SD 145 D86 cl ESCI O24733?? b 3 1?bl Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation htto://www.archive.org/details/forestconditionsOOdwiguoft ert DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, CANADA Hon. W. J. Rocue, Minister; W. W. Cory, Deputy Minister. FORESTRY BRANCH—BULLETIN 33 R. H. CAMPBELL, Director of Forestry. FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 29753—1}3 T. W. DWIGHT, M.F. Gs . q 133 A hy \' , \ a , \ \ \ OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1913 cutee ne DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Forestry BraNncu, Ottawa, April 29, 1912. Smr,—I submit herewith a report which has been prepared by Mr. T. W. Dwight of his investigations of last season in regard to the relation of the species of timber in the Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve, the effect of the methods of lumbering followed on their reproduction, and the extent to which natural reproduction has followed. The work that has been done by Mr. Dwight in this way will be of great assistance in determining the methods which are to be followed in the cutting of timber so as to ensure the natural reproduction of the best species. Investigations of this kind enable us to plan methods with greater certainty that the results will be those that we intended to reach. It is important that we should have a thorough understanding of natural reproduction and of the factors which govern it, as we must depend on it very largely for the reproduction of our forests, as reproduction by artificial means will be too expensive to be used extensively at the present time, and we should resort to it only where natural reproduction is clearly not sufficient to accomplish the work. I would recommend that this report of Mr. Dwight’s be printed as a bulletin of this Branch. Respectfully submitted, R. H. CAMPBELL, Director of Forestry. W. W. Cory, Esq., CM.G., ~ Deputy Minister of the Interior. See ee DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Forestry Branco, Orrawa, April 16, 1912. Sm,—I beg to submit herewith a report on ‘ Forest Conditions in the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve.’ The information contained in the report was gathered by investigations made during the summer of 1911 on the Crowsnest and Bow River torests. The results incident to logging as carried on according to prevailing methods are discussed, and general recommendations as to the silvicultural treatment of the various types of forest are given. Observations made during a month’s visit to United States national forests in Montana are embodied in a discussion of methods in use there, both general silvicultural methods and methods of practical regulation of operations. The report has been written with a view to setting forth specific information that would be of use to technical foresters and others who will be engaged in the planning and carrying out of the management of timber cutting operations, particu- larly on the Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve, but also on other forests. Your obedient servant, T. W. DWIGHT, Forest Assistant R. H. Campsett, Esq., Director of Forestry, Ottawa, Ont. : TABLE OF CONTENTS General Silvicultural Conditions— EE EVER Beet oe Se Oo oa Selde Chee Seek e eek RPS ean ss'Uaasieclad Cais Cane eeeoens Second growth Stands (resulting: from fires)- ~~. .<..5. ac. o2o 2 oc cc ene cee tee eseaccceccsnce Agents Afiecting Condition of Forest— Silvies— ERIE Ee et ere Ger ewe AUR or etch yomeewas oes sees tabees ee nuscess's Onbigitacees's ete eI CID ad. Fae asin peek ads haenlp cilia pat becc naw cmtccsescavetenedene«se DERM Ste EVI: LECDYOONCLION: bccccneenscccuess soma tccdwmcscctewesessectcvceviacecae Management of Timber-Cutting Operations— an ae OL NMI sya cs i eta ck cee ae alkaw ad Calekior ah Seve cocdcldpecceatecccum NTE ER IEICE AINE BEGETS 2101 5G Ua cain aG Soce ubietes's wee wee tes com ana he se eee cee eben aT RAEN ipso cal grea ee ala cde ns so ora bain: Ramee MAREE Wela bans 6 cad nacdiek Gals seeded acaneqeag ENE DONE SOTEIL EAE Ring ay hain ors iat o> dre Saatirwat ania setstae a Co AGss vaaiunesebacesvancccee ener he Si ae ESL sas nae y ot pap MAREE CeRE Mie Ae sith ox ve oned east eeivansbek es 10 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. An Area Lumbered according to Modern Silvicultural Methods........ FRONTISPIECE Well Developed’ Douglas Bar yo. s:0ci00's'vcs ¢cn'e'adlaoh e.g ecamineinaiem naires vate belo cate keene 12 Engelmann Spruce Types, with Meadow in Foreground.............c.eceeceece 12 PUTS MLOEPONGIO aw ING a LY DOs csi d ss 09s 40-0c Soc bisa hea ED as talc auen ae 13 Logged-over Area, showing Spruce and Pine Seed-trees............ccceeceeeeee 20 Lumbered Area, showing Skidding Trail Debris left in Dangerous Condition TVA RS CAPE LEG a cross! a s/aid avs ou.) 5.4 ain 'u blace 5, orevobibae crstele a alae ane eer ae Sins ar 21 Eiieet Of hire An WeNse: Stand ss. sees « o.0ieis.beiowe bed nies babar ean eee eiete ee eee 24 Mixed Stands of Second-growth Aspen and Lodgepole Pine Resulting from Repeated Wirer yore sisi lc cin ecu Sawin o's o: | e's brown Eee doa oid ve ow ere ee 26 Witch's. Broomoon: Lodgepole Pine isis... s bide bunds se daces vee semanas 29 RSET GG SeE TIO Pie pi stale elec ote Goce woh wc viniec's o's u'0'y 05-aigieiaidio'a (ale PeesLco tanta lore Giatcla oa aa 35 Whitebark Pine (dwarfed by exposure to winds and frost)...........eceeeeee 40 SES ad Sen Wad PROT’ iting: Sus" eye aint Gicca vloje'eie o vie'v sin'e'e %, 6 Wlesale(a'ald aaa ae awrereasiucg aiaraee erate ee en 42 SECON TOW. ASPEN» coinssn os!cis'vic vis o's vv v.nve 6 0 sy bins Ste 9 BaLnstene Sided Tale ao eiele 9 te ae 42 Brush Piled Properly for Burning (Deerlodge National Forest, Montana, MMV ic ss adckadaravis pene bins _sv.cn.ess seb eaeumee se aeariina hae sn 48 Clearcut Strip after Brush-burning (Deerlodge National Forest)............. 48 Beed-trees: lelh tin BOCK. oo sceiciece uso seesun ss siveie sah cemaatins +a e ta iene mee 53 Clearcut ‘Strip. (Deerlodge National Forest)....:......cccccvccvecvssecsusacses 53 Clearcut Strips. (Deerlodge National Forest).......5.......eece cceececcecceees 55 Selection Cutting in a Lodgepole Pine Stand. (Deerlodge National Forest). 55 LIST OF TABLES. Pace Comparison of ‘Sites. (pure: Stands)’ soc. ccs ess. cseeed ave weaiewsy omeites ce mmmmoee 15 COMPBTISGN Ol EV PEs. ners sc: c/s cin 0% 0 5/5 cipe vss awn a's eeWwasisia wh e's aisleigie i ah cain manne 15 CODIDETASOO OL EN DOS sc ald Cote sa ais se hee shree g cole «sas SEEDS pataR Siete ole be eee 15 TABS: OF. NOPIIANICY cis suo vcs oc Sais, cid oie oee nie-d sels pidie-vls 9) beg } wren RaLN Ia 8 Om man ete en eenE 18 Stimulated: Growth of) Spruce: \.cc.c6 acces ccc ce ee ees a oleic wisisaeialgiom saleeneanG 23 Stimulated: Growth of Spruce: and. Pine 66. cess aes alvee canduae canes eee 23 Spruce Reproduction after Bare. ic 6 i. ose sss’ siecle vaca ne siasis'sincies sala pien aeeniemtnalS 32 Spruce Reproduction: after Wire 3 iso ies < sven scm coe ar. oda ss ¢ eee seis se tienaneaae 32 Spruce Reproduction and Volunteer Growth on Logged-over Areas........+... 82 Sprtice: Reproduction oi sksacescecsiancedscovesncts o¥easkessbhebb eens obec aeea—mnE 33 Pine “Reprod tari tersiso eco niece. 0.01d 950. 0's 6.0.5 0.0) aie 6 ole ale o 0.0/ecbip lenin 6 5700n.6 (dra aap a 37 Volume Table for Engelmann Spruce «........cccsceccsscescecvecsscssesecscanis 57 Volume Table for Bodgepole | Pine is .o..5.< ses.055'dne 94s0cvlee s ohisieea ae ataee Oe aie 58 Diameter-growth of Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine and Douglas Fir.... 59 Height-growth of Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine and Douglas Fir....... 60 Seedling Height-growth for Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine and Douglas RBS ah cals cite leteiaric varus. lea ic ia wl wala ctu ia ure, o0b \zrblie/olelald Susi eCe a etd bale of at ROE tan tele et ae 61 Normal] Yield Table for Engelmann Spruce and Lodgepole Pine..........+..- 62 ES FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE GENERAL SILVICULTURAL CONDITIONS. MATURE STANDS. SITES AND TYPES. Mature stands in the Rocky Mountains forest reserve occur in irregular and usually isolated areas, wheré, for one reason or another, they have escaped the fires that swept over the remainder of the region. This is well shown on the map of the forest contiguous to the boundary, which accompanies the report of the survey of the boundary (Bulletin 18 Forestry Branch). In the unmapped area to the west. larger areas of mature timber occur than those shown on the map, but the general condition is much the same. Not more than twenty-five per cent of the area of the reserve is covered with mature timber, the rest of the forest being second-growth, “mostly under fifty years of age and too small to be sawn into lumber, and only occasionally large enough for mine timber or cordwood. The mature stands contain mostly densely grown trees of merchantable size, and yield 5,000 to 20,000 feet board measure per acre. Three species comprise the greatest part of the timber, and only these need be considered in planning for future crops. Lodgepole pine forms about sixty per cent of the stands, Engelmann spruce thirty-five per cent and Douglas fir five per cent. About fifty per cent of the forest consists of mixed stands of these three species. Of the approximately pure stands, sixty per cent are pine and forty per cent spruce. There are no sites, however, where one tree is found uniformly to the exclusion of the other, and most stands will have at least scattered individuals of second species. A classification of the forest area into three sites would typically show spruce or, under certain conditions, Douglas fir predominating on Site I, and pine on Site III, with a mixed type or a mixture of small pure stands of spruce and pine on Site II. Site I includes the smooth slopes on the border of the prairie. which have com- paratively deep, well-drained soil; and in the mountains it comprehends the bottoms of the valleys and the lower, gentler slopes. On soils of the first class are often found small stands of well developed Douglas fir. Formerly, more or less extensive stands of this type were in existence, but as this site, on account of its location adjacent to grass-land, has been most exposed to, and most over-run by fires, the stands have been reduced in extent. The type now consists mainly of restricted patches on which the trees are considerably dam- aged by fire and where the density has been materially decreased or a park-like stand formed. These Douglas fir stands show the maximum development of individual trees in the region, but on account of their present restricted area, they are not relatively of great commercial importance. On account of the well-drained soil, and in some cases by reason of the occurrence of recent fires, the ground-cover is light except where grass has gained a firm foothold. which is usually the ease where 29753—23 11 Photo R. H Camplell. Plate 2— Well Developed Douglas Fir. : Photo = & : aon ate ORR OA : . x eet a a i meh + AS bts f “? a — cub TE. Photo T. W. Dwight. 29753—44 28 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 supply of seed that was left after the first fire, since usually a complete destruction of the reproduction is caused by the second fire. Cones may remain which were not opened by the first fire and have been lying on the ground keeping seeds enclosed in a germinable condition. The second fire opens these cones and, although the first reproduction is killed, it is followed by a satisfactory stock of seedlings. In fact, in some cases, the area has been overstocked with seedlings after the first fire and the reproduction following the second fire is of more advantageous density. In the Crowsnest Valley, a fire occurred fifteen years ago and was followed by one nine oe and the reproduction after the second fire was of just about the right ensity. MINOR DAMAGES. FROST. All the species in this region are very hardy, so that direct frost damage is extremely limited. Poplar reproduction was found to be killed by frost in some places. The Chinooks, however, increase the danger from frost, by causing very rapid fluctuations in temperature, which may cause damage to even hardy adult trees. No instances of extensive damage in the Canadian Rockies are at hand. In Montana, near the continental divide, lodgepole pine had the leaves and, in some cases, the buds killed. In the latter instance, the tree eventually died as no new foliage could develop. This occurred during a period of very warm Chinook winds, alternating with severe cold. The affected trees were confined to marked horizontal belts, and on account of the reddening of the dead leaves, the name ‘ red-belt disease’ was applied. SNOW. The most extensive damage done by snow is in snow-slides. These occur on practically all mountains rising over 1,000 feet above timber-line which have steep wooded slopes below. The slides are usually recurrent, and follow definite paths, being guided by small gullies and clearing a strip on each side of the gully so that an area of 100 feet wide is laid bare. The slides appear to start generally in a basin on the bare mountain side where the snow can collect and where the sun can shine with full strength and start the snow melting. The areas swept over by the snow have a characteristic appearance, with the trees broken off at varying heights up to fifteen feet, or uprooted entirely, and lying in parallel positions with their tops point- ing down hill. Reproduction usually occupies the area, as the seed supply is good from the adjacent stands. The ages and distribution of the young trees is irregular, especially where the slides have been recurrent. Snow-slides have a practical bearing on the management of many stands, since the danger from them will, in many cases, predicate very conservative cutting. Opening up the stand too much and allowing the sunlight in too strongly might start slides in new places, or allow the present courses of slides to be extended much further down the slopes. Where a strip system of cutting is being followed danger from snow-slides should influence the direction in which strips are laid out. GRAZING. The damage due to grazing is at present rather limited. Grazing is done on two types of land in the mountains; first, on areas in the foot-hills, which are partially stocked with young tree growth, usually of aspen and pine mixed, with some willow shrubs; second, on meadows, usually entirely given over to grass, in the main valleys farther up in the mountains. Grazing does practical damage mainly on the first FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 29 type. The second type has, in most cases, resulted from ancient fires that have killed a pure spruce stand on low ground, and lack of seed-trees after the fire, or repeated fires, have resulted in the occupancy of the area by grass. These meadows are usually bounded by comparatively dense stands, of second-growth pine, or, some- times, poplar, and the encroachment of the tree-growth on the grass-land is slow. At the same time, grazing animals are not able to cause much damage to the dense second-growth stands, or to enlarge the area of the grass-land. The other type, where the grass-land is in patches and the young growth is irregularly distributed and not in dense solid stands, is much more subject to dam- age from grazing animals. It is also in a much better position to become eventually fully stocked with tree growth, since the areas to be seeded up are not in such large units and the pine and poplar, which both become productive seed-trees at an early age, are well distributed so that they can seed up the grass areas better where they are confined to the edge. The grazing animals in this type penetrate all through the area occupied by trees and break branches and tops of young trees, and trample down “the young sprouts and seedlings. Areas where the value of the grazing is small, and where a valuable stand of trees may be expected if the area be allowed to stock itself fully with trees should be closed to grazing. At present, however, most lands of this class at all attractive to grazers, have been excluded from the Forest Reserve, and, in many cases, are held under grazing leases. Other forms of damage are caused by insects, poreupines, fungi, and dwarf mistle- toe, but they will be discussed in relation to individual species. SILVICS. LIST OF SPECIES. The following species are found in the southern half of the Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve :— Pinus flexilis.. .. .. .. .. .. .. Limber pine. « albicaulis.. .. .. .. .. .. Whitebark pine. « Murrayana.. ...... .. .- Lodgepole or jack pine. Larix Lyall... .. .. .. .. .. Lyall’s or alpine larch, or tamarack. Picea canadensis... ...... .. .. White spruce. «“ Engelmanni.. .. .. .. .. Engelmann spruce. Pseudotsuga mucronata,. .. .. .. Douglas fir. Abies lasiocarpa.. .. .. .. .. .. Alpine fir (‘balsam’). Populus balsamifera.. .... .. .. Balsam poplar. « tremuloides.. .. .. .. .. Aspen (poplar). Betula alba. var. iia hira | .- Paper birch. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. ENGELMANN SPRUCE. With the exception of Douglas fir, which occurs in much smaller numbers than it, Engelmann spruce is the largest tree of the region, and for that reason is most sought after by the lumbermen. Lumber from it has numerous small, usually sound knots, on account of the large number of branches which remain green low down on the trunk. The crown is cylindrical with lower branches drooping somewhat. The deep crown is also responsible for the rapid taper of the tree compared with other species, since the diameter growth in the lower part of the trunk is better main- 30 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 tained than in pine, for example, where the rapid growth becomes more and more limited to the top of the tree near the short crown. Flaring of the butt is pro- nounced, especially on large trees. The bark is moderately thin—0-3 inch to 0-5 inch, reddish brown in colour and flaking off in scales 1 inch to 2 inches in diameter. The root system has the heavy main roots radiating in an almost horizontal plane, especially in wet soil, and forming a disk six to eight feet in diameter, and from them smaller anchor roots descend vertically. This makes the tree adapted to growth in its favourite moist sites, where aeration in the deeper layers of soil is poor, but renders it liable to windfall if left standing isolated or if fire burns off the anchor roots, to do which only a light ground fire is required. On well drained soil the tree is fairly wind-firm. The maximum size of spruce is in the neighbourhood of 36 inches in diameter at breast-height and 120 feet in height. Average sizes were given in the stand tables. Spruce is the longest-lived tree of the region, except Douglas fir. Four hundred years is about the maximum age. Thrifty growth is main- tained up to from 150 to 175 years even in dense stands, but after that age there is usually a decline to a slow rate of growth. - Atmospheric conditions favourable to spruce include moist air, shade, and protec- tion from the periodic, dry, hot winds. Although the region under consideration has a rather dry climate, spruce is nevertheless able to grow under all conditions, and the effect of climatic inffuences is shown only indirectly in the rate of growth where its extent is impossible to gauge, owing to the joint influence of other factors, such as the character of the soil. The frequent frosts at the higher altitudes, even during the growing season, have a very important influence in checking the rate of growth on the higher slopes. A moist, well-drained, deep soil is optimum. Thus the best developed spruce is found in the valleys of small streams. On the broad river-flats, the spruce is gener- ally small, owing either to poor drainage or to the soil being gravelly and therefore raw. As slopes are ascended, and the soil becomes shallower and drier, the size of the spruce becomes progressively less. In tolerance, spruce exceeds all its associates. The contrast with pine, with which it is so often associated, is remarkable. The effect of its tolerance is to give the tree a very deep crown, to enable it to maintain thrifty growth to a high age, even in dense stands, since the crown does not tend to be reduced to a few branches after the height-growth falls off. It also makes a very dense crown-cover, checking the development of volunteer growth, and making the ground surface moist. On the other hand, seedlings and young trees can persist and develop in older stands, especially in stands with large proportions of pine; and although their growth at times may be negligible (the result of too great shading) yet they are able to profit at once by any increase in the amount of light reaching them. The chief damages to spruce are caused by fungi, wind and fire. Insect dam- age appears to be rare. The attacks of fungi are limited. Only a small proportion of the sawn lumber from spruce logs has to be culled for rot. Scattered trees can, however, be found in any spruce stand, killed by fungus attacks. The susceptibility of spruce to windfall was mentioned in describing its root-system. In case of fire, spruce trees are very easily damaged, both on account of their thin bark and their shallow roots. Spruce stands are, however, less subjected to destructive fires than other types, due to the characteristically moist condition of the site. Reproduction. Seed Production.—Spruce begins to produce seed at about thirty-five years of age and bears heavy crops every three or four years. The cones are borne mainly near the top of the crown and ripen in the summer. The seeds are shed in a short period after ripening. The cones fall during the winter. The seeds are compara- RIT A tll eta RI Coa eee FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 31 tively light, and are easily distributed by the wind. Three hundred feet is about the maximum distance for seed to be distributed and 150 feet the limit of effective seeding on a favourable seed-bed. Development of Seedling—When the seeds germinate, about five to eight cotyledons appear, followed by the first year’s leaves, and at the end of the year the seedling is one inch high with a root about three inches long. The seedling at first grows very slowly, and at ten years is only a foot high. Moisture is necessary, and that is the main factor governing the favourableness of various seed-beds. The thickness and texture of the surface material are also important factors since they influence the ease with which the roots can reach the soil and also the ease with which the roots can avail themselves of the water present in the soil. In virgin spruce stands, reproduction is found mainly in openings, and is then dependent on the humus being well decomposed and less than two inches thick, and on the ground cover being thin and compact enough to allow the seedlings to take root. The surface moisture is usually sufficient on account of both the shade afforded by spruce stands and the moist soils usually associated with that type of forest. The best reproduction was actually found on bare, very moist soil, in one ease produced by the grading of a road on a hillside and in another case by spring floods washing out a steep creek-bank. The uprooting of trees also provides favour- able spots for seeds to germinate. The next best seed-bed is that afforded by a covering of compact, well decomposed humus up to one inch and a half thick, over which lies a thin compact layer of moss or of litter composed of needles or twigs. The almost classical occurrence of spruce seedlings on rotten logs is quite characteristic in this region, and is readily explained by the capacity of the decayed wood for holding moisture and at the same time providing a medium firm enough for the seedlings to take root in. In clumps of light-foliaged willow shrubs which usually grow on moist ground where there is considerable grass, excellent spruce reproduction was often found. The light shade of the shrubs checked the growth of the grass and the decayed leaves beneath them formed an excellent seed-bed. The chief deterrents to reproduction are thick, dry litter, which may be found in very dense young stands, or a thick, loose growth of sphagnum moss, which is unfortunately the prevailing condition in spruce stands. The favourable conditions above cited are found usually on only a small percentage of the total ground surface of a virgin forest, and result in the presence of such a small amount of volunteer growth that reproduction beginning after cutting operations must in most cases be the main source of a new stand. In mixed stands, the humus is usually better decomposed, and the quantity of moss in the ground cover is less than in pure spruce type; and thus often they show the ‘densest and most uniform reproduction of spruce. ~ Fire is with spruce, the same as with pine, the instrument that most effectively produces on a broad scale surface conditions favourable to reproduction. The most important effect of fire, however, is on the supply of seed, and where that is destroyed reproduction will be poor, even though the seed-bed conditions are satisfactory. Quantitative observations were made both of average and extreme conditions under which reproduction took place and show the relative importance of several factors entering into the problem. To illustrate the effect of distance from seed-trees on spruce reproduction in burned-over areas, two strips were run from the edge of a green spruce stand into an area where reproduction was taking place after a fire. The original stand had considerable pine in its composition and the majority of the reproduction is of that’ species. FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO, 33 TABLE 7%. SPRUCE REPRODUCTION AFTER FIRE. Seedlings per Acre. : Feet from Area. Spruce = |—————— ——-—___ Stand. Spruce. Pine. TOO AOL 555 skin wh peter cee Puen ata aes Ea a Cee ETT 50 16,800 35,300 h] POO SAGER s x 250k 2 dare cen garters eee wate SOEs Coe a ole Oe Sens 100 6,400 77,400 L/2OO Bere: SP ae eis tien 200 800 50,000 The following two strips were run in areas removed from a green spruce stand by the distances given. The first shows satisfactory reproduction after fire in pure spruce stands. The second shows very poor reproduction on account of the distance from seed-trees, and the formation of a meadow will be the probable result. TABLE 8. SPRUCE REPRODUCTION AFTER FIRE. Seedlings per Acre. Feet from Area. Spruce — Stand. Spruce. Pine. ATA ACPO cosa Soca Aare itary ae te pee 8 eahia a. ee ee aR eresce bettas 200 880 80 VIS ROROR siksic de ce hls as awe ake eee eae Mie nate ore 1,320 55 30 The following three strips illustrate different conditions on logged-over areas. TABLE 9. SPRUCE REPRODUCTION AND VOLUNTEER GROWTH ON LOGGED-OVER AREAS. Seedlings per Volunteer Growth per Acre. Acre. — Remarks- Spruce. Balsam. Spruce. 270 70 Fair volunteer growth with reproduction. BOGS OF Meee er esas 4 Good volunteer growth alone. 270 | OO adn Smihcu thease teraess Volunteer growth alone, with balsam dominant. The figures given below were obtained on small plots averaging in area 1/400 acre. The descriptions of conditions on the plots applied in most cases to only a small area, and therefore the figures do not represent average results, but merely show the relative importance of the various factors mentioned. FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 33 TABLE 10. SPRUCE REPRODUCTION. Seedlings per acre. | Plots representing maximum conditions. i : None {Moist site ; sphagnum moss 2 inches and humus 3 inches thick. " Dense stand with ground cover of dry litter. 400 Area burned in early spring ; no bare soil exposed. 2,400 Compact moss ; humus 2 inches thick. 5,600 Old burn ; little bare soil ; 1 inch to 14 inches, well decomposed humus. _ 6,800 Lumbered area with favourable seed bed; 20 per cent of area covered with litter, rest with thin grass ; hunius ? inch thick. 8,400 Opening in virgin stand ; seed bed covered with thin moss and needles ; humus 2 inches thick, well decomposed. : 16,000 Lighi fire leaving seed-trees and exposing considerable soil. 50,000 Road embankment ; soil moist and 50 per cent washed bare. In general, spruce is a tree to be very favourably considered, especially where it already forms a part of stands which it is desired to reproduce by natural regenera- tion. It attains a comparatively large size and produces useful lumber. It can adapt itself to most sites. - It has a favourable rate of growth which has the special advantage of being accelerated whenever an increase in the space around the tree gives a more favourable opportunity for development. Spruce seeds will germinate under many natural conditions of seed-bed, and the seedlings will develop under the shade of the older trees. The chief demerits of the species are its slow juvenile development, even in full light, and its liability to wind-fall. LODGEPOLE PINE. Locally, this is commonly called jack pine, but the true jack pine (Pinus Bank- siana) does not enter the region under consideration. Lodgepole pine is the most abundant tree of the region. Im mature stands, it divides the area with spruce and other species, but in the widespread second-growth stands it vastly predominates and so holds a very important place in relation to the future. It also has the dis- tinction of producing the clearest and highest grade of lumber, although it is small -in size. This is due to the form of the tree which has a long cylindrical bole, well ‘cleaned of branches, and a small short crown induced by the intolerance of the species and its habit of growing in dense, uniform, even-aged stands. The bark is very thin, 0-2 to 0-4 in. comparatively smooth, with small seales or shallow ridges, and greyish in colour. The main roots descend diagonally into the ground and for supporting purposes do not form a circle of more than four to five feet, and, although they are well anchored by smaller roots, the tree on well-drained soils is little more wind- firm than spruce. Its dense habit of growth forbids the exposing of single specimens or small groups to the winds. The average maximum size is about 26 inches in diameter at breast-height and 110 feet in height. In age it seldom reaches over 250 years, and after 125 years shows only slow growth. Atmospheric conditions affect it more readily than spruce, and the frequent frosts at the higher elevations are undoubtedly a large factor in checking its growth there. In Montana an extensive killing of foliage and even of entire trees was observed as a result of severe and sudden alterations of ‘ Chinooks’ and cold waves, which is illustrative of the sensitiveness of the tree, since other species for the most part escaped apparent injury. Indications of a similar damage to this species in Canada also have been noted. 34 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 Pine prefers a dry to a wet soil, but, as in the mountains only the very bottoms of stream and river valleys are very moist, there is only a very small area of soil unfavourable to its growth. On the thin, rocky, dry soils of the upper slopes there is a correspondingly small development of the individual trees and a large number of trees per acre, and also an increasing liability to windfall. Although lodgepole pine is among the least tolerant trees of the region, its intolerance is sometimes overestimated. Its shade-enduring ability is great enough to allow over 200 trees 80 feet high on one acre to participate in the main crown level at maturity. Among the pines it ranks near white pine in tolerance and is much more tolerant than eastern jack pine, red pine or yellow pine. In this region the trees less tolerant than the lodgepole pine are white-bark pine, Lyall’s larch, balsam poplar, aspen and paper birch. Compared to spruce, however, lodgepole pine is very intolerant, and the form of the tree, with its clean, slightly tapering bole, and short, small crown, bring this contrast out. Seedlings of lodgepole pine do not develop with great readiness in virgin stands, although they will grow in openings or in stands partially thinned out by ground fire. Young seedlings or trees have considerable power of recovery of growth after suppression, though not as much as spruce, and the larger trees, especially when grown in rather dense stands, show very slight capacity for ‘stimulated growth.’ Pine is more susceptible to damage than spruce, not only from fires, but feos other agents as well. Insect damage seems to be limited, although occurrences of Dendroctonus beetles have been noted. Fungus attack is common in some localities, although never on more than a small proportion of the stand. The fungus turns the heart-wood reddish with white flecks, and makes it soft and punky. This rot may occur at the butt or sometimes only in.an upper portion of the bole, so that the fungus probably gains entrance through a wound on the trunk of the tree. Fruiting bodies of the fungus are uncom- mon and the species was not determined. The most destructive influence in many places is the dwarf mistletoe (genus Arceuthobium). This is a small branched plant about 1 in. to 13 in. long with minute leaves. It grows in colonies on the younger portions of the tree and causes malformations known as ‘ witch’s brooms.’ Its more serious effect is the killing of the growing layer of the wood; eventually an area of dead wood is thus left exposed, and these areas are thought to be the main sources of entrance to the fungi. The mistletoe directly deprives the tree_of some of its nourishment, and with the aid of the fungus may finally bring about the death of the tree. A mature pine stand was found with 80 per cent of the trees dead, and mistletoe had contributed largely and . had probably, in nearly every case, been the initial factor in bringing about the result. Widespread wind-fall of pine is uncommon, although on the higher slopes a con- siderable- proportion of the stand may be thrown. A minor cause of damage is porcupines which eat off in patches the bark near the base, or sometimes high up on the trunk, and where the area is extensive enough to girdle the tree, the latter may be killed. In general, pine is here very sound, and few logs and small amounts of lumber need to be culled for defect. Reproduction. Seed Production—The manner of seed production is one of the most important of the individual characteristics of lodgepole pine. It is distinct, not only from the other genera but also from other species of pine, except jack pine. The main points of interest are: first, the early age at which seed production begins; second, the quantity and comparative regularity of production; third, the persistence of the cones on the trees; fourth, the slow release of seeds from the cones, resulting in an almost permanent locking up of a considerable proportion of the seed; and finally, the long retention of germinative capacity by the seed. A. Knechtel.4iM Photo e Plate 10 — Limber Pin , 36 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 Cones containing germinable seeds were observed to be first borne by pine trees at nine years, and at any age up to twenty-five years. The best production of cones is between thirty and sixty years and continues as long as the tree has a vigorous, well developed crown, but falls off in dense stands when the crowns become narrowed in, and the height-growth falls off. The number of cones produced each year is not excessive, although production in moderate amounts takes place nearly every year. The noticeably large numbers of cones on the trees do not indicate an extraordin- arily heavy annual production, but are the result of the persistence of the cones. The cones have short thick stems firmly imbedded in the wood of the branches, and, when cones do fall, it is usually after the stem has been torn from the wood, and not from a breakage of the stem near the cone. The cones will thus remain on the tree for an indefinite period, certainly, in extreme cases, as long as fifty years. Nearly all the cones contain a considerable number of seeds, but the average is only one sixth to one quarter the total number of scales. “ The sterile scales are mostly at the base, with a smaller number at the apex also without seeds. The cones have thick woody scales with enlarged apices which fit accurately together when the cone is closed and form a water-tight surface. The heavy scales are, in general, slow to separate. Those at the apex separate first, while those at the base practically .never separate, but they also seldom bear seeds. The shedding of seed is variable, since it is dependent upon the opening of the cones, which is influenced by several factors. The average amount of seed shed naturally is only imperfectly known. It is generally agreed, however, that enough cones open every year to furnish a satisfactory supply of seed, although the annual distribution is not as great as with spruce. The opening of the cones is not confined to the period immediately after ripening, but may occur at a later period or be repeated at various times. The seeds are heavier than spruce seeds and are carried only about 150 feet by the wind, and effective seeding extends only about 100 feet. The fall of cones to the ground sup- plements the direct shedding of seeds, and the transportation by squirrels, &c., of the fallen cones and of cones that they have cut off is a minor agent of distribution. A factor opposite in character and almost equal in importance to distribution is the storing of seeds. Many cones do not open at all, and most do not open suffi- ciently to allow the escape of all the seeds, so that on every tree there is a consider- able store of seeds. Most of these are eventually wasted by the cones rotting on the ground with seeds still in them, either after falling from the tree during its latter years, or being brought to the ground by the wind-fall of the tree. The remarkable persistency of germinative power in the seeds is important since the seeds seldom lose their germinative capacity during the period that they are held in the cones on the trees. Seeds from cones, in one case 45 years old, and, in another, 75 years, have been known to germinate. Development of the Seedling—The cotyledons are variable in number and are followed by a cluster of whorled leaves. Later in the first year leaves appear which have the normal arrangement in bundles of two. The seedling is about 13 in. high at the end of the first year. At five years it has reached a height of 18 in. and is over 3 feet high at ten years. No opportunity was afforded, on account of the wet season, to determine how much moisture was necessary for germination, although it was evident that the presence of considerable moisture was favourable. The | uniform distribution of seedlings on tracts seeded up in previous years, where large areas of mineral soil had been exposed, argues that sufficient moisture to allow the germination of most seeds is seldom lacking. The vast majority of pine seeds actually germinate on bare soil, although they will also start on a firm, compact ground-cover of humus, moss, or thin litter, not exceeding one inch in thickness, In virgin stands, good reproduction of pine is seldom found. The reason is that, even where openings have been formed that admit enough light for the germination and development of seedlings, yet there has been lacking any influence which would FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 37 disturb the compact ground-cover sufficiently. Wolunteer growth is, therefore, sparse, in most stands, and thickest on the upper slopes where the ground cover is thinnest, and where, on account of the low average height and small crowns of the trees, the light intensity beneath the trees is greatest. Even where pine forms 90 per cent of the stand the majority of the volunteer growth is composed of spruce or balsam. The various forms of damage that may affect the stand usually promote repro- duction, but none except fire is productive of great results in aiding the starting of pine seedlings. A light ground fire will usually afford an opportunity for seedlings to start under the old trees, and the heavier the fire, the closer does the result approach the formation of a dense second-growth stand. The next most effective agent is snow-slides, but the area passed over by them is often covered more readily by spruce and alpine fir (‘ balsam’) reproduction. : Detailed observations of pine reproduction under various conditions were made in the same way as with spruce. With pine, useful figures were obtained only on burned-over areas. The connection between the detailed conditions described here and the general character of the fires and the burned stands have been discussed in a previous section. TABLE 11. PINE REPRODUCTION. Seedlings per acre. Strips representing average conditions. 380 Too Loe ep in small second-growth timber ; crowns and most of seed burned ; 500 Light fire at edge of of burned area ; soil not sufficiently exposed for pine repro- duction and t stand largely spruce ;. 12,000 spruce seedlings per acre on account pt, seed-bed favourable to them, and of proximity of spruce ~ seed-trees. 832 Double burn in pine and spruce type; fires 7and 14 years ago; present repro- i duction from seeds in cones left lying closed on ground after ‘first fre. 2,200 Continuation of strip having 500 seedlings further away from edge of burned area ; fire heavier, exposing more soil ; only 700 spruce seedlings on account 1S of greater distance from seed-trees. 4,600 After fire in pine slope type : 50 de cent ground grass-covered. 5,850 Continuation of strip S with 832 seedlings. More pine in parent stand. 7,280 After fire in pine slope type ; 25 per cent ground grass-covered. Seedlings per acre. Plots representing maximum conditions. 740 Too heavy fire in small second-growth ; most of seed burned. 5,000 Light ground fire ; 60 per cent humus unburned ; large timber. 6,400 Thin moss on area burned 7 years agc, leaving part of humus unburned. 6,800 Loose grass under same conditions. 15,000 Heavy ground fire ; 40 to 50 per cent humus unburned ; small timber. 15,600 Crown fire ; 30 per “cent humus unburned ; large timber. 29,600 Crown fire ; 30 per cent humus unburned ; small timber. 60,000 Crown fire ; ground burned bare ; small timber. Lodgepole pine is a tree with many points in its favour. The enormous quan- tity of it in the present stands, especially in the immature ones, and the readiness with which it reproduces on areas burned over necessitates a careful consideration of its qualities. It produces a very good quality of lumber, and on account of its very rapid growth in early life, it is the tree to be counted on to produce the smaller classes of materials, such as posts and mine props. Its individual characteristics demand for it different silvicultural treatment than for spruce, but it is a tree which will show good results under proper management. 38 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 DOUGLAS FIR. Trees of this species are found in this region in two conditions: first, as largely developed, usually rather open-grown remnants of a former Douglas fir type on the lowest forested slopes; second, as minor constituents of mixed stands dominated by spruce where the fir have usually a small average diameter, and the long slender boles and small crowns of densely grown trees. It is the third most important tree commercially, but the total volume cut falls far below either spruce or pine. Douglas fir has a rather clean bole with considerable taper, especially in the trees of large diameter. The crown has a spreading habit with large horizontal branches and is only moderately deep. The bark is extremely thick, which has a most important influence in protecting the tree from fire. It averages at the stump 1 in. thick for 12 in. trees and 23 in. for 24 in. trees. Its root system goes deeper than any other species, but is adaptive. The tap root is usually well developed and in open grown trees on deep soil, there are two or three other strong, deep roots. It also develops lateral roots, and in shallower soils these form the main part of the root system. The tree is, however, always wind-firm. Its maximum size is about 48 inches in diameter at breast-height and 130 feet in height. In the mature Douglas fir type, the diameters range around 24 inches and in the mixed type around 15 inches. Its maximum age is about 500 years and the period of thrifty growth in dense stands is up to 200 years. : Douglas fir is not favoured by a moist atmosphere, as is spruce, and its pre- ference for lower altitudes would indicate a sensitiveness to low temperatures, although it is occasionally found extending up to timber line. A deep, well-drained, loamy soil is an optimum one. The tree is also found on drier shallower soils but not much on very moist sites. It falls into the class of tolerant trees, but its demand for light is greater than that of either spruce or alpine fir (‘balsam’), :+as is indicated by its shorter crown. Its tolerance is, however, sufficiently great to allow it to hold its place in a selection forest, and to show a good increase in growth when light is admitted to the stand. The chief damage to Douglas fir is caused by fungus attack which produces rotten heart-wood. The tree is very resistant to both wind and fire damage on account of its deep root-system and extraordinarily thick bark. These factors are respon- sible for the present existence of a large proportion of the trees now to be found, especially where they hold isolated positions or form park-like stands on areas run over several times by fire which caused the death of all the other species, and often of the smaller firs. Douglas fir stands are the only ones in this region in which fire, as a rule, destroys only a portion of the total number of trees. Reproduction. Douglas fir reproduction follows similar rules, practically, to those for spruce. and would respond favourably to any measure that would secure reproduction of the latter species. Cones are borne intermittently and the seed is shed soon after ripen- ing and carried comparatively easily by the wind to distances somewhat less than spruce. Germination and development of the seedlings are favoured by the same factors as in spruce but will take place on less favourable surfaces, where the ground is drier, the humus thicker or the ground-cover denser. Douglas fir is the most ageressive species to seed in on a grass-covered area. The isolated individuals on the borders of the prairie are usually surrounded by seedlings originating from their seed. Spruce under the same conditions succeeds in establishing young growth only to a comparatively short distance. Practically no opportunity was afforded to study the direct effect of logging operations on fir reproduction since the few trees which formed part of the stands being logged were generally of a merchantable size and were consequently removed. FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 39 Fire is, on the average, followed by more reproduction than in the case of spruce, on account of the larger number of Douglas fir that survive a fire. The seed-bed conditions induced by the fire are equally favourable to those found after a fire in a spruce stand, unless occupation of the ground by grass has been more or less advanced. In the latter case the grass roots may survive the fire and the growth of the grass be resumed before the seedlings have a chance to start. Where forming a portion of present stands, Douglas fir should be given at least equal consideration with other species. On account of the relatively small amount of it, however, it does not constitute a very important problem from the standpoint of natural regeneration. Whenever planting is contemplated, it is a most important species to be considered. The seedlings can successfully compete with grass, and, when they reach a large size, are safer than any other species from wind-fall and fire. ALPINE FIR OR * BALSAM.” This is the third species in order of number and fourth in order of merchantable volume. It is short-lived and defective and its timber is knotty and soft, and warps badly, and hence the tree does not rank high in popular estimation. Its chief claim to consideration is in relation to the silvicultural effect of its presence in a stand, and that is generally unfavourable. It resembles spruce in having a deep, cylindrical crown, with a conical top, but it has more horizontal branches. The bole is some- what cleaner, and more cylindrical, without any flaring at the butt. The bark is very thin, and resembles eastern balsam fir in its smoothness, light colour, and blisters. The tree is rather firmly rooted. A considerable portion of wind-thrown trees are broken off a short distance from the ground because of rotten heart, while the roots are not disturbed. The maximum size of alpine fir trees is about 18 inches diameter and 90 feet in height, but the large majority are below merchantable size. - The ease with which alpine fir falls a prey to various forms of damage prevents it usually from reaching a great size or age, and from dominating the type of forest except in restricted areas. Like spruce, it is favoured by moisture both in the air and the soil, but nevertheless grows on the dry, thin soils of upper slopes, and is the most common secondary species in pine stands. It is a very tolerant tree but slightly less so than spruce. Its seedlings bear long suppression and the volunteer growth is often stunted and with a horizontal axis. Reproduction. The chief point of interest in relation to alpine fir reproduction is its superior ability to reproduce in virgin stands, because that has resulted in the existence of a larger stock of volunteer growth of the alpine fir, or ‘balsam,’ than of any other species. Seed production and reproduction from seed take place in substantially the Same manner as with spruce, and in general with about the same quantitative results. Alpine fir has an additional aid to increase in its numbers in the ability of branches that come in contact with the ground to take root. A vertical shoot starts growing at that point on the branch, and eventually this becomes an independent tree. Many of the suppressed alpine fir in virgin stands are bush-like in character, and have branches down close to the ground. Reproduction by means of ‘layering’ is there- fore common. After lumbering, aggression by alpine fir is due to the further development of _ existing volunteer growth, rather than to the starting of new seedlings. The surface _ of the ground, after the stand is opened up by logging, probably becomes too dry for alpine fir reproduction. 7 On account of their small size and thin bark, most of the alpine fir are killed by any fires that may occur, so that reproduction of this species after fire is usually 40 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 comparatively unimportant. However, second-growth stands of spruce regularly show a minor proportion of alpine fir trees, since the conditions which result in spruce reproduction also favour alpine fir, although the latter species is at a dis- advantage. WHITE SPRUCE. This species reaches the southwestern limit of its range on the east slope of the Rockies. It is found mixed with Engelmann spruce at the lower elevations, and does not usually ascend the higher slopes. It occurs, especially, in the larger river- valleys and in the stands of spruce near the prairies. It forms but a small per- centage of the large bodies of spruce timber and from a commercial or silvicul- tural standpoint does not need to be distinguished from Engelmann spruce, as the form and size of the tree, the quality of the timber, and the habits of pe and reproduction do not differ to any practical extent. Photo A_ Knechtel. Plate 11 — Whitebark Pine (dwarfed by exposure to winds and frost) . LIMBER AND WHITE-BARK PINES. These two species of pine are found as scrubby trees on the poorest sites. Owing to their infrequent production of cones and the difficulties involved in dis- tinguishing them, the exact occurrence of the two species was not determined. It is probable that white-bark pine alone occurs on the higher ridges in the mountains proper, and that limber pine is mainly confined to the higher elevations in the foot- hills. Neither species reaches merchantable size except occasionally, nor is of great importance from the standpoint of forming a soil-cover on poor sites, since they FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 4i are not aggressive enough in natural reproduction to bring about much practical benefit. Limber pine, under favourable conditions, reaches a size of 18 inches diameter and 60 feet in height, but even then is very subject to having forked tops and crooked boles. Most of the limber, however, and all of the white-bark pine are stunted, and on exposed sites are reduced almost to creeping shrubs. The root system is rather shallow and the trees are subject to wind-fall, although mainly on account of the shallow soil and exposed site which they habitually occupy. Their capacity for resistance to climatic extremes is very great, as they are nearly always subjected to frequent frosts, and severe storms. Their tolerance is small, and prob- ably less than that of lodgepole pine, and this factor is to a considerable degree responsiblé for their not extending their range to lower sites. The amount of cone production is very small in this region and is the main reason for the small number of trees of these species. As the seeds are large, they will germinate on a moderately thick humus as well as on mineral soil. LYALL’S OR ALPINE LARCH. This species is confined very closely to the area next to timber-line, although sporadic individuals may be found in mixed stands lower down. The largest tree observed was 17 inches in diameter by 90 feet in height. Usually it is of stunted growth, reaching a diameter of 7 to 8 inches and a height of 40 feet. The presence even of a single tree is made conspicuous by its light-coloured foliage. It never forms stands of any large extent and is worthy of only casual interest. The bark is very thick, approaching, in this respect, Douglas fir. On a 17 inch tree it was 13 inches thick. When it develops to timber size it haz a long, clear bole and short crown. It is rather deeply rooted. It is the most intolerant of the conifers, which makes reproduction of the scattered individuals in dense mixed stands difficult. Reproduction of the trees near timber-line is also poor on account of the severity of the climate and the raw humus covering the soil, which is unfavourable to the germination of the small larch seeds. BALSAM POPLAR. This is the largest hardwood of the region. It grows only near creeks and on moist flats, and is usually associated with spruce. It reaches a diameter of 30 inches and a height of 90 feet, but the large trees are nearly always rotten at the heart, so that the tree is little thought of from the standpoint of wood production. _ It has a elean bole, broad spreading crown, and shallow root-system. It is intolerant, but less so than ‘aspen, and on account of its rapid juvenile height-growth is able to hold its place when starting with spruce. It reproduces only on moist, bare or lightly-covered soil, and the only condition under which widespread reproduction may take place, is after a fire on a moist spruce site when it may seed in on an _ area previously unoccupied by it. Its frequent occurrence at the edges of streams is probably due in part to the excessive washing of the soil there which exposes _ patches of mineral soil that have the requisite amount of moisture for the develop- - ment of poplar seedlings. ASPEN. 4 Unlike balsam poplar, aspen is found mainly on dry slopes, especially on the _ edge of the prairie where repeated fires have destroyed the coniferous growth. Aspen owes its oceupancy of these areas to its rapid growth as a seedling, which lets it compete with grass, and to its sprouting capacity, which provides for a new growth E %, A. Knechtel. Photo Plate 12 — Balsam Poplar. Photo D. B. Dowling, G. S. C. Second-growth Aspen. Plate 13 FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 43 even when a fire runs through an area of reproduction. Most of the aspen, at present, is second-growth and immature and trees over 8 inches in diameter and 50 feet in height are infrequent. It is very intolerant, more so than any species except perhaps paper birch or alpine larch. It reproduces best on a freshly burned soil, which should preferably be moist. It is the most aggressive species on the edge of grass- land, but makes appreciable headway only when fire temporarily kills off the grass. Tt is nearly always found as a fringe on the edge of meadows in second-growth pine stands, where the moist seed-bed and its rapid seedling growth favoured it rather than pine. Its ability to coppice, even when very young, gives it an advantage over pine in struggle for the occupancy of areas subject to repeated fires. Repro- duction only three feet high will, after being killed by fire, be followed by coppice shoots from the stems and roots. The starting of coppice growth from the roots of living trees also gives aspen a chance that is not possesssed by other species to make headway against grass. PAPER BIRCH. This is a very uncommon species in this region and was only once observed on a snow-slide not far from timber-line in the region of the Bow river. METHOD OF STUDYING REPRODUCTION. The method of studying reproduction outside of the making of general obser- vations was to count, on definite sample areas, the number of seedlings, which would afford a basis for quantitative comparisons, and at the same time to make a com- plete and careful description of the conditions of the area, emphasizing the points of special influence. The description was made according to a schedule covering the following points: elevation, slope, aspect and site quality, type and proportions of different species, age, density and condition of stand, light admitted to plot, seed- trees and cones; undergrowth, ground cover, humus and soil. The reproduction was divided into three size-classes, viz., (1) up to 6 in., (2) 6 in. to 3 ft., (3) 3 ft. to 10 ft. Two kinds of sample areas were taken: first, to show optimum or extreme con- ditions of any kind, plots 10 ft. square, in area approximately 1/400 acre; second, to show average reproduction under certain widespread conditions such as those resulting from a fire or lumbering, strips + or 4 chain in width and up to 3 mile in length. The small plots allow the making of very accurate and definite descrip- tions of the factors influencing reproduction and are most useful when taken in places where there is reproduction of from one to five years in age. Strips may be taken in areas where the reproduction is any age below that at which seedlings begin to die as a result of crowding, but are also most useful where the seedlings are very young. 44 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 MANAGEMENT OF TIMBER-CUTTING OPERATIONS, SILVICULTURAL METHODS. In suggesting methods to be followed in regulating the cutting of timber in this region, it must be emphasized that the two main species, spruce and pine, are, with respect to silvical habits, for the most part diametrically opposed, and yet are grow- ing frequently in intimate mixture. The treatment of stands will therefore vary radically according to the preponderance of one or the other species. In mixed stands, the decision to favour one species at the expense of the other must frequently be made before a plan of operation is settled upon, because measures which may be adopted to favour reproduction of one species will frequently be inimical to the other. The discussion of the methods of handling pure stands of each species will bring out most of the essential points to be considered, and the discussion with regard to mixed stands will be confined mainly to pointing out possible compromises and the relatve advantages of operations that might becarried out under various conditions. ' PURE SPRUCE TYPE. This is found mainly on the better sites (I and II) and possesses on each site similar characteristics, showing, however, greater variation in the sizes and ages of individuals as well as a greater maximum size, on deep, moist soils; and also show- ing a heavier ground cover, usually of moss. It has been pointed out that under ordinary lumbering practices the spruce stands are generally opened up very heavily. Seattered trees are left, many of which are windthrown in a short time, especially as the trees that are naturally the ones to be left are of comparatively small diameter and of great proportionate height; and the number of them is insufficient to effec- tively seed up the area or to keep the ground surface in a favourable condition for the germination of seed. As a result, progress toward a replacement of the old stand by young growth is slow, and in many stands where the logging was done as much as 25 years ago, little reproduction has taken place. As improvements in the methods of removing the timber, two systems suggest themselves. Both would make a radical change in this particular respect, that a large portion of the existing stand would be left for future cutting. Such a proposal is entirely defensible on the ground that the stock of timber in the forest reserve will become increasingly inadequate to supply the demands that will be made upon it by the growing population on the prairies, and at the same time will become com- mensurately more valuable. Therefore, aside from the silvicultural benefits gained, it is a profitable investment to reserve a portion of the stand in a quantity sufficient to make it a practical proposition to log that portion separately at a later date. The first system is to cut the timber clear in narrow strips, not over 100 feet wide, leaving an equal area of timber uncut in alternating strips. The second cut should not be made for at least thirty years, under no circumstances until the first cut-over area had seeded up,-and preferably not until the young trees there were bearing cones abundantly. This method gives the best security against wind-fall when the strips are kept narrow and are skilfully located, and it will be chosen in many cases mainly because protection from this danger is desired. It has the dis- advantage of leaving the ground entirely bare of large trees during the period of reproduction, and, as during the juvenile period the development of spruce is very slow, there is practically no volume increment and the area is kept unproductive for a considerable period. FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 45 The second system is the selection system; and this, if followed, must be prac- tised conservatively on account of the danger from wind-fall. On an average, thirty per cent of the merchantable stand should be left, but the exact amount will vary in different stands, depending mainly on the range of diameters. That will also be an important factor in deciding between this system and a strip system, the latter being chosen where the trees are more uniform in size throughout the stand: The selection system must be operated by marking each tree to be cut. These will comprise the larger trees of the stand, but no definite limit should be set, and one of the chief aims of the marker should be to leave a uniform stand on the ground, rather than to remove all the trees above a certain size. The advantage of the system would be that, while reproduction was taking place on the ground, there would be trees left that would occupy a portion of the growing space without materially retarding repro- duction or the development of the seedlings, and the older trees would, on account of increased light afforded them, grow at a rapid rate. Many of them, also, would grow from a size so small that harvesting them would yield a small proportion .of the total volume of the tree as lumber of poor quality into a size which would give fairly good lumber with less proportionate waste. The spruce seedlings would thus be given an opportunity of passing through the period of slow growth without exclusively occupying the area and having it for that period comparatively unpro- ductive from the standpoint of volume growth. Also, the shade afforded by the trees left would keep the seed-bed moister, but on the clear-cut strips, the concentrated logging would expose more mineral soil and aid seeding in that way. PURE PINE STANDS. Most of these that are now being cut are even-aged, with few relatively small trees. This makes a system of clear-cutting advisable, since there are few trees which can, because of their small size, be left economically, and the stimulated growth of the trees left would be small after the stand was opened up, as pine in dense stands has a small crown and slight power of recovery. The best method of clear-cutting is in strips, which should be 100 ft. to 250 ft. wide with 100 ft. to 150 ft. left uncut in between, the exact widths depending on the proportion of timber that it is desired to remove at the first cut, and on the danger from wind-fall. The strips do not need to be laid out mathematically, but should be distributed according to variations in the size of the timber and according to topography. The smaller and more elevated trees should be left, the latter because of the better distribution of seeds from high points. This method provides a full supply of light for germination and development of the pine seedlings, and gives a maximum preparation of the seed-bed. The distribution of seed over the cleared area should also be satisfactory, if the distances given are adhered to. The second cut should not be“made until the young growth on the first-cut strips is old enough to seed back, which would be at least twenty-five years. That means that the two logging operations by which the timber would be removed would be entirely distinct as far as practical business considerations are concerned. The splendid and often too abundant reproduction of pine after forest fires suggests using that instrument to secure reproduction on clear-cut areas, where, after the logs had been removed, the brush might be burned broadcast. The idea is attrac- tive and will probably eventually prove of practical utility, but at present practical considerations prevent its use being recommended, at least until greater experience in burning brush is gained. Forest fires occur only under drouthy conditions, and to set fire to brush under the same conditions would be very dangerous. Under con- ditions moist enough to make the measure comparatively safe, practical difficulty would probably be experienced in getting the ground uniformly burnt over, and the expense would be proportionately great. Moreover, the chance of successful repro- 46 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 duction would not be as great as in the case of a regular forest fire, because the cones after logging will all be borne on the brush which is lying on the ground, and, when the brush is consumed, the cones will be mostly burned so hard that the seed will be killed. It is the moderate scorching of the cones which opens them and causes them to fall to the ground; that is the main factor in making such a large number of seeds available for reproduction as is usually the case after an ordinary forest fire. It may be found advantageous to make use of fire, mainly for the purpose of preparing the seed-bed, where the seed itself will be supplied from trees left uncut, as in the strip system. Considerable difficulty in carrying out the operation of burning under these conditions must be reckoned on. . Some pine stands are uneven-aged, usually in consequence of the occurrence in the past of light ground fires which have partially opened up the stand and allowed the development of young trees under the old. In such cases, a selection cutting may be made, removing the old trees which are often damaged, and leaving the young. The latter will have thriftier crowns than the small trees of a more even- aged stand, and so will make profitable growth after the removal of the larger trees. MIXED STANDS. Mixed stands, where pine predominates, may be cut according to systems similar to those used in pure pine stands. In leaving uncut areas, those should be chosen which contain most spruce, unless the spruce are of a very large size. This is because spruce will show faster future growth and is not so liable to deterioration. Further, since the seed-bed cannot often be radically altered from the natural condition, denser reproduction will probably be obtained by having spruce seed-trees left. When the stand shows fifty per cent or more of spruce, the system of cutting should approximate the selection system, although cutting small groups clear would be permissible. Young thrifty spruce will be most profitable to leave, both on account of their capacity for future growth and of the greater ability of their seeds com- pared to pine to germinate on the seed-bed of the natural forest floor. Skidding should expose enough mineral soil to allow pine reproduction, especially where groups are cut clear, and therefore it will be proper to leave pine with the spruce. The main object will be to protect the trees left from wind-fall, by leaving them uniformly distributed or next to openings in dense groups. The person doing the marking will be required to study the detailed conditions of each tract of timber and vary his methods a great deal according to his judgment of the demands made by those con- ditions. , Large mature spruce will be the trees most necessary to remove, since they have a fairly slow rate of growth and are in great danger of wind-fall when the stand is opened up. The attitude that should be held toward other species than spruce or pine which may enter into the composition of the mixed stand has been pointed out in the dis- cussion of the silvical characteristics of the individual species. They seldom form a very large percentage of the total stand, and therefore their presence would not greatly influence the general method of treatment determined upon after a consider- ation of the relation of the two main species. MARKING RULES AND METHODS. Marking consists either in designating each individual tree for felling or for reservation, or in designating areas for the same purposes when a system of clear- cutting is being followed. In the latter case, all that is necessary is to blaze a line of trees as a boundary with some distinctive blaze that will avoid confusion with trails, &e. A notch above and below the blaze would fulfill this purpose. The trees FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 47 marking the boundary would not be cut. When the trees for cutting are selected uniformly from the stand, the general practice is to mark each tree to be cut. A blaze is made at breast-height and another below stump-height. Fellers are instructed to leave the latter blaze showing after every tree is felled, otherwise the penalty for cutting unmarked trees is imposed. However, when snow is deep, the tree can often be marked only at breast-height. It is best to stamp each blaze with a distinctive mark, and for this purpose, special marking axes are used, which have a die on the head of the axe. When the trees to be left are small in number relatively to the trees to be cut, the former are sometimes marked. As blazing is liable to cause damage to trees left for a long period, other methods of marking have been used. For instance, in lodgepole pine where the bark is light coloured and smooth, red spots have been painted on the bark. The cost of marking in dense timber is about 1c. to lic. per thousand feet, board measure. In marking individual trees to be removed from a stand, some diameter is usually borne in mind, as indicating approximately the border between trees to be cut and those to be left. This is a matter of convenience rather-than an essential factor in deciding on what trees to leave. Usually the leaving of a uniform stand is an important consideration, and then trees well above the diameter limit are left to avoid making large openings or trees below it are cut to thin out too dense groups. The diameter limit is most useful in regulating the marking where a definite pro- portion of the original stand is to be reserved for future cutting. It is impracticable to estimate the volumes of the trees as they are marked, in order to determine just what proportion of the total volume of the stand will be left. However, by carefully estimating representative sample areas, a diameter limit may be arrived at, which ean be easily followed in marking the timber and will operate so as to leave uncut the proper proportion of the stand. Another important factor besides the size, in choosing the trees to be reserved, is their growth and vigour. This depends largely on the character of the crown, which should be comparatively deep. It is especially hard in pine to select trees that will make rapid growth, because, if pine trees have been badly suppressed, their crowns will be very small and their rate of growth negligible. Consideration of this factor might lead one to select for reservation the larger of two trees, if the smaller had been badlysuppressed and was growing at a very slow rate. The best trees to leave are those with narrow deep crowns. Wide-crowned trees take too much space and have branchy boles, and short, narrow crowns indicate slow growth. _ The trees to be left should be as far as possible sound. Rotten trees deteriorate if left standing and should be harvested as soon as posssible, while sound trees increase in value by adding to their volume and give a return on the investment involved in leaving them standing. However, when a tree is so badly decayed that there is not enough lumber in it to make logging it profitable, then it is certainly better to leave it and to obtain the benefit of any seed it may supply. BRUSH DISPOSAL. It has already been pointed out that in this region the brush left after logging _decays very slowly, and that, even if the branches were lopped from the tops so that they would lie close to the surface of the ground, the brush would remain in an inflammable condition for almost as long a time as though nothing had been done to it. Piling the brush without burning it would aid considerably in fighting fires; but the stands are usually so dense and the amount of debris left after logging so large, that this method would not afford sufficient protection. It is, therefore, recommended that wherever practicable the brush be burnt. Least labour would be involved in following a method of broadcast burning, but that is dangerous under most conditions and involves practical difficulties not only in 48 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 controlling the fire but also in getting the brush completely consumed. Until greater experience has been gained in the actual operations of brush-burning, it would seem advisable to use some surer method. The best way is to pile the brush. The piles may take any form, such as windrows, long rectangular piles, or round piles. They must, however, be of a form that will allow the piling of the brush compactly and to a height of at least four feet. Otherwise difficulty will be experienced in burning the brush. For these reasons, round piles will probably be found the best. The best piles are about eight feet in diameter and six feet in height. Such piles may be burnt when covered with snow up to two feet in depth, and the brush will be practi- eally all consumed. The piles may be lighted most conveniently with coal-oil torches. The burning should be done when there is snow on the ground, the most favourable conditions being found after early snow-storms in the fall. Snow-storms occurring in the spring, after most of the winter’s snow has thawed away, give other oppor- tunities for brush-burning. Only under special circumstances should burning be done when there is no snow on the ground, though it may be practicable when the ground is very damp and the piles partially dried out. Brush may also be burnt while logging proceeds, in which case the swampers start fires and throw the brush on them as soon as it is removed from the logs and tops. This method should prove to be the cheapest and is especially advantageous as the burning is independent of weather conditions and the brush is gotten completely out of the way of the skidding teams. It cannot, however, be practised when the logging is being done at a season when there is no snow, nor on areas where a heavy stand of timber is being removed, because it would be difficult to find places to build the fires on account of the large number of logs lying on the ground. The cost of brush-burning should be kept between 20c. and 30c. per thousand feet, board measure, and in favourable circumstances can be reduced below that amount. Early attempts in the Rocky Mountains will in all probability run in excess of those figures until the men become familiarized with the actual carrying- out of the operations. An expenditure of at least 40c. should be allowed for at the start. COST OF SILVICULTURE. The cost of the changes from the ordinary methods of lumbering which have been suggested can only be estimated in a general way, as the exact amount depends on the detailed conditions of each operation. In some eases, the cost of logging will be very little increased, because some of the operations, such as brush-disposal, tend to reduce the cost of removing the timber. A constant influence toward increasing costs will be experienced from certain factors. When a selection system of cutting is being followed, the cost of felling and skidding will be increased because the trees must be removed from among the others that are left standing. In any system where - a considerable proportion of the stand is reserved for future cutting, the cost of road construction per thousand feet is proportionately increased, because if the area were clear, the cost of the roads would be distributed over so much more timber. This factor should be possible to calculate ahead of time with reasonable accuracy when the details of a prospective operation are known. The cost of supervision, marking and brush disposal are also mainly to be figured against the expense of logging according to silvicultural methods. The total amount, where the methods are followed in an intensive manner, should be in the neighbourhood of $1 per thousand feet, board measure. CONTRACTS. A sale of timber may be for a definite area or for a certain quantity of timber. If the area be bounded by rectangular survey lines it may include exactly a natural logging unit, but usually will leave out part of one or take in part of some other WwW. Photo T. (Deerlodge National Forest, Montana, U.S.A.) Dwight. Plate 14— Brush Piled Properly for Burning. W. Dwight. J.S.A.) T. Photo (Deerlodge National Forest, Montana, Plate 16 — Clearcut Strip after Brush-burning. 50 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 logging unit. Thus it is better, especially from the point of view of administration in the woods, to use natural topographic features for boundaries. When the quantity of timber to be cut, and not the area, governs the limit of the sale, the general boundaries may be stated in the contract, and the detailed location left to the forest officer as the operation proceeds. The amount of timber may be stated in feet, board measure, if the major portion of it is to be saw-logs, and an average board- foot con- tent laid down for other classes of material that are not readily scaled in board measure. A time limit should be set for the complete removal of the sold timber, but provision may be made for extension of the period for valid reasons. Many sales are made for a year only with provision made for annual renewal on the same terms in case the regulations have been observed. The removal of all improve- ments and equipment should be required within a prescribed period, say six months from the termination of the contract, subject to the ownership passing over to the government in case of non-removal. A contract should usually state that only the green timber designated by the forest officer to be cut may be removed. It may then fix a definite percentage of the total volume as a maximum to be reserved, but the selection of this amount should be left to the forest officer to meet in his judgment the silvicultural requirements of the stand. Reservation of a portion of the stand may be made by fixing a diameter limit, which is the simplest in operation, but not as effective from a silvicultural standpoint. When a conservative silvicultural system is to be followed, the buyer must be made to understand in advance the general nature of it so that he can form a judgment as to the extra cost involved in marketing the timber under these con- ditions. It is usually impossible to lay down in advance in the contract the exact details of the method of cutting to be followed. Where dead timber has a market value, it should usually be required that it be utilized just as far as it is merchantable, and a diameter limit that may be set for green timber should not be applied to the dead. Regulations as to the cutting of individual trees should specify the maximum height of stumps, and, for lodgepole pine and spruce, may be very satisfactorily stated as not greater than the diameter of the tree, and in no case over 18 in. This rule is at the present time voluntarily followed by some operators. The maximum diameter at which utilization of material in the top of the tree is to cease must be set. This will vary with market conditions and will be largest where only saw-logs can be taken and smallest where there is a demand for cordwood. The price will usually be fixed according to standard units—board feet, pieces, cords, &e. The scale to be used in determining board-foot contents must be stated. A severe penalty should be imposed for removal of timber previous to measurement. In case of large sales extending over a number of years, provision may be made for adjusting the prices at stated intervals. The basis would probably be the average prices obtained in a specified region in a certain period previous to the time of adjustment. A penalty, usually the payment of double stumpage, should be imposed for the cutting of unmarked trees. When the latter are damaged during logging, the forest officer may be given authority to require their removal and double stumpage be charged for them. In large operations, a provision that different parts of the work must keep pace with one another is important, especially in relation to protective measures, such as brush-piling. Of protective measures, the disposal of brush is the most important. Provision should usually be made for either lopping or piling, as the forest officer in his judg- ment may direct. In practice, scaling is sometimes kept back until the brush is satis- factorily disposed of. The brush-burning may be done independently by the govern- ment, but it is better to have an agreement with the buyer by which he will furnish men engaged on the logging operation to assist, even if remuneration for those ser- vices has to be allowed. FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 51 It is advantageous also to have an agreement with the operator by which his men will be available to fight fires. No remuneration should be allowed when the fire occurs on the area of the sale, or endangers the area directly, but in case the agreement covers assistance in fighting fires not directly connected with the area but within convenient distance, remuneration should be allowed. For fires due to care- lessness of the operator’s employees, a provision may be inserted in the contract for uniform damages per acre, e.g., $10 per acre, which would avoid disputes in appraising damages, which would be a difficult thing to do especially if destruction of young. growth were an important factor. The vesting of authority as to supervision of the sale, final settlement of disputes and interpretation of provisions of the contract should be definitely included in the contract. The method of payment depends mainly on existing administrative regulations. Other legal provisions not directly affecting the management of the cutting of the timber form a necessary part of the contract. SILVICULTURAL PRACTICE IN MONTANA. DEERLODGE NATIONAL FOREST. Forest Conditions. The Deerlodge National Forest is situated on both sides of the continental divide, and surrounding the Butte copper-mining region. It furnishes annually about six million board feet of timber, of which ninety per cent is lodgepole pine. All the timber is used for mining purposes. Logs with a top diameter of 6 inches or more are used in a round state for props; smaller logs, down to 23 inches in diameter, when straight, can be used for other purposes. There is also a market for cordwood. Under these market conditions, it is possible to require a utilization of all material three inches and over in diameter. The silvicultural effect of this is that where it is desirable to clear-cut an area, the operation can be done thoroughly, because every tree can be cut, and so much material removed from each tree that the brush can readily be burned, leaving the surface entirely cleared. The type of forest is, predominantly, pure lodgepole pine. In the creek bottoms are belts of pure spruce, usually not over a fourth of a mile wide. On the upper slopes are mixed stands of lodgepole pine, spruce and limber pine. The mixed and the spruce type resemble the types described by similar names when discussing Cana- dian forests. The pine type differs only in a few minor respects from the same type in the north. It is purer in composition, less even-aged, of lower density and with the trees branchier and more damaged. This may be explained by assuming a different life history. Canadian forests often show evidence of the entire stand having started after a fire, but in mature stands there is seldom evidence of more than one fire. In Montana, fires seem to have been of greater frequency but less severe. The successive fires have eliminated the spruce, except in the two types mentioned, which owe their distinctive characteristics to comparative freedom from fire. The successive fires have also opened up the stand and allowed young trees to start, but, as pine develops with difficulty under such conditions, the density is made lower in comparison with stands developing from the dense, even-aged, young growth that usually follows a single severe fire. This also results in branchier timber, and the fire-scars on the timber which is not killed by the fires conbine to make the trees in general much more poorly fitted for lumber than in Canadian stands. The condition of the ground surface is radically different in the south. The ground-cover is very thin, consisting usually of about one inch of humus and light litter. The growth of a light carpet of pine grass is common, and this is not found in the north. Thick moss, again, is practically never found on the ground in pine oy FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 stands in Montana, whereas it is of common occurrence in Alberta stands. On the whole, there is a better seed-bed for natural reproduction of pine in the south than in the north. Silvicultural Methods. The method of leaving seed-trees in blocks was the initial system followed. One hundred and fifty foot strips were clear-cut with a 75 foot interval; and one half of this remaining timber was removed in 75 foot squares, leaving blocks of seed- trees also 75 feet square. This method proved unsatisfactory. Too small a propor- tion (only 17 per cent) of the timber was left, so that the blocks were too isolated, and severe wind-fall ensued. There was also considerable damage from sun-seald. Three years after the logging was done, sixteen blocks showed an average of 25 per cent wind-fall. The system also did not allow the selection of stands of comparatively young timber to be left, but by requiring their removal forced an unnecessarily large amount of small material on the market. The next modification was the leaving of blocks of trees in favourable locations to furnish seed to the cut-over areas. The most characteristic example is furnished by narrow gulches, where the lower slopes were cut clear, leaving belts of timber at the top. It has been decided that the areas left were too large. Most of the cutting done according to these systems was three or four years ago, but at present marked progress toward re-stocking is not apparent. A narrow strip, half a mile long, showed only 185 seedlings per acre, and a quarter-mile strip, 325 per acre. This, of course, is too early to expect marked developments over the whole area, but it was plainly indicated that under any system satisfactory reproduction need not be expected in a short period immediately after logging. Only under con- ditions resulting from fire has effective reproduction been found to take place in a very short time. During the last two years, the methods practised have undergone marked changes in two directions. An effort has been made to avoid cutting too much of the smaller young timber; first, because it will make the most profitable growth, and second, because it will furnish, if cut,.a larger proportion of small-sized material than the market can absorb. Latitude has been allowed, too, for those in charge of the cutting to use their judgment as to the treatment of stands, after inspection has shown their individual silvicultural condition. These objects are met by cutting according to two systems: viz., in clear-cut strips, and by selection. Cutting in strips is practised in stands where the trees are even-aged and have small crowns. Where the stand is uniform in character through- out, the strips are laid out in regular order and running up and down the slopes. If there is marked variation in the character of the stand, the strips are located so as to remove the most even-aged or the largest timber, and the cut-over areas become irregular in shape and distribution. Of the stand 25 to 30 per cent is intended to be left uncut, in blocks not less than 150 feet wide, unless in well protected situa- tions. When the timber is removed from strips less than 150 feet wide, the width of the strips left is reduced to that of the cut-over area, but not further . Selection cutting in pure pine is done in stands where there is a variation of age-classes. This allows the removal of the larger trees while leaving for continued growth the younger thrifty trees. Stands of this character have usually been formed as a result of ground fires which have partially opened up the stand. The trees that have developed in the openings thus formed have deeper and thriftier crowns than the trees grown in the dense even-aged stands, and will therefore make more profitable growth. Reproduction is expected in the small openings made by the logging and this young growth will take the place of the old stand as it is removed in successive cuttings. In marking, an approximate diameter limit of between nine and ten inches is kept in mind, but the main emphasis is laid on leaving a uniform stand, and not (V¥'S'() ‘vunquopy 4soroyy [wUOIgeNy CV's’) ‘vunjuopy P exspopteay) “puvgy eur opodadpory v ur Sangny uoyoojog = 27 OLE Vso [BUOYVN eXpojoeq) ‘(punoasoaoy YBN “Mh 0d UL [[VJPUIM O1OAOS BION) “SYOOTE, UL YO] 80014-poog — g] oyVI[T YRNdT ‘M “Lo 0Ud Sat uh’ A esis: irene a | as AN a ee \ , ‘ “| teSeslenere 12 80 100 110 120 140°. ere aca ee ae 13 90 120. 130 140 160) aes See ett 14> slat eae 130 150 160 190 250 js Whats WRN, Tome ee ret 150. 170 190 230 290 MGW icepettSiaseie Praterc doa Wika oes pee ke aol deans menial nee 220 260 330 y Ly mn Nae ora mes OTR au he aed alls Ce ey 250 300 380 SDR an eG Cc at Cara ton ete aia a ep cane eo 280 340 420 19 Noe oan. o Sahn So Se aN elk ag xe ae Pe NR ae OE eee 380 480 Of. dh aaa Ho tare | NE RDN Yh Ca Send 420 530 i np ts oO pte) ‘ AR! ee 4OMOM OOOND VSN woede =) * oak Oa Hater SOS AAs ASSES > x i Cog aa 2 a AP I Re ee EA te re if wer HaOSs corm geysyeysy ee 3 EB 3} & B @ ~— AHHANH Heke At BwOMOOD BNO OO ‘. < Hw renee meen: sd =| "Si ERS SS let eee ee ee etenen oe bo ye, ao : ce i APH 0 DSHS MEM whrans rere 5 AMOS HASSy FHAAy Ange . | . SHAE DHOMG ATWrim Nog Re (eee) OL CER re REA Bd ve RO Lees Engelmann Spruce. 215 trees measured. FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE . . e.\8 . . . TABLE 14. DIAMETER-GROWTH OF ENGELMANN SPRUCE, LODGEPOLE PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR. 60 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 TABLE 15. HEIGHT-GROWTH OF ENGELMANN SPRUCE, LODGEPOLE PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR. Engelmann Spruce. 215 trees measured. Lodgepole Pine. Douglas Fir. 73 trees measured. 26 trees measured. Age. —— + —_— Aver, | sitet | site IL Aver. | Site | Site Average Height (feet). Breet eee ees 7 7 7 2 3 4 3 14 15 14 4 7 8 6 26 27 25 8 12 15 10 36 38 35 15 19 24 16 45 47 44 24 27 33 23 Bt BT 52 32 35 43 31 61 64 58 40 43 51 39 65 69 62 48 51 58 46 69 73 66 b4 58 65 53 72 77 69 59 110... 63 70 58 4 ; 71 64 LR eae 7 75 62 76 80 7 68 POD abies scold 71 79 65 78 82 75 72 Oe bea aes 74 83 68 78 83 76 76 WO Ses wea 77 86 71 79 84 76 79 See: » gee 79 ss | 74 79 84 76 81 7) ee 81 9 | ©. 76 80 84 77 84 ee 83 91 78 80 84 17 86 BOTS... ccet 84 92 80 81 85 77 88 oA o.. 85 93 81 81 85 78 90 “ FORESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE 61 TABLE 16. ° SEEDLING HEIGHT-GROWTH OF ENGELMANN SPRUCE AND LODGEPOLE PINE. Engelmann Lodgepole Engelmann Lodgepole Spruce. Pine. y Spruce. Pine. Height. Height. Age. Age. Age. Age. Feet. Years. Years. Feet Years. Years. O-1 1 1 2:1 16 7 0-2 2 1 2°2 17 7 0°3 4 1 + 2°3 17 8 0-4 5 u 24 18 8 0°5 6 1 2°5 18 8 0°6 ‘§ 2 2°6 18 9 07 8 2 ree 19 9 0's 9 2 2°8 19 9 0-9 9 2 2°9 20 9 1°0 10 3 3°0 20 10 ae 11 3 31 20 10 1°2 11 3 3°2 21 10 1°3 12 4 3°3 21 10 14 13 4 3°4 22 11 1°5 13. 4 3°5 22 11 1°6 14 5 3°6 22 ll ot YG 14 5 3°7 23 11 Ee | 15 6 3°8 23 11 179 15 6 3°9 24 12 20 16 6 4:0 24 12 Breast Height. .... 4°5 26 13 62 FORESTRY BRANCH BULLETIN NO. 33 TABLE 17. NORMAL YIELD-TABLE FOR ENGELMANN SPRUCE AND LODGEPOLE PINE. Engelmann Spruce. Lodgepole Pine. Age. SiteI. | Site II. | Site I, | Site IT. | Site IIL. Yield per acre. Years. Ft. BM. | Ft. BM. Ft. BM. | Ft. BM. | Ft BM. a We Wnt ete Pie) ce 2) Ny eo tog Realy Ree al | HA ee 2,500 2,000 1,000 OE ar a aoa cle etale erate a ees bai ancR ey eM Sxalae as tetra alate 5,500 4,000 2,000 BOS Faas) eoeruaeeneene 6 0S ee ae ee 11,000 500 3,500 TONS suis in sta ea nee 2,500 1,000 16,500 9,500 | 4,500 B60 eC. ey ae 4,500 1,500 21,000 13,000 6,000 DO 2 etek ha hctee tana tito 7,000 2,500 25,000 16,000 8,000 LOG eri, x ora ceils bree wares 12,000 4.000 25,000 18,500 9,000 MLO oss circles waste alee ws woe aaron 16,000 6,000 31,500 21,000 10,000 TT Ee SR SS Secale! rt 22,000 8,000 34,000 22,000 11,000 Oar chess Stiaensiors 2 cya ta Soniare lee 27,000 10,006 36,000 24,00 12,000 DEO legis au kite See ert hetnes 32,000 13,000 38,000 26,000 12,500 LOO ct Sings aac ca et eee 36,000 16,000 40,000 27,000 13,000 TRG core rates sha nee natal Rinses 40,000 19,000 42,000 28,500 13,500 MAND Soren Show Ns 5.atwglaeeee state Wiatew 43,000 22,000 | 43,000 9,500 14,000° Deh sy Teeter cet) os seed Be 47,000 25,000 45,000 30,000 14,000 BOS ee sedav tx sie iets reed eet 50,000 29,000 46 O00 ca eee ‘ OE ASD nicer e aie ante ea 538,000 32,000 AG;500) | 00s laa Sede eee DENSITY AND AVERAGE SIZE AT MATURITY. ies : Trees per Aver. diam. Average Average Species. Site. Age acre, breast-high. | height. volume. Lapel latent | Years. Number. | Inches. Feet. Ft. B.M. PLAC og, haweewnans i 200 182 16°5 92 281 II | 200 216 14°1 78 148 ir | 200 204 151 87 237 PRTG S ooo tae Oandc cs iacean aa II 180 238 13°4 76 146 TIL 180 292 9°3 55 48 #sn0 s re ‘ , ro s - Pal {#9 € oh i ‘ 2 ' q * =e. com 5 y jae 3 : ; : - # ines, ’ el 1: a a” " ae i be am Be ly Tee meal nea a PO eres ee + patel: tear. Jib EB FR I eg OL ag BO gar i 5 Calg a pede Fe c oar gtporniticns: AE a A GS NN 1: =a = : 5 Sea ae ee See Sa a a 3 Se siete a So : = See i >: rr rn res SE 2 Se : S