in the armpit.
The " great water " reached by Makatakaba was probably the Gulf of Carpentaria.
VI. PlRINTI AND KaPIRI. A LEGEND OF THE UrABUNNA
Tribe.
Long ago Pirinti and Kapiri lived in great friendship at the north-west of Katitandra (Lake Eyre). At that time both had skins of the same colour, so they decided to paint each other.
First Pirinti had to paint Kapiri, which he did with a beautiful pattern. But when Kapiri had to paint Pirinti he thought to himself, " Why should I give myself the trouble to make such intricate markings, when Pirinti is so much bigger than I am. I will make larger patterns on him." He therefore painted Pirinti with some large and some small patterns, and when Pirinti turned his head and saw the unequal pattern that Kapiri had put on, he said to himself, " I painted him very nicely, why has he done me so unequally ? "
Collectanea. 413
Kapiri said to him, " Do not turn round like that, you will rub off the paint." And as he said this he secretly rubbed off part of the pattern and ran away. Pirinti ran after him in great anger, but Kapiri was too nimble to be caught, so Pirinti shouted out to him not to dare to come into his ravine again, but to stay where the kulva grows, and Kapiri replied that in that case Pirinti must keep to the rocks and holes in the hills. Since that time there have been no Kapiri north of Oodnadatta, while at the Cooper, where the kulva grows, there are no Pirinti.
Notes by M. E. B. Howitt.
Kapiri and Pirinti are varieties of lizards. Kulva is a hakea.
VII. — Markanyankula. a Legend of the Wonkanguru AND Urabunna.
The Mura-mura IMarkanyankula lived in Antyritya with his wife and many children. He used to gather nardoo and clean it by shaking it in his bowl, so that the refuse separated, then he packed it in kangaroo and 'possum-skin bags, put these in a larger bag, and started off on his wanderings, carrying the burden on his head.
The first place he came to was Arufolkandu on the Macumba River, where there was a level piece of ground. He loosened this ground and scattered the nardoo seed on it, so that when rain came it might grow and the people have plenty of food and not suffer any hunger. He also scattered nardoo in another place, and travelling on, came to Utyia, where he saw two de- crepit old women, and said to them, " Look round about when the rain falls." When rain fell they went out as the Mura-mura Markanyankula had told them and looked about. They found the two places where he had scattered seed, where it had made the whole country green ; the fruit was not ripe, but the women ate it and became healthy and strong. When the seed was ripe they gathered it into heaps and had plenty of food when the dry barren time came again.
After telling the old women what to do, the Mura-mura went to Pandi, where a great number of men were collected to sina;
414 Collectanea.
the Palpara song. He saw them a long way off, but was afraid to go near ; so he rested a w^hile, and went on to Kadlikua, where two old men sat at the edge of the water throwing in their nets. But still he travelled further, scattering good and bad nardoo seed as he went, and calling the places where he left the latter Nardoo- molku (bone nardoo).
At Kuyuna he stuck his spear into the ground, and it grew into a huge tree, and after he had wandered to Narimaia lake and the Pitchei country, he turned back and went to his own place and his own people.
Notes by the Rev. O. Siebert.
Arufolkandu means "making white or grey " from the quantity of dust there.
Macumba from " maka " fire, because the IMura-mura Afakata- kaba there burned a large camp.
Utyia = a spring.
Pandi is to the north-west of Katitandra where the Macumba enters Lake Eyre. Pandi refers to a beast of legendary times, which was much feared.
Kadla kupa, a little creek or river, from the Wonkanguru kad/a = creek or river bed, and kupa = child.
Kuyuna, the Diamantina River.
Nari/naia is not a lake, but a wide creek bordered with trees, north of the Cattle Lagoon, and west-south-west fromi Birdville.
\Pitcheri is the Duboisia Hopwoodi, the leaves and twigs of which are dried and chewed. It is procured to the north of Lake Eyre. — M. E. B. Howitt.]
VIII. Ngatani-M.\ru-Maru and Ngatani-Maralye. A Legend of the Dieri Tribe.
At Ngatani-maru-maru once lived a woman who had several dark-skinned children, and at Ngatani-maralye lived a woman whose children were lighter in colour.
The Ngatani-maralye mother longed for the dark-skinned children of the Ngatani-maru-maru mother; and one day when the latter had gone out to gather nardoo, leaving her children in the camp that they might not hinder her in her work, the Ngatani-maralye came with her light-coloured children and took away the dark-coloured children, leaving her own behind.
Collectanea. 415
The other mother, not knowing what had happened at the camp, came back about midday, carrying her nardoo in a half- filled bag on her hip. And on her way she met a nila-nila (mirage), and as it lifted her up from the ground she sang :
Nild-nildli kdnka-kdnkaiii
By the mirage lifted high Nild-nila niindrdni ngani In the mirage I
Tikd-tikdli wapdia. Back returning went. Nardoo bilU iampdyni rayelli Nardoo-bag half filled Ngani-imatd markdna I myself striking down
Tikdna indrkald wapdia Returning to carry went.
Coming nearer to her camp she looked longingly for her children in the place where they should be, and sang :
Milki milki nakahi. The eye the eye only there.
Then she saw children playing about the camp, but not hers ; they were strange ones with light skins ; and putting down her bag among them she sang :
Wora wora wolpana ivora wora parabana.
To-the-right-and-left tumbling-over, to-the-right-and-left lying-down.
Longing for her children she hastened round the camp searching in widening circles impatiently for their footprints, and driving her- self onwards with her song :
Tidna kalya-kalyara ngatanina worana Foot quick to the children
ngato wodakari ngatikana ku7-a7ta worai I where doing left off.
Finding at last that her children had been carried off by the Ngatani-maralye mother, she sang complainingly :
Nga7ii pii-tipirioigait mindrina para-pariiala wapaia I complaining hastening cross over to, went.
4i6 Collectanea.
Lamenting thus, she crossed over a great plain to the home of the Xgatani maralye, who seeing her a great way off ran to meet her and gave up the dark-skinned children to her, taking back her own.
The Ngantani-maru-maru mother went back to her camp with her little ones ; and next day left them as before in the camp while she went out to gather nardoo. But at midday she came back to find again the light-coloured children of the Ngatani-maralye mother in place of her own. Finding their tracks she followed them lamenting and brought them home. This happened every day till she set out on her wanderings. She sang as she went, but from lamenting much her voice had become so weak that she had to strain her throat to sing at all.
She wandered for some distance, when leaving her children she went on alone to Pando (Lake Hope), which was dry and white, and as she crossed it she sang :
Tidna pinta-pintarala kau 7igani daka-dakala ivapaia Foot on the salty expanse yes I to hard earth go.
Further and further she wandered, till coming to Bau-ung- bau-ung and Tyindi-tyindinani, when she sang :
Tyindi-tyindinani kau ngani daka-dakala wapaia. To Tpndi-tpndiani yes I to hard earth go
Then she looked for hard clay soil, and when she had found it she sank underground singing :
Mitatiina 7igato niira kalkana ngarila wapaia Earth I clay seeking under go
Ngadali ngaruia palkala -wapaia Backwards down go
Daka palkipalkana kau 'ni tigaritia palkala -wapaia Hard earth splitting yes I down go
Pandara paru-pari(mana kau ^ni palkala wapaia After me drawing yes I go
Kumari vuilpaizi kau ^ ni ngarina palkala wapaia Blood in streaks yes I down go
Mita katiparila ngani takana palkala wapaia. Earth depth I back again go
Finding a gaping cleft in the ground, she let herself slip into it and came to soil filled with daka, which she broke up ; hurting
Collectanea. 417
herself so that her tracks were marked with streaks of blood. Deep underground she pursued her way, only twice raising her head above the ground, until she reached her camp at Ngatani maru-maru. But here she only got out of the ground as far as the top of her head, for her hair is still to be seen as dickeri (cane- grass) standing in a great depression at Ngatani maru-maru.
Notes by the Rev. O. Siebert.
Ngatani maru-maru is black child; Ngatani being the relation- ship of a child to its mother, while Ngatafnura is the relationship to the father. Marii is black or of a dark shade.
Ngatani- mar a lye is light-coloured child ; Maralye being light- coloured or reddish.
Kankana is to go up in the air, to mount up, also to strut.
Nganiis the intransitive "I," while Ngato is the transitive pro- noun, thus Ngani Dieri hipa is " I am a Dieri boy," while ngato nandrafia is " I will strike."
Tikala wapaia is the present tense of tikai^ to return, or rather " to go to return " ; wapaia is the imperfect of ngani ivapai, I go.
Wora ivora ivolpana, &:c. = to right and left, tumbling over unexpectedly.
Wora-ivora parihana = to make to lie down, to the right and left. JVora is " side," and JVora wora, " on both sides," " right and left."
Tyindi tyindina and the Bau-ung Bau-iing districts are both south-east from Innaminka on Cooper's Creek, The first is named from shining {tyindi-tyindina) stones, and the latter from the trembling of the ground (bau-ung bau-ung-inga}ia).
Palkana is rather " to wander," while ivapaiia is our usual word " to go " ; the form wapaia, the imperfect of wapa?ia, is used for " I went to wander." Daka dakala ivapaia properly means " I went to cut through," or more precisely "to pierce the land." Ngarila wapaia is " I set forth to go below."
';// is an abbreviation oi Ngani, "I."
Mitani is the dative of Mita, the ground, earth.
Karku or red ochre is thought by these aborigines to be the blood of the Mura-muras ; hence they often say they have smeared themselves with blood when painted with red ochre.
The two places where the Ngatani Maru-maru mother raised her hands above ground are marked by large rocks.
M. E. B. Howitt.
VOL. XIII. 2 E
418 Collectanea,
FOLKLORE IN THE KENNET VALL,EY.
{Read at Meeting of 20th June, 1902.)
The district of which I am about to speak lies in the Kennet Valley; extending a few miles to the north of it, and towards Hampshire a few miles to the south. There are hardly any large villages ; the inhabitants live to a great extent in scattered houses, single and solitary ones occasionally, but more generally they are built in groups of two or three. You come upon them in all sorts of unexpected places ; dotted about upon the commons, amongst the fir-woods, up and down the valleys, and upon the hills. The cottages are built in every imaginable way, and of a great variety of materials. There are wood and plaster cottages, brick ones with thatched roofs, and brick ones with tiled roofs.
An old couple named Matthews, from whom I have gained a good deal of information, live at a place called Paradise. In the summer it may well deserve its name ; but in the winter, when it can only be reached by going down a lane which is ankle-deep in mud, or across some fields where there is no real footpath, it is a poor sort of Paradise. The house, which was originally a farm- house, is built in the most odd and irregular manner, and is now divided up into three or four small cottages. The end of the house, which is old Matthews' cottage, has a gabled roof, and is three stories high, an unusual thing in this part of Berkshire. The rest of the house is built in two stories, and part of it is thatched. The farm was once surrounded by outbuildings, which fell into decay, and have been removed.
Mrs. Matthews' relations lived in the same cottage in which she and her husband now live before she was born. The last farmer who had the farm committed suicide by cutting his throat in the room in which the Matthews now sleep, but though they have spoken to me about a stain on the boards, they have no super- stition about the matter. They have many others though, and when once you have won their confidence are quite ready to be communicative. The old man will tell you several stories of the Ananias and Sapphira type, of sudden retribution. These are some of them.
Collectanea. 419
Two girls were walking together one night. One of them counted the stars, and was struck dead instantly. The other, who did not count them, got home safely.
Two men were going through a field of wheat in spring. One said to the other, " This is a fine field of wheat." The other said, " Yes, if God Almighty ull let it bide." And in the harvest time the field of wheat was still standing in the same state as on that day in spring.
A man was throwing ashes in a field when some of them were blown into his eyes. He cursed with anger, and was struck dead instantly. They could not move him from the spot, even with horses, so he had to be bricked over where he lay.
A man called Hawkins used to say that there was no Heaven, or Hell, or Devil, but that only your conscience made them. When he was dying he changed his mind, and kept on crying out that his room was full of devils. He could not die until they had fetched a sheepskin and wrapped him in it.
A girl was combing her hair one day and it was tangled. She cursed the hair, and Him that made it, and she was struck dead instantly. When they went to bury her the cofifin seemed extra- ordinarily light. They opened it to see the reason, and found it was full of smoke.
Old Matthews has done every kind of work in his day, every kind of agricultural work that is to say. He talks proudly of his sowing capacities. "They don't know how to sow nowadays," he says, " certainly not with small grain ; the larger is easier to manage." He could sow a field of ten acres with a gallon of " turmut " seed, and this by the initiated appears to have been considered a tremendous feat. He has only had a fortnight's schooling all his life, but he has a natural shrewdness and intelli- gence which has been brightened perhaps by travel, for when he was younger he would go to London occasionally to stay with a married daughter. He has been to the National Gallery, his son-in-law being one of the officials of the place. " There wur some pictures there," was his comment upon the subject. One of the experiences of his life is an unusual and particularly in- teresting one. When he was a very small child he was an inha- bitant of the Fleet Prison. He cannot remember it himself, but has heard all about it from his father, and will give you some interesting details. The father, who was really a Berkshire man,
2 E 2
420 Collectanea.
had settled at Romney, and taken to smuggling. His smuggled goods were seized and he was made debtor to the King for a large amount, and as he was unable to pay, he and his whole family were lodged in the Fleet. When they came out they returned to their native place, Berkshire.
Old Matthews and his wife are great herbalists, and send nume- rous medicinal herbs to their daughter in London, who disposes of them to a herb-doctor. They have implicit faith in their con- coctions, some of which are : tansy-tea for rheumatism, marsh mallow poultices for wounds, and white lily root ointment for gatherings. But the two herbs by which they set most store are wood-sage and horehound, which seem capable of curing almost anything indiscriminately. When they were asked to tell of cures for warts, they shook their heads ; they had never heard of them — that was impossible. Warts were described. "Oh, werts." Of course they knew of cures for " werts." Cutting slits in a stick of elder, or making holes according to the number of warts in walnut leaves, and burying them secretly or putting them down a well. When the leaves had decayed the warts disappeared. The steam from the inside of an oven is also declared to be a cure.
For a good many years of his life Matthews was a shepherd, and he tells many amusing stories of sheep-stealing. For a long time a ghostly procession was seen in his part of the country, and the inhabitants were continually scared by it. One night a man said he " did not care for ghosteses," and he was determined to investigate the matter. Taking a huge bludgeon he lay in wait for the procession. When it appeared he rushed into the middle of it, flourishing his bludgeon on all sides. The bearers of the bier fled, leaving the corpse in the road. It proved to be the corpse of a sheep. The bearers were sheep-stealers.
A friend of old Matthews in his shepherding days had seen a "corpse," by which seems to be meant a ghost. The man's dog had gone through a hedge, and was making a noise, as he thought chasing a rabbit. He leaned over the hedge to see, " and there sure enuf wur the corpse."
Matthews was coming home from work late one night, when he heard a cart or carriage coming behind him. It had come so close to him that he heard the gravel scrunching under the wheels ; hut he could see nothing.
Collectanea, 421
In a little village about six miles from the Matthewses, old Mrs. Collins lives in the almshouse. She has a great many stories to tell. Her parents died when she was a child, and she was brought up by an aunt. She used to work in the fields for fourpence a day, and often knew what it was to go dinnerless. Nearly all the stories she has to tell she heard from her aunt, who would now, she says, were she still alive, be 130 years old.
The three following riddles come from this source. The first, as will easily be perceived, refers to the Gospel story.
H. and P.P. so well did agree
To blot out the name of C.
But they could not do it without the help of G.
M. was amazed and grieved to see
Envy and malice in H. and P. P.
Two died as never was born (Adam and Eve).
Two born as never died (Enoch and Elijah).
Two spoke as never lied (Christ and Balaam's Ass).
I saw six birds all in a cage, Each of them had one single wing That they could fly and sweetly sing. Their age did not abate their strength, Their tails were thirty foot in length. (Bells in the Tower).
Mrs. Collins also told me the following story, which accounts for Ophelia's saying "They say the owl was a baker's daughter." It was this. Our Lord went to a baker's shop to ask for some- thing to eat, and the woman there began making Him a cake. But each time she put a handful of flour into the pan, she took some out saying, " Oo-ooh, that's too much," "Oo-ooh, that's too much." And He said to her
" Owl thou art and owl thou shalt be, And all the birds of earth shall peck at thee."
"And if you come to look at the ow^l," said Mrs. Collins, "it has more the face of a Christian than a bird." A variant of this story, also told in Berkshire, is that the woman was turned into an owl, and condemned always to be poor, and get her food at night.
422 Collectanea.
Mrs. Collins also told me a legend of the mole— that it was once a fine lady, so fine that the earth was not good enough for her to walk upon, so she was made to walk underground — as punishment for her pride, one concludes.
The old woman remembers when murders were very common in the country. She told me a story of one murder \vhen both the suspected murderer and the corpse (or rather the bones, for the murder was not discovered for a long time) were taken up into the church tower. The idea was that when the murderer touched the corpse it would bleed, but " the bones were too dry " in this case, was Mrs. CoUins's comment.
Another old woman from whom I have gleaned a good deal is Mrs. Hayward. She lives in a cluster of cottages hidden away in a corner of the common and surrounded by fir-trees. She is eighty-two, but one day she became so interested and excited in talking about old times that she sang me two songs she used to sing in the hayfield when she was a girl of fourteen. ^
She also told me of a divination which she and other girls used to practise in the hayfield. A turf, a bowl of water, and a bough were placed upon the ground, and the girls crawled blindfolded to touch one of them. Touching the turf signified death, the bowl of water a christening, and the bough widowhood. Other divina- tions she had practised were as follows. Two of the pink flowers called " midsummer men and maidens " were stuck into a crack in the wall, and the coming together or moving apart of them signified the truth or falseness of the lover. Hempseed was sown on Midsummer Eve in the churchyard with the words, " Here I sow hempseed. Here it shall grow, If my love loves me. He will come and mow."
Mrs. Hayward further showed me the v,-ay to find out a thief with a key, the Bible, and the words from Ruth iv. 4 : " And I thought to advertise thee, saying. Buy it before the inhabitants, and before the elders of my people. If thou wilt redeem it, redeem it, but if thou wilt not redeem it, then tell me that I may know ; for there is none to redeem it beside thee, and I am after thee. And he said, I will redeem it." The same test was used for " courtship," using instead the words from the Song of
' I am sorrv to sav I have not succeeded in securins: them.
Collectanea. 423
Solomon, viii. 6, 7.1 This has been done up to quite a recent date.
When her husband was dying. Mrs. Hayward told me, she heard three distinct knocks at the bed's head ; and once when a relation of hers had died she had seen her " shade," which is a word for ghost, or spirit. She was making the bed, and some- thing which she thought was the cat came into the room. She went to chase it away, and then she saw that it was the shade of a woman. It went downstairs and disappeared. At that moment the relation had died.
This story led me to ask for other signs of death. The following were given. A sower in sowing missing a " land " of wheat. An apple-tree in bloom out of season. " If a corpse lies over Sunday there's sure to be another before the month's out."
Mrs. Hayward was the authority for the following legends and sayings :
A dark Michaelmas and a light Christmas.
A wet Good Friday and Easter Day, a lot of good grass, and a little good hay.
Wash on Ash Wednesday, and you wash someone out of the family.
Blessed is the woman who bakes on Good Friday, and frve Fridays afterwards, but cursed is the woman who washes on Good Friday and five Fridays afterwards. The reason given for this is : When our Lord was going to be crucified He went to a woman's house to ask for succour. She was w-ashing, and threw soap-suds at' Him ; then He went to another woman's house, she was baking, and gave Him a cake. He cursed in the one case, and blessed in the other. -
Set a bucket of yeast on Good Friday and you will see a cross " athert " it, just as upon hot-cross-buns. A loaf baked upon Good Friday will never go " ropey " O' mouldy, and when it is grated up, it is good for the whooping cough.
Not far from Mrs. Hayward's cottage there is a beautiful spot,
' " Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon thine arm : for love is strong as death ; jealousy is cruel as the grave : the coals thereof are coals of fire, which hath a most vehement flame. Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it : if a man would give all the substance of his house for love, it would utterly be contemned."
- Cf. supra, p. 175, and Henderson, p. 82.
424 Collectanea.
where you stand upon a rising ground with the common at your feet, sinking into a valley, and then rising up in irregular ground upon the other side. Against the sky line as far as you can see lie range upon range of distant hills, and behind, dim and myste- rious, are the fir-woods. A long row of cottages is built just beneath the brow of the hill upon which you are standing, their chimneys are nearly on a level with your feet. These cottages have been built in some cases by the inhabitants themselves, but generally by their fathers and grandfathers. In one of them lives an old woman who is the possessor of samplers and all kinds of delightful things, with which however, be it remarked, she has no intention of parting. She belongs to a rather superior family, and the cottage she lives in was built by her husband about sixty years ago. Amongst her treasures she has two old broadsides, which she calls " Saviour's Letters." They are the well known apocry- phal Letter of Agbarus of Edessa, and they were used by her mother and grandmother as charms against illness, and were pinned inside their dresses to ensure safety in childbirth. I have heard of instances of these particular broadsides being used as charms in other cottages in South Berkshire, but this is the only case in which "^ I have found them still in existence. Even the oldest inhabitants can generally only remember their parents or grandparents having them. The old woman in question keeps hers carefully in the family Bible.
I have collected the following witch-stories in South Berks. Two men, a carter and a thatcher, lodged together, ate together, and slept in the same bed. One day the thatcher said to the carter : " I wonder why it is you look so bad, and so different to me, when we eat and live the same." The carter said: "You would look bad too if you were rode about every night as I am." A witch used to come every night, and ride him like a horse, "ride him about fearful." The thatcher was a "girt powerful man," and he said he would change places with the carter and sleep his side of the bed. At night the witch came as usual to that side of the bed, and put a bridle in the thatcher's mouth, and rode upon him. Then she took him to the stable, and a lot of others came to put up their horses. The thatcher was so strong he broke the enchanted bridle, and hid under the manger. When the witch came in to fetch him, he got out and put the bridle upon her instead and rode her off to a blacksmith's. He said to
Collectanea. 425
the blacksmith : "I want a shoe put on my horse's fore-foot." Then he rode her out and left her. The next day the thatcher went to his work, and his master came out looking " very soli- tary." The thatcher asked him what was the matter. He said his wife was ill and could not get up. " Make her get up," said the thatcher. The master said he could not. " Then make her put her right hand out of bed," said the thatcher. The master said he could not. " Force her to do it," said the thatcher ; and at last the husband did so, and there was a great iron horseshoe upon her hand. The husband said " he thought he was married to an honest woman, but he found he was married, to the Devil," so he had her put out of the way — " stifled or something."
Old Mrs. Hayward's mother, when she was a girl of fourteen, was living in service in Berkshire. An old woman who was a reputed witch used to come to the house to fetch milk. One day the cook said to the girl : " I should like to know for certain if she is a witch. When she comes in the morning you get two old scrubs (or brooms), and lay them crosswise upon the doorstep. If she is a witch she will jump over them, if she is not she will just step over them." The girl did as she was told, and in the morning the old \\oxm.x\ Juuiped over the brooms. Apparently she realised that a trap had been laid for her, and was very angry, for from that moment the girl was bewitched. Next day her copper pan ran out when she put the milk into it upon the fire. She sent it to Newbury to be mended, but the same thing happened three times ; in fact she became so unlucky in every way that at last she had to leave her situation.
Mrs. Hayward's husband was one day going through a ford with a load of straw. In the middle of the water the straw all fell out of the wagon. He picked it up, and the same thing happened again. He saw a cat in front of him, and slashed at it with his whip. Then he saw the witch, who said to him " You've had trouble with your straw, carter." " Yes," he said, " and its you that's done it." But as he had drawn blood from her she was never able to do anyone harm again.
A woman of sixty told me that when she was a girl in service her mistress used to tell her that if she saw a large hare in the lane she was not to be afraid, it was only old Mrs. Parsons. This Mrs. Parsons, who was a witch, had a daughter who lived three miles away from her, and the daughter would go outside her house
426 Collectanea,
and call " Mud ! " (an abbreviation of mother) below her breath, and the mother would be with her in a quarter of an hour.
One night a man was out walking accompanied by his dog, and he saw a witch called Maria Chandler in the road. The dog went at her, and she turned into a hare. The dog followed the hare, and bit and tore it. The next morning Maria Chandler was found to be all bitten and torn as by a dog. This same witch was said to have bewitched a young man. He was always weak and ailing, and never could succeed in anything. When she died everything was changed. He became well and strong, and able to do anything he wished.
One day a witch called Mrs. Coventry wished to go to Reading to sell some nuts at the market. She asked a carter who was going there with his wagon and horses to wait for her at the top of the road, and take her there. When the carter got to the top of the road, she was not there, and having no desire for her com- pany he whipped up his horses to go on without her. But all the whipping and coaxing in the world made no difference; the horses could not move. Presently the old woman appeared upon the scenes with her basket of nuts. "So you've waited for ma, carter," she said. " Put me up in the cart and the horses will go on." So " he could not get shot of her," said the teller of the story, and directly she was in the wagon the horses went on.
One witch is told of who used often to be seen dancing at night upon a certain piece of grass called the green. This one was very clever in illness and had the power of " whispering bushes " out of people's hands. (A " bush " is the name for a thorn.) She would whisper some words out of the Bible backwards, moving her finger over the place where the bush had entered, tell the patient to go home and do certain things — put on a poultice sometimes — and the " bush " always came out, but not always at the place where it went in.
One day a witch went to a cottage and asked a poor woman to give her some bread. The woman refused at first ; she had not much in the house, and she wanted it for her children. After some haggling, however, the witch obtained what she wanted, and then she rewarded the hospitality with the most base ingratitude. It seems that whether she had been given the bread or not it would have made no difference to the fate of the inmates of the cottage. They would have been equally unlucky in either case.
Collectanea. 427
From that day one of the boys was taken with fits ; such terrible ones that he had to be strapped into bed. He got better event- ually, but not for a long time.
The belief in witches is constantly justified by reference to the story of the Witch of Endor. " We knows as there was such things because we reads of 'em in the Bible " ; and though they generally say " there are no such things nowadays," you feel at the same time that they are not quite so certain of it as they make out. They are not very fond of talking about witches. One old woman remarked that she would sooner talk of something else than "them nasty ole black witches." With curious chronological confusion another old woman said that she thought " our Saviour did away with all them things." Another curious instance of chronological ignorance, coming from a woman of really unusual natural intelli- gence was this. She had some coins which she had dug up in a field and wished to sell. One of them she had been told was a Queen Anne farthing. " That is very old," she said : " before the flood."
One old woman told me that her mother when she was a girl had been instructed by a gipsy how to gain the power to injure people. The recipe was this : " When you go to the Sacrament do not eat the bread, but carry it away in your hand. Go into the churchyard and walk round it three times saying the Belief and the Lord's Prayer backwards. Then you will see a great black toad, which is old Satan. Give it the bread to eat, and after that you can do anything you wish to people." ^
A story is told in South Berks of two witches being buried " quick." One, it is said, lived a day longer than the other, because a man in passing threw her the core of an apple to eat. This story is told by people in different villages, and the same spot for the occurrence is always named. It is said that the holes can still be seen, and that nothing will grow over them. I have not been to the place, so cannot vouch personally for the truth of the statement.
At Cottington Hill, one of the highest in the neighbourhood, in Kingsclere, just over the border of Berkshire, it is said that there were at one time at that place alone enough witches and wizards to draw a ton load up it.
' Cf. Folk- Lore, xii., i68.
4^8 Collectanea.
Witches, the Berkshire people say, could go through keyholes and all manner of unlikely places. They would drag people in the night through prickly hedges, and in the morning they were covered with scratches. They were particularly fond of taking the form of hares. People would shoot at them with guns filled with peas, and then they did not come again.
When men possessed the powers of witches, people speak of them as being able to " lay spells." Old Mrs. CoUins's aunt, before mentioned, remembered a man named Cowdrey who lived at a certain farm and was able to " lay spells." A man went into Cowdrey's field one night to steal some turnips ; when he had filled his basket and wished to go out of the field, he could not, for there was water all round it. Wherever he tried to go there was water, so he had to stay there all night, and in the morning Cowdrey came and found him. Another man had stolen a "slab" or block of wood belonging to Cowdrey, and instead of taking it to his own cottage, as he intended, he found himself with his stolen property in Cowdrey's house.
Another man living in another farmhouse in the same village was also able to " lay spells." A carter lost a pony and went to ask this man where it was. He told him there was going to be a storm, and that he had better get home, and that when he got home he would find the pony, but that it would not be advisable for him to keep it. The carter remarked that it looked very un- like rain ; however, he set off homewards, and before he got there a terrific storm broke over him, and the pony came down in the rain just in front of him. He took it home, but was not able to keep it. The man who had worked these wonders said upon his death-bed " a great many things have been done by scholarship, but as for me I have had dealings with the Devil."
The following is a ghost-story that was told me. A man was sitting upon a stile in a certain lane lighting his pipe with a tinder box. A beautiful horse with a lady upon it came along. The horse seemed frightened at the flash of the tinder-box, so the man offered to lead it past. He laid his hand upon the bridle, but his hand went through the horse, which, however, followed him the whole way home.
The country of which I have been speaking is some distance from the White Horse, and that part of Berks which has been made so well known by Tom Hughes, and its character is quite
Collectanea. 429
different. I know nothing of the folklore of that part of the country so cannot speak from personal experience of any similarity between it and the few gleanings which I have noted in this paper.
L. Salmon.
P.S. — An old woman lately told me the following. Ghosts used to be laid in the sheepfolds, because the sheep are such " innercent craturs." Thirteen ministers used to stand round and read some- thing out of the Bible, six reading forwards and seven backwards, until the ghost was conquered.
Holiday Gleanings : I. Cornwall.
When staying last August at the little village of Looe, Cornwall, I asked an old Cornish woman to go with me through the woods to visit a friend of mine. It was in the evening. She at once replied, " It is the twenty-first of the month. I daren't go through the woods." " Why not ? " I asked. " Things is said. I should hear all my future and my friends' futures whispered in the trees ; indeed I daren't. Miss ! " A Cornish maidservant afterwards told me the same thing, also using the expression, " Things is said " ; but she did not add the explanation about hearing the future described.
Margaret E. Hall.
Northaw Place, 19th November, 1902.
[This Cornish belief is not mentioned either by Hunt or by Miss Courtney. — Ed.]
II. Shropshire.
I was on the Wrekin one day last August with my children and a niece with fair hair and a very fair complexion. About half way up the hill is a " cocoanut shy " presided over by an elderly woman whose principal occupation, I learnt, was drawing {i.e. hawking) coal at Wellington, about two miles distant. As we descended the hill she had just set up her cocoanuts for the day ; and the children being anxious for a shy, I suggested that my niece should have first turn. The suggestion, however, did not
430 Collectanea.
meet with the woman's approval. " No, you take first turn, sir," she said, "and bring me luck." I inquired whether she thought a man would bring more luck than a woman. " Yes, I do, sir," she replied ; " but it must be some one dark." Accordingly, to oblige her I had the first shy, at which she was much pleased. " There's some folks," she said, " as don't believe it makes any difference whether the first that shies is dark or fair. But I do. I have taken notice of it, and there's a deal in it." She herself, she added, was a very lucky person. " There's a many " (small itinerant vendors, she meant) " likes to have a halfpenny or a penny off" me first thing in the morning, because I bring 'em luck." On leaving I paid her a shilling, which she promptly spat on for luck before putting it into her pocket. It was the first money she had taken that day.
F. A. Milne.
How TO ANNUL " BlOOD-BrOTHERHOOD."
The following extract from the official despatches of the Lango Expedition of 1901 against a band of Soudanese mutineers and their Lango allies in the Nile Province of Uganda, published in the Gazette of 12th Sept. 1902, is here quoted from the Morni?ig Post of Sept. 13th.
" The mutineers [who] had established themselves in the country of the Chief Obokhe (now a prisoner), made friends with such of the Lango clans as surrounded them most nearly, and in most
cases made ' blood-brotherhood ' with them When some
of the Chiefs subsequently said they wished to help us but dared not, owing to this ' blood-brotherhood,' a sufficiently ridiculous ceremony had to be gone through to free their consciences. Dr. Bagshawe, with due formalities, injected a dose of apomorphia into the cicatrix of the incision made in the ' blood-brotherhood ' rites. This made the patient violently sick in about five minutes. A few nauseous draughts afterwards completed the operation, and the subject's satisfaction in the breaking of the spell."
Chvrlotte S. Burne.
CORRESPONDENCE.
Eggs in Witchcraft.
The following extract from the Parish Register of Wells, in Norfolk, for the year 1583, was contributed to The Genilei/ian's Magazine for 1792, Part II., p. 904, by a correspondent who used the signature J. H. I, however, quote from Mr. Gomme's reprint in The Gentlemafi's Magazine Library — English Topography, Part VIII., p. 113. I am quite ignorant of the way in which these eggs were treated. Can any student of folklore enlighten me ? It would seem that the crime was regarded as proved. Has any record of the trial come down to our time from which we might gather what was the nature of the evidence which satisfied the jury ?
" Misled uppo' ye West Coaste coming fronv Spain ; whose deathes were brought to pas by the detestable woorking of an execrable witch of Kings Lynn, whose name was Mother Gabley ; by boyling, or rather labouring of certeyne eggs in a payle full of colde water : afterwards approved sufficiently at the arraignment of the said witch.
Richard Waller. ^
Christopher Dodde. John Bunting. William Craven. Gregory Baxter. Christopher Baxter. Thomas Ayre.
V
Henry Gouldsmith. Walter Marshall. Robert Butler. Oliver Cobb. William Barret. Richard Dye."
Edward Peacock, F.S.A.
[The extract from the Wells Parish Register which Mr. Peacock quotes is also given in Genfkman's Magazine Library {^Popular Superstitions), p. 235. The rite was evidently one of sympathetic magic, raising a storm at sea by simulating one in a pail. Egg- shells are referred to as witches' boats in Beaumont and Fletcher's Women Pleased, quoted in Ellis's Brand, \., 19, and in Choice Notes from N. and Q. {Folklore), p. 7, locality Holland.— Ed.]
432
Co rresp ondence.
Butterfly Charm.
Mr. Charles Rhodes Hirst, aged 23, formerly a clerk in my office, and now in the Town Clerk's office in Sheffield, tells me that when boys at Walkley near that city go in search of butter- flies they sing the following words to the following air, which he has written out for me himself : —
al ^ g-
Butterfly, butterfly, fly a - way home. Your house is on
:^=d==J=T=i I I I J— T^ J-
\-ti d S
i^^
fire and the chil - dren all gone, All but one
Z±
d d d
m
un - der a tree, Writing a let - ter as fast as she can.
Mr. Hirst says that he is very familiar both with the words and the air, having heard them often during the last ten years. He says that when a butterfly appears the boys cease to sing, pull their coats off, and, taking hold of them by one sleeve, try to throw them over the butterfly and catch it.
In some parts of Europe, as well as in Eastern Asia, the butter- fly is regarded as a human soul which has escaped from the body (Frazer, Golden Bough, i., 259, 264; Gnmm, Deutsche Mythologie, English translation, ii., 829, where reference is made to the Greek tlvyjj). Can it be that this traditional formula, usually addressed to the ladybird, but here to the butterfly, once had for its object the recall of a wandering soul by rehearsing the misfortunes which required the owner's presence at home ?
It may be observed that the woi-ds "butter-fly," "lady-bird," and " lady-cow," have not yet been explained.
S. O. Addv.
REVIEWS.
Sir Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Edited by T. F. Henderson. 4 vols., 8vo. Wm. Black- wood and Sons, 1902. Price JQ2 2s. net.
These four handsome volumes are a worthy presentation of a work which has long since become a classic without losing a whit of its freshness or charm. In size and type they pleasantly recall the familiar originals, while they are enriched with a number of useful and business-like notes and with a very pleasing photo- gravure from the portrait of Sir Walter by Sir William Allan. All criticisms notwithstanding, this is an edition which any book- lover may be proud to possess.
Mr. Henderson is evidently a thoroughly competent local anti- quary, and has completed, elucidated, and occasionally corrected, Scott's historical notes with the most conscientious care and pains, and in a very satisfactory manner. He has also examined all the still-existing MS. and other copies of the ballads from which Scott worked, and he gives the variorum readings in footnotes, showing clearly which portions of the published ballads are due to Scott himself, and which to his authorities. (Scott's method was to collate the several variants, choosing the best lines and stanzas of each, but not scrupling to add lines and even stanzas when his authorities did not satisfy him.)
All this part of Mr. Henderson's work is excellent. We say this the more emphatically, as we have some serious criticisms to make in other respects. He approaches the ballads themselves rather from the standpoint of the local historian or the biographer than from that of the lover of poetry, of romance, or of folklore. "The most valuable and original part of Scott's undertaking," he says, *' was the preservation and annotation of ballads specially con- nected with the Border"; and his own interest in the work lies chiefly in tracing the part played by these legendary and anti- quarian studies in giving its special distinction to the genius of
VOL. XIII; 2 F
434 Reviews.
"the Author of IVaver/ey" ; a point on which he makes some very good observations (pp. xiv., xv.). But the effect of this stand- point is that his treatment of the " Romantic Ballads " is far from satisfactory. He is haunted by chronic doubts of their genuineness, and by continual anxiety to prove their modernity, or, at least, their literary origin. So nervously suspicious is he that he omits the music (given in Lockhart's edition) altogether, " as there is no little dubiety as to the genuine antiquity of ballad airs" (p. xxxix.), ignorant apparently that a scientific musician can date and describe a tune as accurately as a palaeographer dates a manuscript. If a ballad is ill-rhymed, prosaic, or vulgar, he decides that it is the composition of the peasant-reciter himself; if it shows poetic feeling, it is due to the collector — Leyden, Sharpe, Hogg, or Laidlaw — who recorded it ; regardless of the difference in style between the ballads in question and the original works of these versifiers of Scott's day. Poetic fire, apparently, is for him a gift bestowed only on the literary and the cultured. No peasant- bred poet, no " mute inglorious Milton," enters into his calcula- tions : a strange exclusiveness in the fellow-countryman of the Ayrshire Ploughman, or even the Ettrick Shepherd. To those who believe that folk-song springs from the folk he attributes the idea, long ago ridiculed by Mr. Joseph Jacobs, that "the collective folk assembled in folk-moot, simultaneously shouted " songs and proverbs by a common inspiration {^Folk-Lore^ iv., 234) ; and we fear it would be vain to try and convince him that he is fighting against windmills.
If forgery cannot be suspected, the poor ballad (if it have no historical basis), is belittled in some other way. Broivn Adam is "not of much account." The Wife of Usher's JVe//has "nothing remarkable in the story." C/er/c Sau7iders is "a mere ( !) varia- tion of the seven hostile brethren tale " ; the commentator not perceiving that, apart from the poetic merit of the ballad, that is just where the interest of the story lies. In fact, he seems unable to perceive either the conditions of the "problem of diffusion " or the issues involved in it. He says "the late Professor Child's list of foreign ballads is in many respects invaluable, but it is possible to overrate or misunderstand its significance"; and credits Mr. Lang with the amazing opinion that many of our ballads must have existed " millions of years before the existence of any human records ! " He then cites Professor Child against the very early
Reviews, 435
origin of ballad plots, without perceiving that the Professor's real point in the passage quoted is that the occurrence of the same ballad story in (say) Spain and Sweden does not necessarily prove that it was inherited by both from a common ancestor, as it might easily have been carried from one to another during the Middle Ages. Mr. Henderson himself accounts for the likeness of plots, (which he minimises), by coincidence and by conscious copying, and says that folklorists "appear to be quite unaware of the fact that there are romance stories common to nearly all the nations of Europe." This is the very point that the labours of the folk- lorists have established, and that not with regard to romances alone. Where, we may ask, did the romances get this common stock of stories from? Mr. Henderson makes no attempt to discuss the relations of the folktale to the romance and the ballad.
This want of grasp of the whole question of ballad-origins is the more surprising as Mr. Henderson refers freely to the writings of Mr. Frazer, Mr. Hartland, Principal Rhys, and other folklorists. Even a harmless ballad-ghost calls forth a note (vol. iii., p. 320), " For more definite superstitions regarding the return of ghosts see Fraser's \_sic\ Golden Bough, iii., 85-87."
Mr. Henderson's own view of the origin of ballads is that " the question is really one of poetic form." This, and the sort of irrita- tion he shows in speaking of variants, lead us to suspect that, after all, the " origin " he desires to arrive at is simply the full-blown English (or Scottish) ballad as its now-forgotten author originally composed ii. This we are afraid is a hopeless quest, for none can aver that even the earliest blackletter broadside (though neces- sarily unaltered by reciter or collector since publication) is the " original " ballad ; the most corrupted " traditional " version of it may be inherited from an older form still. Meantime we turn with pleasure from Mr. Henderson's " Prefatory Note " to Scott's own " Introductory Remarks on Popular Poetry." Little as Sir Walter knew of folktales and the problems of their origin and diffusion, his mingled common sense and poetic insight enabled him to give a lucid exposition of the probable genesis of folk- song which we, with our infinitely wider knowledge, may largely supplement, but in which we shall find but little to correct.
Charlotte S. Eurne.
2 F 2
436 Reviews.
The Home-Life of Borneo Head Hunters, its Festivals AND Folk-Lore. By William Henry Furness, 3*^., M.D., F.R.G.S. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1902.
This beautifully printed and profusely illustrated volume forms an important contribution to our knowledge of the natives of Sarawak. Dr. Furness is not content with superficial impressions, but takes pains to make himself, and his readers, acquainted with the trains of thought underlying the practices he describes. The chapters on Sarawak in Dr. Haddon's Head-Hunters, Black, White, and Broivn (reviewed supra, p. loi), and the volume now before us, supplement one another, and should be read together.
It is natural to turn first to the descriptions of head-hunting and the traditions of its origin. The practice having been abolished, or at least restrained by the Rajah, the author had no opportunity of witnessing an actual head-hunt. He accompanied a war ex- pedition ; but the enemy had retired beyond reach. Inasmuch as it was impossible to think of returning without at least one head, a second-hand head had to be obtained by borrowing. The ceremonies (carefully described) which followed were, therefore, to some extent a make-believe. Yet there is no reason to think they did not accurately represent the originals. Dr. Furness made efforts to ascertain the meaning of the practice of head- hunting, and to follow the train of thought by which, as one of the chiefs told him, " those who were once our enemies become our guardians, our friends, our benefactors." The result does not carry us very far. It is certain that, once a head has been brought home and the appropriate ceremonies have been per- formed, it is regarded as a sacred object, the habitation or embodi- ment of some super-human spirit or spiritual power. A custom still fraught with peril to saintly personages in the East, as once in the West also, is that of securing a divinity by slaying some powerful or holy man. His spirit, abiding with or near the muddy vesture of decay which it has thus put off, becomes the guardian of the place. But Dr. Furness does not make it clear that this is the belief of the Sibops and other head-hunting tribes of Borneo. On the contrary, one of their chiefs told him : " If my head were cut off, my second self would go to Bulun Matai [the fields of the dead] where beyond a doubt I should be happy ; the Dayongs [shamans, priests] tell us, and surely they know,
Reviews. 437
that those who have been brave and have taken heads, as I have, will be respected in that other world and will have plenty of riches. When I die my friends will beat the gongs loud and shout out my name, so that those who are already in Balun Matai will know that I am coming, and meet me when I cross over the stream on Bintang Sik6pa [the great log]. I shall be glad enough to see them. But I don't want to go to-day, nor to-morrow." Hence it would appear that the spirits who become the guardians of the owners of the heads are not those of the original owners when the heads were those of living men. We must not be too sure of this, because the minds of savages are built, like other minds, in watertight compartments, and fre- quently hold inconsistent opinions. Moreover, it would seem that the practice of head-hunting comes from without and is of recent introduction among many of the tribes.
It may be, therefore, that the practice is imperfectly assimilated by the peoples of Sarawak, that they do not understand its original purpose and have not thought out its logical relation with their indigenous religion, which it partly overrides ; or it may be that there is something more to be learnt than Dr. Furness and Dr. Haddon have been able to ascertain concerning the religious beUefs of the Kenyahs and similar tribes of Borneo. Either hypothesis is consistent wdth the researches of Mr. Kruyt, a Dutch enquirer in Celebes and among the Dyaks and Battaks. The Toradja of Celebes, at all events, appear from his account to recognise a three-fold soul in every living being. That which is attached to the skull and is acquired by the head-hunter is only one soul of the three. The breath (the first of the three souls) expires at death, the personal soul departs to the place of souls, but the third is a part of the universal soul or vital ether. It is of this that the head-hunter becomes possessed. He deposits the skull in the shrine of his ancestral manes, and thereby augments their portion of the universal soul. It would be w^ell if enquiries were made in the island of Borneo with a view to ascertain whether such ideas have any currency there.
Dr. Furness, I gather, never had the luck to be present at a birth or a marriage. Neither of these is among the incidents of the book. But the ceremonies attending the naming of a chiefs son are detailed with minuteness. The name is given to a child about a year after birth. Until then the babe is under certain
438 Reviews.
restrictions, or taboos. One of these reminds us of our own superstition that a child must be carried upstairs before it is carried down. The Kenyah houses are built on piles and reached by a rude ladder; and a child must not be carried down the ladder to the ground until it has received a name. The naming is the formal admission of a babe to the kindred. If it die before the rite, there is no mourning for it. The rite is one of baptism ; performed by a Dayong, who pours water over the baby's head, and says: " Be thy name so-and-so!" It is preceded by a number of sacrifices and other formalities, one of the most curious of which is that of procuring new fire by means of the sacred fire-saw.
The subject of taboo has a chapter to itself, and is besides copiously illustrated in treating of other matters. Personal adorn- ments are discussed in a very interesting chapter, the value of which is much enhanced by the beautiful plates. The ear is distorted by piercing and prolonging the lobe, and among men by puncturing the shell to admit of the insertion of a tiger-cat's tooth. The eyebrows and eyelashes are pulled out. The teeth are blackened and pierced for the insertion of brass pins. Tattooing is practised. The patterns are elaborate and often of great beauty, but the suffering and risk incurred in producing them must be equally great. Yet ladies who had undergone the operation with fortitude looked in horror and amazement on pictures of European belles deformed with wasp-waists. They wondered, not merely at the ugliness but the pain at the cost of which the deformity must have been obtained.
Such are a few of the subjects with which Dr. Furness is concerned in this delightful book. It is written in a lively and humorous style, with much literary power, and is calculated to appeal to a wide circle of readers beyond professed anthropologists. The photographic illustrations are of great beauty, and also of permanent value as representations of scenes and objects which in a few years' time will either have perished or have been profoundly modified by the influence of British rule.
E. Sidney Hartland.
Reviews. ^^<)
Antique Works of Art from Benin. By General Augustus Pitt-Rivers. 1900. 12s. 6d. Privately printed. To be obtained from B. T. Batsford, 94, High Holborn.
From Mr. B. T. Batsford we have received a copy of the privately printed Antique Works of Art from Beni/i, prepared with all the minute care, accuracy, and completeness that characterise the late General Pitt-Rivers' work. The interest of the volume lies in the plates, for the introduction is a brief historical note on the various expeditions to Benin, and the explanatory letterpress attached to the illustrations is a catalogue, not a criticism. Dis- covered by the Portuguese, probably in the early fifteenth century, Benin had been visited by the Dutch and by the Swedes before an English expedition arrived on the coast in 1553. It would seem at that time to have been a large town, and trade was encouraged by the king. Both the artistic works, with which this book is concerned, and the human sacrifices, for which the place was afterwards so notorious, were remarked on by a Dutchman — Nyendaeel — in 1702. Benin was visited by Sir Richard Burton and by Captain H. L. Galloway. The latter in 1892 described the city as a mere shadow of its former greatness, having decayed with the abolition of the slave trade. The unfortunate armed expedition into Benin in 1896, from which only two men escaped out of some two hundred and fifty, is within everyone's recollection. The casts, &:c., illustrated in this book were found in the royal com- pound by the punitive expedition of 1S97, together with many others, a fine collection of which is in the British Museum. Concerning their origin nothing could be learnt from the natives, although some were obviously used amongst the apparatus of the Ju-ju sacrifices. They were found buried, and covered with blood. The forty-nine pages of excellent illustrations are well worthy of study, not merely by the folklorist, but by the ethnographer also, as showing, amongst other things, the native appreciation of varying human types. The differences between the realistic negro heads of Nos. 26, 82, 94-99, and 132 are as w^ell marked as those between the Europeans of Nos. 129, 247, 298, and Plate 47. That the type shown in Plate 16 is that of the ruling class is apparent from the close correspondence between this and the conventionalised royal and noble figures on the ritual objects. General Pitt-Rivcr.s
440 Reviews.
collection contains examples of every sort of work obtained at Benin. Of pottery there was hardly any — one small Negro's head being specially noted as exceptional; bronze was the usual material for bas-reliefs and weapons alike. Many specimens of carved ivory were also found, varying from armlets to trumpets carved out of a whole elephant's tusk. One leopard's mask (No. 153) is especially old. These masks, usually cast in bronze, are a great feature of Benin art. They are too small to have been worn on the face, and animal masks are as common as human. Many of the figures are represented as wearing heads slung round the waist, kiltwise, as an ornament. Necklaces, varying from beautifully finished casts of shells to a solid curved necklet representing vultures pecking at skeletons ; elaborate four-sided bells, hanging lamps, stools, bowls, coffers and jugs, flasks (large and small), cast in bronze or carved out of cocoanut shells ; the list is as interesting as it is long and varied.
Specially noteworthy are the dancing swords or wands of the virgins (Plate 29, No. 330), the sceptre decorated (amongst other things) with agricultural implements ; and the elaborate royal mace — No. 66-72, where the enthroned king is holding a stone axe. The sacrificial blocks, Nos. 259-60, and 333-5, and the method of sacrificing an animal shown in the bas-relief on Plate 47 are also interesting, as are the few examples of attempted realism. After the human figure it was in birds that the Benin artists were most successful ; their animals show want of observation. That Portuguese influence produced this special phase of West African art seems pretty certain. General Pitt-Rivers both held so himself, and quotes the similar opinion of Nyendaeel in the eighteenth century. That the men represented are intended for Portuguese is clear from Nos. 84, 289, to take no other instances. Of the earliest Portuguese expedition there would seem to be little trace, as all the European figures that have survived are in sixteenth century costume, and the greatest artistic activity should probably be ascribed to that period. Nyendaeel speaks of the actual pro- duction of casts as going on whilst he was in Benin, but later writers do not mention the art, which must therefore have died out during the eighteenth century. Space prevents us from giving a more detailed account, but General Pitt-Rivers' name is in itself a sufficient guarantee for the value and interest of the volume.
Margaret Eyre.
Reviews. 441
History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age. By J. F. Hewitt, Late Commissioner of Ciiotia Nagpur. With Map, Plates, and Diagrams. James Parker & Co. 1901.
Ever since the beginnings of the study of myths, enquirers have been inchned, Hke Mr. Casaubon, to search for some one " key to all the mythologies." Often, as in the case of Max Miiller and the nature school, they have hit on a true principle, and run it to death ; so the latest exponent of this school, O. Gilbert, who derives everything from the clouds, has been led to propound the most fantastic theories in order to include everything. The day of totems too, seems to be waning ; and of late years the tendency has been to exaggerate the importance of astronomy. This is exemplified in the works of Mr. Robert Brown, Jr., and Mr. St. Clair. The book now before us is a third instance of the same mistake.
Mr. Hewitt divides his work into books dealing successively with the Age of Polar Star Worship, the Age of Lunar-Solar Worship, and the Age of Solar Worship. He connects the reli- gious beliefs which he sees, with the worship of trees and animals, with the various migrations of mankind, and with their arrange- ment of the calendar ; and uses his principles to interpret certain legends of the saints and others. But these connections are not made clear. Probably they are clear to the writer, but to the reader they are not so. Nor is proof offered, other than coinci- dence, of the connection of astronomy with religion. The theories are, for the most part, propounded ex cathedra, and left to com- mend themselves by their inherent appropriateness. Symbolism and metaphor too often do duty for argument. Thus Mr. Hewitt says :
Achilles was the sun-god of the race of the Myrmidons or ants, the sons of the red earth, the Adamite race who succeeded the sons of the southern mother-tree, and who believed that man was formed from the dust of the earth moulded by the Divine Potter, the Pole-star god, who turned the potter's wheel of the revolving earth.
This is all pure imagination. Symbolism is also used to explain certain primitive signs, amongst them the sign for the female, which is clearly pictorial (p. 72). The Breotian eel, in place of being a fisher's firstling, is also moralised (p. 128); so is the bed of
442
Reviews,
Odysseus (p. 144), where the potter's wheel reappears. There is no historical examination, as there should be, of the principles and limitations of symbolism, which, in western lands at least, plays a much smaller part than is usually assumed.
Mr. Hewitt also ventures on the dangerous ground of etymology. Eurytus, he says, comes from tpuw, Achgean from lyis ; a, /, and z are " interchangeable letters "; 'a^0iyi///eis is the " one-legged fire-drill " ; and so forth. Again : the oldest Cyclopean walls are said here to be accurately fitted polygonal ; and there are many other signs that Mr. Hewitt's general knowledge is insufficient for the building up of a universal theory such as this.
But when we come to Indian questions, the case is altered. Mr. Hewitt can tell us by first-hand knowledge of the village system, sacred groves and common halls, of priestly ritual revealed to him as a special favour (p. 159), and the customs of Chotia Nagpur. We cannot help wishing he had confined himself to these topics, and give us in detail what he hints at or sketches in tantalising fashion. There is much of value to be learned from the book by a discriminating reader ; but the general impression is one of confused statement and rash inference.
The Early History of Syria and Palestine. By L. B. Baton. The Theology and Ethics of the Hebrews. By A. Duff. The Semitic Series. Vols. iii. and iv. London: Nimmo. 1902. 6s. each.
Dr. Baton has written a model book. He has packed into a short compass the greater part of the new knowledge which modern discovery has given us of the pre-Israelitish history of Palestine. And his exposition of it is so orderly and lucid as to afford no excuse for misunderstandings on the part of the most uninstructed reader. Maps, which give evidence of having been compiled with great care, have been added to the text, and a valuable feature of the volume is the very full, if not exhaustive, list of books and articles bearing upon the subject of it. The book, in short, is the best account that has yet appeared of the early history of Syria.
Naturally, it is confined to results rather than to the collection of materials. It is, moreover, a compilation ; Dr. Baton does not
Reviews, 44^
profess to be an original authority, but trusts to others for his facts. Generally he shows himself a cautious and well-trained critic whose judgment may be depended on. Now and then, however, the inevitable weakness of second-hand information betrays itself, and statements are made which a first-hand acquaintance with the facts would have modified or prevented. Like most of his countrymen, Dr. Paton is a little too ready to accept the latest theory or pro- nouncement, especially if it comes from a German. What he says about the Khabiri is an illustration of this ; whoever else they may have been they could not have been identical with the khabbati or "plunderers." The compound ideograph sa-gaz, khabbatu in Assyrian, is a well-known ideograph ; khabirii is a totally different word.
There are other questions about which more than one view is possible, and where therefore scholars are likely to differ as to which they prefer. Dr. Paton's chronology, for instance, seems to me far too short. Borchardt's date for the twelfth Egyptian dynasty is incompatible with what we already know of the number of the Egyptian kings, and rests on an application of astronomy to chronology which the want of scientific precision in the monu- mental record makes merely illusory. As Wiedemann and Oppert have pointed out, the date is just as likely on the same grounds to be between one and two thousand years earlier. The same is the case as regards Babylonian chronology. Our only authority for it is the native annals, and until we recover the materials that lay before the native annalists we have neither reason nor right to question their categorical statements. We may on purely a priori grounds think that Nabonidos exaggerated when he asserted that Naram-Din lived 3,200 years before his own time, but as long as the historical materials which Nabonidos possessed are not in our hands we have no better date to substitute for it.
Professor Duff's Theology and Ethics of the Hebrews, which forms the fourth volume of the Semitic Series, is a very different sort of work from Dr. Paton's. The crudeness and unsubstantiated character of its statements are equalled only by the confidence with which they are put forward. The Professor knows far more about the Hebrews and their history than the Old Testament writers, though the sources of his knowledge, archaeological or otherwise, would be difficult to find. The nature of the book may be sufficiently gathered from the language its author uses of
444 Reviews.
the return from the Exile. " Men are asking," he tells us, " was there ever a return ? The answer is becoming possible, and so far it is clearly in the negative." It is strange that Professor Duff and the school to which he belongs cannot see that those outside it require more solid evidence for the reversal of our traditional history than the " inner consciousness " or dogmatic pronounce- ment of the modern critic. We cannot draw historical conclusions from philology, whose province lies elsewhere, and " critical tact" is convincing only to the critic himself
The series of which Professor Duffs volume forms part was introduced by a volume by myself, and I embrace the present opportunity to warn readers against putting their trust in the text of it. It was published without my having seen a single proof, the result being that it teems with misprints. Some of them are so obvious that every reader can correct them for himself; others unfortunately are such as need a knowledge of Assyriology for their detection. Even the one note contributed by the editor contains a printer's error.
A. H. Sayce.
SoHRAB AND RusTEM : the Epic Theme of a Combat between Father and Son. A Study of its Genesis and Use in Literature and Popular Tradition. By Murray Anthony Potter, A.M. London: David Nutt. 1902.
In this scholarly book, which in its original form was a doctorate thesis accepted by the authorities of Harvard University, Mr. Potter discusses a group of folktales of which one form is familiar to English readers in the delightful verses of Matthew Arnold. The skeleton of the tale describes how " a man departs from home, in war service, in search of adventure or for purposes of trade, leaving behind him a wife and son, perhaps unborn, or already quite a lad. He is absent for years. The boy grows up, and for some reason or other seeks his father, or the latter may finally return. In either case the two meet and, through lack of recognition, fight. The outcome may be either tragic or happy. In the former case the relationship is not discovered till one of the two combatants is mortally wounded. In the latter the contest is brought to a close by explanations." This, the Father
Reviews. 445
and Son Combat proper, appears in its oldest forms in the Mahabharata, the Greek tale of Ulysses and Telegonus, the Irish Cuchullainn Saga, the Persian Shah Nameh, the German Hilde- branslied, the Russian Ilya ballads, and elsewhere.
There are various forms of the narrative. In one class the father meets the mother away from home and the union is more or less ephemeral ; in the other the marriage is contracted at home and the union is regarded as permanent. In most of the forms of the story, the variants of which are carefully reviewed by Mr. Potter, the most important points are : the uncertainty as to paternity, intimately connected with the man's marriage away from home ; the prominent role played by the woman, either in wooing or in other ways ; the callous abandonment by the father of mother and child ; and, finally, the son's search for the father.
Mr. Potter mentions, and wisely rejects, various suggestions advanced to account for the Father and Son Combat incident, such as Miss Weston's theory that it represents a struggle between old and new divinities of vegetation, a theme illustrated in Dr. Frazer's treatment of the Arician rite ; and Liebrecht's explana- tion that it arises from a custom, such as that found in Raratonga, where the son, as he grew up, fought with his father for the pos- session of the paternal property.
Mr. Potter's explanation is on quite other lines. He suggests that the marriage or connection of the woman with a stranger implies exogamy, and that the prominence of the role played by the woman is based on a condition of matriarchy, under which the woman has the fullest liberty of choosing her lover, while, as in marriages of the Beena form, the man lives permanently or only temporarily in the family of the relations of his bride, who retain the right to admit into their own clan the offspring of the union. In the course of the discussion of this theory Mr. Potter reviews at considerable length several questions connected with the early law of marriage, such as Exogamy, the Matriarchate, Polyandry and Polygamy, Divorce, Sexual Hospitality, Wooing and Lack of Chastity in women, and the Swayamvara, or Choosing of Husbands. These are all well-worn questions of anthropology ; most of his instances are taken from famihar sources, and I am inclined to think that little fresh evidence, beyond that already to be found in books like those of Dr. Westermarck, is produced which is likely to advance the solution of the question.
446 Reviews.
It would have been more to Mr. Potter's purpose if he had directed his inquiry more particularly to the discussion of Temporary Marriages, on which his theory mainly depends. Thus he appears not to be aware that an early authority on Musulman rites lays down that among Shiah Mahomedans the child begotten by a Mufah or temporary marriage is considered preferable to all others {The Dabistdn, quoting the Koran, Surah, iv., 28), and that the historian Badaoni {A'ln-i-Akbarl, ed. Blochmann, i., 174) describes the curious discussion on the subject before the Emperor Akbar, where " the 'Ulamas, having collected every tradition on the subject, decreed, firstly, that by Mufah a man might marry any number of wives he pleased ; and, secondly, that Mufah marriages were allowed by the Imam Malik. The Shiahs, as was well known, loved children born in Mufah wedlock more than those born by Nikah wives {i.e. those married by the regular ritual), contrary to the Sunnis and the Ahl-i-Jama'at." Again, he does not appear to have investigated wdth sufficient care the widespread custom of taking wives on trial, or leasing them to a person other than the original husband. He quotes with hesitation the assertion of Bunsen that there are even at the present day in Yorkshire cases where the people live on probation, and marriage takes place only if a child is likely to born, or born. The custom, of course, is common in rural England and Scotland. Thus Smeaton, in his Account of the Building of Eddy stone Light- house (second edition, 1793, p. 65), states that this has been the custom on that island from time immemorial. A writer in the Contemporary Review (May, 1899, pp. 720 stqq^ asserts that in rural Prussia a large proportion of marriages occur only after the consequences of an irregular connection become obvious. This and the custom of " handfasting " were or are common in Scotland (Dalyell, Darker Superstitions, p. 283). Readers of Sir Walter Scott will remember the rebuke given by the reformed preacher, Henry Warden, to the Baron of Avenel, in the Monastery, for the latter's opinions on the practice. Even at the present time, in Central England, cases of leasing wives may be met with. At Stone, in Staffordshire, a few years ago, a woman was asked in a police court if she was married or single, and replied, "No, I'm not married, I'm on a lease " ; adding, " I suppose it's all the same."
The obvious objection to Mr. Potter's conclusions, and one which he himself fully recognises, is that in none of the stories
Reviews. 447
which he quotes do we see the Matriarchate family appearing with all its distinctive features. While some of the instances which he gives go a certain way to remove this difficulty, it can hardly be admitted that he has quite succeeded in supplying the missing link. This can only be reached by an investigation de novo from original sources of the incidents of these forms of marriage con- nection.
At any rate, Mr. Potter has broken new ground, and has given us a very interesting and suggestive book, which will form an excellent basis for more detailed treatment of an important cycle of popular tradition.
W. Crooke.
Short Notices.
Sir Cleges. Sir Libeaus Desconiis. Two Old English Metrical Romances rendered into prose by Jessie L. Weston. With designs by Caroline M. Watts. [Arthurian Romances un- represented in Malory, No. V.] David Nutt. 1902.
Of the two stories here modernised by Miss Weston, the first is a short semi-humorous piece, apparently by a cleric, containing the well-known fabliau motive of the man who, having to promise half his reward for some act to another person, begs for so many blows as his guerdon. The idea is, of course, found in a number of variants, and appears inter alia in Sacchetti's Novelle and a fifteenth-century collection of Latin stories ; it is also said to be familiar among the Berbers of Africa. The other story, that of Sir Libeaus Desconus or Le Bel Inconnus, contains a variety of motives which constantly reappear in different combinations in Arthurian literature. First we have the boy brought up by his mother alone in the forest in ignorance of knightly deeds going to Arthur's court ; next the damsel who arrives at the court in search of succour and flouts the young warrior allotted her as champion ; and so forth. On all these points succinct information is given in the notes. Other traits seem to be survivals from earlier forms of the story, and have lost their significance. Thus Miss Weston notes that Sir Griffroun was probably originally a magician, while
448 Reviews.
Sir Otis de Lisle's brachet was no doubt a supernatural animal. One point of this description has passed unnoticed. In the final encounter one of the magician-knights escapes wounded, and Sir Libeaus laments his want 'of foresight in not dispatching him at once, as he is sure to suffer harm from him later. Of course we ought to hear more of this, instead of which the adventure ends rather abruptly. This is then apparently a survival from an earlier version, and it might be adduced as evidence in favour of this form of the story (in which the enchanters Mabon and Yrain are two and not one), being the more original. The story closes with the hero being kissed by a " worm" or dragon, who thereupon turns into a beautiful woman. This is an event of frequent occurrence ; but there are two points which so far as we know are peculiar to the present version. In the first place the worm has a woman's face. In the second the worm kisses the hero, not the hero the worm, as it should be. This is probably due to the hero being, as we are informed, petrified at the sight of the beast, and would seem to be most likely a purely literary vagary on the part of the poet. It is however always well to speak with caution on such points.
Walter W, Greg. The Sin of Witchcraft. By Alexander Pulling. D. Nutt. is. We have here a paper read at a meeting of the Hitchin Society of Arts and Letters on February 15th last. In the short space of an address it was not possible to do more than pick out the salient points necessary for Mr. Pulling's thesis, and this task he has successfully accomplished. His study is entirely of a literary character, and consists of a brief but useful survey of the chief points about witchcraft which occur in classical and mediaeval literature. We do not pretend to suggest that he has presented any new view of its origin and the causes of its revival ; but at least he has not added any fresh errors to those accumulated round the subject, and he has carefully abstained from that worst " sin of witchcraft," which consists in suggesting a whole host of theories without adducing a single foundation in evidence. His readers will have nothing to unlearn.
GENERAL INDEX.
Abigooga, home of creator of first blackfellow.Larrakia tribe, i8
Accounts of Folk-Lore Society, lO
Achrean, etymology of, 442
Achaia, see ^^gira
Achilles : Cuchulainn a parallel hero, 332 ; as sun god, 441
Adam, in Hebridean folklore, 31
Addy, S. O., Butterfly Charm, 432; The Collection of Folklore, 226, 297-9 ; Garland Day at Castleton : Addenda, 313
Adeney : place rhymes, 391-3
/Egira : prophetess drank bull's blood,
Afghanistan : (see also Sulaiman hills); divination by shoulder blade of sheep, 50
Africa : [see also Algeria ; Amazulu ; Aros ; Ashanti ; Bantu ; Benin ; Berbers ; Calabar ; Cape Colony ; Dahomey ; Egypt ; Fanti ; Hotten- tots ; Madagascar ; Natal ; Orange River Colony ; Sahara Desert ; Soudan ; Transvaal ; Tsinyai ; Tunis ; and Uganda) ; dreams give messages from ancestors, 22 ; south, stick or assegai made useless by woman stepping over it, 238 ; ■west coast, " trade " bead, 338
Agbarus of Edessa, apocryphal letter of, used as charm, Kennet Valley, 424
Agnation or father-right : among Aus- tralian tribes, 317-8
Agricultural folklore : {see also Corn spirits, vegetation souls, and the like ; Harvest customs and beliefs ; Millet; Ploughing customs and beliefs ; and Sowing customs and beliefs) ; god. Sea Dyaks, 370 ; operations lucky about Beltane, Hebrides, 40-1
Ague, cure for, 182
Ahmadnagar : marriage rites, Kattais, 242-3
Ahnet mountains : fabulous monster, 286
Ainu : inao, 24-5
Air district of Sahara: legend of jewel palace and fruits, 284-5
ceremony,
Aire (France) : village sobriquet, 384
Aland islands : maypoles with yew twigs, 96
Albersdorf : marriages associated with dolmen, 235
Alcheringa traditions of Arunta, 318-9
Aleppo : traditional origin of Balochis, 256
Alexandria : St. Eufrosina, 215
Algeria, see Hammam Meskoutine
Algonquins : totemism among, 347-9
'Ali the prophet, Balochi stories of, 260-1
Allandur : fire - walking 89-90
Alligator, see Crocodile
All Saints' Day : saying if on Wed- nesday, Hebrides, 41
All Souls' Day : alms given, Hebrides, 41 .
Alnwick : ' Petting Stone ' rite at Whittingham, 227-8
Aloe indica, decoction of, used in fire- walking, 90
Aloe, lign : leaves offered at graves, Japan, 277
Alsace, see Elsass
Altars : of " long ju-ju," Niger delta, 167-70 (plate)
Amazulu : household snakes in- habited by dead, 353, and as soul- boxes, 359
America, see Central America ; and North America
Amritsar : girl after three boys lucky, 66
Amulets and talismans, 152, 218, 337-8, 340-7, 424
Ancestors : dreams are messages from, Africa, 22 ; marks of husband's, tatooed on wife, Bonabe, 208 ; re-born, Arunta, 322, Thlinket, 355 ; tiger as, Sumatra, 366 ; wor- ship arises from change to father- right and evolved from totemism, 320
Andre, J. L., death of, 5, 28
Anglesea : channel for transit of Druidism, 325
Angouleiiie : village sobriquet, 384
Animals in folklore : (see also Ante- lope ; Ass ; Bear ; Birds in folk- lore ; Buffalo ; Bull ; Calf ; Camel ;
VOL. XIII.
2 G
450
Index.
Cat; Cattle; Civet-cat ; Cow; Croco- dile ; Deer ; Dog ; Dragon ; Ele- phant ; Elk ; Field mouse ; Fish in folklore ; Fox ; Frog ; Goat : Hare ; Horse ; Iguana ; Insects in folklore; Jackal ; Leopard ; Lizard ; Mole ; Monkey ; Mouse ; Mule ; Opossum; Otter ; Pig ; Pole-cat ; Rabbit ; Rat ; Seal ; Sheep ; Shellfish ; Snake ; Stag ; Tiger ; Toad ; Werwolf ; Witchetty grub ; and Wolf); in dreams, Asia Minor, 24 ; names of as human nicknames, 382-93 ; nyarongs or secret animal friends, Australia, Sea Dyaks, 370-1 ; sacred, in savage society, 348-9, 354 ; St. Columkille con- nected with beast stories, Hebrides, 37 ; taboos, see Taboos ; totems see Totemism ; worship, Ireland 324
Animism : among Malays, 137-44, 154-6, 158-64
Annee Sociologiqiie, L\ by E. Durk- heim, reviewed, 314-23
Annual meeting, 3-4 ; Report of Council, 5-1 1
Annunciation, Feast of : in saying, Hebrides, 40
Ant : red, Balochi tribe named after,
259 Antelope: as "sending," Fanti, 157 Antichrist legend, 129-34 Antrim, see Armagh Antyritya, in Wonkanguru and Ura-
bunna legend, 413 Aphis : charmed as enemy of the
rice, Malay Penin., 160 ; rhyme
for, Hebrides, 37-8 Apia : rights of sister's son, 75-6,
199-201 Apparitions of dead, see Ghosts Apple : in divination, Hebrides, 55 ;
given on New Year's Day, St.
Briavel's, 174 ; stuck with oats on
Christmas bough, Lincolnshire,
202-3 ; iri "vessel cup," Yorkshire,
95, and wassailing, 96 Apple-tree : blooming out of season
sign of death, Kennet Valley, 423 April : {see also Hocktide Day) ; rice
harvest ceremony, Kattaragam, 77 Arabia, see Arabs ; Jerahmeelites ;
Musri ; a)td Ophir Arabian Nigh/s : parallel legends,
Touaregs, 284-5 Arabs : charms, 338 ; legerc's of Sahara, 284-6
Arcadians : the bear, 379 Archangels, see Michael Areca palm : blossom used in Palm- blossom Dance, Malays, 137-40, 158, 163 Argyllshire : {see also Oban) ; folk- tales, 221 ; games, 26 Armagh : St. Malachias, 217 Arochuku: " long ju-ju" near, 166-70 Aros : " Long ju-ju," 166-70 (plate) Arrow-sending, magic, among Malays,
146-7, 157 Arthur, King, see King Arthur Artois : village sobriquet, 384 Arufolkandu, in Wonkang'iru and
Urabunna legend, 413 Arunta tribe : female descent, traces of, 351 ; place names given to in- dividuals, 383 ; not a pristine group, 381 : reincarnation beliefs, 322, 356, 363 ; totemism, 314-23, 347, 362-3,
377 . Ashanti : human teeth worn, 343 Ashshel, fabulous snake, Touaregs, 2S6 Ash-tree : cutting toe-nails under,
cures toothache, St. Briavel's, 173 Ash Wednesday : saying about wash- ing on, Kennet Valley, 423 Asia : {see also Afghanistan ; Arabia ;
Asia Minor ; Balochistan ; Burmah;
China ; Chitral ; East Indies ;
India ; Japan ; Malay Peninsula ;
and Persia) ; cefitral, circumcision
ceremonies, 240 ; east, butterfly as
human soul, 432 Asia Minor : {see also Aleppo ; and
Babylon) ; animals seen in dreams,
Asiniboin tribe : group names, 388-90
Ass : bridegroom rides on, Marwaris, 246-7 ; in charm against whoop- ing cough, Hebrides, 57 ; sacred to smallpox goddess, ^larwaris, 246-7
Astragals, 2-3
Astrology-: The Letter of Toledo, 115- 34 ; in medicine, Hebrews, 218
Astronomical folklore : {see also Astro- logy ; Moon ; North Pole : Stars ; and Sun); Hewitt's History and Chronology of the Myth-making Age (based on astronomy) reviewed, 441-2
Atami : burial custom, 276-7 (plate)
Athens : the wolf hero, 379
Auditors, election of, 4
Augury, see Divmation
Aiild Maitland, ballad of, 192-7
Index.
451
Aurora Borealis : beliefs about, Hebrides, 41
Australia : {see also Carpentaria, Gulf of; New South Wales ; Queensland ; South Australia ; Torres Straits ; Victoria ; and West Australia) ; ancestors not worshipped, 359; Aus- tralian Marriage Systems, by A. Lang, 338, 398-402 ; Daramulun a lame god, 88-9 ; food supply needs aid of magic, 394; germinal Supreme Being of aborigines, 16-23 '■> initia- tion ceremonies, 240 ; Kurnai women kill sex totems of backward wooers, 362 ; spirits, aboriginal belief in, 20 ; totemism without "clan marks," &c., 358; totems not incarnations of gods, 354-5
Austro-Hungary, see Transylvania
Autumn : ' lifting' rites, 250-1 ; say- ing, Hebrides, 38
Avalon : village sobriquets, 384
Avon (Hants), valley of : " totem stones," 3
Axe : in charm against stye, Hebri- des, 58
Babylon, birthplace of Antichrist, 129
Babylonian chronology, 443
Backwards : children should not so walk, Hebrides, 31
Bahkunjy tribe, religious beliefs of, 18-9
Baiame, Australian deity, 355
Bajang, familiar spirit, Kedah, 150
Baking lucky on Good Friday and 5 next Fridays, Kennet Valley, 423
BalanceSheetofFolk-Lore Society, 11
Balivanich : charm from, 59
Ballads, traditional, see Folk-songs
Balochi Folklore, by M. Longworth Dames, 225-6, 252-74
Balochistan, j-^f Chachar; Choti Bala ; Fort Munro; Garmaf; Gwadar; Jaafir tribe; Kalat;Nezagh Khushta: Phailawagh ; Quetta ; Sibi ; and Sohrl Khushtagh
Bamburgh : bride jumped over stool, 228 ; ' petting ' or ' louping ' stone for brides, 231
Bampur ; folktales from, 253
Banana : shrines to make fruitful, 394 ; top of bunch used in magic sending, Malays, 147, 157 ; used in divination, Penang, 143
Banana-tree in spiritualist perform- ance, Malays, 140
Banks' island : tamaniu not true
totem, 376 Banshee : Chitral, 184 Bantu : cleaner than true negro, 167 Baptism amongst Kenyahs, 438 Barcoo river (Aus.) : {see also Birria
tribe) ; supernatural beings of
tribes, 19 Bards : born with tooth, or first tooth
in upper jaw, Hebrides, 32 Barking : Ethelburga, abbess of, 214 ;
St. Hildelitha, 214; St. Wlfhilda,
216 Barrenness, see Birth customs and
beliefs ' Barring ' newly married pair, see
Marriage customs and beliefs Barrow Well (St. Briavel's) : water
drunk for colds, 173 Barton : witchcraft at, 290 Bastar, god to whom yew offered,
Kula (Himalayas), 201 Bathing : ceremonial, Malays, 155 ;
song, Malay Penin., 161 Battas or Battaks : head-hunting,
437 ; totemism, 361 Bau-ung-bau-ung, in Dieri legend,
461 Bawburgh : St. Walstan, 216 Beacon Hill (Berks) : associated with
Devil's Quoits, 293-4 Beads originally charms, 344 Bear : of Arcadians, 379 : black, takes
woman's form at night, Baloches,
265 ; group name, Mandans, 390 Beard never cut, Baloches, 270 Beasts in folklore, see Animals in
folklore Bee : beehives lifted when corpse
removed, St. Briavel's, 173 ; en- chanted, Hebrides, 35 ; omen of
stranger's coming, St. Briavel's, 171 Beetle : "the little smith," Hebrides,
37 Belfast Camp : coffins kept ready for
use, 72 Belford : ' petting ' or ' louping '
stone for brides, 231 Bell, C. C. , A Written Charm, 92-3 Beltane : in Hebrides, 40-1 Belyando River, see Koombokkaburra
tribe Benares, shrines at, 303 Benbecula : (^see also Balivanich) ;
rhymes from, 42-3; Will-o'-the-
Wisp, origin of, 43 Bengal : {see also Chotia Nagpur ;
2 G 2
452
Index.
Gaya ; Kayasths ; and Malis) ;
ghost story, 289-3, marriage rites
correspond to blood- coven ant, 208 Benin : Pitt-Rivers' Antique Works
of Art from- Benin reviewed, 439-40 Ben Mohr (S. Uist") : in tale of mad- ness from eating eel, 36 Beowulf and the Fight at Finns-
hm-g, by J. R. C. Hall, reviewed,
223 Beowulf Legend, The, by C. A.
Seyler, 3 Berads : bridegroom on stone, bride
in basket of millet, 235 Berbers : folktales, 447 Berkshire : {see also Beacon Hill ;
Culham ; Eynsham Bridge ;
Hungerford ; Kennet Valley ;
Newbury ; and Reading) ; witch- craft, 237, 424 Bertha type of folktales, 81 Berwickshire : <isee also Coldingham ;
Spottiswoode ; and Westruther) ;
harvest customs, 24, 177-9, 250-1 Besant, Sir Walter, death of, i, 5,
27-8 Besisi (Malay Benin.) : tribal feasts,
159-63 Betel leaf: in divination, Penang,
143; incantation, Malays. 139 Bethsaida, Antichrist brought up in,
129 Beverley : St. John and St. Brithun,
215
Bhadon, month of : child born then lucky, Punjab, 280
Bhils : marriage rites, 243
Bhumiya, the earth god, N. India, 189
Bhuts or evil spirits, see Demons and evil spirits
Bible: Antichrist legend, 129-34; Deluge legends, 20, 42 ; Cheyne and Black's Encyclopcedia Biblica reviewed, 218-9 ; Keane's The Gold of Ophir, Whence brought and by whom reviewed, 218-9 ; Duffs The Theology and Ethics of the- Hebrews reviewed, 442-4
Bibliography of folklore : {see also separate Index of Archaeological Papers published in 1900) ; 112
Bihar bridegroom stopped till repeats verses, 232
Binney, E. H., Harvest Customs, 113, 179-80
Birds in folklore : {see also Chicken :
Cock ; Corn-crake ; Crow ; Cuckoo ; Dove; Eagle; Emu; Finch; Fowls ; Goose ; Hedge-sparrow ; Hen ; Lapwing ; Lark ; Magpie ; Owl ; Peacock ; Pigeon ; Prairie chicken ; Ptarmigan ; Raven ; Rook ; Shrike ; Stone-chat ; Swan ; Widgeon ; and Wren) ; dead transformed into, Milya-uppa tribe, 18 ; omens from, Hebrides, 48-9, St Briavel's, 172; as totems of King Conaire the Great of Tara, 329 ; village sobri- quet, Avalon, 384
Biidville : Narimaia creek in Won- kanguru and Urabunna legend, 414
Birria tribe : invisible beings of, 19
Birth customs and beliefs : {see also Eight (eighth child) ; Pokhu ; Trelar ; Trikhal or cholar ; and Twins) ; ancestors reincarnated, India and Australia, 236 ; Arunta, 32 1 -2 ; barren women touched in race, Japan and Rome, 25 ; birth with tooth foretells bard, Hebrides, 32 ; broadside Letter of Agbarus of Edessa used as charm, Kennet Valley, 424 ; ceremonies after birth under evil nakshatra, Gurdas- pur, 66 : during eclipse, Malays, 164 ; ghosts of child and woman dead in childbirth, Malays, 135-6 ; girl, if firstborn, very ill-omened, Khatris, 279 : lucky and unlucky births, Punjab, 280 ; mandrake procures conception, Hebrews, 218 ; pregnancy, first, customs during, Khatris, 279 ; pregnant women will not step over rod, W. Indies, 237 ; she-calf, how to obtain, Hebrides, 35 ; stepping over broom may cause suffering in labour, India, 237 ; vows for child- bearing at dolmens, France, 235
Black animals, see Bear ; Bull ; Cock ; Dog ; Fowls ; Horse ; and Lizard
Black Death, caused by planetary &c. conjunctions, 125
Black hair fairly lucky in women, Hebrides, 48
Blacksmiths : origin of Jack-o'-Lan- tern, Hebrides, 43
Bloemfontein : folk-medicine in camp at, 181-2
Blood : of bull, drunk by prophetess, ^gira, 328 ; charm against flow of, St. Briavel's, 173 : drawn to cure witchcraft, Berkshire, 425, Oxford-
Index.
453
shire, 290 ; of murdered man flows if touched by murderer, Kennet Valley, 422 ; of murdered man, polong or evil spirit, or firefly, arises from, Malays, 149-50 ; red ochre blood of Mura-muras, S. Dieri, 417 ; weregild increased if blood touches ground, Anglo- Saxons, 100 Blood-brotherhood, how to annul,
Uganda, 430 Blood-covenant : in marriage rites, Bengal, Bonabe, Romans, and Society Islands, 208 Blood-poisoning, remedy for, London,
73-4, Oban, 74 Blue: charms against evil eye, Syria, 202, 337 ; cover of " vessel cup," Yorks, 95 ; dress of Virgin Mary, Yorks, 95 ; in dream lucky, Heb- rides, 52 ; name for, either absent or borrowed, Torres Straits, 102 Boar, see Pig
Boer Folk-medicine and some
Parallels, by Mrs. A. B. Gomme,
69-75, 181-2, by E. Peacock, 182-3
' Bogle,' charm against witchcraft,
Cawdor, 275 Bolton-le-Moors : ' lifting ' custom,
Easter, 249 Bombay, see Ahmadnagar ; Beiads ; Uharwar : Jangams ; Kanjaris ; Kattais ; Kistna ; Kolis ; Malabar ; Mangs ; and Thana Bonabe : wife tatooed with marks of
husband's ancestors, 208 Bone: "pointing of the bone," in
Dieyeri legend, 406 Books presented to Folk- Lore
Society, 1-2, 7, 114-5, 226, 339 " Border Minstrelsy," sources of ballads in, 191-7 ; Flenderson's Sir Walter Scoffs Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border reviewed, 433-5 Borneo : (see also Sarawak) : Haddon's Head-Htmters, Black, White, and Brown reviewed, 101-3, 436-7 Borrowing, by bride, Hebrides, 33 Boston (Lines.) : St. Botulf, 215 Bottesford : Christmas bough, 202-3 Bourke (Darling river), see Bahkunjy
tribe Box-tree : bunch used for lustration in ' lifting ' custom, 250 ; sprig stuck in apple &c. given on New Year's Day, St. Briavel's, 174 Boys, see Man
Bozdars, Balochi tribe, 263
Brabrook, E. W., Presidential Address, 4, 12-28 ; review by, Horstmann's Nova Legenda Anglic, 212-7
Bradford (Yorks) : charm, 92-4
Bramble : child passed through for whooping-cough, St. Briavel's, 172
Brass : protects from bhuts, Bengal, 2S2-3
Bread : baked on Good Friday never goes mouldy, and good for whoop- ing-cough, Kennet Valley. 425 ; " burd-eaters," village sobriquet, Devon, 389 ; unleavened, in wor- ship, 219
Breast ailments, charm for, Hebrides,
57. Bregia: taboo on King Conaire at, 329 Bridal customs and beliefs, see Mar- riage customs and beliefs British Columbia : (^see also Haidas ; Salish Indians ; and Thlinket tribe) ; totemism, 368-9 Broadsides : apocryphal Letter of Agbarus of Edessa used as charm, Kennet Valley, 424 Bronchitis, cure for, Bloemfontein, 181 Brownies : Faroe islands, 185 Brugh on the Boyne : fairy dwelling,
335 Bruises, poultice for. Shropshire, 74
Buckinghamshire, see Marsh Gibbon
Buddhism : Buddha recently as- sociated with Perahera festival, Kandy, 78 ; influence on early Christian writings, 104-6
Buffalo : in group names, Hunpatina tribe, 388
Bughtis, Balochi tribe, 262
Bull : {see also Calf ; and Cattle) ; black, troll, appear on Old Twelfth Night, Faroe islands, 185 ; blood drunk by prophetess, ^Flgira, 328 ; bullock ridden by bridegroom, Jan- gams, 246 ; in dreams, meaning of, Hebrides, 51 ; dung as cosmetic, Pliny, 74 ; eaten for prophetic dream, Tara, 328 ; hide, bride sits on, S. India and Transylvania, 244
Bulldog, see Dog
Bull-roarer : Torres Straits, 103
Bulun Matai or fields of the dead, Sibops, 436-7
Burcoot, lake within earth, Larrakia tribe, 18
Burial customs and beliefs, see Death and funeral customs and beliefs
454
Index.
Burmah : fish charm, 338
Barne, Miss C. S. , Charm against the Evil Eye, 202 ; The Collection of Folklore, 299-302 ; How to Annul "Blood-Brotherhood," 428 ; review by, Henderson's Sir Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 433-5
Burns and scalds, cure for, Hebrides, 56
Bush-souls, Calabar, 349, 359-60, 376
Butter, charms to bring, Newlands (Glouc), 176
Butterev : place rhymes. 391-3
Butterfly : Butterfly Charm, by S. O. Addy, 432 ; as human soul, E. Asia &c., 432 ; as omen, Hebrides, 50
Cabbage : seeds as remedy for jaun- dice, Bloemfontein, 181 ; stock used in divination, Hebrides, 53
Cafernaum, Antichrist will rule in, 129
Cairns : among Baloches, 265-6 ; pre- vent wicked spirits from wander- ing, 218
Caithness : gave crest to Sutherland family, 379 ; mythic derivation of name, 379
Cakes : Beltane bannock, Hebrides, 41 ; Fathering and Mothering Sun- days, St. Briavel's, 174 : Good Fri- day, St. Briavel's, 173; Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 55 ; for mad dogs, Germany, 96; St. Michael's ban- nock, Hebrides, 44-5 ;
Calabar : " bush souls," 349, 359-60, 376
Calendar folklore, see Days and Seasons
Calenig or Gift, The, by Miss M. Peacock, 202-3
Calf : {see also Bull ; Cattle ; and Cow) ; assigned to child with first tooth, Hebrides, 32 ; born in month Bhadon unlucky, Punjab, 280 ; good omen. Hebrides, 49 ; she, how to obtain, Hebrides, 35
Californian Indians : newly married must not touch ground, 242
Cambridgeshire, see Ely
Camel : in Balochi ballads, 254-5 ; neck charms, Syria, 337
Campbell, pig an omen of a. Hebri- des, 49
Camphor, ceremonies by collectors
of, Malays, 163 Canada, see British Columbia Candle : New Year, Hebrides, 46 ;
omen of letter from, St. Briavel's,
172; winding sheet in, St. Briavel's,
172 Candlemas : in saying, Hebrides, 39 Cane-grass, in Dieri legend, 417 Canterbury : St. Augustine, 213 ; St.
Edmund, 217 ; St. Thomas Becket,
217 Cape Colony, see Boer Cape River, see Koombokkaburra
tribe ; and ^lungerra tribe Carnelian : charms, Arabs, 338, 341-
2, 345 . Carpentaria, Gulf of, in \ aurorka
legend, 412 Carpet-snake, see Snake Carrot, wild : gathered, given, and
eaten, St. Michael's Day, Hebrides,
45
Castile, see Toledo
Castleton : Garland Day, 302, 313, jingle sung on, 91-2. 313
Cat : born from Lazarus' hair, Outsa: Hebrides, 34 ; burial under door- sill drives away luck, 239 ; must not drink cow's milk after calving. Outer Hebrides, 34 ; folktale. Outer Hebrides, 33-4 ; fur as cure for bronchitis, Bloemfontein, 181- 2 : grey, favourite of fairies, West- ruther, 178 ; in jingle, Lincoln- shire, 91 ; omens from, Outer Hebrides, 34, 49 ; replaces fox in fables. Outer Hebrides, 33 ; ra\-ing about cats sign of possession, Malays, 151 ; sayings about. Outer Hebrides, 34, St. Briavel's, 172 ; white, witch takes shape of, Newn- ham Murren, 2S9-90 ; wild, crest of Clan Chattan and House of Sutherland, 378, supposed to be descendants, 379 ; wild, group name, Yankton tribe, 3S8 ; witch as, Berkshire, 425, Oxfordshire, 289-90
Caterpillar : charmed as enemy of the rice, Malay Penin., 160 ; dreaded, Hebrides, 38 ; fatal to cows, Hebrides, 38 ; name for, Hebrides, 38 ; evil spirit ' sent ' in form of, Malays, 147, 157 : swelling of foot from bite of, Malays, 157
Index.
455
Catfish : in pool of " long ju-ju,"
Niger delta, 168-70 Cat's cradle, Torres Straits, 103 Cattle : i^see also Bull ; Calf ; and Cow) ; charm to avert disease, Hebrides, 41, N. India. 189-90 ; driven round fire sunwise at Beltane, Hebrides, 41 ; in rice harvest cere- monies, Pongul, 77 Cattle Lagoon (S. Aus. ): Narimaia creek in Wonkanguru and Urabunna legend, 414 Cawdor : 'bogle' charm against witch- craft, 275 (plate) Celebes : {see also Toradjas) ; head- hunting, 437 Centipede : dirtiness punished by, Heb- rides, 37 ; names for, Hebrides, 37 Central America : naguals, 349-50,
360, 376 ; tonas, 360 Cerna : hunting of beasts of tabooed
to King Conaire, 329 Ceylon : [see also Hambantotta ; Kandy ; Kattaragam ; Pongul ; Talawakelle ; aW Tamils) ; women throw cut hair into stream, 78 Chachar Pass : cairn in, 266 Chachar, stream of : in Balochi poem,
274 Chaff: sprinkled before wife-beater's
door, 246 ' Chaining ' newly-married pair, see
Marriage customs and beliefs ' Chairing ' newly-married pair, see
Marriage customs and beliefs Chakar, Balochi hero. 254-5,258-9,273 Chakar-Mari, hill of: in Balochi
heroic ballad, 255 Chakar-tankh, defile in Balochi heroic
ballad, 254 Channel Islands, see Guernsey ; and
Jersey Charans : marriage customs, 246 Charente, see Angouleme Charlbury : how RoUright Stones
counted, 293 Charms and spells :
against hlood, flow of, St. Briavel's, 173 ; breast ailments, Hebrides, 57 ; cattle disease, Hebrides, 41, N. India. 189-90; "enemies of the rice," Malay Penin. , 159-90 ; evil eye, 341-4, Hebrides, 52, Hebron, 337. Khonds, 242, Syria, 113, 202. 337; e\al spirits, Ceylon, 79, Hebrides, 30, Malays, 152, Pongul, 77 ; eyes, pains or dust
&c. in, Hebrides, 57-8 ; ghosts, Wyke, 2, 92-4 ; illness, Balivanich, 59, Kennet Valley, 424, Torres Straits, 103 ; being lost, Hebrides, 37 ; " na barrin" (children's illness), Hebrides, 57; needle prick, Hebrides, 33 ; rheumatism, Bloemfontein, 181-2, St. Briavel's, 173 ; snakes, Heb- rides, 39 ; styes, Hebrides, 58 ; thorns, wound from, Kennet Valley, 426, St. Briavel's, 173 ; toothache, St. Briavel's, 173 ; warts, Kennet Valley, 420 ; whooping-cough, Hebrides, 57, St. Briavel's, 172 ; witchcraft, Cawdor, 275, (plate), Hebrides, 41, 59, Newlands, 176; wounds, festering of, St. Briavel's, 173; broadside Letter of Agbarus of Edessa, Kennet Valley, 424 ; child- birth, for safety in, Kennet Valley, 424 ; coco-nut palm sap, for col- lecting, Malays, 163-4 ; collection of, Malay Penin., 308-9; to avert effects of unlucky births, Punjab, 64-5, 67-8 ; among Hebrews, 218 ; among Kurnai tribes, 19-20; magic squares in, 190 ; New Guinea, 337 ; for rain, Torres Straits, 103 ; soul, to abduct, Malays, 146 ; stone beads, N. India, 337 ; for use with four-leaved shamrock, Hebrides, 53 ; Tunis, 337 ; to walk or dive in water, Malays, 136 ; water taken from river at sunrise, Kandy, 79 ; Welsh, 94 ; written, Malays, 152, Wyke (Yorks), 2, 92-4 (plate) ; The Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition, (" Trade " charms), by E. Lovett, 337-8, 340-7 [plate) Chastity tests, 236 Chathill : bride &c. jump over
'petten' stone or stool, 228-9 Cheese : charm against witchcraft, Hebrides, 41 ; "cheese eaters," village sobriquet, W. England, 389 ; made at Beltane, Hebrides, 41 Chelsea : folk-etymology, 204 Cherrington : place rhymes, 391-3 Cheshire : {see also Crewe ; a7id Knutsford) ; ' lifting ' custom, 250 Chichester : St. Richard, 217 Chicken : in dream, Hebrides, 51 Childbirth customs and beliefs, see Birth customs and beliefs
456
Index.
Children : must not be carried down- wards till named, Kenyahs, 438 ; mental condition analogous to that of uncivilised man, 22-3 ; teeth, beliefs concerning, Hebrides, 32, India, 67, 198 ; must not walk back- wards, Hebrides, 31 ; unbaptised, j£^ Unbaptised; Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Super- stitions, by H. A. Rose, 278-80 ; Unlucky Children, by H. A. Rose, 3, 63-8, 197-8
Children's games, sea Games
Children's rhymes, see Nursery rhymes
China : {see also Manchus) ; newly dead serve predecessors, 283
Chinese Llotlier Goose Rhymes, by I. T. Headland, reviewed, 108-9
Chipping Norton : unlucky to injure Rollright Stones, 293 ; witchcraft near, 290
Chitral : fairies and banshees, 183-4
Choking from food, omen from, Hebrides, 50
Cholera, goddess of, N. India, iSS
Cholar, see Trikhal or cholar
Chopras : parents re-married after first birth, 279
Chotia Nagpur : {see also Oraons) ; customs, 442
Choti Bala : spring caused by Balochi saint, 260
Christmas : Christmas bough, Lincoln- shire, 202-3; firstfoot, St. Briavel's, 174; frumity eaten at, Lincoln- shire, 92 ; guisers, Staffordshire, 107 ; mumming-play, 296-7 ; in sayings, Hebrides, 38, Kennet Valley, 423; the "vessel cup," Yorks, 94-5 ; wassailing, 95-6
Christmas Eve : cattle kneel, St. Briavel's, 174; fires in cornfields, St. Briavel's, 174 ; Hogmany for- merly on, Hebrides, 45, Spain, 45 ; rosemary flowers, St. Briavel's,
174 Church : bridal party blackmailed by tying door, Whittingham, 238, or locking it, Ilderton, 229-30, 233 ; marriage rite should be per- formed outside chancel, 233; sus- pected murderer taken into tower to touch corpse, Kennet Valley, 422 ; walk round twelve times backwards to become witch, St. Briavel's, 175
Church porch : bride &c. lifted over ' petting stone ' and kissed, Border Counties, 227-30, 233 ; marriage rite originally performed in, 233
Churchyard : hempseed sown. Mid- summer Eve, Kennet Valley, 422
Churingas, Arunta tribe, 363, 412
Cigarettes used in divination, Penang,
Circumcision : Central Asia, 240
Civet-cat : familiar spirit appears as, Kedah, 150
Clan Chattan : cat bad omen to others than, Hebrides 49 ; folk etymology of, 378-9
Clan totems, see Totemism
Clarke, E. W. , The Vessel Cup, 95
Clothes not mended on person, Hebrides, 29-30
Coal carried to protect from dead, Hebrides, 31
Cock : {see also Fowls) ; assigned to child with first tooth, Hebrides, 32 ; black, buried as cure for epilepsy, Hebrides, 56 ; crowing in dream sign of death, Hebrides, 5 ; cut open and applied for pneu- monia, England, 182
Coco-nut palm : charm for collecting sap, Malays. 163-4 ; shrines to make fruitful, 394
Coco-nut shell used in spiritualist performance, Malays, 140
Coldingham : St. Ebba, 215
Colds, cure for, St. Briavel's, 173
Coles, F. R., Scottish Charm against Witchcraft, 275
Collectanea, 69-83, 166-90, 275-95, 403-30
Collection of Folklore, The, by S. O. Addy, 226, 297-9, Miss C S. Burne, 299-302, W. Crooke, 302-7, W. Skeat, 307-10, C. G. Seligman, 310-2, and J. Roscoe, 312-3
Colours, see Black ; Blue ; Dun : Green ; Grey ; Red ; White ; ami Yellow
Comb, hair : teeth not counted, Hebrides, 30 ; not thrown to any- one, Hebrides, 30
Committees : joint with Anthropo- logical Institute, 9 ; lecture, 7, 9
Compass, points of, see North ; and West
Conaire the Great, I-Cing of Tara,
Index.
457
Conception : from reincarnation of
ancestor, India and Australia, 236;
mandrake procures, Hebrides, 218 Conjunctivitis, cure for, Boers, 71 Connaught : {see also Galway ; and
Mayo) ; folktales, 220 Contes et Legendes cT Irlande, traduits
du Gaelu]ue,hy G. Dottin, reviewed,
220-1 Cook's islands, see Raratonga Cooper river, see Killalpanina Cooper's Creek : near districts in
Dieri legend, 417 Coquet : St. Henry, 216 Corfe Castle : K. Edward, 216 Cork county : folktales, 221 Corn : divination by seeils on stalk,
Hebrides, 53 ; fires in fields on
Christmas Eve, St. Briavel's, 174 Corn-crake ; enchanted, Hebrides, 35 Corn spirits, vegetation souls, and
the like : Berwickshire, 178 ;
Malays, 155, 163-4 ; Maoris, 25 Cornwall: (see also Looe; and St.
Neot's) ; St. Briavel, Cornish king,
171 ; trees whisper future on 2 1st
of month, 429 Corozaim, Antichrist brought up in,
129 Corpses, customs and beliefs concern- ing, see Death and funeral customs
and beliefs Correspondence, S4-96, 191-204, 296-
3I3> 431-2
Cottington Hill : witchcraft, 427
Council of Folk-Lore Society : election, 4; report, 5- 11
Counting-out rhymes, 107
Counting stars : counter struck dead, Kennet Valley, 419
Counting teeth of comb unlucky, Hebrides, 30
Courting customs and beliefs : Bible and key test, Kennet Valley, 422-3 ; discussed, 445
Couvade, 211
Cow : {see also Calf ; and Cattle) ; byres not thatched with reeds, Hebrides, 32 ; not driven by docken stem, Hebrides, 31 ; dung, fire of, lighted at first birth after 21 or 24 years' marriage, Punjab, 280 : dung used as bath for rheumatism, Bloem- fontein, 181, for floors, Transvaal, 70, to plaster site for worship of Hanuman, N.W. India, 188, as poultice, London, 73-4, Shrop-
shire, 74 ; field mouse sign of ill-luck to, Hebrides, 35 ; in- flamed udder, cure for, Hebrides, 56 ; loss of, unlucky to tell, He- brides, 31-2; milk after calving drunk by dog (not cat), Hebrides, 34 ; village sobriquet, Largitzen, 384 ; weather saying, St. Briavel's, 172
Cow-lady, see Ladybird
Cranbrook : marriage customs, 245-6
Creator : Australian ideas of, 16, 18-21, 355, 403-4, 517
Crewe : 'lifting' custom, 250
Cricket : house, pet and precursor of evil spirit or polong, Malays, 150-1
Crocodile: alligators at "long ju- ju," Niger delta, 170 ; alligator bit off foot of Tezcatlipoca, 88; killing is murder, Malays, Melan- esia, Sumatra, 366
Crom Cruach, Irish idol, 325
Cromlechs : Enstone, 295 ; Steeple Barton, 295
Cronk-ny-Irey-Lhaa (Isle of Man) : spirit of unbaptised, 186-7
Crooke, W. : The Collection of Folk- lore, 302-7 ; An Indian Ghost Story, 280-3; The Lifting of the Bride, 225, 226-51 ; Puli Raja or the Tiger Prince, 79-83 ; Some Notes from North-Western India, 188-90 ; reviews by, — Cheyne and Black's Encyclopicdia Biblica, and Keane's The Gold of Ophir, 2 1 8-9 ; Had- don's Head-Hunters, Black, While, and Brown, 101-3 ; Potter's .S'(?//m(^ and Riisteni, 443-7
Crow: "eaters of crows," village sobriquet, Avalon, 384 ; omens from, Hebrides, 49, St. Briavel's, 171 ; in sayings, Hebrides, 30 ; never shamed, Hebrides, 35 ; as totem, W. Australia, 361
Croyland : St. Wallevus, 216
Crusade connected with the Letter of Toledo, 122
Crystal-gazing, 91
Cuchulainn sagas : birds in, 329 ; Gregory's Cuchiilain ofAhtirtheinne reviewed. 333-5 ; Nutt's Cuchu- lainn, the Irish Achilles reviewed, 332-3 ; dog flesh not to be tasted, 329 ; essentially pagan, 326 ; father- and-son combat, 445 ; refer to early cycle remaining in Mabino- gion, 330-1
458
Index.
Cuckoo : enchanted, Hebrides, 35 ;
in sayings, Hebrides, 40 ; as ill
omen, Hebrides, 52 ; as village
sobriquet, 3S5 Cuckoo-flower : " frumity-flower," 92 Culham : white dog in harvest &c.
sayings, 179-80 Cumberland : chastity test, 236-7 Cursing, see Imprecations Cyvis rosce, gall formed by, averts
toothache, St. Briavel's, 173
Dagger, used in "sending," Malays, 146, 157
Dahomey : special name for boy born after twins, 63
Dakota tribes : {see also Asiniboin tribe ; Hunpatina tribe : Itaziptco tribe ; Minikooju tribe ; Mysterious Lake tribe ; Sisseton tribe ; Sit- canxu tribe : Wahpeton tribe ; and Yankton tribe) ; group names, 390
Dambiro, Balochi musical instrument,
253
Dames, M. Longworth : Balochi Folklore, 225-6, 252-74
Dances : among Baloches, 272 ; dancing swords or wards of virgins, Benin, 440; devil, Malay, 135, 153; marriage, Bhlls, 243, Kattais, 242-3, Oraons, 242, Varlis, 243 ; monkey, Malay, 136 ; sword, Eg- ton Bridge, 302
Dancing objects inspired by spirits, Malays, 137-43. 164-5
Daramulun, lame god, Australia, 88-9
Dawn, see Sunrise
Days and Seasons : All Saints' Day, 41 ; All Souls' Day, 41 ; Annuncia- tion, Feast of, 40 ; April, 77, 250 ; Ash Wednesday, 423 : Autumn, 38, 250-1 ; Beltane, 40-1 ; Bhadon, month of, 280 ; Candlemas, 39 ; Christmas, 38, 92, 94-5, 107, 174, 296-7, 423 ; Christmas Eve, 45, 174 ; December, 38, 45, 92, 94-6, 107, 173-4, 292, 296-7, 423; Easter Monday, 247-9 • Easter Sunday, 40, 248, 423 ; Easter Tuesday, 247-9 ! Fathering Sunday, 174 ; February, 39-40: Friday, 42, 148, 173, 175, 423; Good Friday, 173, 175, 423; Hallf)we'en, 53-5 ; Hocktide Day, 250; January, 40, 174, 1S5, 292; Jeth, month of, 27S ; July, 77 ; June, 40, 77-9, 422 ; Kfitik, month of, 280 ; Magh, month of, 278 ;
March, 38-40; May, 38, 40-1, 77-9, 96; May Day, 38, 40-I ; Alichaelmas, 44-5, 423 ; Mid- summer Eve, 422 ; Midwinter, 40 ; Monday, 41-2, 47, 148, 247-9 ! Mothering Sunday, 107, 174 ; New Year's Day, 40, 174, 247 ; New Year's Eve, 45-6,174, 292 ; Novem- ber, 38, 41 ; October, 53-5 ; Old Twelfth Night, 185 ; Palm Sunday, 32, 40, 174-5 ; St. Andrew's Day, 38 ; St. Brigid's Day, 39 ; St. Patrick's Day, 38-9 ; St. Peter's Day, 40 ; St. Thomas' Day, 173-4 ! Saturday, 42; September, 44-5, 423 ; Shrove Tuesday, 1 74 ; Spring, 245, 251 ; Sunday, 32, 40, 42, 107, 174-5, lS9> 248, 423 ; Thursday, 41 ; Tuesday, 42, 65, 144, 174, 18S-9, 247-9 j Twenty-first of month, 429 ; Wednesday, 49, 423 ; Whit Sunday, 175 ; religious beliefs connected with calendar, 441 Dead, beliefs about, see Death and
funeral customs and beliefs Dead, land of, see Hades Dean Forest, see St. Briavel's Death and funeral customs and beliefs : {see also Graves ; and Omens) ; beehives lifted when corpse removed, St. Briavel's, 173 ; burial customs, Hebrides, 60-1, Japan, 276-7, St. Briavel's, 173 ; burial-places haunted by invisible beings, Birria &c. tribes, 19 ; cairns prevent wicked spirits from wandering, 218 : corpse bleeds when touched by murderer, Kennet Yalley, 422 ; corpse sat up with, St. Briavel's, 173 ; corpses should be touched, Hebrides, 60 ; corpses surrounded by dust &c. to detect slayer, N. Queensland, 365, or animal tracks, Scotland, 365 ; dead alone have clothes stitched upon body, Hebrides, 29-30 ; dead avenge insults, Sahara Desert, 287-8 ; dead become bhuts, if . funeral rites not performed, Bengal, 281-3; dead become birds, Milya- uppa tribe, 18 ; dead, coal protects from, Hebrides, 31 ; dead feared, Mungerra tribe, 19 ; dead inhabit household snakes, Zulus, 353 : dead not mentioned, Koombokkaburra tribe, 19; dead newly arrived serve predecessors, Bengal, 282, Ireland,
Index.
459
Scotland, and China,283; dead, pro- cession of, Hebrides, 31, 59 ; dead return to graves at dawn, Hebrides, 59 ; dead speak wiih nasal twang, India, 283 ; dead, stars named from, Kurnai tribes, 20 ; drink pro- vided for dead, Hebrides, 60 ; funeral rites, Baloches, 257, Sibops, 437 ; future life, Sibops, 436-7, Yorke's Penin. (S. Aus.), 18; gliosis, see Ghosts ; Mari Mata, goddess of death, N. India, 188 ; mourning, Hebrides, 61 ; second wife suffers "dead man's nip," Hebrides, 59; skulls of dead asked for advice, Torres Straits, 103 ; soul of dying released by wrapping in sheepskin, Kennet Valley, 419 ; " spirit stone " used, Dharwar, 236 ; theft punished after death, Hebrides, 59 ; wife of deceased carried from burial place, Tsinyai, 240 ; windows opened to free spirit, St. Briavel's, 173
December, see Christmas ; Christmas Eve ; New Year's Eve ; and St. Thomas' Day
Deer : charmed as enemy of the rice, Malay Penin., 160; "dried veni- son eaters," Siouan group name, 389 ; not eaten, Kalamantans, 356; in group name, Itaziptco tribe, 388 ; roe-deer song, Malay Penin., 160- 1 ; as "sending," Java, 157; saying of. Outer Hebrides, 34
Deity, conceptions of : Australian tribes, 18-20 ; absent. Phraser's island aborigines, 19, Kabi tribe, 19, Kurnai tribes, 19, Wodi-wodi tribe, 19
Deluge legends, 20, 42
Demoniacal possession, see Possession
Demons and evil spirits : {see also Devil ; a7id Jinns) ; bhuts, Bengal, 281-3: birth-demons, Malay, 135-6; charms against, Ceylon, 79, Heb- rides, 30, Malays, 152, Pongul, 77 ; exorcising, Malays, 1 49-151 ; Mooniandi, Ceylon, 277-8 ; ' sent ' in form of insects &c., Malays, 147-51 ; white line excludes from room, St. Briavel's 172
Denceaym,Antichrist brought up in, 1 29
Denmark : Beowulf legend belongs to, 223
Dera Ghazi Khan : cutting hair great disgrace, Baloches, 270; folk songs ^nd tales, 252-3
Derajat : Balochi folklore, 252-74
Derbyshire, see Castleton
Dessil, see Sunwise
Devil : Australian beliefs, 20 ; of Bahkunjy tribe, 19 ; conjura- tion of, Hebrides, 49 ; Devil's Chapel, St. Briavel's, 171 ; Devil's Kitchen, St. Briavel's, 171; Eraser island aborigmes, 19 ; Offa's Dyke named after, St. Briavel's, 17 1 : removed side fins of trout, Hebrides, 36-7 ; teaches nigromancy at Toledo, 120
Devil dancing, see Dances
Devil's Quoits (Oxon) : legends of,
293-5 Devonshire : village sobriquets, 385-
6, 389
Dharwar : marriage customs of Deshashlh Brahmans, 236
Diamantina river, see Kuyuna
Dickeri, see Cane-grass
Dieri, see Dieyerie
Dieyeri tribe : creation beliefs, 18, 403 ; legends, 405-7, 414-7 ; the Moora-Moora, 18, 403 ; murdu or totem, 352 ; myth of origin of totemism, 355, 379 ; not a pristine group, 381 ; rain-making, 403
Dishwater : brownies warned when thrown out, Faroe islands, 184
Diseases : communicated by leaping over person, India, 238 ; cures for, see Medical folklore
Divination ; {see also Omens ; and Ordeals) ; among Baloches, 264 ; at Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 53-5 ; by Bible and key. Kennet Valley, 422 ; by dreams, Hebrides, 51-3; by lemon iXic, Penang, 143-4, 154-5 '■> by movements of inanimate ob- jects, Malays, 137, 154-7 ; by seeds on cornstalk, Hebrides, 53 ; by sieve, Malays, 145, 155 ; by sowing hempseed, Kennet Valley, 422 ; by swinging ring &c., Ma- lays, 144-5 > children's games re- lated to, 24 ; friths or horoscopes, Hebrides, 47-50 ; from pig's liver, Torres Straits, 103 ; from shoulder- blade of sheep, Afghans and He- brides, 50-1, Baloches, 264 ; by stones, Torres Straits, 103 ; of death, Hebrides, 53-4, Kennet Valley, 422 ; of marriage, He- brides, 55-4, Kennet Valley, 422, Torres Straits, 103 ; of prospective
460
Index.
family, Hebrides, 53-4, Kennet Valley, 422 ; of thief, Kennet Valley, 422, Malays, 144-5 ! of '^'''■'^ love, Faroe islands, 185, Kennet Valley, 422-5 Divining rod : Malays, 134, 145,
155-6
Docken : horror of, Hebrides, 31 ; not used to drive animals, He- brides, 31
Dog : black, as spirit of ill-temper, 185, form assumed by spirit, Faroe islands, 185 ; bulldog as village sobriquet, 386, 389, 392-3 ; death omen from. Outer Hebrides, 34 ; " dog eaters," village sobriquet, W. England, 3S9 ; flesh forbidden to Cuchulainn, 329 ; Gelert legend, Baloches, 266 ; given first milk after calving, Outer Hebrides, 34 ; in group names, Hunpatina tribe, 388, Minikooju tribe, 388 ; mad, cakes for, Germany, 96 ; saying of, Outer Hebrides, 34 ; village sobri- quet, Artois, 384, Shropshire, 391-3 ; white, in harvest &c. say- ings, N.E. France, 179, Culham, 179-80
Dolmens : girl cannot refuse kiss at, Ireland, 235 ; marriages once per- formed at, and associated with, 235-6 ; visited for barrenness, or prayer for lover, France &c., 235
Donegal Fairy Stories, by S. Mac- Manus, reviewed, 335
Donkey, see Ass
Doomsday of mythology and Christian apocryphal teaching, 13 1-3
Doora tribe, religious belief of, 18
Dorchester (n. Oxford): St. Birin, 214
Dordogne : alleged appearance of Madonna in, 90-1
Dorset, see Corfe Castle; Hasel- borough ; Shaftesbury; and^'xm- borne
Dough while baking must not be stepped over, Syria, 237
Dove : good omen, Hebrides, 49
Dover : St Thomas, 217
Dotvie Dens of Yarrow, ballad of, The, 197
Dowsing, see Water divination
Dragon : becomes woman on kissing knightj 448
Draupati, the goddess, and fire- walking, 89-90
Dreams : animals seen in, 24 ; divina-
tion from, Hebrides, 51-3, 55) of future king of Tara, 328 ; fore- telling, druids authors of, Ireland, 325 ; savage theory of, 21-2 Drishaks, Balochi tribe, 258 Droit du seigneur : Ireland, 334 Drowning : idiots not drowned, Uist, 61-2 ; none drowned with sun visible, Gairloch, 61 ; offerings at graves of drowned, Japan, 277 ; those with " otter spot " above mouth not drowned, Hebrides, 61 Druids : Irish, 324-5 Drummond, R. J., Rice Harvest and other Customs in Ceylon, 77-9, 277-8 Dublin county, see Hill of Howth Ducklington : harvest custom, 180 Duddingston loch : folk-etymology of
of name, 378 Dumbartonshire, see Loch Lomond Dun-coloured hair most lucky in
women, Hebrides, 49 Dun horse lucky omen, Hebrides, 49 Dung : as bath, Bloemfontein, 181 ; casting lots, used for, Baloches, 264 : as cosmetic, Pliny, 74 ; drunk as medicine, Shropshire, 75, Trans- vaal, 71; "dung eaters," group name, Minikooju tribe, 388-9 ; fire of, lighted at first birth after 21 or 24 years' marriage, Punjab, 280 ; floors prepared with, Transvaal, 70 ; as poultice, Transvaal, 70, London, 73-4, Shropshire, 74 ; site for worship of Hanuman prepared with, N.W. India, 188 Dunwich : Felix, bishop of, 214 Durham : bride steps over socket
stone of cross, 231 Durham county : (^see also Durham ; Finchale ; Gateshead : Jarrow ; Sunderland ; and Wearmouth) ; ' heaving ' custom, Easter, 248 Durkanis, Balochi tribe, 259 Dust storm can be stopped by first- born, Punjab, 278 Dutch folklore, see Boer ; and , Holland
Dwellings, see Plouses Dyaks : {see also Sea Dyaks) ; head-
hunting,_437 Dyeing : indigo, not in midwinter, Hebrides, 40
Eagle ; group name, Mandans, 390
Index.
461
Eagle-wood, ceremonies for collectors
of, Malays, 163 Earache, cure for, Bloemfontein, 182 Early History of Syria and Palestine,
The, by L. B. Paton, reviewed,
442-3
Ears : omens from, Hebrides, 33, 50 ; pierced &c., Sarawak, 438
East Anglia : (^see also Norfolk ; and Suffolk) ; gipsy bride jumps over bough, 238 ; saints in Nova Legenda Anglic, 214, 216
Easter Monday : ' lifting ' custom, Durham, 248, Lancashire, 249, Shropshire, 247-8, N. Wales, 248- 9, Warwickshire, 249, Yorkshire, 248
Easter Sunday : ' heaving ' custom, Durham and Yorkshire, 248 ; sun dances, Hebrides, 40 ; weather saying, Kennet Valley, 423
Easter Tuesday : ' lifting ' customs, Shropshire, 247, N. Wales, 248-9
East Indies, see Borneo ; Celebes ; Java ; New Guinea ; and Sumatra
East wind, name of, Hebrides, 38
Eccleshall : guisers, 107 ; Mothering Sunday, 107
Echo : origin of, Hebrides, 44
Eclipse : ceremony for birth during, Gurdaspur, 66 ; rice-spoon protects woman in labour during, Malays, 164
Edda, The : I. The Divine Mythology of the North, by W. Faraday, re- viewed, 223-4
Edgmond : cow-dung poultice, 74 ; place rhyme, 391-3
Edinburgh : Duddingston, folk ety- mology' of, 378
Eel : Boeotian, 441 ; eating causes madness, Hebrides, 36
Eggs : agitated in pail to raise storm at sea, Norfolk, 431 ; avoided by Baloches, 265 ; divination, used in, Hebrides, 54, Penang, 143 ; in dreams, Hebrides, 51 ; Eggs in Witchcraft, by E. Peacock, 431 ; first laid by pullet not brought into house, St. Briavel's, 171-2 ; odd number set, Hebrides, 35 ; pace eggs, Hebrides, 40 ; shells as witches' boats, Holland (Sic, 431
Egton Bridge: plough stots and sword- dancers, 302
Egypt : (^see also Alexandria) ; bride leaps over sword, 238 ;
ancient — chronology, 443 ; Exodus not from, new theory, 219 Eichstadt : abbess Walberga, 216 Eight : eighth child unlucky, Punjab,
68 Elbow : omens from itching of,
Hebrides, 50 Elder-tree : stick from in charm for
warts, Berkshire, 420 Elephant : taboo name in charm at
tribal feast, Malay Penin. , 159 Elk : group name, Sioux, 389 El Oued : fabulous snake at, 286 Elsass, see Largitzen El Wad, see El Oued Ely : Ss. Etheldreda and Werburg,
214 Emain Macha : Cuchulainn departs
towards, 335 Embleton (Northum. ): 'petting 'or
' louping ' stone for brides, 231 Emer, wife of Cuchulainn, 334 Emu : created by or derived from the
Mooramoora, Dieyeri tribe, 403-4,
407 ; sun created to enable man
to catch, Dieyeri tribe, 18 Eticyclopasdia Biblica, edit, by T. K.
Cheyne and J. S. Black, reviewed,
218-9 England : i^see also under names of
counties) ; north, ' lifting ' customs,
249-50 ; Horstman's Nova Legenda
Anglie reviewed, 212-7 '< temporary
marriages, 446 ; Seebohm's Tribal
Customs in Anglo-Saxon Law re- viewed, 97-101 Enstone : " Hoar Stone," traditions
about, 295 Eochaid Feidlech, 328 Epilepsy, cure for, Hebrides, 56 Erin, see Ireland Eriskay : folklore from, 29-62 Erysipelas, cure for, Hebrides, 56 Eskimo : derisive name given by
Indians to Inuits, 386 Essex : {see also Barking) ; St. Cedd,
215 . Esthonia : bride stands on stone, 234 Etain, daughter of Eochaid, 328-9 Etain of the Sidh. 328, 330 Eterscel, king of Tara, 328-9 Ettrick Forest : ballad of the Outlaw
Murray, 191 -2 Eurytus, etymology of, 442 Evil eye : charms against, 34 1 -4,
Hebrides, 52, Hebron, 337 ,
Khonds, 242, Syria, 113, 202, 337
462
Index,
Evil spirits, see Demons and evil
spirits Ewes, see Sheep
Exhibits, 2, 3, 6, 7, 113-5, 337-8 Exodus, new theory of the, 219 Exogamy : among Arunta, 316-8, 347 ; Australian Marriage Systems, by A. Lang, 338, 398-402 ; dis- cussed, 445 ; in relation to totem- ism, 314, 397 ; tendency towards, in pristine groups, 381-2 ; totem name usually marks exogamous limit, 347 Exorcism : Malays, 149, 151, 158 Eyebrows, hair of, pulled out,
Sarawak, 438 Eyelashes pulled out, Sarawak, 438 Eyes : omen from itching and wink- ing of, Hebrides, 50 ; pain or dust &c. in, charms for, Hebrides, 57-8 ; of savages little superior to normal European, Torres Straits, 102 ; styes, charm for, Hebrides, 58 Evnsham Bridge : Beacon Hill and
'the Devil's Q"oits, 293-4 Eyre, Lake : {see also Dieyeri tribe ; Tangara tribe ; mid Urabunna tribe) ; fabled creature on island in, 412 Eyre, Miss L. M., Folklore Notes from St. Briavel's, Gloucester- shire, 1 14-5, 170-7; review by, Pitt- Rivers' Antique Works of Art from Benin, 439-40
Face : omens from itching in and single hair on, Hebrides, 50
Fairies: back-footed, Chitral, 184; clad in white, Chitral, 183 : Mac Manus' Donegal Fairy Stories re- viewed, 335 ; grey cats and snails favourites of, Westruther, 178 ; at Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 53 ; hide in snail shells when disturbed by harvesters, Westruther, 178 ; Ire- land, 324 ; Malay, 138-40 ; moun- tain abode, Chitral, 183; origin of, Hebrides, 42 ; red suits and lan- terns. Isle of Man, 186 : St. Briavel's, 1 76-7 ; Sidhe in Cucha- lainn sagas, 335, and story of King Conaire the Great, 328-30
Familiar spirits : Isle of Man, 187 ; Malay, 150-2, 158
Famine : from roasting whelk, He- brides, 37
Fanti : antelope as " sending," 157
Faqirs : origin of Suthra Shahi sect, 198 ; unlucky children given to, 198
Fame island : St. Bartholomew, 216
Faroe islands : black troll bulls, Old Twelfth Night, 185 ; brownies, spirits of unbaptised children, and "black dogs," 184-5 > divination of lover, 185
Father-and-son combat type of folk- tales, 443-7
Fathering Sunday, 174
Father-right, see Agnation or father- right
February : (^see also Candlemas ; and St. Brigid's Day) ; first fortnight part of venomous month, Hebrides, 40
Feet : [see also Lifting of the Bride) ; omens from itching of, Hebrides, 50
Festivals and saints' days, see Days and Seasons
Fetishism: "long ju-ju," Niger delta, 166-70
Fever : cure for, Boers, 73 ; how to detect, Hebrides, 57
Field mouse : sign of ill-luck. Outer Hebrides, 35
Fife: 'dumping' custom, harvest, 251 ; hare lip results from mother stepping over hare's form, 237
Fig-tree, Indian, see Pipul tree
Fiji islands : totems and totem clans,
354
Finch : charmed as " enemy of the rice." Malay Penin. , 160
Finchale : St. Godric, 217; "wish- ing chair " for barrenness, 235
Finger nails, see Nails, finger
Fingers : {see also Thumb) ; wound not touched with, Hebrides, 31
Finland : {see also Aland islands) : VViiina-moinen the lame hero, 88-9
Fire : ashes whirling forecast storm, Hebrides, 33 ; at Beltane, Heb- rides, 41 ; carried sunwise at Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 55 ; of cow dung lighted at first birth after 21 or 24 years' marriage, Punjab, 280 ; dreaded by bhuts, Bengal, 281 ; in dream, Hebrides. 51 ; nut fanned with skirt, Hebrides, 33 ; in hell of Larrakia tribe, iS ; new, from sacred fire-saw, at naming of child, Kenyahs, 43S ;
Index.
463
omen of house taking fire, Pun- jab, 64 ; ordeal by, Baloches, 263-4 ; passing through, to Molech, 218 ; sacred, Irish Druid guarded, 325 ; in sayings, Hebrides, 30 ; sheep bones not burned, Heb- rides, 35 ; not taken from house with toothless child, Heb- rides, 32 ; straws on embers for divination, Hebrides, 53 ; yew preserves house against, Hebrides,
Fire-drill : in myth of Tezcatlipoca, Mexico, 88-9 ; symbol of North, Mexico, 89
Firefly : from blood of murdered man, Malays, 150
Fire-saw, sacred, Kenyahs, 438
Fire-walking in Southern India, by A. C. Haddon, 89-90
Fire-walking as ordeal, Baloches, 263-4
Firstborn children, beliefs about, India, 63, 188, 278-9
Firstborn, sacrifice of, see Sacrifice
Firstfoot: St. Briavel's, 174
Firstfruits : not eaten by mother in months Jeth or Magh, 278 ; offer- ing of, 218
Fish in folklore : {^see also Cat- fish ; Eel ; Flounder ; Haddock ; Herring ; Salmon ; Sting-ray ; Thorn-back mudfish ; and Trout) ; amulets in shape of, Burmah and India, 338 ; in dream, Hebrides, 51 ; " fish eaters," Siouan group names, 389 ; fish trap dance and song, Malays, 140, 158-63 ; found dead, not removed, Hebri- des, 37 ; gills dispense with throat- cutting rite, Moslem, 265 ; Jewish bride &c. step over, 238 ; omen of coming of, Hebrides, 34 : in pool of "long ju-ju," Niger delta, 168-70 ; red-haired women disas- trous to, Hebrides, 48 ; stored, C. Australia, 412 ; as totem name, W. Australia, 356 ; not touched or eaten, Baloches, 265
Five : in charm to avert cattle disease, W. India, 189; Fridays after Good Friday, baking blest and washing cursed, Kennet Valley, 423
Flounder : why mouth crooked, Heb- rides, 37
Flowers in folklore, see Cuckoo- flower ; Kasinda flower ; and Lily
Fly : omen from, Hebrides, 50
Foal, see Horse
Folk-drama : {sec also Guisers) ; 296-7
Folkestone : Eanswida, abbess of, 214
Folk-etymology, examples of, 378-9
Folklore : bibliography, see Biblio- graphy ; collection, see Collection of Folklore ; like ideas developed at like intellectual stages, 13 ; ori- gins of, discussed, by M. Gaster, 1 1 6-9
Folklore Notes from St. Briavel's, Gloucestershire, by Miss L. M. Eyre, 114-5, 170-7
Folklore of the Kennet Valley, by Miss L. Salmon, 337, 418-29
Folk medicine, see Medical folklore
Folk-rhymes, see Rhymes
Folk sayings, see Proverbs
Folk-songs : Australia, 410, 412, 415- 6 ; Balochi, 252-6, 268-70, 273-4 ; "Border Minstrelsy," sources of, 191-7 ; invisible beings sung to for vengeance, Birria &c. tribes, 19 ; Leeds, 92 ; Lincolnshire, 91 ; magic, Malays, 138-42, 159-64; Henderson's Sir Walter Scott's Alinstrelsy of the Scottish Border reviewed, 433-5 ; Yorkshire, 95
Folktales : {see also under various types, such as Bertha type of folk- tales) ; Australia, 405-17 ; Balochi, 260-1 ; Berbers, 447 ; England, III, 176-7,297-300,421-3; Hindu, 79-S3, 304-6 ; closing formulas of marchen, no; Ireland, iio-l, 220-1, 327-30; Sahara Arabs, 285, 217-8
Food, see Meals
Fools, as village sobriquet, 386
Foot : swelling ascribed to bite of caterpillar, Malays, 157
Ford (Northum.) : bride jumps over petting stick, 230-1
Formelhafte Schliisse im Volks- Mdrchen, by R. Petsch, reviewed, no
Fort Munro (Sulaimans) : weregild &c. at, 271-2
Forty : days for special ritual to Hanuman, N.W. India, 188-9
Four : birds as omen, St. Briavel's, 171; in divination, Penang, 143; souls. Calabar, 359
Fourteen: in rite after ' trikhal ' birth, Rohtak, 67
464
Index.
Fowls : black, cut open and applied for pneumonia, Bloemfontein, 182 ; white, sacrificed at " long ju-ju," Niger delta, 167
Fox : in fable, replaced in Outer Hebrides by cat, 33 ; possession by, Japan, 149 ; witch takes shape of, Kirtlington, 289
France : {see also Aire ,• Artois ; Charente ; Dordogne ; Houneal ; Normandy ; Seine; and Yonne) ; dolmens and prayers for lover or child, 235 ; Druidism and bards in Gaul, 324-5 ; north-east, white dog in harvest sajdng, 179 ; village sobriquets, 383-4
Fraser's island : belief in ghosts and devil, not god, 19
Frazer, J. G. : communication by, 77-9 ; The Golden Bough discussed by E. W. Brabrook, 14-6 ; views on totemism discussed, 348-9, 359- 64
Freer, Miss A. Goodrich-, see Good- rich-Freer, Miss A.
French folklore, see France
Friday : {see also Good Friday) ; evil spirit or polong fed on, Malays, 148 ; five next after Good Friday, baking blest and washing cursed, Kennet Valley, 423 ; sheep not killed on, Hebrides, 42
Frisians: St. Willibrord, 215
Frith or horoscope, casting, Hebri- des, 47-50
Frog : village sobriquet, Houneal,
384
Fruits in folklore : (see also Apple ; Banana ; Lemon ; and Lime- fruit) ; charms to increase produc- tiveness of, Malay Penin., 160-1 ; in "vessel cup," Yorks. , 94-5
Fruit-trees : magic ceremonies to make more productive, Malays,
Frumity : eaten at Yuletide and
shearing, Lincolnshire, 92 Frumity flower, see Cuckoo-flower Fuarag, Hallowe'en dish, Hebrides,
Fulham, folk-etymology of, 203-4 Funeral customs and beliefs, see
Death and fimeral customs and
beliefs Funeral in dream sign of wedding,
Hebrides, 51 Fuoitrag, shell, Hebrides, 37
Future life, beliefs about, see Death and funeral customs and beliefs
Gadhiok Sheikhs, re-marry after first
birth, 279 Gainsborough : different medicines
blended, 182-3 Gairloch : no one drowned while sun
visible, 61 Galway county : folktales, 221 Games : Argyllshire, 26 ; China,
108-9 ) Hebrides, 56 ; papers on,
in 1900, 23-4 ; Staff'ordshire, 107 ;
Torres Straits, 103 Gandu-gwalagh, Balochi tribe, 259 Ganjam : fire-walking, 90 Garden of Hesperides, see Hesperides,
Garden of Garland Day at Castleton : Addenda,
by S. O. Addy, 313 Garmaf : tomb of Balochi hero, 273 Garnet : as charm, N. India, 342 Gaster, M., The Letter of Toledo,
114-34; short notice by, Schwarz-
feld's CilihiMoise, Practica si apro-
potcrile lui, Vestitul in Teara
romaneasca, dfc, 11 1-2 Gateshead : Easter Monday custom. 250 Gatherings, cure for, Kennet Valley,
420 Gaul, see France
Gaya : in Indian ghost story, 282-3 Geasa, see Taboos Geawe-gal tribe : human and animal
spirits akin, 364-5 Gelert (Llewellyn's hound) : Baloch
legend, 266 Gems, see Jewels Genii, see Jinns Germany : {see also Elsass ; Hesse ;
Darmstadt ; Holstein ; Prussia ;
Treves ; Westphalia ; and Wtirtem-
berg) ; cakes for mad dogs, 96 Ghosts : avenge injury to tomb,
Sahara Arabs, 287-8 ; charms
against, Wyke. 2, 92-4 {plate) ;
ethical value of idea, Australia, 20 ;
Fraser's island aborigines, 19 ;
High Fernley Hall, 94 ; An Indian
Ghost Story, by W. Crooke, 280-3 ;
Kennet Valley, 420. 423, 428 ;
Kabi tribe, 19 ; laid in sheep- folds, Kennet Valley, 429 ; Malay,
135-6; St. Briavel's, 175 Ginger-plant : in incantation, Malays,
138 Gipsland tribes, sec Kurnai tribes
Index.
465
Gipsies : marriage rites, East Anglia, 238, Transylvania, 244
Girls, see Women
Gishkauris, Balochi tribe, 258
Glamorganshire : {see also Swansea) ; new-married pair barred till toll paid, 232
Glasgow : St. Kentigern, 217
Gloucestershire, see Hudnalls ; New- lands ; St. Briavel's ; and White- brook
Goat : child put bodily inside, as remedy, Bloemfontein, 181 ; dung drunk for measles &c., Transvaal, 71-2, and used for casting lots, Baloches, 264 ; sacrificed at Balochi shrine, 263 ; in tale of Balochi saint, 262 ; white, sacrificed at "long ju-ju," Niger delta, 167-9
Gobag, the venomous month, Heb- rides, 40
Goblins : Chitral, 183-4 : Faroe islands, 184-5 '■> Isle of Man, 186-7
G6davari : fire-walking, 90
Godiva^story, 175
Gods, see Creator ; Deity, conceptions of ; and under various tiames of gods
Gog and Magog, nations of, in variant of Letter of Toledo, 128-29, 132
Gohei, Japanese, 24
Golden Bough, The, A Study in Magic and Religion : views in dis- cussed by E. W. Brabrook, 14-6
Gold of Ophir, The, Whence brought
\^ and by Whom, by A. Keane, re- viewed, 218-9
Gomme, Mrs. A. B. : Boer Folk- medicine and some Parallels, 69-75, 181-2 ; Harvest Customs, 113, 177-9 ; London Folk-Etymology, 204 ; review by, — Headland's Chinese Mother Goose Rhymes, 108-9
Gomme, G. L. : on totemism, 395-6 ; review by, Seebohm's Tribal Cus- tom in Anglo-Saxon Law, 97-IOI
Goodenough, Mrs., The Sister's Son in Samoa, 199-201
Good Friday : baking blest on. Ken- net Valley, 423 ; cakes made on good for internal troubles, St. Briavel's, 173 ; loaf baked on never mouldy, and good for whoop- ing cough, Kennet Valley, 423 ; washing and drying cursed on, Kennet Valley, 423, St. Briavel's, 175 ; in weather saying, Kennet
VOL. XIII. 2 H
Valley, 423 ; yeast shows cross on, Kennel Valley, 423
Gooding Day, see St. Thomas' Day
Goodrich-Freer, Miss A., More Folk- lore from the Hebrides, i, 29-62
Goose : in group names, Sioux, 388 ; village sobriquet, Devon, 386 ; as weather omen, St. Briavel's, 172
Gorishanis, Balochi tribe, 259
Grantham: in jingle, 91
Grafting vines, see Vine-grafting
Grass, dried, festooned from trees, Pongul, 77
Grass mouse, Gaelic name of field mouse, 35
Graves : among Baloches, 266 : dressed with flowers. Palm Sunday, St. Briavel's, 174 ; news got from spirit by lying on. Touaregs, 285 ; offerings at, Japan, 276-7 ; slabs at head and foot, Touaregs, 287
Greek civilisation : Prof. Ridge- way's views on, discussed by A. Nutt, 84-7
Greek folklore : {see also Achcean ; Achaia ; Achilles ; Arcadians ; Athens ; Eurytus ; Greek civilisa- tion ; Hephaistos ; Odysseus ; atui Polyphemus) ; marriage rites, 245
Green : names for less definite than red, Torres Straits, 102
Green fly, see Aphis
Greg, W. W. : short notices by, Rickert's Marie de Frajtce ; Seven of her Lays done into Etiglish, and Weston's Morien, A Metrical Ro- matice rendered into English prose from the Mediirval Dutch, 222-3 > Weston's Sir Cleges ; Sir Libeaus Desconus, 447-8
Grey : cat and snail favourites of fairies, Westruther, 178-9 ; in dream unlucky, Hebrides, 51-2 ; horse as omen, Hebrides, 49
Grove, Miss F., death of, 5, 27
Grubs as food, C. Australia, 407
Guatemala : naguals, 360 Guernsey, islanders nicknamed "don- keys," 396 : St. Patrick banished all reptiles, 396 Guisborough : brides stand on stone,
23s Guisers, 107 Gujarat, see Charans Gurchanis, Balochi tribe, 259, 267-8 Gurdaspur : ceremonies to avert evil
births, 66
466
Index.
Guyder river, see Kamilaroi Gwadar : folktales from, 253
Haddock : tribute money got by St. Peter from, Hebrides, 37
Haddon, A. C, Fire-walking in Southern India, 89-90 ; views on totemism, 393-5, 372-5
Hades : {^see also Hell) ; of Larrakia tribe, 18 ; of Sibops, 436-7 ; of Yorke's Penin. tribe, 18
Haidas : human beings reborn human souls, 356
Haifa: charm against evil eye, 1 13, 202
Hail : firstborn can stop, Punjab, 278 ; names for hailstones, Hebrides, 39
Hair : black, lucky in women, Heb- rides, 48 ; burial under door-sill de- stroys luck of house, 239 ; in charm against Powers of Evil, Hebrides, 30 ; not combed at night, Hebrides, 30, or on Sunday night, Hebrides, 41 ; cut ends tlirown in river, Ceylon, 78; "hair-growing" and "hair-cutting," 219; nailed to tree in rice harvest rite, Ceylon, 278 ; never cut, Baloches, 270 ; not self- cut, Hebrides, 30 ; of vine-grafting girl must not touch ground, 241
Plalab or Aleppo, see Aleppo
Hall, M. E., Holiday Gleanings, I. Cornwall, 429
Hallowe'en : cake, Hebrides, 55 ; divination at, Hebrides, 53-5 ; favourite dish at, Hebrides, 55
Hambantotta : rice harvest ceremony,
77
Hammersmith, folk etymology of, 204
Hamman Meskoutine : hot springs, legend to explain, Arabs, 285
Hampshire : {see also Cottington Hill ; Kingsclere ; Romsey Abbey ; and Winchester) ; " totem stones " from valley of Avon, 3
Hand : omens from itching of, Heb- rides, 50
Hanesh, fabulous snake, Sahara Arabs, 286
Hanuman, worship of, N.W. India, 188-9
Hare : stepping over form causes hare-lip, Fife, 237 ; witch as, Berkshire, 425-6, 428, St. Briavel's, 175
Hare-lip : from future mother step- ping over hare's form, Fife, 237
Hartland, E. S. : Burial Custom in Japan, 277 : reviews by, Durkheim's VAnnee Sociologiqiie, 314-23 ; Furness's The Home Life of Borneo Head Hunters, its Festivals and Folk- Lore, 4368: van Eysinga's Indische Invloeden op Oiide Christelijke Verhalen, 104-6 ; Crawley's The Mystic Rose : a Study of Primitive Marriage, 205- 9 ; Bladen's Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire, Chiefly Col- lected at Stone, 106-7 ; short notice by, Amersbach's Licht und Nebel- geister, 221-2
Hartland, J. C, Burial Custom in Japan, 276 {illus.)
Harvest customs and beliefs : {see also Corn spirits, vegetation souls, and the like) ; Berwickshire. 24, "3, 177-9, 250-1; Ceylon, 77-9, 277-8; Fife, 251; Hebrides, 42; Jakuns (j\Ialay Penin.), 159-61 ; Kinross, 251 ; Malays, 163 ; Oxfordshire, 113
Harvest Customs, by Mrs. A. B. Gomme, E. H. Binney, and Mrs. C. J. Jewitt, 177-80
Haselborough : St. Ulricus, 217
Hatfield : K. Edwin, 215
Haunted houses, Malay, 135
Hawthorn : prevents entry of witch, St. Briavel's, 175
Hay harvest customs and beliefs, see Harvest customs and beliefs
Hazel : nuts hung on apple and given on New Year's Day, St. Briavel's,
174 Head-Hunters, Black, White, and
Brown, by A. C. Haddon,
reviewed, 101-3, 436 Head-hunting, Sarawak, 436-7 Headington : witchcraft near, 290 Headless ghosts : High Fernley Hall,
94 Hearing of savages not superior to
normal, Torres Straits, 102 Hearth, sanctity of, 100 Heaven : fall of the angels, Hebrides,
44 ; of Larrakia tribe, 18 Heaving custom, 247-8 Hebrews, see Jews Hebrides : {see also Benbecula ; Eris-
kay ; Mingulay; and South Uist) ;
More Folklore from the Hebrides,
by Miss A. Goodrich-Freer, i, 29-62 Hebron : evil eye charms, 337
Index.
467
Hedge-sparrow ; blessed, not lucky, Hebrides, 36, 48; omen of death, Hebrides, 36 Heidelberg : fatalistic beliefs, 72 Heidenheim : Walberga, abbess of, 216 Hell : cold, in Hebrides' belief, 43-4 ;
of Larrakia tribe, 18 Hempseed sown in churchyard for love divination. Midsummer Eve, Kennet Valley, 422 Hen : (^see also Chicken ; a«(/ Fowls); crowing, cure for, Hebrides, 32, uluncky, Hebrides, 32 ; cut open and applied for pneumonia, England, 182 ; setting, Hebrides, 35 Hephaistos, and other lame gods, 88-9 Herbs in folklore, see Plants in folk- lore Hereford : St. Thomas, 217 Herefordshire, see Hereford Herla, King, see King Herla Herring : eaten for divination by dream, Hebrides, 55 ; king of fishes, Hebrides, 37 Hertfordshire, see Hatfield ; and St.
Albans Hesperides, Garden of: legend of
jewel-bearing oasis, Touaregs, 284 Hesse Darmstadt, see Maintz Hexham : St. Eata, 215 Hides : bull's, bride sits on, S. India
and Transylvania, 244 High Fernley Farm, charm from,
2, 92-4 {plate) Hill of Howth : King Conaire's fight
with pirates off, 330 Hills, see laide?- names, such as
Chakar Mari Hindu customs and beliefs, see India Histoire des Croyances, Stiperstitions, Ma'iirs, Usages et Continues (selon le plan du Decalogue), by F. Nicolay, reviewed, 336 History and Chronology of the Myth- making Age, by J. F. Hewitt, reviewed, 441-2 History, Tradition, and Historic
Myth, by A. Nutt, 84-7 Hoar Stones (Oxon) : could not be
moved, 295 ; legends of, 295 Hocktide Day : "kissing day," Hun-
gerford, 250
Hoggar tribe : legend of enchanted
oasis, 284-5 ! " ths people of the
sand." 287
Hogmany Night, see New Year's Eve
Holiday Gleanings : I. Cornwall, by
M. E. Hall, 429 ; II. Shropshire, by F. A. Milne, 429-30 Holland : (see also Frisians ; and Utrecht) ; eggshells as witches' boats, 431 ; fever and measles, cure for, 73 Holly : Christmas, burnt on old New
Year's Day, St. Briavel's, 174 Holstein, see Albersdorf Holy Island : ' petting stone ' for
bride, 231 ; St. Aidan, 215 Holy Virgin, see Virgin Mary Holy water : saved rebel angels,
Hebrides, 44 Holy wells, see Wells Home-Life of Borneo Head Htmters, The, its Festivals and Folk-Lore, by W. H. Furness, reviewed, 436-8 Hope, Lake, in Dieri legend, 416 Hopscotch, 107 Horehound, as remedy, Kennet
Valley, 420 Horn Childe, romance of, 1 1 1 Horoscopes, see Divination Horse : black, as omen, Hebrides, 49; bridegroom must ride, Jangams, 246 ; not driven by docken stem, Hebrides, 31 ; dung as poultice, 70, and as drink, Transvaal, 72 ; field mouse sign of ill-luck to, Hebrides, 35 ; " horse-heads," vil- lage sobriquet, 389 ; mane &c. tied by witches, Lindors, 1 75 ; omens from, Hebrides, 49, 52 ; phantom, Kennet Valley, 428 ; piebald, leader of consulted medi- cally, St. Briavel's, 172; tooth worn as cure for rheumatism, Bloemfontein, 181-2 ; unlucky to tell loss of, Hebrides, 30; "warts on horses' legs," Siouan group name, 389 ; witch and bewitched in shape of, Kennet Valley, 424-5 Horse-shoe : in charms against effects of 'trikhal' birth, Punjab, 65, Rohtak, 67 ; nailed on hand of transformed witch, Kennet Valley, 425 Hoshiarpur : fire sacrifice after ' trik-
hal ' birth, 66, 67 Host, sacred : given to churchyard toad, to become witch, Kennet Valley, 427 Hot, Balochi tribe, 257 Hot springs, see Springs Hottentots : Tsuni||goam and other lame gods, 88-9
2 H 2
468
Index.
Houneal : village sobriquet, 384 Houses : charms, written, nailed to
rafters, Wyke 2, 92-4, {plate) ;
house-rites, Anglo-Saxons, 100 ;
ridge-beam in saying, Hebrides,
30 ; not thatched with reeds,
Hebrides, 31-2 ; yew preserves
against fire, Hebrides, 32 Howitt, M. E. B., Some Native
Legends from Central Australia,
403-17 How to Annul " Blood-Brotherhood,"
by Miss C. S. Burne, 430 Hudnalls, wood of, commoners' rights
in, 175 Hull, Miss Eleanor : review by,
Nutt's Cuchulainn, the Irish
Achilles, 332-3 Hull : " vessel cup," 95 Human sacrifice, see Sacrifice, human Hundred and one : in charms against
'trikhal ' birth, Punjab, 65, Rohtak,
67 . .
Hundred and eight : in charm against
' trikhal ' birth, Rohtak, 67 Hungerford : " kissing day," 250 Hunpatina tribe : group names, 3S8 Hunter River, see Geawe-gal tribe
Ibans, see Sea Dyaks
Idebni, Touareg spirit, 285
Idiots : cannot be drowned, Hebrides,
61-2 Ignis fatuus, see Will-o'-the-Wisp Iguana : in legend of Dieyeri tribe,
405-6 Ilderton : bridal party locked into
church, and lifted over ' stone,'
229-30 Images, sacred : gohei, Japan, 24 ;
inao, Ainu, 24-5 Imprecations : swearers struck dead,
Kennet Valley, 419 Inao, Ainu, 24-5 Incantations : importance of study of,
165 ; Malay, 138-42, 165, 310 Incense burning in Malay magic,
136-7, 140, 144-5. 152 India : {see also Bengal ; Bhils ;
Bihar ; Bombay ; Ceylon; Chitral ;
Gujarat ; Kumaon ; Madras ; Ma-
habharata ; Mairs ; North West
Provinces; Oudh ; Punjab ; Sindh ;
Sulaiman hills ; Tanjore ; and
Telingana) ; amulet in fish shape,
338 ; bride &c. stand on stone,
234-5 ; collection of folklore, 302- 7 ; firstborn sacrificed, 62, can stop excessive rain, 63 ; marriage cere- monies, 80, 242-5 ; north, garnet as amulet, 342 ; north, newly mar- ried stopped till toll paid, 232-3, marriage associated with stones, 236; marriage ceremonies, 244-5 ! North- western India, Some Notes from, by W. Crooke, 188-90 ; priestly ritual, 442 ; sacred groves, 442 ; south, bride sits on bull's hide, 244; south, fire-walking, 89-90 ; south, folktale from, 79-83 ; stepping over broom cause suffering in labour to someone, 237 ; unlucky children, 198 ; village system, 442 Indian Ghost Story, An, by W.
Crooke, 280-3 Indians, see India ; North America India-rubber, ceremonies by collectors
of, Malays, 163 Indigo : not used at midwinter,
Hebrides, 40 Indische Invloeden op Oude Christe- lijke Verhalen, by G. A. v. d. B. van Eysinga reviewed, 104-6 Indus Valley; Balochi folklore, 252-74 Inflammation of lungs, see Pneumonia Inflammation of udder, cure for,
Hebrides, 56 Initiatory ceremonies : Australia. 240 Innaminka; districts near in Dieri
legend, 417 Insects in folklore : {see also Ant ; Aphis ; Bee ; Beetle ; Butterfly ; Caterpillar ; Centipede ; Cricket ; Cyvisros^e; Firefly; Fly; Ladybird; Moth ; Silkworm ; Snail ; and Spider) ; stink-bugs charmed as " enemies of the rice," Malay Penin., 160 Intichiuma ceremonies, Arunta tribe,
315, 319-20 Inverness-shire : folktales, 221 Ireland : {see also Connaught ; Cuchu- lainn sagas ; Leinster ; Mun- ster ; Tuatha De Danann sagas ; and Ulster) ; Dottin's Contes et Legendes d'Irlande, traduits du Gael i(j lie, reviewed, 220-1 ; newly dead serve predecessors, 283 ; Stokes' Notes on the Togail Bruidne Da Derga reviewed, 327- 30 ; place names compounded with "yew," 96; Thurneysen's Sagen aus dein alien Irland reviewed.
Index.
469
1 10- 1 ; saints in Nova Legenda Anglie, 2.\z-l, 217 ; Wood-Martin's Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland reviewed, 323-7
Irim, gardens of : parallel legend, Touaregs, 284-5
Iron : {^see also Axe ; Horse-shoe ; Knife ; Kris ; Needle; Pin ; Scythe ; ««(/Sickle) ; dreaded by bhuts, Ben- gal, 281,283; in dream, Hebrides, 51
Ishmaelites, in Florentine variant of Letter of Toledo, 128
Islands, see under names, such as Aland islands
Isle of Man : fairies, 186 ; familiar spirit, 187 ; spirit of unbaptized, 186-7
Italy, see Milan ; Naples ; Romans; and Tuscany
Itaziptco tribe ; group names, 3S8
Jaafir tribe, 262 Jackal : Balochi name, 272 Jack-o'Lantern, see Will-o'the Wisp Jacobabad : folktales from, 253 Jak-tree : in Perahera festival,
Kandy, 77-8 Jangams : marriage customs, 246 Jakuns : tribal feasts, 159-63 Jampur : third conception after two
births unlucky, 64 January : {see also New Year's Day ; and Old Twelfth Night) ; last fort- night part of venomous month, Hebrides, 40 ; holly burnt on old New Year's Day, St. Briavel's.
Japan : (^see also Ainu ; Atami ; and Odawara) ; barren women touched in race, 25 ; burial custom, 276-7 (illns.) ; gohei, 24 ; possession by foxes, 149
Jarrow : Bede's Chair for barrenness, 235 ; St. Benedict Biscop, 215
Jatoi, Balochi tribe, 257
Jaundice, remedy for, Bloemfontein, 181
Java : deer used in sendings, 157
Jerahmeelites : theory of Hebrew origin among, 219
Jersey, island of : islanders nick- named " crapauds," 396
Jeth, month of : firstborn not mar- ried in, nor mother eats firstfruits in, Punjab, 278
Jewels : {see also Carnelian ; Garnet ; and Turquoise) : legends of valley, palace, and trees of, Touaregs, 284-5
Jewitt, Mrs. W. H., Harvest Customs, 113, 180
Jews : Encyclopccdia Biblica reviewed, 218-9 ; marriage rites, 218, 238 ; phylactery, 337 ; Duff's The The- ology and Ethics of the Hebrews reviewed, 442-4
Jhanda, weddingdance of Kattais, 243
Jhelum : re-marriage after first birth, 279 ; ' trikhal ' child drilled with lYz holes, 68
Jingle Sung at Castleton, by Miss M. Peacock and F. Kidson, 91-2
Jinns : cause whirling sand spouts, Sahara, 285 ; "song of the sands " is their talk, Arabs, 286
Jive Lai, Balochi shrine, 262
Jogis, origin of, 198
Journey : omens at starting, Baloches 264 ; starting, unlucky to recall or return after, Hebrides, 231
Ju-ju, of Aros, 166-70 {//a/fc')
July : Perahera procession, Kandy,
77-9 June : {see also Midsummer Eve ; and St. Peter's Day) ; Perahera procession, Kandy, 77-9
Kabi tribe : believe in water spirits
and ghosts, not deity, 19 Kadiwonkuru, a legend of the Yau-
rorka, 409-11 Kadlikua, in Wonkanguru and Ura-
bunna legend, 414 Kakars : parents re-married after first
birth, 279 Kalamantans : deer not eaten, 356 Kalat : folktales from, 253 Kamilaroi, Guyder river : believe in
creator and spirits, 19 Kandy : Perahera procession, 77-9 Kangra : special names for child born
after twins, 279, and born after two
of other sex, 279 Kanjaris : marriage customs, 243 Kapiri, see Iguana Kapurs : parents re-married after first
birth, 279 Karnal : eighth child dangerous to
mother, 68 : name for son born
after three girls, 66 Kasinda flowers in Indian folktale,
80
470
Index.
Kasur: belief about 'trikhal' births, 66 Kataragama. priests of, share in
Perahera festival, 77 Katik, month of : child born in un- lucky, Punjab, 280 Katitandra, see Lake Eyre Kattais : marriage rites, 242-3 Kattaragam : rice harvest ceremony,
77 Kayasths : bride puts foot on stone,
&c., 236 Kech : Balochi tribes in, 257 Kedah : familiar spirit, 150 Keeling Island : dancing - spoon,
142-3 Kelantan : possession at, 153-4 Kelat, see Kalat Kennedy, L., Lame Gods, 88-9 Kennet Valley, Folklore in the, by
Miss L. Salmon, 337, 418-29 Kent : {see also Canterbury ; Cranbrook ; Dover: Folkestone; Minster ; a;/^ Rochester) ; K. Ethelbert, 214 Kenyahs : head-hunting, 437; naming of child, 437-8 ; taboos on child before naming, 438 Khannas : parents re-married after
first birth, 279 Kharwars : marriage customs, 246 Khatris : {see also Chopras ; Kakars ; Kapurs ; Khannas ; Kochhars ; a7id Malhotras) ; funeral rites of hus- band performed in wife's first pregnancy, 279 Khonds : marriage ceremonies, 242 Killalpanina : legends from, 404-17 King Arthur : Rickerl's Marie de France ; Sez'en of her Lays done into English, and Weston's il/cr?>«, A ]\Iet7-ical Romance rendered into English prose from the Mediaeval Dutch, reviewed, 222-3 King Conaire the Great of Tara,
327-30 King Cormac of Ulster, 32S King Eterscel of Tara, 328-9 King Herla, story of, 222 R'ing Horn, by J. Hall, reviewed, 1 1 1 King Laurin, Prof. Amersbach's
theory about, 222 Ivings, Anglo-Saxon, referred to in
Nova Legenda Anglie, 214-6 Kingsclere : witchcraft, 427 King's Lynn : witchcraft, 431 King Solomon, in Arab legend, 285 King, W. J. H., Myths Current in the Sahara Desert. 2S4-S
Kinross : 'dumping custom, harvest,
Kirarawa class, see Urabunna tribe
Kirn dollies, see Corn spirits, vegeta- tion souls, and the like
Kirtlington : witch takes shape of fox, 289
Kirton-in-Lindsey : Christmas bough, 203 : jingle from, 92
Kistna : fire-walking, 90
Klerksdorp : green paint as cure for ailments, 70
Knife : in charm against stye, Hebrides, 58 ; in mast brings wind, Hebrides, 32 ; in proxy marriage, India, 80
Knock : visions at, 91
Knotting : at marriage, 34, Kanjaris,
243 Knutsford : marriage customs, 245 Kobongs or totems, W. Australia,
Kochhars : customs during first
pregnancy, 279 Kolis : bride stands in basket with
stone, 235 Koombokkaburra tribe : dead not
named, 19 ; religious belief, 19 Kootchie, evil spirit, Dieyeri tribe,
403 ; Yaurorka tribe, 41 1-2 Korai, Balochi tribe, 257 Kris, Malay : familiar demon in
form of, 148, 158 Krishna, sun god, in Perahera
festival, Kandy, 78 Krugersdorp : pneumonia, cure for, .70 Kula (Himalayas) : yew sprig offered
to god Bastar, 20I Kulva (a hakea), in Urabunna
legend, 413 Kumaon : unlucky children, 198 Kunundaburi : gaura or totem, 352 Kurnai tribes : no religious belief,
but practise magic, 19-20 ; women
kill sex totem of backward wooers,
362 Kutchi, see Kootchie Kuyimokuna, A Legend of the Dieri,
405-6 Kuyuna, in Wonkanguru and Ura- bunna legend, 414
Ladybird : formula for, addressed to butterfly, Walkley, 432
Index.
471
Ladycow, see Ladybird Lakes : {see also Burcoot ; Eyre ; and Hope) ; in dreams sign of death, Hebrides. 51 ; reeds from not used in thatching, Hebrides, 3 1 -2 Lai Shahbaz, Balochi shrine, 262 Lamb, see Sheep Lame Gods, by L. Kennedy, 8S-9,
C. Australia, 409 Lanarkshire, see Glasgow Lancashire: {see also Bolton-le-Moors; Manchester ; and Warrington) ; ' lifting ' custom, 249
Lang, A. : communications by, 75-9, 183-4 ; Exogamy and the Austra- lian System, 340, 398-402 ; The Making of Religion discussed by E. W. Brabro'ok, 16-23 ; The Origin of Totem Names and Be- Hefs, 339, 347-91 ; The Sources of Some Ballads in the " Border J\Iin- strelsy," 191-97 ; Tree Worship, 90-1
Langat (Selangor) : palm-blossom dance, 137-40
Lango tribes (Nile) : blood-brother- hood, how to annul, 430
Langsuir, ghost of women dead in childbirth, Malays, 135
Lantern on table unlucky, St. Bria- vel's, 172
Lantern slides, scheme for providing, 9
Lapwing : in fable, Hebrides, 35 ; words of cry, Hebrides, 35
Largitzen : village sobriquet, 384
Lark : bird of Mary, Hebrides, 39 ; crested, sacred, Hebrides, 36 : skylark, good omen, Hebrides, 49
Larrakia tribe, religious beliefs of, 17-8
Lasharis, Balochi tribe, 254-5, 257-8, 267, 273
Laurin, King, see King Laurin
Lecture committee, 7, 9
Leechcraft, see Medical folklore
Leeds : folk-song, 92
Left : omens from shrike seen on, Baloches, 264 ; unlucky side, Baloches, 264
Legharis, Balochi tribe, 258, 267-8
Leinster, see Dublin county ; and Meath
Lemon: in divination, Penang, 143-4.
154-5 Lemon-tree : names for parts of, Penang, 155 ; revered, Penang,
154-5 Leopard ; mask, Benin, 440
Leprosy, among Hebrews, 218
Letter of Toledo, The, by M. Gaster, 114-34
Levitation, in Malay literature, 135
Lhiannan-Shee, familiar spirit, Isle of Man, 187
Liar : cause of devil removing side fins from trout, Hebrides, 36-7
Library of Folk-Lore Society, see Books
Lichen : blood of angels of Aurora Borealis, Hebrides, 44
Lichfield : St. Chad, 215
Licht tend Nebelgeister : Ein Beitrag ziir Sageu- iind Mdrchenkitnde, by K. Amersbach, reviewed, 22 1 -2
Lidstone : traditional battle, 295
Life index : pipul tree as, Bengal. 283
Lifting of men by women, and women by men, 247-51
Lifting of the Bride, The, by W. Crooke, 225, 226-51
Lifu : taboo laid by influential man, .366-7
Lightning : attracted by firstborn children, N.W. India, 188, 278, Telingana, 63 ; omen of calamity, from, Punjab, 64 ; yew branches avert, Spain, 32 Lily: white-lily root ointment, Xennet
Valley, 420 Lime-fruit : divination from, Malays, 155 ; soul abducted into bunch of, Alalays, 155 ; used in ceremonial bathing, Malays, 155 Lincoln : St. Hugo, 217 Lincolnshire : {see also Boston ; Bottesford ; Croyland ; Gains- borough ; Grantham ; Kirton-in- Lindsey ; and Lincoln) ; bride lifted over threshold, 242 ; Christmas boughs, 202 ; frumity- eating seasons, 92 ; jingle from, 91 Lindisfarne, see Holy Island Lindors : witchcraft at, 175 Lips : omen from itching of, Hebrides,
50
Liver : as central life organ, 219 ; seat of affections, Dieyeri tribe, 405-6
Lizard : {sec also Iguana) ; in Balochi story, 273 ; black, man perfected from, Dieyeri tribe, 403 ; house, classed with crocodile, Malays, 157 ; man at first in form of, Dieyerie tribe, 18; as totem. New Caledonia, 353 ; in Urabunna
472
Index.
legend, 412-3 ; village sobriquet, Angouleme, 384
Lochlomond : sheep dung drunk, 75
London : {see also Chelsea : Fulham ; Hammersmith ; and Putney) ; cow- dung poultices, 73-4 ; patients should not be washed, 72-3 ; St. Erkenwald, 214
London Folk-Etymolog}', by F. A. jNIilne, 203-4
Long Compton : in folklore of Roll- right Stones, 292-3 ; witch's blood drawn, 290
'' Long Ju-ju," 166-70, {plate)
Looe : trees whisper future on 21st of month, 429
Lost, charm against being, Hebrides,
37
Lots, casting : Baloches, 264
Love divination, see Divination
Love songs, see Folk songs
Lovett, E., The Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition, 337j 340-7, (plate) ; Tallies and their Survivals, I ; The Vessel Cup,
3. 94-5 Lucca : Frigdianus, bishop of, 216 Lucky and unlucky days and deeds :
Hebrides, 29, 37, 41-2, 48, Kennet
Valley, 425 ; at marriage, 241 : St.
Briavel's, 172 ; Shropshire, 430 Ludlow : 'heaving' custom, 247-8 Lunds, Balochi tribe, 258 Lupercalia : barren women touched
at, 25 Lustrations, ceremonial : in ' lifting '
custom, 252, Ludlow, 247-8
Mabinogion, The, by L B. John, re- viewed, 330-1
Mabuiag Island : totemisni, 102-3
Macintosh, cat good omen for, Heb- rides, 49
Mackenzie, yellow horse omen of, Hebrides, 49
Macpherson, cat good omen for, Heb- rides, 49
Macumba country, in Yaurorka le- gend, 411
Macumba river, in Wonkanguru and Urabunna legend, 413-4
Madagascar : dreams from good spirits. 22 ; palanquin bearer in- jured by woman stepping over pole, 237-S
Mad dogs, cakes for, Germany, 96
Madjuit-madjuit, regulator of tides, Larrakia tribe, 18
Madonna, The, see Virgin Mary
Madras : fire-walking, 89-90
Madras Presidency, see Allandur ; Ganjam ; Godavari ; Khonds ; Ma- dras ; Nellore ; North Arcot ; Sa- lem : and Tinnevelly
Madu Sami, road or river god, Cey- lon, 77, 277-8
Marchen, see Folktales
Magh, month of : firstborn not mar- ried in, nor mother eats first-fruits in, Punjab, 278
Magic : {see also Amulets and talis- mans ; Charms and spells ; Incan- tations ; rt«^ Witchcraft) ; firstborn has magical powers, Punjab, 278 ; among Hebrews, 218 ; among Kur- nai tribes, 19-20 ; among Malays, 136, 145-54, 157-S, 163-4; nigro- mancy taught at Toledo by devil, 120 ; " pointing the bone," Central Australia, 406 ; as related to religion, J. G. Frazer's views on, i4-6,_ 315, 323 ; rice spoon used in, Malays, 164 ; spirit invoked, lying on tomb, Touaregs, 285
Magic squares in Eastern charms, 190
Magpie : omens from, St. Briavel's, 171
Mahabharata : father-and-son com- bat, 445
Mailros : St. Wallevus, 217
Maintz : St. Boniface, 216
Mairs : firstborn son sacrificed, 63
Major, A. F. : short notices by, Clark Hall's Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, 223 ; Faraday's The Edda : I. The Divine Mythology of the North, 223-4
Making of Religion, The, discussed by E. W. Brabrook, 16-23
Malabar : fire-walking, 90 ; marriage rites, Namburis, 245
Malacca cane, ceremonies by col- lectors of, Malays, 163
Malay archipelago : prophetic dream, 22
Malay Peninsula : (^see also Besisi ; Jakuns ; Kedah : Kelantan ; Pa- tani ; Penang ; Perak ; Selangor ; rt;/(/Trengganu) ; collection of folk- lore, 307-10 ; crocodiles as kinsmen, 366; spiritualism, 115, 134-65
Index.
473
Malay Spiritualism, by W. W. Skeat, 1 15-134-65
Malhotras : parents re-married after first birth, 279
Man : boy baby in dream, omen from, Hebrides, 51 ; boy may not be killed till assumes man's dress, Baloches, 267 ; boys born after and before girl unlucky, Punjab, 280 ; middle of three successive boys lucky, Punjab, 280 ; more lucky than woman, Shropshire, 430 ; as village sobriquet, 386
Manchester: 'lifting' custom, Easter, 249
Manchus : bride steps over saddle, 236, sits in red chair, 244
Mandans ; group names, 390-1 ; sur- vivals of female descent, 351, 390
Mandrake : procures conception, He- brews, 218
Mangarrara, the Creator, Larrakia tribe, 18
Mangs : bride stands in basket with stone, 235
Manitus : in relation to totemism, 349-50, 365, 366, 368
Manning, P., Stray Notes on Oxford- shire Folklore, 114, 288-95
Manx folklore, see Isle of I\Ian
Maoris : worship of vegetationspirit, 25
March, see Annunciation, Feast of ; and St. Patrick's Day
Marett, R. R. : on totemism and ex- ogamy, 396-7; reviews by, Nicolay's Histoire des Croyances, Super- stitions, Maurs, Usages, et Cotdtmies {selon le plan dii Decalogue), 336 ; Letourneau's La Psychologie Eihnique, 209-11
Marie de France : Seven of her Lays done into Ettglisk, by Miss E. Rickert, reviewed, 222-3
Marillier, Leon, death of, 26-7
Mari Mata, goddess of death, N. India, 189
Markanyankula, a Legend of the Wonkanguru and Urabunna, 413-4
Marmalade, folk etymology of, 378
Marriage customs and beliefs : Aus- tralia, 19, 315-8, 340, 398-402; Baloches, 269-71; Bhils, 243; blood-covenant in marriage rites, Bengal, Bonabe, Romans, Society islands, 208 ; bride collects wool, Hebrides, 32; bride wears something borrowed, Hebrides, 33 ; Cheshire,
245 ; dances, 235 ; divination, Hebrides, 53-5, Kennet Valley, 422, Rollright Stones, 235, Torres Straits, 103 ; divorce, 445 ; Dur- ham, 245 ; Egypt, 238 ; Esthonia, 234 ; first of several marriages lucky, Hebrides, 33 ; France, 235 ; gipsies, 238, 244; among Hebrews, 218, 238; Holstein, 235; India, 234, 242-7 ; Kent, 245 ; The Lift- ing of the Bride, by W. Crooke, 225, 226-51 ; Manchus, 236, 244 ; marriage associated with stones, 234-7 ; marriage by capture, 233-4, 239 ; Crawley's The Mystic J\ose, a Study of Primitive Marriage reviewed, 205-9 ; Northumberland, 227-32 ; polyandry and polygamy,
445 : Prussia, 446 ; Punjal), 278-9 ; re-marriage after first birth, and after twenty births, Khatris, 279 ; Scotland, 242 ; Shiah Mahomedans,
446 ; six birds omen of wedding, St. Briavel's, 171; swayamvara, or choosing of husbands, 445 ; tem- porary marriages, Shiah Mahome- dans, &c., 446; Torres Straits, 103 ; Transylvania, 244 ; Turkey, 245 ; Wiltshire, 241 ; Yorkshire, 235
Marriage feast in dream sign of death, Hebrides, 51
Marris, Balochi tribe, 266
Marsh Gibbon : witchcraft at, 291
Marsh mallow : as remedy, Kennet Valley. 420
Martin, W. , Goblins in the Isle of Man, 186-7
Marunga tribe : folk-song, 412
Marwaris: marriage customs, 246-7
jNIary river, see Kabi tribe
Mary, Virgin, see Virgin Mary
Masks : Benin, 440
Masts : knife in brings wind, He- brides, 32
Mata, smallpox goddess, firstborn son sacrificed to, Mairs, 63
Mataatu (Samoa) : rights of rest of family to man's property, 200-1
Mati-anak, Malay demon, 135
Matriarchy, see Mother-right
Mathura, shrines at, 303
Matthurie class, see Urabunna tribe
May : {see also May Day) ; agricul- ture lucky in first 16 days, He- brides, 40-1 ; Perahera procession, Kandy, 77-9
May Day : Beltane bannock, cheese,
474
Index.
and fire, Hebrides, 41 ; cuckoo
comes, Hebrides, 40 ; in saying,
Hebrides, 38; the •' yellow beltane,"
Hebrides, 40 INIayo, see Knock Maypole with yew twigs, Aland
islands, 96 Maziiri, Balochi tribe, 259 Meals : leavings not returned to
chest, Hebrides, 33 Measles, drinks for use in, Trans- vaal, 71-2 Meath, see Bregia; a«flf Tara Medical folklore : {see also Charms
and spells) ;
diseases and injuries treated : — ague, 182 ; bad legs, 74 ; blood- poisoning, 73-4 ; bronchitis, iSi ; bruises, 74 ; burns and scalds, 56 ; colds, 173 ; conjunctivitis, yi ; earache, 182; epilepsy, 56; erj'- sipelas, 56 ; eyes, pain in, 57-8 ; fever, 73 ; gatherings, 420 ; in- flamed udder, 56 ; internal troubles, 173 ; jaundice, 181 ; madness, 96; measles, 71-3 ; of cow, 56 ; of dog, 96 ; pneumonia, 70, 182 ; renal dropsy, 70; rheum- atism, 181-2, 420 ; rose-rash, 56; smallpox, 75 ; sprains, 74 ; tooth- ache, 182 ; typhoid fever, 182 ; ulcers, 73-4; warts, 420; whooping- cough, 172, 423; wounds, 71, 420;
among Hebrews, 218 ; lame gods of healing, 88-9 ;
localities: — Bloemfontein, 181 -2 ; Ceylon, 79 : England, 182 ; Ger- many, 96 ; Hebrides, 56-8 ; Hol- land, 73 ; Kennet Valley, 430-3 ; Lincolnshire, 183 ; Lochlomond, 75 ; London, 73-4 ; Oban, 74 ; St. Briavel's, 172-3 ; Shropshire, 74-5 ; Transvaal, 70- 1 ;
nature of illness, how to find, He- brides, 57;
remedies : — black fowl cut open and applied to chest, 182 ; cabbage seeds, 181 ; cakes stamped with vew dies, 96 ; cat fur, 181 ; cow dung, 73-4, 181 ; finger and toe nails, cutting, 182; Good Friday cakes, 173 ; Good Friday loaf, 423 ; goat, insertion of child into, Bloemfontein, 181 ; goat's dung, 71-2 ; green decoction, 73 ; green paint, 70 ; horehound, 420; horse dung, 70, 72 ; licking after
licking otter liver, 56 ; marsh mallow poultices, 420 ; meat, raw, 71 ; medicines mixed to- gether or for different diseases, 73, 183 ; potato, 182 ; sheep dung, 75 ; sheepskin, 182 ; spittle, 57-8 ; steam from oven, 420 ; tansy- tea, 420 ; urine, 71 ; water trickling over sickle, 57 ? water from Barrow Well, 173 ; water taken from river at sunrise, 79; white lily root ointment, 420; wood sage, 420; wormwood, 71 ; wounds not touched with finger or thumb, Hebrides, 31 Meetings, 1-4, 5-6, 1 13-5, 225-6, 337-40 IMekran: {see also Bampur; aWKech); Balochi tribes in, 257 ; cairns in, 265-6 Melanesia : {see also Banks islands ; Fiji islands ; Lifu ; a7td New Caledonia) ; crocodiles as kinsmen, 366 ; influential man lays taboo, 366 ; place names iS;c. given to human groups, 383, 391 ; soul boxes, 359 ; tendency to female descent, 351 Melusine, discontinuance of, 112 Members deceased, i, 5, 27-8 Members elected, i, 5, 113-4, 225 Members resigned, i, 5, 113-4,225 Mending clothes, see Clothes Mercia : saints in Nova Legenda
Anglie, 214-6 Metals in folklore, see Brass ; Iron ;
and Sil\"er Mexico :
ancient: — fire-drill or flintstone symbol of North, 89 ; the god Tezcatlipoca, 88-9 modern : — naguals, 349 Michael, the Archangel, to destroy
Gog and Magog, 1 29 Michaelmas : bannocks on, Hebrides, 44-5 ; festival, Hebrides, 45 ; in sa\ing, Kennet Valley, 423 ; wild carrots given on, Hebrides, 45 Micronesia, see Bonabe Middelburg (Transvaal) : renal
dropsy, cure for, 70 Middlesex, see London Midir of Bri Leith, husband of
Etain, 328 Midlands : {see also under names of
counties') ; ' lifting ' customs, 249 Midlothian, see Edinburgh ; and Duddingston Loch
Index.
475
Midsummer Eve : sowing hempseed in churchyard for love divination, Kennet Valley, 422
Midwinter : a " dead" month, Heb- rides, 40 ; no indigo dyeing at, Hebrides, 40
Milan : Dacius, bishop of, 214
Millet : bride stands in basket of, Berads, 235, or walks over baskets of, N. India, 244
Milne, F. A., Holiday Gleanings, n. Shropshire, 429-30 ; London Folk-Etymolog)', 203-4
Milya-uppa tribe, beliefs of, 18
Mincopies, not in primitive state, 383
Mingulay : charm in, 57
Minikooju tribe : group names, 388
Mirzapur : folk tales, 305-6
Mistletoe : rites not Irish, 325
Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition, The, by E. Lovett, 337, 340-7 (//are?)
Mohammed : Balochis claim descent from uncle of, 256
Mole : forefoot averts rheumatism, St. Briavel's, 173 ; once a fine lady, Kennet Valley, 422
Molucca bean : the nut of Mary, Hebrides, 39
Monday : {see also Easter Monday) ; evil spirit or polongfedon, Malays, 148 ; first in quarter, for casting frith, Hebrides, 47 ; flit with lamb on, Hebrides, 42 : sayings, Heb- rides, 41-2 ; unlucky day to begin on, Hebrides, 41 ; world ends on, Hebrides, 41
Monkey: monkey-dance, Malays, 136; monkey-song. Malay Penin., 161 ; village sobriquet, 385 ; worship of monkey-god, N.W. India, 1S8-9
Monmouthshire, see Whitebrook
Moon : ceremony after birth during eclipse of, Gurdaspur, 66 ; creator of living beings, Dieyeri tribe, 18 ; Madjuit - madjuit regulates tides by, Larrakia tribe, 18 ; new, ceremony for, Hebrides, 33 ; new, Perahera festival fixed by, Kandy, 77-9 ; Nganto-warrina who became the moon, C. Aus- tralian legend, 406-7 ; worship of, 218, 441
Mooniandi, devil, Ceylon, 277-8
Mooramoora, the creator, Dieyerie tribe, 18, 355, or creators, 403-4,
Mori en, A Metrical Romance rendered
into English prose from the Mcdicc-
val Dutch, by Miss J. L. Weston,
reviewed, 222-3
Morpeth : St. Robert of Newminster,
217 Moth : as omen, Hebrides, 50 Mothering Sunday, 107, 174 Mother-in-law, taboo of, 209 Mother-right : among Australian trijjes, 317-8, 351 ; discussed, 207, 445 ; survivals in tribes now inheriting totem in male line,
Mountains, i'^t' Ahnet mountains; and
Tirich Mir Mount Freeling, see Dieyerie tribe Mount Olivet, see Olivet, Mount Mount Remarkable, see Doora tribe Mourning customs, see Death and
funeral customs and beliefs Mouse : cat created to protect
Lazarus from, Outer Hebrides, 34 ;
as totem. New Caledonia, 353 ;
village sobriquet, 385-6 Mozaffargarh : name for child with
improperly shaped head, 68 Mule : village sobriquet, 385 Mummers, Christmas, see Christmas Mumming-Play and other Vestiges of
Folk-Drama in the British Isles,
The, by T. F. Ordish, 296-7 Mungerra tribe : fear of super- natural beings and dead, 19 Munsler : {see also Cork) ; folktales,
220 Mura Mura, see Mooramoora Murder : corpse bleeds if touched by
murderer, Kennet Valley, 422 ;
memorial stone bleeds if pin stuck
in, St. Briavel's, 171 ; weregild for,
Baloches, 271 Murrain, charm to avert, Hebrides,
41 Murray islands : Haddon's Head-
HiDiters, Black, White, and Brown
reviewed, 101-3 Murring tribes : Daramulun a lame
god, 88 Music : musical instruments, Balochi,
253-4, Indian, 254 Musiiuakie beadwork, 25-6 Musri, Exodus from, and not from
Egypt, 219 Mysterious Lake tribe : group names,
388 Mystic Rose, The : a Study of Primi-
476
Index,
tive Marriage, by E. Crawley,
reviewed, 205-9, 234, 241 Myth-making Age, History and
Chronology of the, by J. F. Hewitt,
reviewed, 441 -2 Myths Current in the Sahara Desert,
by W. J. H. King, 284-8 Myths, historic, discussed by A. Nutt,
84-7
Naguals not true totems, C. America, 349-50, 360, 376, 393
Nahan : rites after ' trikhal ' birth, 67
Nahuas : newly-married must not touch ground, 242
Nails, finger : cut and buried for toothache, Bloemfontein, 182 ; omen from white spot on, Hebrides, 50 : demon possession by entry under, Japan, 149
Nails, toe : cut and buried for tooth- ache, Bloemfontein, 182 ; cut under ash tree as cure for tooth- ache, St. Briavel's, 173
Nairnshire, see Cawdor
Namburis : marriage rites, 245
Names : ceremony of naming, Sarawak, 437-8 ; not disclosed, and second name in reserve, India, 307 ; personal nicknames as origin of totemism, 358-9 ; of pristine human groups, arising from nick- names, 382-93
Nanganburra, creator of first black- fellow, Larrakia tribe, 18
Naples : charms, 342 : storm of 1343 foretold by astrology, 125
Nar, Balochi musical instrument, 254
Nardoo seeds, C. Australia, 407, 409- 10, 412-3
Narimaia creek, in Wonkanguru and Urabunna legend, 414
Narl-wolpu, meeting-place in Dieyeri legend, 406
Natal, see Boer
Natha, priests of, share in Perahera festival, Kandy, 77-9
Nativity, The, 219
Nazarites, 219
Nebraska, see Omaha Indians
Necromancy, see Magic
Needle : charm for prick from, Ileb- ribes, 33 ; used in divination, Penang, 143
Nellore: fire-walking, 90
Nemglan, king of birds, Ireland, 329
Nephew, rights of, see Uncle, maternal
Nettle : rhyme about, Hebrides, 39
Newbury : witchcraft near, 425
New Caledonia : injury to totem mourned, 353, if by owner pun- ished, 352-3, if by others not danger to owner, 359 ; names of relationships, 353
New Guinea : charm, 337 ; collec- tion of folklore, 31 1-2; food supply needs magical aid, 394 ; Haddon's Head Hicnters, Black, White, and Brown reviewed, 101-3
Newlands (Glouc.) : witchcraft at, 176
Newminster (Morpeth) : St. Robert, 217
Newnham Murren : witch takes shape of white cat, 289-90
Newport (Salop) ; guisers, 107 ; place rhymes, 391-3
New South Wales : [_see also Bah- kunjy tribe ; Bourke ; Geawe-gal tribe ; Hunter river ; Guyder river : a7id Kamilaroi) ; mother- right in tribes, 317
New Year's Candle, Hebrides, 46
New Year's Day : firstfoot, St. Briavel's, 174 ; gift of apple &c. on, St. Briavel's, 174; 'lifting' custom, Westmoreland, 247 ; old, holly burnt on, St. Briavel's, 174; new pin dropped in water, St. Briavel's, 174 ; wind on, omen for year, Hebrides, 40
New Year's Eve : in Hebrides, 45- 6 : Hogmany originally on Christmas Eve, 45 ; Rollright Stones drink, 292 ; wraiths of those to die seen in churchyard, St. Briavel's, 174
New Zealand, see Maoris
Nezagh-Khushta : spring caused by Balochi saint, 261
Nganto-warrina who became the moon. Central Australian legend, 406-7
Ngarabana tribe : legend, 411
Ngatani-Maru-Maru and Ngatani- Maralye, a Legend of the Dieri Tribe, 414-7
Nicknames, see Names
Niger Delta, see Aros
Nigromancy, see Magic
Index.
■Ml
Nineveh, 218
Norfolk, see Bawburgh ; King's Lynn ; Norwich ; Walpole ; rt«(f Wells
Nooreli, Australian deity, 355
Normandy, see Rouen ; and St. Clair
North : fire-drill or flintstone symbol of, Mexico, 89
North America : (^see also Canada ; Eskimo ; Guatemala ; Mexico ; United States ; and West Indies) ; names of some totem groups are nicknames, 387-91 ; north-west, myths of origin of totemism, 355 ; totems not incarnations of gods, 354
North Arcot : fire-walking, 90
North Pole : polar point the primary fire-stone, Mexico, &c., 89
Northumberland, see Alnwick ; Bam- burgh ; Belford ; Chathill ; Co- quet ; Embleton ; Fame island ; Ford ; Hexham ; Holy Island ; Ilderton ; Morpeth ; Newminster ; Rothbury ; Tynemouth ; and Whit- tingham
Northumbria : saints in Nova Legenda Anglie, 21 ^-y
North West Provinces, see Benares ; Kharwars ; Marwarts ; Mirzapur ; and Shikarpur
Norwich : St. Walstan of Bawburgh, 216 ; St. William, 217
Nose : omen from itching of, He- brides, 50
Notes on the Folklore of North Staf- fordshire, Chiefly Collected at Stone, by W. W. Bladen, reviewed, 106-7
Notes on the Togail Brtiidne Da Derga, by Dr. Stokes, reviewed, 327-30
Nova Legenda Anghe, edit, by C. Horstman, reviewed, 212-7
November, see All Saints' Day ; All Souls' Day ; and St. Andrews' Eve
Nine : in charm against whooping cough, St. Briavel's, 172
Numbers in folklore : (^see also jinder various 7iu»ibers, sttch as Eight) ; magic squares in Eastern charms, 190 ; odd number of stems in di- vining rod, Malays, 145
Nursery rhymes : China, 108-9 • Hebrides, 38 ; St. Briavel's, 177
Nursery tales, see Folktales
Nutt, A. : footnote to More Folk- lore from the Hebrides, 41 ; His- tory, Tradition, and Historic Myth,
84-7 ; reviews by, Dottin's Contes et Legendes d^Irlande, traduits du Gaeliqzie, 220-1 ; Gregory's Ciichn- lain of Ahdrthenine, 333-5 ; Thur- neysen's Sogen aus dein alten Irland, no- 1; short notice by. Hall's King Horn, ill Nyarongs not true totems, Sarawak, 349-50, 370-2, 376
Oak-tree: appearance of Madonna in, Tuscany, 90-1 ; saying of. Outer Hebrides, 34
Oaths : {see also Imprecations) ; among Baloches, 264-5
Oban : cow dung applied to wound,
74 October, see Hallowe'en Odawara : burial custom, 276-7
{illns.) Odysseus sagas : bed of Odysseus,
442 ; fight with Telegonus, 445 Offa's Dyke, called Devil's Dyke,
St. Briavel's, 171 Old Twelfth Night : P"aroe islands.
Olivet, Mount, Antichrist slain on,
129 Omaha Indians : totemism, 367-8 Omar, hell of Larrakia tribe, 18 Omens : from animals, Hebrides, 34, 48-9, 52, St. Briavel's, 17 1 ; from apple-tree blooming out of season, Kennet Valley, 423 ; from birds, Baloches, 264, Hebrides, 36, 48-9, 52, St. Briavel's, 171-2 ; from birth, Punjab, 64 ; from dreams, Hebrides, 51-2 ; from ears, Hebrides, 33, 50 ; from insects, Hebrides, 50, St. Briavel's, 171 ; from itching of parts of body, Heb- rides, 50; from sneezing, Hebrides, 50; from sower missing "land," Kennet Valley, 423 ; from spots on nail or tooth, Hebrides, 50 ; from wind. New Year's Day, Hebrides, 40 ; of death, Hebrides, 34, 36, 48-9, 51, 61, Kennet Valley, 423, Punjab, 64, St. Briavel's, 17 1-2 ; of future state of dead, St. Briavel's, 172 ; of hunting, Baloches, 264 ; of journey, Baloches, 264; of mar- riage, St. Briavel's, 171 ; of re- covery of sick, Hebrides, 49 ; of
478
Index,
storm, Hebrides, 33 ; of stranger's coming, St. Briavel's, 171
Onions : " eaters of onions," village sobriquet, Avalon, 384
Ophir : Keane's The Gold of Ophir, Whence brought and by Whom, re- viewed, 218-9
Opossum: as totem name, W. Aus- tralia, 356
Orange River Colony, see Bloemfon- tein ; and Boer
Oraons : wedding dance, 242
Ordeals : Bozdars, 263 ; Malays, 136,
145
Ordish, T, F., The Mumming-Play and other Vestiges of Folk-Drama in the British Isles, 296-7
Origin of the Woma and Kapiri, a Wonkanguru Legend, 409
Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs, The, by A. Lang, 339, 347-91
Otter : liver gives power of curing burns &c. , Hebrides, 56 ; male, enchanted, Hebrides, 35 ; " otter spot " on human body, Hebrides, 61
Otterboiirne, ballad of, 1 96-7
Oudh, see Mathura
Outlaw Murray, ballad of the, 191 -2
Overlooking, see Evil Eye
Owl : a baker's daughter, Kennet Valley, 421 ; as death omen, St. Briavel's, 172
Oxford : St. Frideswida, 214
Oxfordshire: {see also '^2>.i\.oxi; Charl- bury ; Chipping Norton ; Culham ; Dorchester ; Ducklington ; En- stone ; Headington ; Hoar Stones ; Kirtlington ; Lidstone ; Long Compton ; Newnham Murren ; Oxford ; Rollright Stones ; Salford ; Stanton Harcourt ; Stanton St. John ; Steeple Barton ; Tetsworth ; rt;;i^ Witney) ; Stray Notes on Ox- fordshire Folklore, by P. Manning, 114, 288-95
Pace eggs, Hebrides, 40
Paint, green, as cure for ailments, Transvaal, 70
Palestine : (,see also Bethsaida ; Caper- naum ; Corozaim ; Hebron ; and Olivet, Mount) ; in Encyclopadia Biblica, 218 ; Paton's The Early History of Syria attd Palestine reviewed, 442-3
Palm : (see also Areca palm ; a}id
Coco-nut palm) ; birches from
leaf ribs used in divination,
Penang, 143-4 : goat starved in
branches of, "long ju-ju," Niger
delta, 169 Palm Sunday : " Flowering Sunday,"
St. Briavel's, 1 74-5 ; Hebrides, 32,
40 ; pace eggs on, Hebrides, 40 Palm-wine, charm used in collecting,
Malays, 163 Pamphlets presented to Folk-Lore
Society, see Books Pancakes : on Soft Tuesday, St-
Briavel's, 174 Pandi, in Wonkanguru and Urabunna
legend, 413-4 Pando, see Hope, Lake Papers read at meetings of Folk- Lore
Society, i, 3, 6,23-5, 113-5, 225-6,
337, 339-40 Papuans : collection of folklore from,
311 Paradise, 218 Paradise (Kennet Valley) : folklore
from, 418-20 Paris : astrological prophecies as- cribed to, 125 Parvati, consort of Siva, in Indian
folktale, 80 Passover, The, 218, 239 Patani : skulls feed on soul, 152 Patrick, Saint, see St. Patrick Pattini, smallpox goddess : priests of share in Perahera festival, Kandy,
77-9 Peacock : derivation of Hebrew term,
219 Peacock, E., Boer Folk-Medicine
and some Parallels, 182-3 > Eggs
in Witchcraft, 431 Peacock, Miss M., The Calenig or
Gift, 202-3 Peat, burning : carried sunwise at
Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 56 ; in
cure for inflamed udders, Hebrides,
Peesweep, as village sobriquet, 386 Pelesit, pet and precursor of evil spirit or polong, Malays, 150-1,
'57
Penang : divination, 143-4
Peplow : speedy growth of tradition,
107 Perahera procession, Kandy, 77-9 Perak : magic at, 136 Persia, 218 : {see also Mekran ; and
Sistan) ; Potter's Sohrab and Rus-
Index.
479
tern reviewed, 443-7 ; turquoise as amulet, 342 ; Pestle, trodden on by bride, India,
245 Pestle and mortar, dancing, Malays,
164 * Petting Stone ' rite, Border counties,
227-8, 231, 234, 236-7, 241, 245,
251
Phailawagh : in Balochi poem, 274
Philistines, 218
Phcenicia, 218
Pietersburg (Trans.) : dung in medi- cine, 71-2
Pig : boar's tusk as charm, Tunis, 337 ; burial of, toes upwards, stops disease in other pigs, St. Briavel's, 172; in game formula, Hebrides, 56 ; in jingle, Lincolnshire, 91 ; liver, divination from, Torres Straits, 103 ; sign of Campbell coming, Hebrides, 49 ; smells wind, St. Briavel's, 172; wild, charmed as enemy of the rice, Malay Benin., 160, name of, 310
Pigeon : as totem. New Caledonia, 353 ; village sobriquet, 384
Pin : dropped in water, New Year's Day, St. Briavel's, 174
Pipul tree : favourite abode of bhuts, 283 ; god Madu Sami lives under, Pongul, 77 ; as omen in ghost story, Bengal, 282-3
Pirinti and Kapiri, a Legend of the Urabunna Tribe, 412-3
Pitchei country, in Wonkanguru and Urabunna legend, 414
Place names given to human groups, Melanesia, 383, Sioux, 388, 390, or individuals, Arunta, 383
Place rhymes : Derbyshire, 313 : Long Compton, 292 ; St. Briavel's, 177 ; Shropshire, 3QI-3
Plague, caused by planetary &c. conjunctions, 125
Planetary conjunctions, prophecies from, 115-34
Plants in folklore : {see also Betel leaf ; Bramble ; Cabbage ; Cane-grass ; Carrot, wild ; Docken ; Ginger- plant; Horehound; Kulva; Lichen: Malacca cane ; Mandrake : Marsh mallow ; Mistletoe : Nettle ; Rattan cane ; Reed ; Rosemary ; Sham- rock ; Tansy ; Thistle ; Vine ; Wood sage ; and Yarrow) ; names of, as human nicknames, 382-93 ;
sacred, in savage society, 348-9, 354 ; totem, see Totemism
Ploughing customs and beliefs : plough stots and sword dancers, Egton Bridge, 302
Pneumonia, cures for, Bloemfontein, 182, England, 182, Krugersdorp, 70
Pokhii, three successive births, beliefs about, Punjab, 280
Polar-star worship, 441
Polecat : familiar spirit appears as, Kedah, 150
Pole, North, see North Pole
Polong, evil spirit, Malays, 147-51, 157-8
Poltergeistern, Malay. 135
Polynesia : [see also Cook's islands ; Samoa islands ; aitd Society islands) ; " trade " shell discs, 338 (plate)
Polyphemus, Prof. Amersbach's theory about, 222
Pongid : dried grass festooned from trees, 77 ; Madu Sami worshipped, 77 ; rice harvest customs, 77
Pontianak, Malay birth demon, 135
Popular Studies in Mythology and Folkloj-e reviewed, 223-4. 330-3
Port Darwin, see Larrakia tribe
Port Erin : spirit of unbaptised, 186-7
Possession : among Malays, 148-54
Potato : as cure for earache, Bloem- fontein, 182
Potato grub : village sobriquet, 385
Potchefstroom : green paint as cure for ailments, 70
Prairie chicken : group name, Man- dans, 390
Pregnancy, sec Birth customs and beliefs
President, election of, 4
Presidential Address, by E. W. Bra- brook, 4. 12-28
Priest : in dreams, meaning of, He- brides, 51
Prophecy : astrological, see Lett-i- of Toledo ; in dreams, 31-2, He- brides, 51-2, Tara, 328; during possession, Malays, 153-4
Proverbs : Hebrides, 30, 34-5, 39, 40-2, 52-3 ; Kennet Valley, 423 ; Punjab, 279 ; Roumania, 11 1-2 ; St. Briavel's, 174-5
Prussia : marriage customs, 446
Psychologic Ethnique, La, by C. Letourneau, reviewed, 209-11
480
Index.
Ptarmigan : good omen, Hebrides, 49
Puberty rites : girl suspended in cage, 240 : Torres Straits, 103
Publications of Folk-Lore Society, 7-8, 26
Puli Raja or the Tiger Prince, south Indian folktale, 79-83
Pulverbatch ; cow dung poultice, 74; sheep dung as remedy, 75
Punans : not in primitive state of society, 383 ; totemism not ob- served, 372
Punjab : {^sec also Amritsar ; Dera Ghazi Khan : Derajat : Gur- daspur ; Hoshiarpur ; Jampur ; Jhelum ; Kangra ; Karnal ; Kasur; Khatris ; Kula ; Mozaffargarh ; Nahan ; Rajanpur ; attd Rohtak) ; child born after three of other sex unlucky, 64-7 : eighth child un- lucky, 68 ; firstborn beliefs about, 278-9 ; south-west, third birth con- ception unlucky, 64 ; twins, beliefs about, 279
Putney, folk-etymology of, 203-4
Queensland : (see also Belyando river; Cape river ; Fiaser's island : Koom- bokkaburra tribe ; Mungerra tribe ; and Thomson river) ; Haddon's Hcad-Hunters, Black, White, and Brown reviewed, 101-3 ; north, corpse surrounded by dust to detect totem of slayer, 365-6
Queen Victoria, death of, 27
Quetta : folktales from, 253
Quicken, see Hawthorn
Rabbit : witch as, St. Briavel's, 175 Rag trees, Baloches and India, 265 Rain : charms for, Torres Straits, 103 ; direction of in Deluge, Hebrides, 42 ; excessive, stopped by firstborn children, India, 63 ; omens of, St. Briavel's, 172 ; prayers to invisible beings for, Birria &c. tribes, 19 ; rain-making, Dieyeri tribe, 403 Rainbow : rhymes about, Hebrides,
42-3 Rajanpur: folktales from, 253 Raratonga : father and son fight for
property, 445 Rat : cat created to protect Lazarus
from, Hebrides, 34; charmed as
enemy of rice, Malay Penin., 159; gives power to heal erysipelas, Hebrides, 56 ; village sobriquet, ^385
Rattan cane : divining rod from, Malays, 155-6
Raven : bad omen, Hebrides, 49 ; knows whereabouts of lost, if dead, Hebrides, 35 ; in saying, Hebrides, 30 ; sent to dying Cuchullin, 35-6
Reading : witchcraft near, 426
Recording angel : of Larrakia tribe, 18
Red : bride covered with, Khonds, 242, sits on red chair, Manchus, 244 ; definite names for, Torres Straits, 102 ; dress in dream .sign of anger, Hebrides, 51 ; horse omen of death, Hebrides, 49; waist- cloth worn in worship of Hanuman, N. W. India, 1S8
Red animals, see Ant
Red ochre the blood of the Mura- muras, Dieyeri tribe, 417
Reed : not used for thatching, Hebrides, 31-2
Reincarnation beliefs : Arunta, 322, 356, 363 ; Haidns, 356 ; India, 236 : Thlinket, 355-6
Religion : among Arunta, 314-5 ; beginnings of, discussed by E. W. Brabrook, 16 ; not exception to general law of progress and con- tinuity, 13-4 ; Lang's Alakhig of Religion discussed, 16-23 • C. Letourneau's views on, 2 10- 1 ; in relation to astronomy, 441-2 ; in relation to magic, J. G. Frazer's views on, 14-6, 315, 323; in rela- tion to totemism, 354-5
Re-marriage, see Marriage customs and beliefs
Renal dropsy, cure for, Middelburg (Trans.), 70
Report of Council, 5-1 1
Reptiles in folklore, see Frog ; Snake ; and Toad
Reviews, 96-112, 205-24, 314-36, 433- 48
Rheumatism : cures for, Bloemfontein, 1 81 -2, Kennet Valley, 420 ; pre- ventive for, St. Briavel's, 173
Rhymes : (^see also Counting-out rhymes ; Folk-songs ; Nursery rhymes ; Place rhymes ; and Riddles) ; Hebrides, 30, 33, 39, 41-3. 45-9, 52-3
Index.
481
Rice, sacrificial, Malays, 137-8, 145,
Rice harvest customs and beliefs : Ceylon, 77-9 ; Malays, 159-63
Rice Harvest and other Customs in Ceylon, by R. J. Drummond, 77-9> 277-8
Rice spoon : dancing, Malays, 142-3, 164 ; defence against evil, Malays, 164
Rice-throwing at weddings, 237
Riddles : Kennet Valley, 421
Rievaux : St. Ailred, 217
Right foot first : by newly-married at threshold, 241
Rinds, Balochi tribe, 254-5, 257, 259, 274
Ring swung to divine thief, Malays, 144, 156-7
Ringworm classed with leprosy by Hebrews, 218
Ripon ; ' lifting ' custom, 250
Rivers and streams {see also under names) ; Madu Sami, river god, Ceylon, 77 ; possession flowing down river brings owner prosperity, Ceylon, 78 ; water taken annually at sunrise for temples, Kandy, TJ-2)
Rivers, W. H. R., The Sister's Son in Samoa, 199
Road gods : Madu Sami, Ceylon,
77
Rochester : St. Ithamar, 214
Roe-deer, see Deer
Rohtak : name of son born after three girls, 66 ; rites on such birth, 67
Rollright Stones : difficult to count, 293 ; go down hill to drink, 292 ; legend of, 292 ; marriage oracles, 235 ; had to be returned, if re- moved, 293 ; unlucky to injure, 293 ; witchcraft near, 290
Romans, ancient : bride entered hus- band's familia, 208 ; influence on English village system, 98-9 ; Lupercalia, 25
Romsey Abbey : collection of saints' lives, 214
Rook : as village sobriquet, 386
Rope of straw in charm to avert cattle disease, N. India, 189
Roscoe, J., The Collection of Folk- lore, 312-3
Rose, H. A., Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Super- stitions, 278-80 ; Unlucky Chidren, 3, 63-8, 197-8 ; Yew, 201
VOL. XIII, 2 I
Rosemary : flowers on Christmas Eve, St. Briavel's, 174 ; grows well where mistress is master, St. Bria- vel's, 174
Rose-rash, cure for, Hebrides, 56
Rose-tree : wild, gall from frees from toothache, St. Briavel's, 173
Ross-shire, see Gairloch
Rothbury : bride &c. jumped over "petting stone," 227-8, and black- mailed by tying church door, 22S, 231
Rouen : St. Mello, 213
Roumania : proverbs, 11 1-2
Rubber, see India-rubber
Rumsey: St. Efleda, 216
Russia, see Esthonia ; and Finland
Sacrament bread, see Host, sacred
Sacred images or stones, see Images, sacred ; and Stones
Sacrifice : after ' trikhal ' birth, Hoshiarpur, 66 ;
animal : — Benin, 440 ; black cock, for epilepsy, Hebrides, 56 ; goat at " long ju-ju," Niger delta, 167-9; goat at shrine of Baloch saints, 263 ; during operation of charm to avert cattle disease, N. India, 190 ; for souls of dead, Japan, 276-7 ; human : — at Beltane, Ilebrides, 41; Benin, 439 ; of firstborn, He- brews, 218, India, 63 ; at "long ju-ju," Niger delta, 168-9; in magical rites, Malays, 137-8, 145, 152 ; to devil, rice harvest, Ceylon, 278; to Hanuman, N.W. India, 188
Sagen ans dem alien Irland, by R. Thurneysen, reviewed, iio-i
Sahara Desert, Myths Current in the, by W. J. H. King, 284-8
Sailors' beliefs and customs, see Sea beliefs and customs
St Albans : Ss. Alban and Amphi- balus, 213
St. Andrew's Day : in saying, Heb- rides, 38
St. Briavel, Cornish king, and hermit, 171
St. Briavel's (Glouc. ) : folklore notes from, 1 14-5, 170-7
St. Brigid : in casting frith, Heb- rides, 47-8 ; in folklore of Heb- rides, 39 ; in Hogmany rhyme, Hebrides, 46
482
Index.
St. Eiigid'i Day : saying about,
Hebrides, 39 St. Clair (Normandy) : St. Claras,
216 St. Coliimkille : connected with beast
stories and flounder, Hebrides, 37 St. Elmo's fire, 221 St. Ethelwold's Cross (Durham) :
bride steps over socket, 231 St. Michael : bannock of, Hebrides,
44-5 ; favourite saint, Hebrides, 44;
in story of fall of angels, Hebrides,
44 .
St. Michael's Day, see Michaelmas
St. Neot's: St. Neot, 216
St. Patrick : banished reptiles from Guernsey, 396 ; the stone of, Hebrides, 39
St. Patrick's Day : in sayings, Heb- rides, 38-9
St. Peter's Day : cuckoo goes away, Hebrides, 40
Saints, British, in Nova Legenda Anglie, 2 1 2-7
St. Thomas' Day : gooding. St. Briavel's, 173-4
St. Thomas' Mount (Madras) : fire- walking rite, 89-90
Sakhi Sarwar, Balochi saint, 260-2
Salem (India) : fire-walking. 90
Salford (Oxon) : witchcraft at, 290
Salisbury : St. Osmond, 216
Salish Indians : sulia or tutelar spirits, 369 ; totemism nascent, 384, origin of, 369
Saliva, see Spitting
Salmon : found dead, ought not to be removed, Hebrides, 37
Salmon, Miss L., Folklore in the Kennet Valley, 337, 418-29
Salt : obnoxious to bhuts, Bengal, 281, 283 ; placed on corpse, Hebrides, 60 ; thrown in fire to stop ill luck, St. Briavel's, 172
Saluafata (Samoa) : rights of rest of family to a man's property, 200-1
Samoa islands : {see also Apia ; Mataatu ; ajzd Saluafata) ; right of nephew to uncle's property (Vasu), 75-6, 199-201 ; totems and totem clans, 354-6
Sanctuary, right of : among Baloches,
273 Sandspouts caused by genii, Arabs,
285-6 "Sand, The people of the," Sahara
desert, 287-8
Sarangi, Indian musical instrument, 254
Sarawak : {see also Dyaks ; Kala- mantans ; Kenyahs ; Punans ; Sea Dyaks; ^//^Sibops); head-hunting, 436-7 ; Furness's The Home Life of Borneo Head Hmifers, its Festivals and Folk-Lore reviewed, 436-8 ; nyarongs, 349, 376
Sarinda, Balochi musical instrument,
253-4
Saturday : flit northward on, Heb- rides, 42
Sayce, A. H. : reviews by, — Paton's The Early Histo7'y of Syria and Palestine, and Duffs The Theology and Ethics of the Hebrews, 442-4
Scalds, see Burns and scalds
Scandinavia, see Beowulf; Edda ; Sweden ; and Tyr
Scissors : not to be ' raised above breath,' Hebrides, 30
Scotland : {see also Argyllshire ; Berwickshire; "Border Min- strelsy " : Caithness ; Dumbarton- shire ; Fife ; Hebrides ; Inverness- shire : Kinross ; Lanarkshire ; Mid- lothian ; Nairnshire ; Ross-shire ; Roxburghshire ; Selkirkshire ; and Stirlingshire) : bride's feet must not touch threshold, 242 ; healing water must not touch ground, 241 ; hand- fasting &c. , 446 ; newly dead serve predecessors, 283 ; saints in Nova Legenda Anglie, 212, 217
Scottish Charm against Witchcraft, by F. R. Coles, 275 {plate')
Scythe : sharpened against witchcraft, Newlands, 176
Sea beliefs and customs : hair combed at night tangles sailor's feet, Heb- rides, 30 ; knife in mast brings wind, Hebrides, 32 ; ptarmigan sign of safety from drowning, Heb- rides, 49 ; sea the treasury of Mary, Hebrides, 39 ; spoon pro- tects ship from tempest, Malays, . 164 ; whistling brings wind, Heb- rides, 32
Sea Dyaks : nyarongs or spirit helpers, 370-2
Sea in dream sign of weeping, Heb- rides, 51
Seal : bewitched child of king, Heb- rides, 36 ; in dream, as omen, Hebrides, 51
Seasons, see D'\ s and Seasons
Index.
48:
Secretary, election of, 4
Sehwan : shrine at, 262
Seine, Dept. of, see Paris
Selangor : {see also Langat) ; super- natural powers from possession by the Pontianak, 1 35-6
Seligmann, C. G., The Collection of Folklore, 310-2
Selkirkshire : ballad of Auld Mait- land, 192-7
Sempringham : St. Gilbert, 217
Sendings, magic, among Malays. 137; 146-52, 157
September, see Michaelmas
Serpent, see Snake
Serpent Child type of folktales, 79-83
Seven : birds, omen of burying, St. Briavel's, 171 ; in charm after 'trikhal' birth, Punjab, 65, Roh- lak, 67 ; in charm to avert cattle disease, N. India, 1S9 : in Jewish marriage, 238 ; in Kanjari marriage, 243 ; lime-fruits, soul abducted into, Malays, 155 ; palm-leaf ribs in divination, Penang, 143 ; seven- stranded cord in divination, Pe- nang, 143 ; seventh son of seventh son, St. Briavel's, 172 ; sister spirits in palm-blossom dance, Se- langor, 137-40 ; soul seven-fold, Malays, 163-4
Sex totems, see Totemism
Seyler, C. A., The Beowulf Legend, 3
Sha' ambah Arabs : " song of the sands " is talk of genii, 286
Shaftesbury : St. Ed wold, 216
Shamrock : four-leaved, brings luck, Hebrides, 53
Shape-shifting ; in Indian folktale, 80-1 : by witch, Berkshire, 424-6, Kirklington, 289, Newnham Mur- ren, 289-90, St. Briavel's, 175
Shedad, palace of : parallel legend, Touaregs, 284-5
Sheep : bones not burned, Hebrides, 35 ; divination from shoulder- blade, Afghans and Hebrides, 50-1, Baloches, 264, from throwing up "duilleag" from, Hebrides, 52; in dream, as sign, Hebrides, 51 ; dung as remedy, Lochlomond and Pulverbatch, 75, and used for cast- ing lots, Baloches, 264 ; " eaters of old ewes," village sobriquet, Ava- lon, 384 ; lamb assigned to child with first tooth, Hebrides, 32 ; lamb good omen, Hebrides, 49,
bad omen if seen back first, St, Briavel's, 171 ; shearing, frumity eaten at, Lincolnshire, 92 ; skin applied for typhoid fever, 182 ; skin releases soul of dying, Kennet Valley, 419 Sheepfolds, ghosts laid in, Kennet
Valley, 429 Sheffield : butterfly charm, 432 Shellfish, see Whelk Shell : fossil, sacred, Bozdars, 263 ; ftwitrag lucky and saves wearer from being lost, Hebrides, 37 Sherburn : St. Aldhelm, 214 Shiah Mahomedans : child of tem- porary marriage preferred, 446 Shikarpur : folktales from, 253 Shoe tie : as omen, Hebrides, 50 Shoghrot Fort (Chitral) : banshee, 184 Shrewsbury : cow dung poultice, 74 Shrike : black and white, omens from,
264 Shrines: Balochi, 259-60, 262-3 Shropshire : (^see also Adeney ; But- terey ; Cherrington ; Edgmond ; Ludlow ; Newport ; Peplow ; Pulverbatch ; Shrewsbury ; Tibber- ton ; Wall ; Wellington ; Wen- lock ; and Wrekin) ; cow dung poultices, 74; 'heaving' custom, Easter, 247, 250 ; village sobri- quets, 386 Shrove Tuesday: "Soft Tuesday"
pancakes, St. Briavel's, 174 Sibi : in Balochi heroic ballad, 255,
and love song, 270 Sibops: beliefs about future life, 436-7 Sickle : water trickling over as cure,
Hebrides, 57 Siebert, Rev. O., notes to Some Native Legends from Central Australia, 406, 408-9, 41 1-2, 414,
Sieve : carrying at night endangers from dead, Hebrides, 30-1 : in charm after ' trikhal ' birth, Rohtak, 67 ; on head stunts growth, Hebrides, 30 ; used to divine thief, Malays, 145, 155
Signs or omens, sec Omens
Silkworm : evil spirit ' sent ' in forn: of, Malays, 147
Silver : in dream, Hebrides, 51
Sin of Witchcraft, The, by A. Pulling, reviewed, 448
Sindh : (^see also Jacobabad ; and- Sehwan) ; Balochi folklore, 252-74
2 I 2
484
Index,
Singing games, 107
Sioux Indians : {see also Dakota tribes ; Mandans ; and Omaha Indians) ; group names, 384, 388- 90 ; magic worked against name- giving objects, 377
Sir Cleges : Sir Libeaus Desconus, by Miss J. L. Weston, reviewed, 447-8
Sir Walter Scott's Alinstrelsy of the Scottish Border, edit, by T. F. Henderson, reviewed, 433-5
Sisseton tribe : group names, 3S8
Sistan : Balochi tribes in, 256-7
Sister's Son in Samoa, The, by A. C. Stanley, 75-6, 199-201
Sitala, goddess of smallpox, 246-7
Sitcanxu tribe : group names, 3S8
Siva, in Indian folktale, 80
Skeat, W. W., The Collection of Folklore, 307-10 ; Malay Spirit- ualism, 115, 134-165
Skulls : abode of one of three souls,, Toradjas, 437 : as vampires, Patani, 152
Sky : name of God derived from, Wodi-wodi tribe, 19
Skylark, sec Lark
Sleep: on back not good, Hebrides,
Sluath, procession of dead, Hebrides,
Smallpox : firstborn sacrificed to god- dess of, Mairs, 63 ; Pattini, goddess of, Kandy, 77; sheep dung as cure, Pulverbatch, 75 ; Sitala, goddess of, Marwaris, 246-7
Snail : grey, favourite of fairies, Westruther, 178 ; as ill omen, Hebrides, 52 ; unlucky to cut with scythe or reaping-hook, Westruther, 178-9
Snake : carpet, in legend of Dieyeri, 405-6, in legend of Wonkanguru, 408 ; charm against, Hebrides, 39 ; in charm after ' trikhal ' birth, Rohtak, 67 ; fabulous, Sahara desert, 286 ; in Hindu folktale, 81, 83 ; household, contains soul of dead, Zulus, 353 : leaping, in val- ley of jewels, Touaregs, 284; omen of bite from, Punjab, 64 ; torpid before firstborn, Punjab, 278 ; wor- ship of, 219
Sneezing : if not caused by snuff &c., sign of fever, Hebrides, 57 ; omens from, Hebrides, 50
Sobriquets, see Names
Society islands : blood-covenant in marriage rites, 208
Sohrab and Riistem : The Epic Theme of a Combat between Father and Son. by M. A. Potter, reviewed, 444-7
Sohri, Balochi saint, 262
Sohri Khushtagh: Balochi shrine at, 262
Solomon, King, see King Solomon
Some Native Legends from Central Australia, by M. E. B. Howitt, 403-17 : Kuyimokuna, a legend of the Dieri, 405-6 ; Nganto-warrina who became the Moon, 406-7 ; Warukatti the Emu, a Tale of the Dieri, 407 ; Origin of the Woma and Kapiri, a Wonkanguru Legend, 408 ; Kadiwonkuru, a Legend of the Yaurorka, 409-11 ; Pirinli and Kapiri, a Legend of the Urabunna Tribe, 412-3 ; Markanyankula, a Legend of the Wonkaguru and Urabunna, 413-4 ; Ngatani-Maru- Maru and Ngatani-Maralye, a Legend of the Dieri tribe, 414-7
Some Notes from North- Western India, by W. Crooke, 188-90
Somersetshire : {^see also Stanton Drew) ; churchyard gate barred to new-married till toll paid, 232 ; witch's ladder, 301
Somra tribe, 259
Songs, see Folk-songs
Sorcery, sec Magic
Soudan : amulet, 337
Souls : (^see also Death and funeral customs and beliefs ; and Rein- carnation beliefs) ; abduction of, Malays, 146, 155 ; butterflies as, E. Asia, &c., 432 ; existence assumed from dreams, 21-2; four- fold, Calabar, 359 ; omen of future state of, St. Briavel's, 172 ; seven- fold, Malays, 1 63-4 : skull holds one of three souls, Toradjas, 437 ; skulls feed on, Patani, 15 1-2 ; soul- boxes, 359;6i, 363, 394; three- fold, Toradjas, 437
Souter, A. E. : account of Perahera procession, Kandy, 77-8
South Africa, see Africa
South Australia, see Antyritya ; Aru- folkandu ; Arunta tribe ; Barcoo river ; Bau-ung-ban-ung ; Bird- ville ; Cattle Lagoon ; Cooper river ; Cooper's Creek ; Diamantina river ; Dieyeri tribe ; Eyre, Lake ; Hope, Lake ; Innaminka; Kad-
Index.
485
likua ; Killalpanina ; Kuyana ; Larrakia tribe; Macumba; Marunga tribe ; Mount Freeling ; Narimaia creek ; Ngarabana tribe ; Ngatani- Maru-ISIaru ; Ngatani Maralye ; Pandi ; Pitchei ; Port Darwin ; Tangara tribe ; Tyindi-tyindinani ; Urabunna tribe; Utyia ; Wiluma ; Wonkamala tribe ; Wonkanguru tribe ; Yaurorka tribe ; and Yorke's Peninsula South Uist : {see also Ben JNIohr ; fl;z(/Tochar): folklore from, 29-62 Sowing customs and beliefs : feasts, Jakuns (Malay Penin.), 159-63 ; hempseed sown in churchyard, Midsummer Eve, Kennet Valley, 422 ; missing a "land" a sign of death, Kennet Valley, 423 Spain : {see also Castile) ; the Ish- maelites in, in variant of Letter of Toledo, 128; " noche buena " kept on Christmas Eve, 45 ; yew boughs against lightning, 32 Spider : as omen, Hebrides, 50 Spirits, Australian belief in, 19, 20 Spiritualism, Malay, 115, 134-65 Spitting : for luck, Shropshire, 430 ;
saliva in medicine, Hebrews, 218 Spoon : dancing, Malays, 142-3, 164 ;
defence against evil, Malays, 164 Spottiswoode : harvest customs, 178 Sprains, poultice for, Shropshire, 74 Spring : {see also under months) ;
' lifting' rites, 251 Springs : caused by Balochi saint, 260-1 ; hot, legend to explain, Arabs, 285; "long ju-ju," Niger delta, 166-70 {plate) Staffordshire : {see also Eccleshall ; Lichfield ; and Stone) ; Bladen's Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire, Chiefly Collected at Stone, reviewed, 106-7 Stag : village sobriquet, 389 Stanley, A. C, The Sister's Son in
Samoa, 75-6 Stanton Drew : stones called " The
Weddings," 295 Stanton Harcourt : legends of Devil's
Quoits, 293-5 Stanton St. John : witchcraft at, 291 Stars : counter struck dead, Kennet Valley, 419 ; home of creator among, Gippsland tribes, 20, Lar- rakia tribes, 18 ; influence of, see Astrology ; named after dead,
Gippsland tribes, 20 ; polar-star worship, 441
Starting on journey, see Journey
Steeple Barton : " Hoar stone " could not be moved, 295
Stepping over things, 236-7
Sting-ray in Palm-blossom Dance, Malays, 138
Stirlingshire, see Loch Lomond
Stone : marriage on lease, 446; Bladen's Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire, Chiefly Col- lected at Stone, reviewed, 106-7
Stone-chat : bad omen, Hebrides, 49, 52 ; enchanted, Hebrides, 35
Stones : {see also Cromlechs ; Devil's Quoits ; Dolmens ; Hoar Stones ; and Rollright Stones) ; ashma or " spirit stone" in Brahman funeral and marriage rites, 236, 240; churingas or soul boxes, Arunta, 363; divination from, Torres Straits, 103 : sacred, associated with mar- riage and sexual union, 234-7, and with threshold, 239-40 ; sacred, in rice harvest rites, Ce3'lon, 277 ; worship of, 218 ; Ireland, 324
Storms : foretold by geese, St. Briavel's, 172 ; whirling ashes, Hebiides, 33 ; at funerals, of ill omen, St. Briavel's, 172 ; spoon protects ship from, Malays, 164
Straw rope in charm to avert cattle disease, N, India, 189
Straw spread before wife-beater's door, 246
Stray Notes on Oxfordshire Folklore, by P. Manning, 114, 2SS-95
String games, Torres Straits, 103
Styes, charm for, Hebrides, 58
Suftblk, see Dunwich
Sulaiman hills : springs caused by Moslem saint, 260-1 ; weregild &c. in, 271-2
Sulaiman Shah, Jafifir tribe, 262
Sulia or tutelary spirits, Salish Indians, 369
Sumatra: {see also Battas or Battaks) ; crocodiles as kinsmen, 366 ; tiger is ancestor and worshipped, 366
Sun: eclipse of, births during, Gurdas- pur, 66, Malays, 164 ; created at prayer of man, Dieyerie tribe, 18, by Mooramoora, 403 ; dances on Easter Sunday, Hebrides. 40 ; Krishna as sun god, Kandy, 78 ; worship of, 441
486
Index.
Sunday : (^see also Easter Sunday ; Fathering Sunday ; Mothering Sunday ; Palm Sunday : a7id Whit Sunday) ; in charms after ' trikhal ' birth, Punjab, 65, Rohtak, 67, to avert cattle disease, N. India, 189 ; if corpse lies over, another death follows, Kennet Valley, 423 ; dreams on night of, realised Mon- day morning, Hebrides, 51 > Ait southward on, Hebrides, 42 ; say- ings about, Hebrides, 42
Sunderland : marriage customs, 245
Sunrise : water taken annually for temples from river at, Kandy, 78-9
Sunwise : in casting frith, Plebrides, 47 ; cattle driven round Beltane fire, Hebrides, 41 ; New Year candle passed over housemistress and children, Hebrides, 46 ; pro- cession at Hallowe'en, Hebrides, 55
Sussex, see Chichester
Sutherland, House of, supposed descent of, 378-9
Sutherlandshire : " Plighting Stone o' Lairg," 235
Swan : bewitched child of king, Plebrides, 36
Swansea : newly-married pair barred till toll paid, 232
Swearing, see Imprecations ; and Oaths
Sweden : south, Beowulf legend belongs to, 223 ; yew patterns for wall papers, 96
Sword : bride leaps over, Egypt, 238 ; dancing, Benin, 440 ; in proxy marriage, India, 80
Sword dances, sec Dances
Syria : (^see also Haifa) ; camel neck charms, 337 ; dough must not be stepped over while baking, 237 ; Paton's The Early History of Syria and Palestine reviewed, 442-3
Szahphadh, Balochi tribe, 259
Table-turning, Malay spiritualist per- formances similar to, 136-43
Taboos : on Conaire the Great, King of Tara, 327-30 ; laid by influential man for family, Melanesia, 366-7 ; of mother-in-law, 209 ; person under must not touch ground, 240- I ; at puberty, 240 ; in relation to marriage, 205-9, 234 ; Sarawak, 438
Talawakellc : rice harvest customs, 277-8
Tallies and their Survivals, by E.
Lovett, I Tamaniu not true totem. Banks'
island, 376 Tamils : Madu Sami, road or river
god, 77 ; Perahera procession, 77-
9 ; rice harvest ceremonies, 77 Tatnlane, Ballad of, 197 Tanerhouel, fabulous snake, Sahara
Arabs, 286-7 Taner'out, fabulous monster, Ahnet
mountains, 286 Tangara tribe, 404 Tanjore : fire-walking, 90 Tansy tea as remedy, Kennet Valley,
420 Taper used in divination, Penang,
143
Tara : St. Patrick's Pascal fire, 325 ; in story of King Conaire the Great, 327:3o
Tatooing : Sarawak, 438 ; wife with marks of husband's ancestors, Bonabe, 208
Taunsa Sharif : Balochi shrine, 262
Taylor, E., Goblins in the Faroe islands, 1 84- 5
Teeladla, home of Creator, Larrakia tribe, 18
Teeth : birth with tooth foretells bard, Hebrides, 32, unlucky, India, 198 ; blackened and pierced, Sarawak, 438 ; child's should be hidden in walls, Hebrides, 32 ; cutting upper teeth first, imperils maternal uncle, Punjab, 67 ; first, foretells bard, Hebrides, 32 : first, living being allotted to child with, Hebrides, 32 ; omen from black spot on, Hebrides, 50, or from loss in dream, Hebrides, 51 ; of wild beast worn as amulet by show- man, 342
Telar or son born after three girls, Karnal and Rohtak, 66
Telingana : firstborn son attracts lightning, 63
Tempests, see Storms
Tetsworth : witch avenges refusal, 291-2
Thana district : marriage rites, Varlis, 243
Tharaben, fabulous snake, Sahara
Arabs, 286 Theology and Ethics of the Hebrews, The, by A. Duff, reviewed, 442-4
Thief, divination of, Malays, 144-5
Index.
487
Thigh, oath on the, 2ig
Thirlestane : ballad of Auld Mait- land, 192-7
Thirteen : in laying ghosts, Kennet Valley, 429
Thistle : rhyme for use when blow- ing seed, China, 109
Thlinket tribe : ancestors reborn. 355 : totemism, 355
Thomas, N. W., notes to Malay Spiritualism, 135, 146-50, 156-7 ; short notice by, Petsch's Foriiicl- hafte Schliissc it/i Volks-Mdrcken, 1 10 ; suggestion as to totemism discussed, 364-6 ; Yew Wood, 96
Thomson river (Aus. ) : (see a/.f^Birria tribe) ; supernatural beings of tribes,
19 Thorn, charm for wound from, Kennet Valley, 426, St. Briavel's,
173 Thorn-back mudfish : prickle used in
divination, Penang, 143 Thousand and One Nights, see
Arabian Nights Three in folklore : souls, Toradjas,
437
Threshold : bride lifted over, 238-42 ; burial of cat &c. under destroys luck, 239 ; leaping over is insult, 239 ; sacred place, 239
Thumb : polong or evil spirit enters by, Malays, 149 ; wound not touched with, Hebrides, 31
Thunder : at funeral, ill omen, St. Briavel's, 172; god of, Bahkunjy tribe, 19 ; Thursday perhaps sacred to Thunderer among Celts, 41
Thursday : perhaps sacred to Thun- derer among Celts, 41 ; saying when Beltane falls on, Hebrides, 41
Tibberton : place rhymes, 391-3
Tides regulated through moon by Madjuit-madjuit, Larrakia tribe, 18
Tiger : as ancestor, Sumatra, 366 ; on banner of Baloches, 259; charms, imitations of teeth and claws as, 338 : folktale of the tiger prince, S. India, 79-83 ; " tiger's sons " name of Balochi tribe, 259 ; as village sobriquet, 386 ; wer-tigers. Malays, 157 ; worshipped, Sumatra, 366
Time of day, estimation of, in He- brides, 38
Tinnevelly : fire-walking, 90
Tirich Mir (Chitral), mountain abode of fairies, 183-4
Toad : nickname for Jersey islanders, 396
Tochar : idiot cannot be drowned, 62
Toes : nails, see Nails, toe ; nursery rhymes when counting. China, 108
Togail Bruidne Da Derga, the tale of. 327-30, 333
Toledo : the devil teaches nigromancy at. 120 ; The Letter of Toledo, by M. Caster, 114-34
Tombs, sec Graves
Tona or animal self-chosen at birth, Zapotecs, 360
Tongue : magic properties of, 150 ; pelesit or precursor of evil spirit developed from, 150
Toothache, preventives and cures for, St. Briavel's, 173, Bloemfontein, 182
Toradjas : head-hunting, 437 ; soul three-fold, 437
Torres Straits : collection of folklore, 31 1 -12 ; Haddon's Hcad-Hjintets, Black, White, and Brown re- viewed, 101-3 ; totemism, 394
Torrowotto, sec Milya-uppa tribe
Totemism : Australians, 314-23, 347, 354-5, 362-3, 377, 394, 398-402 : Baloches, 259 ; clan totems, 348-9, 365 : Ireland, 329 ; The Origin of Totem Names and Beliefs, by A. Lang, 339, 347-91, discussed, 391-7 : personal totems, 348-9, 360, 364-6, 393 ; in relation to religion, 354-5 ; sex totems, 348, 360, 362 ; Thlinket. 355-6 ; Torres Straits, 102-3 j views discussed of Miss A. Fletcher, 367-8, J. G. Frazer, 348-9, 359-64, Dr. Had- don, 372-5, Hill-Tout, 36S-9, Hose and McDougall, 369-72, Max Miiller, 358, Herbert Spencer, 35S-9, N. W. Thomas, 364-6, and Dr. Wilken, 366-7 ; the word totem, first use of, 347-8, proposed restriction of use of, 349-52
Touaregs, folklore of, 284-8
Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, by W. G. Wood-Martin, reviewed, 323-7
Tradition and historic myths in their relation to history, discussed by A. Nutt, 84-7
Transvaal, see Belfast; Boer ; Heidel- berg ; Klerksdorp : Krugersdorp ;
488
Itidex.
Middelburg ; Pietersburg ; Pot- chefstroom Transylvania : gipsy bride sits on
bull's hide, 244 Treasure-finding : by divining rod,
Malays, 145, 156 Treasurer, election of, 4 Trees in folklore : (see also Aloe ; Apple-tree ; Areca palm ; Ash-tree ; Banana-tree ; Box-tree ; Coco-nut palm ; Elder-tree ; Hawthorn ; Hazel ; Holly; Jak-tree ; Lemon- tree ; Oak-tree ; Palm ; Pipul-tree; Rose-tree ; Walnut-tree ; Willow ; mid Yew) ; rags hung on, Baloches and India, 265 : sacred, Baloches, 265, India, 265, 442 ; whisper of future on 21st of month, Cornwall, 429; worship of, 90- 1, Ireland, 324 Tree Worship, by A. Lang, 90-1 Trelar, child born after two of other
sex, beliefs about, Kangra, 279 Trengganu : familiar spirit at, 151;
soul stolen, 151 Treves : Rusticus, archb. of, 215 Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law,
by F. Seebohm, reviewed, 97-101 Trikhal or cholar, (third conception, or child born after three of other sex), beliefs about, India, 63-8, 279 Trolls : in shape of black dog, Faroe islands, 185 ; troll bulls, Faroe islands, 185 Trout : found dead, ought not to be removed, Hebrides, 37 ; side fins removed by devil, Hebrides, 36-7 Tsinyai : funeral rites, 240 Tsunillgoam and other lame gods,
88-9 Tuatha De Danann sagas, 330-1 Tuesday : (^see also Easter Tuesday ; and Shrove Tuesday) ; best night for divination by lemon, Malays, 144 ; in charms against trikhal birth, Punjab, 65, and to avert cattle disease, N. India, 1S9 ; sacred to Hanuman, X. W. India, 188 ; in sayings, Hebrides, 42 Tuju or 'sending,' Malays, 146-51 Tunis : charm, 337 Turkey : {see also Syria) ; Greek
marriage rites, 245 Turquoise : as charm, Persia. 342 Tuscany : {see also Lucca) ; appear- ance of Madonna in. 90-1 Twelve : fires in cornfields, Christmas Eve, St. Briavel's, 174 ; palm leaf
ribs in divination, Penang, 143 ; walks round church backwards to become witch, St. Briavel's, 175
Twenty-first of month : trees whisper future, Cornwall, 429
Twenty-seven in rite on ' trikhal ' birth, Rohtak, 67
Twins : special name for boy born after, Dahomey, 63, Kangra dis- trict, 279
Tyindi-tyindinani, in Dieri legend, 416
T}Tiemouth : K. Oswiu, 215
Typhoid fever, cure for, 182
Tyr and other maimed gods, 88-9
Uganda : blood-brotherhood, how to annul, 430 ; collection of folklore, 312-3
Uist, South, see South Uist
Ulcers, cure for, London, 73-4
Ulster : {see also Antrim : Brugh ; Cuchulainn sagas ; Emain Macha ; aW Donegal) ; KingCormac, 328-9
Ulysses, see Odysseus
Unbaptised : if die, not mourned for, Kenyahs, 438 ; spirits of, Faroe islands, 184-5, Isle of Man, 1S6-7
Uncle, maternal : carries bride and bridegroom, Khonds and Kattais, 242-3 ; death caused by trikhal birth, Punjab, 67 ; in peril if child's upper teeth cut first, 67 ; right of nephew to goods of, Samoa, 75-6
Underground people : " people of the sand," Sahara, 287-8
United States of North America, see Algonquins ; Californian Indians ; Musquakie Indians ; Nahuas ; Ne- braska ; aw^/ Sioux Indians
Unleavened bread, see Bread
Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Superstitions, by H. A. Rose, 278-80
Unlucky Children, byH. A. Rose, 3, 63-8, 197-8
Unlucky days and deeds, s^e Lucky and unlucky days and deeds
Urabunna tribe, 405 ; legends, 412-3, 413-4; Kirarawa and Matthurie classes, 398-9
Urine : used for wounds, Transvaal,
71 Utrecht : St. Willibrord, 215
Index.
489
Utyia, in Wonkanguni and Urabunna legend, 413-4
Vampires : Malay Peninsula, 151-2
Varlis : marriage rites, 243
Vasu custom, Samoa, 75-6, and Fiji, 199-201
Vegetation souls, see Corn spirits, vegetation souls, and the like
Venkatasvami, M. N., Puli Raja or the Tiger Prince, 79-83
Vessel Cup, The, by E. Lovett, and E. W. Clarke, 94-6
Vice-Presidents, election of, 4
Victoria, see Gippsland
Victoria, Queen, see Queen Victoria
Vine-grafting : girl who grafts must not touch ground, 241
Virgin Mar}', The : alleged appear- ances in Dordogne and Tuscany, 90-1 ; in folklore of Hebrides, 36, 39> 57-8 ; represented in the vessel cup, Yorkshire, 94-6
Vishnu : priests of, share in Pera- hera festival, Kandy, 77-9 ; title of, N. India, 189
Wahpeton tribe ; group names, 388
Wales : {see also Anglesea ; Glamor- ganshire : and Monmouthshire) ; bridal pair "chaired" and tied for blackmail. 231-2 ; John's The Ma- biiiogion reviewed, 330- 1 ; 7107-th, ' lifting ' custom, Easter, 248-9 ; saints in Nova Legenda A7iglie, 212, 217
Walkley : butterfly charm, 432
Wall (Salop) : place rhymes, 391-3
Walnut-tree : leaves used in charm for warts, Kennet Valley, 420
Walpole : St. Godric born at, 217
Warrington : 'lifting' custom, Easter, 249
Warts, charms and cure for, Kennet Valley, 420
Warukatti the Emu, a Tale of the Dieri, 407-8
Warwickshire : ' heaving ' custom, 249
Washing cursed on Good Friday and next 5 Fridays, Kennet Valley, 423
Wassailing, see Christmas
Water : {see also Lakes ; Rivers and Streams ; Springs ; a7td Wells) ; in
charm against ' trikhal ' birth, Pun- jab, 65 ; in dreams, as omens, Hebrides, 51 ; poured over white cloth, near grave, Japan, 276-7 ; protects from bhuts, Bengal, 282 ; trickling over sickle, as remedy, Hebrides, 57 Water divination : Malays, 145,
Water-finding by Balochi saints, 260-
I, 262-3 Water spirits : Kabi tribe, 19 ; in
shape of black dog, Faroe islands,
Wearmouth : St. Benedict Biscop, 215
Weather : weather sayings, St. Briavel's, 172
Wedding customs and beliefs, see Marriage customs and beliefs
Wednesday : {see also Ash Wednes- day) ; songs composed on, Hebrides,
49 Week, days of, see Friday ; Monday ;
Saturday; Thuisday ; Tuesday;
Wednesday ; a/id Sunday Wellington (Salop) : first money spat
on, 430 ; man or dark person lucky,
430 Wells: at Balochi shrines, 262 ; w-ater from Barrow well drunk for colds, St. Briavel's, 173 ; worship, Ireland,
324 Wells (Norfolk) : witchcraft, 431 Wenlock : Milburga. abbess of, 214 Weregild: early tribal, 99-100 ; among
Baloches, 271-2 ; greater, if blood
touches ground, Anglo-Saxon, 100 Wer-wolf, 364-5 ; wer-tiger, Malays,
157 ; wer-bears. Baloches. 265 W^est : land of deadin. Vorke's Penin.,
18 West Australia : kobongs or totems,
361 ; totem names from food supply,
356 . .
West Indies : enceinte woman does
not step over rods &c. , 237 Westmoreland : ' lifting ' custom,
New Year's Day, 247 Westphalia : Ss. Hewald, 215 Westruther : harvest customs and
beliefs, 178-9 Whelk : if roasted causes famine,
Hebrides, 37 Whirlwind : in Yaurorka legend,
410-2 Whistling : on boat calls up wind,
VOL, XIII.
2 K
490
Index.
Hebrides, 32 ; in women unlucky, Hebrides, 32
Whitby : abbess Hilda, 215 ; The Vessel Cup. by E. Lovett and E. W. Clarke, 3, 94-6
Whitebrook : witchcraft at, 175-6
White animals, sec Cat ; Dog ; Fowls ; and Goat
White : dress of Lhiannan-Shee, Isle of Man, 187
White line round room to exclude evil spirits, St. Briavel's, 172
Whilhern : St. Ninian, 217
Whit Sunday : bread and cheese scrambled for, St. Briavel's, 175
\Vhittingham : " petting" stone rite, 227-8
Widgeon : good omen, Hebrides, 49
Whooping-cough : charms for, Heb- rides, 57 ; cure for, Kennet Valley, 423, St. Briavel's, 172 ; getting advice for, St. Briavel's, 172
Wild cat, see Cat
Will-o'-the-Wisp : in Hebrides, 43 ; origin of " apparitions," 221-2
Willov/ : wands of as offerings and emblems, Ainu, 25
Wiltshire : (^see also Salisbury) ; bride's feet must not touch thresh- old, 241-2
Wiluma country, in Vaurorka folk- tale, 410-1
Wimborne : St. Cuthberga, 215
Winchester : Ss. Swithin, Grimbald, Edilha, and Wulstan, 216
Wind : (^see also Storms : aud Whirl- wind) ; called up by whistling, Hebrides, 32 ; direction on New Year's Day omen for year, Heb- rides, 40 ; east, name of, Heb- rides, 38 ; god of, Bahkunjy tribe, 19 ; pigs smell, St. Briavel's, 172
Witchcraft : (^see also Witches ; aiid Wizards) ; Beltane cheese protects milk &c. , Hebrides, 41 ; 'bogle' charm against, Cawdor, z"] i,.{platey, Cottington Hill, 427 : egg-shells witches' boats, Holland, &c., 431 ; hair of firstborn useful in, Punjab, 278 ; Kennet Valley, 424-8 ; Norfolk, 431 ; remnants of sacrifice used for, N.W. India, 18S ; St. Briavel's, 175-6 ; Pulling's The Siti of Witchcraft reviewed, 448 ; witch's ladder, Somerset, 301 ;
Witches : among Baloches, 264-5 J buried alive, S. Berks., 427 ;
cause wrecks by agitating eggs in pail, Norfolk, 431 ; drawing blood from, Berkshire, 425, Oxfordshire, 290 ; how to become, Baloches, 265, St. Briavel's, 175 ; pass through keyholes, Kennet Valley, 428 ; revenge refusals. Barton, 290, St. Briavel's, 175, Tetsworth, 201-2 ; ride liansformed men, Kennet Valley, 424-5 ; shape- shifting by, Kennet Valley, 424-8, Kirtlington 289, Newnham Murren, 289-90, St. Briavel's, 175; shot at with peas, Kennet Valley, 428 ; tests for, Berkshire, 237, 425, St. Briavel's, 175 ; unlucky to give or refuse bread to, Berkshire, 426-7 Witchetty grub : totem, Australia, 3S5 Witney : harvest custom, 180 Wives : {see also Marriage customs and beliefs) ; first sees apparition of successor, Hebrides, 60 ; know- ledgeof early tribal rites, 100: names for wife who bears no child, Punjab, 280 ; second in danger from spirit of first, Bengal, 2S3 ; second suffers "dead man's nip," Hebrides, 59 ; tatooed with marks of hus- band's ancestors, Bonabe, 208 Wizards : druids, Ireland, 324-5 ;
Kennet Valley, 42S Wodi-wodi tribe : ' God ' derived
from ' sky,' 19 Wolf: {see also Werwolf) ; Balochi name, 272 ; in folktale. Outer Hebrides, 34 ; group name. Man- dans, 390 ; wolf-hero of Athens,
379 ' .
Woeworung tribe : myth of origin of totemism, 355, 379
Wolkadras, see Churingas
Woma, see Snake (carpet)
Women : {see also Marriage customs and beliefs ; Mother - right ; Witches ; and Wives) ; among Baloches, 266-8, 270- 1 ; beaten at rice harvest, 277-8 ; cause injury by stepping over poles &c. , 237-8;
■ female, sign for the, 441 ; fish trap dressed as woman in spiritualist performance, Malays, 140 ; girl baby in dream, omens from, Heb- rides, 51 ; girl if firstborn very ill- omened, Punjab, 279 : girl pre- ceding and following boy lucky, Punjab, 280 ; middle of three successive girls unlucky, Punjab,
Index.
491
280 : old, carry vessel cup, York- shire, 95 ; seeini^ in casting frith generally unlucky, Hebrides, 48 ; totems originally descended in female line, 351 ; whistling by, un- lucky, Hebrides, 32
Wonkamala tribe, 404
Wonkanguru tribe, 404 ; legends, 408, 411, 413-4
Wood, folklore of, 96
Wood sage : as remedy, Kennet Valley, 420
Wooing customs and beliefs, see Courting customs and beliefs
Wool : collected by bride, Hebrides,
33
Worana, fabled creature. Lake Eyre,
412 Worcester : St. Edgwin, 214 Worcestershire, see Worcester Wormwood : drunk during measles,
Transvaal, 71 Wounds : charm against festering, St. Briavel's, 173 ; cures for, Boers, 71, Kennet Valley, 420: not touched with finger or thumb, Hebrides, 31 Wrekin : first money spat on, 430 ; man or dark person lucky to begin, 430 Wren : all eggs hatched, Hebrides, 35 ; lucky about house, Hebrides, 35 ; always ooze in nest, Hebrides, 35 ; never pays tithes, Hebrides, 35 ; saying about, Hebrides, 35 Wurtemberg, see Heidenheim VVyke : written charms, 2, 92-4, {^ plate)
Yankton tril^e : group names, 388
Yarrow: in casting frith, Hebrides, 49
Yaurorka tribe, 405 : folktale, 409- 1 1
Yeast set on Good Friday shows cross, Kennet Valley, 423
Yellow : on divining rod, Malays, 145 ; horse omen of Mackenzie, Hebrides, 49 ; names for less defi- nite than for red, Torres Straits, 102
Yew : branches in house against fire, Hebrides, 32, against" lightning, Spain, 32 ; named rakhal, Kula (Himalayas). 20I ; sprig offered to god Bastar. Kula (Himalayas), 201: stick keeps witch from house, St. Briavel's, 175 ; Yew Wood, by N. W. Thomas, 96
Yonne, see Avalon
York : Ss. Paulinus, Chad, and Wil- frid, 215 ; St. William, 217
Yorke's Peninsula : belief in future life, 18
Yorkshire : {see also Beverley ; Brad- ford ; Egton Bridge ; Guisborough : Hull ; Leeds ; Rievaux ; Ripon ; Sheffield ; Sherburn ; Walkley ; Whitby : Wyke ; aiid ■ York) ; Dales, the vessel cup -^in the, 95 ; harvest custom, 251 ; ''heaving' custom, Easter, 248, harvest, 251 _; marriage on probation, 446
Yule, see Christmas
Zapotecs : ' tona ' chosen at birth,
360 Zulus, sec Amazulu
ERRATA.
See also list on page vii.
Page 280, line 31. For A. J. Rose read PL A. Rose. Page 388, line 26. For Itaziptec read Itaziptco. Page 389, line 2. For Bird read Burd.
Printed by J B. Nichols <St Soss, Parliament Mansions, Victoria Street S.W.
INDEX
OK
ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
PUBLISHED
IN I9OI
'being the eleventh issue of the series and completing the index for the period 1891-1901]
Compiled by GEORGE LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A
PUBLISHED BY
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & COMPANY Ltd
2 WHITEHALL GARDENS, WESTMINSTER
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE CONGRESS OF
ARCH^OLOGICAL SOCIETIES IN UNION WITH
THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES
1902
Butler & Tanner,
The Selwood Printing Works,
FrOiME, and London.
CONTENTS
[Those Transactions marked with an asterisk* are for the first time included in the index, the others are continuations from the indexes of 1891-98. Transactions included for the first time are indexes from 1891 onwards.]
Anthropological Institute, Journal, N.S. vol. iii. pt. 2 ; iv. pts. 1 and 2.
Antiquaries, London, Proceedings of the Society, 2nd S. vol. xviii. pt. 2.
Antiquaries, Ireland, Proceedings of Royal Society of, 5th S. vol. xi. pts. 1-3.
Antiquaries, Scotland, Proceedings of the Society, vol. xxxv.
Ai'chseologia, vol. Ivii. pt. 2.
Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. xxv.
Archaeologia ^liaua, vol. xxiii. pt. 1.
Archaeologia Cambrensis, 6th ser. vol. i.
Archaeological Journal, vol. Iviii.
Associated Architectural Societies, Transactions, vol. xxv. pt. 2.
Berks, Bucks, and Oxfordshire Archaeological Journal, vol. vi. pt. 4, and vii.
pts. 1, 2, 3. Biblical Archaeology, Society of, Transactions, vol. xxiii. Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society, Transactions, vol. xxiii. British Archaeological Association, Journal, N.S., vol. vii. Buckinghamshire, Records of, vol. viii, pt. 4. Cambridge Antiquarian Society, Transactions, vol. x. pts. 1, 2. Cornwall, Royal Institute of. Proceedings, vol. xiv. pt. 2. Cumberland and Westmoreland, Archaeological Societj^, Transactions, N.S. -
vol. i. Devonshire Association, Transactions, vol. xxxiii. East Herts Archaeological Society, Transactions, vol. i. pt. 3. East Riding Antiquarian Society, Transactions, vol. viii. Essex Archaeological Society, Transactions, N.S. vol. viii. pts. 2 and 3.
3
4 CONTENTS
Folklore, Proceedings of the Folklore Society, vol. xii.
Gaelic Society of Inverness, vol. xx. xxi. xxii.
Glasgow Archaeological Society, Transactions, N.S., vol. iv. pt. 2.
Hampstead Antiquarian and Historical Society, 1900.
Hellenic Studies, Journal of, vol. xx. and xxi.
Huguenot Society, Transactions, vol. vi. pt. 3.
Lancashire and Cheshire Anticxuarian Society, Transactions, vol. xvi.
Lancashire and Cheshire Historic Society, Transactions, 4th ser. vol. xvi.
Leicestershire Architectural and Archaeological Society, Transactions, vol.
ix. pt. 2. Monumental Brass Society, Transactions, vol. iv. pts. 3 and 4. Numismatic Chronicle, 4th ser. vol. i. Royal Historical Society, Transactions, N.S. vol. xv. Royal Irish Academy, Transactions, 3rd ser. vol. vi. pts. 2, 3. Royal Society of Literature, Transactions, vol. xxii. and xxiii. ])t. 1. St. Paul's Ecclesiological Society, Transactions, vol. v. pt. 1. Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Transactions, 2nd
S. vol. xii. pt. 3 ; 3rd ser. vol. i. pts. 1, 2, 3. Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Transactions, vol.
xlvii. Suffolk Archaeological Institute, vol. xi. pt. 1. Surrey Archaeological Society, Collections, vol. xvi. Sussex Archaeological Collections, vol. xliii. and xliv. Thoresby Society, vol. x. pt. 3, and xi. pt. 1. Wiltshire Archaeological Journal, vol. xxxi. pts. 3 and 4. Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Journal, vol. xvi. pt. 3.
NOTE
This Index was begun under the auspices of the Congi-ess of Archseological Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries. Its success being assured the Congress have placed it in the hands of tlie publishers to continue 3'early.
The value of the Index to archaeologists is now recognised. Every effort is made to keep its contents up to date and continuous, but it is obvious that the difficulties are great unless the assistance of the societies is obtained. If for any reason the paj^ers of a society are not indexed in the year to which they properly belong, the plan is to include them in the following year ; and whenever the papers of societies are brought into the Index for the first time they are then indexed from the year 1891.
By this plan it will be seen that the year 1891 is treated as the commenc- ing year for the Index, and that all transactions published in and since that year will find their place in the series.
To make this work complete an index of the transactions from the begin- ning of archseological societies down to the year 1890 is needed. This work is now going through the press.
Societies will greatly oblige by communicating any omissions or sugges- tions to the editor, Laurence Gomme, F.S.A., 24, Dorset Square, London, N.W.
Single copies of the yearly Index from 1891 may be obtained. The subscription list for the complete Index up to 1891 is still open, and intending subscribers should apply at once to Messrs. Archibald Constable & Co. Many of the Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries take a sufficient number of copies of the yearly Index to issue with their transactions to each of their members. The more this plan is extended the less will be the cost of the Index to each society.
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS PUBLISHED IN 1901
Abercromby (Hon. John). Notice of the discovery of urns, at the
Hill of Culsh, New Deer, Aberdeenshire. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
258-266. Adams (Maxwell). An index to the printed literature relating to
the antiquities, history, and topography of Exeter. Dcv. Assoc.
xxxiii. 270-308. Adamson (Horatio A.). Tynemouth priory to the dissolution in 1539
with notes of Tynemouth castle. Arch. JEHmna^ xxiii. 22-42. Addy (S. 0.). Head of a corpse between the thighs. FoJMorc, xii
101-102.
The mill of the twelve apostles. Folklore, xii. 218.
Garland day at Castleton. Folklore, xii. 394-428.
Alford (Rev. D. P.). Alfred at Athelny. Somersetshire Arch.
Soc. xlvii. 71-79. Allen (J. Romilly). Two Kelto-Roman finds in Wales. Arch.
Camh. 6th S. i. 20-44. — Some carved wooden spoons made in Wales. Arch. Camh.
6th S. i. 165-172.
The early Christian monuments of lona ; with some sug-
gestions for their better preservation. Soc Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 79-93.
The early Christian monuments of the Grlasgow district.
Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 394-405. Amery (P. P. S.). Eighteenth report of the committee on Devonshire
folklore. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 123-128. Anderson (Joseph). Notices of nine brochs along the Caithness
coast from Keiss Bay to Skirza Head, excavated by Sir Francis
Tress Barry, Bart., of Keiss Castle, Caithness. Soc. Antiq. Scot.
xxxv. 112-148. — ■ Notice of a hoard of bronze implements, and ornaments,
and buttons of jet found at Migdale, on the estate of Skibo,
7
8 TXDKx OF akch.t:ological papers
Sutherland, exhibited to the society by Mr. Andrew Carnegie of
Skibo. Soc. Ardiq. Scot. xxxv. 266-275. Anders<w (Joseph). Notice of the pottery, bronze, and other objects
found at the Roman station of Camelon, near Falkirk, Stii^ling-
shire, excavated by the society in 1900. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
380-417. Anderson (J. G. C). Pontica. Hellenic Studies, xx. 151-158. A new Hittite inscription. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 322-
324. Andrew (Samuel). The Roman camp at Castleshaw and the
antiquities of the Saddleworth district. Lctnc. and Chesh.
Antiq. Soc. xvi. 83-101. Andrew (W. J.). A numismatic history of the reign of Henry I.
Nicm. Chi'on. 4th S. i. 1-515. Andrews (R. T.). Ancient buildings at Ware. East Herts Arch.
Soc. i. 2r!5-272. Andrews (R. T.) and W. B. Gerish. The leper hospital, Hoddes-
don. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 299-303. Andre (J. Lewis). Female head-dresses exemplified by Surrey
brasses. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 35-54.
Chapel attached to an inn. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 250.
Two farm houses at Warnham. Sus.se.v Arch. Coll. xliii.
44-50.
Halnaker house. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii. 201-213.
Fonts in Sussex churches. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 28-
44, 211. Arnold (Rev. F. H.). Extracts from the clmrch wardens' accounts
of St. Peter's the Less, Chichester. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv.
167-177. AsHBY (Thomas) and A. T. Martin. Excavations at Caerwent,
Monmouthshire, on the site of the Roman city of Venta Silurum,
in 1899 and 1900. Arch. Ivii. 295-310. AsHTON (W. G.). The Japanese Gohei and Ainu Inao. Anthroj). Inst.
N.S. iv. 131-136. Astley (Rev. H. J. Dukinfield). Mediaeval Colchester; town,
castle and abbey, from MSS. in the British museum. Essex
Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 117-138. Two Norfolk villages. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii.
103-142. Some resemblances between the religious and magical
ideas of modern savage peoples and those of the pre-historic
INDEX OF ARCH.^.OLOGICAL PAPERS V
non-Celtic races of Europe. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 227-257. Atchley (E. Ct. Cuthbert). Some documents relating to the pari si i
church of All Saints, Bristol. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 147-181. Some notes on harvest thanksgivings and certain other
votive offices. St. PauVs Eccles. Soc. v. 58-76. Atkinson (T. D.). The seals of the commonalty and of the ma^'or
of Cambridge. Catiibnchjc Antiq. Soc. x. 123-128. Attree (Lieut.-Col. F. W. T.). Notes on the family of Chaloner of
Cuckfield. Sksscx Arch. Coll. xliv. llG-139. AuDEN (H. M.). Dedications to Celtic saints. Sliropshlrc Arch. Soc.
3rd S. i. 284-286. AuDEN (Miss) and W. K. Boyd. Inventories of the church goods of
Shropshire temp. Edward VI, Shropshire Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii.
299-356. AuDEN (Rev. T.). The rebellion of Robert de Belesme. Shropshire
Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 107-118. Where was Fethanleag. Shropshire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i.
147-149, 282. Austin (Stanley). St. Lawrence's church, Wormley. East Herts
Arch. Soc. i. 317-320. AwDRY (H.). a new historical aspect of the Pylos and Sphacteria
incidents. Hellenic Studies^ xx. 14-19. Axon (William E. A.). Etienne Dolet, the martyr of the renais- sance. Eoi/. Soc. Liter, xxii. 211-229. The machinery of the " Rape of the Lock " : Pope, Villars
and Borri. Jioij. Soc. Liter, xxii. 231-238.
Baddeley (St. Clair). A brief account of the stained and painted
16th and 17th century glass at Toddington house. Bristol and
Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 162-192. The holy blood of Hayles. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc.
xxiii. 276-284. Baildon (W. Paley). The family of Leathley or Lelay. Thoreshy
Soc. xi. 1-36. Ball (Francis Elrington). Loughlinstown and its history. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 68-84. The Castle of Carrickmines and its history. Roy. Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 195-203. Ball (T. Stanley). Church plate in Manchester Cathedral and the
parish churches of Preston and Lymm. Lane, and Chesh. Hist.
Soc. N.S. xvi. 93-110.
10 INDEX OF ARCH^OLOaiCAL PAPERS
Baring-Gould (Rev. S.). A catalogue of saints connected with
Cornwall, with an epitome of their lives and list of churches and
chapels dedicated to them. Roy. Inst. CormcaU, xiv. 260-313. Seventh report of the Dartmoor exploration committee.
Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 129-138. Barker (W. R.). Part of a late Celtic bronze collar found at
Llandyssil, Cardiganshire. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 83-84. Remains of a Roman villa discovered at Brislington, Bris- tol, December, 1899. Bristol and Glonc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 289-
308. Barnes (Henry, M.D.). On Roman medicine and Roman medical
practitioners. Cumh. and Westm. Arch. Soc, N.S. i. 52-74. Barnes (Dr. H.) and Sir William Turner. On the bones from
Grayson-lands tumulus, Glassonby. Cumh. and Wcstm. Arch.
Soc. N.S. i. 300-302. Barrow-in-Furness (Bishop of\ Bishop Nicolson's diaries.
Climb, and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 1-51. Bates (Rev. E. H.). An inventory of church plate in Somerset.
Somerset. Arch. Soc. xlvii. 149-174. Bax (Alfred Ridley). Preparations by the county of Surrey to
resist the Spanish Armada. Swrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 137-167,
249-250. Beaumo.nt (G. F.). Nevenden church. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
231-233. South Bemfleet chui'ch. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 236-
238. Bellairs (Colonel). Roman roads in Leicestershire. Brit. Arch.
Assoc. N.S. vii. 269-275. Berry i Henry F.). The Goldsmiths' Company of Dublin. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 119-133. Bevan (E. R.). a note on Antiochos Epiphanes. Hellenic Studies,
XX. 26-30. Bingham (Rev. W. P. S.). Modus for the parish of Kenton con- firmed at the castle of Exeter, a.d. 1606. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii.
532-534. Boger (James J. C). The play acted by the Tipteers at West
Wittering, Chichester. Siissex Arch. Coll. xliv. 178-183. BoissiER (Alfred). Documents Assyriens relatifs a la magie. Soc.
Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 114-131. Bolton (William). The poet Cowper and his surroundings. Roy.
Soc. Liter, xxii. 133-164.
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 11
BosANQUET (R. C). Archaeology in Greece, 1899-1900, 1900-1901.
Hellenic Studies, xx. 167-181 ; xxi. 334-352. BouRKE (Ven. Archdeacon Cecil F. J.). Notes on place-name
endings in Bucks. Records Bucks, viii. 327-341. Bower (Rev. Canon). On a brass found in Arthuret church.
Cumb. and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 114-115. Boyle (David). The paganism of the civilized Iroquois of Ontario.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 2G3-274. BoYSON (Ambrose P.). On some encaustic tiles and other objects
recently discovered at Lewes priory. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii.
214-219. Bradbrook (William). Armorial ceiling at Fenny Stratford church.
Records Bucks, viii. 374-402. Braitmaier (Madi). Cutting off the head of a corpse. Folklore,
xii. 214. Brakspear (Harold). The church of Hayles Abbey. Arch. Journ.
Iviii. 350-357. Breach (Wilijam Powell). Wm. Holland, alderman of Cuckfield,
and the Steyning Cxrammar School. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii.
59-83. Breasted (James Henry). The Wadi Haifa Stela of Senwosret I.
Soc. Bib. Arch, xxiii. 230-235.
Varia. Soc. Bib. Arch, xxiii. 230-243.
Brent (Francis). On the occurrence of flint flakes and small stone
implements in Cornwall. Roy. Inst. Cornnrdl, xiv. 417-419. Brereton (R. p.). Remarks on some characteristics of the north
Northamptonshire churches. Archil. Soc. xxv. 602-618. Brook (Alexander J. S.). Notice of a bracket timepiece which
belonged to Archbishop Sharp, and other articles bequeathed to
the Society by Miss MacLaurin ; and also of three timepieces in
the University Library, St. Andrews. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
418-430. Brooke (Sir Thomas). Castle Hill, Almondbury. Yorks Arch.
Journ. xvi. 241-247. Brooking-Rowe (J.). Twenty-second report of the committee on
scientific memoranda : numismatics, archaeology. Dev. Assoc.
xxxiii. 113-116. Tenth report of the committee on Devonshire records.
Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 139-186. Brooks (E. W.) Arabic lists of the Byzantine Themes. Hellenic
Studies, xxi. 67-77.
12 INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Brown (J. A.). Hospice of the Knights Hospitallers at Standon.
East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 289-291. BROwn^f (Robert, Junr.). A Greek circle of late times showing
Euphratean influence. Soc. Bib. Arch, xxiii. 255-257. Brown (William). An eighteenth century absolution. Yorks
Arch. Journ. xvi. 25G-257. Browne (Charles R.). Ethnography of Carna and Mweenish in the
parish of Moyruss, Connemara. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi.
503-534. Browne (Dominick). Inscription on tomb of the Moore Family of
Brize Castle, Maj'o. Boy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 88. Browning (Oscar). John Keats. Roy. Soc. Liter, xxii, 239-263. Brunskill (Rev. J.). Ormshed and its church. Ciimh. and Westm.
Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 155-166. Brushfield (T. N., M.D.). The financial diary of a citizen of
Exeter 1631-43. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 187-269. Brydall (Robert). Notices of an inscribed sepulchral slab at
Ardchattan prior}" ; and of three carved slabs at Tayuuilt, Ar- gyllshire. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 94r-97. Notes on Scottish costume in the fifteenth century.
Glasgotv Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 226-251. Buchanan (Mungo). Description of the plans and sections of the
Roman station of Camelon, near Falkirk, Stirlingshire, excavated
by the Society in 1900. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 350-379. Buckinghamshire notes. Alon. Brass Soc. iv. 165-176. BuiCK (Rev. Gr. R.). Report on the ogams recently discovered near
Connor, co. Antrim. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 265-271. Bullock-Hall (W. H.). On the Icknield Way. Cambridge Antiq.
Soc. X. 69-82. Burne (Charlotte S.). Blacksmiths' festival. Folklore, xii.
217-218.
Customs relating to iron. Folklore, xii. 474-475.
Butler (Alfred J.). On the identity of " Al Mukaukis " of Egypt.
Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 275-290.
Caldecott (J. Barton). Insignia and plate of the Hertford cor- poration. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 353-361.
Coin of Decentius found at Welwyn. East Herts Arch.
Soc. i. 364.
Calvert (E.). Will of William Fitzherberd of Tong, 1451. Shrop- shire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 407-409.
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGHCAL PAPERS 13
Cambridgeshire brasses. Mon. Brass Soc. iv. 176-182.
Cameron (Mary Lovett). A survival of tree worship. Folklore,
xii. 455-456. Cameron (Rev. C. Lovett). Mortimer in olden time. Berks,
Bucks, and Oxon Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 71-73. Campbell (Duncan). Giraldus Cambrensis. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
XX. 151-167. The exchequer rolls of Scotland. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xxii. 210-233. Carey (Edith F.). The bumble-bee in magic. Folklore, xii. 103. Carrington (W. a.). The early lords of Belvoir. Brit. Arch.
Assoc. N.S. vii. 299-32G. Carson (Katherine). Customs relating to iron. Folklore, xii.
473-474. Chadwick (Edward Marion). The armiger. Arch. Journ. Iviii.
305-321. Chadwick (S. J.). Kirklees priory. Yorks Arch. Journ. xvi.
319-368. Chambrier (Baronne Alexandre de). Projet de Colonisation en
Irelande par les refugies francais, 1692-1693. Huguenot Soc.
vi. 369-432. Chervin (Dr.). The power of speech. Folklore, xii. 353. Cheshire (Frederic J.). Rainbow magic. Folklore, xii. 479-
480. Christison (Dr. David). Excavation of earthworks adjoining the
Roman road between Ardoch and Dupplin, Perthshire. Soc.
Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 15-43. - — History and general description of the Roman station of
Camelon, near Falkirk, Stirlingshire, excavated by the Society
in 1900. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 329-350. and Joseph Anderson. Excavations of the Roman
camp at Lyne, Peeblesshire, undertaken by the Society of Anti- quaries of Scotland in 1901, with notes on the relics. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 154-186.
Christy Miller). Discovery of Roman coins at Little Waltham. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 229-230.
and W. W. Porteous. Some interesting Essex brasses.
Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 249-285.
Church (Rev. C. M.). Notes on the buildings, books, and benefac- tors of the library of the dean and chapter of the cathedral church of Wells. Arch. Ivii. 201-228.
14 INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Clark i J. W.)- Ou the Vatican library of Sixtus IV. Camb. Antiq. Soc. X. 11-61.
Clark (Prof. E. C). On an alleged law of Numa. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 392-409.
Clark (Rev. J. G.). On a denarius of the Emperor Plotioa. Camb. Antiq. Soc. x. 9-10.
Clarke (Somers). Report from Egypt. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 325-330.
Close (Rev. Maxwell H.). Hipparchus and the precession of the equinoxes. Roij. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 450-456.
Remarks on a cosmographical tractate in the Irish lan- guage in the library of the Royal Irish Academy. Poy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 457-464.
Cocks (Alfred Heneage). The intramural monuments of Turville church. Records Bucks, viii. 360-373.
Coffey (George). Irish copper celts. Anthvop. Inst. N.S. iv. 265-279.
Cole (R. E. G-.). Notes on the ecclesiastical history of the deanery of Graffoe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Archit. Soc. xxv. 253-309.
Coleman (I. J.). Note on a bronze spearhead of unusual size found near Croydon. Proc Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 352-353.
Coleman (Prebexdary). The prebend and j)rebendaries of War- minster alias Luxvill in the cathedral church of Wells. Somerset Arch. Soc. xlvii. 189-216.
Coleridge (Christabel). Whitsuntide fate and mock burials, Folklore, xii. 351-352.
Coles (Fred R.\ Report of the stone circles of the north-east of Scotland, Inverurie district, obtained under the Gunning fellowship, with measured plans and drawings. Soc. Antiq. Scot. XXXV. 187-248.
Collier (Rev. C, V.). Gleanings from Old Burlington. East Rid- ing Antiq. Soc. viii. 36-39.
CoLLiNGWOOD (W. G.). Excavation of the tumulus at Glassonby near Kirkoswald, Cumberland ; pre-Norman cross-shaft at Great Clifton, near Workington; two minor pre-Norman fragments. Pi-oc. Antiq. Soc. 2nd S. xviii. 321-325.
■ Pre-Norman cross fragment from Glassonby. Cumh. c(nd
West)n. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 289-291.
— — Fragments of an early cross at the abbey, Carlisle.
Cumb. and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 292-294.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 15
OoLLiNGWOOD (W. G.). Tumulus at Graysonlands, Grlassonby, Cum- berland. Citmh. and West7n. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 295-290.
CoMPTON (C. H.). The abbey of St. Mary de Pratis, Leicester. Bn'f. Arch Assoc. N.S. vii. 93-102.
CoNYBEARE (Fred C). The paganism of the ancient Prussians. Folklore, xii. 293-302.
Cook (A. B.). lostephanos. Hellenic Studies, xx. 1-13.
Cooke (John). Irish burial custom. Folklore, xii, 104.
Cooke (Richard). Nineteenth century restorations at Stockbury church. Arch. Cant. xxv. 244-250.
Cooper (Rev. Canon J. H.). Cuckfield families. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii. 1-43, 279-280.
Pre-reformation vicars of Cuckfield. Sussex Arch. Coll.
xliii. 51-58 ; xliv. 9-27, 208.
A Chichester psalter. Sussex Arch. Soc. xliii. 280-
281.
Some notes on the life of Saint Richard of Chichester.
Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 184-203.
MSS. relating to the see of Chichester in Corpus Christi
College Library, Cambridge. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 208- 209.
Cooper (Rev. T. S.). The church plate of Surrey. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 197-245.
Cope (Mrs. J. H.). Index to Berkshire marriage registers. Berks, Bucks, and Oxon Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 26-27, 51-54.
Corbett (.John Stuart). Llautrissant castle. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 1-7.
The Van. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 8-11.
Castell-y-Mynach. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 12-13.
Corner (W.). On the ruins and remains at Mitla, state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Cambridge Antiq. Soc. x. 62-63.
CosGRAVE (E. MacDowel). '< Swift's house," Dorset Street. Roij. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 8th S. xi. 86-87.
Cotton (Charles). The church of St. John the baptist, Margate. Arch. Cant. xxv. 64-74.
Cotton (R. W.). Ford and its associations. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 693-713.
Cowper (H. Swainson). An early settlement in Kentmere, West- morland ; primitive quadrangular structures ; discoveries of the Roman road near Ambleside ; Roman finds ; a sword found' at Witherslack ; Comer ball an unnoticed pele ; an oak chest from
16 INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Whalley ; relics of the 1745 rebellion. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2ncl S.
xviii. 265-275. CowPER (H. Swainson). Cawmii-e or Comer hall. Cumb. and Westm.
Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 119-128. Primitive quadrangular structures ; the sod hut, an archaic
survival. Cumh. and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 129-143. Cozens (William). Notes on the Roman occupation of Little Wit-
tenham, Oxon. Berks, Bucks, and Oxon Arch. Journ. N.S.
vi. 122. Cox (Rev. J. Charles, LL.D.). The parish churches of Northamp- tonshire, illustrated by wills femp. Henry VIII. Arch. Journ.
Iviii. 113-132. Croft (Richard B.). A note on the Ermine Street. East Herts
Arch. Soc. i. 260-264. Crofton (Rev. W. D'A.). Standon. East Herts Arch. Soc. i.
273-288. Cropper (James). Kentmere hall. Cumb. and Westm. Arch. Soc.
N.S. i. 280-284. Crowfoot (J. W.). Some portraits of the Flavian age. Hellenic
Studies, XX. 31-43. — — The Lions of Kybele. Hellenic Studies, xx. 118-127.
Survivals among the Kappadokian Kizilbash. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iii. 305-320.
Crump (Rev. J. A.). Trephining in the South Seas. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. iv. 167-172. CuRRAN (M. B.). The correspondence of an English diplomatic agent
in Paris, 1669-1677. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv. 131-150. CuRWEN (John F.). Some notes respecting Kentmere hall. Cumb.
and W'stm. Arch. Soc.^.S.L 285-288. CusT (Lionel H.). Notes on a plaster head and bronze medallion of
Sir Thomas Lovell, K.G. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 280-284.
Dalton (0. M.). Note on some bronze vessels from Spain with Christian inscriptions of the Visigoth period. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 362-365.
Note on a Byzantine cameo with a remarkable type of the
annunciation. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 365-370.
The gilded glasses of the catacombs. Arch. Journ. Iviii.
225-253.
Davey (Samuel). The study of familiar letters as an aid to history and biography. Roy. Soc. Liter. 2nd ser. xxii. 1-31.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 17
Davey (Samuel). The letters of Lady Marj' Wortley Montagu. Roij. Soc. Liter. 2nd ser. xxii. 265-298.
The letters and prose writings of Robert Burns. lioy. tSoc.
Liter. 2nd S. xxiii. 19-41.
Davies (Rev. J. Silvester). The manor and church of Great Clml-
field. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 193-261. Davies (W.). Notes on Kingsbridge documents, etc. Dev. Assoc
xxxiii. 651-656. Davis (Cecil T.). Zoology on brasses chiefly from Gloucestershire
examples. Brit. Arch. A.'isoc. N.S. vii. 189-204. Dawkins (Prof. Boyd). On the cairn and sepulchral cave at Gop.
near Pi'estatyn. Arch. Jonvn. Iviii. 322-341. Dawson (Charles\ The service of the barons of the cinque ports
at the coronation of the kings and queens of England and
the presidenc}^ of Hastings port. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv.
45-54.
Note on two objects of the bronze age found in Sussex.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 409-411.
Dean (John). The ancient lords of Middleton. Lane and Chcsh.
Antiq. Soc. xvi. 102-133. Delattre (A. J.). Quelques lettres Assyrieunes. Soc. Bihl. Arch.
xxiii. 50-71, 331-359. Dickinson (Rev. F. B.\ The early register of the parish of Fen
Ottery, 1596-1680. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 336-362. DiTCHFiELD (Rev. p. H.). History of Faringdon. Berks, Bucks,
and Oxon. Arch. Jonrn. N.S. vii. 78-82. Drew (Sir Thomas). Discoveries at St. Patrick s cathedral. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 293-296. Drinkwater (Rev. C. H.). A foiirteenth century roll of names
preserved among the Shrewsbury gild merchant rolls. Shrop- shire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 119-124.
Two Shrewsbuiy bui'gess rolls temp. Henry III. ShrojJ-
shire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 125-134.
A glossary of some difficult or obsolete words found in the
first series. Shrojjshive Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 373-406. Drltmmond (R. J., M.D.). The rice harvest in Ceylon. Folklore,
xii. 457-458. DuxCAN (James Dalrymple). The chateau of St. Fargeau.
Glasgoic Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 406-439. DuTT (Professor Romesh). Ramayana : the odyssey of ancient India.
Roy. Soc. Liter, xxii. 95-132.
B
18 INDEX OF AECHL^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Dymond (C. W.)- The Roman fort on Harclknott. Cumh. and Westm. Arch.Soc. N.S. i. 303-305.
Edmonds (C D.)- The tumulus of Pilaf-Tepe. Hellenic Studies,
XX. 20-25. Edwards (John). The temple barony of Maryculter. Glasgoic
Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 195-206. Elliot (E. A. S.). On some earthworks in the South Hams probably
concerned in the Irishmen's raid and others in the immediate
neighbourhood belonging to Judhel de Totnais. Dec. Assoc.
sxxiii. 475-483. Ellis (Frederick). An ancient bronze figure from Aust Cliff,
Grloucestershire. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 323-325. Elworthy (F. T.). On the needle and thread at Langford Budville.
Somersetshire Arch. Soc. xlvii. 138-148. Emslie (J. P.). Weathercocks. Folklore, xii. 99-100. Erskine-Risk (Rev. J.). Apprenticeship indentures from Stock-
leigh-Engllsh parish chest. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 484-494. Evans (A. J.). Mycenaean Cyprus as illustrated in the British
museum excavations. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 199-220.
Mycenaean tree and pillar cult and its Mediterranean re- lations. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 99-204.
Evans (Lewis). On a portable sundial of gilt brass made for Cardinal Wolsey. Arch. Ivii. 331-334.
F. (R.). Tiptree priory and the coronation. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S.
viii. 334-335. Fahey (Very Rev. Jerome). Some antiquities in the neighbourhood
of Oranmore and Kilcolgan, co. Gralway. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. xi. 228-235.
The shrines of Inis-an-Grhoill, Lough Corrib. Roy. Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 236-245.
Fairbank (F. R.). The velum quadragesimale, or lenten veil. Archit. Soc. xxv. 545-548.
Falkiner (C. Litton). The Phoenix park, its origin and early his- tory, with some notices of its royal and vice-regal residences. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 465-488.
Fallow (T. M.). Note on the finding of a fragment of a monumental effigy of a knight at Ormesby, Yorkshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 232-233.
Farrer (E.). Bell lore. Folklore, xii. 480.
INDEX OF ARCH.KOLOGTCAL PAPKRS 19
Farrer (William). Notes on the Domescla}'' survey of the laud be- tween Ribble and Mersey. Lane, and Chcsh. Antiq. Soc. xvi.
1-38. Fergusson (Charles). Sketches of the early history, legends and
traditions of Strathardle and its gleus. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
XX. 248-274 ; xxi. G9-105, 32G-368. Ffrench (J. F. M.). Ryland castle. Eoy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland,
5th S. xi. 87-88. Inscription at Crosspatrick. J^f^y- Soc. Antiq. Ireland,
5th S. xi. 29(3-297. Firth (C. H.). The later history of the Ironsides. Boy. Hist. Soc.
N.S. XV. 1-45. Fletcher (Rev. W. Gr. D.). The churchwardens' accounts of
Uffiugton, 1627-1693. Shropsliirc Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 357-
369. Some petitions to the bailiffs of Shrewsbury. Shropshire
Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 135-146.
Institutions of Shropshire incumbents. Shropshire Arch.
Soc. 3rd S. i. 257-266.
Discovery of a leaden bulla at Haughmoud abbey. Shrop-
shire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 283-284.
Shropshire recusants temp. Elizabeth. Shropshire Arch.
Soc. 3rd S. i. 412-413. Foat (F. W. Gr.). On old Greek tachygraphy. Hellenic Studies,
xxi. 238-267. Forbes (S. Russell). The regia. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 133-146. Ford (John Rawlinson). Plan of Leeds, 1806. Thoresby Soc. xi.
130-136. Forsyth (W. A.). An account of the church of St. Mary at Tur-
ville, Bucks, and of its recent restoration and enlargement. Ee-
cords Bucks, viii. 342-359. Foster (Rev. A. F.). A tour through Buckinghamshire. Berks,
Bucks, and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 47-50, 83-89. Foster (Rev. C. W.). Institutions to benefices in the diocese of
Lincoln, 1547-1670; calendar No. iv. Nos. 832-1327. Archit.
Soc. XXV. 459-544. Foster (R. H.). Some notes on Hadrian's wall. Brit. Arch. Assoc.
N.S. vii. 69-75. Fowler (Rev. Canon J. T.). Note on the inscribed west doorway
of Yarburgh church, Lincolnshire. Proc. Soc, Antiq. 2nd S.
xviii. 228-230.
20 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Fox (F. F.). Eoods and rood-lofts. Bristol and Glouc. Arch.
Soc. xxiii. 79-94 . Fox (GrEORGE E.) and W. H. St. John Hope. Excavations on the
site of the Eonian city at Silchester, Hants, in 1900. Aych. Ivii.
229-251. Frampton (Rev. T. Shipdem). St. Mary's chiirch, Minster, Isle of
Thanet : list of vicars. Arch. Cant. xxv. 97-112. The chantry of John Denys in Ickham church. Arch.
Cant. xxv. 207-221. Fraser-Mackintosh (Charles). Minor Highland families. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xx. 29-47; xxi. 10-21, 289-305; xxii. 140-
152. Frazer (J. Ct.). New year customs in Herefordshire. Folklore, xii.
349-351. Fry (Edward x^lexander). On the inquisitiones post mortem for
Somerset, from Henry VII. to Charles I. (1485-1649). Somer- setshire Arch. Soc. xlvii. 1-122. Fry (Edward W.). Roman remains found at Walmer, Kent. Brit.
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 258-262. Fryer (Alfred C). A group of transitional-Norman fonts. Brit.
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 215-218. FuRTWANGLER (A.). Ancient sculptures at Chatsvvorth house.
Hellenic Studies, xxi. 209-228.
Gardner (Ernest). The Greek house. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 293-
305. Gardner (Percy). A new Pandora vase. Hellenic Studies, xxi.
1-9. Garnett (Dr. Richard). Dickens's "old curiosity shop " and Parlia- ment hill. Hanipstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1900, 85-92. Garson (J. G.). The metric system of identification of criminals.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 161-198. Garstang (John). On some features of Roman military defensive
works. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi. 111-126. On the Rigodunum of Ptolemj'. Lane, and Chc.'ih. Hist.
Soc. N.S. xvi. 217-220. Gaster (M.). King Solomon and the blacksmith. Folklore, xii.
475-476. Gatty (Rev. Reginald A.i. Notes on a collection of ver}^ minute
flint implements from Scunthorpe, Lincolnshire. Soc. Antiq.
Scot. XXXV. 98-101.
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 21
Gerish (W. B.). Romau tile and fibula, and coin of Elizabeth foiinrl at Hoddesdon. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 363-364.
Thirteenth century padlock found at Wel\v3'n. East Jlcris
Arch. Soc. i. 365.
Roydon whipping-posts and stocks. Essex Arch. Soc.
N.S. viii. 230.
A Hertfordshire St. George. Folklore, xii. 303-307.
Gibson (Mrs.). On two Hebrew documents of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries. Cambridge Antiq. Soc. x. 1-5. Glynne (Sir Stephen R., Bart.). Notes on the older churches in
the four Welsh dioceses. Arch. Camh. 6th S. i. 133-147,
245-278. GoLDNEY (F. B.). Antiquities of the bronze, Roman and Saxon
periods, found near Canterbury. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii.
279-280. Goodrich-Freer (Miss). Second sight in the Highlands. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xxi. 105-115. GoMME (Alice B.). A Berwickshire kirn-dolly. Folklore, xii.
215-216. GoTCH (J. A.). Wollaton and Hardwick halls. Arch. Jonrn. Iviii.
435-442, 463-470. Kirby Muxloe castle. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 149-
156. Gould (I. Chalkley). Early defensive earthworks. Brit. Arch.
Assoc. N.S. vii. 15-38. Notes on Groby hall and castle. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S.
vii. 54-56.
Wallbury camp, Great Hallingbury. Essex Arch. Soc.
N.S. viii. 139-140. • Great Easton mount. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 324-
326.
Stukeley's "temple" at Navestock. Essex Arch. Soc.
N.S. viii. 327-328. Latton Hill mound, Harlow. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
239-241. GouLDiNG (Rev. W.). Martin Lister, M.D., F.R.S. Archil. Soc. xxv.
329-370. GowERS (Sir W. R., M.D.). The flint-work inscription on Blyrh-
burgh church. Suffolk Inst. Arch. xi. 51-58. Gowland (William). The earl}' metallurgy of silver and lead :
Arch. Ivii. 359-422.
22 INDEX OF ARCH.EOLOGICAL PAPERS
Grainger (Francis). The Chambers family of Raby Cote. Cuvib. and Wcstm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 194-232.
Gray (H. St. George). A memoir of General Pitt-Rivers. Somer- setshire Arch. Soc. xlvii. 123-137.
Bronze sword found on Pitney moor, Somerset. Somerset- shire Arch. Soc. xlvii. 230-233.
Gray (J.). Cephalometric instruments and cephalograms. An- throp. Inst. N.S. iv. 111-116.
Measurements of Papuan skulls. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv.
261-264.
Green (Emanuel). Nottingham castle. Arch. Jonrn. Iviii. 365-397-
Green (Rev. E. K.). Lawford church. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 286-291.
Greswell (Rev. W.). Ancient Dumnonia. Somersetshire Arch. Soc. xlvii. 175-188.
Griffith (F. Ll.). Notes on demotic philology : the Khamwas stories. Soc. Bihl. Arch, xxiii. 16-18.
Chronological value of Egyptian words found in the Bible.
Soc. Bihl. Arch, xxiii. 72-78.
The Eraser scarabs. Soc. Bihl. Arch, xxiii. 137-139.
A sale of land in the reign of Philopator. Soc. Bihl. Arch.
xxiii. 294-302. Grove (Florence). Horses' heads. Folklore, xii. 348-349.
Haddon (A. C). a classification of the stone clubs of British New
Guinea. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 221-250. Hall (Hamilton). Gundrada de Warenue : a legend. Ynrks
Arch. Journ. xvi. 305-318. Stigund, Bishop of Chichester, a note of the date at which
the seat of the Sussex diocese was removed from Selsey to
Chichester. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii. 88-104. Halliday (George E.). Lych gates in the diocese of Llandaff.
Arch. Camh. 6th S. i. 149-151. Hardy (W. J.). Hampstead church house. Hampstead Antiq.
and Hist. Soc. 1900, 94-96. Harley (John, M.D.). An early burial place at Pulborough.
Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii. 84-87. Harrison (Jane E.). Pandora's box. Hellenic Studies, xx.
99-114. Hartland (E. Sidney). Presidential address to the folklore
society. Folklore, xii. 15-40.
INDEX OP ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 23
Hartland (E. Sydney). Husband and wife story. Folklore, xii.
213. Hartopf (Henry). The parish registers of Ratby, co. Leicester,
1G95-1710. Assoc. Archit. Soc. xxv. 405-418. • The parish registers of Houghton-on-the-Hill, co. Leicester,
A.D. 1582-1639. Assoc. Avclut. Soc. xxv. 419-430.
Some unpublished documents relating to Noseley, co. Lei-
cester. Assoc. Archit. Soc. xxv. 431-458. Leicestershire Avills and administrations. Leicesters.
Architect. Soc. ix. 73-108. Hartshorne (Albert). Notes on the monumental effigy of Sir
Oliver de Cervington in Whatley church, Somerset. Proc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 389-392. Haverfield (F.). Excavations at Chesters in September, 1900.
Arch. JEliana, xxiii. 9-21. Report of the Cumberland excavation committee. Cumb.
and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 75-92. On a hoard of Roman coins found near Eastbourne. Sussex
Arch. Coll. xliv. 1-8. Hawkesbury (Lord). The heraldry on the gateway at Kirkham
abbey. East Riding Antiq. Soc. viii. 1-9. Hawtrey (Seymour H. C). The Lengua Indians of the Para- guayan Chaco. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 280-299. Herries (Lord). The constable of Flamborough. East Eidinfj
Antiq. Soc. viii. 51-69. Hervey (Rev. Sydenham A. H.). Ickworth. Sufolk Inst. Arch.
xi. 65-68. Higgins (T. W. E.). Blacksmiths' festival. Folklore, xii. 344-
346. Hill (Rev. A. D.). Some ancient carved stones in Calverton
church, Notts. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 459-461. Hodgson (Mrs.). On some surviving fairies. Cumb. and Westni.
Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 116-118. Hodgson (Rev. J. F.) On low side windows. Arch, ^liana, xxiii.
43-200. Hodgson (T. H.). Note on armorial stones at Raby Cote. Cumb.
and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 232-234. Hodson (T. C). The native tribes of Manipur. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. iv. 300-309. Hogarth (D. Ct.) and F. B. Welch. Px-imitive painted pottery in
Crete. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 78-98.
24 INDEX OF AECHiEOLOGICAL PAPERS
HOLLIS (A. C). Notes on the history of Vumba, East Africa.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 275-298. Hope-Edwardes (E. C). Sequestration i^apers of Sir Thomas
Edwardes, Baronet. Shropshire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 321-372. Hope (W. H. St. John). Excavations at Warter prior3^ East
Riding Antiq. Soc. viii. 40-50. Watton priory, Yorkshire. East Riding Antiq. Soc. viii.
70-107. Excavations at St. Austin's abbey, Canterbury : the
chapel of St. Pancras. Arch. Cant. xxv. 222-237. Boxgrove church and monastery. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii.
158-165. The arms of Colchester and Nottingham. Arch. Journ.
Iviii. 398-401. The Grilbertine priory of Watton in the East Riding of
Yorkshire. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 1-34. Hope (W. H. St. John) and Cteorge E. Fox. Excavations on the
site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants, in 1900. Arch.
Ivii. 229-251. Hose (Charles) and W. McDougall. The relations between men
and animals in Sarawak. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 173-213. Howard (Eliot). Colchester bays, says and perpetuanas. Essex
Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 223-225. HowoRTH (Daniel F.). The coinage of the Isle of Man. Lane.
and Chesh. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 68-74. HowORTH (Sir Henry H.). Some unconventional views on the
text of the Bible. Soc. Bihl. Arch, xxiii. 147-159, 305-330. HuDD (Alfred E.). Notes on the animal and other remains found
in the excavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshire, 1899-1900.
Arch. Ivii. 311-316. Note on a discovery of bronze implements at Coombe
Dingle, Westbury-upon-Trym. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii-
237-240. Hudson (Rev. William). The manor of Eastbourne, its eai-ly his- tory, with some notes about the honoxirs of Mortain and Aquila.
Essex Arch:' Coll. xliii. 166-2(J0. Hughes (Harold). Ynys Seiriol. Arch. Canib. 6th S. i. 85-108. The architectural history of the cathedral church of St.
Deiniol, Bangor. Arch. Canih. 6th S. i. 179-204. HuCtMes (T. M'Kenny). Amber. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 35-46. On the natural forms which have suggested some of the
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 25
commonest implements of stone, bone and wood. Arch. Joitrn.
Iviii. 199-213. Hughes (T. M'Kenny). On excavations at Hunstanton. I'roc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 310-321. • On a tumulus in Buckenham fields, Norfolk, explored
August, 1900, b}^ Lord Amherst of Hackney. Brit. Arch. Assoc.
N.S. vii. 183-188. Hughes (T. Cann). Discoveries at Bleasdale, Lancashire. Brit.
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 171-172. Hull (Eleanor). Old Irish tabus, or geasa. Folklore^ xii. 41-66. • The silver bough in L-ish legend. Folklore, xii. 431-
445. HusSEY (Arthur). Visitations of the Archdeacon of Canterbury.
Arch. Cant. xxv. 11-56. Hutcheson (Alexander). Notice of the discovery of a series of
cairns and cists, and urns of the bronze age, at Battle Law,
Naughton, Fifeshire, the property of Mrs. C. H. A. Anstruther
Duncan. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 301-309. HuTTON (Rev, F. U. C). Witherslack church and manor. Cwmh.
and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i 186-193. Hyde (Henry Barry). The Denchworth missal. Berks, Bucks,
and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 59-62.
Im Thurn (Everard F.). Games of the red men of Ouiana. Folk- lore, xii. 132-161.
Irvine (W.ai. Fergusson). Lancashire hearth taxes. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi. 127-138.
The origin of the Irelands of Hale. Lane, and Chesh. Hist.
Soc. N.S. xvi. 139-146.
James (Dr.). On two series of paintings formerly at Worcester
priory. Canib. Antiq. Soc. x. 99-115. On the sculptures on the south portal of the abbey church
of Malmesbury. Canib. Antiq. Soc. x. 136-147.
Sculptures at Lincoln cathedral. Camb. Antiq. Soc. x.
148-152.
James (F. V.). Leeds castle. ArcJi. Cant. xxv. pp. xlix.-liii.
Janvier (Catharine A.). Vine-grafting in southern France. Folk- lore, xii. 194-197.
Jensen (Rev. 0.). The " denarius sancti Petri " in England. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. XV. 171-247.
'20 IXDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Jewers (Arthur J.). The churches of Colyton and Shute and the
Pole monuments there. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 714-741. Jewitt (W. Henry). Custom in the building trade. Folklore,
xii. 104. Johnston (M. F.). Whitsuntide fate and mock burials. Folklore,
xii. 351. Johnston (Philip Mainwaring). Hardham chui'ch and its early
paintings. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 62-92 ; Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv.
7a-115. Mural paintings in Sussex churches. Sussex Arch. Coll.
xliii. 220-251 ; xliv. 204-206. Ford and its church. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliii. 105-157 ;
xliv. 206-208.
Note on an early map of Atherington manor with some
remarks upon the ancient chapel attached to Bailie's court. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 147-166.
Send church and the chapel of Ripley. Surrey Arch. Soc.
xvi. 168-196. Johnston (Swift P.). Supposed autograph letter of Bishop Berkeley
in the library of Roy. Irish Acad. Roy Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi.
272-278. Jones (Lady). Grateful Frejus. Folklore, xii. 307-315. Jones (L. D.). Notes on Yr Eglwys Wen or the white church
[North Wales.] Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 65-68. Jones (Prof. T. Rupert). History of the Sarsens. Berks, Bucks,
and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 54-59. Jones (Rev. G. Hart well). Some parallels between Celtic and
Indian institutions. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 109-125. Jordan (W. F. C). The adventures of the Ann of the port of
Exeter 1803 to 1806. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 332-335. Josselyn (Col. J. H.). A Suffolk captain of the time of Queen
Elizabeth. Suffolk Inst. Arch. xi. 47-49.
Kabbadias (P.). The recent finds oiF Cythera. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 205-208.
Kay (Thomas). Account of visit to the Picts' eirde, or earth- houses of Strathdon. Lane, and Chcsh. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 177- 179.
Keary (Alice A.). AVhitsuntide fate and mock burials. Folk- lore, xii. 352.
Kellv (^Richard J.). The manor courts of the county of Galway,
INDEX OF A RCH;E0 LOGICAL PAPEUS 27
their jurisdiction. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 297- 298.
Kempthorne (Gt. a.). The devil's highway between Bagshot and Silchester. Berks, Bucks, and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 74—77.
Kennedy (Rev. John). Ai-ran Gaelic dialect. Gaelic Soc. Inver- ness, XX. 126-141.
Some unpublished Gaelic ballads from the Maclagan MSS.
Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxi. 214-229.
Poems from the Maclagan MSS. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xxii. 168-192. Kenton (R. Lloyd). Manor of Ruyton-of-the-eleven-towns. Shro2)s.
Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 33-106, 213-250. Kent Archaeological Society : descriptive catalogue of documents
belonging to. Ai'ch. Cant. xxv. 256-298. Keyser (C. E.). On recently discovered mural paintings in our
English churches. Arcli. Journ. Iviii. 47-61. Kidson (Frank). The air " Rowty Tow." Folklore, xii. 429-430. King (H. W.) and Col. Frank Landon. Brentwood chapel. Essex
ArcJi. Soc. N.S. viii. 338-342. Kirby (T. F.). Charters of the manor of Meonstoke. Arch. Ivii.
285-294. Knowles (W. J.). Fourth report on the prehistoric remains from
the sandhills on the coast of Ireland. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S.
vi. 331-389. Stirrups used by Duke of Schomberg at the battle of the
Boyne. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 181-182. Knox (H. T.). The early tribes of Connaught. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. xi. 109-118. Identification of places named in Tirechan's collections.
Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 24-39.
Lach-Szyrma (Rev. W. S.). The site of London beyond the border a thousand years ago. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 39-46.
Wycliffe. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 219-226.
Chaucer, as illustrating English mediseval life. Brit .
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 276-284.
Lambert (F. A. H.). Notes on the manor and parish of Wood- mansterne. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 1-27.
Lang (A.). Spectral lights. Folklore, xii. 343-344.
The fire-walk ceremony' in Tahiti, Folklore, xii. 452-454.
28
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Langley (S. p.). The fire-walk ceremouy iu Tahiti. Folklore,
xii. 446-452. Latimer (John). Clifton in 1746. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc.
xxiii. 312-322. Latimer (Rev. William T.). The old session book of Templepatrick
Presbyterian church, co. Antrim. Roy. Soc. Aniiq. Ireland,
5th S. xi. 162-175, 259-272.
Discovery of relics in co. Tyrone. Roy. Soc. Aniiq. Ireland,
5th S. xi. 298-299.
L AVER (Henry). Bemfleet camp. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 233-236.
The castle of Stansted Moutfitchet. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S.
viii. 141-144.
Lawlor (Hugh Jackson). Primate Ussher's library before 1641.
Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 216-264. Laws (Edward). Archgeological survey of AVales, Pembrokeshire
section. Arch. Camh. 6th S. i. 156-160. Lay Subsidies, co. York, West Riding, anno 1545. Thoresby Soc.
xi. 101-129. Layard (Ida H.). A vanished castle, or the fortunes of the Chateau
de Coutras. Hnyuenot Soc. vi. 236-267.
A short story of three brothers. Huguenot Soc. vi.
356-368.
Leadman (Alex. D. H.). Five East Riding churches : Burnby,
Nunburnholme, Kilnwick Percy, Millington, and Grweudale
Magna. Yorks Arch. Journ. xvi. 258-304. Lega-Weekes (Ethel). Neighbours of North Wyke. Dev. Assoc.
xxxiii. 399-468. Legg (J. Wickham). Some local reforms of the divine service
attempted on the continent in the sixteenth century. St. PciuVs
Ecclcs. Soc. V. 17-42. Legge (P.). The names of demons in the magic papyri. Soc. Bibl.
Arch, xxiii. 41-49. Lemke (E.). Stone-catching game. Folklore, xii. 106. Le Strange (Hamon). On excavations at Hunstanton. Pror". Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 310. Lewis (A, L.). The stone circles of Cornwall and of Scotland. Roy.
Inst. Cormvall, xiv. 378-383. Lewis (Prof. Bunnell). Roman antiquities in south Germany.
Arch. Journ. Iviii. 254-304. Lighthall (W. D.). Hiawatha the Great. L'oy. Soe. Liter. 2nd S.
xxiii. 1-18.
INDEX OF AKCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 29
Linn (Richard). Exti-acts from the diary of Lieutenant David Thomas Powell, 14th Light Dragoons, 1790-1795. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Irehind, 5th S. xi. 65-67.
Lloyd (John Maurice Edward). Wanten or Wanton dyke, with some remarks on upper and lower short dykes. Arch. Camb. 6th S. i. 279-298.
LoTT (W. Gr.). Report on the painting in St. Stephen's church, Winsham, Somerset. Bristol and Glonc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 94r-95.
LovETT (E.). The ancient and modern game of astragals. Folk- lore, xii. 280-293.
Lucas (G-eoffrey). The church of St. Mary, Hitchin. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 225-252.
LuMB (Gr. D.). Leeds parish registers. Tlioresby Soc. x. 321-435.
Testamenta Leodiensia, extracted from the probate registry
at York. Tlioreslnj Soc. xi. 37-G8.
Justice's note-book of Captain John Pickering, 1656-60.
Tlioresby Soc. xi. 69-100. LuMBY (J. H.). The domesday survey of south Lancashire. Lane.
and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi. 53-76. Lynam (Charles). St. Nicholas church, Leicester. Brit. Arch.
Assoc. N.S. vii. 285-298; Leicesters. Archit. Soc. ix. 126-138. Lyons (Andrew W.). The ])ainted ceiling in the Montgomery aisle
of the old church at Largs, Ayrshire. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
109-111.
MacBain (Alex). The old Gaelic system of personal names. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xx. 279-315. Mr. Skene versus Dr. Skene. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxi.
191-214. Some Gaelic words and etymologies. Gaelic Soc. Inver-
ness, xxi. 306-326.
Early Highland personal names. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xxii. 152-168. Macbean (L.). The mission of the Celt. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xxi. 56-69. MacDonald (Alex). Scraps of unpublished poetry and folklore
from Glenmoriston. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxi. 22-36. MacDonald (Rev. D. J.). Jottings legendary, ' antiquarian and
topographical, from west Kintyre. Gaelic Soc, Inverness, xx.
53-66,
30 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
MacDonald (Kev. James). Fauus and fairies. Gaelic Soc. Inver- ness, xxi. 265-289. McDougall (W.) and Charles Hose. The relations between men
and animals in Sarawak. Antlirop. Inst. N.S. iv. 173-213. Mackay (John). Sutherland place names. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
XX. 103-125, 316-332. Mackay (Rev. Neil). The influence of the Norse invasion on the
language and literature of the Scottish Highlands. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xx. 78-103. Mackenzie (Alexander). Mairi Nighean Alastair, Rory Mor's cup
and horn and unpublished Macleod traditions. Gaelic Soc. In- verness, xxii. 43-67. Mackenzie (Rev. J. B.). Notice of two stone axes, one ornamented
with an incised interlaced pattern, found at Balnahanuait, Loch
Tay. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 310-313. MacKinley (William E. W.). Memorandum on the languages
of the Philippines. Arthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 214-218. Macleod (Neil). Beagan Dhuilleag bho Sheann Bhardachd Eilean-
a'-cheo. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxi. 171-186. Macnamara (Dr. Geo. U.). Inchiquin, co. Clare. Royal Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 204-227. Macpherson (Alex). Grleanings from the charter chest at Cluny
castle. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xx. 201-248 ; xxi. 391-452. Macritchie (David). Mound-dwellings and mound-dwellers.
Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 179-194. An additional note on St. Patrick's purgatory. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 85-86. Macrury (Rev. John), Briathran nan daoine 'dh' fhalbh. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xx. 141-151. Seana Bheachdan agus Seana Chleachdaidhean. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xxi. 369-379 ; xxii. 125-140. Maddock (Rev. Canon H. E.). Court rolls of Patrington manors.
East Riding Antiq. Soc. viii. 10-35. Malden (H. E.). The shell keep at Gruildford castle. Surrey Arch.
Soc. xvi. 28-34. Manley (Rev. F. H.). Notes on the history of Great Somerford.
Wilts Arch, and Nat. Hist. Mag. xxxi. 283-330. Manning (Percy). New Ross fair. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland,
5th S. xi. 179. March (H. Colley). Customs relating to iron. Folklore, xii. 340-
341.
INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 31
March (H. Colley). Report of excavatious ou Eggardun, Dorset- shire. Proc. Soc. Antlq. 2ud S. xviii. 258-262.
Martix (Alfred Trice). The Roman road ou Durdham Dowu. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 309-311.
Martin (A. T.) and Thomas Ashby. Excavatious at Caerweut, Monmouthshire, ou the site of the Roman city of Veuta Silarum, in 1899 and 1900. Arch. Ivii. 295-310.
Martindale (J. A.). An ancient British village in Iventmere. Cumh. and Wcstm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 175-185.
Maurice (C. E.). Abbe Moral and the Holh- Place chapel. JLanp- stead Antlq. and Hist. Soc. 1900, 32-40.
May (Thomas). Excavatious ou the site of the Romano-British "civitas" at Wilderspool 1899-1900. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi. 1-52.
Medland (M. H.). St. Nicholas' church, Gloucester. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 109-128.
Merrick (W. Percy). Blacksmiths' festival. Folklore, xii. 34().
Millard (Walter). The church of St. Marj's, Hitchin. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 253-259.
Mills (James). Peter Lewys, his work and workmen. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 99-108.
Mills (Rev. W.). St. Peter's church, Bennington. EaM Herts Arch. Soc. i. 347-351.
Milne (F. A.). Stone-catching games. Folklore, xii. 215.
Border marriages Folklore, xii. 352.
Milne (J. G.). Greek inscriptions from Egypt. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 275-292.
MiNCHiN (Rev. H. H.). The chui-ches of Great and Little Bromley. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 292-294.
Mitchell (Sir Arthur). The Hanuca lamp; a multiple cruisie, eight lights, used by the Jews at the feast of the dedication. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 254-257.
A list of travels, tours, journeys, voyages, cruises, excur- sions, wanderings, rambles, visits, etc., relating to Scotland. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 431-638.
Morgan (Prof. C. Lloyd). Burwalls and Stokeleigh camps. Somerset Arch. Soc. xlvii. 217-229.
Morgan (W. Ll.). Bronze implements found at Peuwylt, Breck- nockshire. Arch. Canib. Gth S. i. 162-104.
Moens (W. J. C). Recent discoveries in Romsey abbey church. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 246-249.
32 INDEX OP ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
MoiR (J. Paxton). Stone implements from Tasmania. Anfhrop.
Inst. N.S. iii. 257-262. Moore (Courtenay). Metal stirrups and silver cup. Roy. Soc.
Anfiq. Ireland, 5tti S. xi. 180-181. Morris (Joseph). The provosts and bailiffs of Shrewsbury. Shroj^s.
Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 1-32, 153-184, 289-320. Munich (C. J.). A short history of St. Mary's, Holly Place. Ilamp-
stead Anfiq. and Hist. Soc. 1900, 40-43. Munro (J. Arthur R.). Some Pontic milestones. Hellenic Studies,
XX. 159-166. Roads in Pontus, royal and Roman. Hellenic Studies,
xxi. 52-66.
Gleanings from Mysia. Hellenic Studies, xxi. 229-
237. Munro (Robert, M.D.). Isolated finds in Scotland ; excavations on
Roman stations; hill fort near Abernethy; a Romano-British
crannog at Hyndford; the hill fort of Dunbuie and its remarkable
remains; the Dumbuck crannog. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii.
370-386. • Notice of an ancient kitchen-midden near Largs Bay, Fife,
excavated by W. Baird, Esq., of Elie. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
281-299. Myers (C. S.). Stories from upper Egypt. Folklore, xii. 329-
330. My-res (J. L.). A primitive figurine from Adalia. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. iii. 251-256. On the plan of the Homeric house, with special reference
to Mykenaian analogies. Hellenic Studies, xx. 128-150. Notes on some examples of Senams in Algeria. Proc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 242-246.
Napper (H. F.). St. Martha on the hill and the Pilgrim's Way Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 248.
Nash (W. L.). The tomb of Mentuhetep I. at Der-el-Bahri, Thebes. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 291-293.
The tomb of Pa-shedu.at Der El Medinet, Thebes. Soc.
Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 360-361.
Neilson (George), " Huchown of the awle Ryale," the allitera- tive poet. Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 252-393.
Newberry (Percy E.). Extracts from my notebooks. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 218-224.
IXDEX OF AECH.EOLOGICAL PAPERS
33
Newman (Philip H.). Primal instiuct and culture in art. Roy.
Soc. Liter, xxii. 165-200. NiLSSON- (Martix p.). The '^xn/J.a TptatV?/? in the Erechtheion.
Hdlenic Studies, xxi. 325-.33.3. Xorman- (Philip). Sir John de Pultenej' and his two residences in
London, Cold Harbour, and the Manor of the Rose, together with
a few remarks on the parish of St. Laurence, Poultne}'. Arch.
Ivii. 257-284. On an allegorical painting in miniature, by Joris Hoefnagel,
and on some other works by this artist. Arch. Ivii. 321-330.
The accounts of the overseers of the poor of Paris Garden,
South wark, 17 May, 1608, to 30 September, 1071. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 55-136.
NuTT (Alfred). Alphabet used in consecrating a church. Folk- lore, xii. 100-101.
History, tradition, and historic myths. Folklore, xii.
336-339.
Offord (.Joseph). Arza and Aziza, and other archseological notes.
Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 241-247. and E. Gilbert Hightox. The " de duabus viis," a
new Latin version of the first six chapters of the '• Didache "' or
AIAAXH • TXIN • AHAEKA • AnOZTOAHN. Soc. BiU.
Arch, xxiii. 132-137. Oliver (Axdrew). Notes on some heraldic monuments in St.
Martin's church, Leicester. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 158-
160. 0"Eeilly (Joseph P.). On the mode of ringing or sounding bells
in the early churches of northei-n Spain and of Ireland. Boy.
Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 489-502. O'Eeilly (Patrick J.). The Christian sepulchral leacs and free- standing crosses of the Dublin half-baronj^ of Eathdown. Boy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 134-161, 246-258.
Palmer (Alfred Neobard), A destroyed Tudor building in Wrex- ham. Arch. Camh. 6th S. i. 173-178.
Parker iF. H. M.). The forgotten dedication of Great Orton church, Cuml^erland. Cumb. and Westni. Arch. Soc. X.S. i. 144-14r;.
The pedigree of Wastell, of Wastell Head, with a memoir
of General Honywood, of Howgill castle. Cumb. and V,'estm. Arch. Soc. X.S. i. 147-154.
C
34 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Patox (W. E.). Folktales from the ^gean. Folkloi-e, xii. 84-97,
197-208, 317-325.
Husband and wife story. Folklore, xii. 101.
Cropping animals" ears. Folklore, xii. 208-209.
Rain charm in Asia Minor. Folklore, xii. 210.
• Sites in east Karia and south Lydia. Hellenic Studies,
XX. 57-80. Patrick (Geo.). Notes on Ulvescroft priory. Brit. Arch. Assoc.
KS. vii. 5G-61.
Lutterworth. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 205-214
Paul (Rolaxd W.). Some notes on heraldic glass in Great Malvern
priory church. Arcli. Ivii. 353-358. Payne (George). Researches and discoveries in Kent, 1900-1901.
Arch. Cant. xxv. pp. lix.-lxxii. Peacock (Edward). Spectral light in Corsica. Folklore, xii. 105-10(3.
■ Sacrifice at York, 1648. Folklore, xii. 217.
Supernatural changes of sites. Folklore, xii. 464-406.
Peacock (Mabel). The folklore of Lincolnshire. Folklore, xii. 161-180.
■ Customs relating to iron. Folklore, xii. 472-473.
Peacock (Matthew H.). Certificates of alleged cures of lunacy by
John Smith, of Wakefield, in 1615. Yorks Arch. Journ. xvi.
248-255. Peers (C. R.). Recent discoveries iu Romsey abbey church. Arch.
Ivii. 317-320. ■ On Saxon churches of the St. Paucras type. Arch. Journ.
Iviii. 402-434. Penfold (J. W.). The presbyterlan congregation at Kingston-
upon-Thames. Surrey Arch. Soc. xvi. 246-248. Peter (Thurstan C). Notes on the churches of St. Mylor and
Mabe. Eoij. In.^t. Cormcall, xiv. 394-416. Petrie (W. M. Flinders). The races of early Egj-pt. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iv. 248-255. Pheli'S (J. J.). Vale Royal abbe3^ Lanes, and Chesh. Antiq. Soc.
xvi. 75-82. Phexe (Dr.). Influence of Chaucer upon the language and litera- ture of England. Boy. Soc. Liter, xxii. 33-93. Phillips (William). The sequestration papers of Sir John Weld,
senior, and Sir John Weld, junior, knights of Willey. Shro^)-
shirc Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 185-212. Francis Throgmorton, a prisoner in Shrewsbury', anno
1557-8. Shropshire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 267-280.
INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 35
Phillips (WilliamX The fire at Shifnal and the Earl of Shrews- bury, anno 1591. Shroj)f</ii>'e A)-ch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 281-282.
The demolition of Titz tumulus. Shrojjshire Arch. Soc.
3rd S. i. 286-287.
Salop house of correction and provision of the poor, anno
1598. Shro2}shi}'e Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 409-411. PiLCHER (Fi. J.). A cjdinder seal bearing the name " Gehazi." Soc.
Bihl. Arch, xxiii. 362. PixCHES (Theophilus Gr.). Assvriological gleanings. Soc. Bihl.
Arch, xxiii. 188-210. Platt ('E. M.). Sir Thomas Johnson. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc.
N.S. xvi. 147-164. Pluxket (Hox. E. M. I. The Chinese calendar, with some remarks
with reference to that of the Chaldeans. Soc. Bihl. Arch, xxiii.
367-377. Polson (A.). Highland folklore of luck. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xxii. 67-73. POXTING (G. E.). The churches of Sherston, Corston, and Nether-
avon. Wilts Arch, and Nat. Hist. Mag. xxxi. 343-357. Poole (Margaret Ellex). The Poole family of Poole hall in
Wirral. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi. 165-216. Potter (W. r.\ The etymology of Carshalton. Surrey Arch. Soc.
xvi. 252. Powell (John' U.). Folklore notes from south-west Wilts.
Folklore, xii. 71-83. Prestage p., S.J.\ The Kraal family system among the Amanda-
bele. Folklore, xii. 326-329. Prevost (A.). Notes on a quantity of mediaeval and other pottery
found under the Bank of England in May, 1900. Proc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 355-358. Price (F. G. Hilton). Notes upon clay tobacco pipes of the seven- teenth century found in Bristol. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 342-
349. Prickmax (J. D.\ Fragmentary notes of the French prisoners in the
west of England and other places in the early part of the nine- teenth century. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 309-321. A chapter in the history of the chapel of St. James, in the
borough of Okehampton. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 640-650. Primrose (Rev. James\ Ancient graves recently discovered on the
farm of AVyndford. in Uphall parish. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv.
325-328.
36
INDEX OF AECmEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Pritchard (Johx E.). Bristol archaeological notes for 1900. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 202-275.
Prowse (Arthur B., M.D.). The antiquities of Ockerj' aud Rovxnd- hill, Dartmoor. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 495-499.
A hitherto undescribed gigantic cross on the Abbot's v:ax,
Dartmoor. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 552-553.
Purser (L. C). Notes on Cicero's correspondence during his pro- consulate, lioij. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 390-414.
PuRTOX (Rev. R. C). Historical notes relating to the parish of Kempsey. Archit. Soc. xxv. 592-GOl.
Radford (Mrs. G. H.\ Edmund and Richard Tremayne. Dci\
A.^soc. xxxiii. 322-331. Ray (Sidxey H.). Stories from the southern New Hebrides, with
introduction and notes. Antlirop. Inst. N.S. iv. 147-154. Read iC. H.). Observations on objects of the bronze age found ia
High Down camp, Sussex. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii.
380-388. Read (E. W.) and A. C. Bryant. A mythological text from Mem- phis. Soc. Bihl. Arch. xxii. 100-187. Reddaway (W. E.). The advent of the Great Elector, noy. Hist.
Soc. N.S. XV. 151-170. Reichel (Rev. Oswald J.). The Devonshire domesday. Dei\
Assoc, xxxiii. 554-039. Reid (Clement). Notes on the plant-remains of Roman Silchester.
Arch. Ivii. 252-250. Renaud (P.). Biddulph manor and church. Lane, and Chcsli.
Antiq. Soc. xvi. 02-07. Rhys (Dr. J.). The Pentre Poeth inscribed stone. ArcJi. Camh.
eth S. i. 240-244.
Report on the island ogam at Bracklaghboy, near Ball}'-
haunis. Hoy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 279-282.
The Gigha ogam. lioy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi.
18-23.
The Tullaghane ogam-stone, co. Ma3'o. Jioy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. xi. 170-178. Ricci (Seymour de). Inscriptions concerning Diana of the Ephe-
sians. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 390-409. Rice (R. Garraway). Excavations of a Roman site at Pulborough;
Treyford and Elsted churches ; leaden vessel, probably the lining
of a font now at Greatham ; palimpsest brass at "Willingdon ;
INDEX OF AECHiEOLOGICAL PAPEES 37
treatment of wall paintings in Hardham church ; miscellaneous
items from Sussex ; Chichester market cross. Pi'oc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 294-303. Rice (R. Garraway). A terrier for the vicarage of West Dean with
Binderton annexed, IGlo. Sussex ArcJi. Coll. xliv. 144-146. Presentment of the churchwardens of Woollavingtou, 1(381.
Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 209-210.
Poll for the election of two barons to represent the town
and port of Seaford, March 25, 1751. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv. 210-211.
Richardson (A. B.). Notice of the find of coins at Closeburn, Dum- friesshire. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 039-659.
Rivers (W. H. R.). Primitive orientation. Folklore, xii. 210-212.
• The colour vision of the natives of upper Egypt. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iv. 229-247.
RoBARTS (N. P.). Notes on a bronze hoard and other antiquities lately found in Surre3^ Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 285-287.
Robert (C). A collection of Roman sarcophagi at Clievedeu. Hellenic Studies, xx. 81-98.
Roberts (L. M.). The negotiations preceding the peace of Lune- ville. lioij. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv. 47-130.
Roberts (W. Rhys). Aristophanes and Agathon. Hellenic Studies, XX. 44-56.
RoRERTSON (Rev. Charles M.). Arran Gaelic dialect. Gaelic Soc. Im-erness, xxi. 229-265.
■ The peculiarities of Gaelic as spoken in the writer's dis- trict. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxii. 4-42.
Topography and traditions of Eigg. Gaelic Soc, Inver-
ness, xxii. 193-210.
Robertson (J. L.). The sources of Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxi. 379-391.
Ossianic heroic poetry. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxii.
257-325.
Robertson (Canon Scott). Maidstone church. Arch. Cant. XXV. pp. xlii.-xlix.
Robertson (T. S.). Notes from Kirkwall. Soc. Antiq. Scot. xxxv. 313-315.
Robinson (Rev. N. F.). The pileus quadratus : an enquiry into the relation of the priest's square cap to the common aca- demical catercap and to the judicial corner cap. St. Paul's Eccles. Soc. V. 1-16.
38 INDEX OF AKCH.EOLOGHCAL PAPERS
EoscoE (Rev. John). Notes on the manners and customs of the
Baganda, Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 117-130. RosENHAix (Walter). Notes on Malay metal- work. Artthrnp. Inst.
KS. iv. 1(31-1G6. Eoss (Thomas). The sculptures in St. Mirreu's chapel, Paisley
abbey, representing the acts aud miracles of St. Mirin : also
incised sepulchral slabs receutlj' discovered in the abbey church,
Paisley. Soc. Anfiq. Scot. xxxv. 44r-GG. Roth (H. Ling). Maori Tatu and Moko. Antln-op. lad. N.S. iv.
29-64. Round (J. H.). The order of the hospital in Essex. Essex Arch.
Soc. N.S. viii. 182-18U. Heliou of Heliou's Bumpstead. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
187-191. • The manor of Colne Engaiue. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
192-198.
Creffeild family. Essex ArcJi. Soc. N.S. viii. 226.
An early Essex will. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 227.
The churches of High Ongar, Stanford Rivers, Langenhoe^
and Little Laver. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 227-228.
The wardstafF. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 229.
A charter of Alice of Essex. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
329-3.30.
Tregoz of Tolleshunt Tregoz. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii.
330-332.
Wethersfield, Pleshey and Plesiugho. Essex Arch. Soc.
N.S. viii. 332-334. Note on the Sussex domesday. Sussex Arch. Coll. xHv.
140-143. Rouse (W. H. D.). Sacrifice to avert shipwreck. Folklore, xii. 105.
The luck of Mycense. Folklore, xii. 347-348.
History tradition and historic myth. Folklore, xii. 467-
468. The double axe and the labyrinth. IleUenic Studies, xxi.
268-274.
RouTLEDGE (Rev. C. P.). Excavations at St. Austins abbey,. Canterbury : the church of SS. Peter and Paul. Arch. Cant. XXV. 238-243.
Ruck (Major). The Antonine lines as a defensive design : a com- parison in ancient and modern principles of fortification. Glas- goic Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 440-474.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 39
Ruddle (Rev. C. S.). Notes ou Diirriugtou. Wilts Arch, and Xat.
Hist Mag. xxxi. 331-342. RUXDLE (Rev. S.). Cornish chairs. Eoij. Inst. CornuriJI, xiv. 384-
393.
St. Clair (George). Pasht aud the sed festival. Soc. Bihl. Arch.
xxiii. 225-229. Salkield (T.). John Loudon McAdam, the great roadmaker. East
Herts Arch. Soc. i. 305-31(3. Salwey (Rev. J.). The parish of Broxbourne. East Herts Arch.
Soc. i. 293-297. Sands (Harold). An old map of Canterbur}'. Arch. Cant. xxv.
250-254. Sayce (Prof. A. H.). Notes on (i.) The Hjdvsos, (ii.) the Hittite in-
scriptions, (iii.) the Arzawa letters, (iv.) Kandaules of Lydia.
Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 95-113.
■ Greek ostraka from Egypt. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 211-217.
Saye and Sele (Lord). Notes on Broughton castle. Berks, Bucks,
and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 23-25. Sayle (C. E.). A tinderbox attributed to Shakespeare. Cambridge
Antiq. Soc. X. 119-123. ScHiCKLER (Baron Fernaud de). Un chapitre de I'histoire des
eglises du refuge de langue francais en Angleterre apres la
revocation de I'edit de Nantes ; les deux patentes. Huguenot
Soc. vi. 268-294. Searle (Rev. W. G.). On a medal of Justinian I. Cambridge
Antiq. Soc. X. 129-136. Shaw (George T.). Henry Brown : a Liverpool attorney of the
eighteenth century. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xvi.
77-92. Shaw (William A.). The Irish pensioners of William III.'s
huguenot regiments. Huguenot Soc. vi. 295-326. Shelford (R.). a provisional classification of the swords of the
Sarawak tribes. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 219-228. Sherwood (G. F. T.). Early Berkshire wills from the P.C.C.
Berks, Bucks, and Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vi. 119-120; vii.
28-30. County collections for Berkshire. Berks, Bucks, and
O.ron. Arch. Journ. N.S. vii. 90-93.. Shropshire wills (list of) at Somerset House, London, from 1641-
1660. Shropshire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 251-256.
40 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Shrubsall (F. C). Notes on crania from the Nile-welle water- shed. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 25G-2G0. Sinclair (Rev. A. Maclean). Unpublished Gaelic songs with notes.
Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xx. 9-28. SiNTON (Rev, Thomas). Snatches of song collected in Badenoch.
Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xx. 168-200; xxii. 233-250. Smith (A. H.). Gavin Hamilton's letters to Charles Townley. IleJ-
lenic Studies, xxi. 300-321. Smith (R. A.). Notes on excavations on early sites near Leather- head and Shamley Green, Surrey. Proc. Soc. Anti'p 2nd S.
xviii. 251-258. Somerville (Rev. J. E.). Notice of cup-and-ring-marked rocks on
the Stronach Ridge, near Brodick, in Arran. Soc. Antiq. Scot.
XXXV. 315-324. SouTHAM (Herbert R. H.). Inventory of the effects of Elizabeth
Perkes of Westhood, Oldbury, 1088. Shi'02)sJii)-e Arch. Soc.
3rd S. i. 413-414 Sparke (Archibald). Roman sepulchral slab from old Carlisle.
Climb, and West in. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 03. Speakman (Jean Carlyle Graham). Midsummer in the Pyrenees.
Folklore, xii. 315-317. Spiegelberg (Wilhelm). Contribution to the second tale of
Khamuas. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 252-254. Statham (Rev. S. P. H.). Dover chamberlain's accounts, 1365-07.
Arch. Cant. xxv. 75-87. Stephenson (Mill). A list of palimpsest brasses. 3Ion. Brass Soc.
iv. 97-135, 141-104. Stores (H.). Unclassified worked flints. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii.
299-304. Story (Very Rev. Principal). Letters from Darien. Glasgoic
Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 207-225. Stctart (W. G.). Strathspey raid to Elgin in 1820. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xxi. 30-50. Suffolk. The condition of the archdeaconries of Suffolk and
Sudbury in the year 1003. Suffolk Inst. Arch. xi. 1-40. Sumner (W. G.). The Yakuts. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 65-
110. Sussex. Inventories of goods of the smaller monastei'ies and friaries
in, at the time of their dissolution. Sussex Arch. Coll. xliv.
55-72. Sutton (Arthur F.). A description of th3 churches visited in the
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 41
excursion from Peterborough, July 3rd and 4th, 1903. Arch if.
Sac. XXV. 310-328. S-\V0RDER (Clara E.). Little Muuden. East Herts Arch. Soc. i.
325-332. Sykes (Ella C). Pei-sian folklore. Folklore, xii. 2G1-280. Sympsox (Dr. Maxsel). Notes on the pulpitum or choir screen in
Tattershall church. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 289-293.
Tarn(W. W.). Patrocles and the Oxo-caspiau trade route. Hellenic
Stttdies, xxi. 10-29. Taylor (Henry^). The ancient crosses of Lancashire. Lane, and
Chesli. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 39-Gl. Taylor (Rev. C. S.). Bath, Mercian and West Saxon. Bristol aiid
Glonc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 129-101. Thomas (Dr. G. Danford). The office of coroner, past and present ;
with the account of a remarkable inquest. Hampstead Antiq.
and Hist. Soc, 1900, 80-82. Thomas (N. W.). Note on some American parallels to European
agricultural customs. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 155-156. A Buddhist wheel of life from Japan. Folklore, xii.
67-G9.
Stray notes on Japanese folklore. Folklore, xii. G9-71, 214.
Cropping animals' ears. Folklore, xii. 97, 208,
Animal superstitions. Folklore, xii. 189-194.
Sun charms. Folklore, xii. 21G.
The transition from, totemisni to animal worship. F)lk-
lore, xii. 341-343. The ethnological significance of burial and cremation. Folk-
lore, xii. 468-4G9.
Ship processions. Folklore, xii. 47G.
Thompson (Edward P.\ Roman urns and lamp found near Whit- church. S]irojj.^hire Arch. Soc. 3rd S. i. 149-15U. Thomson (Basil). Note upon the natives of Savage Island or Nine.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv, 137-14G. Thornley (Rev. Canon). Children's games at Kirkoswald. Cumh.
and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i. 2G8-279. ToLLiN (Dr.). Concerning the name "Huguenot." Huguenot Soc.
vi. 327-355. Traquair (R. H.). Notes on the bones collected by Dr. Munro
from the kitchen-midden at Elie. Soc. A^ntiq. Scot. xxxv. 299-
300.
42 INDEX OF AECH.EOLOCtICAL PAPERS
Tregear (E.). The spirit of vegetation. Anthroj). Inst. N.S. iv.
157-159. Troup (Mrs. Eraxces B.). Xotes on the district probate registry at
Exeter. Dev. Assoc, xxxiii. 510-51G. Tuck (Eev. A. J.), Great Munden church. East Herts Arch. Soc.
i. 321-32.3. Tydemax ('Joseph). The Eleanor cross at Waltham and its sister
crosses. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 333-346.
Urwick (Eev. W.). Notes on Jack Straw ; and the commonwealth ministers of Hampstead. Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc, 1900, 20-29.
Vaxe (Hox. axd Eev. Gilbert H. F.). On two rectors of Whit- church. Shi^ojJshire Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 283-298.
Vaughax (H. E. J.). The family of Jenkins. Arch. Canib. (3th S. i. 20.5-22(3.
Vexkataswami (M. N.). Ehymes English and Hindu. Folklore, xii. 330-335.
Verrall (A. W.). The name Anthesteria. Hellenic Studies, xx. 115-117.
Vigors (Philip D.). Extracts from the old corporation books of New Eoss, CO. AVexford. Hoy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 48-(34.
Wade-Evans (A. AV.}. Inscribed stone at Fishguard. Arch.Camh.
6th S. i. 318. Waldstein (Charles). The Argive Hera of Polycleitus. Hellenic
Studies, xxi. 30-44. Waller (J. G.). Early rambles on Hampstead Heath. Hampstead
Antiq. and Hist. Soc, 1900, 54-64. Waller i^ William Chapman). An extinct county family: Wroth
of Loughton hall. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 145-181. ■ Essex field names. Essex Arch. Soc. N.S. viii. 199-222,
294-323. Worked flint found at Loua-hton hall. Essex Arch. Soc.
N.S. viii. 229.
Early Huguenot friendly societies. Huguenot Soc
vi. 201-233.
Walters (H. B.). The church bells of Worcestershire ; the mediae- val period. Archit. Soc. xxv. 549-591.
Ward (John). Cardiff castle : its Eoman origin. ^-Irc/i.lvii. 335-352.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 43
Ward (John). Collection of scarabs. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 10-3-i,
79-92. Wardell (John). Extracts from old Dublin newspapers. Boy. Soc^
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi. 179-180. Warren (F. E.). Gild of S. Peter in Bardwell : churchwardens'
accounts in connexion with the churches SS. Peter and Paul in
Bardwell and townwardens' accounts of Bardwell. Siijfolk Inst.
Arch. xi. 81-147. Warren (Robert Hall). The seals of Tewkesbur}^ abbe}'. Bristol
and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 285-288. Watson (George). Gerard Lowther's house, Penrith i^Two Lions
inn), its purchase by him, descent and social life associated with
its subsequent owners. Cniub. and Westm. Arch. Soc. N.S. i.
94-103. The Xelsons of Penrith. Cunib. and Westm. Arch. Soc.
N.S. i. 104-113. Weeks (Rev. J. H.). Stories and other notes from the upper
Congo. Folklore, xii. 181-189, 458-4G4. Weigall (Arthur E.). Egyptian notes. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii.
10-15. An inscribed disk of the 22ud dynasty. Soc. Bil>l. Arch.
xxiii. 259-260.
Some Egyptian weights in Prof. Petrie's collection. Soc.
Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 378-395.
Weld (Agnes G.). Egyptian funeral customs and beliefs as illus- trated by the collection in the Ashmolean museum, Oxford. Berks, Bucks, and 0,ron. Arch.Jcnirn. N.S. vii. 18-22.
Wells (E. J.). Note on a brass at Goodnestone-next-Wiugham^ Kent. Mon. Brass Soc. iv. 183-184.
Were (F.). Heraldry. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 96- 108.
Werge (John). Two eminent occupants of Golders Hill. Ilauij)- stead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1900, 44-52.
Weston (Jessie L.). The golden bough : moab or Edom. Folk- lore, xii. 347.
Westropp (Thomas J.). The Cahers of co. Clare : their names, features, and bibliography. Iloij. L-ii^h Acad. 3rd S. vi. 415-449.
Prehistoric remains in north-western Clare. Boy. Soc,
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. xi 1-17 ; 273-292.
Passaroe and Tully crosses. Boy. Soc. Anticp Ireland, 5th
S. xi. 86.
44 INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPEKS
Westroff (Thomas J.). The name " Buttevant." Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. xi. 87. Whale (Eev. T. ^y.). Extracts from the Red Book and notes on
the Pipe Rolls of Henry II. Dei: Assoc, xxxiii. 3G3-398. White (Fraxklest). On the ruins of Dhlo-Dhlo, in Rhodesia.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 21-28. Whiteside (Rev. J.). A letter of 1745. Cumb. and West in. Arch.
Soc. N.S. i. 167-170. Little Strickland chapel. Citmh. and Westn\. Arch. Soc.
N.S. i. 171-174. Matterdale church and school. Cumb. and Westni. ArcJi.
Soc. N.S. i. 235-255.
Swindale chapel. Cauib. and Wesfni. Arch. Soc. N.S. i.
256-2G7. Whiteway (A. R.). The Pyrenean neighbour or the vicinal system
of the western Pj-renees. Arch. Journ. Iviii. 182-198. AVhyte (E. Towry). AVooden palette, Egyptian. Soc. Blbl. Arch.
xxiii. 257-258. Wiedemann (A.). Egyptian notes. Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 248-
251. Bronze circles and purification vessels in Egyptian temples.
Soc. Bibl. Arch, xxiii. 2G3-274. WiLLETT i^Edgar). On a collection of palaeolithic implements from
Savernake. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iv. 310-315. WiLKiNs (Charles). Llancaiach house. Arch. Comb. Gth S. i.
14-19.
Owladys, sister of Tydvil. Arch. Carab. Gth S. i. 151-153.
Williams (Richard). Dolforwyn castle and its lords. Arch. C'anib.
Gth S. i. 299-317. Williams (Stephen W.). Mediteval domestic mortars used as holy
water stoups in churches. Arch. Cainb. Gth S. i. 153-155. WiMBERLEY (Capt. D.). Selections from the family papers of the
Mackays of Bighouse, consisting mainly of letters addressed to
John Campbell of Barcaldine, sometime one of the government
factors on the forfeited estates after the '45. Gaelic Soc. Inver-
vess, xxi. 120-171. Selections from the family papers of the Macka^'s of Big- house. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xxii. 74-117. WiNCKLEY (Rev. S. Thorold). Royalist papers relating to the
sequestration of the estates of Sir Lewis Watson, knight and
baronet, afterwards first Baron Rockingham, of Rockingham
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 45
castle, during the civil wars ia Euglaud. Arch it. Soc. xxv.
371-404. WiXDEATT (Edward). Totnes : its mayors and mayoralties. Dev.
Assoc, xxxiii. 535-551. WiNDLE (Prof.). A tentative list of objects of prehistoric and early
historic interest in the counties of Berks, Bucks and Oxford.
Berks, Bucks, and Oxon. Arch. Jovrn. X.S. vii. 43-47. Woodruff (Cumberland H.). Romano-British interments at Lower
Walmer. Arch. Cant. xxv. 1-10, Thirteenth century wall painting at Upchurch. Arch.
Cant. xxv. 88-9(3. Woodruff (Rev. C. E.). Dent-de-lion gatehouse, Margate, vrith a
pedigree of the family of Pettit. Arch. Cant. xxv. 57-G3.
Church plate in Kent. ArcJi. Cant. xxv. 113-197.
WORSFOLD (T. Cato). Porta-Nigra : the treasure of Treves. Brit.
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vii. 143-148. Worth (R, H.). Twentieth report of the barrow committee. Dei\
Assoc, xxxiii. 117-122. Worth (R. N.). The Romans in Cornwall. Foy. lu.^t. CornuaU,
xiv. 365-369. Wright (A. R.). The divining rod in U.S.A. Folklore, xii. 102-
103. Wright (Edward Perceval). Xotes on some Irish antiquities
deposited with the acadeni}'. Eoi/. Irish. Acad. 3rd S. vi. 283-
288. Notes on the cross of Cong. Eoij. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th
S. xi. 40-47.
Yeatmax (John Pym). Welsh records. Arch. Canib. 6th S. i. 126-
132. Young (Sir George, Bart.). Cookham church. Berks, Bucks, and
Oxon. Arch. Journ. N.S. vi. 107-118 ; vii. 5-17. Two notes on Sophocles, Hellenic St^idies, xxi. 45-51.
INDEX
Abbeys : Compfon, Fletcher, Hope,
Moens, Phelps, Hoss, Routledge,
Warren. Aberdeenshire : Abercrombij. Accounts (parish) : Norman. Accounts (private) : Brushfield. Africa : Hollis, My res, Boscoe,
Sh rii hsall, 1 Vh ife. Alfred the Great : Alforcl. Almondbury : Brooke. Amber : Hughes. American Indians : Boyle, Hawtrey,
Im Thurii. Antrim : Bnick. Apprenticeship : Erskine-Rish. Armada : Bax. Arran : Somerville. Arthuret : Bower. Assyriology: Boissier, Delattre,
Pinches. Atherington : Johnston. Aust Cliif : Ellis.
-Bangor : Huc/hes.
Bardwell : Warren.
Bath : Taylor.
Battles: Bax, Knowles.
Bells (church) : O'Reilly, Walters.
Bel voir : Carrington.
Benifleet (South) : Beaumont, Laver.
Bennington : Mills.
Berkshire : Cope, Shenoood, Windle. See " Cookham," " Denchworth," " Farringdon," " Mortimer."
BidduljDh : Renaud.
Binderton : Rice.
Bleasdale : Hughes.
Blythburgh : Gowers.
Boxgrove : Hope.
Brasses : See " Monuments."
Brentwood : King.
Bristol : Atchley, Barker, Price, Pritchard.
Bromley: Minchin.
Bronze period, remains : Hutcheson.
collar : Barker.
implements : Anderson, Coffey Coleman, Hudd, Morgan.
objects : Dawson, Ellis, Goldney, Read, Robarts.
Tirns : Hutcheson.
sword : Gray. Broughton : Saye and Sele. Broxburne : Salwey. Buckenham : Hughes. Bucks : Bourke, Buckinghamshire,
Foster, Wifidle. See "Fenny
Stratford," " Turville." Burnby : Lendman.
Caerwent : Ashhy, Hudd.
Caithness : Anderson.
Calendars : Plunket.
Calverton : Hill.
Cambridge : Atkinson.
Cambridgeshire : Cambridgeshire,
Lloyd.
Camps, mounds, entrenchments : Brooke, Christison, Cowper, Elliot, Gould, Later, Lloyd, MacRitchie, March, Morgan, Read, Ruck.
Canterbury : Goldney, Hope, Rout- ledge, Sands.
Cardiff: Ward.
Cardiganshire : Barker.
Carlisle : ColUngwood.
Carshalton : Potter.
Castles : Adamson, Ball, Carrington, Corbett, Ffrench, Gotch, Gould, Green, James, Laver, Layard, Maiden, Saye and Sele, Ward, Williams.
Castleton : Addy.
Celtic history and antiquities : Auden, Barker, MacBean.
Chaldea : Plunket.
Chalfield (Great) : Davies.
Cheshire : See " Lymm," '• Wiri-al."'
4C
INDEX
47
Chichester : Arnold, Boger, Cooper, Hall, nice.
Chinese : Plunket.
Christian (earU') monuments : Allen.
Churches : Andre, Aitstin, Beaumont, Brereton, BrunsJcill, Cooke, Cotton, Cox, Davies, Forsjith, Fox.Frainp- ton, Glyjine, Gowers, Green, Hill, Hodgson, Hope, Jewers, Johnston, Keyser, Leadman, Lott, Lucas, Lynam, Lyons, Medland, Millard, Mills, Minchin, Oliver, O^Reilly, Peers, Peter, Pontiny, Pricknian, Jtenaud, Rice, Robertson, Routledge, Sutton, Sympson, Tuck, Williams, Young.
Church plate : Ball, Bates, Cooper, Woodruff.
Churchwardens' accounts : Artiold, Fletcher, Warren.
Cicero : Purser.
Cinque Ports: Dawson.
Clare : Westropp.
Clifton : Latimer.
Clocks: Brook.
Closeburn : Richardson.
Cluny : MacPherson.
Colchester : Astley, Hope, Howard.
Colne Engaine : Round.
Col3'ton : Jewers.
Comer Hall : Cowper.
Connaught : Knox.
Connemara : Browne,
Cookham : Young.
Cornwall : Baring - Goidd, Brent, Lewis, Bundle, Worth. See " Mabe," " St. Mylor."'
Coronation : Dawson, F.
Coroners : Thomas.
Corston : Pont in g.
Costume : Andre, Brydall.
Crosses : CoUitigtvood,0^ ReiUy, Prowse, Rice, Taylor, Tydeman, Westropj), Wright.
Cuckfield : Attree, Breach, Cooper.
Cumberland: Haverfield. See " Art- huret," " Carlisle," " Glassonby," " Matterdale," "Orton (Great)," "Penrith."
Cup and ring marks : Somerville.
Cyprus : Evans.
Darien : Story.
Dartmoor : Baring-Gould, Prowse. Denchworth : Hyde. Derbyshire : See " Castleton." Devonshire : Amery, Brooking- Rowe, GresweU, Reichel, Whale,
Worth. See " Colyton," " Dart- moor," " Exeter," " Fen Ottery," " Ford," " Kenton," " Kings- bridge," "Okehampton," "Shute," " Stockleigh English," " Totnes."
Dialect : Drinkwater, Kennedy, Mac- hain, Robertson,
Diaries : Barrow-in-Furness, Brush- field, Linn, Lumb.
Domesday survey : Farrer, Luniby, Reichel, Round.
Dorsetshire : March,
Dover : Siatham.
Dublin : Berry, Cosgrave, Drew, Falkiner, CReilly, Wardell.
Durringtou : Ruddle.
Eastbourne : Haverfield , Hudson.
Ecclesiology : Brown, Legg, Ilohinson.
Egypt : Breasted, Butler, Clarke, Griffith^ Myers, Nash, Petrie, Rivers, Sayce, Ward, Weigall, Weld, Whyte, Wiedemann.
Eigg : Robertson.
Elgin : Stuart.
Elsted : Rice.
Elie : Traquair.
Essex: Christy, Gould, Hound, Waller. <S'ee " Bem'fleet (South)," "Brent- wood," " Bromley," " Colchester," " Colne Engaine," " Hallingbury Great," " Harlow," " Helions Bumpstead," " High Ongar," " Langenhoe," "Lawford," " Lit- tle Laver," " Loughton," " Nave- stock," " Nevenden," " Pleshey," " Plesingho," " Eoydon," "Stan- ford E.ivers," " Stansted Mont- fichet," " Tiptrie," " ToUeshunt Tregoz," " Waltham," " Waltham (Little)," " Wethersfield."
Exeter : Adams, Brushfield, Troup.
Faringdon : Ditchfield.
Feathenleag : Auden.
Fen Ottery : Dickinson.
Fenny Stratford : Bradbrook.
Field names : Waller.
Fifeshire : Hufcheson.
Fishguard : Wade-Evans.
Fitz : Phillips.
Flamljorough : Herries.
Folklore : Addy, Amery, Astley, Atch- ley, Auden, Boger, Boissier, Boyle, Braitmaier, Burne, Cameron, Carey, Carsoti, Chervin, Cheshire, Coleridge, Conybeare, Cooke, Drum- mond, Dutt, Emslie, Evans, Farrer, Fergus-son, Frazer, Gaster, Gerish,
48
INDEX
Goodrich- Freer, Gomme, Groves, Hartland, Hitjcjim, Hodgson, Hidl^ Janvier, Jewitt, Johns/on, Jones, Keari/, Kennedy, Kidvcn, Lanrj, Lanijlei/, Lemke, Leg(je, Lifjhthnll, Lovetf, MacDonald {A.\ MacDcnnId {D. J.\ MacDonald (J.), Mackenzie, MacTiitchie, March, Merrick, Mihie, Mitchell, Mijers, N7(tf, Paton, Peacock (E.), Peacock (M.), Poison, Powell, Prcstarje, Hay, Pead, Rivers, Polertson, ttoiise, Sinclair, Sinton, Sj:eakman, Si/kes, Thomas, Thornley, Tregear, Ven- Tcataswami, Weeks, Weld, Weston, Wright.
Fonts : Andre, Fri,er, Rice,
Ford (Devon) : Cotton.
Ford (Sussex) : Johnston. '
France : Duncan.
Gahvay : Kelly.
Genealogy and family history : Aftree, Baildcn, Cooper, Ciisf, Frazer- Mackintosh, Grainger, Grai/, Irvine, Lega- Weekes, Parker, Phillips, Piatt, Poole, Eadford, Round, Vaughan, Waller, Watson, Westro})}), Wilkins, Wimlierley, Winckley.
Giraldus Cambrensis : Camphell,
Glasgow : Allen.
Glassonby : Barnes, Collingicood.
Gloucester : Medland.
Gloucestershire : Davis, Martin. See "Aust Clitt;" "Bristol," "Clif- ton," " Gloucester," " Tewkes- bury," " Toddington," " West- bury-upon-Trym."
Goothiestone : Wells.
Grammar schools ; Breach.
Great Clifton : Collin gwood.
Great Munden : Tuck.
Greatham : Pice.
Greek antiquities : Anderson, Awdry, Bevan, Bosanquet, Brooks, Broivn, Cook, Croir/oot, Edmunds, Foat, Furticdngler, Gardner (E.), Gard- ner {P-}, Harrison, Hogarth, Kabhadias, Munro, Milne, Myres, Nil sson, Paton, Poherts, Rouse, Tarn, Verrall, Waldstein, Young.
Groby : Gould.
Guihiford : Maiden.
Guudrada de Warenne : Hall.
Gwendale magna : Leadman.
Hale : Irvine.
Hal lingbury (Great) : Gould.
Hampsliire: See " Meonstoke," "Eom- sey," '' Silchester."
Hai'dliam : Johnston, Rice.
Hardwick Hall : Gotch.
Harlow : Gould.
Hastings : Daivson.
Haughinond : Fletclier.
Hayles Abbey : Brakspear.
Helion's Bumpstead : Pound.
Henry I. : Andrew.
Heraldry : Bradbrook, Hawkeshury, Oliver, Paul, Were.
Herefordshire : Frazer.
Hertford : Caldecott.
Hertfordshire : Geri^h. See " Ben- nington," " Broxbourne," "Great Munden," " Hertford,^' " Hitchm," " Hoddesdon," " Little Munden," " Standon," "Ware," "Welwyn," " Wormle^'."
High Ongar : Pound.
Hitchin : Lucas, Millard.
Hittite remains : Andersen, Sayce.
Hoddesdon : Andrews, Gerish.
Houses : Andre, Baddeley,Gotch, Gould, Wilkins.
Houghton-on-the-Hill : Hartopj).
Hunstanton : Huglics, Le Strange.
Ickham : Frampton.
Ickworth : Hervey.
Inchiquin : Macnamara.
India : Didt, Hodscn.
Inns : Andre.
Inscrijitions : Ffrench, Piccl, Wade- Evans. Greek : Milne. Hittite : Andersen. Ogam : Buick, P/iys.
Inventories : Auden, Soidham, Sussex.
lona : Allen.
Ireland: Chambrier, Coffey, FaJ.ey, Ffrench, Hull, Knowles, Knox, Latimer, Wright. See " Antrim," "Clare," " Connaught," " Con- nemara," "Dublin," "Gahvay," "Inchiquin," " New Koss."
Japan : Asldvn.
Ivempse}' : Purton.
Kent : Payne, Woodruff. See " Goodnestone," "Ickham," "Leeds," "Maidstone," "Mar- gate," " Minstey," " Stockbury," " Upchurch," " Walmer."
Kent mere : Coivjer, C ropier, Ctiruen, Martindale.
INDEX
49
Kenton : Binijlium.
Kiln wick Percy : Leadnian.
Kingsbridge : Davies.
Kiugston-ou-Thames : Fen/old.
Kintyre : Mac Donald.
Kirby Muxloe : Gotch,
Kirkham : Hawkesb/ir/j.
Kirklees : Ckadwick.
Kirkoswald : Collitigwood, Tkornley.
Kirkwall : Robertson.
Knights Hospitallers : Brown.
Lancashire : Irvine^ Lumbij, Taylor. See " Bieasdale," " Hale," •' Liver- pool," "Manchester," "Middle- ton," " Preston," " Vale Royal."
Langenhoe : Round.
Langford Badville : E'toori./iy.
Largs : Lyons.
Lawford : Green.
Leatherhead : Smith.
Leeds (Kent): James.
Leeds (Yorks) : Ford, Liimb.
Leicester : Complon, Lynam, Oliver.
Leicestershire: Belluirs, Hartopp. See " Groby," " Houghton on the Hill," " Kirby Muxloe," " Leices- ter," " Lutterworth," '• Noseley," "Eatby," " Ulvescroft."
Leper-hospitals : Andrews.
Lewes: Boy son.
Lincoln : James.
Lincolnshire: Foster. .See " Lincoln," " Scunthorpe," " Tattershall."
Libraries : Churcit, Clark, Close, Cooper, Johnston, Lawlor.
Literary history : Axon, Bolton, Browning, Davey, Howortli, Lack- Szyrma, Neilson, Phene.
Little Laver : Round.
Little Munden: Sworder.
Liverpool: Shaw.
Llandaff: Halliday.
Llantrissant : Corbett.
London: Garnett, Hardy, Lach-Szyr- ma, Maurice, Munich, Norman, Prevost, Urwich, Waller, Werge.
Loughlinstown : Ball.
Loughton : Waller.
Lun6ville, peace of : Roberts.
Lutterworth : Patrick.
Lych gates : Halliday.
Lymm : Ball.
Mabe : Peter. Maidstone : Robertson, Malmesbury: James. Malvern (Great) : Paul.
Man (Isle of): Howorth.
Manchester : Ball.
Manor courts : Kelly, Kirby, Mad- dock.
Maori : Roth.
Margate : Cotton, Woodruff.
Maryculter : Edwards.
Matterdale : W/iiteside.
Meonstoke : Kirby.
Metallurg3' : Gowland, Rosenhain.
Mexico : Corner.
Middleton; Dean.
Military history : Firth, Gould, Knowles, Linn, Ruck.
Millington : Leadman.
Minster: Frampton.
Monmouthshire: iS'ee "Caerwent."
Monuments, inscriptions, brasses, etc. : Andre, Bower, Browne, Brydall, Buckinghamshire, Cam- bridgeshire, Christy, Cocks, Danis, Fallow, Hartshorn, Jewers, Rice, S'ephenson, Wells.
Mortimer: Cameron.
Municipal antiquities: Atkinson, Berry, Caldecott, Drinkwater, Hope, Morris, Statham, Vigors. Windeatt.
Names : MacBain.
Navestock : Gould.
Netheravon : Pouting.
Nevenden : Beaumont.
New Guinea: Haddon.
New Koss : Manning, Vigors.
Norfolk: Astley. See " Buckenham,"
"Hunstanton." Norse invasion : Mackay. Northamptonshire : Brereton, Cox. Northumberland : Hauerfield. See
" Tynemouth." Noseley : Hartopp. Nottingham: Green, Hope. Nottinghamshire : See " Calverton,"
" Nottingham." Numismatics : Brooking-Rowe, Rich- ardson.
Elizabeth: Gerish.
Henry I : Andrew.
Justinian I. : Searle.
Manx: Howorth.
Roman : Caldecott, Christy, Clark, Haverfield. Nunburnholm : Leadman.
Okehamption : Prick man. Oldbury : Southam. Ormesby : Fallow.
50
INDEX
Ormshed : Brimnkiil. Orton (Great) : Parker. Oxfordshire : Windle. See " Brongh- ton," " Witteiiham (Little)."'
Paisley : Ross.
Parish registers: Dickinson. Hartopp,
Luinh. Patrington : Maddoek. Peles : Cowper. Penrith : Watson. Phillippines : AlacKinleij. Pitney Moor : Gray. Place-names: Bourke, 3Iackai/, Potter. Pleshey : Pound. Plesingho : Pound. Poor, provision for: Phillips. Pottery : Prevost.
Prehistoric remains: Knowles, Wes- tropp, Willett, Wiiidle.
Brochs : Anderson,
Crannogs : Munro.
Cave : Daickins.
Earth houses : Kay.
Graves : Primrose.
Implements : Brent, Gatty, UtigJies, Mackenzie, Moir, Stojxs, Waller.
Quadrangular structures : Cmvper.
Kitchen midden: Miniro, Traquair.
Stone circles : Coles, Leivis.
Urns : Ahercr'omby.
Tillage: Martindale. Presbyterian church history : Lati- mer, Penfold. Preston : Ball. Priories : Adamson, Boyson, C/iadtvick,
Hope, James, Patrick. Prisoners in England : PJnllips, Prick- man. Pulborough : Barley, Rice.
Eaby Cote : Grainger, Hodcjson. Eatb}-: Eartopp.
Hichard (St.) of Chichester : Cooper. Hoadwaj'S : Bellairs, Kemptfiorne,
Napper, Salkield. Kobert of Belesme : Auden. JRoman remains : Allen, PVy, Garstany, Gerish, Goldney, Sparke.
Caerwent : Ashhy, Martin.
Camps : Andreiv, Christison.
Cardiff Castle: Ward.
Cornwall : Worth.
Germany (South) : Lewis.
Hadrian's wall : Poster.
Hardknott : Dymond.
Interments : WoodruJ).
LaA\' : Clark.
Medicine : Barnes.
Pulborovigh : Rice.
Pyrenees : Whiteivay.
Hoads : Bellairs, Bullock- Hall, Cow- per, Croft, Martin.
Rome : Forbes.
Sarcophagi : Robert.
Silch ester : Pox, Hope, Reid.
Stations : Anderson, Buchanan, Cliristison.
Urns and lamp : Thompson.
Villas : Barker.
Wilderspool : May-
Wittenham (Little): Cozens. See "Numismatics." Eomsey : Moens, Peers. Hoyden : Gerish.
Euyton-of-the-eleven-towns : Kenyan. Ryland : Ffrench.
Saddleworth : Andrew.
St. My lor: Peter.
St. Patrick's Purgatory : MacRitchie.
Saints : Auden, Baring-Gmdd.
Sarawak : Hose, Shelford.
Savernake : Willett.
Saxon antiquities : Goldney, Hughes, Peers.
Scotland : Brydall. Campbell, Coles, Leivis, Mackay, MacRitchie, Mitchell, Munro. See "Aberdeen- shire," " Arran," " Caithness." " Eigg," " Elgin," " Fifeshire," "Glasgow," "Largs," "Paisley," " Stirlingshire," " Sutherland."
Scunthorpe : Gatty.
Seaford : Rice.
Seals: Atkinson, Warren.
Send and Ripley : Johnston.
Shakespeare : Sayle.
Sherston : Pouting.
Shifnal : Jhillips.
Shrewsbury : Drinkicater, Fletcher, Morris, Phillips.
Shropshire : Auden, Drinkicater, Fletcher, Hope-Edwards, Phillips, Shropshire. See " Fitz," " Haugh- mond," " Oldbur}'," "Riiyton," " Shrewsbury," " Shifnal," " Uff- ington," "Whitchurch," " Wil- ley."
Shute : Jewers.
Si 1 Chester : Fox, Hope, Reid.
Somerford (Gieat) : Monley.
Somersetshire : Bates', Fry, Morgan. ^ee"Bath," "Langford Budville.'" " Pitney Moor," " Wells,"" What- ley," " Winsham."
INDEX
51
Spain : Dalton.
Spoons (wooden): Allen.
Staffordshire : See "Biddnlph.'"
Staudon : Broun, Crofton.
Stanfoid Rivers : Round.
Stansted Montfichet : Later.
Stirlingshire : Anderson.
Stockbury : Cooke.
Stockleigh Eiiglisli ; JCrsJcine-Risk.
Stone implements : See " Prehistoric."
Strickland : Whiteside.
Suffolk: Sill] oik. See " Bardwel),"" " Blyth'bnrgh," " Ickworth.""
Sundials : Evans.
Sun ey : A ndre, Bax, Cooper, Xapper, Bob arts. See " Carsluilton," " Guildford," " Kingston - on - Thames," "Leatherhead," "Senil and E-ipley," " "VYoodmansterne."
Sussex : Andre Dawson, Hall, Haver- field, Johnsto7i, Bead, Bice, Bound, Sussex. See " Atherington," " Bin- derton," " Boxgrove," " Chiches- ter," " Cuckfield," " Eastbourne," "Elsted," "Ford," "Hardham," "Hastings," "Lewes," " Pul- borough," " Seaford," " Treyford," " Warnham," "West Dean," " Willingdon," " Woo 1 1 aving- ton."
Sutherland : Anderson AJackaij.
Tasmania: Moir.
Tattershall : Siimpson.
Templepatrick : Latimer.
Tewkesbury : Warren.
Tipliee : F.
Tobacco pipes : Price.
Toddington : Baddelei/.
Tolleshunt Tregoz: Bound.
Tong : Calvert.
Totnes : Windeait.
Trephining : Crump.
Treyford : Bice.
Tumuli, Barrows : Barnes. Collin ij-
vcood , Hughes, Worth. Turville : Cocks, Forsyth. Tynemouth: Adamson.
UfBngton : Fletcher. Ulvescroft : Patrick. Upchurch : Woodrujf. Uphall : Primrose.
Vale Eoyal : Phelps.
Wakefield : Peacock.
Wales : Allen, Laws, Yeatman. See
" C a r d i ff," " C a r d i g a n s h i re,"
"Fishguard," " LI andaff',"-
"Llantrissant." Walmer : Fry, WoodrnJJ. Waltham : Tydenian. Waltham (Little) : Christy. Ware : Andi-ezcs. Warnham : Ahdre. Warter : Hope. Watton : Hope. Wells : C/iurch, Coleman. Welwyii : Caldecoff,Gerish. West Lean : Bice. Westbury-upon-Trym : Hudd. Westmorland: iSVe '• Comer Hall,"
"Kent me re,"' " S trick 1 and,'
" Witherslack." Wethersfield : Bound. Whatley : Hartshorne. Whitchurch : Thompson, Vone. Wilderspool : Maij. Willey : Phillips.' Willingdon: Bice, Wills : Calvert, Bound, Sherwood,
Shropshire. Wiltshire: Powell. See " Chalfield
(Great) " " Corston," " Durring-
ton," " Malmesbury," " Netlier-
avon," "Savernake," " Sherston,"'
" Someiford (Great)."' Winsham : Lolt. Wirral : Pool. Witherslack : Hullon. Wittenham (Little) : Cozens. WoUaton : Gotch. Wolsey (Caidinal) : Evans. Woodmansterne : Lambert. WooUavington : Bice. Worcester: James. Worcestershire: Wallers. >ce"Kemp-
sey," "Malvern (Great)." Wormley : Atistin. Wrexham : Palmer.
Yarburgh : Fowler.
Yorkshire : Lay. See " Burnbj-,"' " Flamborough," " Gwendale Magna," "Kilnwick Percy," "Kirkham,"" Kirklees," "Leeds," " Millington,"" ■' Kunburnholme," " Ormesby," " Patrington,"' " Sad- dleworth," " Wakefield," " War- ter," " Watton."
ButJer & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
The Folk-Lore Society.
(1902.)
Prtstiicnt.
E. W. BKABROOK, C.B., F.S.A., 178, Bedford Hill, Balham, S.W.
Vtc£--prf6tlicnts.
THE HON. JOHN ABERCEOMBY.
THE RIGHT HON. LORD AVEBQRY, D.C.L,, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., F.L.S. MISS CHARLOTTE S. BURNE. EDWARD CLODD. G. LAURENCE GOMIVIE, F.S.A. E. SIDNEY HARTLAND, F.S.A. ANDREW LANG. M.A., LL.D. ALFRED NUTT.
PROFESSOR F. YORK POWELL, M.A., F.S.A. PROFESSOR J. RHYS, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. THE REV. PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE, M.A., LL.D., D.D. PROFESSOR EDWARD B. TYLOR, LL.D., D.C.L. , F.R.S.
Counrtl. MISS LUCY BROADWOOD. R. R. MARETT, M.A.
E. K. CHAMBERS. W. CROOKE, B.A.
F. T. ELWORTHY, F.S.A. MISS M. C. FFENNELL.
J. G. FRAZER, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.
DR. GASTER.
MISS E. HULL.
E. F. IM THURN, C.B.
PUOFKSSOR W. P. KER, M.A.
J. L. MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.
S. E. BOUVERIE PUSEY, F.R.G.S.
T. FAIRMAN ORDISH.
W. H. D. ROUSE, M.A.
C. G. SELIGMANN, M.B.
WALTER W. SKEAT, M.A.
C. TABOR.
H. B. WHEATLEY, F.S.A.
A. R. WRIGHT.
i^on. Cfcasurer.
EDWARD CLODD, 19, Carleton Eoad, Tufnell Park. N.
i^on. ^u!}ttors.
F. G. GREEN.
N. W. THOMAS.
Secretarg. F. A. MILNE, M.A., 11, Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.
Committfcfi :
PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE.
MISS C. S. BURNE ; E. K. CHAMBERS ; G. L. GOMME ; E. S. HARTLAND ; PROFESSOR W. P. KER ; A. NUTT; T. F. ORDISH ; C. G. SELIGMANN ; A. R. WEIGHT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE.
MISS C. S. BURNE ; G. L. GOMME ; MRS. G. L. GOMME ; E. 8. HART- LAND ; W. F. KIRBY ; A. NUTT ; T. F. ORDISH ; N. W. THOMAS ; A. R. WRIGHT.
MUSEUM COMMITTEE. MISS M. C. FFENNELL ; G. L. GOMME ; MRS. G. L. GOMME ; PRO- FESSOR A. C. HADDON ; E. S. HARTLAND ; J. L. MYRES.
LECTUEE COMMITTEE.
MISS M. ROALFE COX ; MISS M. C. FFENNELL ; MRS. GOMME ; MRS. KATE LEE ; D. MESCAL ; A. NUTT.
The President and Treasurer are ex-officio members of all Committees.
RULES,
^.s amended by Special General Meeting held on the 17 tJi January, 1900.
I. " The Folk-Lore Society " has for its object the collection and publication of Popular Traditions, Legendary Ballads, Local Proverbial Sayings, Superstitions and Old Customs (British and Foreign), and all subjects relating thereto.
IL The Society shall consist of Members being subscribers to its funds of One Guinea annually, payable in advance on the 1st of January in each year.
III. A Member of the Society may at any time compound for future annual subscriptions by payment of Ten Guineas o 7er and above the subscription for the current year.
IV. Every Member whose subscription shall not be in arrear shall be entitled to a copy of each of the ordinary works published by the Society.
V. Any Member who shall be one year in arrear of his subscription shall cease to be a Member of the Society, unless the Council shall otherwise determine.
VI. The affairs of the Society, including the election of Members, shall be conducted by a Council, consisting of a President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary'-, and eighteen other Members. The Council shall have power to fill up any vacancies in their number that may arise during their year of office.
VII. An Annual General Meeting of the Society shall be held in London at such time and place as the Council, from time to time may appoint. No Member whose subscription is in arrear shall be entitled to vote or take part in the proceedings or the Meetinpf.
Rules. iii
VIII. At such Annual General Meeting all the Members of the Council shall retire from office, but shall be eligible for re-election.
IX. The accounts of the receipts and expenditure of the Society shall be audited annually by two Auditors, to be elected at the General Meeting.
X. The Council may elect as honorary Members persons distinguished in the study of Folklore, provided that the total number of such honorary Members shall not exceed twenty,
XI. The property of the Society shall be vested in three Trustees.
XII. The first Trustees shall be appointed at a Meeting convened for the purpose.
XIII. The office of Trustee shall be vacated (i.) by resigna- tion in writing addressed to the Secretary, and (ii.) by removal at a Meeting of Members convened for the purpose.
XIV. The Meeting removing a Trustee shall appoint another in his place. Vacancies in the office arising by death or resig- nation shall be filled up by the Council.
XV. The Trustees shall act under the direction of the Council.
XVI. No Trustee shall be responsible for any loss arising to the Society from any cause other than his own wilful act or default.
XVII. No alteration shall be made in these Rules except at a Special General Meeting of the Society, to be convened by the Council or upon the requisition of at least five Members, who shall give fourteen days' notice of the change to be proposed which shall be in writing to the Secretary. The alteration proposed shall be approved by at least three-fourths of the Members present and voting at such Meeting
iv List of Members.
MEMBERS {corrected to August, 1902).
Til/' letter Q,. placed hrfore a Member^ s name indicates that he or she has covijjonnded.
Abercromby, Hon. J., 62, Palmerston Place, Edinburgh ( Vice-President). Aberdeen Public Library, per G. M Eraser, Esq., M.A., Librarian. Aberdeen University Library, per P. J. Anderson, Esq., Librarian. Addy, S. 0.. Esq., M.A., Foster's Buildings, High Street, Sheffield. Aldenham, Eight Hon. Lord, St. Dunstan's, Regent's Park, N.W. Allen, Miss E. W., 39, Lombard Street. E.G.
Amersbach, Prof. K., 18, Sophien Strasse, Baden Baden, Germany. American Geographical Society (New York), per B. F. Stevens and Brown,
4, Trafalgar Square, S.W. Amery, P. F. S., Esq., Druid, Ashburton, Devon. Amsterdam, the Univ. Libraiy of, per Kirberger & Kesper, Booksellers,
Amsterdam. ). Andrews, J. B., Esq., Reform Club, Pall Mall, S.W. Anichkov, Professor E., Imperial University of Vladimir, Kief. Antiquaries, the Society of. Burlington House, W. Arnold, Professor E. V., 10, Bryn Seiriol, Bangor. Asher, S. G., Esq., 2, Marble Arch Mansions, 475, Oxford Street. Aston, G. F., Esq., 52, Tregunter Road, South Kensington, S.W. Avebury, Rt. Hon. Lord, D.C.L., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.L.S.,
High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O. ( Vice-President).
Backhouse, Sir Jonathan E., Bart., Bank, Darlington.
Baker, Judge Frank, T., 3543, Lake Avenue, Chicago, HI., U.S.A.
Baldwin, Alfred, Esq., M.P., Wilden House, Stourport.
Balfour, C. B., Esq., Newton Don, Kelso, N.B.
Basset, Mons. Rene, L'Agha, 77, Rue Michelet, Algiers.
Beauchamp, Right Hon. the Earl, Madresfield Court, Great Malvern.
Beer, W., Esq., Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans, U.S.A.
Beer, Mrs., 7, Chesterfield Gardens, Hyde Park, W.
Bell, Sir J., 101, Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Bensusan, S. L., Esq., Royal Societies Club. St. James' St. S.W.
Berlin Royal Library, per Asher & Co., 13, Bedford Street, Covent
Garden, W.C. Billson, C. J., Esq., M.A., Tlie Wayside, Oadby, Leicester. Birmingham Free Library, Ratcliffe Place, Birmintrham. Birmingham Library, care of C. E. Scarse, Esq., Librarian, Union Street,
Birmingham. Black, G. F., Esq., New York Public Library, Lafayette Place, N.Y., U.S A. Bladen, W. Wells, Esq., Fairlie, Stone, Staffordshire.
List of Members. v
Blakeborough. R. Esq., 24:, Trent, Street, Stocktou-on-Tees.
Blind, Dr. Karl, 3, Winchester Road, South Hampstead, N.W.
Bolitho, T. R., Esq., Trengwainton, Ilea Moor, R.S.O. Cornwall.
Bonaparte, Prince Roland, 10, Avenue d'lena, Paris.
Bond, Mrs. C. A., St. John's Lodge, St. John's Wood Road, Bournemouth.
Bordeaux University Library, per M. Jules Peelman, 2, Rue Autoine-Dubois,
Paris. Boston Athenaeum, The, Boston, U.S.A., per Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner
& Co., Ld., Charing Cross Road, W.C. Boston Public Library (Mass.), U.S.A., per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard,
Carey Street, W.C. Bourdillon, F. W., Esq., M.A., Bnddington, Midhurst, Sussex, Bowditch. C. P., Esq., 28, State Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. Bowen, H. Courthope, Esq., M.A., .3, York Street, Portraan Square, W Bower, H. M., Esq., Elmcrofts, Ripon. Brabrook, E. W., Esq., C.B., F.S.A., 178, Bedford Hill, Balham, S.VV.
{President). Bradford Free Public Library, Darley St., Bradford, per Butler Wood, Esq. Brighton Town Council, per the Town Clerk, Town Hall, Brighton. Britten, James, Esq., 126, Kennington Park Road, S.E. Brix, M. Camillc de, 13, Rue Victor Hugo, Douai, France. Broadbent, N. M., Esq., 145, Albert Road, Peckham, S.E. Broadwood, Miss Lucy E., 84, Carlisle Mansions, S.W. Brockhaus, F. A., Esq., Leipzig, per H. Williams, 48, Old Bailey, E. C Brooke, Rev. Stopford A., 1, Manchester Square, W. Brown, Col. Henry Thomas, Roodeye House, Chester. Browne, John, Esq., Chertsey House, Park Hill Rise, Croydon. Brushfield, Dr. T. N., The Cliff, Budleigh-Salterton, Devon-shire. Burne, Miss C. S., 5, Iverna Gardens, Kensington, W. ( Vice-President).
Caddick, E., Esq., Wellington Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Campbell, Lord Archibald, Coombe Hill Farm, Kingston-on-Thames. Campbell, W. J. Douglas, Esq., F.S.A. Scot., Innis Chonain, Loch Awe,
Argyll. Cardiff Free Libraries, per J. Ballinger, Esq., Cardiff. Carnegie Free Library, Alleghany, Pa., U.S.A., per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star
Yard, Carey Street, W.C. Carpenter, Professor J. Estlin, 109, Banbury Road, Oxford. Carson, Miss K., 50, Burma Road, Clissold Park, N. Chase, Charles H.,Esq., 68, Park Street, Somerville, Mass., U.S.A. Chambers, E. £., Esq., Board of Education, Whitehall, S.W. Chelsea Public Library, Manresa Road, S.W., per J. H Qninn, Esq. Chicago Public Library, Hlinois, U.S.A., per B. F. Stevens, 4, Trafalgar
Square, W.C. Chicago University Library, Illinois, U.S.A., per G. 1']. Stechert 2, Star
Yard, Carey Street, W.C.
vi List of Members.
Chorlton, Thomas, Esq., 32, Brazennose Street, Manchester, Ciuciunati Public Library, per B. F. Stevens, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Clark, Oricar W., Esq., M.A., M. B. , St. Luke's House, Spa lload, Gloucester. Clarke, Kuv. E. Wrangles, Ch. Ch. Vicarage, Paraday Road, North
KeiLsiugton, W. Clodd, Edward, Esq., 19, CarletonKoad, Tufnell Park, N. (^Yioc- President
and Treasurer). Cobham, Miss E. M., B.A., 1, Edwin Street, Gravesend. Coleridge, Miss C. R., Cheyne, Torquay. Colfox, W., Esq., Westmead, Bridport. Columbia College, New York, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey
Street, W.C. Congress, The Library of, Washington, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28,
Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Conybeare, P. C, Esq., M.A., 13, Norham Gardens, Oxford. Cornell University Library, per E. G.Allen, Esq., 28, Henrietta Street, W,C. Cosquin. M. Emanuel, Vitry-le-Pran9ois, Marne, Prance. Cox, Miss Marian Roalfe, 107, Earl's Court Road, W. Craigie, W. A., Esq., M.A., Danemead, 226, Iffley Road, Oxford Crombie, James E., Esq., Park Hill House, Dyce, Aberdeen. Crombie, John W., Esq., M.P., 91, Onslow Square, S.W. Crooke, W., Esq., B.A., Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
Dabis Miss A., 13, GleDe Place, Chelsea, S.W.
Dames, M. Longworth, Esq., Alegria, Enfield.
Dampier, G. R., Esq., c/o Messrs. Grindlay, Groome. & Co., Bombay.
Debenham, Miss Amy, Cheshunt Park, Herts.
Debenham, Miss Mary H., Cheshunt Park, Herts.
Defries, Wolf, Esq., B.A., Weybridge, Surrey.
Dempster, Miss C. Hawkins, 24, Portman Square, W.
Dennett, R. E., Esq., Loango, Congo Frangais, S.W. Coast Africa.
(Parcels rid Lisbon, St. Thome, and Gaboon.) Detroit Public Library, Michigan, U.S.A., per B. F. Stevens, Esq. Dieterich, Professor Alb., Giessen University, Germany. Duncan, C. W., Esq., The Liglenook, Richmond, S.W.
Eagleston. A. J., Esq., M.A., 27, Morella Road, Wandsworth Common, S.W.
Ebbs, Alfred B., Esq., Tuborg, Bromley, Kent.
hklen, Mrs. T. B., Hillbrow, Rugby
Edinburgh Public Library, per Hew Morrison, Esq., City Chambers,
Edinburgh. Edwards, F., Esq., 88, High Street Marylebone, W. Eggers and Co., Messrs., St. I'etersburg, per Sampson Low & Co., Fetter
Lane, E.C. Klworthy, F. T., Esq., F.S.A., Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
List of Members. vii
Eltou, O., Esq.. B.A., 6, Ileiiton Road, Withington, Manchester.
Empson, C. W., Esq., 11, Talace Court, W.
Enoch Pratt Library, Baltimore City, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28,
Henrietta Street, W.C. Eraut, A., Esq., Grammar School, Galway. Elrlangen University Library (Librarian, Herr Ajax Mencke), per
Sampson Low & Co., Fetter Lane, E.C. Evans, Arthur J., Esq., M.A., F.S.A., Ashmolean Library, Oxford, Evans, E. Vincent, Esq., 64, Chancery Lane, W.C. Evans, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc, F.K.S., F.S.A., Nash
Mills, Hemel Hempstead. Eyre, Miss, The Hudnalls, St. Briavel's, Coleford, Gloucestershire.
C. Fahie, J. J., Esq., c/o. F. A.Milne, Esq., 11, Old Square, Lincoln's Lm, W.C. Faraday, Miss W., Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, Manchester. Fawcett, F., Esq., care of Messrs. Arbuthnot & Co., Madras. Feilberg, Rev. H. F., Askov, Vejcn, Denmark. Ferryman, Lieut.-Col. A. F. Mockler, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Oak Grove House,
Royal Military College, Camberley, Surrey. Ffeunell, Miss Margaret C, 13, Brandenburg Road, Chiswick, W. Fitzgerald, D., Esq., care of J. Fitzgerald, Esq., Storey's Gate, S.W. Forbes, Henry 0., Esq., LL.D., Free Public Museums, William Brown
Street, Liverpool. Eraser, D. C, Esq., M.A., 25, Balls Road, Birkenhead. Frazer, J. G., Esq., M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Inch-ma-home, Cambridge. Freeborough, J. L. Esq., Morton Terrace, Gainsborough. Freer, Miss A. Goodrich, c/o Miss Landon, 34, Carlton Road, Wimbledon,
S.W. Freer, Wm. J., Esq., Stoneygate, near Leicester. Freshfield, W. D., Esq., The Wilderness, Reigate. Fulham Public Libraries, 592, Fulham Road, S.W. (c/o Franklin T.
Barrett, Esq.)
Gaidoz, Mons. H., 22, Rue Servandoni, Paris.
Garrett, A. C, Esq., 507, Locust Avenue, Germautowu, Philadelphia,
Penn., U.S.A. Gaster, Dr. M. , 37, Maida Vale, W.
George, Charles W., Esq., 51, Hampton Road, Clifton, Bristol. Gerish, W. B., Esq., Ivy Lodge, Bishops Stortford, Herts. Gerold & Co., Vienna, per Messrs. Asher & Co., 13, Bedford Street, Coveut
Garden, W.C. Gibson, W. H. P., Esq., 2, The Sweep, Clapham Common, S.W. Gladstone, Dr. J. H., F.R.S., F.C.S., 17, Pembridge Square, W. Glasgow University Library, per Messrs. Maclehose, 61, St. "Vincent Street,
Glasgow. Gloucester Public Library, Gloucester, per Roland Austin, Esq. Godden, Miss Gertrude M. Ridgfield, Wimbledon.
viii List of Members.
Goldmerstein, L., Esq.
Gollancz, I., Esq., M.A., Christ's College, Cambridge.
Gomme, G. L., Esq., F.S.A., 2i. Dorset Square, N.W. ( Vice-President).
Gomme, Mrs. G. L., 24, Dorset Square, N.W. {Honorary Member).
Gosselin, Hellier, Esq., Bengeo Hall, Hertford.
Gottingen University Library, per Asher & Co., 13, Bedford Street,
Covent Garden, W.C. Gowland, T., Esq., 14, Tavistock Eoad, Harlesden, N.W. Green, Frank G., Esq., Ivyhurst, Wallington, Surrey {Hon. Auditor). Greeven, K., Esq., B.C.S., c/o Mrs. E. Oldendorft, 201, The Grove,
Denmark Hill, S.E. Gregory, H. E., Esq., Boarzell, Hawkhurst, Sussex. Greig, Andrew, Esq., 36, Belmont Gardens, Hillhead, Glasgow. Glaneden,
Bothwell, Lanarkshire. Grierson, Geo, A., Esq., Lyndhurst, Camberley, Surrey. Guildhall Library, E.G. Gutch, Mrs., Holgate Lodge, York. GwjTine, James E. A., Esq., F.S.A., Folkington Manor, Polegate, R.S.O.,
Sussex.
c. Haddon, Prof., A. C, M.A., D.Sc., M.K.I.A., F.Z.S., Inisfail, Hills Road, Cambridge. Hamilton, Miss Katheriue, Fort Wayne, Indiana, U.S.A. Hampton, G. H., Esq , Cleveland Brass and Iron Works, Middlesboro'-on-
Tees. Hannah, R., Esq., 82, Addison Road, Kensington, W.
Hardy, G. F., Esq., 36, Bloomsbury Square, W.C
Harris, Rev. H. A., Aldeburgh-on-Sea, Suffolk.
Harrison and Sons, Messrs., 59, Pall Mall, S.W.
Hartland, E. Sidney, Esq., F.S.A., Highgarth, Gloucester ( Vice- President).
Hartlaud, J. Cole, Esq., care of Messrs. Hunt & Co., Yokohama, Japan.
Harvard College Library, per Kegan Paul & Co., Ld., Charing Cross Road, W.C.
Heather, P. J., Esq., 29, Lambton Road, Wimbledon, S.W.
Henderson, Miss A. B., Ormlie Lodge, Thurso.
Hensman, W. M., Esq., 32, Derngate, Northampton.
llervey, Hon. D. F. A., C.M.G., Westtields, Aldeburgh-on-Sea, Suffolk.
Hewitt, J. F., Esq., Holton Cottage, Wheatley, Oxford.
Higgens, T. W. E., Esq., 1, Edith Terrace, Chelsea, S.W.
Hinuber, Miss, 34, Linden Road, Bedford.
Hirschfeld Brothers, 22 and 24, Bream's Buildings, Fetter Lane, E.G. C. Hodgkin, John, Esq., 12, Dynevor Road, Richmond, S.W.
HoUiday & Co., Messrs. R., Wellington, New Zealand (per Sampson Low & Co., Fetter Lane, E.G.)
Holmes, T. V., Esq., F.G.S., 28, Grooms Hill, Greenwich, S.E.
Howard, David, Esq., Devon House, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.
List oj Members. ix
Howell, Geo. O., Esq., 210, Egliuton Road, Plumstead, Kent.
Howitt, Miss Mary E. B., Finch Street, East Malvern, Melbourne
Victoria, Australia. Hull, Miss Eleanor, 14, Stanley Gardens, W. Hull Public Libraries, Hull, per W. F. Lawton, Esq. Hussey, A., Esq., Clan Koad, Tankerton-on-Sea, Whitstable, Kent.
Hutchinson, Rev. H. N., F.G.S., 3<», Bedford Gardens, Campden Hill, Kensington, W.
Hutchinson. Dr. Jonathan, F.R.S., 15, Cavendish Square, W.
India Office Library, Whitehall, S.W., per C. H. Tawney, Esq.
im Thurn, E. F., Esq., C.B., 23, Edwardes Square, Kensington, W.
Iowa State Library, Des Moines, Iowa, U.S.A., per B. F. Stevens, 4,
Trafalgar Square, W.C. Isaac, D., Esq., Bryntawe, Heathfield, Swansea.
Jackson, A. M. T., Esq., Bycullah Club, Bombay (Assistant Collector, Nasik, Bombay).
Jacobs, Joseph, Esq., B.A,, c/o Messrs. Funk & Wagnall, Publishers, New York, U.S.A.
James, C. H., Esq., J.P., 64, Park Place, Cardiff.
Janvier, Thos. A., Esq., c/o Messrs. Brown Bros, & Co, Bankers, New York, U.S.A.
Jevons, F. B., Esq., M.A., Litt.D., Hatfield Hall, Durham.
Jewitt, W. H., Esq., 4, Torriano Cottages, N.W.
John Eylands Library, Deansgate, Manchester.
Johns Hopkins University Library, Baltimore, per E. G. Allen, 28, Hen- rietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.
Jones, Bryan J., Capt., Wellington Barracks. Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Jones, D. Brynmor, Esq., Q.C., M.P., LL.B., 27, Bryanston Square, W.
Jones, William, Esq., Abberly Hall, Stourport.
Kalisch, A., Esq., 13, Nevem Road, Earl's Court, S.W.
Karlowicz, Dr. John, Jasna, 10, Warsaw, Poland.
Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner, & Co, Ld., Paternoster House, Charing
Cross Road, W.C. Kennedy, Miss L., Fairacre, Concord, Mass., U.S.A. Ker, C, Esq., 1, Windsor Terrace, West Glasgow. Ker, Professor W. P., M.A., 95, Gower Street, W.C. King, W. J. Harding, Esq., Wollescote Hall, Stourbridge. Kirby, W. F., Esq., F.L.S., F.E.S., Hilden, Sutton Court Road, Chiswick. Kitts, E. J., Esq., Saharanpur, N.W. P., India. Klincksieck, C, Paris, per Kegan Paul & Co., Paternoster House,
Charing Cross Road, W.C. Kosminsky, Isodore, Esq., Langport Villa, 43, Robe Street, St. Kilda
Victoria, Australia.
List of Members.
Ladbury, Miss E. J., Goldness, Hartlehmy, Kidderminster.
Lang, A., Esq., M.A., 1, Marloes Road, Kensington, W. (^Vice-President').
Lee, Mrs. Kate, 8, Victoria Road, Kensington, W.
Lee, Timothy, Esq., St. John's, Limerick, Ireland.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, per G. Hull, Esq., Church
Hill House, Clarendon Park Road, Leicester. Leland, C. G., Esq., Hotel Victoria, 44, Lung 'Arno Vespncci, Florence. Lemcke & Buechner, Messrs., 812, Broadway, New York. U.S.A. Letts, C, Esq., 8, Bartlett's Buildings, E.C. Levy, C. E., Esq., Boundstoue Lodge, Earnham, Surrey. Library of the Supreme Council of the 38rd Degree, etc., for England
& Wales, and the Colonies, 33, Golden Square, W. Lindsay, Lady, 41, Hans Place, W. Liverpool Free Public Library, per Gilbert G. VValinsley. 50, Lord Street,
Liverpool. Lockhart, The Hon. J. H Stewart, Registrar-General of the Legislative
Council, Hong Kong. London Institution, Finsbury Circus, E.C. London Library, St. James's Square, S.W. Lovett, E., Esq., 41, Outram Road, Croydon. Lucas, Harry, Esq., Hilver, St. Agnes Road, Moseley, Birmingham.
Macbean, E., Esq., Rannochlea, St. Andrew's Drive, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
Macgregor, A., Esq., Stamford Brook House, Hammersmith, W.
Mackenzie, W., Esq., Crofters' Commission, 6, Parliament Square, Edin- burgh.
Maclagan, R. Craig, Esq., M.D. 5, Coates Crescent, Edinburgh.
McNair, Major R. C, C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Scotia, Preston Park, Brighton.
Maitland, Mrs. J. A. Fuller, 39, Phillimore Gardens, Kensington, W.
Major, A. F., Esq., Bifrost, 30, The Waldrons, Croydon.
Manning, P., Esq., M.A., F.S.A., 6, St. Aldate's, Oxford (Beechfield, Watford).
Manchester Free Libraiy, King Street, Manchester.
March, H. Colley, Esq., M.D., Portesham, Dorchester.
Marett, R. R., Esq., Exeter College, Oxford.
Marriage, Miss M. E. (Ph.D. Heidelberg), Ellei-by, George Lane, South Woodford, E.
Marsh, R. H., Esq., Ingleside, Epping, Essex.
Marston, E., Esq., St. Dunstan's House, E.C.
Masson, D. P., Esq , Managing Director, The Punjab Bank. Lahore, per H. S. King and Co., of Cornhill, E.C.
Matthews, Miss Elizabeth, The Hollies, Swaffham, Norfolk.
Max, J., and Co., 21, Schweidnitzerstrasse, Bi-eslau.
Maxwell, G., Esq., Westhorpe, Hendon, Middlesex.
Mendham, Miss Edith, Shepscombe House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
List of Members. xi
Merrick, W. T., Esq., Manor Farm, Shepperton.
Mescal, Daniel, Esq., H.M. Patent Office, Southampton Buildings, W.C.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y., U.S.A., per G. E. Stechert, bO, Welling- ton Street, Strand, W.C.
Meyrick Library, Jesus College, Oxford, per A. W. Hazel, Esq., Librarian.
Middlesborough Free Library, per Baker Hudson, Esq., ^liddlesborough.
Milne, F. A. Esq., M.A., 11, Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, W.C. {Secretary}.
Minet, Miss J., 18, Sussex Square, Hyde Park, W.
Minnesota, University of, Minneapolis, U.S.A., per G. E. Stechert, 2 Star Yard, Carey Street. W.C.
Mitchell Library, 21, Miller Street, Glasgow, care of F. T. Barrett, Esq., Librarian. C. Mocatta, F. D., Esq., F.S.A., 9, Connaught Place, W.
Mond, Mrs. Frida, 20. Avenue Road, Regent's Park, N.W.
Moore, C. H., Esq., Clinton, HI., U.S.A.
Morison, Theodore, Esq., Aligarh, N.W. P., India.
Munich Royal Library, per Asher &; Co., 1.3, Bedford Street, W.C.
Myers, C. S., Esq., B.A., M.B., 62, Holland Park, W. C.Myres, J. L., Esq., M.A., F.S.A., 3, Hanover Square, W.
National Libraiy of Ireland, per Hodges, Figgis, & Co., 104, Graftt)n
Street, Dublin. Naylor, Mrs. F. L., Crypt Grammar School, Gloucester. C. Nesfield, J. P., Esq., Stratton House, 2, Madley Road, Ealing.
Newark Free Public Library, New Jersey, U.S.A. per G. E. Stechert,
2, Star Yard, Carey St., W.C Newberry Libraiy, Chicago, per B. F. Stevens, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society, Newcastle-on-Tyne, per
H. Richardson, Esq. New Jersey, The College of, Princeton, N. J., U.S.A., per E. C. Osborn,
Esq., Treasurer. New Jersey Free Public Library, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey
Street, W.C. New York, College of the City of, per G. E. Stechert. 2, Star Yard
Carey Street, W.C. New York Public Library (Astor, Lenox, & Tilden Foundation), per B. i'.
Stevens, 4, Trafalgar Square, W.C. New York State Library, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey Street,
W.C. Nicholson, C. N., Esq., 35, Harrington Gardens, S.W. Ninuis, Belgrave. Esq., M.D., F.S.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Brockenhurst,
Aldrington Road, Streatham, S.W. Nottingham Free Public Library, per J. E. Bryan, Esq., St. Peter's Church
Side. Nutt, Alfred, Esq., 57-59 Long Acre, W.C. (Vice-President).
xii List of Members-
O'Brieu, Captain A. J., Deputy Commissioner, Mianwuli, Punjab. India. Oldfield, Capt. F. H., R.E., Scottish Conservative Club, Edinljurgh. Olrik, Dr. Axel, Martinsvej, 9, Copenhagen, Denmark. Ordish, T. Fairman, Esq., F.S.A., IG, Clifford's Inn, E.C. Owen, IkOss Mary A., 306, North Ninth Street, St. Joseph, Missouri, U.S.A.
Packe, Miss Penelope, Hawes Down. West Wickham, Kent. C. Paris, M. Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitut, Directeur du College de France,
Rue des Ecoles, Paris. Parker, Mrs. K. Langloh, Banyate, Walgett, New South Wales. Paton, W. R., Esq., Ph.D., Calymnos, Turkey, via Smyrna. Peabody Institute, Baltimore, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28, Henrietta
Street, W.C. Peacock, E., Esq., F.S.A., Dunstan House, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire. Peorio, Public Library of, per G. E. Stechert, Esq., 2, Star Yard, Carey
Street, W.C. Percy, Lord Algernon, Guy"s Cliff, Warwick. Philadelphia, The Library Company of, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, Esq., 28^
Henrietta Street, W.C. Philpot, Mrs. J. H., 61, Chester Square, S.W. Phipson, Miss, 64, Bell Street, Reigate. Pineau, Mons. Leon, 18, Rue Godefroy, Lyons, France. Pitts, J. Linwood, Esq., M.J.I., F.S.A., Curator Guille-Alles Library,
(iuernsey. Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural Histoiy Society,
per C. S. Jago, Esq., Plymouth Public School. Pocklington-Coltman, Mrs., Hagnaby Priory, Spilsby, Lincolnshire. Powell, Professor F. York, M.A., F.S.A., Christ Church, Oxford (^Vice- President'). C.Power, D"Arcy, Esq., M.A., :M.B., F.S.A., 10A,Chandos Street, Cavendish
Square, W. Price, F. G. Hilton, Esq., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 17, Collingham
Gardens, S. Kensington, S.W. Price, Mrs., W. E. Pen Moel, Chepstow.
Providence Public Library, per G. E. Stechert, 2, Star Yard, Carey St.. W.C. Pulling, Alexander, Esq., The Ci'oft, Hitchin. Pusey, S. E. Bouverie, Esq., F.R.G.S., 3.5A, South Audley Street, W.
Ranking, D. F. de I'Hoste, Esq., LL.D., -19, Primrose Mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W. Raynbird, H., junr., Esq., Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing.
Basingstoke. Reade, John, Esq., 270, Laval Avenue, Montreal, Canada. Reading Free Public Library, Reading, per W. H. Greenhough, Esq. Rees, J. Rogers, Esq., Avoudale, Llaudiift'.
List of Members. xiii
Rennes University Library, per H. Welter, 59, Rue Bonaparte, Paris, per
G. Allen, Ruskin House, Charing Cross Road, W.C. Reynolds, Lljwarch, Esq., B.A., Old Church Place, Merthyr Tydvil. Rhys, Professor John, M.A., LL.D., Jesus College, Oxford (^Vice-
Presidenf). Risley, The Hon. H. H., M.A., C.I.E., care of Messrs. Thacker, 2, Creed
Lane, Ludgate Hill, E.C. Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., St. John's College, Cambridge. Rohrscheid and Ebbecke, Messrs., Buchhandlung, Am Hof, 28, Bonn. Rose, H. A., Esq., The Monastery, Simla. Roth, H. Ling, Esq., 32, Prescot Street, St. Halifax. c. Rouse, W. H. D., Esq., M.A., 16, Brookside, Cambridge,
Royal Irish Academy, per Hodges, Figgis, & Co., 104, Grafton Street
Dublin, Riicker, Miss, 4, Vanbrugh Terrace, Blackheath, S.E.
St. Helen's Corporation Free Library, per A. Lancaster, Esq., Librarian
Town Hall, St. Helen's. Salford Public Library, Manchester. Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A., St. Thomas' Vicarage, Douglas,
Isle of Man. C. Sayce, Rev. Prof. A. H., M.A., LL.D., D.D., Queen's College, Oxford
(4, Whitehall Court, S.W.) (Vice-Pres?de?it). Scholten, Mrs., West End House, Newport, R.S.O., Pembrokeshire. Scott, Sir J. G., K.C.I.E. per R. F. Scott, Esq., St. John's College,
Cambridge. Sebillot, Mons. Paul, 80, Boulevard St. Marcel, Paris. Seebohm, F., Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., The Hermitage, Hitchin, Herts. Seligmann C. G., Esq., M.B., 23, Vincent Square, S.W. Sessions, F., Esq., Monkleighton, Alexandra Road, Gloucester. Sheffield Free Public Library, Surrey Street, Sheffield, per S. Smith, Esq. Shewan, A., Esq., Seehof, St. Andrews, Fife.
Shirley, R., Esq., c/o W. Rider & Son, Ltd., 164, Aldersgate Street, E.C. Signet Library, Edinburgh.
Sikes, E.E., Esq., St. John's College, Cambridge. Simpkins, J. E., Esq., Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Sinclair, The Hon. Mrs., 12, Palace Gardens Terrace, Kensington, W. Singer, Professor, 9, Falkesplatz, Bern, Switzerland.
Skeat, Walter W., Esq., 14, St. George's Terrace, South Kensington, S.W. Skilbeck, J. H., Esq., 6, Carlton Hill, N.W. Skipwith, G. H., Esq., The Polytechnic Institute, William Street, Wool-
VFich, S.E. Sneddon, G. P., Esq., 8, Merry Street, Motherwell, N.B. Southam, H. R. H., Esq., F.R.H.S., Innellan, Shrewsbury. Speakman, Mrs. J. G., c/o Union Bank of Manchester, Knutsford.
xiv List of Members.
Speight, Ernest E., Esq., Shaldon, South Devon.
Stanberv, Miss K S., 433, Adair Avenue, Zanesville, Ohio, U.S.A.
Stephenson, C. H., Esq., 64, Kew Road, Birkdale, Lancashire.
Starr, Professor Frederick, University of Chicago, Chicago, U.S.A. {Ho nor a ry Member^ .
Steward, Miss Ada M., Dell House, Great Missenden, Bucks.
Steward, Miss Beati-ice T., Dell House, Great Missenden, Bucks.
Stockholm, Royal Library of, per Sampson Low & Co., St. Dunstan's House, Fetter Lane. E. C.
Stokes, Whitley, Esq., C.S.L, CLE., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., 1.5, Grenville Place, S. Kensington, "W.
Struben, Mrs. E.
Surgeon-General's Office, Washington, U.S.A., per Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner, and Co., Ld., Charing Cross Road, S.W.
Svvainson, Rev. C, The Rectory, Old Charlton.
Swansea Public Library, per S. E. Thompson, Esq., Librarian.
Swanson, A. E. Esq., Evin, Riffel Road, Willesden, N.W.
Sydney Free Public Library, per Young J. Pentland, 38, West Smith- field, E.C.
Tabor, C, Esq., The White House, Knotts Green, Leyton.
Tate Library, University College, Liverpool, care of J. Sampson, Esq.
Taylor Institution, Oxford, per Parker & Co., 6, Southampton Street,
Strand, W.C. Taylor, Miss Agnes, Taylor, Miss Helen, Avignon, France. Temple, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. C, Bart., CLE.. F.R.G.S.. Government
House, Port Blair, Andaman Islands, India (parcels, per H. S. King
& Co., 65, Comhill, London, E.C). Thomas, N. W., Esq., Psychical Research Society, 20, Hanover Square, W.
{Hon. Atiditor). Thompson, Miss, 7, Newport House, Great Newport Street, W.C Thompson, Miss Skeffington, Glenelly, Chislehnrst Common, Kent. Thorp, T.,Esq., 4, Broad Street, Reading. Tolhurst, J., Esq., F.S.A., Glenbrook, Beckenham, Kent. Toronto Public Library, per C D. Cazenove & Son, 26, Henrietta Street,
Covent Garden, W.C' Toronto University Library, per C. D. Cazenove & Son, 25. Henrietta
Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Torquay Natural History Society, care of A. Somervail, Esq. Townshend, Mrs. R. B., Derry Illawn, Banbury Road, Oxford. Tozer, W. H. Esq., 67, Elms Road, Claphaiu Common, S.W. Trahcrne, G. G., Esq., Coedarhydyglyn, Cardiff. Traherne, L. E., Esq., Coedriglan Park, Cardiff. Travancore, His Highness the Maharajah of, Huzier, Cutcherry, Trevan-
drum, India.
List of Members, xv
Turnbull, A. H., Esq., Elibank, Wellington, New Zealand, per A.L. Elder
& Co., 7, St. Helen's Place, E.G. Tylor, Professor E. B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., The Museum House, Oxford
(Vice-President).
Udal, His Honour J. S., Chief Justice of the Leeward Islands, Antigua,
West Indies. Upsala University Library, per C. J. Lundstrom, Upsala, Sweden. Usener, Professor, Bonn, Germany.
Van Stockum, W. P., and Sou, 3G, Buitenhof, The Hague, Holland.
Van Gennepp, Professor A., 12, Rue Foidevaux, Paris, per A. Schulz, 4,
Rue de la Sorbonne, Paris. Vassar College Library, Ponghkeepsie, N.Y., U.S.A., per H. Sotheran
& Co., 14C, Strand, W.C. Venkataswami, M.N., M.R.A S., Esq., The Hermitage, Secunderabad,
Deccan. Voss' Sortiment (Herr G. Haessler), Leipzig.
Walhouse, M. J., Esq., 28, Hamilton Terrace, St. John's Wood, N.W.
Walker, Dr. Robert, Budleigh-Salterton, Devon.
Warner, S. G., Esq., Elmside, Bolingbroke Grove, S.W.
Watkinson Library, Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A., per E. G. Allen, 28,
Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Weimar Grand Ducal Library, per Dr. P. von Bojanowsky. Weston, Miss J. L., Heatherlea, West Dulwich, S.E.
Wheatley, Henry B., Esq., F.S.A., 2, Oppidans Road, Primrose Hill, N.W. White, Miss Diana, Old Priory, Sydenham. Williamson, Rev. Charles A., 9, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin. Wills, Miss M. M. Evelyn, Heathfield, Swansea. Whidle, Professor B. C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, Dean of Queen's Faculty of
Medicine, Mason College, Birmingham. Wisconsin State Historical Society, per H. Sotheran & Co., 140, Strand,
W.C. . Wissendorff, H., 19, Nadeschkinskara, St. Petersburg, Russia. Wood, Alexander, Esq., Thomly, Saltcoats, N.B. Woodall, E., Esq., Wingthorpe, Oswestry. Worcester Free Public Library, Mass., U.S.A., per Kegan Paul, Trench,
Triibner, and Co., Ld. Wright, A. R., Esq , H.M. Patent Office, Southampton Buildings W.C. Wright, W. Aldis, Esq., LL.D., Trinity College, Cambridge. Wyndham, The Right Hon. George, M.P., 35, Park Lane, W.
Zervos, Gerasimos, Esq., c/o Ralli Brothers, Khamgaon. Berar, India.
INDEX
OK
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
PUBLISHED
IN
1900
[being the tenth issue of the series and completixg the
INDEX FOR the PERIOD 1891-1900]
Compiled by GEORGE LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A
PUBLISHED BY
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & COMPANY Ltd.
2 WHITEHALL GARDENS, WESTMINSTER
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE CONGRESS OF
ARCH^OLOGICAL SOCIETIES IN UNION WITH
THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES
190I
Butler & Tanner,
The Selwood Printing Works,
Frome, and London.
CONTENTS
[Those Transactions viarJced with an asterisk* in the following list are now for the first time included in the index, the others are continuations from the indexes of 1891-98. Transactions included for the first time are indexes from 1891 onwards.]
Anthropological Institute, Journal, N.S. vol. i. pts. 1 and 2 ; ii. pts. 3 and 4. Antiquaries, London, Proceedings of the Society, 2nd S. vol. xviii. pt. 1. Antiquaries, Ireland, Proceedings of Royal Society of, 5th S. vol. x. Antiquaries, Scotland, Proceedings of the Society, vol. xxxiv. Archseologia, vol. Ivii. pt. 1. Archseologia Cantiana, vol. xxiv. Archaeologia ^Eliana, vol. xxii pts. 1 and 2. Archseologia Cambrensis, 5th S. vol. xvii. Archseological Journal, vol. Ivii.
Associated Architectural Societies, Transactions, vol. xxv. pt. 1. Berks, Bucks, and Oxfordshire Archseological Journal, vol. vi. pts. 1, 2, and 3. Biblical Archaeology, Society of. Transactions, vol. xxii. Bristol and Gloucestershire Archseological Society, Transactions, vol. xxii. British Archseological Association. Journal, N.S., vol. vi. British Architects, Royal Institute of. Journal, 3rd S. vol. vii. Buckinghamshire, Records of, vol. viii. pt. 3. Cornwall, Royal Institute of, Proceedings, vol. xiv. pt. 1.
Cumberland and Westmoreland, Archseological Society, Transactions, vol. xvi. Derbyshire Archseological Society, Transactions, vol. xxii., xxiii. Devonshire Association, Transactions, vol. xxxii. East Herts Archseological Society, Transactions, vol. i, pt. 2. East Riding Antiquarian Society. Transactions, vol. iv. v. vi. vii. Essex Archseological Society, Transactions, N.S. vol. viii. pt. 1,
3
4 CONTENTS
Folklore, Proceedings of the Folklore Society, vol. xi.
*Gaelic Society of Inverness, vol. xix.
Glasgow Archaeological Society, Transactions, N.S., vol. iv.
Hampstead Antiquarian and Historical Society, 1899.
Hellenic Studies, Journal of, vol. xix.
Kildare Archaeological Society, Journal, vol. iii. pts. 2, 3, and 4.
Lancashire and Cheshire Historic Society, Transactions, 4th ser. vol. xv.
Leicestershire Architectural aad Archaeological Society, Transactions, vol.
ix. pt. 1. Monumental Brass Society, Transactions, vol. iv. pts. 1 and 2. Numismatic Chronicle, 3rd S. vol. xx. pts. 1, 2, and 3. Oxford University Brass-rubbing Society, Journal, vol. ii. pts. 1 and 2 Oxfordshire Archaeological Society, 1891-1!:)0(.\ Royal Historical Society, Transactions, N.S. vol. xiv.
Royal Irish Academy, Transactions, 3rd ser. vol. v. pts. 4 and 5 vi. pt. 1. Royal Society of Literature, Transactions, vol. xxi. pts. 1-4. St. Paul's Ecclesiological Society, Transactions, vol. iv. pt. 5. Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Transactions, 2nd
S. vol. xii. pts. 1 and 2. Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Transactions, vol.
xlvi. Suffolk Archaeological Institute, vol. x. pt. 3. Surrey Archteological Society, Collections, vol. xv. Thoresby Society, vol. x. pt. 2.
Wiltshire Archaeological Journal, vol. xxxi. pts. 1 and 2. Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Journal, vol. xA'i. pts. 1 and 2.
NOTE
TuiS Index was begun under the auspices of the Congress of Archgeological Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries. Its success being assured the Congress have placed it in the hands of the publishers to continue yearly.
The value of the Index to archaeologists is now recognised. Every effort is made to keep its contents up to date and continuous, but it is obvious that the difficulties are great unless the assistance of the societies is obtained. If for any reason the papers of a society are not indexed in the year to which they properly belong, the plan is to include them in the following j^ear ; and whenever the papers of societies are brought into the Index for the first time they are then indexed from the year 1891.
By this it will be seen that the year 1891 is treated as the commencing year for the Index, and that all transactions p\iblished in and since that year will find their pjlace in the series.
To make this work complete an index of the transactions from the begin- ning of archaeological societies down to the year 1890 isneeded. This work is now going through the press.
Societies will greatly oblige by communicating any omissions or sugges- tions to the editor, Laurence Gomme, F.S.A., 24, Dorset Square, London, N.W.
Single copies of the yearly Index from 1891 may be obtained. The subscrijition list for the complete Index u^) to 1891 is still open, and intending subscribers should apply at once to Messrs. Archibald Constable & Co. Many of the Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries take a su.fficient number of copies of the yearly Index to issue with their transactions to each of their members. The more this plan is extended the less will be the cost of the Index to each society.
INDEX OF ARCH/EOLOGICAL PAPERS PUBLISHED IN 1900
Aberoromby (John). The international congress of Folk-lore in
Paris. Folk-Lore, xi. 427-430. Adams (Max\vell\ Some notes on the churches and the manors of
East and West Ogwell. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 229-248. The castle, manor-house, and church of Clifton, near Dart- mouth. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 503-514. Allen (J. Romilly). Some dolmens and their contents. Arch.
Camh. 5th S. xvii. 217-228, 299-310. Amery (J. S.). Notes on Blagdon Barton, near Totnes, and its owners.
Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 296-300. Amery (P. F. S.). Seventeenth report of the committee on Devonshire
Folk-lore. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 83-92. Anderson (J. G. C). Exploration in Galatia Cis Halym. Journ.
HcU. Studies, xix. 52-134, 280-318. Anderson (Capt. J. H.). Notes on some rock-basins, cup-and-ring-
marked stones, and archaic customs casually met with in India.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 335-339. Anderson (Joseph). Notice of the discovery of a cist containing
three urns of food vessel type at Duncra Hill Farm, Pencaitland.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 131-134. • Description of a collection of objects found in excavations
at St. Blane's Church, Bute, exhibited by the Marquis of Bute.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 307-325. Andre (J. Lewis). "Wall paintings formerly in the churches of
Beddington and Fetcham. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 1-16. The Pardon at Sheen. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 158.
St. Martha-on-the-hill. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 158-159.
Saint George the Martyr in legend, ceremonial art, etc.
Arch. Journ. Ivii. 204-223.
Miscellanea heraldica. Arch. Journ. Ivii. 301-324.
Wall paintings in Sussex churches. St. PauVs Ecclesiol.
Soc. iv. 297-307.
8 INDEX OF AECH.EOLOGICAL PAPERS
Andrews (R. T.). rurueaux Pelhain. Eaat Herts Arch. Soc. i. 139-
151. Eomau pottery, Eaihvay Street, Hertford. East Herts
Arch. Soc. i. 184. Roman ciuerarv urn. AVest Hill, Hocldesdon. East Herts
Arch. Soc. i. 184-185. Roman remains found on the site of Messrs. Allen and
Hanbury's factory at Bury Field, AVare. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 187-190.
Seventeenth century token. Ware. East Herts Arch. Soc.
i. 191. Andrews (Wm. Frampton). The topographical collections of a
Hertfordshire archaeologist. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 159-1(37. The recently discovered brass at Stanstead Abbotts.
East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 194. ArmitaCtE (Mrs. E. S.). Anglo-Saxon burhs and early Norman
castles. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 260-288. Arnold (A. A.). The chancellors of the diocese of Rochester. Arch.
Cant. xxiv. 160-174. AsTLEY (Rev. H. J. Dukinfield). On ornaments of jet and cannel
coal, on cup-and-ring markings, and on slate weapons, as charac- teristic of the neolithic age. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi.
164-188. Atchley (E. Ct. C. F.). The hood as an ornament of the minister at
the time of his ministrations in quire and elsewhere. St. PauVs
Ecclesiol. Soc. iv. 313-328. Auden (Miss). Inventories of the church goods of Shropshire
temp. Edward vi. Shroj}. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 84-112. Axon (W. E. A.). Tullia d'Aragona a poetess of the later renaissance.
Royal Soc. Lit. 2nd S. xxi. 97-115. On a reference to the evil eye in the Anglo-Saxon poem of
Beowulf. Royal Soc. Lit. 2ud S. xxi. 117-119. B. (H.). The protection of ancient monuments. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. ii. 317. B. (J.). Englishmen and Romans. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 343. Baddeley (St. Clair). Richard, Earl of Cornwall, and Henry of
Almaine, 1209-1272. Bristol .and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 86-
114. Baildon (W. Paley). a sixteenth-century^ leaden charm found at
Lincoln's Inn. Proc. Soc. Anticf. 2nd S. xviii. 141-147. Bailey (J. B. i. Lost and re-found Rouuui altars with a note on a
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 9
silver coin found at Maryport. Cuinh. and West. Anfiq. Soc.
xvi. 138-145. Baillie (Vex. Archdeacox, R. jE.). Poi-tnoo ; a corner in the
Donegal highlands. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x.
148-150. Bain (Joseph). The Scottish de Quencys of Fawside and Leuchars.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 124-128. Ball (Francis Elrington). Monkston castle and its history. Royal
Soc. Antiq. Inland, 5th S. x. 109-117, 372. Fassaroe cross, near Bray. Roycd Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th
S. x. 1(39-170.
The antiquities from Blackrock to Dublin. Roycd Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 307-318. Ball (T. Stanley). Warrington church plate. Lane, and Che)<h.
Hist. Soc. N.S. XV. 155-188. Baring-Gould (Rev. S.). A Devon and Cornwall calendar ; with
the days of commemoration of the patron saints of the several
churches and chapels in the undivided Diocese of Exeter, and
the days of the village feasts and fairs. Devon. Asaoc. xxxii.
340-389.
The Celtic saints. Roycd Inst. Corn. xiv. 11-47.
— A catalogue of saints connected with Cornwall with an
epitome of their lives and list of churches and chapels dedicated
to them. Royal Inst. Corn. xiv. 85-172. The Celtic monasteries. Arcli. Cand>. 5th S. xvii. 249-276.
Baring-Gould (Rev. S.), R. Burnard, and Rev. Irvine K. Ander- son. Exploration of Moel Trigarn. Arch. Candj. 5th S. xvii. 189-211.
Barnes (Rev. G. E.). Church of S. James, Somerton. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1897-1898, 25-2G.
The Pusey horn ; the Borstall horn. Oxfords. Arch. Soc.
1899, 28-31.
Barry (James Grene). Report from East County Limerick. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 374-375.
Bates (Rev. E. H.) and Rev. F. Hancock. The inventory of church plate in Somerset. Somerset Arch, and Xat. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 149-187.
Bax (A. Ridley). List of papers and illustrations relating to the county of Surrey, contained in the Archaeologia, the Archaeo- logical Journal, and the Journals of the British Archaeological Association. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 128-136.
10 INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Bax (A. Ridley). The keepersMp of the King's gaol at G-uildford.
Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 157-158. Monumental brasses. Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc.
1899, 59-65. Bazeley (Rev. William). The abbey of St. Mary, Hayles. Bristol
and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 257-271. On recent excavations at Hayles abbey. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 132-136. Bazley (GtARDner S.). Stained and painted glass. Bristol and
Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 73-85. Beaumont (G. F.). Warr lands, customary junior right in Great
Holland manor. Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 106. On a Roman stone coffin found at Braintree. Proc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 7-8. Beazley (C. Raymond). The oldest monument of Russian travel.
Eoij. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 175-185. Beddoe (Dr. John). Ethnology of Cornwall. Anthrop. Inst. N.S.
i. 328-329. Beeby (Miss E. M.). St. Malachy of Armagh. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 151-154. Begg (John). Architecture in the Transvaal. Roy. Inst. Brit. Arch.
3rd S. vii. 81-86. Bellairs (Gteorge C.) Wooden cross found buried under a mound
at Higham-on-the-Hill. Leicester. Archit. and Arch. Soc. ix.
18-19. Beloe (E. M.). Notes on some early matrices in the Eastern
Counties. Oxford Journ. Mon. Brass, ii. 35-39. Benas (B. L,). Records of the Jews in Liverpool. Lane, and Chesh.
Hist. Soc. N.S. XV. 45-84. Berry (Henry F.). The records of the Dublin gild of merchants,
known as the gild of Holy Trinity, 1438-1671. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 44-68. Bigger (F. J). The dextera dei sculptured on the high crosses of
Ireland. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 79-84. luis Chlothrann Lough Ree : its history and antiquities.
Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 69-90, 256-257. BiLSON (John). The North Bar, Beyerley. East Riding Antiq. Soc.
iv. 38-49. Note on a disused bell at Bessingby. East Riding Antiq.
Soc. iv. 72-73. Birch (W. de Gray). The Roman name of Matlock, with some
INDEX OF ARCHiEOLOGICAL PAPERS 11
notes on the ancient lead mines and their relics in Derbyshire.
Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 33-46 ; 113-122. BiRCHOVER. An inventory of the lands of Henry de Aldwerk in
Birchover. Derby s. Arch. Soc. xxii. 49-51. BissiNG (Fr. W. v.). Notes. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 167-168. BODLEY (G. F.). On some principles and characteristics of ancient
architecture, and their application to the modern practice of the
art. Roy. Inst. Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 131-140. BoissiER (Alfred). Notes d'Assyriologie. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii.
106-114. BoNi (CoMMENDATORE GiACOMo). The Niger Lapis in the Comitium
at Rome. Arch. Ivii. 175-184. BoRRAJO (Edward M.). Hampstead and a few of its associations.
Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1899, 111-113. BosANQUET (R. C). Some early funeral lekythoi. Journ. Hell.
Studies, xix. 169-184. Bowles (Charles E B.}. Proceedings taken iu Wiuster Church
regarding the consanguinity of the parties to the marriage of
two of the StafPords of Eyam ; deed dated 1308. Derbys. Arch.
Soc. xxiii. 83-86. Depositions in action for trespass brought by Henry Furniss
against Robert Eyre. Derbys. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 87-89. Boyd (W. C). Some unpublished varieties of Saxon coins. Num.
Chron. 3rd S. xx. 265-269. Boyle (J. R.). Who was Eddeva? East Biding Antiq. Soc. iv.
11-22. Sacrilege at Hessle Church in 1527. East Riding Antiq.
Soc. vii. 47-49. Bradbrook (William). Bletchley register. Records of Bucks.
viii. 234-248. Braitmaier (Madi). Feathers and rain. Folk-Lore, xi. 437. Brakspear (Harold). Lacock Abbey church. Arch. Journ. Ivii.
1-9. Lacock Abbey, Wilts. Arch. Ivii. 125-158 ; Wilts. Arch.
and Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxi. 196-240. Breasted (Dr. James Henry). The monuments in the inscriptions.
Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 88-95. — The annals of Thutmose III., and the location of Megiddo.
Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 96-98. Brewis (Parker). Notes on four basket-hilted swords belonging to
the Society. Arch. Aeliana, xxii. 1-11.
12 IXDEX OF AKCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Brigg (William). Grant of the Manor of Aston to Reading Abbey.
East Herts. Arch. Soc. i. 129-135. Brooks (E. AV.). The campaign of 716-718 from Arabic sources.
Journ. Hell. Studies, xix. 19-33. Brown (John Allex). Stone Implements from Pitcairn Island.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 83-88. Brown (Robert, Junr.). A Euphratean circle of 3(30°. Bib. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 67-71. Brown (William). lugleby Arncliffe. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi.
121-226. Documents from the record ofHce relating to Beverley.
East Riding Ant iq. Soc. v. 35-49. Brownbill (F.). Cheshire in Domesday book. Lane, and Chesh.
Hist. Soc. N.S. XV. 1-26. Browne (Right Rev. Ct. E.). Notice of a cup-marked boulder, called
" Saj di Crorone," or stone of the heel, near Stresa, on the Lago
Maggiore. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 297-299 ; Proc. Soc.
Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 45-50. Bruce (John). Notes of the discovery and exploration of a pile
structure on the north bank of the river Clyde, east from Dum- barton Rock. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 437-462. Brushfield (T. N.). Raleghana ; remarks on the ancestry of Sir
Walter Raleigh. Decon. Assoc, xxxii. 309-340. Derbyshire funeral garlands. British Arch. Assoc. N.S.
vi. 54-74.
Arbor Low. British Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 127-139.
On Norman tympana, with especial reference to those of
Derbyshire. British Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 241-270. Bryan (Benjamin). The lost manor of Mestesforde. Derby s. Arch.
Soc. xxiii. 77-82. Brydall (Robert). Notice of armour and arms at Eglinton castle.
Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 38-48. Buchan (William). Note on a bronze scabbard-tip found on Glen-
cotho Farm, Peeblesshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 254-256. Buckley (Michael J. C). Notes on bovmdary crosses. Roy. Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 247-252. Burne (C. S.). Cropping animals' eai'S. Folk-Lore, xi. 457. Another Sabbath-breaking story from Wilts. Folk-Lore,
xi. 458. BuRTCHAELL (George D.). The Butlers of Dangan-spidogue. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 330-333.
INDEX OF ARCH.EOLOGICAL PAPERS 13
Burton (Rev. R. Jowett). A literal transcript of tlie earliest
register of Dale Abbe}^, Derbj^shire. Derby s. ArcJi. Soc. xxii.
91-128. C. (H.). Note to Manning and Bray's " History of Surrey," vol. I.
p. 618, pedigree of Eliot of Godalming. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv.
159. Note to Manning and Bray's " History of Surrey," vol. II.
p. 43, Elizabeth Chitty. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 160. Caldecott (J. Barton). Roman vases, Mangrove Hill. East Herts
Arch. Soc. i. 181-183. Fifteenth-century posy ring at Wallfields. Ec(sf IFerfs
Arch. Soc. i. 183-184. Calvert (E.). Manuscript sermon, lifteenth centur3\ Shrojjsliirc
Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 57-63. Cambridgeshire. Brasses of. Mon. Brass. Soc. iv. 60-78. Campbell (George W.). The seals of the University of Glasgow.
Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 65-74. Canons Ashby. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1892, 15-19. Carrington (W. a.). On the family and record history of Haddon.
British Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 140-158. Haddon ; the hall, the manor, and its lords. Derbys. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 1-29.
Royal Aids for the county of Derb}', temp. Eliz. Derbys.
Arch. Soc. xxiii. 48-57.
Records of the county of Derby. Derbys. Arch. Soc. xxiii.
63-76.
Carson (Katherine). Burial customs. Folk-Lore, xi. 210. Chadwick (H. Munro). The oak and the thunder-god. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iii. 22-44. The ancient Teutonic priesthood. Folk-Lore, xi. 268-
300. Chadwick (S. J.). Dodsworth MSS. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi. 238. Chafy (W. K. W.^ The histoiy of Rous Lench. Assoc. Archit. Soc.
XXV. 182-230. Chambers (J. E. F.). Yorkshire deeds. Yorks. Arch. Soc. ky'l^^-WI . Cheyne (Prof. T. K.). The word " Armageddon." Bib. Arch. Soc.
xxii. 165. On an Assyrian loan-word in Hebrew. Bib. Arch. Soc.
xxii. 165-166. Christian (F.W.). On Micronesian weapons, dress, implements, etc.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 288-306.
14 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Christison (D.). The forts, camps, and other field-works of Perth,
Forfar, and Kincardine. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 43-120. Christy (Miller) and A. W. Porteous. Some interesting Essex
brasses. Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 15-54 ; Mon. Brass Soc. iv.
45-60. Christy (Miller) and E. Bertram Smith. Two Essex incised slabs.
Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 1-7. Clark (A.). On the judicial oaths used on the Grold Coast. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. ii. 310-312. Clark (E. Kitson). Excavation at Pule Hill, near Marsden, on the
Huddersfield and Manchester road. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi. 38-45 ;
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 125-129. • Report on finds in Yorkshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S.
xviii. 125-132. Clark (Somers). On the fall of eleven columns in the Hypostyle
Hall of the temple of Karnak. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii.
58-68. Clay (J.W.). Paver's marriage licenses. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi.
1-37. Cocks (Alfred Heneage). Discovery of a stone coffin in Turville
church. Records of Bucks, viii. 285-288. Coinage of the South African Republic. Num. Chron. 3rd S. xx.
252-263. Cole (R. E. Gf.). Notes on the ecclesiastical history of the deanery
of Craffoe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Assoc.
Archit. Soc. xxv. 47-120. Cole (Rev. E. Maule). On ancient crosses in the East Riding, es- pecially on the Wolds. East Riding Antiq. Soc. iv. 1-10.
■■ • Notes on field-names. East Riding Antiq. Soc. vi. 18-25.
On Roman roads in the East Riding. East Riding Antiq.
Soc. vii. 37-46. Coleman (Prebendary). The manor of Allerton and its tenants,
1530-1866. Somerset Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 65-108. Coles (Fred R.). Report on stone circles in Kincardineshire (North)
and part of Aberdeenshire, with measured plans and drawings,
obtained under the Gunning Fellowship. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
Scotl. xxxiv. 139-198. ■ Notices (1) of the discovery of bx'onze-age urns on the
Braid Hills ; and (2) of the discovery of a cist and urn near Port-
patrick, Wigtownshire, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 489-
493.
INDEX OF AECH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 15
Colling WOOD (W. G.). The so-called cockpit at Monk Foss in the
parish of Whitbeck. Cumb.and West. Antiq. Sac. xvi. 117-119. CoLLYER (Mrs. D'Arcy). Notes on the diplomatic correspondence
between England and Russia in the first half of the eighteenth
century. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 143-174. CoMPTON (C. H.). On the discoveries at the Tower of London in the
spring of 1899. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 26-32. Cooke-Trench (T.). The Wogan monument in the churchyard at
Clane. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 99-100.
The moat at Clane. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 107-111.
Cooper (Rev. Canon). Greorge Preston and Cartmel priory church.
Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv. 221-227. Cooper (Rev. T. S.). On further excavations on the site of Waverley
Abbey. Proc. Soc. Ant. 2nd S. xviii. 200-201 ; Surrey Arch.
Soc. XV. 155-156.
The will of Thomas Quenell, of Lythe Hill, Chiddingfold,
yeoman, 1571. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 40-50.
The church plate of Surrey. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 137-154.
Notes on a barrow discovered on Blackheath, Surrey.
Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 156. Cope (Mrs. J. H.). Index to Berkshire marriage registers. Berks,
Bucks and Oxon Arch. Journ. vi. 91-92. CoRBETT (W. J.). The tribal hidage. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv.
187-230. Cotton (Charles). St. Lawrence church, Isle of Thanet, Kent.
Arch. Cant. xxiv. 253-266. CowPER (H. S.). The influence of the Roman occupation upon the
distribution of population in Cumberland and Westmorland.
Cumb. and West. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 16-40. The Flookburgh charter and regalia. Cumb. and West.
Antiq. Soc. xvi. 41-46. Cox (Rev. J. Charles). Parliamentary survey of the benefices of
East Riding. East Riding Antiq. Soc. iv. 50-65. Cripps (Wilfred J.). On a Roman altar and other sculptured stones
found at Cirencester in April, 1899. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S.
xviii. 177-184. Crooke(Wm.). The hill tribes of the central Indian hills. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. i. 220-248.
Primitive rites of disposal of the dead, with special reference
to India. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 271-294.
The legends of Krishna. Folk-Lore, xi. 1-38.
16 INDEX OF ABPH.F.OLOGICAL PAPERS
Crowfoot (J. W.). Exploration in (lalatia Cis Halym. Journ.
Hdl. SfudicH^ xix. 34-51. Crum (W. E.). Notes on the Strassburg gospel fragments. Bib. Arch.
8oc. xxii. 72-7G. CuFFE (MA.JOR 0. W.). The badge of St. John found in the precincts of
Dublin Cathedral. Hoy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 372-373. CURWEN (J. F.). Workington Hall. Cuinb. and West. Anfiq. Soc. xvi.
1-15.
The parish church of Kendal. Cv.rnb. and West. Antiq. Soc.
xvi. 157-220.
D. (H.). The dolmens atRollright and Eustone. O.rfnrds. Arch. Soc.
1897-1899, 40-51. Daltox (Ormonde M.) A Byzantine silver treasure from the district
of Kerynia, Cyprus, now preserved in the British Museum.
Arch. Ivii. 159-174.
Note on a copper shield from the N.W. coast of America.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 47.
Note on a stone figure from Colombia, S. America. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iii. App. 64.
Darby (M.). The Core-ally. Klldare Arch. Soc. iii. 190-191.
D'Arcy (Dr. S. A.). An account of the excavation of two lake dwellings in the neighbourhood of Clones. Boy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 204-23G.
Davenport (Frances Gf.). The decay of villeinage in East Anglia. noy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 123-141.
Davidson (Hugh). The old church of St. Keutigern, Lanark. Glas- gow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 155-162.
Davies (Rev. W. H. Silvester). Notes on Chavenage and the Stephens family. Bristol and Glonc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 128-137.
Davis (Cecil T.). Early churchwardens' accounts of Wandsworth, 1545-1558. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 80-127.
Zoology on brasses, chiefly from Gloucestershire examples.
3Ion. Brass. Soc. iv. 79-92.
Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd). The exploitation of Hod Hill, near Bland- ford, Dorset, in 1897. Arch. Jonrn. Ivii. 52-68.
D.\Y (Robert). On three gold medals of the Irish Volunteers. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. -325-329.
Day (Mrs.). Notes on the life and portrait of Robert Holgate, fifty- ninth archbishop of York. Brit. Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 343-353.
De Cosson (Baron). On some ancient sword blades bearing spurious inscriptions. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 206-214.
INDEX OF AKCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS 17
Delattre (A. J.). Quelques lettres Assyi-iennes. Bib. Arch. Soc.
xxii. 286-304. Devitt (Rev, Matthew). Rathcoffy. Kildarc Arch. Soc. iii. 79-97.
— — Clongowes wood. Kildarc At'ch. Soc. iii. 207-215.
Dicker (W.). Notes ou the history of Winsford. Somerset Arch.
and Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 188-195. Dickson (Isabel A.). A new K-a\os vase. Journ. Hell. Studies, xix.
202-204. Dillon (Viscount). A tilting hehn of the fifteenth century. Froc.
Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 174-177. On a MS. collection of ordinances of chivalry of the fifteenth
century, belonging to Lord Hastings. Arcli. Ivii. 29-70. DiTCHFiELD (Rev. p. H.). The history of Wantage. Berks, Bucks
and Ojcon. Arch. Journ. vi. 46-51. Dix (E. R. M'Clintock). The earliest periodical journals published
in Dublin. Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 33-35. Dixon (D. D.). Coquetdale notes ou the Old Northumberland militia.
ArcJt. ^liana, xxii. 61-71. Doe (GtEORGE M.). Some notes on the leper hospital which formerly
existed at Taddiport, Little Torrington. Devon. Assoc, xxxii.
289-295. Dowker (GtEORGE). Deal and its environs. Avch. Cant. xxiv. 108-
121. On the cross and platform at Richborough. Arch. Ca)d.
xxiv. 201-219. Downs (R. S.). The parish church of High AVycombe — the parish
register. Records of Bucks, viii. 249-275. Drew (Sir Thomas). Diiblin. Arch. Journ. Ivii. 287-300. Drinkwater (Rev. C. H.). The merchant gild of Shrewsbury ; seven
I'olls of the 13th centuiy. Shrojis. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 229-
282. Druitt (Rev. C). Notes on the recently discovered relics of St. Wita
in the church of Whitechurch Canonicorum. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 190-191. Dryden (Sir H. E. L.). Domestic crypt at Burford. Oxfords. Arch.
Soc. 1890, 20-22. '
Caverslield chui'ch. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1893-4, 15-23.
Recess in Great Milton church. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1895-6,
23-24. Duckworth (W. L. H.). Note on the congress of the German and
Viennese anthropological societies held at Liudau from the 4th
B
18 INDEX OF AKCH^OLOGICAL PAPEKS
to the 7th of September, 1899. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 314-
315. Duckworth (W. L. H.). Ou a collection of crania, with two skeletons,
of the Mori-ori, or aborigines of the Chatham islands ; with a note
on some crania from the same islands now in the museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons. Antlirop. Inst. N.S. iii. 141-152. Duckworth (W. L. H.) and B. H. Pain. A contribution to Eskimo
craniolog3^ Antlirop. Inst. IST.S. iii. 125-140. Duncan (Leland L.). On the commemoration of John Potter at
Westminster. St. PauVs Ecclesiol. Soc. iv. 329-330. The will of Cardinal Bourgchier, archbishop of Canterbui'y,
1486. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 244-252. DuTT (Prof. Romesh). Maha-bharata, the Iliad of ancient India.
Boy. Soc. Lit. 2nd S. xxi. 37-71. E. (A. E. 0.). Alphabet used in consecrating a church. FoJk-Lo)'c,
xi. 105. Edge-Partington (James). New Zealand kotahas or whip slings,
for throwing darts, in the British Museum. Anthrop. Inst. X.S.
ii. 304^305. Note on a carved canoe head from New Zealand. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. ii. 305.
Note on a stone battle-axe from New Zealand. Anthrop).
List. N.S. ii. 305-396.
Note on a wommera from North Queensland. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. iii. App. 33.
Note on a pataka in Auckland museum, New Zealand,
together with a further note on a carved canoe head in the British Museum. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 34-35.
On the genesis of the Maori scroll pattern. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. iii. App. 35.
Note on an object of unknown use from the Solomon islands.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 37.
Note on some feather mats in the British Museum.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 38-39. Note on a shell adze fi'om Ambrvm island, New Hebrides.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 40. Floats for alluring salmon, from the north end of Vancouver
island. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 49. Elliot (E. A. S.). Notes from an unpublished MS. of a contemporary of Colonel Montagu : Dr. A. G. C. Tucker, of Ashburton. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 271-276.
INDEX OF ARCHiEOLOGICAL PAPERS 19
Ellis (A. S.). The brotherhood of the tanuer.s iu Beverley. East Riding Antiq. Soc. iv. 23-25.
Notes on some ancient East Riding families and their arms.
East Riding Antiq. Soc. iv. 6G-71 ; vi. 43-55.
El WORTHY (F. T.). Eighteenth report of the committee on Devon- shire verbal provincialisms. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 55-73.
Ely (Talfourd). On the motive of a relief lately found at Ciren- cester. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 19G-198.
Emslie (J. P.). May-day. Folk-Lore, xi. 210.
Evans (Sir John). Opening of a barrow in Easneye wood. East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 137-138 ; Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 8-9.
The first gold coins of England. Nudi. Chron. 3rd S. xx,
218-251.
Eyre (Most Rev. Archbishop). The preservation of Scottish eccle- siastical monuments. Glasgoic Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 1-22.
■ The seal of InchafFrey. Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 83-8(J.
Farrer (Rev. E.). Leather case at Sweffling. Suffolk Inst. Arch. X. 369-374.
Fawsley Manor House. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1892, 12-14.
Featherstonhaugh (Rev. AValker). Edmundbyers. Arch. yEliana, xxii. 79-115.
Ferguson (Chancellor R. S.). On some additions to the collection of chapbooks in the Bibliotheca Jacksoniana in Tullie house. Climb, and Westni. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 5G-79.
On runic inscriptions in Cumberland. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 88-91.
Ferguson (John, LL.D.). Bibliogi-aphical notes on histories of inven- tions and books of seci'ets. Glasgoio Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 95-120.
Fergusson (Charles). Sketches of the early history, legends, and traditions of Strathardle and its glens. Part III. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 245-271.
Finch (Rev. H. B.). Old deeds relating to property in Shrewsbury. Shrops. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 196-204.
Firth (C. H.). The battle of Dunbar. Rog. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 19-52.
FiSHWiCK (Lt.-Col.). Note on a discovery of sepulchral urns in Bleasdale. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 33-34.
Fitzgerald (Lord Walter). The principal gentry of the county Kildare in the year IGOO. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 118-122.
• The Shrule castle lettered stone. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii.
129-130.
20 INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Fitzgerald (Lord Walter). Killeeu cormac. Kildavc Arch. Soc.
iii. 149-168. William Fitzgerald of Castleroe aud his tomb iu tlie
Kilkea cliurchyard. Kildarc Arch. Soc. iii. 229-253. The Browne mausoleum at Mainham, Kildavc Arch. Soc,
iii. 201-2(34.
Additions to the list of High Sheritfs of the county Kil-
dare. Kildcire Arch. Soc. iii. 265.
A seventeenth century skillet and bronze sword at Kilkea
castle. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 265-267. The " Carbrie," a Dublin residence of the Earls of Kildare.
Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 267-268.
The wayside cross bases formerly at Little Rath and
Prospect. Kildarc Arch. Soc. iii. 268.
St. Brigid and Clane. Kildare ArcJi. Soc. iii. 269.
Old road names : near Athy, near Dunmanoge. Kildare
Arch. Soc. iii. 269-270.
Inscriptions at 8t. John's well, Killone abbey, co. Clare.
Eoy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 245-246.
The effigy of King Felim O'Conor in Roscommon abbey
and the altar tomb it rests on. 2i<>l/. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th 8. X. 364-367.
The tombstone at Ballintemple, near Geashill. Iioy. Soc.
Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 92. Fletcher (Rev. W. Ct. D.). Some further documents relative to the
battle of Shrewsbury. .VAro^As. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 39-44. Floyer (Rev. J. K.). The early monastic writers of AVorcester.
Assoc. Arc/lit. Soc. xxv. 146-104. Foster (Rev. A. F.). A tour through Buckinghamshire. JJerkx,
Bucks and Oxon. Arch. Journ. vi. 54-59, 88-90. Fowler (Rev. T. J.). On an examination of the grave of St. Cuthbert
in Durham cathedral church, in March, 1899. Arch. Ivii. 11-28. Fox (George E.). Roman Suffolk. Arch. Jonrn. Ivii. 89-105. Fra:mes (Minett E.). On some stone implements found in a cave in
Grit^ualaud East, Cape Colony. Antltrop. Inst. N.S. i. 251-257. Fraser-Mackintosh (Charles). Minor highland families, No. VII.—
The Mackintoshes of Kellachie, styled Sliochd Alain. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xix. 98-115. JFrAZER (J. G.). Observations on central Australian totemism.
Anthvop, Inst. N.S. i. 281-280. Frver (Alfred C). Leaden fonts. Arch. Juuni. Ivii. 40-51.
IXDEX OF ARCH.1?;OLOaTCAL PAPF.RS 21
Fryer (Alfred C). The misereres in St. David's cathedral. Arcli.
Camh. 5th S. xvii. 43-54. Fuller (Rev. E. A.). Pleas of the crown at Bristol 15 Edward I.
Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 150-178. Gale (James S.\ Korean beliefs. Folk-Lorc, xi. 325-332. Gardiner (A. H.\ The relative adjective. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii.
37-42. Notes on the demonstrative, etc. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii.
321-325. Gardner (E. A.). A head of Athena, formerly in Disney collection.
Journ. Hell. Studies, xix. 1-12.
An inscribed scarab. Journ. Hell. Studies, xix. 341.
Gardner (Percy). The scenery of the Greek stage. Jonrn. Hell.
Studies, xix.' 252-2G4. Garrett-Pegge (J. W.). A paper from a family deed chest. Records
of Bucks, yni.216-28i. Gaster (Dr. M.). Hebrew illuminated MSS. of the Bible of the ninth
and tenth centuries. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 22G-239. A Samaritan scroll of the Hebrew Pentateuch. Bib. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 240-269. The wisdom of the Chaldeans : an old Hebrew astmloo-ical
text. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 329-351.
Two thousand years of a charm against the child-stealing
witch. Folk-Lore, xi. 129-1G2. Garstang (John). Melandra castle. Derbys. Arch. ^V. xxiii. 90-98.
Excavations at Richborough. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 207-272.
Gay (Edavin F.) and I. S. Leadam. The inquisitions of depopulation
in 1517, and the " Domesday of Inclosures." Boy. Hist. Soc.
N.S. xiv. 231-303. Gaythorpe (Harper). Prehistoric implements in Furuess and Cart-
mel. Cumb. and Westm. Autiq. Soc. xvi. 152-156. Gerish (W. B.). a notable county history. Ea.st Herts Arch. Soc.
i. 169-171. The Roman station at Braughiug. East Herts Arch. Soc.
i. 173-179. A Roman pottery at Amwell. Eai<t Herts Arch. Soc. i.
185-186.
Coin of Antoninus Pius, discovered near Rye house station.
East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 186.
Roman trackway discovered, Ware road, Hoddesdon. East
Herts Arch. Soc. i. 187.
22 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Gerish (W. B.). Recent discoveries at Stanstead Abbotts church
East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 193-194. GiRAUD (F. F.). Extracts from the Favershara archives. Arch.
Cant. xxiv.. 181-188. Payments by the town of Faversham in 1635-G, extracted
from the chamberlains' accounts, and notes thereon, chiefly from
the Wardmote Book. Arc7i. Cant. xxiv. 237-243. ^ !
Glasscock (J. L.). Cinerary urns found in Pishiobury park, Saw-
bridgeworth. East Heiis Arch. Soc. i. 191-192. Glyxxe (Sir Stephen E,.). Notes on the older churches in the four
Welsh dioceses. Arch. Camb. 5th S. xvii. 85-109, 169-188,
311-320. Gould (J. Chalkley). The early defensive earthwork on Comb Moss.
Derbijs. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 108-114. GowLAND (W.). Remains of a Roman silver refinery at Silchester.
Arch. Ivii. 113-124. Graham (Rev. C. J.). The Right Honourable William Conolly,
speaker of the Irish House of Commons. Kildarc Arch. Soc.
in. 112-117. Gr ANTLEY (Lord ) . On some unique Anglo-Saxon coins. Xu m . Ch ron .
3rd S. XX. 148-161. Gray (John) and James F. Tocher. The physical characteristics
of adults and school children in East Aberdeenshire. Anthrop.
Inst. KS. iii. 104-124. Greene (Miss). County Kildare folktales. Kildarc Arch. Soc. iii.
254-259. Greswell (Rev. William H. P.). The Quantocks and their place- names. Somerset Arch, and Xcd. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 125-148. Grierson (George A.). The water of life. Folk-Lore, xi. 433-434. Griffith (F. Ll.). The system of writing in ancient Egj^pt.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 153-159.
Ne/Lteo-t5. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 162-163.
The Aberdeen Reshep stela. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 271-272.
Grueber (H. a.). Find of Roman coins and gold rings at Sullj^,
near Cardiff. Xiim. Chron. 3rd S. xx. 27-65. An unpublished silver coin of Verica. Xum. Chron. 3rd S.
XX. 264-265. Guise (R. E.). On the tribes inhabiting the mouth of the Wanigela
river, New Guinea. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 205-219. Haddon (Prof. A. C). The Athenian birth ceremony of amphidromy
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 315.
IXDF.X OF AKCHJ^.OLOGICAL PAPERS 23
Hadfield (C. M.). Architecture of the fifteenth centurj-- aud the
early Tudor period. Roy. lusf. Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 385-3<Sl». Hales (Prof. J. W.). Primrose hill. Hampstcad Anft'q. and Hisf.
Soc. 1899, 114-118. Hall (J. G.). Ancient graveyard at Sancton. East Riding Antiq.
Soc. V. 115-120. Halliday (Gr. E.). Llautwit Major church, Glamorganshire. Arch.
Camb. 5th S. xvii. 129-156. Hammett (Robert). Report of the excavations of Melandra castle.
Derhys. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 99-104. Harrison (Jane E.). Delphika. Journ.HeU. Studies,xix. 20o-2bl. Harrod (Henry Dawes). A defence of the liberties of Chester, 1450.
Arch. Ivii. 71-86. Harrold (T.). Description of an early English capital found at
Hinckley. Lcicesters. Archif. and Arch. Soc. ix. 17. Hartland (E. S.). The little red hen. Folk-Lore, xi. 106. Hartopp (Henry). Calendar of Leicestershire administration bonds,
1556-1649. Lcicesters. Archif. and Arch. Soc. ix. 20-.58. Hartshorne (Albert). Notes on an altered headpiece of a harque-
busier about 1630 from Nunney, Somerset. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 191-195. Harwood (T. Eustace). The monumental brasses past and present
in Eton college chapel. Oxford Journ. Mon. Brass, ii. 11-28;
68-85. Hastings (Major-General F. E.). Biblical chi-onology ; the historical
period. Kings, Judges. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 10-30. Haverfield (F.). Notes on the Roman origin of a mediiBval charm.
Anthrop. Inst., N.S. ii. 306-407. Report of the Cumberland excavation committee for 1899.
Cumb. and Westm. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 80-99.
The placename Drumburgh, Cumb, and Westm. Antiq.
Soc. xvi. 100-103.
On a hoard of Roman coins found at Carhayes, Cornwall.
Num. Chron. 3rd S. xx. 209-217.
On a Greek inscription from Oxfordshire. Proc. Soc. An*iq.
2nd S. xviii. 9-10.
Account of some Romano-British remains in the upper
Thames valley. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 10-16.
On an inscribed Roman ingot of Cornish tin and Roman
tin mining in Cornwall. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 117- 122.
24 IXDEX OF AKCH.F.OLOGTCAL PAPERS
Haverfield (F.\ Note on the antiqiiity of the Wheel Causeway,
Proc. Hoc. Antiq. Scofl. xxxiv. 129-130. Hawkesbury (The Right HoxouRABiiE the Lord). Some East
Riding families. East Riding Anfiq. Soc. vii. 1-3G. Hennessy (Rev. Gr. L.). Notes on the ecclesiastical registers of
London. SL PauVs Ecdesiol. Soc. iv. 331-339. Hewat (Rev. Kirkwood). Notice of a peculiar stone cross found on
the farm of Cairn, parish of New Cumnock, upper Nithsdale.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scofl. xxxiv. 300-303. Hewson (CtEORGE J.). Inis Clotherann ; Teampul Clogas church.
Boy. Soc. Anfiq., Ireland, 5th S. x. 1G7-168, 257-259. HiGGiNS (Alfred). On an illuminated and emblazoned copy of the
statutes from Edward III. to Henry VL illustrating the genealogy
of the family of Fitzwilliam of Mablethorpe, co, Lincoln. Arch.
Ivii. 1-10. Hill (R. H. Erxesti. Abraham Hill, F.R.S., of St. John's, Sutton-
at-Hone, Kent. Arch. Canf. xxiv. 227-23G. HiNDE (Mrs. S. L.). Notes on the Masai section oi Lieut. -Colonel
MacDonald's vocabulary. Anfhrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 248-249. HiPKiNS (F. C.\ A note on the most recent discoveries in Repton
church crypt. Derhy.^. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 105-107. HoBLEY (C. W.). Vocabularies from Kavirondo, British East Africa.
Anfhrop. Luf. N.S. i. 338-342. Hodgson (J. C). Proofs of age of heirs to estates in Northumberland
in the reigns of Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry VI. Arch.
jElictna, xxii. 116-130. Hogarth (D, G.) and R. C. Bosanqdet. Archaeology in Creece, 1898-
9. Journ.HeU. Studies, xi:i.?>\9-m?^. Holland (W. R.). Notes on a measure of brass or standard bushel
dated a.d. 1G77 and formerly in public use at Ashborne in the
CO. of Derby. Derhys. Arch. Soc. xxii. 4G-48. Holmes (T. V.). A weekly miracle. Anfhrop. Inst. N.S. i. 342-
343. Astrology and the divining rod. Anfhrop. Inst. N.S. ii.
312-313. Hone (Nathaniel). Oxfordshire church goods. Berks, Bucks and
Oxon. Arch. Journ. vi. 52-53. Hope (W. H. St. John). The abbey of St. Mary-in-Fnrness, Lanca- shire. Cumb. and Westm. Anfiq. Soc. xvi. 221-302. Excavations lately carried out at Warter prior}', Yorks.
Proc. Soc. Anfiq. 2nd S. xviii. 50-58.
INDEX OF AHCH.T-.OLOGTOAL PAPERS
25
Hope (W. H. St. John). Note.? on a medipeval altar fi-ontal from
Baunton, CTloucesteTshire. Pvoc. i^oc. Anfiq. 2nd S. xviii. 70-73. • On some palimpsest stall plates of Knights of the Garter in
St. George's chapel at Windsor. Proc. Soc, Antiq. 2nd S. xviii.
148-151. The architectural history of the cathedral church and
monastery of St. Andrew at Rochester. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 1-85. Hope (W. H. St. John) and George E. Yox. Excavations on the
site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants, in 1899. Arch. Ivii.
87-112. HowoRTH (Sir Henry H.). The cyclic poems and the Homeric
question. Arch. Jourii. Ivii. 10-39. Ecgberht king of the West Saxons and the Kent men and
his coins. Num. Chron. .3rd S. xx. 06-87. Hudson (E. W.). The church of St. John of Jerusalem ('Knights
Hospitallers^ Clerkenwell. Roij. Inst. Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii.
465-409. Hqghes (Harold) and P. Shearson Gregory. Discoveries made on
the Friars' estate, Bangor. Arch. Camh. 5th S. xvii. 24-42. Hughes (Thomas Cann). Some notes on the vicars of Great
Torrington since the Commonwealth. Devon Assoc, xxxii. 283-
288. • Some notes on the vicars of Totnes since the Commonwealth.
Devon Assoc, xxxii. 454-459. Hunt (A. A.). Monumental brasses in St. Michael's church and
Exeter college chapel, Oxford. O.vforcl Journ. Mon. Brass. \i.
90-96. Hunt (A. R.). " Maister Thomas Hunt, late Mayor of this Citie of
Exceter." Devon Assoc, xxxii. 460-490. Hutcheson (Alexander). Notice of the Wallace stones, Long-
f organ. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot], xxxiv. 476-482. Notice of a charm-stone used for the cure of diseases
amongst cattle in Sutherlandshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scoti.
xxxiv. 483-488. Hutchinson (Rev. R. N.) Suggestions for forming a collection of
photographs for the Anthropological Institute. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 250. HuTTON (Capt.). On a rapier foil and dagger foil of about 1600. Proc.
Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 204-206. Ireland (William W.). Supplementary notes on the Scottish de Quencys. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 241-251,
26 INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Jennings (P.) Notes on the Parliamentary historj- of Truro. Roy.
Inst. Cormvall, xiv. 210-220. Jewers (Arthur J.). The Church of Holbeton and its monumental
remains. Devon Assoc, xxxii. 552-570. Johnston (Rev. David). Notice of the discovery of a prehistoric
burial place at Quarff, Shetland. Proc. Soc. Anfiq. Scotl. xxxiv.
340-344. Johnston (Philip M.). Some curiosities and interesting features of
Surrey ecclesiology. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 51-79. JouRDAiN (Rev. Francis C. R.) The ornithology of Derbyshire ; a
retrospect. Derhys. Arch. Soc. xxiii. 58-62. Joyce (Patrick Weston). The truthfulness of ancient Irish
historical records. Arch. Journ. Ivii. 259-269. Karo (GtEORGE). Notes on Amasis and Ionic blackfigured pottery.
Journ. Hell. Studies, xix. 135-154. Keatinge (Charles T.). The guild of cutlers, painter-stainers, and
stationers, better known as the guild of St. Luke the Evangelist,
Dublin. Boy. Soc. Aniiq. Ireland, 136-147. Kelly (Richard J.). Old Dublin landmarks ; Sv/if t's house in Dorset
street. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 91. Kexyon (R. Lloyd). The Domesday manors of Ruyton, Wike}' and
Felton. Shrops. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 64-83. Kerr (Professor). Ruskin and emotional architecture. Roy. Inst.
Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 181-188. Kerry (Rev. Charles). The painted windows in the chapel of St.
Nicholas, Haddon Hall, Derb^'shire. Derhys. Arch. Soc. xxii.
30-39. The court rolls of Baslow, Derbyshire, commencing anno
13 Edward II. (1319-20). Derhys. Arch. Soc. xxii. 52-90 '; xxiii.
1-39, Kershaw (S. W.)- An old Wandsworth house. Sitrrcy Arch.
Soc. XV. 160-161. Keyser (Charles E.). The Norman doorways in the county of Berk- shire. Berks, Bucks and Oxon. Arch. Journ. vi. 8-18. The Norman doorways in the county of Buckingham.
Records of Bucks, viii. 221-233; Berks, Bucks and Oxon. Arch.
Journ. vi. 73-84. Kildare : Donadea and the Aylmer Family. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii.
169-178 ; 268. County Kildare Folk-lore, about animals, reptiles and birds.
Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 179-185.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
27
KiLDARE : The Lattin and Mansfield families in co. Kildare. KiJdarc
Arch. Soc. iii. 180-190. KiNGSFORD (Rev. Hamilton). On parish clerks and on some duties
of parish clerks and sextons in pre-Reformation times. Assoc.
Archit. Soc. xxv. 105-172. Kingston (Henry D. R.). Notes on some caves in theT'zitzikama or
Outeniqua district, near Knj-sna, South Africa, and the objects
found therein. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 45-49. KiRKMAN (Rev. Joshua). Hampstead in literature. Hampsfccid
Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1899, 80-91. Knox (H. T.). The belfry church of Iniscleraun and the church of
Kinlough. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 104-105. The early tribes of Connaught. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland.
5th S. X. 343-350. Koettlitz (Reginald). Notes on the Galla of Walega and the Bertat,
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 50-55. Lach-Szyrma (Rev. W. S.). Ancient British costume. British
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 123-120. The ancient university of Britain. British Arch. Assoc.
N.S. 315-323.^ Lang (Andrew). Giun and fairies. ^l^fAro/;. /»sf. N.S. iii. App. 11-12.
Pre-animistic religion. Folk-Lore, xi. 318-320.
Langrishe (Richard). The origin of the Grace family of Courtstown,
CO. Kilkenny, and of their title to the Tullarvan estate. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 319-324. Lascelles (B. p.). Drawings by Sir Gardner AVilkinson. Bib.
Arch. Soc. xxii. 118-120. Latimer (J.). Sime curious incidents in Bristol history-. Bristol
and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii. 272-283. Latimer (Rev. William T.). The battle of the Yellow Ford. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 34-39. Laver (H.). Ancient rampart through Lexden park. Essex Arch.
Soc. viii. 108-111. Law (Miss L. A.). Death and burial customs in Wiltshire. Folk- Lore, xi. 344-347. The battle of Waterloo fought in England. Folk-Lore, xi.
458. Lawrence (L. A.). A new variety of the half-groat of Charles I.
Num. Chron. 3rd S. xx. 88. • ■ On the half-noble of the third coinage of Edward III.
Num. Chron. .3rd S. xx. 102-105.
28 INDEX OF AECH.T:OLOaiCAL PAPERS
Lawrence (L. A.). On a small hoard of groats of Henry VI. to
Henry VII. Nuryi. Chron. 3rd S. xx. 1G6-179. Laws (Edward). The Eegisters of Gumfreston parish, co. Pembroke.
Arch. Camh. 5th S. xvii. 212-210. Leach (Arthur F.). The building of Beverley Bar. East Riding
Antiq. Soc. iv. 26-37. The foundation and refoundation of Pocklington Grammar
School. East Riding Antiq. Soc. v. 63-114.
A fifteenth century fabric roll of Beverley Minster. East
Riding Antiq. Soc. vi. 56-103; vii. 50-83. Lediard (H. a., M.D.). On samplers. Arch. Jonrn. Ivii. 241-247. Leeds Parish Registers : 1681 to 1695, baptisms and marriages ;
1676 to 1684, burials. Thoreshy Soc. x. 161-320. Lega-Weekes (Miss). The old mansion of North Wyke.* Devon
Assoc, xxxii. 195-205. Legg (J. Wickham). The gift of the papal cap and sword to Henry
VII. Arch. Journ. Ivii. 183-203. Legge (P.). The word " Armageddon." Bit). Arch. Soc. xxii. 121-
122. The carved slates from Hieraconpolis and elsewhere. Bib.
Arch. Soc. xxii. 125-139, 270-271. Leith (George). On the caves, shell mounds and stone implements
of South Africa. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 258-274. Leland (Charles Godfrey) and W. H. D. Rouse. Inscription on a
Roman lamp. Folk-Lore, xi. 323-324. Leslie (Ma.jor J. H.). An account of the behaviour of the Derby- shire regiment raised against the rebels in the year 1745 under
the command of His Grace the Duke of Devonshire. Derby s.
Arch. Soc. xxii. 40-45. Lethbridge (Sir Roper). Apple culture and cider making in
Devonshire. Devon Assoc, xxxii. 141-194. Lewis (A. L.). The stone circles of Scotland. Anthrop. In.<tt. N.S.
iii. 56-73. LiEBLEiN (Prof. J.). Le lever heliaque de So this le 16 Pharmouti.
Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 352-357. Lister (John) and William Brown. Seventeenth century builders'
contracts. Yo7'ks. Arch. Soc. xvi. 108-113. Little (Rev. J. R.). Stansfield parish notes. Siifolk Inst. Arch. x.
345-359. LiVETT (Rev. G. M.), Early-Norman masonry at Maidstone. Arch.
Cant. xxiv. 91-95.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
29
LiVETT (Rev. G. M.). Notes ou the church of St. Margaret-at-Cliffe.
Arch. Cant. xxiv. 175-18U. Lloyd (Eleanor). Notes on a saudial at Patriugtou. East Riding
Antiq. Soc. v. 50-62. Lloyd (Johx). Surveys of the mauors of Raduorshire. Arch. Canih.
5th S. xvii. 1-23, 110-128. Lord (W. F.). The development of political parties during the reign
of Queen Anne. lioy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 69-121. Ly'NAM (Charles). Some pre-Norman crosses in Derbyshire. British
Arch. .4s«oc. N.S. vi. 305-314. Ly'NCH (P. J.). Church island, Valentia harbour, co. Kerry. lioy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 155-160. M. (P.). Brass of a priest formerly at North Weston, Oxon. Oxford
Joiirn. Mon. Brass, ii. 85. MacAlister (Prof. A.). On perforate humeri in ancient Egyptian
si^eletons. Antlirop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 14-15. MacAlister (R. A. S.). The origin of the Forfeada. Roy. Soc. A)itiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 255-256. MacBain (Alexander). The Norse element in the topography of the
Highlands and isles. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 217-245. MacBean (^Lachlan). Celtic element in the lowland Scottish song.
Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 122-140. MacDonald (Lieut.-Colonel J. R. L.). Notes on the ethnology of
tribes met with during progress of the Juba expedition of 1897-9iJ.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 226-247. MacDoxald (Rev. Archibaldj. The religion and mythology of the
Celts. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 37-49. MacDonald (Rev. James K Stray customs and legends. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xix. 272-286. MacDonald (James, LL.D.). The inscriptions on the distance-slabs
of the vallum or wall of Antoninus Pius. Glasyoir Arch. Soc.
N.S. iv. 49-64. MacDonald (W. Rae). Notes on the heraldry of Elgin and its
neighbourhood, including the cathedral. Bishop's house, Grey-
friai's, and High street in Elgin, Spynie palace, church of Holy
Trinity at Spynie, Lhanbryd church, Coxton tower, Birnie
church, Kinloss abbey, Burgle castle, Duffus chui'ch, Goi'dons-
town house, Ogston church, Kinneder chui'ch, Drainie church,
St. Andrews church, Innes house, Pluscardin priory, Cullen
church, Deskford church, and Banff. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl.
xxxiv. 344-429.
30 INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS
MacDougall (Rev. R.). Notes on the ecclesiastical history of
Strathdearn. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 49-62. McGee (Prof. W. J.). Amerind, a designation for the aboriginal
tribes of the American hemisphere. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii.
App. 44-45. MacIxxes (Rev. Duncan). Notes on Gaelic technical terms. Gaelic
Soc. Inverness, xix. 212-216, MacIver (David). Recent anthropometrical work in Egypt.
Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 95-103. MacKay (Rev. John). Sutherland placenames — parishes of Golspie
and Rogart. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 172-188. MacKay (William). Donald Murchison and the factors on the
forfeited estates. Gaelic Soc. Inver)iess, xix. 1-12. Mackenzie (Rev\ J. B.). Notes on some cup-marked stones and
rocks near Kenmore and their folk-lore. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
Scotl. ssxiv. 325-337. Macklin (Rev. H. W.). The value of dispoiled slabs. Oxford
JoMrn. Mon. Brass, ii. 28-34. MacLeod (Neil). Miann a' Bhaird Aosda. Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xix. 89-98. ' Macleod (Rev. William H. ). Note on the church of St. Kentigerna,
Inchcailleach, Loch Lomond. Glasgow Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 75-
82. MacNamara (Dr. George U.). The ancient stone crosses of Ui-
Fearmaic, co. Clare. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 22-33. Cross of Kilnaboy. Eoy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S.
X. 369.
The cross of Dysert O'Dea. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland,
5th S. X. 377-378. MacPhail (Malcolm). Folk-lore from the Hebrides, Folk- Lore,
xi. 439-450. MacPherson ( ). Gleanings from the Cluuy charter chest.
Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix. 188-212. MacRury (Rev. John). Taillear Ghearraidh-bo-Stig. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xix. 25-37. An Teine Mor (Will o' the wisp). Gaelic Soc. Inverness,
xix. 158-171. MacRitchie (David). Description of an earth house at Pitcur,
Forfarshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 202-214. A note on St. Patrick's purgatory. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 165-167.
INDEX OF AECH^OLOCtICAL PAPERS 31
Maddison (Rev. Canon). The Heneage famil3^ Assoc. Arch it.
Soc. XXV. 36-47. Maddock (Rev. Canon H. E.). Parish registers of South Holderness.
East Riding Antiq. Soc. v. 1-34. • — Records of church briefs published and collected in South
Holderness parishes. East Biding Antiq. Soc. vii. 84-99. Magan (Michael). Crannog, co. Longford. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 253. Malden (Henry Elliott). Blechingley castle and the De Clares.
Surrey Arch. Soc. xv. 17-2G. Manning (Percy). On several monumental brasses now in private
possession. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 186-189. March (H. Colley). Customs relating to iron. Folk-Lorc, xi.
105-106.
Dorset folk-lore. Folk-Lore, xi. 107-112.
Marett (R. R.). Pre-animistic religion. Folk-Lore, xi. 112-182,
319-321. Markham (C. a.). On a silver gilt spoon of Flemish workman- ship. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 123-125. Marks (Alfred). Neru's great canal, with some remarks on
Roman war galleys. Roy. Soc. Lit. 2nd S. xxi. 177-206. Marshall (Rev. E.). Consecration crosses in churches. Ojfords..
Arch. Soc. 1898, 25-27. Wayside churchyard and market crosses. Oxfords. Arch.
Soc. 1897-1898, 28-39. Marshall (Rev. J. C). Lullington churcli, Somerset. Arch,
Journ. Ivii. 166-169. Marshall (Rev. W.). The direct photography of brasses. Oxford
Journ. Mon. Brass, ii. 86-89. Martin (C. Trice). Order for the defences of the coast dated 1625.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 101-110. Maskelyne (T. S.). Ellandune identified. Wilts. Arch, and Nat.
Hist. Soc. xxxi. 241-243. Massingberd (W. 0.). Early Lincolnshire inquisitions post-mortem.
Assoc. Arch it. Soc. xxv. 1-35. Masson (Rev. Dr. Donald). Gaelic paraphrases. Gaelic Soc.
Inverness, xix. 287-302. Mather (Philip E.). An old local family's estate. Arch. uEliana,
xxii. 20-29. Maurice (C. E.). Dr. Johnson in Hampstead. Hatnpstead Antiq.
and Hist. Soc. 1899, 22-27.
32 INDEX OF AKCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS
Maukice (Jules). L'atelier monetaire de Londres (Londinium)
pendant la pei'iode constantinienne. Xum. Chron. 3rd S. xx.
108-147. Meakin (Budgett). The Morocco pirates and their English slaves.
Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1899, 28-41. Meyer (Kuno). The song of the sword of Cerball. Ktldarc Arch.
Soc. iii. 123-128. MiLBOURN (Thomas). The Milbournes of Great Dunmow. Euscjj
Arch. Soc. viii. 55-75. Millar (A. H.). Notice of an incised sepulchral slab found in the
chiu'ch of Longforgan, Perthshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl.
xxxiv. 463-475. Millard (Rev. Georgej. Four letters written by, a.d. 1712-18.
Wilts. Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxi. 33-48. Miller (Rev. Normax J.). " The Leager " book, Winestead.
East Biding Antiq. Soc. vi. 26-42. Mills (James). Sixteenth century notices of the chapels and ciypts
of the church of Holy Trinity, Dublin. lioy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 195-203. Milxe (Alice E.). Customs in the London building trade. Folk-
Lore, xi. 457-458. Miltox. Subscription to St. Paul's cathedral; extract of a letter
addressed by Dr. Sparrow Simpson to the Rev. E. W. Carpenter,
vicar of Milton, near Sittingbourne. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 225-226. Money (Walter). The history of Compton Wynyates. Berks,
Bucks and Oxon. Arch. Journ. vi. 84-88. MoxTELius (Prof. Oscari. Prehistoric chronology. Anthrojj. Inst.
N.S. ii. 308-310. On the earliest communications between Italy and Scandi- navia. AntJirojj. Inst. N.S. iii. 89-94. Moore iCourtexayi. Antiquities near Glauworth. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 373-374. Morris (George). Abstracts of the grants and charter's contained
in the chartulary of Wombridge prior3^ ShrojJs. Arch. Soc.
2nd S. xii. 205-228. Morris (Rev. M. C. ¥.). East Riding iielduames. East Biding
Antiq. Soc. vi. 1-17. MuMFORD (Rev. J. Thwaites). St. Anne's church, Buxton. British
Arch. Assoc. N.S. v. 159-163. MuNRO (Alexaxder). Note on an incised stoue cross at Strathy,
Sutherlandshire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scutl. xxxiv. 252-254.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 33
MuNRO (J. Arthur R."!. Some obsei*vati(:)us on the Persian wars,
Journ. Hell. Studies, xix. 185- UM. A letter from Autigouus to Scepsis, 311 B.C. Joani. Hell.
Studies, xix. 330-34(J. Murray (A. S.). A new vase of the Dipylon class. Journ. Hell.
Studies, xix. 198-201. Excavations in Cy])rus. 189<). Roy. Inst. Brit. ArcJi. 3rd
S. vii. 21-35. Murray (Mrs. Frances t. Painted Avail cloths in Sweden. Glasgow
Arch. Sac. N.S. iv. 87-94. Mylne (Rev. R. S.). Notices of the king's master wrights of Scot- land, with writs of their appointments. Proc. Sac. Antiq. Scotl.
xxxiv. 288-29(i. Nash (Walter L.). A wooden handle for sniall cjnubals. from Egypt.
Bib. Arch. Sac. xxii. 117-118. Ancient Egyptian models of tish. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii.
168-165. Naunton (Sir Robert. The arms of. Suffolk Inst. Arch. x.
380-381. Newberry (Percy E. i. A statue of Hapu-seub, Yezir of Thothmes II.
Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 31-36. Extracts from my notebooks. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 59-(>6 ;
142-154. The word kJia, a '^ diwau '' or ''office." Bih. Arch. Soc.
xxii. 99-108. The aaf " flies. ■■ Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 166-167.
Newton (E. E.). A forgotten Hampstead worthy : Josiah Boydell,
artist and alderman. Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1899.
119-136. Noble (Rev. W. Mackreth). Little Griddiug and the Knights
Templars.. Brit. Arch. As.soc. N.S. vi. 47-53. Norgate (Kate). The alleged condemnation of King John by the
court of France in 1202. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xiv. 53-67. Norhlvn (Philip). Notes on Bromle}^ and the neighbourhood. Arch.
Cant. xxiv. 139-159. Northbourne (Lord I. Northbourne court. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 9ii-101 . Northcote (Lady Rosalinda. Devonshire folk-lore, collected among
the people near Exeter within the last five or six years. Folk-
Lore, xi. 212-217. Oakley (F. P.). Manchester, some notes on its development. Roy.
Inst. Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 453-464.
c
34 INDEX OF AKCH.F.OLOGICAL PAPERS
Offord (Joseph). Phoenician inscripTion at CTveenock. lHh. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 114-115. Notes on the geography of Phrenician inscriptions. Bih.
Arrh. Soc. xxii. 120-121. Report, Congres International d'Histoire des Religions.
Bib. Arch. Snc. xxii. 281-285.
Prgefecti iEgypti. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 372-374.
O'Haxlon (John, Canon). Napoleon III. and Barry O'Meara's
family. Not/. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 91-92. 0.\£AN (C). Unpublished or rare coins of Smyrna in the Bodleian
cabinet. Num. Chron. 3rd S. xx. 203-208. O'Neill (William). Derby china. Assoc. Arch it. Soc. ^x.\.V^^\4:0. O'Reilly (J. P.). The Milesian colonization considered in relation to
gold mining. Roij. IrisJi. Accal. 3rd S. vi. 30-78. O'Reilly (Patrick J.). The site of Columb's monastery on lona.
Boy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 334-342. O^VEN (Edavard). The bells of the priorj^ churches of Abergavenny
and Brecon. Arch. Ccuvb. 5th S. xvii. 294-298. P. (F. T.). The life index. Folk-Lorc, xi. 436. Parker (F. H. M.). The Parkers of Old Town, with some notes on
the Branthwaites of Carlingill and the Birkbecks of Orton Hall.
Climb, and Wc.^t. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 104-116. Parker (John). The Giflfards. Records of Bucks, viii. 289-308. Paton (W. R.). Folk-tales from the ^gean. Folk-Lore, xi. 113-119,
333-344, 452-456.
Month-names. Folk-Lore, xi. 209.
Folk-lore from Calymnos. Folk-Lore, xi. 221.
Medical superstition — shakes. Folk-Lore, xi. 321.
A fairy dog's tooth. Folk-Lore, xi. 450-452.
Cropping animals' ears. Folk-Lore, xi. 456-457.
Payne (George). Report on finds in Kent. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 34-44, 73-87; Arch. Cant. xxiv. li.-lx.
Celtic interments discovered at Shorne. Arch. Cant. xxiv.
86-90.
Mediaeval crypts at Rochester Arch. Cant. xxiv. 220-224.
Peacock (Edward). Sunwise processions. Folk-Lore, xi. 220. Peacock (M.). More snake-lore. .Folk-Lore, xi. 321.
The bumble-bee in magic. Folk-Lore, xi. 438,
Pearce (E. K.). Welton farmhouse, Blairgowrie. Folk-Lore, xi. 21 1. Pearman (Rev. M. T.). Notices of Checkenden rectory. Oxfords. Arch. Soc. 1898, 1-11.
IXDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 35
Pearmax (Rev. M. T.). Notes on Bolne}' church and manor, and
other lands of Walter G-iffard. Oxfords. Arch. Soc 1900, 1-15. Pearson (Rev. John B.). Church houses in Devon. Devon Assoc.
xxxii. 20()-211. On an estate formerly belonging to the duchy of Lancaster.
Dcron Assoc, xxxii. 407-411. Peers (C. R.). Greek Graffiti from Der El Bahari and El Kab. .loiiiui.
Hell. Studies, xix. 18-18. Peet (Henry). Brief historical notes on the churches of St. George
and St. John, Liverpool. Lane, and Cliesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv.
27-44. Perdrizet (Paul). Venatio Alexandri. .loiu-n. Hell. Studies, xix.
273-270. Perkins (V. R.). Documents relating to the Cistercian monastery of
St. Mary, Kiugswood. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc. xxii
179-25(j. Peter (Thurstan C.k Notes on the church of St. Just in Penwith.
Roy. Inst. CorutraU, xiv. 173-190. ■ Notes on St. Michael's mount. Rot/. Ijisf. Corn (rail,
xiv. 221-24(1. Petrie (Prof. W. Flinders). On our present knowledge of the
eai-ly Egyptians. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. i. 202-203. — ■ — Sequences in prehistoric remains. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. ii.
295-301. Note on a carved slate. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 140-141.
Phene (Dr.). The commercial importance of Peterborough in the
pre-Roman times. Jh'iti.sJi Arcli. Assoc. N.S. vi. 324-331. The rise, progress and decay of the art of painting in
Greece. Roij. Soc. Lit. 2nd S. xxi. 1-35. Phillips (William). Sequestration papers of Sir Richard first
baron Newport and Sir Francis his son. S/irops. Arch. Soc.
2nd S. xii. 1-38. The will of Raph Bostock a.d. 1533. Shrops. Arch. Soc.
2nd S. xii. 191-195. Piehl (Prof. Dr. Karli. Notes. Bih. Arc/t. Soc. xxii. 384-385. Pilcher (E. J.). Phcenician inscription at Greenock. Bib. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 273-274. PiLKiNGTON (John). Origin of the name Pilkington. Lane, and
Clu'sh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv. 229-232. Pinches (Theophilus G.). The temples of ancient Babylonia. Bib.
Arch. Soc. xxii. 358-371.
36 INDEX OF AECHJEOLOGICAL PAPERS
Plunkett (^Hon. Miss). Ancient Indian astronomy. Bib. Arch.
Soc. xxii. 47-58.
Aliura Mazda. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 80-85.
PoLSON (A.). Highland brochs. Gaelic Soc. Inverness, xix.
115-121. PoxTlXG (C E.). The churches of Bnlford, Enford and Littleton.
Wilts Arch and Xat. Hist. Soc. xxxi. 68-78. The church of St. Mary, Marstou Magna. Somerset.
Somerset A7'ch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 196-201. Pope-Hennessy (Lieut. H.). Notes on the Jukos and other tribes
of the Middle Benue. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. App. 24-31. Poppleton (J. Eyre;. Notes on the bells of the ancient churches
of the West Riding of Yorkshire. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi.
46-83. Price (F. G. Hilton). Notes upon some earh' clay tobacco pipes
from the 16th to the 18th centuries found in the city of London
in the possession of the author. Arch. Journ. Ivii. 224-240.
Some ivories from Abydos. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 160-161.
An ancient Egyptian painter's palette. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 138-139. Price (William Frederick). Notes on some of the places, tradi- tions, and folk-lore of the Douglas valley. Lane, and Chesh.
Hist. Soc. N.S. XV. 181-220. Prior (Rev. C. E.i. Otmoor. Ccfords. Arch. Soc. 1900, 1-13. Pryor (M. R.). Prehistoric interment at Weston, Stevenage. East
Herts Arch. Soc. i. 195. Quick (R.). The Eolithic stone age, or notes on eoliths from Kent.
British Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 332-342. Raven (J. J., D.D.). Tholdman. Sufolk Inst. Arch. x. 394-398. Read (C. H.). A bronze vessel and a glass tumbler of the Saxon
period from Wheathampstead, Herts. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S.
xviii. 110-114. Ready (W. Talbot). An unpublished variety of the Portobello
medal; the successes of Frederick the Great in 1757. Num.
Chron. 3rd S. xx. 180. Redstone (V. B.). Badingham. Suffolk Inst. Ai-c/t. x. 382-393. Reid (A. G.). Notice of an original letter of instructions for Sir
William Fleming, b}^ King Charles II., dated at Breda, May 22,
1650. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 199-202. Reid (J. Eadie). Some principles of Christian art historically con- sidered. Roy. Inst. Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 492-498.
INDEX OF AHCH.-EOLOrjlCAL PAPERS 37
Ricci (Seymour de>. The prsefects of Eirypt. Bib. Arch. Hoc. xxii.
374-383. Rice (R. CtArraway). Report on tinds in Sussex. Fvoc. Soc. Antiq.
2nd S. xviii. 21-32. Some notes ou the parish rej/isters of Winchelsea, co.
Sussex. St. Pcmr.^ Ecclcsiol. Soc. iv. 308-312. Richardson (James T.). Notes (1) on an ancient interment
recently discovered at the Leithics ; (2) a kitchen midden at the
Rhodes links ; and (3) a cist, with an urn of drinking-cup type,
near the West links, North Berwick. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl.
xxxiv. 120-123 Risk (Rev. J. Erskine). The Pilchard "constitutions" in the
White Book of the Ph'mouth Corporation, 23 and 26 Elizabeth.
Devon Assoc, xxxii. 515-520. Ritchie (Prof.). Medical superstition in Cyprus. Folk-Lore, 120-125. Rivers (W. H. R.). A genealogical method of collecting social and
vital statistics. Anthrop. Inst. N.S. iii. 74-82. Rivett-Carjstac (Col.). Notes on an ancient leather case from
Sweffling church. Suffolk Inst. ArcJi. x. 366-368, Rogers (W. H. Hamilton). Brook, of Somerset and Devon ; Barons
of Cobham, in Kent. Snuu'VKct Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi.
109-124. RoLLESTON (T. W.). The church of St. Patrick on Caher island,
CO. Mayo. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 357-363. RosEDALE (Rev. H. C). The religiovis conceptions of the poets from
Chaucer to Browning, and their share in the development of
religious thought in England. Poi/. Soc. Lit. 2nd S. xxi.
121-157. ROSTOWZEW (M.i. AQPEA CITOY TAPCii. Xiun. Chron. 3rd S.
XX. 96-107. RoTHERHAM (E. Crofton). Find of tenth century coins in co. Meath,
Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 253-254. Round (J. H.). Fyfield church. Essoj Arch. Soc. viii. 104-105. Rouse (W. H. D.). Burial of the dead horse. Folk-Lore, xi. 434.
The divining rod in U.S.A. Folk-Lore, xi. 434-435.
RowE (J. Brooking). The second volume of John Prince's Worthies
of Devon. Devon Assoc, xxxii. 301-308. Ruddle (Rev. C. S.). Notes on common finds in and around
Durrington. Wilts Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxi. 1-8. Notes on Amesbury church. Wilts Arch, and Xat. Hist.
Soc. xxxi. 29-32.
38 IXI»EX OF AKCH.KOLOaiCAL PAPERS
RuxDLE (Rev. S.i. Coruubiana. Hoy. Inst. Conurall, xiv. ()!J-84. EuTTOX (W. L.). Cheney of Shurlancl, Kent, and of Toddington, Beds,
Arch. Cant. xxiv. 122-127. Rye (Henry A. i. Rievaulx abbey, its canals and buildin«j; stone.
Arch. Jovrn. Ivii. 6iJ-77. Rylands (W. H. 1. Freemasonry in Lancashire and Cheshire, 17th
century. Lane, cind Chesh. Hist. Soc. N.S. xv. 85-154. S (H. K. St. Jj. Buckin.u-hamshire notes. Man. Bra.sf>. Soc. iv.
31-36. Saunders (Helen). Notes on tlie history of a Xorth Devon Parish,
Aissa, Rose Ash. Devon. As.soc. xxxii. 212-228. Savage TRev. H. E.i. Jarrow church and monastery. Arch. yEliana.,
xxii. 30-60. Savignoni (L.). On representations of Helios and of Selene. Journ.
Hell. Studies, xix. 265-272. Sayce (Professor A. H.^. Notes. Jjih. Arch. Soc. xxii. 77-7J), 86,
161. The language of Mitanni. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 171-225.
(1) Objects from the tomb of a prse-dynastic Egyptian
king; (2) some early Egyptian seal-cylinders. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 278-280.
Cairene folk-lore. Folk-Lore. xi. 354:-31'5.
Scott (J. Oldrid). Ightham Mote house and church. Arch, i'ant.
xxiv. 189-104. Seager ( S. Hurst ). Architectural art in New Zealand. Koij. Inst.
Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 481-4i)l. Seligmann (C. Ct.;. The bull-roarer in Ceylon. Folk-Lore, xi.
45(). Seth-Smith (W. Howard I. Chavenage house. Bristol and
GloHc. Arc! I. Soc. xxii. 121-127. Sheppard (Lewis I. Severn end, Worcester. Assoc. Archif. Soo,
XXV. 172-182. Sheppard (Thomasi. Prehistoric man in Holderness. Assoc. Arcliit.
Soc. XXV. 231-24!). Sherwood (O, F. T.j. Early Berkshire wills from tlie P.C.C. ante
1558. lierlxs, Bucks and (iron. Arcli. .Jonrn. vi. 23-25;
92-!)4. Sinclair (John;. Notes on James Fifth's towers, Holyrood palace,
Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scntl. xxxiv. 224-241. Sinton (Rev. Tho^lvs i. Stray vei'ses of Gaelic poetry, ilaelic Soc.
Inrerness, xix. 73-8!>.
INDEX OF Ar!CH.1<;()l,0(;i('AL I'AL'KKS 39
Smith ',(t. O.i. Monumeutal brasses at Corpus Christi colle.ue, Oxford,
O.x'foi'd Joiwn. Mon. Brass, ii. 40-44. Spencp:r (Prof. Baldwin} and F. J. CtIllen. Some remaiks on
totemism as applied to Australian tribes. Auihvop. Inst. N.S.
i. 275-280. Spiers (R. Phene). The architecture of central Syria. Roy. last.
Brit. Arch. 3rd S. vii. 381-385. Stainthorpe (T. W.). Ye ancieiit l)all rinuat Totnes. Ihron Assoc.
xxxii. 106-110. Steele (Robert). A notice of the Ludus triuuiphorum and some
early Italian card games ; with some remarks on the origin of
the game of cards. Arch. Ivii. 185-200. Stephenson (Mill). A list of palimpsest brasses. Mo)i. Brnss. Soc.
iv. 1-31. Palimpsest bi-asses in Surre}'. Surrey Arch. Soc. xv.
27-39.
Palimpsest brass at Winestead, East Yorkshire. Yorks.
Arch. Soc. xvi. 238-231). Stokes (Margaret). Christian iconography in Ireland. Arch.
Journ. Ivii. 270-280. Stokes (Rev. Prof., D.D.i. Clane abbey. Kilclare Arch. Soc. in.
lOl-lOO. Stopes (H.). On the discovery of Neritina Fluviatilis with a
Pleistocene fauna and worked flints in high terrace gravels of
the Thames valley. Anfhrop. Inst. N.S. ii. 302-303. Strachan (Professor). The importance of Irish for the stud}- of
Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic Soc. Ini:er)tess, xix. 13-25. Stubbs (Ma.jor-CtEN. F. W.u The birthplace and life of St. Brigit
of Kildare. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 217-228. Suffolk : a descriptive catalogue of ancient deeds in the public
record office. Suffolk List. Arch. x. 251-344 : 399-413. SuTTijN (Rev. Arthur F.t. A description of the chui'ches visited in
the excursion from Gainsborough, July 5 aud (5, 1899. Assoc.
Archit. Soc. xxv. 121-137. Swtnnerton (F.). Rude stone implements from Gwalior. Anthrop.
Inst. N.S. ii. 315. Sykes (Rev. W. Slater '. The pitch pipes of the rural deanery of
Gosforth. Cumb. and Westni. Antiq. Soc. xvi. 120-135. Mason's marks, Millom parish church. Cumb. and Westm.
Antiq. Soc. xvi. 13()-137. Synnot (Nicholas). Irish pearls. Kildare Arch. Soc. iii. 191-192.
40 INDEX OF AECH.^.OLOGICAL PAPERS
Talbot (C. H. . Amesburj- church, reasons for thinking it was not the church of the priory. Wilts. ArcJi. (ind Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxi. 9-29.
Taylok (Hexry}. Four recent discoveries of Eoman remains in Chester. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 91-98.
Temple (Sir Richard). Historic constellations of Hampstead. Hampstead Antiq. and Hist. Soc. 1899, 66-79.
Thomas (N. W.). Animal superstitions and totemisna. Folk-Lore, xi. 227-267.
Horse's heads, weather cocks, etc. Folk-Lore, si. 322-323.
Notebooks and MSS. Folk-Lore, xi. 437.
Cropping animals' ears. Folk-Lore, xi. 457.
Thomas (Ven. Archdeacon). On a bronze seal found in Merioneth- shire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd S. xviii. 69-70.
Thompson (E. Skeffington\ First foot in Lancashii-e. Folk-Lore, xi. 220.
Tomlinson (William Weaver). Jean Bart's descent on the coast of Northumberland in 1691. Arch. ^Fliana, xxii. 12-19.
Tregelles (J. Allen). Some church chests in East Hertfordshire, East Herts Arch. Soc. i. 153-158.
Trotter (Coutts). Extracts from the diary of Mr. James Strange, commanding an expedition sent by the East Indian Company to the north-west coast of America in 1786 ; with a vocabulary of the language of Nutka sound. Anthrop. L}st. N.S. iii. App. 50-62.
Troup (Mrs. Frances B.) and Eev. J. Ingle Dredge. Biographical sketch of the Rev. Christopher Jelinger, M.A., with biblio- graphical notes. Devon Assoc, xxxii. 249-270.
Ussher (W. a. E.). The Devonian, carboniferous, and new red rocks of west Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. Somerset Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi. 1-64.
Vane (Hon. and Rev. G. H. F.). On licenses to eat flesh found in parish registers. Shrops. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 48-56.
Venkataswami (M. N.\ Hindu notes. Folk-Lore, xi. 218-219.
W. (L.). Giants in pageants. Folk-Lore, xi. 105.
W. ( W. C). The chapel at Havering atte Bower. Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 105-106.
Wadmore rj. F.). Knight hospitallers in Kent. Arch. Cant. xxiv. 128-1.88.
Wallace (Thomas . Archaeological notes from Moray town, Dalcross, Inverness-shire. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotl. xxxiv. 215-218.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS 41
Waller (VV. C.)- Ship money in Essex. Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 8-14.
Essex field names. Essex Arch. Soc. viii. 76-103.
Walters (H. B.\ Athena Hygieia. Jonvn. Hell. Sfvdirs. xix.
165-168. Ward (John). Egyptian scarabs. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 274. - — A collection of historical scarabs and others, with a few
cylinders. Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 305-320, 386-401.
A sketch of the archaeology of Derbyshire. British Arch.
Assoc. N.S. vi. 1-25.
On Mr. Micah Salfs diggings aronnd Buxton. British
Arch. Assoc. N.S. vi. 209-226. Notes on a prehistoric btirial place at Megdale, near Matlock
bridge. Derby. Arch, xxiii. 40-47. Watson (George). Crosthwaite church. Cumb. and Westm. Antiq.
Soc. xvi. 146-151. Weigall (Arthur E.). The funeral tablets in the Brighton museum.
Bib. Arch. Soc. xxii. 272-273. Were (F.). Heraldry of the different churches, etc., visited August
9th to 11th, 1899. Bristol and GJouc. Arcli. Soc. xxii. 138-
149. Westermarck (Edward). The nature of the Arab Ginn, illustrated
b}^ the present beliefs of the people of Morocco. Anthrop. Inst.
N.S. ii. 252-269. Westropp (T. J.). Dolmens at Ballycroum, near Feakle, co. Clare.
Roy. Irish Acad. 3rd S. vi. 85-92. ■ The chui'ches of co. Clare and the origin of the ecclesiastical
divisions in that county. Roy. Irisli Acad. 3rd S. vi. 100-180. Relics of the Spanish armada in Clare and Sligo. Roy. Soc.
Antiq. Ireland^ 5th S. x. 92-95.
Report on the photographic collection. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 95-97.
The Augustinian houses of the county Clare : Clare, Killone,
and Inchicronan. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 118-135. The clog an oir or bell shrine of Scatterv. Roy. Soc. Antiq.
Ireland, 5th S. x. 237-244.
The cross of Dysert O'Dea. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland,
5th S. X. 375-377. Weyman (Henry T. '. Some account of the early history of the Foxe
family. Shrops. Arch. Soc. 2nd S. xii. 113-190. Whale (Rev. T. W.K Principles of the Domesday survey and
Feudal iVids. Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 521-551.
42 INDEX OF ARCH-KOLOaTCAL PAPERS
White \;Jamesj. The old lands of Partick and the mill thereof.
GJasgotc Ai-r/i. Sor. N.S. iv, 23-37. Whvte (E. Towky). Egyptian models of fish ; Egyptian camp stool.
Bib. Arch. Sor. xxii. IKi-llT. Wiedemann (Prof. Dr. A.i. A mythological-geographical te.xt.
Bih. Anil. Sor. xxii. 155-160. Wii.LiAJis (Stekf.ing de Courcyi. Bronze brooch, Darrow. Roy.
Soc. Anti(/. Ireland., 5th S. x. 371. WiLLis-BuND (J. W. 1. Notes on documents belonging to the parish
of Feckenham, Woi-cestershire. Prnc. Sor. Anfiq. 2nd S. xviii.
19-21. Wilson (CtEOrge Maryon). The manor of Hampstead : a sketch of
copyholds. Hampstead Anfiij. and HUf. Soc. 18!»!». 43-58. Wiltshire Ar( ■h.eologk'al Society's MSS. Wilts Arrli. and Nat.
Hist. Soc. xxxi. 4fM)8: 135-19(). Windeatt(Ed\yardi. Totnes: its mayors and mayoralties, 1827-76.
Devon. Assoc, xxxii. 111-141. The muniments of the corporation of Totnes. Part I.
Devon. Assor. xxxii. 400-406. Early iionconformit}^ in Totnes. Dtrnu. .Innoc. xxxii.
412-430. The M.P.'s for the borough of Totnes. Deron. Assoc, xxxii.
431-453. Windeatt (T. \V. i. Notes on Totnes trained bands and volunteers.
Deron. Ass<n-. xxxii. 93-105. Admiral Sir Frederick Thomas Mitchell, K.C.B. Deron.
Assor. xxxii. 390-399. WiNsTONE (B.). Remarks on two medals, and the political struggle
that occasioned tlieir being issued. Britisli Arr/i. As!<o<\ N.S. vi.
227-240. WoiiDRUFF (Re\-. 0. E.). Notes on formei- o\vners of Ightham Mote
house. .[)'r/i. Cant. xxiv. 195-200. W<»«iLnvARu (Miss M. E.i. Notes on the Swahili section of Lieut. -
Colonel MacDouald's vocabulaxy. AntJirojj. Inst. N.S. ii. 250. Worth (R. H.i. Nineteenth report of the barrow committee. Deron
-Ift-.sor. xxxii. 46-54. Wright (E. Perceval, M.D. I. On the bell of Kilmainham. Hoij.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th S. x. 40-43. Wright (Rev. \V. H. T.i. Notes on the parishes and churches of
Eastleach Martin and Eastleach Turville. Bristol and Glonc.
Arch. Soc. xxii. 115-120.
INDEX OP^ ARCH.KOLOaiGAL ]\\PEi;s 43
Wroth (Warwick). Greek coins acquired b}^ the British museum
in 1899. Niim. C/imu. 8rd S. xx. l-2(i.
Cranes, and Phraates IV. Nvdi. C/iron. 3rd 8. xx. 89-9.5.
On the re-arrangement of Parthian coinage. Num. Chrrni.
3rd S. XX. 181-202. Yeatmax (Johx Pym). Welsh records. AtrJi. Camh. 5th S. xvii.
277-293. Yorkshire briefs. Yorks. Arch. Soc. xvi. 114-120. Young (Prof. John). Notes on two copies of the Solemn League and
Covenant, preserved in the antiquarian museum of the university
of Glasgow. Glasgoiv Arch. Soc. N.S. iv. 121-154.
INDEX
Abbeys: Bazeleij, Brakapear. Burton, Cooper^ Hope, Mijc, Stokes.
Abergavenny : Oioen.
Africa : Begg, Clark^ Coinage, Franien, Hinde, Hohley, Kingston, Kattiitz, Leitfi, MacDonald, n oorfu-arfZ.
Allerton : Coleman.
America : Dalton, McGee, Trotter.
Amesbnry : Buddie, Taylor.
Am well : Gerish.
Anglo-Saxon history and remains : Howortli, Bead. Burhs : Armitage. Eddeva : Boijle. Ellandune : Maskelyne. See " Numismatics.'"
Ai>ple culture : Lethbridge.
Architectiiral history and antiqui- ties : Begg, Bod ley, Brushfield, Hadfield, Hojje, Kerr, Seager, Spiers.
Armada : Westropp.
Arms and Armour: Brewis, Brydall, De Cosson, Dillon, Hartshorne, Hutton.
Ashborne : Holland.
Asia Minor : Anderson, Cron-foot.
Assyrioiogj^ : Boissier, Cheyne, De- lattre.
Aston : Brigg.
Astronomy : Flunkett.
Augustinian houses: Westropp.
Australia : F'razer, Spencer.
Babylonian antiquities : Pinches.
Badingham : Bedstone.
Bangor : Hug lies.
Baslow : Kerry.
Battles : Firth, Fletrlier, Latimer, Maskelyne.
Baunton : Hope.
Beddington : Andre.
Bells : BiUon, Owen, Poppleton, West- ropp, Wright.
Berkshire : Cope, Keyser. Sherwood. See "Eeading," "Wantage," " Windsor."
Berwick (North) : Richardson.
Bessingby : Bilson.
Beverley -.Bilson, Broicn, Ellis, Leach.
Biblical archteology : Bissing, Broum, Gardiner, Gaster, Hastitigs, Legge.
Birchover : Birchover.
Blagdon Barton : Amery.
Blechingley : Maiden.
Bletchlej^ : Bradhrook.
Bolney : Pearman.
Braintree : Beaumont.
Braughing : Gerish.
Brecon : Owen.
Briefs : Maddock.
Bristol : Fuller, Latimer.
Bromley : Norman.
Bronze objects : Buchan, Coles, Fitz- gerald, Williams.
Buckinghamshire : Foster, Garrett- Pegge, Keyser, S. See " Bletch- ley.'' " Eton,'" " High Wycombe,"' •• Turville."
Builders' contracts: Lister.
Bulford : Pouting.
Burford : Dryden.
Bute : Anderson.
Buxton : Mumford, Ward.
Caher island : Rolleston.
Calendars : Baring-Gould.
Cambridgeshire : Cambridgeshire.
Canons Ashby: Canons Ashhy.
Cardiff: Grtieber.
Cards (pla3'ing) : Steele.
Carhayes: Haver field.
Cartmel : Cooper, Gaythorpe.
Castles : Armitage, Ball, Garstany.
Hammett, Maiden. Cathedrals : Fryer, Hope. MacDonald. Caversfield : Dryden. Celtic history : Baring-Gould, Lach-
Szyrma, MarBean, MacDcnald. Celtic antiquities :
Costume : Lach-Szyrma.
Monasteries : Baring-Gould Charles II. : Beid. Chatham islands : Duckworth.
INDEX
45
Chavenage : Da vies.
Checkenden : Pearman.
Cheshire : BrownbUl, Itylands. See " Chester."
Chester : Harrod. Taylor.
China ware : 0''Neill.
Church goods : Atiden, Hone, TregeUes.
Church houses : Pearson.
Church plate : Ball, Bates, Cooper.
Churches : Adams, Anderson, Andre, Baring - Gould, Barnes, Cotton, Curwen, Davidson, Downs, Druitt, Dri/den, Gerish, Glynne, Halliday, Earrold, Heicson, Hip/cins, Hope, Hudson, Knox, Leach, Livett, Mac- Donald, MacLeod, Marshall, Mills. Mumford, Pearman, Peel, Peter, Panting, Rolleston, Round, Ruddle, Savage, Scott, Sutton, Sgkes, Taylor, Watson, Were, Westropp, Wright.
Churchwardens' accounts : Davis.
Cirencester : Cripps, Ely.
Cistercian monastery : Perkins.
Clane : Cooke- Trench, Fitzgerald, Stokes.
Clare (co.) : Westropp.
Clifton near Dartmouth : Adanis.
Cluny ; MacPkerson.
Clyde (river) : Bruce.
Coast defence : Martin, Tomlinson.
Compton Wynyates : Money.
Connaught : Knox.
Consecration of churclics : E.
Cornwall : Baring-Gould, Beddoe, Haverjield, Bundle, Vssher. See " Carhayes," " Penwith," " St. Michael's Mount," "Truro."
(yostume : Lach-Szyrma.
Crosses : Ball, Bellairs, Buckley, Cole, Fitzgerald, Hewat, Lynam, Mac- Namara, Marshall, Munro, West- ropp.
Crosthwaite : Watson.
Cumberland: Cowper, Ferguson, Haverjield. See " Crosthwaite," "Drumburgh," "Mary port." " Whitbeck," " Workington.'"
(_!up-marked stones: Anderson, Astley, Browne, MacKenzie. ■
Cyprus : Dalton, Murray.
Dale abbey : Burton.
Deal : Dowker.
Derbyshire : Birch, Brushjield, Bryan, Carrington, Jourdain, Lynam, Ward. See " Ashborne," " Bas- low," " Birchover." •■ Buxton," "Dale," "Haddoni" -Matlock," " Repton.'"
Devonshire: Amery, Baring -Gould, Elliott, Elioorthy, Lefhbridge, Northcote, Pearson, Rowe, Vssher, Worth. See " Blagdon Barton," "Clifton," "Holbeton," " Og- well," "Pljanouth," " Eose Ash," " Torrington, Great,'" " Torring- ton, Little," "Totnes."'
Dialect : Elworthy, Machines, Masson, Strachan.
Domesday : Brownhill, Kenyon, Whale.
Dorsetshire : Dawkins, March. See " Whitechui'c'n Canonicorum."
Drumburgh : Haverjield.
Dublin : Berry, Dix, Drew, Fitz- gerald, Keatinge, Kelly, 2fills.
Dunbar : Firth.
Durham : Fowler.
Durham : See '• Durham,'" " Edmund- byers," " Jarrow.""
Durrington : Ruddle.
Durrow : Williams.
Earth houses : MacRitchie.
Earthworks, barrows, mounds, etc. : Baring-Gould, Brushfield, Christi- son, Clark, Cooper, Boyd-Dawkins, Evans, Gould, Laver, Poison.
Eastleach Martin : Wright.
Eastleach Turville : Wright.
Ecclesiastical history : Arnold, Cole, Eyre, Hennesy, Legg, MacDougall, Westropp.
Ecclesiology : Atchley, Beloe, Bigger, Hope, Johnston, Reid, Vane.
Edmundbyers : Feather stonhaugh.
Egyptology : Breasted, Clark, Griffith, Macalister, Maclver, Xash, New- berry. Offord, Petric, Price, Ricci^ Sayce, Ward, Whyte.
Elgin : MacDonald.
Ellandune : Maskelyne.
Enford : Pouting.
Eskimos : Duckworth.
Essex : Chrislii, Waller. See '■'• Brain- tree," "Fyfield," "Great Hol- land,"' " Havering atte Bower," " Lexden."
Ethnology : B., Beddoe, Cowper, Gray, Mac Bain.
Eton : Harwood.
Exeter: Hunt.
Faversham : Giraud.
Fawslej^ : Fawsley.
Feckenham : Willis-Bund.
Fetcham : Andre.
Field names : Cole, Morris, Waller.
46
INDEX
Flookburgh : Coir^jer. Folklore : Abereromby, Aniery. Ander- fson, Andre, Axon^ Saildon, Brait- malev, Brufshjield, Burne, Carson, (Jliadivick, (Jrooke, K, Emslie, Fer- (juson, Feryusson, Gale, Gaater, Greene, Grierson, Haddon, Hart- land, Haverjield, Hohnen. Hiitche- ■son, Kildare, Lang, Law, Leiand, MacDonald [Bev. A.), Mar.Donald [Rec. J.), MacKenzie, MacPhail, Mai'-Ritchie, MacRury, March, Maretl, Mei/er, Milne, Northcote, F., Faton, Fear.ock (E.), Peacock (J/.), Fearce, Price, Ritchie, Rouse, Sayce, Seligmann, Thomas, Thomp- son, Venkataswami, \V., Weder- marck, \Viede.vian7t.
Fonts: Fryer.
Freemasonry : Rylands.
Furneaux Pelham : Andrews.
Furness : Gaythorpe, Hope.
Fyfield : Round.
Genealogy, famiU' and personal his- tory : Amery, Baddeley, Bain, Bowles, B r II s li field, Burtchaell, Carrinyton, Day, Duncan, Ellis, Fit zy erald, Frazer-Mackintosh , Graliam, Hawkesbury, Hiygins, Hill, Ireland, Kildare, Lanyrishe, Maddison, Mather, Milbourn, Miller, Parker, Phillips, Rogers, Rutton, Troup, Weyinan. Windeatt.
Glauuorth : Moore.
Glasgow : Gavipbell.
Glass (stained) : Bazley.
Gloucestershire: Davis. See " Baun- ton,"' " Bristol," " Chavenage," •' Cirencester,'' " Eastleach Mar- tin,'' ■' Eastleach Turville," ■' Hayles," •' Kingswood."
Great Holland : Beaumont.
Greek antiquities : Bosan<piet, Brooks, Dickson, Gardner (E. A.), Gardner (Percy), Haddon, Harrison, Haver- jield, Hogarth, Howorth, Karo, Mimro, Murray, Peers, Perdrizet, Fhene, Savignotii, Walters, Wi^oth.
Guildford : Ba.v.
Gunifreston : Laws.
Haddon : Carrinyton, Kerry. Hants : See " Silchester." Havering atte Bower : IF. Hayles : Bazeley.
Heraldry: Andre, Hope, MacDonald, yaunton. Were.
Hertford : Andreios.
Hertfordshire : Andrews, Gerish, Tre- gelles. See " Amwell," •• Braugh- ing.'' -'Furneaux Pelham," "Hertford," "Hoddesdon," "Man- grove," •' E^'e House." •• S a w- bridgeworth,'" •■ Stanstead Ab- botts," "Stevenage," ■•Wall- fields," ■' Ware," '• Wheathamp- stead."
Hessle : Boyle.
High Wycombe : Downs.
Higham-on-the-hill : Bellairs.
Hinckley: Harrold.
Hoddesdon : Andrews, Gerish.
Holbeton: Jewers.
Holyrood : Sinclair.
Houses : Adams, Fawsley, Leya- Weekes, Scott, Setli-Smith.
Huntingdonshire. See •' Little Gid- ding."
Ightham : Scott, Woodru^.
Inclosures : Gay.
India : Anderson, Crooke, Dutt, Plun- kett, Swynnerton.
Ingleby Arncliiie : Brown.
Inis Ciilotlirann : Bigger, Hewson.
Inscriptions : Ferguson, Fitzgerald, Haverjield, MacDonald, Munro, Ojf'ord, Peers, I^ilcher,
Inventions : Ferguson.
lona : O'Reilly.
Ireland : Baillie, Ball, Barry, Bigger, Buckley, Burtchaell, D'Arcy, Day, Devitt, Fitzgerald. Graham, Joyce, O'Reilly, Stokes, .Synnof. See ■• Ca- her," •' Clane," " Clare," •' Con- naught," " Dublin."' " Durrow," ■• Glanworth," •• Longford," " Va- lentia."
Ital\' : Browne.
Jarrow : Savaye.
Jews : Benas.
John (King): Nor gate.
Kendall : Curwen.
Kent: Payne, Quick. Wadmore. See "Bromley," "Deal," -'Faver- sham," "Ightham," •■ Maidstone," " Milton." '■ North bourne," " Richborough," " Rochester," " St. Lawrence," " St. Margaret at Cliiie,'" "Shorue."
Kings^vood : Perkitis.
Lacock : Braks/jear.
IXDEX
■i?
Lanark : Davichon.
Lancashire : Fishwick Bijlands. See "Cartmel," "Flookburgh."" "Fur- ness," "Liverpool," '•Manches- ter," " Warrington."
Leeds : Leeds.
Leicestershire: Haiiopp. /Vee •• High- am-on-the-Hill,"' " Hinckley."
Leper hospital : Doe.
Lexden : Laver.
Lincolnshire : Massinyherd.
Literary history : Axon, C'ruvi, Dix, Ferijusou, Floyer, MaxBean, Rose- dale, Rowe.
Little Gidding : Xohle.
Littleton: Pontiufj.
Liverpool : Benas, Peet.
Llantwit Major: HaUidau.
London : Borrajo, (Jomptoii, Cooper, Davis, Hales, Hudson, Kershaw, Kirkman, Maurice, Neiclon, Price, Temple, Wihoii.
Longford : Maijan.
Longf organ : Millar.
Lullington : Marshall,
Maidstone : Levett.
Manchester : Oakley.
Mangrove: Caldecott.
Manorial history : Adams, Beaumont, B r i] an, Ca r ring ton. Cole ma n , Davenport, Kenyan, Kerry, Lloyd. Pearman, Wilson.
Marriage registers : Clay, (,'ope.
Marston Magna : Ponting.
Mary port : Bailey.
Matlock : Birch, Ward.
Measures : Holland.
Mici'onesian objects : Christian.
Military historj' : Day, Dixon, Les- lie, Windealt.
Millom : Sykes.
Milton: Milton.
Milton (Great) : Dryden
Mines: Birch, O'Reilly.
Misereres : Fryer.
Moats: Cooke-Trench.
Monuments, tombs, brasses : An- dreivs, B a x, (J a m b r i d yesh ire, Christy, Cooke-Trench, Davis, Fitzgerald, Harwood, Hunt, M., Macklin, Manning, Marshall, Mil- lar, Smith, Stephenson.
Moraytown : Wallace.
Municipal history : Berry, Cowper, Drinkwater. Ellis, Oiraud, Har- rod, Hunt, Keatinge, Risk, Wind- eatt.
Napoleon IIL : O'Hanlon.
New Guinea : Guise.
New Hebrides : Edye-Partingfon.
New Zealanders : Edge-Partington.
Nonconformity : Windeatt.
Northamptonshire. See "Canons
Ashby." Northbourne : Norlhhonrne. Northumberland : Dixon, Hodgson,
Tomlinson. Numismatics :
Anglo-Saxon: Boyd, Grantl ey Hoicorth.
(.'harles I. : Laicrence.
Edward III. : Laicrence.
English gold coins : Evans.
Greek : Wroth.
Henry VI. -Henry VII. : Lawrence.
]\Iedals : Day, Ready, Winstone.
Parthian : Wroth.
Homan : Bailey, Gerish, Grueher, Maurice.
Smyrna : Oman.
South African Republic: Coinage.
Tenth Century : Rotherham.
Tokens : Andrews.
Oaths : Clark.
Ogwell, East : Adams.
Ogwell, West : Adams.
Otmoor : Prior.
Oxford: Hunt, Smith.
Oxfordshire : D., Hone. See •' Bol- ney," •• Burford,'' '• Caversfield," " C he c ken den," " FaAvsley ," "Great Milton," "Otmoor," "Ox- ford," " Somerton." "Weston."
Paintings (wall): Andre'. Parish clerks : Kingsford. Parish documents: Willis-Bund. Parish I'egisters : Bradhrook, Laws,
Leeds, Maddock, Rice, Vane. Parliamentary surveys : Cox. Partick : White. Patrington : Lloyd. Pencaitland : Anderson. Penwith : Peter. Peterborough : Pliene. Place names : Haverjield, MacKay. Pocklington : Leach. Political history : I^ord. Plymouth : Risk. Prehistoric remains : Sheppard.
Barrows: Worth.
Burial places: Johnston, Pry or, Richardson, Ward.
Chronology : Monielius, Petrie.
48
INDEX
Preliistoric remains (^continued) —
Cinerary urns : Fishwick.
Cists : Anderson, Coles, Hichardson.
Dolmens : Allen, D., Westropp.
Eolithic : Quick.
Implements : Gaythorpe, Stapes.
India : Anderson.
Kitchen midden : Hichardson.
Lake dwellings : Bruce, D''Arcy, Magan.
Neolithic : Astley.
Pitcairn island : Brown.
Stone circles : Coles, Lewis. Protection of ancient monuments : B., Eyre.
Quantock : Greswell.
B/adnorshiie : Lloyd.
Beading: Briycj.
Kepton : Hipkins.
JElichboiough : Dowker, Garstany.
B-ievauls : Rye.
Rings (posy) : Caldecott.
Rochester (diocese): Arnold, Hope,
Payne. Roman remains : Haverfield, Taylor.
Altais : Bailey, Cripps, Ely.
Charms: Maverjield.
Inscriptions : MacDonald.
Mines : Birch, Haverfield.
Pottery: Andrews, Gerish.
Richborough : Dowker, Garstany.
Rings : Grueber.
Roads : Cole.
Rome : Boni.
Silchester : Hope.
Silver refinery: Gowland.
Stations: Gerish.
Stone coffins : Beaumont.
Suffolk: Fox.
Urns, cinerary : Andrews, Glasscock.
Trackway : Gerish.
Vases : Caldecott.
War galleys : Marks. See " Numismatics.'' Rose Ash : Saunders. Rous Lench : Chafy. Runic inscriptions : Ferguson. Russia : Beazley, Collyer. Rye House : Gerish.
St. David's : Fryer.
St. Lawrence : Cotton.
St. Margaret-at-Ciiffe : Livett.
St. Martha-on-Hill : Andre.
St. Michael's Mount : Peter.
St. Patrick's Purgatory : MacRitchie.
Saints, lives of : Baring-Gould, Beeby, Druitt, Fitzgerald, Fowler, Stubbs.
Samplers : Lediard.
Sancton : Hall.
Sawbridgeworth : Glasscock.
Scandinavia : Montelius.
Schools : Leach.
Scotland : Anderson, Brydall, Buchan, Christison, Coles, Fergusson, Gray, Lewis, Mylne. See " Berwick," "Bute," "Cluny," "Clyde," " Dunbar," " Elgin," " Glasgow," " Holyrood," -'Lanark," " Long- forgan," " Moraytown," "Par- tick," "Penc ait land," "Shet- land," '• Strathdearn," " Suther- land."
Seals : Campbell, Eyre, Thomas.
Sermons (early) : Calvert.
Severn End : Sheppard.
Sheen: Andre.
Sl^etland : Joh^iston.
Ship money : Waller.
Shorne : Payne.
Shrewsbury : D r i nk water, Finth, Fletcher.
Shropshire : Auden. See " Shrews- bury.'' ''Wombridge."
Silchester: Gowland, Hope.
Slavery : Meakin.
Solemn League and Covenant : Youny.
Solomon islanders : Edge- Par lington.
Somersetshire : Bates, Ussher. See "Allerton," "Lullington," "Marstoii Magna," "Quantock," "Winsford."
Somerton : Barnes.
Spoons : Markham.
Stansheld : Little.
Stanstead Abbotts : Andrews, Gerish.
Stevenage : Pryor.
Strathdearn : MacDougall.
Suffolk : E^ox, Suffolk. See " Bading- ham," " Stansfield," " Sweffling," " Tholdmau.''
Sundials : Lloyd.
Surre}' : Bax, C, Cooper, Johnston, Stephenson. See " Beddington," '• Bletchingley," "Fetcham," '• Guildford," " St. Martha-on- Hill,'" "Sheen," ""VVaverley.'' Sussex : Andre, Rice. See "Winchelsea." Sutherland : MacKay, Munro. Sweden : Murray. SwefH-ing : Farrer, Rivett-Carnac.
Thames valley : Haverfield, Stopes. Tholdmau : Raven.
INDEX
49
Torrington (Great) : Hughes.
Torrington (Little) : Doe.
Totnes : Hughes^ Stainl/ioriK, Windeatt
(K), Windeatt {T. W.). Town gates : Bilsov. Tribal hidage : Corbeft. Truro : Jennings. Turville: Cocka.
Valentia harbour : Lynch. Vancouver islanders : Edge-Parting- ton.
Wales : Gli/tme, Yeatman. See " Aber- gavenny," " Bangor," " Brecon," " Gumfreston," "Llantwit Major," " Hadnorshire," " St. David's."
Wallfields: Caldecott.
Wantage : Ditchfield.
Ware : Andrews, Evans.
Warrington : Ball.
Warter : Hope.
Warwickshire. See " Compton Wyn- yates."
Waverley: Cooper.
Wells : Fitzgerald.
Wheathampstead : Read.
Whitbeck : CoUingwood.
Whitechurch canonicorum ; Druilt.
Westmorland : Cowper. See " Ken- dalh"
Weston, North : M.
Wills: Cooper, Phillips, Sherwood.
Wiltshire: Wiltshire. <?ec " Bulford," " Durrington," " Enford," "La- cock," "Littleton."
Winchelsea : Rice.
Windsor : Hope.
Winestead : Miller, Stephenson.
Winsford : Dicker.
Wombridge: Morris.
Worcester : Floyer.
Worcestershire. See " Feckenham," " Eous Lench," " Severn End.' " Worcester."
Workington : Curicen.
Yorkshire: Chadivick, Chambers, Clark, Clay, Cole, Cox, Ellis, Hawkexhiry, Maddock, Morris, Poppleton, Yorkshire. See "Bes- singby," "Beverley," " Hessle,'' " Ingleby Arncliffe," " Leeds," " Patrington," " Pocklington," " Rievaulx," " Sancton," " War- ter," "Wnestead."
Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Fioine, and London.
J
GR Folklore
1
FA7
V.13
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
• affi i 1 1 ■ i ift.ft ft-,*-ft«''^ap*«'ii* •■ • ir^^^C ft
* % 1 • ft • o!»^ AM/ A\Vft V»%V^ « 1 WAVA%Vi\Vft\VAW
ill ft t.ft *A*i.*k'^J fit • t i r
i K i. ft ft^ft J*JP«i
fci • • ft ftJ
. ft. •vft^ftJPL" f^ K ft ft ft ft
ft i I' ft i i V ft. 1 ft f ft ft • » *
1 ft ft f • t » »
■ Bftftftfti*"
ft • ft ft • Oi».
i s iVft ft ft A*
»*i'ftVl*ftVft^ V • ft Vf ft ftA*"
m C'ft'
fJKAx
1 1 i
• I n. « 1^ i t; « » X It K. u. It y jOUOy
• » ft • t • t.t »^* *.» ••W-rW-l
I I • ff
i i « I
' ^ 1*1*1* ASri'i!t'ir'tro!ticti»z*x*iK'*^\.'*c^^
it f 1,
k
3 1 Vf '». t^ I, • • IT IT
■' • mil" f* tifv »'._,_,
fL K ■- IL»
it
r «' • V K t
I » ft ft K ,- ^..^
. » f i'.i ft'r K . , , .- .--.- Ji » §'«' i k: ¥ " R -
I I s t t t f.JK ft i i. i I t' i ^J^UIU^ s 1 t • ft ftft »■•» r »»'■"■ *
■ i ft trft ft ft i ft ••■■ ft ft • * r* ■
1 1 ftC ft ft ft ft ft ft it • ^ K.»^ I , _».«-.»-^ii.p«*s.j(|^g^ ft m ft ^* »■*«•«,
'nftft.ftKftftft ft.* <
!"i:t 1 1,
■t.ii ■& •tiyc iL%?i
it^iLi^Mm ft.'.icft. - _