imfflBBlMifflll . il'iiliii!^' ihiii'hii'Mi W. K. WJNTESHALTKl, UNIVERSITY FARM US AJf W. K. WINTKKHALTJSK Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/foragefibercropsOOIiuntrich STiie forage antr fihtt Crope in America BY THOMAS F. HUNT Professor of Agronomy in the New Tork State College of Agriculture at Cornell University ; Author of ^*Tbe Cereals in Amer- ica''* and ^^Hoiv to Choose a Farm*'' NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limit«5d I911 Copyright, 1907 BY Orange Judd Company All Rights Reserved Entered at Sutioners' Hall London, England Printed in the United States of America PREFACE In the pages which follow the characteristics of the forage and fiber crops are discussed, and the results of experiment and experience as to their climatic and soil adaptation, cultural methods, insect enemies, fungous diseases, harvesting, use, and marketing are summarized with special reference to American conditions. This volume with "The Cereals in America" is intended to cover the principal field crops as distinguished from garden and orchard crops raised in America. There are some omissions, such as coffee, hops, teasel, medicinal and aromatic herbs, which are more or less extensively raised as field crops. The most obvious omissions, however, are potatoes and tobacco. A recent book, "The Potato," by Samuel Fraser, makes a dis- cussion of this important crop unnecessary. With the exceptions noted, 'The Cereals in America" and "The Forage and Fiber Crops in America" cover what in the historical and old Roman sense was known as agriculture (Ager open or field + cultura cultivation) in contradistinction to horticulture (Hortus enclosure or garden + cultura cultivation). Agriculture, however, has come to have a much wider meaning; viz., the science and art of producing living things. It is thus distinct from mining, manufacturing, trade and transportation. As the manufacturer, so is the farmer deeply concerned with trade and transportation, although these activities are neither manufacturing nor farming. Many an able farmer has failed VI PREFACE of the financial success to which his ability as a farmer entitled him through a lack of skilful marketing of his products. In order to prevent repetition, cross-reference is made not only to paragraphs in this A^olume, but also to those in **The Cereals in America." When reference is made to the latter volume, C. A. precedes the number of the paragraph to which reference is made. In preparing the following pages, the author has had the advantage of the criticisms of his colleagues in the Department of Agronomy. Monographs on different farm crops, which have been prepared in the Department by postgraduate students, have been freely consulted and have proved helpful. The author is under special obligations to H. J. Webber for reading and criticising the manuscript on cotton, and to J. F. Duggar for a like service concerning the manuscript on cowpeas. J. G. Lipman not only read Chapter VH on Leguminous Forage Crops, but kindly prepared some paragraphs which have been included. The illustrations have been drawn largely by B. F. Williamson; while the author's secretary, C. C. Poindexter, has rendered efficient service in the preparation of materials for the text. THOMAS F. HUNT. Cornell Univf.rsity, Ithaca, N. Y., June 1, 1907. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. Characters and Habits PAGE Designation i Relationships i Duration 3 Common characters, p. 6; Growing point of leaf, p. 6; Variations, p. 8; Healthfulness, p. lo; Palatability, p. lo; Prolificacy, p. 12 • Number of plants per acre, p. 12, Composition 13 Digestibility 15 11. Seeds and Mixtures Quality of Seed 15 Weight per bushel, p. 17; Impurities, p. 17; Sampling seeds, p. 19; Seed identification, p. 20; Germination of seeds, p. 20. Grass Mixtures '. . .21 Calculating mixtures, p. 22. Pasture Grasses 23 Native grasses, p. 24; Influence of species of plants on value of pasture, p. 25. Collateral Reading . . . . . .26 CHAPTER II PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. Cultural Methods Nurse Crop 2y Method of Seeding . . .... . . .28 Time of seeding, p. 28; Depth of seeding, p. 29; Rota- tions, p. 29. vii VlU CONTENTS PAGE Fertilizing Elements 31 Essential conditions for the successful use of ferti- lizers upon grasses, p. 32 ; Application of commercial fertilizers, p. 34. Methods of Improving Pastures 34 II. Production and Harvesting Distribution and Adaptation 36 Yield, p. 37. Time of Harvesting 38 Curing hay, p. 39. III. Hay Making Machines and Marketing Mowing-machines 41 Hay rakes, p. 42; Hay tedders, d. 44; Hay loaders, p. 44; Stacking, p. 45; Hay forks, p. 47; Baling, p. 48. Marketing 49 Commercial grades, p. 50. Collateral Reading 51 CHAPTER HI PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. Timothy Name 52 Relationships 52 Description, p. 52; Seed, p. 54; Variations, p. 55; Improvement, p. 55; Adaptation, p. 57; Rotations, p. 57; Amount of seed, p. 58; Seeding, p. 58; Time of cutting, p. 59. Advantages 61 Comparison of timothy and orchard grass seed, p. 61. Disadvantages .62 II. Meadow Foxtail Description 62 Seed, p. 63; Adaptation and value, p. 63. Collateral Reading 64 CONTENTS IX CHAPTER IV PERENNIAL FORACIE (iRASSES I. Rcdtop VAGE Relationships . 66 Description, p. 68; Adaptation, p. 70; Value, p. 70. II. Kentucky Blue Grass Name 7^ Relationships ^2 Description, p. 73; Seed, p. 74; Seeding, p. 76; Adap- tation, p. yy. Advantages 78 Disadvantages, p. 78; Harvesting seed, p. 79. Collateral Reading 80 CHAPTER V PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. Orchard Grass Name 81 Description, p. 81; Seed, p. 82; Distribution, p. 84; Adaptation, p. 85 ; Value, p. 85 ; Mixtures, p. 87. Cultural Methods 87 Time of harvesting, p. 87; Harvesting seed, p. 88. II, Meadozv Fescue Relationships 88 Adaptation of related species, p. 90; Distribution, p. 91 ; Adaptation, p, 91 ; Seed, p. 92, III, Smooth Brome Grass Relationships 93 Description, p, 94; Adaptation, p. 94; Seeding, p. 95; Time of harvesting, p, 96; Value, p, 96. IV. Bermuda Grass Description .......... 97 Seed, p. 98; Adaptation, p. 98; Value, p. 99. X CONTENTS V. Minor Grasses PAGE Johnson Grass . -99 Tall oat grass, p. lOo; Velvet grass, p. loi ; Sweet vernal grass, p. loi ; Perennial rye grass, p. 102; Italian rye grass, p. 102 . .^racticums 103 Equipment for the study of grasses and other forage crops, p. 103; Outline for discussion of grasses and leguminous forage crops, p. 104; Outline for study • of vegetative portion of grasses in the field, p. 106; Outline for study of mature grasses, p. 107; Seed identification, p. 107; Seed test, p. 108. Collateral Reading 109 CHAPTER VI ANNUAL FORAGE PLANTS Annual Forage Plants iii Millets, p. 112; Foxtail millet, p. 112; Broom corn mil- let, p. 115; Barnyard millet, p. 116; Other panicums, p. 117; Pearl millet, p. 117; Teosinte, p. 118; Salt- bushes, p. 119. Collateral Reading . ; . . . . . .119 CHAPTER VII LEGUMINOUS FORACIE CROPS I. General Characters Name 121 Kinds 121 Common characters, p. 122; Variations, p. 123; Pol- lination, p. 124. CONTRNTS XI II. Acquircinciit of Nitrogen PAGE Acquirement of Free Nitrogen 125 Influence of root-tubercles on the growth of plants, p. 126; Character of the tubercles, p. 127; Form of the organism, p. 127; Acquirement of nitrogen with- out legumes, p. 128; Dissemination of the bacteria by natural means, p. 129; Need of inoculation, p. 130; Methods of inoculation, p. 131; Nitrifying and denitrifying organisms, p. 132; Effect of lime on legumes, p. 133. \^alue . . . . , 134 Collateral Reading 138 CHAPTER VIII LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I. Clovers Relationships . . 140 Number and distribution of species, p. 140. II. Red Clover Name 141 Roots, p. 141; Habit of growth above ground, p. 142; Inflorescence, p. 143; Description of seed, p. 144; Impurities and adulterations, p. 145; Germination and viability, p. 146; Varieties, p. 147; Distribution, p. 148; Duration, p. 148; Adaptation, p. 148; Ferti- lizers, p. 149; Seeding, p. 150; Quantity of seed, p. 151 ; Weeds, p. 151 ; Clover sickness, p. 151 ; Fungous diseases, p. 152; Insect enemies, p. 153; Harvesting hay, p. 154; Harvesting seed, p. 155; Clover hullers, p. 156; Value, p. 157; Fertilizing constituents per acre, p. 158; Feeding value compared with timothy, p. 158. History 159 Xll CONTENTS III. Mammoth Clover PAG Characteristics 159 Advantages, p. 159; Disadvantages, p. 160; Adapta- tion, p. 160. Collateral Reading 161 CHAPTER IX LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I, Alsikc Clover Relationships 162 Description, p. 162; Value, p. 163; Seed and seeding, p. 164. History . 165 II. White Clover Description 165 Distribution and adaptation, p. 166; Seed and seeding, p. 167. III. Crimson Clover Relationships 168 Description, p. 168; Varieties, p. 169; Distribution and adaptation, p. 169; Value, p. 169; Seed, p. 170; Seeding, p. 171. History 171 IV. Minor Clovers Berseem 172 Hungarian clover, p. 172; Yellow suckling clover, p. 172. Collateral Reading 173 CHAPTER X LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I. Alfalfa Relationships 174 Roots, p. 174; Habit of growth above ground, p. 175; Inflorescence, p. 177; Seed, p. 178; Adulterations CONTENTS Xlll PAGE and impurities, p. 179; Dodder, p. 179; Germination and viability, p. 181 ; Varieties, p. 181 ; Distribution, p. 182; Adaptation, p. 183. Conditions Affecting Success with Alfalfa .... 184 Treatment of the soil, p. 184; Inoculation, p. 186; After treatment, p. 187; Irrigation, p. 187; Rota- tions, p. 188; Quantity of seed, p. 188; Time of seeding, p. 189; Method of seeding, p. 189; Nurse crop, p. 190; Weeds, p. 191; Fungous diseases, p. 191; Insects, p. 192; Animals, p. 193; Pocket gophers, p. 193; Spermophilus, p. 193; Prairie marmots, p. 194; Meadow mouse, p. 194. Time of Cutting for Hay 194 Curing alfalfa hay, p. 195; Alfalfa silage, p. 195; Harvesting alfalfa seed, p. 196; Value, p. 197; Feeding value, p. 198. History 199 II. Sand Lucerne Sand Lucerne 199 Collateral Reading 200 CHAPTER XI LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I. Black Medic Description 201 Adaptation, p. 202 ; Seed, p. 202 ; Seeding, p. 203. II. Bur Clovers Bur Clovers 203 XIV CONTKX'l'S PAGE III. Japan Clover Japan Clover 204 IV. Vetches Kinds 205 Description, p. 206; Adaptation and value, p. 207; Culture, p. 208. V. Velvet Bean Velvet Bean . 209 VI. Florida Beggar Weed Florida Beggar Weed .211 VII. Lotus General Characters 211 Bird's-foot trefoil, p. 211; Prairie bird's-foot trefoil, p. 212; Square pod pea, p. 212. VIII. White and Yclloiv Melilotus White and Yellow Melilotus 213 IX. Sainfoin Sainfoin or Esparsette . • 214 X. Kidney Vetch Kidney Vetch . 214 Practicums 215 Outline for discussion of leguminous forage crops, p. 215; Leguminous forage plants, p. 215; Identifica- tion of leguminous forage plants, p. 216; For the identification of the seeds of clovers and their com- mon impurities and adulterants, p. 217; For the identification of alfalfa seed and its common im- purities and adulterants, p. 217; Field study of al- falfa, p. 217. Collateral Reading .218 CONTEXTS XV CHAPTER XII LEdUMES FOR SEED PAGE Kinds 219 I. Field Beans Relationships 219 Common characters, p. 221 ; Variable characters, p. 221 ; Varieties, p. 221 ; Distribution and yield, p. 222; Adaptation, p. 223 ; Planting, p. 224; Culture, p. 224; Harvesting, p. 225; Diseases, p. 226; Insects, p. 227; Threshing, p. 228. History and Use 229 II. Field Peas Relationships 230 Description, p. 230; Varieties, p. 231; Distribution, p. 231 ; Adaptation, p. 2;^2; Seeding, p. 232; Diseases and insects, p. 233 ; Harvesting, p. 234. Uses 234 III. Peanuts Description 234 Composition, p. 235; Varieties, p. 235; Distribution and yield, p. 236; Adaptation, p. 237; Soil amend- ments, p. 237; Planting, p. 237; Seed, p. 238; Culti- vation, p. 238; Harvesting, p. 239; Uses, p. 239. Practicum 240 Field beans, p. 240. Collateral Reading . . 240 CHAPTER XIII LEGUMES FOR SEED Co ci' peas Relationships 241 Roots, p. 241 ; Common characters, p. 241 ; Variable characters, p. 242; Variations due to environment, p. 243; Classification, p. 244; Varieties, p. 245; Cross-fertilization, p. 246; Composition, p. 247; Digestibility, p. 247; Distribution, p. 248; Adapta- tion, p. 248. Xvi CONTENTS Inoculation 249 Rotations, p. 250; Fertilizers, p. 250; Time of seeding, p. 251; Quantity of seed, p. 252; Mixtures, p. 252; Methods of seeding, p. 253; Cultivation, p. 253; Insect enemies, p. 254; Diseases, p. 254; Wilt, p. 255 ; Root-knot, p. 255. Collateral Reading 2s6 CHAPTER XIV LEGUMES FOR SEED I. Cozipcas Time of Harvesting 257 Method of harvesting, p. 259; Curing hay, p. 260; Production and yield, p. 261; Use, p. 262; Value, p. 262; Feeding value, p. 263; Acquirement of nitrogen, p. 264; Influence on other crops, p. 266; Method of utilizing the crop, p. 267. History 268 II. Soy Bean Description 268 Varieties, p. 269; Distribution, p. 270; Adaptation, p. 271; Seeding, p. 2y2\ Cultivation, p. 2^2 \ Insect and other enemies, p. 273 ; Harvesting, p. 273 ; Value, p. 273. Collateral Reading 274 CHAPTER XV ROOT CROPS I. Beets Name 275 Relationships 275 Types of the beet, p. 276; Description of the beet, p. 276; Comparison between sugar beets and mangel- CONTENTS XVU PAGE wurzels, p. 2^^ ; Varieties, p. 279 ; Adaptation, p. 280 ; Irrigation, p. 281 ; Rotation, p. 281 ; Fungous dis- eases, p. 282; Insects, p. 282; Preparation of the soil, p. 282 ; Seeding, p. 283 ; Distance apart of rows, p. 284; Thinning, p. 284; Cultivation, p. 285; Har- vesting, p. 285; Yields, p. 286; Feeding, p. 286; Production of seed, p. 287. History 288 II. Turnips, Rutabagas, Kohlrabi and Cabbages Types 289 Description, p. 290 : Comparison of turnips and rutaba- gas, p. 290; Varieties, p. 291; Adaptation, p. 291; Cultural methods, p. 292; Seeding, p. 292; Enemies, p. 293; Yields, p. 294; Value, p. 294. Production 295 III. Rape Description and Varieties 295 Adaptation and cultivation, p. 296; Value, p. 297. IV. Carrot Carrot 298 Adaptation, p. 299; Seeding, p. 299; Cultural methods, p. 299; Yield, p. 299. V. Minor Root Crops Parsnips 300 Cassava 300 Chinese Yam 300 Chufa 300 Jerusalem Artichoke 301 Practicums 301 Study of characters of roots, p. 301 ; Increase of dry matter in mangel-wurzels by selection, p. 302; De- termination of specific gravity of root and juice, p. 302. Collateral Reading 303 XVIU CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI FIBER CROPS Classification and Production PAGE Materials for Fibers . - 2P\ Classification according to use, p. 305 ; Classification according to source, p. 306; Classification according to spinning units, p. 306; Identification of fibers, p. 307; Number of fiber plants, p. 308; Production, p. 308. Practicums 309 Identification of fibers, p. 309; Microscopic examina- tion of fibers, p. 309; V^alue of fibers as determined by action of reagents, p. 310. Collateral Reading . . . . . . . .310 CHAPTER XVII FIBER CROPS Cotton Structure and Composition • 3if Relationships . . . . . . . . -31^ Roots, p. 311; Vegetative portion, p. 312; Flowers, p 313; Bolls, p. 314; Seed, p. 316; Lint, p. 317; Structure of fiber, p. 320; Qualities of lint, p. 321: Linters, p. 321 ; Proportion of parts, p. 321 ; Com- position, p. 322; Ash, p. 323. Collateral Reading 324 CHAPTER XVIII FIBER CROPS Cotton Varieties and Improvement . . . ... . 325 Species . -325 American upland cotton, p. 2)-^\ India cotton, p. 326; CONTENTS XIX Sea island cotton, p. 326; Egyptian cotton, p. 327; Peruvian cotton, p. 328; Classification of varieties, p. 328; Standard and recommended varieties, p. 331 ; Desirable variety characters, p. 333. Crossing 334 Seed selection, p. 335 ; Improvement of cotton, p. 335 ; Score card, p. 337; Scale of qualities, p. 337; In- fluence of environment, p. I2,y. Collateral Reading 339 CHAPTER XIX . FIBER CROPS Cotton Climate and Soils 340 Distribution 340 Temperature, p. 340; Rainfall, p. 342. Soils 342 Soils for sea island cotton, p. 343; Deterioration of cotton lands, p. 343; Rotation, p. 344; Influence of commercial fertilizers, p. 346 ; Carriers of fertilizing ingredients, p. 346; Composting, p. 347; Kinds and quantities of commercial fertilizers, p. 348; Methods of applying commercial fertilizers, p. 349. Collateral Reading 350 CHAPTER XX FIBER CROPS Cotton Cultural Methods 351 Seasons of Cultural Operations 351 Preparing the seed-bed, p. 3^2; Kind of seed, p. 353; Quantity of seed, p. 354; Distance, p. 355; Cultiva- tion, p. 356; Topping, p. 357; Picking, p. 357. XX CONTENTS PAGE Insects 358 Mexican cotton-boll weevil, p. 359; Cotton-boll worm, p. 360; Cotton worm, p. 360. Fungous Diseases 361 Diseases, p. 361 ; Root knot, p. 362 ; Cotton wilt, p. 362 ; Black rust, p. 363 ; Anthracnose, p. 363. Collateral Reading 363 CHAPTER XXI FIBER CROPS Cotton Production and Marketing 364 Cotton Crop of the World 364 Cotton in the United States, p. 364; Center of cotton production, p. 366; Production per population, p. 366; Exports of cotton, p. 367; Imports of cotton, p. 368; Gins, p. 369; Bales, p. 370; Presses, p. 370; Ginning, p. 371. Marketing 372 Commercial grades, p. 373 ; Yield, p. 374 ; Price, p. 375. Collateral Reading 375 CHAPTER XXII FIBER CROPS Cotton Uses and History 376 Lint 376 Manufactories, p. 377; Seed, p. 378; Oil, p. 379; Cot- ton-seed meal, p. 381; Hulls, p. 383; Stalks, p. 383. History 384 Practicums 384 Study of cotton plant in field, p. 384; Study of cotton in the laboratory, p. 385 ; Crossing cotton, p. 386. Collateral Reading 386 CONTENTS xxi « CHAPTER XXIII FIBER CROPS 387 PAGE Flax Relationships, p. 387; Description, p. 387; Flax seed, p. 387; Flax fiber, p. 389; Adaptation, p. 390; Dis- eases, p. 391 ; Cultural methods, p. 391 ; Production, p. 393; History, p. 394. Hemp 394 Jute 396 Ramie 397 Manila Fiber 397 Sisal 399 Maguey 400 Jstle 401 New Zealand Hemp 401 Collateral Reading 402 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. CHARACTERS AND HABITS 1. Designation. — Under the above designation will occur a discussion of certain perennial species of the grass family {Gramineae) which are cultivated chiefly for hay, pasture, and lawns, although sometimes they also may be used for holding embankments, to prevent the shifting of sandy soils by the wind, or to prevent the erosion of soils through rains. Those annual species of the grass family used for forage are discussed else- where in this volume under the title of "Annual Forage Plants," while the cereals are treated in a separate volume/ The grasses which are cultivated exclusively for ornamental purpose will not be described. The use of the term grass to apply to plants other than true grasses, although used for the same purpose, will be avoided. 2. Relationships. — The grass family (Gramineae) is an im- portant and rather isolated group of plants, being closely related only to the sedges from which it differs in important particulars. Of the 1,380 native and introduced species of grasses in the United States, the seeds of about 50 species have entered into commerce and may therefore be considered cultivated species. (C. A. 8) The most important perennial forage grasses in America belong to two of the 13 tribes of the grass family — namely, Agrostideae and Festuceae. To the former belong timothy, redtop, and meadow foxtail; while to the latter belong orchard grass, the fescues, smooth brome ^ "The Cereals in America." THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA The Relationship of the Commonly Cultivated Perennial Forage Grasses with Some of the Less Common Species Family Tribe Phalarideae Agrostideae Aveneae Sub-tribe Genus Phalaris ithoxanthum ! Phalaris Anthoxa Stipeae Phleoideae Euagresteae Stipa Oryzopsis Muhlenbergia Phleum Alopecurus Agrostis Calamagrostis r Holcus Deschampsia i Avena Arrhenatherum Danthonia Festuceae 'Eragrosteae < Koeleria Briza Dactylis Cynosurus Poa Eufestuceae Brachypo- dieae Chlorideae Glyceria Festuca \ Bromus i Brachypodium Capriola Bouteloua Bulbilis Cultivated or Useful Forms Canary grass Reed grass Sweet vernal grass Bunch grass Bunch grass Timothy Meadow foxtail Redtop Blue joint Velvet grass Occurs on high plains Common oat Tall oat grass Valuable for grazing in mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee Orchard grass Crested dog's tail Meadow grass, blue grass Fescues Smooth brome grass Bermuda grass Mesquite or grama grass Buffalo grass PERENNIAf. lY^RAC.R GRASSES 3 grass, and many species of the genus Poa, to which Kentucky blue grass belongs. These two tribes may be distinguished from each other by the fact that the spikelets in the cultivated species of the former are almost always one-flowered, while those of the latter are two — or more — flowered. In the former, the flowering glume is thin or hyaline and not longer than the outer glumes; while in the latter, it is thick and chartaceous and is no longer than the outer glumes. For classification of important species, see opposite page. 3. Duration. — While some annuals of the grass family are grown and harvested for forage — as millet, oats, barley, and maize — those grasses which we use for meadows and pastures are perennial, this character being an essential quality. All perennial grasses increase by new culms arising from the nodes, usually the lower ones, of the culm in more or less chain- like succession. The new culms may be sessile, when the process is similar to that of stooling in the cereal grasses; but in perennial grasses more commonly underground or above ground stolons arise from the underground or above ground nodes. Each stolon may give rise to one or more seed-bearing culms, each with an independent root system. The latter in turn give rise to other stolons and culms. The part arising from the node is of course a branch of the culm from which it grows ; but it soon becomes a more or less independent plant by the roots which arise from a node of the branch more or less remote from the culm, or else in the case of rhizomes branches in turn arise from their nodes, which become seed-bearing culms. The point to note is that the habit of the plant, whether creeping or tufted, is dependent upon the distance the roots of the secondary culms are from those of the primary culm. The part between the two culms is called a stolon, whether occurring above, on, or underground, and when such part exists the plant is called stoloniferous. When the stolon is underground the leaves become modified 4 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA into brown or colorless scales and the nodes are less pro- nounced, when it is known as a rhizome or rootstock. Another difference may also be noted in the mode of growth. The branch arising at a node must of necessity arise in the axil of the leaf. The branch growls up within the leaf sheath, intravaginal, or it may bore its way through the base of the leaf which encloses it, extravaginal. Those plants which are tufted — such as orchard grass and perennial rye grass — belong to the former class. All strongly creeping plants — such as Kentucky blue grass, redtop, meadow foxtail, and smooth brome grass — belong to the latter. In timothy and meadow fescue the branches arise within the axil of the leaf sheath and sub- sequently break through. Plants that are strongly stoloniferous produce the densest sod and therefore the best pasture. On the other hand, this density of sod seems to interfere with the production of culms, and hence strongly stoloniferous plants in a few years produce small yields of hay. A single timothy seedling at the Cornell Station produced 86 seed-bearing culms during the first summer of its growth and over 250 seed-bearing culms during the second summer. Fraser has shown that in timothy each corm and its accom- panying roots die after producing a single seed-bearing culm. Grasses may, therefore, be kept alive as well as spread, by asexual or vegetative reproduction. Plants possessing this habit are counted by botanists as perennial ; but it is evident that they are perennial in a different sense from that of a red clover plant, an alfalfa plant or a tree. If we look upon each portion of a plant arising from a node and possessing separate roots as an individual, we may then say that the individual timothy plant does not, probably, produce fruit but once. It is obvious, therefore, that the duration of timothy is dependent upon those conditions which influence vegetative reproduction. Whether this is true of all grass plants it is perhaps not possible to state absolutely, but it seems PERENNIAL J-ORAGE GRASSES Fig. 1—1, Fibrous roots; 4. culm; 5. node; 6. leaf. Fig. 2—2. Rhizome; 4. culm; 6. blade of leaf; 7, ligule; 9. scales of the rhizome. Fig. 3 — 1. Root fibers; 3. bulbous base of culm; 4. culm; 5. sheath; 6. blade. Fig. 4-2. Scaly rhizomes; 4. node; 6. blade; 7. ligule; 9. scales of the rhizome. Fig. 5-1. Fibrous roots; 2. creeping rhizome; 4. culm; 5. sheath; 6. blade; 7. culm. 8. nodes. (After Vasey) 6 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA probable that all plants of the grass family are monocarpic— that is, produce seed but once. The duration of pastures and meadows may be influenced also by the opportunity which exists for grasses to produce seed freely. Pastures which are pastured too heavily often decrease in the thickness of the sod. It is ?. matter of observa- tion that the duration of timothy meadows is shorter than formerly. This may be due to the practise of cutting timothy before the seed has formed, thus preventing re-seeding; or may be due to conditions less favorable to vegetative reproduction. 4. Common Characters. — Generally speaking, the cultivated grasses have the characters common to the grass family — namely, fibrous roots, jointed stems (nodes and internodes), two-ranked leaves consisting of sheath, blade, ligule, and auricle, one leaf arising from each node. Flowers are borne in spikelets, ovulary one-seeded, styles two, anthers usually three. (C. A. 52-58) The cultivated grasses have certain characters common to each other but not common to all members of the grass family. They are perennial, grow during a considerable period of the year, produce but a small portion of their weight in seed which has little food value, have relatively a large amount of leaves to culms. The culms are rather small with relatively heavy walls. In grasses of economic value the surface of the leaves and stems is usually smooth. The essential characters which make grasses of economic value are yield, palatability, health- fulness, duration, prolificacy, and ease of curing. 5. Growing Point of Leaf. — The value of the grasses for grazing consists in a considerable measure in the large number of basal leaves and the manner of growth of the leaf blade. The growing point, which can usually be recognized by its lighter color, is at the base of the blade. The upper portion PERENNIAL FOR^VGE GRASSES The numbers in each of the figures are as follows- 1 . Sheath; 2. blade; 3. culm; 4. nof^.e or joint; 5. ligule The ligule is best shown in the lower right hand figure < After Vasey) 8 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA of the leaf blade may, therefore, be removed without injuring the growing part. 6. Variations. — While possessing certain characters in com- mon, the different species of grasses not only vary widely from each other in habits of growth and minor botanical characters, but different individuals of the same species also vary widely; although less advantage has been taken of this fact to produce strains or varieties than in the case of the cereals. (53) (C. A. 37) Grasses vary in the depth of their root growth, smooth brome grass being deep-rooted and able to withstand drought; while Kentucky blue grass is shallow-rooted and liable to injury during dry weather, — which makes them adapted to different portions of the United States. The strongly stoloniferous habit of Kentucky blue grass, red- top, and brome grass causes them to produce dense, even sod; while orchard grass grows in bunches and does not make an even sod. Timothy is somewhat variable in its stoloniferous habit, not only producing a less dense sod, but making its duration less certain. (50) In some cases the culms are erect, some decumbent, others are decumbent at the base only, while still others are kneed. The proportion of basal leaves to culm leaves, as well as the height of culm and its proportion as compared with the leaves, influences the yield and the quality of the hay. Certain characters serve to distinguish the grasses when not in flower. These are the size and thickness of the leaf blade, size and shape of the ligule, and the color of the basal leaf sheath. When in flower, the inflorescence is of course the chief method of distinguishing species. The inflorescence may be spike-like — as in the case of timothy and meadow foxtail, or a panicle — as in the case of redtop and Kentucky blue grass. Grasses are further distinguished by the number of flowers to a spikelet, the relative lengths of outer glumes, flowering glume, PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 1. A dense spike, Alopecums pratensis; 2. An elongated, one-sided spike, Paspalum dilatatum; 3. Spike, Hordeum pratense; 4. Spike, Agropyrum repens; 5. Spike, Elymus condensatus; 6. Spike, Bouteloua polystachya; 7. Spike, Bouteloua oligostachya; 8. Panicle, Panicum crus-galli; 9. Panicle, Agwstis exarata; 10. Panicle, Koeleria cr'stata; 11. Panicle, Distichlis man'tma; 12. Panicle, Bromus secalinus; 13. Panicle, Hierochloa boreahs; 14. Panicle, Poa pratensis: 15. Panicle, Dactylis glomet-ata. (After Vasey) 10 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA and palea, together with more minute characters. These will be found under the description of the individual grasses. 7. Healthfulness. — As pasture, all the cultivated grasses are equally healthful. There is not known to be any difference in the healthfulness of the different cultivated grasses, except such as occurs through curing. If the hay is fermented or dusty, it is objectionable — especially for horses. Certain legumes, however — such as alfalfa and red clover — cause cattle to bloat, especially if turned into a field when there is a heavy dew. Much less danger exists if the cattle are turned into the field when there is no dew or if they are left in the field continuously. Mixtures of grasses with either alfalfa or clover make them comparatively safe. Certain wild grasses — such as wild barley and darnel — are quite injurious. Alsike clover has been reported to be injurious sometimes. (178) 8. Palatability. — Although cultivated grasses vary little in healthfulness, they do vary considerably in palatability. Tim- othy is so highly prized that a small admixture of other cul- tivated grasses reduces the commercial grade. In practise this admixture is likely to be redtop, which either as hay or pasture is not as well liked by domestic animals as timothy. Kentucky blue grasr is more palatable than Canadian blue grass or wire grass for pasture. For pasture, Kentucky blue grass, meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, and smooth brome grass excel in palatability redtop, orchard grass, and timothy. Tall oat grass and velvet grass are examples of grasses that are prac- tically valueless on account of lack of palatability. Palatability also varies somewhat with the kind of animal. Sheep are said to be fond of orchard grass. They graze it close. The tramp- ing keeps the grass from growing in bunches. Palatability may vary with soil and climate. Tall oat grass, which, in most parts of the United States, is considered unpalatable, is a highly prized grass in France. It has been suggested that this may PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES II Forms of spikelets closed and opened. Fig. 1, Agrostis vulgaris; Fig. 2. Agrostis exarata; Fig. 3. Sporobolus indicus; Fig. 4. An opened spikelet of Calamagrostis canadensis; Fig. 5. Fhleum pratense; Fig. 6. Muhlenbergia diffusa; Fig. 7. Pas- palum dilatatum; Fig. 8. Paspalum laede; Fig. 9. A spikelet of AHstida purpurea; Fig. 10. Setaria setosa; Fig. 11. Seiaria glauca; Fig. 12. Alopecurus pratensis; Fig. 13. Holcus lanatus; Fig. 14, A spikelet of Deschampsia caespitosa and one of its flowers; Fig. 15. A spikelet of Poa serotina and one of its flowers; Fig. 1 6. A spike- let of Bromus erectus and one of its flowers; Fig. 1 7. The staminate and pistillate spike- lets of Buchloe dactyloides, the former both closed and opened, (After Vasey) 12 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA be due to an abundance of some plant food, such as phos- phoric acid. 9. Prolificacy. — An essential feature of a cultivated grass is that seed for sowing may be secured at a reasonable cost. This depends upon the number of seeds produced per plant, the usual percentage of germination, cost of harvesting and preparing for market, and the number of plants required per unit of area to secure a satisfactory stand. One of the most valuable characteristics of timothy is the fact that the seed required to sow an acre can be purchased for less than any other cultivated grass, because it produces seed abundantly, has high germinating power, is easily harvested and prepared for market, and a relatively small number of plants is required to produce a good stand. On the other hand, Kentucky blue grass seed is more difficult to harvest, greater care is required in preparing for market, and its power of germination as it occurs in commerce is much less. The cultivation of certain grasses and clovers is practically prohibited because of the lack of prolificacy — as, for example, big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis Lam.), reed grass, zigzag clover, and Trifolium pannonicum Jacq. This latter is a perennial clover of apparently high value, were it not for the difficulty of securing seed. 10. Number of Plants Per Acre. — At the Cornell Station sin- gle plants of timothy when grown alone have given at a single cutting 1.25 pounds of well cured hay. Only 3,200 such plants would be required per acre to produce 2 tons of hay, or one plant to about every 14 square feet. There was obtained from 3,600 two-year-old plants at the Cornell Station a ton of hay, this being the number left from 7,200 plants on an acre, each 30. inches apart. When the minimum amount of timothy seed is sown per acre — namely, about 9 pounds — about 10,000,000 seeds are sown, or over 200 per square foot. Grass mixtures PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 1 3 are sometimes prepared on the basis of 20,000,000 viable seeds per acre. There are three sources of loss. Some seeds never germinate, some plants die from lack of suitable conditions — as, for ex- ample, through shallow sowing, and some plants are crowded out by their more vigorous neighbors. If possible, it would be desirable to eliminate the first two sources of loss; but in so far as the plants fail to survive because they are less vigorous pr less hardy than their neighbors, the result is beneficial. While in ordinary practise loss usually, perhaps, occurs both from lack of number of plants and lack of uniformity of stand, it is possible that with certain grasses having a strongly stolon- iferous habit too great crowding may occur. It has been noticed that in certain regions some grasses — such as smooth brome grass — produce hay abundantly for two or three years after seeding, but as a dense sod forms the production of hay becomes less. 11. Composition. — The analyses of the hay of perennial forage grasses do not indicate striking differences in the composition of different species. The composition of the hay of the same species at different stages of maturity may vary as greatly as that of different species; so that the average composition as given in the table below may be due as much to the stage of maturity and the methods of curing and handling as to any inherent differences in the grasses. Naturally, therefore, analyses of different species have been of little value in de- termining their feeding value. The feeding value depends largely on the palatability and freedom from injurious effects. Palatability depends largely on aroma, flavor, smoothness of parts, and freedom from dust. The table on page 14 gives Amer- ican analyses of the common and some less common grasses. Compared with the grains and other concentrated foods, the hay of perennial forage grasses is low in protein and fat and 14 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Table Giving American Analyses of Some Common Grasses Name of plant Number of an- alyses Water Ash Protein Nx 6.25 Crude fiber Nitro- gen-free extract Fat Bermuda grass 14.3 7.8 11.5 20.0 45.1 1.3 Blue joint 6.9 5.5 11.2 37.2 35.8 3.4 Canada blue grass 14.3 4.5 7.6 21.7 49.0 2.9 Couch grass . 5 14.3 6.0 8.8 24.8 43.1 3.0 Crab grass •• 14.3 10.8 8.4 27.5 36.6 2.4 Fowl meadow grass 14.3 3.6 5.4 17.9 56.4 2.4 Gama grass . 14.3 5.3 7.4 22.7 48.3 2.0 Hungarian grass . 12 7.7 6.0 7.5 27.7 49.0 2.1 Italian rye grass . 9.3 6.7 8.8 28.4 44.9 1.9 Johnson grass •• 14.3 6.9 10.9 21.5 44.8 2.4 Kentucky blue grass 4 24.4 7.0 6.3 24.5 34.2 3.6 Meadow fescue 14.3 7.8 9.2 20.8 45.1 2.8 Meadow foxtail 6.6 9.8 9.3 32.3 38.9 3.1 Orchard grass 10 9.9 6.0 8.1 32.4 41.0 2.6 Perennial rye grass •• 14.3 5.2 7.6 35.7 54.8 2.4 Redtop . 9 8.9 5.2 7.9 28.6 47.4 1.9 Schrader's brome grass 14.3 8.4 11.7 17.6 44.9 3.1 Sheep's fescue 7.4 6.8 6.0 33.1 43.9 2.8 Smooth brome grass 6.2 7.6 10.1 38.7 35.5 1.9 Sweet vernal grass •• 14.3 5.0 9.9 21.9 46.4 2.5 Tall meadow oat grass 10.7 5.0 8.7 27.8 44.5 3.3 Texas blue grass . 14.3 10.0 9.1 27.3 36.1 Z.2 Timothy 68 13.2 4.4 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 high in crude fiber. Neither the digestible fat (ether extract) nor the digestible nitrogen-free extract in hay is as valuable for feeding purposes as equal quantities in the grains. Com- pared with the leguminous forage plants, the hay of grasses is much lower in protein, but otherwise does not differ greatly except in so far as is made necessary through the lower protein content. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 1 5 12. Digestibility. — Comparatively few digestion experiments have been made with the hay of the perennial forage grasses, but it is generally conceded that the coefficient of digestion for one species of grass will apply fairly to another if both are harvested at proper stages of maturity and cured in a similar manner. In a general way, 75 to 90 per cent, of the dry matter of grains and other concentrates is digested by ruminants, 50 to 65 per cent, of the hay of grasses and legumes, and 40 to 50 per cent, of the straw of cereals. The net nutritive value of hay is much less than that of grains, not only because it contains less percentage of digestible nutrients, but also because a larger proportion of the energy is used in masticating and digesting the hay. The energy being thus used is not available for the production of work, flesh, or milk. The energy of mastication and digestion mani- fests itself in heat, however, and helps to keep the animal warm. Hay and straw may, therefore, be used in wintering mature animals when they would not be useful when used alone for work or for growing animals or for the production of milk. As illustrating the differences in net nutritive value of different foods when fed to horses, the trials by Zuntz and Hagermann, of Germany, are given on the next page.^ II. SEEDS AND MIXTURES 13. Quality of Seed. — No factor, perhaps, has a greater influ- ence on the economic use of forage plants, whether grasses or legumes, than the quantity and the quality of the seed produced. Apart from its hereditary power, the quality of seed is de- termined by the purity, the germinating power, the size of the seed, and the weight per bushel. The higher the purity, germination and weight per bushel, and the larger the grain, the more valuable the seed. In some instances — as. for ex- iLandw. Jahrb., 27 (1898), No. 3, pp. 440. l6 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Table Showing True Nutritive Value of Different Feeding Stuffs Labor ex- pended in True nutritive Dry matter Total di- chewing and value ni Feeding stuffs gestible digestion in terms of nutrients terms of nutrients nutrients Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Medium hay (av- erage quality) . 85 39 21 18 Alfalfa hay cut at beginning of bloom 84 45 22 23 Red clover hay 84 41 24 17 Winter wheatstraw 86 18 30 —12 Oats (medium quality) 87 61 12 49 Maize 87 78 8 70 Field beans . 86 12 11 61 Peas 86 69 10 59 Linseed cake 88 69 13 56 Potatoes 25 23 3 20 Carrots 15 11 2 9 ample, with red clover and alfalfa — the origin of the seed may be a matter of importance. Seed control stations determine the kinds and percentages of impurities and the power of germination — that is, the per- centage of pure seeds which can germinate or grow.^ The percentage of viable pure seed is obtained by multiplying the percentage of pure seed by the percentage of total germination of the pure seed. This is sometimes spoken of as the actual value of the sample. A sample, however, that contains 90 per cent, of viable pure seed may be relatively more valuable than a sample containing 80 per cent, than is indicated by 90 : 80, because of the more vigorous growth of seeds of high ger- 1 For example of pure seed law, see Maine Station Report, 1896, p. 181; or, Bui. No. 36 (1897), p. 65. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 17 Scales for determining the weight per bushel of seeds minating power. On the other hand, a sample with the higher percentage of viable pure seed may be less desirable to sow because of the kind of impurities. 14. Weight per Bushel. — While the sale of seed by the hundred- weight is gradually superseding sale by the bushel, nevertheless weight per bushel is an excellent guide to the number of seeds per pound, since the freer the seed is from chafif the higher the weight per bushel. In the table on page 18 the ex- treme variations in ac- tual weight per bushel, as reported by different stations and other authorities, are given in the first column; while in the second column occurs the legal weight in Canada and the several states where such legal standards exist. 15. Impurities. — These may consist of three classes: (i) inert matter, (2) weed seeds, and (3) foreign but useful seeds. Impurities may be accidental — namely, due to the imperfection of cleaning machinery and to the occurrence of weeds or cultivated plants in the crop when harvested. Adulterants or foreign bodies artificially added for gain may consist of inert bodies — such as colored stones in red clover seed, or seeds of plants of greater or less usefulness but of less cost per pound — such as black medic seed in red clover, Canada blue grass for Kentucky blue grass, and perennial rye grass for meadow fescue seed. In some cases complete substitution is made. In general, grass seeds have not been subject to a great deal of adulteration. The purpose of many lawn grass mixtures, how- ever, is to substitute lower priced for higher priced seeds. Alfalfa and clover seeds have been rather more subject to l8 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Table Showing Weight per Bushel of Grass Seed in Pounds Extreme Legal weight Name of grass weight s per per bushel bushel Barnyard millet, Japanese . . . • 35 35 Bermuda ....... 36 .. Blue joint 14 Broom corn millet 60 .. Canada blue 14 —20 •• Creeping bent 15 —20 Crested dog's tail 26 —30 •• Fowl meadow 12 —15 .. Italian rye 17 —24 20 Johnson 28 28 Kentucky blue 13.25—28 14 Meadow fescue 12 —28 .. Meadow foxtail 5.25—14 .. Millets 1 50 50 2 Orchard 11.5 —21 14 Perennial rye 18 —30 Redtop 12 —40 14 » Reed canary 14 —48 •• Rhode Island bent 15 Rough stalked meadow . . . 11 —28 •• Sheep's fescue 12 —28 Smooth brome 12 —14 14 Sweet vernal 6 —15 •• Tall meadow fescue 14 —25 .. Tall meadow oat 7 —14 7 Timothy 44 —50 45* Velvet 6 — 7 7 1 Common, Hungarian, German, Golden Wonder. 2 Reported for "millet" in a number of states; 48 lb. in Minnesota. 3 12 in Virginia. * 48 in Canada, 42 in Oklahoma, 60 in Arkansas. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 19 adulteration. The most important impurities are noxious weed seeds, their injurious quality being due to the kinds rather than the quantity of seeds present. A great deal of seed placed on the market is of low germinating power. 16. Sampling Seeds. — It is essential to secure an average sample of seed to be tested either for impurities or for germination. If the seed is in a bin, a grain sampler may be used; if in sacks, samples may be taken from various parts of each by means of small seed sampler. When the quantity is small enough, it should be emptied upon a flat surface, thoroughly mixed, and seeds taken from various parts to make up the sample far mixing. For the seeds of forage crops, either of grasses or of legumes, a two-ounce sample is sufficient, except where the seeds are the size of vetches or cowpeas, when a four-ounce sample should be taken. In testing grass seed it is es- sential to take small and large seeds in the proportion in which they exist in the whole sample. In some grass seeds there are many empty glumes which it is difficult to distinguish from those containing grain. They may be distinguished by wetting the seeds, placing them upon a plate of glass and holding up to the light, when the empty glumes will appear translucent, while those containing seed will be opaque. The sample as received for testing may be spread carefully upon a sheet of paper and divided by means of a spatula into sub-divisions until a small enough sample for actual test is Seed mixer and sampler 20 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA obtained. Or it may be done as in the seed-testing division of the United States Department of Agriculture, by means of the apparatus shown in this paragraph. 17. Seed Identification. — As grass seeds occur in commerce, the seeds are usually surrounded by the flowering glume and palea, although a portion of the sample may contain naked seeds. The naked seed is the ripened ovulary or fruit known as a caryopsis, as in the case of cereal seeds. (C. A. 60) The flowering glume furnishes means of identification by variations in length, color, and thickness, character or absence of keel, number of nerves, character of position and shape of awn; by the shape, position, and hairiness of the rachilla, or by its absence. When the spikelet is two — or more — seeded the rachilla exists; but when, as in timothy and redtop, the spikelet is one-seeded, no rachilla is attached at the base of the palea in the harvested seed. The point of the flowering glume may be blunt or pointed, and may be straight or curved. In the case of the seeds of the legumes the general shape and, to some extent, the color and size of seeds furnish means of identification. The relative length of the ridge or raphe, the prominence of the tip of the caulicle or radicle, and the shape and color of the hilum are often characteristic. The pods when present are one of the most certain means of identification. 18. Germination of Seeds. — The practise of seed control sta- tions is to germinate seeds at a temperature of 64° to 68° F. The practise with regard to grass seeds is to raise the temperature during six of the 24 hours to 86° F., as this temperature has been found to promote germination. Kentucky blue grass has been found to germinate better when the temperature is lowered to 40° F. a portion of the 24 hours. The time required to test most grass seed has been established at 21 days, timothy and rye grass 14 days, while for the Poas 28 days are required. Legumes PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 21 require about seven days. Among leguminous seeds, especially clover seeds, the presence of hard or dormant seeds is common. On account of the structure of their seed coats or of their chemical composition, they do not readily absorb water and hence do not germinate within seven days, although they do so later. It is usual to add one-half to one-third the per cent, of hard seeds remaining to the percentage of germinating seeds. In red clover the number of hard seeds is generally 7 to 9 per cent. They are said to be more common when the seed crop is good and to be more frequent among dark clover seeds. It has been found that scratching or rubbing the surface makes them more easily germinable, and it is said that friction is sometimes practised by seedsmen for this purpose. Germination tests are carried on either between or upon flannel cloth or blotting paper or in beds of sterilized sand free from organic matter. The small seeds do best when placed upon, the large ones when placed between the media. Ex- perience has shown which gives the best results in the case of each species. In seed control stations the seeds from loo to 400, after being placed upon or between the cloth or blotter, are put in a germinating apparatus where the temperature is under control. (C. A. 476) For private tests the cloth, blotter, or sand may be placed between dinner plates, kept in a room that does not fall below 50° F. at night and is between 60° and 70° F. during the day. 19. Grass Mixtures. — The desirability of sowing two or more kinds of grass seed together must depend largely on the adaptability of the grasses to the locality and the purpose for which the crop is grown. For hay the plants should mature at about the same time. It may be laid down as a rule that for hay it does not pay to grow one plant with another when it is not in itself adapted to the conditions under which it is grown when sown alone. If it does not pay to sow alone it will not pay to sow with another crop. The introduction of 22 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA such a plant reduces the yield by occupying land which could have been more profitably occupied by a plant adapted to the existing conditions. The plant is out of place; it becomes a weed. Roots never fully occupy the soil. Those of different plants occupy different portions of it. The roots of timothy grow near the surface; clover roots grow deeper. Thus to a certain extent they do not interfere with each other. When red clover is sown with timothy the former usually dies after the second crop, leaving the decaying roots and stems to furnish their acquired fertility to the timothy and to succeeding crops. The holes left by the decaying roots may perhaps in some cases improve the mechanical condition of the soil. In many fields some portions of the land are best adapted to timothy and other portions best adapted to red clover. Under these conditions a combination may yield the maximum crop. In some localities timothy does not reach its best develop- ment until it has been sown two or three years. In the mean- time the clover may occupy a portion of the ground with no serious ultimate disadvantage, apparently, to the timothy. The seeding with a miscellaneous mixture of grass seeds of varieties of little or no value when sown alone has neither practical nor experimental evidence in this country to commend it. Under uniform conditions of soil, the maximum yields of hay are obtained when but a single species exists. For pasturage, several varieties may be desirable in order to furnish a suc- cession of herbage throughout the season. The chief difficulty in America is to find varieties adapted to our soil and climate which will do this. (74) 20. Calculating Mixtures. — The amount of seed required per acre may be stated in the number of pounds of viable pure seeds or as the number of pounds of commercial seed of a stated percentage of purity and standard of germination. In this volume the latter mode of statement is employed. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 23 In order to secure a stand containing a desired percentage of different species of grasses and legumes, it is necessary to sow the same percentages of the amount of seed required for a complete stand when sown alone, making such correction as may be necessary on account of difference in percentage of viable pure seed. Further, an additional amount of seed, varying from 10 to 80 per cent., is added because of the ability of the land to support more plants when two or more species are sown together. As an illustration, let it be supposed that 15 pounds of timothy seed containing 88 per cent, of viable pure seed, 10 pounds of red clover seed containing 95 per cent, of viable pure seed, and 8 pounds of alsike clover containing 90 per cent, of viable pure seed are required when sown alone, and that a mixture is desired consisting of 50 per cent, timothy, 25 per cent, each of red and alsike clover, and the per cent, of viable pure seed in the commercial samples to be used are 80, 90, and 85 respectively, and that a stand of 50 per cent, greater is possible on account of the mixture, — the amount of seed required will be shown in the following table: Commercial Viable Commercial Amount The plant seed of standard pure seed of quality required on addition of quality purchased 50 per cent. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Timothy 7. 6.6 8.25 12.37 Red clover 2.5 2.38 2.64 3.96 Alsike clover 2.0 1.8 2.12 3.18 21. Pasture Grasses. — A considerable portion of the live stock of the United States has thus far pastured upon lands which have never been seeded by man, while frequently those which have at some time been seeded now contain chiefly grasses that were not sown. In the western half of the United States domestic animals graze principally upon the native grasses, 24 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA chief of which are the grama, the mesquite, buffalo grass, and the bunch grasses of which those belonging to the genus Stipa and to the genus Oryzopsis are the leading types. Likewise, Koeleria cristata ((L.) Pers.), Deschampsia caespitosa ((L.) Beauv.), and several species of the genus Festuca are widely diffused. Blue joint (Calamagrostis canadensis Beauv.) is one of the best and most productive on moist soils and in cool climates. The native grasses of the range have the common characteristics of growing in a dry climate and producing a nutritious herbage which retains its nutritious qualities when dried standing. This is in part due to the climate rather than to the kind of grasses. The latter quality is probably in part due to the fact that fermentative and putrefactive qualities of all kinds take place less rapidly in a dry than in a moist climate. East of the Missouri River and north of the cotton states the Poas, of which Kentucky blue grass is the most common species, form with white clover the basis of most all pastures. In some sections, notably the New England states, the Agrostis, of which redtop is a common species, form no inconsiderable part of the herbage. In places, especially upon good land, the fescues occur, particularly the meadow fescue. Meadow foxtail occurs in slight quantities. When seeding to pasture, timothy generally forms a part of the mixture because of its rapid growth. Where conditions are favorable, orchard grass makes fairly satisfactory pasture. (85) Smooth brome grass, introduced as late as 1896, is being highly recom- mended as a pasture grass for sub-humid sections of the United States. Bermuda grass has been introduced into the cotton states, where with Japan clover it is somewhat, although not extensively, used for pasture. 22. Native Grasses. — Gradually the settlement of new lands and the changes from the range to improved agriculture are re- placing the native prairie grasses with cereals and tame grasses. Nevertheless, the area in wild, salt, and prairie grasses in 1899 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 25 constituted nearly one-fourth of the total acreage producing hay and forage. The great bulk — four-fifths — of this produc- tion was confined to the North Central states, forming a distinct western border to timothy culture. These grasses are supplied by a considerable number of tribes of the grass family, but come principally from seven tribes, of which the most important are probably the Chlorideae, furnishing blue or white grama (Bouteloua oligostachya (Nutt.) Torr.), the Andropogoneae, furnishing big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis Lam.), and the Hordeae, furnishing western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & Smith ).^ 23. Influence of Species of Plants on Value of Pasture. — A grass or other plant in a mixed herbage is no evidence of its value, since its occurrence may be due to the failure of animals to eat it readily. (8) In America, blue grass is widely prized as a pasture grass; while stock men generally look upon wire grass or Canadian blue grass as a weed and as having little food value. Certain observations, however, seem to indicate that although wire grass is likely to occur on less productive land, and therefore to support fewer animals per acre, cattle can be fattened upon it. With the view to determining the relative value of different species of grasses and of different species of plants other than 1 These tribes together furnish, among others, 16 species of rather well established economic importance. They are as follows: Andropogoneae: big blue stem (Andropogon provincialis Lam.), little blue stem (A. Scoparius Michx.), bushy blue stem (A. nutans L.), broom sedge (A. virginicus L.) ; Zoysieae: black bunch grass or black grama (Hilaria mu- tica (Buck.) Benth.) ; Paniceae: munro-grass (Panicum agrostoides Muhl.) ; Agrostideae : wild timothy (Muhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) B. S. P.), wire grama (Af. porteri Scribn.), saccaton or fnaton (Sporobolus wrigJitii Munro) ; Festuceae: salt grass (Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene), reed meadow grass (Panicularia americana (Torr.) MacM.) ; Chlorideae: blue or white grama (Bouteloua oligostachya (Nutt.) Torr.) ; side oats (B. curtipendula (Mx.) Torr.); Hordeae: giant rye grass (Elymus condensatus Presl.), western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & Smith), western couch grass (A. pseudorepens Scribn. & Smith). 26 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA grasses upon the permanent pastures of England, the Royal Agricultural Society appointed a commission which, after in- vestigating the subject for several years, reported that in dif- ferent pastures the species of cultivated grasses ranged from II to 100 per cent., of legumes from zero to 38 per cent., and miscellaneous plants, so-called weeds, from zero to 89 per cent. No correlation whatever was found between the value of the pasture as shown by the beef and mutton produced and the botanical character of the herbage. Pastures with widely varying proportions of grasses and other plants produced equally good results ; while pastures with the same percentages of different grasses and other plants gave widely differ- ent results. 24. Collateral Reading. — W. J. Beal : Grasses of North America, Vol. I, pp. 5-13; 75-78. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1896. William Jasper Spillman: Farm Grasses of the United States, pp. 64-74. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1905. F. G. Stebler and C. Schroter: The Best Forage Plants, pp. 3-8. London: David Nutt, 1889. H. Marshall Ward: Grasses: A Handbook for Use in the Field and Labora- tory, pp. 6-27. Cambridge at the University Press. 1901. George Francis Atkinson: A College Text-book of Botany, pp. 556-564. New York: Henry Holt & Co.. 1905. Henry Prentiss Armsby: The Principles of Animal Nutrition, pp. 269-271; 281-335. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1903. G. H. Hicks: Grass Seed and Its Impurities. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Year- book 1898, pp. 473-493. F. Lamson-Scribner: Our Native Pasture Plants. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1900, pp. 581-598. C. A. Zavitz: Permanent Pasture. In Ontario Agr. Col. and Expt, Farm Report 1893, pp. 110-117. II PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. CULTURAL METHODS 25. Nurse Crop. — The usual method of sowing grass seed is to sow with grain crops. Undoubtedly this is good practise for most regions. Usually no crop of hay can be harvested the first year. If sown alone the land is not sufficiently shaded by the grass to prevent the growth of weeds, which otherwise must be mown at considerable expense. The crop of hay the succeeding year is no better than if grain had been sown with the crop the preceding year. This is especially true of our leading hay crops — timothy, red clover, mammoth red clover, and redtop. A crop of grain, also, is obtained at little addi- tional expense. The New Hampshire Station ^ conducted an experiment in seeding meadow with nurse crop versus no nurse crop. The hay crop consisted of a mixture of 17 pounds of grass seed and 12 pounds of clover seed per acre, while barley served as a nurse crop. Although the yield from that portion of the field sown with barley greatly exceeded that without barley the first season, the yield the second season was dis- tinctly in favor of that portion where no nurse crop had been sown. Nevertheless the total weights for the two seasons showed an excess of 1.8 tons in favor of the crop sown with barley. Whether or not the relative yields would remain con- stant, had the experiment been continued, the indications are that for New Hampshire conditions the nurse crop is advisable. In some regions, however, timothy sown alone in fall will iNew Hampshire Sta. Bui. No. 59 (1898), p. 186. 27 28 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AxMERICA produce a fair crop of hay the following season. Under such conditions, when sown with wheat, it produces so much hay as to interfere with the harvesting of the crop as well as materially to reduce the yield of wheat. In such regions the custom is either to sow the timothy alone or sow it later — say ten days after wheat has been sown. These localities are the exception rather than the rule. Generally the practise of sowing the grass seed with the grain crop is based on sound business principles. 26. Method of Seeding. — Grass seeds may be sown by hand; and with certain chaffy seeds, such as uncleaned redtop, un- cleaned Kentucky blue grass, or smooth brome grass seeds, this is the only satisfactory method. For timothy, re-cleaned redtop, re- cleaned Kentucky blue grass, the clovers and alfalfa, grass seeders give more satisfactory results. The grass seeder which throws the seed Hand seeder irom a revolving disk may be used under a greater variety of conditions, but the evenness of seeding is more affected by the wind than v/hen the so-called wheelbarrow seeder is used. Grass seeders are also attached to grain drills, and when grass seed is to be sown at the same time as the grain this is the most satisfactory method of sowing. The spouts are generally adjustable so that seeds may be sown in front or behind the grain hoes, thus making it pos- sible to vary the depth of seeding, depending on the character of the soil or the kind of seed. 27. Time of Seeding. — Grasses may be successfully sown at any portion of the growing season, but in humid climates fall sowing is usually the most successful, either when sown alone or with grain crops, as is the most usual practise. Sowing PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 29 with fall crops gives better results, not only because germina- tion is usually more certain but because fall cereals are usually harvested earlier than spring cereals; consequently less injury results to the new seeding after the harvesting of the cereal, which is fre- quently a critical period for the grass. Wheelbarrow grass seeder In sub-humid sec- tions where there is almost no fall precipitation, spring seeding becomes desirable, since if sown in the autumn the seeds ger- minate poorly or not at all, and the growth is unsatisfactory. Autumn seeding is therefore not practised in such sections. 28. Depth of Seeding. — Grass seeds must not be sown so deeply as cereals. The smaller the seeds the shallower they must be sown. They have less starch with which to support the plant until the germination is complete. The plant is so delicate that it cannot overcome the resistance of the soil. These facts make a well-prepared seedbed or a great waste of seed imperative. Much seed is sown without any covering, although a light covering is generally advantageous. Probably better average results would be obtained with deeper covering than is usually practised, if the seedbed is carefully prepared. In continued moist, rainy weather the covering is not important. The great difficulty in securing a stand is from the drying of the surface soil just when the seeds are sprouting and the plants are becoming established. The seeds being so near the surface the soil may in a few days become dry enough to kill the plants. 29. Rotations. — Rotations have usually been studied from the standpoint of the influence of the grasses in improving the soil for other crops rather than to secure the best rotation for the grass. (C. A. 283) It has long been recognized that grass 30 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA is an important factor in a proper system of husbandry. There is an old Flemish proverb: "No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops." Both scientific research and farm practise confirm this proverb. Aside from the value of a rotation including grasses for im- proving the crop-producing power of the soil, it is desirable to plow up meadows and put the land into other crops for the benefit of the meadows themselves. Insect enemies increase from year to year. Weeds that produce seeds before the grass is mown also increase. At the Cornell Station, out of 9,000 plants that had been grown separately 49.4 per cent, died during the first two years after they had started. In field practise the increasing compactness of the soil and the decreasing aera- tion would both probably tend to reduce reproduction by under- ground stems and therefore reduce the life of the meadow. Whether succeeding generations of plants reproduced asexually by the underground stems are weaker than those plants produced by seed has not been shown experimentally. The fact that English pastures have remained permanently in grass for 300 years suggests that asexual reproduction does not weaken the vitality, although in these cases some re-seeding has doubtless occurred. In some instances a timothy meadow reaches its best develop- ment the second year after seeding — or, in other words, the largest yield of hay is obtained at the first cutting. Taking the region adapted to the growth of timothy as a whole, how- ever, it is probable that the best yields are obtained at the second and third cuttings, or on the third and fourth years from seeding. Either when sown alone or in combination with red clover, therefore, a rotation in which timothy occupies two or three crop years will give usually the best results so far as the yield of hay is concerned, and probably also so far as increasing the power of the soil to produce other crops. When variations are made from this period it is usually due PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 3 1 to economic conditions — as the difficulty of plowing the land, and the relative adaptability or value of different crops. Be- ginning with land which would hardly produce 500 pounds of hay to the acre, the Rhode Island Station — by means of a six- course rotation consisting of rye one year; grass (timothy 15, redtop 7.5, red clover 7.5 pounds) three years; maize one year; and potatoes one year; and by means of rather heavy applica- tions of commercial fertilizers each year, and the use of lime — has secured hay crops averaging 4 tons or more per acre. Land used for pasture is often the least arable portion of the farm and, in such case, not likely to enter into the general system of rotation. When it does enter into the rotation, dif- ferent grasses are required than when the pasture is permanent. It is not advisable to sow Kentucky blue grass, meadow fescue, or meadow foxtail unless the land is to remain in pasture for more than three years. Where, from lack of adaptation of suitable grasses for pasture, it is necessary to use grasses and clovers of short duration, then pastures, like meadows, must be renewed by plowing and re-seeding. With suitable grasses, pastures may be permanent. In Eng- land pastures are believed to improve with age, pastures having existed there for such long periods that there is no record of the land having been plowed, although the existence of fur- rows is evidence that they have been. While pastures may be permanent, a rotation of crops may occur. Not only may different species occupy the same spot at different times, but the proportion of different species will vary with climatic and soil conditions. 30. Fertilizing Elements. — Experiments by Lawes and Gilbert conducted on a large scale and extending over many years show that nitrogenous manures act most beneficially on grasses, while potash manures are most beneficial to leguminous plants. While the results of American stations tend to confirm the principles involved in the English experiments, the results in 32 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA practise are somewhat masked by the fact that American soils are on an average relatively more virgin and hence presumably better supplied with soluble nitrates, and over a wide area in America the soils are relatively low in phosphates. In America, phosphoric manures frequently have a marked influence upon vegetative growth, especially when used in connection with nitrogenous manures for grasses and potash manures for leguminous crops. 31. Essential Conditions for the Successful Use of Fertilizers upon Grasses. — There are three conditions necessary for a suc- cessful increase of a grass crop through the use of fertilizers of any sort: 1. The increase will depend on the ability of the land to grow a crop without fertilizers. If the land will now grow only 1,000 pounds of hay to the acre and this small growth is due primarily to the need of fertilizers, then a certain ap- plication of fertilizer may increase the yield to 4,000 pounds per acre. If the same application is made to land already yielding 4,000 pounds of hay per acre, the increase may or may not be 3,000 pounds per acre, depending on whether 7,000 pounds are a normal yield with the climatic conditions of the place and the stand of grass. 2. The increase due to fertilizers depends on the climatic conditions. If the climatic conditions are such as to produce only 1,000 pounds of hay per acre, the addition of fertilizers will not materially increase the yield. If the climatic conditions are such as to produce 7,000 pounds of hay per acre, it may take less fertilizer to increase the yield from 4,000 to 7,000 pounds per acre than from 1,000 to 4,000 pounds per acre. 3. Where the climatic conditions are favorable, grasses respond well to the use of fertilizers; doubtless due, in part at least, to the large number of plants influenced by the fer- tilizers and to large root surface which prevents the loss of the fertilizers applied. An essential condition, therefore, for a PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 33 maximum yield is a sufficient and uniform stand of the grass or grasses it is desired to grow. It is true that under favorable conditions a comparatively few plants may produce a large yield. (10) There are probably two reasons why a large stand is desirable. There is a limit to which a single plant may be increased through the use of a fertilizer, and hence the larger the number of plants within certain limits the greater the total increase. The second reason may be found in the fact that when the plants are not sufficiently thick, other less desirable and smaller yielding plants grow. By occupying the space and by taking the available plant food at critical times such grasses reduce the yield. The principles here enunciated are of great practical im- portance in America. Over a large area, especially in the North Central, the Western, and the Southern states, the chief limiting factor in the production of perennial forage grasses is the climatic conditions. The production of timothy is limited to two tons per acre or less, principally by climatic conditions. The addition of fertilizers, except in so far as they may change the moisture content of the soil, is not likely to have material effect in increasing the yield, although an in- creased vigor of plants induced by fertilizers during a moist period may have some effect. On the other hand, throughout the northeastern part of the United States the climatic condi- tions are extremely favorable to the growth of grasses. The very climatic conditions which are favorable to the growth of grasses are also favorable to a waste of the available plant food of the soil; thus it is here that experimental evidence shows marked influence from the use of fertilizers when applied to grass lands. Commercially, two other factors enter into the use of fer- tilizers— namely, the cost of the fertilizers and the cost of the product. Since the cost of transportation is high on both the 34 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA fertilizer and the hay, it results that local conditions will more largely influence the use of fertilizers, and especially com- mercial fertilizers, upon the perennial forage grasses than upon any other of our staple crops. The cumulative effect of adding commercial fertilizers year after year to perennial forage grasses is probably greater than with annual crops of any kind. This is probably not due alone or even principally to the cumulative effect of the plant food in the soil, but to the more vigorous plants which are carried over from year to year. One of the effects, doubtless, is to increase the duration of the plant and thus prevent the entrance of other less desirable and less productive plants. 32. Application of Commercial Fertilizers. — Commercial fer- tilizers, when applied to pastures or meadows, should be applied in the spring as soon as the grass starts to grow. Experiments indicate that one such application is as effective as the same quantity of fertilizer divided between two or more applications throughout the season. The fertilizer may be sown by hand, although there are distributers for broadcasting fertilizers. The Cornell Station advises for application to timothy meadows on Dunkirk clay loam, when in proper rotation, 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 100 pounds of 15 per cent, acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. This is equal to the application of 250 pounds of a 15-6- 10 mixed fertilizer per acre. The Rhode Island Station in a six-course rotation — maize on grass sod, potatoes, winter rye, each one year; red clover and grass (timothy and redtop), three years — recom- mends an annual application of the following fertilizers as a top-dressing to the grass: nitrate of soda 350, muriate of pot- ash 200, acid phosphate 500 pounds.^ 33. Methods of Improving Pastures. — Pastures may be im- proved in four different ways : 1 Rhode Island Sta. Bui. No. 99 (1904), p. 107. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 35 1. By sowing upon the pasture from time to time moderate quantities of a suitable mixture of grass seeds. This is espe- cially desirable in case fields are kept closely pastured and thusj not allowed to re-seed. 2. Although it may slightly decrease the palatability of the grass for the time being, the spreading of stable manure is a means of greatly improving the productivity of a pasture. Where stable manure is not available commercial fertilizers may be used. For the North Atlantic states nitrogenous fer- tilizers generally give the best results ; but for the North Central states fertilizers containing phosphoric acid as well as nitrogen should be used. Continued pasturage by cattle not otherwise fed may slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Fattening animals on pasture or feeding grain to milch cows while on pasture increases the fertility of the soil by returning more to it than is taken from it. Experiments have been made by Lawes and Gilbert which show that different fertilizers have very different effects on different grasses and clovers. They find that the most complex herbage occurs on unmanured land, that potash and phosphoric acid increase the proportion of leguminous plants, and that nitrogen and green manure increase the proportion of grasses. The yield of hay was increased more by the use of stable manure and nitrogen than by the use of phosphoric acid and potassium. It is evident that with different kinds of fertilizers favoring different kinds of plants, the character as well as the kind of pasture may be influenced by the character of the food fed the stock which feed upon the pasture. The kind or purpose for which the stock is used may affect the pasture for a similar reason. 3. Pastures may be improved by harrowing, which may be done with a spike tooth or chain harrow in order to spread the droppings of the cattle, thus not only increasing the produc- tion of grass but also its palatability. This may be done during 36 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA rainy periods when it is not possible to use the teams on arable land, while the harrowing is most effectively done at such times. 4. Pastures may also in some cases be improved by clipping with the mowing-machine where weeds are likely to go to seed or where from want of sufficient pasturage the grasses become woody and unpalatable. Clip- ping, however, is likely to re- duce the amount of pasturage for the time being, and where pasture is scarce may not be advisable. * ' 'm • M M M M M M'lM'fl'K' II. PRODUCTION AND HARVESTING mm^MgmmM i i 1 Chain harrow used in England for improving pastures 34. Distribution and Adapta- tion.— So far as the cultivated grasses have yet been extensive- ly introduced, they have been found best adapted to that por- tion of the United States east of the Missouri River and north of the cotton states. While there are certain exceptions where limestone soils exist — such as in central Kentucky — in general, grasses increase in adaptability as one proceeds northward and eastward in the United States. Not only are the North Atlantic states well adapted to the production of grasses, but they are less adapted to the production of cereal crops. The result is that the proportion of the total farm area in grasses is much higher in .these states than elsewhere, except in those Rocky Mountain states where range conditions still exist. It has been fairly well demonstrated that to the cotton states and the sub-humid High Plains area, timothy, blue grass, redtop, and orchard grass are PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 37 not adapted. Bermuda grass, however, has been introduced in the south, and more recently smooth brome grass has been in- troduced in the high plains region, and their success leads to the hope that these or yet other grasses may be found which will be adapted to these large areas of the United States. Percentage of the improved farm land in hay and forage in 1899 35. Yield. — The average yield of hay from the tame grasses in the United States in 1900 was i.i tons per acre, and did not vary greatly in different parts of the United States. A yield of 2 tons per acre of well cured hay is usually considered a satisfactory yield, and a yield of 3 tons is considered rather unusual, although a yield of 9 tons per acre has been reported. The Cornell Station produced 47 tons of well cured timothy, red, and alsike clover hay from 12 acres. The yield of pasture may be stated in the number of animals supported or the returns obtained therefrom. An acre of first- class pasture of Kentucky blue grass may support a 1,000-pouhd steer and produce some growth; however, one such animal to 2 acres without additional food is perhaps above the average. The Illinpis Station suggests, as the result of two years' trials, that while a grain ration to young steers on good pasture may increase the rate of growth in the 'animals, the gains rarely repay the cost of food and labor ; and that it is doubtful whether 38 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the maintenance of cattle or an increase in weight could be secured so cheaply as by exclusive pasturage during the best of the grazing season upon good pastures fully but not over stocked. If profit is to be had where grain is fed cattle on pasture, especially if the grain given be unground, it is essential to have pigs follow the cattle/ Milch cows on pasture may require additional food throughout the season. The Penn- sylvania Station found that where, in the early season, enough stock was put on pasture to keep the grass cropped short, the pasture became insufficient, and beginning with August addi- tional feed was necessary." 36. Time of Harvesting. — The proper time to harvest hay is manifestly when the largest quantity of the best quality can be secured, provided the expense is not thereby increased. The quantity may be sacrificed to improve quality. Quality may be sacrificed to increase the yield or to decrease the expense in harvesting. The expense and risk of securing timothy may be greater if it is cut early, as it requires more handling and longer exposure in curing than if cut late. If hay is to be marketed, it is important to distinguish be- tween food value and market value. A ton of early cut hay may contain more valuable nutrients than a ton of late cut hay. As a food for milch cows the former would doubtless be better than the latter. Yet the later cut timothy hay may have the higher market value. Growth signifies an increase of weight. A crop of grass increases in weight of dry substance until it is ripe. There may be a greater loss in weight in the matured plant from the loss of seed, in the case of timothy, or in the loss of leaves and finer parts in the case of clover, than if cut earlier. When ripe, the hay is practically straw. 1 Illinois Sta. Bui. No. 9 (1890), pp. 319-25. 2 Pennsylvania Sta. Rpt. (1889), pp. 97-101. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 39 A summary of experiments made in this country shows that there is an appreciable increase of yield of the grasses from the period of full bloom until seeds are formed. There is an increase of all the food nutrients, but the increase is most marked in the crude fiber, starch, sugar, and allied substances. With timothy, orchard grass, and meadow fescue, an increase of one-fourth, from the period of full bloom until seeds were formed, has been found. With the clovers, there has been found a decrease in all the nutrients, with the exception of crude fiber, in which there is sometimes an appreciable increase. The loss of the leaves and finer parts in handling while curing is sometimes sufficient to render the clover hay well nigh worth- less. There is both a loss of weight and a loss in quality. A farmer with 150 acres of hay to harvest cannot harvest it all at the theoretically best time. If he sells part of his hay, it is prudent to sell the later cut hay. It has less food value, pound for pound, especially for growing stock and milch cows. In many localities it has a greater market value. In such cases it is usually intended for mature horses, for which purpose it is better suited. 37. Curing Hay. — The aim in curing a fodder crop is to preserve the* nutrients with the least loss and in as digestible and palatable a form as may be. It is desired to secure bright, clean hay. The quality may be reduced by direct washing and dissolving by rains; by bleaching, through the alternate wetting by rains and dews, just as linen is bleached; by becoming musty through heating or fermentation; or by the loss of the more delicate and more valuable parts, as the leaves, when the hay is too thoroughly dried. As before indicated, the latter is an important reason why the quality of clover is improved by curing in cocks. When it is spread thinly on the ground the leaves become dry much sooner than the stems, and every time the clover is handled the leaves are broken and lost. If, on the 40 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA A Hay tedder; fork arms made of boiler tube and coil relief spring other hand, the clover is put in cocks before the leaves become dry, the stems and leaves transpire or evaporate the water through the leaves much as they do when the plant is growing. The moisture of the stems passes off through the leaves. This is the sweating of hay. The water collects on the outer surface of the stems and leaves, because it is imprisoned there by the sur- rounding material. Another reason for placing hay in cocks is to prevent the direct washing and leaching by rains. If an inch of rain falls upon an acre of hay in the swath the hay is likely to be washed by nearly all the rain that falls, or 3,630 cubic feet; but if the hay is in cocks occupying, say one-twentieth the area, then it will be washed with only 182 cubic feet, and as the water will be more or less shed from the cock much of the hay will be untouched. It is not feasible in many places, however, to cure hay in the cock, on account of the extra labor necessary Much hay is now put in the barn or stack on the day after it is cut. Hay rakes, loaders, and horse forks make it possible to do this with but little hand labor, while if put in cock much hand labor is nec- essary. On the other hand, where only a limited quantity is to be handled, it is often more convenient and more economical to put the hay in cock. The method of handling hay depends much upon circumstances, the main element being the cost of a given method under given conditions. Other things equal. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 41 the less the hay is handled the better the quality, as at every movement some of the finer parts may be lost. III. HAY MAKING MA- CHINES AND MARKETING 38. Mowing-machines are almost all of one type, in which the cutter bar is placed at one side of the drive wheels (165), although there is a type in which the cutter bar operates be- tween the drive wheels, one horse walking in the standing grass. The es- sential features of the mowing-machine are: (i) the drive wheel, (2) the pitman, (3) the reciprocating sickle operating through fixed guards, and (4) the divider by which the cut grass is divided from that which is standing. The sickle is made of plain or smooth sec- tions which are kept ground to a sharp cutting edge. (C. A. 163) The ready ad- justment of the cut- ter bar is accom- plished by various methods. The length of the cutter bar varies from three feet six inches to seven feet — the most common size for two horses, perhaps, being five to six feet; the larger sizes are used in Different styles of hay tedder arms: B Coil spring; C flat relief spring; D flat relief spring sprung; E coil relief spring A Revolving hay rake 42 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA B Sulky hay rake the more level sections. A one-horse mower is inade having cutter bar three feet six inches and four feet in length. 39. Hay Rakes. — Several kinds of machines for raking hay into windrows have been invented: A. The wooden revolving hay rake is drawn by one horse and is made in widths, varying from 9 to 10 feet. The hay is released by the op- erator raising the handle, which causes the rake to revolve, thu5 passing over the hay that has been gathered B, The sulky springtooth hay rake is made in widths varying from 8 to 12 feet, with from 20 to 32 teeth, the wider rakes being for two horses and the narrower rakes for one horse The hay is released, or "dumped," by pulling back the hand lever, shown in the illustration, or by pressing a foot lever, which by means of a clutch causes the wheel to dump the rake. C. The side de- livery hay rake working somewhat on the principle of a hay tedder, re- moves the hay to one side of the ma- chine and leaves it in a continuous windrow. This re- C Side delivery hay rake quires nothing of the operator but to drive the team, and allows the hay loader to follow immediately if desired. The standard PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 43 width of this machine is about 8 feet. To get the space covered the width of the windrow must be added. Two horses are used. D Reversible side delivery hay rake D. The reversible side delivery hay rake picks the hay up by means of a cylinder on which are mounted gathering fingers. The elevator deposits the hay upon an endless carrier, which may be operated in either direction, thus depositing the hay upon either side of the rake. The rake is eight feet wide and is drawn by two horses. E. The sweep hay rake is used for stacking hay in the field. The hay may be gathered from swath, windrow, or cock when it is drawn directly to the stack. The hay may then be placed upon the stack with the horse hay fork, or more commonly, by means of the hay stacker. (See 42 £ ) F. The push power or rear hitch sweep hay rake permits the gathering of the hay close to fences and irrigating E Sweep hay rake 44 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Push power sweep rake ditches, and enables it to pass more readily through gates and over culverts. G. The windrower is a simple attachment to a mowing- machine, particular- ly designed for har- vesting clover and alfalfa for seed, but may also be em- ployed when these crops are used for hay. (165) 40. Hay Tedders are made with six and eight forks and for one or two horses. The fork arms may be made of wood or of boiler tube. The fork may be two or three-tined, and may have B a coil spring, E a coil relief spring, or C, D a flat relief spring. Care should be taken to use the tedder before the hay becomes too dry, in order to prevent loss of the finer and more valuable parts. 41. Hay Loaders. — In those sections of the country where the climatic conditions or the kind of hay raised make it possible to cure it satisfactorily without placing in cocks, where the fields are fairly level and the hay is not stacked B Hay loader; compare with A in the field, the hay loader is extensively used. Under these conditions the mowing-machine, the side delivery hay rake, and the hay loader are the three machines which the hay maker uses in the field. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 45 A Hay loader; compare with B Hay loaders are of two general types: A. In one type the hay is picked up from the swath or windrow by means of a gathering cylinder, from which it is conveyed by means of a carrier to the load. B. In the other type the rakes engage the hay, moving it forward and upward, where it is engaged by the revolving teeth, which automatically push up and let go as suc- ceeding teeth engage the hay. Each type has its ad- vantages and disadvan- tages. The last men- tioned type pushes the hay constantly forward; as there is no return car- rier which tends to drag the hay backward, it is easier for the loader. On the other hand, the first mentioned type agitates the hay less and hence is less likely to break off the finer and more valuable parts. 42. Stacking. — Where hay is placed in the barn, a wooden or iron track is usually placed in the ridge of the roof on which a hay carrier runs. The hay is thus elevated from the load by horse power to any desired height and dropped at a convenient spot for distribution in the mow. Different devices are used where it is desired to place the hay in stacks ; A and B show forms that may be used by cutting poles from the woodlot and using the same rope that was em- ployed in putting the hay into the barn, with some additional guy ropes. In D a separate wire rope is used, on which runs an ordinary rope hay carrier. The large swinging hay derricks C are used in the alfalfa regions in the West where it is desired to build large stacks. The hay stackers E are used when the hay is stacked in the 46 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA ^ ■•!■:>• :'^- ^''^ffeMiii^^g^fe^ Devices for stacking hay PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 47 field and where the sweep rake (39 E) is used to bring the hay to the stack. 43. Hay Forks. — The general types of forks for unloading hay are shown in this paragraph and do not need further description. The harpoon forks are generally most popular where the hay is long and thus holds together well, as in the case of timothy hay; while for clover and alfalfa the grapple or derrick hay fork is frequently pre- ferred. In some cases rope slings are used. They are made in the form indicated in E, or consist of single pairs of ropes with suitable rings at the ends. One pair of ropes is placed length- wise of the wagon, and a fourth of a load of hay is put on; then another pair of ropes is adjusted and another fourth of the load is added; and so on until the load is completed. The hay is therefore removed in four slingfuls, thus ma- king the unloading quite rapid. The disadvantages are that time must be taken to adjust the ropes, and, in case of an ac- cident, in unloading much hand labor may be required to build the hay over the slings again. A Double harpoon fork; B single harpoon fork: C grapple hay fork: D derrick hay fork: E standard wagon sling. 48 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Belt power hay baling- press in operation. May be operated by horse, steam, or gasoline power 44. Baling. — An eight-foot cube, or 512 cubic feet of well settled hay in stack or mow, is generally estimated to weigh a ton of 2,000 pounds. Different parts of the stack or mow will vary in density on account of differences in pressure and age, as will stacks or mows of different sizes. There are no data concerning the in- fluence of the character of the hay upon its den- sity, although doubtless redtop hay would have a greater density than timothy hay, and tim- othy hay a greater den- sity than clover hay. When hay is baled to increase the con- venience and reduce the cost of transportation it is ordinarily reduced to from one- fourth to one-sixth the bulk occupied in the stack or mow. There is considerable variation in the density obtained by dif- ferent baling machines, the tendency being to increase the density. Where hay is to be shipped long distances it is some- times rebaled by hydraulic pressure to a density of 55 cubic feet to the ton. Hay baling presses differ principally in the size and shape of the bales produced, and the kind, amount, and direction of the power applied. The bale chamber is usually made in three sizes in continuous presses — namely, 14x18, 16x18, and 17x22 inches. The length of the bale may be varied within certain limits by varying the length of bale wire used. The length of bale commonly varies from 38 to 42 inches. Hay presses may be divided into continuous presses and box presses. In the former the power is applied horizontally, while in the latter it is applied vertically. Continuous presses PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES - 49 may be operated by belt or by lever. The horse power lever presses are made either with a reversible lever or with a full circle lever. The box hay presses are operated by horse power or by hand. The weight of the hay bale is variable, but in general the markets recognize three sizes: large bales weigh from 200 to 250 pounds, medium bales from 120 to 150 pounds, and small bales from 80 to 100 pounds. In some markets the small bales are known as "quarters" or "thirds," and the medium bales as "halves" or "three-quarters," depending somewhat on the weight. Different markets prefer different sizes of bales at different times or for differnt grades. In general, the smaller bales are preferred in the smaller cities or towns and for the lower grades of hay.^ 45. Marketing. — Hay buyers may sell either on commission or to dealers f . o. b. cars at local station. In selling on com- mission there are three items of expense — namely, freight, inspection, and commission. As in the case of cereals, there is in the larger cities some agency for the official determina- ^ The cities of Boston, New York, and Jersey City prefer a bale weighing 200 pounds, style of bale commonly known as the upright bale, using a seven- foot three-inch dimension tie. The city of Philadelphia prefers a small block bale weighing 90 to 100 pounds, size either 14x18 or 16x18, using an eight-foot three-inch dimension tie for their medium grades of hay; but for No. 1 choice, they prefer the upright bale, same style as New York and Boston, Baltimore prefers the three-quarter loose pressed bale, weighing 120 to 150 pounds, and the sma4J block bale, weighing from 90 to 100 pounds. The three-quarter size bale should be 17x22, and the small block either 14x18 or 16x18, in each case using the eight-foot three-inch dimension tie. The Pittsburg market prefers the three-quarter bale. They do not seem to be in the least partial to the small block bale. Washington and Cincinnati prefer the small block bale, weighing 90 to 100 pounds, using the same length of tie as given above, Chicago, St. Louis, and Kansas City prefer the quarter bales, weighing from 80 to 90 pounds, size 14x18, using a seven-foot six-inch tie. — Report of Com- mittee on Standard Bales to Nat. Hay Assoc; in Flour Trade News, August, 1906, 50 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA tion of the grades of hay, which is binding upon buyer and seller. (C. A. 191) 46. Commercial Grades. — The commercial grades vary some- what in the different cities, but in general are based upon the same factors — principally the purity, color, and quality of the hay, and the character of the baling. The word "hay" in American markets, when not otherwise qualified, is construed to mean timothy hay, and any other plant, even though it be a cultivated grass, is considered an impurity. The color and quality depend largely on the time of cutting and on the curing, but they also depend somewhat on locality. Some localities produce a timothy which cures a greener color than others. There are, therefore, only certain localities which produce prime hay. Whether these differences are due to climate, soil, cultural methods, or to the strains of seed used has not been determined. The table following gives the classes and grades of hay recognized by the New York Hay Exchange. The price per ton on a given day is included to show the relative value placed upon the different grades by the trade. These values will vary relatively from time to time, depending on the supply and demand. Rules for Grading Hay Price per ton Prime Timothy Hay — Shall be pure timothy of medium growth, bright color, sweet, sound, and well baled ..... $23.00 No. 1 Hay — Shall be timothy, not more than one-eighth (%) mixed with other tame grasses, exclusive of clover, bright color, sweet, sound, and well baled . . . . . .22.00 No. 2 Hay — Shall include all timothy not good enough for No. 1, fair in color, not more than one-eighth (%) other tame grasses exclusive of clover, sound, and well baled . . . .19.50 No. 3 Hay — Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades, not over one-third (1/3) clover, free from wild or bog, sound, and well baled 16.00 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 5I Shipping Hay — Shall consist of hay not good enough for No. 3, sound, and well baled $14.00 No Grade Hay — Shall include all hay badly cured, stained, threshed, or in any way unsound ....... Nominal No. 1 Packing Hay — Shall consist of all fine grasses, of good color, free from flag or thistles, sound, and well baled . . 11.00 Fancy Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be bright, green, sweet clover, and timothy of medium growth, containing not over one-third (1/3) clover, sound, and well baled 18.00 No. 1 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be clover and timothy, medium growth, with at least one-half (yi) clover, bright color, swee^, sound, and well baled 17.00 No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be clover and timothy, with at least one-half (>^) clover, fair color, sound, and well baled . 15.00 No. 1 Clover Hay — Shall be bright, medium growth, sweet, sound, and well baled 16.00 No. 2 Clover Hay — Shall be clover of fair color, sound, and well baled 14.00 47. Collateral Reading. — William Jasper Spillman: Farm Grasses of the United States, pp. 14-55. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1905. Harry Snyder: Soils and Fertilizers (sec. ed.), pp. 225, 226; 241-5. Easton, Pa.: The Chemical Publishing Co., 1905. Isaac Phillips Roberts: The Fertility of the Land, pp. 207-213. New York. The Macmillan Co., 1897. W. A. Henry: Feeds and Feeding, pp. 178-185. Madison, Wisconsin: The Author, 1900. Jared G. Smith: Meadows and Pastures. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' BuL No. 66 (1899), pp. 7-15. Ill PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. TIMOTHY 48. Name. — Timothy (Phleiim pratense L.) ; synonyms: Herd's grass, meadow cat's tail. The name timothy comes from Timothy Hanson or Hanso, of Maryland, who is said to have introduced the seed from England in 1720 and who is respon- sible for its distribution through Virginia and Carolina. The name Herd's grass is from John Herd, who is said to have found it growing wild in a swamp in New Hampshire as early as 1700 and began its cultivation, resulting in its distribution through New England and New York. Meadow cat's tail, the oldest name given to the grass, is due to the appearance of the head. 49. Relationships. — Timothy is closely related to meadow fox- tail and is the only cultivated grass for which it could with any possibility be mistaken. The latter, however, may be distinguished by its shorter and more ovate head, the bent dorsal awn of the flowering glume, and differences in the shape of the grain and of the outer glumes. There are about ten more or less definitely recognized species of the genus Phleum, the most important of which, aside from the species under con- sideration, is mountain timothy {Phleum alpinum L.). 50. Description. — The plant, as compared with other perennial forage grasses, has rather deep roots. Stolons are commonly, although apparently not always, present. Culms vary in height from a few inches to 6 feet, commonly 2 to 4 feet. They are usually rigid and erect, although sometimes decumbent at the base, prostrate, or even kneed. Usually there are two to seven 52 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 53 nodes to each culm, each bearing a leaf, although the lower node may not. Usually one, and occasionally more, of the lower internodes is swollen to form one or more corms or tubers. This character which dis- tinguishes it from other forage grasses is most fully developed on dry soils and may, it is said, disappear entirely when the plant is grown in wet places. Oc- casionally tuberous branches may occur on the upper part of the stem.^ There is a large proportion of culm to basal leaves, which, with its accompanying leaves is easily cured into hay. The leaf blade varies in thickness and color, com- mon variations being from one-eighth to three-eighth inch in width, and from 3 to 15 or more inches in length. The radicle or basal leaves vary also in erectness, these with long, erect blades being best for hay. The inflorescence is usually called a spike, although in reality it is a contracted panicle, which form it not infrequently as- sumes. It usually varies from 2 to 7 inches in length, extremes of two-tenths to 13 inches having been reported; in width, two-tenths to five-tenths of an inch. It also varies in the com- pactness of the spikelets. Compact spikelets produce harsh, firm, rigid heads, while in some cases the head caruiot maintain Proliferous (left) and normal vright) inflor- escence of timothy 1 Vermont Sta. Bui. No. 94 (1902), p. 144. 54 THE FORAGE AND "FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA itself on account of the loose arrangement of the spikelets The spikelets are one-flowered. The flowering glume is hyaline, toothed, awnless, much shorter than the outer glumes; the palea is hyaline and quite narrow?*' The outer glumes are truncate, with stiff hairs on the keel which extends into a point or short awn less than half the length of the glume. 51. Seed. — The naked seed or caryopsis is ovoid, one-fifteenth to one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, usually enclosed in the flowering glume and palea but free from them; hence when closely threshed or re-cleaned, many naked seeds occur. Timothy seed is not ordinarily subject to much adulteration. The most common foreign grass seeds are redtop, fowl meadow, and the foxtails. Fresh, well- ripened seed has a silvery-white appearance, which may, however, be discolored if the seed is wet during the harvest season. Timothy seed may oc • cur on the market in three sizes, as follows: (i) About 600,000 to the pound; (2) 1,200,000 to the pound; and (3) 2,000,000 to the pound. The relative value of these grades A head of tim- ^as not been determined, although the ^^.^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ othy in tho result of two years' trial at the Cor- othy. En. formofapan- nell Station was slightly in favor of '^^^^ ^°"» the large seed, both when the same weight and when the same number of seeds were sown per acre. At the Utah Station no material difference in yield was found between seeds of high and low specific gravity. The standard of germination is 90 per cent, and the purity should not be less than 98 per cent. Timothy is cut for seed with the self-binding harvester and TERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 55 placed in shocks without caps. In a few days it is ready for threshing by the same machinery used for small cereals by changing the sieves and adjusting the concaves. The usual yield of seed per acre is from 400 to 500 pounds. The legal weight per bushel is 45 pounds in the states and 48 pounds in Canada. 52. Variations. — While three or four varieties or forms of tim- othy have been recognized by botanists, and while timothy is known to vary widely in yield, duration, time of blooming, and character of growth, evidently both on account of environ- ment and heredity, as yet no va- rieties have been commercially "^'"^^'^^ ^^^^ ""^ "^ impurities, distributed in America. While the species as a type is perennial, certain individuals are at best only fall annuals, as in the case of winter wheat; while others are biennial, the duration evidently depending on the extent of the vegetative multiplication of the individual seedling. A variation of three weeks has been observed in the time of blooming.^ 53. Improvement. — Hopkins in 1893 in West Virginia began ■•the selection of timothy and the propagation of the seleded * strains. These strains are now in the possession of the Division of Agrostology of the United States Department of Agriculture. In 1903 the Cornell Station obtained timothy seed from 231 i Samuel Fraser: Thesis: A Study of Timothy, M. S. degree, Cornell Uni- versity, 1905. 1. Timothy (Phleum pratense"* without and with the glumes: 2. pepper grass (Lepidium mrginicum) , 3. Potentilla monspeliensis; 4. sorrel (Rumex ace- fosella); 5. oxeye daisy {chrysanthe- mum leucanthemum) ; 6. rib grass plantain ' Plantago lanceolata ) ; 7. Vervain (Verbena hastata); 8. witch grass iPanicum capi'llare); 9. crab grass (Panicum sanguinale) ; 1 0. dodder iCuscuta Mfolii)— the small figures natural size. (After Hicks) 56 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA sources, including 21 states, nine European countries, Canada, and Japan. From this seed and its progeny, about 20,000 in- dividual plants have been produced, and from these plants 22 types have been selected for propagation. The observations thus far made indicate that yield and time of blooming are characters which may be propagated by seed alone, and lead to the hope that other characters may be also. For example, it may be that strains of timothy will be developed better Timothy breeding nursery at Cornell Station adapted to pasturage than the present type, which, with timothy's present quality of producing abundantly the year after seed is sown, would make them desirable in systems of rotation. It has not been determined fully whether timothy is close or cross-fertilized. It seems probable from investigations thus far made that it is self-fertilized or fertilized by pollen from the same head, and also cross-fertilized within narrow limits. In all attempts to improve timothy, methods should be based on the assumption that cross-fertilization is possible. It has been shown that a single culm does not ordinarily stay in bloom more than two days; thus a difference of more than two days in time of blooming would prevent cross-fertilization. In some instances, however, a head may stay in bloom for seven days. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 57 54. Adaptation. — Timothy is indigenous throughout the tem- perate regions, except in Australia. As a cultivated grass, it is especially adapted to the North Atlantic and North Central states east of the Missouri River. Nowhere else in the world is timothy so well and favorably known. It is pre-eminently the hay plant of the grass family in the United States. No other plant of the grass family compares with it in extent of produc- tion for hay. It is almost exclusively the hay of commerce in the eastern half of the United States. Redtop, clover, and alfalfa are sold to some extent, but the amount is small com- pared with timothy. Timothy is better adapted to clay than to sandy soils, to moist than to dry climates. It is at its best on moist and fertile soils. On soil of light sandy character that had been cropped for three years in potatoes, the Minnesota Station obtained, as an average for three years, .74 ton of timothy hay; on low soil well supplied with moisture the average for two years was 1.76 tons; while on new land, low, and five years from breaking, the yield at the first cutting was 2.17 tons.^ It is perfectly hardy in the most northern portions of the United States and throughout Canada, and has been found satisfactory in meadows and in pastures in Alaska. The Rhode Island Station reports that timothy does not thrive on very acid soils until lime, wood ashes, or else very large and continuous applications of stable manure are made.^ 55. Rotations. — Timothy enters into nearly all rotations in the North Atlantic and North Central states and usually occurs for two or more years. The most common rotation consists of ir.aize, oats, and wheat each one year, followed by timothy and clover for two or .more years, the clover disappearing after one or more years. At the North Dakota Station four crops 1 Minnesota Sta. Bui. No. 81 (1903), p. 197. 2 Rhode Island Sta. Bui. No. 99 (1904), p. 101. 58 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA of wheat after two crops of timothy yielded on an aiverage nearly six bushels of wheat more per acre than wheat grown continuously on adjacent land, giving better results than were obtained by rotating with cultivated crops.^ 56. Amount of Seed. — When sown alone it is customary to sow 15 pounds or one-third of a bushel per acre; when sown with red clover, 9 pounds or one-fifth of a bushel per acre. The Cornell Station has sown amounts varying from 5 to 35 pounds per acre. The results of two seasons' trial indicate that 15 pounds per acre is a desirable quantity when sown alone. The Utah Station sowed timothy seed at the rate of 8, 16, 24, and 32 quarts per acre. The two extremes gave the smallest yields. The Rhode Island Station recommends for meadows 15 pounds of timothy seed, 7.5 pounds of cleaned fancy redtop, and 7.5 pounds of red clover seed per acre; if clover is omitted, 20 pounds of timothy and 10 pounds of redtop. The Minnesota Station recommends timothy 7, red clover 6, and brome grass 4 pounds for grass to lie two to three years in the rotation in southwestern Minnesota; to lie three to five years, timothy 7, red clover 6, brome grass 10 pounds. For meadows that are to be broken up at the end of the second year, the following mixture has been used to advantage at the Ontario Agricultural College : red clover 6, alsike 3, timothy 4, perennial rye grass 2 pounds. For economic reasons, perennial rye grass may some- times be omitted from this mixture and, in case the land is to be pastured part of the time, be replaced by orchard grass." When sown with clover, the South Dakota Station recom- mends timothy 11 and clover 2 pounds, with variations to suit conditions. 57. Seeding. — Timothy may be sown either in the fall or in the spring with any small grain that is sown at the time. A good » North Dakota Sta. Bui. No. 43 (1900), p. 541. « Ontario Agr. Col. & Expt. Farm Rpt. (1895), p. 185. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 59 Stand will be obtained oftener, probably, by sowing in the fall, except in the dry prairie states of the Northwest, where spring sowing is best. The seed should be well covered and probably more deeply than is the general practise. Sowing the seed in front of the hoes of the wheat drill brings good average results in some localities, while sowing behind the hoes is preferred in other sections. Timothy may be sown with any small cereal, but probably rye is the best and oats the poorest crop for this purpose. In some localities it is sown alone in the autumn and a crop harvested the following summer. (25) 58. Time of Cutting. — Timothy is what is called a late grass, being ready to cut in July. This is a great advantage for this country, since it can be much more easily cured and with so much less risk of injury to quality than if it were cut in June, both because it cures more quickly and because there is in general a less number of days of. rainfall in July than in June. It has been customary to recommend that timothy should be cut in bloom or just past bloom. The following table gives the yield per acre of the dry matter or water-free substance of timothy cut at different dates, as determined by three ex- periment stations: Table Showing Influence of Maturity on Yield of Dry Matter The rate is stated in pounds per acre Stage of Maturity Connecticut Illinois Pennsylvania Well headed out . Full bloom .... Out of bloom Seed in dough Seed nearly ripe . 2,750 3,300 3,115 3,615 3,285 3,425 4,010 4,065 2,585 3,065 There was not only an increase in the total weight of dry 6o THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Palatabilit/ of timothy hay. This rack shows way timothy hay was eaten by cattle when harvested at different stages of maturity. Each of the four compartments was filled with equal quantities of hay cut at the periods indioated and cattle allowed to eat at will (From photo by Missouri Station) substance in each instance, but there was in general also an increase in each of the food nutrients, although the percentage of nitrogenous matter decreased as the plant became ripe. ~7 ■6 —5 -4 — » Timothy The percentage of large heads of timothy in field not infested by the timothy joint-worm Scale of inches at right (After Webster) Data with reference to the digestibility of timothy at dif- ferent stages of maturity are meager, but the indications are that the digestibility does not decrease to any great extent up PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 6l to the time the seed is in the dough. Practical experience shows that for horses, at least, the palatability is not materially decreased. The indication is, therefore, that the cutting of timothy may be safely postponed until after it is well past bloom. All things considered, probably when the seeds are in the dough would be the best time to mow timothy. 59. Advantages. — The great popularity of timothy as a hay crop is due to the very satisfactory reason that it produces an abundance of hay of good quality over a large territory and on a considerable variety of soils. It is easily and cheaply grown, rarely lodges, cures quickly, and there is little waste in handling. The fact that it can usually be put into the barn or stack soon after it is cut makes it possible to handle it with a minimum amount of labor, and decreases the risk of having the hay spoiled during inclement weather. The stage of — s M(( — ? Timothy The percentage of undersized heads of timothy in field infested by the tim(Jthy joint- worm. Scale of inches at right (After Webster) maturity may vary considerably without materially influencing its commercial quality and perhaps not greatly its actual feeding value per unit of weight. The haying season may therefore extend over a considerable period of time. 60. Comparison of Timothy and Orchard Grass Seed. — Com- mercial timothy seed is cheap, clean, and ordinarily germinates 62 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA well. Timothy produces from 400 to 500 pounds of seed per acre, orchard grass from 200 to 250 pounds of seed per acre. The number of seeds in a pound of timothy is from two to three times that of orchard grass. The germinating power of the latter is rather less. Thus 15 pounds of timothy seed costing 5 cents per pound, or 75 cents per acre, would be as good a seeding as 30 pounds of orchard grass costing 20 cents per pound or $6 per acre. If there were a greater demand for orchard grass seed it would probably become somewhat cheaper than at present, since it is not difficult to raise or to prepare for market; but owing to the above circumstances, it probably always will cost four or five times as much to seed an acre of land to orchard grass as to timothy. 61. Disadvantages. — Ordinarily timothy produces but one crop in a season and does not produce much aftermath. It often grows very little for several weeks after the crop is harvested. In hot, dry seasons this lack of vegetation, especially when mown close to the ground, causes the plant to be injured. It is desirable where such danger exists to mow rather high. Timothy is slow to start in the spring. It does not produce a dense sod. When not grazed closely it becomes coarse and woody and is therefore not as palatable for pasture as some other grasses. Its duration is uncertain, especially where closely pastured. It is also more readily injured by tramping, particularly where the ground is soft, than Kentucky blue grass or redtop. II. MEADOW FOXTAIL 62. Description. — Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis L.) is closely related to timothy, for which it may be mistaken; al- though it blooms fully a month earlier, its culms are not so tall, its heads are shorter and more ovoid. (49) Meadow foxtail is distinctly stoloniferous and therefore makes a good PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 63 sod in its proper habitat. Culms are few, i to 3 feet high, spar- ingly furnished with leaves. The basal leaves are broad, long, thin, and grow rapidly when cut or eaten by live stock. The Spikelet of meadow foxtail. Enlarged four times. inflorescence is a spike-like panicle, ovoid, 1.5 to 3 or more inches long. Spike- lets are one-flowered. The flowering glume usually has a bent dorsal awn; palea is often wanting. Empty glumes are hairy, acute but not awned, and are united below the middle. 63. Seed. — Seed is spar- ingly produced and there- fore expensive. It is gen- erally of poor vitality and hence a good stand is sel- dom obtained, at least in America. The number of seeds per pound is 1,216,000. All commercial seed is imported. 64. Adaptation and Value. — Lawson says, "Grows naturally on rather superior soils of medium texture, and constitutes the Meadow foxtail taken at Cornell Station June 1 5. Spike on left past bloom. One-third natural size 64 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA greater portion of many of the richer, natural pastures of Britain. It requires two or three years after sowing to arrive at full maturity and, therefore, it is not suitable for alternate husbandry." ^ Hackel states that it is especially adapted to wet meadows. Meadow foxtail is distinctly a pasture grass, being one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring. On rich soils it may be tried in mixtures for permanent pastures at the rate of i pound of seed to the acre. 65. Collateral Reading. — Wil- liam Jasper Spillman: Farm Grasses of the United States, pp. 75-89. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1905. F. G. Stebler and C. Schroter: The Best Forage Plants, pp. 52-60. London: David Nutt, 1889. W. J. Beal: Grasses of North America, Vol. I, pp. 151-3. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1896. Thomas Shaw: Grasses and Clo- vers, Field Roots, Forage and Fod- der Plants, pp. 10-19. Minneapolis: Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co., 1895. In American Breeders' Association, Meadow foxtail taken at Cornell Station June 15. Plant well past bloom. Highest culm 30 inches; clump 1 5 inches wide; 2 1 months old from single seed. One-twelfth natural size. In U. S. Dept. Agr. A. D. Hopkins: Breeding Timothy. Vol. II. (1906), pp. 95-9. Thomas A. Williams: Timothy in the Prairie Regions. Yearbook 1896, pp. 147-154. Henry Prentiss Armsby and J. August Fries: The Available Energy of Timothy Hay. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. An. Ind. Bui. No. 51, 1903. Willet M. Hays: Plant Breeding, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bui. No. 29 (1901), pp. 61-3. John W. Gilmore and Charles 1?. Clark: Second Report on the Influence of Fertilizers on the Yield of Timothy Hay. New York Cornell Station Bui. No. 241, 1906. ^ The Lawson Seed and Nursery Company: Agrostographia; Treatise on Cultivated Grasses, Sixth ed., p. 23. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 65 H. Garman: On the Adulterants and Wild Seeds Found in Kentucky Sam- ples of Blue Grass, Orchard Grass, Timothy, Red Clover, Mammoth Clover, and Alfalfa Seeds. Kentucky Station Bui. No. 124, 1906. L. R. Jones: Impurities in Timothy Seed. In Vermont Station Report 1900, pp. 290-6. J. B. Killebrew: Grasses and Forage Plants. Tennessee Station Bui. Vol. XI (1898), Nos. 2, 3, and 4, pp. 9-14. IV PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I; REDTOP 66. Relationships. — The genus Agrostis contains about lOO species distributed over the entire globe, but especially in the North Temperate Zone/ There is some dispute as to the proper classification of the cultivated species, perhaps due to the fact that they are only cultivated varieties and vary greatly with soil and climatic conditions. There are three kinds of seed on the American market — namely, (i) redtop, chiefly harvested in southern Illinois, (2) creeping bent, imported from Europe, and (3) Rhode Island bent, produced principally in Rhode Island, although seed of this type is also imported. As ordinarily sold by seedsmen, Rhode Island bent is A. canina L., a small type with a strongly creeping habit, fitting it for lawns and permanent pastures, but making it unsuited for a hay crop. This type may be distinguished from the other cultivated forms by the absence of the palea. The flowering glume is awned, while in the other cultivated forms usually it is not awned. The other two cultivated forms belong to A. alba L. and its sub-species A. alba vulgaris (With.) Thurb. These two forms differ from each other more in habit of growth than in botanical characters, and even in habit of growth there are so many intermediate forms as to make the distinction arbitrary. Agrostis alba is the taller and more robust type with red or purple panicles. Agrostis alba vulgaris differs from Agrostis alba by its more slender culms, seldom reaching iHackel: The True Grasses, p. 111. 00 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES (i^J more than i8 inches in height, finer leaves, shorter and more obtuse ligule, smaller panicle with fewer branches. In a letter, Mrs. Agnes Chase says: "Agrostis alba vulgaris can usually be distinguished from A. alba by the habit of the plant, but they are so nearly allied that the spikelets alone are not distinct. When making the drawings for Professor Hitchcock's 'Agrostis' I examined a great amount of material of these two kinds to find if possible some clear distinction in the spikelets of the two, but was unable to find such distinction. The spikelets are the same size, but alba usually has a palet two-thirds to three-fourths the length of the flowering glume and var. vulgaris has a palet about one-half the length of the flowering glume. Agrostis alba, however, so frequently has a shorter palet that this character cannot be relied upon. But in examining a quan- tity of seed, if I find only shorter palets, I think it safe to assume the seed is that of var. vulgaris." Hitchcock says of Agrostis alba L.: "Extensively cultivated as a meadow grass under the name of redtop, and a more stoloniferous form as lawn grass under the name of creeping bent. . . . The stoloniferous form used for lawns has been generally known as var. stolonifera, but it is not A. stolonifera L. which is A. verticillata Vill. . . . The form evidently introduced through a large part of the United States is the large plant which I have referred to A. alba L. This has taller stems, wider leaf blades which may droop, larger, more dense panicles, the branches often spikelet-bearing to the base, ligules larger and the stolon-like rhizomes often long and stout." ^ "When seeding plow-lots for a crop or two of hay, we should feel cheated if a seedsman were to sell us, inadvertently, the smaller, to mix with timothy, instead of the larger variety of Agrostis. On the other hand, when tired of plowing a field, and wishing to seed it so it will run from a meadow into a permanent 'butter pasture,' perhaps, or a green home-lot, with a fine, close sward at bottom, we take much pains to get seed of the smaller grass. Sod of the larger one never tempted spade to lift it, but turf of fine Agrostis is a beautiful possession," - Mrs. Chase writes: "I have examined packages of seed sold as 'creeping bent.' These are A. alba, probably var. vulgaris, but in all packages I found some A. canina and one package was nearly half composed of that species." Redtop is botanically more closely related to timothy and meadow fescue than to the Poas, the fescues, or orchard grass, in that the spikelet is one-flowered and the florets are hyaline instead of chartaceous. 1 North American Species of Agrostis. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. No. 68, p. 26. 2 James B. Olcott: Fine versus Coarse Agrostis; in Rpt. Conn. Bd. / gr. and Exp. Sta., 1887, p. 177. 68 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 67. Description. — The roots are more shallow than timothy;, the plant is strongly stoloniferous, especially upon moist soils, making a firm sod which stands tramping well, and also makes the grass useful for preventing soils from washing. The culms are i to 3 feet tall and are frequently decumbent at the base. The nodes which come in contact with the ground root freely. The inflorescence is an erect, open, much-branch- ed spreading panicle with many one-flowered spike- lets, 1.5 to 7 inches in length, with an expanse of the lower branches half such length. The panicle is at first contract- Redtop taken in central New York State June 28 Just coming into bloom. One-third natural size Spikelet of redtop. En- larged four times. ed and green in color, but later expands and assumes the char- acteristic purple color. The flowering glume is hyaline, usually awnless; palea short, often minute or wanting. Empty glumes longer than flowering glume. Redtop has a superficial re- semblance to Kentucky blue grass. The general observer may distinguish it from the latter by the purple color of the panicle and the smaller and more numerous spikelets. The fact that the spikelets are one-flowered in redtop and from three to five-flowered in Kentucky blue grass serves to separate them positively. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 69 Redtop flowers four to six weeks or even eight weeks later than Kentucky blue grass, and is therefore less likely in the field to be confused with the latter than with fowl meadow grass (Poa Hava L.), which flowers at the same time as redtop. (71) Redtop seed is sold in the chaff — namely, with its relatively large outer glumes, when a bushel weighs about 12 pounds; or re-cleaned — that is, with the outer glumes removed, when it weighs about 35 pounds to the bushel. A pound of re-cleaned seed is equiva- lent to four or more pounds in the chaff. The grain is 0.04 inch in length enclosed in flowering glume about one'-half longer, giving a silvery appearance to the seed. The number of re- cleaned seeds per pound is variously reported : Illinois 3^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ Aiopecurus with im- purities. 1. Redtop (Agrostis alba); 2. Rhode Island bent ^A. canina); 3. slender rush ^Juncus tenuis); 4. Canadian St. John's-wort {Hypericum cavadense); 5. meadow foxtail {Aiopecurus pratensis); 6. slender foxtail {Al. agresiis); 7. creeping soft grass (Holcus mollis)— the small fig- ures natural size. (After Hicks) Station,^ 4,135,900; North Car- olina Station,^ 6,400,000; Law- son,^ A alba var. stolonifera, 8,000,000, A. vulgaris, 7,800,- 000. Redtop seed is not usually adulterated, the most common foreign seed being timothy. Seeds of slender rush {J uncus tenuis Willd.) and sorrel {Rumex acetosella L.) occasionally occur. The standard of germination is 85 per cent. Commercial seed is not infre- quently below this standard. The amount of seed to sow per 1 Illinois Sta. Bui. No. 3 (1888), p. 33. 2 North Carolina Sta. Bui. No. 73 (1890). 3 Agrostographia, Sixth ed., p. 40. yO THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA acre is variously estimated from 6 to 30 pounds — perhaps 12 to 18 pounds of re-cleaned seed being most commonly recom- mended when sown alone, and 6 to 10 pounds when sown with timothy or timothy and red clover. Time and manner of seeding are similar to that of timothy, except greater care is required not to cover seed too deeply. 68. Adaptation. — Redtop will probably thrive under a wider range of soil and climate than any other cultivated grass. Being less esteemed either for hay or pasture, it is cultivated only where other grasses are less successful. As a hay crop, redtop is next to timothy in importance among the grasses in this country. It often, perhaps usually, forms a large part o'f the herbage of permanent meadows. It is adapted to low, moist lands, and is usually grown on the poorer lands of this sort. It is useful for improving impoverished clay soils on account of the organic matter furnished by its numerous roots, its mass of underground and above ground stems, and its thick, tough sod. It may, therefore, be wisely added to the grass mixture in a rotation on such soils. The Rhode Island Station has shown that it is able to live in very acid soils where timothy, red clover or Kentucky blue grass will not thrive, which may account for its common occurrence in the New England states. Where lands are too poor, too moist, or too acid to grow timothy, redtop may be tried. By the skilful use of this grass in a rotation, lands may be improved and made to grow more desirable grasses as well as to give greater yields of other crops. 69. Value. — Redtop produces a fairly good quantity of hay, it being recognized as being heavy for its bulk. Its feeding value as hay is not considered equal to timothy and buyers are not favorably disposed toward it. " In some places where it grows readily farmers take the precaution to keep it out of their timothy meadows, because even a little of it reduces the market value of the hay. The Rhode Island Station found when grown under the same conditions that redtop was richer in nitrogen PERENNIAL FORi^GE GRASSES 71 \ than timothy, but that a greater percentage of the nitrogen had been changed to albuminoids in the case of timothy.' Redtop makes a sod more quickly than Kentucky blue grass, and on suitable soils produces an abundance of pasturage. It is one of the most permanent of the cultivated grasses. It is, however, dis- tinctly the least pal- atable of the com- monly cultivated I J^4^^^f^ grasses — at least so far as cattle are concerned. II. KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS 70. Name. — Ken- tucky blue grass {Poa pratensis L.). Synonyms: blue grass, June grass, green grass, spear grass, smooth-stalk- ed meadow grass. In some localities the grass is known only as June grass and by many is errone- ously believed to be distinct from Ken- tucky blue grass. In other localities wire grass or Canada blue grass {Poa compressa L.) is known as blue grass, while Poa pratensis is called green grass. Canada blue .grass Kentucky blue grass Kentucky blue grass on the right in full bloom; Canada blue grass on the left not yet in bloom. Taken at Cornell Station June 15. One-third natural size 1 Rhode Islind Sta. BwL No. 90 (1903), p. 73. 'J2 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 71. Relationships. — The Poas are botanically more closely re- lated to the fescues, orchard grass, and brome grass than to tim- othy and redtop, in that in the former the spikelets are all two or more flowered instead of one-flowered and the flowering glume is chartaceous instead of hyaline. There are about lOO species of this genus distributed throughout all temperate and cold countries and in the high mountains of the tropics. The seeds of a number are commercially distributed, of which may be mentioned: Canada blue grass or wire grass, characterized by its blue color, flat, shorter culms (larger diameter twice the shorter), large spikelets with three to nine flowers and spreading decumbent habit; rough stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis'L.), characterized by its aerial runners, rough leaf sheaths, and long ligules; wood meadow grass (Poa ncmoralis L.) ; and fowl meadow grass {Poa iiava L.). Canada blue grass is, in most parts of the United States, considered a weed, and its occurrence in a field is usually esteemed not only as an indication of decreased value in the pasture, but also an indication of a poor soil. Several au- thorities recommend it for dry soils. Zavitz, of Ontario, Canada, and Jones, of Vermont, recommend it as superior in feeding value for pasture to Kentucky blue grass; while Spill- man states that in eastern Ontario and western New York it is sometimes cut for hay and that although the yield is small, the hay is highly prized, being preferred by horsemen to timothy.^ On Dunkirk stony clay in western New York, where land had been in wheat for years until it became very poor, it was observed by Fraser that after ten years the land carried a large proportion of Canada blue grass; that in older grass land Kentucky blue grass predominated, while in still older grass land meadow fescue began to appear. These grasses evidently represent a gradual improvement of the land through years of pasturing, as well as the relative adaptability of the grasses 1 Farm Grasses of the United States, p. 102. ./INTKRHALTKk PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 73 in question. Cattle are said to be fattened for export on these Canada blue grass pastures at the rate of one steer to 3.5 acres. Of wood meadow grass, Lawson says: "There is no grass better adapted for pleasure grounds, particularly under trees, as it will not only grow in such places, but forms a fine sward where few other fine j^Tasses can exist." Fowl meadow grass blooms about the same time as redtop, which together with its purplish inflorescence has given it the name of false redtop. Spikelets are two to four-flowered, which serve to distinguish from redtop whose spikelets are one-flowered. The time of blooming and the smaller and less numerous spikelets with purplish tinge serve to distinguish it from Kentucky blue grass. The Vermont Station says: "It (fowl meadow grass) is one of the most valuable of our native grasses, being especially adapted to wet, overflowed intervale land where the usual hay grasses and clovers are liable to be killed by standing wafer. Redtop and alsike clover are capable of enduring a wetter soil than timothy and red clover, but fowl meadow will thrive best in soil where even redtop and. alsike soon kill out. There are many acres in Vermont now occupied by sedges and rushes where fowl meadow grass would grow well if introduced. Seedsmen do not carry good seed of this grass, but it may easily be harvested from the native grass in almost any town in Vermont, providing one knows the grass when he sees it." ^ This station further suggests that, if land is liable to have water standing on it long in the spring, the following mixture of seeds be sown : timothy 6 ; redtop 6 ; alsike clover 6 pounds ; and fowl meadow grass 0.5 to i bushel. 72. Description. — Kentucky blue grass has a strongly stolon- iferous habit, making an even although less strong sod than redtop. The rhizomes are not easily eradicated, making it a grass of good duration. Its roots do not penetrate deeply- 1 Vermont Sta. Bui. No. 94, p. 151. 74 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Culms are round, erect, i to 2 feet tall. Leaf sheath is smooth; leaf blade narrow, less than one-fourth inch; culm leaves 2 to 6 inches long; basal leaves i to 2 feet and in protected places 5.5 feet have been reported. Blade is keeled with boat-shaped tip, the two halves closing when dry. The inflorescence is an open, spreading, pyramidal panicle 2 to 8 inches long, less branched, and carrying fewer spikelets than redtop. Spikelets are three to five-flowered. The outer glumes are shorter than the nearest flowering glume. The flowering glume in all the Poas is keeled, by which they may be distin- guished from the Festucas in which the flower- ing glume is rounded on the back. The flowering SpikeletofKen- oriume is awnless, but the base and margin and tucky bluo . . grass. En- the rachiUa are covered with tangled or webby larged four hairs which are removed when seed are cleaned times. for market. This makes Kentucky blue grass seed more difficult to clean than Canada blue grass seed. 73. Seed. — The grain or caryopsis is enclosed in its chartaceous flowering glume and palea. The seed — namely, the flowering glume — is shorter than that of meadow fescue or perennial rye grass or orchard grass. It can further be distinguished from orchard grass by the twisted point and the strong spines along the keel of the latter. Kentucky blue grass seed is sometimes adulterated with Canada blue grass seed. The former has a rather more pointed flowering glume which is five-nerved, while the latter has only a keel and marginal nerves. Kentucky blue grass seed (flowering glume) may measure from o.io to 0.15; Canada blue grass seed from 0.08 to 0.09 inch in length. Canada blue grass seed has a brighter and cleaner appearance than Kentucky blue grass seed. In mass Kentucky blue grass seed is a deeper brown color. Because of variations these distinc- tions will not, however, always hold. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 75 Kentucky blue grass is comparatively free from weed seeds, although slender rush, shepherd's purse, chickweed, pepper grass, sorrel, and some other seeds may occur. Kentucky blue grass flowers in May and June, ripening its seed in the latter month. The tendency is to strip the seed while still green, be- cause it is easier both to strip and to clean when harvested green, and be- cause it shatters easily when ripe. This tends to rediice the germinating power, both because seed is unripe and because when harvested unripe it is more likely to ferment during the curing process. The author tested 17 com- mercial samples in 1891 whose germinating power in soil in the open air ranged from y.y to 35.2 per cent., while when ripened seed was gathered and carefully dried 80.1 per cent, germinated.^ The standard of germination is now placed at 50 per cent., %i.Ml Seeds of Poas with impurities. 1 . Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) rubbed and unrubbed; 2. wood meadow grass {Poa nemoyalisr, 3. ergot; 4. Texas blue grass (Poa arachnifera \ 5. Canada blue grass {Poa compressa); 6. rough- stalked meadow grass (Poa trimalis); 7. silky bent grass (Apera spica-venti); 8- wood hair grass (Deschampsia flexuosa)', 9. spine of Can- ada thistle (much enlarged): 10. Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis); 11. stink grass, coryopsis (Eragrostis major)— the small figures natural size. (After Hicks) although it is not unusual for only lo per cent, to germinate. It is necessary in such cases to buy 10 bushels of seed in order to get i bushel of live seed. illUnois SU. Bui. No. 15 (1891), p. 481. 76 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA The legal weight per bushel in most states is 14 pounds, but a well cleaned sample will weigh from 24 to 28 pounds. The Illinois Station reports 2,185,000 seeds; Lawson, 3,888,000 seeds per pound. 74. Seeding. — It is customary to recommend 40 pounds of commercial seed per acre when sown alone for the purpose of securing a good stand of grass as rapidly as may be — as, for example, in the case of lawns. This is at the rate of 2,000 seeds per square foot. It is probable that if 80 per cent, of the seed were viable half this amount would be sufficient. On the other hand, one of the important reasons for failure in practise to secure good lawns is due to using an insufficient amount of viable seeds. On account of the expense of the seed and the slow develop- ment of Kentucky blue grass, it is seldom sown alone for pasture. It is usually sown with a mixture of other grasses and clovers with the expectation that as the Kentucky blue grass develops most of these will disappear. What this mixture should be will depend on soil and climate, and to some extent whether it is to be mown for a year or two or pastured from the beginning. For the North Atlantic and North Central states the following mixture may be taken as a basis to be modified to suit varying conditions; timothy 15; Kentucky blue grass 10; meadow fescue 2; red clover 8 or alsike clover 6, or both in half these amounts; and white clover 2 pounds. Such a mixture will cost from $3 to $4 per acre. The grass seeds of this mixture may be sown in September and the clover seeds as early as may be in the spring, or the whole mixture may be sown in the spring after the land has been well prepared. If a sod at the earliest possible moment is desired, the mixture should be sown without grain crop. If immediate pasture is wanted, rye may be sown at the rate of one bushel per acre in September with the grass seeds. In gen- eral, the best financial returns will be obtained by seeding the PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 7/ grass with wheat or rye in the fall and subsequently harvesting for grain. It has been shown that Kentucky blue grass seeds germinate better if the temperature during a portion of each 24 hours drops as low as 40° F. For this reason, probably fall seeding is especially desirable. The author has had several years' experience in seeding large lawn areas. The best results he ever obtained were in seeding heavily with Kentucky blue grass about November first on the fortieth parallel. For lawn pur- poses at least 40 pounds of 50 per cent, viable seed of Kentucky blue grass should be used alone or with white clover, and with- out nurse crop, if the best lawn in the shortest space of time is desired. If greater economy of seeding is required, a mixture of 20 pounds of Kentucky blue grass seed and lO pounds of timothy may be used. 75. Adaptation. — Kentucky blue grass is probably an introduced species. It pretty certainly was introduced into the North Central states by the pioneers, where at the time of its introduction it was looked upon as a dangerous weed. As a cultivated grass, it occupies about the same range in the United States as timothy and red clover. Within this area the relative importance and adaptability of these species vary somewhat. Speaking gen- erally, Kentucky blue grass reaches its best development on fairly well-drained soils between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River. It does not make good pastures in the non- glaciated region except on limestone soils, such as Hagerstown loam, which constitutes the blue grass region of Kentucky, from which the grass takes its name. In common with other grasses, Kentucky blue grass succeeds better on clay than on sandy soils and in moist rather than dry climates. It will not do its best, however, on heavy, undrained clays where timothy thrives. For its best development the soil should be fertile. Its shallow roots cause it to be easily affected by drought, and in the southern border of its range shade is helpful. Indeed it is distinctly adapted to open woodlands. 78 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 76. Advantages.— Kentucky blue grass makes a compact sod which stands a large amount of tramping and very close grazing without injury. On lawns — for which it is unexcelled — the 5 / frequent and close cutting apparently improves it. Its leaves are fine, succulent, palatable, and nutritious. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring and one of the latest to grow in the fall. In the more temperate climates it makes excel- lent winter pasture by keeping live stock of¥ it for a while in the fall. When thus dried standing it is a formidable rival in nutritive qualities of the grasses of the sub-humid regions. As a pasture, it exceeds in palatability with cattle, at least, red- top, orchard grass, and timothy, and equals meadow fescuf^ • it is probably exceeded by smooth brome grass. 77. Disadvantages. — The quantity of hay produced is small and, contrary to the usual opinion, the author has found its hay less palatable for cattle and horses than timothy or clover hay. Under ordinary circumstances it is wiser to pasture off mature Kentucky blue grass than to make it into hay. After seeding, it is a long time in taking possession of the soil — usually three years before anything like a good sod is formed — and it may continue to improve for lo or 15 years. This is in part due to the very poor germinative power of Kentucky blue grass taken at Cornell Station June 14. Plant grown from a single seed is 21 months old. Has gone out of bloom. High- est culms 30 inches; clump 30 inches wide. Compare with Canada blue grass. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 79 Canada blue grass taken at Cornell Station June 14. Plant grown from single seed is 21 months old. Has not yet come into bloom. Longest culms are 18 inches long; clump 3 feet wide. Compare with Kentucky blue grass, ommercial seed. After plants are somewhat established they pread quite rapidly by means of the underground rootstocks. It often takes possession of the soil when the land is put in pasture. Probably few of the blue grass pastures have been artificially seeded. The greatest fault of Kentucky blue grass is its failure to supply good pasture during July and August. Dur- ing hot, dry periods the growth almost if not entirely ceases. Where spring and fall are short, the amount of pasture may be lim- ited. 78. Harvesting Seed. — Kentucky blue grass seed is mostly secured in Kentucky within a radius of 25 miles from the center of a triangle formed by lines connecting the cities of Lexington, Paris, and Winchester.^ The seed is obtained by stripping the heads — there being both hand and horse machines for this purpose, the latter now being largely used. The rough seed thus obtained is dried in the house or in the field in windows 3 or 4 feet deep. During this curing process, which takes eight to ten days, the seed must be kept constantly stirred to prevent over-heating. Stripping begins as soon as panicles turn yellow, which in Kentucky is usually from June 7 to June 15. The rough seed is subsequently purified or cleaned at factories with several different machines specially designed for this purpose. The yield of seed will depend on the thoroughness with which it is purified. Of seed weighing 14 pounds to the bushel the yield will run from 100 to 200 pounds per acre; but if seed is U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PL Ind. Bui. No. 19. 8o THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA purified until it weighs 24 to 28 pounds per bushel, 50 to 100 pounds of seed would be considered a good yield. Canada blue grass seed comes mainly from Ontario, Canada. It is harvested there about August i. It is cut with an ordinary mowing-machine when the dew is on, cured in cocks for about one week, and then threshed. Five hundred pounds of seed per acre is considered a good yield. 79. Collateral Reading. — F. G. Stebler and C. Schroter: The Best Forage Plants, pp. 65-8; 72-83, London: David Nutt. 1889. William Jasper Spillman: Farm Grasses of the United States, pp. 90-102; 146-154. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1905. W. J. Beal: Grasses of North America, Vol. I, pp. 143-151. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1896. Thomas Shaw: Grasses and Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, pp. 12, 13, and 20. Minneapolis: Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co., 1895. E. Brown and F. H. Hillman: The Seeds of the Blue Grasses. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. No. 84, 1906. J. B. Killebrew: Grasses and Forage Plants. Tennessee Station Bui. Vol. XI (1898), Nos. 2, 3, and 4, pp. 14-17; 53-9. L. R. Jones: Vermont Grasses and Clovers, Vermont Station Bui. No. 94, 1902, PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES I. ORCHARD GRASS 80. Name.- -Orchard grass; cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.). Because of its occurrence in shady places, this plant is in America called orchard grass. In England and in New Zealand it is universally known as cocksfoot, because of a fancied resemblance of its panicle to a cock's foot. Although very different in its habit of growth, it is botanically somewhat closely related to the Poas and the Festucas. The two fol- lowing grasses cultivated only experimentally belong to the same genus. Tussock grass {D. caespitosa Forst.) is indigenous to the Falkland Islands, and is characterized by its large cushions of grass. It has been tried upon the seacoast of Great Britain without success. Russian cocksfoot (D. altaica Besser) is distinguished from common orchard grass mainly by its longer culms. 81. Description. — Orchard grass is moderately deep rooted, the roots extending two or more feet into the soil. The Arkansas Station found in northwestern Arkansas, where orchard grass thrives better than timothy, that while all the timothy roots were within 12 inches of the surface 50 per cent, of orchard grass roots were below that depth and 10 per cent, were below 20 inches in depth.^ The plant grows in a compact raised tuft and is not creeping. The culms are 18 inches to 3 feet tall, and are not abundantly supplied with leaves. The leaf blades are long, sometimes two feet, broad, thick, and strongly keeled, 1 Arkansas Sta. Bui. No. 29 (1894). 82 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA The leaf sheaths are normally entire, but on the culm leaves the sheath becomes partly split by the expansion of the culms. The ligule is long and more or less torn at the apex. The leaves are folded in the bud, conduplicate, the young shoots thus appearing laterally compressed. Orchard grass flow- ers in June after Kentucky blue grass, about the same time as red clover, thus be- fore timothy; at the Illinois Station three to five weeks earlier. The inflorescence is a one-sided panicle, the nearly sessile spike- lets being arranged in dense clusters. Spike- lets are three to four- flowered. The outer glumes are slightly shorter than the low- er flowering glume. When ripe the outer glumes do not detach, but the flowering glume enclosing the grain readily falls away. 82. Seed. — In the commercial seed the grain is enclosed in the florets. Not infrequently the seeds remain in pairs. The flowering glume is pointed, the sharp, fringed keel extending into a short awn with a slight twist that helps to identify the Orchard grass taken at Cornell Station June 15 Panicle in bloom. One- half natural size PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 83 seed. The seed (flowering glume including awn) is about one- third of an inch and without awn one-sixth to one-fourth of an inch long, and the grain is one-tenth inch long. The embryo is very minute. Seeds of meadow fescue and the rye grasses not infrequently occur in orchard grass seed. These seeds in American grown orchard grass seed may be considered adulterations, since meadow fescue and the rye grasses are not usu- ally found growing in the seed-producing sec- tion of this country. Meadow fescue, however, chard grass. is a common impurity in European fields, and vel- Enlarged four ^ -^ ^ times, vet grass in New Zealand fields, from which large quantities of orchard grass seed are imported to America. The weeds, which are troublesome in orchard grass fields in the seed- producing section, are whitetop (Erigeron annims (L.) Pers.), red sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.), oxeye daisy {Chrysanthemum leiicanthemiim L.), milfoil {Achillea millefolium L.), and the plantains {Plantago lanceolata L. and P. aristata Michx.).^ Seed growers pay special attention to prevent these weeds from seeding, a common and effective method being to pasture with sheep in the spring until the early part of May or in some instances until seed is ready to harvest, and again after seed is harvested. This practise not only reduces the weeds, but appears to improve the yield of seed as well as furnishing an additional source of profit. As just indicated, it is possible to furnish orchard grass seed with 100 per cent, purity, and less than 98 per cent, should not be accepted. The number of seeds per pound may vary from 400,000 to 480,000. The legal weight per bushel is usually 14 pounds, but the best well-cleaned seed may weigh 22 pounds to the bushel. The standard of germination should be not less lU. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. No. 100, pt. VI, p. 13. 84 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN .^MERICA than 90 per cent., although samples containing 75 to 80 per cent, of living seeds are generally accepted as good. While it is easily harvested and produces from 150 to 250 pounds per acre under Amer- ican conditions, the cost of seeding is rather high, both because of the price of the seed per pound and because of the quantity required. When sown alone, 35 pounds of seed per acre are general- ly recommended when in- tended for hay and 15 pounds when intended for seed. At the Illinois Station ^ sowing less than 35 pounds reduced the yield of hay. In pasture mixtures 5 to 10 pounds may be sown. 83. Distribution. — It is na- tive throughout Europe, in temperate Asia, and in North Africa. It is naturalized in North America, where it is said to have been first culti- vated. It is sparingly cul- tivated over a wide area of the United States. Spillman has shown that it is relatively most extensively cultivated in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky — namely, along the southern border of the timothy region.^ This Seed of orchard grass and its impurities. 1. Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), two seeds cohering, outer face, and single seed, inner face; 2. blue pearl grass {Mo- linia coerulea)\ 3. tall buttercup {Ranun- culus acHs); 4. English rye grass iLoh'um perenne); 5. Italian rye grass (L. I'talicum); 6. crested dog's-tail {Cynosurus cristatus^', 7. velvet grass (Holcus lanatus); 8. beard- ed darnel (Lolium temulentum); 9. mead- ow fescue (Festuca pratensis); 10. soft chess (Brvmus hordeaceus)— the small fig- ures natural size. (After Hicks) 1 Illinois Sta Bui. No. 15 (1891), p. 483. 2 Farm Grasses of the United States. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 85 may be clue to its better adaptation to the soil and climate of that region or it may be due to the fact that timothy thrives less well there. The Arkansas Station recommends orchard grass as the best grass for that state for permanent meadows and pastures. Orchard grass thrives especially well along the Pacific coast west of the Cascade Mountains. 84. Adaptation. — Orchard grass, while perfectly hardy to winter cold, is recognized to be easily injured by late spring frosts. This may account for its more extended cultivation in the region mentioned. Orchard grass is also recognized as enduring shade well; in fact, in shady places it will persist for years and yield abundantly. This has been accounted for by its thick broad leaves. It may also be that the shade prevents injury by late frosts. Orchard grass is not like redtop to be recommended for poor or wet soils, but requires a fairly fertile well drained soil. While a generous supply of moisture is more necessary for its best development than with timothy, it stands periodic droughts much better. The duration of orchard grass is perhaps superior to timothy. Where closely pastured it is said to last three to five years, when it will be generally superseded by the finer grasses. 85. Value. — Orchard grass is a much praised but little cul- tivated grass in Airerica. It has been cultivated in this country at least since 1764, when it was brought into notice in England by its re-introduction from America. While it has been culti- vated more or less since that time, orchard grass hay is not known commercially, and it is known to comparatively few farmers. The fact, however, that it has zealous advocates may indicate that there are special conditions of soil and climate over limited areas in which it produces favorable results. Orchard grass produces an abundance of leaves early in the season, being one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring. It throws up seed culms nearly as high as those of timothy, 86 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA but they are produced rather sparingly, especially the first few years after being sown. The result is a comparatively light yield. At the Illinois Station, on rich black prairie soil orchard grass, 35 pounds of seeds per acre, gave during two years an average yield of 1.4 tons of field cured hay ; timothy, 15 pounds of seed per acre, 2..2 tons; orchard grass, 17.5 pounds and red clover, 6 pounds, 2.2 tons ; tim- othy, 9 pounds and red clover, 6 pounds, 2..(i tons of field cured hay per acre.^ The average of Amer- ican analyses shows orchard grass to con- tain a larger percent- ^_ _^^__ ^S^ °^ protein and ^ , ^ , ^ ^ „ r, . T , . r,, X crude fiber than tim- Orchard grass taken at Cornell Station June 14. Plant grown from a single seed is 21 months old. Was in Othy or any Other COm- full bloom when picture was taken. Highest culms ^^^^j cultivated graSS. 44 mches; clump 33 mches wide. •' ° The hay has the repu- tation of being less readily eaten by live stock, although it is claimed that this may be remedied by cutting the grass earlier. At the Cornell Station, as pasture it was not as readily eaten by cattle as smooth brome grass, Kentucky blue grass. Illinois Sta. Biil. No. 15 (1891), p. 486. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 87 or meadow fescue ; it was about as readily eaten as timothy and much more readily eaten than redtop. 86. Mixtures. — Because of the habit of orchard grass to grow in tussocks it is generally considered best not to sow orchard grass alone. European authorities recommend that not to exceed 15 per cent, of the herbage shall be orchard grass and that it be not all added at once. Because it ripens at the same time as red clover, they make suitable plants to sow together. At the Illinois Station, however, it was found that red clover developed much more fully when sown with 9 pounds of timothy than when sown with 17.5 pounds of orchard grass. The abundance of basal leaves seemed to have a repressive influence both on red clover and on alsike clover. It has also been recommended for seeding with alfalfa. It is said to help the curing of the first cutting with which it matures, and if pastured to prevent bloating. Those who have tried seeding with alfalfa in the North Atlantic states have not usually continued the practise. According to Spillman, how- ever, this method is highly satisfactory in the Rocky Mountain states. Orchard grass does not, like smooth brome grass, have a tendency to spread and choke out the alfalfa. 87. Cultural Methods. — The time and manner of seeding are similar to that of timothy. If sown with timothy and occupying not more than 20 per cent, of the mixture by weight, it may be sown in the grass seeder, but if sown alone it is best to sow by hand. It is especially desirable to harrow orchard grass meadows in the spring and subsequently roll. A top dressing of manure in the early spring materially increases the yield and improves the quality of the seed. 88. Time of Harvesting. — Orchard grass readily becomes unpalatable and needs perhaps more than any other grass to be harvested without delay when the proper time arrives. In 88 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Switzerland, where orchard grass forms a considerable part of the hay, there is a saying that the time to make hay is when the cocksfoot is in flower. At the Illinois Station there was an increase of 22 per cent, in the weight of water-free substance from full bloom until seed were in the milk, which was a period of eight days. During this period the percentage of ash and nitrogen-free extract increased; the other nutrients decreased.' In favorable seasons two crops of hay may be harvested, one in June and the other in August. 89. Harvesting Seed. — American grown seed is chiefly pro- duced in Indiana and Kentucky, near Louisville. Orchard grass is ready to cut for seed when the heads become straw-colored and a slight pressure causes the seed to shatter. In Kentucky this is usually about June 20. Care must be exercised to cut promptly; otherwise seed will shatter badly. For harvesting, the self-binder is used, making rather smaller bundles than for wheat. Three or four bundles are set up together and the tops tied together with two bands about 6 inches apart. The bands are made from straws drawn from the bundles. In 15 to 20 days after it is cut, it may be threshed with a grain thresher provided with screens made specially for orchard grass seed. II. MEADOW FESCUE 90. Relationships. — The name English blue grass sometimes given to this grass (Festuca elatior L. var. pratensis Gray) is unfortunate because the name is applied to wire grass or Canada blue grass (Poa compressa L.). Closely related to meadow fescue is tall meadow fescue or tall fescue (F. elatior L.). Lawson states that this species may be easily distinguished from the former by being much larger (nearly double) in all its parts, which observations at the Cornell Station seem to confirm. Other American observers report it from 2 to 6 1 Illinois Sta. Bui. No. 5 (1889), p. 147. PERENNIAL FORi\GE GRASSES 89 inches taller, but otherwise practically identical. The seed of the tall meadow fescue is two to three times as expensive as the smaller type. Taller fescue taken at Cornell Station June 22. Plant passing out of bloom. Highest culms 51 inches; clump 36 inches wide; 21 months old from single seed. Note the spreading character of basal leaves compared with smooth brome grass. There are more kinds of seed of the genus Fcstiica carried by seedsmen than of any other genus of grasses. Among these may be mentioned three closely related species or varieties — namely, sheep's fescue {F. ovina L.), hard fescue (F. durius^ 90 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA cida L.), and slender fescue (F. octoHora Walt.). All have rather fine leaves with a dwarf habit of growth and are adapted to high inferior sandy and gravelly dry soils. Slender fescue has the shortest culms, but is characterized by its long slender leaves, which are of a light, livid green color. In Great Britain, although the yield is small, sheep's fescue is highly prized as a pasture as well as for its indication of a dry soil adapted to sheep. This and other species of Festuca form a part of the sheep ranges of western United States. 91. Adaptation of Related Species. — Speaking of English conditions, Lawson says: "The hard fescues may be classed among the best native grasses for general purposes. It will thrive on a great variety of soils and produce a greater weight of fodder than might be expect- ed from its comparative dwarf habit of growth, and is found to resist the effect of severe drought in summer and to retain its verdure during winter in a remarkable degree. It consti- tutes a great portion of the best natural pastures in the country, especially where the soil is light and dry." Another drought-resisting species is red or creeping fescue (F. rubra L.). This species on account of its creeping habit forms a close, lasting sod which is said to make it valuable on embankments where soil is dry, or for binding light sandy seacoasts. Two other species are especially adapted to wet, moist, cold soils rich in humus — namely, various leaved fescue (F. hetero- phylla L.) and floating fescue (F. Uuitans L.). The latter is Sheep's fescue variety fine leaved taken at Cornell Station June 14. Plant grown from a single seed is 2 1 months old. Has not yet come into bloom. Note the fine basal leaves. Highest culms 14 inches; clump 16 inches wide. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 9 1 recommended for shady places, and is said to be valuable as a constituent of permanent meadows either for mowing or grazing. The seed of all the six species just mentioned is high- priced and none is recommended for general culture, although special circumstances or conditions may arise where they will be valuable. 92. Distribution. — There are about 80 species of Festuca widely scattered throughout the world, but espe- cially in the temperate regions. While a number of species are native of North America, meadow fescue is introduced. It is one of the chief culti- vated grasses of Great Britain and the continent of Europe, but it has been sparingly cultivated in North America. According to Spillman, its culti- vation has reached some importance in eastern Kansas and western Missouri, where a considerable amount of seed is produced; while in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon it is regarded favorably. It does not seem to have been seriously tried in the North Atlantic states; but judging from the way it is spreading in places where it has escaped from cultivation or where it has been sown in per- manent pastures, there is reason to believe that on . ^ . . Spikelet of tall rich soils in the cooler climates of northern United meadow fes- States and in Canada it could profitably form a ''"^- ^""^^'^^^ ^ •' two times. part of the mixture for permanent pastures. 93. Adaptation. — Meadow fescue is about equally adapted to pasture or meadow, although in the timothy region it is inferior to the latter in yield of hay. It does not have the marked tufted habit of orchard grass, nor the strongly stoloniferous or creeping habit of Kentucky blue grass, but stands with timothy some- what between these two extremes. Nevertheless it makes a compact leafy sod, and as a pasture was found at Cornell to be distinctly more palatable to cattle than timothy if, indeed, it did 92 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA not outrank Kentucky blue grass. It starts in the spring about the same time as the latter. The hay is generally considered to be both palatable and nutritious. Like Kentucky blue grass, it takes three years to form a good sod, and is therefore not adapted to temporary meadows or temporary pastures. The seed being rather high priced and rather low in germination, it is generally advisable to use it only in mixtures for per- manent pastures. It is not recommended as a lawn grass. The extreme vigor with which individual plants of taller fescue developed in the trial grounds at Cornell Univer- sity raises the question whether much of the in- ability to get a good stand of this grass is not due to poor seed. 94. Seed. — The flowering glume or outer covering of the seed of meadow fescue is one-fifth to one-fourth inch long, is without dis- tinct keel, and is awnless. It closely resembles the flowering glume of peren- nial rye grass, the latter on account of the lower price often being used as an adul- terant of meadow fescue. The seed of meadow fescue is to be distinguished from perennial rye grass chiefly by its rachilla. The rachilla of the former is more slender, round instead of oval, the end having a slight knob. The rachilla also stands away slightly from the palea, while in perennial rye grass it lies close to the palea. ' Seeds of fescue and brome grasses. 1 . Slieep'a fescue iFestuca om'na); 2. red rescue (F. rubra); 3. tufted hair grass (Deschampsia caespitosa^; 4. upright brome iBromus erectus); 5. Schrader's brome (Br. uni- oloides); 6. chess {Br. secalinus); 7. hairy brome (Br. asper); 8. awnless brome (i?r. inermis)—the small figures natural size. (After Hicks) PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 93 The standard of purity should be 95 per cent., and of germina- tion 75 per cent., although commercial seed is frequently much lower in germinating power. Meadow fescue is harvested for seed with a self-binder as soon as or just before seed begins to shatter and is threshed with an ordinary grain thresher. It is then re-cleaned with a sand sieve or fanning mill. While in some cases 700 to 900 pounds of seed per acre are obtained, 150 to 250 pounds per acre are considered satisfactory. There are about 300,000 seeds to the pound. Fifty pounds of seed per acre are considered necessary, when sown alone. It is only recommended, however, for seeding in mixtures for pastures, at the rate of two to five pounds per acre. III. SMOOTH BROME GRASS 95. Relationships. — Smooth brome grass; Hungarian brome grass (Bromus inermis Leyss.). This species is called smooth or awnless brome grass because it is distinguished from other forms of the genus Bromus by the absence of the awn on the flowering glume. This grass is closely related to cheat or chess {Bromus secalinus L.), from which it differs in being strongly perennial, while chess is a fall annual. (C. A. 139) Chess is rarely grown for hay. Fair yields may be obtained, but the quality is rather inferior. Schrader's brome grass {B. unioloides (Willd.) H. B. K.) was formerly extensively advertised under the name of rescue grass as a winter grass for the cotton states, and is now occasionally sown for winter pasture. Except in the extreme south, it does not, according to Spillman, possess for this purpose any advantages over the cereals. There is a large number of species of the genus Bromus growing in dif- ferent parts of the United States, some of which perhaps deserve further study with a view to their introduction as cultivated plants. 94 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 96. Description. — Smooth brome grass is strongly stolon- iferous and deep-rooted. At the North Dakota Station roots of one-year-old plants had reached four feet, two-year-old, five and one-half feet, forming a dense sod six to eight inches thick. The culms are erect, growing under cultivation four feet or more in height. They are abundantly provided with prominent leaves. The leaf sheath is entire; the leaf blade varies from one-fourth to one-half inch wide, 8 to 12 inches in length, and is rolled in the bud. The ligule is short and rather inconspicuous. The flowers are borne in a widely spreading panicle four to eight inches long. The spikelets are large, three-fourths to one inch long, with six to ten, usually seven to nine flowers to a spikelet. The seeds (flowering glumes) are three-eighths to one-half inch long, flat and without awns. The rachilla is one-fifth to one-fourth the length of the flowering glume and is covered with bristles which serve to distinguish the seed from perennial rye grass seed, or meadow fescue seed. The caryopsis or naked seed is brown, slightly folded, and about two-thirds the length of the flowering glume. 97. Adaptation. — Smooth brome grass being a comparatively recent introduction, its economic range has not yet been fully established for the United States. Having grown for centuries upon the Steppes of Russia, it is adapted to a cold climate and a dry soil. Although it has not been uniformly successful over the whole area, in general it appears worthy of trial over that vast area between the Missouri River and the Cascade Mountains of the Pacific coast which has not heretofore possessed a sat- isfactory pasture grass. Its abundant and deep root system not only enables it to withstand long periods of drought, but also by binding the particles of soil together prevents the trans- portation of the soil by wind. It appears particularly adapted to the sub-humid High Plains region between 98 and 104 degrees West Longitude, north of Oklahoma. It is enthusi- astically recommended by the Kansas, Nebraska, and North PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 95 Dakota stations. It is not adapted to the warm climate of the South Atlantic and South Central states, and as yet there are no reports of marked suc- cess with it in the North At- lantic states. 98. Seeding. — For an acre, 20 pounds of seed are required. The seed is easily harvested and is produced in fair abundance; yields of 500 pounds of seeds have been reported. It may be cut with a self-binding harvest- er and, after curing in shock, threshed with the ordinary grain thresher. It is recommended by the Nebraska Station that the seed be sown about as deeply as oats; shallow seeding, it is said, is a frequent cause of failure to secure a good crop. If there is plenty of moisture in the soil, it is preferably sown in the fall ; otherwise spring Meadow fescue on the' left; smooth brom© grass on the right. Taken at Cornell Station June 1 6. Both in bloom. One- third natural size. 96 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA seeding gives the best results. It is sometimes sown with winter wheat. In regions where it is inadvisable to plow on account of drifting sands it has been found prac- ticable, by opening the ground at intervals with a spade and depositing seed, to secure such a stand of this grass as to greatly improve the existing range conditions. It is recommended to sow with alfalfa especially for pasture, the amount of pas- ture being increased thereby and the smooth brome grass preventing the alfalfa from bloating the cattle. (86) 99. Time of Harvesting. — Smooth brome grass blooms distinctly later than Kentucky blue grass and somewhat earlier than timothy. It is said to get hard and woody rather rapidly, hence cutting as soon as it is in bloom is advised. At the North Dakota Station smooth brome grass was cut at three stages of growth— namely, (i) in blossom, (2) in milk stage, (3) when fully mature. The Spike let of weight of watcr-frec substance per acre was as smooth brome follows: (i) 2,290, (2) 2,462, and (3) 2,8o2 pounds. fagged two Comparatively little difference in composition was times. found at the different stages of maturity.^ 100. Value. — Smooth brome grass makes a good yield of hay when first seeded, but in a year or two the yield of hay falls off, apparently on account of the dense sod formed. It is thereafter best fitted for pasture, of which it furnishes a great abundance. It starts early in the spring, grows late in the fall, and withstands drought best of any cultivated forage grass. The hay is readily eaten by horses, cattle, and sheep, and the pasture is extremely palatable. At the Cornell Station cattle 1 North Dakota Sta. Bui. No. 47. 1901. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 97 appeared to prefer it as pasture to Kentucky blue grass, meadow fescue, or any other cultivated grass. Smooth brome grass is highly prized as an improver of soils too long cultivated in cereal crops, since the great mass of roots and underground stems and the dense mat of vegeta- tion on the surface make a marked addition to the organic matter of the soil, adding to the water- holding capacity of the soils in the sub-humid sections. Being strongly stoloniferous, it is a plant of good duration. IV. BERMUDA GRASS 101. Description. — Ber- muda grass (Capriola dactylon (L.) Kuntze) is strongly stoloniferous, spreading by both above ground and underground stems, making a dense, thick sward which stands tramping well. The flow- ering culms vary from a few inches to two feet in height under favorable conditions. They are sparingly supplied with leaves and bear three to to two inches long, bear Smooth brome grass taVen at Cornell Station June 22. Plant passing out of bloom. Highest culms 48 inches; clump 24 inches wide; 21 months old from single seed. Note the upright character of the leaves as compared with tall fescue or or- chard grass. Note also the large spikelets. five one-sided spikes. The spikes, one one-flowered spikelets, which mature 98 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA seed sparingly in the United States, except in the extreme southern portion. 102. Seed. — The seed is imported and apparently unreliable. There are 1,800,000 seeds to the pound. On the Potomac Flats at Washington, D. C, a dense sod was obtained in ten weeks by seeding on June 6 with 20 pounds of seed per acre.^ It is believed eight pounds of seed per acre are sufficient to secure a fair stand. Spillman states, however, that for Bermuda grass seed "to germinate, the conditions must be exactly ideal." It is usually propagated by cutting up the sods, sowing the pieces broadcast, and plowing in or planting in rows or hills like potatoes. In fact, any method of distributing and covering the pieces of stems will suffice. Seeding may be done at any time except when there is danger of freezing. Spring is to be preferred. 103. Adaptation. — Ber- muda grass is a tropical plant, and has no agricultural value north of the thirty-seventh parallel. South of the thirty- fifth parallel it is a valuable grass both for hay, pasture, and lawns, as well as for the prevention of the erosion of the soil. It stands the hot- test weather and severe drought, making its best growth in the summer months. It does not thrive in the shade. It starts late in the spring, and in the fall the tops are easily killed by frost. In order to secure pasture throughout the year in the Gulf states, attempts Velvet grass taken at Cornell Station June 14. Plant grown from a single seed is 21 months old. In full bloom. Highest culms 22 inches; clump 20 inches wide. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros. Circ. No. 28, p. 4 PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES 99 have been made to sow bur clover {Medicago maculata Willd.) or hairy vetch on Bermuda sod in September (using disk har- row to open the soil) with rather indifferent success. A variety known as St. Lucie is said to be more frost-resistant, and hence, on account of keeping green longer, is preferred as a lawn grass. It is also said to be more easily exterminated. Bermuda grass thrives upon a great variety of soils, but is probably best adapted to sandy soils. 104. Value. — Bermuda grass is liked by domestic animals either as pasture or as hay. Analyses also indicate that it is highly nutritious. While on fertile soils it may be cut two or three times in a season and may under favorable conditions yield two to four tons of hay per acre, its habit of growth best fits it for grazing. For this purpose, it is the standard grass in the cotton states. Bermuda grass and Japan clover are pre- eminently the pasture plants of the South. Bermuda grass is, however, less extensively cultivated than would seem to be indicated by its excellent qualities. This may be due to the high price of the seed, or to the fact that the plant takes such a strong hold upon the soil as to make it unsuited to short rotations. Where it seeds freely, it is said to become a serious pest. Where it does not produce seed it can be controlled by plowing and growing a thickly sown and strong growing crop, such as sorghum, millet, oats, cowpeas, or velvet beans. V. MINOR GRASSES 105. Johnson Grass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.) is a strongly stolon- iferous, coarse-growing plant, with culms four to seven feet high, bearing long, broad, fiat leaves and having an open panicle 6 to 18 inches long. The spikelets are in pairs at the nodes or in threes at the end of the branches, on**- -*«sile and perfect, the others pedicelled and empty. The sessile spikelets -_ Jne-seeded. rrom 25 to 40 pounds of seed may be sown to the acre. WivUe it is hardy as far north at least as the fortieth parallel, as a weed it ib us.uallly met only in the cotton states, and especially on the black prairie 100 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA limestone soils in that section. It will thrive under a wide range of climatic conditions both as to temperature and moisture. Johnson grass is closely related to the millets and sorghum, it being con- sidered the parent form of the latter by Hackel. It is not of the highest feeding value, being similar to the millets in this regard. (119) In some sections where other grasses do not thrive, it has been found profitable to give up the farm to producing Johnson grass hay. Two or three cuttings may be obtained in one season. Like other strongly stoloniferous grasses, it becomes sod-bound in two or three years, thus reducing the yield. Spillman recommends plowing the meadows in the fall every two years. By this method meadows are said to continue productive as long as fertility lasts. Johnson grass does not stand grazing well, pasturing some- times being recommended as a means of eradication. Johnson grass can scarcely be considered a cultivated grass, since it is usually self- sown. It is difficult to eradicate com- pletely, both because of its strongly stolon- iferous habit and because it seeds freely.^ It is therefore ordinarily looked upon as a major weed and a minor cultivated plant. Doubtless, however, it may come to occupy an important place in the farm economy in certain sections of the South Central states. 106. Tall Oat Grass (Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv.) is closely related to the common cultivated oat, and also to the lai^ "^- i| / ' \ common wild oat-grass (Danthonia spicata _^^^pgiJI# (L.) Beauv.) which forms a not incon- /^ 1^ siderable portion of the herbage of per- manent pastures and meadows on the poorer soils of the North Atlantic states. The tall oat grass is a fibrous-rooted, erect, tall grass, growing on suitable soil three to five feet high, with a long open panicle bearing two-flowered spikelets. It yields an abundance of coarse forage, and will grow on rather sandy soils where other grasses do not thrive so well; but in the United States its lack of palatability has prevented its extensive cultivation. (8) It is known . in France as ray grass where, as in other parts of Europe, it is highly prized. The seed is principally imported. ^^U .^^ Tall oat grass taken at Cornell Station June 15 Panicle in bloom. One-third natural size * For methods of extermination, see U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. No. 72, pt. 3. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES lOI but can be easily harvested. It may be bound, cured in shocks, and threshed as in case of common oats. There are 159,000 seeds to the pound. About 50 pounds of seed with a germinating power of 70 per cent, are required to sow an acre. 107. Velvet Grass (Holcus lanatus L.) is an early flowering grass, growing 18 to 30 inches high. It is characterized by the downy character of the Velvet grass taken at Cornell Station June 15. Spray on the left in full bloom; in the middle in bloom at top; on right not in bloom. One- third natural'size . Sweet vernal grass taken at Cornell Station June 1 6. Lower spikelets in bloom. Slightly reduced leaves, from which it takes its name and which makes it of little value, since this character makes it unpalatable to live stock. It grows rather readily, and is said to be especially adapted to soil high in organic matter and moisture. It is distinguished from other commonly cultivated grasses by the soft woolly appearance of its rather large panicles. In Scotland this plant commonly occurs in perennial rye grass, and commercial seed is obtained in cleaning the latter seed. The commercial seed usually consists of the two- flowered spikelets. The germination is low — 50 per cent, or less. About 20 pounds of seed are required per acre. 108. Sweet Vernal Grass (AntJioxanthum odoratum L.) is a fibrous-rooted grass, growing 12 to 18 inches high. It is characterized by its agreeable 102 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA odor and bitter taste. It is adapted to dry pastures, and it is said that in England in those pastures where this grass is abundant, the finest mutton is produced. There seems to be plenty of evidence that cattle and even sheep are not fond of it. It has been widely tested by the experiment stations and is probably of little, if any, value. The seed is principally gathered in central Germany from wild plants growing in the woods. There are 924,000 seeds to the pound. The germinating power is low — 30 per cent, or less — and 30 pounds of such seed would be required to seed an acre. 109. Perennial Rye Grass (Lolium perenne L.) and Italian rye grass (L. italicum A. Br.) are not properly included under perennial forage grasses, since neither is strictly peren- nial. Both species are in- travaginal and tufted, and have rather limited power of vegetative reproduction. The duration varies with conditions; but, as a rule, Italian rye grass lasts only two years and sometimes only one year, while perennial rye grass lasts two or more years. The most marked botanical distinction between the two species is that the flowering glume in Italian rye grass bears an awn, while perennial rye grass is awnless. "Compared with any varieties of common rye grass, the L. italicum affords a stronger braird, arrives sooner at maturity, has a greater abundance of foliage — which is broader and of a lighter or more lively green color — grows considerably taller, is more upright or less inclined to spread on the ground; its spikes are longer; spikelets more thinly set, and, upon the whole, producing a less bulk of seed, which is smaller; has the awn adhering to it, and is generally about two- thirds the weight per bushel of that of common peren- nial rye grass, when grown under similar circumstances." ^ Italian rye grass grows somewhat taller (one and a half to three feet) than perennial rye grass (one to two feet) Perennial rye grass and is characterized by its very rapid growth. It is ex- taken at Cornell Sta- tensively used for meadows in England, and is especially adapted to rich, moist soils and to sewage irrigation. Perennial rye grass is grown both for hay and for grazing, but is perhaps best adapted to pastures of short duration, Both_ species produce seed abundantly, and the seed is therefore cheap. Germination in commercial seed is about 75 per cent. The size of seeds is ^ The Lawson Seed and Nursery Company: Agrostographia, p. 29. tion June 1 6. Spike in bloom. One-third natural size. PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES IO3 quite variable, but Stebler gives the average number of seeds per pound for Italian rye grass 285,000, and for perennial rye grass 336,000. About 50 pounds of seed are sown per acre when sown alone, but usually perennial rye grass is sown in mixtures, not to exceed 10 per cent, of the whole being recommended. The above statement is for European, and especially English, conditions. Where tested in America, the yield of forage has been too small to make either species valuable.^ Practicums 110. Equipment for the Study of Grasses and Other Forage Crops. — The equipment for teaching grasses and forage crops should consist of the following materials: 1. A grass nursery consisting of at least 50 individual plants of each of the species it is desired to study. These should be started in small pots in the greenhouse and planted in rows 5 feet apart, with the plants 40 inches apart in the rows. There should be not less than two rows nor more than three to each plat or species and every third or fourth plat should be planted to some standard plant, like timothy for the grasses and red clover for the legumes, for purposes of comparison. This nursery serves as a place where students may study the gross characters of the different species and their habits of growth. No other kind of instruction can fully take the place of this field study. The information to be obtained will be valuable to the instructor as well as to the student. The nursery also serves to furnish fresh specimens annually for indoor study, — a very essential feature of successful laboratory instruction. 2. Every student should be furnished with a bundle of each species to be studied. Each bundle should be the complete product of a single plant from the grass nursery gathered when seeds are well formed but before the plant has become fully ripe. By this means the student will be enabled to judge of the relative possible production of single plants of the different species. 3. Each student should be furnished with a pressed and mounted specimen of each species gathered at the time of full bloom. These should be placed upon jute tag board, 120 pounds to the ream, 22x28 inches. The specimens may be sewed on the paper or fastened with adhesive cloth. 4. The laboratory should contain a full collection of seeds of the plants to be studied, as well as seeds of related economic plants and weed seeds commonly occurring in commercial seeds. (See practicum on seed testing.) (115) 5. Laboratory desks with water and gas may be arranged with five-foot frontage for each student and 30 inches deep by 30 inches high. Two thirty- inch drawers and cupboards on either side of the knee space may serve for holding mounted specimens, the smaller bundles, and apparatus. The larger 1 For detailed account of the rye grasses, see Stebler and Schroter: The Best Forage Plants, pp. 20-30. 104 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA bundles may be placed in the locker with which every student should be provided. This desk will, by having classes in sections, accommodate two students. 6. A large amount of the essential study of grasses and forage crops may be accomplished without any microscopic equipment. The important require- ment for lenses for this work is a rather large field. If each student is provided with a one-inch focus lens, the other re- quirements may be met by a few lenses or micro- scopes placed upon side tables where students may use them as needed. The following are sug- gested as useful: (1) reading glass and stand consisting of lens 4 inches in diameter with a focus of 9 inches; (2) dissecting microscope with one and a half and three- fourth-inch lenses (such as Bausch & Lomb's No. 2); (3) a compound microscope with one and two-inch eyepieces and two-inch, two-thirds-inch and one-sixth-inch objectives (such as Bausch & Lomb's Stand BB). Each student may be furnished with the dissecting microscope just mentioned, but when this cannot be afforded, a simple dissecting microscope (such as Bausch & Lomb's S3) will be found useful. 7. Students should have access to bulletins of the experiment stations, and there should be at least one set of the Experiment Station Record for each 20 students. For list of books, see outline for discussion of grasses and leguminous forage crops. (Ill) 111. Outline for Discussion of Grasses and Leguminous Forage Crops. — The author has for a number of years required students to make an individual study of specimens of forage crops and of a selected list of station publica- tions, together with some of the more useful books used as reference merely. Below is submitted an outline which experience lias shown to work sat- isfactorily. Students have been able to complete the outline on grasses in six weekly practicums of two and a half hours each by writing up the notes outside the practicum hours; if done separately, legumes will require about an equal amount of time, but if the work follows the grasses, it may be com- pleted in somewhat less time. For leguminous forage crops see 253. There are two sources of information: (1) the plants, and (2) references A desirable reading glass for examining seeds PERENNIAL FORAGE GRASSES IO5 to certain publications. References are of two kinds: (1) books containing a general discussion, and (2) Experiment Station Record containing references to experimental results. References to the Experiment Station Record are given under each head by volume and page. If a more extended account is desired, consult the reference therein mentioned. Books — Beal: Grasses of North America. Coburn: Alfalfa. Coburn: The Book of Alfalfa. Flint: Grasses and Forage Plants. Hackel: The True Grasses. Howard: Grasses and Forage Plants at the South. Shaw: Forage Crops Other than Grasses. Shaw: Soiling Crops. Shaw: Grasses and Clovers. Shaw: Clovers and How to Grow Them. Spillman: Farm Grasses of the United States. Stebler and Schroter: The Best Forage Plants. Vasey: Agricultural Grasses of North America. Wallace: Clover Culture. Ward: Grasses; A Handbook for Use ni the Field and Laboratory. United States Department of Agriculture: Bulletins of the Division of Agrostology. Description — Describe the roots, culms, leaves, inflorescence, and seed of timothy, red- top, orchard grass, meadow fescue, Kentucky blue grass, an chiefly in the kidney-shaped specimens. The larger seeds especially are curved, and even in some instances spirally-twisted. The color of the in- dividual seed is uniform, except for the darker markings about the scar and a light stripe which may occur along the raphe. Alfalfa seed may be distinguished from red clover seed by its uniform light olive-green color as contrasted with the purple and yellow of the latter. Alfalfa seeds are usually 0.08 to 0.12 inch long, and 0.05 to 0.07 inch wide. The number of seeds a pound may vary from less than 200,000 to more than 240,000; perhaps 225,000 would be a fair average. Sixty pounds are sold for a bushel. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I79 201. Adulterations and Impurities.— Alfalfa seed has been extensively adulterated with black medic seed imported from Europe. (236) Recently enacted laws will probably prevent the practise hereafter. Sweet clover seed sometimes occurs, although rare- ly as an adulteration. (250) Prob- ably it more frequently occurs because of the presence of this plant in alfalfa fields. Seeds of the bur clovers have been rather extensively used as an adulterant in Europe, since these Alfalfa. Pod on the left, single plants are widely distributed in South ''"^ °" 'LVAtmes ^"""'"'^ America, the hooked pods of which gather in the wool of sheep, the seed thus becoming a by- product in the manufacture of woolen cloth. (238) The most common impurities in alfalfa seeds as found in 53 samples by the Nevada Station,^ and in 15 samples by the Ohio Station," are as follows: clover dodder (Cuscuta epithymum Murr.), field dodder (C. arvensis Beyr.), lamb's quarters (Chenopodium album L.), western atriplex (Atriplex truncata Torr.), prostrate amaranth {Amaranthus blitoides S. Wats.), green foxtail grass (Chaetochloa viridis (L.) Scribn.) and witch grass (Panicum capillar e L.). 202. Dodder. — By far the most serious impurity in alfalfa seed is the dodder, of which there are now recognized to be three species occurring on either red or mammoth clover or alfalfa — namely, field dodder (Cuscuta arvensis Beyr.), alfalfa dodder (C epithymum Murr.), and clover dodder (C. trifolii Bab.). The first species is sometimes referred to as large seeded dodder, while the last two species are not usually separated and are commonly called clover or small seeded dodder. The species most commonly occurring in commercial seed and upon alfalfa 1 Nevada Sta. Bui. No. 47 (1900), p. 11. 2 Ohio Sta. Bui. No. 142 (1903), p. 121. i8o THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA appears to be the small seeded alfalfa dodder (C. epithymum Murr.). Field dodder occurs on many plants, especially south- ward, where it is known as love vine ; while the small seeded dodder seems to be pretty closely restricted to clover and alfalfa. The habit of all these species is similar. The seeds germinate in the soil, but the plant soon attaches itself to the alfalfa or other plant by means of suckers, the thread-like stem of the plant twining about the stem of its host. The leaves are reduced Alfalfa seed on the left, dodder seed on the right. Both enlarged (From photo by Slingerland) to minute alternate scales. In the small seeded species the seeds are red and the small flower pinkish; in the field or large seeded dodder the stem is yellow and the flowers greenish white. In the clover dodder the seeds are uniformly dull gray, oval or roundish, less than 0.04 inch in diameter; in alfalfa dodder the seeds are reddish-yellow, elongated rather than round, 0.04 inch long by 0.02 inch wide ; in field dodder the seeds are bright orange-yellow, somewhat angular, presenting their somewhat flat surfaces with angles betewen, 0.04 and 0.05 inch in diameter. The seeds of the large seeded dodder being about the size of those of alfalfa are rather difficult to remove, but the smaller seeded dodder can be readily removed by means of properly LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS l8l adjusted screens/ As the plant grows upon the alfalfa, the latter is killed and the dodder spreads to adjacent plants in an ever-widening circle. The dodder may be destroyed by plowing and using the field for cereal crops for two or more years, taking care to apply the manure from the dodder-infested al- falfa hay only to land that will be devoted to cereals, potatoes, or other cultivated crops. If only a few small patches occur, these may be mown, the stubble sprinkled with kerosene, covered with the hay, and burned. According to the New York State Station, the small seeded dodder rarely seeds in that locality, but passes the winter on crowns of alfalfa, clover, black medic, and fleabane (Erigeron ramosiis (Walt.) B. S. P.). 203. Germination and Viability. — The standard of purity should be 98, and the standard of germination 90 per cent. It is said that the percentage of hard seed is often high, but diminishes with age. While the viability of alfalfa seed is not definitely known, two and three-year-old seed is considered quite as good as fresh seed. The Colorado Station found that prime seed lost only 2.5 per cent, of its germinating power in ten years. Another sample showed a germinating power at six years of 93, at ten years of y2, and at sixteen years of 63 per cent.^ Dead seeds, instead of light olive-green, are brown. 204. Varieties. — A number of slightly different strains of alfalfa have been grown by experiment stations, while Turkestan and Grimm alfalfa have been tried somewhat more widely. Among these may be mentioned: American strain alfalfa, a hardy sort recommended for northern United States; French alfalfa, originally from France, but developed in North Dakota; Oasis alfalfa, obtained from Tunis, North Africa, and said to be a promising drought-resistant sort; Solover or 1 Construct a light wooden frame, 12 inches square by 3 inches deep, and tack over the bottom 20x20 mesh steel wire cloth made of No. 34 (W. and M. gauge) wire. Put in the sieve 4 to 8 ounces of seed and shake vigorously for 30 seconds. Samples of alfalfa seed for analysis should be taken from the bottom of the bag, since jarring is likely to cause the small doddev seeds to fall through the alfalfa seed. 2 Colorado Sta. Bui. No. 110 (1906), p. 11. l82 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Utah alfalfa, grown from Utah seed and said to be a hardy and vigorous grower for arid and semi-arid regions; Samarkand alfalfa, a shorter, more hardy and more drought-resisting variety. Turkestan alfalfa was introduced into the United States from the arid regions of Turkestan in Asia in 1898 with the idea of extending the northern limit of alfalfa growing in the United States. It has been widely distributed and tried, but reports are somewhat conflicting. In the eastern and humid states it does not seem to be superior to common alfalfa. Reports from the region west of the Mississippi River and north of the fortieth parallel indicate that it is hardier and more productive than that commonly grown there. It is said to endure drought better, is less easily affected by freezing, and gives better re- sults on strongly alkaline soils. It is claimed that the root system is stronger, that stems are more slender and more leafy, thus making hay of finer quality. These differences are not sufficiently marked to be noticed by the casual observer. Grimm alfalfa is a strain that has descended from plants which had survived about 20 years in the vicinity of St. Paul, Minnesota. It is, therefore, recommended for sowing in north- ern climates. It is claimed to be more thrifty and more vigorous than common alfalfa. It is said also to produce seed more abundantly. "Our common alfalfa presents two types, readily recognized by the growers; one has a dark green color and narrow leaves with red stems and usually deep violet purple flowers, while the other has green stems and much lighter flowers. The former is leafier and earlier than the latter, but is possibly a little less vigorous grower. In the color of its leaves and habit of plant the former resembles the Turkestan." ^ 205. Distribution. — Alfalfa is cultivated more or less in all countries of mild climate in the world. It is extensively culti- vated in South America. 1 Colorado Sta. Bui. (1906), p. 4. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 183 "Alfalfa occupies one-sixth the cultivated area of Argentina. It has caused the development without irrigation of vast areas of semi-arid land in the northern and western portions of Argentina. It is estimated that about eight acres of natural pasture are required to supply one steer, but that one acre of alfalfa will support the same animal. Besides being pastured, it is used extensively for hay, and is exported in no incon- siderable quantities." ^ Over three- fourths the area in alfalfa in the United States in 1899 was in the western states, while over 98 per cent, was grown west of the Missouri River. Since that time alfalfa growing has increased somewhat in the eastern states. Al- though the distribution is in large measure influenced by its adaptability, it is also to some extent influenced by the fact that east of the Missouri River timothy, red clover, and other grasses and clovers thrive relatively better than they do west of the Missouri River. 206. Adaptation.— Alfalfa is naturally adapted to a warm climate. Kansas raises much more than Nebraska, South Dakota much less, while North Dakota raised scarcely none at all in 1899. About two-thirds the area in hay in New Mexico was in alfalfa; in Colorado one-half; in Wyoming one-fifth; while in Montana only one-fourhundredth part of the area in hay was in alfalfa. Owing to its deep-root system alfalfa is highly drought-resisting and is also well adapted to irrigation. An excess of rainfall as well as an excess of water in the soil is injurious. It thrives better in an alkaline than an acid soil, being' fairly alkaline resistant. The sub-soil is more important than the soil, probably because of the effect of the former upon the water table rather than because of its permeability to the roots or the plant food contained therein, although both of the latter are important. '^The Author: How to Choose a Farm, p. 358. l84 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Calcareous soils, particularly in the humid regions, are espe- cially adapted to this plant. Hence where the soil and the sub- soil are friable, and contain a large quantity of lime, alfalfa will thrive even though the rainfall be as high as 35 to 40 inches annually. Soils of the Miami series, especially Miami stony loam and Miami gravelly loam, are, when properly drained, either naturally or artificially, well adapted to alfalfa. In general, the chocolate-colored river bottoms and maize and oat lands rather than wheat and grass lands are the best adapted to alfalfa. (C. A. 115) 207. Conditions Affecting Success with Alfalfa.— The con- trolling factors in the culture of alfalfa are (i) the climate; (2) the character of the soil; (3) the treatment of the soil, including additions of lime and fertilizers; (4) inoculation with alfalfa bacteria; (5) the kind and quantity of seed; (6) the time of seeding; and (7) the after treatment of the crop. In the western states where alfalfa is chiefly grown, it grows So readily, especially when irrigated, that seed is in some cases sown without any preparation of the soil, except the removal of the sage brush by hitching a team at each end of a railroad iron and dragging it over the ground. Between this condition and a condition that requires the greatest care there are many degrees. 208. Treatment of the Soil.— Alfalfa is not stoloniferous and cannot spread except slightly as previously indicated. (198) It does not take possession of the soil and crowd out other plants as may Kentucky blue grass or white clover. On the other hand, grasses and weeds will take possession of the land between the alfalfa plants and reduce their growth. It happens that those soils least adapted to alfalfa are best adapted to grasses, and hence on such soils grasses are likely to obtain the ascendency. For this reason the previous treatment of the soil should be such as to bring about the most vigorous LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 1 85 growth of alfalfa and clean the soil of weeds and weed seeds. This is best brought about by a crop which has been heavily manured with stable or other organic manure and has received thorough inter-cultural tillage. In Europe, the root crops fur- nish this condition ; in New York State peas raised for the can- ning factories seem to furnish the ideal condition; while in the north and south central states the maize crop furnishes the appropriate previous preparation. While an addition of stable manure at the rate of 20 loads to the acre just before preparing the land for alfalfa is ob- jectionable from the standpoint of adding weed seeds, yet ex- perience has demonstrated that this is usually good practise and upon some soils essential. On many soils in humid sections lime should be added at the rate of 1,000 to 3,000 pounds an acre. Assuming the land to have been in an inter-tilled crop the previous year, the manure may be spread during the winter or spring, the land plowed two to three weeks, and the lime added about a week before seeding and immediately worked into the soil with a spring tooth or disk harrow. The subsequent preparation of the soil should be such as thoroughly to incorporate the manure and the lime with the soil and to prepare a seed-bed suitable to receive and germinate small seeds. This may be accomplished by means of a spring tooth harrow and a roller or wooden drag. (C. A. 299) A disk harrow is also desirable in order to secure deeper prepara- tion, but is not essential. The above discussion applies more especially to the humid sections of the United States. In the sub-humid sections there is no trouble to get a stand if the soil is well prepared. Since the incorporation of stable manure in the soil is likely to cause it to dry out too rapidly where the rainfall is deficient, it is better to top dress after a stand has been secured. West of the Missouri River no lime is needed. l86 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 209. Inoculation. — For soils only moderately well adapted to the growth of alfalfa, three conditions have seemed desirable if not essential to success: (i) the application of an abundance of manure; (2) the application of lime; and (3) the artificial introduction of bacteria accustomed to growing in alfalfa root- tubercles. This inoculation can be successfully accomplished by putting the living organisms upon the seed immediately be- fore seeding, or by sowing upon the soil just before seeding from 100 to 400 or more pounds, of soil from an alfalfa field where the tubercles are abundant. (139) The latter method has been more largely practised and has been found in a large percentage of cases to improve the stand, and during the first season at least, result in a large number of root- tubercles of a more vigorous growth. Generally in such cases few, if any, root-tubercles occur during the first season on the uninoculated soil, while they are abundant on the inoculated soil, the relative vigor of growth depending on the abundance of inoculation and on the fertility, presumably especially on the abundance of soluble nitrogen in the soil. The more abundant the root-tubercles the greater the difference in growth; the more abundant the soluble nitrogen the less the difference in growth. Generally in these trials the uninoculated fields or plats make such poor growth that they are plowed up at the end of the first year, hence there are few observations on the relative yields obtained the second season from the in- oculated and uninoculated areas. Results at the Cornell Station indicate an increased yield of hay from the inoculated areas.' The Alabama Station first called attention to the increased vigor of alfalfa through inoculation by incorporating in the soil dust from bur clover soil. The increase in hay attributable to in- oculation was 336 per cent.^ iNew York Cornell Sta. Bui. No. 237 (1906), p. 156. 2 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 87 (1897), p. 477. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 1 87 210. After Treatment. — For its best growth the young alfalfa plant requires an abundance of soluble nitrogen in the soil. If it has not been applied by means of stable manure, and even if stable manure has been used, 100 pounds of nitrate of soda may be sown two to three weeks after alfalfa has been seeded, if the alfalfa lacks at this time a deep green color. If sown without grain or nurse crop, it should be clipped well above the crown in the latter part of June or early in July in order to retard the growth of weeds and cause the alfalfa to produce a larger number of stems and thus shade the ground more fully. Doubtless, also, this procedure helps in humid climates to che'ck the leaf-spot. (218) Subsequent clippings will depend upon the growth of alfalfa and weeds, but usually an- other should be given sometime in August. When a nurse crop is used, the cutting of this answers for one of the clip- pings. (216) Old meadows are sometimes worked with a disk harrow. It is claimed that this method splits the crown and thus increases the number of independent plants, and thereby increases the yield. Old meadows also respond to the application of stable manure spread upon the land, preferably with a manure spreader immediately after the last crop. 211. Irrigation. — The soil may be irrigated before seeding, but after the plants have started the land should not be ir- rigated the first season, because the soft mud may cover the small plants and kill them. Usually irrigation is not necessary to grow the first cutting. For the second cutting, the land may be irrigated immediately after the first crop is harvested, or about one week before it is harvested, which is believed to give the best results. The Utah Station has shown that less water is required to grow fair crops when applied at intervals of three to four weeks. The Wyoming Station applied 2.22 acre- feet of water during the season to alfalfa when the rainfall was about 1.5 inches. The Colorado Station recommends 20 to l88 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 24 inches of water to produce the three crops usually grown. No rule, however, can be laid down as to the amount of water required, since this will depend on the climate, soil, and position of the ground water. Indeed, in many instances the ground water at a depth of from four to twelve feet constantly fed by seepage from rivers or canals is sufficient for the growth of alfalfa without irrigation. The water is usually applied by the system known as flooding, from two to ten hours being required. The amount should not be sufficient to allow pools of water to stand after the water is turned off, else the alfalfa will be killed. 212. Rotations. — The economic duration of an alfalfa field varies greatly with climate and soil. The author saw a field in Nevada which had grown alfalfa 18 years continuously with- out re-seeding or the addition of seed. Grass was somewhat abundant, but satisfactory crops of alfalfa were still being harvested. Usually other things equal, the largest yields are obtained the second and third years (third and fourth from seeding), while thereafter there is a decrease in yield from the gradual dying out of plants. The rotation practised around Greeley, Colorado, where potato growing is an important in- dustry, is about as follows: potatoes two years; wheat one year; barley or oats, with which the alfalfa is seeded, one year; alfalfa three to four years.^ Wing recommends for humid sections: maize one year; barley, with which alfalfa is seeded, one year; alfalfa four years.* For eastern Kansas five or six years of alfalfa followed by cereals in rotation for twenty years is recommended. By having five fields, one field or orie-fifth of the farm may be in alfalfa all the time. 213. Quantity of Seed. — While 25 plants to the square foot is considered an excellent stand for a new seeding, and in old meadows good yields of hay may be obtained with five plants lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1904, p. 313. * Pennsylvania State Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 129. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 1 89 to the square foot, yet alfalfa is perhaps seldom injured by heavy seeding, but often it would be better if more seed had been used, although the practise varies from 15 to 30 pounds per acre or from 75 to 150 seeds per square foot. Probably in no case should less than 20 pounds per acre be sown, except where grown for seed. For seed it is customary to sow from 12 to 16 pounds per acre. When grown for hay the only ad- vantage to be gained in sowing 20 rather than 30 pounds of seed is the saving in the cost of the seed. Thick seeding is an advantage, because the alfalfa stands better, the hay is a better quality and weeds are subdued. 214. Time of Seeding. — Assuming suitable weather condi- tions, alfalfa may be sown any time during the growing season, — say between April i and October i. Generally speaking, the best time is during the month of April; in some sections the second best time is during August or September, depending on locality, while the poorest months are June and July. In regions having very light rainfall in autumn seeding should be done in the spring. Alfalfa, being a warm weather plant, should not be seeded as early in the spring as the clovers. The best time for sowing alfalfa is midway between the best time for sowing oats and that for planting maize. One reason why satisfactory results are not obtained in sowing with oats is that the seeding is apt to be done to suit the oats and not to suit the alfalfa. 215. Method of Seeding.— The depth of seeding must depend on the soil and climate, the drier the climate and the sandier the soil the deeper the seeding. In general, the seed should be covered deeper than red clover. In humid climates, good results are obtained by sowing with the seeder attachment to the grain drill, adjusting the spouts so as to deposit the seed in front of the hoes. In the more arid sections, the grain drill itself is used, the alfalfa being mixed with soil, maize meal or bran 190 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA to cause the seed to feed evenly. In this case the seed is covered from i inch to 1.5 inches deep. One-half the seed is sometimes sown one way and then the other half crossways. Seed may also be sown broadcast and land harrowed with smoothing harrow. (C. A. 299) The New Jersey Station sowed 30 pounds of seed broadcast and 15 pounds of seed with drill, and obtained practically the same yield of hay the following year — 6.5 and 6.7 tons an acre respectively.^ 216. Nurse Crop. — The sowing of a grain crop with the alfalfa is probably seldom of any advantage to the alfalfa, and may be a disadvantage when the moisture or plant food is likely to be deficient. Experience has shown that barley is a much better crop to sow with alfalfa than is oats. Barley exhausts ihe soil less of water and is harvested earlier than oats. Where oats is sown with alfalfa it should be sown at the rate of a bushel to the acre, and must be harvested when coming into bloom for hay. Permitting oats to stand until ripe almost al- ways results in failure of the alfalfa, at least in humid climates. When sowing oats with alfalfa, the time of seeding should be chosen to suit the alfalfa and not to suit the oats. Alfalfa is seldom sown in the spring on wheat that was sown the previous fall, as is the general custom with clover. Alfalfa is seldom sown with any grass or clover, although grasses are sometimes recommended where alfalfa is to be pastured, since it reduces the danger of bloating. For this purpose, brome grass probably gives the best results in sub- humid sections. The Nebraska Station found that when used for pasture brome grass nearly succeeded in crowding out the alfalfa at the end of three years, when sown in equal amounts, but when used for meadow the alfalfa held its own.^ Idaho Station reports good results for meadows with mixtures of iNew Jersey Sta. Rpt. 1890, pp. 156-8. 2 Nebraska Sta. Bui. No. 84 (1904). LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I9I orchard grass and alfalfa, rye and alfalfa, and tall oat grass and alfalfa/ Orchard grass is considered desirable because the orchard grass is cut soon enough to prevent its becoming unpalatable, and because its habit of growth is such as to crowd the alfalfa less than other grasses. (86) 217. Weeds. — Since the first cutting of alfalfa is so early, and since the time between cutting is so short, most annual and biennial weeds common to other meadows are prevented from going to seed and are thus eradicated. Only those peren- nials which produce seed before the first cutting of alfalfa, like dandelion, and perennials which are more or less stolonifer- gus, like some of the grasses, become a serious pest in alfalfa meadows. To this, however, there are some exceptions. The wild barleys (Hordeum jubatum L.) and (H. murinum L.), which are annual grasses, are most serious weeds in alfalfa meadows in western states, as they are in other cultivated crops. This, however, is not so much due to their abundance or injury to alfalfa as it is that the barbed awns of these plants lodge in the mouths and throats of animals, producing bad sores and thus decreasing the feeding value of hay that has become infested with them. While certain other plants of the grass family are a menace to the growth of alfalfa, alfalfa hay is usually free from weeds that are objectionable for forage purposes. Where alfalfa becomes grassy passing over the field both ways with a disk harrow, set so as not to turn the soil too much, immediately after the crop has been harvested is said to help to keep these weeds in check. Some of the weeds are destroyed while the alfalfa is stimulated. The best results with this method have been obtained on friable soils in sub-humid sections. 218. Fungous Diseases. — The most commonly distributed, and probably the most injurious, fungous disease on alfal- 1 Idaho Sta. Bui. No. 33 (1902). 192 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA fa is the leaf-spot {Pscudopcziza medicaginis (Lib.) Sacc). It is much more injurious in moist than in dry climates. The evidences of it are usually first seen in the turning yellow of the lower leaves. If these leaves are closely examined, they will be seen to contain numerous small brownish-yellow blotches in the center of which is a still smaller black circle of fruiting cups, each containing eight egg- shaped or oblong ascospores. The plant becomes infested by these ascospores floating in the air, particularly if the air is moist. The disease spreads with great rapidity, hence the desir- ability of mowing the crop as soon as attack begins to man- ifest itself. (225) Experiments with fungicides and with fer- tilizers at the Cornell Station gave negative results. Root-rot {Ozonium Sp.), a fungous disease affecting cotton and other plants, also sometimes affects alfalfa when it is grown in regions where cotton occurs. 219. Insects. — Few insects attacking alfalfa exclusively or even chiefly have been reported. The principal insect enemy of alfalfa in the western states is the ever-present grass- hopper. The remedy against grasshoppers in general is said to be deep plowing in the fall to bury the eggs and spring harrowing to destroy them. When the alfalfa field is attacked the Nevada Station recommends the use of the following mixture just after the first crop is harvested: Paris green i, common salt 2, fresh horse dung 60 pounds. This mixture is to be scattered over the field when the hoppers are thickest, in the morning while the soil is still wet from the first irriga- Alfalfa leaf attacked by leaf-spot Natural size LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I93 tion/ By means of the hopper-dozer the Colorado Station caught in one day in a six-acre field nine bushels of grass hop- pers, containing about 30,000 grasshoppers in each bushel. Winter and early spring disking of alfalfa fields will also destroy many grasshopper eggs. 220. Animals. — The pocket gopher is, in the western states, the most serious pest with which the alfalfa raiser has to con- tend. It destroys the alfalfa by feeding upon the roots, while the burrows seriously interfere with harvesting. Ground- squirrels, prairie dogs, and field mice are also troublesome. Many more or less successful methods of combating these pests are employed, such as poisoning with strychnine, trapping, shooting, and suffocating with bisulphide of carbon. 221. Pocket Gophers (Geomytdae), comprising two genera, Geotnys and Thomomys, and 33 species, of which the prairie gopher {Geomys bursarius Shaw), also called red pocket gopher, is the most important. In color the gophers are gray, black, or brown, cinnamon or pinkish-brown prevailing; the gophers of southern Georgia, Florida and Alabama have an indistinct median stripe along the back. They are the length of a small rat, but twice as thick, have large cheek pouches opening outside the mouth, and long claws on the fore feet, adapting them to an underground burrowing life. They live singly except during the breeding season. Their natural enemies are the weasel and the gopher snake. 222. Spermophilus (meaning "seed lover"), belonging to the squirrel family (Sciuridae), and comprising about 73 species and sub-species in the western states, two of which are found east of the Mississippi River. The spermophiles are closely related to the chipmunks and form the connecting link between the squirrels and the marmots. The most widely distributed is the thirteen-lined spermophile (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus Mitchell), car- rying on the back six longitudinal buff bands and seven brown bands, each of the latter containing a row of small white spots. They vary in color from gray to brown, have cheek pouches and are about the size of the pocket gopher. The chipmunk (Tatnias striatus L.), also called ground squirrel and ground hackee, belongs to the same family {Sciuridae), and though it may in some instances prey on roots, its favorite food consists of nuts, berries, tomatoes, and pome fruits. A number of the Sciuridae consume vast quantities of destructive insects. The natural enemies of these animals are coyotes, foxes, badgers, skunks, hawks, and owls. 1 Nevada Sta. Bui. No. 57 (1904). 194 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 223. Prairie Marmots {Cynomys ludovicianus Ord.), also called prairie dogs, belong to the squirrel family (Sciuridac), though they are much larger than the species described above. They are more closely related to the wood- chuck or ground hog than to the other Sciuridae. They are the most gregarious of the whole family. Their natural enemies are wolves, foxes, and rattlesnakes. A spoonful of poisoned wheat placed in the mouth of each burrow is widely used to combat them. 224. Meadow Mouse (Microtus pennsylvanicus Ord.) and prairie meadow mouse (M. austerus Le Conte) are two important species of the mouse family (Muridae), which comprises 66 species and sub-species of continental range. They are short-eared, short-tailed, thick-set and 6 to 6.5 inches long; reddish- brown above and whitish below. They inhabit marshes, meadows, pastures, lawns, orchards, gardens, and cornfields. Their natural enemies are pickerel fish, cats, foxes, weasels, crows, marsh hawks, hen hawks, winter hawks, while they form the chief diet of owls.^ 225. Time of Cutting for Hay. — The number of cuttings will depend on climate and soil and the stage at which it is cut, and ranges from two to five or more cuttings. Probably three cuttings are the most common. Between the 39th to the 42d parallels of latitude in the United States, the usual period is about as follows : first cutting May 25 to June 5 ; second cutting July I to 20; third cutting August 20 to October i. It is gen- erally thought advisable to leave a fair growth of alfalfa upon the land when it goes into winter quarters. In the sub-humid regions and in the irrigated regions the practise is to cut when the alfalfa is coming into blossom, estimated to be from one- tenth to one-third the total flowers. This is not a safe rule for humid climates. The failure in humid climates often results from a failure to cut alfalfa soon enough, particularly the first cutting. The crop should be cut as soon as the lower leaves begin to turn yellow, even though few, if any, flowers show, as is usually the case. In humid regions alfalfa is subject to spot disease, and if the plants are left to stand after the lower leaves turn yellow, in a short time most of the leaves become affected and the crop is of little value for hay. Often growers are tempted to leave an unsatisfactory growth with the iln this connection, see Minnesota Sta. Bui. No. 88 (1904), pp. 144-165. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I95 hope that it may improve, not realizing that the crop may be destroyed by disease and not realizing that the second crop can- not be obtained until the first crop has been cut. The cutting of alfalfa at just the proper time is one of the most imperative factors in alfal,fa growing. 226. Curing Alfalfa Hay. — Alfalfa is a difficult crop to cure, especially in humid climates. Its succulent stems cure slowly and, if handled with tedder, hay rake, or other tools during the process of drying, many of the leaves fall off, reducing the weight and reducing the quality in still greater degree. The first and last cutting come at a time of year when the weather conditions are not favorable to curing any hay. Methods of curing must be practised, which will involve the least possible handling, especially after the hay has become practically cured. Winnowing by means of the clover buncher will reduce the handling. In the western states the side deliv- ery rake is widely used, producing somewhat the same effect as the hay tedder. If teddered at all, it should be done just as soon as the alfalfa has become wilted. In humid climates it should be raked and put in cocks when quite green. The cocks are not greatly injured by rain when put up in this way and will gen- erally cure without molding, except where the hay is in contact with the ground. The cocks must be turned or spread out and rebuilt as often as necessary to prevent moldings which will depend on the condition of the alfalfa and of the weather. In the western states where there is no danger of rainfall the alfalfa is hauled directly to the stack from windrow by means of sweep rakes, commonly called "buck rakes" or "go-devils." (39) As a preventive measure for molding, the Kansas Station recom- mends that the hay be stacked or stored with alternate layers of straw in the proportion of two loads of alfalfa to one of straw.^ 227. Alfalfa Silage. — The difficulty of curing, especially of 1 Kansas Sta. Bui. No. 85 (1899), p. 9. 196 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the first and last crops, has led to silaging. The last crop, being ready to harvest at the time maize is being put into the silo, may be mixed with the latter, one load of alfalfa to two loads of maize, both being put through the feed cutter. When treated in this way, the alfalfa and maize both keep well and the mixture is well liked by cattle. While alfalfa can be preserved in the silo alone, the practise is not generally looked upon favorably, and since alfalfa silage is not more palatable than alfalfa hay, there is nothing to be gained by silaging except when curing into hay is impossible. 228. Harvesting Alfalfa Seed. — Alfalfa seed is produced principally in western Kansas, eastern Colorado, northern Utah and southern Idaho. In humid climates of the United States alfalfa produces seed sparingly, which is usually small, wrinkled and poorly developed. Even in the regions above mentioned seed is principally produced by "dry farming." If, when ir- rigated, too much water is applied during the time of flowering and after, the strength of the plant goes to the production of foliage rather than seed. The seed is produced usually from the second crop, and is harvested in September or as soon as the majority of the pods have turned brown. The self-rake reaper, the self-binder and the buncher are used, the former most commonly. When cured it is gathered from the piles by means of barley forks and thrown into a header box or upon a hay rack whose bottom has been covered by heavy ducking. It is then threshed directly from the load or placed in small stacks and threshed later. A regular grain separator may be used, but the huller is better. The regular clover huller may be used, but ordinarily it is modified slightly for alfalfa. As high a speed is not required to hull alfalfa seed as clover seed, and is objectionable, since the stems are more brittle and thus broken up unduly. The amount of seed produced varies ac- cording both to season and soil from i to 15 or even 20 bushels an acre, perhaps 2 to 6 bushels being the most common. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 197 229. Value. — The value of alfalfa where it can be success- fully grown consists in the large yield of palatable hay con- taining a large percentage of protein. Thus the following table based on the Twelfth Census and American analyses and diges- tion experiments shows the importance of alfalfa: Comparison of Hays Grown in the United States in 1899 Hay Acreage thousands Total yield thousand tons Yield per acre tons Digestible nutrients per acre lb. Digestible protein per acre lb. Alfalfa . Red clover Cultivated grasses '^ 2,094 4,104 31,302 5,221 5,167 35,624 2.5 1.3 1.1 2,673 1,214 1,091 609 177 62 It will be seen that in 1899 there was produced in the United States about the same quantity of alfalfa hay as of red clover hay off of about one-half the area; that the yield of digestible nutrients was from two to two and a half times that of red clover, while the digestible protein an acre in alfalfa was three to four times that of red clover and about ten times that of the cultivated grasses on the basis of the composition and diges- tibility of timothy hay. Since alfalfa is a perennial, it reduces the labor of caring for a given area of land to the minimum. It is not as well adapted to short rotations as clovers, since the cost of securing a seeding is greater, both because of the greater cost of the seed and, in case no nurse crop is raised, because of the loss of a crop. It requires what is recognized to be a fertile soil for staple crops and cannot, therefore, be used alone in improving worn-out soils. When grown on good soils with plenty of plant food added, its large, deep-growing roots, rich in nitrogen and minerals, leave the soil in an improved condition. * Assumed for the purposes of comparison to be timothy. 198 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 230. Feeding Value. — Alfalfa hay is eaten readily by, and can be fed with good results to, horses, cattle, sheep, brood sows, and laying hens. By introducing alfalfa hay into the ration, the amount of grain necessary for milch cows and for fattening cattle and sheep may be greatly reduced. The com- position and digestibility of alfalfa are quite similar to that of bran. The Tennessee Station found that one pound of wheat bran should be replaced by 1.5 pounds of alfalfa when fed to milch cows.^ While cattle and sheep may be fattened on alfalfa hay alone, they do not on this ration get that finish which in the present markets commands the highest price. Alfalfa hay is not itself a proper ration, because of its coarseness and the large proportion of protein. Maize grain and barley meal furnish the easily digestible carbohydrates which are needed to complete the ration. Where they can be economically grown, mangel-wurzels are useful for the same reason as well as furnishing a succulent food. The Maryland Station found that more milk was produced with a ration of alfalfa hay and seven pounds of maize meal than with maize silage and a mixture of three pounds of malt sprouts, one pound each of linseed meal, gluten meal and maize meal.^ The Utah Station reports as the result of six tests that alfalfa-fed horses had a better appearance, and it was not so difficult to maintain their weight as when fed on timothy.^ Alfalfa does not stand pasturing well. While it may be used for all classes of domestic animals, it has been found pre- eminently useful only with swine and poultry. The danger from bloat is believed to be even greater than with red clover. It is better adapted to soiling purposes than to pasture, since reg- ular and frequent clipping enhances its vigor and the green material can be fed without injurious results. It is especially 1 Tennessee Sta. Bui. Vol. XVII (1904), No. 4. 2 Maryland Sta. Bui. No. 98 (1904). 3 Utah Sta. Bui. No. 11 (1902). LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 199 adapted to those regions in the southern states where it can be grown, both on account of the length of the growing season and because pastures of all kinds are less successful there. 231. History. — Alfalfa has probably been used for hay longer than any other cultivated plant. The ancient Greeks and Romans used it, and it is the only forage crop now extensively grown in America which was cultivated by them, except millet. It was imported into Greece from Media during the war with the Persians about 476 B. C. It was introduced into North America under the name of lucerne by the first colonists. It was tried over and over again in New England and the Atlantic states during the 150 years which elapsed prior to the Revolu- tion. While it has been grown in Onandaga County, New York, since 1812, probably continuously, alfalfa did not attract much attention until introduced into California from the western coast of South America about the middle of the last century. In 1873 Henry Miller introduced some seed directly from Chile and sowed it upon his ranch in the San Joaquin Valley. Sub- sequently the firm of Miller and Lux grazed over 100,000 head of cattle and more than that number of sheep on alfalfa pasture in the summer and fed them alfalfa hay in the winter. From this object lesson of the great value of alfalfa has spread the present culture of it in the United States. II. SAND LUCERNE 232. Sand Lucerne {Medicago media Pers.) closely resembles alfalfa in appearance, habit of growth, and nutritive qualities. (196) It may be distinguished from alfalfa by its more spreading habit, by its flowers ranging from purple to lemon-yellow with many intermediate shades, and by its pods, which are in about three-fourths of one coil instead of two to four coils as in alfalfa. The seeds are about four-fifths the size of alfalfa seeds. The Michigan Station reports that sand lucerne is able to withstand the severe winters of the Michigan climate, while alfalfa is easily killed. On a dry, sandy plat of soil the average yield during four years at the Michigan Station was at the rate of over five tons of cured hay per acre.^ Three and four 1 Michigan Sta. Bui. No. 198 (1902), p. ISO. 200 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA cuttings a seasan were obtained. Thus far only imported seed is to be had. Attempts to produce seed in Michigan have proved unsuccessful. Sowing alone in early May at the rate of 15 pounds of seed an acre is recommended. 233. Collateral Reading. — F. D. Coburn: The Book of Alfalfa, p. 336. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1906. Thomas Shaw: Clovers and How to Grow Them, pp. 114-193; 333-7. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1906. Henry Wallace: Clover Culture, pp. 30-44. Des Moines: Homestead Co., 1892. F. G. Stebler and C. Schroter: The Best Forage Plants, pp. 145-155. Lon- don: David Nutt, 1889. F. H. Hillman: Clover Seeds and Their Impurities. Nevada Station Bui. No. 47 (1900), pp. 7-12. Joseph E. Wing: Alfalfa Culture in Humid Lands. Pennsylvania State Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 129, 1904. E. Brown: Alfalfa Seed. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 194, 1904. R. Harcourt: Composition of Lucerne as Affected by Maturity. In Ontario Agr. Col. and Expt. Farm Report 1898, pp. 23-9. R. Harcourt: Lucerne or Alfalfa. Ontario Agr. Col. Bui. No. Ill, 1900. A. S. Hitchcock: Alfalfa Growing U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 215, 1905. W. P. Headden: Alfalfa. Colorado Station Bui. No. 110, 1906. Geo. L. Clothier: Alfalfa. In Kansas State Bd. Agr. Report (March, 1900), pp. 7-41. S. J. Hunter: Alfalfa Culture and Insect Life. In Kansas State Bd. Agr. Report (March, 1900), pp. 41-51. J. L. Stone et al.: Alfalfa. New York Cornell Station Bui. No. 211 (1906), pp. 141-171. Andrew M. Soule and Meade Ferguson: The Inoculation and Cultivation of Alfalfa. Virginia Station Bui. Vol. XIII (1905), No. 5. XI LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS I. BLACK MEDIC 234. Description. — Black medic or yellow trefoil (Medicago lupulina L.) is in appearance similar to alfalfa, but is smaller in all its parts. Its stems are spreading, four inches to two feet in length, and, unless grown with other crops, seldom reaching above nine to twelve inches high. It bears small roundish heads of yellow flowers, which, as they ripen, become a spike-like cluster of almost jet black, one-seeded, somewhat kidney-shaped, strongly veined pods. These pods, with the calyx persisting, easily fall off, but the pods do not open readily, hence black medic seed is quite likely to contain seeds in which the very characteristic pods have not been re- moved. Black medic begins to flower in May and, if not cut, will continue for a couple of months, the lower flower clusters becoming fully ripe while the upper ones are still forming. The tap root grows about a foot in Black medic, showing mature clus- depth; otherwise it is similar to al- *"''" °f ^^^"^^ ^^^^^ °"*-'l*" ^ natural size. From photo taken falfa, only smaller. June 28 in central New York. 20I 202 THE FORx\GE Ax\D FIBER CROrS IN AMERICA The plant is sometimes confused with yellow suckling clover (Trifolium Uliforme L.) and hop clover (T. procumbcns L.), both of which have small heads of yellow flowers. Both may be distinguished by the fact that their leaflets arise from the end of the leaf stalk, palmate, while in black medic the lateral leaves arise on the sides of the leaf stalk, pinnate. Moreover, in these clovers, as in other clovers, the corolla is persistent, its withered remains enveloping the pod. 235. Adaptation. — The plant is grown somewhat extensively in the cooler countries of Europe, but has never been generally used in North America. It has attracted attention here chiefly by reason of the use of imported seed to adulterate alfalfa and red clover. It is adapted to the same soils as red clover and has a climatic adaptation similar to that of alsike clover. In other words, it does best on limestone friable soils in a cool, moist climate. It will, however, remain green during summer droughts, and has for this reason been recommended for lawn mixtures, probably unwisely. On account of its small yield and habit of growth, it is adapted only to pasture. Even for this purpose, it is not equal to white clover. The evidence seems to be that it is palatable and nutritious and, in suitable climates and on suitable soils, where clovers fail it may be worthy of trial. It may be described as a weak biennial. It has almost the habit of an annual, in that under suitable con- ditions it makes its chief growth the first season and usually dies after the first cutting the second year. It seeds so abun- dantly, however, that its growth is practically permanent. 236. Seed. — The cheapness of the seed, which is one of the factors to cause it to be cultivated in Europe, has also caused it to be used as an adulterant. The seeds are about the same size and shape as the smaller and more oval seeds of alfalfa (325,000 per pound). They are to be distinguished by the more regular, globular form and the more prominent project- LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 20^ ing tip of the radicle. The larger seeds of alfalfa are more kidney-shaped, and all alfalfa seeds are flattened and have a tendency to be angular, while the black medic seeds are distinctly circular and are uniform in shape, size and color (yellowish-green). (200) They are sufficiently distinct from red clover seeds in color and form to be detected Black medic (yellow readily. (150) |t°"*- r°^°"'*^« •^ \ •' An excellent type ; pulls up clean, has deterred tO aS a roOt, IS shallow dimples, good shoulders, single really a modified Stem and neck and crown, single tap root, and good . ,11 -^ 1 fQjj^gg^ primary root closely united. The neck, which supports the leaves, and the upper portion or shoulder of the stem constitute the crown which, in the case of sugar beets, is removed prepara- tory to the manufacture of sugar. The neck should be short and the flesh firm, with no tendency to sponginess or hollowness. The ROOT c:rops 2^"] neck contains less sugar and more undesirable compounds, such as nitrates, than the rest of the "root." The neck should be single, since when multiple the extra small shoots grow largely at the expense of the food already stored. The shoulders should not be too flat or concave on top, as this is apt to cause decay. The primary root appears as a continuation of the stem (hypocotyl), and should terminate in a single small tap root. Secondary prongs or forks increase the cost of harvesting, hold the soil and indicate coarseness. There are two depressions opposite each other running lengthwise, but slightly tangential to the root, known as dimples, from which the lateral roots arise. These should be shallow and as nearly vertical as may be. The lateral roots should be fine and abundant, and their origin confined to the dimples, since when they spring promis- cuously from the surface the root is more difficult to dig, and more soil clings to it. The fibrous root system is extensive. In some cases drains four feet below the surface have been blocked by them. A transverse section of a beet shows a series of (five to seven) concentric rings of firm tissue alternating with rings of softer tissue. The firm or vascular tissue is said to be higher in dry matter and richer in sugar than the intermediate tissue, and the claim is made that the richest roots are those in which these vascular rings are packed closely together. There appears to be no correlation between color of flesh and sugar contents or the feeding value, but roots of white color are preferred for sugar beets on account of other colors interfering with the manufacturing processes. 346. Comparison Between Sugar Beets and Mangel-wurzels. — Sugar beets differ from mangels in color, form, size, depth and vigor of growth, in ease of harvesting, in total yield of fresh roots, in the percentage and the ratio of sugar to dry matter, and in keeping qualities. The skin of the sugar beet is white and the typical form is shown in this paragraph. In mangel- 278 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA wurzel* the color of the skin varies with the variety and may be white, pink, red, orange, golden, purple, or black. The form is equally variable, but the commercial varieties are usually divided into five groups: long, half -long, ovoid, tankard, and globe. Typ- ical sugar beets weigh from I to 1.5 pounds, while m.angel-wurzels should weigh from 3 to 4 pounds apiece. Sugar beets grow al- most entirely below the surface of the soil, while with globe-mangel wurzels frequently two-thirds to three- fourths of the root is above ground. With the long shaped varieties one-half to two-thirds of the root may be below the surface. For the reason just stated, mangel-wur- zels are more easily lifted than sugar beets, yet more weight must be handled because of the lower percentage of dry matter in the case of the former. It is believed that mangel-wurzels grow rather more vigorously than sugar beets and thus get ahead of the weeds more quickly The roots of the typical improved sugar beets contain about 20 per cent, of dry matter, about four-fifths of which is sugar. Good varieties of mangel-wurzels contain about 12 per cent, of dry matter, about one-half of which is sugar. The feeding Kleinwanzlebener sugar beet ROOT CROPS 279 value of beets is not believed to be influenced materially b> the ratio of sugar to dry matter, but is dependent primarily upon the content of dry sub- stance. It is believed that loss through external de- cay and the oxidation of sugar is greater in sugar beets than in mangel- wurzels. There are several vari- eties of mangel-wurzels known as half -sugar man- gel-wurzels, produced by crossing mangel-wurzels and sugar beets. While some of these varieties have good form and yield well, the composition does not differ materially from ordinary varieties of mangel-wurzels, due doubtless to the fact that external characters have been the basis of selection. 347. Varieties.— At the Cor- nell Station, the long red vari- eties were more productive than the yellow globe and golden tankard varieties, but were some- what more difficult to harvest. Of the long red varieties, Norbiton Giant, Sutton's Long Red, Carton's Long Red, and Chirk Castle yielded equally well. Among the half-sugar mangel- wurzels, Vilmorin's Half-sugar Rosy, and Half-sugar White were found desir- able. Among sugar-beets of value for stock feeding, Danish Improved and Lane's Improved Imperial yielded well. Kleinwanzlebener was expensive to harvest, and retained too large quantities of dirt. "The two varieties (of sugar beets) which have been most widely grown in this country are the Vilmorin Improved, and the Kleinwanzlebener. The Sutton's long red mangel-wurzel 28o THE FORAGE AND FIliER CKUi'S IN AMERICA certainty that the seed has been grown according to the most scientific methods is of greater importance to the beet grower than the variety. The beet has reached such a high state of perfection as to make the least degree of laxity in its treatment exceedingly dangerous to its qualities." ^ "The essentials of a good variety are large yields, high sugar content, purity of the juice and keeping quality of the beets. The beet should have an even texture, smooth outline, and symmetrical shape. The typical sugar beet Golden tankard mangel-wurzel Carter's Windsor yellow globe mangel-wurzel should weigh rather more than a pound, contain 14 per cent, of sugar, and 80 per cent, of the total solids in the juice should be cane sugar. There is a tendency for the total yield of the beet to decrease with the increase in the per cent, of sugar. Extremes in either direction should be avoided." ^ 348. Adaptation. — The beet is adapted to a cool climate and a moist soil. Sunshine is especially desirable where high sugar content is desired, hence the comparatively cool sub-humid sections of the western states have been found especially adapted to the growth of sugar beets. Here the soil moisture 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 52, pp. 8, 9. 2 Morrow and Hunt: Soils and Crops of the Farm, p. 265. ROOT CROPS 281 is obtained chiefly by irrigation or by supplies of underground water which furnish the necessary moisture conditions in the soil. Often under the latter conditions excellent crops of sugar beets are raised, where the rainfall is slight, without any irriga- tion. Mangel-wurzels are especially adapted to the higher eleva- tions of the North Atlantic states where the shortness of the season and the danger from frost make the growing of maize somewhat uncertain. They can withstand drought better than other root crops. Beets may be grown on almost any type of soil ranging from quite sandy to heavy loams, provided they are fertile and sufficiently deep. 349. Irrigation. — It is generally customary to supply the water by the row method rather than by flooding. The amount of water and the time and number of applications vary greatly with soil and climate. The important consideration is to supply sufficient water to keep up a uniform and continuous growth until the close of the season, but not to start a second growth late in the season, because such growth will reduce the percent- age of sugar. Under some conditions, one application made just after the seed is planted may bring good results, while under other conditions of climate or soil, several applications at intervals throughout the growing season are more advisable. At the Utah Station, with a rainfall of seven inches from April to September inclusive, about 20 inches of water at five applications gave larger yields of beets and higher percentage of sugar than less or more water.^ 350. Rotation. — Beets may occupy the same place in the rotation as that occupied by other inter-tilled crops, such as maize or potatoes; that is, they may follow sod or another inter-tilled crop which has been manured heavily, such as potatoes, cabbage, or maize. Oats is the best grain to succeed them, since the roots cannot be removed in time for fall grain. The land should be lUtah Sta. Bui. No. 80 (1902), p. 177. 282 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA fall plowed, care being taken to spread the beet tops uniformly; otherwise an uneven oat crop will result, since the tops are a valuable manure. On account of danger of leaf-spot, at least four years should elapse between two crops of beets on the same soil. 351. Fungous Diseases. — Beets are more or less affected by a number of fungous diseases, the most important of which in America are (1) leaf-sp;)! (Cercospora beticola Sacc), (2) root-rot (Rhizoctonia betae Kuhn.), and (3) beet scab {Oospora scabies Thaxter). Of these the leaf-spot is the most widely distributed, and probably for that reason does the most damage. This is a mycelium fungus whose fruiting spores occur in small brown spots, turning ash-gray with reddish-purple margins on the surface of the leaves. Spraying early with Bordeaux mixture is recommended, but a rotation of crops is a successful prevention. Late planting reduces the attacks from leaf-spot, but late planting also reduces the yield, and is therefore not to be recommended.' Beet root-rot affects the root while growing in the field, causing the infested part to turn brown. Under conditions favorable to the disease all parts become affected and gradually disappear. This fungus is also believed to be the cause of damping off in young plants of several species, such as cotton and lettuce. It is said not to thrive in an alkaline soil, hence liming is recommended. Beet sclib causes the surface of the beet to become more or less covered with a corky excrescence. This disease is the same as that occurring on potatoes, hence beets should never follow on land that had grown scabby potatoes, or scabby beets. 352. Insects. — The beet being closely related to some of the commonest weeds, there are about 150 species of insects which feed upon it; although only about 40 species can be considered of economic importance. Ordinarily none of these is especially harmful, beets being usually less injured by insect attacks than maize, wheat, cabbage, turnip, or potato. "The principal in- jurious groups are the leaf -miners, the web-worms, the cutworms, the woolly bears, and several other leaf-eating caterpillars, the wireworms, the while grubs, the flea-beetles, the blister-beetles, the plant bugs, the leaf-hoppers, the plant-lice, and grasshoppers." ^ Spraying with suitable insecticides, and, in other cases, hand-picking are practised, but the usual preventive measures of clean culture and a rotation of crops are the most effective and practical. 353. Preparation of the Soil. — In the preparation of the soil greater care is necessary than for cereals. Usually deep fall plow- ing is advisable with cross-plowing or deep disk harrowing in the iNew York Cornell Sta. Bui. No. 163 (1899). 2 Illinois Sta. Bui. No. 60 (1900), p. 398. ROOT CROPS 283 spring. The seed-bed must be made fine, which usually requires five or six harrowings with disk and spike tooth harrows. Stable manure at the rate of ten loads per acre should be applied pre- vious to plowing in the fall and 200 pounds of acid phosphate and 50 pounds of nitrate of soda may be applied in the spring previous to the last two harrowings. This fertilizer stimulates the young plants. Where beets are grown for purposes of manufacture it is considered expedient to apply the fertilizer to the preceding crop. The great difficulty in the culture of beets is their slow growth while young, allowing weeds to get a start and making it difficult to maintain clean culture. For this rea- son it is advisable to give the plants just after thinning an ap- plication of 50 pounds of nitrate of soda to which 50 pounds of acid phosphate may be added to give it bulk and aid in distri- bution. Apply, when leaves are dry, close to the plants and fol- low with cultivator. 354. Seeding. — What is sold in commerce as beet seed is the fruit called the capsule or "bolt," which contains from one to five, usually two to three, seeds. The number of capsules varies from 18,000 to 36,000 per pound. One hundred bolts should pro- duce from 150 to 175 plants. The Michigan Station found no difference in the vitality of sugar beet seed, i, 2, 3, and 4 years old. A good stand of mangel-wurzel plants is from 25 to 30 thousand per acre, of sugar beets somewhat more. From six to eight pounds of good mangel-wurzel seed are required per acre. Since an even stand is one of the most important con- siderations in obtaining a maximum yield, it is common in the case of sugar beets to sow 18 to 20 pounds of seed per acre, although obviously this would be a great excess in case all the seeds should germinate. At the Cornell University farm three-fourths inch was found ample depth for seed and one and a half inches too deep. In dry climates, planting one and a half inches deep will probably be found advisable in order to insure sufficient moisture for ger- 284 THE ruRAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA mination. Where sugar beets are raised on a large scale a drill sowing four rows at a time is commonly used. An ordinary grain drill may be used, however. By closing the proper outlets a 7x11 drill will make rows 21, 28, or 35 inches apart as desired, The Ontario Agricultural College found the best temperature for germination of seed to be 80° F. Yet experiments have clearly demonstrated that early sowing is desirable, generally earlier rather than later than maize. 355. Distance Apart of Rows. — The distance apart of the rows is largely a question of the value of land and the cost of labor. By placing the rows close together larger yields per acre may be obtained; but by placing the rows wider apart larger yields for the amount of labor involved will be secured, since the labor is related to the number and length of rows to be planted, thinned, hoed, and cultivated. It is customary to plant sugar beets in rows of 18 to 20 inches apart when not irrigated, while where irrigated it is advised to plant in double rows II inches apart with 27 inches between them for conven- ience of irrigation. For mangel-wurzels, it is advised to make the rows 28 to 35 inches apart. 356. Thinning. — As soon as the plants have four leaves, with a hoe five or six inches wide, chop out all the plants in the row except a little bunch every 6 to 10 inches as required, depending on the variety, globes and tankards requiring rather greater width in the row than the long varieties of mangel-wurzels. The bunch of plants must next be thinned to one plant in a place; otherwise small distorted roots will result. It is, also, im- portant that this thinning be done promptly before they become "drawn," since if the plants are checked in any way at this time, the injury will be permanent. This thinning is tedious and ex- pensive, and has led to attempts to crack the fruits into pieces having one seed each. The United States Department of Agri- culture is now breeding sugar beets with one seed in a capsule : ROOT CROPS 285 thus far the total crops have averaged 26 per cent, of "single- germ" seed, such seed producing beets yielding from 16 to 17 per cent, sugar.^ 357. Cultivation. — The ground should be harrowed as fre- quently as necessary after seeding to keep weeds from starting. Shallow cultivation should begin as soon as rows can be seen A best puller A four-row beet cultivator with duck feet and weeding knives and continued about every ten days until tops meeting in the row prevent further inter-tillage. 358. Harvesting. — ihe cessation of growth is indicated by the withering of the outer leaves, which usually occurs about the middle of October. Beets will stand some frost, but should not be subjected to severe freezing. The roots should be lifted with as little injury as possible. In case the sugar beets are to be used for making sugar, the crown is always cut off, but where mangel-wurzels or sugar beets are stored for feeding the tops should be twisted off by hand. The storage should be cool, dry and well ventilated. Experiments indicate that at a temperature of 32° F. beets may be kept for weeks in perfect condition. A root cellar is most convenient, but if necessary they may be pitted, covering with alternate layers of straw and soil, adding layers as the cold 1 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture (1906), p. 42. 286 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA weather increases. Storing should be done as soon as possible, since if allowed to lie long on the ground a loss in sugar content will result from fermentation. 359. Yields. — The possible and probable yields of the differ- ent classes of root crops are indicated by the results obtained during two seasons at the Cornell Station. The following table gives dry matter in pounds per acre from sowings made during May: Kind Minimum Average Maximum Mangel-wurzel wurzels .... 824 5,520 ■ 10,660 Half-sugar mangel-wurzels 5,960 6,300 10,200 Sugar beets 6,840 8,120 9,000 Rutabagas 2,251 3,920 5,200 Hybrid turnips 2,512 4,060 5,700 Common turnips 800 2,400 3,960 Kohlrabi 3,920 4,460 5,000 Cabbages 3,160 4,280 7,783 Carrots 1,760 3,500 5,320 Parsnips 3,200 On the same type of soil the same seasons the estimated yield of maize grain was 2,000 pounds and of maize silage 4,000 pounds of dry matter per acre. Ten to fifteen tons of sugar beets and 20 to 30 tons of mangel-wurzels may be considered satis- factory yields. The average yield of sugar per ton of beets in the United States in 1904 was 230 pounds. Under highly im- proved conditions 16 tons of beets per acre, yielding 250 pounds of commercial sugar per ton or 4,000 pounds of sugar per acre, may be realized. 360. Feeding. — Mangel-wurzels and sugar beets, and indeed root crops in general, have a high feeding value for the amount of dry matter contained. This is due to their succulence and high digestibility. Extensive Danish experiments have shown that the dry matter in mangel-wurzels when fed in large quantities has a feeding value equal pound for pound to a mixture of ROOT CROPS 287 cereal grains when fed in such a way as to eliminate the influ- ence of succulence. The high character of English mutton is due to root crops, turnips being largely used. The value of root crops to the American farmer is not as a food to take the place of silage and other roughage, but as a partial substitute for cereal grains and other concentrated foods. It is not considered advisable to feed mangel-wurzels to live stock until after Christmas, as they appear to contain some sub- stances, perhaps nitrates and oxalates, which are laxative, but which characteristic disappears after roots are stored for some time. Before feeding, mangel-wurzels or sugar beets should be pulped, sliced, or cut into finger pieces. This is frequently done twelve hours before required and mixed with low grade hay or straw, thereby adding to the palatability of the latter. 361. Production of Seed. — The beet being a biennial, it is necessary, in order to secure seed, to select individual plants of the desired characters and quality, and store these roots in sand in a pit or cellar. The following spring they are planted in the field and soon throw up their seed stalk and produce seed. A single mangel-wurzel may produce 0.4 pound of seed, hence to secure eight pounds, or the maximum quantity required to sow an acre, 20 roots would be necessary. No method of selecting plants of mangel-wurzels has been practised other than that of external appearance, although selection of roots having a known percentage of dry matter could be done as easily as selection of ''mothers" in the case of the sugar beet. The sugar beet is one of the most striking examples of im- provement of composition by selection that has yet been accom- plished. The selection of mothers for high content of sugar was first attempted in 1850 by specific gravity of the roots, assuming that roots of high specific gravity would have the highest percentage of sugar. This was followed by selection on the basis of the specific gravity of the juice. In 1867 the polariscope was suggested and has been used ever since. Prior 288 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA to 1850 the selection of sugar beets was by external characters alone, but there seems to be good evidence to believe that some progress was made in increasing the sugar content. In France, from 1805 to 1815, the sugar extracted was reported to be 3 per cent., in 1829 5 per cent., while in 1904 it was 11. 5 per cent. The content of sugar in the juice of sugar beets is reported to have been about 11 per cent, in i860, about 12 per cent, in 1870-2, and about 14 per cent, in 1885, and 16 to 17 per cent, in 1904, with individual roots as high as 25 per cent. Having selected a number of roots possessing the desired external characters, a core of the root is extracted by means of a "trier" inserted in a slanting direction from the shoulder. The juice of the core is then analyzed and the roots which show the desired percentage of sugar are retained for producing seed. Immediately after coring, the hole may be filled with charcoal, clay, or cotton batting dipped in formalin to prevent infection of diseases. Different varieties or strains should be planted sepa- rately, as the beet probably cross-pollinates rather freely. 362. History. — Manjgrafif, of Austria, in 1747 demonstrated that beets contain crystallizable sugar, and Archard, of Berlin, in 1797 announced that sugar could be extracted from them. The first factory was erected in Silesia in 1805; but it was not until 1825 in France, and 1835 in Germany that the manufacture of ^/\ sugar from beets became an established industry. Fifty years'^ ^ later three million tons of sugar were manufactured annually in Europe. In recent years about one-half the sugar produced in the world comes from beets. The principal beet sugar pro- ducing countries are Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, and Russia. More or less continuous attempts in the production of sugar from beets have been made in various sections of the coun- try since 1863. The total annual production is about 200,000 tons, chiefly in California, Colorado, Michigan, and Utah. In this country the economical production of the beets is the ROOT CROPS 289 chief difficulty to be overcome. The use of root crops of any kind as food for domestic animals is of com- paratively recent origin. Their im- provement and use for this purpose appears to have arisen in the Netherlands, Germany Green top Scotch yellow hybrid-turnip lU. S. Dept. Agr., Expt. Sta. Record XI, p. 6. Danish Ballhead cabbage and other low lying regions of northern Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Although the common garden beet had been tried for stock feeding earlier, the improved mangel-wurzel was in- troduced both into Eng- land and America about the middle of the eight- eenth century. II. TURNIPS, RUTABAGAS, KOHLRABI AND CABBAGES 363. Types.— A multi- tude of cultivated forms is supposed to have arisen from Brassica oleracea L., a plant na- tive to the coasts of western and southern Europe.^ These forms 290 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA have been classified into several rather well defined groups. Thus the cabbage tribe (B. oleracca L.) includes the ordinary cab- bage, cauliflower, broccoli, kohlrabi, kale, and brussel sprouts; while in separate species are placed rape {B. napus L.), ruta- baga or Swedish turnip {B. campestris L.), and common turnip {B. rapa L.). Turnips and rutabagas, like beets, consist of a thickened stem and root. In the kohlrabi the stem forms a turnip-like enlargement above ground, while in the cabbage the nourishment is accumulated in the leaves. 364. Description. — Turnips and rutabagas vary in form sim- ilar to mangel-wurzels, but in less marked manner. They also vary in color of ex- posed pa\t of "root," which may be white, yellow, green, bronze, purple or red, and "greystones," the latter term being applied when the upper part is mottled with trans- verse green and purple streaks. The flesh is generally either white or yellow. White-fleshed varieties are gen- erally regarded as of lower feeding value, softer and more liable to be injured by the frost than the yellow-fleshed varieties, but they make a more rapid growth. The neck should be small, the crown single and the shoulders convex. The root sys- tem of turnips is mainly near the surface. 365. Comparison of Turnips and Ruta- bagas.— Turnips grow more rapidly, but the rutabagas give higher yields of dry matter and have better keeping qualities. In a rather unsuccessful attempt to combine the keeping qual- ities of the rutabaga with the more rapid growth of the turnip, numerous crosses have been made to which has been given the name of hybrid turnips. These may have the character of either parent blended in a number of ways. Maule's Improved Purple- top rutabaga ROOT CROPS 291 The turnip and the rutabaga may be distinguished by the fol lowing characteristics : Turnip Rutabaga First foliage leaves . rough rough Color of leaves . grass-green bluish-green or covered with a bluish-white bloom Later leaves produced covered with rough, smooth during the first year harsh hairs Neck . . absent present Position of leaves , like a rosette in the on the neck, which usu- center of the upper ally shows well defined surface of the "root." leaf scars Period of growth usually 60 to 90 days usually 90 to 180 days Flowers small, usually yellow larger, buflf yellow to pale orange "Roots" . usually smooth on the usually rough on the sur- surface and in out- face and less perfect line in form and outline Flesh . . soft, usually white to firmer, white, yellow or yellow, more often orange, more often white yellow Keeping quality of generally poor, should generally good, can be "roots" • be consumed early in the season kept until spring Dry matter . . 5 to 10 per cent. 7 to 12 per cent. Average weight of "roots" . 3 to 12 ounces 16 to 50 ounces Size of seed , small, 2 to 3 lb. usually larger and darker, 4 to sown per acre 5 lb. usually sown per acre 366. Varieties. — Although the use for forage of headless cabbage or kale is increasing in Great Britain, it is seldom used in America. Among common or head cabbage, Surehead and Autumn King have given satisfactory yields for forage. Holborn Elephant, and Kangaroo rutabagas. Yellow Aberdeen and Pioneer hybrid turnips, and Mammoth and Improved Green Globe turnips are standard varieties for stock feeding. 367. Adaptation. — ^Turnips and rutabagas require a cool, damp, rather dull climate. They will not withstand drought as well as mangel-wurzels, and sunshine is not so important as 292 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA with the sugar beets. They generally require, especially common turnips, rather sandier soils than beets. Stiff clays are objec- tionable on account of the difficulty of producing a fine seed-bed, while light sandy and gravelly soils are undesirable because of the lack of surface moisture. 368. Cultural Methods. — The preparation of the soil and the cultivation, harvesting, and storing of the crops are similar to mangel-wurzels. If anything, a finer seed-bed is required, but the more rapid growth and the single seed make cultivation and thinning easier. These crops should never be grown continu- ously upon the same ground and should never succeed one another. The famous Norfolk four-course rotation which helped to revolutionize the agriculture of England in the seventeenth century consisted of turnips; grain, usually barley; "seeds," a mixture of clover and grasses; grain, usually wheat, each one year. In the United States, rutabagas may occupy the same place in the rotation as suggested for mangel-wurzels. 369. Seeding. — Common turnip seed may vary from 200,- 000 to 260,000; rutabagas from 160,000 to 190,000; kohlrabi from 115,000 to 130,000; and cabbage from 80,000 to 140,000 seeds per pound. The germinating power should not be less than 90 per cent., although it frequently is in commercial seed. The number of plants per acre should be for cabbage 7,000 to 10,000; for rutabagas and kohlrabi 20,000 to 30,000; for common turnips somewhat more. Four pounds of rutabaga and hybrid turnip seed and three pounds of common turnip seed are usually sown when in rows 27 to 36 inches apart. Seeds should be sown at a depth of one-half to three-fourths inch. Small hand garden drills are available for this purpose. Turnips, kohlrabi, and ruta- bagas must be thinned as directed for beets. Cabbage may first be planted in flats in the greenhouse or cold-frame and transplanted to the field by hand or by means of the cabbage planter; or a few seeds may be dropped in the field every 18 to 24 inches apart in the rows and the plants ROOT CROPS 293 thinned — when three or four leaves have developed — to one in a place. No material difference in yield appears to result from these two methods, so that the method employed will depend on the convenience and expense. The distance apart in the row will depend on the purpose for which the cabbages are grown. Where they are sold for ordinary culinary pur- poses a larger number of small cabbages are desired, while for forage purposes or for sauerkraut a smaller number of large cabbages is best. Early seeding is essential to high yields, earlier even than for man- gel-wurzels, although common turnips may be sown as a catch crop as late as July. 370. Enemies. — All plants of the mustard family are subject to the attacks of the club-root or finger-and-toe disease (Plas- modiophora brassicae Wor.) which causes the root to take on abnormal shapes and may seriously reduce the yield ; and by carter's Purpie-top Mam- black rot (Pseudomonas campestris (Pam- moth turnip, showing ,._ r^.,vT-,, , 1 1 the variation in size of mel) Erw. Smith). Both are best combated early sown above and by a rotation of crops. Lining is also con- late sown below. sidered beneficial. Black rot is a bacterial disease. The disease usually makes its appearance on the outer leaves of the cabbage, near the margin, entering by way of the large marginal water pores, but infection may also occur through the roots or at the base of the leaf close to the stem. The disease spreads through the entire plant by means of the veins. The leaves, being deprived of water, become dry, turn yellow, and perish. A diseased leaf shows the blackened veins, or a cross-section of a diseased leaf or stem discloses black spots instead of the faint yellowish spots of a healthy plant. So far as known, the disease spreads by contact, or by inoculation of the leaves by leaf-eating insects, or of the soil with germs which are believed to pass the winter in the soil, or which may be incorporated in manure from stock fed on diseased plants. It is also believed to be propagated by means of inoculated cabbage seed whicn may occur on the market. In this case the precaution is recommended to 294 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA disinfect seed by soaking for 15 minutes in a 0.001 corrosive sublimate solu- tion, or in formalin, one pound to 30 gallons, and dry before sowing. The disease not being thoroughly understood, no satisfactory method of controlling the disease in the field has been found.^ The larva of the wavy striped flea beetle (Phyllotreta vittata Fab.) fre- quently attacks the roots of the plants, destroying many of them. The most practical preventive is early seeding. Sowing thickly and thinning, if necessary, may bring good results. The green cabbage worm (Pontia rapae Sch.) is a serious pest. It is important to kill the first spring brood, which becomes mature in two or three weeks. If practicable, hand picking early in the morning for the first two or three weeks of the seedling will prove beneficial. Spraying the young plants with an arsenious solution and the old plants with pyrethrum or hel- lebore is recommended for this pest, and for the cabbage looper (Autographa brassicae Riley). The harlequin cabbage bug (Murganiia histrionica Hahn.) is a serious pest in the southern states. Once it gets a hold it is liable to remain. While mustard and radish plants are recommended to be sown for traps, when the bugs may be destroyed by spraying with kerosene, this practise more frequently increases the numbers and the only eflfective means of com- bating so far found is hand picking. The cabbage maggot (Pegomya brassicae Bouche), and the cabbage plant louse (Aphis brassicae L.) sometimes do con-" siderable injury. Spraying with whale oil soap solution has been found an effective remedy for the latter. 371. Yields. — The yield of dry matter or fresh substance is not so large in rutabagas as in mangels, and in common turnips it is even less. (359) Five to fifteen tons of common tur- nips and 15 to 20 tons of rutabagas and kohlrabi may be con- sidered fair yields. Under favorable conditions over 40 tons of cabbage of stock feeding purposes may be obtained, 20 to 30 tons being frequent. Cabbages usually contain 6 to 7, common tur- nips 7 to 9, rutabagas 8 to 10, and kohlrabi 9 to 11 per cent, of dry matter. 372. Value. — The common turnip is valued as a catch crop, and may be used for feeding on the ground early in the sea- son. For the farmer who wishes to raise "roots" to supplement the grain ration in Canada and the cooler and moister portions of the United States, where maize is a rather uncertain crop, cabbage may be grown for feeding cattle and sheep while on iNew York State Sta. Bui. No. 232 (1903); 251 (1904). ROOT CRors 295 pasture during September and October, It is not advisable to store cabbage for feeding purposes. Rutabagas may be grown and stored for feeding during November and December, while mangel-wurzels may be grown for later feeding. Rutabagas are desirable to feed throughout the winter to brood sows and other pigs. Carrots are especially desirable for horses. Lazenby reports that, when fed to horses, one bushel of oats and one bushel of carrots together were equal in feeding value to two bushels of oats. It is claimed that as com- pared with rutabagas, kohlrabi withstands drought better, can be grown on heavier soils, and in a climate too warm for the best development of rutaba- gas; it withstands frost better and is not so subject to club root. Little is known of its feeding value. The seed, on account of the small demand, is high priced and apt to be of poor germinating power. 373. Production.— The cul- tivation of turnips as food for stock was introduced into England from the continent about 1650 and caused great changes and improvements in British agriculture, including live stock husbandry. They have never been extensively grown in the United States. In Canada turnips are still the leading root crop grown for stock feeding. III. RAPE 374. Description and Varieties. — Rape (Brassica napus L.) has much the same habit of growth as kale or headless cabbage, Thorburn's large white Vienna kohlrabi 296 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA to which it is closely related. Under cultivation it grows from 1.5 to 4 feet high, has large, variously divided smooth leaves borne on stems; flowers nearly 0.5 inch in diameter, yellow; seeds resembling those of cabbage and turnip but larger. There are two types of rape : ( i ) annual or summer rape, sometimes known as bird seed rape, and (2) biennial or so- called winter rape. Summer rape is grown extensively in Europe for seed, which yields 33 per cent, of ex- pressed oil used for lu- bricating and lighting, and rape seed cake highly valued for stock feeding and fertilizer. It is winter rape that is used for forage in America. The most widely cultivated vari- ety of this type is the Dwarf Essex. Seed of winter rape can be grown only where the plants will survive the winter. This occurs on the Pacific coast, where a yield of 1,000 pounds of seed per acre is said not to be unusual.* Ordinarily, however, seed is secured from Europe. The necessity of annually purchasing seed tends to prevent its use, although one of the strong points in favor of the growing of rape is the cheapness and small quantity of seed required: 3 to 5 pounds per acre are sufficient. 375. Adaptation and Cultivation. — Rape has a climatic and soil adaptation similar to cabbage, turnips, and rutabagas, lU. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 164, p. 10. The rape plant (After Hitchcock) ROOT CROPS 297 although it is less easily injured by fall frosts. It is reputed to be able to get its food supply from relatively insoluble forms of commercial and other fertilizers, hence to grow well on new lands or those containing large quantities of organic matter, and on land fertilized with coarse manure or rock phosphate. (C. A. 406) It germinates and grows rather rapidly, hence weeds usually cause little trouble. In fact, it is recommended as a weed de- stroyer. "An excellent treatment for a foul field is to plow thoroughly in late summer or early autumn and seed to rye or some other forage crop to be pastured off during the fall, winter, or early spring. When the crop has been pastured sufficiently, and before the weeds have produced seed, plow again, plant rape in drills and give thorough cultivation. There are few weeds that will survive such treatment, and the land will have given profitable returns in forage in the meantime." ^ Rape may be sown in drills preferably 28 to 35 inches apart, and given inter-cultural tillage, or may be sown broadcast or drilled with grain drill as for cereals at any time from May to August inclusive in Canada and the northern United States. In general, drilling will be best for early seeding, while broad- casting will be sufficient for later seeding. It is ready to use in eight to ten weeks after seeding. In the southern states it may be fall sown for winter pasture. It may be sown after early maturing crops are removed, in maize at the last cultivation, or in the spring with oats. (C. A. 406) Since it is usually grown for summer and fall pasture, the location of the field will generally be more im- portant than the place of the crop in the rotation. 376. Value. — "Among all forage crops possible and profita- ble of cultivation in Canada none seems worthier of a more ex- tensive use than rape. It is simple of culture ; it makes a strong, rapid growth; it adapts itself readily to different soils and to various climatic conditions; it responds vigorously to fertilizer 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 164, p. 13. 298 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA and to good cultivation; and, most important of all its good qualities, it is palatable, wholesome and nutritious green food for all kinds of live stock on the average Canadian farm." ^ It is most highly prized for growing pigs and fattening sheep. While successfully used for soiling, it is used principally for pasturing, never being cured for dry forage. In composition and feeding value it is similar to clover and alfalfa pasture, and is less likely to occupy an important place where these plants produce abundant summer and fall pasturage. Rape is apt to cause bloating in cattle and sheep under conditions simi- lar to those mentioned for clover and alfalfa. (167) IV. CARROT 377. Carrot. — The carrot (Dau- cus car Ota L.) is characterized by its finely divided leaves and by the umbel which bears the seeds being concave and dense, resembling a bird's nest. A section of the "root" shows an outer layer and an inner cone, usu- ally of different colors and shades. The outer layer is considered to have the higher feeding value. The varieties of the carrot may be readily classified according to the color both of the skin and of the flesh, as red, orange, yellow, or white. Some 1 Central Experiment Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Bui. No. 42 (1903), p. 3. Lobberich's Agricultural carrot. Plant in bloom on right is annual, rough and covered with knobs. Plant on left is biennial and better in quality ROOT CROPS 299 varieties taper from the crown to the tap root, while others are cylindrical for at least two-thirds their length and then taper to the tap root. In other varieties the carrot ends abruptly and the tap root arises from a comparatively flat surface. The so-called stump-root varieties are considered desirable for shallow soils. 378. Adaptation. — Carrots have a wider climatic adaptation than mangel- wurzels and rutabagas, but prefer a deeper sandy loam. They may be successfully grown on less fertile soils than the former. Stable manure, unless well rotted, is best applied to the previous crop, because of the necessity for a fine seed-bed and as few weeds as may be. Carrots are not much affected by fungous diseases or insect enemies. 379. Seeding. — The commercial seed is a fruit. Since the spines of the fruit cause the seeds to cling together, they are sometimes removed, thus enabling the seed drill to place the seed more uniformly. There are 410,000 to 460,000 seeds to the pound. The percentage of germination is apt to be low, but should not be below 80 per cent. It is desirable to have plants about three inches apart in rows about 30 inches wide, or from 50,000 to 60,000 plants per acre. It is customary to sow about six pounds of seed per acre, but if seed is good a less quantity should be sufficient. 380. Cultural Methods. — The cultural methods are similar to those for mangel-wurzels and rutabagas. The germination and early growth are even slower than in the case of sugar beets Keeping the land clean and thinning the carrots are the chief difficulties in raising them. 381. Yield. — With a good stand, yields of 10 to 20 tons per acre may be obtained, and yields of 25 to 30 tons are occasionally reported. (359) The percentage of dry matter (11 to 13) is higher than for other forms of roots, except sugar beets. The tops of carrots appear to have a higher feeding value than 300 THE i'URAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the leaves of mangel-wurzels or rutabagas, tons of tops per acre are reported. Yields of four V. MINOR ROOT CROPS 382. Parsnips (Pastinaca sativa L.) require similar conditions, for their best development, to carrots. The cultural methods of carrots and parsnips are substantially alike, and similar difficulties in raising them are encountered. Parsnips are well liked and sometimes recommended for dairy cattle. The low yield, however, appears to preclude their general use. Unlike most other roots, they are improved rather than injured by freezing, and may be left in the ground until spring. 383. Cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl.) and Sweet Cassava (M. palmata var. aipi Mill. Arg.). — "A native of the tropics, but recently introduced in Louisiana and Florida. On fertile soil it is said to yield as much as 10 tons of roots per acre, and the roots are worth fully as much as pota- toes for feeding. The plant is propagated by planting short cuttings of the stems, and re- quires only ordinary cultiva- tion. As the roots decay quickly after being taken out of the ground, they should be dug only as wanted for use. 384. Chinese Yam (Dios- corea divaricata Blanco; D. batatas Decne). — "The roots are quite large, club-shaped, often reaching three feet in length with a diameter of three inches at the lower end. They are starchy and mucilaginous, and make a food fully as rich as sweet potatoes, but their peculiar shape makes them hard to dig. The plant is propagated by means of small tubers, which are produced in immense numbers in the axils of the leaves, and on a rich loamy soil the yield of these tubers is often 50 or more bushels per acre. These tubers remain on the surface of the ground uninjured during ordinary winters, and so are a valuable winter food for hogs. 385. Chufa (Cy penis csculcntus L.). — "A perennial sedge that produces ^ large yield of small tubers which are valuable food for hogs.. It grows Hollow crown parsnip ROOT CROPS 301 best on a well fertilized, sandy soil where it makes a yield of from 75 to 100 bushels per acre. The tubers are planted in early spring, 12 to 15 inches apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, and the only cultivation needed is to keep down grass and weeds. The tubers mature in October and November, and are easily rooted out by the hogs. This plant is of little value on heavy soils." ^ 386. Jerusalhm Artichoke (Helianthus ttiberosus L.) is a coarse, 'strong- growing species of sunflower, producing tubers which resemble potatoes in size and shape.* The plant is almost certainly of American origin. It was cultivated both in Europe and America at least two hundred years ago. The plant is hardy, easily cultivated, and produces large yields of tubers well liked by hogs. The tubers may be planted in the same way as potatoes, in rows three to four feet apart as early in the spring as convenient. The land should be kept cultivated until the stalks have made sufficient growth to shade the ground. The food value per pound of tubers is low, and often it is not profitable to dig and store the tubers. The stalks may be cut with a mowing-machine, and the tubers plowed to the surface, when pigs may be turned in the field to eat them. Hogs will also dig them from the ground. The tubers are not injured by frost. Usually enough of the tubers are left in the ground to continue an abundant growth the next season. The surface may be leveled in the spring and, after the crop has started to grow, by use of plow or cultivator the plants, except those in rows, may be killed. In some cases difficulty has been experienced in getting rid of the crop, but ordinarily this can be done with little trouble. There are several varieties, differing in size, color, and shape of the tubers, but little attention has been paid to selection or improvement of the plant. Practicums 387. Study of Characters of "Roots." — Supply students with types and varieties as indicated below, and have them designate the characters which are applicable. 1. Beets- Type: Mangel-wurzel; half-sugar; sugar. Shape: Long; intermediate long; tankard; globe: smooth; forked; rough: uniform in width; tapering. Dimples: Present; absent: well supplied with fine roots; not well supplied with fine roots. Color of skin: Red; orange; yellow; white. Color of flesh: White; white-red; yellow. • 2. Carrots — Type: Taper-pointed; stump-rooted. Shape: Long; half -long; short: cylindrical; not cylindrical. Core: Large; medium; small; absent: reddish; yellowish; whitish. Color of skin: Orange; yellow; red; white. lU. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 102, p. 46. 302 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 3. Turnips — Type: Common; hybrid; cowhorn; rutabaga. Shape: Flat; round; globular; tankard; long: smooth; forked; rough: uni- form in width; tapering. Top: Flat; round; purple; bronze; green-yellow; white. Color of skin: White; yellowish. Color of flesh: White; yellowish. 4. General — Neck: Long; medium; short; absent. Shoulders: Square; round: prominent; slight. Crown: Single; multiple. Length : Total ; above ground ; below ground ; Percentage of root below surface Greatest circumference Distance plants may be asunder in rows Disease: Present; absent. Give name. Average weight of four specimens 388. Increase of Dry Matter in Mangel-wurzels by Selection. — Require students to select three mothers from a pile of not less than 25 roots, giving attention to the following external characters: Size, not less than two pounds; crown, single; neck, small; shoulders, con- vex; dimples, shallow and well supplied with fine roots, which readily break off when root is harvested; tap root, single. Core each with a trier. Extract a core with a cheese trier from each root in a slanting direction from the shoulder. Place each core in a small porcelain dish of known weight and weigh at once. Dry in a hot water oven until constant weight is obtained. Determine weight of residue, and calculate per- centage of dry matter. Plug the hole in the root with cotton batting which has been dipped in a solution of formalin. If up to a given standard — say 12 per cent, dry matter — bury roots in sand in a dry, cool, well-ventilated cellar. 389. Determination of Specific Gravity of Root and Juice. — Require students to sample a number of roots of which the following may be suggested: Root Mangel . Mangel . Mangel . Sugar beet Sugar beet Cowhorn turnip Common turnip Rutabaga Carrot Weight of sample Weight of sample and wire in water Weight of wire Weight I of sample' in water Sp. gr. of root Sp. gr. of juice ROOT CROPS 303 Method of Determination. — With the cheese trier take out a piece from about the middle of the "mother root." Weigh it to milligrams and record. I'ill beaker with water, hang the sample by the wire to the beam of the balance in the water: make sure it does not touch the side of the beaker. Weigh and record. Weigh the wire and record, and deduct from the weight of the root and wire. The result is the weight of th« root in water, and is to be deducted from the weight of the sample in air to furnish a divisor. The weight of the sample in air is the dividend, and the quotient obtained is the specific gravity. The specific gravity of juice is obtained by extracting the juice and reading by means of the hydrometer. 390. Collateral Reading. — Thomas Shaw: Forage Crops other than Grasses. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1900. C. L. Allen: Cabbages, Cauliflower and Allied Vegetables. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1902. L. S. Ware: Beet Sugar Manufacture and Refining, Vol. I, pp. 16-35. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1905. Guilford L. Spencer: A Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses and Seed-culture Farms, pp. 190-6. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1904. Charles F. Saylor: Progress of the Beet-sugar Industry in the United States in 1901. U. S. Dept. Agr. Report No. 72, pp. 61-74 Geo. B. Harrison: The Beet-sugar Industry in Kansas. Kansas State Bd. Agr. Report (Quarter ending September), 1906. H. W. Wiley: The Sugar Beet. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 52, 1899. C. O. Townsend: Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, pp. 399-410. Thomas A. Williams: Rape as a Forage Plant. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros. Circ. No. 12, 1899. A. S. Hitchcock: Rape as a Forage Crop. U. S. Dept. Agr,, Farmers' Bui. No .164, 1903. J. H. Grisdale: The Rape Plant. Dept. Agr., Central Expt. Farm, Ottawa, Can., Bui. No. 42, 1903. Samuel Fraser: Cabbages for Stock-feeding. New York Cornell Sta. Bui. No. 242, 1906. Samuel Fraser, John W. Gilmore, and Charles F. Clark: Roots for Stock- feeding. New York Cornell Sta. Bui. No. 243, 1907. XVI FIBER CROPS CLASSIFICATION AND PRODUCTION 391. Materials for Fibers. — There are two sources of fibers: animal fibers, of which there are two kinds, wool and silk, and vegetable fibers. The cells of plants are divided into two kinds : ( i ) cells with soft walls, having but little structural or tensile strength, easily subject to decay and usually more or less globular in shape, known under the general term of parenchyma tissue. Young plants and the young parts of plants consist largely of these soft cells of parenchyma tissue. It is for this reason that the young parts of plants collapse or wilt when water is with- drawn from the cells. (2) Cells with thickened and tough walls. Such cells are known as wood cells and constitute the bulk of what is known as wood. The wood cells are of two kinds: (a) ducts or vessels consisting of cells placed end* to end with the partitions removed, thus constituting continuous passage through the plant and (b) wood cells or fibers, which are elongated more or less spindle-shaped cells with pointed ends. These cells overlap each other, and usually occur in a continuous bundle of cells, known as fibrovascular bundles. In the softer parts of all higher plants and throughout the stems and leaves of endogenous or monocotyledonous plants, these fibrovascular bundles occur at more or less irregular intervals, while in exogenous or dicotyledonous plants, the hard parts consist almost exclusively of wood ducts and fibrovascular bun- dles. FIBER CROPS 305 While all the higher plants, therefore, contain woody fibers or cells, and in that sense all are fiber plants, only those fibers are useful for textile purposes which have the requisite strength, length, fineness, flexibility, and elasticity. In addition to the fibrovascular bundles which occur in the stems, leaves and bark of plants, there are certain simple cells which grow on the surface of plants, especially on the seeds, which are adapted to textile uses, and which, to distinguish them from fibrovas- cular bundles, are called surface fibers. 392. Classification According to Use. — In the widest sense, there is no limit to the character of the fiber or to the plants to be used for fiber. The following classification has been pro- posed, as covering all the possible economic uses of the vegeta- ble fibers : ^ A. Spinning fibers — ♦ 1. Fabric fibers. 2. Netting fibers. 3. Cordage fibers. B. Tie materials — C. Natural textures — 1. Tree basts with tough interlacing fibers. 2. The ribbon layer basts. 3. Interlacing structural fibers or sheaths. D. Brush fibers — 1. Brushes manufactured from prepared fiber. 2. Brooms or whisks. 3. \'ery coarse brushes or brooms. E. Plaiting and rough weaving fibers — 1. Used in articles of attire, as hats, sandals, etc. 2. Mats and mattings, also thatch material. 3. Basketry. 4. Miscellaneous manufactures, as willow ware. F. Various forms of filling — 1. Stuffing or upholstery. 2. Calking. 3. Stiffening, as in the manufacture of "staff." 4. Packing. ^U. S. Dept. Agr., Fiber Investigations, Rpt. 9 (1897): A descriptive catalogue of useful plants of the world, including the structural and economic classification of plants, p. 31. 306 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA G. Paper material — 1. Textile papers. 2. Bast papers. 3. Palm papers. 4. Bamboo and grass papers. 5. Wood pulp and cellulose. 393. Classification According to Source. — This book will deal only with those plants which produce spinning fibers, al- though they may be used for other purposes. Spinning or tex- tile fibers are used either for producing fabrics or for making cord ape ranging from the finest threads to the largest ropes. A somewhat immediate use may be recognized in various forms of netting ranging from laces to hammocks and fish nets. Spinning or textile fibers may be classified according to their source into bast fibers, structural fibers, and surface fibers, or into soft_ fibers, hard or leaf fibers, and cotton fiber. Bast fibers come from the inner bark of certain exogenous plants. They are especially valuable because of their fineness, strength, and flexibility for the production of high grade fabrics and their use is made economically possible when the tissue of the stems and bark is easily disintegrated and removed. Structural fibers are fibrovascular bundles occurring in the leaves or leaf stems of certain endogenous plants. In some cases the fibrovascular bundles occur in isolated groups through- out the tissue, as in sisal hemp, while in other cases they occur more thickly grouped near the surface, as in the case of abaca or manila hemp. These fibers are frequently of great length, but usually lack the flexibility of bast fibers. 394. Classification According to Spinning Units. — Looked upon as spinning units, fibers may be classified into two kinds : (i)fibers consisting of single cells, as cotton, or at most two or more simple cells end to end; (2) fibers made up of bundles of spindle-shaped cells overlapping each other and fastened to gether more or less firmly by various kinds of cementing mate- rial. In the case of cotton, therefore, the length of the fiber FIBER CROPS 307 and of the cell is the same, since the fiber consists of a single cell; but in bast and structural fibers the length of the fiber is many times the length of the single cells, since each fiber is composed of many cells. Thus according to Wiesner the raw- fiber of flax varies from 8 to 55 inches in length, while the length of the individual cells composing the fibers varies from 0.08 to 0.16 inch/ The readiness with which the material that helps to hold the individual cells together may be removed, as, for example, when washed with soap, afYects the wear when made into cloth, and methods have been devised for determining the readiness with which these and other substances may be removed as a partial basis for judging the value of fibers. (400) The following outline classifies the most important fiber plants of America into the three groups mentioned: Spinning or textile fibers '' T?ast or soft r Flax 1 Hemp Fibrovascular fibers structure - Structural or f Manila hemp -{ Sisal hemp hard fibers L Istle or Tampico fiber Simple cellular structure Surface fibers ^ Cotton 395. Identification of Fibers. — The simplest test for distin- guishing animal from vegetable fibers is burning. Vegetable fibers when thoroughly burned leave a white powdery ash, while animal fibers leave a crisp coal. On account of the rel- atively large percentage of nitrogen in animal fibers the am- monia evolved may be recognized by the odor. Animal fibers which consist principally of nitrogenous com- » Matthews: Textile Fibres, p. 99. 3o8 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA pounds are soluble in certain acids and alkalis, while vegetable fibers, composed largely of carbohydrates under the general term of cellulose, are insoluble in nearly all of the usual solvents, although readily dissolved in a solution of copper oxide in ammonia. Silk is more soluble in certain solutions than wool, by which means they may be identified. While vegetable fibers are not soluble in ordinary acids and alkalis, they may be dis- integrated or greatly modified by solutions which will not injure wool. Many processes of freeing wool from cotton and other vegetable substances, such as seeds and burs, are based upon the fact that weak acids and alkalis will disintegrate the cellulose, after which the fragments may be shaken out. Many manufac- turing processes, such as giving a silky luster to cotton, are based upon the action of chemicals on the fibers. Woolen fibers can be recognized under the microscope by the scales which point toward the outer end. Many of them appear not unlike a series of baskets placed one within the other. Silk and usually vegetable fibers have a smooth surface. The cotton fiber is very much twisted. Different vegetable fibers vary in color when treated with certain reagents. The cells also vary in length, thickness, and shape, a knowledge of which may help in identifying fibers. (399) 396. Number of Fiber Plants. — While there are hundreds of plants that might be used for fiber plants, and while there are 30 to 40 plants which enter into the world's supply, and 20 to 30 which are used commercially in America, the mosi im- portant of these from the standpoint of manufacture are cotton, flax, jute, hemp, manila hemp, ramie, sisal hemp, and istle or Tampico fiber. 397. Production. — Of cotton, America raises a great excess for export, less than half the hemp required for local consump- tion and practically none of the flax fiber, although producing nearly one-half of the world's supply of flax seed, about FIBER CROPS 309 equally divided between North and South America. Manila hemp comes principally from the Philippines, and sisal hemp and istle from Mexico, while jute comes from India and China. All other vegetable fiber plants are secondary in importance to cotton, which is also gaining in importance compared with wool or silk. Practicums 398. Identification of Fibers. — Give each student one gram each of silk, wool, cotton, and two grams of a piece of cloth composed of silk, wool, and cotton, all having been soaked in ether or benzine to remove possible material which may prevent action of reagents. Place the samples of silk, wool, and cotton in small beakers and add 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda (NaOH). The cotton remains insoluble; the silk and wool are dissolved. To the alkali solution add lead acetate. In the case of the silk the solution does not blacken,' but in the case of the wool it does on account of the formation of lead sulphid. Pick apart the piece of cloth so that the reagents may act readily, place in beaker and add a solu- tion of basic zinc chlorid, made by taking a solution of zinc chlorid of 1.70 specific gravity, and dissolving it in an excess of zinc oxid. Heat for five minutes and filter. The silk having been dissolved the loss is the silk originally present. Heat the residue in 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda, and filter. The loss represents the wool originally present; the residue is cotton.^ To determine the amounts quantitatively it will be necessary to determine the percentage of moisture present, and also the finishing materials and col- oring matters which may be present. These may be removed by boiling in a 1 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid, then in a 1/20 per cent, solution of sodium carbonate, and finally in water. 399. Microscopic Examination of Fibers. — Give each student a small sample of wool, silk, cotton, flax, and manila hemp, and also a piece of cloth composed of wool, silk, and cotton. Prepared slides showing cross sections and longitudinal view of fibers are also desirable. A compound microscope with one-sixth inch objective is required, and a camera lucida is desirable, but not necessary. Answers should, as far as possible, be illustrated with sketches. Surface of fiber: smooth; scaly; sketch. Frequency of twist or scales: give number per definite length or area Luster by reflected light: high; medium; dull. Transmitted light: transparent; translucent; opaque. Ends of fiber: forked; pointed: sharp; blunt. Length of fiber : ; breadth 1 For further details, see U. S. Dept. Agr., Fiber Investigations Rpt. No. 9 (1897), p. 354; also Matthews: Textile Fibres, p. 247. 3IO THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Cross section: shape; sketch. Identify kinds of fiber in woven cloth. 400. Value of Fibers as Determined by Action of Reagents. — For this purpose, use samples of raw cotton, flax, and jute fibers. 1. Resistance to bleaching: Boil a weighed portion, say two grams, in a 1 per cent, solution of caustic soda for five minutes. Determine loss in weight. 2. Resistance to laundering: Boil a weighed portion in a 1 per cent, solu- tion of caustic soda for one hour. Determine loss in weight. 3. Percentage of cellulose: Boil a weighed portion in a 1 per cent, solu- tion of caustic soda for five minutes, wash and expose to an atmosphere of chlorine gas for one hour. Wash and raise slowly to boiling point in basic sodium sulphite, and boil for three minutes. Wash and boil in 20 per cent, solution of acetic acid. Washed and dried residue is weight of cellulose. 4. To determine minimum loss in weight in clear raw fiber for commercial use: Boil weighed portion of raw fiber in 20 per cent, solution of acetic acid for one minute. Wash with alcohol and water, and determine weight of dried residue. 5. To note changes due to strong alkali and acid: Expose a small sample to a 33 per cent, cold solution of caustic potash and another sample to equal volumes of cold concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids for one hour. Note results.' 401. Collateral Reading. — E. A. Posselt: The Structure of Fibers, Yarns, and Fabrics. 2 vols., pp. 13-15, 73-5, 189. Philadelphia: The Author, 215? North Twenty-first i^treet, 1891. Julius Zipser (translated by Charlesi Salter). Textile Raw Material? and their Conversion into Yarns, pp. 7-56. London: Scott. Greenwood & Co., 1901. C. R. Dodge: The Structural and Economic Classificatiou of Fibers. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Fiber Investigations Report No. 9: A Descriptive Catalogue of the World, pp. 9-33. J. Merritt Matthews: The Textile Fibres, pp. 97-109. New York: John Wiley «' Sons, 1904. 1 For further details, see U. S. Dept. Agr., Fiber Investigations Rpt. No. 9 (1897), p. 19. XVII FIBER CROPS COTTON Structure and Composition 402. Relationships. — Cotton fiber is derived from several species of the genus Gossypium belonging to the mallow family (Malvaceae). Okra (Hibiscus esculentus L.) and hollyhock (Althaea rosea Cav.) belong to the same family. The species of the genus Gossypium may be herbaceous, shrubby, or tree- like, and are all probably under natural conditions perennial. A characteristic of this genus is the black spots or glands on nearly all parts of the plant. The principally cultivated species, upland or short staple cotton (G. hirsutum L.), is herbaceous and under cultivation an annual. The discussion which follows relates to this species when not otherwise stated. 403. Roots. — While normally the cotton plant has a strong, branching tap root penetrating deeply, the root system is sub- ject to much modification, due to the nature of the soil and the sub-soil. In some instances the tap root may be absent. At the South Carolina Station well-developed tap roots were traced in sandy soil and sub-soil to a depth of two to three feet with- out coming to their end. On heavy clay loam only one plant out of twenty had a well-developed tap root over nine inches long. In either kind of soil the lateral roots began about three inches below the surface of the soil and spread out in all direc- tions, most of them being within nine inches of the surface, although some of them bent down abruptly, penetrating as far 311 312 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA as three feet when they were broken off/ The Alabama Station reports that most of the lateral roots originate at 1.5 to 2 inches below the surface of the ground, and that their direc- tion is such that deep cultivation would break a large proportion of the feeding roots.^ The bark of cotton roots is reputed to have medicinal properties similar to that of ergot. (C. A. 488) 404. Vegetative Portion.— The cotton plant has a stout, erect stem one-fourth to one inch in diameter and one to five feet in height, usually two to three feet, with widely spreading branches. The leaves are alternate and the branches arise in the axils of the leaves. The stem is circular and distinctly tapering. The stems and branches are covered with a strong greenish or reddish-brown bark, containing a large per cent, of bast fibers. The pith is large ; American upland cotton. A short-Jointed, , . . , . 1 m long fruit limb plant. An extremely the WOOd IS SOft, white and easily early productive plant on which fruit- decayS. ing began near the ground at the first ri-,, ,• , , i joints on the main stem. There are The distance between nodes only four primary limbs and the two varies with climate, Soil and older are well fruited. Age 120 days, , . . . i- . .1 height 5 feet, bolls 70, 2 open, in lower cultivation. According to the half circle 54 grown bolls. Leaves re- Texas Station, the tendency of "'°''^lFrom photo by Bennett) any variety when planted late is to produce longer joints, and to grow taller than when planted early; although to some ex- tent this characteristic is hereditary in different individuals of the same variety.^ A variety may therefore be modified, in this 1 South Carolina Sta. Bui. No. 7 (1892). 3 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1897), p. 218. » Texas Sta. Bui. No. 11 (1905), p. 20. FIBER CROPS 313 particular, by selection. The plant is cone-shaped, the lower branches about six inches from the ground being longest and next above gradually growing shorter until the top is reached. The leaves are large, three to six inches long, and two to five inches wide. The first ones are entire and somewhat heart- shaped; subsequent leaves are three to five, rarely seven, lobed. The midvein, and sometimes the lateral veins, bears a dark green gland near its base, which may serve as a variety char- acteristic. All vegetative portions of upland cotton are covered with short hairs. 405. Flowers. — The flowers are regular, having five small, united sepals and five large petals. The flowers open at sunrise Cotton boll: longitudinal and cross-sections show the arrangement of seeds; the cross- section on the right shows the division into carpels (From photo by Bennett) or just before. In upland cotton the petals, when they open, are creamy-white, and in sea island, bright yellow. During the day they turn pink or bright red. The flowers close late in the day, and never open again; hence, if cross-fertilization takes place, it must be during the single day that the flower is open. The corolla falls, but the calyx is persistent, although small and inconspicuous. The young capsule or boll, surrounded by 314 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the three bracts or involucre, is referred to by farmers as squares/ The stamens are many, monadelphous, and united at the base with the petals; the anthers are one-celled. The styles are united, but are distinct above; thus the stigma appears three to five cleft, depending on the number of cells or carpels into which the pistil is divided. 406. Bolls. — The pistil grows into a large fruit or capsule, usually called boll, about the size and somewhat the shape of Inside structure of cotton bur. The small, thin bur opens flat and twists backward, re- moving all support to the locks which fall out. The big, tough bur does not fold back and leave the locks unsupported (From photo by Bennett) a hen's egg, except that it is distinctly pointed at the free end. The bolls vary from 1.5 to 2.5 inches in length, and from 1.25 to 1.75 inches in width. The weight of the content of 100 bolls may vary with the variety from 0.75 to 2 pounds, or the number of bolls required to produce one pound of seed cotton may vary from 50 to 130. Varieties requiring from 50 to 65 bolls to make a pound of cotton may be considered as having large bolls, those with 65 to 80 medium bolls, and those with 80 to 1 The terms, form and squares are used loosely and to some extent inter- changeably. Frequently these words are used to apply to the leafy bracts and the enclosed bud, flower, or small boll, while in other cases the word form is applied to the bud only; that is, the flower before it opens. FIBER CROPS 315 130 small bolls. The large bolls are desirable for picking, and are less liable when open to drop the cotton.^ As the average of twelve years' experiments, larger bolls gave the larger yields of lint, but the differences are not marked.^ There are three to five, under cultivation usually four, lobes or cells. These cells extend from the base of the boll to the apex. When ripe the cells open by separating along their central axis, and at the same time splitting down the middle of the back, thus exposing the dark-colored seeds covered with the Outside structure of cotton bur. The small, thin bur opens flat and twists backward, re- moving all support to the locks which fall out. The big, tough bur does not fold back and leave the locks unsupported (From photo by Bennett) usually pearly white hairs or fibers for which the plant is primarily chltivated. This method of opening produces three to five, usually four, more or less three-sided valves collectively called the bur with characteristically curved, pointed tips. These valves vary in shape. The small, thin burs open and twist back- ward, removing the support to the locks or seed cotton, while the large, tough burs do not turn back, and thus the locks are supported.' The number of bolls per plant may vary with variety, soil, climate and cultural conditions from few or none to seventy 1 Texas Sta. Bnl. No. 75 (1904), p. 10. UJcorgia Sta. Bui. No. 70 (1905), p. 70. 3 Texas Sta. Bui. No. 75 (1904), p. 12. 3l6 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA or more. The number of bolls does not depend alone on the size of the plant, but on the number of branches and distance between the leaves upon the branches, usually referred to as the joints. Since the branches arise in the axils of the leaves upon the main stem and the flowers arise in the axils of the leaves on the secondary or tertiary branches (branches of branches), short-jointed plants are, in proportion to size, most productive. 407. Seed. — The seeds are somewhat angular, about three- eighths inch long and three-sixteenths inch wide, oblong oval, pointed at the hilum end with the crown or free end enlarged and rounded. The seed coat is brown or black. The number of the seeds of upland cotton may vary from about 3,000 to nearly 6,000 to the pound. The seed of sea island cotton is slightly smaller. Seed requiring 3,500 or less to the pound (13 grams per 100) may be considered large; those requiring 4,500 or more to the pound (10 grams per 100) may be considered small. The legal weight per bushel of upland cotton seed varies from 28 to 33.3 pounds, usually 30 or 32 pounds, and sea island cotton seed from 42 to 46 pounds, usually 44 pounds. The seed cotton in each lobe or cell is called a "lock" of cot- ton. Each lock contains six to ten seeds, hence each boll may contain from 20 or less to 50 or more seeds. Individual plants may produce from 500 to 2,000 seeds. The seeds of upland cotton are covered with a dense "fuzz," or short lint, which gives the seeds a whitish, brownish, or green tint. The seeds of sea island cotton are nearly or quite naked, thus exposing the black seed coat. The seed consists chiefly of the testa or hull and the embryo or meat. In addition to these, but forming only a small portion of the seed, are the nucellus, a thin skin just within the hull, and just within this the endosperm, a layer of cells containing aleurone grains. Throughout the nearly white embryo are the so-called resin cavities containing a dark-colored secretion, FIBER CROPS Z^7 which are plainly visible on the new leaves when the seed germinates. Seeds as they come from the gin may be divided into three parts as follows: short lint or linter, lo per cent; hulls 40 per cent; and kernel or embryo 50 per cent. The kernel contains 40 per cent, of oil, leaving when the oil is entirely removed, Cotton seed. I. Transverse section. II. Longitudinal section. 5 testa; ^£ perisperm and endosperm; C cotyledons; /? radicle (After Winton) 60 per cent, of meat or 30 per cent, of the whole seed as it comes from the gin. 408. Lint. — A cotton fiber consists of one elongated cell, which when ripened has been flattened into a much twisted ribbon-like filament which has been likened to a collapsed and twisted piece of rubber hose. Because of the twist, cotton is dis- tinguished from other textile fibers. The number of twists are said to vary from 300 to 500 per inch. The number and uni- formity of the twists dependent on the ripeness of the fibers affect materially the spinning qualities and hence the commer- cial value of the fiber. In every lot of lint, three classes of fibers are recognized: ripe, half ripe, and unripe. The longest fibers occur at the top of the seed; the shortest at the base. The lint of cotton may vary, depending on the type, from one-half inch to two and a half inches in length. As 3i8 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA grown in America, short staple upland cotton usually varies from seven-eighths to one and one-fourth inches. When the staple of upland cotton exceeds one and one-fourth inches, it is classed as long staple upland cotton. Cotton of the latter type ranges from one and one-fourth to one and five-eighths inches, while sea island cotton ranges from one and one-half to two and one-half inches, one and three-quarters to two inches Cotton fibers in longitudinal and cross section: AAA unripe fibers; BB half-ripe fibers CCC fully ripe fibers (After Evans) being the usual length. The production of long staple upland and of sea island cotton is insignificant compared with that of short staple upland. In view of the demand for Egyptian cotton, the United States Bureau of Plant Industry believes that planters should give more attention to the raising of long staple upland cotton.^ The mean diameter of short staple cotton is about 0.0008 inch and of sea island cotton about 0.0006 inch. The fiber is some- what larger in the middle, ends abruptly where it is attached to the seed and is tapering and pointed at its free end. In short staple cotton there are about 140 million individual fibers to the pound. It is stated that if a cotton fiber were magnified until it was one inch in diameter it would be over 100 feet long, and that iU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, p. 121. FIBIiR CROPS 319 if the separate fibers in a pound were placed end to end they would reach 2,200 miles. The tensile strength or breaking strain of the cotton fiber may vary from about 2.5 to 15 grams, depending on the fineness and ripeness of the fiber.^ Hilgard found American upland cotton to vary from 4 to 14 grams. Silk has a greater and wool a less tensile strength than cotton in proportion to the diameter Cotton seeds with lint attached, illustrating types of long staple cotton. 7 Imported Mit Aiifi 'Egyptian), b ordinary sea island (After Webber) of their respective fibers. The tensile strength of various fibers in relation to their size and therefore their strength in relation to the weight of garment may be expressed by the "breaking length," which means the length of fiber which would break of its own weight. Table Showing Length of Fiber Which Will Break of Its Own Weight Breaking length Fiber in miles Wool 5.1 Jute 12.4 Ramie or China grass 12.4 Flax 14.9 Cotton 15.5 Hemp 18.6 Manila hemp 19.8 Silk 20.5 1 In order to get concordant results, care must be taken concerning the method of suspension. 320 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA This table shows that in proportion to its weight, cotton has three times and silk four times the tensile strength of wool. The value of hemp and manila hemp for cordage is also em- phasized. The full tensile strength of fibers is not utilized when made into cordage or fabrics. In the case of cotton only 20 to 25 per cent, of the total breaking strain is realized when spun into yarn. Vegetable fibers in general are less elastic and less hydroscopic than wool or silk. In this respect raw cotton is no exception, although the moisture content, normally seven to eight per cent., does vary with the atmospheric conditions, and hence is a factor in the purchase as well as in the spinning of cotton. Although raw cotton is rather non-absorbent to water, it becomes ex- tremely absorbent when the waxy and fatty matters are re- moved. 409. Structure of Fiber. — Aside from its natural impurities consisting chiefly of pectic acid, coloring matter, wax, oil, and proteid matter, the cotton fiber may be divided into three parts: (i) the main cell wall, probably pure cellulose and con- stituting 85 per cent, of the fiber; (2) an outer membrane or skin; and (3) an inner membrane or wall of the central canal. Both of these membranes are less soluble in a solution of am-- monio-copper oxide than the cell wall. The former is probably modified cellulose, while the latter is a thin layer of dried proto- plasm which was contained in the living fiber. Some authorities recognize a secretion within the canal itself corresponding to the pith of a quill. When a fiber is treated with a solution of ammonio-copper oxide the fiber swells, but not throughout its whole length. According to some authorities the ligatures which prevent the swelling of the cell walls at intervals are distinct from the outer membrane or skin, while according to others they are believed to be sections of the outer skin which have resisted the action of the reagent. FIBER CROPS 321 410. Qualities of Lint. — Some of the factors which give cotton value as compared to other fibers, particularly vege- table fibers, are its cheapness, uniformity, flexibility, and wearing quality. The wearing quality is doubtless due to the fact that each fiber is a single cell and therefore the fiber is less readily disintegrated by wear or the application of alkalis, soap and the like in washing. It is adapted to nearly all forms of woven fabrics, and is spun into yarn with greater ease and rapidity than any other vegetable fiber. The factors which give one sample of cotton spinning value compared to another are length, uniformity of length, fineness, strength, and the number and uniformity of twists. As lint occurs in commerce the purity and color of the sample are im- portant factors. 411. Linters. — In addition to the fibers just mentioned, known in commerce as lint, the seeds of upland cotton are cov- ered with a dense undergrowth of short fuzzy fibers. These short fibers in ginning mostly remain with the seed. They are, however, more or less removed with the lint and thus materially affect the commercial value of the latter. This short fiber, which constitutes about 10 per cent, of the total weight of the fiber, is known usually as "linters" before it reaches the manu- facturer and afterwards as "neps," although neps may consist also of broken fibers caused by the manufacturing process.^ 412. Proportion of Parts. — The table following shows the percentage of parts of the upland cotton plant as obtained by the Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama stations. The results of the Georgia Station are the proportion of the air-dry parts, while in the Tennessee and Alabama stations the proportion of the water- free substance is given. The difference in the mode of expressing the results explains, in part, probably the differ- ence in the result obtained as given on the next page. 1 Matthews: Textile Fibres, p. 129. 322 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Table Showing Percentage of Parts of Upland Cotton Plant Parts Georgia Tennessee Alabama Station Station Station Lint 9.8 10.6 12.1 Seed 19.8 23.0 20.5 Burs 12.7 14.2 14.7 Leaves 12.7 20.3 22.9 Stems 35.2 23.1 24.5 Roots 9.8 8.8 5.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 In general there are two pounds of seed produced for each pound of ginned lint. Short staple upland seed cotton producing 35 to 38 per cent, of lint may be considered high, 29 to 32 per cent, low, while above 38 or below 29 per cent, may be consid- ered very high or very low respectively. Sea island cotton formerly produced only 20 per cent, of lint, but varieties have been selected until 30 or more per cent, is obtained in some instances. Long staple upland cotton generally ranges from 27 to 32, usually less than 30 per cent. 413. Composition. — The following table gives analyses of plant, seed and lint of upland cotton grown at the Tennessee Station : ^ Table Showing Analysis of the Upland Cotton Plant Analysis Plant Seed Lint Water 7.36 7.04 6.74 Ash 5.81 3.29 1.65 Protein (Nx6.25) . 9.13 19.18 1.50 Crude fiber 30.94 22.43 83.71 Nitrogen-free extract . 42.84 26.44 5.79 Fat 3.92 21.62 0.61 100.00 100.00 100.00 U. S. Dopt. Agr., O. E. S. Bui. No. 33 (1896), pp 120, 122, 123. FIBER CROPS 323 The lint is not pure cellulose, but contains also small quanti- ties of protein, the remnant of the living cell and some ex- tractive matter. The fat probably is absorbed from contact with the seed. The seed is characterized by its high content of protein and fat in which regard it is somewhat similar to the seeds of three other cultivated but somewhat minor crops, namely, flax, peanut, and soy bean. The following table shows the maximum and minimum protein and fat content as deter- mined by American analyses for the air-dry seeds of these four plants : Table Showing Protein and Fat in Seeds of Four Plants Plant Trotein Fat Cotton Flax Peanut Soy bean . . . Minimum 14.5 20.3 25.7 26.3 Maximum 23.7 25.8 28.0 40.2 Minimum 18.9 31.7 35.7 12.3 Maximum 29.1 37.9 47.4 19.0 414. Ash. — The following table shows the ash constituents in the whole plant, seed and lint: Table Showing Ash Content of Cotton Analysis Whole plant Seed Lint Phosphoric acid .... 0.9 1.3 0.1 Potash 2.5 1.2 0.5 Soda . 0.3 0.2 0.1 Lime . 2.8 0.3 0.2 Magnesia . 0.8 0.6 0.1 Ferric oxide 0.3 0.1 0.02 Sulphuric acid 0.6 0.1 0.06 Chlorine .... .... .... Insoluble 1.0 0.1 0.05 324 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA The Tennessee and Alabama stations have determined the total amount of dry matter in the whole plant, including roots, and the chemical constituents contained therein for each loo pounds of lint produced, thus indicating the demands made upon the soil for plant food. Dry Matter and Chemical Constituents for Each 100 Pounds Cotton Lint Analysis Dry matter Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Lime Magnesia 415. Collateral Reading. — J. M. Matthews: The Textile Fibres, pp. 124- 138, 139-155. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1904. William H. Seaman: On the Identification of Fibers. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Fiber Investigations Rpt. No. 9: A Descriptive Catalogue of the World, pp. 352-8. C. B. Williams: Cotton Plant. The Bulletin, North Carolina Dept. Agr. (September, 1906), pp. 3-16. XVIII FIBER CROPS COTTON Varieties and Improvement 416. Species. — Index Kewensis recognizes 24 species of cotton with 88 synonyms. Linnaeus classified cotton into three ppecies: harbadense, herbaceum and arboreum, the latter being the tree cotton of Asia.^ Under this classification sea island, Egyptian and Peruvian cotton would fall within the first-class and American upland and India cotton would fall in the second class. It may be doubted whether the wild prototypes of the cultivated species have ever been recognized. "The great variability and the tendency to hybridize make it difficult to determine to which species a given plant may belong. No cultivated plant responds so quickly to ameliorated conditions of soil, climate, and cultivation as the cotton plant, and to this fact is due much of the confusion as to species and varieties. Another factor entering into the confusion is the imperfectly known types that have been described as species. It has been stated that some of the species widely cultivated are wholly unknown in a wild state, and some of the specimens described by Linnaeus were in all probability from plants that had long been in cultivation. The work of establishing the origin of the cultivated species has been still further complicated by the exchange of seed from country to country that has been going on for at least four centuries.2 In the classification given below the United States Bureau of Plant Industry is followed.^ * Some of the cotton grown in Peru is of the arboreum type. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Sta. Bui. No. 33 (1896), p. 68. »U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, p. 388. 325 326 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 417. American Upland Cotton. — {Gossypium hirsiitum L.). — This species is native of the American tropics. The plant is a perennial but is cultivated as an annual. It is characterized by the species having in addi- tion to the pearly white lint one-half to one and a half inches long a dense covering of short lint varying in color from whitish or brownish to greenish. This is the chief kind of cotton raised in Amer- ica and hence in the world. 418. India Cotton (G. her- baceum L.). — This species is native of southern Asia, and according to some writers synonymous with the former. The plants differ from Amer- ican upland cotton in their more slender, less woody stems with leaves having rounded American upland cotton • , 1 r 1 • 111 (From photo by Dewey) mstead of sharp-pomted lobes, and in the smaller and more spherical bolls. The lint of some varieties is glossy white, of others dull, of some yellow, and still others golden brown. It is generally coarser and shorter than American upland cotton, ranging from one-half to an inch in length. It is cultivated in southern Asia. 419. Sea Island Cotton (G. harhadense L.). — This species was found in the West Indies when Columbus first visited those islands. The plant differs from upland cotton in its larger growth, three to eight feet high, with longer and more flexible branches, more deeply lobed leaves, bright yellow instead of FIBER CROPS ZV white flowers, and sharp-pointed bolls, having three instead of four or five divisions or locks. The seeds are black or dark brown, and are not covered with a persistent fuzz. The lint is 1.4 to 2 inches, some- times 2.5 inches long; finer and usually softer and more lustrous than upland cotton. Sea island cotton yields less per acre and costs more to pick and gin, but commands a higher price, usually ranging from two to fifteen cents higher, than upland cotton. It is grown chiefly on islands and ad- jacent mainlands of South Carolina and Georgia, al- though to some extent on sandy soils of the interior of Georgia and northern Florida. India cotton (From photo by Dewey of herbarium specimen) 420. Egyptian Cotton. — This type is considered to be the same type as sea island modified on account of cultivation on the irrigated lands of Egypt where scarcely any rain falls. Many generations of growth under these conditions and possibly some by hybridization with India cotton have developed cer- tain qualities of lint especially adapted to the manufacture of hosiery yarns and mercerized goods. Varieties have been brought to the United States and are being grown by the United States Bureau of Plant Industry to adapt them to the climatic and soil conditions.^ The opinion is expressed, however, that 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 381. 328 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the demand for this grade of cotton can be met by the American planter by growing long staple upland cotton. 421. Peruvian Cotton {G. pcruvianum Cav.). — This cotton is characterized by the seeds in each lobe of the capsule cling- ing together in a compact cluster. Seeds are similar to sea Cotton bolls. On left American upland; in center sea island; on right India cotton boll (After Dewey) island cotton. Lint shows a wide variation in color and texture, white, brown, reddish, rough and harsh or smooth and soft. The staple is mostly shorter, coarser and more wiry than American upland cotton. Some varieties have a lint which, when made into fabrics, closely resembles wool. The plant is perennial, but only the growth from the second and third years is utilized.^ Peruvian cotton is raised chiefly in Peru and Brazil. 422. Classification of Varieties. — Since the classification of cotton into species is so diffcult, it is not surprising that the classification of varieties is equally difficult. There are at least 150 so-called varieties of upland cotton, 93 having been tested at the Alabama Station. Varieties of cotton have not been for the most part carefully described which, together with the tendency of the plant to vary with its environment, makes great con- fusion in the naming of varieties. 1 Matthews: Textile Fibres, p. 116. FIBER CROPS 329 The Alabama Station has classified short staple upland cotton into six classes to which it adds long staple upland varieties as a seventh class, as follows: Upland . Cotton ■< Short Staple Long Staple Cluster varieties or Dickson type Semi-cluster varieties or Peerless type Rio Grande varieties or Peterkin type Short Limb varieties or King type Big Boll varieties or Duncan type Long Limb varieties or Petit Gulf type Long Staple varieties or Allen type r Di Dickson ackson elborn Boyd Cummings Drake No. 28 N Hawkins Prolific Hawkins Jumbo Herndon Minor Norris Tyler Peterkin Peterkin Limb Clustet Texas Wood Wise King Lowry Parks Herlong Banks Christopher Coppedge Culpepper Duncan Grayson Tones Improved Lee Russell Scroggins Strickland Texas Storm Proof Thrash Truitt Pruitt Premium Ellis Gunn Petit Gulf Cheise Allen Hybrid Allen Improved Cook (W. A.) Doughty Griffin Improved Long Staple Matthews Moon The lines of demarcation between these groups are not al- ways clear and distinct, one group often merging into another by an almost imperceptible gradation/ 1 Alabama Station Bui. No. 107 (1899), p. 202. 330 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Class I, Cluster Varieties or Dickson Type. — The most striking char- acters are the absence of long wood limbs, except at the base, and the tendency of the bolls to grow in clusters. The plant is usually tall, slender and erect. The bolls and seed are usually small or more rarely medium; seeds thickly covered with usually whitish fuzz, rarely any brownish or greenish tinge. Varieties moderately early maturing. Percentage of lint ranges from 32 to 34 per cent. Class II. Semi-cluster Varieties or Peerless Type. — Similar to pre- ceding type, but having along the main stem very short limbs above the base pImIII- i Ml 1^ ililll Mature unopened and opened long staple upland cotton bolls; variety Allen Improved. Two-thirds natural size (From photo by Webber) limbs, which latter are usually of medium length. Bolls variable in size; seeds usually medium in size, well covered with fuzz of many shades, whitish, greenish, or brownish. Varieties early to medium maturing. Class III. Rio Grande Varieties or Peterkin Type. — This type is char- acterized by its high percentage of lint, 35 or more per cent., and the absence of fuzz or nearly so except at the tip end. Plants well branched, medium size. Bolls small; black seeds quite small. Varieties medium maturing. Class IV. Short Limb \'arieties or King Type.— Plants small, well branched throughout; limbs short; bolls small, seed medium and thickly cov- ered with fuzz usually brownish, more rarely greenish. Percentage of lint 32 to 34. Varieties characterized by extreme earliness. Class V. Big Boll Varieties or Duncan Type. — This type is distinguished for the large size of its bolls, 51 to 68 being required to produce a pound ot FIBKR CROPS 331 seed cotton. Seed large, covered usually with a thick fuzz, variable from whitish to deep green. Per cent, of lint 30 to 33. Upper limbs often short. Bolls never two-clustered. Varieties noted for late maturity and vigorous growth of stalk. Class VI. Long Limb Varieties or Petit Gulf Type. — Plants grow to large size, have long limbs and straggling appearance. Bolls and seed medium to large, latter covered with fuzz of various shades. Per cent, of lint low to medium. As a class poorly suited to upland soils. Class VII. Long Staple Varieties or Allen Type. — Distinguished for length of lint, usually measuring from one and one-eighth to one and five- eighths inches with usually less than 30 per cent, of lint. Plants similar to Class VI. Bolls medium, long, slender, and very pointed. Seeds medium to large, usually densely covered with almost pure white fuzz with no trace of green; more rarely naked seeds distinguished from Class III by larger size. Varieties late maturing. The varieties of this type are believed to have been obtained by selecting hybrids of sea island and upland cotton. Chiefly cul- tivated in the rich alluvial soils of the Yazoo Delta in Mississippi. 423. Standard and Recommended Varieties. — The Alabama Station recommends Peterkin and Truitt as standard and safe medium maturing varieties; for early varieties King, Welborn, Dickson and Peerless are recommended. Other productive va- rieties are Jones Improved, Allen Long Staple, Hawkins, Herlong, and Hunnicutt.^ In 1904 the different types of cotton yielded as follows : ^ Table Showing Yield of Upland Cotton Type Yield of Yield of lint, lb. seed, lb. 468 867 601 936 471 835 466 905 400 829 Semi-cluster Rio Grande Short Limb , Big Boll Long Staple At the Texas Station the largest yields of seed cotton during three years were obtained from Beck's Big Boll, Dixon's Im- 1 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1899), p. 209. 2 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 130 (1905), p. 8. 332 'JIIE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA " proved, Peerless, Surefritit, and Cochran's Prolific/ Cook's Improved, Layton's Improved, and Moss' Improved, the latter two similar to Peterkin's Improved, have given satisfactory yields at the Georgia Station. Schley, a variety produced by the Georgia Station, by selection, has given good results." In South Mature unopened and opened long staple upland cotton bolls; variety Griffin. Two-thirds natural size (From photo by Webber* Carolina, Texas Oak, Boles Improved Prolific and Drake Cluster gave the largest yield of lint at the home station; Jones Improved in the Upper Pine Belt Region, and African, King and Truitt at Beech Island.'"* The United States Bureau of Plant Industry mentions Grif- fin as one of the best long staple upland cottons now grown.* Other varieties of long staple cotton are Allen Long Staple, 1 Texas Sta. Bnl. No. 50 (1899), p. 3. 2 Georgia Sta. Bui. No.'70 (1905), p. 66. 3 South Carolina Sta. Bui. No. 42 (1895), p. 8. * U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 380. FIBER CROPS 333 Cook, Commander, Moon, Peeler, Southern Hope, and Sunflower/ This Bureau distributed in 1903 the following varieties for planting: short staple upland cotton; Parker, Jones Improved, Excelsior and King: long staple upland cotton; Allen Improved and Griffin : sea island ; Seabrook and Rivers.^ The last va- riety is considered resistant to the wilt disease. 424. Desirable Variety Characters. — The quantity and quality of lint produced are the chief considerations in the raising of cotton, yet with the present demand for the seed the yield of seed cannot be ignored. The qualities to be sought in cotton, there- fore, are yield of seed and of lint; length, fineness, and strength of staple as well as uniformity of length, the latter being an im- portant commercial quality; time of maturity; and resistance to diseases and to storms. (428) While certain character- istics of the plant described below influence yield, the inherent quality of productiveness as determined by weight of product on a given area is of the first importance in making selections. The yield of lint depends on the percentage of lint to seed cotton and the weight of seed cotton. Small seed is usually an indication of high percentage of lint. The size of seed as a variety characteristic does not seem to be related to the yield of seed cotton, but the Alabama Station found that large seed produced a heavier yield of seed cotton than small seed of the same variety. The weight of seed cotton seems to be dependent, in general, upon the size of the bolls, the number of bolls per plant, and the number of plants per acre. In proportion to size, short jointed plants will produce more bolls than long jointed ones. In gen- eral, the total weight of seed cotton varies more according to variety and environment than does the percentage of lint, hence as a rule the amount of seed cotton rather than the percentage of lint is the more important character; although, of course, of ilbid., p. 126. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. No. 25, p. 47. 334 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA two varieties yielding the same amount of seed cotton, tiie one having" the highest percentage of lint will be preferable, other things being equal. In general, medium maturing varieties produce the largest yield of seed cotton, but early maturing varieties may be more desirable in order to increase the quality of the cotton, which in later varieties becomes stained from the rains. Where the boll weevil does damage early varieties are desirable because such varieties are less injured by the weevil, since the number of weevils increases as the season advances. The Georgia Station has tested 20 to 30 varieties annually for twelve years, and by dividing these into two classes — namely, those which gave the best results and poorest results based or lint at eleven cents per pound and seed at eighty cents per hun- dred pounds — it was found that the, per cent, of lint in the besi half was 34.7 and in the poorest half 32.5; that the number oi bolls to the pound of seed cotton was for the best half 70.1 anc for the poorest half 74.7; that the number of seeds per pounc of seeds was for the best half 4,144 and for the poorest half 4,126 The best half yielded 56.4 per cent, of its cotton in the firsi two pickings, while the poorest half yielded 58.8 per cent, of itj cotton.^ While in general early varieties have smaller bolls thar later maturing varieties, and thus are likely to yield less cotton the Texas Station believes that by selection early varieties wit\ large bolls may be produced. 425. Crossing. — Cotton flowers are large and attractive, anc are much visited by bees and other insects. The flowers, how- ever, are abundantly self-fertile and set seeds normally wher covered with paper bags. Under ordinary field conditions obser- vations indicate that from 5 to 10 per cent, of seeds are cross- fecundated.^ While cross-fertilization is not so great, therefore 1 Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 70 (1905), p. 70. aU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 380. FIBER CROPS 335 as in maize and some other plants, it is sufficiently important to be considered in attempting to maintain pure strains or in ma- king improvements by selection. Pollen is mainly carried by bees. Practical isolation may be secured by planting a quarter or half a mile from other cotton, particularly if surrounded by woods, although for accurate breeding work greater precaution may be necessary. Where crossing is feared from undesirable types mixed with the type it is desired to propagate, this may be prevented by going through the fields as soon as the lower flowers appear and removing all plants showing the undesirable characters. Seed may then be selected from the upper bolls, which were fer- tilized after the objectionable plants had been removed. 426. Seed Selection. — With cotton as with most other crops, evidence is accumulating to show that the best results are ob- tained by selecting where it is regularly grown rather than in the change of seed. (C. A. 40, 41, 116, 277, 393) Probably half the cotton seed planted is taken at random from the public gin. Some of the more careful growers, however, send trusted em- ployees through the field at the second, and if necessary to ob- tain sufficient seed also at the third, picking who select the seed cotton from the most productive plants of the type desired. The first and fourth pickings are not generally considered so desira- ble for seed. The seed cotton thus obtained is ginned separately. By the use of such seed much has been accomplished in improv- ing the general yield and quality of cotton. Cotton degenerates easily and improves rapidly under careful selection. 427. Improvement of Cotton. — For those who wish to make more rapid and definite progress in the improvement of cotton the United States Bureau of Plant Industry recommends the following method which has been practised successfully for several years by some growers of sea island cotton, the staple having been increased from 1.75 to 2.5 inches by this method.^ This method requires four years of selection to secure seed for general planting. The fol- lowing diagram shows the steps to be taken with each plant selected. lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1898, pp. 358-62. 336 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA First Year — The first year five ^ or more plants are selected from any field of tlie type it is desired to improve, the larger the field and the more rigid the selection the better. The diagram assumes for clearness that only one plant has been selected, but it is important that more than one plant be taken, since fre- quently a fine appearing plant fails to transmit its characteristics. Second Year — Five hundred or more seeds are selected from each plant and planted the next year. When these plants reach the proper stage of maturity the entire progeny should be examined to see whether the plant selected the first yeai shows strong transmitting power. If satisfactory, select several of the best 1st YEAR ZoYCAR 3oYEAR 4THYt:AR 57hYEAR StCtCTPlANT©— — ^g^«-^ 5 ACRES SOXCT PLANT fl 500 PLANTS .6CttCT PLANT I 5 ACRES GtNtRALCROP StLCCT PLANTI i >»w >| 5 ACRES I SELECT PlANTf 1 Diagram illustrating method of selecting cotton (After Webber) plants; if not, reject all. From the specially selected plants of this second generation select a single plant to be handled exactly in the same way as the selections made the first year. The seed from the remaining selected plants are retained to plant a seed patch of five acres in the third year. Third Year— The third year there will be grown 500 or more plants of each of the in- dividual selections, and as many five-acre seed patches for seed for general planting as there were individuals of the first year whose progeny was con- sidered worth propagating. Fourth Year — This year there will be seed for general planting from the five-acre seed patches of the previous year; five-acre seed patches from the specially selected iln the careful pedigree breeding of ordinary cottons probably 25 or m )rc superior plants should be selected. FIBER cRors 337 individuals of the second year; and 500 or more plants of each of the in- dividual selections. The method here outlined is to be continued indefinitely, as it is only by the careful and continuous selection that high bred strains can be kept up to a state of efficiency, and if for any reason is interrupted tJ^ere is a general and rapid decline. 428. Score Card. — For careful comparisons in making selec- tions a score card arranged to compare and emphasize the points especially sought is desirable. The United States Bureau of Plant Industry uses the score on p. 338 in judging hybrids of sea island and upland cotton for the purpose of securing cotton for cultivation in upland regions which will have long staple, big bolls, opening well and easy to pick, and black seed. In this case all plants not having black seeds were rejected.^ « 429. Scale of Qualities. — In place of a score card, such as sug- gested above, the Texas Station proposes a set of maximum and minimum qualities, as follow^s: For Early Fruiting. — The first fruit limb must not be higher than the fifth joint above the seed leaf joint. The first primary or wood limb must not be above the fifth joint, and the number of primary limbs should not exceed four. For Rapid Fruiting. — The joints on the main stem, fruit limbs, and primary limbs must not exceed three inches. Fruit limbs should grow in succession at each joint of the main stem and primary limbs, and should be continuous in growth for continuous fruiting. For Productiveness. — The bolls should not be less than \.S inches in di- ameter. The per cent, of limb to seed cotton should not be less than 33.3. The rate of growth is very important, and, therefore, the larger the plant of ihe type, the greater is its inherent rate of growth, its earliness, rapidity of fruiting, and yield. - 430. Influence of Environment. — "All evidence indicates that the seed produced by plants grown on good soil under the best conditions produces in its turn the best and most vigorous seed. It is thus desirable to plant the selection field on good rich soil of the same kind on which the crop is to be generally cultivated. If the general crop is to be grown on a light, sandy soil, it would of course be wrong policy to place the selec^'^'on field on a rich, heavy loam. The soil should be of the kind used for the general fields, but unexhausted by previous cultivation. It is also desirable that the selection 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 376. -Texas Sta. Bui. No. 79 (1905), p. 8. 33^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Score of Points Used in Judging Sea Island and Upland Cotton Size of bolls, 15 points Length of lint, 20 points Very large, 15 points Large, 14 points Medium, 12 points Small, 8 points . Very small, 3 points 2 inches, 20 points IVs inches, 19 points IH inches, 18 points 15^ inches, 17 points IJ^ inches, 15 points IH inches, 10 points 1% inches, 5 points Fineness of lint, 10 points Yield, 20 points Uniformity in length of lint, 7 points Very fine, 10 points Fine, 8 points Medium, 6 points . Coarse, 3 points Excellent, 20 points Good, 18 points Medium, 15 points Light medium, 10 points Light, 5 points Excellent, 7 points Good, 6 points Fair, 4 points Poor, 2 points Strength of lint, 10 points Per cent, of lint, 18 points Very strong, 10 points Strong, 8 points Medium, 8 points Weak, 3 points 33 -f per cent., 18 points 31-32 per cent., 17 points 29-30 per cent., 16 points 27-28 per cent., 15 points 25-26 per cent,, 10 points 23-24 per cent., 5 points f FIBER CROPS 339 field should be well fertilized and cultivated, as every means should be used to develop the best plants and the best seeds." ^ 431. Collateral Reading. — H. J. Webber: Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, pp. 365-386. C. B. Williams: Cotton Plant. The Bulletin, North Carolina Dept. Agr. (September, 1906), pp. 16-27. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 371. XIX FIBER CROPS COTTON Climate and Soils 432. Distribution. — Cotton production is limited practically to the area south of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, while the larger and most intensive production is located south of the thirty-fifth parallel. In Asia the limit of cultivation ex- tends somewhat farther north. The possible production of cot- ton is almost unlimited, since the largest land surface of the globe is between the thirty-seventh parallels of latitude north and south, in all habitable sections of which cotton can be more or less successfully grown. Within this area, however, its economic production is limited by the amount and distribution of sunshine and rainfall, as well as by temperature. It is now grown chiefly between parallels 20° and 37° north latitude. 433. Temperature. — The cotton plant is extremely sensitive to temperature conditions. The plant requires four or five months of uniformly high temperature during which time it makes its vegetative growth. A cold spell during this period is liable to cause fruiting and is not desirable. After having made its vegetative growth, two or three months of cooler weather, with a greater range in daily temperature, are desirable to bring about fruiting and ripening. For the best production of cotton there should not be killing frosts later than April first nor earlier than November first, and when fifteen days may be subtracted and added to these dates the conditions are considered even more favorable. In the more 340 FIBER CROPS 341 Temperature Chart .llll .1 nn: iiiii: 80 ■n NHi nm mm mw. yliiJ^^ 20 Ithaca, N. Y. Charlotte, N. C. Aug:usta, Ga. Montgomery, Ala. 80 F 60 ill. jnii .iiiiii .iiiiii.. ^■n mn iMir^ n liitii Lincoln, Neb. Memphis, Tenn. New Orleans, La. Houston, Tex. Chart showing temperature in different regions of the United States. Figures indicate temperature Fahrenheit per month. The months read from the left. Compare with chart below Rainfall Chart 1.. ..II .1 .11 III.... iHiiMff niiin^i m RTi n ffi n llllllllllll llllllllllll IIIIIIIIIHI llllllllllll Ithaca, N.Y. Charlotte, N. C. Augusta, Ga. Montgomery, AUu Uk Lincoln, Neb. Memphis, Tenn. New Orleans, iLa. Houstoo- ^ox. Chart showing rainfall In different regions of the United States. Figures indicate precipitation in Inches per month. The months read from the left. Compare with chart above 342 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA northerly sections of the cotton belt killing frosts occur as late as April 15 and as early as October 15, which is about the limit of successful cotton culture. 434. Rainfall. — While the cotton plant is extremely sensitive to temperature conditions, this alone is not sufficient for its eco- nomic production. During the growing period of the cotton plant the rainfall should be abundant and well distributed, while during the ripening period comparatively dry weather is desir- able. Wet weather during picking is very injurious, especially when accompanied by high wind. Suitable conditions of rainfall and sunshine are more likely to occur inland than upon the coast. Upland cotton is therefore grown inland, while sugar cane and rice are more likely to be grown near the coast in tropical and semi-tropical countries. 435. Soils. — While under proper climatic conditions cotton can be raised upon all ordinary soils with a fair degree of suc- cess, the plant is greatly modified by the character of the soil upon which it is grown and upon the same soil by the amount of rainfall. As a rule sandy soils produce the smallest yields, but these can be depended upon for a crop under rather wide cli- matic conditions. Under the proper climatic conditions clay soils and silty clays produce the maximum crops, although under excessive rainfall the plant may run to wood, or as the planters say, to weed, with small production of lint. Uplands produce comparatively small plants which mature early, while bottom lands and rich black prairies produce much larger plants which mature later. Cotton grown on some soils is more subject to disease and in- sect enemies than when grown on other soil types. As for most other crops, especially those which receive intercultural tillage, loam soils are considered safest, and are for other reasons pre- ferred. Mellow, friable soils are more easily worked by light machinery. From a study of the different types of soils it is FIBER CROPS 343 clear that clay loams and silt loams give much higher yields than sandy loams. 436. Soils for Sea Island Cotton. — "The best soils for this variety are light, fine-grained, sandy soils, containing from 4 to 8 per cent, of clay, from 4 to 6 per cent, of silt, and from 75 to 90 per cent, of fine sand. Soils of this character from James Island maintained during two growing seasons about 5 per cent, of moisture, and are very different from the best types of soils adapted to the upland cotton." ^ Diagram showing average composition of soils in Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains, as determined by mechanical analysis and their respective adaptability to cotton production 437. Deterioration of Cotton Lands. — Lands devoted to cotton continuously or in alternation with maize only readily deterio- rate. The following table gives the per cent, of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash found in the air-dry parts of the plant removed from the soil : ^ Analysis Lint Seed Nitrogen Phosphoric acid, Potash, K,0 p,o* :*.;;; 0.24 0.06 0.74 3.07 1.02 1.17 lU. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Sta. Bui. No. 33 (1896), p. 161. 2 Tennessee Sta. Bui. Vol. XIV (1891); No. 5, p. 125. 344 '^-li^ FORAGE AND F113ER CRUPS IN AMERICA The lint not only contains small percentages of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, but the weight of lint obtained per acre is small compared to the weight of most cultivated crops. The seed con- tains relatively high quantities of both substances, and there are rather more than two pounds of seed for each pound of lint. The seed, however, is not injured as a fertilizer by the extrac- tion of the oil. If therefore all the plants except the lint and the oil is returned to the soil, the loss of these elements from the sale of the products is trifling. The soil loses fertility by the oxidation of the vegetable matter in the soil during the summer months, and the wash- ing away of the material thus made soluble during the winter months. The comparative bareness of the soil and the heavy rainfall favor erosion at all seasons of the year, causing the removal of quantities of surface soil. Formerly when land and labor were cheap, old cotton fields were abandoned when no lon- ger productive, and new lands were brought under cultivation. The cotton states have comparatively fev/ domestic animals, and the climatic conditions do not favor the collection and pres- ervation of manure. While manure is recognized to be of value it does not enter largely into the production of cotton. Since lands and labor have become dearer commercial fertilizers have entered largely into its production. More recently a greater diversity of crops, especially the introduction of the cowpea, has obtained. Such diversification is a factor of great importance in combating fungous diseases and insect enemies. 438. Rotation. — The two main soil problems connected with the growing of cotton are the preventing of the bodily removal of the soil through erosion and the securing such a rotation of crops as will restore the organic matter to soils depleted by long-continued clean cultivation in one crop.^ Notwithstanding that a well-ordered system of rotation of crops 1 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture; in U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1905, p. 69. FIBER CROPS 345 has been demonstrated to be of great value, the continuous cul- ture of cotton year after year on the same land has been and still is in large measure the common practise. (329) The fol- lowing rotation is the one best suited to the largest number of cases under existing economic conditions: first year, maize with peas between the rows to be harvested for seed ; second year, wheat or oats followed by cowpeas for hay after the cereal crop has been removed; third year, cotton. If more cotton is essen- tial, cotton follows cotton, making a four-year rotation. If more maize is wanted, land may be planted to the crop two years in succession instead of two years in cotton. After many years' experience the Georgia Station asserts that the increased production of the station farm is due more to the adoption and maintenance of a regular system of rotation than to any other practise, and that the recurring crop of cow- peas following the small grain is the most valuable and efficient detail of the rotation system adopted. The objection to the rotation above mentioned is that it leaves the land bare during the winter after the cotton. The South Carolina Station recommends early varieties of cotton so that the crop may be gathered in time for fall plowing the cotton field, and the sowing of winter grain. The protection of the soil by the grain through the winter and early spring this station believes is alone of sufficient benefit to justify the prac- tise of sowing grain on cotton land without taking into account the benefit of fall plowing and the value of the grain crop.^ The practical difficulties of a grain crop at this point in the rotation will probably prevent its extended use. Cover crops, however, of rye, oats, winter vetch, crimson clover or bur clover may be sown in the fall to be plowed under not later than Feb- ruary first. A farmer is reported to have increased the capacity of his Piedmont soil from one-third of a bale to two bales per acre by growing bur clover on the land each winter, the land 1 South Carolina Sta. Bui. No. 120 (1906), p. 8. 34^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA being continuously kept in cotton. Since the bur clover re- seeds itself each year, there has been no expense except for the original cost of the seed/ 439. Influence of Commercial Fertilizers. — "Since the close of the Civil War to the present time practically all of the cotton cultivated in the United States, with the exception of comparatively small quantities grown on the alluvial soils of great river bottoms and occasional areas of newly-cleared land, has been fertilized with concentrated manures. Probably upon no other crop to which they have been applied have these manures exercised so great an influence as upon cotton. Not only were profitable crops made with them upon lands which without them it would not have paid to cultivate, and an immense area of worn-out land thus redeemed to culture, but the stimulant effect of the manure so shortened the period of growth and maturity of the plant that the climatic limit of culture was extended. Cotton soon came to be grown abundantly over large regions where, previous to the introduction of such manures, killing frosts intervened before the maturity and fruitage of the plant. The enormous increase in the cotton production of the United States since 1860 is undoubtedly to be credited chiefly, if not exclusively, to the use of concentrated manures." - 440. Carriers of Fertilizing Ingredients. — Kainit is the most common form for supplying potash to cotton. When it can be purchased as cheaply compared with the potash contained, it is considered rather more desirable than the refined muriate of potash, since the larger bulk and mechanical condition permit its more even distribution by the fertilizer drill. Most of the experiment stations in the cotton states have compared nitrate of soda with cotton-seed meal as a carrier of nitrogen for cotton and find that they are substantially equal pound for pound of nitrogen contained therein under the conditions which they are ordinar- ily used. Since the cotton-seed meal furnishes the nitrogen at less cost, it is generally recommended and used. The Georgia Station, however, recommends whether cotton-seed meal or other fertilizers are used that 20 to 30 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre be used when seed is planted. Soluble and reverted forms of phosphoric acid seem to have given better results than lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1905, p. 202. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Sta. Bui. No. 33 (1896), p. 172. FIBER CROPS 34/ the phosphorus occurring in rock phosphates. The acid phos- phates are, therefore, generally recommended. "While a few of the earlier tests made at Auburn were thought at the tima to indicate the possibility of the economical substitution of the cheaper raw phosphate for the most costly acidulated material, our hundred or more ex- periments bearing on this question, taken as a whole, declare emphatically that under ordinary conditions and present prices it is more profitable to fertilize cotton with acidulated than with raw phosphate. When the latter is employee at all it is best to use in connection with it some form of organic nitrogenous material as stable manure, cotton seed, or even cotton seed meal." ^ These experiments, however, have not taken into account the residual effect of the rock phosphate in a well ordered sys- tem of rotation. 441. Composting. — It is a common practise to mix, say, four parts of horse manure with one part each by weight of cotton seed and acid phosphate and allow them to ferment for four to ten weeks. To this mixture there may be added coarse litter of any sort, such as oak leaves, pine needles. Among the things accomplished by this process is a product which can be distrib- uted in the fertilizer distributer, and the fermentation destroys the germinating power of the seed. The experiments of the Alabama and other stations do not in- dicate that the process of fermentation increases the yield of cotton compared to using the same ingredients fresh, and ap- plied early enough to prevent the cotton seed from germinating, unless it be in making available the coarse litter which may be employed. The chief consideration, therefore, in determining the desirability of composting fine stable manure, cotton seed and acid phosphate is convenience and cost of labor. Where manure is available it is considered desirable to mix with the commercial fertilizers and apply in the furrow rather than to apply broadcast. When desired for immediate use it may be necessary to screen the manure in order to remove the coarse litter, which may be done with an ordinary sand screen. 1 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1899), pp. 251, 252. 348 THE FORAGE AND ElBER CROPS IN AMERICA 442. Kinds and Quantities of Commercial Fertilizers. — The Texas Station recommends lOO to 150 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 100 to 200 pounds of 14 per cent, acid phosphate. This station believes soils in Texas do not require potash.^ The Georgia Station, as the result of fourteen years' experiments, recommends for cotton, on old worn uplands, a fertilizer con- taining nitrogen, available phosphoric acid and potash in the ration of 3: 10: 3. This ratio, but not these percentages, may be obtained by mixing 1,000 pounds of 14 per cent, acid phosphate; 700 pounds of cotton-seed meal containing 7 per cent, nitrogen, 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid and 1.5 per cent, of potash, and 75 pounds of muriate potash.^ From 350 to 700 pounds of this mixture are recommended to be bedded on two weeks before planting with 20 to 30 pounds of nitrate of soda applied in the furrow when seeds are planted. When a well-ordered rotation is practised, each crop being liberally and judiciously fertilized, each succeeding cotton crop will require a somewhat less relative quantity of nitrogenous fertilizers. On well improved soils, on comparatively new soils, or on bottom lands the cotton seed may be reduced from one-third to one-half." For sandy soils the Alabama Station recommends the same mixture in amounts varying from 280 to 420 pounds per acre ; for clay soils it is advised to omit the potash and apply from 240 to 320 pounds per acre of the cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate mixture, while for any well drained soils on which cotton is known to be liable to black rust it is advised to reduce the phosphate and increase the potash by applying the follow- ing mixture: cotton-seed meal, 120 to 160 pounds; acid phos- phate, 80 to 120 pounds; and kainit, 80 to 120 pounds per acre. The lime soils of the central prairie region of Alabama usually 1 Texas Sta. Bui. No. 75 (1904), p. 18. * About 2.5 pounds of crushed cotton seed are equivalent as a fertilizer to one pound of cotton-seed meal. •■'Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 70 (1905), p. 88. FIBER CROPS 349 fail to make profitable use of commercial fertilizers. For these soils drainage and the growing of leguminous crops are especially recommended.^ 443. Methods of Applying Commercial Fertilizers. — Commer- cial fertilizers may be applied in the furrow at the time of planting the seed, or they may be bedded on some time, say two weeks, in advance of planting. It is best not to place the fertilizer in direct contact with the seed, especially if considerable quan- tities of potash or nitrogen salts are used. The ferti- lizer may be dis- tributed by hand with fertilizer dis- tributer or with the combined cotton seed planter and fertilizer drill. When large quantities of fertilizer are used a scooter plow may be run in the furrow to mix the fertilizer with the soil before "bed- ding on." When distributed by hand, the Texas Station recom- mends the tin bugle, to prevent the wind from interfering. "This device is made of tin. It is three feet long, and has a diameter of two inches. 'I he top is funnel-shaped, and may be any convenient tize to receive the fertilizer. To one side of the top a handle is soldered. The man distributing the fertilizer carries the bugle in his left hand with the lower end of the bugle in the furrow and the funnel directly under the mouth of a sack of fertilizer carried in the right arm. The fertilizer is run into the funnel in a constant stream, the right hand acting as a check valve to control the passage of the fertilizer from the sack. Uniformity and rapidity of distribution may be secured after a few hours' practise." ^ In some cases the bugle is carried by a rope slung over the shoulder and fastened to rings attached at suitable places on the ttibe^ When the nitrogen in the fertilizer was obtained from cotton- 1 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1899). p. 286 -Texas Sta. Bui. No. 75 (1904), p. 19. Common form of fertilizer distributer used by cotton planter 350 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA seed meal the Georgia Station during three years obtained slightly greater yields of seed cotton by bedding on the fertilizer two weeks in advance of planting than by applying it with the seed. The practise is to open the center where the row of cotton is to be with a double mold board plow, locally called a "middle buster." In this furrow the fertilizer is distributed, after which the ridges or beds are formed. Rather less yields were obtained by applying half the fertilizers two months after plant- ing, when the nitrogen was derived from cotton-seed meal, and rather more when nitrogen was derived from nitrate of soda.^ The Alabama Station has not found any greater yields from fractional applications of fertilizers, but when the supply of nitrogenous fertilizers was inadequate at planting, nitrate of soda applied as late as the middle of July, and cotton-seed meal, applied in the latter part of June, have produced favorable re- sults. 444. Collateral Reading. — IT. C. White: The Manuring of Cotton. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. No. 33 (1896), pp. 169-195. 1 Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 70 (1905), p. 77. XX FIBER CROPS COTTON I. Cultural Methods 445. Seasons of Cultural Operations. — The time during which the several cultural operations connected with the raising of cot- ton occur will depend somewhat upon the region. The cotton belt is generally recognized to have somewhat marked differ- ences depending on whether the northern, middle or southern section is considered. While these three sections cannot be divided along parallels of latitude on account of differences of topography and proximity to seacoast, yet, in general, the section north of the thirty-fourth parallel may be looked upon as the northern section, while the section south of the thirty-first par- allel may be considered to be in the southern section. The state- ments which follow will be for the middle section. South of this section the season is lengthened and north of it of course shortened. The planter begins to prepare his land for cotton in February and March, and plants the seed in April, more rarely in May. During May, June, and July the crop is cultivated, the "chop- ping out" season usually being in June, but extending sometimes into July. The plant begins to flower in June, and its bolls mature and open 60 to 90 days later. The plants continue to bloom until September, and thus the picking season ranges from August until November. At the Georgia Station, during ten years the picking ranged from September 2 to October 3. 351 352 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 446. Preparing the Seed-bed. — The land having been plowed with an ordinary mold board or turn plow, the field is made up into alternate beds and middles or into "back" furrows and "dead" furrows. The row of cotton is to be planted upon the back furrow while the dead furrow facilitates drainage. On hilly land these beds follow the contour lines in order to prevent erosion. The custom varies somewhat with the need for drain- age and other conditions, but in general the bed when finished is about six inches above the general level of the land, while the middle or center furrow is about six inches be- low the general level, making the The " Middle Buster " . , ,, r middle furrow about twelve inches below the cotton row. There is considerable dif- ference of opinion as to the necessity for this process of bedding, but there is practically no experimental evidence as to when it is desirable and when it may be omitted. Where cotton follows cotton, and where the soil is sandy, the land is usually not plowed before the beds are formed. In this case the bed is formed on the center furrow of the preceding year. In some cases the cotton plants are gathered and burned, and in other cases the stalk cutter is used, after which they may be plowed under without interfering with the subsequent cul- tivation. (C. A. 296) The method of preparing the bed is somewhat as follows: The place where the cotton row is to be is opened by means of a sco®ter, which is merely a flat shovel four to five inches wide, and about twelve inches long, or by means of a middle "buster," which is a double mold board plow. The fertilizer is then placed in this furrow and the land turned back over the fertilizer by means of a small plow which turns a furrow seven to eight FitiER CROPS 353 inches wide. Immediately afterward or usually a couple of weeks later, two or more furrow slices are thrown upon the pre- vious ones, and the plowing continued until the middles are plowed out. Whether it is good practise to permit an interval of some weeks to elapse between these operations is a matter of doubt. The practise of the Alabama Station is to complete the beds as soon as the fertilizers are applied. Doubtless on sandy soils it is desirable to have it completed some time before planting, in order that the seed-bed may be compact, while on clay soils, if much time intervened between the final preparation of the seed-bed and planting, the soil would become too compact. Sub-soiling has been tried at several stations without material results and the practise is not advised. Breaking the soil six to eight inches, and giving this layer thorough preparation, is con- sidered better than deeper plowing, with less preparation. The results of experiments on the preparation of the seed-bed vary greatly, and generally are inconclusive. The furrows are sometimes opened in the fall. While this plan did not increase the yield of cotton, the Georgia Station believes that this method of opening deep furrows in the fall of the year may be expedient in practise as a means of pre- venting winter washing and the leaching of the soil on hillside farms.^ The fall preparation of the soil for cotton is seldom prac- tised, and as ordinarily performed would increase erosion. In level sections, as in parts of Texas, fall plowing is sometimes successfully practised. 447. Kind of Seed. — There is reason to believe that the larger seeds of any given variety will usually give the more vigorous start to the plant, and are to be preferred. Experiments in using heavy seeds as compared to light seeds indicate that the yield of seed cotton may be materially increased by planting only 1 Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 70 (1905), p. 80. 354 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA heavy seeds. It has been suggested that it is desirable to plant old seed, on the theory that in old seeds the poorer ones fail to germinate, and by this process the seeds capable of producing the best plants will be selected. The Alabama Station, however, found that there was no difference in the yield of cotton due to the age of seed, when the same number of plants were grown per acre. The seed used for planting should be selected as hereto- fore described. (426) The mixing of the seed of an early and of a medium variety has been recommended on the theory that it distributes the time of most vigorous growth, and therefore the demand upon soil over a longer period of time. This method seems to produce somewhat higher yields where both varieties are equally pro- ductive when planted separately, but if one variety was much less productive than the other the yield would be less than if the more productive one only had been planted.^ In order to carry on this practise it will be necessary to pur- chase seed from someone who grows seed pure, or else maintain a field of each pure for the purpose of selecting seed in addition to the field containing the mixed crop. The practise of maintain- ing fields of both varieties for the producing of seed for planting is desirable in order that the planter may know that the yields of both varieties are substantially equal. 448. Quantity of Seed. — The custom in the past has been to plant an enormous amount of seed, generally from one to three bushels per acre. Since a bushel may contain from 100,000 to 200,000 seeds, the number of seeds might vary from 100,000 to 600,000 per acre, while the number of plants finally left to bear fruit do not ordinarily exceed 12,000, and frequently less. The excess of seed forms a valuable fertilizer. With the bet- ter care in the selection of seed and the greater demand for the surplus seed, the practise is gradually obtaining to plant 1 Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 63 (1903), p. 112. FIBER CROPS 355 less and better seed, sell the surplus seed to the cotton mills and use cotton-seed meal as a fertilizer. The seed is planted by means of a one-horse cotton drill, or more rarely by means of the two-horse maize planter adjusted for cotton. (C. A. 305) Experiments are also being conducted by the United States Bureau of Plant Industry and others of rolling the cotton seed in a mixture of gypsum and flour to paste the fuzz to the seed in order that the seed may be planted in hills with an ordinary maize planter. It is considered a good practise, especially on sandy, friable soils, to compact the furrow above the seed by means of a heavy roller attached to improved cotton drill with fertilizer attachment the drill or otherwise. 449. Distance. — Experiments seem clearly to prove that cot- ton plants should be thinned to one in a place. The width of rows may vary from 2.5 to 5 feet, depending on the variety, the soil and the latitude. While the expense would be less for plant- ing and cultivation with larger widths of rows, making less rows to plant, hoe, and cultivate, yet experiments indicate that the best yields are obtained with rows relatively narrow and the plants wider apart in the row, so as to make them more equidistant. The results of the Georgia and the Alabama stations indicate that for land capable of yielding 0.75 to 1.5 bales of cotton per acre the rows should be 3.5 to 4 feet wide and the plants 12 to 18 inches apart in the drills, the narrow rows and closer spacing for the less productive soil, more northern sec- tions and smaller growing varieties. For exceptional soils pro- ducing large cotton plants requiring more than ten square feet 35^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA each, 4, 4.5 and even 5 feet, with a space of not more than three feet in the row, are recommended.^ With cotton, as with the cereals, the experiments indicate that the plant has great power of adjustment, the total yield of cotton per acre being often but slightly different when two and even three times the number of plants are raised per acre, the yield per plant being thus greatly modified on account of the thickness of planting. The width apart of the cotton is perhaps largely influenced by the fact that the chopping hoe is seven inches wide and two strokes with the hoe would leave a space of 12 to 14 inches between plants. 450. Cultivation. — Since the season of growth is some- what longer and the cotton is always planted in drills, the amount of inter-cultural tillage is somewhat greater than with maize. It is customary to hoe one to three times, including chopping out, which is thinning the plants with a hoe to one ©r more plants to a place. At the same time the space between the rows is cultivated three to six times. A general rule is about once in ten days until the limbs hide the ground. Usually no cultivation is given after cotton is planted until the plants are four to six inches high, which will be two to four weeks after planting, according to weather, soil conditions, and seed. The rows are then ''barred off," which consists of throwing a small furrow away from the row with a one-horse turning plow or with a scooter plow. This leaves the plants on a narrow ridge The cotton is then chopped out, after which the rows are "four furrowed," which consists in going twice around each row and throwing the earth toward the plants. The more rapidly these operations follow each other the bet- ter, especially on soils likely to suffer from drought. After this the soil is best stirred with some form of surface cultivating tool, which may vary from the single heel scrape, ranging from 1 Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1899), p. 223; Georgia Sta. Bui. No. 66 (1903), p. 125. FIBER CROPS 357 eighteen to thirty inches in width, and attached to a Georgia stock, to the cultivator with five comparatively small shovels. In any case the cultivation should not go deeper than is necessary for effective eradication of the weeds. In Texas, the cul- tural methods are not unlike , - . , ... Georgia stock with different types of shovels those for maize where listnig ^3^^ in cultivating cotton is practised. (C. A. 301) In Alabama a single deep cultivation at the second cultivation, all others being shallow, decreased the yield of seed cotton 85 pounds on prairie soil and 105 pounds on sandy soil. There appears to be no advantage in late cultivation unless made neces- sary by the growth of weeds. It is possible that late cultivation may be in some cases injurious by inducing increased gfowth of plant, or as the planters say, weed, and a corresponding de- crease in fruiting. 451. Topping. — Sometimes the extreme top of the cotton plant is removed late in the summer, with the idea of checking the growth of the plants and inducing a greater development of bolls. Tests at several stations fail to show any advantage in this operation. 452. Picking. — Thus far cotton is picked almost exclusively by hand, although several machines have been invented and tried for this purpose. One of the several difficulties involved in producing a successful picking machine is the fact that the successive ripening of the bolls necessitates several pickings, and the passage of a machine over the fields injures the plants more or less extensively. Cotton is picked by men, women and children, payment usually being made by the pound, ordinarily forty cents per hundred 35<^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA pounds of seed cotton, but may vary from thirty-five to sixty cents, and in some instances to one dollar per hundredweight. Since it takes about 1,500 pounds of seed cotton to each bale of 500 pounds, the cost of picking per bale is about six dollars. Two large items of expense in cotton culture are the picking and the chopping out, for both of which it is difficult to substi- tute machinery for hand labor. The number of pickings will vary somewhat with the condi- tions, but perhaps four pickings are the most common number. The first picking usually occurs in the latter part of August and the last picking in the fore part of November. The largest yield and best quality of lint are obtained at the second pick- ing, and the least at the fourth picking. In general, about half the yield of seed cotton is obtained at the second picking. II. Insects 453. Insects. — There have been enumerated 465 species of in- sects which feed upon the cotton plant.^ Of these the following are the most destructive: 1. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis Boh.). 2. The cotton boUworm {Heliothis armiger Hiibn.). 3. The cotton worm or cotton caterpillar (Aletia argillacea Hiibn.). 4. Cutworms (Noctuidae). The Mexican cotton-boll weevil and the cotton worm are not known to feed upon any other plant than cotton. The cotton bollworm is the same species as the corn ear worm which attacks maize, tomatoes and many other crops. (C. A. 335) In the south, where it is about five brooded, the first three broods usu- ally feed upon maize and the last two upon cotton. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil is a beetle, the others are moths. All are in- jurious in the larval state. 1 L. O. Howard: Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant: Farmers' P.ul. No. 47, p. 31. FIBER CROPS 359 Map showing the distribution of the cotton- boll weevil up to 1 905 As in the case of cereal crops, the most practicable method of combating in a large way insects injurious to cotton are a rotation of crops, thorough cultivation and general cleanliness of surroundings, which prevents the successful hibernation of the insects and de- creases their opportu- nity for getting sus- tenance from volun- teer plants. Cut- worms are sometimes destructive by cutting off the young cotton plants. Trapping with poisoned green vege- tation such as grass or cabbage placed here and there through the field has been found effective. (C. A. 329) 454. The Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil has gradually been spreading northward throughout Texas until at the present time it has spread over much of the cotton belt of Texas. The adult is a small grayish weevil less than a quarter of an inch in length while the larva which does the damage is nearly when full grown of equal length. The insects pass the winter in the adult state. In the spring they lay their eggs upon the buds, and later upon the bolls of the cotton plant, into which the larvae upon hatching bore and feed. It is a rule that buds which are attacked drop off while the bolls do not. In either case the injury is complete. There are a number of generations in a season, about two weeks being required for development from egg to adult, hence the injury is greatest in the latter part of the season and upon the later maturing plants. It is estimated that the progeny of a single pair in a season may amount to 134 million individuals.^ The method of combating this pest consists in reducing the number of insects in the fall by the early destruction of the plants, and in hastening the maturity of the plant by all available means, such as early planting, using early varieties or northern grown seed, use of fertilizers, thorough cultivation and proper spacing of plants. The plants should be plowed up in the fall as early as the crop will permit, and burned. In some cases pasturing with cattle may be effective. Each season's infection is more or less local since the adults do not travel rapidly, hence the measures above proposed are of value even though neighboring planters ao not practise them. While care U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, p. 205. 360 Till:: FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA should be taken to prevent the introduction of this pest into non-infected districts by means of seeds, hulls and other cotton products, yet the principal means of spreading seem to be the wind and the natural overflow from the infested area. 45S. CoTTON-BOLL WoRM. — This insect, also known as the corn-ear worm, and as the tomato-fruit worm, feeds when young upon the leaves of the cotton, but, as it grows older, feeds upon the bolls and burrows into them, one insect Cotton-boll weevil. Mature boll cut open at left, showing full grown larva; at right late fall boll showing how beetles hide between the boll and the squares (From photo by Howard) sometimes destroying many buds, blossoms, and bolls. The insect hibernates in the pupa stage, and feeds upon many wild and cultivated plants, many of which it prefers to cotton. No thoroughly satisfactory method of combating this insect has been devised. The young larvae may be poisoned while they are feeding upon the leaves by the method described for the cotton worm, but this will not destroy the larvae after they have entered the bolls. Since they prefer other crops, and especially maize to cotton, the growing of five rows of maize between every twenty-five rows of cotton has been suggested. The rows of maize are planted at different times so as to bring on a suc- cession of the silking period, and each row or group of rows is to be fed to live stock or otherwise destroyed just before or just after the eggs hatch. (C. A. 355) 456. Cotton Worm. — The larva of this insect resembles in appearance the cotton-boll worm, although generally of a lighter and more greenish color, and like it walks as a measuring worm. This insect, however, differs in habits in three important particulars: (1) so far as known it feeds upon no other plant; (2) it feeds principally upon the leaves of the plant, and never burrows into the bolls; (3) it hibernates in the adult or moth form, and cannot live over winter, except in the extreme southern portion of the cotton belt. If these worms appear north of this section, they occur by reinfection each season. Their spread can be greatly retarded by preventing the growth of any volunteer FIBER CROPS 361 cotton, while the worms can be effectively poisoned by dusting dry undiluted paris green upon the cotton. The cotton worm in recent years has not been especially destructive, and the method of poisoning is not so common as formerly. "Make two sacks of heavy cloth, each about 10 inches long and 4 in diameter, open the whole length of one side and firmly sewed at the ends. We have found 8-ounce Osnaburg the best cloth for the purpose. Take a strip of oak or other strong wood, about 1.5 by 2 inches and 5 feet long, and bore a 1-inch hole 5 inches from the end. Tack one of the sacks to each end of the pole, fastening one of the edges of the opening to each of the narrow sides of the pole. "The sacks can be filled by pouring the poison through a funnel insertec in the holes through the pole, and distributed by riding on horseback through the cotton rows, dusting two rows at a time. A little practise will enable one to do this work very evenly, and care must be taken not to allow the sacks to touch the leaves when wet or the poison will not pass through. When the sacks are freshly filled a very slight jarring will shake out a suf- ficient amount of the poison, but, when nearly empty, the pole should be frequently and sharply struck with a short stick, or spaces in the rows will be missed. "When used in this way we have found it the best plan to use the poison without any admixture of flour, and if flour is to be added lighter cloth should be used in making the sacks. With a pole and sacks as described, one man and mule can poison from 15 to 20 acres per day." '^ III. Fungous Diseases 457. Diseases. — The cotton plant is subject to a considerable number of diseases, some of which do widespread damage. While Texas has suffered greatly from insect attacks, fungous diseases seem thus far to have done their greatest damage in the states east of the Mississippi River, especially in the lower, more humid and sandy sections of these states. The following are the most important diseases arranged according to the part of the plant which they most obviously affect : " THE ROOTS AND STEMS 1. Cotton wilt or frenching (Neocosmospora vasinfecta (Atk.) E. F. Smith). 2. Root knot or root galls (Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Muell.). 1 Mississippi Sta. Bui. No. 12 (1890), pp. 2, 3. 2F. S. Earle: Diseases of Cotton; in Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107(1899), p. 289. 2fi)2 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 3. Sore shin or damping off (RhicoctoHta). 4. Anthracnose 1 {Colletotriclmm gossypii South.). 5. Root rot {Osonium Sp.). LEAVES 6. Rust, black rust or mosaic disease (Macrosporiutn nigricantiutn -:\tk.). 7. Red rust (Tetranychus telarius). 8. Leaf blight (Cercospora gossypina Cke.). 9. Cotton mildew (Ramularia areola Atk.). 458. Root Knot is due to the same nematode worm that causes the root knot on cowpeas. (319) Red rust is due to a minute mite resembling the so-called red spider of greenhouses, while the other diseases above men- tioned are due to mycelium-bearing fungi. In addition to these diseases there are the angular leaf spot, and the cotton-boll rot, the causes for which have not been determined, although probably bacterial. The shedding of bolls is also believed to be due to causes other than insect attacks. The most destructive diseases are the cotton wilt, root knot, black rust, and anthracnose. Sore shin or damping off destroys many plants, but owing to the habit of heavy seeding and subsequent thinning it does not ordinarily produce serious loss. No specific remedies have been found for any of these diseases. 459. Cotton Wilt. — "The wilt is very distinct from any other disease of cotton, so that there need be no difficulty in its identification. It usually makes its first appearance in the spring about the last of May, when the plants are 6 to 8 inches high. It appears in well-defined areas, which enlarge if cotton is planted on the same land again. The first outward indication of its presence is a dwarfed growth and unhealthy appearance of the plants. The leaves turn yellow between the veins, their margins shrivel up, and some plants wilt and die at once. In other plants the progress of the disease is often slow, and many of them live the entire summer and die late in the season. On cutting across the stem of a diseased plant, the woody part will be found to be stained brown wherever the disease is present. In the absence of microscopic examinations, this brown discoloration of the internal tissue is the best ocular evidence of the presence of the wilt disease. "Plants may partially recover from a severe attack of the wilt disease by the development of strong lateral branches near the ground. Such plants may be distinguished by their dwarfed and bushy appearance, and by the tendency of their branches to lie prostrate on the ground." - The fungus does its damage by entering the smaller roots, and subsequently by its growth, filling up the water ducts with its mycelium, and thus cutting off the supply of plant food. The wilt disease of okra is supposed to be due to the same fungus, but that of cowpea is supposed to be slightly different. The infection is known to remain in the soil for four years, and probably longer, hence rotation of crops is of little avail after a field has become 1 Also seriously attacks bolls. 3U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bui. No. 27 (1900), p. 6. FIBER CROPS 363 infested. The most effective method of combating is believed to be the breeding of resistant varieties. This is done by saving seed from the few plants which have survived a serious attack of the disease. These seeds are again planted in badly infested soil. By planting and selecting for several years varieties of sea island and upland cotton have been produced by the Bureau of Plant Industry which show a high degree of immunity to the disease.^ 460. Black Rust. — The attack of the fungus causes the premature falling of the leaves, thus preventing the proper maturity of the plant. Losses may vary from 5 to SO per cent., and being widely distributed the losses are very heavy. "It may be safely asserted that this disease cannot attack a cotton plant that is in full vigorous growth, but that a sudden checking of growth and lowering of vitality from any cause will render it liable to serious injury if the weather conditions favor the growth of these fungi." 2 The application of potash salts has been found in some cases to have a marked effect in enabling the plant to resist rust. (442) 461. Anthracnose. — This disease attacks the plant in all stages of growth. It produces death to the young seedling much as in the case of anthracnose of field beans. (270) It causes the bark of the stems to turn to a uniform reddish-brown, and to die. The leaves turn yellow and drop off. It is most conspicuously injurious to the bolls, which, when approaching maturity, may lose their green color and assume especially on the side exposed to the sun a dull red or bronze color. Under favorable conditions for the fungus the characteristic ulcers may appear, but in many cases neither stems nor bolls show them. Affected bolls may open normally and without material damage, but usually they open prematurely, exposing the immature lint which decays. The disease is not usually distinguished from rust, and is not usually recog- nized, but it causes in the aggregate considerable damage. The remedies sug- gested are burning of refuse, planting seed from unaffected plants or the treatment of the seed with a fungicide. If such seed were planted on land in affected cotton the previous year, the treatment would probably be of little value. 462. Collateral Reading. — C. W. Burkett and C. H. Poe: Cotton, pp. 153-164. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1906. J. F. Duggar: Preparation and Cultivation of the Soil for Cotton. In Alabama Sta. Bui. No. 107 (1899), pp. 215-224. lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, p. 383. 3 Alabama SU. Bui. No. 107 (1899), p. 302. XXI FIBER CROPS COTTON Production and Marketing 463. Cotton Crop of the World. — The following table shows the number of bales of lint produced by continents in 1904: Continents Bales ^ North America 13,565,992 Asia 4,752,015 Africa 1,346,126 South America 216,204 Europe 17,125 Oceania . « 137 Total . . 19,897,599 Almost all the cotton produced in Africa comes from Egypt, most of that produced in Asia from British India and southern China, although a not inconsiderable amount is produced in Rus- sian central Asia; while ten states of the United States produce nearly all of the cotton of North America, although Mexico also produces some cotton. Brazil and Peru are the principal cotton producing countries of South America, The ten cotton states of the United States in the order of their acreage in 1905 were Texas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma," North Carolina, and Tennessee. Over three-fourths the acreage was in the first five named states. 464. Cotton in the United States. — The acreage in cotton in the United States is exceeded only by maize, hay, wheat and 1 Bales of 500 pounds gross weight, or 478 pounds of lint net. 2 Includes Indian Territory, 364 FIBER CROPS 365 oats, and constitutes about one-twelfth the total area in all field and garden crops, pasture excepted. The maximum acreage for a single year was a little over thirty millions in 1904. Accord- ing to the twelfth census the area in cotton and maize in the ten principal cotton states was about the same, maize being Percentage of the Improved farm land In cotton In 1 899 slightly in the lead. These two crops constituted 81 per cent, of the area in all crops in the ten cotton states, pasture excepted. The average annual production of cotton for the four crop years of 1902 to 1905 inclusive, compared with the four corres- ponding crop years of the previous decade has been, according to the estimates of the United States Department of Agriculture, as follows: Cotton statistics 1892-95 1902-05 Area, acres 20,366,420 25,325,472 Yield, bales, 500 lbs. gross . 7,828,132 11,123,776 Value, dollars 271,047,709 529,030,192 Yield per acre, lbs 185 210 Price per pound, cents .... 7.3 9.9 Value per acre $13.51 $20.79 These figures show an enormous development in the cotton industry in a decade, not so much in the area under cultivation 366 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA as in the increased yield per acre and the increased price per pound, resulting in the total value of the crop in four recent years being nearly twice that of the corresponding years ten years earlier, while the value per acre increased over 50 per cent. The figures here given do not show by any means the value of the cotton plant to the United States, since it forms the basis of a great manufacturing industry employing vast capital and many people. COTTON conmercial bales in ^ 465. Center of Cotton Production. — During the last half of the last century the center of cotton production has moved al- most due westward about 200 miles. In 1850 the center of popuLATioA/ production was 28 Z/nons: miles southwest of Birmingham, Ala- bama, while fifty years later it was 34 miles north by west of Jackson, Missis- sippi (90° 18' 12" W. Long, and 32° 57' 39'' N. Lat.). During this period maize moved westward 480 miles, so that at the present time the centers of production are on nearly the same meridian, although that of cotton is about 440 miles farther south. / / /- / / . / /■ ^'' / ' / \ "/ /' / ,-- K / /- ' L Diagram showing the increase in the production of cotton in the United States compared to population 466. Production per Population. — There were produced in 1899 about 59 pounds of lint cotton per inhabitant. In 1859 there were produced 78 pounds of lint cotton per inhabitant. This appears to be the highest production of cotton, in propor- tion to population, in the history of the country. Owing to the unsettled condition of the southern states during the decade which followed, the production of cotton fell enormously. Since FIBER CROPS 367 1870 there has been a gradual rise in the production of cotton, in proportion to population. 467. Exports of Cotton. — Beginning with 1875 the percent- age which agricultural products formed of the total domestic exports has undergone a continuous decrease; in 1875 it was yy per cent, while in 1905 it was 55 per cent. While the value of exports of agricultural products has become relatively less in recent years, the actual value of such exports has not de- creased. In the ten years, 1896- 1905, the exports of agriculture increased 50 per cent., those of the mines, the forests and the fisheries more than 100 per cent, each, while those of manu- factures increased practically 200 per cent.^ The export of raw cotton has increased more rapidly than that of all other agricul- tural products. On the other hand, the export of raw cotton has decreased in proportion to production. For the five years, 1891 to 1895 inclusive, 5,473,000 bales of domestic cotton were exported, which was 68 per cent, of the total production, while in the cor- responding five years ten years later 7,097,000 bales were ex- ported, being 55 per cent, of the total production. This indi- cates an enormous growth in the manufacture of cotton. More than 95 per cent, of this trade, including sea island and upland cotton, went to Europe; 3.8 per cent, went to Japan and British North America in the proportion of 3:2 respectively, while the remainder went chiefly to Mexico. Great Britain was the chief buyer, while other important countries were, respect- ively, Germany, France, Italy and Spain.^ The table on next page gives the exportation of raw cotton from the United States by customs districts for the year ending June 30, 1905.' 1 Dept. Com. and Labor, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1905, p. 17. 2 Dept. Com. and Labor, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1905, p. 392. ^ Dept. Com. and Labor, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1905, p. 779. 368 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Districts Atlantic ports .... Gulf ports Mexican border ports Pacific ports .... Northern border and lake ports Bales 2,883,545 4,999,796 37,807 307,428 109,388 Pounds 1,463,315,224 2,602,715,603 19,570,868 164,093,478 55,153,730 Dollars 133,524,576 222,690,144 1,992,648 16,607,020 5,150,626 Sea island cotton, 42,721 bales, went out of Atlantic ports ex- clusively. More than 95 per cent, of the raw cotton exported from the United States in 1905 was shipped from twelve ports. For the five years 1901-05 five ports sent out more than 200,- 000 bales annually in the following descending rank: New Or- leans, La. ; Galveston, Tex. ; Savannah, Ga. ; New York, N. Y., and Wilmington, N. C. During the same period New Orleans and Galveston together contributed more than 47 per cent, of the total exportation, the former port being a trifle in the lead. Other important ports were, respectively, Brunswick, Ga. ; Mo- bile, Ala.; Charleston, S. C., and Puget Sound, Wash.^ 468. Imports of Cotton. — For the five years 1891 to 1895 in- clusive, there were imported into the United States 340,557 bales of raw cotton, while in the corresponding five years ten years later 659,141 bales were imported.^ Chief among the coun- tries from which this trade comes are Asiatic Turkey and Egypt, these two countries together contributing more than 90 per cent, of the entire importation. The remaining importations come from Great Britain and Peru, the trade with other coun- tries comprising a negligible quantity.^ These importations came by way of Atlantic ports chiefly. 1 Dept. Com. and Labor, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1905, p. 388. 2 Dept. Com. and Labor, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1905, p. 440. 3 Dept. Com. and Labor, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1905, p. 195. FIBER CROPS 369 469. Gins. — There are two kinds of gins : roller gins and saw gins. The roller gin has been used in India under the name of churka since ancient times. Sea island cotton is ginned ex- Diagrammatic section of saw gin A— Grate-fall Head or End of Breast. B— Seed-board. C— Saw-cylinder. D-Saw. E— Grate. F— Lever for raising Grate-fall. G-Wind-board. H— Adjustable Hollow. I- Sliding Butt. J— Patent Brush. K— Sliding Mote-board. L— Bottom Board. M— Movable Iron Plate with Teeth, to regulate cleaning seed. N— Screw to adjust the Iron Plate M. O— Iron Brush Guard. clusively on a roller gin. While the roller gin gives the best results for long staple upland cotton, yet the saw gin is usually used for this type of cotton on account of its greater capacity. The invention of the saw gin as patented by Whitney and Holmes more than a century ago, has greatly affected the cotton industry. The improvement in gins since that time has been in perfecting mechanical details and the adoption of labor sav- 3/0 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA ing methods. The seed cotton is fed from a hopper into the breast where the revolving saws operate upon the seeds, re- moving the lint. When the lint is removed the seeds drop through an opening, while the lint is removed from the saws by means of a revolving cylinder studded with 25 to 30 rows of bristles. At the same time this cylinder causes a draft of air, which condenses the lint against a revolving and perforated cylinder whence it is removed in a continuous sheet and con- veyed to the press. 470. Bales. — The standard square bale of cotton as it is first baled, or as it leaves the gin, is 54 inches long, 24 inches thick and 42 to 46 inches wide and has, therefore, a density of about 14 pounds per cubic foot. These bales, as they are sold by the planter, are shipped to the compress where they are re-pressed, the width being reduced to 20 inches so that the final bale is 54x24x20 inches, and has a density of about 30 pounds to the cubic foot. Numerous attempts have been made to make a bale at the gin of sufficient density for final shipment, and at the same time not injure the staple. The form of bale which has been most used for this purpose is the 250-pound cylindrical lap bale. The lap of lint as it comes from the gins is pressed around a rod under high pressure. This cylindrical bale is 40 inches long, and has a density of about 30 pounds per cubic foot. 471. Presses. — Ginnery presses for making the standard square bales may be divided into three kinds: screw presses, hydraulic presses, and direct steam presses. Screw presses may be run by mule, horse, water, steam, or other power, and when each plantation did its own pressing, this was the common form. In hydraulic presses the hydraulic pump forces the water or oil against the vertical ten-inch cylinder and plunger at a pressure of about 600 pounds per square inch, or about 47,000 pounds per bale. FIBER CROrS 371 In the steam presses the cylinder and piston are about 30 inches in diameter and the boiler pressure of the steam is from 70 to 100 pounds per square inch or from 50,000 to 70,000 pounds per bale. Compresses are simply specially powerful steam presses having cylinders from 80 to 90 inches in diameter, which are operated under about 100 pounds pressure, or from 500,000 to 600,000 pounds per bale/ 472. Ginning.— Short staple up- land cotton is ginned on a saw gin as invented by Whitney and Holmes, although subsequently much im- proved in mechanical details. For- merly each plantation ginned its own cotton and pressed it into bales by means of the wooden screw presses, but at present most of the cotton is ginned and pressed at the public ginnery. A gin is usually rated by the num- ber of its saws, 70 saws being the standard size and capable of ginning Wood frame hand and horse cotton about a bale an hour. An ordinary ^''^f^' ^°''f ^^"« ^^°^" ^ "' levers of horse press public ginnery usually has four to six gins so arranged as to convey the cotton from the wagon through a twelve-inch pipe by suction, to feed the cotton simultaneously into all the gins, and to collect the ginned cotton as it leaves the different gins into a single condenser which delivers the lint in a continuous stream into the press. At the same time the seed is delivered by special conveyer, air-blast or suction, 1 For detailed discussion of modern cotton gins and presses, see D. A. Tompkins: Cotton and Cotton Oil, Chapter VI. 37^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA to an elevated bin from which the owner may receive it in his wagon by gravity. Thus, in a few minutes from the time the cotton is unloaded, the owner may receive his seed and his baled cotton. During the whole process little or no hand labor is required. The improvement in the economy of labor in ginning and pressing cotton is analogous to that brought about by the steam thresher and the elevator system in cereal produc- tion. The commercial value of cotton may be seriously affected by the process of ginning. Anything which tends to break the fibers will necessarily reduce the value for manufacturing purposes. Good ginning depends on the freedom of the seed cotton from foreign substances, as leaves and burs, on dryness of the crop, on the condition of the gin and the rate at which the gin is run, and on proper feeding of the seed cotton. The common rate of speed for the steam engine is about 500 revolutions per minute. A rate of 300 revolutions per minute will produce a lint of higher quality, but will greatly reduce the capacity of the gin. Newly sharpened saws or wet cotton may cause breaking of the fibers. Special gins, known as delinter gins, are made for removing the "fuzz" or linters from seed which is to be used for the produc- tion of cotton seed oil. 473. Marketing. — The seed cotton is ordinarily taken to the public gin in wagon holding about 1,500 pounds of seed cotton, or about a bale of lint. This is ginned and baled at once at a cost of about a dollar a bale, the planter receiving back the cotton baled, which he may sell at once to the cotton merchant or store in the warehouse, or return to the plantation until he is ready to dispose of it. When stored in the warehouse, there is a charge for storing, insurance and usually selling, amounting to one to two dollars per bale. After baling, cotton is frequently stored v/ith little or no protection, often to its serious detriment. All raihvay towns of moderate size or larger have cotton mer- tha-Tits whc t>i>y the cotton for cash upon inspection. The cotton Fir.RR CROPS 373 is then shipped to larger shipping points where the bales are compressed for final shipment to manufacturer or exporter. The planter may receive his seed back with his baled lint, or may sell it to the ginner, who frequently acts as agent of cot- ton mill companies or buys seed upon his own account. 474. Commercial Grades. — In buying cotton, a sample is taken by hand from the surface of the bale, and the judgment as to the quality of the whole bale is made upon such sample. Ordinarily there is little opportunity to have the contents of the square bale designedly non-uniform, and if such should occur, the marks upon the bale permit the source of the cotton to be located. There is no standard for grading cotton, nor are there any authorized agencies for grading cotton, it being done by men who have become expert, but who are usually unable to give any reason for their judgment. Under this system the grading at small centers is always made low enough to be sure to pass when it reaches the larger markets. The most important charac- ters of cotton are the length, strength and uniformity of staple. As a matter of fact, however, cotton is graded largely upon cleanliness, color indicating its exposure to the weather and upon the feel, determined largely by pressing the sample in the palm of the hand. Upland cotton is graded in America into seven principal grades, from highest to lowest as follows: fair, middling fair, good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary, ordinary. It will be seen that the middling grade is intermediate between the highest and the lowest grade, which probably explains the use of the term, since it has no significance so far as the source of the cotton or the use to which it is to be put is concerned. The grades above mentioned are what are known as full grades. Between each of these grades there are usually three interme- diate grades: thus between the full grades fair and middling fair there are the intermediate grades from highest to lowest 374 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA as follows: barely fair, strictly middling fair, and fully mid- dling fair. The term, strictly, is used to signify a grade half way between the full grades, while the term, barely, signifies a grade inter- mediate between the next higher full grade and the half grade, and the term, fully, is used to apply to a grade intermediate between the half grade and the next lower full grade. The first of these intermediate grades is known as quarter grades. In ordinary market quotations, quarter grades and some half grades are not used. The markets usually recognize a differ- ence between cotton frorn regions which are principally low lands and river bottoms and that coming from uplands. The former, known as gulf cotton, usually has slightly longer staple. The following table gives the grades quoted on the New York Cotton Exchange, and shows the range of prices due to differ- ence in kinds and grades of cotton:^ Grades and Prices^ of Cotton Grades Fair .... Middling fair Strictly good middling Good middling Middling Strictly low middling . Low middling Good ordinary Uplands Gulf 12.10 12.35 11.96 12.21 11.52 11.77 11.09 11.64 10.90 11.15 10.75 11.00 10.52 10.77 10.10 10.35 The middling grade is known as contract grade, since it is customary to base all contracts for cotton on this grade, al- though the cotton delivered may be of a different grade, the price being adjusted to the grade furnished. d75. Yield. — The yield of cotton for four recent years has 1 The prices given are for July 31, 1906. American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Vol. XX, p. 991. - Dollars per hundred weight. FIBER CROPS 375 been 210 pounds per acre as compared with 185 pounds a decade earlier. A yield of 1,500 pounds of seed cotton containing 500 pounds of lint, popularly spoken of as a bale of cotton, is con- sidered a good yield.^ Two bales of cotton are not unusual on certain types of soil. The yield of sea island cotton is less, from 100 to 300 pounds being considered fair to good yields. 476. Price. — Since the United States raises such a large pro- portion of the cotton of the world, and since there is no other fiber that will replace cotton for most purposes at anywhere near the same price per pound, any large fluctuation in yield which may easily occur on account of climatic conditions, fun- gous diseases or insect attacks, may profoundly affect the price of cotton. Thus during the past ten years the December price of middling upland cotton has ranged from 5.6 to 14. i cents per pound, and the May price has varied from 6.1 to 13.9 cents per pound. When short staple upland cotton is worth 9 cents a pound, long staple upland with one and a quarter inch staple may be worth 12 cents, and with one and a half inch staple may be worth 15 cents. The price of sea island cotton is quite variable, but in extreme cases may bring 70 cents a pound. In the past fifteen years the price received for seed by the planters has risen from ten dollars or less to fifteen or more dollars a ton. Thus when a grower sells a bale of cotton for forty-five dollars, he may receive from seven to eight dollars for his seed. 477. Collateral Reading. — Alfred B. Shepperson: Cotton Facts (Annual). New York: The Author, 15 William Street. C. W. Burkett and C. H. Poe: Cotton, pp. 200-233. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1906. H. Thompson: From the Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1906. United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census Bui. No. 40, 1906. Cotton Production, pp. 46 et seq. Twelfth Census of the United States, VI (1900), Part II, pp. 405-419. ^ A commercial bale of cotton is usually rated at 500 pounds gross — that is, including bagging and metal hoops, containing 478 pounds of lint. XXII FIBER CROPS COTTON Uses and History 478. Lint. — The cotton plant is in many respects the most important upon the globe. It furnishes the clothing of the larger portion of the inhabitants of the world. It is subject to more extended and varied use under the widest conditions of climate and civilization of any other fiber. It is the most important article of trade. It employs more capital and labor than any other single manufacturing industry. The usual method of utilizing cotton is first to spin the lint into threads technically known as yarn. The fineness of the yarn is measured by the number of "counts" to the pound of lint cotton. A count is a "hank" of 840 yards of yarn. Thus sea island cotton usually produces yarn ranging from 120 to 320 counts per pound. In other words, one pound of sea island lint cotton produces from 120 to 300 hanks of 840 yards each.^ Short staple upland yarn is woven into all sorts of fabrics, is used for mixing with wool, silk and flax, knit into hosiery or made into cordage of various sizes and descriptions. Long staple upland cotton is utilized largely for making sewing threads and fine lawns, while the finer threads for sewing and for laces and the finest cotton fabrics are made from sea island cotton. 1 It is said that a pound of sea island cotton has produced as high as 2,000 counts. FUUiR CROPS 377 The following table shows the number of counts usually ob- tained from a pound of lint of the several types of cotton: Table Showing Number of Counts in Different Types of Cotton Type Number of counts Short staple upland 30- 60 Long staple upland ...... 50- 80 Peruvian ........ 40— 70 Egyptian 70-250 Sea island 100-400 Linters ......... 8-10 479. Manufactories. — In 1901 there were in the United States 1,055 establishments for the manufacture of cotton exclusive of hosiery and knit goods. The valuation of the products, in-, eluding custom work and repairing, of these manufactories at that date was in round numbers 339 million dollars. The aver- age value of imports of cotton manufactures during 1901-05 was $47,122,800, as against average exports to the value of $31,333,- 375-' Of spindles in operation September first, 1905, there were 23,- 850,000 as against 16,100,000 the same date in 1895. The aver- age percentage of the commercial crop taken by United States mills has been for the years 1901-05 a trifle more than 36 per cent. The statistics of the factory supply, number of spindles and mill consumption of cotton by countries were as shown in table on page 378." In the United States the numxber of spindles in the northern states was 15,865,790, while in the southern states it was 8,211,- 734. The increase in the number of spindles in five years was 12 per cent, in the northern and 108 per cent, in the south- ern states. ^Dept. Com. and Labor, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1905, pp. 441, 655, 656. 2 Dept. Com. and Labor, Bureau Census Bui. No. 40 (1906), p. 56. 37^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Table Showing World's Statistics of Cotton, 1904-05 Bales 500 Pounds Net Country- Commercial crop for 1904 bales Spindles number Mill con- sumption bales ■ United States 13,084,575 24,077,524 48,400,000 7,000,000 27,988,546 5,250.000 1,387,846 3,422,822 4,278,980 3,600,000 Russia Other Europe India Japan Egypt Other countries 554,000 1 2,712,000 1,258,000 833,000 1,285,000 5,003,900 1,590,000 875,000 760,000 Total 18,441,515 117,526,738 17,392,880 480. Seed. — The extravagant statement has been made that if the cotton plant produced no lint, it would still be worth growing on account of its seed. In recent years, however, cot- ton seed has risen to such a price on account of the increasing demand of the cotton-seed oil mills that it has become an im- portant element in the cotton planter's profits. The seed as re- ceived by the oil mill is first re-ginned, by which a portion of the linters is removed. It is next hulled, since the hulls would, if not removed, absorb the oil. The meats are next cooked at 220° F. for 15 to 20 minutes to coagulate the albuminoids, to partially drive out the water and to melt the oil, and finally subjected to a pressure of 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per square inch. The crude oil is shipped in tank cars to the refinery, while the cake is dried, cooked, and then ground, when it is known as cotton-seed meal. The amounts of the different products obtained will vary with the character and condition of seed, and the skill and per- 1 Turkestan and Transcaucasia in Asia. FIBER CROPS 379 fection of the manufactory methods, but the separation is never absolutely perfect. (407) The uses which the seed serves may be shown in the following graphic manner, which gives standard results obtained at the cotton-seed oil mills : ^ Short lint ■ Batting or linters Carpets 35 lbs. . Rope and twine ' Cattle food Hulls Fuel 865 lb3. Fertilizers Paper stock Cotton , seed Culinary uses ,000 lbs. Lard compounds Crude oil Substitute for olive oil 300 lbs. or Oleomargarine Meats 40 gallons Medicinal compounds 1,100 lbs. Soap stock L Cake meal ' Cattle food 800 lbs. Fertilizer The seed is still used largely as fertilizer, either composted with manure and commercial fertilizers or otherwise, although less extensively than formerly. (440) The seed is rather sparingly used as cattle food. 481. Oil. — The cotton-seed oil industry has developed chiefly in the last quarter of a century, the greater progress being made in the last decade. In 1905 there were 715 cotton-seed products mills representing a capital of seventy-four million dollars. ^ The Census Bureau gives the quantity of products per ton of cotton seed, as manufactured in the United States, in 1905, as follov^rs: crude oil 300 lb., meal 813 lb., hulls 725 lb., linters 35 lb.; total 1,873 lb. The value of the products is given as follows: crude oil $9.37, meal $8.30, hulls $1.67, linters $1.38; total $20.72. The average cost of a ton of cotton seed to the manu- facturer is given as $15.53. 380 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA • The crude oil which is pressed from the meats of the cotton seed goes to the reifinery where it is first filtered to remove for- eign matter in suspension, and then treated with caustic soda, which unites with the free fatty acids. This product, called soap stock, is removed by settling, or more rarely by filter presses, and is used in the manufacture of soap. The resulting oil is known as sum.mer yellow oil, which may constitute from 80 to 95 per cent, of the original crude oil. Summer yellow is next mixed with fuller's earth and the agitated mass passed through a filter press, which removes the yellow color and leaves the oil nearly or quite the color of pure water, when it is known as summer white oil. Summer white oil is used for making lard compounds, in the manufacture of oleomargarine, as a substitute for olive oil, and directly as cotton-seed oil for various culinary purposes for which lard and other fats are used. It is also sold largely under the name of salad oil, although not all salad oil is cotton-seed oil. Al- though a perfectly desirable and healthful article of food, its use is unfortunately somewhat surreptitious. While much of the larger amount of cotton-seed oil in commerce is summer white oil, other kinds or qualities of oil are produced. Summer yel- low oil is sometimes bleached to a white oil by the use of sul- phuric acid, when it is known as miner's oil. Winter oils are also produced from summer oils by reducing the temperature to about 30° F., when the stearin solidi- fies and is separated from the liquid olein by filtration under pressure at the temperature named. The stearin is sold to make lard compounds such as cottolene, while winter yellow oil is highly prized for cooking, because olein does not decompose on frying so readily, and hence does not produce the disagreeable odor noticeable with summer oils.^ Winter white oil is used for the manufacture of medicinal compounds. "Cottonseed-oil mills may be divided into two classes: (1) those of large capacity, erected at railway centers, and (2) small cooperative mills, built in 1 Tompkins: Cotton and Cotton Oil, p. 359. FIBER CROPS 3?';'^ towns with scanty railway facilities and depending for seed upon \ocHlf s:spply. Each class of mills has its advantages. The larger mill has more competition in securing its seed supply, but on the other hand, it can readily draw upon other localities. The expenses incident to operation and markccmg ot product are proportionally less than in the smaller establishment, and make it possible to employ expert operators. It can carry the processes of manutacture further, refining its oil, and conducting correlated industries. "An advantage of the small operative mill is that the farmers, on account of stock holdings, furnish the seed supply at reasonable prices, and gxiarantec a ready market for the meal and hulls for fertilizing and feeding purposes. In this way freight charges are saved both on the seed and on the more bulk> products, leaving only the oil and linters, which constitute about 17 per cent, of the weight of the products obtained from a ton of seed, to be shipped tj remote markets. "Possibly the most difficult problem in connection with the cottonseed products industry is the proper storing and preservation of the seed. The lint is almost waterproof, and is but little injured in passing from field to the factory. But not so with the seed, which is very easily injured, and reaches the mill in much worse condition relatively than the lint. In wet seasons this deterioration amounts to a large percentage of the value of the seed, and the products from such damaged seed must be sold for very in- ferior uses. The value of the oil especially depends upon the condition of the seed when it reaches the mill. Evidently the products manufactured from cottonseed would be more useful and more valuable if it were Cr'.refully graded and the good and bad seed kept separate. To accomplish this vhe cooperation of the grower, ginner, and miller is required. The present tendency to establish small cottonseed-oil mills with ginneries attached is a step in this direction, as the seed may be stored at the time it is removed f i om the lint." ^ 482. Cotton-seed Meal. — The weight of cotton seed meal is about two-fifths that of the cotton seed as it goes to the cotton-seed mill. It is used in the United States as a fer- tilizer either as such or mixed in commercial fertilizer. It is used principally as a source of nitrogen, but also contains phos- phoric acid and potash, the percentage of each in round num- bers being '/, 2.5, and 1.5 per cent, respectively. Cotton-seed meal is extensively sold as cattle food, being largely exported to Great Britain and othet countries. Mixed with wheat flour or maize meal, it has been baked into various forms of bread stuffs, when it is said to be palatable and wholesome. The ex- 1 Dept. Com. and Labor, Bu. Census Bui. No. 40 (1906), pp. 68, 69. 382 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA port of cotton-seed cake and cotton-seed meal was in 1905, 626,000 tons valued at nearly fourteen million dollars. Table Showing Composition of Cotton-seed Meal^ and Hulls Cot on-seed meal Cott on-secd hulls Analysis Mini- Maxi- Aver- Mini- Maxi- Aver- mum mum age mum mum age Water 5.3 18.5 8.5 7.3 16.7 11.4 Ash 1.7 10.6 7.0 1.7 4.4 2.7 Protein 23.3 52.9 43.3 2.8 5.4 4.2 Crude fiber .... 1.9 15.2 5.4 35.8 67.0 45.3 Nitrogen-free extract 9.2 38.7 22.3 12.4 41.2 34.2 Fat 2.2 20.7 13.5 0.8 5.4 2.2 Nitrogen .... 3.2 8.1 6.8 0.4 1.0 0.7 Phosphoric acid 1.3 4.6 2.9 0.1 0.6 0.3 Potash 0.9 3.3 1.8 0.4 1.3 1.0 Cotton-seed meal is highly prized as a source of easily di- gestible protein and fat for milch cows, and fattening cattle and sheep. Experience has shown that it is unsafe to feed to calves and to swine of any age, sickness and death resulting from causes not well understood.^ When fed to milch cows, fattening cattle and sheep, it is desirable to begin gradually, and not to feed exclusively or excessively. A safe rule is to begin feeding not to exceed two pounds per day per 1,000 pounds live weight, and not to increase beyond six pounds per day. Fermented meal never should be used for feeding. Fresh meal has a bright yellow color and a nutty odor. Cotton-seed meal is sometimes adulterated with finely ground cotton-seed hulls. The hulls are not injurious but decrease the ^ Sometimes called decorticated cotton-seed meal to distinguish it from meal that is made without removing hulls. In most cotton growing countries, except the United States, it is customary to express the oil without previous removal of the hulls, 2 Texas Sta. Bui. No. 55 (1899), p. 209. FIBER CROPS 383 feeding value. It is said that English feeders prefer cotton- seed meal made from seed in which the oil is expressed without removing the hull because of the mechanical action of the hulls, such meal being purchased at a less price per ton. When fed to milch cows, cotton-seed meal raises the melting point and decreases the volatile acids of the butter. 483. Hulls. — Under present conditions of manufacture, a ton of cotton seed produces 700 to 900 pounds of hulls. These are used for cattle feeding, when they are considered equal to rather poor hay. They are also burned under the boilers of oil mills and the ash, which is rich in potash, used as a tobacco fertilizer. The hulls are also sometimes used as a fertilizer, but are not considered especially valuable, except for their mechanical effect upon heavy clay soils. 484. Stalks. — The dry matter in stems, leaves, and burs required to grow 500 pounds of cotton will weigh from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds. By the time the cotton is picked the leaves, about 20 per cent, of the whole plant, have largely fallen to- gether with some of the burs. In fenced fields cattle are some- times allowed to browse during the winfer. They eat the burs and smaller branches, leaving only the main stems. The cotton plant is not especially palatable to domestic animals, doubtless on account of the so-called resin cavities which play the part of a protective agency. When the land is put into cotton again or into some other crop, the stalks are gathered and burned or, what is considered a better practise, they are cut up with a stalk cutter and plowed under. A good quality of fiber has been obtained from the bark. Five tons of stalk will produce one ton of bark, and one ton of bark will produce 1,500 pounds of fiber. A good quality of paper has also been made from the stalks. In neither of these particulars has the plant assumed any commercial im- portance. 384 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA 485. History, — The general cultivation of cotton is not very ancient as compared to that of wheat. In a limited way it was cultivated in southeastern India in early times. The clothing of the ancient Egyptians was made of wool and flax. Alex- ander the Great is supposed to have brought the culture and use of cotton from India to the native Europeans. It was found in cultivation and use from Mexico and the West Indies to Brazil and Peru when America was discovered. The cultivation of cotton was limited before the Revolu- tionary War. It is said that in 1784 eight bales of American cotton were confiscated in Liverpool on the plea that cotton did not grow in America. The saw cotton gin, as invented in 1792 and patented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, with improvements patented by Hogden Holmes in 1796, greatly decreased the labor of removing the lint from the seed. This unique inven- tion and the excellent adaptation of southern United States to the growth of the cotton have been prime factors in making the culture and manufacture of cotton the world's greatest industry. Practicums 486. Study of Cotton Plant in Field. — Students may be taken to the cotton field at any time during the picking season, preferably at the second picking. Materials needed are a tape measure and a small fine-toothed comb. Distance apart of rows ft., in. Distance apart of plants in row: average of 10 plants in. Ground: levei, ridged; weedy, clean; compact, mellow. Plants: height ft., in.; width ft., in. Stem: continuous, divided; branches, abundant, medium, scarce; largest branches at bottom or middle. Branches: cylindrical, not cylindrical; boll-bearing, not; internodes or joints in. Fruit branches: where do they occur? Length in. Range of number of bolls to Leaves: number and depth of lobing Are leaves opposite or alternate? Are stipules present or absent? Hairiness of stems, branches and leaves: strong, medium, slight, absent. Bolls: no. on plant ; no. open ; average leng^th ; average circumference ; round, ellipsoidal, oval, irregular; pointing upward, downward; length of pedicel in. Sketch a longitudinal and cross section of bolls. FIBER CROPS 38s Burs: heavy not rolled, thin rolled; blunt pointed, sharp pointed; number of carpels Locks: no. of seeds per lock ; sketch arrangement; adherence to bolls, compact or flabby. Seeds: fuzzy, naked; if fuzzy, white, green, brown; if naked, black, brown; large, small; length of 5 placed end to end in. Is the hilum at large or small end ? ; where does longest lint occur ? Lint: average length in.; white, amber, brown; clean, dirty; strong, medium, weak; abundant, medium, scarce. 487. Study of Cotton in the Laboratory. — Give each student 5 open bolls of cotton from each of three regions of the plant — base, middle, and top, and from three types; as, sea island, long staple upland, and short staple upland; or three varieties; as, Peterkin, King, and Truitt. These should be picked and allowed to dry a couple of weeks be- fore using. The data ob- tained will permit a com- parison between cotton from different parts of the same plant, and that from differ- ent types or varieties. (a) Length of lint: average of 5 determinations In deter- mining length of lint, take a small sample from the middle portion of the seed. As far as possible, the middle seed of each lock should be taken. Note uniformity of length of lint over all portions of the seed. (b) Percentage of lint: average of 5 determinations Gin by hand one lock from each boll, and v/eigh separately total seed cotton and ginned seeds; the difference will be the amount of lint. (c) Determine number of seeds in each lock, and note amount of fuzz and color. From above data calculate: 1. Number of bolls required to make 1 lb. seed cotton; 2. Number of bolls required to make 1 lb. lint cotton; 3. Number of seeds to the pound. Fiber testing machine * 1 This machine was used by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Other fiber-testing machines are made by A. S. McKenzie, corner 11th St. and Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. T^S6 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA (d) Length uf 10 seeds in. Width of 10 seeds in. (e) Test tensile strength milligrams. N. B. — The distance between the point of attachment of fiber and the point of suspension of weight should be the same in every case. 488. Crossing Cotton. — Select plants of the type which it is desired to cross, which have a half dozen buds about to open, and remove all other buds or flowers. The flowers on the plants to be used as female parent should be emasculated by carefully clipping away the petals and the enclosed stamens, care being taken that none of the anthers are broken, and the pollen dropped upon the stigma. Both the plants of the female and the male parents may be covered with paper bags or as directed for wheat. (C. A. 196) When the clefts of the stigma open, which is usually at or just before sunrise, dust them with pollen from a flower which has just opened and taken from the plant to be used as the male parent. For convenience in handling, the petal? may be clipped off of the male flower. 489. Collateral Reading. — F. Wilkinson: The Story of the Cotton Plant. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1899. D. A. Tompkins: Cotton and Cotton Oil. Charlotte, N C: The Author, 1901. C. P. Brooks: Cotton, pp. 274-308. New York: Spon & Chamberlain, 1889. Louis Edgar Andes: Vegetable Fats and Oils, pp. 110-117. London: Scott, Greenwood & Co., 1897. Leebert Lloyd Lamborn: Cottonseed Products, pp. 16-30, 31-40. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1904. XXIII FIBER CROPS I. FLAX 490. Relationships. — The genus Linum has been divided into many species, but in many cases the distinctions are of minor importance. The only species of commercial importance is the common flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). There are both spring and winter varieties, the former only being cultivated in Amer- ica. There is a form of summer flax, sparingly cultivated in Europe, in which the capsules or seed bolls burst open and scatter the seed. Perennial flax (L. perenne L.) has been cul- tivated experimentally, but is of no commercial importance. Rocky Mountain flax (L. lenisii Pursh.), occurring widely throughout sub-arid western North America, has been used by the Indians for making cord, fish-nets, basket frames, and similar purposes. 491. Description. — Flax is an annual with a single, upright branching stem varying under cultivation from one and a half to three or more feet in height. It has a thread-like tap root, sparingly supplied with tender branches. The leaves are simple, narrow, entire, and nearly sessile. It has perfect, symmetrical, rather conspicuous blue flowers, all parts being in fives. The carpels, however, are divided by a false partition, hence the capsule or seed boll is usually ten-celled and ten-seeded. The seed boll is one-fourth inch or more in length, and the seeds vary in length from one-seventh to one-fifth inch. 492. Flax Seed. — The seeds are lenticular, compressed, with a smooth, polished surface, one-sixth to one-fourth inch long, 387 388 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA varying in color from yellow to dark brown, light brown being the standard color. The Minnesota Station found no ap- preciable difference between light brown and dark brown flax seeds either in general chemical composition, properties of the oil, or germinating power/ The average germination of flax seeds is about 85 per cent. The Canada Station found the decrease in viability during five years to be as follows: 81, 82, 75, 49, and 26 per cent. The cells of the epidermis or seed coat are filled with a mucilaginous material readily viscid in hot water, which gives flax seed its value in medicine. Flax seed has a large, straight, oily embryo consisting of two long, thick cotyledons and a short radicle. The endosperm which surrounds the embryo is com- paratively thin, and in mature seeds contains no starch. The seed is characterized by its high percentage of protein and oil, 20 to 25 per cent, of the former, and from 30 to 39 per cent, of the latter. The average composition of the flax seed and of old and new process linseed meal is as follows: Old process New process Analysis Flax seed linseed linseed meal meal Water 9.1 9.2 10.1 Ash 4.3 5.7 5.8 Protein (Nx6.25) . 22.6 32.9 33.2 Crude fiber .... 7.1 8.9 9.5 Nitrogen-free extract 23.2 35.4 38.4 Fat 33.7 7.9 3.0 Flax is grown in America almost exclusively for its seed, from which is obtained an oil highly prized for paint and varnish on account of its quality of drying quickly. The oil is obtained by crushing the seed and heating it to 165° F., after which it is either (i) placed between cloths or in sacks and 1 Minnesota Sta. Bui. No. 90 (1905), p. 226. FIBKR CROPS 389 Cross-section of bark of flax plant: b parenchyma, c bast, c/ cambium. 260 times (After Lugger) a epidermis, Enlarged subjected to hydraulic pressure; or (2) the warm meal is placed in large cylinders and treated with naphtha which extracts the oil, known in commerce as linseed oil. The resulting linseed meal is, in the first in- stance, known as old process linseed meal, and in the second as new process linseed meal. In either case on account of its high protein con- tent, and because of other valuable proper- ties, it is highly prized for stock feeding, espe- cially for use in rather small quantities, two pounds or less per 1,000 pounds of live weight. The yield of oil varies in different years, according to conditions under which the the seed is ripened. Ordinarily 100 pounds of pure, clean seed produce from 33 to 36 pounds of commercial oil weighing Longitudinal section of bark of flax plant: a 7.5 pounds per gallon. The epidermis, ^ parenchyma, c bast, a? cam- ... , . , . , bium. Enlarged 260 times Oil is used extensively in the ^p^n^j. Lugger) manufacture of paint, oil var- nishes, printing ink, floor cloth, artificial india-rubber, and soft soap. In the manufacture of colors and varnishes it is some- times mixed with hemp seed oil. 493. Flax Fiber. — In a flax stem three zones may be recog- nized— namely, the pith, the wood, and the bark. The bark is further divided into four layers, the skin or epidermis, the parenchyma, the bast or flax fiber cells, and the cambium layer. 390 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA Since the tough bast cells lie between the tender thin-walled cells of the parenchyma and cambium, it is possible, by "retting" the stems, to clear the flax fibers from the adjacent cells. The retting, which may be done by allowing the stems to be exposed to dew or rain, or by placing in pools of water, causes the parenchyma and cambium cells to decay or become tender, and thus permits the tougher fiber cells to be separated. (496) The bast or flax fiber cells are from 0.08 to 0.16 inch long, but they are so completely cemented together thLt continuous fibers the length of the flax stem may be removed. The dry stems of flax contain from 20 to 2^ per cent, of bast, 58 per cent, of which is pure fiber, 25 per cent, other substances soluble in water, and 17 per cent, soluble in alkalis.^ When dew retted, the fiber is silvery gray; when water retted, yellowish white. Two forms of commercial fiber are obtained: long, straight lint, 12 to 36 inches in length, and the short, tangled fiber which in dressing separates from the long lint, and is called tow. Coarse tow is also made by simply removing the remaining part of the stem and baling the tangled mass. The latter is used in upholstering and in making twine, bagging, and paper. Flax fiber is sparingly produced in Ontario, Canada, and a few of the northern United States. Flax fiber is produced principally in the cool, moist, low lying regions of northern Europe. Flax is the highest form of bast fiber, being used principally for the manufacture of laces, fine linens, dress goods, and thread. 494. Adaptation. — Flax may be grown for seed in any cli- mate or soil in which wheat can be successfully grown. Sandy loams are rather better than heavy clay loams. For the produc- tion of the best grades of fiber, a cool and continuously moist climate and soil are requisite. It is rather easily injured by late spring frosts. It requires about 90 days to mature. In the United States flax has always been a pioneer crop. It is customary for the pioneer to break the prairie sod about two 1 Minnesota Sta. Bui. No. 13 (1890), p. 37. IIJJER CROPS 391 inches deep, turning it over flat. After it has rotted one season it is cross-plowed about four inches deep, thus covering the rotted sod with about two inches of fresh soil. This is known as "back setting." On soil thus prepared wheat is usually sown. It has been the custom in the states farther south to plant maize upon the freshly turned sod, producing a crop with little or no cultivation, while in Minnesota, the Dakotas and western Canada it has been the custom to sow flax; thus a crop is se- cured while waiting for the sod to rot. Flax seed is there- fore a sort of by-product in the development of a new country, and this source of supply has been sufficient to meet the market demands. Further, soils soon become "flax sick" on account of the wilt disease, which causes the abandonment of flax culture in older regions. 495. Diseases. — Flax is attacked by several fungous diseases. Soil on which such attacks have occurred is known as flax sick soil. These diseases are the most serious hindrance to the successful cultivation of flax, either for seed or for fiber, but in no way do they affect the growth of other field crops. The most common one is the flax wilt disease (Fusarium lini BoUey), so called because the plants, attacked at all ages, die as if for want of water. This fungus starts from the infested soil or seed, and develops spores on the surface of the stems, and also within the stems and the seed. The remedy consists in a rotation of crops, in which flax occurs only once in eight years, and the sowing of pure, well-matured, clean seed. The North Dakota Station,^ which discovered this disease, states that all samples of seeds examined con- tain spores. Internal spores of diseased stems and seeds cannot be killed by treatment. Hence all bits of stems and diseased seeds must be removed, after which the pure, undiseased seeds may be treated with formalin, as for seed wheat, and oats. (C. A. 149) The itinerant threshing machine tends to spread the infection. Manure from animals fed on flax straw must not be used where flax is to be grown. Another species of the genus Fusarium, a species of Collet otrichum and of Alternaria, are destructive to flax. Flax rust (Melanospora lini (D. C.) Tul.), recognized by the yellow or orange spots on the older parts of the nearly mature stems, is not considered seriously injurious to flax grown for seed. 496. Cultural Methods. — The culture of flax for seed is similar to that of spring wheat. For the best results on old land rather deeper and more thorough preparation of the soil is 1 North Dakota Sta. Bui. No. 50 (1901); No. 55 (1903). 392 THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA desirable. The seed should be sown from one-half to one inch deep. For the production of fiber, broadcast seeding may be practised. Great care in obtaining uniform distribution is de- sirable. When sown in drills the outer plants of the drill row are coarser and more branched than the inner ones, and thus materially reduce the uniformity of the product. Seeding should follow rather than precede spring wheat and oats. Unlike the cereals, the plant is much modified by the thick- ness of seeding. When the stand is thin the stems produce many branches, and consequently many seeds. When sown sufficiently thick, branches develop only at the top, and few seeds are pro- duced, but the fiber is of superior quality. When seed is the sole object, two or three pecks are used; when both seed and fiber are desired, twice the amount of seed is employed, and when fiber only is produced, three to four times the amount is used. Because of the wilt disease, special care in the selection and treatment of the seed should be observed. (495) Flax is an easy crop to harvest with the self-binder, is pleas- ant to handle, and is not readily damaged while standing in the shock. It may be threshed with an ordinary threshing ma- chine. In Ontario the crop, when grown for fiber, is pulled by hand, the work being done by men, women, and children. A man may pull one-third of an acre a day. The crop is tied in small bundles, placed in shock, and when dry sold, without removing the seed, to the scutching mills. Under favorable conditions two to three tons per acre are produced. "The best flax is pulled, for the following reasons: (1) to secure straw of full length; (2) to avoid stain and injury, which would occur from soil moisture soaking into the cut stems while curing in the shock; (3) to secure better curing of the straw and ripening of the seed; and (4) to avoid the blunt cut ends of the fiber. Flax that has not grown well enough to produce first-grade fiber is sometimes cut with a self-rake reaper. After curing in the shock for two or three weeks the seed is threshed out, usually by holding an unbound bundle in the hands, and passing the heads two or three times between rapidly revolving rollers which crush the seed pods, the seed after- wards being cleaned in a fanning mill. The straw is then bound into bundles and stored until time for retting, in October or early November. Nearly all FIBER CROPS m of the fiber flax grown in the United States and Canada is retted by spreading the straw carefully and evenly on the ground, where it is exposed to the weather for two to four weeks. After retting, it is raked up, tied in bundles, and taken to the mills, where it is broken, scutched, and hackled. In each of these operations it is picked up and handled in small handfuls, and some of the processes, especially hackling, require a high degree of skill. Numerous machines have been invented to pull flax, spread it for retting, break it, and scutch the fiber, but none of them has given sufficient satisfaction to be gen- erally adopted. Until machines are devised to take the place of hand labor, and reduce the cost of the preparation of flax fiber, there is little probability that the industry in this country can be increased in competition with other crops which may be cultivated with greater profit." ^ 497. Production.— While one of the most important fiber crops of the world, flax is grown in America chiefly for its seed, the large production of which in the United States and Argentina has made this one of the principal oil-producing plants. The principal flax seed producing states are North Da- kota, Minnesota and South Da- kota. While in the United States flax is a secondary crop, in Ar- gentina it is one of increasing importance. In the year 1902-3 the acreage of flax in Argentina was nearly equal to that of maize, and about one-sixth the total acreage of farm crops in the same country. In the same year the acreage in the United States was 3,233,229, and in Argentina, 3,221,400 acres. "Flax, that devourer of the richness of the land, is a crop which, necessarily, must be of a nomadic character; it cannot become a staple crop in farms worked in a regular manner, because it would absorb all the strength of the soil, and quickly produce sterility. In such cases it can only be grown at intervals of five years, after a methodical rotation of crops calculated to World's average production, 9 years, 78,824,400 bushels Diagram showing the percentage of the world's production >,. flax-seed by countries for an averi'/" of 9 years, 1896-1904 lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, pp. 391, 392. 394 '-THE FOHAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA restore to the soil the elements withdrawn from it by the flax. For the present the enormovs area of virgin soil offers ample space for the cultivation of flax. But the afea of land still to be broken up will soon only be found in a more distant i*egion. So that the cultivation of this crop will become, pecuniarily, more difficult; however, it is, for the time being, a matter of large figures, rapidly increasing, in the bulk of our crops, and in the profit which its exportation returns in good gold to our farmers." ^ The average yield of flax seed in the United States for ten years, ending 1905 was, in round numbers, 22 million bushels, and the average farm price on December i for the four years ended 1905 was 93 cents per bushel. Weight per bushel, sound- ness and uniformity of seeds are the principal factors in estab- lishing the grade. No. i northern grade must weigh 51 pounds or more per bushel, and not contain more than one-eighth ''field, stock, storage or other damaged seeds." The usual legal weight per bushel in Canada and the United States is 56 pounds. Of flax fiber in the world's commerce, Europe is the sole producer. Russia produces more than three-fourths of the crop, while of the remaining ten countries producing the fiber, Austria-Hun- gary is the chief.^ 498. History. — The history of flax is contemporaneous with that of wheat. The clothing of the ancient Egyptians and He- brews was largely made of flax, and its culture was introduced into Europe in remote times. Flax fiber is comparatively much less important since the general introduction of cotton. It has been called the "fiber of luxury," while cotton has been referred to as the "fiber of the masses." Its use as a source of oil has increased rapidly within recent times. II. HEMP 499. Hemp. — (Cannabis sativa L.), a plant closely related to the hop and ramie, and belonging to the mulberry family (Mo- raceae), is a native of western and central Asia, having been 1 M. Bernardez: The Argentine Estancia, pp. 94, 95. 2 For flax culture in Europe, see U. S. Dcpt. .\gr., Farmers' Bui. No. 274; also published as Bui. No. 71 by North Dakota Station. FIBER CROPS 395 Hemp seed. I Calyx; II outer surface of fruit; III lon- gitudinal section of fruit. F pericarp; S testa; E en- dosperm; C cotyledon; R radical. Three times nat- ural size. (After Winton) The "seeds" on the market consist for the most part of naked fruit with an occasional fruit enclosed within the hooded caljrx. cultivated in China from remote times. It is a rough, erect annual 8 to lo, in some cases 12 to 15, feet in height, with stam- inate and pistillate flowers on separate plants. The pistillate plants are more branched than the staminate ones, and are less valuable for fiber. The seeds on the market consist, for the most part, of naked fruits or achenes, with an occasional fruit en- closed within the hooded calyx. The seeds are oval, about one-eighth to one- sixth inch long and one-twelfth inch wide. The crushed seed emits a char- acteristic odor. The seed contains 30 to 35 per cent, of oil, and the yield of oil varies according to process from 25 to 32 per cent. Like olive oil, it is used for culinary purposes, and also for burning, soapmaking, and as an ingredient of oil colors and varnish. The usual legal weight per bushel of seed is 44 pounds. Hemp thrives best in a temperate climate, and may be grown on any soil adapted to maize. Where the waste products are returned to the land, it is not considered an exhaustive crop. In some places it is grown continuously for many years on the same land. This, however, is not a desirable practise, if for no other reason than on account of the possible attacks from broom- rape (Orobanche ramosa L.), a parasitic plant which is some- times quite destructive to hemp, and for which a rotation of crops is the best known preventive. In America, hemp is raised chiefly in the blue grass region of Kentucky and Tennessee, al- though it has been grown successfully in more northern states. It is usually sown broadcast at the rate of four to six pecks per ^ 39^ THE FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA acre between oat sowing and maize planting. It fully subdues all weeds. Hemp is considered ready to harvest when the first ripe seed is found in the head, which requires about loo days. The har- vesting depends somewhat upon the rankness of growth. Hemp is cut with a mower or self-rake reaper when not too large, or by hand, as in the case of maize. Jt is allowed to lie on the ground until retted or rotted by dews and rains, when it is shocked or tied in bundles and stacked. In some cases the hemp is broken in the field, thus leaving the waste products upon the soil; in other cases it is carried to a central place where more rapid machinery is used. The yield of fiber may be from 500 to 1,500 pounds, and of seed from 10 to 30 bushels per acre. When grown for seed, hemp is planted like maize, at the rate of two quarts per acre. When retted by dews and rains, as is the custom in this country, the fiber is gray and somewhat harsh, but when retted in water, as in Italy, the fiber is creamy white, lustrous, soft and pliable. Hemp is raised in this country for its fiber, but it is widely raised elsewhere also for its oily seed and for the resinous exu- dation from its leaves and stems, from which intoxicating prep- arations are made. The hemp fiber raised in this country is used chiefly for cordage and warp for carpets. III. JUTE 500. Jute fiber is obtained from two closely related annual plants (Chor- chorus capsularis L. and C. olitorius L.), belonging to the linden family and native of Asia. In general, they resemble hemp. The first form grows nine to ten feet high, and has short, globular seed pods, while the second, nalta jute, is smaller and has elongated, cylindrical pods. The bast fibers of both are practically the same. The leaves of the nalta jute are also used as a vegetable. Jute may be successfully grown in the cotton belt. These plants prefer a moist, warm climate, and rich, alluvial soils. Seed may be sown broadcast about the same time as cotton, using 15 to 20 pounds of seed per acre, or may be started in beds and subsequently transplanted. Plants are harvested by cutting close to the ground or pulling up by the roots. Jute will not FIBER CROPS 397 become an established industry in America until some means of economically extracting the fiber from the stalk has been devised. Jute is principally cultivated in Bengal, India, and is largely exported to this country, being the cheapest fiber used in American textile manufacture, and used more largely than any other, except cotton and sisal. It is usually employed for cotton bale covering, bagging, twine, and carpets. When ex- posed to moisture, fabrics made from jute soon lose their strength because the material which cements the cells together is dissolved. The fiber in the lower 5 to 25 inches of the stalk being coarse, is cut off and sold at an inferior price under the name of jute butts, while the remainder of the fiber — finer, softer, and more easily spun — is sold as jute fiber. IV. RAMIE 501. Ramie (Boehmeria nivea Gaud.) is a perennial shrub with herbaceous shoots, belonging to the nettle family. It somewhat resembles hemp in gen- eral growth and appearance. It is an inter-tropical plant, and grows readily in the Gulf states where a good supply of moisture, coupled with thorough drainage, is obtainable. It has been grown in this country in an experimental way only. The plant may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, or division of roots. If by seeds, the plants are started in hotbeds. Cuttings of the ripened wood, including three buds, are set like willow cuttings, with the middle bud at the surface of the ground. Propagation by division of the roots of the fully matured plants is recommended for this country. The plants should be placed about as thickly as the hills of maize. It has been grown in eastern Asia from remote times in a limited way. The fiber is there extracted by hand by a slow and tedious process, and is used for cordage and other coarse manufactures as well as for making textiles of great fineness and beauty. It can never become an important industry until some machine is brought into use which will economically extract the fiber from its green, tough, and gummy bark. V. MANILA FIBER 502. Manila Fiber or Abaca {Musa textilis Nee), usually called manila hemp, is a hard or structural fiber coming from one or more perennial species belonging to the same genus as the common banana, and which occur only in restricted areas in the Philippines. The plant requires abundant rainfall, a moist atmosphere and a well-drained soil. The plants are propagated from suckers or seeds, chiefly the former, set in hills five to eight feet apart. They require no cul- 398 THE FORAGE x\i\D FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA tivation, since the rapid growth soon shades the ground. Small shrubs which sometimes occur are cut out with bolos. Planta- tions thus started may last for generations. The plant is har- vested as soon as the flower bud appears, — about three years from planting when propagated by cuttings, and about five years when seeds are sown. The plant attains a height of 8 to 20 feet, and the leaf sheaves of which the stems are chiefly com- posed are 5 to 12 feet in length. As soon as cut, the leaves are divided into thin strips and drawn by hand under a knife held by a spring against a piece of wood, which scrapes away the pulp. One laborer may harvest about 25 pounds of fiber a day. A fair yield of fiber is estimated at from 350 to 500 pounds per acre annually. The average yield of the cultivated area in the Philippines, in 1902, was approximately 275 pounds per acre. The pro- duction of manila fiber is the most important industry of the Philippines, and constitutes more than half the value of the exports. "The best grade of manila fiber is of a light buff color, lustrous and very s rong, in fine, even strands 6 to 12 feet in length. Poorer grades are coarser and duller in color, some of them yellow or even dark brown, and lacking in strength. The better grades are regarded as the only satisfactory material known in commerce for making hawsers, ships' cables, and other marine cordage which may be exposed to salt water, or for well-drilling cables, hoisting ropes, and transmission ropes to be used where great strength and flexibility are required. The best grade of binder twine is made from manila fiber, Manila fiber. Native Tagalog woman, about five feet tall (From photo by Gilmore) 1-I15KR CKOIS ^QQ since ownp to its greater strength it can be made up at 650 feet to the pound as compared with sisal at 500 feet." ^ VI. SISAL 503. Sisal. — Several species of the genus Agave, to which the century plant belongs, have been cultivated in Central Carrying hemp. Manila (From photo by Gilmore) America for many hundred years, the most highly prized and the source of commercial fiber being the sisal plant (Agave rigida Miller), known in Spanish speaking countries as henequin. The fiber is a structural or hard fiber, and is obtained from ' U. S. Dcpt. Agr. Yearbook 1903, p. 395. 4-00 THK FORAGE AND FIBER CROPS IN AMERICA the large, thick leaves by crushing with machinery, the most improved types of which will crusli 150,000 leaves daily. A thousand leaves are estimated to produce 50 pounds of fiber. Under favorable conditions a yield of 600 to 1,200 pounds of fiber per acre may be obtained. The fiber is yellowish white, two and a half to four feet in length, harsh and lacking in flexi- bility and easily decomposed by salt water. Next to cotton, it is the most extensively used fiber in the United States, being used principally for binder twine and for mixing with manila fiber in the manufacture of cordage of various sizes. Door mats and other coarse floor matting are made largely of sisal. Yucatan sisal is shipped in bales weighing from 350 to 400 pounds. The sisal is a tropical plant growing on barren, rocky land, useless for other agricultural purposes. It develops best in a limestone soil and a comparatively dry climate. Its cultivation is confined almost exclusively to Yucatan, the West Indian Islands, and Hawaii, the former being by far the chief source of the commercial fiber. "The sisal plant is propagated by suckers springing from the roots of old plants, or from bulbils. Bulbils, called 'mast plants,' are produced in great numbers on the flower stalks in place of seed pods, like onion sets. The plants are set out during the rainy season, in rows four to eight feet apart, in holes dug in partly disintegrated coral or lime rock with crowbars, pickaxes, and sometimes with the aid of dynamite. The ground where sisal is grown is usually too rocky to permit any stirring of the soil. About the only care given is to cut the brush and weeds once or twice each year. The weeds and brush, largely leguminous plants, by decaying on the ground add fertility to the soil. The first crop of outer leaves of the plants is cut at the end of three years when grown from suckers, or four years when grown from mast plants. From ten to twenty leaves are produced each year for a period of twelve to twenty-five years in Yucatan, ten to fifteen years in Cuba, and six to twelve years in the Bahamas. An unusually cold winter at any period tends to check growth and cause the plants to send up flower stalks, after which they die." ^ VII. MAGUEY 504. The Maguey Plant (Agave cantula Roxb., A. vivipara L.) has the same habits of growth, and is propagated by the same methods as the sisal lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, pp. 395, 396. Fir.KR CROPS 401 plant, to which it is closely related. Like the sisal plant, it is adapted to a tropical dry climate and a thin, rt)cky limestone soil. "The henequin of Yucatan, Agave rigida clongata Baker, the sisal of Hawaii, Agave rigida sisalana Engelmann; and the maguey of the Philippine Islands, recently identified at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as Agave cantula, are very similar plants. All have the short, thick stem; the aloe-like cluster of large, fleshy leaves; and the tall flower stalk, or 'pole,' which bears a large number of small bulbils, or pole plants. The Hawaiian plant differs from that of Yucatan in having a shorter trunk; leaves smooth-edged, or bearing a few unequal teeth; and the fiber less in quantity, but superior in quality. The Philippine maguey plant has a short trunk; leaves from 4 to 6 feet long, from 254 inches wide at the base to 4 inches wide at the middle, and about 1 inch thick at the base; lateral teeth three-fourths to 1^ inches apart; dark- brown terminal spine one-half inch long; and fiber fine, white, and longer, but less in quantity than either the Yucatan or the Hawaiian varieties." * While native of Mexico, it is now grown in a minor way in nearly every province of the Philippine islands. The production of maguey fiber, known in England as manila aloe, is small compared with manila fiber in the Philip- pines, or sisal in Yucatan. The production is increasing, however, and it is believed that by the introduction of sisal breaking machinery to take the place of salt water retting and hand cleaning, the production may be greatly increased, and the quality somewhat improved. It is generally used for the same purposes as sisal, and sells for slightly less per pound. VIII. ISTLE 505. IsTLE or Tampico fiber is produced by four or five different species of plants closely related to sisal growing wild on the arid table lands of northern Mexico, and southern Texas, and New Mexico. There are three types of this fiber recognized — namely, (1) Jaumave istle (Agave lophantha Schiede), 20 to 40 inches long, almost white, and nearly as flexible as sisal; (2) Tula istle (principally from Lamnella carnerosana), twelve to thirty inches long, coarser, and less flexible; and (3) Palma istle (Agave lecheguiUa Torr.), 15 to 30 inches long, coarse, stiff, yellow in color and somewhat gummy. Originally used only for the manufacture of brushes, it has lately been employed for mixing with other fibers in the manufacture of the cheaper grades of twine and larger cordage. IX. NEW ZEALAND HEMP 506. New Zealand Hemp (Phormium tenax L.), sometimes called New Zealand flax, produces a hard or structural fiber. It has been tried experi- mentally at the California Station, and is sometimes grown on the Pacific coast as an ornamental plant, but has never been grown commercially in America. The commercial supply of fiber comes exclusively from New Zealand. 1 Dept. Interior, Bureau Agriculture, Farmers' Bui. No 13 (1906), pp. 11, 12. 402 Till: l-OKAGr: AND liDER CKOl'S IX AM F.RICA 507. CoLi^TERAL Reading. — C. R. Dodge: Report on Flax, Hemp, Ramie, and Jute. U. S. Dept. Agr„ Div. Stat. Report No. 1, 1890. C. R. Dodge: A Report on Flax Culture for Seed and Fiber in Europe and America. U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Fiber Investigations Report No. 10, pp. 37-61, 1898. Wm. Saunders: Flax. Dept. Agr., Central Expt. Farm, Ottawa, Can., Bui. No. 25, 1896. Harry Snyder: The Draft of Flax on the Soil. Minnesota Station Bui. No. 47, 1896. H. L. Bolley: Flax and Flaxseed Selection. North Dakota Station Bui. No. 55, 1903. Lyster H. Dewey: Principal Commercial l^lant Fibers. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1903, pp. 390-8. John Geddes Mcintosh: The Manufacture of \'arnishes and Kindred In- dustries, Vol. I, pp. 94-145. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1904. The Upson-Walton Co.: Rope. Cleveland, Ohio: The Author, 1902, John W. Gilmore: Preliminary Report on the Commercial Fibers of the Philippines. Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, Farmers' Bui. No. 4. Manila, 1903. C. R. Dodge: Sisal Hemp Culture. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Stat., Fiber Investigations Report No. 3, 1891. H. T. Edwards: The Cultivation of Maguey in the Philippine Islands. Dept. Interior, Bu. Agr., F^armers' Bui. No. 13, 1906. Mariano Abella: Cultivation of Abaca. In the Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. IV (1903), pp. 20-4. Washington: United States Bureau of the Census, 1905. INDEX PAGE Abaca 397 Acquirement of nitrogen with- out legumes 128 Acreage, annual forage plants. HI Adaptability in grass mixtures. 21 Adulterants 17 Adulterations, red clover 145 Agave cantula 400 rigida 399 Agropyron spicatum 25 Agrostidea, distinguishing 3 importance I relationships ". . . . 2 Agrostis alba 66 canina 66 Chase on 67 forms 66 Hitchcock on 67 in New England 24 Olcott on 67 relationships 2 Alfalfa 174 adaptation 183 after treatment 187 animal pests 193 bees, visitation....... 177 comparative digestibility... 197 conditions affecting success 184 distribution 182 dodder 179 extermination 181 etymology 174 feeding value 198 fungous diseases 191 field dodder 179 Grimm 181 in north 182 habit of growth 175 hay, curing 195 time of cutting 194 history 199 honey bees, visitation 177 in Argentina 183 inflorescence , 177 insects 192 in west 183 number of cuttings 194 nurse crop 187, 190 on calcareous soils 184 pastures 198 quantity of seed 188 relationships 174 root-rot 192 roots 174 root-tubercles 175 rotations 188 seed 178 adulterations 179 germination 181 harvesting 196 PAGE Alfalfa seed, impurities 179 purity 181 source 196 seeding method 189 rate 189 time 189 seeds to pound 178 silage 195 soil inoculation 186 treatment 184 Turkestan 181 introduction 182 value 197 varieties 181 water requirement 187 weeds 191 weight per bushel seed 178 Alopecurus pratensis 62 relationships 2 Alsike clover 1 62 description 162 flower heads 162 germination 164 history 165 ill effect... 164 maturity, time 163 purity 164 relationships 162 seed 164 seeding 164 seeds to pound 164 value 163 Anaerobic ferment 128 Analyses and feeding value 13 .4ndropogoneae, native 25 .4ndropogon provincialis 25 Ankee 116 Annual forage plants Ill acreage Ill Anthoxanthum, relationships.... 2 odoratutn 101 Anthracnose, description 226 Anthyllis zmlneraria 214 Arachis hypogaea 219 Arrhenatherum elaiius 100 relationships 2 Asexual reproduction in grasses 4 Atriplex 119 Avena, relationships 2 Aveneae, relationships 2 Awnless brome grass 93 Azotobacter beyerincki 128 chroococcum 128 vinelandii 128 Bacillus radicicola 127, 128 Back setting defined 391 Bacteria, adaptability to host... 129 dissemination 129 longevity 129 W. Va. Station 131 403 404 INDEX PAGE Baling hay 48 Bast fibers defined 306 Barnyard grass 116 millet 116 Bean 219 Bees, visiting alfalfa 177 Beet, adaptation 280 bolt 283 description 276 histology 277 insects . . , 282 leaf -spot 282 root systen 211 scab 282 seed defined 283 production 287 single-germ 285 types 276 Beets, cultivatioi 285 distance apart 284 fungous diseases 282 harvesting 285 preparation of the soil 282 rotation . . . . , 281 seeding 283 thinning 284 Bermuda grass . . , 97 adaptation 98 description 97 in cotton staxes 24 propagation 98 relationships 2 seed 98 seeding time 98 seeds to pound 98 value 99 variety for lawn 99 Berseem , , 1 72 Beta vulgaris 276 Bird's-foot trefoil, 212 Black medic 201 adaptation . . ,. , 202 description . . , , 201 seed 202 adulterant 202 in alfalfa .leed 179 seeding rate 203 Black rot 293 Bloat due to legunus 10 Blue grass 71 relationships 2 Blue joint, relations lips 2 Blue stem, big, a mtive grass.. 25 Boehmeria nivea 397 Bouteloua oligostachya 25 relationships . 2 Brachypodeae, relationships 2 Brachy podium, relationships .... 2 Brassica napus 295 types 289 Brisa, relationships 2 Brome grass 93 Brotnus inernis 93 relationships 2 Unioloides 93 Broom corn millet 115 Broom-rape 151, 395 PAGE Buffalo grass in west 24 relationships 2 Bunch grass, in west 24 relationships 2 Bur clover, culture 204 Bur clovers 203 distribution 203 Cabbage 290 harlequin bug 294 looper 294 maggot 294 plant louse 294 seeds to pound 292 worm 294 Cabbages, distance apart 292 plants to acre 292 yields 286 Calamagrostis canadensis in west 24 relationships 2 Calculating mixtures 22 California millet 114 Canada blue grass 71 a weed 72 recommendations 12 seed an adulterant 74 source 80 Canary grass, relationships 2 Cannabis safi-i'a 394 Capriola dactylon 97 Carnation clover 168 Carolina clover 162 Carrot 298 adaptation 299 root section 298 varieties classified 298 Carrots, cultural methods 299 for horses 295 germination 299 seeding 299 seeds to pound 299 yields 299 Caryopsis defined 20 Cassava 300 Cereals for forage, treatise 1 Chaetochloa italica 112 viridis 114 Characters, common in grasses. 6 distinguishing grasses 8 forage grasses 1 Chinese yam 300 Chipmunk 193 Chlorideae, native 25 relationships 2 Chorchorus 396 Chufa 300 Climate and fertilizers 32 and forage grasses 33 Clipping pastures 36 Clostridium pastenrianum 128 Clover, cause of slobbers 166 curing 154, 160 dodder 179 failure, causes 152 fertilizers 149 fungous diseases 152 hay 154 hullers 156 INDEX 405 PAGE Clover leaf weevil 153 midge 154 root borer 153 sickness 151 Clovers 140 economic 140 introduced species 141 native 140 relationships 140 treatise 142 western species 141 Club-root 293 Cocksfoot 81 Collateral reading, Chapter 1 . . . 26 Chapter 2 51 Chapter 3 64 Chapter 4 80 Chapter 5 109 Chapter 6 119 Chapter 7 138 Chapter 8 161 Chapter 9 173 Chapter 10 200 Chapter 11 218 Chapter 12 240 Chapter 13 256 Chapter 14 274 Chapter 15 303 Chapter 16 310 Chapter 17 324 Chapter 18 339 Chapter 19 350 Chapter 20 363 Chapter 21 375 Chapter 22 386 Chapter 23 402 Colorado grass 117 Composition of hay of forage grasses 13 Composting for cotton ,• • • • 347 Cornell Station on fertilizing timothy meadows 34 longevity of plants 30 timothy seed selection. .... 54 propagating individual tim- othy plants 56 Cost a feature of cultivated grasses 12 Cotton, American upland 326 anthracnose 363 bale, standard size 370 weight 370 belt 351 black rust 363 boll weevil, Mexican 359 worm 360 breeding 335 bolls 314 per plant _ 314 carriers of fertilizer ingre- dients 346 characters important 373 climate 340 commercial bale, weight.... 375 grades 373 value 272 composition 311, 322 PAGE Cotton, composting 347 count defined 376 counts per pound 377 cover crops 345 crop of the world 364 crossing 334 prevention 335 cultivation 356 cultural methods 351 desirable characters 333 diseases 361 distribution 340 economic importance 376 Egyptian 327 environment, influence 2ii7 exports 367 export trade 367 fertilizers, applying 349 influence 346 kinds and quantities... 348 fiber, structure 320 flowering time 351 flowers 313 fungous diseases 361 gin, date of invention 384 standard size 371 ginnery presses 370 ginning 371 cost 372 gins 369 delinter 372 grades and prices 374 defined and illustrated. 373 principal 373 hank defined 376 history 384 hoeings, number 356 imports 368 improvement 335 India 326 industry, development 365 insects 3S8 in United States 364 kind of seed to plant 353 lands, deterioration 343 lint 317 classes 317 comparative diameters. 318 lengths 317 qualities 321 „ yield 333 linters 321 lock 316 manufactories 377 marketing 364 seed cotton 372 merchants 372 Peruvian 328 picking 367 machine, difficulties 357 payment 358 • pickings, number 358 plant, description 312 dry matter 383 proportion of parts 321 planting methods 355 practicums 384-386 4o6 INDEX PAGE Cotton, preparing seed-bed..... 352 presses, forms 370 price 375 production 364 annual 365 center 366 per population 366 products, valuation Zll public ginnery 371 qualities sought 333 quantity of seed to plant. . . 354 rainfall 342 relationships 311 root knot 362 roots 311 medicinal properties.... 312 rotation 344 rows, barring off 356 distance apart 355 rust , . 363 saw gin, invention 369 scale of qualities 337 score card '^'i^ score of points 338 sea island. 326 soil 343 seasons of cultural opera- tions 351 seed 316, 378 as fertilizer 379 bed, fall preparation... 353 histology 316 mixing 354 selection 335 uses 379 weight per bushel 316 seeding rate 354 seeds per bushel 354 per pound 316 shipping districts 368 soils .. 342 species 325 spindles in operation 377 in United States 377 stalks, ^ 383 statistics, world's 378 storing 372 structure 311 subsoiling 353 temperature 340 tillage, intercultural 356 topping 357 uses 376 utilizing, method 376 varieties 325 big boll.. 330 classification 328 cluster 330 long limb 331 long staple 331 Rio Grande 330 semi-cluster 330 short limb 330 standard 331 vegetative portion 312 weather during picking 342 • requirements 340 PAGE Cotton, weight of seed cotton.. 333 wilt 362 worm 360 yield 374 by pickings 358 comparative, table 331 seed cotton 334 Cotton-seed hulls 383 meal 381 composition 382 manufacture 378 use 381 oil 379 oil mills 380 products mills 379 Cow clover 159 Cowpea diseases 254 distribution 248 hay, curing 257, 260 pasture 262 root-gall 255 root knot 255 silage, digestibility 247 value 262 variations due to environ- ment 243 wilt 255 Cowpeas 241 acquirement of nitrogen.... 264 adaptation 248 classification 244 common characters 241 composition 247 cooking recipes 262 cross-fertilization 246 cultivation 253 curing hay 260 feeding test, Alabama 263 Kansas 263 Maryland 263 New Jersey 264 Oklahoma 263 Tennessee 264 feeding value 263 fertilizers 250 , history 268 influence on other crojis. . . 266 inoculation 249 insect enemies 254 method of harvesting 259 seeding 253 utilizing the crop 267 mixtures 252 nomenclature 245 production 261 quantity of seed 252 relationships 241 roots 241 rotations 250 seed, color 243 different sources 244 seeding method 253 rate 252 time 251 seeds per bushel 242 time of harvesting 257 seeding 251 INDEX 407 PAGE Cowpeas, types 243 use 261 variable characters 242 varieties, Alabama 245 Arkansas 245 Delaware 246 early 243 Georgia 245 Illinois 245 Kansas 246 late 243 Louisiana 246 Mississippi 246 New Jersey 246 North Carolina 246 Rhode Island 246 Tennessee 245 Texas 246 Virginia 246 yield 261 hay, and seed. 262 influence of rainfall... 249 Crab grass 117 Creeping bent 66 Crested dogstail, relationships.. 2 Crimson clover 168 adaptation 169 description 168 distribution 169 germination 170 history 171 puritj 170 relationships 168 seed 170 seeding 171 seeds to pound 170 value 169 varieties 169 Culm, mode of growth 4 relation to parent 3 Culms, manner of growth 8 position 3 Cultivated forms of grasses.... 2 Cuscuta arvensis 151, 179 epithymum 151, 180 trifoUi 151, 179 Cynosiirus, relationships 2 Cyperus esculentus 300 Dactylis glomerata 81 relationships 2 Danthonia, relationships 2 Daucus carota 298 Denitrifying organisms 132 Density in hay 48 Derricks, swinging hay 45 Deschampsia caespitosa in west. 24 relationships 2 Desmodium tortuosuin 211 Digestibility of hay 15 Digestion, energy 15 experiments with hay 15 Dioscorea batatas 300 divaricata 300 Dissemination of bacteria...'... 129 Dodder, field 151 large seeded 151 small seeded 151 PAGE Dodder, small seeded, winter hosts 181 Dolichos lablab 219 scsquipedalis 219 sinensis 241 Duration of forage grasses 3 pastures . . • • ; 31 Energy of digestion 15 mastication 15 English blue grass 88 Eragrosteae, relationships 2 Erigeron 151 Esparsette .•••••. ^14 Euagrosteae, relationships 2 Euchlaena mexicana. 118 Eufestuceae, relationships 2 Extra vaginal, examples 4 Fertilizer ingredients in legumes 136 Fertilizers, application 34 commercial factors 33 cumulative effect 34 relation with climate 2 stand of grass 33 on clover 1 49 grasses 32 Fertilizing elements 31 Fescue, kinds of seed on markets 89 Fescues in east 24 relationships 2 Festuca, distinction 74 distribution 91 duriuscula 89 elatior 88 octoHora 90 ovina 89 relationships 2 Festuceae, importance 1 relationships 2 Fiber crops 304 classification 304 by source 306 spinnintr units 306 use 305 materials for fibers 304 production 304 sources of fibers 304 Fiber plants, number 308 production 308 Fibers, animal, test 307 cotton, recognition 308 identification 307 tensile strength 319 vegetable, test 307 woolen, recognition 308 Field beans 219 adaptation 223 anthracnose 225, 226 blight 227 classification 222 common characters 221 cooperative experiments.... 222 culture 224 purpose 220 diseases 226 distribution 222 downy mildew 227 harvesting 225 history 229 4o8 INDEX PAGE Field beans, in Canada 222 planting 224 production 222 relationships 219 rust 227 seeds to pound 224 soil 223 threshing 228 use 229 variable characters 221 varieties 221 weight per bushel 222 yield 222 Field peas 230 adaptation 232 description 230 diseases 233 distribution 231 harvesting 234 insects 233 relationships 230 seeding 232 uses 234 varieties 231 Finger-and-toe 293 Flax, adaptation 390 cultural methods 391 description 387 diseases 391 harvesting 392 history 394 in Argentina 393 perennial 387 pioneer crop 390 production 393 relationships 387 retting 390 Rocky Mountain 387 sick soil 391 stem, histology 389 threshing 392 ^, yield 392 Flax fiber 389 commercial forms 390 production, region 390 Flax seed 387 analysis 388 germination 388 grade, fixing 394 oil 389 yield 389 price 394 states producing 393 viability 388 weight per bushel 394 _, yield 394 Flea beetle, wavy striped 294 Flemish proverb 30 Floating fescue 90 Florida beggar weed 211 Flowering glume a means of identifying seeds 20 Flowers of the grasses 6 Forage gi-asses, characters and habits 1 composition of hay 13 cultivated or useful forms. 2 PAGE Forage grasses, duration 3 important perennial 1 perennial 1 cultural methods 27 designation 1 relationships 1, 2 Form of tubercle organism 127 Fowl meadow grass 73 Foxtail millet 112 Fraser on old lands grass 72 Germination of seeds 20 rubbing assists 21 scratching assists 21 test, method 21 Glyceria, relationships 2 Glycine hispida 219 Golden millet 114 Gossypium 311 barbadense 326 herbaceum 326 hirsutum 326 peruvianum 328 Grama, blue, a native grass.... 25 grass in west 24 relationships 2 Gramineae 1 Grass family 1 mixtures 21 desirability 21 ulterior purpose 17 plants monocarpic 6 seed test, time 20 Grasses, anthers 6 common characters 6 cultivated, distribution 36 flowers 6 healthfulness 10 number of species cultivated 1 ovulary 6 palatability 10 perennial, method of in- crease 3 practicums 103-109 production and harvesting.. 36 rate of seeding 12 reproduction 4 styles 6 table of analyses 14 value for grazing 6 variations 8 Green grass 71 Ground hackee 193 squirrel 193 Growing point of leaf of grasses 6 Guinea grass 117 Habit of grass plants 3 Habits of perennial forage grasses 1 Hairy vetch 205 Harrowing improves pastures... 35 Hay and straw fed alone 15 Hay bale, weight 49 bales, preferment at markets 49 baling 48 presses 48 commercial grades SO curing 39 INDEX 409 PAGE Hay curing, economy 40 defined 50 density 48 digestibility 15 forks, styles 47 loaders, styles 45 marketing 49 net nutritive value 15 presses, styles 48 rakes, styles 42 rules for grading 50 stacking devices 45 tame grasses, yield 37 tedders 44 time of harvesting 38 washing in curing 40 yields 22 Hay-making machines and mar- keting 40 Healthfulness of grasses 10 Hclianthus tuberosus. 301 Hemp 394 harvesting 396 in America 395 seeding rate 396 use 396 Ilenequin 401 Holcus lanatiis 101 relationships 2 Hop clover, characteristics 202 Hordeae, native 25 Hungarian brome grass 93 clover 172 Hybrid turnips, yields 286 Identifying seeds 20 Illinois Station on feeding steers on pasture ^7 Impurities, classes 17 Influence of root-tuhevcles 126 Inoculation, alfalfa soils 186 methods 131 need 130 with soil 130, 132 Intravaginal, examples 4 Introduction of leguminous plants, influence. . 138 Iron cowpea, disease-resistant.. 255 Irrigation of alfalfa 187 Tstle 401 Italian millet 114 rye grass 102 Japan clover 204 duration 204 in cotton states 24 seeds 205 Japanese millet 114 Jerusalem artichoke 301 J ohnson grass 99 cultural methods 100 extermination 100 relationships 100 June grass 71 Jute 396 Kentucky blue grass, adaptation 77 advantages 78 description 73 disadvantages 78 PAGE Kentucky blue grass, flowering period 75 harvesting seed 79 immediate pasture 76 in old pasture 71 east 24 name 71 quick sod 76 relationships 72 root system 8 seed, harvesting 75 source 79 weight per bushel 76 seeding 76 seeds to pound 76 stripping 79 winter pasture 78 yield of seed 80 Kidney vetch 214 Koeleria cristata in west 24 relationships 2 Kohlrabi 290 plants per acre 292 seeds per pound 292 yields 286 Lawes and Gilbert on manures. 31 Leaf of grasses, growing point. 6 Leaves of economic grasses.... 6 Legumes, acquirement of nitro- gen 125 bloat from 10 fertilizer ingredients 136 flower forms 124 for seed 219 kinds 219 pollination 124 regions of cultivation in U. S 248 variations 123 Leguminous crops, vegetation residue 136 flower 122 Leguminous forage crops — common characters 122 general characters 121 kinds 121 name 121 practicums 215-217 Leguminous plants — inoculation, methods 131 introduction, influence 138 value 134 Leguminous seed characterized. 123 test, time 21 Lespedesa striata 204 Lime on alfalfa 185 legumes, effect 133 Linseed meal 389 oil 389 Linum lewisii 387 perenne 387 usitatissimum .' , . . 387 Liciuid cultures 132 Loiium ifalicum 102 perenne 102 Loss in seeding grass lands 13 Lotus americanus 211 4IO INDEX PAGE Lotus coniictilatus 211 general characters 211 tetragonolobus 211 uliginosus 212 Lucerne 174 Maguey 400 Mammoth clover 1 59 adaptation 160 advantages 159 characteristics 159 disadvantages 160 rota: ion 160 iSl^ammoth red clover, nurse crop 27 Mangel-wurzels, adaptation 281 dry matter 278 feeding 286 half-sugar 279 varieties 279 weight 278 when to fetd 287 yields 286 Manihot palmala 300 utilissima 300 Manila fiber 397 hemp 397 Manure as top dressing 35 Manures for grasses 32 legumes 32 Marketing hay 49 Marsh bird's-foot trefoil 212 Meadow fescue 88 adaptation 91 of related species 90 germination 93 harvesting seed 93 in east 24 North America 91 palatability 91 purity 9Z relationships 88 seed 92 distinction 92 seeding rate 93 seeds to pound 93 yield of seed 93 Meaaow foxtail 62 adaptation and value 63 as pasture grass 64 description 62 distinction 52 in east 24 relationships 2 seed 63 Meadow grass, relationships.... 2 Meadow mouse 194 Meadow, timothy, at its best... 30 Medicago denticulata 203 falcata 1 74 lupulina 201 maculata 203 media 199 sativa 174 Melilotus 213 alba 213 officinalis 213 Mesquite grass in west 24 relationships 2 PAGE Method of seeding grasses 28 Methods of inoculation 131 Micro-organisms and nitrogen .. 125 IMiddle buster 352 Millet hay, ill effects 115 Millets 112 adaptability 114 groups 112 in America 112 rate of seeding 114 seeding time 114 seeds to and 114 species 112 weight bushel seed 114 Minor clovers 172 grasses 99 Mixtures of seed, calculating... 22 Mowing-machine, features 41 styles 41 ■Mucttna utilis 209 Muhlenbergia, relationships 2 Musa textilis 397 Native grasses, acreage 24 characteristics 24 classification 25 economic 25 for hay and forage 25 Need of inoculation 130 New Hamoshire Station, nurse crop 27 New Zealand hemp 401 Nitrifying organisms 132 Nitrogen, acquirement by leg- umes 125 without legumes 128 assimilation by micro-organ- isms 125 free, when acquired 125 in redtop 70 Nodules and nitrogen 125 Norfolk rotation 292 Number plants per acre, grasses 12 Nurse crop, management 27 Nutrients of grasses, increase. . 39 Nutritive value of foods 16 hay 15 Oat, relationships 2 Oats and peas for forage Ill Okra 311 Onobrychis sativa 214 Orchard grass 81 adaptation 85 adulterations 83 cultural methods 87 description 81 distribution 84 duration 85 flowering time 82 germination 84 habit of growth 81 harvesting seed 88 time for hay 87 in pasture mixtures 84 mixtures 87i name 81 on Pacific coast 85 palatability 8d INDEX 411 PAGE Orchard grass, pasture 24 purity 83 relationships 2, 81 seed 82 seeds to pound 83 source of seed 88 sowing for hay 84 seed 84 value 85 weight per bushel seed.... 83 yield of hay 86 seed 84 Organic matter in soil 138 Organisms, denitrifying 132 nitrifying 132 Orobanche minor 151 ramosa 395 Orysopsis in west 24 relationships 2 Ovular j^ of grasses 6 Palatability, contrasts in 10 of grasses 10 Panicum miliaceum 115 crus-galH 116 Panicums 117 Para-grass 117 Parsnips 300 yields 286 Pasttnaca sativa 300 Pasture, influence of species... 25 yield 37 Pasture grasses 23 determining species 31 in east 24 west 23 Pastures, methods of improving 34 of England 26 permanence and species. ... 26 Peanut, adaptation 237 butter 239 hay 239 pasture 239 Peanuts 234 composition 235 cultivation 238 description 234 distribution 236 grades 239 harvesting 239 planting 237 production, region 237 seed, for planting 238 soil amendments 237 Spanish, for grazing 238 planting 238 uses 239 varieties 235 yield 236 Pearl millet.... 117 Pennisetum spicatum 117 Pennsylvania Station on feed to stock on pasture 38 Perennial forage grasses 1 grasses, method of increase 3 rye grass 102 seed 92 Phalarideae, relationships 2 PAGE Fhalaris, relationships 2 Phaseolus lunatus 219 multiflorus 219 vulgaris 219 Phleoideae, relationships 2 Phleum pratense 52 relationships 2 Phormium tenax 401 Pisunt sativum 219 Plasmodiophora brassicae 293 Poa, commercial seed 72 compressa 88 distinction 74 in the east 124 number species 72 pratensis 71 relationships 2, 72 Pocket gophers :••••. 193 Pods a means of identifying seeds 20 Practicums, fibers 309-3 10 field beans 240 grasses 103-109 legumes 215-217 roots 301-30.' I'rairie bird's-foot trefoil 211 marmots 194 Prolificacy and cultivation 12 limitations 12 Pseudomonas campestris 293 Pure seed, law, reference 16 percentage viable 16 Quality in hay 39 in mixed herbage 25 of seed 15 influence IS Rachilla, when it exists 20 Ramie 397 Kape, adaptation 296 cultivation 296 description 295 germination 297 method of sowing 297 types 296 value 297 varieties 295 Ked clover • 141 adaptation 148 adulterations 145 blooming time 144 distribution 148 duration 148 feeding value vs. timothy.. 158 fertilizinpr constituents 158 germination 146 habit of growth 142 harvesting hay 154 seed 155 history 159 impurities 145 inflorescence 143 insect enemies 153 name 141 quantity of seed 151 roots 141 seed, description 144 difl'erent sources 147 412 INDEX PAGE Red clover seed, yield.. 156 seeding 150 rate 151 value 157 varieties 147 viability 146 weed seeds 145 weeds 151 with nurse crop 27 Kedtop 66 adaptation 70 as hay crop 70 description 68 distinction of forms 66 flowering period 69 relationships 2, 66 seed 69 on American market... 66 weight per bushel 69 seeding 70 seeds to pound 69 sod 71 value 70 with nurse crop.. 27 Reed grass relationships 2 Reversiole hay rake 43 Revolving hay rake 42 Rhizome defined 4 Rhode Island bent 66 Rhode Island Station on ferti- lizing meadows 34 rotation experiment 31 Root crops 275 enemies 293 name 275 relationships 275 standard varieties 291 yields 286 Root system, legumes 123 Roots, distribution 22 Rootstock defined 4 Root-tubercles and nitrogen.... 125 influence 126 Rotation in pasture 31 Norfolk 292 of meadows, value 30 Rotations 29 Royal commission on pastures. . 26 Rules, grading hay 50, 51 Russian cocksfoot 81 Rutabaga 290 seeds to pound 292 Rutabagas, adaptation 291 description 291 plants to acre 292 value 295 yields 286 dry matter 294 Sainfoin 214 Salad oil 380 Saltbushes 119 Sampling seeds 1^ Sand lucerne 199 Scarlet clover 1 68 Schrader's brome grass 93 Seed control stations 16 Seed, identification 20 PAGE Seed, production in grasses.... 6 quality 15 Seeding grasses, method 28 time 28 miscellaneous mixture 22 Seeds and mixtures 15 sampling 19 Side delivery hay rake 42 Sisal 399 adaptation 400 economic importance 400 propagation 400 Smooth brome grass 93 adaptation 94 after cereals 97 blooming time 96 description 94 drought-resistance 96 duration 97 harvesting seed 95 time 96 palatability 96 pasture, subhumid sections. 24 relationships 2, 93 root system 8 seeding rate 95 sowing 96 time 95 value 96 weight 96 Smooth-stalked meadow grass... 71 Soap stock 380 Sod of different grasses 8 retarding effects 13 Soil, loss of fertility 344 Sorghum halepense 99 Sowing grasses with fall crops. 28 Soy bean 268 adaptation 271 description 268 distribution 270 flowers, self-pollination .... 268 root-tubercles 271 seeds to pound 269 varieties 269 Soy beans, cultivation 272 harvesting 273 insect enemies 273 seeding 272 time 272 value 273 Spear grass 71 Spermophiliis 193 Spinning fibers, classification... 306 Spring vetch 205 Square pod pea 213 Stacking hay 45 Stand of grass 33 Stems of economic grasses 6 Stipa in west 24 relationships 2 Stiteae, relationships 2 Stolon defined 3 relation to culm 3 Stoloniferous, when a plant is. . 3 Structural fibers defined 306 Subhumid sections, pasture for. 24 INDEX 413 PAGE Sugar beet, essentials of good variety 280 history 288 improvement 287 irrigation . . . . » 281 seed selection 288 Sugar beets and mangel-wurzels 277 dry matter 278 feeding 286 sugar production 288 weight 278 yields .;..... 286 Summer white oil 380 yellow oil 380 Sweep hay rake 43 Sweet cassava 300 Sweet vernal grass 101 relationships 2 Symbiosis in legumes 127 Tall fescue 88 meadow fescue 88 oat grass 100 relationships 2 Tampico fiber , 401 Temperature of germinating test 20 Teosinte 118 Texas millet 117 Textile fibers, classification 306 groups 307 Time of seeding grasses 28 subhumid sections 29 Timothy 52 adaptation 57 advantages 61 amount of seed 58 and orchard grass seed .... 61 crops in a season 62 description 52 digestibility 60 disadvantages 62 distinction 52 dry matter 59 duration 4, 62 economic importance 57 history 52 improvement 55 in rotation 30 meadow at its best 30 method of fertilization in flower '. 56 name 52 prolificacy 4 relationships 2, 52 rotations 57 seed 54 adulteration 54 harvesting 54 seeding 58 sown with wheat 28 time of cutting 59 utilitjr in pastures 24 variations 55 with nurse crop 27 Trifolium alexandrmum 172 arvense _ 168 carolinianuin 162 filiforme 172 PAGE Trifolium hybridunt 162 incarnatum 168 medium 159 number and distribution of species 140 pannoniciDH 172 pratense 141 perenne 159 repens 165 Tubercles, character 127 Turnip 289 adaptation 291 and rutabaga 290 cultural methods 292 description 291 plants per acre 292 production 295 seeds to pound 292 value 294 yield 286 dry matter 294 Tussock grass 81 Value of grasses for grazing... 6 leguminous plants 134 Variations in grasses 8 Various leaved fescue 90 Velvet bean 209 Velvet grass 101 relationships 2 \'etches, kinds 205 Vicia sativa 205 villosa 205 Vigna catjang 219, 241 sinensis 241 Virgin fertility 137 Weeds, in clover fields 151 Weight, hay bale 49 per bushel, grasses 17 table 18 Wheat grass, western 25 White and yellow melilotus. . . . 213 White clover 165 adaptation 166 cross-fertilization 167 description 165 distribution 166 germination 167 giant broad-leaved 166 purity 167 seed 167 harvesting 167 seeding 167 seeds to pound 167 viability 167 Wild grasses, injurious 10 Windrower 44 Winged oea 211 Winter oils 380 Winter vetch, adaptation 207 culture 208 description 20*5 value 207 Wood meadow grass 73 Yellow lucerne 174 suckling clover 172 characteristics 202 trefoil 201 Zigzag clover 159 RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be 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