te 18 i 4, i it sy t) : tb er not) aiden citrate ar ye if oii sais Sit oi paiiaeie ast itt if React ete ait is natn Ht tite) 4) parr iis ait f ih a3 i it) tr cre ra! 7 oie i aid) 584) it tith ies iit 14 i iti if > Hi zi aie a it if fe ‘ % i + i $i) it et tab “i ui ifs ns erst o 50) ihrhe i a ri th , t} 0 te i vai Os 0 ae er x ie “ab 4} iit mh fae ot + ih ‘) sh + f} ¢y xy it iat ta ae “alin iit tf : sets eoene nc pT ys thea) = a fs Says aR : Bit ; a 31) 3 | a , | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. | ae _ Pt NT we ae ea . ac rs saa es i lees ioe Tes om =. ~i : nthe ba at p-. - wate ae? ay a Pot Aa pe ie * ong ee . no ® »/ Tae ath ete te ae sea. Ps cae ae eae Bh. 7 Si 4 a is a) as Vine FORCING-BOOK A, MANGAL OF THE “COLTIVATION. OF VEGETABLES IN, GLASS? TIOUSES Ee A NeALEEY, Neto Work THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp. 1896 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT 1896 By Es He BAILEY eren@ (Mt. Pleasant Printery J. Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pa. =A . TH FORCING: BOOK The Garden-Craft Series THE HorTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK PLANT-BREEDING THE NurRSERY- BOOK THE FORCING-BOOK Others in preparation [ea oe ol al ve Oa ele ONE of the most interesting and significant evidences of the abiding expansion of horticultural business is the evolution of the glass house within the present century. It is only within the last one or two generations that the growing of plants in glass houses for the purpose of selling the product of bloom or of fruit has come to be important and widespread. The most recent part of the expansion, at least in this country, is the com- mercial growing of winter vegetables. It speaks well for the prosperity and refinement of our people when they are willing and able to purchase freely of the delicacies of the winter garden. This is one of those branches of agriculture which demands the nicest skill and the closest fellowship with plants. It is, therefore, one in which comparatively few people are fitted to engage, but it must, from the very force of civilization, be one of those occupations which shall gain impetus with time. If it is a business which demands much care and pains, then its promoters must be students. They will need helps. It is this thought which has produced this book. The writer must hasten to say—what the attentive reader will soon discover—that he cannot consider himself to be an authority upon the subject. It has happened that he has been associated with considerable (v) PREFACE. experimental work in the forcing of vegetables during the past few years, and he has endeavored to see much of the forcing industry of the country. In this time there has been a great accumulation of informa- tion and of notes which, since there is no adequate literature upon the subject, he has now set down in these pages. The book has been written for the com- mercial grower of winter vegetables, but the writer will be glad if it shall lead anyone to make the effort to grow the vegetables for his own table. The very ob- stacles which one must overcome make the effort all the more worth the while; and the satisfaction of growing a garden when the snow lies deep against the house is of the keenest and most unselfish kind. The American writing upon vegetable-forcing is very recent. I have referred to most of it at various places in the text. It only remains to say that the basis of much of this book is the series of publications from the Cornell Experiment Station; and it is justice that I add a list of these papers. This list will also aid the student in tracing the bibliography of ‘the literature of the forcing of plants. The Cornell bulletins upon the forcing of vegetables in glass houses (some of which are permanently out of print) are these: No. 28, Experiments in the Forcing of Tomatoes, June, 1891; No. 30, Some Preliminary Studies of the Influence of the Electric Arc Light upon Greenhouse Plants, August, 1891; No. 31, Forcing of English Cucumbers, Septem- ber, 1891; No. 41, On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Greenhouse Heating, August, 1892; No. 42, Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture, Sep- (vi) PREFACE. tember, 1892; No. 43, Some Troubles of Winter To- matoes, September, 1892; No. 53, C&édema of the To- mato, May, 1893; No. 55, Greenhouse Notes (Third Report upon Electro-Horticulture, Winter Cauliflowers, Second Report upon Steam and Hot Water Heating), July, 1893; No. 94, Damping-Off, May, 1895; No. 95, Winter Muskmelons, June, 1895; No. 96, Forcing-House Miscellanies (Remarks upon the Heating of Forcing- Houses, Lettuce, Celery Under Glass, Cress in Winter, Forcing Eggplants, Winter Peas, Bees in Greenhouses, Methods of Controlling Greenhouse Pests by Fumiga- tion, Treatment of Carnation Rust), June, 1895. Whilst this manual discusses only the forcing of kitchen-garden vegetables, the essential principles which are set forth apply with almost equal directness to the forcing of plants for their bloom. It should be added, also, that it is the purpose of the book to treat only those crops which are raised to maturity in glass houses, so that the starting of plants for setting in the open, and all questions of hotbeds and _ coldframes, are omitted. be he BAILEY ITHaca, N. Y., January 1, 1897, (vii) CONTENTS, CHAPTER, I. PAGE INSRODUCTORV SUGGESTIONS... ioe eh ss Sow es ie tO 75 MeRCIRC MAL INCTIATICS fal stig mg 8 ae eee oa ist selee Se eae I Scene: We mialksr oy 46 Ss Cree Glue, a tee teeee 2 jah 4 Mine. Carevory: of Morcine Crops. . wf eis 6. ns 4 Loeations for Vegetable Forcing. . ... 5.5 8 Cost Oleiieat and Gabor ices ¢ 4 tS. 3 a2 GHAPTLER: IT. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HoUSE .. . .16 to 48 ayes ancy Potms:O1 ENOUSES: 4 4. << fa Ae 16 Some or the Structural Details 2 2... 24. 24 MIN TCmLO LATCH al okey s toucc chd eae yeh ite eek O 24 Miee ASM AAI wee hte: a cy na. rade eats ee. oar a 29 Mier latCys cre at ay afc e.-o os Meee fa a) aot 30 Mee GUtleieecmee eat hee oko Mice eee Es Sain Nes 8 Niel Sune ea eed owt dnt Gore let armas, ig: ie ai. ger Rk ob RK IN SIN BLO S memenns © aee, BE GIR ty Leen Ure Sel A 5 25 ives Glassand Gila7iners ms.s eee ae a: anes 36 Beasranda benechnese ) 4.0 0a ae ket os ye ee 40 pe Age eae ce oe wees. “ious i GOS 21 4-1e, peryerce 40 Stcaniednice blot Water 8 moc 4 osc a ah ee 40 WOU See, Re ay thant, Beasts. 2 Pe ar vic ht ha eee eee 43 PeeSeands StOVES yc, 17) Suc sls salsa i AAG Cost of Forcing-houses ...... vi vee eee G x CONTENTS. CHAT TER Sui: PAGE MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE . . .49to 92 Temperatures for the Various Crops. ...... 49 Soils for Forced Vegetables... .. . ems The Question of Fertilizers ... ese The Connecticut Experiments ae Tomatoes 53 The Connecticut Experiments with Lettuce . . 61 On the Use of Fresh Stable Manure... = 3262 Watering so... 2 a ace ee Watering by Sub-irrigation =] 22-9.) eee 68 Construction of Beds and Benches for Sue imnigation = .-: : 69 Experiments with Denice atid Other Plants Senge Conclusions = 2 )..) 2). “2°. cae ee eh: Ventilating and Shading’. . . .) >): 30.0 78 The Electric Light for F sicne-Honeeee ; ~. OG Pollinationee.c oc «te tas et een 5 SI Insects and Diseases... . : : 83 Methods of Controlling Checuneuee Bee - Fumigation +70. 1% 2... 2 5 ee er CHAPTER skye LETTUCE <2 2 2 «) <3 4. - 93 to 107 Temperature . ......:+. 29 ne 94 Light . 23. 2... ws 94 Beds and Benches e648 8 8 eo 94 SOs). .02 5 1 a ws Oe . 96 Growing in Pots. .... .. 1.4 3 99 sowing and Transplanting . , | 2 2) IOI A. Grower's Remarks . . . |<] ee Varieties ... « e! 4 8 Seine TON Enemies and Discsteen rere s « 2 ro! CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER V: PAGE RPOPIRERETOWIOR’ <) 20, 98s atc aa ee Soe ee 5 Paws 108 to 114 masuecesstul Experiments: . <5 sa 56 5. 24. 108 seTeROITCCESSIUL CLOPS | 4 ys i ne ct Se ews bs ee Sa, 10g Subsequent Experience: 2. 2-6 6 310 we Se eriA CHAPTER. VI: eS Tee ete eh A es Sas ay , Cio aublei swan) oS TiS tO 126 Comellelixpenenceres pow. Mes hse = la: iw PS 115 SOMES Bie So ae a ee hes a ee re LES SO tat cee a ea i Foes ek yt ca CRE Sts ee 116 General Manacement. poms. ks 8e, of spe hae - ete Nia CticSmemcup 2 oeeen Re pirom al LAr rare dire 1. gui 120 WVasminecOne@l Xperience: i 2c Guys ee eee TOT Houses Adapted to Growing Radishes . . . . 121 STS Olt ec) an ta coer ahs Oe eee tne eae 122 mine LACH OCCE Me fx. cA Mictnaey: cera. oh oe: 122 MemieteS COLE IANt ei ores aR cece oat ee ag 126 CHAPTER? V1It. INSPARAGUS AND RHUBARB ......«. sss 127.10 134 ASAP RIS Paves claret so ye lrgh satiusid 2a. end toe By OR ale 130 Henn: Gardner seMethody er. s lesa 132 Oreo ine TIOUDeEdS! t2¢- 02 si, Sale) canoe) ee 132 naar“... 6. 6s eee ee a ae 134 CHARTER: VILE BUISGCEELANEOUS COOL PLANTS ........ 135 to 152 SED). 6 BE SE ee ee ee 135 Xl CONTENTS. PAGE Celery ne ieacaltitn, ace a oN eee 139 Salads, Pot-herbs,.and Mints. . . 2 .ee)4geeee 141 Water-cress «3 .°. sea Sis. 4607 4S ee I4I (Garden Cress. wae oh ws ce eee ee eae 142 Parsley 3, swe < ie alee 6.302 ok 142 Spinach o-1 vs, BIA eed de 4.2h 12 Dancenmoniy. fogcs. Smaecer AY ig, Antu 5. soter eee een 143 Vista: kT ee cai Sarton. ae ele pene anf ees tS: tae eae adie Cites ee 143 ONION) pter ze) eo a ee Ne ts « +28 SS See 144 Beets; Carrots and Turnips .. .#..« 32 see ae a POLMOM: oi en alee otal eo. Oe e+

: esas usec a 1, LOO Origin of this Tyr pe A: Giomuber: Seeds eee kOe Pollination—Ill-shaped Fruits ..... . . . 195 Samer egies et hu may cats 92 Enemies .. Briar weleent OO The White Spine Tyr pe ey, eieambes hy ya hebger, a SOK CEAPTER XT. MMI SEAMEN O ING cul) shee abe ce Gs os «. «tle 4 QOAMO DIA BITS EOUSC 12 say ros! dieser we ee 2.) ee OG Mer OOM Bose ee. Sede Enea fe ee ete 2 DOF Sowing and a ansplantiae. ae ee ee ee) Per te De oo eRe oc Ea celsan ih yest st BARA. Gel eet ROMANO ees. Ss an sy es a 8 ees hee eee eT Varieties... ere ae Ree ere ae a ee) Yields and Mariets Re a Niet Saree sh 22O Piseets eal sWISCaSeS: 4s" 5. ers, Ge a ee OT CTA LER XchT. MiSEELEANEOUS WARM /PLANTS : 2°. 3 04 ss 225 to 244 Bios ye) Ueee nee Beet oe oat us) oO Rice OlANE wens eens, oy ea ete Me Seeers, 3k 28 Bcopcin Ol CANsSICUMN aredes coe. 6 Bh. a a hn 238 Wy PlomanGia seems ee dg tk ne Nw, Ge 3 AT CHAPTER XII. SUMMARIES OF THE MANAGEMENT OF THE VARIOUS Se ete ae Pete ite Xs 245 COORG | DTES.C 0p ce S aeee o a fe? OO) THE BPORGING-BOOK. CrEeYP rE |. INTRODUCRORY SUGGESTIONS: GENERAL REMARKS. THE growing of vegetables under glass for the winter market is one of the most special and difficult of all horti- cultural operations. It is a more uncertain and perplexing business than the growing of cut-flowers, because it is newer, less understood, there are comparatively few varieties of vegetables particularly adapted to winter forcing, and the markets are less extensive and more unstable. To succeed with forced vegetables requires great skill in the manage- ment of glass houses, close attention to every detail, and the complete control of all the conditions of plant growth. To these requirements must be added a thorough knowl- edge of the markets, and the ability to have the crop ready at any given time. No amount of reading or study can make one a success- ful grower of plants under glass. He must first of all pos- sess a love for the business, a determination to surmount all difficulties, and especially the ability and desire to give personal attention to all the details day by day. Having these requisites, reading and study will afford him most efficient aid by way of direction and suggestion. One who reads horticultural literature should bear in mind the fact that its value depends very much upon the reader. Instruc- 2 INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS. tions should suggest lines of work, and should explain and enforce the fundamental reasons for the various operations ; but the directions are not to be rigidly and perfunctorily -applied to the particular work in hand. The reader must check up the printed instructions with his own experiences. Persons who succeed in the growing of fruits and vege- tables in the field do not necessarily succeed with crops under glass. Success out of doors is often the result of favorable conditions of soil and weather; but under glass the grower must not only know the conditions which the plants require, but he must actually create those conditions. The skill of the horticulturist lies in his ability to override difficulties. Leonard Coates, a well-known horticulturist of California, has recently put this truth into an aphorism : ‘‘Let the conditions be adverse, and his measure of suc- cess will prove the man.’’ The person who desires to grow vegetables under glass for market must, first of all, count up the costs and the risks. Glass houses are expensive, and they demand constant attention to repairs. They are short-lived. The humid at- mosphere and the high temperature engender decay. The heating is the largest single item of outlay in maintaining the establishment. Moreover, it is an item upon which it is impossible to economize by means of reducing the tem- perature, for a reduction of temperature means delayed maturity of the crop and, in the case of warmth-loving plants —like cucumbers, melons and tomatoes — it invites debility and disease. Labor is the second great item of expense in maintaining a forcing establishment. This, however, may be economized if the proprietor is willing to lengthen his own hours; but economy which proceeds so far that each one of the plants does not receive the very best of care, is ruinous in the end. The risks in the forcing of vegetables are great. In the first place, there are risks of accidents, as fire, frosts and hail. There are risks of serious insect and fungous inva- sions. But, above all, there are risks arising from lack of PACKING AND MARKETING. 3 experience and knowledge. One must discover the knack of ventilating, watering, heating and training adapted to every crop, and this can be learned only by patient work and study. Every failure should stimulate inquiry, and the operator should not rest until he has ascertained its cause. It is imperative that the person who desires to grow vegetables under glass should begin in a small way. Let him begin with a small house—say 20 by 60 feet—and gradually feel his way, both in the growing of the plants and in the marketing of the product. If he is successful in a small house, he need have no hesitation in extending his area, for it is easier to control the conditions of temper- ature and moisture in a large establishment than in a small one. As a rule, in all those industries in which a very supe- rior product is to be obtained, and in which the risks are great, the rewards are good to those who succeed. Good winter vegetables, placed attractively upon the market at timely occasions, are sure of ready sales. Quite as many persons fail to market their products successfully as to grow them well. A forced vegetable is a luxury. It is a special product. Its sale depends, therefore, very much upon its beauty and attractiveness. Every tomato and melon should be neatly wrapped in clean, thin paper, and if each wrapper bear the name and address of the grower, so much the better. Great care must be taken to pack the product so that it shall not wilt, nor be touched by frost, nor bruised or soiled in transit. In short, the product must be dainty. ; In general, it may be said that the common open market is rarely profitable for winter-forced vegetables, unless they are grown upon such a large scale that the grower controls the market, rather than the market the grower. The person who desires to make money from these crops should secure special markets for them, either by placing them directly in the families of the consumers, or consigning them to dealers who have a particular or fancy trade in such products. The 2 FORC. 4 INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS, choicer and rarer the product, the greater should be the care in finding a market for it. Common things are not worth great effort in the marketing, but uncommon things are worth nothing less than such effort. A dealer in hothouse vegetables in New York writes that ‘““most all forced vegetables bring good prices in winter, but they must be packed and shipped in first-class order. A good many people raise fine vegetables in winter, but they do not understand the packing, and the products are spoiled in shipping.’’ The average prices of forced vege- tables in the New York market for the winter of 1895-6 are given me by this dealer, as follows: Dec. Jan. Feb. IetLUCe: coer-agow sins aa) 7 per doz. . $o 63 $o 50 $o 50 Cucumbers (forcing PY PE)in ko aso aes acs per doz. . I 50 2 00 2 50 Peppers . . .percrate (1 bus.). $2 00 to 3 00 3 50 2 50 Jeans ... . per crate (1 bus.). ; 2 00 $3 00 to 5 00 4 50 MOMALOES 5s acts. se per 1b. . 15 to 20 25 20 to 30 Beans, in bundles of 4o ..... i 10 to. 20 through the winter. ‘‘Chicory, escarole and romain salads generally bring good prices in winter.’’* SPECIFIC REMARKS. The category of forcing crops.—The vegetables which are forced to edible maturity under glass are conveniently distributed into two groups,—the ‘‘cool’’ plants, and the ‘warm’? plants. The cool plants are such as thrive best ina night tem- * These three plants are not properly forced vegetables in the sense of being grown in glass houses, and are, therefore, not included in this book. They are grown in late fall, and are bleached in cellars or in frames ; or, in the case of chicory, the roots (raised from spring-sown seeds) are dug in the fall and stored in a dark cellar, where the leaves soon start. The chicory may also be grown under benches much like asparagus, if it is kept dark in order to bleach it. Escarole is bleached endive. Romain salad is winter Cos lettuce. Sea-kale is often forced in frames after the manner of asparagus, and it might be managed in the forcing-house if necessary. LIST OF FORCING CROPS. 5 perature of 55° or below, and a day temperature of 65° to 70°. The plants of this category are: Lettuce, Asparagus, Rhubarb, Cauliflower, rea, Carrot, Beet, Radish, Cress, mustard, mints, parsley, Onion, Spinach, Celery, Pepino. The warm plants demand a night temperature above 55°, and the day temperature may run above 75° when the weather is clear and bright. They are: Tomato, Egeplant, Pepper, Cucumber, Muskmelon, Bean, Cyphomandra. The above categories comprise about all the species of vegetables which are actually forced for market in this country, and even of this short list there are a number for which the market is so limited, or the methods of grow- ing them so little understood, that they really have no place in the staple demands of the market. Vegetables of very minor importance asa forced crop are peas, carrots, beets, cress, celery, eggplant, and pepper. In fact, there are only three staple commercial forced vegetables, and these, in the order of their commercial importance, are lettuce, tomatoes, and cucumbers. (4 6 INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS. It is possible to grow any vegetable under glass, but it is only those products of a perishable nature which can be expected to yield any degree of profit. Those, also, which require a very long season in which to mature, and which yield a small amount of product— such as beets, car- rots, spinach, peas —are of little importance for forcing. The Lima beans require a too long season, and they are chiefly consumed in the dry state; but the com- mon ‘string’? beans are a good forcing crop. There are special reasons why some other vegetables are not forced with profit. Cauliflower, for example, is a most satisfactory crop to grow under glass, but the best heads of the late fall crop are so easily kept through the winter in cold storage as to almost despoil the market for the forced product. Spinach was once forced in cheap houses and in hotbeds and coldframes, but the southern-grown spinach now reaches the market in perfect condition from the holi- days until spring. Radishes are more popular in spring than in midwinter but the demand for them in early spring is met more by hotbed-grown roots than by a house- grown product. The forcing of celery is practically un- known, having been made a success, apparently, only in an experimental way. Eggplants require a long season and much heat and care, and the demand for them is slight in winter. The regular season of the vegetable is long, beginning with those from the Gulf states and ending with the October and even November fruits of the north. The pepino is little known, either to growers or to the market. Winter peppers —used for the making of ‘‘stuffed pep- pers’’ — are in limited demand, and they are readily shipped in from the south. Winter muskmelons are an exceed- ingly fancy product, and very difficult to grow with good flavor, so the price must be very high to enable them to yield a profit. Squashes and marrows can be grown in glass houses, but the plants require much room, and the product has small commercial value. The near future will no doubt see many new departures DEMAND FOR FORCED VEGETABLES. 7 in the forcing of vegetables. The demand for forced beans is already fairly good, and is undoubtedly destined to in- crease. The other minor forcing crops which are probably destined to receive greater attention are celery, asparagus, rhubarb, muskmelon ; and there may be others which we do not now conceive of as forcing crops. With the increase of population and the augmentation of the appetite for luxuries in the dietary, the forcing of vegetables is bound to become an industry of great importance. It is yet in its merest infancy. It has practically all arisen, in this country, in twenty years, yet the demand for information respecting it, in the Eastern states, is even now very earnest and wide- spread. There is a constant tendency for consumers to prefer a forced home-grown product to a transported and exotic one. The forced tomatoes generally sell well in the very presence of the cheaper product shipped in from Florida. The best consumers desire the product at first hand from the plant, and they enjoy the sentiment which is attached to the forcing of a plant into the pink of perfec- tion in the very teeth of blizzards. Whilst the author does not desire to urge anyone into the forcing of vegetables, he is nevertheless convinced that the business is bound to open up great possibilities in the future. It is generally best to devote an entire house to one kind of crop, for every crop demands a particular treatment to insure the most profitable results. Yet it is often advisable to grow an alternation or rotation of crops, in order to employ the house to best advantage, and to meet the re- quirements of the markets. Houses which are too cold for winter crops of tomatoes or cucumbers may be devoted to lettuce or other cool crops during the cold months, and to the warm crops in early spring and summer. Two crops of lettuce during the winter may be followed by the White Spine type of cucumber for spring and early summer. Winter tomatoes may often be followed advantageously by cucumbers or preceded by late fall melons. Vegetables are often alternated with flowers or with plant stock. In the 8 INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS. famous ‘‘ carnation belt’’ of Chester county, Pennsylvania, tomatoes are largely grown as an early spring crop, fol- lowing the crops of carnation cuttings. Locations for vegetable forcing.— The items which chiefly enter into the choice of an ideal location for the forcing of vegetables are the transportation facilities and the price of fuel. The operator makes his climate, and mixes his soils to order. Yet a sunny climate is always to be preferred, for it is essential to quick and sure results in midwinter that there be an abundance of direct sunlight. The severity of the climate as respects cold is a very minor factor, for the operator is able, in the construction and pro- tection of his house, to make himself very largely indepen- dent of the outside temperature without great additional consumption of fuel. Whilst the gardener manufactures his soil, so to speak, yet in certain crops (as in heading lettuce) it is very important that the soil of the neighbor- hood should be free of hard clay. The transportation facilities are all-important. The pro- duct must reach the market expeditiously, and there should be direct access to several good markets. The product is not bulky, and the expense of shipping it is not heavy. Distance from market, therefore, is a less important factor than frequent and expeditious means of shipping. If one has a large product to ship, the actual distance from market is of still less moment, for the gardener can secure con- cessions on transportation rates; but it is nevertheless important that the market be directly accessible. Many of the large vegetable forcers ship their products two and three hundred miles. All winter products are shipped by express. The vegetable forcing establishments are widely scat- tered. The larger part of them are in the environs of the large cities of the east, but many of them are in small cities . or villages several hours removed from the markets. They can often be established with profit upon farms which are near one or more good railway stations, and when the EXPENSE OF HEATING AND LABOR. 9 farmer desires employment for the winter months. Many of the smaller cities — even of twenty thousand and less — afford a ready market for a considerable quantity of lettuce, tomatoes and cucumbers, making it necessary to ship only a comparatively small surplus to distant markets. times. In large establishments, two men working to- gether can turn off as much as three men working alone in small establishments. KENTUCKY— 23. For ordinary winters (southwestern Kentucky), 250 bus. coal at 10 cents. For severe winters, 350 bus. One man will care for three such houses. WASHINGTON— 24. To heat a 20x 150 ft. house, three-fourths span, ro ft. high, for tomatoes, will cost here (Seattle) about $50 per year with 4-ft. fire wood at $1 per cord. I use steam. Two men will take care of the crops and do the firing for two houses 20x 112 ft., one house 52x 150 ft., one house 20x 150 ft., and three houses 20 x 80 ft. NotTe.—The reader will find tables for computing the radiating and grate surfaces in the heating of glasshouses, and other greenhouse matter, in the last edition of The Horticulturist’s Rule-Book. CHAPTER, fh, THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HIOUSE: Ir is of the greatest importance that the most particu- lar attention be given to the construction of the forcing- house, for it is by means of this structure that the gar- dener is to make and maintain the climate in which his crops are to be grown. It is not the purpose of this book, however, to give a manual of instructions for the building of glass houses, but it may be advisable to make a few summary statements respecting some of the features which are particularly useful to forcing-houses, and then refer the reader to other treatises for more detailed instruction.* TYPES AND FORMS OF HOUSES. Forcing-houses should be of the simplest possible con- struction. Every feature in their make-up should be char- acterized by directness. The walks and benches should be straight and of uniform width. The greatest possible amount of space should be reserved for the actual grow- ing of the plants, by making the walks narrow (not more than two feet in most commercial houses) and by carrying the heating pipes and construction timbers out of the reach of the plants to be grown. The side walls of forcing-houses * The best current American text upon the subject is Taft’s *‘ Green- house Construction,” published by the Orange Judd Co. The reader may also find some suggestions upon these and similar topics in Wink- ler’s ‘‘ Vegetable Forcing,’ Columbus, Q., 1896; and also in Dreer’s ‘“Vegetables Under Glass,’’ which comes to hand just as these pages are going through the press. (16) REQUIREMENTS OF A FORCING-HOUSE. Ly are only high enough to allow of room for the plants to be grown under the glass, or, in the case of shed-houses, to give a proper slope to the roof. It is a common practice to secure head room in the forcing-house by sinking the walks below the ground level. In this way, the house is kept low, thus saving in cost of construction and,in exposure to winds. Such sunken walks are shown in Figs. 1 and 3 (pages 17 and 18). Itis always handier, however, to have the main walks on a level with the surface, thus avoiding steps in passing to and from the establishment. In wet or springy ground it is AN | | F, Ke es a LD : ie > . I. A simple even-span, 10 feet wide. important to avoid sinking the house. The roof of the forcing-house should be as flat as is consistent with the ready shedding of rain and snow, in order that all the plants may grow close under the roof; for it should be said that plants are usually more stocky and productive and healthy when grown near the glass. The house should be of the lightest possible construction in order to gain sunlight, particularly if tomatoes, melons, cauliflowers and other sun-loving plants are to be grown. There are three general types or shapes of houses in common use for the forcing of vegetables. These are: The 18 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. roof with an even span, those with a lean-to or true shed roof, and those with an uneven or broken roof. These various types of houses are illustrated in the accompanying dia- grams. Figs. 1 and 2 show the ordinary types - of an even-span house, 2. A simple ye sore ae house, Figs. 3 and 4 (page 19) forms of an uneven or broken span, and Figs. 5, 6 and 7 (pages 20, 21 and 22), of a lean-to or shed house. The older type of forcing-house was rather narrow in proportion to its width; that is, it was rarely more than 20 feet wide, whilst the length might vary from 50 to 300 feet. A house of this width is propor- tionately more difficult to heat and to manage than one of greater width, and the tendency at the present time is to- wards much wider houses, especially in establishments where a large product is expected to be grown. The wide house, however, when built with a gable roof, becomes too j 2 ps egamoweys- i) 2 IN Beg ens Ay ag F z Gt hat S CLD gy JZ EGErrY Bs a APY) GY ¢ “ii Lm J 3. A broken or uneven span, 20 feet wide, on a side hill. high to admit of economical construction and heating, and the plants are also too far removed from the glass for best results. It is necessary, therefore, in these very NESTING OF HOUSES. Ig wide houses, to treat the building as a shed, and to take extra care in making the roof strong and tight. A single house, standing by itself, is always more difficult and expensive to heat and to manage than a range of houses. It is, therefore, very important that houses should not only be heated, so far as possible, from one central system, but also that the houses should lie alongside of each other so that the interior walls may answer for two houses, and that one house may protect another from sweeping winds. For popes Sa rn ee eae I‘ Eel (Ke) O 4. A broken roof on the level, 18 feet wide, with sloping center bench. purposes of convenience in repairing the roof, and to avoid injury by snow, it is better to have these parallel houses separated from each other by a space or alley of two or three feet; but inasmuch as this doubles the number of walls and exposes every wall to the weather, this method of construction is rarely used for small houses in this country. Two contiguous houses are allowed to rest upon a common wall, but the gutter between the two is made deep and wide so that the water may be carried off quickly, and a workman may walk through it when repairing or painting the roof. In the case of very large houses, how- ever (say those 35 ft. or more wide and 200 ft. or more 3 FORC. 20 hE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE, A shed house 60 feet wide and 300 feet long. J: long), which are large enough to make and control their own temperature and to employ all the time of a man, it is probably better, for the sake of the conve- nience of hauling to and from them and the ease of repair- ing the roofs, to have them separated from other houses by a space two or three rods, or more, wide. It is probably true that the best direction of expos: ure for an even-span house is from north to south, be- cause both sides of the struc- ture then receive an equal amount of sunlight during the twenty-four hours. It is not always practicable, how- ever, to run the houses north and south, and when it is not, it is better to run them directly east and west, and to break the roof into am- evenspans. Just which span should face the south, whether the long one or the short one, is a matter of dispute. It probably depends very largely upon the kind of plants to be grown, and the slope of the land, “and upon the exact exposure ; but it is, no doubt, true that, for general conditions, the 1g 9]Ul PUT, IDUA TJ UL UAZCYS PSNOY YZ JO PANRJINAYS | Ss O ULAIS 3S [J a "S20JUMOZ AOL pa Oe S32 ea EE oe LAE SHED, ROOF HOUSE. ie ae aE ie S e lz eee = PART BS # e hg sig i | epoaese megs Sr ee ee =———— Eas 2 é : —- CTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. THE CONSTRU 22 ‘pADh YING Ap1I D FUutsg209 food pays HOUSES TO BE RECOMMENDED. 23 long span should face the sun. The short-span-to-the- south greenhouse, of which much has been said in recent years, is built with a very steep, short south roof, with the purpose of intercepting nearly all the sun’s rays and carrying them directly back into the farthermost corners of the house. Where high plants are to be grown near the front of the house, how- ever, so much shade is cast upon the rear plants as to seriously interfere with their growth. These houses have not yet come into general use for vegetable forcing, and they need not be fur- ther considered in this sum- mary account. Of the various houses which are represented in the accompanying illustrations, Fig. 1 is the least satisfac- tory for forcing purposes, be- cause of its narrowness. In such slim houses there is not a sufficient body of air La to guard against rapid fluc- bee tuations of temperature. ie They cool off quickly; and ne with variations in temper- a ature there arise serious fe dificulties with insects and fungi. Fig. 2 is an excellent GA TPMT tk = AAG MEET WE HATTA ¥ pa negra PS sl Pe ee & igs “ eo | 5 2 tig ‘SASNOY Pays OM] puv Sasnoy uUvgs-uanae UsajsA1Yy] JO ASUDA P “§ + ii cP TUCO as AN ARCS VL ATLL iHHit Hi 24 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. house for asmall or ordinary establishment, and is a good type for the beginner. The same remarks may be made for Fig. 3, except that the unequal elevations of the walks and beds make it unhandy. Such a side-hill house, however, brings the glass very close to the greatest number of plants,—a result which is sometimes sought by elevat- ing the benches in the center of even-span houses, but this raises the beds so high as to make them awkward. Fig. 4 1s:an excellent type of house. - Figs. 5, 6 and 7-are probably the best types for very large establishments. Fig. 7 (page 22) covers the entire back yard of a city Iot. These shed roofs are most easy to build and to keep in repair. The absence of gutters is a most important feature, for the gutter is the part of the frame which is most difficult to properly construct and which generally soonest gives out. It is advisable, in cases where an entire range or nest of houses is to be permanently used for one given crop, to omit entirely the side walls, and to simply place the plates and gutters on the tops of posts or pillars, allowing the spaces- between the posts to remain open. This construction results in throwing the whole range into practically a single house, keeping the structure low, with considerable economy of heat and labor. Such a construction is never admissible, however, when it is expected that the different houses of the range are to be used for the growing of plants re- quiring different degrees of heat and moisture. The range of nine houses shown at the left in Fig. 8.(page 23) are open beneath the gutters in this way, and Fig. 9 (page 25) is a crosswise view in them. The reader /sees a gutter near the top of the picture, with a steam pipe running along the plate, and the man is sitting under the second gutter. SOME OF THE STRUCTURAL DETAILS: The frame.—The framing of a forcing-house is_ well explained by Figs. ro and 11 (pages 26 and 27). These pictures represent the common rafter-and-sash-bar house. 25 WALLS OMITTED. THE PARTITION g. Interior cross-wise view in the dat re sasatannemenerasiaminss 0 nine houses shown at the left in Fig. 8. 26 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. “~ In Fig. ro the rafters are in place, and on the further half the sash-bars have been put in between them, being toe-nailed at the upper end to headers cut in between the rafters. The space above these headers is to be cov- ered by the ventilator sash. It is very doubtful, however, if it is ever necessary to use 10. Putting up a vafter-and-sash-bar house. rafters in the construction of a forcing-house. The entire roof should be built wholly of sash-bars, which run from the sill or the plate to the peak, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13 (pages 28 and 29). This construction admits the greatest amount of light to the house, and is also less expensive. If purlines of steam pipe are freely used upon which to rest THE FRAMEWORK. 27 the sash-bars, each bar being secured to the purline by a loop of strap iron, the house may be made as stiff as the old-time rafter-built frame. Fig. 14 (page 31) shows the interior of Figs. 12 and 13. The house (used for tomatoes ) is 24 feet wide, 11 feet high at the ridge and 4 feet at the eaves, with sash-bars 13 feet long. These bars have a body measure of 1% x 1% inches, and carry glass 14x 24 inches. They are supported in the center by a 1%-inch pipe. A i. Construction of a vafter-and-sash bar frame. row of these pipe supports upon either side of the house is the only intermediate support which the roof receives ; yet this house stands in an exposed place and has withstood several severe gales without the slightest injury. A similar sash-bar construction is shown in Fig. 15 (page 32). Another is seen in Fig. 16 (page 34), but in this case the bars are nailed to wooden plates which rest upon pipe supports. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. 28 ‘asnoy SUIIAOL PUDAL ADQ YSDs vp {0 01]9N4JSUO) na 6 THE DETAILS OF THE SASH-BAR. 29 The sash-bar.—There is much diversity of opinion re- specting the best form of sash-bar. Common types are shown, half natural size, in Fig. 17 (page 35). The shoul- ders at the top are to receive the edges of the panes of glass. The cap upon the sample at the right is to hold the glass in place when the panes are butted, a matter to be explained shortly. The grooves in the sides of the bars are designed to catch the water which condenses on the glass, carrying it down to the plate, and _ thereby preventing the ‘‘drip.”’ For myself, after long study of glass houses, I am con- vinced that this groove has little if any value. It weaken the bar and adds to its cost. It rarely catches all or even most of the water, for the condensation flows downwards off the pane, and not sidewise. It is said that the condensa- tion may be carried into the grooves by taking care to lay 13. Houses with sash-bar frames. the crowning side of the pane up, thereby having the hollow side underneath ; but good glass should have very little or no crown, and it is rarely possible to make sufficient slant towards the bar to carry the water to it. But I should cony 30 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. sider the draining of the water into the groove to be the very thing to be avoided, for it is then discharged at the bottom of the bar into the joint with the plate, and hastens decay in one of the very weakest points in the frame. I now use entirely a perfectly plain sash-bar, which is ‘‘run’’ from white pine at the home mill. Its form is shown in Fig. 18 (page 35). For ordinary roofs, and glass not more than 12 inches wide, these bars may be 1x 1% or 14% x 13¢ inches in body measure. ‘The illustration shows a cross-section of a heavy bar, at one-half natural size. In lots of 1,000 lineal feet, this bar costs us the price of the lumber plus §4 for “running.’’ If the grooves were added, the cost of ‘‘run- ning ’’ would be about $6. In large quantities, these prices could be much reduced. In very wide roofs of little slope, and especially when very large glass (18 to 20 inches wide) is used, a bar 2x3 inches is safest and best. Such bars will hold a man’s weight. If the house is properly glazed, there will be no ‘‘drip”’ of consequence. The plate.—Perhaps the shortest lived part of the frame of the ordinary glass house is the plate at the eaves. Much of the condensation upon the glass finds its way to the plate, and if the glass is butted, all the condensation strikes it which does not fall in ‘‘drip.’’ In the very wide shed roof or broken-roof houses, the front plate (upon the lower wall) receives nearly all the roof drainage, and this is the one, therefore, to be chiefly protected. The plate, therefore, soon decays unless the greatest care is taken to give it a bold slant, and to keep it well painted. Fig. 19 (page 36) shows an excellent plate, half-size, cut from a pine or cy- press stick. A plate with half the slope of the side A B will still hold the water in globules and miniature pools, partic- ularly after the paint has begun to blister. In order to prevent the water from following back on the plate and keeping the wall wet, a groove like that at a, a, in Figs. 20 and 25 (pages 37 and 39), is useful. A similar one on the outside of the plate will keep the rain from following down the wall. If the drip from the inner edge of the plate i al I SE A TOMATO HOU OF FRAMEWORK Tq: Interior of sash-barv frame house A crop of tomatoes eight weeks old on the floor. FORCING-HOUSE, THE THE CONSTRUCTION OF *gjing jak Zou yIUuag A2ggn PUL "SUNMAYIUDSKAYI PUD 2INIJa] 07 pazgopv gSnOYy PUMDAL ADQ ysus, ungs UIYOAQ | ST RWESPEATLE AND LHE|GUPTER. 33 is annoying, it may be caught in a little trough and carried away. The best trough for this purpose is made from a pie strip 14 inches thick and 2 inches deep, with a V-shaped groove sawed in the top. This trough, freshly painted on the back, is nailed to the wall in such position that the bottom of the groove lies directly beneath the corner of the plate. All tenons or mortises should be avoided upon the plate, or in any other place where the wood is likely to remain moist. The simplest and most efficient union of sash-bar and plate is shown in Fig. 20 (page 37), in which the bar is nailed on top of the outward slope of the plate. Figs. 24 and 25 (page 39) show a similar construction, except that the rafter is used and is toe-nailed to the inward slope of the plate. If much water is likely to follow down the sash-bar, itis a good practice to place a tin shoe or trough under- neath the foot of the bar (between it and the plate} to carry off the water, as illustrated in Fig. 21 (page 37). Where the sash-bar strikes the ridge-pole, a notch or half- mortise may be used, as in Fig. 22 (page 38), but even here it is usually preferable to simply toe-nail the bars on, as in Fig. 23 (page: 38). The gutter is ordinarily built of lumber, a heavy plank forming its bottom, as in Figs. 24 and 25 (page 39). In order to keep this plank from warping, it is advisable to saw a slit across each end and to drive a bar of iron into it, as seen in Fig. 26 (page 4o). The life of the gutter may be much prolonged by tinning it. A sharp fall will also add tomitsliics ancdoto the ease of keeping it ‘clean, In some cases, the entire house is built upon a pitch in order to give a proper fall to the gutter, but in general it is best to build the house level and to give the gutter an indepen- dent slope. Upon masonry walls, a good gutter is made by leaving a trough on top and plastering it thoroughly with Portland cement. Walls.—The best side walls, in point of durability, are THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. es i res, APO Souk eno as =e Interior of a sash bar frame shed roof house, containing cucumbers and lettuc IO. WALLS AND VENTILATORS. 335° made of brick or stone, but unless they are very thick or are hollow they are likely to be colder than a well built board wall upon posts. The space represented by the thickness of the posts affords an admirable dead air space. Nearly all com- mercial forcing-houses are upon posts, and it is commonly said wz that such walls will last as lone as the plate will. This is proba- bly true, but the plates, as usually rn) Y made, are unnecessarily short //// lived. A forcing-house should stand fifteen or twenty years aa eHant without extensive repairs, if well 7, Two types of sash-bars. built; and if. the side walls are of masonry (stone or cement), the plates well made, the roof so well supported that it cannot sag, and the whole freshly painted every year or two, the structure should stand nearly a life time. Good board walls are shown in Figs. 20 and 25. In each, there is an air- space between the posts. In Fig. 20, there f are two air-spaces. The sheathings cover- ing the posts are shown at bb, the post | at p, and the siding at c. This wall, if ewell built, is no doubt as warm as a I2- inch solid brick wall.* ° flatter than 30 Ventilators.—The house should have ample provision for ventilating it, yet it is easy to get the openings so large that the 18. A plain sash-temperature of the interior may be lowered Gate too suddenly and too far when the sash are lifted. In windy days, it is impossible to open very large sash at all without letting in too much cold air to the plants immediately underneath. Many small sash are pref- Extra heavy Sash Bar for large Glass or Roof Se * Experiments with greenhouse walls have been made at the Minne- sota Station (Bull. 7) and the Massachusetts Station (Bull. 4). 4 FORC. 36 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. erable to a few very large ones. The house shown in Figs. 12 and 13, which is unusually light and fully exposed to the sun, is ventilated by a continuous double row of sash a foot wide, and this width is sufficient for all narrow even-span houses. Uneven spans may require ventilators a foot and a half in width, and I should think that two feet would be the utmost desirable width for any ordinary purpose. It is generally unnecessary to have side venti- lators in forcing-houses whose side walls are under four feet in height. In general, it is best to hang the ventilators at the bottom, thereby allowing the heated air to pass out at the very peak. If a row of sash is placed upon either side, and each row is operated by a separate mech- Line B C to face outside of house and Sash Bars to nail to it Ideal Plate,made from a 4''x 6'stick The inner edge at (A) dressed down to 1 inch thick 19. A good forcing-house plate. anism, the most perfect means of ventilation will be secured. In the very wide shed houses, ventilators upon the sides may be necessary. The glass and glazing.—Glass for forcing-houses should always be double-thick, not single-thick. The double-thick glass may be expected to save its extra cost within a year or two in the less breakage, and it makes better joints and a' warmer house than the single-thick. The difference in cost between the two grades may be indicated by stat- GLASS AND GLAZING. 27) ing that when the price per box (of 22 lights) of single- thick glass, 14x 24, was $2.25, the cost of double-thick was $2.85. There are two styles or methods of laying glass,—the old- time or common method of lap- ping it, and the butting it end to end. The advantages of the but- ting method are supposed to be the greater ease and speed of lay- ing the roof, a tighter roof, one which admits more light because of the absence of laps, and econ- omy of glass. The style of bar to be used for butting is one with a very shallow muntin or projec- tion on top, as in b fag shown onthe soe (er ord Ce right in Fig. 17. The glass is not laid in putty*, but it is advisable to have the bar freshly painted in order to close the joint with the glass. The panes are laid end to end, and are held in place, when an entire run has been laid, by screwing down a cap, as shown in the illustration. It is often advised to cover the ends of the panes with a thin film of white lead, in order to cement the panes together and thus close the joints. All the lead which is squeezed out of the ar. Tin gutter at foot of the jointis.afterwards scraped off, sash-bar. so as to make a clean and YZ WY BSS ta LL \ \\ TI STIS OW *A durable putty for glazing purposes is made by mixing pure whit- ing in oil, and then using about three parts of this, by weight, to one of pure white lead, mixing the ingredients thoroughly. 38 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. smooth job. After considerable experience with butted glass, the writer has abandoned it. It is practically im- possible, with any ordinary grade of glass, to make a perfectly smooth joint between the panes, and at every irregularity or rough- SS ness at the joints the water will collect and drip off. This difficulty is particu- larly liable to occur if panes are used which are over twelve or fourteen inches wide. It is rare, also, that the panes are squarely enough cut to make perfectly tight joints possible. Another serious objection to butted glass is the fact that all the water of condensation which does not fall as drip is carried down upon the plate, keeping it constantly wet and tending to make it decay. The drip from the plate is often a serious nuisance, particularly if there are heating pipes directly beneath from which a con- stant shower of vapor arises. In lapped glass, the- con- densed water follows down the pane and passes out through the lap onto the roof. If glass is to be butted, only the double-thick should be used. The single-thick grade is too irregular and uneven in thickness and curvature to allow of making good joints ; and its very thinness makes it impossible to secure suffi- cient contact to make a tight job. In.the lapping of glass, the panes are bedded in soft putty, and are then held from LA slipping down by ZZ” — a straight shoe- Z nail at each lower 23. Plain joints at the ridge. 22. Mortice-joint at the ridge GLASS AND GLAZING. 39 corner (aa, Fig. 27, page 41), and are held firmly to the bar by glaziers’ points (ee, Fig. 27). The panes are seen edewise, in cross-section, at B in Fig. 27. It is important, to avoid breakage, that no nail or point be placed on the middle of the pane. No putty is placed over the glass, for, in the nearly hori- zontal or inclined position in which the panes lie, the water would collect underneath any such putty and would crack it off by freezing. If the panes are well bedded, and if the bars and the edges of the glass are given a coat of paint, the job will be perfectly tight. It is imperative that the lap on the panes should be very short. A long lap col- lects dirt and thereby obstructs the light, and it ; also holds so much water that the freezing of it pee Is snaps the corners of the panes. A lap ofa quarter 04 S@sh-dar. of an inch, or at most of three-eighths inch, is ample. In this narrow lap the water of condensation collects and makes a warm joint. There has been a tendency in recent years towards the use of very large glass. Panes as large as 20x 36 inches have been used. These seem to be too wide for economy, and they impose severe strains upon the sash-bars, and weaken the rigidity of the house. ‘hie glass bears too great a_pro- portion to the Ser wetural irame. ofthe roof. -lt+is doubtful if it is wise to use glass above 14 or 16 inches wide, and, through inquiry and experience, the writer has now settled upon 14x 18 25. Wall, gutter, plates, rafters, . I 4 : and sash-bars. inches as about the best size 40 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. for all purposes. Indeed, I should prefer glass 12 inches wide to that which is 18 inches wide. Beds and benches.—Those plants which thrive best without bottom heat, as lettuce generally does, are most commonly grown in solid beds,— that is, on the earth. Those crops requiring bottom heat must be grown on benches. The height of these benches above the 3, ground must be deter- mined wholly by circumstances. The first thing to con- sider is to secure sufficient head room for the plants, or, in the instance of low plants, to get them near to the glass. Benches will run from a foot to three feet above the ground. They are handiest when the extreme height is about two féet and the width not over three and a half or tour feet. The depth of the bed (that is, of the soil) varies with different operators from 5 to 10 inches. As a rule, with good soil, 6 or 7 inches of earth is sufficient. A greater body of earth is likely to make a too continuous growth, with consequent loss of earliness, and it requires more care in the watering if it should become hard or somewhat impervious to water. Benches are ordinarily built of common lumber. One-inch hemlock boards, in single thickness, will last about three winters if the soil is removed in the summer. Cracks of a half inch or a little more should be left between the boards, and it is then not neces- sary to place drainage material—as broken crocks or clinkers —on the bottoms of the beds. With shiftless watering, however, no amount of drainage material can insure safe results. Iron cleat in a gutter-board. HEATING. Steam and hot water.— Modern forcing-houses are heated by either steam or hot water in wrought-iron pipes. — STEAM VS. HOT WATER. 41 The old method of heating by means of the large cast iron pipes is not adapted to the forcing business. The com- parative merits of steam and water as media for conveying heat have been much discussed in recent years, with the result that neither system has gained a complete victory. In other words, each system has peculiar merits. Our own experience emphasizes the greater value of steam, but we do not condemn hot water. We believe that steam is superior for very large houses where the fall is slight, for 27. The laying of lapped glass. most forcing-houses, and for all establishments which are likely to be often modified and extended. It is particularly desirable in the forcing of such ‘‘warm’’ plants as tomatoes and melons. For conservatory purposes, for straight runs and small and cool houses, it is equaled—probably sur- passed in many instances—by water. Steam overcomes 42 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. obstacles, as elbows and angles and obstructions, better than hot water. It travels faster and farther. Crooked runs with little fall are great difficulties in hot water heating. Steam can be varied more quickly than hot water. On the other hand, steam is as steady as hot water under proper manage- ment, and it requires but little more attention. Practically the same treatment is required by both water and steam heaters. Plants thrive as well under steam heat as under hot water heat. The opinion that steam heat is a ‘‘dry heat’’ is erroneous. Hot water heating demands from a half to twice more piping than steam heating, and the original cost is, therefore, greater. This additional piping has a cer- tain advantage, however, inasmuch as each pipe is less hot than in steam systems and is less likely to injure plants which stand close to it. This advantage is not great, how- ever, especially in forcing establishments, where no injury need ever come from hot steam pipes. There is no uniform advantage in consumption of fuel in either system. Theo- retically, hot water is probably more economical than steam, but in practice the cost is determined largely by the particu- lar pattern of heater and the general efficiency of the sys- tem. Some tests show water to be the more economical, and other tests give the advantage to steam. In other words, the fuel consumption is largely a local question. The summary results of various experiments upon the comparative merits of steam and water for heating plant houses, made at Cornell University (and reported in Bulle- tins 41, 55 and 96), are as follows :* 1. The temperatures of steam pipes average higher than those of hot water pipes, under common conditions. 2. When the risers or flow pipes are overhead, the steam spends relatively more of its heat in the returns, as bottom heat, than the water does. * Other studies in glass house heating will be found in Bulletins 4, 6,8 and 15 of the Massachusetts Hatch Station (by S. T. Maynard), and in Bulletin 63 of the Michigan Station (by L. R. Taft). In these experi- ments, water gave the better results, STEAM VS. HOT WATER. 43 3. The heat from steam distributes itself over a great length of pipe more readily than that from hot water, and steam, therefore has a distinct advantage for heating long runs. 4. Steam is preferable to hot water for irregular and crooked circuits. 5. Unfavorable conditions of piping can be more readily overcome with steam than with water. 6. The addition of crooks and angles in pipes is deci- dedly disadvantageous to the circulation of hot water, and of steam without pressure; but the effect is scarcely perceptible with steam under low pressure. 7. In starting a new fire with cold water, circulation be- gins with hot water sooner than with steam, but, in ordina- rily long runs, it requires a longer time for the water to reach a point where the temperature of the house is ma- terially affected than for the steam to do so. 8. The length of pipe to be traversed is a much more important consideration with water than with steam, for the friction of the water upon the pipe is much greater than the friction of steam, and a long run warms slowly with water. g. It is necessary to exercise greater care in grading pipes for water heating than for steam heating. With steam, a satisfactory fall towards the boiler is much more important than the exact manner of laying the pipes. 10. In heating by water in closed circuits, a high expan- sion tank may increase the efficiency by allowing the water to become hotter throughout the system, and probably by giving a better circulation. Piping. —The arrangement of the pipes must be adjusted by the shape and size of the house and the crop to be grown. The ‘‘cool’’ plants, like lettuce and cauliflower (see page 5), do best without bottom heat, and for these crops the pipes should be above the soil or bed. The ‘warm’ plants, like tomato, melon and cucumber, require bottom heat, and for these the return pipes, or some of 44 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE, them, should be underneath the bed. The steam or hot water is carried into the house by means of one or two pipes,—called risers when steam is used, and flow-pipes when water is used,— and is returned to the heater through from two to six times as many returns. The risers or flows are usually carried into the house overhead, and the returns are carried underneath the benches, along the walls, or the sides of the walks. Aside from the greater number of pipes required in water heating, there is little difference in the methods of piping for the twosystems. The highest point in the steam riser should be directly over the heater, or, when this is not practicable, it should be at the near end of the house or the system, and the riser should gradually fall from this point to the far end of the house. This gives a down-hill system. It is generally considered that the highest point in the water flow-pipe should be at the far end of the house or system. This is an up-hill system. Flow- pipes should not be less than 2 inches in diameter for runs of 60 ft., while steam may be carried in a 1%-inch riser under similar circumstances. In water runs of this length, there should be two risers for houses 16 to 20 feet wide, particulary if warm plants are to be grown. The amount of pipe required for special cases may be determined by examining some of the plans and _illustra- tions. Fig. 1 illustrates two methods of piping. It may be piped by running a water flow-pipe underneath the bench on either side and carrying back two returns under each flow. This type of heating is not common. In such cases, it would no doubt be necessary to keep the space under the benches open next the walk in order to heat the house. A commoner method is to carry a riser or flow overhead at X, and to bring back six returns from it. In Fig. 2, a 2-inch steam riser is carried overhead in the center, and it breaks into seven 14-inch risers underneath the benches. There is a similar arrangement in Fig. 3. These two houses would grow tomatoes in New York state. In Fig. 4, two 3-inch water flows near the peak supply six 114-inch returns under PIPING IN A TOMATO HOUSE, 45 28. Piping with hot water for tomato growing. 46 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. the two upper benches, and another 3-inch flow and three 1%-inch returns heat the lower bed. This same house could be heated with steam by one 2-inch riser and six to eight 11-inch returns. An exposed tomato house (Fig. T4, page 31), is heated by a 1%-inch steam riser which feeds a 1-inch loop running around the house just under the plate, and four 14-inch loops just above the soil. Another loop and a half (from an independent riser) runs about the center walk. In this house, the bottom heat is supplied by the heaters themselves, which stand just beneath the floor. The floor is made of two layers of inch boards, with tar between the layers. Fig. 15 (page 32), showing a house used for lettuce, cauliflowers, carnations and chrysanthemums, 20 ft. wide and 60 ft. long, is heated by one 2-inch steam riser and two 1%-inch returns under each side bench. The middle bench is solid, and has no bottom heat. Fig. 28 (page 45) shows the water returns in a tomato house near Philadel- phia. There are eight returns under each bench, the coil standing edgewise under the left-hand bench, and lying flat-wise under the other. Flues and stoves.— Beginners with little capital can make a very good forcing-house with old sash, and can heat the same with flues from a home-made furnace. Lettuce houses can even be heated with a coal stove. The novice will always do well to begin with a small and simple establish- ment, although it rarely pays to erect a very cheap house if it can be avoided. COST OF FORCING-HOUSES. Only the most general remarks can be made respecting the cost of forcing-houses, for so much depends upon the finish, the expense put in foundations, and the experience and efficiency of the workmen. Taft estimates the expense of building a three-quarter span rose house, 20x 100 ft., including heating apparatus, to average about $1,100 to COST OF A FORCING-HOUSE. 47 $1,200. A forcing-house 20 x 60 ft., uneven-span, on posts, with heavy rafters and glazed with large sash, heated by steam, cost complete as follows, including a rough shed in which to place the heater : DE UITDCigmak ceueke sme aca is Mee ks, NW: 6 Tes wed, St eaten ih $99 61 NSA CTUEET: WOM aaa i cistten e- o-i, 0a! hie as oes, Ses we, So vw a 72°75 Smet ANI O tr tions cdacctactna, <1 ea. es ec e Ae eH Ghee Caden GZ 63 63 Iron supports and plates ........... 9 16 BORSaAS Ie lis 8 sl ek Se eee we Beate & 39 00 Glass; 12x 16-.%. Wags) ieveitwch Niue siuicw se caacune) ayer teeny te 62 37 RETA ater aap iets ion ime Sy pha c Bh seMor OAM ee Be eee oo a 18 13 Paint, oil, etc. eo cudsmien en le rues) is eee eee ote 14 52 Hardware and PiiscelaHecus., SRuecuep vot ai eh ee te eres 20 36 $379 63 Heating apparatus and piping ..........2.... 37500 $754 53 The labor of building the benches was done by the gardener after the house was completed. Seven years later, this house was wholly rebuilt, an entire new roof being put on and comprising only sash- bars and double-thick glass. This rebuilt house, with the upper bench not yet made, is shown in Fig. 15. The total cost of the new roof, new plates, one new bench, and general repairs, was as follows : e2sSaSh=pars: Lotte (ONG. a. s-6 ses 6 ws Seen ee $s) 78 52 > Mom lOM Ses, Bo. ve yeees ss ek eis vs eee eee 14 08 WV OlKamp One bars isvore: stele: evs SIS 6 cso usos @ o: Si « TA’ 33 SUNG teenie ats sehta sRse or MW hoa tnti, dei -G: at ho ty op, Mn cy ey a) Oe 19 42 GHG Sree Olea, set ie Mae <, 62 teres oh sic Peeing. gs! Geka Gop us ve g6 00 T5Ottapimetor ventilators ....52...5.+ 25.3. e 7 40 50 panes glass for ventilators. .............. IO 00 Puttyeand points: .. . .. Ad of Mita a) lanier & Gea = Sens Tinning 8o ft. gutter, and bor Die uey ty Ge ee es ee 13 08 PAITMCLING 2x COAUS pel ic vemis oe eres et wie Ss 5 os 6 50 Wal O bas Bese . a 80 48 250 ft. pine forjanibs anda repairs, aint! hatdw are sana’ inci- Genital S Siar eee cea te. ch a sehaite: 6. SS ek e's 14 20 $300 02 In general, it may be said that a house 20 x Ioo ft., 12 48 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. feet high at the ridge, with no glass on the sides, on post wall, can be built for $1,000 to $1,200, steam heating plant complete, if the workmen about the place assist in the construction. A forcing-house 50x 4oo ft., broken span, with the rear roof 20 ft. wide and the front one 32 ft. wide, with the front wall 4 ft. high and the rear one 8 ft. high, 17 ft. high at the ridge, on post walls, glass 20x30 inches, sash-bars 2x 3 inches, was built, and fitted with steam, for $6,000. The house shown in Figs. 5 and 6 (the property of Fred. Busch, Minneapolis) is 60 x 300 ft., with a mushroom shed 16 x 300 ft. on the back. The total direct cash expense of this structure was $3,300. To this has to be added the work of the regular hired men in doing all the grading, the setting of the pipe posts for purlines, half of all the glazing work, all the work of steam fitting, and half of the paint- ing ; also 4,000 ft. of old pipe which had been used in hot- beds, and all the glass used in the gables and which had been taken from an old house which was torn down. The estimated expense of all this extra work and second-hand material is $700, making the total cost of the house, shed and all, $4,000. The range of nine houses shown at the left in Fig. 8, and again in Fig. 9 (also the property of Mr. Busch’, each house 20x 90 ft., cost, complete, as Iam informed by the owner, $3,600. This is an unusually low cost, being only $400 per house. CHAP TE ivi: MANAGEMENT OF “THE FORCING-HOUSE: PROBABLY there is no horticultural industry in which experience counts for so much as in the management of plants in glass houses. Yet it is not essential that one ‘‘serve his time’’ in the business in order to learn it. Many of our best greenhouse men have taken up the occupation late in life, or have come to it from widely different voca- tions. Even then, they have come to their success by actually doing the work, but they shorten their period of manual experience by bringing to bear upon their work all the helps of reading, observation, and reflection. Whilst it is impossible to teach a person how to runa greenhouse, it is nevertheless profitable to give certain hints and sug- gestions to direct the course of his effort. TEMPERATURES FOR THE VARIOUS CROPS. The following figures represent the approximate average temperatures at which winter vegetables are forced. The night temperatures are supposed to represent the lowest or minimum averages, and the day temperatures are taken in the shade in days of average sunshine : Cool Plants— Day Night WW CECI Cem seit, tees cn uk: See) we. 2550 t0,60° “40° to 15° FeceGlis Watters a cece wo ateg Stalet- win nak o 4Roae es 55° to 60° =45° to 50° Asparagus and rhubarb (when forced from establishedeplantsS) pus, ci cpe sc ere uae 60° to 65° 55° Gelenyios soreness Sie oe ele sgho cela ec hdla Sa ie 60° to 65° 55o Cauliflowerrenwcscses clos socue. 8 wu e 8 60° to 70° 55° 50 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. Warm Plants— Day Night TOMACO x Ce ey oh eee Matin pees & Ge 65° Cucumbere.25 2.) 5 ath ele, ae 75 CaMtO S02 6seitoroe Mieclon i ioemes see cee Fe Oe oe See 75° to 85° 65° to 70° Beeplant. 2... 2. SEP te eer aera ge 75° to 80° 65° REPPCias ican ie) ee ee 2a DEE 75S. 65° Asparagus and rhubarb (when forced from temporary roots)........ - 75° to85° “65° to:zo2 In bright days the temperature may run much higher than these figures, but if plenty of fresh air is given on such occasions no ill results should follow. SOILS FOR FORCED VEGETABLES. Forcing-house soils should not only be rich in available plant food, but they should be of a mellow and friable texture, so that the water soaks through them uniformly, leaving them dryish and loose on top. tt fo) > bt a) > rat 11.6) > Ga > bot e 89] 2/ 2 /Ey) 2) 2 iF) 2) 2] sel |) 2 ies} eg] 8 Bal 9 ge |es| ° 2) oa | ° E jas] 2 e|eea| ° gp ee eee oe a oh Bo BL os Bo] 35 B |om = oUF " 8 " | 5 " | 8 ee : = \ | Za = Sapa: == = _ {(y) ‘suieie c2S‘z1 *sureis SoS‘or *SuIeiIs IEE‘g *surei3 ofg'h *SsuIvIs gIf stot ss qinay Jo plaré [eo y a i €:6e wm “© Oe | Pr Soot by Oe =< "s+ ysejod juoreainby O » 9°85 9788 | » «69°85 » 9°88 ‘auou "ot ss ss ss useqjod Jo azenpw =z rf I°g ny sd oo ok'8 eats ss * + + prloe s0ydsoyd yuayeainby z, re 6 Lr an. OreF » Oly mr (Oe | ‘auou "ts ss ss yoR[Tq auog pealossigg < ” L-2€ eae | Artes 13 GOL a: "os ss * + wasoiju yuoTeaInby Ss *SUIPIS 4z* 07 *sureid 6 gSr | *sureis S°E11 | “sumed 1°39 *Quou 2 2 + = POS JOO EAING *8 101d ‘L Old | 9 29d “eg 40d | *peldde srzeziya408,7 “Pe VOI 56 ? FERTILIZERS FOR TOMATOES. 5/7. Some of the horticultural statistics of these results are as follows : ‘‘y. The highest average weight per fruit of the _Ignotum variety was on plot 6, of the Acme on plot 7, and of the Dwarf Champion on plot 8. ‘‘2. The tendency to bear double flowers, which pro- duced irregular-shaped fruit, seemed to bear no relation to the quantity of nitrogen applied, nor to the variety. The same plant produced both single and double blossoms. ‘3. The number of perfect fruits was absolutely larger on the plots receiving most nitrogen, but there was no very marked relative increase in number. ‘‘4, Comparison of the three varieties shows that Acme gave the largest yield in artificial soil, but the yield of Igno- tum was considerably the largest of the three when grown in rich garden soil. ; ‘““Acme gave the greatest average number of tomatoes per plant, while the average weight per fruit of Ignotum was considerably greater than that of the other varieties. ‘5. The Dwarf Champion proved to be an unprofitable variety in this test. ‘*6. Tomatoes from the unfertilized plot (Plot 4) were small, smooth, and of good shape, but the color was not normal. They were too light in color and slightly rusty- looking,— having a faded appearance. The flesh of the tomato was very dry, and sweet to the taste — much sweeter than tomatoes from other plots. ‘““Tomatoes of best form, size and color grew upon plots 6and 7. Those from plot 8 (and a few from plot 7) ripened very unevenly, and were green about the stem when the other side of the fruit was of good color and apparently ripe. These tomatoes had a decided tendency towards soft- ness while still green ; the form and size were very good.’’ We come now to a comparison of plants grown in natural soil with those grown in artificial soil. “ These were set much closer in the bench than those grown in artificial soil. The latter had a bench space of 2.31 square feet per plant, the 58 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. former about 1.15 square feet. The plants in soil had three weeks the start of those in ashes and peat, being set in the beds on December 7th, while the plants were not set in the ashes and peat until December 31st. These facts render any very strict comparison of the two impossible, nor was strict comparison intended when the experiment was begun. The following facts, however, deserve notice. In what fol- lows we refer only to the crops grown on plots 7 and 8. The others, 4, 5, and 6, had no adequate supply of nitrogen, and it must also be borne in mind that plots 7 and 8 in all probabilty did not have a full supply of either nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash, ‘“The tomatoes grown in ashes and peat grew and fruited much more rapidly than those in natural soil, and then suddenly stopped their growth and bearing, the leaves turned brown and the plants appeared to be dead. They were not dead, however, by any means, and after cutting back to near the roots and supplying more fertilizers, they made a new and vigorous growth and fruited again. The plants grown in natural soil, however, kept bearing a little fruit till the following July, when they were thrown out to make room for other experiments. ‘‘We believe the plants in peat and ashes fruited more quickly and abundantly, because they had at first a larger supply of soluble plant food than those in natural soil :— that when that was exhausted, they had no resource, and died back in consequence :—that if they had been suff- ciently fertilized, they would have proved far more prolific and profitable than those in natural soil. To decide this will be one point in further experiments. ‘The following statement gives the average yield per plant of the three varieties (4 plants of each) on plot 8 in artificial soil with commercial fertilizers, also the average yield per plant (an equal number of each of the three varie- ties was used to calculate this) of the three varieties grown in rich natural soil up to April 17th, the date when, as al- ready described, the plants in artificial soil died back for FERTILIZERS AND TOMATOES, 59 lack of nourishment. Up to this date the plants had been growing in the natural soil three weeks longer than in the artificial soil. The total yield of the plants in natural soil, up to July 16th, is also given, though after the middle of April there is little or no profit in forcing-house toma- toes.’’ The tabular results are as follows : Peat and ashes with fertilizers. Natural soil. To April17th To Aprili7th To July 16th Yield per plant (grams) .. . 2087 976 1820 Yield per plant (pounds) . . 4.59 Das 4.00 Number of fruits per plant . 21 10.4 22.7 Weight of fruits (grams) . . 99.1 91.7 82.4 Yield per square foot (grams) 904 847.0 1583 Yield per square foot (pounds) 1.99 1.86 Bue ‘“The table shows that up to the time when the fertilizers in the artificial soil were proved (by the chemical analyses) to be exhausted, the plants in artificial soil had produced, per square foot of bench space, 7 per cent more tomatoes than those in the natural soil, while the latter had, up to that time, three weeks more of growing season. It is possible _ that the plants in natural soil, if they had been set further apart, would have, in the same time, made a larger crop per foot of bench space. It is possible, too, that with an in- creased supply of fertilizers the plants in artificial soil would have given a largely increased yield. We cite these figures only to show that the tomato crop can be successfully grown in a soil made of ashes and peat, such as we have described, with the aid of commercial fertilizers.’ While these experiments were inaugurated ‘‘solely to determine how much nitrogen in the soil was necessary for the full development of the tomato plant,’’ the experimen- ters nevertheless ‘‘ feel justified in calling attention to certain apparent advantages in using the artificial soil.’? In this artificial soil there is less liability to fungous troubles and insects, and the cost is less than for natural soils. ‘‘ For every 100 square feet of bench space, about 2,200 pounds of sifted coal ashes and 63 pounds of dried peat or leaf mold 60 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. is required to fill the bench 8 inches deep with soil. Ex- periments are now in progress to determine whether the use of peat is necessary. About 1o pounds of commercial fertilizers are needed for this bench space, costing, at pres- ent ruling ton rates, less than 21 cents. The cost of these things is to be compared with the cost of providing a con- siderably greater weight of rich compost containing a large relative amount of stable manure. In very many cases, the cost of filling the benches with the artificial soil must be very much less than the cost of filling them with rich garden soil. “The greatest expense in running a forcing-house is the artificial heat required, and for this reason, quick growth and early maturity are extremely desirable. Regarding the relative availability of the potash and phosphates in compost and in commercial fertilizers, we know little, but it is very certain that the nitrogen of composts is slowly available as compared with the nitrogen of nitrates. Our tomato tests showed, too, very clearly, that plants in natural soil made much slower growth and were slower in fruiting than those in artificial soil supplied with nitrates. Though the former were set fully three weeks earlier, both began fruiting at the same time.’’ The general summary of all the results of fertilizing the tomatoes is as follows: ce 1. A forcing-house tomato crop. yielding about two pounds of fruit for each square foot of bench room, takes, in the vines and fruit, for every hundred square feet of bench space, not less than : Grams. Lbs Ozs. Nitrogen. ..... 168 Equivalent to Nitrate of soda 2 5 Phosphoric acid . . 65 - ‘“ Dissolved bone black o 13 Potashivc.: e.s a8 1) 302 sf ‘* Muriate of potash I 9 ‘Of this from a fourth to a fifth only is in the vines. ‘2. To enable the plants to get these fertilizer elements as required, there should be a large excess of them in the soil, perhaps double the quantity given above. FERTILIZERS WITH LETTUCE. 61 *°3. Every 100 pounds of tomato fruit takes from the soil approximatelv : Ounces. Ounces. Nitrogen. ..... 2.2 Equivalent to Nitrate of soda 14 Phosphoric acid . . 0.9 ar ‘““ Dissolved bone black 5 Potash. se 4.5 oh ““ Muriate of potash 10 ‘‘4. It is possible to grow a crop of forcing-house toma- toes, amounting to two or more pounds per square foot of bench space, perfectly normal in size, color, taste and chemical composition, by the aid of commercial fertilizers alone, and in soil composed of coal ashes and peat.”’ The Connecticut experiments with lettuce. — Experi- ments like those detailed for the tomatoes were also made upon lettuce. Four plots (numbered from 38 to 41) of Simpson White-seeded and Tennisball varieties, each con- taining about 11% square feet, received each 200 pounds of the peat and ashes mixture (containing 5 per cent of peat). The bed was filled to a depth of 6 inches. Some of the details of the test are as follows: Fertilizersapplied. Plot 38. Plot 39. Plot qo. Plot 41. Nitrogeny.....°: 7-11 grams 11.80grams 16.59 grams 21.34 grams Equivalent ni- trate of soda 44.4 ¢ 74.0 ee 103.7 “e 133.4 Phosphoric acid 6.80 ‘ 6.80 ‘ 6.80 ‘ 6:80 *! Equivalent dis- solved bone blackm: <= 40.0 iY 40.0 As 40.0 . 40.0 “ motastiew = es) see 24.24 Le 2h 2g.) 24,24) °° 24.24 “ Equivalent mu- riateofpotash 48.5 a A aver eee 107 | 554 107 644 D4) i) IAP Ae eee ee 144 262 144 337 S40 | Uae eee ane 32 107 32 147 POV aa roiiien serena 96 280 96 380 BAN eee oo ee erst 160 156 160 | 452 “In the above examples, the surface- and sub-irrigated plots were side by side, but a more satisfactory plan is to SUB-IRRIGATION FOR LETTUCE. Dey alternate the plots. This, however, cannot be extended very far, as the difference in heat in the two ends of a house is considerable. A very good plan is to take a section of a bed in the middle of a house and treat by one method of watering, while two sections of the same size on either side are treated according to the other method. This has been done in several cases, and some examples are given in the third table. In these experiments, the plants were treated in the same manner as those in the experiments above men- tioned, z. e., all were sub-irrigated until they were planted in the benches. After that time sections A and C were sub- irrigated, and section B was surface-watered. The average gain of the sub-irrigated plots over the surface-watered was about 38 per cent, or very nearly the same as the average of the 15 experiments in the second table.— COMPARISON OF SURFACE-WATERED SECTIONS WITH SUB- IRRIGATED SECTIONS ON EITHER SIDE, 75 GRAND RAPIDS PLANTS IN EACH SECTION. Section A, sub- | Section B, sur-| Section C, sub- irrigated. face-watered. irrigated. Experiment I. .| Weight, 385 ozs. | Weight, 325 ozs, Weight, 420 OzSs. Experiment II. . s 487 ‘ Bea We “ 406) <* Experiment III. . oS 308 ‘ a “229 45> “In all of the experiments thus far referred to, but one point has been considered, and that is the increase in weight by sub-irrigation. Aside from the relative preva- lency of disease in plants treated by the two methods, there are but few practical questions. ‘Although not a matter of much practical importance, some interest attaches to the fact that sub-irrigated lettuce is earlier than that grown in the ordinary manner. It does not really come to maturity any earlier if by that is meant the stage at which the plants cease to increase in weight, 76 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. caused by the dying of the lower leaves, but it does reach a marketable size sooner. It is customary to allow the plants to stand as long as they continue to improve, but in case it is desirable to cut before that time it will be found that the sub-irrigated lettuce will be a week to ten days ahead of the other. Should the size to which surface-watered lettuce can be grown be set as a standard, and the sub-irrigated cut when it reaches that size, it will be found that the latter will be ready four to six weeks from the time of planting in the beds, and the surface-watered must be allowed to remain from six to eight weeks to attain the same size. Whether we reckon in this manner, or by the actual weight of the crops harvested during the season, there is a gain in one season of about one crop by sub-irrigation. Both the yield and price vary, of course; but for a house 20x 100 feet the difference in a single season between surface- and sub-irriga- tion might safely be estimated at from $50 to $100. The latter figure might not be reached, except on very heavy clay soil, and on soil specially adapted to lettuce the dif- ference might be even less than the lowest, but experience has shown that it is more likely to exceed than to fall below $50. The difference is likely to be greater with new begin- ners than with those of experience, as more skill is required to manage a crop by surface- than by sub-irrigation. It is an established fact that good head lettuce cannot be grown on heavy soil by surface watering, and the same is, in a meas- ure, true of all varieties. It is evident, therefore, that sub- irrigation greatly enlarges the possibilities of lettuce culture under glass. It not only makes the work easier for new beginners, but it makes it possible to use soil that would otherwise be precluded. More than that, it solves the prob- lem of meeting competition from the south, which competi- tion bids fair to ruin the business of vegetable forcing at the north, unless improved methods are adopted by northern gvardeners.”’ Very similar results with lettuce have been secured by Rane, who also found much less trouble with rot in sub- RESULTS OF SUB-IRRIGATION. v/s | irrigated beds. ‘‘ The lettuce rot, which appeared to a marked extent in the surface-watered beds,’’ he writes, ‘‘was apparently absent in the sub-irrigated beds. The disease was first noticed at time of marketing, at which time it could not be detected in the other beds. During the growth of the second crop it became very troublesome, and some of the varieties in the surface-watered beds required marketing before they were fully grown, while in the under- surface-watered beds the disease was completely held in eheeke: Rane also found ‘‘ marked superiority’’ in sub-irrigation for tomatoes, “no marked difference”? in turnip-rooted radishes, ‘‘ very beneficial’’ effects in long-rooted radishes, ‘‘a slight difference’’ in earliness in spinach, “no marked difference’”’ in turnip-rooted beets, and ‘‘very marked’’ gain in maturity of parsley from seed but ‘‘no perceptible difference in its growth’’ after the plants in the surface- irrigated soil ‘‘once reached maturity.”’ ’ Conclusions. — Green makes the following points of ad- vantage of sub-irrigation in glass houses: ‘‘Watering by sub-irrigation in the greenhouse is more cheaply done than by the ordinary method. ‘Watering by sub-irrigation in the greenhouse is more efficiently done than by the ordinary method. ‘‘Where sub-irrigation is practiced in the greenhouse, the soil does not become compacted as by surface water- ings, but retains its original loose, friable condition, even without frequent stirring, nor does it become mossy, water- logged and sour. ‘“Plants are less liable to suffer from over watering and diseases by sub-irrigation than where the water is applied to the surface. ‘“All classes of plants which may be grown upon greenhouse benches thrive better by sub-irrigation than by the ordinary method of watering.”’ Rane writes as follows: ‘‘The saving of labor through sub-irrigation is almost inestimable. The expenditure of 78 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE,. time in watering was as follows: In the case of under- surface irrigation, the water was dipped out of a tank and poured into a funnel, through which it entered the various portions of the bed. On the other hand, in surface irriga- tion, the water was dipped out and applied by a sprinkling can, containing either a rose spray or a spout long enough to reach all sections of the bed. In the former case, the size of the plants did not matter, while in the latter, the more mature the crop, the more time it required for watering. Again, the sub-irrigated beds did not require watering over once or, at the outside, twice a week; while, generally speaking, the other beds were watered daily. ‘“The idea that a water-tight bed is detrimental to plant growth on account of lack of drainage is overcome, we be- lieve, in the fact that the pipe or tiles receive the excess of water, which, in a bed not water-tight, would leak out at the bottom, thus making it serve a double purpose. If the soil contains too much moisture, it serves as a reservoir ; if not enough, it imparts the amount necessary for good condi- tions. In either case, the pipe or tiles act as a safety-valve. These openings underneath the soil allow free access of air, render plant food digestible, and act as a drain to water- soaked soil. In view of these results, we feel safe in saying that under-surface watering is a pronounced success.”’ VENTILATING AND SHADING. The one imperative thing to be borne in mind in ventila- ting glass houses is to avoid draughts. This means that ventilators should be many and small rather than few and large, for thereby the warm air can be discharged from houses without much danger of an in-rush of cold air, because the ventilator sash need be lifted only very little. Houses should be cooled by letting out heated air rather than by letting in cold air, although it is impossible to wholly exclude the outside air when ventilators are opened. In forcing-houses of ordinary size, sufficient ventilation can VENTILATING FORCING-HOUSES. 79 be secured by means of sash at the peak alone, thus obvi- ating the danger of currents of cold air which arises when there are ventilating sashes in both the sides andtop. In very large houses, particularly in those of the shed roof pattern, it may be necessary to place ventilating openings in the walls, more especially on the back or high side of the house. Ventilating openings should be removed as far as possible from the plants in order to reduce the danger of cold draughts to the utmost. Particular care should be taken with the ventilating dur- ing dull, cold weather, when the plants become soft and are very quickly injured by draughts. It is not necessary to ventilate primarily for the purpose of securing fresh air, but to regulate the temperature of the house. When the house becomes over wet and close, it is often necessary to ventilate for the purpose of drying it out. The larger the house, the less, as a rule, is the necessity of ventilating. . Houses are shaded to prevent the sun from scorching the plants. The shading is supplied by coating the glass with some white covering, like whitewash. The necessity for shading may be largely obviated by not allowing the plants to become over-vigorous, sappy, and soft. The greatest danger from sun-scald occurs after a spell of dark and wet weather. It is then essential to keep the house rather cool when the weather brightens, and it may be necessary to shade it. Plants which are suffering from root-galls or other disease of the roots, or those which are growing in very leachy soils or on very shallow benches, may have to be shaded in order to check the evaporation from their tops and thereby prevent them from wilting. Many plants thrive best under shaded roofs, but amongst the forced vegetables there is only the English or frame cucumber which appears to thrive best under a tempered light. This plant was developed in the humid and soft climate of England, and it seeems to be impatient of our violent suns; yet it may be made to withstand the sun if grown rather slowly. For plants which require permanent shading, a paint 80 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. made of naphtha and white lead may be put upon the glass. This is removed with difficulty. For forcing-houses, which only infrequently need shading, an ordinarily slaked- lime-and-water whitewash, which can be both applied and washed off by means of a spray pump, is the best covering. A still less durable wash is made of flour and water. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FORCING-HOUSES. Can the electric light stand for sunlight? Can it be profitably used at night and in dull weather to hasten the growth of plants? These questions have received greater attention in the United States than elsewhere in the world. Experiments have been made at the Cornell Experiment Station,* the West Virginia Station,+ and by W. W. Rawson, an extensive vegetable forcer at Bos- ton. It is found that the electric light, both the arc and the incandescent, can be advantageously used upon let- tuce to piece out the sunlight in midwinter. In various florists’ plants it also produces earlier bloom. It is usu- ally injurious, or has only negative results, upon radishes, peas, carrots, beets, spinach and cauliflowers. Upon lettuce, the value of the electric light in hasten- ing maturity is emphatic. Mr. Rawson saves about a week upon each of his three winter crops by the use of three ordinary street lamps hung over a house 370 ft. long and 33 ft. wide. At Cornell, the results upon lettuce have been marked in many tests, and the gains in maturity have been as much as two weeks. It is found in every instance that the naked are light—that is, a light without a globe —hung *Bailey, Bulletins 30 (Aug. 1891), 42 (Sept. 1892), 55 (July 1893); also, ‘Electricity and Plant-Growing,’” in Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc’y, 1894. Experiments with electric currents upon plants, by Clarence D. Walker, will be found in Bulletins 16 (1892) and 23 (1893) of the Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. + Rane, ‘‘ Electro-Horticulture with the Incandescent Lamp,’ Bulle- tin 37 (July, 1894). POLLINATING THE FLOWERS. 81 inside the house, injures the plants which are within a few feet of it, and tends to make all plants within reach of its rays run too quickly to seed. The use of a clear glass globe, however, overcomes all injury. The best results are to be obtained by placing the light — either naked or surrounded by a clear globe——a few feet above the roof. An ordinary 2,000-candle-power arc light —such as is commonly used for. street lighting —will exert a marked effect upon lettuce for a radius of 75 to t1oo feet, if the roof is clean and the framework of the house is light. The light may be allowed to burn all night. In- candescent lamps have the same influence as arc lights, but to a less degree. It will be found profitable to use the electric light for plant-growing, if at all, only in the three or four months of midwinter. POLLINATION. It is generally necessary to transfer the pollen by hand in fruit-bearing forced vegetables. The methods are fully explained under the discussions of the various vegetables. In order to secure the pollen, the house should be dry and warm. Upon a bright morning, when the flowers need pollinating, the gardener should withhold water and let the foliage and walks become thoroughly dried off, and before midday the pollen will usually discharge readily. Bees may sometimes be utilized as pollen-carriers in spring and fall, when they can forage in and out of the house as they choose, but they are impracticable in the winter time in houses of ordinary size. In very large houses, in which there is abundant room for the bees to work, and where ventilators do not need to be opened so much, bees may sometimes be used to advantage. Three or four swarms should pollinate a house 40x 4oo ft. The bees will have to be fed. In general, however, bees are found to be unsatisfactory. The following account of an 82 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE, experiment in this direction at Cornell (Lodeman, Bulle- tin 96) will indicate some.of the perverseness of these insects : ‘“Much has been written regarding the value of bees in greenhouses. It is said that all hand-pollinations may be dispensed with if desired, as the bees will work among the blossoms, and thus cause the fruit to set. ‘“During November, 1893, a hive of bees was received, and on the 23rd day of the month they were set free in the brightest of all the station houses. The hive was placed at the south end of the house, and the bees were kept constantly supplied with proper food. At this time the house was filled with tomato plants in full bloom, and it was hoped the bees would work among them so that the tedious but very necessary hand-pollination of the flowers need no longer be practiced. The bees evidently did not catch the idea, however, for if there was one place in the house which they did not visit it was the tomato blossom. They spent most of their time in bump- ing their heads against the glass sides and roof of the house, and at every opportunity, when the ventilators were raised a little, they took pains to pass through them, even though the mercury stood far below the freezing point out of doors. The bees which did not succeed in finding the ventilators continued to fly against the glass, leaving it only for the purpose of withdrawing far enough to get a start for a fresh attack. In this way the busy bee finally wore herself out, and, in the course of three weeks, those less ambitious individuals which did not fly heavenward in the friendless atmosphere of De- cember, were scattered as corpses along the sides of the house close to the glass; and thus ended the attempt to make these little creatures useful in midwinter. It may be said that bees do not like tomato flowers, but our specimens took no pains to find out whether they liked them or not. It is probable that every bee in the swarm went to his honeyless bourne without ever having dis- PESTS AND DISEASES. 83 covered whether the plants were tomatoes or buckwheat, or, in fact, if there were any plants at all in the house.” INSECTS AND DISEASES. Insects and fungi are amongst the best of all educa- tors. They force the gardener to learn, whether he will or not. They are always the curse of poor gardeners. It occasionally happens that the very best gardeners are overtaken by some dire pest, but it is the exception, not the rule. The gardener boasts that the glass house affords him the means of keeping plants directly under control. By the same means, he should also keep the pests under control. There is a constant struggle for mastery between the plant, the bug, the fungus, and the man, and it often happens that the combatant which is the biggest, oldest and knows the most turns out to be the slave of all the others. The one universal and invariable precaution against in- sect and fungous attack is this: Keep the plants in a con- stant and uniform state of normal and healthy develop- ment. Avoid all extremes of temperature and moisture, and be particularly careful in this regard in the dark weather of winter. One is growing cucumbers, for ex- ample. He is in a hurry for the crop. The season is advancing. A dull spell comes on. He keeps his house close and waters freely. The plants respond quickly. The stems lengthen and thicken and the leaves expand to enormous size. Presently the sun appears. He must have air. He swings open the ventilators. The cold air rushes in and stirs the foliage. Two or three days later, he may look for a well-established case of mildew! If he is growing lettuce in the same fashion, his plants appear to suddenly begin to collapse. The lower leaves rot, and presently the crop is worthless. In less than a week, one January, the writer lost an entire house of most beautiful lettuce by just such management. If he is 7 FORC. 84 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE, growing tomatoes, the plants become sappy and con- gested under such treatment, and may actually contract the dropsy, as is shown in the chapter upon tomato fore- ing. In a spell of dull weather in winter, the gardener must be particularly careful to keep his houses dry and sweet, for then the mildews develop rapidly. The houses should be kept sweet and clean. All trim- mings from the plants should be carried out of the estab- lishment. The soil should be changed every year, particu- larly on benches (as explained on page 51). If there have been serious infections of fungi or insects, the framework of the house should be painted during sum- mer, or else sprayed or washed with kerosene. Care should be taken to avoid filling the benches with in- fested soil. It is always safest not to select soil from fields which have recently grown the same kind of crops which it is desired to grow in the house; and if the forced plants have been badly infected, the soil in which they are grown should not be used again for forcing pur- poses. All possible precautions having been taken, the gar- dener may next exercise himself to devise means of kill- ing the pests. For aphis and the like, he will fumigate with some tobacco preparation ; for mealy-bugs he will use a fine hard stream of water from a hose, a_ proceed- ing which will greatly upset their domestic affairs ; for red spiders and mites he will syringe the foliage thoroughly with water above and below on all bright days; for mil- dews he will evaporate sulphur or dust it on the plants ; for rusts he will spray with Bordeaux mixture ; for damp- ing-off (and ‘‘canker’’ at the root) he will dry off the surface of the soil and mix a little sulphur or charcoal into it ;* for the nematode or root-gall (the work of which *See Atkinson’s monograph of damping-off, Bulletin 94, Cornell Exp. Sta. (now out of print), for an account of the various fungi concerned in the trouble. The advice which Atkinson gives for the treatment of THE DAMPING-OFF FUNGI. 85 is shown in Fig. 29, page 87), which is one of the most serious of all greenhouse pests, he will remove the soil, paint the benches with lye or kerosene, and thereafter use only soil which has been very thoroughly frozen since a crop was grown in it (a proceeding which is practically impossible in solid beds). damping-off is here reprinted because the disorder is a very common and serious one, although it is not particularly germane to the subject of the forcing of vegetables : ‘In the treatment of this trouble, especial attention must be given to the environment of the plants and those conditions which favor the rapid development of the parasites. These conditions are known in most cases to be high temperature accompanied by a large moisture content of the soil, humid atmosphere, insufficient light, and close apartments, and soil which has become thoroughly infested with the fungi by the development of the disease in plants growing in the same. Some excellent notes on the treatment of the disease by gardeners and horticulturists are given in the American Garden for 1890, by Meehan, Massey, Maynard, Watson, Lonsdale, Gardiner, and Bailey, and a short description of the potting-bed fungus (4rfotrogus Debaryanus) by Seymour. The principal lines of treatment suggested there from the practical experience of the writers areas follows: “When cuttings are badly diseased, they should be taken out, the soil removed, benches cleaned and fresh sand introduced, when only the sound cuttings should be, reset. For cuttings is recommended a fairly cool house, and confined air should be avoided in all cases. As much sunlight as possible should be given as the plants will stand without wilting. When close atmosphere is necessary, guard against too much moisture, and keep an even temperature. The soil should be kept as free as possible from decaying vegetable matter. This is a very important matter, for several of the most troublesome of the para- sites grow readily on such decaying vegetable matter, and in many cases obtain such vigorous growth that they can readily attack a per- fectly healthy plant which could resist the fungus if the vegetable matter had not been there to give it such astart. Soil which is dry beneath and wet on top, as results from insufficient watering by a sprinkler, favors the disease more than uniformity of moisture through- out the soil. ““In seed beds, use fresh sandy soil free from decaying matter. Avoid over-watering, especially in dull weather, shade in the middle Base ok the day only, and keep temperature as low as the plants will stand. “Tf the seedlings are badly diseased it will be wise to discard them and start the bed anew. In the early stages, however, they can frequently be saved by loosening the soil to dry it, and placing the pots in sunny places at such times as they will not wilt. Some advocate sprinkling sulphur on the soil,and in some cases sulphur at the rate of I to 30 is mixed in the soil before sowing, with good effect? When the beds are badly infested, Humphrey (Rept. Mass. State Agr. Exp. Sta. 1890) advocates the entire removal of the soil, whitewashing the beds, and the introduction of fresh soil. “In houses heated by steam if it were possible to have, without too great expense, a steam chest, where the pots and seed pans which are used could be placed and the soil thoroughly steamed for 86 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. Methods of controlling greenhouse pests by fumiga- tion.*—The insects and the fungi which seriously injure greenhouse plants are comparatively few in number, but if allowed to develop unchecked they are capable of entirely ruining every susceptible plant in the houses. There are some plants which are almost entirely free from such attacks, but they form isolated exceptions to a very gen- eral rule. All who have had any experience in growing plants under glass know that diseases are sure to appear, and that insects will originate apparently from nothing. Indeed, so certain are these pests to appear that every thorough gardener is at all times prepared for them, or even takes steps towards their destruction before they have been seen. Fortunately, he has at his command abundant means of protecting his plants, and houses in which insects or fungi are found in large numbers are silent but convincing witnesses of bad management and neglect. When a greenhouse has once become thor- oughly infested, it is almost impossible to rid the plants of their parasites, and it requires constant and prolonged attention to bring about this result; and even when this has been done, the plants will in many cases have be- come so weakened that they will scarcely repay the time and labor employed in saving them. The care of plants should begin before they are attacked, and this care should be given uninterruptedly. By treating apparently uninfested plants many invisible enemies may be de- several hours, it could be sterilized, and the finer and more delicate seedlings be grown then with little danger if subsequent care was used to not introduce soil from the beds. In testing the virulence of the Artotrogus Debaryanus, and of the sterile fungus, several experiments have been made by steaming pots of earth, growing seedlings in them and then inoculating some of the seedlings with the fungus while other pots were kept as checks, and all were under like conditions with respect to moisture, temperature, etce The seed- lings which were not supplied with the fungus remained healthy, while those supplied with the fungus were diseased and many were killed outright.” *Lodeman, Bulletin 96, Cornell Exp. Sta. TOBACCO FOR PLANT-LICE. 87 stroyed, and such treatments are by far the most valu- able ones. Tobacco.— Several of the most common and often very serious organisms may be overcome by vapors with which a house may be filled, and the best known and the most valuable remedy of this nature is undoubtedly 29. Galls of a nematode worm on the roots of two tomato plants. The root on the left is unusually severely affected. tobacco. The poisonous alkaloids found in the tobacco plant are fatal to many insects. The waste parts of the plants, particularly the ‘‘stems,’’ are utilized by florists and others for purposes of fumigation. These stems, which are almost invariably the dried mid-veins of the leaves, may be obtained for almost noth- 88 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. ing at any cigar factory. When wanted for fumigating purposes they should not be too dry, else they will blaze, instead of slowly smouldering and forming a dense smoke. In case the stems are too dry, they may be moistened by sprinkling water upon them; a better way, however, is to store the stems in a moderately damp place, and then they are always in good condition for burning. If they blaze while the house is being fumi- gated, much of their value is lost, and it is also said that plants are positively injured in such cases, although our experience lras not supported this view. Tobacco stems may be burned in a variety of ways. Some gardeners merely pile the required quantity upon a brick or stone floor in the house and set fire to it by means of paper or shavings. An old coal scuttle answers the purpose very well. Fig. 30 represents a home-made tobacco-stem burner which we have designed, and which is perhaps as simple, serviceable, and easily managed as any in use. The body of the burner is made of heavy, galvanized sheet-iron. It closely resembles a stove pipe in form, but is about 7 inches in diameter and 2 feet in length. The bottom is made of the same material, and is perforated by about a dozen holes, each 3-inch in diameter. Four legs support the burner and keep the bottom 3 inches from the floor. A handle at the top completes the device. When filled, the stems being packed sufficiently close to insure their burning, it contains an amount that will answer for a house of 4,000 to 6,000 cubic feet. Much, of course, depends upon the tightness of the house, and considerable variation will also be found in the strength of the stems. Occasion- 30. 4 home- ally some will be had which are much weaker Matsa than those last used, and hencé larger quantities must be employed. It has been our practice to test each new lot of stems to determine their strength before they : FUMIGATING WITH TOBACCO. 89 are freely used in all the houses. The quantity must also be varied in accordance with the plants growing in the house. Some plants are much more easily injured by the smoke than others, and the amount used must be insufficient to hurt the most tender plants. Less _in- jury is apt to result if the houses and plants are dry; wet foliage is quite easily scorched by the smoke. Our method of starting a ‘‘smudge”’ is to place a single sheet of newspaper, previously lighted, in the bottom of the burner, and upon this the stems are immediately placed. If prop- erly dampened, they will take fire readily and smoulder without blazing. The frequency with which a house should be smoked cannot be definitely stated. Some conservatories will re- quire the operation scarely more than two or three times during the winter, while others may need that many treat- ments each week. In the latter case, it is well to have the smudges upon consecutive days, as in this manner insects receive a second treatment before they have re- covered from the first. The evening is perhaps the best time for fumigating, as most of the disagreeable odor is thus escaped. But it may be advisable, in badly infested houses, to follow the evening treatment by another the next morning. In such cases, care should be exercised that the houses do not become overheated by the morn- ing sun. Tobacco smoke may be used successfully in the de- struction of the various aphides which are found upon greenhouse plants, and of a small white fly, a species of aleyrodes. Other insects cannot be practically treated by its use. The rose-leaf extract of tobacco we find to be one of the best of all insecticides for glass houses. It is a liquid, which we reduce one-half with water, then drop a large piece of hot iron into it. The fumes are fatal to aphis, but have proved to be harmless to plants with us. go MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-:HOUSE. Bisulphide of carbon.—This material has recently as- sumed a prominent position as an effective insecticide. It is a clear, transparent liquid, which evaporates rapidly, even at a low temperature. These fumes are fatal to in- sect as well as animal life, and may be used to a limited extent in the greenhouse. The vapor is of greatest value in destroying a small mite ( 7etranychus bimaculatus), that closely resembles the red spider. This mite is not as easily overcome by water as the red spider is, and in certain cases it may be advisable to resort to the bisul- phide of carbon treatment. This treatment is adapted to plants which are growing in pots, or to low-growing plants in beds. Whole houses could scarcely be treated in this manner, as the vapor is heavy, and an uneven dis- tribution would probably result. But for small, con- fined spaces, as bell-jars, tubs, or barrels, the remedy can be used with success. I have had no difficulty in de- stroying mites and red spider by the use of 60 minims or drops of the liquid to a space containing about 7 cubic feet. The liquid was poured on cotton batting, which was spread over a small rose from a watering can, the stem of the funnel being set in the soil. The plants remained covered with enamel cloth nearly two hours, which suf- ficed to kill all the insects, and did not injure the violets, these being the plants treated. Hydrocyanic gas.—The success which has followed the use of hydrocyanic gas in the treatment of scale insects infesting the orange groves of California has suggested the idea of its possible value in destroying greenhouse pests. The common method of making the gas is as fol- lows: One fluidounce of sulphuric acid is slowly added to 3 ounces of water. To this diluted acid there is then added 1 ounce of 60 per cent cyanide of potassium (very poisonous). Effervescence immediately takes place, and the gas is freely given off. The quantities here given are sufficient for a space containing 150 cubic feet, the plants being exposed to the gas for one hour. When trees are i oe SULPHUR FOR MILDEWS. gi perfectly dormant, such treatment is not followed by any evil effects. During the past spring several growing plants were exposed to the action of the gas when used according to the above directions. Tomatoes, eggplants, oranges, and roses were used. The day following the treatment showed that all the plants were injured, but to what extent could not be well determined. After two weeks had passed, however, the effect of the treatment was plainly seen. The tomato plant died; the eggplant and the rose lost all their foliage, but fresh leaves were appearing on the stems; the orange suffered the least, since only the young leaves were affected. The mites had all been killed, so that in this respect at least the experiment was successful. Other trials were made with the gas, using the same kinds of plants, but it was found to be impossible to de- stroy the mites without injuring at least some of the plants. The use of hydrocyanic gas for the destruction of greenhouse pests can therefore scarcely be recommended. It should also be remembered that this gas is exceed- ingly poisonous, and must not be inhaled. Sulphur.—This element is of the greatest service in greenhouse work. It is an invaluable agent for the de- struction of mildews, and is also of great assistance in overcoming red spider. As commonly used, it is mixed with an equal bulk of air-slaked lime or some similar material, and then water, oil, milk or some other liquid is added until a thick, creamy paste is obtained. This is then painted upon the heating surfaces in the house, and the sulphur fumes are given off. The same result can be obtained much more rapidly and energetically by heating the flowers of sulphur until it melts; the fumes are then - given off in great abundance. Our practice has been to put the sulphur in a shallow pan and then set it over an oil-stove, having the flame turned just high enough to keep the sulphur in a melted condition. Almost contin- g2 MANAGEMENT OF THE FORCING-HOUSE. uous watching was necessary to prevent the material from taking fire, for if this should occur it would prove almost instantly fatal to all the plants which might be reached by the gas. The difficulty was in a great measure See Overcome by L..C, Corbett, at thatstime = an assistant at Cornell, who suggested the use of a sand-bath as a means of modifying the intensity of the heat. Our present out- fit is shown in Fig. 31. It consists of two pans placed on an ordinary hand oil-stove. The lower pan is half filled with clean, aa Gaia coarse sand, and the upper one contains the bath. sulphur. By its proper use our houses have been kept remarkably free from mildew, even under very adverse circumstances. But there is constant danger that the sulphur will become heated to the burning point, and then the entire stock of plants in the house is lost. This use of sulphur is often very con- venient, but the work should be placed in the hands of a most trustworthy person. If a house should be thor- oughly treated in this manner every week or two, scarcely any mildew could develop. CREAR TER LV, 11S We OL Oe is LETTUCE is the most popular and the most uniformly profitable of all vegetable crops grown under glass in this country. It grows rapidly, so that three crops can be taken from a house between September and April, and the demand for a choice product is always good. Lettuce is generally considered to be an easy crop to grow under glass, and yet it is a fact that few gardeners are entirely successful with the crop, year by year, particularly if the heading varieties are grown. It thrives best in late winter, but if careful attention is given to watering and ventilating, it thrives well in midwinter. Good head let- tuces should bring 50 cents or 60 cents a dozen heads at wholesale, and they often bring more. The loose types generally bring somewhat less. Lettuce varies greatly in quality, and this variation is due in very great measure to the immediate conditions under which it is grown. If the plant is very rank, and has dark green, thick leaves, the quality is low. A good *As stated in the preface, much of the discussion upon methods of forcing of vegetables which is presented in this book is founded upon bulletins of the Cornell Experiment Station. Some of these bulletins are now out of print, and new notes and experiences are constantly ac- cumulating, so that it seems to be necessary to revise the advice and to extend it with the observations and experiences of others, and thereby to present a consecutive manual. It should be added that these same bulletins formed the basis of much of Winkler’s ‘‘ Vegeta- ble Forcing,’ and this fact may account for some similarities of lan- guage in the two books. (93) 94 DE Ear WCE lettuce plant is yellowish green in color upon delivery, and the leaves are thin and brittle. The product should be wholly free from lice, or green-fly, and the tips of the leaves should show no tendency to wither or to turn brown. If heading lettuce is grown, the leaves should roll inward like cabbage leaves, and the heads should be compact and nearly globular and yellowish white towards the core (see Fig. 34, page 103). Temperature. — Lettuce must have a low temperature. The night temperature should not rise much above 45°, while it may go as low as 40°. The day temperature, in the shade, should be 55° to 65°. Lettuce which is kept too warm grows too tall, and the leaves are thin and flabby, and there is generally more danger of injury from aphis, rot and leaf-burn. In midwinter particular atten- tion must be given to ventilation, for if the air becomes damp and close, mildew or rot is almost sure to de- velop. In raising head lettuce, it is common to do the watering with tepid water just before heading, in order to accelerate the growth. Light.—Whilst a lettuce house must have an abun- dance of light, the plants do not suffer if they are some distance from the glass, and even if they receive little di- rect sunlight. The house should have an exposure to- wards the sun, and the framework ought to be as light as possible, if the best results are to be obtained; but dif- fused light is often as good as the direct burning rays of the sun. It should be said, however, that good lettuce may often be grown in heavy, rather dark houses, but more care is required (particularly in watering), the re- sults are less certain, and there is difficulty in growing the heading varieties to perfection. The electric light may also be used to advantage (see pages 80 and ror). Beds and benches.— Most of the commercial lettuce forcers prefer to grow the crop in solid or ground beds, where the temperature is cool and the conditions of SOLID BEDS VS. BENCHES. 95 moisture are uniform. This is more especially true of the heading varieties. Our own experience has fully demonstrated the superiority of solid earth beds over benches, for lettuce. We have had good crops in benches, but they have required special attention to heat- ing and watering, and even then the results are generally 32. A ground bed,with Grand Rapids lettuce. precarious. If, however, the benches have no bottom heat —that is, if there are no heating pipes close under them and if the sides are open below—very good results, par- ticularly with the loose or non-heading sorts, may be had from year to year. The benches, when used, should con- tain about six inches of earth. Fig. 32 shows an earth bed, about 9 inches deep, in which we have had ex- cellent success with lettuce. 96 YEPrUCE, Soils. — Probably no forced vegetable is so much in- fluenced by soil as the lettuce, and no doubt more fail- ures are to be ascribed to uncongenial soil than to any other single cause. Fortunately this matter has been made the subject of a most admirable study by Gallo- way,* who finds that the famous heading lettuce of the Boston gardeners can be grown to perfection only in soils which contain much sand and very little clay and silt. These soils allow the water to settle deeply into them, and yet hold it without percolation; the surface is dry, pre- venting the occurrence of rot; the roots forage far and wide, and the plant food is quickly available. The full characters of the soil used by the Boston growers are set forth as follows by Galloway: ‘‘Loose at all times, re- gardless of treatment, it being possible to push the arm into it to a depth of 20 inches or more. Never ‘puddles’ when worked, no matter how wet. Clods or lumps never form. A 4-inch dressing of fresh manure, when spaded in to a depth of 15 to 20 inches, will be completely dis- integrated in six or eight weeks. Sufficient water may be added the first of September, when the first crop is started, to carry through two crops and a part of a third without additional applications, except very light ones merely to keep the leaves moist and to induce a move- ment of the moisture at the bottom of the bed toward the top, where it will come in contact with most of the roots. The surface to a depth of an inch dries out quickly, and this has an important bearing on the preven- tion of wet rot of the lower leaves. The active working roots of the plants are found in abundance throughout the ‘entire depth of soil, even if this exceeds 30 inches.”’ Galloway was able to prepare soil which ‘‘ gave practi- cally the same results’’ as that which he imported from Boston. This soil was made as follows: ‘‘ Mixture of *B. T. Galloway, ‘‘ The Growth of Lettuce as Affected by the Physi- cal Properties of the Soil,’’ Agric. Science, viii. 302 (1894). SOILS, FOR EETTEUCE. 97 two parts of drift sand and one part of greenhouse soil. The sand was obtained from the valley of a stream near by, which frequently overflowed its banks, flooding the spot where the material was found. The greenhouse soil was a mixture consisting of one part of the ordinary clay, gneiss soil of the region, and two parts of well-rotted ma- nure. Such soil will grow 20 bushels of wheat to the acre without fertilization.” Whilst all these remarks about the great importance of the selection of a proper soil are certainly true, it should nevertheless be said that a good gardener can get good results from a very uncongenial soil, chiefly by giv- ing skillful attention to watering. It is always essential to the best lettuce growing, however, to avoid ‘‘heavy’’ soils. These soils usually lose their water quickly, neces- sitating frequent watering, which keeps the surface wet and increases danger from damping-off and rot. These soils soon become hard, compact and ‘‘dead,’’ and the plants grow slowly, with thick, tough leaves. Green (Bulletin 61, Ohio Exp. Sta.) gives the following advice upon soils for winter lettuce: ‘‘If the market de- mands head lettuce, then it is of the utmost importance that the soil should have a considerable per cent of sand, and at the same time be sufficiently fertile and have capacity for holding moisture. Non-heading sorts, like the Grand Rapids, are not so particular as to soil, but it is a difficult matter to grow any kind on a soil with much clay in it, by surface-watering, and even if sub-irri- gation is practiced such soil should be avoided. It would be futile to attempt to grow lettuce according to methods in vogue in the east on a heavy clay soil. Swamp muck, composted with one-fourth or one-half horse manure, answers very well for either surface or sub-irrigation, par- ticularly for the latter. It has the advantage of being light and easily handled, and never hardens; moreover, it has considerable capacity for water. The addition of fine sand will greatly improve a clay soil, and it is advisa- LETTUCE. ‘s70g ut paosof addy suippey-uou ayy fo amnqaT “Ef | i i | ERLE LESSEE LADLE EARS LETTUCE IN POTS. 99 ble, if such soil is used, to take it from an old fence row, using the sod only. It may be inferred from the above that lettuce may be successfully grown on almost any soil, and such is the fact, if conditions are thoroughly studied and the details carefully looked after. Neverthe- less, it is better to select a soil naturally adapted to the purpose if possible, but in any case such artificial means as composting and_= sub-irrigation ought not to be neglected.’’ Growing in pots.—Good lettuce of the leafy or Grand Rapids type can be grown in pots. It is a common practice with gardeners to set pots of lettuce in vacant places in cool houses for the purpose of utilizing the room. Growing in pots is comparatively little used, although now and then a grower follows this method ex- tensively. A most beautiful crop of pot-grown lettuce is shown in Fig. 33 (page 98). The New York State Ex- periment Station has made some investigations in the pot- growing of lettuce, and has published the results in Bul- letin 88 (March, 1895), from which I quote : ‘‘The seed is sown in flats, as usual; that is to say, in boxes about 12 by ro inches and 3 inches deep. When the plants are about 2 inches high they are transplanted to 2-inch pots. The benches are filled with soil, in which the pots containing the lettuce are plunged so that the tops of the pots are covered with about half an inch of soil. ‘“Soil for lettuce should not be too heavy, and as the soil which we use for potting is a rather heavy clay loam, sand is mixed with it in preparing it for the lettuce house. The potting soil is composed of three parts by measure of loam, one of manure and one of sand. The soil in the pots is the same as that used on the bench, except that it is sifted, while that on the bench is not. A little Grainage material is put in the bottom of each pot. The piants are usually set on the benches about 10 inches apart each way. The roots soon fill the pot and grow 8 FORC. I0o LET LUGE. out into the soil of the bench through the drainage hole in the bottom of the pot. Being thus buried in the soil, the little pots do not dry out as rapidly as they would do were they exposed to the air. ‘‘The soil in the pots is sufficient to support a vigor- ous growth, and yet when the roots have filled the pots the plants appear to make a more compact growth and head quicker than they do when grown in beds where the extension of the root system is unchecked. Another advantage of this method consists in the fact that the plants are transplanted but once, namely, from the flats to the pots; thus the check to the growth by a second transplanting is avoided. ‘“The plants may be marketed without disturbing their roots, and for this reason they keep fresh for a longer time than do the plants whose roots are disturbed in pre- paring them for market. When the plant is ready for market it may be knocked out of the pot and the ball of earth, containing the roots undisturbed, may be wrapped snugly in oiled paper. The earth will thus keep moist for a long time, and furnish moisture to the plant through the roots which are imbedded in it. Local customers may be supplied with lettuce in the pots and the pots returned after the plants are taken from them. Grocers and other retail dealers readily appreciate the advantages of having lettuce grown in this way. It permits them to keep the lettuce on hand for a considerable length of time, and still present it to their customers crisp, fresh and at- tractive, instead of wilted and unattractive. ‘“The moment a pot is removed from the bench another may immediately be set in its place without waiting to clear the bench, or any portion of it, of the rest of the lettuce. The method thus proves economical both of time and space. ‘““This method will undoubtedly commend itself to growers who are forcing lettuce to a limited extent. Whether it can be employed to advantage by those who. THE SOWING OF LETTUCE. IOI have extensive houses devoted to lettuce can be decided only by trial. It certainly appears to be worthy of ex- tended trial.’’ Sowing and transplanting. —If the lettuce crop is to be taken off in early November, from seven to ten weeks should be counted from the sowing of the seeds to the delivery of the product. A midwinter crop may require two to four weeks longer. The heading lettuces generally require a week or two longer than the loose varieties. The time may be shortened ten days to two weeks by the use of the electric arc light hung directly above the house. A single ordinary street lamp of 2,000 normal candle-power will be sufficient for a house 20 feet or more wide and 75 feet long, if it is so hung that the house is uniformly lighted throughout. Our experiments with the electric light, now extended over a period of five years, have uniformly and unequivocally given these beneficial results with lettuce (see page 8o). The first sowing for house lettuce is usually made about the first of September, and the crop should be off in November. The seeds are sown in flats or shallow boxes ; it is preferable to prick off the young plants about 4 inches apart into other flats when they are about two weeks old, and transplant them into the beds, about 8 to to inches apart each way, when they are about five weeks from the seed. Gardeners often omit the pricking off into other flats, simply thinning out the plants where they stand and transferring them from the original flat directly to the bed; but better and quicker results are usually secured if the extra handling is given. Four or six weeks after the first seed is sown, another sowing is made in flats for the purpose of taking the place of the first crop. The first sowing is sometimes made in the open ground early in September, and this is transplanted directly into the beds. Following are some actual sample dates of good and bad lettuce growing in our houses, in a climate which is 102 LETTUCE. unusually cloudy and “slow’’ in winter: Landreth Forc- ing lettuce sown in flats February 24; transplanted to beds, March 17; first heads marketed, under normal con- ditions, May 10; first heads marketed trom a compartment receiving electric light at night (a total of 84 hours), April 30, or 44 days from seed. Simpson Curled was sown October 3; November 7, transplanted to bed. It was desired to hold the crop back, so that the house was kept very cold; and the variety is not well adapted to. quick forcing, so that it was January 30 before the entire crop was fit for market, making 119 days from seed. Grand Rapids lettuce sown December 28; transplanted to bed, January 16; began marketing March 21. This makes 72 days from seed, in the dark months; and at least a week could have been gained if we had not been obliged to delay transplanting whilst waiting for a crop of chrysanthemums to come off the bed. A grower’s remarks.—W. W. Rawson, a prominent grower of heading lettuce near Boston, is reported* in the following sentences respecting some of the essential points in the management of the crop: ‘‘ With lettuce planted on the 20th of August, the heads are ready for market on the 20th of October. Every five days I plant 3 ounces of lettuce seed, and this supplies my green- houses with plants during the winter, one house being set out every week. I transplant twice, first at the fourth week, setting them 4 inches apart; second at the sixth week when they are put 8 inches apart. They head dur- ing the seventh and eighth weeks. During December, January, February and March there is a continuous crop. The last crop of lettuces from the greenhouse is in the middle of April. After that I raise them in sashes and in the open air. The house should be ventilated from the ridge; if this is not enough, then from one side also. The temperature should be warmest when the crop is *American Gardening, xvii. 197 (March 28, 1896). W. W. RAWSON’S EXPERIENCE, 103 heading, and coolest for the three weeks after setting out and just before heading, but not below 35°. As soon as a crop is harvested, the house is fumigated, dug over, and a new crop set out. Not 24 hours is lost in SE Baoreraictctiin aass 34. Boston Market lettuce. changing crops. In renewing the beds use light, loamy soil ; rotted sod is good, if left in a heap for a year to decompose fully. With regard to mildew of lettuce, if seen soon enough it can be gotten rid of by keeping the 104 a ie Ma 8 house dry and warm for three days, but most people do not discover it soon enough. Fungicides I do not use, but generally, when necessary, smoke the house, or place powdered sulphur on the steam pipes. For smoking, to- bacco stems are used. When lettuces grow ‘ dog-eared’ it is the fault of the grower; he has kept the temperature too high.”’ Varieties. — There are two general types of forced let- tuce, the cabbage or heading type, and the loose or leafy type. The former is chiefly desired in the easternmost markets, but is little sought west of New York state. It is more difficult to grow than the loose varieties, being more particular as to soil and treatment, and requiring a somewhat longer season. It is grown to perfection only on loose soils and in solid ground beds. The varieties of the White-Seeded Tennis Ball or Boston Market type are most popular for heading lettuces. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 34, page 103) shows four heads of Bos- ton Market lettuce sent me by W. W. Rawson, Arlington, Mass. The head on top weighed, with roots cut off, 7 ozs., and the one at the left 9% ozs. The Grand Rapids is a loose-leaved lettuce, shown full grown in Figs. 32 and 33 (pages 95 and 98). It grows rapidly, is of very easy cultivation, and is at the present time the most popular lettuce, except in those particular localities where the heading varieties are preferred.* Enemies and diseases. The most inveterate pest of the lettuce grower is the green-fly or aphis. If it once gets thoroughly established, the most strenuous efforts are needed to dislodge it. The pest is most frequent in houses that are kept too warm. The plants may be sprinkled with tobacco dust, or tobacco stems may be strewn upon the ground between the plants and in the walks, and either treatment may be expected to keep *A test of the varieties of lettuce for forcing purposes is recorded in Bull. 43 (1892) of the Ohio Exp. Sta. LETTUCE ROT. 105 down the aphis. It can easily be kept out of the houses by fumigating twice a week with tobacco, and probably with the rose leaf extract of tobacco. Do not wait until the insect appears. Begin fumigating as soon as the plants are first pricked off, and continue until within two or three weeks of harvest, or longer if necessary. The rot often ruins crops of lettuce. The outer leaves decay, often quickly, and fall flat upon the ground, leav- ing the central core of the plant standing. Fig. 35 is a fair sample of a plant collapsed by rot. I once lost an 35. Lettuce plant collapsed by the rot. entire crop by this disorder. The plants were about two- thirds grown and in good condition. The house was rather over-piped for lettuce, and we kept it cool by care- ful attention to ventilation. It became necessary to be absent three days in midwinter. Careful instructions were given a workman concerning the management of the house, but he kept it too close and too wet, and at the end of the three days the crop was past recovery. This lettuce rot is due to a fungus (Boérytis vulgarts) which lives upon decaying matter on the soil, but when the house is kept too warm and damp, and the lettuce becomes flabby, it invades the plant and causes irrepara- ble ruin. There is no remedy, but if the soil is sandy and ‘‘sweet’”? and the house properly managed as to moisture and temperature, and top dressings of manure 106 EErrwoEr. are avoided, the disease need not be feared. Particular care should be taken to avoid having any water on the leaves at night, particularly in dull, cold weather. When an attack becomes apparent, the best thing to do is to raise the temperature, give plenty of air (but avoid draughts), and dry the house off. Galloway speaks of the rot as follows, in the article already quoted: ‘‘ Wet rot of the lower leaves, and rotting of the stems and conse- quent wilting of the plant, are seldom troublesome in this [Boston or sandy] soil if properly handled, because the surface is at all times comparatively dry. Wet rot is produced by a fungus which may be found at any time on pieces of sticks and straws scattered through the soil. The fungus does not have the power of breaking down the uninjured tissues of the plant, excepting possibly in very rare cases. When the tissues become water-soaked, however, as they do when in contact with wet soil, the fungus, which is also most active in the presence of moisture, readily gains entrance and soon develops suf- ficient energy to become an active parasite.”’ The mildew (feronospora gangliformis) is the staple lettuce disease of the books, but it is much less frequent than the rot. It is induced by sudden changes of tem- perature, soft, flabby plants, and too much water at night. Fumes of sulphur may be expected to keep it in check when the sanitary conditions of the house are set at rights. No doubt much of the trouble ascribed to mil- dew is really the rot. Leaf-burn is a dying of the tips of the leaves when the plant is nearly or quite mature. It is particularly trouble- some on the heading varieties, in which the slightest blemish upon the leaves detracts greatly from the sell- ing qualities of the lettuce. This difficulty, according to Galloway, is attributable largely to the soil: ‘‘Top-burn, one of the worst troubles of the lettuce grower, does com- paratively little injury on this Boston soil, providing the proper attention is given to ventilation and the manage- LEAF-BURN OF LETTUCE. 107 ment of the water and heat. Burn is the direct result of the collapse and death of the cells composing the edges of the leaves. It is most likely to occur just as the plant begins to head, and may be induced by a number of causes. The trouble is most likely to result on a bright day following several days of cloudy, wet weather. Dur- ing cloudy weather in winter the air in a greenhouse is practically saturated, and in consequence there is com- paratively little transpiration on the part of the leaves. The cells, therefore, become excessively turgid, and are probably weakened by the presence of organic acids. When the sun suddenly appears, as it often does after a cloudy spell in winter, there is an immediate, rapid rise in temperature and a diminution of the amount of moist- ure in the air in the greenhouse. Under these conditions the plant rapidly gives off water, and if the loss is greater than the roots can supply the tissues first wilt, then col- lapse and die. The ability of the roots to supply the moisture is affected by the temperature of the soil, the movement of water in the latter, and the presence or absence of salts in solution. In this soil the temperature rises rapidly as soon as the air in the greenhouse becomes warm, and the roots in consequence immediately begin the work of supplying the leaves with water. The move- ment of the water in the soil is also rapid, so that the plant is able to utilize it rapidly.”’ CHAT AE bur V. CAULIFLOWER, THERE is probably no vegetable which is capable of profitable forcing in America concerning which so little has been written in reference to its treatment under glass as cauliflower. It is true that the literature of vegetable forcing is very meagre in this country, and it is, therefore, little wonder that the cauliflower, which is scarcely known as a winter crop outside the establishments of wealthy persons who employ gardeners, should have received so little attention from writers. It should be said that in speaking of the forcing of cauliflowers, reference is made to the practice of growing them under glass to maturity in the cold months, and not to the much commoner prac- tice of growing them toa large size under frames or sash- covered houses and stripping the sash off upon the ap- proach of warm weather and allowing them to mature without cover. The management of cauliflowers under glass is a simple matter, particularly in houses which are adapted to lettuce, so that it is unnecessary to make any extended account of the operation. A sketch of some of the experiments made at Cornell will sufficiently indicate the methods to be employed. Unsuccessful experiments. —In our first crop, the seeds were sown in “ flats’? or shallow boxes, and the young plants were transplanted into pots. When the plants were 8 or to inches high they had been shifted to 8-inch pots, and knowing that cauliflowers delight in a low temperature, the pots were set upon the ground (108) EXPERIENCE WITH CAULIFLOWER. 109 in a cool lean-to house, where the temperature often went below 40°. The floor of this house was cold and wet, and it was soon evident that the plants were suffering. They were removed, therefore, into an intermediate tem- perature. Growth soon began again, and small heads ‘began to form before the plants had reached the proper size. These heads, however, soon split or ‘‘ buttoned,’’ and none of them were merchantable. The lesson was evident. The plants had been checked, and under the sudden stimulus of a new growth the premature heads were ruptured. The experiment was repeated the follow- ing winter in a small way, the attempt being made to keep the plants in a uniform condition of vigor and growth throughout their lifetime. This attempt was successful, and it led to two larger experiments. In this second trial, the plants were grown in 6-inch pots, but this was thereafter abandoned as too expensive and troublesome. The successful crops.— The house in which the two first successful crops were grown is a low two-thirds span, facing the south, 60 ft. long by 20 ft. wide. It is built upon a side hill, and it has three benches, the two lower ones being used for the cauliflowers. The lowest bench, against the south wall, has a board bottom underneath 7 or 8 inches of soil, and is supplied with mild bottom heat from two 1%-inch steam pipes. The main or central bench, 7 feet wide, is solid: that is, it is a ground bed, and has no bottom heat. The soil in this bed is about 8 inches deep, and it rests upon a natural subsoil of very hard clay. The soil in both beds was placed upon them in the pre- ceding fall, and it was made of good garden loam with which a very liberal supply of old manure was mixed. One load of manure mixed with three or four of the earth makes a good soil; and if it is somewhat heavy or pasty, sand must be supplied to it to afford perfect drainage and prevent it from getting ‘‘sour’’ or hard. The lower bed, which had bottom heat, did so poorly ‘PIY IY UL GU1JUDIY AIZJV S¥YIIMR UZ SAIMOYYNDI AqUI AT By Gee = S a ~ ) fol ae _ ) — y CAT TREATMENT OF CAULIFLOWER. Toreti under both crops that I shall dismiss it at once from this account. The plants were later than those in the solid bed, and never equaled them in size and percentage of good heads; and they were conspicuously lacking in uni- formity. So few good heads formed that the bed did not return the labor expended upon it. Seeds for the first crop were sown in boxes on August 24. The plants, having been once transplanted, were set in the beds October 4 and 5, about 16 inches apart each way. Three varieties were used,— Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt, Gilt-Edge Snowball and Early Snowball. The plants were watered two or three times a week, as occasion demanded, and the ground was frequently stirred with a hand weeder. An abundance of air was given during the day, a row of small ventilators along the peak of the house being thrown open even in sharp weather if the sun was bright and there was little air stir- ring. From 60° to 70° during the day and about 50° at night were considered to be the ideal temperatures, although in very bright days the mercury might register 80° for a time and the night temperature several times sank below 40°. There was a tendency for the plants to damp off soon after they were set, but care in not water- ing too much (particularly close about the plant) and in giv- ing an abundance of fresh air seemed to keep the trouble in check; and new plants were set into the vacancies. We were obliged to contend with two other enemies, the green-fly or aphis, and the common green cabbage worm. The aphis is readily kept in check by tobacco smudge. The first cabbage worms were noticed Novem; ber 21, and for a couple of weeks they had to be care- fully picked. The boxes of young plants had stood out of doors during September, and it is probable that eggs were laid upon the plants at that time. The first week in December, heads were beginning to form. The first heads were sold January 13, four and a- half months from the sowing of the seed. The Erfurt II2 CAULIFLOWER. gave the earliest and evidently the best results. The plants had been somewhat checked late in their history by very dark weather and possibly by some inattention in management, and many of the heads began to ‘‘but- ton,’’ or to break into irregular portions, with a tendency to go to seed. The house was needed for other experi- ments, and on January 20 the plants were all removed. At this time nearly three-fourths of the crop had matured sufficiently to give marketable heads, although many of the heads were small. Winter cauliflowers, in common with all forced crops, should be harvested when small, for products of medium or even small size sell for nearly or quite as much as large ones in winter, and the cost of raising them is much less. A head 4 inches across is large enough for January sales, and many of the heads which we sold were considerably smaller than this. These heads sold readily at our door for 20 cents apiece. January 25, a second crop of cauliflowers was set in the beds, comprising Early Snowball and Dwarf Erfurt. Seeds for this crop were sown in flats October 21. On November 5 the plants were transplanted to other flats, and on December 16 shifted to 3-inch pots, where they remained until set in the bed. On April 8, the plants had reached the size shown in the photograph in Fig. 36 (page 110). At this time they completely covered the ground, and choked out lettuce which had been placed between them. About the 2oth of March, heads were found to be forming in the Early Snowball. In the former experiment, Erfurt gave the first heads. A week later than this, Snowball had heads 3 to 4 inches in diameter, while Erfurt showed none. The first heads were sold on the 29th of March, about five and one-third months from the time of sowing. It will be observed that the time between sowing and harvest is greater in the second crop than in the first. This is because the plants were wholly grown in the dark and short days of midwinter. It should be added, also, that the climate TREATMENT OF CAULIFLOWER, Teles of Ithaca is excessively cloudy, and that the forcing of plants presents special difficulties here. An attempt was now made to keep the plants in a uniform but not exuberant state of vigor to prevent the heads from buttoning. The crop held up well, and on the 1st of May, when the experiment closed, there were many merchantable heads unsold. Ninety per cent of the plants made good heads, which is a very large propor- y Hl) Hy \\ : WS SZ MOY Ww JZYZ SAW i) \ > —_— Raat = = ae : \ # — We \Yv ‘ “Gy y ly) Wy hy oy ee zs it SGV YS ty aes 7 \\ Vu AT INN \ L iy A i ih | ——<—_=—= 37. A head of winter caulifiower. tion, even for the best field culture. In this crop, the heads were allowed to attain a larger size than in the midwinter crop, the average diameter being about 6 inches. A good head of Snowball is shown in Fig. 37. It is rarely necessary to bleach the heads, as is done in field culture. Late in the season, in April, it may be necessary to break a leaf down over a head now and then to protect it from too hot sun, but ordinarily the heads will be perfectly white under glass, when full 114 CAULIFLOWER. grown. The heads are as sweet and tender as the best field product, and we have rarely grown a crop under glass, either of vegetables or flowers, which was so satis- factory and which attracted so much attention as these crops of cauliflowers. As to varieties, there is evidently little choice between the Erfurt and Snowball strains. In the last and most successful crop, the Early Snowball was the earlier, but otherwise it had little if any superi- ority over the other. Subsequent experience has confirmed the methods detailed above, and has convinced us that cauliflower is one of the most satisfactory plants for forcing, so far as the growing of them is concerned. It is a question whether they would bring sufficient price in the market to warrant the raising of them in winter. The grower would certainly need to have a special market, for it is not a staple commodity. Field-grown cauliflowers are now kept in cold storage, which would still further re- duce the demand for forced heads. It should be said, in closing, that cauliflower seed is very expensive, and that only the very best seed can be relied upon for good results. CHAPTER Vi. RADISH: CORNELL EXPERIENCE.* THE radish is generally considered to be a vegetable which may be forced without any special difficulty. The prevalence of this opinion is probably due to the fact that the plants are grown out of doors without any trouble, and also to the still common practice of growing them in hotbeds. Under these various conditions, nearly all va- rieties of radishes thrive ; but, nevertheless, it is a fact that the radish is one of the most sensitive of all the vegetables forced for market. It is impatient in a high temperature, slow and unsatisfactory in a cold one; it imperatively demands light, and the least shade causes the stem to elongate so that the foliage may be as near as possible to the sunshine; it becomes tough and un- palatable in poor soil, while in rich earth, with plenty of moisture, it yields readily to the attacks of the various damping-off fungi; and it must be grown quickly (‘‘forced’’) in order to make the flesh crisp and of a delicate flavor. Conditions which will meet these re- quirements are not found in all forcing establishments. Radishes often thrive between cucumbers, when these plants are grown as a late winter crop, following lettuce. Sowing.— Radishes are always propagated from seeds. *By E. G. Lodeman. More detailed results may be expected, in bulletin form, when the experiments which are now in progress mature. 9 FORC. (115) 116 RADISH. These are fairly large, and as a rule they possess strong powers of germination. The starting of the plants is, therefore, an easy matter; the seeds may be sown in drills from one-fourth to one-half an inch deep, the greater depth being preferred for light, sandy soils. They are generally sown thickly, and the seedlings are after- wards thinned to the desired distance ; but if the seeds are fresh they may be planted at intervals of about one-fourth inch in the drills. This should insure a good stand. A convenient method of making the drills in hotbeds and benches is to fasten to one side of a lath a strip that is about a quarter of an inch thick and as wide as the drill is to be deep. This is nailed edgewise along the center of the lath (Fig. 38), and the drills are made by press- ing the projecting piece into the soil until the lath will allow it to go no further. 38 Planting stick. It is then carefully with- drawn, and if the soil is properly prepared and not too dry, a perfect groove will be formed. A very uniform depth can be attained in this manner. Soil.— The soil for radishes should be what is known as warm and quick. Sand should predominate, but plenty of humus and well rotted-stable manure must be mixed with it. By composting thinly-cut sod growing upon sandy loam with one-third its volume of stable ma- nure, a good radish soil will be formed. It will be ready for use in about a year, and if at the end of that time the vegetable fiber is not thoroughly decayed, it will not matter. Such a compost is suitable for nearly all vege- tables grown in greenhouses, but it is especially valuable for rapid-growing crops. When placed upon a layer of ashes, coarse gravel, inverted sods, or some similar open material, the drainage is perfect, and the plants have an excellent opportunity for rapid growth. SOWING THE SEED. by The amount of soil required by radishes varies with the varieties grown. The small, spherical-shaped sorts do well in a depth of only 3 or 4 inches, while the long-rooted varieties require almost twice as much. After the soil has been placed in the benches it should be made moder- ately firm by packing it with some heavy object; a brick 39 A bunch of winter radishes. answers the purpose well. If it is inclined to be dry, it should be moistened, for when in proper condition for seed sowing it may be worked to the best advantage. General management.— The drills may be made 3 or 4 inches apart for the smaller and more rapidly maturing varieties ; for the others, 5 or 6 inches between the rows will be sufficient. 118 RADISH. After the seed has been sown and the earth above has been well firmed, no watering will be necessary until the seedlings appear, unless the soil was too dry to begin with. In that case, water as freely as necessary ; there is little danger of applying too much. The seedlings should appear in four or five days, and a week or ten days later they may be thinned. The small kinds will do well if two or three are left to the inch; the large ones require more room, and one plant to about an inch of space will be found none too thin. When this work has been done, nearly all the further attention necessary will be to main- tain a proper temperature and to apply water when it is needed. Weeding, and an occasional cultivation with a hand weeder, should not be neglected. As has already been said, the successful forcing of radishes is not such an easy matter as it would at first appear. The more important of the difficulties will now be considered in detail. The conditions found in a hotbed which is almost spent are very nearly ideal for forcing radishes. In the first place, the temperatures of the soil and the air undef the glass are as nearly right as they can well be made. As a rule, the radish is believed to do best in a coo] house, one having a temperature of 40°-60°.* The soil in such a house should not be much warmer. But in a hotbed it is warmer, and frequently very much warmer. This explains the rapid and luxuriant growth which may be produced apparently without effort on the part of the *“ It adapts itself to hotbeds and forcing-houses quite well, but it objects to an overheated forcing-house as much as to an excessively exposed coldframe. It grows too many leaves and becomes pithy in one situation, and in the other case its growth is stunted or wholly checked, and under severe freezing it dies. Its proper tem- perature is from 40° to 65°, with plenty of fresh air. In rich soil, with sufficient water, it is a quick cropper, sometimes being ready for market in 21 days from the seed.’? * * * ‘‘ The wholesale market price of radishes at Philadelphia in winter may be quoted at $2 to $4 per 100 bunches,’’—Dreer’s Vegetables Under Glass,” 57, 59. TEMPERATURE AND LIGHT. 119 grower. Repeated trials in growing radishes in large houses having different temperatures have shown plainly that during the first two or three weeks, at least, radishes will bear well a soil temperature of fully 65° F., and 70° has not proved too much in several instances. If suffi- cient moisture is present the plants must grow, and they must mature quickly. But although a high soil temperature is desirable, it does not follow that the atmosphere should be equally warm. On the contrary, if the temperature of the house can be kept about ro degrees below that of the soil, the tendency to leaf formation will probably be checked. The hotbed may again serve as a guide. Here the heat is in the soil, bottom heat, as it is called, and the large amount of glass, as compared with the amount of air-space, must have a strong tendency to lower the temperature about the foliage; that surrounding the roots is much less af- fected. Another important point,— one which has not been duly emphasized in connection with this crop,—is the amount of light received by the plants. Few plants show the want of light more quickly than radishes. If the shadow of a steam pipe or of a board falls upon the bench, the plants soon become drawn; the shadow cast by tall-growing varieties causes the shorter ones to grow more upright; a roof having small panes of glass and a comparatively large amount of wood-work has a strong tendency to prevent the plants from forming bottoms, un- less the glass is close to the foliage ; and if no direct sun- light is allowed to reach the plants, no swelling of the stem may take place, but the plants will grow very slen- der, and finally die, as if attacked by some unknown malady. If radish seed is sown very thickly, a similar re- sult may occur even in places which are fairly well lighted. The strong growth of foliage excludes practi- cally all the light from the soil, and the plants will form no bottoms. IzZ0 RADISH. The above remarks seem to show the necessity of thin- ning plants properly if the finest and most tender radishes are wanted. Thinning allows light and air to enter freely to all portions of the plants above ground, and the condi- tions are consequently favorable to rapid growth. A moderately moist atmosphere appears to be favor- able to the strong and quick development of radishes. When this crop is forced in hotbeds, the sash are neces- sarily lowered at times, and a confined air surrounds the plants, frequently for considerable periods. They appear to thrive under such treatment, and it is desirable to pro- duce the same condition when growing the plants in greenhouses. : It is rare that the soil in a hotbed is more than 12 or 15 inches from the glass. This allows an abundance of light to reach the plants. The benches in a forcing-house cannot be so favorably placed in all their parts, and the best way of correcting the fault is to use large glass and a light framework in the roof. Under such conditions the plants will frequently do fairly well 8 or ro feet from the glass. But with a light roof, the panes being at least 12x 14 inches, the conditions approach more nearly those existing out of doors, and this explains the fact that the plants do not become drawn or “‘leggy.”’ Varieties. There are a great many varieties of rad- ishes ; they differ mostly in form, color, and time of ma- turity. Those which mature rapidly are the ones most commonly forced, and a greater number of crops may be removed in a given time. Several mature, under favor- able conditions, about three weeks from the time of seed sowing. These are nearly all red in color, and mostly of a spherical or olive form. The following may be recom- mended: Ne Plus Ultra, New Rapid Forcing, Extra Early Carmine Olive-shaped, Earliest Carmine Turnip, Early Scarlet Globe, Twenty-day Forcing, Earliest White, New White Forcing. Among the best of those which mature about a week GALLOWAY’S EXPERIENCE. I2t later than the above, may be named New Crystal Forc- ing (white), New White Lady-Finger, Succession, French Breakfast, Long Scarlet Short-top, Long Cardinal. As already stated, the long radishes are not so satisfactory for forcing as the smaller varieties are. It must also be borne in mind that varieties of radishes, as of most other vegetables, are constantly changing, so that the varieties which are recommended to-day may not be recommended a year from now. WASHINGTON EXPERIENCE.* In the vicinity of many of our large cities the grow- ing of radishes in greenhouses may, if properly done, prove a profitable industry. The following notes on the subject are based upon work carried on during the past four or five years, supplemented by observations extend- ing over a longer period: Houses adapted to growing radishes.— Radishes may be grown in almost any kind of a greenhouse, and _ for this reason the crop is a valuable one to work in with others, such as lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. We do not advocate, however, the practice of growing radishes in a house with other crops, unless it is in certain special cases, where there is ground to spare and requirements for each crop are approximately the same. As is the case with all plants under glass, better results will follow if an entire house is devoted to one crop, thus making it possible to furnish, without fear of injury to other crops, the necessary requirements for growth. Three-quarter span houses, 18 feet wide, with two walks and three beds, will be found as convenient as any for the crop. Three-quarter span houses with one path will also be found useful. Such a house, with young rad- ishes just coming through the ground, is shown at Fig. 4o. *By B. T. Galloway, in American Gardening, xvii. 609, 610 (Sept. 26, 1896). I22 RADISH. The walks should be from 14 to 18 inches wide, de- pending on the depth, and should have their sides made of 2-inch hemlock or cypress boards, fastened to sawed cedar or other durable posts. Good crops may be grown in even-span houses, and even a lean-to may be used, if proper facilities for heating and ventilating are present. The soil,—In order to obtain solid, crisp radishes, the soil must not contain too much manure, nor should sand predominate. Ordinary garden loam, containing about 7 per cent clay, makes the best soil. To this should be added well-rotted manure in the proportion of one part manure to three or four parts soil. We prefer solid beds to benches, as the conditions are more uniform in the former and the expense of maintain- ing them is less. The beds should be from 6 to 8 inches deep, but good crops may be grown on 4 inches of pre- pared soil. In the latter case it is necessary to add a little manure after each crop, while if deeper beds are used the same soil will answer for the entire season’s work. If the radishes are followed by cucumbers, the manure necessary for the latter will serve for next sea- son’s radishes, but it will be necessary in such cases to remove about 2 inches of this extra manured soil and re- place it with loam from the outside. The new loam should then be thoroughly mixed with the soil already in the house, and when this is accomplished the seed may be planted. Planting the seed.— Radishes which come into the market before Thanksgiving are seldom profitable, and for this reason it is best to postpone the first seed-sowing until about the middle of October. Previous to this time the house may be used for growing stock plants of let- tuce. By this we mean that lettuce sowed in the house, September 1, and transplanted 4 by 4 inches September 15, will be large enough by the first week in October to transplant to other houses, where it is to head. Previous to sowing the radish seed, the ground should LARGE VS. SMALL SEED. 123 be made smooth and as free from lumps as possible. By means of a light pine board 4 inches wide, rows 4 inches apart are marked off. The edge of a common lath‘is then placed in the marks and gently pressed into the soil until a narrow furrow one inch deep is made. The seed is then dropped in the furrow about half an inch apart, covered, and pressed down with the hand. Working in = -“\ yy) th Ws ||; | gO. A three-quarter span vadish house. this way, two men can plant almost 150 square feet an hour, and will use about 3 ounces of seed. As soon as the radishes are up and the seed leaves are well formed, the plants should be thinned out to 1% to 2 inches apart. It is of the highest importance to have all the radishes attain marketable size at the same time, and to accom- plish this it will be necessary to use only the large seed. Where the seed as ordinarily obtained in the market is used, about 35 per cent of the crop will reach marketable 124 RADISH. size in from 35 to 4o days, 28 per cent will require 15 days longer, while the rest will in all probability never be worth anything. By using only the large seed, 90 per cent of the crop will come in at one time, thus making it possible to pull practically all the crop at once and imme- diately replant. As obtained in the market, about one- third of the seeds are too small to use, and consequently are thrown away. Two pounds of seed was screened so as to separate the large from the small seed. In this case there was obtained from the 2 pounds of seed 19% ounces of large seed and 10% of small. The remainder was made up of pieces of gravel and crushed seed, bits of sticks, etc. The seed cost wholesale 60 cents per pound, and if one-third by weight is thrown away it brings the cost up to 80 cents per pound. This is a very small matter, however, in view of the many advantages resulting from the use of the large seed. For screening the seed we use a sieve made as fol- lows: A circular piece of thin sheet brass 6 inches in di- ameter has holes 2-25 of an inch (2 mm.) in diameter punched or rather cut in it, the holes being about 1-16 of an inch apart. The perforated sheet is then provided with a rim of brass or tin 2 inches high. We have then nothing more than a shallow cup or basin, with numer- ous holes in the bottom. A handful or more of seed is placed in this cup, and a few minutes’ shaking will cause all the small seed to drop through the holes, while the large ones which cannot get through remain behind. Varieties to plant.—In our experience, most of the markets prefer a bright scarlet turnip-shaped root. The pure scarlets always sell better than those tinged with purple, or having white tips. Ne Plus Ultra, Roman Car- mine and Prussian Globe have proved the three best kinds for forcing. We have tried 20 or 25 other varieties, but soon gave them up on account of various undesir- able qualities. TREATMENT OF RADISHES. 125 Preparing the crop for market.— When the crop is ready to market, which will generally be about 4o days from the time of planting, the roots are pulled and tied 6 to 8 in a bunch, or 12 to 16, as the market may re- quire. Everything is pulled clean, and when a sufficient number of bunches is obtained they are thrown into a tank, tub or barrel and washed in clean water. Ordinarily there is very little soil adhering to the roots, so that the washing is a comparatively easy matter. Care must be exercised, however, in keeping the water clean, otherwise the radishes will go to market lacking the gloss that helps to sell them. As soon as the plants are pulled the ground should immediately be forked over, smoothed, and planted, as al- ready described. Following the foregoing plan, the first crop will be ready for market about Thanksgiving, the second crop January 5 to Io, the third crop the last week in February, and the fourth crop the first week in April. Aiter this the house will pay better planted to cucumbers, which should by this time be in 6 or 8-inch pots. Approximate yields per square foot.— A square foot of ground should yield on an average 16 bunches of rad- ishes, 6 to 8 in a bunch, in the period extending from October 15 to April 10. The price will average 2 cents per bunch, making the returns 32 cents per square foot. Temperature, moisture, insects and diseases.— The rad- ish cannot be pushed by heat. A night temperature of 45° to 50°, with 20° to 25° more during the day, is about right. If too much bottom heat is given the plant will run to top. Watering should be carefully done, and in no case should the soil be allowed to become dry enough for the plants to wilt. In such cases a heavy watering is likely to cause the radishes to crack, thus rendering them unfit for market. Insects and diseases cause very little trouble. Green- fly sometimes proves difficult to manage, but a light fumi- gation every two weeks with tobacco stems will keep the 126 RADIESH. pest in check. The only disease worthy of mention is the cracking, to which reference has been made. Too much manure in the soil and the improper use of water are largely responsible for this trouble. The remedy is obvious. Summary.—(1) Radishes may be successfully grown in almost any kind of a house. (2) The soil should be moderately heavy, and hold water, but not bake or crack. (3) Solid beds are preferable to benches, because the conditions of moisture and heat may be kept more uni- form and the expense is less. (4) Two men should plant 150 square feet per hour, using 3 ounces of seed in the work. (5) The seed should be screened and all less than 2-25 of an inch in diameter should be thrown away. By fol- lowing this plan go per cent of the crop will attain mar- ketable size at the same time. (6) Ne Plus Ultra, Roman Carmine and Prussian Globe have proved the best varieties for forcing. (7) Four crops may be grown from October 15 to April 10, and the returns should average 30 to 32 cents per square foot. CHAPTER VU. ASPARAGUS AND RHUBARB. ASPARAGUS and rhubarb are generally forced from transplanted roots. That is, strong plants, four or more years old, are dug from the field and taken to the house for forcing. The crop is produced chiefly from the nour- ishment which is stored in the roots, and the roots are exhausted by the crop, and are then thrown away. Inasmuch as the plants do not grow by becoming rooted and established in the soil after their removal to the house, it follows that they do not demand direct sun- light. In fact, the product may be tenderer and more sale- able for being grown in a dull or even a nearly dark place. The roots are usually set underneath the benches in the glass house, but they may be set in the potting- room (if warm enough), or even in the cellar near the heater. The most rapid growth will be secured when the temperature is high (even as high as 70° at night), but a stockier and better product may often be grown when the temperature is somewhat lower. There are various means of forcing asparagus and rhu- barb where they stand, in the field. One of the common- est is to place the half of a barrel over a clump in very early spring, and then to pile fermenting horse manure about the barrel. The heat from the manure will start the plant into a precocious growth. In Europe, aspara- gus is sometimes forced where it grows by piling manure into trenches which are dug (and sometimes bricked up, with openings in the walls) between the rows. These (127) 128 ; ASPARAGUS AND RHUBARB. trenches are sometimes heated by hot-water pipes. In some instances, sashes are placed over the plants tem- porarily. These various practices have suggested the idea that asparagus, rhubarb, sea-kale, and the like, might be per- manently grown in a house with a removable roof, so that heat could be applied to them late in winter, and the roof then be removed and the plants find themselves growing out of doors in normal conditions. If the ground were well enriched, it would seem that such plantations gi. Frame-work and heating pipes of Cornell asparagus house. ought to be able to be forced for several or many years in succession. Acting upon this suggestion, an aspara- gus house has been erected at Cornell. The experience with this house has not been sufficiently extended to warrant any conclusions from the experiment, but it promises well, and a description of it may be suggestive to the reader who is interested in the forcing of aspara- gus or rhubarb. AN ASPARAGUS HOUSE. 129 This Cornell asparagus house—if it may be called a house—is about 2cxs5o0 ft., and the frame is made of steam pipes (Fig. 41, page 128). The sides or walls are only 18 in. high, and the frame consists simply of a ridge and three pairs of rafters. The steam-heating pipe, or 42. The asparagus house covered with canvas. riser, is seen at A, just beneath the ridge, and this feeds two returns upon either side of the house, next the walls. When it is desired to force the asparagus, canvas or mus- lin is stretched over the frame (as in Fig. 42). No diffi- culty has been found in starting the asparagus into growth in January and February. The cover is left on and the heat 130 ASPARAGUS AND RHUBARB. kept up until all danger of frost is past, when the canvas is removed and the plants grow naturally out of doors. It is probable that some such plan as this will be found to be perfectly practicable in the forcing of asparagus and rhubarb, and thus obviate the wasteful methods now in use of forcing and destroying transplanted roots. The secret of this method will no doubt be found to lie in allowing the plantation to become very thoroughly es- tablished (at least three or four years old) before forc- ing is attempted, in the very best tillage and fertilizing during the summer whilst the plants are growing, in tak- ing off the cover just as soon as settled weather comes, and in not cutting the plants after that time. ASPARAGUS. The most essential point in the forcing of asparagus from transplanted roots, is to have very strong roots. They should not be less than four years old from the planting of the bed, and five and six-year roots are com- monly better. It is often almost impossible to secure good roots, for the best roots are the ones which the asparagus grower most desires to keep in his plantation. The two circumstances which yield the best roots, as a rule, are the growing of the plantation for this particular purpose, and the taking out of alternate rows in planta- tions which have become too crowded. The grower is often obliged to take the roots from old and _ partially spent beds, but the best results are not always secured from such stock. The roots are dug as late in the fall as possible, care being taken not to break the clumps, and to retain as much soil as possible, and they are then piled in a shed or cold cellar where they can be had as wanted. In this storage, they should be covered with earth or litter to prevent them from drying out, and freezing is supposed to add to their value for forcing. ASPARAGUS UNDER BENCHES. bese The roots are commonly forced under the benches of a forcing-house. They may be handled in a hotbed, but as hotbeds are outside the purpose of this book, this method of forcing will not be discussed in detail. It may be said, however, that forcing in hotbeds differs in no important respect from forcing in the house. A space is made under the bench at least 3 inches deeper than the clumps which it is desired to force. This space may be either a pit dug into the ground, or it may be formed by boards upon top of the earth. The pit will generally need to be at least a foot deep. In the bottom is placed a couple of inches of good soil, and upon this soil the clumps are solidly placed, standing them as close together as possible. Earth is now filled in between the clumps, and the crowns are covered with earth at least an inch deep. If it is desired to bleach the asparagus, 6 or 8 inches of soil should be covered over the clumps. The temperature should be kept rather low for a few days, until the roots become thoroughly settled in place. After that, the temperature may be raised to that re- quired for roses, or even higher. Very high tempera- tures give spindling shoots. It is essential that the roots be profusely watered. New roots are brought in every three or four weeks, to give a succession. The following are actual dates of asparagus forcing, under benches, at Cornell: Plants taken from an old patch November 20, 1893, and set under benches three days later. December 4, plants just pushing through. De- cember 8, first shoots cut, averaging 9 inches long. De- cember 14, first good cutting, shoots running from 6 to 15 inches long. December 18, second good cutting. De- cember 26, a good cutting, some of the shoots having re- mained too long and become woody; some of these shoots were 2 ft. long. January 10, a heavy cutting. January 19, cut about half as many shoots as on the roth. January 30, cut about as much as on the rgth, but shoots growing smaller. February 10, small cutting of weak IO FORC. 132 ASPARAGUS AND RHUBARB. shoots. Beyond this time there were no shoots worth cutting. These plants were forced most too rapidly at first, with the result of getting too many spindling shoots. John Gardner’s method.*— “‘I prefer roots three or four years old for forcing; but the age is immaterial, provided a vigorous growth has been made the previous season. The roots are originally planted out in rows 5 feet apart and a foot apart in the row, covered with 3 inches of soil, and cultivated as for an ordinary crop. When wanted for forcing the roots are plowed out, with as little damage to them as possible. In neighborhoods where asparagus is grown for market, farmers will often plant as above, and then, in the third or fourth year, will plow out every other row to be used for forcing, leaving permanent rows to feet apart. At this distance the ground can be thor- oughly tilled, and abundant light, warmth and air will make strong crowns, so that an early crop of the first quality can be expected. Roots to be forced are placed in a pit under the benches and heated with hot water. They are placed on 2 inches of soil, and covered with 4 to 5 inches to blanch the shoots. Cutting will be in order about 15 days after the roots are put in, and the same roots will produce profitable shoots for six weeks. As- paragus can be forced on greenhouse benches, in frames or in hotbeds, where the manure is not too fresh, so as to generate too much heat and steam. I have seen the best of ‘grass’ grown in a common frame, with 18 inches of leaves and manure to ferment and give heat, and a covering thrown over the frame at night. It should be remembered that asparagus starts with very little heat, 45 degrees being sufficient-to start it in the soil.” Forcing in hotbeds.t — ‘‘A most suitable place for forc- ing asparagus is a frame about 4 feet deep, with one 4-inch hot-water pipe running around it. About 2% feet of fresh * Garden and Forest, ii. 598 (Dec. 11, 1889). + William Scott in Garden and Forest, vii. 478 (Nov. 28, 1894). ASPARAGUS IN HOTBEDS. 133 stable litter should be put into the frame and firmly packed, with an inch or two of sand spread over it. This bed should be allowed to stand until the heat of the ma- 43. Rhubarb under a forcing-house bench. nure has declined to about 70 degrees, and not below 65 degrees, before the crowns are placed on it. For this work advantage should be taken of a day when the weather is mild, as the crowns are easily damaged by frost. Large crowns five or six years old are preferable 134 ASPARAGUS AND RHUBARB. to smaller ones for forcing. They may be placed rather closely together in the frame, but the distance apart must be regulated by their size. The roots should be spread evenly over the surface and covered with 6 inches of sand. Little water will be required, as the steam from the manure affords considerable moisture, but if the bed should become dry it may be moistened with water of the same temperature as the soil in the frame. A little air may be admitted when the day is bright and warm, to keep the temperature from rising above 80 degrees. When the points of the shoots begin to appear above the sand the crop is ready to cut. Where ground is plentiful a supply of forcing crowns can be kept up by sowing a little seed every year, having five or six successions, the oldest plants being forced for cutting.’’ RHUBARB. The forcing of pie-plant does not differ essentially from the forcing of asparagus. Thoroughly established clumps are dug in the fall, and these are packed in beds under- neath the benches, sifting the soil in tightly between the clumps, and then covering them with 2 to 6 inches of soil. The temperature should range as for lettuce or roses, or for very quick results it may be considerably higher. The length of time required for securing the saleable product is about the same as that required for asparagus, or per- haps a little longer. About four or five weeks after the planting under the benches is the usual time required for the first profitable cutting. Paragon and Linnzus varie- ties may be used for the earliest results, but the best crops are to be obtained from some of the larger kinds, like Victoria and Mammoth. CHAPTER. Vill. MISCELLANEOUS ‘COOL. PLANTS. PEA. PEAS are very little known as a winter crop, although there is no particular difficulty in growing them. The yield is so small and the price so little that they are not often profitable, yet a few persons have found them to pay. They may be grown in narrow boxes (about 6 inches wide and as many inches deep), and these boxes are then placed in odd or vacant places about the house. If the boxes are 3 feet or more in length, the soil can be kept in a uniform condition of moisture without great trouble. The boxes should be kept very cool for a time —not much above freezing,— but when the plants appear they may be given the temperature of lettuce or carnations. The greater yields are obtained from the pole varieties, but the earlier results from the dwarf va- rieties like American Wonder. Experiments at Cornell.*— During the past few years, peas have at various times been grown in the forcing- houses at Cornell with the intention of determining their value as a commercial crop, and also to study their be- havior under glass. The forcing of peas has been car- ried on in northern Europe for many years, although on a somewhat different plan from that undertaken at this Station. Foreign gardeners generally grow the winter *E. G. Lodeman, Bulletin 96, Cornell Exp. Sta. (135) 136 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. crop in frames or hotbeds. In the neighborhood of Paris such protection is unnecessary, and successive sowings are made in the open ground from November to March, one of the most popular varieties for this purpose being St. Catherine (Pots de Sainte-Cathérine). This variety is particularly well adapted to late fall and early winter sowings. In more northern latitudes, either coldframes or hotbeds supply the necessary protection for maturing the crop. Ringleader, Early Dwarf Frame, and Caractacus have been very popular in England. The second named variety is especially adapted for growing in hotbeds. It is exceedingly dwarf and matures very quickly, so that considerable quantities of peas may be harvested from a small area. Taller varieties are generally bent over to admit of their proper growth, Peas thrive in a cool temperature, and the protection afforded by comparatively little glass or wood is sufficient to carry them through moderately cold weather. In the northern states, artificial heat must be given if the crop is to be grown during the winter months. As this cannot be done conveniently in frames, larger structures must be employed, and these may easily be supplied with a proper amount of heat for growing this vegetable. A night temperature of 40° to 50°, and a day temperature Io to 20 degrees higher, will be sufficient to cause rapid growth and fairly prolific plants. Peas succeed best, as a rule, if grown in solid beds of rich, sandy soil that is well supplied with water. If peas grown under glass are sub- jected to the above conditions, their cultivation presents no serious difficulties, and it will scarcely be necessary to mention the details of more than one crop which we have grown. Seeds of two varieties of peas were sown January 6, 1894; they were Extra Early Market and Rural New- Yorker. They were planted at the same depth as in outdoor culture, but the seed was sown more thickly, and the rows were as close to each other as the after culture ‘spag aaquim fo paq P ‘th eo) 2 SDIADAZUI ‘QuUOAL U PEAS IN WINTER. 138 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. of the crop would allow. Very dwarf varieties, such as Tom Thumb and American Wonder, may be planted in rows 3 to 5 inches apart, depending on the richness of the soil and the general care given the plants. Tall-grow- ing varieties, as Champion of England, may be sown in rows running in pairs, the distance between the rows of each pair being from 6 to to inches, while the pairs are separated by spaces 15 to 18 inches wide. This will allow working-room among the plants and still admit of heavy planting. One of the essential points in the successful growing of peas, whether in a greenhonse or out of doors, is the use of fresh seed. Garden peas retain their vitality from three to eight years, but the shorter period may be con- sidered as more nearly correct when applied to varieties which are to be forced, since the loss of a week or two under glass is expensive, and two sowings cannot well be afforded. The seedlings began to appear eight days after seed sowing and they grew vigorously from the start. February 23, Rural New-Yorker showed the first opened blossoms, Extra Early Market at the same time having buds which were about to open. On the 20th of March, or about 73 days from sowing the seed, both varieties had matured sufficiently to supply pods that were fit for market, but no picking was made until 11 days later, when the plants yielded pods at the rate of 6% quarts for each 30 feet of double row. There was practically no difference between the two varieties as regards earliness or the amount of yield obtained. Two weeks later, a second and last picking was made, the plants yielding only one-half as much as before. This brings the total yield to a little over a peck. This is scarcely a profitable crop, especially since the varieties grown are quite tall, and required a trellis. Formerly, the trellises used consisted of branches forced into the ground so that they would afford support to the vines; but with the crop here considered, a more PEAS AND CELERY. 139 satisfactory trellis was made by using a wire netting hav- ing large meshes. This was fastened between the rows by means of stakes, and thus each strip of netting served as a support for a double row. This forms the neatest and most substantial trellis here used for supporting the vines. The yields from extremely dwarf varieties, such as Tom Thumb, have proved unsatisfactory. The plants re- quire no support, but they yield only one picking, and this is so light that their culture under glass cannot in all cases be advised. Peas grown under glass are sensitive to heat, and the warm spring days, when accompanied by sunshine, check their growth to a marked degree. The most healthy growth is made during the cold months of the year, and after April 1 not much should be expected from the vines unless steps are taken to keep the house as cool as possible. This may be accomplished by shading, and by a free use of water upon the walks of the house. From a financial standpoint, the growing of peas can scarcely be advised, but amateurs may derive much satis- faction from their cultivation, as the plants are easily grown, they require little care, and the quality of the ‘peas is especially appreciated when no fresh ones are on the market. CELERY. Celery practically goes out of the market in April. The stored crop is then exhausted, and until the earliest field product is received, in July, celery is not to be had. There should be some means of supplying the demand in May and June. Some three or four years ago, we turned our attention to this problem, and we now feel that it is a comparatively easy matter to grow celery for late spring and early summer use. We sow the seed in late fall or early winter, in flats 140 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. or seed-pans. The young plants grow very slowly, and we make no effort to hasten them. About a month after the seeds are sown, the plants are pricked out into other flats, where they are allowed to stand 3 or 4 inches apart each way. A month or so later, they are transplanted into beds, following lettuce, cauliflower, chrysanthemums, or other crops. It will thus be seen that for two months or more the plants take up little or no room, for the flats are placed in vacant places here and there throughout the house, and they need little other care than watering. They should be kept cool—in a house used for lettuce, violets, carnations and the like—for if one attempts to force them they will likely run to seed. When the plants are finally trans- planted, we prefer to put them in solid beds with- out bottom heat. In six weeks to two months after the plants are turned into their permanent quarters they will be ready to bleach, and this opera- tion has caused us more trouble than all other difficulties combined. Our first thought was to set the plants very close together, so that they would bleach themselves, after the manner of the ‘‘New Celery Culture,’’ but it would not work. The plants ran too much to foliage, and they tended to damp-off or rot where they were. too close. We mem tried darkening the house, but without success. We then attempted to bleach the plants by partially burying them in sand in a cellar, but this also failed. Finally, we tried various methods of 45. Winter celery in bleaching paper. CELERY AND SALADS. 14! tying up or enclosing each midwinter plant as it stood in the bed. Tiles placed about the plants—which are so successful in the field,— rotted the plants in the moist air of the forcing-house. Heavy bibulous paper did the same. But thick, hard wrapping paper, with an almost ‘‘sized’’ surface, proved to be an admirable success. The stalks were brought together and tied, and a width of paper reaching to within 2 or 3 inches of the tips of the leaves was rolled tightly about the plant. As the plant grew, another width of paper was rolled about the first, and again reaching nearly the top of the plant. Two applications of the paper are sufficient. A month to six weeks is required to bleach the celery by this process in a cool house in April and May. Fig. 45 (page 140) shows the method of bleaching with the paper. The seeds for one of our crops of house celery were sown December 10, 1894; pricked off, January 8; planted in beds, February 6; first tied up in paper, April 12; second tying, May 9; celery fit to use, May 21 to June 20. The Kalamazoo celery is well adapted to house cultiva- tion The quality of this house-grown product is equal to that grown in the field. SALADS, POT-HERBS, AND MINTS. Water-cress.— Persons who are fond of water-cress should know that no plant is easier to grow under benches in greenhouses. If there is an earth floor under the benches of a cool or intermediate house, the plant will take care of itself when once introduced, provided, of course, there is sufficient moisture. Fig. 46 (page 142) shows a mat of water-cress growing under a bench in a general conservatory house, near the overflow of a tank. It is not necessary to supply water in which the plant may grow, but it thrives well, with its characteristic flavor, in soil which is simply uniformly moist and cool. The plants may be gathered from brooks or other places 142 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. where it is established, and planted at intervals under either north or south benches, and when once colonized it needs no re- newing. Garden - cress. — The ordinary French or gar- den cress (varie- ties of Lepidium sativum) also thrives well un- der glass. We have grown both the plain and curled -leaved forms upon benches or beds along with lettuce and spinach. The seed is sown di- rectly where the plants are to stand. The plant grows quickly, and the early, tender leaves should be used before it runs to seed. $6. Water-cress under a bench. Parsley.—No vegetable is more readily grown in winter than parsley. The seed is sown in the open in spring, and the plants receive the ordinary care during the summer. In the fall, the strong roots are lifted and planted in a bed or bench in a lettuce house. The plants are headed down when transplanted, and the sunlight is kept off them for a few days until they are thoroughly established. After that, they need no extra or unusual care. Parsley will thrive well in the dark end of the house, or in almost any odd corner, as behind a door or in the shade next the wall. The plants should be re- newed each year. The most satisfactory variety is the Curled or Fern-leaved. Spinach was formerly grown in frames and hotbeds, and sometimes in glass houses, but the length of time re- quired to bring it to maturity, and the competition of the MUSTARD, DANDELION, AND MINTS. 143 southern-grown product, make it unprofitable. Only now and then is a man found who is able to make frame- grown spinach pay. We have grown it in the forcing- house, and find that it forces readily with the same tem- perature and treatment which are given to lettuce. _Mustard.— Any of the pot-herb mustards are easily grown in a lettuce or carnation house. One of the best types is the Chinese mustard. This makes an attractive edging to chrysanthemum or lily beds. The seeds are sown where the plants are to stand, although they may be sown in pots or flats and the plants transplanted to their permanent quarters. Dandelion. — This plant is grown somewhat extensively in the open in parts of the eastern states, particularly about Boston, for greens. It is also occasionally forced. Spring-sown plants are lifted in the fall and transplanted to a cool house. The leaves should be ready for cutting by the holidays. As soon as the cutting is completed, the crowns are thrown out and the bed or bench is used for other crops. The French improved varieties are the kinds of dandelions to be grown. The crop of these may be followed by lettuce, White Spine cucumbers or radishes. Mints of various kinds are readily grown in cool houses, such as are adapted to lettuce and violets. The species most commonly grown are sage and spearmint (Mentha viridis), for which there is generally a good de- mand, in eastern cities, at Thanksgiving and Christmas. Sods of the sage or mint may be dug and placed directly in the house, care being taken to cut the sods very deep, and not to break them in the transfer. Better results are obtained, however, by planting the mint permanently in a solid bed, and covering it over with sash at forcing time. Heating pipes should be laid alongside the bed. From six to eight weeks are required to bring the mint to cut- ting size. 144 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. ONION. We have had good success in growing multiplier or potato onions under glass, planting them in a lettuce bed, where they will give bunch onions in six or seven weeks. In a warmer temperature, they become very strong in flavor. We have not been able to accomplish any useful results with onions from seeds, however, because they grow too slow and are not inclined to bottom. Neither have we succeeded with onions from sets, although we have given them a fair trial in different houses. The fol- lowing statements upon forcing onions from sets are by W. Van Fleet, of New Jersey, in answer to inquiries re- specting the forcing of bunch onions for winter market :* ‘“Three or four inches is about as thick as they can be grown; 3x6issafer. If grown 3x4 inches, alternate rows may be taken out as soon as large enough for market. Use one-fourth to one-third rotted manure, the rest good, sandy garden loam or rotted sods; 1-50 bone dust, or 1-150 (in bulk) good fertilizer may be added after growth has begun. They can endure more cold than lettuce or rad- ishes, but are easily checked by low temperature when in full growth. Give them an average of 70° F. As the leaves do not cover the soil and prevent evaporation, there is little danger from over watering; nevertheless, onions do not like sodden ground. Have the benches well drained ; water thoroughly, and let the top soil dry per- ceptibly before repeating. The quick-growing American varieties give best results; Philadelphia, Silverskin and Yellow Globe Danvers are excellent. The sets should be carefully selected, of uniform shape, and less than one-half inch in diameter. Onions are rarely forced under glass now, and are of doubtful profit, owing to competition from the Egyptian and other hardy perennial onions, which grow throughout the winter in the south and are shipped to the northern markets as early as February. There is a possible * Rural New-Yorker, liii. 777 (December 8, 1894). ROOT CROPS UNDER GLASS 145 profit in growing the Egyptian onion under glass in cold localities, but I am not aware that it has been tried com- mercially. The bulblets, which form in place of seed, could be planted in flats of rich earth, 6 inches deep, well watered and attended to until freezing weather, when they could be covered thickly with straw until needed, or brought under glass at once. The after treatment would be similar, ex- cept that a temperature below 65° would prove most satis- factory.”’ BEETS, CARROTS, AND TURNIPS. The root crops grow readily in lettuce beds, but their commercial value is so small and the length of time required for their growth so great that they are rarely profitable. Beets are occasionally grown between the late win- ter crops of tomatoes or cucumbers. If the house has grown let- tuce or other cool crops, the beets may be transplanted into the beds in rows avout #3 feet apart, setting the cucumber plants between the rows. The beets should be off by the time the other plants demand all the room. The turnip beets (like the Egyptian), half- long carrots and early varieties of turnips are the varieties 47. A bunch of winter carrots. 146 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. best adapted to forcing. Carrots are slowest to mature, and also find the smallest demand in the market. From three to four months are required to secure good bottoms on carrots. For home use these root crops may be grown in a few square feet of soil on benches which grow lettuce and carnations or even roses. FOTATO. Potatoes can be grown on spent rose or lettuce beds, or under benches which open out to the light. We have grown a bushel of tubers in a thick row under the edge of a carnation bench some go feet long. They need no special care. Potatoes are sometimes planted in ground beds in forcing-houses in late winter or early spring after the legitimate winter crops are harvested. PEPINO. The pepino or melon shrub is practically unknown as a_ forcing-house product. The first critical study of the plant in this country was made at the Cornell Station in 1891, but Professor Munson, in Maine, seems to have been the first person to make a success of it as a fruit-bearing plant under glass.* The plant is an undershrub, making a neat and spreading bush 2 or 3 feet high when a year old. The fruits are oblong and somewhat egg-shaped, with a solid and seed- less flesh and a cantaloupe-like flavor. It more closely re- sembles the eggplant in botanical features than it does any other fruit plant of our gardens. It is propagated by cut- tings of the young shoots in the same way as the geranium or tomato. Cuttings made in March or April may be ex- pected to make fruit-bearing plants by the following January or February. The plants should be carried through the summer in 4-inch or 5-inch pots and transferred to 6-inch pots on the approach of winter. They should be grown in *W. M. Munson, in Garden and Forest, v. 173 (Apr. 13, 1892), with illustration. THE PEPINO OR MELON SHRUB. 147 a cool house, with no bottom heat. A lettuce house suits them well... In such temperature strong plants may be expected to yield two or three fruits to each cluster. History and description of the pepino.— This interest- ing plant is so littlke known that I append a somewhat full account of it * Within the last few years a novelty has appeared in the seedsmen’s catalogues under the name of Pepino, Melon Pear, Melon Shrub, and Solanum Guatematlense. Its botanical affinities, as well as its horticultural merits, have been a perplexity. The plant is a strong-growing herb or half-shrub in this climate, becoming 2 or 3 feet high and as many broad. It has a clean and attractive foliage, comprised of long-lanceolate nearly smooth very dark green entire leaves. It is a profuse bloomer, the bright blue flowers reminding one of potato flowers. But one fruit commonly sets in each cluster, and as this grows the stem elongates until it reaches a length of from 4 to 6 inches. The fruit itself is very handsome. As it ripens it assumes a warm yellow color, which is overlaid with streaks and veins of violet-purple. These fruits are some- what egg-shaped, conspicuously pointed, and vary from 2% to 3% inches in length. The illustration, Fig. 48 (page 148), shows an average specimen about two-thirds natural size. If the fruits are still green upon the ap- proach of frost, they may be placed in a cool dry room, where, in the course of two or three weeks, they will take on their handsome color. If carefully handled or wrapped in paper, the fruits will keep until midwinter or later. The fruit is pleasantly scented, and the flavor of it may be compared to that of a juicy, tender and some- what acid eggplant. It is eaten either raw or cooked. Upon the approach of winter we dig up some of the plants and remove them to the conservatory or forcing- house. As ornamental plants they will prove to be *From Bulletin 37 (Dec. 1891). Cornell Exp. Sta. (now out of print). ii hORGC, 148 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. 45. Spray and fruit of the pepino. THE PEPINO. 149 very useful in this latitude. The habit is attractive, the flowers bright and pleasant, and the fruit is highly orna- mental and curious. The plant will stand a little frost. The plant does not fruit freely with us, however, although it blooms profusely. We have endeavored to insure fruiting by hand pollination, but without success. The anthers give very little pollen. Perhaps half the plants succeed in setting two or three fruits apiece. All the fruits which we have raised have been entirely seed- less, and this appears to be the common experience. The seed-cavities remain, however, as shown in the cross- section in Fig. 48. The plant must be propagated by cuttings or layers, therefore. We obtained our stock from a botanical specimen which I obtained from Florida, and which was not thoroughly dried. This plant was introduced into the United States from vv. Guatemala fn 1882 by Gustav Eisen, of California.* There has been much speculation as to its nativity and its true botanical position. At first it was thought by some to be a variety of the eggplant,t but it is very dis- tinct from that species. But the plant is by no means a novelty to science nor even to cultivation, for it was ac- curately described and figured so early as 1714 by Feuillée in his account of travels in Peru.t' He called it Melon- gena laurifolia. At that time the plant bore ‘‘ several little lenticular seeds, one line broad.’’ It was carefully cultivated in gardens, and the Indians ate it with delight. The taste is described as somewhat like a melon. Eat- ing too heartily of it was supposed to bring on fevers. In Lima it is called Pepo. In 1799 it was again described and figured by botanists visiting Peru, Ruiz and Pavon.|| They described the fruit as ‘‘ovate, pointed, smooth and shining, white variegated with purple, hanging, of the * Orch. and Gard. x. 61 (1888). + Gard. Monthly, xxix. 24, 48, 84, 120, 355 (1887). t Journ. Obs. Phys. Math. et Bot. 735, t. 26. || Flora. Peruviana, ii. 32 t. 162 a. I50 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. shape of a lemon.’’? They say that it was much cultivated in Peru, and added that it was propagated by means of cuttings. It was called ‘‘Pepino de la tierra.’? In 1785, Thouin, a noted French gardener, introduced it into Europe, and four years later Aiton, of the Royal Garden at Kew, England, named it Solanum smuricatum.* The specific name, mzricate or prickly, was given in reference to the rough or warty character of the sprouts which spring from the root, and which are often used for propa- gation. And now, over a hundred years later, it has found its way to us. Mr. Eisen’s account of the pepino will be interesting in this connection. ‘‘ The Central American name of this plant,’’ he writes, ‘‘is pepino. Under this name it is known everywhere in the Central American highlands, and under this name only. But as pepino in Spanish also means cucumber, it was thought best to give the plant an English name. I suggested the name melon shrub, but through the error or the wisdom of a printer the name was changed to melon pear, which I confess is not very appropriate, but still no less so than pear guava, alligator pear, rose apple, strawberry guava, mango apple, custard apple,.ete. * * * As toethe value of the fruit and the success of it in the states, only time will tell. The fact that I found the plant growing only on the high land, where the temperature in the shade seldom reaches 75° Fahr., suggested to me the proba- bility that it would fruit in a more northern latitude. In California it has proved a success in the cooler parts, such as in Los Angeles city, and in several places in the coast range, and will undoubtedly fruit in many other localities where it is not too hot. * * * My friend, the late Mr. J. Grelck, of Los Angeles, had a plantation of 10,000 pepinos, which grew and bore well, and he sold considerable fruit. * * * In pulp and skin the pepino * Hort. Kew. i. 250. THE PEPINO. I51 resembles somewhat the Bartlett pear, but in taste more a muskmelon; but it has besides a most delicious acid, entirely wanting in melons and quite peculiarly its own. In warm localities this acid does not develop, and this fact is the greatest drawback to the success of the fruit. The fruit has no seed, as a rule. And in all, I have found only a dozen seeds, and those in fruit which came from Salama in Guatemala, a place rather too warm to produce the finest quality of fruit. The botanical name of the pepino is not known to me with certainty. The same was described by the Franco-Guatemalan botanist, Mr. Rousignon, as Solanum Melongena Guatemalense, but it is to me quite evident that this solanum is not, nor is it closely related to the S. J/e/ongena or eggplant, which latter is a native of Central Asia. The pepino is probably a native of the Central American highlands, and appears to have been cultivated by the Indians before the conquest by the Spaniards.”’* Last year Mr. Eisen writes that ‘‘it has only succeeded in Florida, but has there proved of considerable value.’’t The greatest fault of the pepino appears to be its fail- ure to set fruit. Mr. Eisen states that in Guatemala it ‘yields abundantly, in fact enormously, Ioo to 150 fruits to a vine 4 feet in diameter being nothing uncommon. | have seen it yield similarly in California, but whenever exposed to too much heat and dryness, it is very slow to set fruit.”’t He recommends that it be shaded if it re- fuses to set fruit. Martin Benson, Dade Co.; Florida, writing to the American Garden,\| says that he has had great success with it. ‘‘I counted the fruit on a medium- sized plant and found it bore 60 of all sizes, from those just set to some nearly matured and weighing upwards of * Gard. Monthly, xxix. 84 (1887). + Gard. and Forest, iii. 471 (1890). t Orch. and Gard. x. 61 (1888). jix. 265 (1888). 152 MISCELLANEOUS COOL PLANTS. a pound. The fruit varies considerably, but averages about the size of a goose egg. The fruit is the most perfectly seedless of any I have ever seen, without a trace of aseed. It requires cool weather in order to set fruit, and never does so excepting a norther or other cool spell, when the fruit sets in great quantities.’? Mr. Ben- son’s letter is accompanied by an admirable illustration of the fruit. In the northern states it has always proved a shy bearer, if I may judge from such records as exist. “1,” writing to the Gardener’s Monthly, says that he had ‘‘only about two pears to each plant, among literally hundreds of blossoms.’’ Orchard and Garden com- ments upon this feature as follows: ‘‘The general ex- perience with it here [New Jersey], thus far, seems to justify us in calling it exceedingly shy in setting fruit, and if this tendency to abortive blooming cannot be over- come, the melon pear must be considered without practi- cal value.’? These remarks are certainly counter tome statements and pictures made by some seedsmen in re- gard to its productiveness. Professor Munson, as we have seen, has found it to be fairly productive under glass when grown in a low temperature. CHAPTER Ix. TOMATO. NExT to lettuce, the tomato is probably the most im- portant vegetable grown in American forcing-houses. Its only close competitor for this honor is the cucumber. Winter tomatoes always find a ready sale at prices rang- ing from 25 to 75 cents per pound. Even after the Florida tomatoes come upon the market in late winter, a good quality of house-grown fruits continues to sell well in every good market. The crop is one which demands a high temperature, an abundance of sunlight, and great care in the growing, but the profits, under good management, are correspondingly high. The house. — A light and tight house is essential, and it must be high enough to allow of training the plants (that is, at least 5 feet above the soil in all parts). Our preference is a sash-bar frame house, something like those shown in Figs. 12 and 13. A north-and-south house would be pref- erable, probably, because of the more even distribution of light. Tomatoes may also be grown for a late spring crop in a carnation or lettuce house (see page 98). The importance of direct and strong sunlight was well illustrated in one of our experiments. At one end of the house is a low building which shaded a part of the plants after two or three o’clock. The plants within 3 or 4 feet of this building, which were thus deprived of direct sunlight for half the afternoon, bore no fruits whatever, although they were strong and vigorous. At6and7 feet away some (153) 154 TOMATO. fruits were borne, but it was not until about 15 or 20 feet from the building that a full crop was obtained. The ill effects of shade are also visible upon the north benches of houses running east and west, where the plants are shaded somewhat by those in the center of the house. During the middle of winter the north bench in the house will ordinarily produce no more than half as much fruit, even in an unequal-spanned house, as those in direct sunlight. The plants in partial shade grow as well and as large as those in full sun, and they often blossom well, but the fruit does not set. The proper temperature for tomatoes is from 60° to 65° at night, and 10° higher for dull days. On bright days it may be allowed to run higher, although we always wish to ventilate at 75°, but a temperature of go° or even 100° can do no harm. Until fruit begins to set, the atmos- phere should be kept moist, especially on bright days, but the setting of the fruit is hindered by a humid atmosphere. Soil and fertilizers.—Nearly all writers upon house cul- tivation of tomatoes assert that the soil should be only moderately rich, because heavily manured plants are over- vigorous in growth, are generally unproductive, and are particularly liable to disease; and the additional cost of training is said to be considerable. Our experience em- phatically contradicts this supposition. Heavily manured plants undoubtedly require more care in the pruning, and itis possible that when not properly handled they may be more liable to mildew, because of the dense and crowded growth; but, on the other hand, we always get the best yield from the strongest plants, and we find the extra cost of training to be of little account. We grow the plants in rich garden loam, to which is added a fourth or fifth of its bulk of well-rotted manure, and when the plants begin to bear, liquid manure is applied nearly every week, or a top- dressing of manure is given. ‘To those unaccustomed to forcing-house work this may seem extravagant fertilizing ; but it must be remembered that in house cultivation the * RAISING TOMATO PLANTS. 155 roots are confined in a small space, and they have little chance to search for food. And as a matter of practice, we find this heavy manuring to be essential to best results. It is strange that the notion that tomatoes require a com- paratively poor soil should ever have become so widespread. It has been held also in regard to outdoor tomatoes, but our own experiments, and those of others, have shown that that it is generally erroneous (consult pages 53 to 6r). Raising the plants, and bearing age. — Tomato plants are usually grown from seeds, but sometimes from cuttings. 49. Box cultivation of winter tomatoes. Seeds are sown in flats or pots, and the plants are handled at least twice before they go into permanent quarters. Cut- tings are taken from strong, well-developed branches, and are made of the upper 4 or 5 inches of the shoot. Cutting- plants struck at the same time as seeds are sown will bear sooner than seedlings. Cutting-plants (if made from well- 156 TOMATO. matured shoots) generally bear nearer the ground than seedlings. Fig. 50 shows cutting-plants in bearing. In this latitude it requires from four to five months to bring a forced tomato plant into bearing. A few sStatis- tics will show the time required from seed to fruit. Seeds which were sown August g gave plants fit for transplanting early in September. These were planted in permanent quarters in the tomato house October 15, and the first fruits were obtained December 28. They con- 50. Cutting-grown tomato plants in a shallow bench. tinued in bearing until near the end of February, when they were trained for a second crop. Plants started No- vember 10 were transplanted into 4-inch pots December 8, and from these pots into permanent quarters February 25. The first fruits were picked May 6, and May 12 the first market picking was obtained. On the first of June they were in full bearing. It will be noticed that the sec- WHERE THE PLANTS ARE TO BE GROWN. L5i/, ond lot grew much more slowly than the first one. This is because the plants were growing in the short and dull days of midwinter. Market growers like to sow seeds or take cuttings in August for the holiday crop. The second crop is ready to go on the benches early in January. A commercial grower in Ontario informs me that when he sows seeds the middle of January he expects to put the plants on the benches on the first of April and to make the first picking the 2oth of May. Beds, benches and boxes. — There are various methods of growing house tomatoes. Much depends upon the height of house and arrangement of benches and heating apparatus. They may be planted in the ground or floor of the house, but this is not advisable, as it does not allow of the application of bottom heat, and the plants grow slowly ; and it is frequently an advantage to shift the plants somewhat during subsequent treatment. They re- quire brisk bottom heat, and it is necessary, therefore, to place them upon benches. The plants may be grown in shallow beds upon the benches, or in boxes or pots. Many persons prefer to grow tomatoes in 18-inch-square boxes. Fig. 49 (page 155) shows the arrangement of such a tomato house. The re- turn pipes lie close upon the ground, and are covered with a low platform or bench, made of 3-inch slats with inch spaces between them. The boxes are placed to inches or a foot apart, and four plants are set in each of those which are 18 inches square and a foot deep. A _ plant, therefore, occupies about 1% square feet of floor space. We have grown them in to-inch-square boxes, and also in to-inch pots, but these dry out so quickly that we do not like them. One or two narrow cracks are left in the bottom. A good layer of potsherds or clinkers is placed in the bottom for drainage, and the box is then filled two-thirds full of soil. When the fruit. begins to set, the box is nearly filled with rich soil and manure. The ob- ject of not filling the box at first is to confine the roots 158 TOMATO. in a smaller space, and therefore to hasten fruitfulness — perhaps an imaginary advantage — but more particularly to allow of an additionai stimulus to be given the plant at fruiting time by the addition of fresh soil. On the whole, however, we prefer to grow tomatoes on benches, with about 7 or 8 inches of soil. Fig. 14 shows tomatoes growing upon a floor which lies directly over the heater, a place which gives most excellent re- sults. In this bed we set the plants in rows 24 inches apart, and 18 inches apart in the row. This house is ot. Forcing-house for tomatoes, heated with water. very light. In darker houses the plants cannot be set so close. Fig. 50 (page 156) shows a bed 3 feet wide (and only 4 inches deep) in which but a single row of plants is grown. We have grown an excellent crop of tomatoes on a bean bench, from which three crops of beans had been taken during the winter. After each crop of beans, the soil was loosened up and manure or manure water added if needed. The soil was again manured_ before the tomatoes were set. The bed is 6 inches deep. Upon this bed the plants were set 2 feet apart each way, and each plant was trained to two shoots. We sometimes carry a late crop of tomatoes upon benches which grow peas and lettuce during the winter. Such houses are not BENCHES VS. BOXES. 159 warm and light enough for winter tomatoes, but a crop may be had by late May or June. In comparing benches and boxes, Munson* obtained the better results from the latter. The experiments were made in a broken-span house (Fig. 51, page 158) ‘‘ 20x50 feet, and about 11 feet high at the ridge. The central bed is supplied’ with six 2-inch hot water pipes, the flow being carried overhead to the further end of the house. Each year a dozen or more plants of each of several varieties have been grown in boxes, while duplicate lots have been grown in open beds. These beds were 2% to 3 feet wide and 8 inches deep. They were built across the central bench, and thus received the same bottom heat as the boxes.’’ ‘‘In almost every instance the better results were obtained from the boxes. With one or two exceptions, the first fruits were matured from one to thir- teen days earlier; the weight of the crop was greater, and the individual fruits averaged larger. The average results for the whole time may be summarized as follows :”’ | | | | n en wm = Si ae E Se | oS | BP eg Varieties and treatment. & 2 ores On es ae ig | a‘ or po = | Eo — oO Ot > Bees agen s Ou Zz s < Golden Queen— Boxes. 55 9.8 1.84 3.0 BEd yemenicme ters 7 GOs wan 3r | 2:2 Ithaca— | | BOX can Pere eRe Bloke te P Ti: 3 E73 Pls Bed". = 10.3 rot | Dar . Long Keeper— BOX R Om army Oe 5 deo so Soe eey Soe eels 10.9 2.01 3.0 COR os cata re tee cw se Shs ecu Ns eas 8.9. |) “19 253 | ' Lorillard— | BOR a othe faces Ree ta cieetranetay? siacs 1i.5% rsd 233 BCURM Remo ana tir ee ty ess 5c. acd 8.7 | 108 2.0 “Rept. of Maine Exp. Sta. for 18094. 160 TOMATO, Training. — The plants . la must be trained. For mys his midwinter, when it is necessary to economize sunlight, I much prefer to train plants to a_ single stem. Strong flax icord; the size of wool twine, is used for SU p.poOrt =a “yy Zs EA \ AN single strand runs _per- Ay US evans Sag f pendicularly from each ta plant to a horizontal wire or rafter extending length- wise the house under the roof. The plant is se- cured loosely to this sup- port at intervals of a foot or so by means of some broad and. ‘soit, cord) was bass or rafha. Fig. 49 (page 155) shows the young plants being trained, and Fig. 52 shows a mature vine supported by the cord. 7 All Sside shoots are pinched off as soon as they appear, and the leader is “stopped: or pinched off as soon as it reaches the glass) ‘om sometimes when fruits be- gin to form. In _ houses of sufficient height, I like to train the plants fully 6 feet high. In midwinter it may be necessary to 52. A single-stem tomato plant. cut away some of the TRAINING AND WATERING. 161 older leaves or to cut them in two near the middle in order to let in light. As the fruit sets the leaves near the base of the plant begin to die, and they should be picked off. Healthy plants in full bearing are often bare of leaves for the first 2 feet. The fruit is borne on one side of the stem, and it is a common notion that the plants must be so placed that this side of the stem shall be toward the sun. This precaution is entirely unnecessary. When the plants are set in benches, at distances of 2 or 3 feet, two or three shoots may be trained out upon diverging strings, in fan-shaped fashion. If the fan stands north and south it will probably interfere least with the light. Tomatoes are sometimes trained along under the roof as rafter plants, but this system is not adapted to commercial purposes, as it darkens the house so much that few plants can be grown, and the rafter plants are likely to suffer from cold. As soon as the fruit becomes heavy the largest clusters will need to be held up. A sling of raffia is caught over a joint of the plant and is passed under the middle of the cluster, as seen in Fig. 52 (at a, b, c, page 160), which shows the bearing portion of a good average plant. Upon very strong vines the clusters sometimes ‘break,’ or push out a shoot from the end. This shoot should be cut off. Tomatoes upon clusters where this abnormal shoot was allowed to grow were generally smaller and more irregular than upon clipped shoots. Watering. — During all the early growth of the plant the atmosphere may be kept moist, particularly in sunny days, when it is customary to wet down the walks. Care must be taken in watering. It is best to soak the soil pretty thoroughly at each watering, yet it should not be drenched. Careless watering usually leaves the surface wet, while the under soil remains dry. This must be avoided. In midwinter we water our plants thoroughly about twice a week, giving no water directly to them be- tween times. If the red spider should attack the plants, 162 TOMATO: the atmosphere must be kept moist, and in bad attacks the foliage should be syringed. Every care should be taken to keep the plants free from the spider, for the pest cannot well be overcome after the fruit begins to set, at which time the house should be kept dry. If fungi begin to attack the plants, however, the atmosphere will need to be kept drier. Pollination. — When the flowers begin to appear, the atmosphere must be kept dry during the brighter part of the day in order to facilitate pollination. The pollen is discharged most profusely in dry, sunny days. In the short, dull days of midwinter, some artificial aid must be given the flowers to enable them to set. The common practice is to tap the plants sharply several times during the middle of the day with a padded stick. This practice is perhaps better than nothing, although tests which we once made upon the value of this operation as compared with no attention were entirely indifferent in results. During the past winter (1895-6) we tested the value of this jarring with the transfer of pollen by hand, and ob- tained more fruits from the jarring method, but their total weight was much less. I am strongly of the opinion that it will pay the commercial grower to transfer the pollen by hand during midwinter. At this season the flowers are most likely to fail and the product is the most valu- able; and the tests which I am about to report concerning the influences of different quantities of pollen strengthen this advice. There are various methods of pollinating the flowers. The most expeditious and satisfactory method which I know is to knock the pollen from the flowers, catchin ¢ = it Sina spoon, watch- glass, or other receptacle, and then dipping the stigmas of the same or other flowers into it. A good implement is 53. Ladle for pollinating house tomatoes. POLLINATION OF TOMATOES. 163 shown in Fig. 53 (page 162). This is made by glueing a small watch-glass to the end of a wooden ladle. There is a time in the life of the flower when the pollen falls out readily if the atmosphere is dry enough to hold dust. This is when the flower is fully expanded and somewhat past its prime. The flower is tapped lightly with a lead pencil and the light yellow powder falls out freely. The house must be dry and warm at the time. C. J. Pen- nock, Kennett Square, Penn., a grower of winter to- matoes for market, writes me as follows concerning the pollination of the flowers: ‘‘During the short days of winter I pollinate carefully every day, and I consider the operation necessary. I use a tool of my own make. It is a light piece of wood about 16 in. long and one-half in. square, one end of which has a slight saucer-like de- pression. This stick is held in the left hand with the de- pression under the blossom to be pollinated. Another light stick or reed is used to tap the blossom and shake out the pollen, the end of the pistil being pressed into the accumulated pollen in the depression at the same time. On a sunny day, when the house is dry, the opera- tion can be performed rapidly. I have tried jarring the plants and have seen a brush used, but do not consider either as good as the above method.’ In the brighter days of March and later I have found no other attention necessary than keeping the house dry at midday. But there appears to be further reason why hand pol- lination is profitable. In my earliest i experiences in tomato forcing I was impressed with the fact that indoor tomatoes are smaller than those grown out of doors, and the midwinter fruits are usually smaller than those pro- duced under the same circumstances in late spring. There is also a sy. One-sided tomato. marked tendency in house tomatoes to be one-sided, as indicated in Fig. 54. It was a long time before any I2 FORC. 164 TOMATO. reason for these facts suggested itself. I finally came to feel that this irregularity and perhaps the smallness were often due to irregular or insufficient pollination, although it is probably true that Jack of sunlight has something to do with the inferior size. The first definite aid towards the solution of the problem was the result of an experiment performed by my former assistant, W. M. Munson.* Mr. Munson pollinated two fruits upon the same cluster with pollen from one source, but in one flower very little pol- len was used, and it was applied upon one side of the 55. The effects of much and little pollen. stigma only, while the other flower received an abun- dance of pollen over the whole surface of the stigma. The result is shown in Figs. 55 to 57 (pages 164 and 165). In Fig. 55, the large fruit received the more pollen, and it is fully four times as large as the other, which received a very small amount. Moreover, the large fruit was practi- cally symmetrical, while the small one was one-sided. Figs. 56 and 57 (page 165) show cross sections of these * A report of fuller studies in this direction by Professor Munson may be found in the Annual Report of the Maine Experiment Station for 1892, Part ii. EFFECTS OF POLLINATION. 165 fruits. The larger fruit (Fig. 56) has all the cells de- veloped and seed-bearing, while the smaller one (Fig. 57) has seeds upon one. side only, and the other or un- fertilized side is seedless and nearly solid. The original central division of this fruit is shown at A B. This experiment has been repeated several times with substantially the same re- sults. -The- flowers, .of course, were emasculated in the bud, and were se- curely covered with bags : 56. Effects of liberal supply of to prevent any interference. pollen. Four important lessons are to be drawn from these experiments: 1. One-sidedness appears to be due to a greater development of seeds upon the large side.* 2. This development of seeds is apparently due to the soeeciatoe of the greater part of the pollen to that side. 3. An abundance of pollen applied over the entire stigmatic surface, by increasing the number of seeds in- creases the size of the fruit. 4. The pollen, either directly or indirectly, probably stimulates the growth of the fruit beyond the mere influence of the number of seeds; the growth 7) Effects OA Sane of the solid part in Fig. 57 appears supply of pollen. to indicate this. This secondary in- fluence of the pollen in increasing the size of fruits, both by means of increasing the number of seeds— which nec- essarily demand a larger envelope or receptacle —and *For similar results in the pollination of apples, see Bull. 31, Mich. Agr. Coll. 91 (1887). 166 TOMATO. by some stimulating influence which it may have upon the pericarp itself, is well known as a scientific fact. If I have interpreted these experiments correctly, they mean that a part, at least, of the smallness and perhaps all of the one-sidedness of house tomatoes are due to insuffi- cient pollination, and that-it will pay the grower in mid- winter to pollinate by hand and to exercise pains to ap- ply an abundance of pollen over the whole surface of the stigma. This conclusion is further emphasized by the ex- periment which I have already reported (page 162), in which the fruits upon jarred plants (and which undoubt- edly received comparatively little pollen) were smaller than those which were hand-pollinated. It is possible that the same principle can be applied to some other fruits, and our experiments with other plants in this di- rection have already been considerable. The development of the hard and seedless part of the small tomato (Fig. 57) is perhaps the most interesting feature of the experiment from a scientific point of view. This part must have developed because of some entirely secondary stimulus of the pollen upon the pericarp, or else because of the stimulus afforded by the growth of the seeds in the other half; if neither of these proposi- tions is true, it must follow that seedless tomato fruits may develop without any aid of pollination whatever. In any case, the query is raised if it will ever be possi- ble to grow perfectly seedless tomatoes. We have al- ready grown them, but can make no definite report upon the subject. Second crop.— The crop from the one or two or three trained shoots of house tomatoes does not exhaust the vitality of the plant; consequently when the crop is well along, one or two new shoots may be trained out from near the base of the plant to produce a second crop. If the plant is carrying a load of fruit when these second shoots are being trained, liquid manure should be given once or twice a week, or a fresh mulch of old manure THE SECOND CROP. 167 may be added. In the dark days of midwinter there may not be enough light to make these new shoots strong in such close planting as we practice, and it is better, there- fore, to delay starting them until the fruit from the first crop is nearly all full grown. But in late February and March the new shoots may be allowed to become 3 or 4 feet long before the old shoots are cut down. Of course, much will depend upon the distance at which the plants are set, the lightness of the house, and the fertility of the soil. Shoots which were about a foot long when the old tops were cut down the first of March gave ripe fruits the first and second weeks in May. We have noticed that strong and stocky shoots from 6 inches to a foot long give fruits about as early as weak and slen- der shoots 3 and 4 feet long, and they make better plants. With judicious treatment, the second crop can be made to follow the first with an interval of four to six weeks only, although this is difficult with the close plant- ing which we have employed. One shoot may be trained out from each plant to take the place of the old top, or two shoots may be allowed to grow and some of the old plants cut out entirely. The advantages of either prac- tice are about equal in the box system of growing. Mr. Pennock trains his plants to a single stem for winter bearing. For later fruiting, he trains out two or three shoots from each plant. But Mr. Pennock grows his plants in beds or benches and sets them 2x2% feet.. In any case, each of the second shoots should bear as much as the first one did, and usually more, because of the greater.amount of sunlight later in the season. The old top is cut off an inch or so above the junction of the new shoot. Another method of obtaining the second crop is to bury the old plants. As soon as the fruit is off, the soil is removed between the plants, and the stems, deprived of lower leaves, are coiled down into the hole until only a foot or so of the tip projects. The earth is then filled 168 TOMATO. in over the plants, and the tip grows the same as a young plant. We have not found this method quite so satisfactory as the training out of new shoots. The yield has not been quite so heavy as from single second shoots, although fruits were obtained fully as early as from shoots which were a foot long when the test was started. But it is a somewhat laborious operation, and some of the stiffer plants are apt to be cracked in the handling ; and in box culture it is necessary to pull out one or two of the four plants in order to make room for the operation. A third way of obtaining the second crop is by means of new seedling plants. This is the common method. Plants are started from seeds two or three months be- forehand, and are transplanted two or three times into pots. At the final shifting they are taken from 4- or 5- inch pots and placed in permanent quarters. At this time they should be from 18 inches to 2 feet high, or ready for the first tying up. We find that seedlings will bear about the same time and to the same extent as sprouts which are of equal length to begin with. The preference would seem to be, therefore, for sprouts, as they avoid the previous labor of sowing and handling; and the seedlings take up valuable room while growing. But accidents are likely to occur to the old plants ; and an ad- vantage which seedling plants have over sprouts lies in the complete change of soil which is possible when seed- lings are grown. An experiment made (in boxes) at Cornell (in mid- winter) upon the comparative merits of seedling, buried and sprout-made plants (one sprout being allowed to grow from the stump of the old plant) gave the following data: Average yield from seedlings ....... ‘« buried plants. 9g fruits per plant. 7 ae ae ae - ae “ y SPrOuts 2 6 ws we se GO! 3 I 3 ce ae ae as «o a Highest production in seedlings . ‘* buried plants . ts ce ims e ee ae ae “e ae aS eH nannhs Sprouts eee ea. This test showed that the seedlings and sprout-made YIELDS OF TOMATOES. 169 plants were of equal value, but the buried plants were distinctly inferior. It should be said, however, that such tests are of comparatively little value, because the merits of the buried and sprout-made plants depend very much upon the vigor and healthfulness of the parent plants. As a result of several years’ experience, we now habit- ually grow our tomato plants from seeds. Yields and prices. — It will be seen from the foregoing discussion that any statement of the yield per plant of house tomatoes must be utterly valueless unless the method of training is given. The yield from two- stemmed plants may be twice as great as that from single-stem training, and the yield from double cropping of one plant will be from two to four times as much as from a single crop; and much will depend upon the time of year. Some of the reports which have been made of enormous yields must be untrue. The true way to esti- mate yield is by the amount of floor space covered. In our experience we obtain from 1% lbs. to 2 Ibs. per stem (or plant) in midwinter, and about twice to three times as much in spring, or an average of 3 lbs. or more for the season. This amount is produced on 1% to 2 sq. ft. of soil, Mr. Pennock obtains from 8 Ibs. to ro Ibs. to the plant for the season, but his plants cover 5 sq. ft. The practical results of the two systems are therefore about the same—about 2 pounds to the square foot ;* but the uniform single-stem system has some advantages in ease of manipulation, and the plants are so numerous that the loss of one by any accident is not so serious as in the other case. It should be said that the reported yields of house tomatoes are usually made from the spring crop, not from the winter crop. A winter crop, to be profit- able, should average at least 2 lbs. to the plant, in close planting and single-stem training, and a spring crop * This is over three times the yield per square foot in field culture in this latitude, 170 TOMATO. should average 4 lbs. to the plant. In a good crop of tomatoes, the fruits should average about three to a cluster in winter, and about four or five in spring. Fig. 58 (page 171) shows a good cluster of forced tomatoes. We have made experiments to determine if the second crop from the plant is influenced by the amount of the first crop. The tests were made with both buried and sprout plants. For one series we used the plants which bore the heaviest midwinter crop, and for the other those which stood in partial shade and had borne nothing. The results show that the first crop did not influence the bearing capacity of the second stage so long as the parent plants remained healthy. And they also show that amount of crop is not a fixed trait of the individual plant; 7. e., a plant which bears little at first may bear heavily the second time, and wice versa. The actual figures of yields and prices of commercial growers of forced tomatoes will be helpful. In a certain crop of Lorillard tomatoes, 673 plants, the total pickings were as follows: Hor Marchi sat 1 emies meets joni ets ee =e ee 15 Ibs. we eyoalie A ae 4 ¥ Gee aia oo ese ee 5 ee Oe ee 753) ous am Va ait ais ee per il eos el) dee oes joey Ee. eee COZ “June . ee ee eso ee OOS mae =o AMUllyis Sieucs, Wee Sere teraan cerns cure sees ‘reise <2, whale ee Ota 2.903) = This is is an average of 4.3 lbs. per plant. This is a large average yield. In midwinter, the crop could not be expected to be much more than half this amount. These plants were trained to a single stem. Following are extracts from the letters of four growers : “We set our plants about 2x 2% ft. One house,ai12@ long by 23 ft. wide, had 8 rows of plants and about 54 per row, and yielded over 4,000 lbs. of fruit from De- cember 20 to July 1. My recollection is that you grew much closer together and had about the same yield per A TOMATO CLUSTER. Lm DE TI: Ay aT Ce Sy feed yA 5a. A cluster OF forced Tordidiard tanwatn Straten tile warn £72 TOMATO. sq. ft., and thought it a safer plan, as a dead plant meant less loss. My judgment would be that your plan would require much more labor in setting and caring for the plants, and in practice we rarely lost a plant. When I commenced forcing’ tomatoes I found that the price was extremely low ‘until the last of December, but now the price is good in November. Prices have varied in the past two years from 7 cts. to 50 cts. per Ib. An aver- age price during. December, January, February and March has been about 30 cts. te: 35 cts., I think.” “We plant our benches with tomatoes from 3-in. pots along in January and February as carnation stock is ready, growing them along at carnation temperature until we have taken off the last crop of carnation cuttings ; then we give a little more heat, and have a crop of to- matoes about the last of May, through June, and have them all off early in July. We have generally had an average of 6 to 6% Ibs. per plant. There is much varia- tion in average price, according to time we get the main crop on, from, I suppose, 10 cts. to 15 cts, per Ibi ‘‘Our experience with tomatoes extends only with one house and for one season. They were in for six months and one week. We sold 2,669 lbs.; gross receipts, $598.72, or an average of 22% cts. per lb.; variety, Lorillard ; house, too x 20 ft.’’ ‘“We grow tomatoes only as a second crop in spring, bringing them in about the first of May and continuing through June. From two houses (20x115 ft. and 20x 100 ft.) we picked 3,500 lbs. of fruit, which brought an average price of 12 cents per pound.’’ Varieties.— We have forced Dwarf Champion, Loril- lard, Ignotum, Ithaca, Golden Queen, Golden Sunrise, Volunteer, Beauty, Potato Leaf, and others.= Of these; the Dwarf Champion is least satisfactory. It does not grow high or free enough to allow of convenient train- ing, and the fruit is small and ripens slowly. Among VARIETIES OF TOMATOES. 173 the others there is little choice. Perhaps the Ithaca is the least desirable of the remaining ones, because of its irregularity. But I cannot look upon the irregularity of house tomatoes as wholly a varietal character. All to- matoes, apparently, tend to be more irregular indoors than out, a tendency for which I can not yet give any sufficient reason. The form seems to vary somewhat in the same variety at different times, and it is probably closely associated with the moisture of the soil and the incidental treatment of the plants. The Ignotum seemed to be somewhat more irregular in the house the first winter than the second. Lorillard and Ignotum seem to hold the first place among the varieties which we have tried, although Volunteer is scarcely inferior. The Golden Queen is perhaps the best yellow. Yellow tomatoes are in little demand, but a few plants may prove profitable from which to sell fruits to those who desire to make table decorations. If we could have but one variety, we would choose the Lorillard. Munson makes the following comments upon varie- ties:* ‘‘Some varieties seem specially adapted for cul- ture under glass, while others fail to give satisfactory re- sults. Why this is so we do not know; but for the pur- pose of determining the most promising, we have grown several of the best known varieties for several seasons. Naturally, as the days grow longer in April and May the fruit will be of larger size and the product per plant will be greater than is the case with the first crop—in Jan- uary and February. The figures given below represent the average results obtained, including both crops, for several seasons. Several other varieties —including Ig- notum, Perfection, Peach, Prelude, Dwarf Champion, etc. —have been grown, but those named in the table have proved most satisfactory : * Rept. Maine Exp. Sta. for 1894. 174 TOMATO. Average Average | Re, Variety number | weight of jiGividual fe fruits per | product— : plant. Ibs. fruits— ozs. Chemin Market. . ye. es 12 2.29 3.0 GoldenBOncen sje oes.) eee 12 2.22 3.8 WthaGa! > 22h es oh, Se awera, Seas II 1.69 255 Longe Keeper. . a ae eee 10 1.86 3.0 Woraillanrd’? ieee 2 oy cece oe 13 2.05 207) Optimus ... Pe rier 5 ee | 13 1.96 - 255 ‘“The ideal tomato for forcing should be of medium size — about 2% ounces preferred—and should be uni- form, smooth, regular, and of firm texture. All things considered, Lorillard answers these requirements more completely than any other sort we have grown; though Optimus has usually done well. Chemin Market is very attractive in appearance, and 1s of good size, but it lacks solidity. ‘“No collection is complete without a few plants of Golden Queen. This is especially valuable for the pleasing contrast when served with the red or purple fruits. ‘“There is a marked difference in the adaptability of varieties for house culture, among the best of those tried being Lorillard, Optimus, Chemin, Golden Queen, Ithaca and Long Keeper. ‘All things considered, the Lorillard has proved the most satisfactory tomato for forcing.”’ Marketing. — The tomatoes are usually marketed in small splint baskets holding from 4 to to pounds of fruit. Each fruit is wrapped in tissue paper, and if-to be shipped by rail, the baskets should be lined with rolled cotton. In midwinter an average price of 4o cents a pound should be remunerative ; in spring and fall 25 cents a pound should pay. In midwinter our fruits aver- age from 2 ozs. to 2% ozs. each, but in late March and THE MARKETING OF TOMATOES. EIS April the average will rise to 3 ounces and more. In May, well pollinated fruits often weigh 7 or 8 ounces. The weight of the best fruits is often increased by cut- ting off the smallest and most irregular ones. The larg- est forced tomato which I have ever seen was grown by John Kerman, Grimsby, Ontario. It weighed 24% ounces. It was an Ignotum, and was picked in June. Mr. Kerman reports* another fruit of the same crop which weighed 27!% ounces. A grower of house tomatoes gives me a description of his method of marketing: ‘‘In shipping I use small packages. The flat-bottomed splint basket, holding about 8 qts., with handle, is excellent, and can be bought for $6 or less per gross. They hold to Ibs. each. In packing, line the basket with at least two thicknesses of medium-weight wrapping paper, turning down the cor- ners even with the top of the basket, or have it cut to exactly fit. Newspapers can be used, but are not so neat. Two inches of excelsior shavings is placed in the basket after being lined with the paper. The tomatoes are wrapped singly in tissue paper, cut by manufacturers in convenient sizes, two sizes being sufficient. Two lay- ers of tomatoes are packed in each basket, with a layer of excelsior between each layer and on top of the upper layer. I have found these baskets to hold just 10 Ibs. of tomatoes without undue crowding or rubbing the side of the basket. The grower’s name and net weight of tomatoes should be placed, by means of a neat label, inside of the basket, and the basket wrapped in paper, all tied securely and neatly, with label on outside for shipping direction, to include consignor’s name, and grade and weight of package. The tomatoes should be sorted into at least three grades—firsts or choice, sec- onds, and culls.’’ Animal parasites.— A white scale (A/eyrodes vapor- *Canadian Horticulturist, xix. 260 (August, 1896.) 176 TOMATO. aviorum) is a common pest here on tomatoes. The im- perfect insect is a small white scale-like body, preying upon the under surface of the leaves, and the mature form is a minute fly-like insect which flies about the house. It can be kept in check by fumigating with to- bacco smoke. A much more serious pest is a small spotted mite, scarcely larger than the red spider ( Tefranychus bimacu- latus, of Harvey). The mites feed upon the under sides of the leaves, causing the upper surfaces to appear speckled with white, as shown in Fig. 59. They attack many plants, but to- matoes and cucum- bers are favorites: We have tried num- bers of remedies with great thoroughness, but the first way we discovered of keep- ing them in check was to syringe with water so forcibly once or twice a day as to knock them off. By the time they were fairly resettled on the plants we would knock them off again. By this alternating warfare, aided by picking and burning the worst leaves, we kept our plants in tolerable order. Later,- however, we have found that Hughes’ fir-tree oil is fatal to them, as also to all kinds of lice and scales. For the mites, we use a half pint of oil to two gallons of water, and the material may be ap- plied with a syringe or knapsack pump. In more recent experience, we have not had so good success with this oil. We now keep them in check by exercising every care to have the house free of the pests before setting in the plants, and by spraying the leaves (particularly beneath) with a fine nozzle every bright morning. If the mites once get a thorough foothold upon a_ plant 59. Work of the mite. DISEASES OF HOUSE TOMATOES. 1A far it is almost impossible to thoroughly eradicate them. The root-gall, caused by a nematode worm (//efero- dera radicicola), often does great damage in tomato houses (Fig. 29, page 87). The treatment is to use only soil which has been thoroughly frozen, as explained on page 85. After cleaning the benches of infected soil, it is well to wash them in strong lye.* Diseases. — We have had serious difficulty with dis- eases. The rot of the fruit has been one of the worst, and this has appeared chiefly upon the first fruits. This disease appears to originate as a physiological trouble (not from the attacks of fungi, as commonly supposed), and the proper treatment is to keep the house dry and sweet. The**'t.o- mato blight or rust ( Cla- dos porium fulvum) is frequent in COM: ast O houses, par- ticularly — to- Wea cass spring. Fig. 60 shows the patches of the fungus at the points marked a. It causes rusty patches upon the leaf, and the foliage soon shrivels and dies. It is very likely that the disease may be brought into the house in soil upon which diseased plants have been grown. If it appears, the plants should be thoroughly sprayed at once with Bordeaux mixture. The dropsy or cedema of the tomato is a physiologi- cal disease produced in house tomatoes by a too succu- 60. Tomato blight (Cladosporium fulvum). *For a fuller account of the root-gall on house tomatoes, see Bulle- tin 43, Cornell Exp. Sta. (Sept. 1892). 178 TO MAT Ol lent growth consequent upona dark house, over-watering, and unskillful attention to ventilation. Outgrowths or swellings closely resembling fungous infections appear upon the leaves and stems, and the leaves finally curl up (Fig. 61). This trouble has been made the subject of a special study by Atkinson,* whose ‘‘summary for practical purposes”’ is as follows : ““The cedema of the tomato is a swelling of certain 61. edema of the tomato. parts of the plant brought about by an excess of water which stretches the cell walls, making them very thin and the cells very large. The excess of water may be so ereat that the cell walls break down, and that part of the plant dying, exerts an injurious influence in adjacent parts. ‘“The excess of water in the tissues is favored by the following conditions : ‘“t, Insufficient light. The long nights of the early winter months, numerous cloudy days, and in part, the walls and framing of the forcing-house, deprive the plants * Bulletin 53, Cornell Exp. Sta. (May, 1893). DROPSY OF TOMATO. 179 of needed light. By a process known as transpiration, plants are relieved of much water when well lighted, but in poor light, since the roots are absorbing water, it is apt to accumulate to excess. Well lighted parts of the house, then, should be selected for the tomatoes. ‘“2, Too much water in the soil. Water in excess can be withheld from the soil and prevent the trouble, and yet provide enough for the plants to grow. ‘*3, The temperature of the soil may be too near that of the air. A high temperature of the soil makes the roots active, and if the temperature of the air is not con- siderably higher an excess of water is apt to accumulate in the plant. The aim would be, then, to have the tem- perature of the air considerably higher than that of the LOOts. “Lack of proper light also brings about the following harmful conditions : “‘t. Acids in the plant accumulate in the dark, and in strong light they decrease. When there is an abundance of water in the plant these acids draw large quantities into the cells, causing the cells to swell, resulting many times in oedema, or in the killing of the protoplasm, so that these parts of the plant die and become brown or black. “2. Lack of light causes weak cell walls. It is only when well lighted that plants are capable of making sub- stances to build up cell walls with. Therefore, lack of light not only favors the accumulation of water, if other things are favorable, but it prevents the plants from build- ing up strong tissues. In such cases plants can grow themselves to death. Possibly artificial light might be used to advantage. “A quiet and close atmosphere also favors the ac- cumulation of water in the plant. Good ventilation should then be secured. Some means for the artificial agitation or exchange of the air at night might probably be profitably devised. 13 KORG. 180 TOMATO. ‘“Varieties of tomatoes more subject to the cedema: those with a tendency to a very rapid and_ succulent growth are more liable to the trouble; tomatoes which develop a firm, woody young stem are less liable to it.” The most serious disease of forced tomatoes which I have yet encountered is what, for lack of a better name, I called the winter blight, * and which is the concern of the remainder of this chapter. This disease was first de- scribed in Garden and Forest in 1892. The disease first appeared in our house in the winter of 1890-91, when about a dozen plants were somewhat affected. At this time the trouble was not regarded as specific; the plants were old, and had borne one crop, and it was thought 62. Winter blight of tomato. that they were simply worn out. In some of our exper- iments it became necessary to carry about a dozen plants over the summer, and these were introduced into the house when the forcing season opened the next October. From this stock the trouble again spread, and in six or eight weeks it had become serious, and there was no longer any doubt that we were contending with a specific disease. This winter blight attacks the leaves. The first indi- *In Bulletin 43, Cornell Exp, Sta. +A New Disease of the Tomato, by E. G. Lodeman. Garden and Forest, v. 175 (Apr. 13, 1892). cation of the trou- ble is dwarfing and slight fading of the leaves, and the ap- pearance of more or less ill-defined yellowish spots or Splashes... [hese spots soon become dark= ora 10 Sit black, and the leaf curls and becomes stiff, the edges drawing downward and giving the plant a wilted ap- pearance: “his condition of the leaf is well shown in Fig. 62 (page 180). ~The = spots grow larger, until they often become an. eichth of —an inci -aCLoss:— Or even more, and they.-are’ finally more or less trans- lucene © “Whis= -in- jury to the foliage causes the plant to dwindle, and the stems become Stal amid. shard? Fruit production is lessened, or if the disease appears before flowers are formed, no fruit 63. WINTER BLIGHT. 181 A plant attacked by winter blight (at the back), compared with a healthy one. 182 TOMATO. whatever may set. In two or three instances, in which young plants were attacked, the disease killed the plant outright, but a diseased plant ordinarily lives throughout the winter, a constant disappointment to its owner, but always inspiring the vain hope that greater age or better care may overcome the difficulty. Fig. 63 (page 181) is a graphic illustration of the appearance of the disease. The box contains two plants, the lower one of which is healthy. It is probable that this disease is the work of germs. Examination of the diseased tissue has discovered the presence of micrococcus, but the true relation of the or- ganism to the disease has not been made out. Various treatments have been tried upon this disease. Our first attempt was thorough spraying with ammonia- cal carbonate of copper, and this is the one which first suggests itself to growers. Our efforts, although care- fully made at intervals, were wholly unsuccessful. — It was then thought that treatment of the soil in which new plants were set might prove effective, and as our crop was grown in boxes, the experiment was_ easily tried. Boxes in which diseased plants had grown were emp- tied and the insides were thoroughly washed with va- rious substances, as follows: Three with dilute solution of ammoniacal carbonate of copper; two with lime white- wash ; one with Bordeaux mixture, and two with lye. Fresh soil was placed in these boxes and healthy young plants were set in them. The boxes were then placed in the tomato house, near both healthy and diseased plants. For three or four weeks the plants appeared ‘to be healthy, but after that time the disease attacked them all without respect to treatment. The same result followed thorough watering of the soil with ammoniacal carbonate of copper, nitrate of soda, and lye. Late in the winter the remaining plants were removed from the box, the soil was again treated with ammoniacal carbon- WINTER BLIGHT OF TOMATO. 183 ate of copper, and fresh seedlings were set in it; but these plants also contracted the disease. Just before this last treatment was given, a Io-inch pot was filled from the soil in the box, and a seedling from the same lot as those placed in the box was planted in it. The pot was set in the tomato house. This plant showed the disease in less than three weeks. The question at once arises if the disease was not communicated through the air from infected plants, rather than through the soil. This I cannot answer, but it is certain that the disease travels from plant to plant which stand in separate boxes, and whose tops do not touch. Through what distance this transfer can take place I do not know. We observed it to have occurred through a distance of 2 or 3 feet, but a plant which stood 15 feet from dis- eased plants, but separated from them by a glass _parti- tion in which two doors stood open, did not take the blight. All our experiments, therefore, simply lead us to the conclusion that the best treatment for this winter blight is to remove all diseased plants at once, and if it be- comes serious to remove all the plants and soil in the house and start anew. They emphasize the importance of starting with new plants and fresh soil every fall. And all our experience has shown that the disease is fatal to success in tomato forcing, for we lost our crop in an endeavor to treat it. Since clearing our houses thoroughly of this infection, we have never had it again. CHAE ak. CUCUMBER. THE cucumber contests with the tomato the merit of being the most popular of the ‘‘warm”’ plants for forc- ing. In America the extensive forcing of cucumbers for market is of recent origin. In England, on the other hand, the species has long been forced, and as a conse- quence there has developed in that country a_ peculiar type of fruit, which is even yet not popularly known in the United States. The Americans desire the short cucumbers with which they are familiar in the open garden. So it happens that there are two branches or types of the species to which we need to address our attention. THE ENGLISH FORCING TYPE OF CUCUMBER. The English forcing varieties represent the most im- proved type of the cucumber, and many of them are so distinct in appearance from our common kinds that vis- itors to our houses often fail to recognize them sae ee cae 178 Bailey, on damping-off.. . . . 85 ——on electrigilight 7 2)... = 80 Barkham, James, on melon. . 209, 20 2ots Bauhin, quoted... .. 192 Bean; account ofj)-2-5. <1 225 ——Mentionedu. 2 si tn. wales be 6, 7 SSR Oies G Glue ae a os 4 —summary of........ 245, 246 — tein peratune tOnen oi mem ae 5 BedSiuis howe... eee 40 Bees in forcing-houses..... 81 (26 Page Beet, account ofc 27 eee 145 — electric light on .. 215. 80 — mentioned ..>. 2. 2. Gi. es — Summary, Of = -o eee 246 —temperature for....... 5 Beets and sub-irrigation.. . . 77 Benches.....2) 5555 eee 40 Benson, Martin, and pepino.. 151 Bermuda, cucumbers in. . 185, 196 Bisulphide of carbon...... go Blight of tomato 23 7eeeeee 180 Bordeaux mixture. . 84, 177, 182 ‘* Botanical Magazine,’’ quoted 244 Botrytis vulgaris 4. -saeeeee 105 Brazilian melon fruit...... 243 Britton, W. E., quoted.. . 53 Bubbles in) glass 2.2 enn 207 Building forcing-houses. ... 16 Busch, Fred., mentioned 48 Butted glass = = 23) ae eee 37 Cabbage-worml | |) eee TIL California, cyphomandra in,241, 243 —pepino in . 151 Tee te Chee, uC . ““Canadian Horticulturist,’ quoted’. 2a. sire ne ERAS Cankér «2 22a eee 5 845222 Capsicum. See Pepper. Carnations and vegetables... 8 Carrot, accountiofi ase 145 —electric light on....... 80 —mentioned......... 5, 6 —summary of... _ 246 —temperature for..... 5 5 Category of forcing crops... 4 Cauliflower, account of . . . 108 — electric light on....... 80 0) INDEX. 261 Page Page Cauliflower, mentioned, 6,17, 43, 140 | Cucumber, mentioned . 2,5, 7, 43> AG TINMITIAT WoO ears tects sires a). ce 247 51, 52, 80, 83 —temperature for. ..... RaeAOu| I PNICES Of; vs « & 1. csr. sy ens 4 Celery, account of. .... #139 ie summary. Off. 292): 2 2a. . 248 —mentioned ........ 5,6, 7 | —temperature for. . . 5 55) 150 —summary of. . eet ie CUCHINIS, lONENS: .)... 2° = eke. be 192 —temperature for . .5, 49 | —sativus var. Sikkimensis.. . 194 Gellars; use off 35... . 4 ; Cut-flowers and vegetable Gementsfor gutters. . 4 .c.-. Bay || MCE TOWIN See aes s 6d. Teil s seas I —for walls... Re lee ee Get i Lit = WOLINS ween tom sorry cote tee eee 52 Central America, pepino in . .150 | Cyanide of potassium. . 90 Charcoal and damping-off . 84 | Cyphomandra, account of .. . 241 Chester Co., carnations in... 8 | —temperature for....... 5 Chicony cess Fue ee 4 | Daintiness of product..... 3 Chileno tomate eR a poe 3 241 | Damping-off.. . . 67, 84, 222 Chrysanthemums, Pentioned. you, sand elion esse. che se ee 143 Cladosporium fulvum. 177 "| —-summary Of <5 2 3 = « 249 Clay and lettuce-growing. . . 8 | Denitrification ....... 62 Ghimate and: forcing 4: 7. ; . 8 | Diseases; account of... 2. %. 83 Coalcost.of ; . g-15 | Distance from market 8 Coatesssweonard, quoted... .. 2 | Drips... ... 2: . 229530, -38 Gompostsheaps*. oo... «8s ss 64 | Dreer’s ‘‘ Vegetables under Connecticut experiments in Glass,’’ mentioned. . . . 16, 118 fertilizing lettuce. 61) Dropsy... Rc eae 84,177 ——on manures. 63 | Duke of Northumberland cu- ——on tomatoes. 53 CUMDER eerste Ne a: a Onse © 193 Construction of houses. . . 16 |-Eeoplant;accountof 3.24.02 ; 228 Cool plants . : VA AD ee MCNTIONEG, c0's “RO Peck 50 Corbettel. C., mentioned? 92 | —summary of. 249, 250 GornPee ees 3 + 2.225, | —temperature for :- a2. .<..5,, 50 Cornell Ae NE ee Guetcds e Eisen, Gustav, on pepino. . . 149, ee ee 150, I51 146, 177, 178, 180, 225, a: | Electric light for forcing- —experience with radishes. . . 121 HOUSES «cc, h ses) 2 8ON 04 FOL Cornell, sub-irrigation at. . 68>) England, melonriny. .t. 3-0. c 204 Cosplettucesain.- acs 2s Au ME rysiphe®. jeje css wees . 200, 222 Cost of forcing-houses AGallivEsSGatrolle: je cee. ss. ot seh od ore 4 Cow manners eee ees, ss Gee if) ISTE oii Gaia 6) BA woecato) onc, 18 Gresses* ifr 0c ne ae TAY, 142") Mailuresscause Of. <7... <1: 3 Cress, mentioned... ...... 5 Pertilizersi aS. oss 5 tee 52 —summary of...... Se 2) ae keireaiiSky Of.eeinicn seot oe Renee 2 —temperature for...... Gl e RtratreeeOllts gus es otis. con eae eee 176 Crops for forcing, category of 4 | Flanagan, Patrick, and the cu- Crosses of cucumbers ..... 199 CGumDeGee a a aes . 193 Cucumber, account of. . . . .184 | ‘‘ Flora Peruviana,”’ Guoceds 149 262 INDEX. Page Page Florida, pepino in... . «.. . .151' | Heating; account of... ae 40 == tomatoesifrom.... . 2) «aes 7° \o—= cost: of. :.. . 93 | Michigan bulletins, quoted .. 42 —and sub-irrigation. . . 72, 77 165, 241 mal COSTER Aste ace o's he eP ebaone 4 | —heatand labor in. ..... 12 —electric light on....... 80 | Micrococcus in winter blight . .182 MET CUNZIN GA 0 5 $4, sopke es em te 61 Mildew of lettuces. 2°54. 106 — mentioned... . .5,7,8, 43, 46° —mentioned ...... 10, 83, 84 68, 83, 140, 146, 153 Mills, George, on melon.. . . 209 ATI CCSHO Ls of 1) Sethi Ne Ne 4 | Minnesota bulletins, quoted. . 35 —summary of ... 250, 251, 252 —heat and labor in <7.0. 2. 13 —temperature for. ..... 5, 49 | Mints, account of. .... 141, 143 WGiMmMAayDeAN Ye: 4s, ii elses ess 6 | Mint, temperature for..... 5 ime whitewashts 2.5... 80 Mites . . 84, 90, 176, 200, 221, 228, 237 Miquidemanute.... Vs. .' 4: 52 Mold leafs.) sis Aiccicst a asec 5I Locations for vegetable forcing 8 IMDOrtiS@Sie =. sue. Ge sw, reais Ns 33 Lodeman, quoted... . . 82, 86, 115, IMLOSS a0 re tay Mam oy ae eels, eee ee 67 135, 180, 228 VM; Phailvquoted’ s5 2c. 192 London Horticultural Society, METELONEC! pasar ses os Vere 193 Lonsdale, on damping-off. . . 85 Lye to clean houses. ..... 85 Maine Experiment Station, CUOTER IS esis. ei ik 5 159, 164, 173 IN ENTS sceucin G8 Gece ens CeCe MES 225 Management of forcing- INOUSESS er aa lcls fe ee leile ats 49 VITUS a pek eeteion eter 'e! 50, 52, 62 Marketingairr., sies.s ass. 9-3; 8 INIATOWS Getic is, 6s ele sos 6 Martius, on cyphomandra. . . 244 Massachusetts bulletins, quoted, 35, 42, 53, 85 —heat and laborin...... II Massey, on damping-off.. . . . 85 Maynard, on damping-off. . . 85 =—=iOne Heating. 27 9) a) eteas 42 Mealy-bugs .. . . 84, 221, 237, 243 Meehan, on damping-off.. . . 85 Melon, account of .. .... . 204 — mentioned. . . . 2,3, 5, 6,7, 17, 43,51, 52, 53, 65, 67 Munson, W. M., experiments with tomatoes... . 159, 164, 173 ——on pepino...... 146, 152 Muskmelon, account of . . . . 204 —summary of . . . . 252, 253, 254 —temperaturefor...... 5, 50 — see also Melon MUstard) ys, om. els,” aha) oP ee 143 —temperature for. ...... 5 Naphtha, in whitewash ... . 80 Naudin, on cucumbers... . . 194 Nematode) sii ie 13 Sh) Pe. 84, 177 New Hampshire bulletin, quotedey.cey. tye ste tar sacks 69 New Jersey, heat and labor in 14 ——pepinoin......... 152 ——Station, quoted...... 54 New York Exp. Station, quoted 99 —w—heat and labor in .... II ‘“Nicholson’s Dictionary of Gardening,’’ quoted... .. 196 Nightsmant.2 3 se. se nw eee 10 Nitrogen and forcing crops. . 54 availability, Of aime seems 62 264 INDEX. Page Page Nitrogen, loss Of/ 257.5 9s ta 62 | Plants and vegetables. .... a (Edema Deeside ti ae ae eae 177 Platey..<.. « 2h) ee 30 Ohio bulletins, quoted. . .53, 69, Pollination. . . 81, 162, 195, 214, 236 72, 97, 104 Potato! «~s'— s sak? a eee 146 — Station, sub-irrigation at. . 68 | Pot-herbs, account of... ... 141 @idium tee tems cee 200, 222 | Prices of hothouse vegetables. 4 Ora tgs sete yeracies wenger 225. | Purlines;;..2. (eee 26 Onion; account of... .'. 144 |} Putty, recipeton 2 cia eu] —temperature for. ...... s | Radish, account of f).0.)- ene 115 Ontario, heat and labor in... 11 — electric light on. PP Br me te) —tomatoesin...... ko isy | — mentioned: ...0, cee 5,6 “Orchard and Garden,”’ quoted, —- summary of . 255, 256 149, 151,152 | —temperaturefor...... 5, 49 Packing... a. ee ewe ie aeetet 3 Radishes and sub-irrigation. . 77 Parsley, account of....... 142 Rafters ...-. <. 22. =. 106 —and sub-irrigation...... 77 Transportation facilities. ... 8 —electric lighton...... 80 Tree tomato of Jamaica... . 241 —Anentioned:..,.. + 5 s.+ 6 6: 6 | Turnip, account of....... 145 ="simimary Of .1. 37... . 256 Tweedie, and the cvphomandra 243 —temperature for. ..... . 5 | Uneven-span...-.... 18, 36 Spraying for insects and dis- Van Fleet, W.,on onions. . . 144 CASES te aL claths co acne 84 | ‘Vegetable Forcing,” men- TTOOISt wee. oe . 80 TONE Aree oe lS ire oes 16, 92 SeUASWESta coe nel sic! cy @ 6, 225 | ‘‘ Vegetables under Glass,” Stable manure. ..... 50, 52, 62 mentioned ........ 16, 118 Staple;cropsieuat.tces soe 5 | Ventilating, account of .... 78 Steam) heatingw... . 7s «s - AG) @VENtUAlONS 31." mest kepemins ae te 35 StOVESS cee tn oe, ee es 46 Vilmorin, quoted...... 192, 194 String beans... 2.6 « .% 6,225 | Violets, fumigating ...... go Sturtevant, quoted 192, 194 Wagner on manure... . . 62, 63 Sub=trpleatiOneracs was ae 68 Walker, C. D., on electric cur- Sulphur, evaporating . . 84, 91, 106 TENS epicicn nn) cess beaded te 80 266 INDEX. Page Page Walks ..0522 5 2-9 semen 16,17, 24 | Watson, on damping-off. . . . 85 Walls. <2 stbemecet ations 16, 33 | West Virginia Station and sub- Warm éplantssee-niene ce 4, 50 irrigation’... .. ciao 605071 Washington experience with —- — — electric light at.. . . . 80 radiShes sem. eo issn 5 tee 121 | White Spine cucumbers. . . . 201 —heat and labor in...... 15 | “Whitewash .2 © aceon 80 Wiater-Cressirs <: a. 6 lees 141 | Winkler’s ‘‘ Vegetable Forc- Water-heating: 4°... ws +. - ee 40 ing,’? mentioned... . . .+ 16, 93 Watering, account of.. . 65 |. Winter blight..." . 275) 180 —mentioned......... 9, 50 | Wire-worms: ., =. 4, oGcmeueemaneS= Wratenmelon “7.0. woace! ols 205 The Garden - Craft Series. Edited by Pror. L. H. BAILEY. THE HORTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK. A COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL INFORMATION FOR FRUIT-GROWERS, TRUCK- GARDENERS, FLORISTS, AND OTHERS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture tn Cornell University, Third Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Recast, with Many Additions. 16m0. 302 pages. Cloth, Limp, 75 Cents. This volume is the only attempt ever made in this country to codify and con- dense all the scattered rules, practices, recipes, figures and histories relating to horticultural practice in its broadest sense. All the approved methods of fighting insects and plant diseases used and discovered by all the experiment stations are set forth in shape for instant reference. Among the additions to the volume in the present edition are: A chapter upon ‘‘Greenhouse and Window-garden Work and Estimates ;”’ a chapter on ‘‘Literature,’’ giving classified lists of the leading current writings on Ameri- can horticulture ; lists of self-fertile and self-sterile fruits; a full account of the method of predicting frosts and of averting their injuries; a discussion of the aims and methods of phenology; the rules of nomenclature adopted by botanists and horticultural societies; score-cards and scales of points for judging various fruits, vegetables and flowers ; a full statement of the metric system, and tables of foreign money. PLANT -BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 16mo. 293 pages. Cloth, Limp, $1.00. Uniform with ‘* The Horticulturtst’s Rule-Book.”’ CONTENTS. The Fact and Philosophy of Variation. Borrowed Opinions, of B. Verlot, E. The Philosophy of the Crossing of A. Carriére, and W. O. Focke, on Plants. Plant-Breeding. Specific Means by which Garden Detailed Directions for the Crossing Varieties originate. of Plants. COMMENTS. ‘‘T have read the work on ‘ Plant Breeding’ by Prof. L. H. Bailey with keen interest, and find it just what I expected from such a source; viz., a most sat- isfactory treatise on a subject of most pressing horticultural importance, I shall earnestly commend the work to my horticultural classes.”’ E. J. WIcKsoNn, Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. “The treatment is both scientific and practical, and will enable gardeners and horticulturists to experiment intelligently in cross-breeding. The sub- ject is fully elaborated, and made clear for every intelligent reader. Professor Bailey’s reputation, founded upon careful labor and observations in original investigations, is still further enhanced by the presentation of this excellent manual,’’—Vzick’s Monthly. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. The Garden-Craft Series. Edited by Pror. L. H. BAILEY. THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. New Edition. Thoroughly recast and revised. 16 mo. Cloth, $1.00. This little manual has been one of the most popularof all current horti- cultural books. It contains no discussions of the theory or physiology of the propagation of plants, but itis a simple and practical account of all the waysin which plants are multiplied. It has founda wide circulation, both amongst nurserymen and amateurs. Many new illustrations have been made for this edition, bringing the number of cuts up to over 150. In its revised form, the Nursery Rook isthe most complete propagating manual in the language. IN PREPARATION. THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. i. BAILEY, It is strange that the one subject upon which horticulturists have always asked the most questions should be wholly without a treatise. The subject of pruning isso vitally connected with every horticultural occupation, and the questions which it presents are so numerous and so difficult of answer, that nothing less than an entire volume can ever set people right in respect to it. Professor Bailey has been making definite experimentsand observations upon the subject fora number of years, and the results of these labors are now approaching readiness for publication. The work will comprise the entire range of the theory and practice of pruning, both of fruit and orna- mental trees and bushes, and it is expected to be on sale early in 1897. THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. The Rural Science Series. Edited by PROF. 1,. H. BAILEY. iE. SOIL: ITS NATURE, RELATIONS, AND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT, By FRANKLIN H. KING, Professor of Agricultural Physics, University of Wisconsin. 16mo. Cloth. 303 pages. Price, 75 cts. CONTENTS: Introduction.—Sunshine and its Work, The Atmosphere and its Work, Water and its Work, Living Forms and their Work, Over and Over Again; The Nature, Functions, Origin, and Wasting of Soils; Texture, Composition, and Kinds of Soil; Nitrogen of the Soil ; Capillarity, Solution, Diffusion, and Osmosis; Soil Water ; Conservation of Soil Moisture ; Dis- tribution of Roots in the Soil ; Soil Temperature ; Relation of Air to Soil; Farm Drainage; Irrigation ; Physical Effects of Tillage and Fertilizers. COMMENTS. ‘‘T consider it a most desirable addition to our agricultural literature, and a distinct advance over previous treatises on the same subject, not only for popular use, but also for students and specialists, who will find many new and useful suggestions therein.”’ EK. W. HILGARD, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. fie SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, Instructor 1n Horticulture tn Cornell University, i6mo. Cloth. 399 pages. Price, $1.00. CONTENTS. PART IT: The History and Principles of the Spraying of Plants. PART II. Specific Directions for the Spraying of Cultivated Plants. COMMENTS. ‘“This volume of the Rural Science Series not only gives a complete history of this comparatively new and important subject, but is a valuable manual as well, which should be in the hands of every farmer, gardener and fruit-grower. I shall take pleasure in recommending it to my students and others.” B. C. BUFFUM, The University of Wyoming Agricultural College, Laramie, Wyo. ‘‘This is a book for every gardener and every one who has a garden, for every fruit-grower and every farmer. The necessity of spraying for a great variety of garden, field, and fruit crops is now so generally recognized that a manual on the subject has become a necessity. The destruction of injurious insects and fungi occupies an important place in the operations of gardeners, farmers, and fruit-growers, and the very careful and elaborate manner in which the subject is treated in this volume is highly creditable to the author, and commends it to the attention of every cultivator.’’—lzck’s Monthly. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. The Rural Science Series. Edited by Pror. L. H. BAILEY. IN THE PRESS. THE Ae Ree: By L, H. BAILEY. The work is tocomprise two parts—the first treating of all the practical matters of apple-growing, and the second of such scientific matters as the botany of the apple, its history and evolution, production of new varieties, and the like. It is expected that the work will be completed and ready for publication in the fall. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING. THE FERTILITY OF THE £ANG: By I. P. ROBERTS. Other volumes itn the series to follow are: Physiology of Plants. By J. C. ARTHUR, of Purdue University. Grasses. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University. Bush Fruits. By F. W. Carp, of University of Nebraska. Plant Diseases. By B. T. GaLLoway, E. F. SMITH, and A. F. Woods, of the United States Department of Agriculture. Seeds and Seed Growing. By G. H. Hicks, of the United States Department of Agriculture. Leguminous Plants. By E. W. Hincarp, of the University of California. Feeding of Animals. By W. H. Jordan, of Maine Experiment Station. lrrigation. By F. H. Kine, of the University of Wisconsin. IN PREPARATION. EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. Ul | A fa ru eS + Zz 7 =) 2 OQ a) BS C—O o oD > a oO oO ee weal