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SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE HANDBOOKS,

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

"NATIONAL FOODS" are illustrated by several small groups of specimens in the
"Food Collection" now exhibited in the Bethnal Green Branch of the South
Kensington Museum. In that Collection examples will be found of the chief Food-
Grains of India described in this Handbook : Rice, Wheat, and many kinds of Pulse
are represented by numerous specimens, the majority of which once formed part of the
India Museum.

FOOD-GRAINS OF

INDIA.

BY

A. H. CHURCH,

\\
M.A. OXON., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Academy of Arts, London ;
Sometime Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ,

Author of "Food, its Sources, Constituents, and Uses; "
" The Laboratory Guide for Agricultural Students," etc., etc.

Published for the Committee of Council on Education

BY

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL,
LIMITED.

1886.

MAIN LIDU

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,
CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACE ..-'. ... vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS... ix

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES .. ... ... xi

PART I. — THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD :

Water in Food ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i

Salts or Mineral Matter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2

Albuminoids, Proteids, or Flesh- formers ... ... ... ... ... 2

Starch, Sugar, and Carbohydrates ... ... 4

Fibre, or Cellulose and Lignose ... ... ... ... ... ... 6

Oils and Fats ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

Food as Building and Reparative Material ; as Warming Material or

Fuel ; as the Source of Energy ... ... ... ... ... 8

Nutrients and Food- Adjuncts 9

Classification of Food ... „.. ... ... ... ... ... 10

PART II. — DIETARIES AND RATIONS :

A Mixed Diet 12

Diet and Work ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13

The Nutrient Ratio : Nutrient Value ... ... ... ... ... 14

A Day's Ration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Tables for Calculating Rations 23

Examples of Rations 25

•
PART III. — THE CEREALS ; CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION :

Millets 34

Maize ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 65

Rice 66

Wheat ... 90

Bamboo Rice 102

vi CONTENTS.

PART IV. — BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES ; CHARACTERISTICS AND
CLASSIFICATION :

PAGE

Amaranths ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104

Quinoa ... ... ... ... ..* ... ... ... ... no

Buckwheat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114

PART V. — PULSE ; CHARACTERISTICS, PREPARATION, AND CLASSIFICATION :

Lupines 123

Chick-peas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 128

Vetches 131

Soy-beans ... ... ... 140

Haricots ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... T^

Gram I4g

Pigeon-peas , ... r6g

PREFACE.

THE present Handbook has been prepared mainly with the object of
furnishing to Indian officials and to students of Indian agriculture a
compact account of the alimentary value of the chief Food-Grains of
our Eastern Empire. A few notes on the cultivation of some of the
crops have been incorporated with the work, while an endeavour has been
made in two introductory chapters to show how a knowledge of the
composition of the several Food-Grains may be utilised in the fixing of
rations and the adjustment of dietaries.

The materials upon which I have drawn in compiling this volume
were in great part gathered by Dr. J. Forbes Watson, who projected and,
in some measure, carried forward towards completion an exhaustive
treatise on Indian Foods. With that work in view, Dr. Forbes Watson
not only collected much scattered information from a number of books,
memoirs, and official documents, but caused many chemical analyses to
be made ; some of these were published in the "Journal of the Society
of Arts" so long ago as 1857. These analyses refer almost exclusively
to air-dried Food-Grains : they were performed with every care, and, in
some directions, were extended so far as to include quantitative determina-
tions of each of the ash-constituents of the products under examination.
I have not found it possible, in a concise Handbook such as the present,
to avail myself of all the data furnished by Dr. Forbes Watson's
collections ; but, on the other hand, I have supplied some missing facts
and figures by means of inquiries and researches of my own. In the
pages that follow the new analyses which I have myself made are
indicated by the letter (c) ; the rest are Dr. Forbes Watson's. In not a
few instances, however, the latter analyses have been controlled by fresh

viii PREFACE.

determinations of some of the constituents of the grains and seeds, and
by the examination of additional and authenticated specimens.

Specimens of most of the grains and seeds described in this Handbook
may be seen in the Museums of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and in the
Bethnal Green Branch of the South Kensington Museum. The collection
at Bethnal Green is particularly rich in specimens illustrating many out
of the hundreds of varieties of Indian rice ; the examples there presented

of Indian wheat and Indian pulse are also numerous.

•

Should a second edition of this brief and incomplete Handbook be
called for, I trust that I shall be able to fill in many of its gaps and to make
it more exact. The Indian and Colonial Exhibition at South Kensington
will doubtless furnish me with ample materials for extension and improve-
ment. I venture to express a hope that I shall not be held responsible
for the rendering of the Indian names introduced into my pages, for I
have no first-hand knowledge of the subject, and, having been obliged to
gather the names of places and products from a great variety of sources,
neither accuracy nor uniformity of transliteration has been secured.

The chief works consulted in the preparation of this Handbook are
recorded in the appended Bibliographical Notes ; other books therein
named will be found useful by persons desirous of further information
concerning Indian Plants and Food Crops. But, after all, it is to the
indefatigable labours of Dr. Forbes Watson that I am chiefly indebted,
and it is to him that any merits to be found in this volume must be,
for the most part, attributed.

May, 1886.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIGURE NAME OF PLANT. PACK

1 Paspalum scrobiculatum 38

2 Panicum miliaceum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41

3 Panicum miliare... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

4 Panicum frumentaceum 48

5 Panicum colonum ^x

6, 7 Setaria italica ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54

8, 9 Pennisetum typhoideum ... ... ... ... ... 56, 57

10 Coix Lachryma ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 61

11 Zea Mays ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 64

12,13 Oryza sativa 67,71

14 Saccharum officinarum 77

15,16 Sorghum vulgare 81,83

17,18 Eleusine coracana ... 88

19 Amarantus paniculatus ... IO6

20 Chenopodium Quinoa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... m

21 Fagopyrum esculentum... ... ... ... ... ... ... 115

22 Arachis hypogsea ... ... ... ... ... ... .... 126

23 Cicer arietinum . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 129

24 Lathyrus sativus... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 133

25 Lens esculenta 137

26 Glycine Soja ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 141

27 Canavalia ensiformis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 145

28 Phaseolus Mungo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 149

29 Phaseolus aconitifolius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 153

30 Vigna Catiang 157

31 Dolichos Lablab... ... ... ... .„ ... ... ... 160

$2, 33 Dolichos biflorus 163, 165

34,35 Cajanus indicus ... 168,171

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

BIRDWOOD, SIR G. " Economic Products of Bombay." Bombay, 1862.
CHURCH, A. H. " Food, its Sources, Constituents, and Uses." London. 1876.
COOKE, DR. M. C. "Report on the Oil Seeds in the India Museum." London, 1876.

COTTON, J. S. "Moral and Material Progress of India, 1882-83." (Blue Book.)
London, 1885.

DRURY, COL. H. " Useful Plants of India." London, 1873.

DUTHIE, J. F., and FULLER, J. B. " Field and Garden Crops of the North- West
Provinces and Oudh." Parts i, ii. Roorkee, 1882-83.

HOOKER, SIR J. D. " Flora of British India." London, 1875-85.

HOOKER, SIR J. D., and BENTHAM, G. " Genera Plantarum." London, 1867-80.

HUNTER, DR. W. W. " Imperial Gazetteer of India." Second Edition. London, 1886.

KONIG, DR. J. "Chemie der Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel." Berlin,
1879-80.

LYON, J. B. " Food Tables." Bombay, 1877.

MEINERT, DR. C. A. " Armee- und Volksernahrung." Berlin, 1880.
POWELL, BADEN H. " Economic Products of the Punjab." Roorkee, 1868.
ROXBURGH, DR. W. "Flora Indica." Calcutta, 1870.

WATSON, DR. J. FORBES. MS. Collections ; Original Memoranda and Analyses ; and
a Paper in the " Society of Arts Journal," November 27, 1857.

WATSON, DR. J. FORBES. " Indian Products ; Industrial Survey of India." Part ii.
London, 1872.

WATT, G. " Economic Products of India. Part vi. Foods." Calcutta, 1883.

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

PART I.

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD.

Water. — This important compound, a combination of 2 parts
by weight or 2 proportions of the element hydrogen, with 16
parts by weight or i proportion of the element oxygen, forms
more than two-thirds by weight of the adult human body, and
80 per cent, of that of the infant. It enters largely into the
very structure of the tissues, being, in fact, an actual food, and
it acts as a carrier of food into and through the system. As a
general rule our total daily meat and drink should contain about
four-fifths of their entire weight of water, and in hot countries and
seasons a good deal more. Milk, the natural and model food for
infants, contains a proportion of water which is even larger than
this, namely, 88 per cent. The average amount of water in the
majority of ripe and air-dried Indian cereals, such as wheat, rice,
and millets, and in the various kinds of Indian pulse, is one-
eighth of their entire weight, or 12*5 per cent. This proportion
of water varies, however, a little with different kinds of grain :
in temperate climates it stands at a higher level than in the tropics
and in semi-tropical countries, perhaps amounting to 14^ per cent.
In leaves the proportion of water is much greater than in grains
and pulse ; in succulent stems, roots, and fruits, it reaches its
maximum — in many kinds of melons, for example, 90 to 95

B

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

parts of water in the hundred is no unusual proportion. In the
muscular tissue or pure lean of meat the water constitutes three-
fourths of the whole.

Mineral Matter or Salts. — Although nearly all the constituents
of food are capable of being burnt, and are therefore spoken of as
combustible compounds, yet water and certain necessary saline
matters are not the less nutritious because they cannot be burnt.
The human body contains in every tissue and secretion some
mineral matter ; in the bones and teeth a great deal. Phos-
phates, carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides are the chief among
the salts of the body. Lime, potash, soda, and magnesia are
the metallic bases of these salts. Sometimes, however, these
bases are united, not with the mineral acids (phosphoric, sul-
phuric, etc.), but with the acids called organic, which invariably
contain carbon. The mineral matters are generally supplied in
sufficient quantity by an ordinary vegetable diet — the " ash "
which figures in all analyses representing roughly the amount
of fixed or mineral matter present. Rice is perhaps the only
important food in which these compounds are deficient. Common
salt, however, has everywhere to be added to food as its two
constituents, chlorine and sodium, are present in very small
proportion in vegetable products, save in those which grow by
the sea-shore or in the sea. Iron and silica, of which minute
quantities are essential to the nourishment of the body, are
furnished in ample quantity by all kinds of vegetable foods. In
the analyses recorded in the following pages, some figures are
given representing the percentages of potash and phosphoric
acid in several food-grains ; it will be noticed that those grains
or seeds from which the husk has been removed are poorer
in ash than those which have not been so " cleaned."

Albuminoids, Proteids, or Flesh-formers. — From a colourless
substance, which is the chief constituent of the albumen or
white of egg, a whole group of related organic compounds
containing nitrogen has been named "albuminoids." From the
variety of forms in which they appear, and the numerous changes
they undergo, the term "proteids" has also been applied to

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD.

them ; while from a function in the body which they alone are
competent to perform, they have been designated " flesh-
formers." The difficulty of separating .the albuminoids in a
pure and unaltered state has prevented chemists from unravelling
their chemical constitution, which is, however, known to be
exceedingly complex. All the albuminoids are either naturally
soluble in water, or may be made so by the action of a fixed
alkali, the so-called albuminates being thus formed. Their chief
element, characterising by its presence the whole group, is
nitrogen — the element which constitutes seventy-nine parts by
measure of common air, which is present in nitre, nitric acid,
and ammonia, and which is generally so much more abundant
in animal than in vegetable tissues. The percentage of nitrogen
in the different albuminoids appears to range between 13 and
1 8^, but there are doubts as to the purity of the materials
which, when submitted to analysis, have yielded these numbers.
The range of variation in the percentage composition of the
members of the whole group is shown in this table :

Carbon ... ... •. .. 50^6 to 54^3 per cent.

Hydrogen ... ... 67 „ 7-3

Nitrogen 12-8 ,, 18-5 ,,

Sulphur ... -4 ., 17 „

Oxygen ... ... ... 2<r6 „ 27-0 „

The amount of albuminoids present in any food is usually
ascertained by determining the amount of nitrogen existing in
it, and then multiplying the nitrogen found by the factor 6*3.
In this procedure two assumptions are made : one, that all
albuminoids contain a mean percentage of 15*87 of nitrogen,
for 6*3 x i5'87 = 99'98i, practically 100; the other assumption
is that no other nitrogen compounds are present. The former
assumption may pass, the latter needs a word of explanation.
Vegetable and animal foods do contain nitrogen in non-albu-
minoid forms ; for instance, more than half the nitrogen of lettuces,
water-cress, and spinach exists in the form of nitrates, which
are wholly useless as flesh-formers. Then, too, there are a

B 2

FOOD-GRAINS or INDIA.

number of other nitrogen-compounds in organic food products which
are non-albuminoid. Amongst these may be named the ossein
and cartilagin of bone and cartilage, and the amides of beet-
root, potato tubers, and unripe pulse. But it so happens, that
the ripe grains and seeds which are discussed in the present
Handbook generally contain but small quantities of nitrogen in
forms other than those of the albuminoids, so that we shall
not be led into serious error by ignoring their existence. In
some of these food-grains, however, small quantities of the
compounds called peptones have been found, but these are known
to fulfil the same nutritive functions as albuminoids, and indeed
are the forms in which the latter after digestion are taken up
into the circulatory system of the human body ; they are diffusible
through membranes which the original albuminoids are not.
Further explanations as to the nitrogen-compounds will be found
on pp. 32 and 118.

Starch, Sugar, and Carbohydrates in general. — The carbo-
hydrates are so called because they may be regarded as containing
hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion in which they form water,
associated with carbon. The most important member of the
group is starch. This is the chief constituent of all dry food-
grains, except those which contain very much oil. Starch occurs
mainly in the form of granules, which differ much in different
grains both in size and shape, and, it may be added, in their
rate of digestion. Uncooked maize-starch and oat-starch are
very quickly turned into sugar by the digestive ferment of the
saliva or by the diastase of the pancreas; wheat- starch requires
a much longer time, and potato-starch is still . more obstinate ;
when thoroughly cooked all starches require nearly the same
time for salivary and pancreatic digestion. The products of
this change are dextrin, maltose, and a little grape-sygar.
Dextrin may also be formed by gently roasting starch and in
many other ways ; it is more easily digested than starch, but
has the same percentage composition, and probably the same
nutritive power. It occurs abundantly in parched grain and in
the crust of bread. Several varieties of dextrin exist.

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD.

The chemical expression for starch and dextrin is n (C6HIOO5),
a formula which corresponds to the following percentages : —
Carbon 44*4, Hydrogen 6'2, Oxygen 49*4.

The term "sugar" is commonly applied to a number of
different, although related substances, possessing a more or less
marked sweet taste. These substances are arranged by chemists
in three groups, of which cane-sugar, grape-sugar, and manna-
sugar may be taken as the respective types.

Group i. — The chemical formula for the sugars of the first
group is C13H23O1If an expression which corresponds to the
following percentages: — Carbon 42' i, Hydrogen 6'4, Oxygen 51*5.

a. Cane-sugar occurs in the sugar-cane (Saccharum officina-
rum) and in many other grasses ; in some palms, as Borassus
flabelliformis, Caryota urens, and Arenga saccharifera ; in beet-
root (Beta vulgar is) ; in the carrot (Daucus Carota) ; the parsnip
(Pastinaca saliva) ; in some maples, as Acer saccharinum and
three other North American species ; and in the nectaries of
many flowers.

b. Milk-sugar has been found in the latex of Achras Sapota.

c. Melitose occurs in the manna exuding from many species
of Eucalyptus.

d. Melezitose is found in the "manna" which exudes from
the young twigs of the larch ; it is the chief constituent of
" Lahore Manna," from the Camelthorn, Alhagi maurorum
(Hedysarum alkagi, L.), a shrub growing in Persia and Afghanistan.

e. Mycose occurs in " trehala manna," known in Persia as
"nest-sugar;" it is also a constituent of several fungi.

f. Maltose occurs naturally to a small extent in many cereal
grains, and more abundantly in malt.

Group ii.— The chemical formula for the sugars of the
second group is CI2H6O6, an expression which corresponds
to the following percentages : — Carbon 40*0, Hydrogen 67,
Oxygen 53-3.

a. Dextrose, or grape-sugar, is the hard crystalline sugar so
abundant in raisins ; it is found in ripe cherries, and, associated
with another glucose, in honey and in many immature fruits.

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

It is largely made from starch and cellulose ; seventeen parts
of it are equal in sweetening power to ten of cane-sugar.

b. Leevulose, or fruit-sugar, accompanies dextrose in honey
and in many acid fruits ; sun-dried Mahua flowers (Bassia lati-

folLi) contain about half their weight of " invert-sugar," a mixture
of equal parts of laevulose and dextrose.

c. Inosite is found in the leaves of some plants, and in the
unripe pods of several kinds of pulse.

Group iii. — There are at -least five varieties of manna-
sugar :

a. Mannite (C6HI4O6), in celery roots, olives, and some algse
and fungi ; and largely in ordinary manna, the exudation of
certain ash-trees, as Fraxinus Ornus and F. integrifolia.

b. Dulcite (C6HI4O6), occurs in Madagascar manna, and in
the sap of several plants, as Rhinanthus crista-galli, Melampyrum
nemorosum, and Euonymus europseus.

c. Sorbite (C6HI4O6), is found in mountain-ash berries.

d. Finite (C6HI2O5), occurs in the sap of Pinus Lambertiana.

e. Quercite (C6HI2OS), is found in acorns.

Gum, Mucilage and Pectose. — The various gummy and mu-
cilaginous substances occurring in plants either dissolve in water
or swell up therein to a jelly. They invariably leave a good
deal of ash when burnt, and are, in fact, lime, magnesia, and
potash salts of certain weak organic acids. Gum arabic, gum
tragacanth, and linseed mucilage may be cited as examples of
this group of nutritive substances. To these may be added
pectose and its derivatives — substances which occur abundantly
in fleshy fruits, and which are nearly related to mucilage. The
exact values as food of the members of this group are not
known, but they may safely be assigned a position somewhat
inferior to starch and sugar.

Fibre, Cellulose, etc. — Man does not appear to have the
power of digesting the fully-formed cellular tissues of plants.
The basis of these is a substance called cellulose, but it is
probable that there are several slightly differing compounds
included under this term ; the percentage composition of cellu-

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD.

lose is that of starch. Fibre is not an homogeneous and uniform
substance, but a varying mixture of cellulose with a complex
body or bodies, called lignose or lignin, related to the aromatic
series. In the following pages we use the term "fibre" as a
convenient designation for that part of the food-grain which is
neither albuminoid, nor oily, nor starchy, which resists the solvent
action of boiling alkaline and acid solutions, and which is un-
affected by alcohol and by ether. It contains both cellulose
and lignose (sometimes cutin), but however variable and mixed its
composition it may be safely affirmed to be wholly useless as
food. In actual foods it is indeed often worse than useless, lock-
ing up in an inaccessible condition a part of the albuminoids,
the oil, and the mineral matter of the seed or grain.

Oils and F.its* — The vegetable oils and fats, while insoluble
in water hot or cold, are readily dissolved by liquids which
are themselves not miscible with water, such as benzene, pe-
troleum-oils, and ether. They are distinguished from the
volatile oils by their leaving a permanent translucent trace on
paper, and by their fixity at ordinary temperatures. Very few
of the seeds discussed in the present Handbook contain so much
oil that it can be extracted by simple pressure ; the pea-nut
(p. 127) is an exception. The fixed vegetable oils and fats con-
sist of certain chemical compounds called glycerides, associated
with small quantities of substances known as " fatty acids."
The glycerides themselves may be regarded as glycerin, plus
one or more fatty acids, and minus water. While starch and
sugar contain hydrogen and oxygen in the exact proportions to
form water, oils contain an excess of hydrogen. From this
cause, and from their greater richness in carbon, a given weight
of oil will give out more heat, or set free more energy when
burning, than the same weight of starch or sugar. The fol-
lowing table shows the percentage composition of the oils

* These are sometimes called "hydrocarbons" by writers on dietetics; this is
incorrect and misleading. True hydrocarbons contain hydrogen and carbon
only, and are absolutely indigestible and useless as food.

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

extracted by means of ether or of benzene from two cereals and
two pulses.

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.

Wheat Oil 75'97 ••• II-33 ••• I2'7°

Rice Oil 76-28 ... 12-40 ... 11-32

Pease Oil 74'37 ••• ir32 ••• H'31

Bean Oil... ... 757° ••• ir86 ••• I2'44

If we accept Carbon 76, Hydrogen 11-5, and Oxygen 12-5, as
representing the average composition of the oils in question,
we shall probably not be far wrong.

It should be noted that many oils expressed from seeds or
fruits are added to the other staple articles of Indian diet,
Amongst these may be cited the oils and fats expressed from
the coco-nut, and the fruits from other palms ; from safflower,
niger, and sunflower seeds amongst the composites ; from
mustard, rape, and gold of pleasure seeds amongst the crucifers ;
from linseed, and from sesame seed. These oils do not differ
appreciably from the oils extracted from cereals and pulse, so
far as their food value is concerned. On the other hand,
animal oils and fats, such as clarified butter or milk-fat,
contain no free fatty acids, consisting wholly of the glycerine
compounds of stearic, palmitic, oleic, butyric, and other allied
acids.

Uses of Food. — A very little reflection will show that the
office of food in the body is threefold. The daily and con-
tinuous material losses of the body must be made good ; this
is accomplished by food as a building and reparative material.
Secondly, the warmth of the body must be maintained by food
as a warming material or fuel. Thirdly, food must constantly
supply the amount of energy necessary for the performance of
the external and internal work of the body. The human
body has often been likened to a locomotive steam-engine.
With some important differences there are striking analogies
between these structures. In the one case there is food,
in the other coal ; in the one case there is an incessant and
considerable consumption of material which has become part

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD. 9

and parcel of the various bodily organs, in the other the losses
of the structure or mechanism itself are neither essential nor
large. In both structures, however, carbon and hydrogen are
burnt, yielding the same products ; in both water is heated
and vaporised ; in both stored up, or potential energy is con-
verted into actual energy and heat. From both structures
carbonic acid and steam escape ; from both structures incom-
bustible or unused waste is thrown out. From the points
of comparison and of contrast just indicated, it is evident
that food has to perform one function which is not demanded
of engine-coal, namely the repair and even the building of the
structure or apparatus in which it is consumed. Moreover,
there are but a few substances which can be used as food in
the human body, while the steam-engine may consume coal or
coke or petroleum — substances which, to the organs of man, are
absolutely useless.

Nutrients and Food- Adjuncts. — We are now in a position to
classify the various useful constituents of human food according to
the functions they perform and their chemical constitution. But
there are many substances consumed by man which cannot be
regarded as actually nutritive, but which, by a universal instinct,
are associated with his daily food. We refer to the group of
vegetable substances which includes spices, condiments, tea, coffee,
etc. While the essential foods may be designated " nutrients,"
these may be called "food-adjuncts." They are useful in stimu-
lating the flow of the various digestive secretions of the alimentary
tract, and in making food of palatable and varied flavour. . Many of
them have also a marked and favourable influence on the nervous
system.

It will be seen, from what has been already stated, that the
nutrients fall into two divisions, incombustible and combustible.
To the former belong water and salts : to the latter, certain com-
pounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and another group
of compounds in which nitrogen also exists. All the combustible
nutrients serve, or may serve, as sources of heat and energy in the
system, but to those containing nitrogen a further office belongs —

io FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

that of building up and renewing the blood and tissues of the
body. The "potential" energy laid up in each of the combustible
nutrients is capable of being set free as actual or kinetic energy,
when the nutrient, after digestion, absorption, and assimilation, is
oxidized in the organism by means of the oxygen taken into the
lungs. But the nitrogenous nutrients alone are capable of trans-
formation into the very substance of the nitrogenous tissues
themselves.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

OF FOOD.

CLASS I.— NUTRIENTS.
DIVISION I. — INCOMBUSTIBLE COMPOUNDS.

i. WATER : — The carrier of nutritive materials and waste products ;
forms an essential part of all tissues.

ii. SALTS OR MINERAL MATTER : — Such as common salt and
phosphate of lime, which serve to effect solution and
change, and to build up certain tissues.

DIVISION II. — COMBUSTIBLE COMPOUNDS.

iii. CARBON-COMPOUNDS, such as starch, sugar, and oil, which serve
to keep up the heat, and do the work of the body by
the discharge of their potential energy during oxidation
in the organism. The fat of the body is formed in part
from the fat or oil in the food ; in part from the starch
and sugar. Gum, mucilage, pectose, etc., belong here.

iv. NITROGEN-COMPOUNDS, such as albumen, fibrin, and legumin, the
chief formative and reparative compounds of food ;
they may also yield fat, and by their oxidation set free
heat and actual energy. Hereafter we shall call them
" albuminoids."

THE CONSTITUENTS AND USES OF FOOD. 1 1

CLASS II.— FOOD-ADJUNCTS.

i. ALCOHOL, as contained in fermented and distilled liquors.

ii. VOLATILE OR ESSENTIAL OILS and other odorous and aromatic
compounds, as contained in condiments like garlic,
turmeric, and pepper, and in spices as ginger and
cloves.

iii. ACIDS, as citric acid in lemons, acetic acid in pickles.

iv. ALKALOIDS, as caffeine in coffee and tea, and nicotine in tobacco.

PART II.

DIETARIES AND RATIONS.

A Mixed Diet. — Food in order to fulfil the various offices de-
scribed in the preceding pages must not contain one set of nutrients
only, but all. Moreover it must contain the several nutrients in
a certain ratio or proportion as well as to a certain amount.
Absolute exactness of ratio or of amount is not required, as a
small excess of one or more nutrients may remain unused, or may,
in some cases, do the work of others. Thus an excess of water
or of common salt is excreted without doing harm, and, within
certain limits, albuminoids may do the work of oil or starch.
Indeed, the human body may be sustained for a time upon
water and albuminoids alone, although in this instance, the
extra strain thrown upon those secretions and viscera which have
to digest and to eliminate the excess of nitrogenous matters, could
not be maintained for long without resulting in disease. From
these and other considerations we may learn the necessity of a
mixed diet by means of which each secretion and each organ of
the body shall be properly utilised and perform its proper share in
the work of nutrition. There must be starch, to be dissolved
and saccharified by the ptyalin of the saliva and by the diastatic
ferment of the pancreatic secretion ; there must be oil to be
emulsified and saponified and decomposed by the bile and the pan-
creatic juice ; there must be albuminoids to be peptonised by the
pepsin of the gastric juice, and by the trypsin of the pancreas.
And the mixed food as a whole must be palatable and digestible,
and it must occupy a sufficient but not excessive space.

DIETARIES AND RATIONS. 13

Diet and Work. — It has been calculated from the results of
numerous analyses of common and efficient dietaries, and by
means of direct experiments with artificially constructed rations,
that an adult man weighing 140 to 150 Ibs. requires per day about

Albuminoids ... ... ... ... 4'i6 oz.

Oil or Fat 3'is „

Starch 14*29 „

These are the figures used by Forster and Voit : they
correspond to about 282 grains of nitrogen and 5060 grains of
carbon. For reasons connected with the smaller body-weight of
native Indians, with the climate, and with the special vegetable
diet of the East, we have reduced and modified these amounts
to some extent in the examples of standard rations given later on.

It may be interesting and useful to state here that the amount
of actual energy expressed in calories or heat-units which the
above standard diet is capable of setting free is calculated to be :

4'i6 ozs. Albuminoids give 503,034

3'i2 „ Fat or Oil ,, 801,699

14-29 „ Starch „ 1,534,600

2,839,333 Total Calories.

These figures are approximations only, but they serve to show
that there is a large difference between the amounts of energy
expressed as heat which the three nutrients above-named can set
free, fat being more energetic than albuminoids, and albuminoids
more energetic than starch. The most recent experiments lead
one to the conviction that i part of vegetable oil or fat is
practically equal to 2-3 parts of starch : we accordingly use 2-3 as
the " starch-equivalent " of one part of oil.

The heat which could be set free by the oxidation of the
nutrients in a day's ration is partly transformed into its mechanical
equivalent of work. The mutual convertibility of and quantitative
relation between work and heat is generally expressed by saying
that i Ib. of water is heated i° Fahr. by the amount of actual
energy which is sufficient to raise 772 Ibs. to a height of i foot.
The amount of work done in and by the human body demands

14 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

a very considerable proportion of the actual energy derived from
the daily ration, the remainder being used to warm the body
itself, the air inspired, the food consumed, the water vaporised
from the skin and lungs, and the waste excreted. Of the energy
employed in or applicable to mechanical work inside the body or
external to it, a very large proportion is consumed in the work
done by the heart and in other automatic internal labour : this has
been estimated at 260 " foot-tons" — that is, it is equivalent to the
work which a man does who raises 260 tons to the height of
i foot. The average amount of external work, expressed in the
same way, which an ordinary European labourer performs may
be set down as equal to 300 foot-tons ; a country postman walking
a daily round of 20 miles does work equal to 353 foot-tons ; it
has been calculated that the pedestrian Weston, travelling 50 miles
a day, did no less than 793 foot-tons of work per diem. Generally
speaking, ' one- fifth of the energy derivable from the food is
available for external work, and 2 foot-tons per i Ib. of the
body-weight is a fair day's work.

It appears that a larger proportion of nitrogen to carbon (that
is, of albuminoids to starch and oil) is naturally demanded as the
stress and amount of labour required becomes greater. This
increase was formerly attributed to the greater waste assumed to
occur in the nitrogenous muscular tissue during increased exertion.
It is more probable that it is due to the comparative ease with
which albuminoids, especially those of meat, are assimilated during
strenuous labour, yielding urea as an excretory product on the one
hand, and on the other fat, which serves as a muscular fuel.
Another part of the nitrogenous food goes to augment the number
of the red corpuscles of the blood. These corpuscles have a
specially increased oxygen-carrying office to perform during violent
or strenuous labour. ,

Nutrient- Ratio and Nutrient-Value. — The term "nutrient-
ratio" has been used in this Handbook to designate the proportion
of albuminoids to starch — including with the starch the starch-
equivalent of any oil or fat present in the food. The expression
" nutrient-value " refers to the sum total of the albuminoids, the

DIETARIES AND RATIONS.

starch, and the starch-equivalent of the oil. A complete nutrient-
ratio is of course much more complex than the ratio which the
albuminoids bear to the starch. It will include the water and
the saline or mineral matter as well as the albuminoids, the oil,
and the group of the carbohydrates. In fact, a further distinc-
tion would have to be made as to the several constituents of
the dietary. For -example, the proportions of potash, phos-
phoric acid, lime, magnesia, and especially of common salt,
comprised in the " mineral matter " would have to be defined.
The carbohydrates, too, must not wholly consist of sugar,
although to starch, as a sole constituent, there is no objection.
But, in practice, there is no necessity for such extreme precision,
provided only that a sufficient supply of necessary nutriment be
given. This end will be accomplished if due regard be paid,
in framing a dietary, to the general principles laid down in this
part of the present Handbook. The due admixture of food-
grains belonging to different classes will secure the necessary
mineral ingredients, provided an allowance of at least 230 grains*
of common salt be added to the daily ration of a man having a
body-weight of 105 Ibs. The fat or oil, added to, or naturally
present in the food-staples, should stand to the albuminoids in
a proportion of not less than i to 2, and to the starch of i to 9
—at least these proportions are found to give satisfactory results
where moderate work only is demanded, although a further
increase of the oil or fat, and a corresponding diminution of
the amount of starch, may often be made with advantage.
European model or standard dietaries generally contain a higher
proportion of oil or fat, mainly owing to the very large use
therein made of animal foods. For instance, it has been shown
that a first-rate average daily diet for a European adult performing
moderate labour may be advantageously constituted, in 100 parts, of

Albuminoids ... 3^9 j / Water ... ... ... ... 8i'5

Starch, Sugar, etc.... io'6 > with J Common Salt... ... ... 07

Oil or Fat 3-0 I (Phosphates, Potash Salts, etc. 0-3

* The amount of salt consumed per head per day in the Bombay Presidency
just exceeds ^ ounce ; in Sind it is calculated to be little more than % ounce.

1 6 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

It will be seen that the above percentages correspond to a
ratio between the oil and the albuminoids of i : i '3, and
between the oil and the starch of i : 3^5 — the "nutrient-ratio"
being about i : 4*5.

Of the proportions to be introduced into a ration of a very
important group of food-adjuncts, namely, the spices, condi-
ments, and flavourers, no quantitative statement can be safely
made. Examples of the amounts actually allowed per head
per day have been published in several official Indian reports.
One of these examples may be cited from the Indian Economist,
of 1 5th October, 1870. Surgeon S. B. Partridge gives as
materials for " curry stuff," ^ a drachm of garlic, yz a drachm of
chillies, and the same quantity of mustard ; of black pepper,
i y<i drachms ; coriander fruits, 2 drachms ; turmeric, 4 drachms ;
and tamarinds, 8 drachms. Four or five ounces of fresh
vegetables, such as onions, potatoes, and melons, are extremely
useful as supplying some of the constituents in which a rice
or millet and pulse diet is deficient, and in adding variety, both
of flavour and of texture or consistency to food, which otherwise
might be monotonous or unpalatable. In fact, the dilution of
such dry and concentrated food staples as rice, millet, and pulse,
with succulent vegetables containing much water in intimate
association with soft and pulpy cellulose, performs the very
useful office of securing more complete digestion and assimila-
tion of the starch, albuminoids, and oil.

From what has been said in the preceding paragraphs it is
evident that the terms "nutrient-ratio," and " nutrient-value," as
employed in this Handbook, have a somewhat restricted meaning.
Nevertheless, these terms are extremely useful, for they serve to
express the two chief or fundamental facts upon which rational
dietaries must be constructed.

A Day's Ration. — We have just seen how, from the chemical
analysis of actual dietaries in successful use, and from the results
in practice of theoretically-constructed dietaries, several normal or
standard rations have been devised in which defined quantities and
proportions of albuminoids, fat, and starch are associated. Besides

DIETARIES AND RATIONS.

these ingredients it is necessary that a small but adequate amount
of phosphoric acid and of potash should be present, while common
salt is, of course, invariably added. No special provision for the
supply of the other mineral or ash-constituents of human food
need generally be made, as the lime, magnesia, iron, and sulphuric
acid (or sulphur) required are furnished in abundance by most
varieties of food, such, for instance, as wheat, buckwheat, and the
millets. With rice, however, the case is different. This grain
contains very little mineral matter, yielding on complete burning
only about half a grain of ash for each hundred grains of cleaned
rice taken for the purpose of the experiment. Fortunately, fresh
fruits, green vegetables, and especially the different kinds of pulse,
which are frequently used to supplement the other deficiencies of
rice, supplement also its deficiency in mineral matter. Thus i ounce
of pigeon-peas (Cajanus indicus) contains as much phosphoric acid
and nearly twice as much potash as 3^ ounces of rice. So likewise,
in adding pulse to rice in order to furnish the due proportion of
albuminoids or " flesh-formers," we introduce also sufficient supplies
of lime, magnesia, etc.

We may then leave out of consideration the mineral matter
and the common salt, and confine our attention to the three main
constituents of food, namely, the albuminoids, the oil, and the
starch. Reference should be made to pp. 2,4, 6, and 7 for explanations
of the meanings attached to these three terms, especially as to the
inclusion, under the name "starch," of sugar, dextrin, pectose,
and other allied compounds, and also as to the expression " starch-
equivalent of fat or oil;" this we assume to be 2*3, so that we
may convert (for purposes of calculation) the oil of a ration into its
starch-equivalent by multiplying it by this coefficient.

Although the various causes which combine to render a mixed
diet not only desirable but necessary, if robust health is to be
maintained, have been already described, it will serve to give
special significance to the general argument on this point if we
illustrate it here by a few selected examples. Scarcely any single
article of food (and we confine ourselves in this Handbook to the
food-staples of the vegetable kingdom) is complete and properly

i8

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

adjusted, even from a chemical point of view, much less in its
combined chemical and physiological aspect. Even human milk,
as a food for adults, is far from perfect. Its nutrient-ratio is
i : 7, when i : 5 is required ; and it contains no starch, although
two special ferments are provided in the digestive secretions
(saliva and pancreatic juice) for the purpose of dealing with this
important carbohydrate. But when we examine the nutrient-ratios
of the food-grains which are discussed in the following pages, we shall
discover how very rarely any single food-staple presents the normal
nutrient-ratio of a standard diet : in the few cases in which such a
standard is approached, another defect becomes evident on closer
inspection, namely, a deficiency in oil or fat. Take a few cases.
Out of the forty or more important grains or seeds, four or five
only approach sufficiently near to the standard nutrient-ratio of
i : 5 to form satisfactory aliments when used alone for any length
of time. These are :

Buckwheat (husked) with the ratio i : 47

Wheat (Indian, whole, average) ,, ,, i : 5*2

Pea-nuts (seeds, whole) „ ,, i : 5'2

Amaranths (seeds, whole) „ „ i : 5'3

And even amongst these four foods, one, namely wheat, would
approach nearer perfection if it contained more oil, while pea-nuts
would be more useful if they contained much less. If we take
other instances, we shall find very extreme divergences from our
standard ratio ;

Ragi (Eleusine coracana), with the ratio

Rice (cleaned)

Maize (whole)

Chick-peas

Pigeon-peas

Soy-beans

It is obvious from these figures that any one consuming
sufficient ragi, rice, or maize to provide himself with the required
amount, say 3 ounces per diem, of albuminoids, would have
to consume along with these 3 ounces an immense excess of
starch over that really wanted. In the case of the three cereals

I

13-0

I

10-8

I

8-3

I

3 '3

I

3'°

I

2'O

DIETARIES AND RATIONS. 19

above named, the quantities in ounces of starch taken compared
with those required would be as follow : .

Taken. Wanted. Excess.

Ragi ... ... 39.0 ... 15-8 ... 23-2

Rice ... 307 ... 15-8 .. 14-9

Maize ... ... ... 24-9 ... 15-8 ... 9-1

or, on the average, about one pound too much, daily, of starch.
Of course a pulse diet presents exactly the converse defect, a
diet of pigeon-peas, for example, furnishing less than 9 ounces
of starch to 3 ounces of albuminoids. But it is clear that
the defect of cereals as to the nutrient-ratio is precisely of that
kind which can be neutralised by the due admixture of pulse ;
to that adjustment we now address ourselves.

However, several circumstances must be taken into con-
sideration, in adjusting, on the above lines, the quantities and
proportions of the several constituents of a day's ration. The
body-weight and the amount of work to be done are the chief
of these, but climate, age, peculiarities of food-materials available,
and national or local tastes and prejudices, must not be left out
of view. In hot countries less oily matter is needed and more
water; the young require more fat and mineral matter than
adults ; condiments, spices, and other flavourers must be varied
in kind or altered in quantity in different places. But, after
all, the two conditions which it is specially necessary to discuss
are those of body-weight and work, Most European standard
dietaries have been constructed for the sustenance of individuals
weighing from 140 to 154 Ibs., and the work these individuals
have been supposed able to perform is nearly proportional to such
weight. If, then, we assume an amount of daily work performed
by an average European labourer, weighing 150 Ibs., can be
expressible in this form — that he lifts 300 tons one foot — we shall
find that natives of. India weighing 115 Ibs. can and do perform
an amount of daily work equal to 230 foot-tons ; and that if
their weight be 105 Ibs. only, they can and do accomplish
work equal to 215 foot- tons. These amounts are strictly pro-
portional to the lesser body-weights named, and are often

c 2

2o FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

exceeded in actual practice, though much less is demanded in
Indian Government relief works.

We shall assume, in all our calculated dietaries and rations,
that the body-weight is 105 Ibs. only ; it will be easy to add
one-tenth to the calculated quantities given if the individuals
to be fed weigh 1 1 5 Ibs. ; and we shall propose three dietaries :
one (A) for bare sustenance; one (B) for moderate work; and
one (C) for hard work. We have touched upon the principles
underlying such dietaries in a previous section ; into the various
controversies as to the relations of nitrogenous and carbonaceous
nutrients to work, this is not the place to enter ; but for details
of the most recent theories on this subject we may refer our
readers to the work by Dr. C. A. Meinert, named in our
" Bibliographical Notes," p. xi.

Here are the amounts needed daily for the three dietaries
above indicated, expressed in avoirdupois ounces and decimals of
an ounce.

Ration. Albuminoids Oil. Starch, etc. Starch-equivalent. Nutrient-ratio.

A ... 2-123 ... 0752 ... 7-520 ... 9-250 ... i : 4-34

B ... 2-954 ... 1-412 ... 12-531 ... 15-779 ... i : 5-34

C ••• 3*635 ••• 2*506 ... 11-190 ... 16-954 ... i : 4'66

The attempt to realise these exact figures in actual practice
would be useless ; but there are many combinations of food
materials which may be made to approach them with quite
sufficient accuracy. Two guiding principles should not be lost
sight of; namely, to keep down the pulse-constituent to an
amount not exceeding 7 ounces per diem, and, if possible,
not .more than 5 ounces, and to ensure the presence of a
sufficiency of albuminoids by increasing the cereal constituents
of the ration, even if in so doing the quantity of starch required
be thereby raised above the necessary amount. Indeed, in^the
case of a bare- sustenance ration, or where little or no labour is
demanded from the persons fed, it has been proved beyond doubt
that the starch may be largely increased and the albuminoids
largely diminished without deranging the general health or
lowering trie body-weight. Thus a dietary in which the nutrient-

DIETARIES AND RATIONS. 21

ratio is i : 7 or even i : 8 has been adopted, in particular cases,
with satisfactory results. It may be remarked that the total
weight of pulse, cereal and added oil will vary, according to the
richness of the pulse and cereal employed, so that in ration B,
for instance, it may amount to no more than 20 ounces or it may
rise to 22. No allowance has been made for the slight increase
in the quantities of nutrients caused by the additions of fresh
vegetables or of fruits to the dietaries, but it must be remembered
that most of these products contain very large amounts of
water, often 90 per cent., or even more. No notice is here
taken of the question of condiments, nor of the desirability
of varying from time to time the materials of the diet as far
as practicable.

The two tables which follow represent in ounces and decimals
of an ounce the amounts of albuminoids and of total starch (that
is. of starch, plus the oil present converted into its starch-
equivalent) in the stated numbers of ounces of various kinds
of pulse and of cereal-grains. In constructing actual rations
from these tables we must recollect that for dietary A, about
12 to 14 ounces of food-stuffs are needed; for dietary B,
about 20 to 23 ounces; and for dietary C, about 21 to 25
ounces. The working of the tables may be gathered from
the examples which follow them ; of course approximations
only can be reached. Reference must be made to the fuller
analyses given under the heads of the several pulses,
cereals, etc., when it is necessary to learn how much oil
is naturally present in these food-materials ; it will then
be found that 'ghi, or some kind of expressed vegetable
oil (such as sesamum, til, or mustard) must, in the majority of
cases, be added in order to supplement the deficiency of this
constituent. This addition of oil involves the derangement of
the nutrient-ratio (that is, it lowers the proportion of albu-
minoids to carbonaceous nutrients) in any mixture of pulse and
cereals, and therefore necessitates the withdrawal of a part of
the cereal and the augmentation of the pulse. True, this change
causes a reduction of the amount of oil already present in

22 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

the ration, but this reduction is small, and may be neglected.
In fact, we may be satisfied with the roughest approximations
to the standard or theoretical figures in spite of the appearance
of minute accuracy which three places of decimals give to our
tables and to our calculated examples of rations. And it should
be here mentioned that a margin of excess should be allowed
in all weighings to compensate for inferiority of the grains, for
casual impurities, and for the presence in an unavailable form
of some of the nutrients in the food-staples employed. It is
difficult to give any general rule, or to say what amount of
allowance should usually be made ; 5 per cent, will probably
suffice, except in the case of obviously inferior or dirty samples.
There are many ways in which such tables as the two
which we now give may be used in order to ascertain what
amounts, in ounces and decimals of an ounce, of two or more
foods, must be associated in order to furnish the necessary
quantities of the two chief nutrients for a day's ration. We
believe that the simple " inspection " method adopted in the
examples which follow will be generally preferred to elaborate
formulae and equations involving much calculation, many
references to tables, and the use of a number of coefficients.

DIETARIES AND RATIONS.

TABLE I.
ALBUMINOIDS AND STARCH-EQUIVALENTS IN CEREALS AND BUCKWHEATS.

[The figures represent ounces and decimals of an otr:fe.]

I OZ.

2 OZ.

3 oz.

4 oz. 5 oz.

6oz.

7 oz.

8oz.

9 oz.

Ragi . . . / Albuminoids

•°59

•118

•177

•236

-295

'354

•413

•472

"531

/. 89 | Starch

•764

1-528

2-292

3-056 3-820

4^84

5-348

6*112

6-876

Koda ... j Albuminoids

•07

•14

'21

•28

'35

•42

'49

•56

•63

/. 40 ( Starch

•82

i '64

2-46

3-28 4'io '4*92

574

6*56

7-38

Rice ... f Albuminoids

•°73

•146

•219

•292 -365 -438

-511

•584

•657

/. 73 ( Starch

797

i '594

2-391

3-188 3-985 4*782

5-579

6*376

7-173

Sanwa ... J Albuminoids '084

•168

'252

•336 -420 -504

•588

•672

-756

p. 49 \ Starch

794

1-588

2-382

3-176 3-970 4-764

5-558

6-352

7-146

Gundli ... f Albuminoids

•091

•182

-273

"364; '455

'546

•637

•728

•819

p. 44 ( Starch

773

I-546

2-319

3*092 3-865 4-638

5-4H

6*184

6'957

Maize ... ( Albuminoids

•095

'IQO

•285

•380 '475

•570

•665

•760

•855

/. 65 \ Starch

79°

1-580

2-370

3*160 3-950

4-740

5-430

6*320

7*110

Joar . . . ( Albuminoids

•093

•186

•279

•372 -465

•558

'651

•744

•837

p. 80 1 Starch

•769

I-538

2-307

3-076,3*845

4-614

5-383

6-152

6*921

Shama ... ( Albuminoids

•096

•192

•288

"384 "480

•576

•672

•768

•864

/. 50 \ Starch

757

i'S'4

2*271

3-028 3*785

4-542

5-299

6-056

6-813

Bajra ... ( Albuminoids

•104

•208

•312

•416

•520

"624

•728

•832

•936

/. 59 1 Starch

•791

1-582

2*373

3'l64!3"955

4-746

5-537

6-328

7-119

Kangni ... r Albuminoids

•108

•216

-324

"432 "540

•648

756

•864

•972

/. 55 \ Starch

•80 1

1-602

2-403

3*204 4*005

4*806

5*607

6-408

7-269

Barley ... ( Albuminoids

'"5

•230

'345

•460

'575

"690

•805

•920

1-035

/. 99 ( Starch

73°

•460

2*190

2*920

3-650

4-380

5*110

5-840

6-570

Chena ... ( Albuminoids

•126

•252

•378

'5°4

•630

756

•882

1*008

i'i34

/. 43 ( Starch

777

1-554

2'22I

3-108

3-885

4-662

5 '439

6*216

6-993

Amaranth... J Albuminoids

•143

•286

•429

•572

715

•858

1*001

1*144

1-287

p. 108 I Starch

•760

1-520

2-280

3-040

3-800

4-560

5-32°

6-080

6-840

Wheat . . . ( Albuminoids

•135

"270

-405

"540

•675

•810

'945

1*080

1-215

/. 95- ( Starch

•712

1-424

2-136

2*848

3-560

4-272

4-984

5-696

6-408

Buckwheat .. ( Albuminoids

•152

•304

'456

•608

•760

•912

1-064

I'2l6

1-368

/. 114 I Starch

7M

1-428

2-I42

2-856

3-570

4*284

4'998

5-712

6-426

Quihoa ... f Albuminoids

•192

•384

•576

•768

•960

1-152

1-344

1-536

1-728

/.no 1 Starch

•578

1-156

1-734

2-312

2-890

3-468

4*046

4-624

5-202

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

TABLE II.

ALBUMINOIDS AND STARCH EQUIVALENTS IN I'ULSE.

\_Thefigures represent ounces and decimals of an ounce.'}

I OZ.

2 OZ.

3oz.

4 oz.

5 oz.

6 oz.

Soy-beans ... J Albuminoids

'353

706

I-°59

1-412

r765

2-118

/. 143 ( Starch

•694

I-388

2-082 2-776

3'47°

4-164

Velchlings ... f Albuminoids

•3!9

•638

'957

1-276

i'595

1-914

/. 132 ( Starch

•521

1-042

^563

2*084

2-605

3 126

Lupines ... (Albuminoids

•3i7

•634

'95 J

1-268

1-585

i -902

p. 123 ) Starch

•452

•904

i'356

i "808

2*260 2*712

Vetches ... ( Albuminoids

•3i5

•630

'945

1*260

I-575

i '890

A 131 1 Starch . .

'497

"994

1-491

1*988

2-485

2-982

Guar ... ... j Albuminoids

•298

•596

894

1*192

1-490

1-788

/. 124 ( Starch

'494

•988

1-482

1*976

2-470

2-964

Lentils... ... f Albuminoids

•249

•498

747

•996

i'245

1-494

/. 139 ( Starch

'595

IT9O

1785

2*380

2-975

3'57Q

Pea-nuts ... ( Albuminoids

•2 15

•490

735

•980

1-225

1-470

/>. 127 ( Starch

1-267

2-534

3-801

5-068

6-335

7-602

Moth ... ... ( Albuminoids

•238

•476

7M

•952

1-190

1-428

/. 152 ( Starch

•580

1*160

1-740

2*320

2-900

3-480

Peas ... ... ( Albuminoids

•236

•472

•708

'944

riSo

1-416

/. 135 ( Starch

•575

1-150

1725

2*300

2-875

3-450

Catiang-beans ... J Albuminoids

•231

•462

•693

•924

i-i55

1-386

/. 156 ( Starch

•578

1-156

1734

2 "3 I 2

2-890

3-468

Haricots ... J Albuminoids

•230

•463

"690

"920

1-150

1-380

/. 147 I Starch

•576

1-152

1-728

2-304

2-880

3'456

Mung-beans ... j Albuminoids

•227

'454

•681

•908

i-i35

1-362

/. 151 ( Starch

•608

1216

i 824

2-432

3 '040

3-648

Horse-gram ... ( Albuminoids

'225

'45°

675

"900

1-125

i-35o

/. 162 ( Starch

•603

i -206

1-809

2*412

3"OI5

3-618

Lablab beans ... ( Albuminoids

•224

•448

•672

•896

I'I2O

i'344

/. 161 ( Starch

•574

1-148

1-722

2-296

2-870

3 '444

Pigeon-peas ... J Albuminoids

•203

•406

•609

•812

I-OI5

I'2l8

/. 169 | Starch

•596

1*192

1-788

2-384

2-980

3-376

Clrick-peas ... J Albuminoids

•195

•390

•585

•780

'975

1*170

/. 128 I Starch

•643

1-286

i 929

2-572

3-215

3-858

Inga beans ... J Albuminoids

•176

•352

•528

•704

•880

1*056

/. 173 { Starch

•807

1-614

2-421

3-228

4-035

4-842

7 oz.

2*471
4-858
2-233

3647
2*219

3'l64

2*205

3'479
2*086

4-165

I'7I5
8*869
1*666
4-060
1-652
4-025
1-617
4*046
1*610
4-032

I-587

4-276

i '5 75

4*221
1-568

4-018
1-421
4-172
i f365

4'501
1-232

DIETARIES AND RATIONS. 25

Examples of Daily Rations. — Now suppose that we have to
arrange a dietary of which soy-beans and rice are the substantive
constituents. Keeping the quantity of the more costly and less
digestible pulse as low as possible and neglecting for the moment
the question of fat or oil, we shall find from the 4th and 5th
columns of table 2 and from the 8th column of table i, that 4^
ounces of soy-beans and 8 ounces of rice will supply the necessary
amounts of albuminoids and starch :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Soy-beans, 4^ oz. furnish ... 1*589 ... 3-123
Rice, 8 oz. furnish '584 ... 6-376

2-173 ••• 9'499
Amounts required 2-128 ... 9-250

The only remaining question relates to the fat or oil of this
ration. It so happens that soy-beans are rich in oil, the above
quantity, of 4^ ounces, containing '851 of an ounce of oil. Now
the theoretical quantity demanded by this ration is 752 of an ounce
—so that in this case no additional oil or fat is wanted. We will
take another example, employing a ration in which rice is asso-
ciated with a kind of pulse in which there is little more than a
trace of oil, and where the albuminoids are present in no more than
the ordinary proportion ; such a pulse is the lablab-bean. Adopt-
ing the same plan of extracting figures from tables i and 2 as
before, we find that —

Albuminoids. Starch.

Lablab-beans, 8 oz. furnish ... 1792 ... 47 12
Rice, 6y2 oz. furnish ... ... "438 ... 4*782

2-230 ... 9-494

Amounts required ... ... 2-128 ... 9-25

But there is no appreciable amount of oil in this ration ; it must
be supplied either by an oily seed, or by a separated oil or fat.
Assuming the latter plan to be adopted, we add ^ ounce oil, re-
ducing the rice by 2^ ounces and increasing the lablab-beans by
y* ounce ; the latter step is rendered necessary by the obligation

26 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

of replacing in a more concentrated form the albuminoids with-
drawn in the 2^ ounces of rice. The ration will then stand —

Albuminoids. Starch.

Lablab-beans, 8^ oz. furnish ... 1*904 ... 4'999

Rice, 4 oz. furnish ... ... '292 ... 3'i88

y± oz. Oil furnishes nil ... 1725 | &•> £

2-196 ... 9-912

These totals approach sufficiently near to the figures required by
theory.

We will not multiply examples of dietaries containing rice
associated with pulse, but will consider the cases furnished by
millets and pulse used together. Happily, the comparative rich-
ness of the millets in albuminoids enables us to lower the amount
of lablab or ordinary pulse which it is necessary to employ with
them in constructing a standard ration. As an illustration we will
use miing-beans and bajra (Pennisetum typhoidewri). By reference
to the tables it will be found that something like these quantities
are required :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Miing-beans, 6 oz. furnish ... 1*362 ... 3*648
Bajra, 8 oz. furnish '832 ... 6-328

2-194 ... 9-976

These form practically the ration required. But there is an
insufficient amount of oil in this dietary ; adding & ounce of oil,
we shall have to withdraw 2 ounces of bajra and to increase the
miing by yz ounce. The figures become :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Miing-beans, 6^ oz. furnish ... 1*587 ... 4*276

Bajra, 6 oz. furnish ... ... '520 ... 3*955

y^ oz. Oil equal to nil ... 1*725

2-107 ••• 9'956

So far we have been considering dietaries belonging to the
lowest or bare-sustenance scale ; the scales for moderate work and
heavy work have now to be similarly discussed.

DIP:TARIES AND RATIONS. 27

We begin with the dietary for moderate work, still assuming
that the body- weight of the persons to be fed is 105 Ibs., and
employing the same pulses and the same cereals as in the three
examples of rations previously constructed. Referring, as before,
to the tables, we find that —

Albuminoids. Starch.

Soy-beans, 5 oz. furnish ... 1765 ... 3'47o
Rice, 16 oz. furnish i'i63 ... 12752

2-928 ... l6'222

Amounts required... ... 2-954 ... 15779

As the oil contained in this ration is but i ounce and should be 1*4
ounces, it will be necessary to add the lacking 4-ioths. To do
this without disturbing the ratio, \yz ounces of rice should be with-
drawn, and >^ ounce of soy-beans added. Thus the amounts will be :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Soy-beans, 5^ oz. furnish ... 1*942 ... 3*817

Rice, 14^ oz. furnish ... ... "954 ... 1 1*552

Oil, T*Q- oz. equal ... ... nil ... '920

2-896 . . 16*289

If rice and lablab-beans be employed, the following amounts
will be necessary :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Lablab-beans, 8 oz. furnish ... 1792 ... 4*592
Rice, 16 oz. furnish n68 ... 12752

2-960 ... 17-344

As, however, this dietary should include 1*41 ounces of oil, it will
be necessary to supplement its natural deficiency in this constituent
by adding at least i ounce. We withdraw, therefore, 4 ounces of
rici, and add i ounce of lablab-beans.

Albuminoids. Starch.

Lablab-beans, 9 oz. furnish ... 2-016 ... 5-166

Rice, 12 oz. furnish ... ... "876 ... 9-664

Oil, i oz. equal to ... ... nil ... 2-300

2-892 ... 17-130

28 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

In truth, a still larger proportion of lablab would be needed to
realise the proper ratio between the constituents of this dietary ;
but 9 ounces of pulse is already too large a quantity to be consumed
daily, and we ought, wherever possible, to associate a third
aliment with the two employed. For example, wheat or one
of the millets might advantageously replace a part of the rice.
In the third example of a moderate- work ration, mung-beans
and bajra are assumed to be employed.

Albuminoids. Starch.

Mung-beans, 5^ oz. furnish ... 1-249 ... 3'344
Bajra, 16 oz. furnish ... ... 1-664 ••• 12*656

2-913 ... i6'ooo

These quantities of mung and bajra contain about '65 ounce
of oil ; this leaves 75 to be otherwise supplied. If ^ ounce be
introduced, 3 ounces of bajra must be withdrawn and \y2 ounces
miing added :

Albuminoids. Starch.

Mung-beans, 7 oz. furnish ... I'SS; ... 4^276

Bajra, 13 oz. furnish 1-352 ... 10*183

Oil, Y^ oz. equal to nil ... 1725

2-939 ... 16-184

In the third dietary scale, that of hard work, a single example
will probably suffice to show the mode of constructing the normal
ration ; soy-beans and bajra shall be taken, and the small necessary
addition of oil made.

Albuminoids. Starch.

Soy-beans, 6^ oz. furnish ... 2-295 ••• 4'5ir

Bajra, 13^ oz. furnish ... 1^404^ ... 10-578

Oil, ^ oz. equals nil ... 1725

3-699 ...
Amounts required 3*635 ...

The only dietaries, other than Indian, which are made up of
similar foods and have been chemically examined, are those of
Japan prisons. In these, however, no attempt seems to have

DIETARIES AND RATIONS. 29

been made to adjust the composition of the rations to the work
required, for the amounts of the pulse, seaweed, and other
vegetables rich in nitrogen, are the same for all the classes, the
quantities of rice or rice and barley given being augmented. As
the body-weights of the Japanese prisoners do not differ much from
those in Indian jails, we may usefully quote here the rations of
such a prison as that of Tokio.

Ration.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Starch.

Nutrient-ratio.

a. No work ....

... 17 ...

•24 .

.. 12-8

... i : 7-9

b. Light labour

2'0

•27 .

.. 16-1

... i : 8-1

c. Hard labour

... 2-9 .:.

•32 •

.. 217

... i : 8-6

The small quantities of albuminoids and of fat in these rations,
and the excessive amount of starch, are very noticeable. In dietary
c the nutrient-ratio of i : 8*6 should be contrasted with that of C
given on p. 20, namely, i : 4 '66.

The following are additional standard dietaries, reduced in the
case of rations for adults, to a mean body-weight of 105 Ibs.

Albuminoids. Fat. Starch, etc. Nutrient-ratio.

I. Children of 6 to 15 years... 27 ... 1-3 ... 87 ... i : 4*33

II. Ordinary labour 3*12 ... 2-34 ... 10-37 ... i : 5-04

III. „ „ ... 3>][5 •;• I>2 ••• r4'02 ••• x : 5 33

The amount of mineral matter, including common salt, required
per day, is just under i ounce.

It should be observed that the amount of oil or fat in the
dietary III. just given, is rather lower than is desirable. It
could not, however, be increased unless a considerable diminution
of the starch, already too high, were also effected ; of course, the
amount of albuminoids would then have to be raised as the
proportion in which they exist in this dietary is low.

Many other standard dietaries have been proposed from time
to time, in addition to those already given in previous paragraphs.
On comparing them with all or nearly all the public dietaries
in actual and extensive use, the latter show a deficiency of
albuminoids and fat, and an excess of carbohydrates. The great
cost of butchers' meat and the difficulty of obtaining regular

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

supplies of fish are the chief reasons why these defects have not
been generally remedied. In many countries some improvement
in this direction has been effected by the more abundant
employment of pulse in the daily rations. As an illustration of the
divergencies between an actual and a standard dietary we may
cite the case of the average European soldier :

Actual. Standard.

Albuminoids 4-0 oz. ... 5-0 oz.

Fat 1-25 „ ... 3-0 „

Carbohydrates ... ... i8'o „ ... 14-0 „

Nutrient-ratio = i : 5^25 ... i : 4^25

Nutrient-value — 24*9 oz. ... 25*9 oz.

PART III.

THE CEREALS.

THE grain of the grasses is a complete fruit ; in a few familiar
cases (barley) it commonly retains as an additional and firmly-
attached covering a pair of paleae. In all cases where these
floral envelopes adhere to the winnowed grain they must be
removed by some mechanical operation before the cereal can
be used as human food ; the harshness of these envelopes as
well as the indigestibility of the large amount of fibre which
they contain necessitate this treatment.

A considerable and often excessive proportion of starch is
a characteristic feature of the composition of these grains. This
constituent is present in largest proportion in the two millets,
ragi and koda, and in cleaned, that is, husked rice ; in wheat,
and many of the millets, the percentage of this nutrient is
lower. Most of the larger cereal grains, which have been tested
for sugar, have been found to contain a small proportion of that
compound, or rather, at least two different kinds of sugar have
been found in them, although the total amount of saccharine
substance in well-ripened corn probably does not exceed 2
per cent. For the purposes of this work it is quite unneces-
sary to distinguish between such sugar and the starch present
in these grains ; in consequence, the starch and sugar with the
dextrin, gum, and similar matters will always be found, in
the following pages, under the single heading of " starch." It
must not, however, be supposed that the starch of all these
grains is absolutely identical in feeding value, for this substance,

32 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

as extracted from different grains, is found to vary in the ease
with which it is affected by hot water and by those digestive
ferments which are capable of dissolving it during its passage
through the alimentary tract.

The proportion of flesh-forming substances, or albuminoids,
in different cereals, varies much — ranging from 1 8 per cent,
in the hardest wheats to 6*5 per cent, in the poorest rice. In
different varieties of many, perhaps most cereals, this consti-
tuent does not oscillate between very wide limits ; but in wheat
the range is very great. In Indian wheat, however, the .limit
of variation in the percentage of albuminoid matter does not
seem to exceed 6/4 per cent., that is from 10*3 to 167 per cent.
There are considerable differences in the albuminoids present
in different cereals, the albuminoids of wheat presenting more
analogy to animal fibrin, and being more easy to separate and
more tenacious, stringy, and elastic when separated from the
other constituents of the grain than is the case with other
cereals. Upon these peculiarities of wheat-albuminoids depends
the power of forming a light vesiculated bread which wheat-
flour possesses in an eminent degree. It is usual to calculate
the amount of albuminoids in the cereal grains by multiplying
the amount of nitrogen which analysis shows to exist in them
by the coefficient 6*3. The results thus obtained are always
too high, for the cereal grains invariably contain nitrogen in
the form of compounds not albuminoid and not possessing the
same functions in nourishing the body. But a large number
of careful estimations of the actual albuminoids in well-ripened
grains of the most familiar cereals has been made, with the
result of showing that the amount to be deducted from the
total calculated percentages of albuminoids may generally be
neglected without serious error. Were such deductions allowed
they would amount to from iy2 to 9 parts from each 100 parts
of albuminoids. As in most Indian-grown grains and seeds
no such determinations of non-albuminoid nitrogen have been
yet made, it would have been impossible to have corrected
the figures in the following pages in accordance with the more

Tin-; CKRKALS. 33

exact method. As the author of the present Handbook was
the first chemist who devised an analytical method for dis-
tinguishing between albuminoid and non- albuminoid nitrogen
in foods, he may be permitted to add that exaggerated deduc-
tions have been made in some published works on food and
dietetics for non-albuminoid nitrogen. And he would further
urge that, as many theoretical or standard dietaries have been
constructed in part upon the old and incorrect data as to the
albuminoids in the foods consumed, such dietaries may be
not unfairly imitated by the use of analytical results obtained
in the same, that is, the usual way. It would occupy too
much space were all the evidence in support of this argument
to be marshalled before our readers ; but, taken in connection
with the other reasons we have urged, we think it justifies the
course we intend to follow in the present elementary Handbook.
There is good reason to conclude that the albuminoids of
the cereals, while presenting, if pure, very slight variations in
the proportions of their ultimate chemical elements, exist in a
number of states or modifications. The so-called "gluten" of
wheat may be resolved into three or possibly four constituents ;
two of these occur in maize, where they are accompanied by a
third albuminoid not found in wheat and called "zein." These
are not products obtained by the chemical treatment to which
the wheaten flour and maize flour are submitted in the processes
of extraction — they are edncts pre-existing in the raw materials
operated upon. The properties of these, and other members
of the group of cereal albuminoids, are probably identical in one
respect only, namely, their value as nutrients ; their distinctive
physical and mechanical properties are certainly in many cases
well marked. Thus (as is stated on page 32) it is upon the
peculiar elastic and viscous character of the chief albuminoid of
wheai-grain, the gluten-fibrin, that its admirable appropriateness
for the making of a light vesiculated bread depends. It may be
here observed that those valuable mineral salts, the alkaline and
earthy phosphates, are very intimately associated with the
albuminoids, although tho union can hardly be regarded as a

D

34 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

chemical one. And it has often been observed that the larger
the percentage of albuminoid matter in a grain the larger is •
the proportion of these phosphates.

It is necessary to add a few words as to the oil or fat present
in the cereals. Some of this, often a good proportion, resides
in the coats of the grains, and in the embryos or "chits." When,
therefore, wheat-grain is decorticated, and especially when, as
in some modern processes of milling, the embryos are removed,
the percentage of oil is much lowered. This will be obvious
when we state that the embryos contain 14^ per cent, of oil and
the different grades of bran from 2^ to 5, the whole wheat-
grain not showing more than 2 per cent. Maize and barley
are rich in oil — rice very poor. In actual dietaries this deficiency
of oil or fat is made up in several ways. Where fish or flesh
meat is employed, a good deal of oil or fat is introduced therein,
but the very common use in India of milk, or of some preparation
from it, effects something in the same direction ; expressed fatty
oils are also extensively employed.

The mineral matter or ash in the grain of the cereals
shows some variation both in quantity and in composition. In
the unhusked grains it amounts on the average to less than
2 per cent. ; in cleaned rice it is as low as o'6 per cent., and
may occasionally sink to 0*4. In paddy it amounts to 07 or 0*8
per cent. ; as a general rule, the removal of the coats of any
cereal grain in dressing it, involves the abstraction of much
mineral matter.

The large group of the minor cereals, which may be designated
" millets," together constitute a more important crop than either
rice or wheat, and are grown more extensively, being raised from
Madras in the South to Rajputana in the North. They occupy
about 83 per cent, of the food-grain area in Bombay and Sind ;
41 per cent, in the Punjab ; 39 per cent, in the Central Provinces ;
and 34 per cent, in the North-West Provinces. The chief species
are Great Millet, or joar (Sorghum vulgare] ; sjDJJ^cf or bulrush
millet, bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum) ; Rap-/ (Eleiisine coracana] ;

THE CEREALS. 35

Italian millet (Setaria italic a)\ and Chena {Panicum miliaceuin).
Besides these, other kinds are cultivated, such as Panicum miliare,
and Paspalum scrobiculatum, while the grain of a few wild kinds
is used in times of scarcity.

The following table shows the number of acres in 1882-83

\J

under two of the chief species of millet (Joar and Bajra) in five
Provinces from which the returns are fairly complete :

Joar. Bajra.

Madras ... ... ... 3,691,127 ... 2,496,958

Bombay 5,392,469 ... 4,566,113

Punjab ... ... 2,552,248 ... 3,218,248

N.W. Provinces ... ... 2,828,375 ... 2,009,298

Berar ... ... ... 2,276,220 ... 92,322

More recently, the total area under millets has been estimated
at 33^ million acres.

As a rule the millets are all Kharif, or autumnal harvest crops,
being generally sown in the early weeks of the monsoon, and in
June or July, and reaped in October and November.

Next in importance to the millets comes the group of the
larger cereal grains. This includes wheat, rice, barley, and maize.
The importance of the Indian wheats and of rice is discussed with
some degree of fulness in the pages of the Handbook devoted to
these cereals. While wheat approaches in composition that of a
standard food, rice is very far from doing so, both in regard to
albuminoids and mineral matters. Much more pulse for example,
must be introduced into a rice diet than into one of wheat or into
one of millet, in order that the chemical proportions of the several
nutrients required for a perfect food may be reached.

The chief methods of preparing or cooking the cereal grains
for the food of man are mentioned under the heads of the
several kinds to which they more particularly apply. (See, for
example, under Rice, p. 73, Maize, p. 66, Bulrush-millet, p. 59.)

The following table shows the number of acres, in 1882-83,
under the two chief larger cereals, namely wheat and rice, in five

D 2

36 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

Provinces where both crops are important and whence fairly com-
plete returns have been obtained :

Wheat. Rice.

Punjab ... ... 6,734.357 ... 775>367

N.W. Provinces 4,676,580 ... 3,055,933

Central Provinces ... 3,619,704 ... 4,416,054

Oudh ... ... 1,863,753 ... i,743'015

Bombay ... ... 1,630,310 ... 1,874,934

As a general rule wheat and barley are Rabi, or winter harvest
crops, being sown at the end of the monsoon and reaped between
January and March.

The Order Graminese or Grasses contains between 3,100 and
3,200 species. A conspectus of the tribes and genera of this
Order — so far as the plants described in the following pages are
concerned — is here given :

Order, GRAMINESE.

Tribes. Genera.

i. PANICEA:. Paspalum, Panicum, Oplismenus,
Setaria, Cenchrus, Pennisetum.

ii. MAYDE.«. Coix, Zea.

iii. ORYZE^E. Oryza.

vi. ANDROPOGONEA;. Saccharum, Sorghum,

ix. AVENE^E. Avena.

x. CHLORIDES. Eleusine.

xii. HORDE^E. Triticum, Hordeum.

xiii. BAMBUSE^E. Bambusa.

The sequence in which the several kinds of Indian cereals and
grain-substitutes are arranged and described in the following pages
is that indicated in the above table. A few species have been,
however, relegated to the closing paragraphs of the present
Part, because our chemical information concerning them is either
very meagre or absolutely wanting.

In classifying the several kinds of cereals according to their
composition the most useful plan to follow is one based on their
relative richness in albuminoids. This richness is best expressed
in the form previously explained (p. 14) under the name "nutrient-
ratio," or the proportion between the albuminoid they contain and
their starch, reckoning, however, with their starch, the starch-

FIG. I. KODA MILLET (Paspalum scrobiculatum}.

THE CEREALS. 39

equivalent of the oil present. In the following table the first
column of figures give the nutrient-ratio, the second the percentage
of albuminoids, and the third, the nutrient-value, or the added
percentage of albuminoids, of starch, and of oil translated into its
starch-equivalent.

Nutrient-ratio, or Albuminoids,

Name of Cereal. A ,, • • , , Ct u r Nutrient-value.

Albuminoids to Starch, percentage ol.

1. Eleusine coracana... ... i 13 ... 5^9 ... 84

2. Paspalum scrobiculatum ... i

3. Oryza sativa ... ... i

4. Panicum frumentaceum ... i

5. Panicum miliare ... ... i

6. Zea Mays ... ... ... i

7. Sorghum vulgare ... ... i

8. Panicum colonum... ... i

9. Pennisetum typhoideum ... i

10. Setaria italica ... ... i

11. Sorghum saccharatum ... i

12. Bambusa arundinacea ... i

13. Hordeum vulgare... ... i

14. Panicum miliaceum ... i

15. Triticum sativum ... ... i

It will be seen from the above tabular statement that Indian
wheat (15), and Indian millet (14), present a nutrient-ratio
not far removed from that of a standard diet (i 15); while
Ragi (i), and Koda Millet (2), and Rice (3) are very deficient
in their proportion of albuminoids or flesh-formers.

KODA MILLET.
Paspalum scrobiculaium, L.

Sanskrit — Koradusha, Kodrava.

Hind. — Kodaka. Beng. — Koda. Punjab — Kodra. North- West Provinces — Kodon,

Marsi. Telugu — Allu. Gtijrat — Menya.
Bombay — Kodra, Harik. Sinhalese — Wal-amu. Tamil — Waragu.

This erect grass, which grows to a height of i to 2 feet, is
frequent in tropical and sub-tropical Asia, and is largely grown,
especially on poor soils. The seed is sown in June and July,
the harvest takes place in October and November. It is used
in the districts of Mirzapur, Gorakhpur, Patna, Shahabad,

10-8 ... 7-3 ... 86^

9-5 ... 8-4 ... 88

8-4 ... 9-1 ... 85

8-3 ... 9'5 •••

8-2 ... 9-3 ... 86

8 9-6 ... 85

7'6 ... io'4 ...

7'4 ... io'8 ... 91

6-4 ... n-8 ... 87

6-4 ... n-8 ... 87

6-3 ... 11-5 ... 84^

6 ... i2'6 ... 89

5-2 ... 135 ...

4o FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

Saran, Bhagulpur, Purniah, and Santal Parganas. It is largely
grown on the lowlands near the Ganges in Bhagulpur. The
analysis of the grain without husk is here given :

COMPOSITION OF KODA MILLET (HUSKED).

In 100

parts.

In

I 11).

Water

1 1

7 ...

i

O7..

382

rrrs
O13'

Albuminoids

7

•o ...

i

,,

52

,,

Starch

... 77

'2

I 2

)>

i54

)>

Oil

2

• j

O

]47

Fibre

... 0

7 ...

O

))

49

)•

Ash

I

'3 •••

O

,,

91

51

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 117, and the nutrient-value 89.

It is said, apparently with truth, to be at times the cause
of vertigo, and is not considered to be as digestible as Setaria
italica ; the stems afford an inferior fodder. Koda is boiled
and eaten in the same way as rice, or else is parched and
ground, the meal being made into a kind of pudding. The
alleged comparative indigestibility of this grain cannot be attri-
buted to its percentage of fibre, which is unusually low, but
must be owing to some constituent or some condition of the
grain which ordinary chemical analysis does not reveal.

Mr. Duthie says of this plant that it is the most largely-
grown (in the North-West Provinces and Oudh) of all the lesser
millets, being a favourite crop for inferior out-lying land. He
adds that it is not a popular article of food ; the yield may amount
to 10 or 12 maunds per acre, but much of this is chaff.

CHENA OR INDIAN MILLET.
Panicum miliaceum, L.

Synonyms — P. asperrimum (Lagasc.) ; P. Milium (Pers.).

Sanskrit — Vrihibheda. Hind. — Chena, China. Beng. — Chennah. Other ver-
nacular names are : Sawan-jethwa, Kuri, Phikar, Rali, Bausi. In Tamil—
Varagu, Katacuny.

This millet is an erect annual about 2 feet high, with rather
broad hairy leaves and a much divided nodding panicle. It was
early introduced and is largely grown in many parts of India ;

FIG. 2. INDIAN MILLET (Panicum miliaccum}

THE CEREALS. 43

it has become naturalised in Ceylon. It generally needs but
little rain. It ascends the Himalaya as far as 10,000 feet.
It is extensively cultivated in some parts of Purniah District,
and is used also in Bhagulpur, Patna, and Champaran, the
yield being considerable. It is a quick-growing plant,* a second
crop being often obtained from the grain shed in harvesting
the first. It proves a useful crop in times of scarcity, not only
from its rapid growth, but from its flourishing in seasons of
comparatively small rainfall. Mr. Duthie, however, states that
in the districts on which he reports, this crop needs a good
deal of watering, and that the yield does not amount to more
than from 6 to 8 maunds per acre. In the Deccan it is sown
in June and July, and reaped in November and December.

COMPOSITION OF CHENA MILLET (HUSKED).

In roo parts.

In i Ib.

Water

I2'O . .

i oz. 402 gr

Albuminoids

I 2 '6

2 , 7

Starch

... 69-4 ...

I l !

45

Oil

v6

o ,

2Z2

Fibre

I'O ...

o ,

J

70

Ash

1-4 ...

o ,

98

The nutrient-ratio is here i ; 6, and the nutrient-value 89.

It should be noted here that a European sample of this millet,
analysed without the husk, gave 15*3 per cent, of albuminoids,
6 1 '6 per cent, of starch, 5 per cent, of oil, and 3*5 per cent, of
fibre ; these figures correspond to a nutrient-ratio of i : 4/8, and
a nutrient-value of 88, and would lead to a still higher estimate
of the worth of this food.

This millet is boiled and eaten with milk and sugar, or with
dal in curries, or as " mara," the grains being slightly boiled,
dried, parched in hot sand, and then sifted from the husks ;
the "mara" is then eaten with sour milk — this preparation is
a favourite food at marriage-feasts.

* Mr. J. A. Baines states, however, that its growth is slower than that of Italian
millet.

44 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

LITTLE MILLET.
Panicum miliare. Lam.

Synonyms — P. attenuatum (Nees.) ; Milium effusum (Lour.).

Hind. — Kutki, Gundli. Tamil— Chamai. Sinhalese — Meneri. Beng. — Gondula.
Punjab — Kutki. Telugu — Nella-shama. Bombay — Warai. Madras — Shama.

An annual grass, 2 to 3 feet high, producing many erect
branching culms from a single seed. The panicle becomes
beautifully bowed with the increasing weight of the grain.
This species is cultivated to some extent in many districts ; it
is grown in the Punjab up to the Kheri Pass ; also in Nepal
and Central India.

COMPOSITION OF LITTLE MILLET.

In 100

parts.

In

I Ib,

Water

10

'2

i

OZ.

277

grs.

Albuminoids

9

I

i

»

199

,,

Starch

... 69

'o

T3

;j

17

>»

Oil...

,,

6

o

2^2

Fibre

... 4'

6 ...

o

J 7
)5

J
322

? *
»

Ash

3

5 •••

Q

,,

245

n

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 8 '4, and the nutrient-value 85.
Cattle are fond of the straw of this grass.

45

FIG. 3. LITTLE MILLET (Panicum miliare}.

FIG. 4. SANWA MILLET (Panicum frumentaceurn).

THE CEREALS. 49

SANWA MILLET.
Paniciim frunientaccnm, Roxl).

Synonyms — Oplismenus frnmentaceus (Kunth.); Echinocliloa frumentacea (Link.).
Hind. — Sanwa, Samuka, Sawa. Beng. — Samn, Kheri. Deccan — Kathli. Si/iJ.

— Sarou. Kashmir — Karin. Tclugn — Bouth-shama. Sinhalese — Wel-

marukku.

The culms of this millet are erect, from 2 to 4 feet high ;
the leaves are large and the panicle ei^ct, oblong, and rigid.
It is composed of numerous incurved spikes.

Sanwa is the quickest growing of all the millets ; the harvest
may take place within 6 weeks of the sowing. Where it is
sown in April and May it is cut in June and July ; the June
sowing is ready in August. As it ripens thus quickly and
early, it affords a supply before the bajra harvest begins. Mr.
Duthie, speaking of the North-West Provinces and Oudh,
estimates the yield of grain as 8 to 10 maunds per acre, but
on very poor soil it may be as low as 4.

COMPOSITION OF SANWA (WITH HUSK).

In 100

parts.

In

i Ib,

Water

12

'O

I

oz.

402

grs.

Albumincids

8

"4 ...

I

11

!5°

11

Starch

... 72

•5 '••

I 1

11

263

•i

Oil

?

'O

o

2 IO

Fibre ...

2

'2

O

11
11

J54

i >
11

Ash

I

'9 ...

o

11

'33

»

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 9^5, and the nutrient-value 88.

Sdnwa does not take a high place among the millets. It is
either boiled as rice, or boiled with milk, and eaten with sugar,
or it is parched.

50 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

SHAM A MILLET.
Panicum colonum, L.

Synonym — Oplismenus colonus (Kunth.).

Beng. — Shama. North- West Provinces — Sarwak, Shamak.

This millet is common in the tropical and sub-tropical regions
of the Old World — it ascends to 6,000 feet in the Himalaya.
The panicle contains 8 or 10 one-sided spikes, each /^ to 24 inch
long. The stems are erect or decumbent at the base, about

2 feet or 3 feet high.

•

COMPOSITION OF SHAMA (HUSKED).

In 100 parts.

In

i Ih.

Water

I2'O

I OZ.

403 grs.

Albuminoids

... 9-6 -.

I ,,

234 ,.

Starch

... 74-3 ...

II ,,

338 „

Oil

•6 ...

o ,,

42 ,

Fibre

i '5

o .

HT " "

ICK ,

Ash

2'O

? '

0 ,,

• w j »
140 ,,

The nutrient ratio is here i : 8, and the nutrient-value 85.

This millet, sometimes called "Wild Rice," or "Jungle Rice,"
is a poor food ; it is used, however, in some places where it
grows freely (e.g., in Champaran), by a considerable number of
labourers as a usual article of diet. It is very good fodder-grass.

Other species of Panicum are occasionally, especially in
times of drought, distress, or famine, consumed as food. Amongst
these may be named P. flavidum (Retz.) ; P. fluitans (Retz.) (the
common semi-aquatic species of Panicum) ; and P. hydaspicum
(Edge.). The last species grows wild in the Punjab ; Edgeworth
mentions that its seeds are swept up from the ground and are
eaten by the poor. Another species, P. psilopodium (" kutki,"
"mijhri") is mentioned by Mr. Duthie as grown on the poorest
land and yielding about 2 maunds of seed per acre. Other
species named by the same authority are — P. crus-galli (L.)
("bharti"), yielding an edible grain and good fodder, and P.
Helopus (Trin.) (" kuri "), yielding an edible grain.

FIG. 5. SHAMA MILLET (Panicum colonum).

E 2

54 FIGS. 6 AND 7. ITALIAN MILLET (Setaria itahca). Two Varieties.

THE CEREALS. 55

ITALIAN MILLET.
Set aria italica, Beauv.

Synonyms — Panicum italicum (L.) ; Pennisetum italicum (Brown).

Hind. — Kangni, Tangan, Kayuni, Kungii, Rawla. Beng. — Kakun. Sinhalese —

Tana-hal. Tamil— Tinai. Tel.— Kora.
Sanskrit — Kangu, Priyangu.

This annual grass has a cylindrical panicle, at length nodding
at the summit. It is frequently grown as an intermediate or
subordinate crop ; in some districts it is sown in April and
May, and cut in June and July ; in others it is sown from June
to September, and reaped from September to January. It is
largely used as human food in Patna, Saran, Bhagulpur, Dinajpur,
and Purniah ; in some parts of Purniah it is extensively grown.
Italian millet requires good land and is greatly benefited by manure.

COMPOSITION OF ITALIAN MILLET (HUSKED).

In ioo parts. In i Ib.

Water ... ... ... 10*2 ... i oz. 277 grs.

Albuminoids ... ... ,10 8 ... i , 318 „

Starch ... ... ... 73 '4 ... 12

Oil 2-9 ... o , 203

Fibre ... ... ... 1-5 ... o

Ash

O

84 .-,

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 7 '4, the nutrient-value 91.

Italian millet is generally regarded as nutritious and digestible,
but in some places it is considered to be rather heating. Some-
times it is boiled and eaten either alone or with the addition
of milk and sugar (forming the preparation called "sir").
Sometimes it, is parched. The percentage of flesh-forming
matter in this grain seems to vary a good deal — from 9 to 13.
The fibre in the unhusked grain may be as high as 8 per cent.

A species of Cenchrus (C. echinatus, L.), a genus allied to
Setafia and Pennisetum, is not uncommon on the more arid
parts of the Punjab plains. The grain is used for food in times
of scarcity. " Mr. Duthie remarks that Cenchrus catharticus
(Del.) furnishes a grain used for food by the poor, who mix
it with bajra.

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

BULRUSH MILLET.
Pennisetum typhoideum, Rich.

Synonyms — Penicillaria spicata (Willd.); Holcus spicatus (L.) ; Panicum spicatum

(Roxb.).
Hind. — Bajra, Bajri, Lahra. Tamil — Cumbii. Tclugu — Gantilu.

FIG. 8. BULRUSH MILLLT (Fewiiietum typhoiileuni).

An erect grass with thick round stems, generally 3 to 6 feet
in height. The leaves are broad and long ; the spikes are
terminal, cylinclric in form, and 6 to 9 inches long.

n

FIG. o. BULRUSH MILLET (Pennisetmn typhohleum}.

THE CEREALS. 59

The seed is sown from June to August ; the crop is cut
from August to December, but chiefly between September and
November. In the North- West Provinces and Oudh, where
it is extensively grown (over 2 million acres), the plant often
attains a height of 6 to 8 feet ; the yield of grain is 5^ to
7 maunds.

COMPOSITION OF BULRUSH MILLET (UNHUSKED).

In 100 paits. In I Ib.

Water

... 11-3 .

•• i oz. 354 grs.

Albuminoids

10*4

.. i „ 290 „

Starch

... 71-5 .

.. IT „ 192 „

Oil

,,.,,

O . 231

Fibre

• • • o o

1-5 .

' )J J »

•• o ,, 105 „

Ash

2'0 .

.. o „ 140 „

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 7'6, and the nutrient-value 89^.

This grain contains '42 per cent, of potash and '68 per cent,
of phosphoric acid.

In Patna (where this millet is commonly eaten), it is con-
sidered somewhat heating ; in Mirzapur it is used in the
cold season by the poorer classes. It is ground into flour
and made into cakes ; or it is parched, coarsely ground, and
then mixed with water, being eaten with giir, curds, etc.
The chopped stalks are good fodder.

Another Pennisetum, P. cenchroides (Rich.), is common in
many parts of the Punjab where its seeds are swept up from
the ground to be used as human food. Mr. Duthie names P.
sanguinale (L.) as also furnishing an edible grain.

60 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

JOB'S TEARS.

Coix lacJiryma, L.

Synonyms — Coix arundinacea (Lamck.); Lithagrostis lachryma-Jobi (Gaertn.).
Hind. — Kauch-gurgur, Saukrii, Lechusa. Beng. — Gurgur, Kunch. Bombay —
Kassaibija. Sinhalese — Kikir-rindi. Naga Hills —Re-si. A

An annual grass, occurring as a weed of cultivation on the
rice-fields of Bengal. It is found on the plains of the Punjab,
in the North Provinces, and on the warm hillsides and valleys
of the Himalaya. It ascends to 5,000 feet on the Naga hills.

COMPOSITION OF JOB'S TEARS (HUSKED), C.
In too parts. In I Ib.

Water
Albuminoids
Starch
Oil

... 13-2 ...
... 18-7 ...

... 58-3 -..
T2

2 OZ.
2 ,,

9 »

O ,,

49
434
M3

164.

Fibre
Ash

1-5 ...

2'I

0 ,,

o „

O T"

1 0 ^

147

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 3-8, the nutrient-value 89.

Throughout Assam, and in the Eastern frontier-lands of
India, this coarse cereal constitutes an important food of the
hill tribes, replacing to some extent the millets of Northern
and Southern India. In Burma the grains are eaten after
having been parched like Indian corn. In the sample of this
grain which gave the above analytical figures it was found that
the edible seed after the removal of the hard and shining gray
husk did not weigh more than i for every 4 parts by weight
of the whole grain operated upon. The whole grains of the
wild kinds are exceedingly hard and are used as beads ; those of
the cultivated variety are much softer and more easily husked.

FIG. 10. JOB'S TEARS (Coix lachryma).

FIG. II. MAIZE (Zea Mays}.

THE CEREALS. 65

MAIZE.

Zea Mays, L.

Hind.— Mukka-Bhuta, But, Makai, Janara. Beng— Butta, Makka-janar. Punjab

— Makkai, Kukri, Bari-joar.

Oudh — Bari-jowar. Tamil — Makka. Tel. — Zonalu.
Sanskrit — Yavanala.

This handsome annual erect grass bears its grain in a solitary
axillary female spike. The grain varies much in colour, form,
and size.

The maize, though a native of South America, has been
long cultivated in many parts of India : there are now over
2# million acres under this crop. It is sown in June and July
and cut in September.

COMPOSITION OF MAIZE (C.).

In 100 parts. In I Ib.

2 oz. o grs.
I 227

Water
Albuminoids
Starch
Oil

... 12-5 ...

9'5 •••

... 707 ...

V6

Fibre
Ash

2'O
17 •••

II

o

137

252
140

119

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 8*3, and the nutrient-value
The above percentages are the means deduced from several
analyses of whole Indian-grown maize. They show a lower
proportion of water and of oil than the average of European
and American samples. The range in the latter, when a few
exceptional and clearly abnormal results are excluded, is not
wide. Generally, the American-grown maize contains about i
per cent, more fat or oil than the East Indian.

Maize is extensively used throughout the Benares, Patna, and
Bhagulpur Divisions, chiefly amongst the peasantry. Young and
green it is roasted and greedily eaten by natives of Gorakhpur,
Behar, and Patna. .Maize is not considered so wholesome as
wheat, being thought rather heating. The stems, both green
and dry, and the leaves, are used as cattle food.

F

66 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The grains are separated from the maize cobs by thrashing.
There are three ways of preparing them for food :

a. The grains are roughly ground and made into a kind of
porridge or pudding.

b. The grains are parched, pounded, winnowed, sifted, and
ground into meal in hand-mills. The dough is made into cakes.

c. The grains, parched in hot sand, become " pop-corn "-
chebana, bhuna, kori. This is eaten with giir or salt by labourers
and travellers at their midday meal.

In the United States of North America, and in Peru and
Chili, many varieties of maize are in cultivation. Some of
the best kinds have large fruits with thin skins and are very
prolific, the heads of corn or "cobs" being of considerable size.
The pale or white-grained sorts are generally superior to those
which have much colour. Esteemed American varieties are-
Minnesota Early, Crosby Early, Eight-Row Early, Concord,
and Stowell's Evergreen. It is very desirable that more attention
should be paid to the selection of the best varieties of maize
for cultivation in India.

RICE.
Oryza saliva, L.

Hind.— Ben*.— -Dhan (cleaned rice is Chauwal, Chawal, Chaol, in Hind.}. Tamil—
Arisi. Telugu—tiri, Cheni, Matta-Karulu. Sind— Sari. Sinhalese— Goyang.
Sanskrit— Vrihi, Arunya, Dhanya.

Rice is an annual grass belonging to the tribe Oryzeae of
the natural order Graminese. It grows from 2 to 10 or more
feet in height ; the panicles vary from 8 inches to a foot or even
more in length, and become drooping; the fruit or grain is
enclosed in but does not adhere to the pales.

The several rice-crops of India may be termed spring,
summer, autumn, and winter-rice, from the seasons in which the
different varieties are harvested. Winter-rice is the most impor-
tant, constituting as it does about three-fourths of the entire
amount. Only in Pun, Maldah, Rajshahi, and Sylhet does spring-
rice attain even so high a percentage of the entire crop as 12

FIG. 12. RICE (Oryza sativa). .

F 2

THE CEREALS. 69

to 25 ; in other localities it is not grown at all or its amount is
quite insignificant. The autumn or intermediate crop of rice
is likewise of little or no importance, save in about a dozen
localities out of 63 concerning which we possess statistics. How-
ever, in Patna, Hazaribagh, Pun', and Cuttack, it may reach
one-third -of the total out-turn, while it amounts to about one-
fourth or one-fifth in Santal Parganas, Bankura, and Midnapur.
Summer-rice is a very general crop throughout India. In one
locality, Nuddea, it yields two-thirds of the total amount grown ;
in Champaran, Birbhum, Dacca, and Faridpur, about one-third ;
and in many other localities, about one-fourth.

The several rice-crops bear different names in different parts
of India ; in the present section we have generally employed
the terms used in Bengal, Boro for spring-rice, Aus for summer-
rice, Kartika for autumn or intermediate rice, and Aman for
winter-rice.

Spring-rice is sown, according to locality, from September
to February, and reaped from March to June. Summer-rice
is sown from May to July, and reaped from September to
October. Autumn-rice is sown in Bengal from April to July,
and reaped from August to November ; in Jessur it is sown
in October and November, and reaped eleven months after.
Winter-rice is sown from March to August, and reaped from
November to January. Where one crop only of rice is grown
in the year it is usually sown from May to August, and reaped
from September to January. Where two crops are raised the
yield of grain from both crops is little larger than that from
one, but the straw of the crop gathered in the dry season, though
a wretched fodder, is used for cattle-food. The two chief varieties
of rice, winter and summer, are occasionally sown mixed together ;
sometimes with Panicum miliaceum and Phaseolus Mungo. Peas,
oil-seeds, barley, etc., are also largely sown over the nearly
ripe crop, which, however, is cut before they appear above
ground.

With regard to the several rice-crops, Mr. G. Watt says :
" A proprietor of an estate, with a fairly mixed soil, might have

70 FOOD-GRALNS OF INDIA.

three, if not four, or even five, harvests of rice every twelve
months, thus :

"(i) Aus harvest, from July to August.

" (2) Chotan dman, from October to November.

" (3) Boran dman, from December to January.

" (4) Boro, from April to May.

" (5) Raida, from September to October.

" Two harvests are all but universal in Bengal, with an
occasional third but smaller one ; two crops are frequently
taken qff the same field." " The long, thin chotan dman rices
are eaten by the richer natives."

Rice grows well in stiff clays, especially in drainage-beds
and basins. Manure is not often used. It is sown in a moist
soil, or even in aq actual mud, either broadcast or transplanted
from a nursery when the plants are something less than a foot
high ; the distance between the plants is about 6 inches. The
yield of transplanted rice is 1 6 maunds of paddy per acre ; when
sown broadcast it yields from 10 to 12 maunds. Mr. Duthie
states that there are at least 100 cultivated varieties of rice in
the North- West Provinces and Oudh ; a distinct -indigenous
species of another genus, Hygrorhiza aristata (Nees), growing
wild round lakes and marshes, is gathered and eaten by the
poorer classes. The more important varieties of rice are semi-
aquatic, and need copious and repeated irrigations. In some
districts of Bengal a long-stemmed variety of rice is grown which
will keep its head above 12 feet of water. On the other hand,
there are varieties of rice which develop in temperate climates,
even ascending the hills to an altitude of at least 8,000 feet, and
requiring no irrigation.

The analyses which have been made of a large number of
samples of " cleaned " rice, give figures which are wonderfully
accordant, considering the great differences in the appearance
of the specimens and the very diverse conditions under which
they have been grown. The fibre and adventitious earth are
sometimes rather high from imperfect cleaning of the grain,
but the nitrogenous constituents or albuminoids oscillate within

FIG. 13. BEARDED PADDY (Oryza sativd)

THE CEREALS. 73

narrow limits — probably nine samples out of ten will be found to
contain not less than 7 per cent., and not more than 8.

COMPOSITION OF RICE.

In 100 parts.

In I Ib.

Water

12-8 ...

2

oz. 21 grs.

Albuminoids

" 7'3 •••

I

,. 74 „

Starch

78-3 -.-

12

„ 231 ,,

Oil

•6 . .

o

42

Fibre

'A

o

„ 28 ,,

Ash

-6 ...

0

,, 4^ „

The nutrient-ratio is i : icr8 and the nutrient-value 86>2.
One hundred parts of rice contain no more than '065 part of
potash and '284 part of phosphoric acid.

There are many districts in India where rice forms not
merely the chief food-stuff but ^ths or even iths of its total
amount. In some places it even rises to ^ths or to llths of the
whole quantity, as in Bardwan, Dinajpur, Maldah, Kuch Behar,
Manbhum, and Darrang ; other districts might be named in which
it constitutes the only food staple.

Dhan is rice in the husk, or paddy. Chaol is rice husked by
pounding in a wooden mortar ; in some districts it is, if new,
parboiled and then dried before being pounded. Eight pounds of
dhan produce 5 pounds of chaol ; the separated pericarp is burned,
the perisperm is given to fowls and pigs. The operation of
pounding is attended with considerable loss, because many grains
are broken and then afterwards winnowed away when tossing
the rice in the air from the woven straw scoop. Bhat is boiled
rice. In Tirhut and Saran the chaol is first washed and then
boiled at night, for the evening meal, in much water. It is
strained when hot, one-half or one-third being set aside under
water (to save the cost of more fuel) for the morning meal —
it has then become slightly acidulous. This preparation is eaten
with curds, chillies, or one-fourth of dhal (pulse husked and split).
Two pounds of cleaned rice weigh 5 pounds after boiling. The
liquor is either thrown away or is drunk as a beverage after
the addition of a little common salt, or is given to stall-fed milch

74 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

cows. Where rice constitutes the almost entire food of the popu-
lation, the throwing away of the water in which it has been
boiled involves the loss of some of the mineral matter in which
rice is notoriously deficient, and is to be deprecated ; no more
water should be used in cooking this grain than can be absorbed
by it. Rice is sometimes boiled in milk. The parching of rice
is often done by stirring it in hot sand and then sifting out the
grains. They burst, and are eaten dry, or else are ground, mixed
with water, and consumed at midday meals by travellers and
labourers. In Maldah the Hindustani-speaking population use
rice and wheat, the pure Bengali confines himself to rice. In
Benares rice is not much used, being replaced, amongst the
poor, by wheat, barley, jowari, bajra, and maize. The industrial
and labouring classes of Mirzapur consume but little rice, living
chiefly on barley and the various millets.

According to the " Report of the Famine Commission " the
percentages of the rice-eating population in 7 provinces, etc.,
were :

Madras .. ... ... 32

Central -Provinces ... ... 31

Mysore ... ... ... 20

Bombay ... ' ... .. 12

North-West Provinces and

Oudh ... ... ... 19

Punjab ... ... ... 5

Berar 2

The exports of rice and paddy from India amounted in
1882-83 to 31^ million cwts. Sixty-eight percent, of this came
from Burma, 26 per cent, from Bengal, and 4 per cent, from
Madras. Of the total exports, 61 per cent, were sent to England
or the Continent (including Egypt).

Rice is eaten in many forms and prepared in many ways
besides those already described. The five following preparations
may be selected for notice :

(i.) Churwa, Chura, or C/tira. Some dhan is boiled, dried,
and pounded to separate the husks ; the chaol thus obtained
is then heated in a wide-mouthed earthen pot, and while still
hot is flattened by beating. This preparation may be eaten
alone, but it is often made into balls with gur or molasses, or

THE CEREALS. 75

taken with curdled milk (doyi\ with milk and tamarinds, or with
sweetmeats.

(2.) ALochira is made by steeping the rough dhan for a night
in cold water ; it is then parched and afterwards flattened by
beating.

(3.) Khoyi is made by parching rice which has been exposed
to the dew. It is eaten with molasses, constituting murki, or
with milk.

(4.) Muri or Murhi is prepared by first heating chaol with
salt for about half-an-hour in a shallow earthen vessel kept
agitated, and finally parching it. It is eaten by the poor, generally
by itself but sometimes with oil.

(5.) Chaol-ka-atta is rice-meal made by slow grinding in
heavy hand-mills. It is kneaded with water into balls or cakes
(bhaka), which are boiled like a pudding, or used as bread.

DIETETICS OF RICE.

New rice is cheaper than old, not merely because the latter is
more easily husked, nor because it is drier and therefore contains
more nutriment in a given weight, but because it is more whole-
some. New rice is almost generally considered unwholesome ;
it is said to cause swellings of the mouth and throat, dyspepsia,
diarrhoea, and fever.

Prisoners obliged to live almost wholly on rice become
anaemic, symptoms of land-scurvy supervening. Health rapidly
deteriorates under its exclusive use, unless it be eaten in
excessive quantity ; to this course there are obvious objec-
tions. Then, too, there are some varieties of rice the "chits"
or embryos of which are so hard that they cannot be digested
by the strongest stomach ; prolonged boiling in water only
partially softens them. As a rule, the rice which is sown on
swampy ground, which is not transplanted, and which comes to
maturity during or just at the close of the rainy season, is of
the nature just described. The grains of this rice being large,
cheap, and abundant, are much used by the very poor ; their

76 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

use is frequently followed by the disorders of the alimentary canal,
skin, and blood, named above. Local names for such rice are
saru (the worst), jagar, singra, and jasuria. Much illness is
occasioned, especially amongst the poor, through the eating of
rice which has been imperfectly "cleaned;" dyspepsia, diarrhoea,
dysentery, and ansemia are thus caused. It must always, how-
ever, be remembered that the very best rice has two capital
defects, being deficient in potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and
other mineral matters, as well as in nitrogenous or flesh-
forming matters, that is, albuminoids. This latter defect is best
shown by the statement that while a perfect- food should contain
less than 5 parts of starch or its equivalent to i part of albu-
minoid, rice contains rather more than 10 of the former con-
stituent to one of the latter.

SUGAR-CANE.
Saccharum officinarum, L.

Beng. — Ik, Uk, Kushiar, etc.

North-West Provinces and Oitdh—Ikh, Ukhari. Telugu— Cheruku-bodi.

Sanskrit — Ikshu, Rusala, Pundra, Kanguruku.

This strong cane-stemmed grass grows from 8 to 12 feet
high, producing a large feathery plume of flowers. It occurs wild
and cultivated throughout tropical and sub-tropical Asia.

The "sets" or cuttings of one season's canes are planted
in January or February in furrows to the number of about 20,000
to the acre ; irrigation is employed until the rains begin.

The sugar-cane grows well on a good loam or light clay. The
land needs frequent ploughing and generally a good deal of
manure. It has been stated that any considerable quantity of
nitrates in the soil or soil-water is prejudicial to this crop ; as
a general rule, however, all the larger grasses are greatly bene-
fited by small quantities of the nitrates of soda, of lime, or of
potash. This crop practically occupies the ground twelve months ;
usually it is preceded by a year's fallow. The yield of cut canes
is said by Mr. Duthie to vary from 18 to 30 maunds per acre

77

FIG. 14. SUGAR-CANE (Sacchamm offieinarum}.

THE CEREALS. 79

in the North-West Provinces and Oudh. A large succulent
variety is grown chiefly as a sweetmeat.

The sugar-canes, cut when about to flower, contain about
74 per cent, of water. The expressed juice contains a small
quantity of albumen, • i per cent. ; of organic acids, • i per cent. ;
and of mineral matter, r6 per cent. ; but its chief constituent
is cane-sugar, accompanied by a small quantity of uncrystallisable
or invert-sugar — the latter compound increases greatly if the
canes be damaged or bruised and are not immediately pressed
or exhausted ; traces of another sugar (called raffinose and meli-
tose) are also found in sugar-cane juice and in raw cane-sugar.
The total amount of saccharine bodies in the juice of Indian
canes approaches 24 per cent.

Owing to defects in the native methods of extracting sugar,
much loss and much deterioration of the crystalline sugar present
occurs, while the product is impure, dark in colour, and mixed
with much molasses. Analyses of samples of native cane-sugar
reveal the presence of large quantities of uncrystallisable sugar,
moisture, and mineral impurities.

8o FOOD-GRAINS OF* INDIA.

GREAT MILLET OR GUINEA CORN.
Sorghum vulgare, Pers.

Synonyms — Holcus Sorghum (L.) ; Holcus bicolor (L.); Andropogon Sorghum

(Brot).
Hind. — Joar, Jawari, Janera, Jundri. Beng. — Jowari. Punjab — Jawar. Tamil —

Cholum. Telugu — Jonna, Tella-Janular.
Sanskrit — Ziir n a .

The culms of this millet are erect, the panicles branched and
the grain enclosed in, but free from the hard shining outer
glumes. Generally the seed is sown from June or July to
September, and the crop cut in October or November up to
January. Three to six seers of seed are sown at the beginning
of the rains in rather elevated lands of a loamy or clayey kind.
Sometimes the minor pulses are sown with it. The yield of
grain amounts to 10 maunds, with 60 maunds of stems as
fodder if irrigation has been used. Without irrigation, the yield
is one-fifth less. To this yield must be added that of the
accompanying crop of pulse. Sometimes, as in the North-West
Provinces, Oudh, Punjab, joar is grown as cattle-fodder, having
been sown and irrigated before the rains and cut green, early
enough to make room for the succeeding cold- weather crop. It
is very extensively grown in Madras; in 1875-76, more than 4^
million acres were under cholum. There are several well-marked
varieties of this Sorghum ; they differ chiefly in the form of the
panicle, which is sometimes dense and contracted, sometimes
made up of drooping branches, and sometimes has expanding
branches.

COMPOSITION OF GREAT MILLET.

In 100 parts.

In I Ib.

Water

... 12-5 ...

2 OZ. 0 g

rs.

Albuminoids

... 9-3 ...

I „ 214

j

Starch

... 72-3 ...

II „ 248

>

Oil

2'O

o , 14.0

Fibre

2'2

77 "

o „ 154

i

Ash

I '7

0 . IIQ

i

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 8^, and the nutrient-value 86.

8i

FIG. 15. GREAT MILLET (Sorghum vulgare).

G

FIG. 16. GREAT MIU.ET (Sorghum ztilgare

G 2

THE CEREALS. 85

The grain contains '85 per cent, phosphoric acid and '21 per
cent, potash.

Joar is one of the most important rainy-season crops of India,
forming with rice and wheat the chief staple foods of the country,
especially in the Upper Provinces and Bengal. It is more
palatable but less wholesome than maize. The meal is made
with cakes, or the grains are parched and eaten with salt, or
made into a paste and mixed with chillies, gur, etc.

BROOM CORN.
Sorghum saccharatum, Moench.

Synonyms — Holcus saccharatus (L.) ; Andropogon saccharatus (Roxb.).
Hind. — Deodhan. Deccan — Shalii.

This annual grass is cultivated in some parts of Northern
India, either as fodder or on account of the sugar which can be
extracted from the stems ; the grain, however, is sometimes

used as food.

COMPOSITION OF BROOM CORN.

In 100 parts. In I Ib.

Water ... ... ... 12 '8 ... 2 oz. 21 grs.

Albuminoids ... ... ir8 ... i „ 388 „

Starch ... ... ... 68'3 ... 10 „ 406 ,,

Oil ... 3-0 ... o „ 210 „

Fibre 3-0 ... o „ 210 „

Ash ... ... ri ... o ,, 77 „

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 6-4, and the nutrient- value 87.

The stems of this grass contain a good deal of sugar. When
young and very immature invert-sugar is present in largest
proportion, as they become more mature it diminishes, until
when the grain is ripe three-fourths of the saccharine matter is
cane-sugar. The total sugar varies from 6 to 18 per cent, the
water from 80 to 66 ; 12 per cent, of cane-sugar is a fair average.

This amount is liable to serious reduction if the sugar be
not extracted directly the stems are cut. Some rich canes
were found after three weeks to contain no less than 147 per
cent, of invert-sugar and only 3-6 of cane-sugar. Mechanical
injuries to the stems or the slightest touch of frost previous to

86 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

their becoming ripe, are the chief causes of this deterioration.
But the degradation of the cane-sugar occurs very largely during
the operation of boiling down the juice, while an immense pro-
portion is lost in the pressed residue.

This grass is used as cattle fodder.

Sorghum halepense (Pers.), " Baru," and S. verticillata
(Beauv.), " Chirchitta," yield a grain which, according to Mr.
Duthie, is sometimes eaten.

OATS.

A vena sativa, L.
Hind. — Welayti-jow.

«

This annual grass has been cultivated to some extent of late
years in a few parts of India. It is treated much in the same

way as barley.

COMPOSITION OF OATS.

In 100 parts.

Water .. ... ... ... ... ... 127

Albuminoids ... ... ... ... ... icri

Starch ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 'o

Oil 2-3

Fibre 16-6

Ash ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 '3

The samples from which the above analytical results were
obtained do not compare favourably with oats of European
growth. The average percentages in these are, 12 albuminoids,
6 oil, 1 1 fibre, and 3 ash. Sometimes the percentage of albu-
minoids rises to 15^ and that of oil to 7. A good sample of
fresh Scotch oatmeal gave me 16 per cent, albuminoids and 10
per cent, oil, with no more than 5 per cent, of moisture ; but it
must be recollected that 100 Ibs. of oats yield no more than
60 Ibs. of oatmeal.

Oats are grown in India chiefly for feeding the horses
belonging to Europeans ; but the richer natives near the chief
centres of English influence are beginning to appreciate the
value of oatmeal as human food. So far as chemical composition
and the ratio of the nutrients are concerned, oatmeal is an
almost perfectly adjusted food.

FIG. 17. RAGI (Eleusitu coracand].

FIG. 18 KAGI (vat: E. stiicia, Roxb.).

THE CEREALS. 89

RAGI.
Elemine coracana, Gaertn.

Hind. — Natchni, Nachani, Nagli, Mandua, Maruya. Beng. — Mania, Modua.
Oudh — Mindwa. Punjab — Mandal, Chalodra. Punjab and Bengal Hills — Koda,

Kodom. Himalaya — Koda.
Deccan and South India — Ragi. Tamil — Kaywur. Telugu — Kawaru, Sodi,

Ponassa. Sinhalese — Puta-tana, Kurakkan.
Sanskrit — Rajika.

This semi-erect to decumbent native grass belongs to the
tribe Chloridese. It is a fairly productive rainy- weather crop
for light soils ; it may be grown almost upon stones and gravel.
It yields from 5 to 6 maunds of grain per acre upon the hills,
12 to 14 maunds in the plains, if carefully cultivated and weeded.
It is the staple grain of the Mysore country ; sometimes it is
there stored in pits and will keep good for years. It is frequently
grown with summer-rice, ripening sooner, and thus affording
earlier relief in times of scarcity ; the straw is used as fodder.

Eleusine segyptiaca, a closely-allied species found wild on
the road-sides of the Punjab and North-West Provinces, and
indeed throughout Upper India, yields a poor unpalatable grain
which, in times of scarcity, is occasionally collected and eaten.
This species is common in the warmer parts of Ceylon.

COMPOSITION OF RAGI.

In 100 parts.

Hulked. Whole.

Water ... ... ... 13-2 ... 12-5 ... 202. o grs.

Albuminoids ... 7-3 ... 59 ... o „ 413 „

Starch ... ... 73-2 ... 74-6 ... n „ 409 „

Oil 1-5 ... 0-8 ... o „ 56 „

Fibre ... 2-5 ... 3-6 ... o „ 252 „

Ash 2-3 ... 2-6 ... o „ 182 „

The nutrient-ratio is here 1:13, the nutrient-value 84. The
percentage of phosphoric acid in the whole grains is about 0*4.

Generally, this millet is sold at a cheaper rate than any
other; in some places, in ordinary seasons, 130 to 140 Ibs. of
it are procurable for about two shillings, and it is looked upon
as a famine food, to which recourse is had only in times of

9° FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

drought or of deficient crops. Ragi is, however, commonly
used in some districts, as by the poorer and lower classes of
Patna Division, also in Bhagulpur, Santal Parganas, Dinajpur,
and Gorakhpur. It is more esteemed than maize by the natives
of Patna and Behar, but it is not, in general, a popular food,
being considered difficult of digestion, productive of flatulence,
and astringent. It is much less esteemed than joar and bajra.
In Tirhiit, cakes made of ragi-flour are largely eaten. In Dar-
jiling, a fermented liquor is prepared from the grain.

WHEAT.
Triticum vulgar e, L.

Synonym — Triticum sativum (Lamarck).

Hind. — Kunak, Giiin. Seng. — Gom.

Persian — Gundum. Vernacular names include — Khani, Mundi, Muria, Ratta,

Seta, Kathia, Jamali, with many others.
Sanskrit — Godhiima, Saman.

Wheat is an annual grass of unknown origin. It belongs
to the tribe Hordese of the order Gramineae. There are a very
large number of cultivated varieties of this plant, distinguished
by the presence or absence of an awn, by the colour of the
grain — "red" or "white," — by the hardness and translucency,
or by the softness and opacity of the kernel, etc., etc. Great
improvements in the size of the grain and its quality and
yield have been effected of late years in England, but very
little work in this direction has been yet accomplished in India.
Continued artificial selection of the best grain has been the
method pursued for this purpose ; the purity of the strain should
be constantly kept in view.

Generally speaking, wheat is grown in those parts of India
where rice does not thrive ; nearly all the production is in-
cluded in the region north of the river Tapti ; but rarely is it
cultivated anywhere south of the Deccan. The average Indian
yield has been estimated at 13 bushels per acre, which, con-
sidering the very small depth of soil stirred by the light native
plough, does not compare unfavourably with the 15 or 16 bushels

THE CEREALS. 91

which is the mean wheat produce in France ; in England, how-
ever, the average is something like 29 bushels.

The above estimate of 13 bushels per acre (as the average
yield of wheat in India) is, we believe, too high. A tabular state-
ment given in the " Report for 1882-83 on the Progress and
Condition of India" (page 193) justifies the adoption of a lower
average, as will be seen from the figures that follow :

ESTIMATED YIELD OF WHEAT, IN BUSHELS, PER ACRE.

Land manured Land fairly Land badly
and irrigated, cultivated. cultivated.

North-West Provinces and Oudh ... 22 ... 15 ... 9
Punjab ... ... ... ... 20 ... n ... 7^

Central Provinces ... ... ... 16 ... 10 ... 6

Bombay ... ... ... ... 18 ... 10 ... 6

Berar ... ... 12 ... 8 ... 5

But the returns on which the above numbers are founded
are confessedly imperfect ; while in several provinces, and, of
course, in most Native States where wheat is grown, the statistics
of average yield of dressed corn are incomplete, untrustworthy,
or even altogether wanting.

As to the Indian areas under wheat, rough estimates, which
are probably not very far from the truth, have been published
from time to time. The figures given below are probably within
the mark, especially those for the Native States. The chief
wheat-growing localities are alone included in the table ; in
Madras, Assam, and Burma, wheat is not grown to an appre-
ciable extent.

ESTIMATED AREA UNDER WHEAT.
British India : Acres.

Bengal 850,000 \

North-West Provinces and Oudh 6,200,000 j

Punjab ... ... ... ... 7,000,000 f

Central Provinces 4,000,000 I 20»35°>°c

Bombay ... ... 1,600,000 *

Berar ... ... ... ... 700,000 )

Native States :

Hyderabad ... ... ... 750,000

Central India Agency ... ... 2,500,000 .

Rajputana 2,500,000 ' 5>838>oc

Baroda ... 88,000

Grand total ... 26,188,000

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

Dr. W. W. Hunter estimates the percentages of the Indian
food-grain areas under wheat in several provinces to be —

North- West Provinces ... 57
Punjab ... ... ... 54

Central Provinces ... ... 27

Sind ...
Bombay

12

7

The Indian area of wheat cultivation is denned by Dr. Forbes
Watson, in his Report of 1879, as comprising the whole of
Northern India up to the Garigetic Delta, and the whole of
the table-land above the Ghats in Southern India. It extends
through every district of the North-West Provinces, Oudh, the
Punjab, Sind, the Central Provinces, and Berar ; also through
every part of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of
some of the coast districts ; this crop is also grown in many
parts of the interior of the Madras Presidency.

Mr. J. F. Duthie, of Saharunpur, reports that wheat
("gehun" or "gohun") is the largest of all the crops grown in
the North-West Provinces and Oudh. It is cultivated on all
soils save the lightest sands, although a rather heavy loam suits
it best. Many ploughings and a fine tilth are essential ; about
four tons of dung or village manure per acre are usually applied.
The seed is sown broadcast and covered by the plough, or it is
dropped into the furrows by hand, or by means of a bamboo
attached to the plough-stilt. A watering is given before sowing
the grain, when the soil is too dry. Wheat is sometimes grown
with barley, sometimes with gram. Fifteen maunds is the average
yield of wheat grown by itself on irrigated land, 9 maunds on
unirrigated land ; wherever possible it is irrigated. The weight
of straw varies from \% to twice as much as the grain. The
wheat is of course a cold-weather crop, being grown in the
rabi season, between October and April. In the Deccan it is
sometimes sown in September and reaped in January. In the
Punjab the harvest is as late as May ; in Agra, June.

Dr. Forbes Watson estimated the total wheat production of
India in 1877 to be 40 million quarters, of which no more than
i '3 million quarters were exported. The exports in 1881-82

THE CEREALS. 93

had risen to 4-5 million quarters, but fell in 1882-83 to 3-2 millions.
In 1881-82 the value of the wheat exported from India exceeded
that of the rice, and amounted to no less than 1 1 per cent, of
the total exports. Forty-six per cent, of the exported wheat
(in 1882-83) was destined for England, 25 per cent, for France,
and ii per cent, for Belgium. The fluctuations of the Indian
export wheat-trade depend not so much upon the local harvests
as upon the yield in the United States and the prices ruling in
Europe.

The composition of wheat-grain shows some variations, but
they are almost entirely limited to the relative 'proportions of
starch and of nitrogenous matters, although the mineral matters
or ash, and indeed all the minor constituents of the grain are,
of course, not quite fixed in amount. Still, if a wet season
increases the percentage of ash, if a thin-skinned well-developed
sample contains less fibre, and if a plump dark-coloured specimen
has a larger proportion of oil or fat, all such variations are quite
unimportant in comparison with those exhibited by the starch
and albuminoids. The starch, always constituting, as it does,
something like two-thirds of the weight of the grain, does not
show this difference in so marked a manner as the albuminoids.
If the latter amount to 18 or 20 per cent., instead of 13, the
former constituent will not be reduced (from 68) to less than
63 or 6 1 per cent. — a reduction which, in comparison with the
total amount present, is much less conspicuous than a rise from
13 to 20 in the nitrogenous compounds.

Besides the general dryness of the grain of Indian wheat,
which, as imported in bulk into this country and analysed
promptly, contains at least 2 per cent, less moisture than average
English wheat, the albuminoids are decidedly higher. I have
never yet met with an Indian wheat containing less than 10 per
cent, of albuminoids ; but a large number of samples of first-
rate English, Canadian, and Australian samples give numbers
between 8 and 9. The average percentage of albuminoids in
the Indian examples yet analysed is about 13*5, but some
specimens have been as low as 10*3, and some as high as 167.

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

All these estimations are based upon actual determinations
of nitrogen, made either by Dumas's absolute nitrogen method

<~> J O

or by the easier process of combustion with soda-lime, the
percentage of nitrogen obtained being then multiplied by
6*3. Many higher figures have been published, but these,
so far as I can learn, have been obtained by a most
misleading and incorrect method, namely, the weighing of
the so-called "gluten" which is left after washing out the
starch from a prepared dough by means of water. The gluten
so separated is often largely contaminated with starch as well
as with wheat-oil and wheat-fibre, while such contamination is
too variable to admit of being allowed for. It is greatly to be
regretted that many works on food-materials and dietetics should
be disfigured by erroneous figures arising from the use of this
unsafe process. As to the maximum percentage of albuminoids
present in Indian wheat it is probable that it really does some-
times exceed 167, the above-given number, but as yet I have no
actual determinations confirmatory of this view.

Much of the Indian wheat, whether white or red, has that
translucent aspect which generally indicates a high percentage of
albuminoids. In 1867 ("Practice with Science," i., pp. loi-m,
345-348), I pointed out some of the chief relationships between the
aspect, density, weight per bushel, productiveness, and chemical
composition of wheat-grain, showing more particularly that the
exclusion of a small proportion of the lightest of the grains in a
seed-corn tells very favourably upon the yield, and also that there is
a very intimate connection between the translucency or horny cha-
racter of a grain and a high percentage of albuminoids ; and, again,
between the softness and opacity of a grain and a high percentage
of starch. Such differences in the composition of wheat-grain
show themselves not merely in different varieties of wheat, but
even in the same variety of wheat when it has been grown under
different conditions of climate or season. Even in the grains from
a single ear similar differences may often be seen — analysis show-
ing sometimes 3 or 4 per cent, more albuminoids in some of such
grains than in others Often a single grain will be partly horny

THE CEREALS. 95

and partly opaque and soft — in that case its composition will corre-
spond with its intermediate aspect. By examining the cut surfaces
of a grain which has been cut transversely with a sharp knife a
fair notion of its richness or poverty in albuminoids may indeed be
easily gained.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF INDIAN WHEAT.

In 100 pirts.

In I Ib.

Water

... 12-5 ...

2 oz. o grs.

Albuminoids

... 13-5 ...

2 „ 7° »

Starch

... 68-4 ...

io „ 413 »

Oil

I "2

o . 84 ,

Fibre

2'7 ...

JJ T^ >-

o „ 189 „

Ash

I '7

o ., no .

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 5*2, and the nutrient- value 84*6.
It should be added that the starch named above contains a
small quantity, about 2 per cent., of the sugar or sugars found
in many cereals, but this' may be regarded as not appreciably
lowering the nutrient-value of the 68'4 parts set down as "starch."

The ash of wheat, though not large in amount, is of great
importance as a source of mineral nutrients when this grain is
used as human food, about 30 per cent, of it being potash and
45 per cent, phosphoric acid.

The various mill-products obtained in grinding wheat differ
much from each other and from the original grain, in several
important particulars. For instance, the following figures were
obtained in a series of analyses which I made of an entire series
of such mill-products :

Per cent. Nitrogen. Per cent. Oil.
Whole Wheat ... ... 1*692 ... 2 '02

Flour (whites) ... ... 1-621 ... 1-4

Flour (seconds) ... ... 1*967 ... i'8z

Bran ... ... 2-143 2-75

Sharps (fine) ... ... 2'6o8 ... 3*50

These products represent but four out of a total of twelve,
but they suffice to show how large a proportion of nitrogenous

96 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

matter and of oil are rejected when fine flour is the sole
product reserved for human food. It must not, however, be
assumed that all the nitrogen, say, in fine sharps, is albuminoid ;
in fact, these fine sharps did not contain more than 13^ per
cent, of albuminoids, though 2*608 of nitrogen corresponds to i6/4
per cent.; even the fine "whites" or flour contained a little
nitrogen in non-albuminoid forms.

The methods of employing wheat for human food in India
vary somewhat, but the following are used to a considerable
extent. The grain having been separated from the chaff, often
rather imperfectly, is washed, sun-dried, and then ground between
millstones into meal. The finest part or suji, the second
grade or maida, and the coarsest or atta, are respectively used
as follows :

Suji and maida are employed chiefly in the making of
confectionery, while the atta is made into unleavened bread
or biscuits, usually in the form of flat cakes called chapatti
or roti. These cakes constitute one of the chief articles of
diet in many parts of India, as in Monghyr, Gorakhpur, and
Behar ; they are eaten with dal, ghi, etc. They are prepared
by kneading the flour with water into a dough, which is pressed
into cakes and baked over a fire or on a hot earthen platter.
Fried with ghi and sugar they are largely consumed by rich
Hindus. A mixture of wheaten and barley flour is employed
in some districts for making the chapatti. Fermented bread
is, generally speaking, unknown in India, but it is eaten, both
by Hindus and Moslems, especially by the rich and middle classes,
in the principal towns of Patna and Behar. It should be
mentioned here that scorbutic affections do not occur where
wheat is a considerable or almost exclusive article of the daily
dietary, a fact in marked contrast with the results observed in
districts where rice is very largely consumed.

A careful study and practical examination of the milling
qualities of certain typical samples of Indian wheat was made
by Messrs. McDougall Brothers, of Mark Lane, in 1882. From
their report, addressed to the Secretary of State for India, we

THE CEREALS. 97

tabulate the following particulars as to the four samples with which
the experiments were made :

Value (496 Ibs.) Weight per bush. Weight of 100 grs.

No. i. Fine soft white ... 495-. ... 64 Ibs. ... 55-4

No. 2. Superior soft red ... 45$. ... 62^ „ ... 51-8

No. 3. Average hard white... 44^. ... 60 ,, ... 68-3

No. 4. Average hard red ... 43^. ... 61^ „ ... 777

Per cent. Flour. Middlings. Pollard. Bran.

No. i. Ground under millstones ... 77'46 ... '82 ... 8'8 ... 12-0

Crushed between rollers ... 74-1 ... ii'o ... 8-7 ... 4-0

No. 2. Ground under millstones ... 78-0 ... r68 ... 98 ... 9-4

Crushed between rollers ... 75-4 ... 7-7 ... 13-5 ... 5-5

No. 3. Ground under millstones ... 80-52 ... -78 ... io'o ... 8-3

Crushed between rollers ... 73-2 ... 10*3 ... 14-3 ... 3-1

No. 4. Ground under millstones ... 79-88 ... -78 ... 13-2 ... 8-5

Crushed between rollers ... 74*2 ... 10-3 ... 13*8 ... 3-0

No. i. — Is a wheat of medium-sized grain and high weight
per bushel. One-and-a-half per cent, of impurities were removed
before grinding it, and it was allowed to absorb 2 per cent, of
water. It yielded a great quantity of pure white flour of superior
bloom and having a slight beany flavour.

No. 2. — Half the grains were medium-sized, half small. 72 per
cent, of impurities were removed before grinding it, and it
absorbed 3'6 per cent, of water. It yielded a great quantity of
flour of medium colour and strength.

No. 3. — Grains translucent and long. 37 per cent, of im-
purities were removed before grinding ; being very dry it ab-
sorbed 8 '4 per cent, of water — it and No. 4 probably unsurpassed
for quantity of flour ; the colour of the flour from No. 3 was
medium.

No. 4. — Grains translucent, large, long, and coarse. 1*2 per
cent, of dirt, etc., were removed before grinding it, and it
absorbed 7*6 per cent, of water. The yield of flour (which was
of medium colour with good bloom) was remarkably high.

These Indian wheats require a liberal admixture of English or
American, or " cold-country" wheat. The flours have an aromatic

H

98 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

or beany flavour, and need skill in mixing the grists. Probably
from 25 to 50 per cent, of American wheats having a sweet, milky
or nutty flavour would be required. The flours are " ricey," and
yield a very large quantity of bread. The bread is too close and
the crusts too hard and brittle when flours from unmixed Indian
wheats are employed.

The value of Indian wheats in European markets is often much
lowered by preventable impurities. Very frequently they contain
other cereal grains, especially barley ; gram and linseed sometimes
occur in them, and they are often largely contaminated with sand
and earth. Then, also, two or more kinds of wheat are found
mixed together — hard wheat with soft, and red wheat with white.

While the soft wheats abundantly produced in Northern India
are better adapted for milling purposes, the hard wheats of
Southern India will prove particularly appropriate for the manu-
facture of macaroni, vermicelli, and pates d'ltalie. This is owing
to the very high percentage of gluten which they contain — a point
in which they resemble the Polish and other European wheats so
much prized by the makers of macaroni.

It appears that hard wheats, both white and red, are preferred
for local consumption in India, and formerly commanded the
highest prices. Hard white wheat is grown chiefly in the Deccan
and Southern Mahratta country ; hard red wheat chiefly in
Rajputana, the Central Provinces, and Bombay generally. Soft
white wheat is grown to great perfection throughout Northern
India, and also in Rajputana and Gujarat. It prefers a rich loam,
well manured and irrigated, and a moderately severe winter. The
most valuable sort of soft red wheat, under the name of pissi,
comes from the Central Provinces, and especially from the
Narbada valley. The predominant soil in this tract is a heavy
black loam — " black cotton soil " — which retains moisture through-
out the year, and consequently needs no irrigation.

The straw of wheat is sometimes used in India as fodder, alone
or mixed with barley straw and the haulms of pulse.

THE CEREALS.

99

BARLEY.
Hordeum vulgar e, L.

Hind, — Jau, Jow, Jawa. Seng. — Jab. Tamil — Barali-arishi. Telugu — Yavala,
Barali-bujyam. Deccan — Satu. Guj. — Jau, Ymwah. Burma — Muya.
Nepdl — Tosa. Kangra — Yoa. North- West Provinces — Indurjou, Yurk.

Sanskrit — Situshiika, Yuva.

This well-known annual grass produces many stems, 2 to 3 feet
high, from a single grain. There are many strongly marked forms
of this cereal, but it is now generally believed by botanists that
they are all referable to a single species. The variety called
" Six-rowed " (H. hexastichon] is the one usually grown in India ;
another kind, cultivated in the inner Himalaya and Tibet, much
resembles wheat in the form of the ear, and in the fact that the
grains are naked.

The cultivation of barley is practically confined to Northern
India, rather more than one-third of the total being grown in the
Punjab, and a little under two-thirds in the North- West ; the
Allahabad and Benares Divisions show the largest areas in the
latter province. In the Punjab this crop is heaviest in the South
and South-East, and scarcely extends along or across the Indus.
In the north of Bombay a little barley is grown.

Generally barley is sown in October-November, and reaped in
February, March, or April. Where indigo is grown in the kharif,
barley is its usual accompaniment in the rabi. It is often cultivated
in light or sandy soils and usually receives but little manure.
Messrs. Duthie and Fuller estimated the yield of grain when it is
grown alone at 16 maunds when twice irrigated, at 10 maunds
when not irrigated ; the straw amounts to about i y? times the
weight of the grain. It is sown and cultivated in the same way
as wheat, but needs fewer ploughings. It is often grown with

wheat or pulse.

COMPOSITION OF BARLEY (HUSKED).

In 100 parts. In i Ib.

1 2 '5 ... 2 oz. o grs.

Albuminoids

... 11-5

... I ,

368 ,

Starch

... 7<ro

... II ,

87 ,

Fat

i"?

O ,

QI

Fibre

2-6

... 0 ,

7 >
182 ,

Ash

2*1

o .

147 f

H 2

ioo FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 6'3, and the nutrient-value 84*5.

The above analysis of a roughly-cleaned or husked sample
of Indian barley, shows that it contains a higher percentage of
albuminoids than average European barleys. This fact is con-
firmed by the examination of other Indian samples. At the
same time it must be recollected that it is inferior to Indian
wheat in this particular, just as the hundreds of analyses which
have now been made of European barley show that it likewise
gives a lower average percentage of albuminoids than European
wheat. When barley is completely cleaned or pearled, it loses
a very large proportion of its albuminoids, so that European
pearl barley (barley yields but 38 per cent, of pearl barley) does
not usually show more than 6 or 7 per cent, of albuminoids. The
"pearl dust" and "fine dust" separated in its preparation, and
amounting together to 40 per cent, of the original grain, are
however much richer, containing 12 or 14 per cent, of albuminoids ;
Indian pearl barley would, however, in all probability contain
as much as 10 per cent.

Barley, as it is prepared for human food in India, is generally
considered to be rather difficult of digestion. It is grown and
eaten throughout the whole of the Patna Division. With wheat
it forms an important staple diet in the Benares and surrounding
divisions. The grain is usually cleaned by pounding in wooden
mortars and winnowing. The grain is treated in one or other
of the following ways :

(i.) Ground into coarse meal and made into chapatti either
alone or with wheat meal. In Tirhiit a mixture is used of barley
i part, Indian corn 3 parts.

(2.) Parched and ground into coarse flour called suttu ; this
is stirred up with sufficient water to make a thick paste, to
this a little salt is added, and the preparation is eaten with
garlic, onions, or chillies. This mixture, generally admixed with
flour of gram or other seeds or grains, forms the chief food of the
larger part of the peasantry of Shahabad.

Barley alone or even in admixtures is generally thought
to be rather difficult of digestion, at least in the form in which

THE CEREALS. ibi

the grain is prepared for food in India. Barley mixed with
horse-gram forms an excellent food for horses, and is known
as " adour."

From an observation made in a preceding paragraph it will
have been remarked how very closely the pearl barley prepared
in Europe approaches rice in its nutrient-ratio. The Indian
cleaned barley is, as we have seen, much richer in albuminoids.
This arises from two causes, one of which is the higher percentage
of nitrogen naturally present in the average whole barley grain
as grown in India ; the other is the imperfect way in which
the Indian barley is cleaned previous to use as food. Some
room there evidently is for improvements in the mode of carrying
out the cleaning or pearling operation. A recently invented
Dutch process might be used. It produces a pearled grain of
larger size than that obtained by the usual operations ; the
pearled grain attains a higher percentage ; its shape is not
spherical, but much resembles that of the whole grain, and it
is richer than the ordinary sort in oil, mineral matter, and
albuminoids. The following details as to the great losses incurred
in the English method of pearling barley drawn from my own
investigations, may be useful :

100 Ibs. of barley yield 12^ Ibs. of " Coarse dust," and become
" blocked barley."

Blocked barley yields 14^ Ibs. of " Fine dust," and becomes
"pot or Scotch barley."

Pot barley yields' 25 # Ibs. of "Pearl dust," and becomes
" pearl barley."

The quantity of pearl barley thus obtained is about 37^ Ibs.,
a loss of 10 per cent, being unaccounted* for.

The composition of the three waste products or " dusts" is in
100 parts :

Coarse Dust. Fine Dust. Pearl Dust.

Water 14-2 ... 13-1 ... i3'3

Albuminoids ... TO ... 17*6 ... iz'i

Oil 17 ... 6-0 ... 3-4

Starch 46-9 ... 50*5 ... 67-2

Fibre ... ... 24-5 ... 8-5 ... r8

Ash 57 ... 4'3 ••• 2'2

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

In point of fact the albuminoids in all three analyses are
much exaggerated, because the nitrogen from which they are
calculated does not all exist in the albuminoid form. As an
example of this correction, 6 parts must be deducted from the
17*6 per cent, of analysis 2 — even then the n.6 left is a high
amount.

BAMBOO RICE.
Bambusa arundinacea, Willd.

Seng. — Bansh, Bans. Punjab — Magar bans, Nal bans. North- West India —

Kattung. Bomb. — Mandgay. Telngu — Veduru. Burma — Ki-a-kap-wa.
Sinhalese — Kattii-iina-gass. Tamil — Mungil.
Sanskrit — Vausa.

This species of bamboo grows in large compact clumps of 30 to
100 stems, and generally attains a height of 30 to 50 feet, but is
much taller on the west coast. The leaves are narrow, lanceolate,
and from 4 to 8 inches long. The flowers appear at long intervals,
all the stems of one clump being covered with flowers in the same
season. The fruit (a caryopsis) much resembles in form and size
the common oat, and is enclosed in a glume and palea.

This plant is a native of Southern India, Belgaun, Jubbulpur ;
it is cultivated in the sub-Himalayan tract of the Punjab. It
occurs commonly on the margin of rivers in the warmer parts of
Ceylon.

COMPOSITION OF BAMBOO GRAIN (HUSKED).

In ioo parts. In I Ib.

I oz. 332 grs.

Water

iro

I

Albuminoids

... n-8 .

I

Starch

••• 737 •

..II

Oil

0-6

o

Fibre

17 .

o

Ash

I'2

o

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 6*4, and the nutrient-value 87.
The food value of bamboo grain, after the removal of the husk,
is high ; its defects are due to the low proportion of oil and of
mineral matter. Of course it cannot be looked upon as a staple
cereal, but, as an occasional substitute for a deficient rice or millet

THE CEREALS. 103

crop, it has several times proved most serviceable. General Munro
considers that it was this species (B. arundinacea) which, in 1864,
during one of its occasional flowerings, furnished food to upwards of
50,000 persons in Kanara. It is stated that in 1812, in Orissa, a
general flowering of the bamboo prevented a famine. The grain
of other kinds of bamboo is, in all probability, similar in composi-
tion to that of B. arundinacea. The three most important species
are : B.spinosa (Roxb.), growing in Bengal, Gongachora, Goraghat,
Assam, Dacca, Cachar, Tenasserim, Moulmein, Mergui, Pegu ;
B. tulda (Roxb.), plains of Bengal and adjoining provinces ; and
B. vulgaris (WendL), which is cultivated in many districts of India,
particularly in the Western Deccan, Kolapur, Sattara, Poona,
Sylhet, Cachar, Chittagong, and in the Eastern Punjab ; this last
species grows also in Ceylon, where it is known as "una."

Young shoots of bamboo are eaten like asparagus ; they are
sometimes pickled. It is a favourite fodder. The plants, or
rather the stems, do not survive the seeding — at least this seems
to be generally the case with the four species above named.

General Munro (" Linn. Soc. Trans.," xxvi., pp. 87 to 157)
describes 23 species of Bambusa as well as many allied plants
belonging to other genera of Bambuseae. There is evidence that
the grain of not a few of these has been used, or may be used, for
human food.

PART IV.

BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES.

THE Cock's Comb, Prince's Feather, and Love-lies-bleeding,
the Spinach and Beet, the Rhubarb, Sorrel, and Dock, may be
cited as familiar examples of the three types of plants which we
have grouped together in the present part of this handbook.
These plants are generally of weedy habit and rapid growth, and
delight in soils containing much nitrogenous matter. Indeed,
the succulent stems of many of the species contain at one time
or another of their growth — generally just before flowering—
an extraordinary amount of nitrates ; in the case of some species
of Amarantus nearly 15 per cent, of these salts has been
found. The fruits or seeds of these plants do not, so far as we
know, widely differ in their chemical composition from the
millets considered in the previous part of the present work, but
complete analyses of several different kinds are still wanting.
However, as might be expected from the extreme richness of
the succulent parenchymatous tissues of these plants in nitrates
just before they flower and the disappearance of those salts
afterwards, the percentage of albuminoids (which are formed
from nitrates) in the seeds is high, ranging between 13 and 19.
Taken as a whole, this group of food grains shows a nutrient-
ratio between the albuminoids and starch which closely approaches
that demanded in a perfect food, while the proportion of oil
and of useful mineral matter is also quite satisfactory.

It should be noted that the seeds of Celosia, Amarantus, and
Chenopodium are not enclosed, as are those of Fagopyrum, in a
very thick husk or pericarp.

Io6

FIG. 19. COMMON AMARANTH (Amarantits paniculatus).

BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES. 107

The nutrient-ratio and nutrient-value of the three chief mem-
bers of the present group will stand thus :

Nutrient-ratio. Nutrient-value.

Amaranth ... ... ... i : 5 '3 ... 90

Buckwheat ... ... ... i : 47 ... 86

Quinoa ... 1:3 ••• 78

The plants yielding the products to be discussed in the present
chapter belong to three nearly related Natural Orders :

Order, AMARANTACE.E. Genera.

Tribe i. CELOSIE^. Celosia.

ii. AMARANTACEJE. Amarantus.
Order, CHENOPODIACE^E.

Tribe i. EUCHENOPODIE^E. Chenopodium.
Order, POLYGONACE^E.

Tribe iii. EUPOLYGONE/E. Fagopyrum.

Celosia cristata, L.
Punjab — Sil, Siyal, Siya, Mawal, Dhurra.

An erect herbaceous annual, having smooth, generally oval,
leaves. The numerous seeds are lenticular or reniform. It
occurs throughout India, cultivated or as an escape.

The seeds of this species of Celosia have not been submitted
to detailed chemical analysis, but there are good reasons for
concluding that, while generally inferior as a food-grain to
Amarantus, it does not differ widely in chemical composition
from that of the seeds of the common kind of Amarantus.

COMMON AMARANTH.
Amarantus paniciilatus, L.

Synonyms — A. frumentaceus (Ham. in Roxb. "Flora Indica"); A. anardana
(Ham. in Wall. Cat.) ; A. speciosus (Sims) ; A. sanguineus (Linn.) ; A.
strictus (Willd.).

Beng. — Sag. Tamil— Pting-kiray.

Punjab — Ganhar, sil, sinl, sawal, bhabri, savalana, batu, daukar, chaulei, etc.

A tall robust annual, stem striate, leaves long-petioled, elliptic
or ovate-lanceolate acute or finely acuminate. Seeds yellowish

io8 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

white or black, with or without a border ; they are generally oVth
inch in diameter, but variable in size as well as in form and colour.
Some of the above-cited synonyms may belong to A. caudatus, a
closely allied species.

This plant is cultivated throughout India and Ceylon, and up
to 9,000 feet in the Himalaya.

The three analyses given below were made upon samples of
seeds respectively identified with : A. frumentaceus (analysis A),
A. anardana (analysis B), and a third form of the exact character
of which some doubt exists (analysis C) ; analysis B is a recent
one of my own.

COMPOSITION OF AMARANTUS PANICULATUS (SEEDS).

In 100 parts.
Analysis A. Analysis B.

Analysis C.

In i Ib.
Analysis B.

Water

.. 11-9- ..

- 12-5 .

1 2 '6

2 oz. f o gr

Albuminoids

.. 137 ..

1 4*3 •

• i3'6 .

2 , 126 ,

Starch

.. 58-4 ..

OO'A

• 55'4 •

• 9 ,

290 ,

Oil

6-0 ..

6-8 .

. 6-4 .

• i .

39 >

Fibre

.. 4-8 ..

3'4 •

. 6-8 .

o ,

238 ,

Ash

.. 5-2 ..

2'6 .

5'2 •

o ,

182 ,

The nutrient-ratio is i : 5-3, and the nutrient-value 90.

The red amaranth grown by the Bodagars on the Nflgiris
and described as A. frumentaceus by Buchanan, is regarded by
Cleghorn as identical with the " bathu " of the North-West
Himalaya, which forms so remarkable a feature in the landscape
at Simla in October and November. Dr. Wight says that "it
is much cultivated on the slopes of the higher hills in several
districts of Southern India. In Coimbatore, Salem, and Madura,
I have frequently met with large fields of it, often on very steep
slopes ; in such situations it often grows upwards of 6 feet high.
The seed ground into meal forms the principal food of the wild
inhabitants of these hills." Probably this is the same plant as
" rajgirah," which, according to Colonel Sykes, is cultivated in
the Deccan. He says it is not a bread-grain, but is eaten by
those Hindus who keep the two fast days of each month. The
practice is to parch the seeds, to reduce them to meal, and to eat
this meal mixed with -sugar. The seeds are sown during the

BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES. 109

rains ; the crop is ripe from October to February ; the green leaves
are used as a fresh vegetable. One plant will produce 1 00,000
seeds.

BENGAL AMARANTH.

Amarantus gangeticiis, L.

Synonyms — A. tricolor (L.) ; A. tristis (L.); A. melancholicus (L.) ; A. lanceolatus
(Roxb.); A. oleraceus (Roxb.); A. polygamus (Roxb.); A. lividus (Roxb.);
A. amboinicus (Herb. Ham. in Wall. Cat.) ; A. inamoenus (Willd.).

Hind. — Rukta-shaka, Lab-shak. Ben*. — Lalsag, dengiid.

An erect, stout, handsome species, generally 2 to 3 feet high ;
leaves 2 to 5 inches, long-petioled, ovate-oblong, or lanceolate
obtuse, but very variable ; seed uVth inch in diameter, lenticular
and black.

Cultivated and in cultivated ground throughout India and
Ceylon ; common in Bengal.

COMPOSITION OF AMARANTUS GANGETICUS (HUSKED SEEDS), C.

In 100 parts. In I Ib.

Water ... ... ... i2'i ... i oz. 410 grs.

Albuminoids ... ... 14^5 ... 2 „ 140 „

Starch 6r8 ... 9 ,, 388 ,.

Oil... ... 6-3 ... i „ 3 „

Fibre ... ... ... 2 '6 ... o „ 182 ,,

Ash ... ... ... 2'6 ... o „ 182 „

The nutrient-ratio is here i : SJ4> and the nutrient-value nearly
91. The analysis shows that we have in these seeds a food
in which the proportions, not merely of albuminoids to total
starch plus the starch-equivalent of the oil, but also of the oil
itself, are very nearly those of an ideal 'or standard ratio. The
Amaranth last described is almost identical with this species
in this important respect.

Chenopodium album, L.

Punjab — Irr, Bathua, Jausag, Lunak, Mustakh, Bajar banj, Ratta, Siriari, Taku,

Gaddi-Sinugar.
Laddkh — Em.

This erect herb has rhomb-ovate, toothed, somewhat powdery
leaves ; the flowers are small and green, the seeds lenticular.

\

no FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

It is cultivated in Bengal, in the Punjab, and at considerable
heights on the Himalaya. The same species is said to be grown
in Kashmir, largely in the Province of Ladakh.

The leaves of Ch. album are used as a pot-herb and as
a green vegetable. They are rich in mineral matters, particularly
in potash salts. They likewise contain a considerable amount
of albuminoids and of other compounds of nitrogen. The seeds,
of which we possess no complete analysis, are considered superior

to buckwheat.

QUINOA SEED.

Chenopodium Quinoa, Willd.

This species of Chenopodium was introduced from Peru. Its
leaves have long slender petioles ; they are ovate, wedge-shaped
at the base, and pulverulent, with a glaucous or at length reddish
meal ; the seeds are shining, with a sub-acute margin. The
stem is stout and erect, and sometimes attains a height of
5 feet. The flowers are produced in panicles, both axillary
and terminal ; they are green and inconspicuous.

A light argillaceous soil or a loam is suitable for the growth
of this plant. It may be sown in furrows or on ridges a yard
apart, the plants in the rows being singled so as to leave
2 feet between each ; but it yields heavier heads of grain when
sown in nurseries and then transplanted to the fields. The
harvest takes place seven months after seed-time. It is a hardy
plant, which may be grown successfully in countries and climates
and at elevations above the sea such as are suited to the barley crop.

According to an analysis made by the late Dr. A. Volcker
of the bitter variety of Quinoa seed — which variety appears to
differ from the ordinary sort only in the presence of a small
quantity of a bitter and acrid substance — the following numbers

represent the

COMPOSITION OF QUINOA.

In roo parts. In I Ib.

Water ... ... ... i6-o ... 2 oz. 245 grs.

Albuminoids ... ... 19-2 ... 3 , 32

Starch, etc 47*8 ... 7

Oil 4-8 ... o

Fibre 8-0 ... i

Ash 4-2 ... o

283
336

122
294

FIG 20. QUINOA {Chenopodium Quinoa),

BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES. 113

The ash is rich in potash and phosphoric acid, containing
one-third its weight of each of these constituents.

The nutrient-ratio is i : 3, and the nutrient-value 78. Were
it not for the rather high proportion of indigestible fibre present
in Quinoa seed, it would constitute a food of remarkable rich-
ness. As it is, it equals several of the pulses in its percentage
of albuminoids, while it contains no insignificant amount of oily
matter. There is considerable nutritive resemblance between
Quinoa seeds and oats ; both products are capable of sustaining
life in a healthy condition without the aid of other foods.

Quinoa seeds should be soaked for a short time in water
and boiled quickly therein ; then this water should be thoroughly
drained away on a sieve or colander, and the cooking finally
completed in another portion of fresh water. By this treatment
the bitter principle present in one of the chief varieties of this
seed is removed.

Quinoa seeds are extremely small; 15,000 weigh no more
than an ounce.

ii4 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

BUCKWHEAT.
Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench.

Synonyms — F. vulgare (Endl.) ; F. sarracenicum (Dumort.) ; Polygonum fago-

pyrum (L.); P. dioicum (Hamilt.).
Punjab — Kala-Trumba, Chin, Kathu, Bras, Tsubri, Phapra.

An upright annual herb of quick growth ; stem, hollow
and angular ; leaves, hastate or cordate triangular ; fruit, trigo-
nous, with keeled edges.

Northern India, ascending to 11,500 feet in Kumaon.

In the absence of any analysis of Indian-grown common
buckwheat, the figures that follow may be taken as representing
the ordinary composition of the husked seeds of this plant.

COMPOSITION OF BUCKWHEAT (HUSKED), C.

In 100 parts.

In I 11).

Water

... 13-4 •-

2

oz. 63 g

rs.

Albuminoids

... 15-2 ...

2

„ l89

J

Starch

... 63-6 ...

IO

ii 77

,

Oil

V4

O

,i 238

Fibre

o

i f \J

. 147

>

Ash

2-3 ..

0

ii l61

,

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 47, and the nutrient-value 86.

No analyses have been published of the following species
of Fagopyrum grown in India: F. emarginatum, Roth. (Nepal,
Kunawar) ; F. cymosum, Meisn. (Nepal, Mussori, Kashmir,
Kumaun) ; F. triangulare, Meisn. (Nepal, Kumaun, Sirmur,
Assam) ; and F. rotundatum, Bab. (Kunawar, Kumaun).

Buckwheat is used by the poorer classes in some parts of
Upper India as food ; the seeds are ground into meal and
made into thin cakes.

Fagopyrum tataricum, Gaertn.

Synonyms — F. dentatum (Moench.) ; Fagotriticum sibiricum (L.) ; Frumentum

sarracenicum (Act. Nat. Cur.) ; Polygonum tataricum (L.).
North- West Provinces — Daran.

The six species of buckwheat grown in India are so similar
that they are generally confounded together by the natives

Fio. 21. BUCKWHEAT (Fagofyrum

I 2

BUCKWHEAT AND ITS ALLIES. 117

under the same names — " kotu," " bro," etc. None of the
buckwheats are considered equal to the millets even in the
hills ; in the plains they are regarded as heating and unpalatable.
They make a bitter, poor, and hard bread. The species are
all cultivated to a great height, even up to 14,000 feet in
Ladak ; the crop is an autumnal one.

An imperfect chemical analysis of the fruits or unhusked
seeds of the present species shows it to resemble very closely
the common kind cultivated in Europe, the albuminoids being
io-9 per cent., the oil 2 '4, and the ash 7 ; the percentages of
albuminoids and oil would be considerably raised by the removal
of the husk.

The buckwheats are amongst the foods which may be law-
fully eaten on the Hindu fast days.

PART V.

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.

The Characteristics of Pulse— Preparation of Pulse for Food — Use of Pulse in
India — Botanical and Chemical Classification of Pulses.

THE seeds of leguminous plants, generally known as pulse, differ
chemically from the cereal grains in several particulars. They
sometimes contain rather more oil or fat — a constituent which may
rise even to 17 per cent, (in Inga-beans), to 18 per cent, (in soy-
beans), or to 50 per cent, (in pea-nuts). They rarely yield less
than 2>£ per cent., and often as much as 4, of mineral matter or
ash. More important, however, than either of these constituents,
is the nitrogenous matter of pulse. This is often called legumin,
or vegetable casein, but in reality it varies in different kinds of
pulse, and it is a mixture, not a single definite compound. Three
substances have been separated from the so-called vegetable
casein, none of them being identical in all respects with the
casein of milk. They are called respectively, gluten-casein,
legumin, and conglutin, but it would be hazardous to affirm that
the substances described under these names are perfectly definite
compounds. They contain, in 100 parts —

Carbon 51' to 54'

Hydrogen ... ... ... ... 6*8 „ 7*1

Nitrogen ... ... ... 14-8 „ 18*5

Oxygen ... 22- „ 27-

Sulphur -5 „ r

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 119

Legumin occurs in largest proportion and in the larger number
of kinds of pulse ; conglutin is said to be chiefly characteristic of the
lupine. With all these compounds much phosphate or phosphorus
is associated ; it is always difficult and sometimes impossible to
separate this substance from the vegetable caseins.

For the purpose of calculation it will be quite sufficient to
assume one composition for the albuminoids of all vegetable foods
including pulse. We assume, throughout the present work, that
all these albuminoids contain i^'^>7 per cent, of nitrogen, so that
we may always calculate the amount of albuminoids present by
multiplying the nitrogen found in an analysis by the coefficient
6'3 ; for 15-87 x 6-3 = 99*981, practically 100. It is quite true
that some of the samples of legumin extracted from pulse contain
nearly 1 7 per cent, of nitrogen, but the amount is often lower, and
we shall not be led into any serious error by adopting the figure
named above.

Another point connected with the nitrogen of pulse must be
here noted. Some of this nitrogen exists in the form of nitrogen
compounds which are not albuminoid — which are not flesh-formers,
in fact, and which, for all we know, may be entirely without
nutritive value. These substances are simpler in constitution than
the albuminoids, and are often of the nature of alkaloids — lupinine,
a bitter basic substance from lupines, is one of these, asparagine is
another. But the quantity of nitrogen existing in pulse in the form
of non-albuminoid compounds of all kinds is small, not exceeding
3 to 5 per cent, of the total albuminoids in the common kinds of
ripe pulse ; in the seeds, stems, and pods of the unripe plants it is
very much larger.

The digestibility of the albuminoids in pulse as compared with
that of the corresponding compounds in the cereal grains, has been
usually regarded as low. In general, they are not only digested
and absorbed at a slower rate, but a larger proportion of the total
amount present remains unattacked and unused in its passage
along the alimentary tract. The proportion of unused to used
albuminoids is proportionately highest when the pulse forms the
largest part of the ration ; it is much reduced when the pulse con-

120 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

stitutes not more than one-fourth of the daily food ; and it is still
further lowered when the pulse is eaten with milk, butter and eggs,
or with other easily digested animal foods. Even under favourable
circumstances the unabsorbed portion amounts to 8 per cent, of the
total. Of starch in pulse from 93 to 96^ per cent, may be taken
up, but the fat or oil is less available, except in the case of the
more oleaginous kinds, such as soy-beans and pea-nuts.

Many kinds of pulse should be prepared for food by first
removing the seed-coats or skins of the seeds. The slow but
thorough cooking of the meal obtained by grinding the split seeds
is important. As illustrations of the various modes of preparing
pulse for food, the plans adopted in certain localities for treating
chick-peas and pigeon-peas may be cited.

Chick-peas are thus used ; they are either —
i. Parched and then eaten with or without oil ; or they are
parched and ground into coarse meal which is stirred up
with water, garlic, onion, or a chillie being added,
ii. Ground into flour and made into chapatties or sweet cakes,
these generally, however, containing other flours ; or the
flour is made into balls with water and spices, these balls
being then fried in oil.

iii. Husked, split, and then boiled with condiments,
iv. Steeped in cold water till they swell, and then eaten either

alone or with salt, or else fried in oil or ghi with chillies.
Pigeon-peas are thus used ; they are either —
i. Parched in hot sand and eaten dry, or with salt or oil.
ii. Ground into flour and made into cakes, or ground into meal

and mixed with water.

iii. Steeped in cold water and rubbed into a paste, small pieces
of the fruit of Cucurbita Pepo, salt, carminative seeds and
sometimes asafcetida being added. The mass is made into
balls, which are dried in the sun and used in curries ; this
preparation seems peculiar to Behar, Patna and Purniah
Districts.

iv. Boiled in about six times their bulk of water until soft,
condiments being then added — turmeric, black pepper,

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 121

capsicum, and sometimes cumin and coriander fruits, with
the leaves of Laurus Cassia and salt. A little broken capsi-
cum with mustard oil or ghi is heated in another vessel
and browned, the above preparation of dhal being poured
into it.

To these recipes may be added a note as to the desirability of
washing most kinds of pulse in cold water, and the useful effect
(especially in the case of lentils) of a brief soaking in water to
which a little carbonate of soda has been added ; the alkaline liquor
removes a part of the bitter principle present in the pulse, and
is then thrown away.

The proportion of pulse to cereal consumed as food differs
much in different parts of India. As examples the following
Districts may be named where pulse constitutes from /^ to -h of
the food-stuffs consumed, or else is a mere trivial adjunct :

Hugh', — % of the rice.

Cachar, — with fresh vegetables # of the food-stuffs.

Bogra, Puri, — ^ of the food-stuffs.

Murshidabad, — I of the rice.

Noakhali, Dinapur, Gaya, Saran, — i of the food-stuffs.

Dinajpur, Maldah, — TV of the food-stuffs.

Manbhum, — ¥V of the food-stuffs.

Tirhut, — OT of the food-stuffs.

Ranjpur, Dacca, — mere adjuncts.

Faridpur, — many kinds of pulse are eaten when fish is not
attainable.

Chittagong, — pulse is eaten by well-to-do natives.

The following tabular statement gives the number of acres
under pulse in 1882-83 m tne ^ve provinces from which the returns
are fairly complete :

Various Pulses.

North- West Provinces 4,350,664

Punjab 3,664,662

Madras ... 1,955,946

Bombay ... ... ... ... ... 1,699,432

Berar ... ... ... ... ... 467,465

12,138,169

122

FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The Order Leguminosae is the second largest Order of
flowering plants : it contains between 6,000 and 7,000 species.
A conspectus of the tribes and genera of this Order — so far as
the plants described in the following pages are concerned — is
here given :

Sub-Order I., PAPILIONACE^.

Tribes.

ii. GENISTE^E.
v. GALEGE^E.
vi. HEDYSARE.E —

Sub-Tribe 5. STYLOSANTHE^E.
vii. VICIE^E.

viii. PHASEOLE^E—

Sub-Tribe i. GLYCINE^:.
,, 2. ERYTHRINE^E.
,, 3. GALACTIE^:.
„ 4. EUPHASEOLE^E.

„ 5. CAJANE^:.

Sub-Order II., CESALPINIE/E —
xiv. GASSIER.
xvi. AMHERSTIE^;.

Sub-Order III., MIMOSE/E —
xxii. ACACIE^E.

Genera.
Lupinus.
Cyamopsis.

Arachis.

Cicer, Vicia, Lathyrus, Pisum,
Lens.

Glycine.

Mucuna.

Canavalia.

Phaseolus, Vigna, Dolichos,

Psophocarpus.
Cajanus.

Ceratonia.
Tamarindus.

Pithecolobium.

The sequence in which the several kinds of Indian pulse are
arranged and described in the following pages is that indicated
in the above table, except that a few species, chiefly belonging
to Mucuna, Psophocarpus, and Tamarindus, are relegated to the
closing paragraphs of the present part of the work, because no
detailed chemical analyses of these plants have been made.

In classifying the several species of pulse according to their
chemical composition, the most useful plan to follow is one based
on their relative richness in albuminoids, or rather on the value
of their nutrient-ratios, that is, the proportion between their
albuminoids and their starch, reckoning, however, with their
starch, the starch-equivalent of the oil they contain. In the
following table the first column of .figures gives the above-named
nutrient-ratio ; the second column the percentage of albuminoids ;

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.

12

and the third the " nutrient- value," or, in other words, the added
percentages of albuminoids, of starch, and of oil translated into
its starch-equivalent.

Name of Pulse.

1. Lupines ...

2. Vetches ...

3. Cyamopsis-beans
4 Vetch lings

5. Soy-beans

6. Sword-beans

7. Peas

8. Lablab-beans

9. Moth-beans
10. Lentils ...
ir. Vigna-beans

12. Haricot-beans .

1 3. Horse-gram

14. Miing-beans

15. Pigeon-peas

1 6. Lima-beans

17. Chick-peas

1 8. Inga-beans

19. Pea-nuts...

20. Carob-beans

Nutrient-ratio, or
Albuminoids to Starch.

I
I

i "4
1-6

I

«'7

I

17

I

2'O

I

2'2

I

2'4

I

2'5

I

2'5

I

2 '5

I

2 '5

I

2 '5

I

27

1

27

I

3'°

I

3'2

I

3 '3
4-6

I

5'2

T

8-5

Albuminoids,
percentage of.

317

29-8
31*9

35'3

25-0

23-6

2 2 '4

24-9
23-1
23-0

19-8

I9-5
I7'6

Nutrient-value.

77
81

79

87
.. 105

80

8r

80

81
.. 87

81

75

- 83
.. 83

80

80
.. 84

98
.. 151

68

THE LUPINE.
Lupinus albus, L.
Hind. — Turmas. Punjab — Bakla-misrie.

This well-known annual herb, a native of the Levant, is
cultivated in some parts of India. It is much grown in some
parts of Europe, particularly in Germany, where several varieties
of L. albus, and two or three other species, are cultivated mainly
for the sake of the seeds.

COMPOSITION OF LUPINES (G).

In 100 parts.

Water

... 12-5 ..

Albuminoids

... 317 ..

Starch

••• 337 ••

Oil...

£.Q

Fibre

I3'5

Ash

3-6

In I Ib.

2 oz. o grs.

5 » 32 „

5 » !7i »

o » 35° »»

2 „ 7° »

o „ 252 „

/

124 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The nutrient-ratio in lupines is i : i'4, and the nutrient-
value 77. The high amount of fibre present in these seeds
renders a good deal of the albuminoids and oil they contain
unavailable for digestion. It should also be noted that the seeds
of most varieties of lupine contain one or more bitter principles.
These contain nitrogen, are of the nature of alkaloids, and are
poisonous. The seeds of the blue lupine contain a liquid alkaloid,
different from the two alkaloids found in the yellow lupine. The
seeds of some few varieties may perhaps be free from these
objectionable constituents, but careful and complete experiments
to determine this point are still wanting. The poisonous alkaloids
of lupines are dissipated or destroyed when the seeds are
thoroughly cooked by boiling.

GUAR-BEANS.
Cyamopsis psoralioides, D.C.

Synonyms — Psoralea tetragonoloba (Linn.); Lupinus trifoliatus (Cav.) ; Dolichos

psoralioides (Lamk.); D. fabseformis (L'Herit).
Hind. — Mutki-pulli. Punjab — Mot-safaid, Guar. Tarn. — Koth-averay. Tel.—

Goruchik-kudu.

A robust, hairy, erect annual herb, 2 to 3 feet high. It
belongs to the sub-order Papilionacese of the Leguminosae and
to the tribe Galegeae. The other species of Cyamopsis is
African. The pods of this species are thick, and from \% to
2 inches long. It grows on the plains from the Himalaya to the
Western Peninsula. It is cultivated, not only for its ripe seeds,
but as a green vegetable, the pods being eaten like those of
French beans. The dry beans are used as food for animals as
well as for man ; an average yield is 10 maunds per acre.

COMPOSITION OF GUAR-BEANS.

In 100 parts. In i Ib.

Water n'8 ... i c
Albuminoids ... ... 2()'.8 ... 4
Starch 46-2 ... 7
Oil... ••• ••• ••• i '4 •'•• °

z. 388

, 336

,' 98

Fibre 77 ••• I
Ash s'i ... o

, 102
, 217

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 17, while the nutrient-value is
79 ; the indigestible fibre is rather high.

126

FIG. 22. PEA-NUT (Arachis hypogani).

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 127

THE PEA-NUT.

Arachis hypogcea, L.

Hind. — Miing-phullie, Biie-mung, Vilayeti-mung. Punjab — Chawal miigra. Beng.
— China-badano, Alke-kulay. Tel. — Nela-sanagalu. Tamil — Nelay-cadalay.
Sanskrit — Bochanaka.

The ground or pea-nut is an annual herb with procumbent
branches. It belongs to the sub-order Papilionacese, the tribe
Hedysareae, and the sub-tribe Stylosanthese. It presents some-
what the appearance of a large kind of clover ; it has small,
bright yellow, pea-like flowers borne on long stalks ; these, after
flowering, curl downwards and force the immature pod into the
soil, where it ripens. The pod is about il/2 inch long and contains
from 2 to 3 seeds, 75 of which weigh one ounce. This plant
is probably of American origin, although it has been long
cultivated in India, on the West Coast of Africa, and in many
other tropical countries. There is a similar plant, Voandzeia sub-
terranea, allied to Vigna, which grows under the same conditions.

COMPOSITION OF PEA-NUTS (C).

In ioo parts. In I Ib.

Water 7-5 ... i o
Albuminoids ... ... 24^5 ... 3
Starch ... ... ... 117 ... i
Oil .. ... 50-0 8

z. 87 gr

403
382
o

Fibre ... ... ... 4-5 ... o
Ash r -8 ... o

315
126

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 5-2, and the nutrient-value so
high as 151. As half the weight of pea-nuts is oil, they require
a considerable admixture of starchy food in order to become a
wholesome and economical article of diet. The green and unripe
pods are less oily and more easily digested ; they have an
agreeable taste when roasted. Pea-nuts, after the greater part
of the oil has been extracted by pressure, yield a cake well
adapted for feeding cattle.

128 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

THE CHICK-PEA.
Cicer arietinum, L.

Hind. — Chola, Channa, Ghana, Hurbari, Adas, Chela, Rohala. Seng. — But, Chala,

Chuna. Tarn. — Cadalei. Telugti — Harimandha-kam.
Sanskrit— Chennuka.

A viscose much-branched annual, with pinnate leaves usually
having a terminal leaflet. The plant attains a height of
2 feet or more. The pods are ^ to i inch long, and usually
contain two seeds which are generally somewhat symmetrically
crinkled : about 90, sometimes less, weigh one ounce. Of the
7 species of Cicer 2 are Indian. The genus Cicer belongs to
the tribe Vicieae, and the sub-order Papilionacese.

The chick-pea or common gram is largely cultivated in the
Northern Provinces and the Nilgiris. It is sown in August or
September, and reaped in April and May ; if sown in October or
November, it is ready in February, March, or April. The plants
should be i foot apart, 2 feet being left between the rows. The
ripe, unhusked seeds are largely used for horses and cattle in
many parts of India ; the seeds, after parching, grinding, steeping,
or the removal of the husks, form an important food in some
districts, chiefly for the labouring class. The young leaves fried
in oil or ghi are also considered wholesome : they are sometimes
ordered as the exclusive diet in leprosy by native physicians.

The figures given below are the means of 9 analyses of the
unhusked peas and of 4 analyses of the peas from which the
husk has been removed.

COMPOSITION OF THE CHICK-PEA.

In 100 parts.

In i Ib.

Husked. With Husk.

Husked.

Water

.... 11-5 ... n-2 ...

i oz. 367 grs.

Albuminoids

... 217 ... 19-5 ...

3 , 207 »

Starch

... 59-0 ... 53-8 ...

9 i J92 ,

Oil

4*2 ... 4'6

o , 294 ,

Fibre

ro 7-8

o 70

Ash

2'6* ... 3'it ...

7 If

o , 182 ,

* i'i of phosphoric acid. f 0-8 of phosphoric acid.

FIG. 23. CHICK-PEA (Cicer arietinum).

129

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 131

The nutrient-ratio in the unhusked peas is i : 3*3 ; the nutrient-
value is 84.

When growing, this pea exudes a sour secretion which contains
acid oxalate of potash, and other acid salts.

The second Indian species of Cicer is C. soongaricum, the
leaves of which are 3 to 4 inches long, the leaflets in 10 to 12
pairs, the end a spiral tendril. It belongs to the temperate and
alpine region of the Western Himalaya, from 9,000 to 15,000
feet : Piti Lahiil, Kumaun, Tibet, etc. I have not succeeded as
yet in obtaining a sample of this species of chick-pea for analysis.

THE VETCH.
Vicia sativa, L.
Hind. — Anhuri. Lahore — Mattz-rewari.

A slender annual belonging to the tribe Viciese. Its leaves
have 8 to 1 2 leaflets ; the pod is i ^ to 2 inches in length,
8 to lo-seeded. It occurs in the North-West Provinces, from
the plains of Bengal up to 7,500 feet in Kumaun, and is probably
not anywhere truly wild but always cultivated, though it is said
to occur spontaneously in the Patnd District, where, though little
used or esteemed, it is made into cakes by the poor. V. nar-
bonensis occurs in the Punjab near Peshawar. It is probably
an introduction.

COMPOSITION OF VETCHES.

In 100 prirts. In i Ib.

Water

IO'I

... i oz. 270 gr

Albuminoids

3^5

... 5 > 17

Starch

... 47-6

... 7 ,

270

Oil

•9

o ,

63

Fibre

6-7

... i ,

3l

Ash

3'2

o ,

224

The albuminoids in the above analysis of Indian vetches are
rather high, the average of European samples giving 27^5 per
cent. only. The nutrient-ratio in the Indian vetches is i : i'6.

K 2

132 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The garden and field beans of Europe are also grown in
India ; they are the seeds of Vicia Faba (L.), commonly known
as Faba vulgaris. They contain on an average about 25 per
cent, of albuminoids and 7*5 per cent, of fibre. These beans
are grown to a considerable extent in the North-West Provinces.

THE VETCHLING.
Lathyrus sativus, L.

Synonym — Cicercula alata (Moench.).

Hind. — Khesdri, Kussiir, Kasari, Kassar-tiuri, Latri. Beng. — Teyuri, Teora. Punjab
— Chural. Sind— Matar.

A much-branched annual herb, having equally pinnate leaves ;
leaflets 2, linear or lanceolate. The pods are i% inch long,
4 to 5-seeded. It is spread through the Northern Provinces,
ascending from the plains of Bengal to 4,000 feet in Kumaun.

The genus Lathyrus belongs to the tribe Viciese of the sub-
order Papilionaceae. There is another species, not an Indian
plant (L. tingitanus), which like L. sativus is extensively cultivated.

This is a cold-weather or rabi crop, and is grown on land
unfitted for most other pulse. It is1 sown in October and
November and reaped in March and April.

COMPOSITIONT OF VETCHLINGS.

Ill IOO p.ll S.

In I Ib.

Water

JO'I

r oz 270 grs,

Albuminoids

... 31-9 ...

5 » 45 >i

Starch and Fibre ...

••• 53'9 ••-

8 „ 273 „

Oil

•Q

o . 6"? .

Ash

y
... 3-2 ...

' » "O »

o „ 224 „

The nutrient-ratio is here about i : 175, while the nutrient-
value is nearly 87. There is reason to suspect the occasional
presence, in injurious proportion, of a poisonous bitter principle
in this vetchling. It has a bad reputation, and is almost
universally regarded in Bengal as unwholesome, deranging
digestion, and producing dysentery, diarrhoea, and various skin
diseases. But some allowance must be made for the prejudice
of the Bengalese. It is most used by the poorer classes, being

133

FIG 24. VETCHLING (Lathyrus

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 135

the cheapest and most abundant pulse. Many cases of sudden
and incurable paralysis have been undoubtedly traced to the
large and continuous use of this seed. It formed, by a series
of accidents, the chief food, during the years 1829-33, of some
of the eastern villages of Oudh. Many cases of sudden paralysis
of the lower extremities occurred during that period, the persons
attacked being generally under thirty years of age.

This is a coarse kind of pulse, hard and difficult to cook. It is
used in Behar and Patna in curries. It is also made into paste-
balls which are fried in ghi and eaten with boiled rice ; it is also
eaten as dal.

THE PEA.
Pisum sativum, L.

Hind. — Mattar, Gol-mattar, Buttani-chola. JBeng. — Bura-mattar, Kuda. Tamil —

Pattanie.
Sanskrit — Harenso.

The garden pea, a familiar annual herb, the leaves having three
pairs of entire glaucous leaflets, and large leafy stipules. Pisum
belongs to the tribe Vicieae. As a wild plant P. sativum is
regarded as a native of the South Caucasus to Persia. It has
been long cultivated in India.

The pea prefers heavy ground, and generally receives little
cultivation, manure or irrigation. The produce of ripe seeds varies
from 7 to 8 maunds per acre, without irrigation ; on irrigated land
the yield is increased to 10 up to 16 maunds. The green pods
are largely eaten before the general crop is cut in February,
March, or April ; the sowing takes place in October and

November.

COMPOSITION OF PEAS.

In 100 parts.
Husked. Unhusked.

Water

... irS ..

. 12-5 ...

2 oz. o grs.

Albuminoids

... 28-2 ..

. 23-6 ...

3

340 »

Starch

... 55'° ••

• 54-5 •••

8

315 »

Oil

... i'S ••

1-3 ...

o

91 »

Fibre

I 'O

S'7

o

399 »

Ash

... 2-5* ..

J /

. 2-4t ...

0

\J X X '*

168 „

* i -o of phosphoric acid. f o'8 of phosphoric acid.

136 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The mean of a large number of analyses, made of peas grown
in Europe, shows an almost complete accordance with the above
results, which yield a nutrient-ratio of i : 2^4 and a nutrient-
value of 81, in the unhusked pulse.

In some districts this pea is not much esteemed in comparison
with other pulse. Undoubtedly it has a tendency to produce
flatulence, and is unwholesome when imperfectly cooked or im-
perfectly freed from the tough coat of the seed. In the south of
the Purniah District it is largely eaten uncooked, and causes or
aggravates dysentery and diarrhoea.

The field pea, sometimes called Pisum arvense, is a variety or
sub-species of this species. It is sown and reaped at the same
time as the garden pea. It is rightly regarded as more in-
digestible than the latter, but there is no constant difference of
chemical composition between the two sorts. The garden pea has
round seeds and 4 to 6 leaflets, the field pea marbled compressed
seeds and 2 to 4 leaflets.

For methods of preparing these peas for food see page 1 20.

THE LENTIL.
Lens esculenta, Moench.

Synonyms — Ervum lens (L.) ; Cicer lens (Willd.).

Hind. — Masiiri, Mussiir. Beng. — Buro-Mussiir, Mussiiri.

This plant belongs to the tribe Viciese ; the botanical name
by which it is best known is Ervum lens, but the genus Ervum
has now been sunk, partly in Lens. The lentil is a branched
annual with oblong leaflets, usually 8 in number. The pod is
broad and short, and contains 2 seeds, weighing from i to
i/^ grain apiece in the large seeded variety. The seeds are
compressed, and have the form of a bi-convex lens. This plant
has been largely cultivated from very ancient times ; its native
country is unknown.

The lentil may be grown on almost all soils ; it flourishes
upon those which, while light, lie low. It is grown like peas as

FIG. 25. LENTIL (Lens esculent^}

;

i 1

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.

a cold-weather crop, being sown in September and October, and
reaped in March and April. It is commonly cultivated, especially
in the North-West Provinces and Madras. It yields from 6y2 to
8 maunds per acre, or, if irrigated, 10 to 12 maunds. The yield
might be increased if more pains were taken in the selection
of seed for sowing, as there are some varieties of the lentil
which produce seeds weighing twice as much as the small
common sort, and which yet do not make a proportionately
increased demand upon the resources of the soil.

COMPOSITION OF LENTILS.

ill IUU pclIlS.

Husked. With Husk.

In i Ib.

Water

... n-8 ...

117 ..

i oz. 380 gr

Albuminoids

... 25-1 ...

24-9 ..

• 3

43°

Starch

... 58-4 .-

56-0 ..

. 8

420

Oil

1-3 ...

I'S ••

o

I05

Fibre

I'2 ...

3'6 ..

o

252

Ash

2'2* ...

2-3+ -

o

161

The nutrient-ratio in lentils is i : 2*5, and the nutrient-
value 87. The lentil is generally regarded as a pulse of the
second class, inferior to miing (Phaseohis Mungo), but equal
to urhur, the pigeon-pea. It is highly nutritious but somewhat
heating ; it should be carefully freed from the husk or coat.
The bitter substance which occurs in lentils may be removed
to some extent by soaking them for a short time in water in
which a little carbonate of soda (common washing soda) has been
dissolved. The meal of lentils, deprived of their coat, is of great
richness, containing generally more albuminoid or flesh-forming
matter than bean or pea-flour. The preparations advertised
under the names of " Revalenta," " Ervalenta," etc., consist
mainly of lentil meal, mixed with the flour of barley or some
other cereal, and common salt.

* o'8 of phosphoric acid. t 07 of phosphoric acid.

140 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

THE Sov-r.EAX.
Glycine Soja, Sieb. and Zucc.

Synonyms — Soja hispida (Moench.); Dolichos Soja (Linn.); Soja angustifolia (Miq.).
Hind. — Bhat, Bhatwan. Punjab — Bhut. Beng. — Gari-kulay. Naga — Tsu-dzi.

This important bean is the seed of Glycine Soja, a small,
sub-erect, trifoliate, hairy annual, with pods generally 3 to
4-seeded. It belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-
order Papilionacese, tribe Phaseoleae, and sub-tribe Glycineae :
5 genera are included in this sub-tribe. Glycine contains about
12 species, chiefly Australian, but 3 are Indian, namely, G. javanica,
G. pentaphylla, and our present species.

The soy-bean forms a considerable article of food in China
and Japan. Since 1873 it has been successfully grown, as an
experiment, in some of the warmer parts of Europe. It is
widely spread in the outer Himalaya, and tropical regions from
Kumaun to Sikkim, and the Khasir, and the Naga Hills to Upper
Burma. It is often cultivated, rather largely in Busti and
Gorakhpur, Patna and Purniah Districts.

This crop is generally grown by itself; the seeds are sown
from June to September; the harvesting takes place between
November and January. It is consequently a kharif crop. The
seeds should be placed at a depth not exceeding i to \yz inch ;
1 8 plants may be left, after weeding and thinning, to the square
yard. A peaty soil, or one rich in organic matter, suits the
plant best ; a calcareous soil is also favourable to its growth.
Sulphate of potash is a good manure ; nitrogen may be supplied
either as nitrate of soda, or, in the case of soils poor in organic
matter, in the form of rape or mustard cake, but it is rarely
needed, while large applications of nitrogenous manure exert a
distinctly injurious effect upon the yield of beans. So far as
we know, this very important, vigorous, and productive pulse
is not attacked by any insect or parasitic fungus.

Although there are a number of varieties of the soy-bean, the
chief differences between them lying in the size, shape, and colour

141

FIG. 26. SOY-BEAN (Glycine So/a).

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 143

of the seeds, yet these varieties are not distinguished by definite
differences in chemical composition. That composition entitles
the soy-bean to the highest place, even amongst the pulses, as a
food capable of supplementing the deficiencies of rice and of other
eminently starchy grains. Very few vegetable products are so
rich as this bean at once in albuminoids and in fat or oil, the
former constituent amounting on the average to 35 per cent, and
the latter to 19. The cultivation of the pale large-seeded varieties
should be extended.

COMPOSITION OF SOY-BEANS (C.).*

In TOO parts. In I Ib.

Water ... ... ... ii'o ... i oz. 333 grs.

Albuminoids ... 35-3 ... 5 „ 283 „

Starch and Sugar ... ... 26*0 ... 4 „ 70 „

Fat ... 18-9 ... 3 „ 10 „

Fibre 4'2 ... o „ 294 „

Ash ... 4-6 ... o „ 322 „

The nutrient-ratio is here about i : 2, while the nutrient-
value is 105. Potash forms nearly one-half, and phosphorus-
pentoxide one-third of the ash of the soy-bean. Ripe soy-beans
require long soaking, preferably in warm water, in order to render
them soft.

In China and Japan three preparations are extensively made
from the soy-bean. Soy sauce is the best known of these, but
more important are the soy or bean cheeses, and a kind of paste.
The beans are sometimes pressed for the sake of the oil they
yield ; the residual cake forms an extremely rich cattle food, con-

* The mean percentages, deduced from 8 analyses of unhusked soy-beans,
4 of the samples being of Chinese origin, and from 2 of husked soy-beans, are
thus given by Dr. Forbes Watson :

With Husk. Husked.
Water ... ... ... ;;; 9-1 ... io'3

Albuminoids... ... ... ... 40^4 ... 43-6

Starch and Sugar ... .;. ... 25*1 ... 21*0

Fat ... ... 15-8 ... 15-5

Fibre... ... ... ... ... 5*2 ... 4-4

Ash ... ... ... ... ... 4-4 ... 5-2

144 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

taining as it does 40 per cent, of flesh-formers and 7 per cent, of
oil. The soy-bean may also be grown as a fodder plant. If cut
just when the pods are fully formed it makes an excellent hay,
superior to that of the lentil.

THE SWORD-BEAN.
Canavalia ensiformis, D.C.

Synonyms— Canavalia gladiata (B.C.); C. incurva (D.C.); Dolichos ensiformis
(L.); D. gladiatus (Jacq.) ; C. virosa (W. & A.); C. Stocksii (Dalz.); C.
rnollis (W. & A.).

Hind. — Kudsumber, Mukhum-smo, Chotu-sino. Beng. — Mukshimo-shino. Tamil
— Segapii, Velay-thumbettan, Coli-averakai. Telugu — Chamma, Yerra-tum-
bettan-kaya. Deccan — Chotie-saymke-pullie. Sinhalese — Awara. Mysore —
Kakara-parang. Burma — Pai-noung-neo.

A twining perennial or biennial herb with trifoliate leaves, the
leaflets being ovate or oblong, and from 4 to 6 inches in length.
The pod is 8 to 1 2-seeded, 6 to 9 inches long (and even more), and
i to i# inch broad.

This species of Canavalia extends from the Eastern Himalaya
to Ceylon and Siam ; it is commonly cultivated.

COMPOSITION OF SWORD-BEANS (C.).

In ioo part*. In I Ib.

Water

... 12-5 .

2 oz. o grs.

Albuminoids

... 25-0 .

.- 4 » ° »

Starch

... 48-6 .

•• 7 » 339 »

Oil...

2-8 .

o , , 106 ,,

Fibre

7'7 -

3) ^ "

.. I „ 102 „

Ash

3 "4 •

,. o „ 238 „

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 2*2, and the nutrient-value 80.

FIG. 27. SWORD-BEAN (Canavalia ensiformis}\

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 147

HARICOT-BEANS.

Phaseolus vulgar is, L.
Hind. — Bakla, Loba.

A well-known annual, having sub-erect or twining stems 6 to
10 feet long, and pods 4 to 6 inches long, with 4 to 6 seeds.
Many cultivated forms of this plant have been described.

The ripe seeds of many varieties of this species are known
in Europe as haricot-beans. The unripe pods are largely used
as a green vegetable under the names of French beans and
kidney-beans. Amongst the very numerous varieties of haricots
cultivated in Europe as a green vegetable, one of the best is the
Haricot Beurre of the French. The pods of the scarlet-runner
(P/i. multiflorus), or Haricots d'Espagne, are similar, but the ripe
seeds are often unwholesome.

COMPOSITION OF HARICOT-BEANS.

In 100 parts.

In i Ib.

Water

I4'o

2 oz. 105 grs.

Albuminoids

... 23-0 ...

3 . 297 ii

Starch

... 52-3 ...

8

, 161 „

Oil

2''Z

o

161

Fibre

5'S •••

o

, L\J 1 ,,

> 385 „

Ash

2-9 ...

o

, 203 „

The nutrient-ratio is i : 2-5, and the nutrient-value 75.

Besides the species of Phaseolus here described or men-
tioned three others are cultivated in India, namely : Ph.
calcaratus, Ph. semi-erectus, and Ph. lunatus. The first of
these is commonly cultivated in the tropical zone ; it has a
narrow, recurved, 8 to i2-seeded pod. Ph. semi-erectus has a
longer and still narrower pod with many seeds ; it is spread
through the Western Peninsula and Ceylon. The third of these
species, Ph. lunatus, is a very different kind of bean ; a brief
account of it will be found on page 155.

L 2

148 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

THE MUNG-BEAN (includes BLACK GRAM and GREEN GRAM).

Phaseolus M^lngo.

Synonyms — Phaseolus Mungo (Roxb.) ; P. Max (Roxb.) ; P. aureus (Ham.).
Hind. — Dord, Mung, Thikirf, Mug. Beng. — Mash-kulay, Miig. Punjab — Mash,

Urd. Madras — Pessalu.
Sanskrit — Mudga, Masha.

This species of Phaseolus includes a number of forms to
several of which specific rank has been accorded by some
botanists ; a typical form and 3 varieties are now recognised.
The type includes P. Max (Roxb.), with black seeds, P. aureus
(Ham.), with yellow seeds, and the green-seeded P. Mungo of
Roxburgh. The typical form has sub-erect or flexuose stems,
which with the pods are densely hairy. The varieties are :

Var. i, glaber (Roxb.), having the habit of the type but with
glabrous stems, leaves, and pods. It is the P. glabrescens of
Steudel.

Var. 2, wightianus (Grah.), having elongated slender stems.
It is P. Wightii (W. & A.), and P. subvolubilis (Ham.).

Var. 3, radiatus (L.), having elongated twining stems densely
clothed. It is identical with P. Roxburghii (W. & A.), and P.
setulosus (Dalz.), and near the species P. trinervius (Heyne),
which may after all be a fourth form of Phaseolus Mungo.

The pod of this species is \yz to 2^ inches long, by \ to \
inch broad; it contains 10 to 15 seeds, and is slightly recurved.
The seeds vary much in colour and a good deal in size ; they
are sometimes dull, sometimes shining.

The type form is wild, and universally cultivated, ascending
to 6,000 feet in the North- West Himalaya. The var. radiatus
exists in two forms : one, having large blackish seeds, ripens
(according to Mr. Duthie) in the North-West Provinces and
Oudh, in September ; the small green-seeded sort is gathered
in October and November. According to the same authority
this variety prefers stiff soils, while the typical form is generally
grown on light sands. The yield is about 5 maunds per acre.

149

FIG. 28. MUNG-BEAN (Phaseolus Mungo}.

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 1 5 r

Of this bean in its many varieties, a large number of analyses
have been made without disclosing any decided differences in
chemical composition. However, other things being equal, pre-
ference should be given to the larger-seeded varieties. This plant
withstands drought well, and forms a valuable food resource
when millets fail. It is ruined by heavy rains during its flower-
ing. It is sown, according to locality, in June to September,
and reaped from September to December.

COMPOSITION OF MUNG-BEANS (G).

In 100 parts, with Husk.

Type — Type — Var. — In I Ib.

Green Seeds. Yellow Seeds. Radiatus.

Water ... ... io'8 ... 11-4 ... 10*1 i oz. 270 grs.

Albuminoids ... 22*2 ... 23-8 ... 227 3 ,, 276

Starch 54-1 ... 54-3 ... 55-8 8 „ 406

Oil ... 27 ... 2-0 ... 2-2 o „ 154

Fibre 5-8 ... 4-2 ... 4-8 o ,, 336

Ash ... 4-4 ... 3-8 ... 4-4* o „ 308

The nutrient-ratio of the unhusked beans is i : 27, the nutrient-
value 83. The fibre in the husked beans is reduced to n
per cent, all the other constituents being proportionately increased.

In most localities this bean is esteemed highly, and is regarded
as wholesome ; it is generally eaten by the richer classes, and is
resorted to by all, wherever possible, in times of sickness. By
some authorities it is stated to cause flatulence unless eaten with
asafcetida. But it must be remembered that all pulse has this
tendency, if it form too large a proportion of the day's ration or be
insufficiently cooked.

It is of interest to note that the ash of the straw or stems and
leaves of one of the varieties of this bean (var. 3, radiatus) is some-
times eaten, in Dinajpur for example, in lieu of salt. The craving
for mineral matter brought about by the marked deficiency of rice
in ash- constituents, is partially satisfied by the use of the ashes not
only of this pulse, but of several other kinds.

* Includes n of phosphoric acid.

152 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

THE MOTH- BEAN.
Phaseolus aconitifolius, Jacq.

Synonyms — Ph. trilobus (Wall.), Dolichos dissectus (Lam.).

Hind. — Mut, Mote, Moth, Mothi, Bhringga, Meth-kalai. Beng — Kheri. Assam—
Matti-kalaie. Tamil — Tulka-pyre. Telugu — Kunciima-pesalu. Sind — Mohar.

This bean is the produce of a trailing slender-stemmed herb
belonging to the tribe Phaseolese. It is found from the Himalaya
to Ceylon, in the tropical region, and extends up to 4,000 feet in
the North- West. It is cultivated in Oudh, Allahabad, Farruckabad,
Patna District, Purniah District, Assam, Gorakhpur. The pods
are stouter and the seeds larger than in the allied species, Ph.
trilobus (Ait). It is often grown on the worst land which can be
made to yield a crop at all. It is frequently sown with bajra, the
bulrush millet, on light sandy soils. An average produce is
8 maunds from an acre. It is not esteemed as a food for man, for
although it is rich in nutrients, it is generally thought to possess
heating properties. It is a kharif crop, being sown in June, July,
August, or September, and reaped in November, December, and
January.

COMPOSITION OF MOTH-BEANS.

In 100 parts.

In I Ib.

Water

... II-2 ...

i oz. 347 grs.

Albuminoids

... 23-8 ...

3 » 353 »

Starch

... 56-6 ...

9 ,, 25 „

Fat

•6

o . 42

Fibre

o „ 294 „

Ash

3-6* ...

o „ 252 ,,

The nutrient-ratio is here about i : 2*5, while the nutrient-
value is 8 1.

o-8 of phosphoric acid.

FIG. 29. MOTH-BEAN (Phaseolus aconififoiius).

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 155

THE LIMA OR DUFFIN-BEAN.

Phaseolus lunatus, L.
Hind. — Kursumbulle-pullie, Bunbur-butti. Punjab — Lobiya.

A tall twining biennial herb, easily distinguished by the pods
from other species of Phaseolus. The pod is 2 to 3 inches long,
by y% to y% inch broad The seeds are large, but variable both in
colour, markings, and size. This plant is cultivated almost every-
where throughout India, but is probably a native of America.

A white variety of seed (from Mysore) was selected for
analysis. These seeds averaged 16^2 grains in weight apiece.
The seeds of a common black-veined variety weigh about 7 grains
each.

COMPOSITION OF LIMA OR DUFFIN-BEANS (C.).

In 100 parts.

In I Ib.

Water

• i3'3 •

. 2 oz. 56 gr

Albuminoids

• 197

• 3 , 67

Starch ' .

• 57-8 .

• 9 »

108

Oil

1'2

o ,

84

Fibre

4'3 •

• o >

301

Ash

• 37 •

o ,

259

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 3-2, and the nutrient-value 80.
This is one of the species of Phaseolus which sometimes exhibits
marked poisonous properties.

It is desirable that great care should be taken in selecting for
cultivation the best variety of Lima-beans. The large oval white-
seeded kinds, with at the most a brown or black mark close to the
hilum, are preferable to those with flattened, rather reniform
seeds having blotches of red or veinings of black.

156 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

CATIANG-BEANS.
Vigna Catiang (Endl.).

Synonyms — Dolichos catiang (L.) ; D. sinensis (L.) ; D. melanophthalmus (D.C.).
Hind. — Lobia, Rawds, Rausa, Souta, Bora. Beng. — Barbati. Deccar. — Chowli.

Punjab — Rawan, Souta.
Sanskrit — Lasunda, Raja-masha.

Vigna is a genus of Euphaseolese, a sub-tribe of Phaseoleae.
V. Catiang includes many cultivated varieties, differing much in
habit of growth as well as in the shape, size, and colour of the
seed. The plant is sometimes low and sub-erect (typical V. Catiang),
sometimes (var. sinensis) tall and voluble. The pods in the culti-
vated forms are under yz inch broad, but may attain i foot up to
2 feet in length ; the pods contain from 10 to 20 seads. It is a
native plant, and is universally cultivated in the tropical zone. It
flourishes in comparatively poor soils and sustains fairly well a con-
siderable degree of drought. Vigna Catiang is sown in July and
August, and reaped in October and November. The white-seeded
sort is generally considered the best. It is often grown with other
crops. An ounce weight corresponds to about 1 50 seeds.

COMPOSITION OF CATIANG-BEANS.

In I Ib.

2 oz. 14 grs.

3 5t 3°5 »
8 „ 37i »
o „ 77 »
o „ 294 „
o ,i 252 „

The nutrient-ratio in these (unhusked) beans is therefore i : 2*5,
and the nutrient-value 81. They are thought to be rather
heating and less digestible than urd or miing (Phaseolus Mungo).
The green pods are sometimes cooked.

* i -o of phosphoric acid. f i '2 of phosphoric acid.

In 100 parts.

Husked. With Husk.

Water

... 12-5 ... 127 .

Albuminoids

... 24-1 ... 23-1 .

Starch

... 56-8 ... 55-3 .

Oil

1-3 ... ri .

Fibre

1-8 ... 4-2 .

Ash

3 '5* ••• 3'6t

'57

FIG. 30. VIGNA-BEAN ( Vigna Catiang],

i6o

FIG. 31. LABLAB-BEAN (Dohchos Lablab),

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 161

THE LABLAB-BEAN.
Dolichos Lablab, L.

Synonym — Lablab vulgaris (Savi).

Hind. — Sim, Pertab-sing. Beng. — Bunsim, Giirdal-shim. Tehigu — Annapa,

Sem, Sembi, Shimbi. Tamil — Mutcheh.
Sanskrit — Nespava, Shimbi.

This wide-twining perennial, or, in cultivation, annual herb,
belongs to the same sub-tribe of the Phaseoleae as Vigna and
Phaseolus. It is a true native of India, ascending to 6,000 feet
in the Himalaya, and is in universal cultivation. The stems
sometimes attain a length of 16 to 20 feet; the recurved flat
oblong pod is i ^ to 2 inches long by % to Y\ inch broad. It
is 2 to 4-seeded ; there are about 150 seeds to an ounce. Many
varieties have been fully described and have received specific
names.

This pulse is grown not only for its ripe seeds but also for its
green pods, which are used as a vegetable. In some places it is
grown with castor-oil plants, as if alone it would need stakes as a
support.

COMPOSITION OF LABLAB-BEAN s.

In 100 part?.

In i Ib.

i oz. 410 grs.
3 . 255 „

8 . 294 „
98 „
17 „
238 „

The nutrient-ratio, deduced from analysis 4, is i : 2*5, the
nutrient-value is 80. It will be seen, however, on comparing
the several analyses given above, that the percentage of albu-
minoids is rather variable. The extreme range is probably not
more than 6 per cent. Of the numerous forms of Lablab the
majority are eaten as a green vegetable.

* ro of phosphoric acid.

M

With Husk

With Husk

Husked With Husk

I

T, C.).

(2, C.).

(3)-

(4).

Water

14-6

.. 14-3 ..

- I2'I ...

I2'I .

Albuminoids

17-1 .

.. 20-5' ..

. 24-4 ...

2 2 '4 .

Starch

57'4 •

•• 53-5 ••

. 57-8 ...

54'2 •

Oil

2>3 •

2 '2

1-5 ...

1-4 .

Fibre

5-o •

.. 5-8 -

J'2

6-5 •

Ash

3'6 •

37 ••

. 3'0 ...

3'4* •

1 62 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

HORSE GRAM.
Dolichos biflorus, L.

Synonym — Dolichos uniflorus (L.).

Hind. — Kulthi, kultf. Punjab — Kalat, Gagli, Barat, Botang. Tamil — Wula-walu.

Sanskrit — Kol u th a .

This species of Dolichos is either sub-erect or twining in
habit. The pod is much recurved, \y2 to 2 inches in length,
5 to 6-seeded. It is wild in the Himalaya to Ceylon and Burma,
ascending to 3,000 feet in Sikkim. It is not infrequently culti-
vated, being generally sown from August to November, and
reaped from November to February.

COMPOSITION OF HORSE GRAM (C.).

In 100 parts.
Unhusked.

In I Ib.

Water

II'O

i oz. 333 grs.

Albuminoids

... 22-5 ...

3, 262 ,
7 77

Starch

... 56-0 ...

8

, 420 „

Oil

I 'Q

o

, I -J-7 .

Fibre

... 5'4 ...

0

' OO !>

, 378 „

Ash

... 3-2 ...

o

, 224 „

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 27, and the nutrient-coefficient
83. The ash of these beans contains nearly one-third of its
weight of phosphoric acid. The long-continued use of these
beans is regarded as injurious ; they are reputed, in some districts,
to cause cedematous swellings. The haulms are a good fodder.

FIG. 32. HORSE GRAM (Dolichos fa'florus).

163

M 2

FIG. 33. HORSE GRAM (Dolichos biflorus).

1 58

FIG. 34. PIGEON-PEA (Cajanus indicus].

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 169

THE PIGEON-PEA.
Cajanus ' indicus, Spreng.

Synonyms — Cytisus Cajan (L.) ; Cajanus flavus (D.C.); Cajanus bicolor (Wall.).
Hind.—A.r\\a.r, Thiir, Dal, Burrie-tuvar, Arhuku, Shakul. Beng. — Dal-urur, Orol.

Tamil — Thovaroy. Telugti — KandalU.
Sanskrit — Adaki, Arhuka.

The pigeon-pea belongs to the sub-tribe of the Cajanese, the
5th under the tribe Phaseoleae. There is but one species of
Cajanus, and that is not truly Indian but African, although it
has been long cultivated in India, as the existence of a Sanskrit
name (arhuka) for it testifies. It is an erect shrub with slender
branchlets. The pod is straight, from 2 to 3 inches long, and
% to y?. inch broad, 3 to 5-seeded. A variety, C. bicolor, has the
yellow standard of the corolla beautifully veined with red.

This plant is extensively grown almost throughout India.
It is sown in June or July, and reaped according to locality
from December to March. It is commonly grown with juar,
bajra, or cotton. It prefers a light but moist soil ; it is rarely
irrigated. The yield of seeds varies from 7 to 16 niaunds per
acre when the crop is one of this pea alone.

COMPOSITION OF THE PIGEON-PEA.

In 100 parts.

Husked Unhusked Unhusked

(i, W.). (2, C). (3, W.).

Water 10-5 ... 13-3 ... 11-4 ... i oz. 361 grs.

Albuminoids ... 22*3 ... 17*1 ... 20^3 ... 3 ,, 108 ,,

Starch ... ... 60-9 ... 557 ... 56-4 ... 9 „ n „

Fat 2-1 ... 2-6 ... 1-4 ... o „ 98 „

Fibre 1-2 ... 7'5 ••• 7'1 ••• I » 59 »

Ash 3-0* ... 3-8 ... 3'4f ... o „ 238 „

The nutrient-ratio is, in analysis 3 (the mean of 3), about
1:3; the nutrient-value is 80.

This pea is largely consumed by all classes in many parts

* o'8 of phosphoric acid. t o'9 of phosphoric acid.

1 70 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

of India. In Saran it is eaten to a larger extent than any other
pulse, and is prized next to Moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius). It
is wholesome and nutritious when properly freed from the husk,
its irritant and laxative character being thus greatly reduced.
It is not unusual to find that the higher-priced and finer qualities
of this pea have been slightly oiled before sale, to improve their
appearance. This practice is not unknown in reference to wheat
in the South of Europe.

For the modes of preparing the pigeon-pea for human food see
the general observations on Pulses, page 1 20.

THE LOCUST OR CAROB-BEAN.

Ceratonia Siliqua, L.
Punjab — Kharnub-nubti, Kharniib-shami.

This tree, a native of the countries bordering on the Medi-
terranean, attains a height of 20 to 30 feet. Its pods are
known as carob or locust-beans. The seeds, which are small,
hard, and reddish brown, are surrounded by a sweet mucilaginous
pulp of agreeable flavour. Carob-pods are 6 inches to i foot in
length, and about i inch broad.

COMPOSITION OF CAROB-PODS (C.).

In 100 parts. In I Ib.

Water ... 14-6 ... 2 oz. 147 grs.

Albuminoids ... ... 7*1 ... i ,, 60 „

Sugar (5 1 '8 per cent.) and

other Carbohydrates ... 67-9 ... 10 „ 378 „

Oil ri ... o „ 77 „

Fibre ... 6-4 ... i „ 10 „

Ash 2-9 ... o „ 203 „

The nutrient-ratio is here about i : 8-5, and the nutrient-value
68. As sugar, pectose, gum, etc., occupy the place of starch in
these pods, the starch-equivalent cannot be calculated in the
ordinary way, for the sugar, etc., are of less nutrient worth than
starch, containing for a given weight less carbon.

FIG. 35. PIGEON-PEA (Cajanus indicus).

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 173

The carob-tree was introduced into India about the year 1840.
Several attempts to acclimatise it have been subsequently made
with varying measures of success. The failures which have
occurred have generally been due to neglect of the plants during
their young state, or to the unsuitable climate of the localities
where they have been planted. The tree flourishes in a dry and
poor soil, and requires such a climate as prevails in many parts of
the Punjab, the North-West Provinces, Oudh and Rajputana.
The tree fruits when it is 6 or 7 years old, and when in full
bearing produces about 8 cwt. of pods per tree. In Cyprus,
where the tree grows luxuriantly, several varieties are distin-
guished ; the pods of the best kinds are less astringent than those
of the wild sort. They are used occasionally in Southern Europe
for human food, especially in times of scarcity, and are prized
everywhere as horse and cattle fodder. For the latter purpose
they are generally employed with beans or barley. The wood
of the carob-tree is sound and hard.

THE INGA-BEAN.
Pithecolobium dulce, Benth.
Synonym — Inga dulcis (Willd.).

A middle-sized tree, belonging to the natural order Legumi-
noseae, sub-order Mimoseae, and tribe Acacieae, with bipinnate
glabrous leaves ; a native of tropical America, but cultivated
throughout India. The pod is 4 to 5 inches long, 6 to 8-seeded.
The black seeds are half enveloped in a white pulpy edible aril.

COMPOSITION OF INGA-BEANS (C).

In 100 parts. In i Ib.

Water 13-5 ... i oz. 70 grs.

Albuminoids 17-6 ... 2 „ 357

Starch, etc. 41-4 ... 6 „ 273

Fat 17-1 .., 2 „ 322

Fibre ... 7-8 ... r „ 108

Ash 2-6 o ,, 182

174 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 4*6, while the nutrient-value
is 98. The indigestible fibre is rather high.

In the absence of chemical analyses of other Indian legu-
minous seeds, a mere mention of a few of the more important
must suffice.

Psophocarpus palustris (Desv.). — A slender herb, a native
of Africa, but cultivated in the tropics. It has a nearly rect-
angular pod, 2 to 4 inches long by y2 to V4 inch broad, with 4 to
8 seeds. This genus belongs to the sub-tribe Euphaseoleae.

Mucuna is a genus of Erythrinese, a sub-tribe of Phaseolese.
There are three species, M. pruriens (D.C.), M. capitata (W.
& A.), and M. nivea (D.C.), unless, indeed, these be cultivated
forms of but one species. They are annual herbs, having pods
varying in length from i to 6 inches.

Tamarindus is a genus of Amherstiese, a tribe of Csesalpiniese.
The Tamarindus indica (L.) is a tree growing to a height of
20 to 30 feet. The seeds are sometimes eaten in times of scarcity.
The pulp surrounding the seeds is sour, and is employed as a
gentle laxative medicine ; it also forms an ingredient in chutnees
and curries. The moist tamarind pulp contains, on an average,
about 5% per cent, of acid tartrate of potash, 6% of tartaric acid,
and 2^ of citric acid.

It does not fall within the scope of the present work to
enumerate and describe the various oily and saccharine fruits
and the numerous fresh vegetables which are used in India as
human food. The same statement must be made with regard
to the condiments, spices, and flavourers which form such im-
portant ingredients in the popular dietaries of the country. Up
to the present time we have at our disposal very few data concern-
ing the composition of fresh Indian-grown fruits and vegetables.
But we may safely affirm that their value as food mainly
depends upon the fat or oil and sugar and other carbohydrates
they contain ; upon the presence of the organic acids, citric,
tartaric, and malic ; and upon their mineral ingredients, espe-

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 175

cially their potash and phosphoric acid. Other saline com-
pounds, such as nitrates, also exist in these vegetable products ;
these are not without dietetic value. Taken as a group,
these fresh fruits and vegetables, while adding to the com-
bustible nutrients of the substantive articles of food, supply
the mineral matters in which the latter are often, as is particularly
the case with rice, notably deficient. They share also, with
flavouring substances, the useful office of imparting variety and
palatability to what would otherwise be a monotonous and insipid
diet. This is a function which the physiologist, rather than the
chemist, can more thoroughly appreciate.

Since the foregoing pages were in type I have been enabled,
through the kindness of Mr. G. Watt, the Superintendent of the
Indian Economic Court in the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, to
secure a number of additional specimens for examination. Some
time must elapse before they can all be analysed, but amongst
them there are four examples of oleaginous seeds, of which I
am able to give at once the percentage composition. It should,
however, be premised that the quantities of oil set down amongst
the constituents may include, in one or two cases, a little resin
and colouring matter, and also that the albuminoids have been
calculated from the total nitrogen found by analysis, and so may be
somewhat exaggerated. Such specimens as required it were first
of all freed from their indigestible coverings, the cleaned kernel
being analysed in the state in which it is usually eaten or as
prepared for cooking.

Shorea robusta (Gaertn.).
Hind.— Sdl.

This is a large timber-tree of considerable importance, belonging
to the Natural Order Dipterocarpeae. It occurs in the sub-
Himalayan tract from the Sutlej to Assam ; and in the eastern
districts of Central India, from the Ganges to the Godaveri,
extending westward to the longitude of Mandla. The fruit is

176 FOOD-GRAINS OF INDIA.

eaten by the Santals in times of scarcity ; the seeds are regularly
consumed in a particular preparation with mahua flowers.

COMPOSITION OF SAL (SEEDS), C.

In 100 parts.

Water icr8

Albuminoids ... ... ... ... ... 80

Starch, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 627

Oil 14-8

Fibre ... ... ... ... ... ... 1-4

Ash ... 2-3

The nutrient -ratio, calculated from the above figures, is
i : 12, and the nutrient- value 105. The latter number is
probably above the truth, for it is likely that a not incon-
siderable part of the nutrients in these hard seeds of unappetis-
ing appearance exists in an indigestible condition.

Pistacia vera (Linn.).

This small tree, which belongs to the Anacardiaceae, is not
a native of India; but large quantities of its fruits (pistachio
nuts) are imported from Afghanistan into North- Western India,
where they are consumed by all classes. The Afghan tree is
almost certainly identical with that of the Mediterranean shores.

COMPOSITION OF PISTACHIO-KERNELS (C.).

In 100 parts.

Water 5-9

Albuminoids ... .. ... ... ... 24-4

Starch, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 3-5

Oil 62-5

Fibre 1-3

Ash 2*4

The nutrient-ratio is here i : 6, and the nutrient- value 172.
This Afghan sample contained n per cent, more oil than I
found in European pistachio-kernels.

PULSE OR LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 177

Buchanania latifolia (Roxb.).
Beng.— Chirongi. Punj.— Chirauli.

This tree belongs to the Anacardiaceae. It is found in
the sub- Himalayan tract from the Sutlej eastward, ascending
to 3,000 feet. The kernels are much eaten as a substitute for
almonds ; but a fine oil, in large quantities, may be, and some-
times is, expressed from them.

COMPOSITION OF CHIRAULI-KERNELS (C.).

In 100 parts.

Water ... ... ... ... ... ... 5-7

Albuminoids ... ... ... ... ... 27^9

Mucilage, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 27

Oil 58-6

Fibre ... ... ... ... ... ... 1-8

Ash ... 3-3

The nutrient-ratio is here 1:4*9, and the nutrient-value 165.

Pinus gerardiana (Wallich).

The neosia or edible pine is a moderate-sized conifer, found
in the arid parts of the North- West and Punjab Himalaya, and
extending into Afghanistan, at altitudes of 6,000 to 9,000 feet.
The seeds are collected and stored for use. They form an
important article of food in the regions where the tree occurs,
and they are also brought into India by Afghan traders.

COMPOSITION OF NEOSIA-KERNELS (C.).

In too parts.

Water 87

Albuminoids ... ... ... ... ... 13-6

Starch, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 22*5

Oil 51-3

Fibre 0*9

Ash 3-0

The nutrient-ratio is here i : io'3, and the nutrient-value 154.

N

INDEX.

Albuminoids
Amaranths

Amarantus gangeticus
Amarantus paniculatus
Arachis hypogsea
Avena saliva
Ba"jra

Bamboo rice
Bambusa arundinacea
Bare-sustenance diet .
Barley
Bean oil .
Body-weight
Broom corn
Buchanania latifolia .
Buckwheat
Buckwheat-allies
Bulrush millet .
Csesalpinieae
Cajanus indicus
Canavalia ensiformis .
Cane-sugar
Carbohydrates .
Carob-beans
Catiang-beans .
Celosia cristata .
Ceratonia Siliqua
Cereals
Cereal-table

104

109

107

127

86

56

1 02

102
2O

99
8

19

85
177
114
104

56

122
169
144

5
4

170
156
107
170

31
23

PAGE

Chena millet .... 40
Chenopodium album . .109
Chenopodium Quinoa . .no
Chick-peas . . . .128
Chick-peas, preparation of. . 120
Chirauli-kernels . . 177

Cicer arietinum . .128

Classification of food . . 10
Coix lachryma .... 60
Common salt . . . 15

Condiments . . . .16
Conglutin . . . . .119

Cutin 7

Cyamopsis psoralioides . .124
Daily rations . . . 16, 25
Diet and work . . . .13
Dolichos biflorus . . .162
Dolichos Lablab . . .161
Eleusine coracana ... 89
Fagopyrum esculentum . .114
Fagopyrum tataricum . .114

Fats 7

Fibre . . . . . 6
Flesh-formers .... 3
Food-adjuncts . . . . 9, n
Foot-tons . . . . 14, 19
Gluten . . . -33

Gluten-casein . . . .118
Glycerides .... 7

INDEX.

179

PAGE

PAGE

Glycine Soja

140

Neosia-kernels .

. 177

Gram

. 148

Nitrogen compounds .

. 3, 32, 118

Graminese

. • 36

Nutrients .

9

Grasses

. • 36

Nutrient-ratio . 14, 1 8,

39, 107, 123

Great millet

. 80

Nutrient- value . 14, 1 8,

39, 107, 123

Guar-beans

. 124

Oats.

. 86

Guinea corn

. . 80

Oil in rations .

. 26, 27, 28

Gundli .

44

Oils ....

• 7, 34

Hard-work diet .

20, 29

Oryza sativa

. 66

Haricots .

• 147

Panicum colonum

. 50

Heat-units

• 13

Panicum frumentaceum

. 49

Hordeum vulgare

. 99

Panicum miliaceum .

40

Horse gram

162

Panicum miliare

. 44

Indian corn

. • 65

Papilionaceae

122

Inga-beans

• !73

Paspalum scrobiculatum

• 39

Italian millet

• 55

Pea nuts .

. 127

Joar ....

. 80

Pearl-barley

101

Job's tears

. 60

Peas .

. 135

Kangni millet .

• 55

Pease-oil .

8

Koda millet

• 39

Pectose

6

Lablab-beans

. 161

Pennisetum typhoideum

. - 56

Lathyrus sativus

. 132

Peptones .

4

Legumin .

. 119

Phaseolus aconitifolius

. 152

Leguminosae

122

Phaseolus lunatus

• ISS

Lens esculenta .

. 136

Phaseolus Mungo

. 148

Lentils

• 136

Phaseolus vulgaris

. 147

Lima-beans

• 155

Pigeon-peas

17, 1 20, 169

Little millet

. 44

Pinus gerardiana

• 177

Locust-beans

. 170

Pistacia vera

. . 176

Lupines

• 123

Pisum sativum .

• i35

Lupinus albus .

. 123

Pithecolobium dulce .

• r73

Mahua flowers .

6

Proteids .

2

Maize

. . 65

Pulse

. 118

Mannite .

. - 6

Pulse, acreage of

121

Millets

• 34

Pulse, importance of .

121

Mimosese .

122

Pulse-table

24

Mineral matter .

• 2, 17, 34

Quinoa

110

Mixed diet

12

Ragi

. . 89

Moderate-work diet .

20, 29

Rice

17, 66

Moth-beans

. I52

Rice, dietetics of

• 75

Mucilage .

6

Rice-oil

8

Miing-beans

. 148

Rice, preparation of .

• 73

i8o

INDEX.

PAGE

PAGE

Saccharum officinarum

. . 76

Vetches . .

• I31

Salt ....

• '5

Vetchlings

• I32

Salts

2

Vicia sativa

. 131

Sa"nwa millet

. 49

Vigna Catiang .

• 156

Setaria italica .

• 55

Water ....

I

Shama millet

. 50

Water in Indian grains

• i, 93

Shorea robusta .

• 175

Wheat ....

34, 90

Sorghum saccharatum

• .85

Wheat, acreage of

. 91

Sorghum vulgare

. 80

Wheat, character of .

94, 96

Soy-beans .

140

Wheat, composition of

- 93

Standard diet .

. 13, 15, 20

Wheat, mill-products of

• 95

Starch

• 4, 31

Wheat, oil of . .

• 8,34

Starch-equivalent

17, 23, 24, 36

Wheat, production of

. 92

Sugar

• 5, 31

Wheat, varieties of .

• 98

Sugar-cane

. 76

Wheat, yield of.

. 91

Sword-beans

. 144

Zea Mays ....

• 65

Uses of food

8

Zein

• 33

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