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Handsomely bound in 3 Volumes, Royal 8vo, with leather back, gilt top, Price £3, 3s. ‘Also in 6 Divisions, bound in cloth, 10s. 6d. each. Standard. ‘©The most comprehensive work on practical farming ever written.” Scotsman, ‘‘Mr Macdonald has made the work what it was when first published by its author, the standard work on everything relating to the farm.” Farmer. ‘*Tn all matters relating to practical agricultural life, this work is, in the most comprehen- sive meaning of the term, encyclopedic, entertaining, and most reliable.” Gloucester Chronicle. “The completed book literally constitutes a treasure-house for all engaged in our greatest national industry.” Scottish Leader. “‘The one standard manual....... All that is good in Stephens’ text has been retained, while an immense amount of fresh information has been incorporated.” Agricultural Gazette. “The great merit of the book always was its attention to detail, and in this respect, we believe, it will be found more serviceable than ever.” Farm, Field, and Fireside. “The most complete and important description of improved agricultural practice that we lave.’ Daily Chronicle. ** Mr Macdonald has performed his task with great ability.” WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpinsurcH anp Lonpon. THE FORESTER LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Ay we if ¥ re Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/foresterpractica01 brow Pe ies Yaa Er Aa, oO ee ED obs ee See THE FORESTER A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PLANTING AND TENDING OF FOREST TREES AND THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF WOODLAND ESTATES BY JAMES BROWN, LL.D. SIXTH EDITION, ENLARGED Epirep By JOHN NISBET, D.C. AUTHOR OF ‘BRITISH FOREST TREES AND THEIR SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT,’ “STUDIES IN FORESTRY,’ ‘PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS,’ ETC. IN TWO VOLUMES VO: I WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCXCIV JPR A Ck. “ Ask of the trees themselves how they should be treated, and they will teach you more than can be learned from books.” —Pfeil. “Sylvicultural knowledge has its only sure foundation in practical experience.’ — Konig. In the present edition of this work an endeavour has been made to engraft the modern Continental science of Sylvi- culture upon the old British stock of Arboriculture. In carrying out the task he was invited to perform, the editor has found it necessary not only to rearrange and practically to rewrite the whole book, but also to prune away portions to a very considerable extent. Where, how- ever, the views of the author and of the editor have differed greatly respecting any matters that appear to involve prin- ciples, then the latter has made a poimt of retaining the author’s conclusions, though at the same time clearly and pointedly expressing his own convictions. The object of this has been to allow the student of Forestry to see both sides of the question, and to enable him to have the opportunity of testing both opinions by practical observation before coming to any deliberate conclusion for himself. In subjecting the work to a thorough rearrangement, as well as revision and amplification, it has been the aim of the editor to group all cognate matters under their proper al PREFACE. relationships so as to form chapters, and to make the sequence of the latter assume something like a natural order. Nearly the whole of the first chapter consists of new matter. Throughout the rest of the work the editor’s ampli- fications have, so far as convenient, been placed in medium- sized type. This is certainly not intended to mean that they are of less interest or importance than the main text, but was a measure adopted in order to prevent the work becoming very bulky and costly. Even as it is, with about 150 pages of the former work excised, and with the frequent use of small type, the present edition is considerably larger in size than the last. But the editor trusts that his fulfilment of a task which has been by no means easy will prove of service to the struggling cause of Forestry throughout Britain. As rearranged, the body of the work confines itself to Forestry as practised in Britain, and to a description of the trees cultivated as well as of the various operations connected with the practice of Forestry; whilst the new portions in smaller type contain facts and hints culled from Continental experience. Finally, all the scattered references to Forestry in other parts of the globe have been collected in the form of an Appendix, for convenient reference. Throughout the progress of the work the editor has re- ceived kindly assistance from Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., and also, as regards chapter ii., dealing with the description of the Conifers, from Dr Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S., to both of whom he takes this opportunity of return- ing thanks. This new edition has been enriched by many illustrations obtained from German works—more especially from Gayer’s Waldbau, 3d edit., 1889; Gayer’s Forstbenutzung, 7th edit., 1888; and Hess's Forstschutz, 2d edit. (vol. i., 1887; vol. i, 1890) and the editor would here return thanks to the PREFACE. Vil authors and publishers concerned for the ready courtesy with which clichés of the various illustrations were furnished, During the last twelve years several works relating to scientific Forestry have appeared in English, all of which are either translations of, or else almost purely compilations from, French or German books. Of such, the chief are the following :— 1. Hlements of Forestry. By Franklin Hough. Cincinnati, 1882. 2, Manual of Sylviculture. By G. Bagneris. Translated by E. E. Fernandez and A. Smythies. London. Vol. i., 1876; vol. i1., 1882. . Organisation and Valuation of Forests. By J. Laird Macgregor. London, 1883. 4, Manual of Forestry. By W. Schlich, Ph.D. London. Vol. 1, 188s vel i, ESO: . British Forest Trees, and their Sylvicultural Characteristics and Treatment. By J. Nisbet, D.dic. London, 1893. 6. Protection of Woodlands. By Kauschinger and Fiirst. Trans- lated by J. Nisbet, D.dic. Edinburgh, 1893. 7. Studies in Forestry. By J. Nisbet, D.dic. Oxford, 1894. Oo OU But the present edition of The Forester is the first endea- vour that has been made to unite the scientific sylvicultural methods of the Continent with the less methodical and economical arboricultural practices that have hitherto obtained throughout the United Kingdom; and the editor hopes that his somewhat arduous task will be productive of substantial benefit both to the British woodlands and to those engaged in their formation, tending, management, and utilisation. J. NISBET. EpinpuraGH, July 1894. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY,—TREATING OF VARIOUS MATTERS CONNECTED BOTH WITH FORESTS IN GENERAL, AND WITH FORESTRY IN BRITAIN IN PARTICULAR. Introductory remarks 5 : : : ; The rise and progress of Arboriculture and Sylviculture in Britain . The requirements of Britain as regards timber and other forest produce Climatic and national-economic influence of woodlands The esthetic influence of Arboriculture : : ‘ : Scientific investigations into the climatic and national-economic influence of wood- lands : ‘ Industrial or technical-economic importance of woodlands . The physical capabilities of Britain for Arboriculture and Sylviculture The influence of plantations throughout a country . Objects of planting : The financial value of sylvicultural crops Education in Forestry British woodlands State forests . ) Private forests Forestry in Britain ‘ : Laws affecting private woodlands in Britain . The future of Forestry The British Sylva CHAPTER II. THE BROAD-LEAVED SPECIES OF TREES. Cupulifere— 1. The Oak ¢ . : : : : : . : 1. The Pedunculate or Common English Oak—2. The Sessile or Dur- mast Oak—3. The White Oak—4. Holm or Holly Oak, or Ever- green Oak—5, The Scarlet Oak—6. The Turkey or Moss-cupped Oak. aa Io “a STI oO} ow w 19) oo 87 x CONTENTS. 2. The Beech : 3. The Sweet-Chestnut Oleacece— 4, The Ash Ulmacee— 5. The Elm ; 1. Common English or Sreerill eed Elm—2. Mountain Beaten or W. is Elm. Acerine— 6. The Maple . 1. Sycamore, Great Maple, or cane Plane 2 Maple or 4 Renan Maple —3. The Soft or Bird’s-Eye Maple. Salicacee— 7. The Poplar . 1. The Italian or Teor bARG Poplar) The Gommor Black Poplar 2 Canadian or Black Italian Poplar—4, The Abele-tree or White Poplar—5. The Common Grey Poplar—6. Aspen or Trembling Poplar—7. The Ontario Poplar. 8. The Willow . 1. The Common White or Euncneden Willowa2. The Cr ack, Gemane or Redwood Willow—3. Russell or Bedford Willow. Betulacea— 9. The Birch 1. The Common or Silver Bieehee! The Baer Birch 23) The Tall Bach 10. The Alder Platanee— 11. The Plane-tree 1. Oriental Plane-tree—2. henge ican or Woster nt Plane: te ee, Carpinee— 12. The Hornbeam Hippocastanew— 13. The Horse-Chestnut Tiliacee— 14. The Lime-tree Juglandew— 15. The Walnut-tree Magnoliacea— 16. The Tulip-tree Amygdalacea— 17. The Cherry . Pomacee— 18. The Hawthorn : 19. The Mountain-Ash . Papilionacee— 20. The Laburnum 21. The False Acacia Tlicinea— 22. The Holly 110 118 123 130 141 154 200 204 207 212 216 CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. THE CONIFEROUS SPECIES OF TREES. A—CONIFERA, I. Araucariceo— The Chili Pine The Norfolk Island Pine II. Abietinew— il. The Pine I. Pines having two leaves or needles in cach sheath. 1. The Scots Pine or Common Fir—2. The Black or Austrian Pine— 3. The Corsican Pine—4. The Taurian Pine—5. The Cluster or Maritime Pine—6. The Resinous or Red Pine—7. The Pyrenean Pine—8. The Calabrian Pine—9. The Mugho Pine—10, The Dwarf or Mountain Pine—l1. The Jersey or Scrub Pine—12. Bishop’s Pine—13. The Persian Pine—14, The Stone Pine or Umbrella Pine—15, The Aleppo Pine. Il. Pines having three leaves or needles in each sheath. 1. Gerard’s Pine—2. The Large-coned Pine—3. The Chinese Lace- bark Pine—4. The Heavy-wooded or Yellow Pine—5. Bentham’s Pine—6. The Stiff-leaved or Pitch Pine—7. The Radiated Cone Pine—8. The Remarkable Pine—9. Sabine’s Pine—10. Jeffrey’s Pine—11. The Tuberculated Coned Pine. III. Pines having five leaves or needles in each sheath. 1. Cembran, Siberian, or Swiss Stone Pine—2. The Weymouth Pine —3. The Nepaul or Lofty Pine—4. Lambert’s Giant-coned Pine —b5. The Montezuma or Mexican Pine—6. The Five - leaved Mountain Pine—7. Hartweg’s Pine. . Spruce 1. The Spruce, Gpenes Fir, or noeen ay paper The Black cannes or Black American Spruce—3. The White Spruce—4. The Menzies or Sitka Spruce—5. The Himalayan Spruce—6. The Oriental or Sapindus Spruce—7. Alcock’s Sprucee—8. The Red Spruce. Hemlock. : : 1. The Common or Chiat Hemlock =o. The Galion Hemlock —8. Patton’s Hemlock or the Californian Spruce. . The False Hemlock . The Silver Fir 1. The Common Silver Kir_2, The ele or + Balm ‘of Gilead Silver Fir—3. The Lovely Silver Fir—4. The Leafy-bracted Silver Fir —5. The Great Californian Silver Fir, or Vancouver Island Pine— 6. The Mount Enos or Grecian Silver Fir—7. Low’s Californian Silver Fir—8. The Noble Silver Fir—9. Nordmann’s or the Crimean Silver Fir—10. The Upright Indian Silver Fir—l1. The Spanish Silver Fir—12. Webb’s Indian Silver Fir. . The Larch . The Cedar 1. The Cedar of Lehane “The Teed or -Tadian! Cen The Mount Atlas Cedar. 246 248 250 326 346 Xll CONTENTS. III. Cupressinewe— 1. The True Cypress 1. The Common pret or ieahan inpree =o: The caress eoned Cypress 2. Dwarf Cypress or False Arborvite 1. Lawson’s Cypress—2. The Nootka Seni or Ataks Capen The Obtuse-leaved or Japan Cypress. 3. The True Arborvite ; : : 1. The Common or American Arborvite—2. The Giant Axborvites. 4, Chinese Arborvitee 5. The Incense Cedar 6. The Juniper IV. Taxodinee— 1. Japan Cedars. 1. The Japan Cedar =o. The Hieoant J apan Gedar: 2. The Mammoth Trees and Redwoods of California 1. The Mammoth Tree—2. The Californian Redwood. 3. The Deciduous Cypress . B—PSEUDODRUPACER. Taxacea— The Yew CHAPTER: WiV- CONCERNING PURELY ARBORICULTURAL OPERATIONS, OR THE CULTIVATION OF TREES CHIEFLY FOR ORNAMENTAL AND ASTHETIC PURPOSES. Pineta and Arboreta . ; Arboriculture in cities and large towns Trees in towns Planting in order to hide Aspect ances Arboriculture in residential parks Physiological effects of transplanting Best method of transplanting large trees Machines for transplanting large trees The Kingston Hall machine . - The French transplanting machine . The raising of fallen trees F : : Machines for transplanting smaller trees and shrubs Transplanting (continued froma p. 481) Best season for transplanting Stimulating the vigour of old trees . : Prevention of further decay in wounds and holes CHAPTER V. THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIMBER CROPS ON LARGE ESTATES. Extent of afforestation Laying out of plantations . : P On the selection of trees for planting . Should pure plantations be formed, or mixed woods ? 401 406 442 447 453 457 459 466 471 481 481 485 487 488 489 491 492 494 497 499 512 518 CONTENTS. Xili CHAPTER VI. SOIL-PREPARATION FOR THE FORMATION OF TIMBER-CROPS. bo > Object of soil-preparation r Ke) Advantages of drainage Drainage of woodlands m Cc _ Laying out of drains . or or ot Or 1 ; oo C s“I Drainage-ploughs 48 Closed or covered drains 550 CHAPTER VIL THE FORMATION OF TIMBER-CROPS,—NATURAL REGENERATION, SOWING AND PLANTING. Regeneration of woods 4 : : : : : : - 908 Natural regeneration by enclosure merely . : : - - - 963 Planting ’ - ; ¢ : Z ‘ : : . 564 Artificial regeneration : : ; : - : . . 564 Choice between sowing and planting : : : 5 - . 565 Season for planting . : : : : : < ; . 568 Methods of planting— 1. Pit-planting . : : : : ‘ : ‘ es 2. Notching : 5 3. Tumping or planting on mounds , : : : : 4 0 Or Trimming of plants oe iin! Gantame! fa Ind fF WH © Hints concerning planting (92) i) Density of plantations Conduct of planting operations or or Or 1 [oe] vse Planting in mountainous tracts ‘ : 96 Planting on hillsides and on the higher uplands : - , : > 99 Planting on low-lying tracts . : oa : E : = pl Planting of waste lands j ; : ‘ : : : . 603 Planting near the sea-coast . : : : ‘ ‘ . = ARE Planting on mossy land 3 : : : : : - on OLO Coppice for powder-wood . : : : : : : . 614 Planting of scrub-lands : : : , : : : Se GLG Replanting of woodlands : : : : : : ‘ Soe Us Hedgerow timber. , : ‘ ; ‘ : : . 622 Cost of planting : ; : . : , : : . 626 THE FORESTER. —— CHAP TB 4. INTRODUCTORY,—TREATING OF VARIOUS MATTERS CONNECTED BOTH WITH FORESTS IN GENERAL, AND WITH FORESTRY IN BRITAIN IN PARTICULAR. Introductory Remarks.—Wherever there have been vast stretches of “forest primeval ’”—that is to say, over by far the greater portion of the inhabited land of the globe—the clearance, and not the cul- tivation, of trees has occupied the attention of man from the earliest ages even down to the present day. In the very earliest times the clearance of woodlands for the purposes of agriculture was a work of merit; for the first instance in which anything at all relating to Forestry is mentioned in the Bible is in the 5th verse of the 74th Psalm, which says that “A man was famous according as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees.” For thousands of years in the past the same work has been going on that is to-day being carried out in the direction of clearance in the remote jungles of Assam, Chittagong, Burma, and Siam, by dark-skinned tribes of nomadic habits; and which is also being carried out very actively by the white colonists and squatters throughout North America, Southern Africa, Australia, and other colonies. In tropical and subtropical districts having heavy rainfall, this clearance and destruction of the natural forests for purposes of temporary agricultural occupation is soon repaired again by nature; but where the occupation is permanent, as on the great plains of Hindostan, even in tropical countries the area of forest becomes restricted to those parts only whose soil is not good enough for permanent utilisation. In parts cleared by white settlers, VOL. FE A 2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. on the other hand, the first clearance is generally made with the express intention of a permanent occupation. The lands that are cleared and permanently occupied are, first of all, those that offer natural advantages of one sort or another. Pro- ductivity or richness of soil, convenient situation on the banks of a large stream or at a ford which renders communication easy, a locality readily defensible against natural dangers like floods, or against enemies, are all matters that have received, and still receive, more or less consideration in clearing away the tree-growth that was at first one of the free gifts of nature. Gradually, in course of time, this work of clearance has proceeded so far in certain countries that legislation has been required in order to protect the existing areas still under tree-growth against further encroachment; for it has been found that, except under unusually favourable conditions, the clearance of the natural forests has a very important influence on the running off of aqueous precipitations, on the motion of moisture within the soil, and on the amelioration of climates apt to vary from extreme heat in summer to excessive and intense cold in winter. Although the Timber Utilisation and Transport transaction, entered into between Solomon, King of the Jews, and Hiram of Tyre, in respect of Cedar and Fir from the forests of Lebanon (now almost totally devastated), details concerning which are to be found in 1 Kings chap. v. verses 6 to 16, is of considerably prior date (about 1000 B.c.), yet the first recorded instance of anything like Forest Administration or Forest Conservancy is that mentioned in Nehemiah chap. ii. verse 8, where that prophet asked King Artaxerxes (in the twentieth year of his reign—ie, in 384 B.c.) for “a letter unto Asaph, the keeper of the king’s forest, that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city, and for the house that I shall enter into.” But of all the nations of antiquity the Romans were the greatest with regard to Sylviculture and Arboriculture: of this ample proof is derivable from the writings of Pliny. At an early period of their national history they found by experience the evil effects of the injudicious and excessive clearance of woodlands, in the insalubrity of swampy tracts, and in the reaction on the productive capacity of the agricultural lands. They were the first to introduce exotic trees into Britain; for many species can be traced back to their importa- tion, whilst many others that failed to acclimatise themselves and to become denizens were introduced by them first of all, although they had to be reintroduced later on. They were, in the common sense of the word, Foresters; for we learn, from both Pliny and Horace, that they planted and reared coppice-woods for poles to support their vines, ARBORICULTURE AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. 3 and for various other useful purposes, and that they planted Willows for basket-making and other wicker-work. It is also stated that they had forests on their hills, from which they cut timber for building purposes. The Rise and Progress of Arboriculture and Sylviculture in Britain.— No reliable information exists as regards the particular period in the history of Britain at which tree-culture was first commenced ; but there can be no reasonable doubt that the Romans were the first to introduce the art, at least to any important extent. To them we owe the English Elm, Lime, Sweet-Chestnut, Poplar, and many other trees that failed, however, to establish themselves as forest-trees. When any country is being opened out, the first clearances, as has above been indicated, are made at places offering special advan- tages of one kind or another. And when, in course of time, the natural forest gives place to fields and pasturage, the areas covered with tree-growth gradually become restricted to woodlands on the poorer qualities of land or in tracts that are inconveniently situated. In the British Islands, where not even one of the highest moun- tain-peaks reaches an altitude of 4500 ft., there was nothing to necessitate the retention of wooded areas to serve purposes like those of the ban-forests of alpine countries, in obviating the formation of avalanches and the disturbance of agricultural tracts and vineyards by landslips; but love of the chase was the sole motive object urging the early kings of England and Scotland to set apart tracts of wood- lands as forests or royal hunting-grounds. Many such forests existed throughout England at the time of the Norman Conquest, but a great impetus was given in this direction by William I. and his successors; and the new forests created were not always confined to woodland tracts merely, but sometimes, as in the case of the great New Forest in Hants, included lands that had been cleared for permanent agricultural occupation. The modern signification of the word Forest, however, has come to mean any woodland tract that has become an object of human care, with a view to the productive capacity of the soil being utilised to its fullest financial and economic advantage. The treatment of forests on sound, rational, scientific, and financial principles con- stitutes the modern Art of Sylviculture, which is now struggling hard, especially in Scotland, for recognition and encouragement ; whilst the cultivation of individual trees, or of small groups or patches, intended rather for ornament, beauty, shelter, or game-rearing, forms the minor Art of Arboriculture, whose xsthetic or game-protecting objects are comparatively independent of the exact financial demands + RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARBORICULTURE that, in subordination only to the permanent maintenance of the productive capacity of the soil for the growth of timber-crops, forms the ruling principle in Sylviculture. The differences between Sylviculture and Arboriculture are, in fact, precisely analogous to those existing between Agriculture and Horticulture.’ The first reliable account with reference to the planting of trees in Britain is that given by Holinshed in his Description of Britaine, who states that, in the reign of Henry VIII., “plantations of trees began to be made for purposes of utility.” But it can be proved that the cultivation of the trees and woods of the New Forest was undertaken prior to the reign of Edward IV.—that is to say, about 450 years ago. In 1523, Fitzherbert wrote a book on planting, which is the first arboricultural work in the English language. According to Gouch (Brit. Topo., p. 61), it would appear that before the year 1597 Gerard had 1100 different plants and trees in cultivation. From the date last noted up to 1664, when Evelyn first pub- lished his celebrated Silva, the Silver Fir, Maple, and Larch, among true forest-trees, and the Plane, Horse-Chestnut, and Robinia, as well as many other ornamental trees, were introduced into England, and cultivated by private proprietors in their gardens and on their pleasure-grounds, and especially on those at Fulham Palace, the seat of Bishop Compton. Considering the time at which it was written, Evelyn’s Silva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees, is a very interesting and philosophical work on the subject of planting and rearing trees. He was an authority on Arboriculture in his day, and in his writings he enters very fully into the modes which were by him adopted with reference to planting, pruning, and thinning. From the stimulus given by this work, the attention of many proprietors would no doubt be called to the advantages of planting trees extensively; and as he was a man not only of very considerable natural taste and ability, but also occupied the high position of Secretary to the Royal Society, he would most probably be consulted personally on the subject of which he wrote so much. He seems to have been very fond of quaint Dutch gardening or clipped specimens of evergreens, which were 1 The editor begs to draw particular attention to this distinction, which is, at the same time, a very important difference. In previous editions of this work, the treatment of the subject of Forestry has been arboricultural rather than sylvicultural: in the present edition however, an endeavour is made to treat the subject as much as possible from a sylvicultural, as well as an arboricultural, point of view, but remembering always that, throughout Britain, Forestry is at the present moment in a transitional stage, and on the whole partakes more of the nature of Arboriculture than of scientific Sylviculture. AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. 5 oreatly the fashion in his day; but, from his writings in general, it is evident that he was more a promoter of the planting of valuable timber plantations than of gardening or ornamental planting. And it is evident that the subject attracted a considerable amount of attention towards the close of the seventeenth century, for his Silva ran through three editions in little more than forty years. In fact, in the third edition of his work (1706) he begins the celebrated Discourse by “reoretting the impolitic diminution of our timber, . . . caused through the prodigious havoc made” by those who “were tempted, not only to fall and cut down, but utterly to extirpate, demolish, and raze, as it were, all the many goodly woods and forests which our more prudent ancestors left standing, for the Ornament and Service of their Country.” From the fact of the Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh having also been founded by Dr Balfour in the year 1670, it seems much more than probable not only that about this time the formation of plan- tations was making extensive progress in Scotland, which we know to have been the case from timber felled and utilised during the present century, but also that a very considerable desire for botanical and arboricultural information had arisen in the country. From the catalogue of plants grown in these Gardens about the time referred to, and published by Mr Sutherland, the curator, in 1683, it would seem that the Cedar of Lebanon was among the trees introduced in that year. After the year 1700 a great stimulus seems to have been given to Forestry, for a large number of the great landed proprietors, both in England and Scotland, began to plant on a somewhat considerable scale; but it chiefly took the form of Arboriculture and the orna- mentation of the residential portions of large estates. Perhaps Syon House, one of the seats of the Duke of Northumberland, may be specially mentioned as one of the most Important cases of arboricul- tural adornment in point of variety of the species of trees planted. At this place there are still many fine specimens of old trees of all the important species known in the country at the time of their being planted. From gleanings made from old writers on the subject of planting, it is certain that in Scotland Arboriculture was already practised to some extent about the middle of the seventeenth century. From Walker’s Essays it appears that the Lime-tree was planted at Tay- mouth in 1664, the Silver and the Spruce Firs at Inverary in 1682, the Black Poplar at Hamilton in 1696, the Horse-Chestnut at New Posso in 1709, the Weymouth Pine at Dunkeld in 1725, and the Larch at the same place in 1741, the English Elm at Dalmahoy in 6 RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARBORICULTURE 1763, the Norway Maple at Mountstewart in 1738, and the Cedar of Lebanon at Hopetoun in 1743. These data prove that a taste for the cultivation of the various species of trees had sprung up among the landed proprietors of Scotland at a comparatively early period. In the year 1700 there were upwards of 1000 acres enclosed and planted in the New Forest, Hampshire.’ It would seem that in Scotland Thomas, Earl of Haddington, was among the first to plant trees in large masses for profitable use. He began to plant extensively at his seat, Tynninghame, in East Lothian, in 1705. This nobleman wrote a treatise on forest-trees, and published it in 1733. In this work he says :— “T will be bold to say that planting was not well understood in this country till this century began. I think it was the late Earl of Mar that first introduced the wilderness way of planting amongst us; and very much im- proved the taste of our gentlemen, who very soon followed his example.” The wilderness way of planting, referred to by the Earl of Haddington, is simply a plantation with openings left through it, as vistas from some given point,—taken, no doubt, from the English style of the time. About the year 1730, the planting of trees in large masses began to be very generally practised all over the country, both in England and Scotland, as is evident from an examination of the still existing woods. Shortly after that date many nurseries were established for the purpose of supplying the great demands that arose for young trees for planting. It is also to be inferred from Walker’s Essays that between the years 1730 and 1760 public nurseries were established in Scotland for the rearing of forest-trees. About this time Boutcher, an Edinburgh nurseryman, wrote a treatise on the rearing of forest-trees. 1 Previous to that date the plantations that were formed, and which still exist, amounted to 4500 acres. For convenience, the subsequent plantations may also here be noted. They are thus classifiable :— Acres. Over 100 years in age. : : : : 1377 From 75 to 100 years in age . : : é 2230 " 50 to 75 " : ° ° ° 4080 " 25to 50 " ° . : : 4278 Under 25 years in age ; : . : 5705 Total f : F j ali000 The New Forest aggregates about 92,395 acres, of which 27,658 acres are private property not included within the national forest. Deducting cultivated land, about 63,000 acres, parts of which are burdened with ‘‘rights of common,” are comprised within the forest. Of this about 30,000 acres, or nearly one-half, were in 1849 described by an eminent firm of land-agents in England as being ‘‘ unfit for either agriculture, growth of timber, or pasturage.” It might be well, in the national interests, to have this opinion reviewed in the light of our present sylvicultural knowledge. AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. 7 The Kew Gardens were established in 1760, and in them there were collected specimens of all known trees; but a considerable number of years previous to this date there were several extensive nurseries in England, in which were reared not only forest-trees, but also all the foreign plants known at the time. As soon as public nurseries had become so plentifully and extensively established in the country as to cause competition, and consequently to produce a supply of young trees at a reasonable rate, proprietors commenced to plant on a large scale; and it will be found that a very large portion of the existing woodlands throughout Britain were planted in the latter part of the last, and the beginning of the present, century. In England there are few extensive woodland proprietors who have not a large proportion of their older and mature woods of from eighty to one hundred and ten years of age, and of their younger crops from sixty to seventy years, from which it naturally follows that a large amount of planting must have been undertaken between the years 1777 and 1830. The same remarks are applicable to the age of the greater portion of the existing plantations in Scotland. For although the planting of trees for profitable purposes was undertaken at a much earlier date in England than in Scotland, still the proportion of plantations of this description was but small in England previous to 1777, and it will generally be found to hold good that the larger proportion has been made since that date. In the latter part of the last, and in the beginning of the present, century the chief planters in Scotland were the Duke of Atholl, Lord Breadalbane, and Sir J. Grant of Strathspey. No doubt others also planted extensively in a general sense; but the plantations of any one of those great landed proprietors far exceeded those of perhaps any other private proprietors in Britain. ( From 1830 until about 1845, when agricultural returns were high, it would seem that plantations were formed to but a small extent comparatively. This circumstance in the history of Arboricul- ture may perhaps also partially be accounted for from the fact that a large portion of the plantations which had been made previous thereto had not succeeded up to the expectations that had been formed; and that, consequently, not only the proprietors who had taken a decided lead in this respect, but also others who purposed to plant, were deterred from their praiseworthy exertions to improve the country, by seeing the generally unremunerative prospects which followed so great an outlay of capital. But it must also be recollected that it was just about this time that railways began to be developed very extensively ; and no doubt this influenced the expenditure of 8 RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARBORICULTURE many of the large landed proprietors, and diverted it for the time being to more tempting investments. That partial failure should have followed upon extensive planting, at a time when the advantages of drainage and thinning were neither properly understood nor acted upon, is not to be wondered at. But eradually, and as experience was obtained on the subject, light was thrown on it, and a new era was entered on. This era may be dated from about the year 1845, as previous to this period few had practised drainage to any important extent on land before plant- ing trees upon it, and as few had understood the necessity and advantages of judicious and systematic thinning. After the year 1845, when the partial drainage of waste and other lands began to be practised for the planting of forest-trees, and when even the imperfect system then adopted was found to operate in a beneficial manner on the health of the crop, many proprietors, especially in Scotland, commenced to plant largely. Some time previous to the year 1845 the advantages of thinning young plantations in a decided and systematic way had become somewhat understood, but even then much remained to be learned by those who had the management of them. Within the last forty years, however, great improvements have been effected in this respect ; and now, more particularly during the last ten to twenty years, the majority of those engaged in practical forestry in Scotland have learned to understand the principle of thinning, and to act upon it. Very much, however, still remains for them to learn regarding the art of Forestry in its four main branches of—i. Sylviculture, 1i. Protection of Woodlands, li. Management and Valuation of Forests, and iy. Utilisation of Forest Produce. Within the last half-century considerable advances have been effected in the mode of cultivating trees, and in consequence of this proprietors are now expending, with full confidence of realising pro- fitable returns, large amounts in the improvement of their properties by planting. And as, along with yearly increasing demands for timber and other forest produce, the productive area is rapidly being diminished, this subject of the appreciation of timber and the supply- ing of our demands later on has now become one of the greatest importance to this country from a financial point of view, it is to be hoped, and it can hardly be doubted, that ere long very much greater attention will be brought to bear on it, and, consequently, that still greater advantages will arise from having sound instruc- tion given in the Principles and Practice of Forest Science. Since the beginning of the present century, a large number of new species has been added to our arboricultural list of forest-trees, most of which are indigenous to the mountainous regions of India AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. 9 and America. Many of them, especially those of the Pine and the Fir tribes, are doubtless destined to become of very great import- ance to this country, both from a sylvicultural and a purely orna- mental point of view; indeed, in this respect, the Red or Douglas Fir and the Menzies or Sitka Spruce have a value which is not yet properly appreciated. Many public-spirited proprietors have’ planted collections of the newer sorts of trees upon their grounds, in order to test their hardi- ness and suitability to our changeable climate. Through these praiseworthy exertions a certain amount of experience has now been gained with regard to several of the characteristics of these new species; and by means of this, opportunities have been given for forming opinions as to such as have proved unsuitable for anything more than arboricultural adornment, and such as are likely to be of advantage for more extensive sylvicultural attention. A great impetus was given to the study of Forestry, and to the development of Arboriculture, by the Forestry Exhibition held at Edinburgh in 1884. It was hoped that a surplus would be secured, after paying all expenses, sufficient for the endowment of a Chair of Forestry in the Edinburgh University; but though in many impor- tant respects successful, the scheme failed to achieve this object. It, however, led to the consideration of the whole question of British Forestry by a committee of the House of Commons which sat in 1885, 1886, and 1887, and which, on 4th August 1887, sub- mitted a Report, from which the following portions of more particular interest are excerpted :— “The Committee was first appointed in 1885 for the purpose of con- sidering ‘whether, by the establishment of a Forest School, or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered more remunerative. The Committee was re- appointed in 1886, when, in consequence of the general election, it had not time to complete its inquiry, and recommended that:it should be reappointed in the present session. “The Committee has received evidence from persons representing various professions, occupations, and interests, connected with woodlands and forest management in England, as well as in Scotland and Ireland, and has especially directed its attention to the following points :— “(1.) How far there is need of some means of giving instruction to those engaged in the cultivation and management of woodlands. “(2.) How far the establishment of a school or schools of Forestry would meet such need. “(3.) Whether a board of persons, representing various interests and associations connected with Agriculture, Arboriculture, and Sylviculture, should be formed with the assistance of Parliament, for the purpose of examination, granting certificates, and generally promoting the improvement of our woodlands. 10 RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARBORICULTURE “*(4.) Whether by either or both of such means the cultivation of wood- lands could be made more remunerative. “The woodlands belonging to the State are comparatively small, though even, as regards them, the difference between skilled and unskilled manage- ment would itself more than repay the cost of a forest school. The wood- lands in private hands, however, are far more considerable, and the total area of woodlands amounts, according to the agricultural accounts, to 2,788,000 acres, Viz. :— Acres. * England . : 5 : : . 1,466,000 Wales : é : : a 5 163,000 Scotland . : A : : : 829,000 Ireland 3 ; : : : 6 330,000 Moreover, strong evidence has been given before your Committee that large tracts of land in the United Kingdom, especially in Scotland and Ireland, might be planted with advantage. The forests in India and the Colonies must also be taken into consideration, and on the whole, the forest area in the British Empire is greater than that belonging to any other country. Your Committee are satisfied that, so far as Great Britain and Ireland are con- cerned, the management of our woodlands might be materially improved. Moreover, the present depressed values render economical and skilful manage- ment even more important than if the range of prices were higher, though it is probable that, with the waste of forests elsewhere, a brighter future is in store for home forestry, and that some considerable proportion of the timber now imported, to the value of £16,000,000, might, under more skilful manage- ment, be raised at home. “Nearly every other civilised State possesses one or more forest schools. In this country, on the contrary, no organised system of forestry instruction is in existence excepting in connection with the Indian service. “The witnesses examined before the Committee have been generally and strongly of opinion that the establishment of forest schools, or at any rate of some organised ‘system of forest instruction, would be very desirable ; but they have differed considerably as to the best mode in which this might be effected. There is a general agreement that the establishment of a Forest Board would be a wise step. “As regards the formation of a forest school, more than one centre of instruction would be desirable; though in the first instance it might be well to establish one school only, in order to secure the most complete equipment, the best teachers, and a sufficiency of students. . . . This school would doubtless be situated in England, but a school for Scotland is also urgently needed, and your Committee are of opinion that it would probably be desirable to found another in Ireland. “As regards Great Britain and Ireland, the demand would be principally for instruction adapted to the needs of land-agents, foresters, and wood-reeves. Even as regards ordinary woodmen, your Committee consider that a certain amount of simple and practical instruction would be very useful. “Apart from the question of actual profit derived from tree planting, its importance as an accessary to agriculture is shown by the effects which woods AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. bt have in affording shelter and improving the climate ; and your Committee are of opinion that, whilst on public and national grounds timber cultivation on a more scientific system should be encouraged, landowners might make their woods more remunerative were greater attention paid to the selection of trees suitable to different soils and to more skilful management after the trees are planted. “Your Committee have had evidence that, apart from any immediate pecuniary benefits, there would be considerable social and economical ad- vantages in an extensive system of planting in many parts of the kingdom, especially on the west side of Ireland and in the Highlands of Scotland. This subject is one of great importance, and well worthy of early consideration. “Your Committee also think it right to call attention to the present unsatisfactory condition of the New Forest. Mr Lascelles, the deputy sur- veyor, has expressed himself strongly on this question, and attributes it to the Act of 1877. ‘There are to be seen by the student of Forestry,’ he says, ‘over 40,000 acres of waste land lying idle and worthless. But by clause 5 of the Act of 1877 no planting may be done there. He will see several fine plantations of Oak, which are not only ripe and mature, but which are going back rapidly, and he will wonder why the crop is not realised and the ground replanted, till he is referred to clause 6 of the same Act, by which he will see that the ground may not be cleared of the crop. Last, and worst of all, he will see some 4500 acres of the most beautiful old woods in the country, most of which are dying back and steadily going to wreck and ruin. But here again absolutely nothing can be done. . . . It is sad to see them dying out, when all that is required to preserve them for future generations is to imitate the wisdom of those who made them at first, and by simply protecting, by enclosing them and removing dead trees, leave it to nature to perpetuate them. . . . Those who framed the New Forest Act of 1877 desired to conserve these old woods, but their zeal seems to have carried them so far as to defeat the object they had in view; and I cannot but think that had Forestry been a science commonly taught in the past, as I trust it may be in the future, owing to the result of this inquiry, no such clause could ever have found a place in an Act of Parliament dealing with woodlands.’ The object of the Act of 1877, no doubt, was that the forest should be maintained in a state of natural beauty; and as the effect now appears to be to defeat this very object, the present condition of the forest demands the serious attention of the Government. “Your Committee recommend the establishment of a Forest Board. They are also satisfied by the evidence that the establishment of forest schools, or at any rate of a course of instruction and examination in Forestry, would be desirable, and they think that the consideration of the best mode of carrying this into effect might be one of the functions intrusted to such a Forest Board.” During 1893 an exhibition of Horticulture and Forestry was held at Earl’s Court in London; but owing to the somewhat hasty manner in which it was projected and arranged, the Forestry portion was less complete and instructive than would otherwise have been the case. 12 REQUIREMENTS OF BRITAIN AS REGARDS The Requirements of Britain as regards Timber and other . Forest Produce.—Even since these figures were put before the Com- mittee on Forestry, there have been changes in the total of woodlands, for the Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, published for 1892 by the Board of Agriculture, show the following statement :— Percentage of In the United Kingdom. Acres. Feats bea Total area of land and water. js 77,642,099 100.0 Arable land . : : : 20,444,577 25.5 Permanent pasture | 27,533,326 35.5 Woodlands (and nurseries) | 3,005,670 3.8 Though not very extensive as compared with the forest areas of many of the countries on the continent of Europe, these 470 square miles of woodlands probably represent a capital value, in growing timber alone, of a sum greatly in excess of £20,000,000 as the actual cost of production, and with proper treatment they should have a prospective value of a very much greater amount. In comparison with our woodland areas, the continental countries of Europe exhibit the following totals of forest lands : '— we Forest area in |Rereentageof/ Acrge per | Poreontage, ‘ of the State. | population. State. Russia) . . .. | 447,592,405 36.0 4.94 57.4 Finland ( ee So s5oa7t 38.0 23.14 70.5 Sweden ) : ; . 45,061,984 44.4 9.50 31.0 Norway § : : ; 19,280,820 24.0 10.67 13.0 Germany . ; : é 34,353,743 25.7 0.69 32.7 Austria } : : 2 24,150,215 32.6 1.11 6.5 Hungary § 3 : ; 22,683,469 28.3 1.53 16.1 France. ; ; : 23,360,062 Wek 0.61 11.3 eee : : : : 20,955,480 17.0 1.28 83.7 Turkey (with . = Bulgaria) 13,919,685 OL 3.45 2 tal yield tes @Nars Ugtary soll? 9,030,320 12.0 0.32 1.6 Russia and | 2 Herzegovina f F 6,583,515 51.0 2 85.0 Roumania : ; : 4,446,000 13.7 0.38 52.3 Great Britain : : 3,005,670 3.8 0.08 3.6 Servia . ; ; : 2,393,430 20.0 1.43 ? Switzerland. ; : 2,032,572 19:9 0.71 4.2 Greece. : ¥ : 2,025,400 15.8 1,21 80.0 Belgium . : : : 1,205,830 16.6 0,22 2 Portugal . : . : 1,165,346 5.1 0.27 2 Holland . : 3 : 568,100 7.0 0.12 ? Denmark . ; : ‘ 508,298 5.4 0.24 24.0 Luxemburg. 2 380,380 34.8 Ua 71.4 Total forest area) aaa ae throughout Europe f 735,062,195 30.2 2.51 1 Endres, article on Forsten, in Handwirterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Jena, 1892; but including corrections of figures for Britain. TIMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCE. 13 It will thus be seen that, with regard to woodland area and power of producing timber, Britain occupies but a minor position among the countries of Europe. But our demands for forest produce are so enormous that the state of the British market practically regulates prices abroad. The important position which Britain thus assumes as a vast consumer may be more correctly gauged by the following quotation from an article by Professor Endres of Karls- ruhe on Zhe Worlds Timber Trade, and Taxation in Timber, in the Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, March 1893, p. 82 :— “Fingland has only 4 per cent of woodland, and is, in consequence of its highly developed commerce and its intensive output of coal, the most absorptive country in the world. The English timber consumption influences the timber trade all over the world, and determines the level of the timber prices. In the beginning of the year 1890, when a serious crisis occurred in the English market in consequence of enormous imports, prices fell about 10 to 15 per cent throughout Central Europe. In 1890 the total import amounted to 9,983,774 cubic metres=5,990,244 tons, valued at sixteen million pounds sterling. The total was supplied as follows :— Per cent. Sweden and Norway 37.4 Russia : 5 : : : 21.5 British North America . : 2 ; ' 19.3 United States 6.5 Germany ; 4.7 British East India , : ‘ ; 0.6 Other countries . : 2 ; : a 10.0 Thus over 30 per cent of the timber is produced in non-European countries, and consists of kinds of timber that cannot possibly be grown in Europe. The timber export of England is almost zero, so that the new customs legislation relative to timber within the Central European countries does not affect England in the slightest degree.” During the year 1892 the imports of forest produce into Britain, as shown by the Customs Returns in the Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom, published in December 1892, were as shown in tabular form on the next page. From these returns it is impossible to eliminate the classes of timber which it would be a physical impossibility to produce in our climate, such as, for example, the Teak used in the lining of iron ships, the Jarrah and other Australasian Hardwoods used for street pavements, &e. But, at the same time, the above return does not include the other similar articles that could be eliminated from the customs accounts, such as Mahogany (56,315 tons=£501,203), Cutch and Gambier (25,192 tons=£548,395), Caoutchouc and Gutta-percha (317,660 cwt.=£3,501,923), &c., supplies of which must of course, under all circumstances, be drawn from across the 14 TIMBER REQUIREMENTS OF BRITAIN. seas, although they certainly might preferably be obtained from our own colonies and dependencies than from other countries. SPECIES. | Quantity. Value. Hewn wood (in the round or square). | Loads, 2,469,140 - £4,905,846 Converted timber (sawn or split, planed or dressed)? 5 : : n 5,094,309 11,180,141 Staves of all dimensions é ; " 136,063 593,539 Total for wood and timber . Le hii n 7,699,512 £16,679,526 Wood-pulp for paper manufacture . | Tons, 190,938 £981,025 Rosin . ; : 3 . | Cwt., 1,681,393 384,050 Bark for tanners and dyers_ . : " 380,337 158,105 Total for minor forest produce . | a... £1,523,180 Total value of forest produce imported . j £18,202,706 If our woodlands were better managed than they at present are, and if the landed proprietors could be made to study the importance of the steady appreciation in the value of timber, and the bright pros- pect existing for timber that may become marketable in about fifty years’ time, home competition might easily be induced for the supply of more than the half of our total timber imports. For, taking the countries in which identically the same species of trees are grown that may be produced sylviculturally in Britain, there still remain the following imports that may be regarded as utilised by us and not exported again :— Imported from Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Germany during 1892. Loads. Value. Timber in the rough . ; : 1,400,927 £2,257,401 Converted timber : : 5 3,362,425 6,950,504 Total 4,763,352 £9,207,905 It may confidently be stated that if due attention were given to the selection of the proper species of trees for given soils and situations, if the principles relating to the most favourable density of planta- tions, or sowlngs, or natural regenerations, and to the operations of 1 Of this converted timber, 20,935 loads, valued at £72,860, were exported ; but all the other raw produce appears to have been actually consumed in the country, making the true figures for the year £18,129,846. AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF ARBORICULTURE. 15 tending (clearing, thinning, &c.) were properly understood and practised throughout Britain, there would not be the slightest necessity for the insertion (as at present obtains) of any clauses into Government contracts stipulating for the use of foreign wood in preference to home-grown timber. But if woods be allowed to grow up so that a considerable por- tion of the energy of growth of the individual trees forming the crop is dissipated in branch development, in place of being utilised economically in the formation of a clean, smooth, full-wooded bole of high general technical quality, then no surprise need be felt at every person concerned with its utilisation giving a solid preference to foreign timber grown under more rational conditions, and therefore of higher technical and general value, owing to its comparative freedom from knots. Climatic and National-Economic Influence of Woodlands.— The present advanced state of agriculture everywhere demands a skilful and extended system of Forestry. It is allowed by all who have given their attention to the improvement of lands in any country, that the judicious rearing of plantations, distributed equally over the face of the country, improves the general climate when the rainfall is not already so large as to make any increased humidity of the atmosphere undesirable. Not only may the climate often be improved to a great degree, but even the very soil upon which forest-trees grow may be very much improved in productive capacity by the gradual accumulation of nutrient soluble salts within it. The Aisthetic Influence of Arboriculture. — Trees are not only often profitable as a crop; they are also in the highest degree ornamental, and possess an esthetic influence of inestimable value. For what objects in nature are so grand and so effective as old trees, with their massive stems and spreading limbs, and their leafy crowns covered with foliage of different shapes and shades? Many hillsides would be comparatively monotonous in appearance but for the planta- tions of trees of various shades formed upon them. And what would be the effect of the waterfall or the river without trees in their neigh- bourhood? A country without trees is uninteresting as compared with landscapes in which trees are visible. What adds more beauty and «esthetic effect to a noble mansion-house than ornamental groups of fine-foliaged trees? Do not the woodlands constitute one of the greatest charms and pleasures of rural scenery in general? Does not a fringe or setting of graceful trees add beauty to, and enhance the esthetic effect of a cascade, or a waterfall, or a lake dotted over with islands? Is it not in great measure owing to the noble timber-trees that the residential portions of large landed estates are belauded as 16 AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF ARBORICULTURE. “the stately homes of England”? Is it not the growing timber that renders the home-parks of our great landed proprietors so cheerful, so enlivening, so rich in beauty, and so much praised by the most cultivated minds? But trees are not merely to be admired on account of their beauty and their utility. They inspire a feeling of awe and respect, when we behold the gigantic stems that have stood the storms and stress of four hundred or five hundred years, and often longer, during which many generations of men have come and gone, whilst they have remained in the pride of a beauty that increases year by year, and in the fulness and strength of their natural vigour. Apart from the wanton destruction of the great pine-forests of Scotland, that were devastated by fire for political reasons, what is now the cause of so much waste land being found in the north of Scotland, and in many parts of England? Can it be denied that it is the want of trees to give shelter? Why is it that proprietors of land in these parts complain so much of great tracts of it being worthless, growing nothing but the inferior grasses, mosses, rushes, and heaths, upon which even one sheep cannot find food enough on two acres? Is it not because of the want of plantations to give shelter? Now that the art of agriculture has improved so much, forests and extensive plantations ought to receive an equal share of attention ; for the full benefit will not be derived from a superior system of agriculture, if the fields be not sheltered from the evil effects of uncongenial climate by healthy plantations judiciously situated. In the improvement of all waste lands a large proportion of these should be planted up in order to give shelter. Wherever this is not attended to, disappointment will often be the natural result. The land may remain comparatively unproductive; and when the owner finds that reclaiming does not pay him, he may very likely allow the wastes to fall back into their original state of unpro- ductiveness. It is a well-known fact that, both in Canada and in the United States, the yield of the wheat crop gradually diminishes as the forests are cleared, and that the heaviest crops of this cereal are found on land sheltered by woods. Of course newly cleared land is more productive than land which has been some time in agricultural occupation ; for there are large reserve-supplies of nutrient soluble salts that have been stored up in the soil if the canopy of the natural forest has been close enough to protect the soil from the deteriorating and impoverishing influences of excessive exposure to sunshine, wind, and heavy rainfall. But even after these reserves have been consumed, the productive capacity of the soil is greater in tracts that are protected by woodlands against dry winds or floods. NATIONAL-ECONOMIC INFLUENCE OF WOODLANDS. Li And if the population of a country doubles itself every fifty years, where is the supply of food to come from, in one hundred years hence, if the agricultural production be not stimulated by the planting up of the waste land? The influence of planting upon the general welfare of a country is, indeed, a question which demands serious consideration. If any piece of waste land, after being drained and ploughed, will yield 20 bushels per acre, in a state unsheltered by forest-trees, the same land may perhaps yield 25 or 30 or even 35 bushels per acre if judiciously sheltered by woods. If the solution of such questions as the best utilisation of unproductive lands in the Highlands of Scotland, in England, Wales, and Ireland, and in a certain degree also local labour questions, can be helped by Forestry, the sub- ject seems one well worthy of the attention of the Government. It must be borne in mind that many of the operations of Forestry can best be carried on at times of the year in which large numbers of able-bodied men are com- pulsorily thrown out of their regular employment. For not only would the community at large be greatly benefited by an improved and extended system of Sylviculture throughout Britain, but every proprietor who lays out plantations judiciously, on scientific and financial principles, both gives shelter to his fields and at the same time greatly enhances the value of his estate. Scientific Investigations into the Climatic and WNational- Economic Influence of Woodlands.'—To Germany, the home of forest science, we owe the first steps taken to ascertain the cli- matic influences exerted by woodlands. It was not until the year 1867 that exact scientific observations were undertaken on any extensive scale to determine the actual influence which forests have in modifying the temperature of the air and of the soil within their own areas and over the surrounding tracts of country: Since then, however, meteorological observations have been carefully made at various forest and agricultural stations throughout Norway and Sweden, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the United States; but the results of these have not yet been fully collated and arranged for the deduction of the natural laws, to the better knowledge of which the investigations are expected to lead. So far as information is yet available, the following conclusions have been arrived at :— 1. As regards Atmospheric Temperature.— The annual average temperature within forests growing in closed canopy is lower than in the open, although the crowns of the trees are on the whole a little warmer in winter. The difference is greatest in summer, least in winter, and about midway be- tween these extremes in spring and autumn; the mean annual difference, however, seldom amounts to over 1° Fahr. near the ground, and is searcely }° 1 Nature, 1894, pp. 302-305. AOE Ue B 18 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CLIMATIC AND in the crowns. The prevention of insolation of the soil during the long hot days of summer, and the rapid transpiration taking place through the foliage, exert a greater influence on the atmospheric temperature than can be ascribed to shelter from wind and to decrease of nocturnal radiation. The observations made prove (1) that the variations between the tempera- tures of the trees themselves and the air in the open exceed those between the woodland air and the latter except during winter; (2) that they are largest during the most active period of vegetation in summer ; and (3) that they are greater in spring, when the circulation of sap begins, than during the autumn months, when vitality becomes sluggish and dormant. In the crown of the trees, where insolation by day and radiation by night make their full influence felt, the difference in the daily average over the whole year is less than it is near the ground. In winter it averages little either above or below 0°, and in summer usually about the half of the reading at 5 ft. above the ground. Observations made in Southern Germany establish the fact that in the forests it is cooler during the day and warmer during the night than in the open. During the night the trees interfere with the radiation of heat, and in the daytime the shade afforded by the crowns keeps the air from being rapidly warmed by the sun’s rays. These influences are naturally strongest during spring, summer, and autumn, when foliage is most abundant, whilst in winter the coniferous forests with evergreen foliage are milder than deciduous forests. Owing to these differences in temperature, beneficial currents of air are induced between the forests and the open country, which follow the same law as obtains in regard to land and sea breezes. During the day the cooler and moister air of the forest sets outwards to take the place of the heated air ascending in the open; at night the current sets in from the open, cooled by radiation, towards the forest. The statistics, upon which these conclusions are based, prove that the immediate action of forests is to modify the daily maxima and minima of atmospheric temperature, whence it may be deduced that a comparison of the absolute extremes of temperature during the year must exhibit definitely the sum-total of the influence exerted by forests on the temperature of the atmos- phere. This modification of the extremes of temperature, which are bad alike for man and beast, and also for agricultural operations, is of immense im- portance from a national-economic point of view, since many places that were once fertile are now little better than barren wastes in consequence of the reckless denudation of forest. Owing to their dense foliage and complete canopy, Beech-forests in summer exert a considerably greater influence in diminishing the extremes of tempera- ture than forests of Spruce or Scots Pine; but after defoliation their influence is very similar to that of the Pine-forest, and only half so great as that of the more densely foliaged Spruce. 2. As regards Soil-Temperature.—The influence exerted on the soil- temperature by forests growing in close canopy is of considerable importance, especially with regard to the soil-moisture. Observations have made it clear, therefore, that the mean annual temperature of the soil in the forest is at all depths of observation (extending to 4 ft.) cooler than in the open, and that NATIONAL-ECONOMIC INFLUENCE OF WOODLANDS. 19 the differences are greatest in summer, about the mean in spring and autumn, and very small in winter. In countries with warm summers this reduction of the soil-temperature over large areas by means of forest growth has a decidedly beneficial result. According to observations made in Wiirtemberg, the difference between the maxima of soil-temperature in forests and in the open can extend so far as up to 14° Fahr. The daily differences in soil-temperature were found to vary according to the season of the year, but throughout nearly the whole year the upper layers of soil in the open were warmer in the afternoon than in the forenoon, whereas in the forest the variations were inconsiderable. As with regard to the atmospheric temperature, the radinenes of ‘the forest-trees in equalising the soil-temperature throughout the year is also greatest in the case of trees whose foliage is densest, Spruce heading the list. 8. As regards the Degree of Atmospheric Humidity.—Observations throughout Central Germany show that as regards the absolute humidity of the air, forests have no appreciable climatic effect. The differences between the relative humidity of the air in forests and in the open are, as might be expected, greatest In summer. The results of the various observations, corrected in order to eliminate, so far as possible, local differences due to altitude and to other physical dis- similarities of the meteorological stations, show that the mean annual relative humidity of woodland air is from 33 to 10 per cent greater than that of air in the open, but that the difference varies greatly according to the season of the year, being greatest in summer and autumn, and least in winter and spring. They show, too, that large areas covered with Spruce will be moister, as well as cooler, than those under woods less densely foliaged. In Bavaria it was found that in summer, in consequence of the density of the foliage in Beech-forests during the most active period of growth, the difference even amounted to 13.6 per cent of saturation over the relative humidity in the open. 4. As regards the Precipitation of Aqueous Vapour.—lIt has been shown above, not only that the atmosphere within the forest is cooler than in the open, but also that the temperature of the trees themselves is lower, especially in summer, than the air surrounding them ; hence, when a current of air is wafted from the open into the forest, and comes in contact with the cooler trees, its temperature is reduced, and it is brought nearer to the point of saturation—+.e., its relative humidity increases. But if this air was already in the open at or near the point of saturation, then the effect of the cooling process is that a certain amount of surplus moisture beyond the aqueous vapour that can be held by the air up to the point of saturation at its reduced temperature must be released and precipitated in the form of dew. Wood- lands, therefore, act as condensers of atmospheric moisture, and decrease the absolute humidity of the air whilst increasing its relative humidity; and in addition to this, they add to the humidity of the air by transpiration from the leaves, whilst the sap is being made available for structural purposes, and the work of assimilation is proceeding. Endeavours have been made to establish, by means of careful observations, the effect of forests in regard to the precipitation of aqueous vapour in the form of dew or rain, but the results are often of so conflicting a nature that, up to the present, safe deductions cannot be drawn. In order to compare 20 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CLIMATIC AND observations made in the forests with those made at the usual meteorological stations in the open, a correction would in each case be necessary to reduce the localities to the same sea-level, as air cools in rising and increases in relative humidity—7.e., it approaches the point at which it must precipitate some of the aqueous vapour held by it. Hence rainfall generally increases with the height of a locality above the sea-level, although no direct propor- tional increase can be proved. It fluctuates with the geographical position and the varying physical conditions of each point of observation, whilst variations in the direction of the moist winds of the locality also militate against the collection of reliable data for comparison with readings made in other localities. The mean statistics of readings made at 192 points of observation in Germany, corrected as carefully as possible with reference to these causes of difference, seem capable of yielding no general inference, except that at high altitudes large extents of forest may considerably increase the local rainfall. As regards the quantity of rainfall and snowfall which is intercepted in forests by the leaves, branches, and stems of the trees, the observations made in Switzerland, Prussia, and Bavaria prove that nearly one-fourth of all the precipitations of aqueous vapour is intercepted by the forest-trees, and is given off again by evaporation, or is gradually conducted down the stems to the soil. In lofty forest-clad regions the mechanical action of the rains on the surface-soil is thus very much modified. By means of their lower temperature, their greater relative humidity, and the mechanical obstruction they offer to the movements of currents of air, extensive forests act decidedly as condensers of the aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere, and their influence in this respect is more marked at high altitudes and in mountainous districts than on plains or near the sea-coast, where other physical factors come into competition with and modify it. But further data are still requisite to enable us to determine with anything like certainty that forests directly cause increase of precipitations irrespective of such local considerations as the ruling direction of winds and peculiarities of situation ; the generally accepted dictum is, however, that in the vicinity of extensive forests rainfall is greater than at other localities under otherwise similar physical conditions. In portions of the Russian steppes, planted up nearly fifty years ago, the inhabitants assert that the summer rainfall has considerably increased, and that the danger to crops from drought is not so great as formerly, whilst the villages are also protected by the forest from the violence of the winter storms. In summarising and criticising this point, Prof. Endres of Karlsruhe remarks as follows :'— “The data furnished from tropical countries must be accepted with the greatest caution, and in any case they afford no conclusive deductions for European circumstances. Blandford reports from India (J/eteorological Journal, 1888) that in an area of 61,000 square miles, which was formerly denuded of woodlands, but has been planted up again from 1875, the rainfall has increased 12 per cent since then. But H. Gannet (Weather, 5th vol.) arrives at exactly the opposite conclusions for America, as his observations in the prairie region and in Ohio go to prove that the re-wooding of a tract 1 Op. cit., p. 608. NATIONAL-ECONOMIC INFLUENCE OF WOODLANDS. 21 exerts no perceptible difference on the amount of the aqueous precipitations. Lendenfeld also tries to prove that the clearance of woodlands in Australia has resulted in a better climate and an increase in rainfall, as the soil under Eucalyptus remains hard as stone and inabsorptive, whilst it is rendered lighter and more porous by grass.” —(Petermann’s Geog. Mittheilungen, vol. 34). 5. As regards Evaporation of Soil-Moisture.—The low temperature and the high relative humidity of the atmosphere in forests are unfavourable to rapid evaporation, which is still further reduéed by the protection afforded to the soil against direct insolation and the action of winds. From observations extending over ten years (1876-85) in various parts of Germany and Austria, the following relation is shown between evaporation in the forests and in the open in the vicinity of the forests; the differences would probably be greater if comparisons had been made with places in the open that were far removed from the modifying influence of the woodlands :— | Water evaporated. Inches. In the open. é F : 3 : 20.9 | The practical importance of In the forest . : s ‘ : , 9.5 this will be seen, when it = : = is recollected that the Lower in forest than in open by : : 11.4 mineral food in the soil = can be taken up by the . Per cent. rootlets only in the form Evaporation in forest expressed in per- 46 of soluble salts. centage of that in the open The action of forests, therefore, is to retain in the soil a large proportion of the rainfall or of the moisture arising from the melting of snows, which, by percolation to the lower layers and the subsoil, tends to feed the streams perennially, and to maintain a constant supply of moisture, without which trees could not derive their requisite food-supplies from the soil. The nature of the soil-covering below the forest-trees exerts also consider- able influence on the amount of moisture evaporated. From experiments conducted during five years in Bavaria it was found! that a good layer of fallen leaves, and of humus or vegetable mould formed by their decay, dimin- ishes the evaporation by more than half, or reduces it to less than one quarter of that in the open, and thus adds very considerably to the surplus amount of moisture retained in the soil. 6. As regards the Feeding of Streams and the Protection of the Soil—From the above data it seems evident that the effect of extensive forests, more especially of those situated at high altitudes, is, by cooling the air and reducing its capacity for retaining aqueous vapour, to increase the precipitations. Whilst these precipitations are taking place the crowns of the trees intercept a large proportion of the total, and by breaking the violence of the rainfall protect the soil from the danger of being washed away during heavy storms. By the decomposition of fallen leaves and twigs a strongly hygroscopic soil-covering is formed, capable of imbibing and retaining moisture 1 Ebermayer’s Gesammte Lehre der Waldstreu, 1876, p. 183. 22 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CLIMATIC AND with sponge-like capacity. Rapid evaporation of the soil-moisture is counter- acted through the protection afforded by the foliage against direct insolation during the day, and by the mechanical hindrance offered to currents of wind. The crown of foliage likewise prevents the soil cooling rapidly at night by radiation. The hotter the summer, the more marked are these beneficial effects of the woodlands. When, therefore, large tracts of country are denuded of timber, increase of temperature during the days of summer, rapid radiation of ‘soil-warmth by night, diminished precipitations (especially in the spring and summer), and unchecked evaporation of moisture, due to complete insolation of the soil by day and absence of any protection from winds, must be the inevitable consequences. Examples of such actual results can be pointed out in many parts of - continental Europe, in Western Asia, and throughout India. In Great Britain and Ireland the effects of the wholesale clearance of wood- lands have not been so marked, in consequence of the favourable influences exerted on our climate by the Gulf-Stream. In localities having no protective woodlands, heavy rains wash away the surface-soil, torrents and freshets run down the water-courses with great violence, laden with detritus and discoloured with the soil held in mechanical solution, whilst streams and rivers often overflow their banks in consequence, devastating large areas of low-lying tracts under cultivation. Forests, on the other hand, tend to break the violence of the rainfall, and retain for the time being about one-fourth of the total amount on the foliage and branches; the roots of the trees and of the undergrowth help to bind the soil firmly; the rainfall is retained by the vegetable mould and by the spongy growth usually found on the surface-soil, and thence gradually percolates to the deeper layers, where it is held in reserve, to be finally parted with in being utilised for the feeding of perennial streams having their sources on the wooded slopes. Thus arose in the alpine districts of Southern Europe the necessity for maintaining ban-forests as a protection against landslips, avalanches, &c. ; and legal measures were early adopted for safeguarding them, in order to protect the lower tracts from erosion of the soil when sodden with rainfall or melted snow. 7. As regards General Hygienic Effect on the Atmosphere.—It is well known that on the one hand when large tracts of forests are cleared for cultivation, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries, fever and ague are frequently the consequence; and on the other, that the planting up of notorious fever districts—such as the Campagna di Roma, the Tuscan marshes, and the Russian steppes—has decidedly diminished the insalubrity of these localities. But the causes are very probably rather due to the degree of direct insolation of the soil, freely afforded in the one case and counteracted in the other, than to any hygienic property inherent in tree-growth. In the latter case, too, stagnating surplus of soil-moisture may have been got rid of by transpiration through the foliage, and this would of itself go far towards removing causes of insalubrity and improving the climate. It is generally accepted that ozone kills miasma in the air and purifies the latter—at any rate, impure air contains little or no ozone; the proportion of ozone is therefore usually taken as the measure of atmospheric quality. NATIONAL-ECONOMIC INFLUENCE OF WOODLANDS. 23 The belief that the woodland air is, like sea-air, very rich in ozone, has not yet been satisfactorily proved. Experiments in Bavaria showed that in the forests the percentage of ozone, though greater than that in towns, was slightly less than in the open in the vicinity of forests, and that there was no per- ceptible difference in this respect between coniferous and deciduous forests. The woodland air was found to contain most ozone in winter, which shows that its production could not be due to any chemical action of the foliage ; for there are no leaves on deciduous trees at that season, whilst Coni- fers transpire merely, and do not assimilate. It also indicates that the excess is probably due to the comparative freedom of air in the forest from the smoke, carbonic acid, and many other impurities with which air in the vicinity of towns is contaminated and defiled, and to the withdrawal of enormous supplies of oxygen from the air, which takes place for the support of animal life at all populous centres. Sunlight, however, has the power: of decomposing carbonic acid in the presence of chlorophyll, the green colouring matter contained in foliage,—the carbon being absorbed by the plant for its growth, and the oxygen set free. During darkness a contrary action takes place, oxygen being consumed by the foliage, and carbonic acid given off. As, however, particularly in the case of deciduous trees which are in leaf only from April till October, the hours of light far exceed in number those of darkness, the general hygienic effect of trees in cities and towns—apart from their invaluable esthetic infiuence— tends decidedly towards the purification of the atmosphere from excess of carbonic acid. Ozone is an allotropic modification of oxygen obtainable by passing a series of electrical discharges through it ; hence it is more than probable that in forests in exposed localities, more especially those at high altitudes, where storms and electrical disturbances of the air are most frequent, a greater quantity of ozone may be generated in the atmosphere than in localities less subject to such powerful ozonising influences. 8. As regards the Agricultural Productive Capacity of Neigh- bouring Tracts, and the WNational- Economie Effect on the Soil generally.—F rom an agricultural standpoint, a dry season is much preferable to a low temperature and excessive rainfall. In the former case the fruits of the earth, although they may be somewhat scanty, are invariably of superior quality. A wet season may produce abundant crops, but they are generally of low quality. With regard to the influence of forests on the aqueous precipitations throughout Central Europe, Prof. Endres makes the following remarks : !— “The question whether woodlands can influence the rainfall is one of the most important from a national-economic point of view. Even if this could be distinctly affirmed, the beneficial action of forests would only be established in the rarest cases, for throughout Central Europe at present the number of too wet years exceeds that of dry years. In districts where the rainfall is over 40 in., any increase is undesirable.” For agriculture, very dry 1 Op. cit., p. 607. * This is a point of vast importance, that should not be overlooked by those who are now advocating the formation of large plantations throughout the Highlands of Scotland. For rainfall statistics of certain parts of Britain, see Whitaker’s Almanack, 1893, p. 575. 24 NATIONAL-ECONOMIC INFLUENCE OF WOODLANDS. years are on the whole less disastrous than extremely wet years. The precipi- tations of any district are influenced mainly by the position of the mountain ranges with reference to the cardinal points of the compass, by its elevation above sea-level, and its distance from the sea.” Even so early as in Roman times it was recognised that too great a clear- ance of woodland areas brought undesirable changes in the physical conditions of Italy, and affected the welfare of the inhabitants. Early in the present century, for example, the Agricultural Society of Marseilles reported that in consequence of the reckless destruction of the forests after the Revolution of 1789— “The winters are colder, the summers hotter, and the beneficial spring and autumn showers no longer fall; the Uveaune, flowing from east to west, rushes down in flood with the least rain, carrying away its banks and flooding the richest pasturage, while, for nine months of the year, its bed lies dry owing to the drying up of the streams.” To a similar cause also Prof. Geffcken (in the Speaker of 6th J anuary 1893) attributes the Russian famine of 1892 in the following terms :— “We speak of the deficit [in the Russian Budget | of 1893 as certain, and it is easy to show that it will be so. The principal cause of the present dearth is the drought during the last spring and early summer, and this absence of rain is greatly due to the devastation of the forests. The area formerly covered with timber was enormous, the woods belonging to the Crown, to the great landed proprietors, and to the village communities. But the means of trans- port were then so imperfect and costly that only in the neighbourhood of large rivers did the felling of timber pay. This changed with the construction of railways and the abolition of serfdom; the former gave the possibility of selling with profit, and the peasants abandoned their woods to speculators for what they thought a good price, little thinking of the future; the larger proprietors followed their example; the purchase-money was spent in drink and luxurious living, and no one thought of replanting. Z'oo late has the Government issued a law for the protection of forests. Such a devastation going on for twenty years not only exhausts a source of wealth, but has also other bad consequences. When the country is deprived of its trees, the earth is dried up and crumbles from the hills; the water coming down from heaven cannot be kept back as is the case with the woods, which act as a sponge, but rushes in torrents into the rivers and disappears in the sea, and the consequence is a gradual diminution of the fertility of the soil and the disappearing of numer- ous brooklets and small rivers, to help the larger ones show a low water-mark, which proves prejudicial to the navigation.” This view is confirmed by the special correspondent of the Z%imes (vide article Through Famine-stricken Russia in issue of 18th April 1892), who writes :— “‘T have now travelled over most of the famine-stricken provinces, and I have been struck by the sameness of the picture. Everywhere reckless extra- vagance meets the eye, the forests have been cut away wantonly, the rivers are neglected, the climate is ruined.” Such also appears to have been the opinion of Major Law, Commercial Attaché to the British Embassy at St Petersburg, as expressed in his Report on Agriculture in the South-Eastern Provinces of European Russia, commented TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS. 25 on in a leading article of the Zimes of 17th September 1892, from which the following is excerpted :— “Tt is said that this gigantic natural tillage farm—+.c., the ‘black-soil ’ region—was formerly hedged in by belts of forest, which served the twofold purpose of sheltering it from the desert winds and of increasing the humidity of the climate. It is certain that these forests do not now exist, and that the black-soil country is often scourged by devastating blasts from the steppe, and not infrequently baked by prolonged droughts. The desert winds pile the snow into drifts in winter, which become the source of destructive torrents in the spring. In summer the same winds are so fierce and arid that in the space of a few hours they wither the corn as it stands, while, when they are laden with sands, they smite the soil itself with perpetual barrenness.” Indeed, all writers who have recently published views on this subject seem agreed as to the main causes of the recent Russian famine. That the destruction of the ancient forests throughout Great Britain and Ireland, to such an extent that, including all ornamental plantations, only 3.8 per cent of the total area can now be classified as woodlands, was not followed by such disastrous climatic changes as were occasioned by similar causes throughout Southern France and the Landes, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Russia, and many parts of India, we owe entirely to our insular position with its moist climate, and to the happy effects wrought by that portion of the Gulf-Stream which reaches our western and southern shores. Industrial or Technical-Economic Importance of Woodlands. —The cultivation of woodlands is of great importance to the welfare of every country from the technical and industrial point of view ; for many trades are essentially dependent on forest-produce as a portion of the raw material without which their work cannot be carried on. In any country thinly inhabited by man, natural forests generally prevail in great abundance ; often, indeed, to such an extent that the new settlers find forests of timber-trees to be a mere hindrance, and are very frequently obliged to destroy them, in order to have the land put under a crop more profitable for their purpose for the time being. This is the state of things in many districts of a newly settled country. But it is ultimately a very unprofitable way of going to work, even in a country where natural forests prevail; for, were Forestry maintained as an art among settlers in a new country, much profitable and useful timber might be retained upon the newly improved lands, which might prove of great advantage to generations coming after, as well as to the settlers themselves. An example of this is to be found in the scarcity of useful wood in a great part of the United States of America at the present day. The inference is, that the raising of artificial forests in any newly inhabited country is not of primary importance to the settlers; but the retention of a part of the natural forests is of great ultimate importance to them, and 26 INDUSTRIAL OR TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC provision should be made by law for preserving a proper proportion of the natural forests for ultimate good. But the case is altogether different in an old-established country, where the natural forests have for the most part disappeared, and where the inhabitants must either buy timber from other countries, or raise it on the land in the form of sylvicultural crops. In most civilised countries the management of forests forms a most important part of their economy. From the timber of trees houses are constructed, and implements, as well as furniture, are manufactured ; while we, as a nation, depend greatly upon it for the support of our mines and railways. Although the fruits produced in this country by trees are more a luxury than a necessary article of food, yet the fruit of the Palms, and of many other trees of hot climates, are really as necessary to the inhabitants as the cereal crops are to us. ‘Trees, therefore, either in the form of timber or in respect to the fruits they produce, form a necessary and a profitable crop in all countries that are advanced in civilisation. Thus, for example, in the forests of Germany, in addition to £4,150,000 annually spent in the management, protection, and regeneration of the forests, and in the felling, preparing, and handling of the produce before it is delivered into the hands of the buyer, the timber and other produce of the woodlands directly affords employment to 583,000 persons (or 9 per cent of all the industrial classes throughout the empire), who are engaged in industries dependent on the forests for the raw material requisite for their various trades! These 583,000 bread-winners probably represent about 3,000,000 souls, or nearly one-sixteenth of the total population. And in addition thereto, there must also be taken into account the enormous sums whose outlay is necessitated for transport by land and water after the raw produce has come into the hands of the buyer. Again, in the State Forests of Austria and those that are under State management, amounting to a total of 2,205,317 acres, or rather more than two-thirds of our British woodlands, employment is provided for 18,336 work- men, whilst members of the families of these are employed to the number of °39,060 persons.” In his Rectorial Address before the University of Munich in 1889, Prof. Gayer stated that the annual out-turn in timber from the forests of Germany amounted to about 60,000,000 cubic metres (about 2,160,000,000 1 Prof. R. Weber in Lorey’s Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, 1886, vol. i. p. 85. The importance of the forests as raw-produce industries is even greater than this according to Prof. M. Endres (Handwérterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Jena, 1892, vol. iii. p. 616), who states that ‘‘ the total quantity of labour employed in the management of the forests throughout the German empire represent an annual return of £4,150,000 according to Danckelmann, or of £8,000,000 according to Lehr. Altogether from 190,000 to 230,000 families throughout Germany obtain their livelihood from work in the forests.” 2 Endres, ibid. IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS. AT cubic feet), worth from £20,000,000 to £22,500,000 sterling,’ “so that, reckoning 2 per cent as the rate of interest yielded, the capital value of all the German forests may be assessed at about £1,000,000,000 sterling.” It therefore follows that, if only our British woodlands, which extend in area to about one-eleventh of those of Germany, were as economically and as well managed as the German forests, they would annually yield very nearly £2,000,000, and would have a capital value of £90,000,000, adopting 2 per cent as the rate of interest yielded, or at any rate about £50,000,000, even adopting only twenty-five years’ purchase as their value, and presuming that they yielded as much as 4 per cent per annum on the capital value of the soil plus the growing stock of timber. And it is of great importance to note that these actual returns from, and estimated capital value of, the German forests would be immensely higher if the domestic fuel of the nation were not wood. For a large proportion of these 60 millions of cubic metres consists of fine timber, which is split into fuel-pieces, although in every respect quite suitable for high technical purposes, so far as its quality and dimensions are concerned. But want of scientific and sylvicultural knowledge, both on the part of landowners and of the great majority of land-agents and foresters, leaves much to be achieved in technical education before the natural capabilities of our island can be utilised to their best extent for the production of timber. No accurate or even approximate data can be obtained with regard to the returns available from private forests ; but from the Budget statements of the various German States it appears that the State forests of Saxony yield a net profit of 19s. 9d. per annum per acre, those of Baden 12s. 7d., of Wiirtemberg lls. 9d., and of Bavaria 6s. per acre per annum. It must be recollected that these include very poor classes of mountainous land that would otherwise be unproductive, and also that a great deal of the timber must be cut up into fuel for the supply of domestic requirements. But if we wish to have a complete idea of the enormous importance of forest produce with regard to the industrial life of a nation, we must turn to the United States of America. The following extract from Bulletin No. 5 of the Forestry Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture, gives a capital idea of the importance of forests from a purely industrial point of view : ?— “No more convincing argument for the importance of this resource in a nation’s economy can be offered than to state the value of the forest product Der Wald im Wechsel der Zeiten, 1889, p. 15. B. E, Fernow, Chief of the Forestry Division, What is Forestry? 1891, p. 8. In connection with the above extract, the attention of thinking men is called to the follow- ing short excerpts made from the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1892 (U.S.A.), p. 304 :— “We have now less than 500,000,000 acres in forest growth; but even that is neither in good condition nor well managed. We have, therefore, long ago begun to use more than the annual growth, and are cutting into the capital which we inherited at a rate which must sooner or later exhaust it unless we adopt recuperative methods. While there are still enormous quantities of virgin timber standing, the accumulations of centuries, the supply is not inexhaustible. Even were we to assume on every acre a stand of 10,000 ft. B.M. of saw timber—a most extravagant average—we would, with our present consumption, have hardly one hundred years of supply in sight,— the time it takes to grow a tree to satisfactory log size. Certain kinds of supplies are beginning to give out. Even the White Pine resources, ‘which a few years ago seemed so 1 2 28 INDUSTRIAL OR TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC in the United States. The total annual product of wood material of all sorts consumed in the United States may be valued in round numbers at $1,000,000,000, representing, roughly speaking, 25,000,000,000 cubic ft. of wood, or the annual increase of the wood-growth of 500,000,000 acres of forest in fair condition. This value exceeds ten times the value of our gold and silver output, and three times the annual product of all our mineral and coal mines put together. It is three times the value of our wheat crop ; and with all the toil and risk which our agricultural crops involve, they can barely quadruple the value of this product yielded by nature for the mere harvesting. “Tf to the value of our total mining product be added the value ‘of stone quarries and petroleum, and this sum be increased by the estimated value of great that to attempt an accurate estimate of them was deemed too difficult an under- taking, have since then become reduced to such small proportions that the end of the whole supply in both Canada and the United States is now plainly in view” “The annual product of this Pine from the sawmill has reached the enormous total of over 8,000,000,000 B.M., which, if we assume a Pine stumpage of 5000 ft. to the acre— a high average—would require the cutting of 1,600,000 acres annually of their White Pine supplies. Since the three White Pine states (Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota) have a total reported forest area of altogether 60,000,000 acres, it is evident that, even if we allow two-thirds of that area to be in the White Pine belt, and consider this area fully stocked—which it is not—twenty-five years would suffice to practically exhaust the supplies. These figures, crude though they be, leave no doubt that the end of this staple is practically much nearer than we have supposed. All opinions to the contrary may be set down as ill founded.” Our imports from North America during 1892 were as follows :— 1892. | Timber inthe rough. Dressed timber. | Total. | United States . : £669,104 | £1,133,771 | £1,802,875 British North America 919,470 | 2,811,059 | 3,730,529 Totals . ; ; £1,588,574 , | £3,944,830 | £5,533,404 If these supplies are within measurable distance of becoming exhausted, then, taking into consideration the actual economic fact that during the whole of the present century timber is, along with gold, almost the only article that has steadily, all over the world, appreciated in exchange value relatively to other articles of commerce, it should require no very subtle argumentation to point out to the State and to landowners the advisability of now forming plantations, on sound sylvicultural principles, that may reach maturity from seventy to one hundred years hence. And the following still more recent data, from Gardening World of 20th May 1893, are worthy of deep consideration :— “American Forests.—From statistics presented to the Forestry Congress at Phila- delphia it appears that the woodlands of the United States now cover 450,000,000 of acres, or about 26 per cent of the area. Of this not less than 25,000,000 acres are cut over annually. It was also stated that while the wood growing annually in the United States amounted to 12,000,000,000 of cubic ft., the amount cut annually is just double that enormous quantity, besides a vast amount destroyed by fire, and not included in the estimate. The country’s supply is being depleted, therefore, twice as fast as it is being reproduced, which clearly goes to show that a timber famine in America is approaching quite rapidly.’ IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS. 29 all the steamboats, sailing-vessels, canal-boats, flat-boats, and barges plying in American waters, and belonging to citizens of the United States, it will be less than the value of the forest product by a sum sufficient to purchase at cost of construction all the canals, buy up at par all the stock of the telegraph companies, pay their bonded debts, and construct and equip all the telephone lines. The value of the annual forest product exceeds the gross income of all the railroad and transportation companies. It would suffice to pay the indebtedness of all the States, if we leave out’ New York and Pennsylvania, including that of all counties, townships, school districts, and cities within those States (in 1880); and it would more than wipe out the remaining public debt of the United States. In fact, ranking manufactures of all kinds and agriculture as respectively first and second in importance, as far as production of values goes, the forest product occupies the third place. This was the case according to the census of 1880. It is claimed that since then the lumber industry has enlarged to such an extent as to make its product second, if not first, In value. “The capital employed in merely milling this product, aside from that employed in the harvesting, is roughly estimated at $650,000,000, and there are more than 300,000 people occupied in the direct manufacture of forest and sawmill products alone, not to count the employment afforded by its trans- portation to centres of consumption and its re-manufacture. “Tt would lead us through all phases and employments of human life were we to attempt an enumeration of the uses to which forest products are put. “Not only does the forest furnish the material for the construction of dwelling and other structures, our railway consumption of 500,000,000 cubic ft. of timber included, but countless articles of domestic economy and imple- ments necessitate its use. Not only does it yield to two-thirds of our popula- tion the fuel to warm their houses and to prepare their food, but it gave us the first means of using our mineral resources, and even now 600,000 tons of the iron product depend upon charcoal. Not only does the wood in its natural form serve our needs, but our ingenuity has invented methods by which we can transform it into all sorts of useful materials, like cellulose, paper, and even silk; while lately it has become possible to prepare from the brushwood a feed for cattle more nutritious than straw and equal to hay.” So far as the interests of private landowners are “concerned, woodlands may often, in the first instance, be managed only as sources of profitable products ; and in this case the higher the returns obtainable without prejudic- ing the productive capacity of the soil, the better for the owner. But from a national-economic point of view, woodlands form a basis of material prosperity, both directly and indirectly affecting various industries, and their proper management is a matter worthy of national interest. The mining operations of our country demand extensive woodlands to support them; the maintenance of railways as urgently calls for this; the present advanced state of agriculture demands the same thing; and it may be truly said that the general welfare of any 30 TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS. highly civilised country cannot be maintained without an extent of woodlands suitable to its circumstances and demands. The policy of depending upon foreign countries for the supply of timber for national industries is a short-sighted one, and more par- ticularly when there is so much waste land in our own country, of fair quality for the growing of timber, but the greater part of which is inaccessible or worthless to the plough of the farmer. The plant- ing up of these would, therefore, by no means diminish the available quantity of land which might be improved for the increase of food for the population. Many argue that there is no need for planting waste lands with trees so long as a full supply of timber can be had from foreign lands. But those who say this have not considered that in nearly every country upon the face of the globe the forest area is being diminished, whilst the demands for the world’s supply of timber are gradually increasing. It is well known that, as civilisation makes progress, and as agricultural pursuits extend, the natural forests diminish, and eventually become comparatively exhausted and often demolished, as has been the case: throughout Great Britain for about two hundred years; and at the same time, as civilisation increases, the demand for timber increases also. The very obvious inference from this is that each country, as its population increases, and as demands for forest produce become greater and greater, will have at least enough to do with its own home timber, and will require to encourage Forestry in order to maintain its own supply. With the march of civilisation new methods of utilisation of forest- produce are developed, which were previously of no industrial importance. Thus about forty years ago the first wood-pulp factory was started in Saxony, whilst the first opened in Sweden began work in 1857 ; but in 1890 there were 534 wood-pulp factories in Germany, 211 in Austria, and 120 in Sweden. Again, the first cellulose factory was started only about twenty years ago, and in 1890 there were 63 in Germany and 28 in Austria. The annual consumption in the German pulp-factories alone is 57,128,400 cubic ft. of wood. It must be borne in mind that these are merely comparatively new industries, capable of enormous expansion, and that the supply of raw material requisite for this new industry alone will in time exert great influence in enhancing the price of comparatively young crops of soft-wooded species of trees, like Willows, Poplars, Birch, Lime, and the softer Spruces and Firs. Even at the present day some of the United States are dependent upon the wooded regions in Canada to eke out the supply of their useful timber; and in that country, where so much wood is neces- sarily consumed for fuel, the supply cannot continue to meet the . demand for many years. It is therefore the opinion of many who ARBORICULTURE AND SYLVICULTURE IN BRITAIN. ol are well acquainted with the subject, that in a few years wood will not only be very scarce, but at the same time very dear—much beyond any price we can form an adequate idea of at the present day. But it is to be hoped that these matters will receive serious considera- tion, in order that measures may be taken for forming and storing up useful crops of timber against the time of failing supplies. The only available remedy, of course, lies in an improved and extended system of Forestry throughout the whole of the civilised countries of the world. The Physical Capabilities of Britain for Arboriculture and Sylviculture.—There are few countries situated within the tem- perate zone so well adapted as Great Britain for the growth of a large variety of valuable timber-trees. Our soil is variable, and is consequently generally adapted to the healthy development of very many different species of trees intro- duced from all the temperate regions of the globe. There are sandy tracts for those that thrive best on silicious soils, and clays, limes, marls, loams, and humose soils for those whose natural requirements are best met by one or other of these descriptions of land. Our climate is, thanks to our insular position, and to the genial and equalising influence of an off-set from the great Gulf-Stream, milder than that of continental inland regions under the same paral- lels of latitude; hence the temperature at London is lower in the summer than at Paris, and higher in winter, although the former is situated 24° to the north of the latter. From our winters being generally milder than those of many continental countries consider- ably lower than our latitude, many sorts of useful plants, which are not found to stand the winters of the continents of North America and central Europe without artificial means being used, may here be cultivated without any artificial protection. The comparative near- ness of all the parts of our island to the softening influences of the sea is no doubt the cause of this; for the ocean invariably preserves a more uniform temperature than the land. The climate of the western seaboard of Great Britain and Ireland is in general milder than that of the eastern parts under the same parallel. For example, on many places on the west coast even of the far northern part of Great Britain, the Fuchsia coccinea, the Buddleia globosa, the Hydrangea Hortensia, the Lippia citriodora, and the Myrtle stand the winter without any protection, and form large and very ornamental bushes in gardens and other sheltered situa- tions; while on the east coast parallels these plants are generally injured by frosts if not protected during the winter. ven as far north as Glenelg, in the county of Inverness, at about 57°12’, the Fuchsia coccinea stands the winter without protection, and in shel- tered gardens forms a bush of from 5 to 6 ft. in height. 32 PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES OF BRITAIN FOR The uniformity of the temperature of our climate is very remark- able as compared with that of other parts of the world, and gives us, if care be taken to utilise it properly, an undoubted advantage over most other nations as regards the cultivation of non-indigenous trees. There are no violent extremes, such as are indicated by Humboldt in the following passage :— « At New York we find the summer of Rome and the winter of Copen- hagen. At Quebec grapes sometimes ripen in the open air, whereas the winter is that of Petersburg, during which the snow lies 5 ft. deep for several months, and travelling is performed in sledges, frequently on the ice of the St Lawrence. At Pekin, in China, where the mean temperature of the year is that of the coasts of Brittany, the scorching heats of summer are greater than at Cairo, and the winters as rigorous as at Upsala.” But apart from mere deductions regarding the mildness of our climate, a more convincing proof is obtainable from the results of practical arboricultural experience; for there are not many countries in the world from which plants have not been brought and cultivated, either for use or ornament; and a large portion of these need not be confined in an atmosphere raised artificially, but may be planted out in the open, and exposed to all the changes of our climate. For example, from the south of Europe we have the Sweet-Chestnut, English Elm, Lime-tree, and the Black Poplar; from Corsica and Austria, the Black Pines; from Germany and Switzerland, the Common Larch; from Persia, the Horse-Chestnut; from northern India, the Deodar ; from Canada, the Hemlock Spruce and the Silver Poplar; from the eastern portion of the United States, the Magnolia grandiflora, the Robinia, and the Tulip-Tree; from California, the Red or Douglas Fir, the Menzies or Sitka Spruce, and many useful Pines; and from Chili, the Araucaria or so-called Chili Pine. These few examples, out of very many more that could be adduced, are enough to show that both the soil and the climate of Great Britain are admirably adapted to the growth, not only of those which are indigenous to Europe, but also of such as are natives of the temperate regions in all other parts of the world. But although the soil and climate of our island are thus generally suitable to the healthy growth of a great variety of useful trees in- troduced from foreign countries, yet all parts of it are not alike physically endowed in this respect; for throughout the length and breadth of Great Britain there exists a very considerable diversity with regard to both soil and climate. This is, of course, only what might be expected from the varying nature of the different geological formations, as well as from the different degrees of latitude (ranging from about 50° to 59°) and the relative elevations of land (ranging ARBORICULTURE AND SYLVICULTURE. 38 up to 4406 ft. above the sea-level in the case of Ben Nevis) embraced between Land’s End and the Pentland Firth. The great central and eastern plains of England, and the Valley of the Severn, may be classed as offering the most favourable con- ditions for the growth and finest development of the more valuable species of forest-trees in this country; whilst the plains throughout Yorkshire and Cheshire rank second in this respect. In comparison with these others, the table-land situated to the south-west of these districts can only be reckoned somewhat inferior for the growth of sylvicultural crops of trees of the broad-leaved species. The lofty plateau occupying the north of England and the south of Scotland, and embracing the whole of the tract from the river Tees on the south to the Firth of Forth on the north, is, both with respect to soil and to climate, even a less favourable portion of the island for sylvicultural and arboricultural operations. There is a narrow central plain in Scotland, lying partly on the north of the Firth of Forth and partly on its south side, and stretching from Glasgow along both sides of the river Forth to Edinburgh, and thence northwards as far as Montrose, which, for sylvicultural and arboricultural purposes, may be classed still lower in the scale, as it is apt to be swept both by east and west winds for the greater part of the year. With the exception of the low-lying lands situated on the sides of the Moray Firth, which may perhaps be classed as only of sixth- rate capabilities for the growth of trees, the greater part of the country situated to the north of the central plain of Scotland is, generally speaking, both from its geological formation and from its relative altitude, unsuitable to the cultivation of any trees other than those belonging to the Pine, Spruce, and Fir tribes; but on this portion of the island these attain even more valuable dimensions than in milder southern localities. It may, therefore, be aptly termed the coniferous region of Britain. The artificial Larch-forests of the Duke of Atholl at Dunkeld, and those of the Marquess of Breadalbane at Taymouth, may be cited in illustration of the suitability of the soil and climate of those districts in particular, and of the West Highlands in general, to this most valuable tree; and the Pine- forests of Glenmore, Rothie- murchus, Glenmorriston, Abernethy, Duthill, and Braemar supply evident proofs of the suitableness of the soil and climate of these inland tracts of Britain for the erowth of the Scots Pine to its most valuable dimensions. The promising results attained by the Douglas Fir on Lord Powerscourt’s estates in Ireland should also call the attention of landlords to the, important sylvicultural and financial advantages that may be realised in a comparatively short VOL. I. C 34 INFLUENCE OF PLANTATIONS THROUGHOUT A COUNTRY. space of time by planting selected species of rapid-growing and hardy Conifers like Red or Douglas Fir, Menzies or Sitka Spruce, Red Pine, and, in fact, all the better classes of Californian Conifers, which give promise of producing large quantities of excellent timber in this climate. The Influence of Plantations throughout a Country.— The first, and perhaps the greatest, effect of judicious planting is that of shelter to the country in its neighbourhood; for, as has already been stated, in portions of the Russian steppes that were planted up nearly fifty years ago the climate has been ameliorated, and danger to agricultural crops is now less than was formerly the case, whilst villages are also protected from the fury of the wintry storms. A second, and not always a less important, influence of planting trees in masses is that of ornament or esthetic effect. When the agricultural and picturesque advantages of any part of the country which is judiciously clothed with trees are compared with those of a locality which has either been stripped of its crop of timber, or which: has never borne any woodland covering at all, the difference is very striking. In the former all kinds of crops are sheltered, and consequently grow luxuriantly; while in the latter the crops are subject to extremes of cold in winter, as well as to excessive heat in summer. The benefits derivable, from the purely agricultural point of view, by the formation of plantations, are well exhibited in the following short extract from Stephens’s Book of the Farm, 4th edit., 1893, vol. ii. p. 214 :— “Shelter from Plantations.—The benefits derivable from plantations in improving land are far more extensive and important than from stone walls. ‘Previous to the division of the common moor of Methven (in Perthshire) in 1793, says Thomas Bishop, ‘the late venerable Lord Lynedoch and Lord Methven had each secured their lower slopes of land adjoining the moor with belts of plantation. ‘The year following I entered Lord Methven’s service, and in 1798 planted about 60 acres of the higher moor-ground, valued at 2s. per acre, for shelter to 80 or 90 acres set apart for cultivation and let in three divisions to six individuals. The progress made in improving the land was very slow for the first 15 years, but thereafter went on rapidly, being aided by the shelter derived from the growth of the plantations ; and the whole has now become fair land, bearing annually crops of oats, barley, peas, potatoes, and turnips ; and in spring 1838, exactly 40 years from the time of putting down the said plantation, I sold 4 acres of larch and fir (average growth) standing therein for £220, which, with the value of reserved trees, and average amount per acre of thinnings sold previously, gave a return of £67 per acre.” The drying effects of the absence of trees are exemplified on a large scale in North America at the present day, wherever the axe of the settler has been in operation for any considerable length of time. The beds of former water-courses are now often being ploughed, and are only distinguishable as such by their hollow lines INFLUENCE OF PLANTATIONS THROUGHOUT A COUNTRY. 35 running through the farms. Settlers may often be found who can describe how, when they first came into the forest, a never-failing supply of water ran down these hollow lines, and how they gradually became dry as the woods were cleared for the plough, and the land was piece by piece exposed to the hot rays of the sun. Hundreds of families in British North America have been obliged to change the sites of their original holdings, simply because the streams, on the sides of which they had settled at first in confident expectation of having an unlimited supply of water, had gradually dried up as the land became cleared of its beneficial covering of forest. But there is no need to go out of Britain for proof of the drying effects of injudicious clearing of forests on the land. Practical experience every now and again shows that after a large tract of wood has been cleared from a hillside, springs completely dry up which have previously yielded a constant supply of water while the land was covered with trees; for there are many who can attest cases of this description from their personal observation and knowledge. On the other hand, it is often surprising to find, on examining woods which may have been formed some ten or twelve years pre- viously on land considered dry at the time the plantations were made, that wet spots are to be observed here and there, which spread wider and wider every year, and some of which may even be begin- ning to throw out tiny rills of water. This proves that under the shade of the trees the larger portion of the moisture of the land is retained, and that it therefore accumulates in spots according to the nature of the subsoil. ji The general effect produced by high hills and mountain-ranges on the moisture of the air can be utilised for the benefit of the lower-lying and the level parts of a country by careful attention to the distribution of its forests. Woods and plantations, in all cases, cool the air, and increase its relative humidity. The roots of the trees loosen the soil, and assist in its decomposition; while the herbage growing under the shelter of their branches prevents the rain - water, even on sloping hillsides, from running quickly off. Plantations in all cases check the currents of air passing over a country, and from this cause the carrying off of its moisture by drying winds is greatly lessened. The shade of trees prevents the rays of the sun finding their way to the soil, so that but little of the moisture in it can be evaporated and carried off to the upper air by warm currents of air. The water imbibed from the earth by the roots of trees is trans- pired through the foliage in the form of aqueous vapour; hence the air in plantations is always found moister and cooler than it is in the open country, where the land is destitute of trees. It therefore follows 36 INFLUENCE OF PLANTATIONS THROUGHOUT A COUNTRY. that while the warm air is rising upwards from the dry land of the open country, the cooled and moister air must fall again to the still cooler surface of the woodland; and consequently, in the neighbour- hood of large plantations, there will be less chance of fields being robbed of their soil-moisture, than when warm dry air is wafted over the land, and robs it of water by evaporation. When soft winds, highly charged with aqueous vapour, blow over dry ground heated by the sun, no precipitation of moisture usually takes place; on the contrary, any low clouds that are formed sink down into the warm air below, and are soon dissolved and vanish. The warmth reflected from the dried and warm soil diminishes the relative humidity of the air, and increases its power of holding aqueous vapour, thus preventing the formation of rain. It is not so, how- ever, where the temperature of the atmosphere is reduced by the influence of neighbouring woods. ‘There the air, being saturated with moisture from the constant transpiration, soon becomes over- charged, and then rain follows. For when evaporation is stimulated in this manner, the moisture rises in the soil by reason of capillary attraction, in place of remaining in the lower layers and tending to enhance the productive capacity of the soil by the for- mation of soluble nutrient salts, in which form alone the food-supply of plants can be absorbed by the suction-rootlets and root-hairs. From a consideration of these facts, it appears evident that, within certain limits of course, by the distribution of plantations of such extent as may be suited to the particular circumstances of each case, it may be in the power of man to modify certain local climatic con- ditions, so as best to suit the various kinds of crops he cultivates in different localties. Attention is, however, again called to the fact, already noted on p. 25, that where the rainfall of any locality is on the average already over 40 inches a-year, the formation of forests to such an extent as to increase the rainfall is not a desirable measure with a view to the improvement of the agriculture. Judicious planting has not only a very decided influence on the improvement of the chmate of a country, but also exerts a direct and beneficial influence on the productive capacity of the soil; and on this branch of the subject it may not be too much to state that however good any piece of land—not properly agricultural soil, but merely land suited only for the growth of sylvicultural crops—-may be previous to its being put under a crop of trees, it gains in pro- ductive capacity whilst it is kept under the shade of close-canopied forests, and must thereby be rendered more suitable for any sub- sequent agricultural purposes than if it had remained without any woodland cropping. OBJECTS OF PLANTING. 37 These results are mainly due to the thorough protection afforded by the dense crown of foliage against the drying and exhausting influences of insolation and winds, and against the washing out of the soluble nutrient salts from the soil by heavy rainfall, which also scours away the finer layers of surface-soil. And at the same time, the work of decomposing the mineral soil itself, and of forming increased supplies of soluble salts for future use, is stimulated by the large amount of vegetable matter which trees annually deposit on the land occupied by them, and which decomposes to form humus or leaf-mould. This general work of gradual decomposition of the soil is further aided greatly by the roots penetrating deep into the latter, and consequently dividing its parts and opening it up for the circulation of air and the percolation of water. In proof of this the very rich soils of the American continent may be alluded to, as these have been formed for the most part by the deposits of vegetable matter from successive crops of trees that have grown spontaneously on them. But compare with these the sterility of such parts of a country as have never been covered with woodlands. From such a comparison it will at once be evident that, in the great economy of nature, forests perform a very important part in improv- ing the land on the surface of the globe, and in rendering it service- able for cultivation by man. It is not necessary to go far in search of proof of this fact, for on our own island abundant evidence is given that trees vastly improve the land on which they grow. Everywhere on the flats and hollows of this country the land bears evident proof of having been occupied by trees at an early period; and it is chiefly owing to these, and to their having decayed and rotted upon them, that the soil is now so fertile. And besides this, during the present century large tracts of waste land have in many localities been planted up, which, previous to their having been brought under forest, had only a poor and thin soil, but which have now gradually become transformed into comparatively good land, owing to the beneficial effects of the sylvicultural crops in protecting the soil against sun and wind, and manuring and improving it through the annual fall of leaves, and their transformation into hwmus. There can be no doubt that judicious planting on an extensive scale is destined to be the great means of improving the soil and climate of all countries which at present suffer from the ill effects of drought. Objects of Planting—When planting trees on his estate, nearly every proprietor has some definite object in view for the work. This may perhaps be to give shelter to his farms, to shut out some unpleasant object from his dwelling-house, or merely to pro- duce a general ornamental effect in the landscape; and in either case 38 OBJECTS OF PLANTING. it may be correctly termed Arboriculture. But the chief ultimate object of such operations on a large scale is undoubtedly the culti- vation of crops that are profitable from a purely financial and monetary point of view; and in this case the proper name for the art practised is Sylviculture. The former object is more usually esthetic than utilitarian, although very frequently both aims are com- bined ; whereas sylvicultural crops are reared entirely with a view to personal or national-economic advantages, and any esthetic and utilitarian features combined therewith are fortuitous rather than studied, except in the case of large woodlands formed for the improvement of the climate of tracts suffering from excessive dry- ness of the atmosphere, or from the effects of shifting sands or dunes. On properties situated in naturally level, fertile, and sheltered parts of the country, where arable land is more immediately remun- erative to the proprietor than woodlands, the owner can have no object in planting trees other than for their purely esthetic or ornamental effect, unless he may, perhaps, desire to increase the relative humidity of the neighbourhood on a small scale. The case, however, is somewhat different with regard to the proprietors of estates consisting partly of level and partly of hilly land. On such properties it is not infrequently advisable to plant on the higher districts, with a view to the amelioration of the local climate of the lower lands, as well as for the improve- ment of the soil on the hillsides, and for the enhancement of the general value of the property by means of the timber-crop. But with the proprietors of estates including extensive hilly tracts, the great object in planting must usually be the rearing of a crop of trees on land which is otherwise unfit for profitable cultivation. Such land is mostly totally unfit for arable cultivation, and at the same time not always worth much for pasturage; and unless it be utilised for the growth of timber, it is often classified as unproductive, both from a national- economic point of view and from the standpoint of the private owner. With the recent shrinkage in agricultural values, there has been a con- tinuous tendency for the poorer classes of arable land to be transformed into permanent pasturage, and for the inferior pasture-lands to be thrown out of occupation. Unless, therefore, these latter be utilised sylviculturally, they must remain unproductive and unprofitable, which is deplorable both from a national-economic and a private point of view. In the Board of Agriculture’s Agricultural Returns for 1891 (p. x) Major Craigie, the statistical secretary, remarks that— “Turning to the details of the cultivated area, it is again necessary to note the remarkable changes which have been taking place in the ratio of arable to pasture land in Great Britain. The two great divisions of arable FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. 39 and pasture now claim for the first time an almost exactly equal share of the surface. Twenty years ago the arable land was to the grass as 3 to2. It exceeded by 6,000,000 acres the surface of the permanent grass, there being 18,430,000 acres returned as arable to 12,435,000 acres of pasture.” And in the Agricultural Returns for 1892 (pp. x, xi, and xxi) he has the same sad story to tell :— “The arable land, as has been the case in every year but two since 1872, again shows a reduction. . . . Between 1872 and 1882 about 936,000 acres were apparently withdrawn from arable tillage, and reappeared in the opposite category of the cultivated area in the form of permanent pasture. . . . In the later ten years a similar process has continued. Between 1882 and 1892 the arable land has again diminished, and this time by 1,165,000 acres. . . . The more important alterations between 1891 and 1892 occurring in the entire United Kingdom may be summarised in the accompanying table :— | 1892 compared with 1891. 1892. 1891. ACREAGE. Acres. Acres. | Inerease, Decrease. Acres. Acres. Total cultivated area . j 47,977,903 48,179,473 s4 201,570 Total of permanent pasture 27,533,326 27,567,128 | eee 33,802 Total of arable land . F 20,444,577 20,612,345 -o3 167,768 ”’ | Surely, when these figures are studied, the desirability of relaxing the existing rating on woodlands, and of amending the laws relating to the utilisation of timber on entailed estates, ought to be brought before the notice of Parliament. The foregoing remarks are only applicable to the subject when viewed from a broad and comprehensive standpoint ; for each point of view may diverge into many branches or different vistas, each of which may be desirable to owners, and expedient in practice, according to the given circumstances of each case. For example, a proprietor desiring to plant trees for shelter to his farms may at the same time wish to treat them as hedgerow timber, as belts of plantation, as coppice, as hop-pole woods, or merely as ornamental timber, according to local circumstances, and according to the nature of the land he may have to deal with. All of these different arboricultural and sylvicultural systems will be treated of in their proper places, and under their respective headings. The Financial Value of Sylvicultural Crops.—The value of wood as a crop upon any given piece of land depends very much upon the treatment it may have received in its cultivation. Trees, like every other useful product .of the soil, may be consider- ably deteriorated in value by unskilful and careless treatment; and 40 FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. they may also be greatly enhanced in value by skilful tending and careful management. Although, to a certain extent, sylvicultural crops vary in marketable value according to the nature of the land planted, and also according as the locality may or may not be conveniently situated with regard to the disposal of the timber or other forest produce, yet their technical, and consequently their financial, value is to a very great degree dependent on the treatment accorded to the timber throughout all the stages of its growth. There is no climatic reason why a very considerable portion of the £9,207,905 worth of timber that was imported into Britain during 1892 from Russia, Scandinavia, and Germany should not in future be supplied of home- growth, when once the crops raised have been subjected to rational treatment Strom the time of their formation onwards. This latter condition is essential ; for woods that are crowded at thirty, forty, or fifty years of age may not have been of sufficient or normal density at ten or fifteen years of age, but may have become crowded in canopy through excessive and uneconomical ramifica- tion and coronal development. When, however, the woods have been properly tended during the early stages of growth, their subsequent tending, by means of thinning out, determines their economic value to a considerable extent. This has been very well put, by one of the greatest German author- ities on Sylviculture, in the following words : !— “Tt must, however, be expressly stated that the youthful development of timber crops can afford no reliable indication for the future quality of the mature fall. Expectations, anticipations, and suppositions in this respect have no justification ; for the whole matter depends most essentially on the later treatment of the crops (whether formed by sowing or by planting) during the operations of thinning out.” It may be stated as a general rule, based on, and verified by, actual practical experience both in England and Scotland, that land which is from various causes unfit for arable occupation will, if brought under sylvicultural crops, and subjected to rational and careful management, at the end of seventy years pay the proprietor nearly three times the sum of money that he would have received from any other crop upon the same piece of ground. This assertion will doubtless, by many proprietors, be considered extravagant. But although it may be very much beyond what they have themselves experienced as to the profits, or want of profits, arising from their plantations, yet in all cases where good manage- ment has been introduced, what is above said will be found not to be incorrect. In order to support this statement a few examples may be given, without going into details, most of which are based upon the author’s personal experience in dealing with woods in different parts of the country. 1 Gayer, Waldbau, 3d edit., 1889, p. 384. FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. 41 On three estates that he had to deal with in the north of Scotland, where the woods are chiefly Larch and Scots Pine, and where regular accounts of the sales of the produce had been kept for a period of nearly forty years previous to his visiting them, he found that the older classes of the Pine woods had yielded, on the average, about 13s. per acre per annum for thinnings throughout the forty years during which accounts had been kept-of sales from them; and that where clear fellings had been made of the mature crops, these had realised, on an average, about £70 per acre, after the removal of all the thinnings that had from time to time been taken from them. The Larch crops on these estates realised about one-half more than the Scots Pine. That is to say, the average annual value realised from the thinnings of the Larch was, during the forty years referred to, 20s. per acre; and where clearances had been made of the mature crops of Larch, these had yielded £106 per acre on the average. The annual rent of the land upon which those plantations grew was reckoned at 4s. 6d. per acre on the average; and the crops, When mature, had occupied the land for a period of about seventy years. Now, had it been occupied by tenants for the purpose of grazing, the proprietors would have received only £15, 15s. per acre during the whole period of seventy years; but whilst the land was under timber crops they received, when the crops were cleared at the end of the period of seventy years, no less than 27s. 6d. per acre and per annum throughout the whole period occupied by the Scots Pine crops, and about 41s. 6d. per acre and per annum for the land occupied by the Larch. Even after deducting every necessary expense the proprietors were put to, and after also deducting compound interest upon the original outlay and rent, progressively, during the time when no return was received, it will be found that such land, when utilised sylviculturally, will pay fully three times the amount of money that it could do in the hands of farmers. And the obvious conclusion therefrom is that sylvicultural crops, even when managed in an ordinary way, may be highly profitable to the proprietor, and may add greatly to the capital value of his estate. The editor does not feel justified in cancelling the above ; but he must at the same time exhibit what he considers the proper method of reckoning in such actuarial calculations regarding the comparative remunerativeness of sylvicultural and agricultural utilisation of the soil. Sylvicultural occupation of land is in many cases far more profitable than agricultural occupation ; but it is essential to apply correct actuarial methods in solving the various problems that present themselves. All sums of money invested in, or received as returns from, woodland crops must be treated as increasing at compound interest. 42 FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. The agricultural returns from the land are to be found by the formula— £0, 4s. 6d. (1.0p" — 1) 0.0p If p, the rate per cent which the annual rent of the land yields on its capital value, be =3 per cent, then the actual monetary value of all the annual rentals received by the landlord, capitalised annually to the end of the term of seventy years, would be— Total value = £0, 4s. 6d. (1.037 — 1) 0.03 _ £0, 4s. 6d. (7.9178 — 1) = 0.03 = £51, 17s. Sd. Total value = The sylvicultural returns from the land, if discounted and converted into an annual rental, would be as follows, using, of course, the same percentage, 3 per cent, as one of the essential data for the calculation :— : ; , £70 In the case of Scots Pine—Annual rental = 10370 )2: 03 = £0, 6s. Ofd. per acre. In the case of the Larch—Annual rental = _ £106" 0.03 1.03 —1 = £0, 9s. 24d. per acre. If the dates were given at which the various thinnings were conducted, as well as the actual costs of the thinnings and the net surplus derived therefrom as profit, the additional transmuted annual value, ultimately paid as rent by the sylvicultural crops, could likewise be calculated. But, per contra, it must not be overlooked that the rating of the woods for land-tax must either be deducted from their annual rental value, or else capitalised up to seventy years and deducted from the sum obtained for the mature crops; whilst at the same time the rental received from the tenant of the pasturage was a clear sum freed from any costs of protection on account of fire, or risks from windfall, &c., and this is very different in the case of standing crops of immature timber. And further, the sums obtained for the crops of Scots Pine and Larch, above referred to, were not derived without an initial, and in some cases often a con- siderable, outlay on the plantations ; hence the profit derivable from the woods in question should be calculated on the net price (free from all costs of harvesting) obtained from the mature crop, minus the capitalised value of the costs of the formation (=costs x 1.03°°), but reduced in a proper actuarial manner by the net returns available from time to time by thinning operations. And if, as is often the case, additional cultural costs are incurred for filling up blanks, or for clearing and weeding before the material cut out is marketable and can cover the outlay thereby involved, then in all justice they must be added to the cost of the formation of sylvicultural crops, just in the same way as net income from thinnings may be applied in reducing the capitalised value of the costs of formation. ; It must also be noted that if 3} or 4 per cent be adopted as the rate of interest which the proprietor gets or expects for his land, this not only greatly FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. 45 enhances the capitalised value of the pasturage rentals calculated at compound interest for seventy years, but at the same time greatly diminishes the present annual value of the woods, discounted from a sum due seventy years hence, and commuted into a present annual rental. These actuarial problems in Forestry are not so simple as the above method of reckoning employed by the author would suggest. But at the same time, practical experience, both at home and abroad, shows that, for the poorer classes of land, sylvicultural occupation is on the whole much more advan- tageous than any other system, even for private owners; whilst, with regard to the national forests, there is no continental country of Europe in which the administration of the State forests is conducted in so /azssez-faire a manner as in some cases In our own country, with the practical result that the woods do not pay as they otherwise would and should. Again, in the south of Scotland and the north of England mature crops of Larch have sometimes been sold at prices ranging from £150 up to £380 per acre, irrespective of the value of thinnings that had been removed from them during the earlier stages of their develop- ment. The land on which these crops grew was valued at rates varying from 10s. to 15s. per acre per annum, and the crops when cleared were of from sixty-five to seventy years of age. At 4 per cent, or twenty-five years’ purchase, the value of 15s. per acre at compound interest for seventy years would be £273, 4s. 4d.; at 3 per cent, however, it would only be £172, 18s. 104d. It is impossible to balance the true actuarial facts of the case between Sylviculture and Agriculture on such vague generalisations as have here been given by the author. But, as has already been said, the editor also maintains that it is a fact, which has often been proved, that, on poor classes of land, woodland crops often pay fairly well, when the land is worth little or nothing for agricultural occupation. It may also here be mentioned that, according to details re- ceived from a well-informed forester, who lives in the neighbour- hood of the estate where this high sum was realised, and whose in- formation is to be relied on, in the north of England a crop of matured Larch was sold about twelve or fifteen years ago at the rate of £500 per acre. This crop was grown on a sloping bank unfit for the plough. In the south of Scotland and the north of England crops of matured Scots Pine are sometimes sold at rates varying from £65 up to £200 per acre. The ages of these are probably about seventy-five years on the average, and the rent of the land would be about 15s. per acre. In the same parts of the country matured crops of mixed planta- tions of broad-leaved species of trees are often sold at rates varying from £80 up to £170 per acre, and in one or two cases even as high as £220 per acre. 44 FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. Again, in the same localities, mature crops of Oak are some- times disposed of at prices varying from £200 up to £400 per acre. In these last five instances referred to, it must be kept in view that no account is taken of the thinnings which had been removed from the several crops while they were in the growing state, and before they became matured, as no information could be obtained with regard to that source of income. But it must also be more particularly borne in mind that nothing has been said about the initial costs of the formation of the plantations. And for accurate reckoning, it is absolutely essential that such figures should also be taken into account, otherwise the results obtainable cannot be strictly correct from an actuarial point of view. What has been said above refers to the value of a crop of wood when trained up as timber-trees. There are, however, many pro- prietors who cultivate a large portion of their woodlands as coppice- woods, which are growths from the stocks or stools of trees formerly eut over. From a financial point of view, crops of this class do not— according to the author’s experience—pay nearly so well as crops of timber growing in high- forest. Sylvicultural crops of this minor nature, growing in different localities throughout the west and the south of Scotland, and in the central and northern counties of England, are seldom found to pay their proprietors over 15s. per acre per annum for the land occupied. The author’s experience seems here to be at variance with the editor’s, and with that of the majority of Continental sylviculturists. For it has been frequently proved that, on hillsides of rather a shallow description, but other- wise favourable as to soil and exposure, Oak coppice-woods are often by far the most remunerative form of sylvicultural crop, when there is any favourable market near at hand for the disposal of the bark to tanneries. Again, mixed coppices of Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Sweet-Chestnut, Hazel, and the like are also exceedingly remunerative throughout southern England, when near favourable markets for saplings and poles, such as hop districts. Throughout the Cam- bridgeshire and Lincolnshire districts, also, osier-holts yield such favourable returns that the Board of Agriculture issued a special pamphlet on the Cultivation of Osiers during 1893 (A 2=98), “with a view to direct the atten- tion of agriculturists and others to a special industry for which there would appear to be some room for development in certain parts of this country.” Alder-coppice is likewise often a more remunerative form of crop than almost any other on land that is suited for the Alder, but which cannot be conveniently drained to serve higher purposes. These examples may be considered quite sufficient for present con- sideration. Many others might be given in illustration of the same FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. 45 point ; yet as they would only swell this work, without altering the facts stated, it seems preferable not to detail them. But it is not alone the simple value of the timber that makes plantations of so great an importance upon a large landed estate. There is the shelter that they afford for all agricultural purposes, and the beneficial influence they exert in tending to regulate the climate; for where no shelter-woods exist, there is often only an inferior crop of grain upon the fields, as well as an ill-fed live-stock on the farm; and these points should all be taken into account. Upon almost any landed property, indeed, well-managed plantations are incalculably of more value than an equal area of land in the hands of a farmer, but with- out trees to give shelter; and it is well known by every proprietor of land that he receives by far the, highest rent for those parts of his estate which are most sheltered by his best plantations. And further, whatever agricultural value land may have when unsheltered by woodlands, its productive capacity is very much enhanced, and its rental value considerably greater, when it is properly sheltered by plantations or natural woods. Sylviculture or Forestry differs from no other science in its fundamental principle,—search after knowledge and truth. It would, therefore, be unfair not to point out that evidence was given before the Parliamentary Comittee on Forestry of 1887 to prove that planting could not in Britain promise remun- erative returns, owing to the fact of the timber marts being glutted with foreign timber, to the general depression in trade which was then making itself felt, and to the use of substitutes for many purposes for which timber was formerly employed. Mr Dundas of Arniston, a large colliery proprietor and estate- owner, who deponed that he preferred to purchase Baltic timber for the supply of all his requirements, and sold his own forest produce at whatever it would fetch, made the following statement :— “1435. . . . People go about, and they see woods that are neglected, and it is put down at once to want of scientific knowledge on the part of the foresters ; but the fact is, that the bulk of the woods we see neglected now- adays is due to the unremunerative nature of wood-growing, and because the owners cannot and will not throw away good money after bad in keeping them in order: that is really the cause. “1421. Your opinion is, that on land which is worth more than 3s. an acre it is hardly worth growing timber in Scotland ?—No. I have a very strong impression of the uselessness of trying to plant timber on bad land. It used to be an old idea a century ago, and I have seen in old plans certain pieces tinted brown, and marked ‘wet land, to be planted.’ I am certain it is throwing away money to grow wood on such land: timber-growing requires good land and a fair climate. 1422. Land that you could let, probably, for more than 3s. an acre ?— Yes. “1423. Then it does not become profitable to grow timber ?—No ; it does not become profitable to grow timber. I think there is great exaggeration . 46 FINANCIAL VALUE OF SYLVICULTURAL CROPS. in the talk there is about the number of acres which might be profitably planted ; I do not think, from the soil and climate, they could be; and then the distance from a large market always is fatal. Baltic wood is brought over so very cheap that Highland wood, which is the only wood that could be planted on a large scale, is at a disadvantage, because, although the distance is much shorter, the expense of carriage becomes so heavy. In Norway they get it on board ship at once. “1447, With regard to your own woods, I suppose we may assume that they were planted more for the purpose of shelter and ornament, and for unremunerative purposes, than for commercial purposes /—Quite so. But taking it along with what I have stated, that I am much more a wood- purchaser than a wood-grower,—at the price I am buying at, I cannot see how Highland proprietors can grow to a profit.” But at the same time it does not follow that these plantations are managed as well as they might have been. It is important to note that among Messrs Thompson, Macgregor, and M‘Quorquodale, at that time the able practical head-foresters in charge of the Strathspey, Athole, and Scone Forests, there was a consensus of opinion that properly managed wood- land crops are undoubtedly profitable even with the low rates ruling for home-grown wood. The late Mr Macgregor’s evidence may be quoted briefly on this point :— “1122. Then you think the forest area in Scotland might be largely increased !—Very largely; it can be very much extended. 1123. With profit —With profit. “1124, Why is that not done now?—I cannot tell. It is expensive to some proprietors to do so; and perhaps they would not be very able; that may be one reason. “1125, Would you attribute that to popular ignorance of the value of woods and forestry /—No. “©1126. I suppose the largeness of the capital required is a consideration ? —Yes, very much so; and it does not make immediate returns: that is another consideration.” “1077. Have the great plantations on the Duke of Athole’s property been successful as a commercial speculation !—I think so. “1078. But at present prices they are not /—Even at present prices they are better than if left as moorland in their original state.” There was one point frequently brought out in the evidence before the Committee that is shameful if it be still true—viz., that for the freight of foreign timber a lower preferential rate is charged by railway companies than is levied on the conveyance of home-grown timber. If this still be the case, it certainly should be stopped by Act of Parliament. But even in spite of these hindrances the evidence of experts went to prove that woodlands may pay. The evidence of Mr Evan Powell, a Welsh land-agent, on this point was as follows :— : 2058. Is it your opinion that, in spite of the drawbacks that you mention—namely, the rating of woodlands and the preferential rates of rail- ways—home-grown timber can still be produced at a profit /—Yes, I think so ; at least certain classes of timber.” EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 47 Education in Forestry.—It is trite and commonplace to say that a surgeon cannot practise successfully on the human subject unless he has been trained to his work by a thorough acquaint- ance with the human anatomy, physiology, and pathology; or that a veterinary surgeon cannot practise with any hope of success on the diseases of any animal unless he has studied its anatomy, physiology, and pathology; or that every man who means to be a good, intelli- gent farmer must learn the art of farming, not only practically, but theoretically, in all its branches. If in such cases training to the end in view is so necessary to success, it reasonably follows that foresters should undergo a certain course of training before they can be safely and profitably intrusted with the rearing of plantations. Further, it is admitted as a general rule in all professions that in this age of general improvement, whatever department a man may take up as his particular business, he should, before entering into it, whether upon his own account or as agent for another, make himself acquainted with such branches of science as have a direct bearing on it, and the knowledge of which will the better qualify him for it. For if he has not the requisite knowledge as a basis for practical work, he cannot possibly succeed to the mutual satisfaction of him- self and of his employer. Admitting these points—and their practical importance cannot well be disputed—it must be confessed that, although the education of foresters has advanced considerably of late years, still very much that is desirable remains to be done before a knowledge of sylvi- cultural science can be said to be easily obtainable. There are several cognate sciences which have a direct bearing on the art of Forestry ; and without a knowledge of these it is all but impossible for a man to be a sylviculturist or an arboriculturist in the true sense of the term, or at least to such an extent as to enable him to carry out improvements in the art with profitable results. Hence it follows that among the men who are now engaged in Forestry, and who have the management of British woods, there are comparatively few who have received such a training and education as is necessary to equip them thoroughly in all respects for their duties. This is equally important both to foresters and proprietors; for on the proper qualification of foresters depends much of the future success in the twin arts of Sylviculture and of Arboriculture. Forestry, like Agriculture, must adapt itself to the peculiar con- ditions and requirements of the country, and even of the particular part of the country, in which it is to be practised. A forester, trained in Continental methods of Sylviculture, would not be able to apply, as a matter of course, the same: practical rules and methods to Scottish woodlands that may have been found to yield the best 48 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. practical results in France or Germany; and still less would he be able, as a matter of course, to apply them to the forest conditions obtaining in Brazil, for example, or in the Southern States of North America. In the latter case he would find kinds of trees different in most respects from those which he had been accustomed to deal with in Europe; and when he began sylvicultural operations, whether with regard to planting, clearing, thinning, or utilising, he would see that his former education in Forestry could not, in all respects, be brought to bear successfully on the works he had taken in hand, and that he had still much to learn in order to adapt his former forest experience to suit the different circumstances of each case. But the scientific principles of Forestry—whether acquired only by practical work in the woods, or preferably by a com- bination of theoretical instruction and practical woodcraft, as is in- sisted on by the Continental Governments, which have either liberally endowed Chairs of Forestry at many of the universities (Switzerland, Hesse, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Sweden and Norway), or else formed national schools of Forestry (as in the cases of France, Italy, Spain, Prussia, Saxony, and Russia), or have even done both (as in the case of Bavaria and Austria)——-remain the same throughout every con- dition of soil and climate, and vary only with regard to their practical application in the art of Sylviculture. The fundamental prin- ciples or truths of Forest science are constant and unvarying, like those of all other sciences; and the only differences between the management of forests in the tropical, the subtropical, and the tem- perate zones, or in different parts of any of these regions, consist in the practical application of those principles so as to utilise the knowledge of the physiological laws regulating the growth of woodland crops to the best advantage of the individual, or of the general community. This incontrovertible truth applies equally to foresters trained in Britain, or France, or Germany, or anywhere else, when they go to America, India, Africa, or Australia. In all these countries there is much that is peculiar to their respective climates, and which the European forester has to master ere he can properly deal with the necessary improvements in their woodlands respectively. But the scientific principles remain the same, no matter how greatly the concrete factors of soil, situation, climate, and species of trees may vary. From this it is evident that foresters should be well edu- cated in all the respective branches of science which have any bearing on the art of Forestry. For if not, they are almost certain to arrive at unsound conclusions when brought face to face with such actual concrete conditions of woodlands as they have not previously been acquainted with. Although very considerable improvement has of late years been EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 49 made with regard to the education of foresters, still there is only a small proportion of them who may be said to be really well-qualified men, and capable of conducting their charges in a highly intelligent and really trustworthy manner. Many of them are mere overseers or workmen, whose only qualification is that they can plant trees in the usual way, and cut them down with the axe when local circum- stances require the operation; and the result of this want of know- ledge is, that the crops under their charge have not succeeded so well as they would have done had they been under the inspection and control of men properly trained to the management of woods. This may be considered by some (see the extract from the evidence of Mr Dundas of Arniston, given before the Parliamentary Com- mittee on Forestry in 1887, and quoted at p. 45) to be somewhat of the nature of an exaggeration. It is really by no means so; it re- presents the simple truth of the case with regard to the general capa- bilities of the great majority of the men who at the present time have the management of plantations in this country. It would indeed seem inconsistent in the managing committee of any hospital to appoint a man who had no skill in medicine and surgery to act as doctor to the patients of the institution; and yet this would only be very much similar to an appointment in the Department of Woods and Forests and Land Revenues of the Crown, made by Government, and to the short-sighted policy adopted by many landed proprietors in appointing comparatively unskilled men to the management of their woodlands. Many still seem to look upon trees as things that can take care of themselves, and that require no particular attention after they once have been put into the ground. There can be nothing more erroneous, however, than this idea; for when once plantations are formed, unless they are carefully and skilfully tended, and cleared, and thinned, the trees can no more grow up spontaneously, and as a matter of course, into a profitable crop of timber, than turnips can attain their largest bulk if not properly thinned. It is indeed very singular that a proprietor should appoint a com- paratively uneducated and untrained man to the management of his woods, while he is generally much more careful in his choice of a man to take the management of his home-farm. And yet in the former appointment there is generally, acre for acre, more capital at stake than in the latter, seeing that woodland crops take so long to mature in comparison with agricultural crops harvested annually. Proprietors employing men to take the charge of their woods usually do not care to pay the price necessary to secure the services of a highly qualified and really competent man; for unless the woodlands are very exten- sive, good men cannot be obtained for such a small salary as the profits VOL. I. D 50 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. from their woods would admit of the owners paying. This is quite true in the case of the small proprietor ; but it is wrong in principle. Indirectly, however, it is the fault of the proprietors themselves that their woods do not pay much better than they do; for the majority of landowners appear unwilling to contribute towards the establishment of any course of sound instruction in Forestry, which would help to qualify land-agents and head-foresters for the better management of woodlands. The more qualified the forester, the more likely are the woods under his charge to be remunerative to the proprietor ; and if the woodland area on any estate be too small to allow of the proprie- tor engaging the entire services of a trained sylviculturist, yet, with technical opportunities such as would be secured by the establish- ment of Chairs of Forestry at university centres, it might in a very short time be possible to have professional sylviculturists, whose time and services could be secured for a number of estates, in pre- cisely the same way as land-agents’ and lawyers’ services are given to more than one estate without prejudice to the interests of any one individual proprietor. This subject may briefly be summed up as follows :—Speaking generally, foresters in Britain are not at present possessed of sufficient technical education to enable them to be intrusted with the manage- ment of large woodland estates ; and until we have a better educated class of men, trained in a thorough professional manner, a large portion of our woods must continue to be less profitable than they otherwise might, and in all probability would be. Many proprietors have not gone the right way to ensure their plantations being so profitable to them as they are capable of being made. They too often appoint unqualified and unskilled men to undertake their management, from a mistaken notion that a saving on the forester’s salary is an economy; whereas, in point of fact, from want of skill he may yearly be losing much more than the amount of this saving by bad management of the woods under his charge. And as there is no thorough training yet available for land-agents and highly educated men who may wish to become scientific sylviculturists, there is no body of men who may be engaged as experts for consultation regard- ing the formation of working-plans, and for intrusting as a matter of business with the supervision and control of the sylvicultural opera- tions on landed estates. Of course, for these two distinct classes of men, the practical forester, wood bailiff, or plantation overseer, and the scientific sylviculturist, a different standard of education and a different course of training are requisite to fit each for his respective duties, and to entitle them to their different scales of remuneration. Were proprietors to look to their own interest, they would upon 1 Or EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. no account employ men to take charge of their woods who would do so at a low salary, as such men invariably want ability and skill to manage profitably ; and besides, they should never employ men who have not undergone proper training, and received an education fitting them for their charge. Were this attended to on the part of pro- prietors themselves, the right class of men would soon spring up, a class which would be able to advance the art of Arboriculture to the standing that its importance demands for the future welfare of the country. The Practical Forester, Wood Bailiff, or Plantation Overseer should possess a good ordinary board-school education of the higher standard in rural districts. He should be a good arithmetician, so as to enable him to enter into all sorts of calculations, and to keep correct accounts. He ought also to be a fair grammarian, and acquainted with the construction and composition of the English language, so as to fit him for keeping up correspondence with his employer, and for describing his views on any subject in writing, when necessary. In order that he may be able to draw plans of plantations, and measure land and wood, he should be well versed in all the common branches of ele- mentary mathematics. These are the ordinary branches of education, which every man now has an opportunity of enjoying. But it will be of great advantage if he be also able to read either French or German, so far as to be able to study some of the great works on Sylviculture in one or other of these languages ; for this will not only add to his own knowledge of nature and his own personal satisfaction, but will also increase his usefulness in many ways. A forester should be able to recognise plants and trees of any sort when he happens to see them, and to describe them accurately when he may have occasion to write concerning them. Without botany he cannot do this; he should therefore study this science, as, without some knowledge of vegetable physiology, it is impossible for him either to think, to speak, or to write correctly regarding the growth of trees. Of all the cognate sciences which are necessary for a forester, and which bear directly upon his professional work, there is perhaps none so important to his success as that of Botany. Without a very fair knowledge of vegetable physiology, he cannot be considered a Sylviculturist, or a first-rate Arboriculturist, any more than a surgeon would be fitted for practice without a knowledge of anatomy. No proprietor should engage a man to manage his woods who has not at any rate a fair knowledge of the bearing of vegetable physiology on his everyday work. As different sorts of trees grow better upon soil of one mineral or physical description than upon that of another, and as it is neces- ~ 52 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. sary that every forester should know the general peculiarities of the land of one district from that of another, he should have some ac- quaintance with Geology and the rudiments of Sylvicultural or Agri- cultural Chemistry, combined with a knowledge of the physiological requirements of the different kinds of trees. Without this he can- not possibly distinguish between soils best adapted for the growth of Larch, or Spruce, or Pine, &e., and those more suitable for the growth of certain broad-leaved species of trees; neither can he describe in- telligently the precise local conditions of the soils and situations on certain districts. Sylvicultural or Agricultural Chemistry is just as useful and as necessary to the forester as it is to the farmer. Unless possessed of a certain amount of sound elementary knowledge on this subject, neither the one nor the other can form correct judgments as to the nature and productive capacity of different classes of soils. This, therefore, should form a part of the education of every man who would be an intelligent practical forester. As has long been well known, not a few of the diseases of trees are attributable either to unfavourable climatic conditions, or to unsuitable soils, or to the attacks of injurious insects, or to infection with parasitic fungoid spores, the natures of some of which are as yet very imperfectly understood. In order to enable the forester, there- fore, to make intelligent observations and suggestions regarding such matters, he should also endeavour to make himself acquainted with Entomology, and with the Pathology of trees. With a sound elementary knowledge such as is above described, any man of intelligence may enter upon the practical management of woods, however extensive they may be, with reasonable hope of a successful administration ; but, without a certain amount of theoreti- cal knowledge, it is very improbable that his stewardship and treat- ment of any sylvicultural crops that may be intrusted to his management will be to the credit of himself, or to the best interests of his employer and of the community at large. It must not, however, be understood that only the elementary theoretical knowledge described is necessary in order to make a man a good forester; for without a course of practical training at the same time, he cannot become fitted to be trusted with the manage- ment of woods. A student fresh from college might just as well pose as a consulting physician without any other preparation as a practitioner. Besides a thorough training in the practical work of Forestry, which can always be obtained on one or other of the com- paratively few estates where some attempt is made to manage the woods on Sylvicultural principles, a certain amount of sound elemen- tary knowledge of the cognate sciences above described is absolutely EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 53 necessary in order to make a man capable of thinking correctly for himself, and of carrying on improvements on such rational lines as will probably lead to desirable results. In recommending to practical foresters the study of Sylviculture and of its cognate sciences, no attempt need be made to prove that a deep course of study is requisite, because such is not the case. But it is imperative that they should have a sufficient acquaintance with the fundamental principles of Forestry to enable them to apply the latter to their business, under whatever varying conditions of concrete factors they may find themselves called upon to act. Elementary knowledge of a sound scientific nature is far more to be desired than a wide extent of shallow and discursive reading. And, within the last decade, the means have now been given for obtaining a better, though still only a partial, insight into the laws of nature which regulate tree-growth, as several scientific. works have of late years been published in this country on the different branches of Sylvi- culture, from which an intelligent man may teach himself (see list of works recommended in the Preface). An important event in the history of Forestry in Scotland occurred on the 17th November 1892—just one year before the great north-east storm of 1893, which, disastrous as it was, may perhaps ultimately be productive of good, if its results can draw the attention of landowners to the necessity for, or the advisability of, encouraging the study of such branches of Forestry as relate to the Protection of Forests against storms and other inimical influ- ences, whether of an organic or an inorganic nature. On the evening of 17th November 1892, a Course of Free Instruction for Practical Foresters and Gardeners was begun at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, for which a temporary grant of £150 a-year was obtained by Prof. I. B. Balfour from the Board of Agriculture. The nature and scope of the course of instruction may be gathered from the following résumé of the proceedings ; and it may be noted that the number of applications received from young practical gardeners and foresters for the benefit of the scheme was sixty-seven, of whom forty-four were admitted to the course. Some of these were taken on at a weekly wage as gardeners in the Arboretum, whilst the others received employment in the various nurseries around the city. In his introductory remarks, Prof. Bayley Balfour said that it was not in- tended to teach them in the class-rooms to be practical foresters or gardeners. That must be learnt elsewhere. But if they wanted to know the secrets of Forestry and of Horticulture, they ought to have a sound knowledge of the scientific basis upon which these arts rested. It was meant, therefore, to give them some insight into the sciences that underlay their work. During the winter they should have three courses—one on chemistry and one on physics, and, in addition to that, they should have a course on mensuration and land- measuring. This last course would be begun in winter, but more would be done at it when the long evenings came. They would then go out into the garden, where surveying instruments would be provided. They would be taught to use 54 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. these instruments, to survey land, and to draw out plans. After these subjects had been gone through, they should then proceed to deal with botany, which treated of the actual plants they would handle; of geology, which treated of the soils in which the plants grew; they should also have a course of meteor- ology, giving them the application of physics to the study of climate; and a course on entomology, which would work into the course of botany, and would show them how insects affected forest and garden plants in health and disease. After that they should have lectures on Forestry and Horticulture, treated by experts from a practical point of view; and he hoped it would be possible to arrange for excursions to neighbouring estates and gardens. The scheme, he believed, was fitted to equip a class of men who were needed not only in Great Britain but also in her dependencies. Remarks had, he said, appeared in the newspapers that might lead to the notion that there was some sort of rivalry between this course of lectures and the teaching in the University ; but there was really no competition or rivalry between this course and that of the Uni- versity. They were devised for entirely different classes of men. They were really different branches of one scheme which had the approval of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. The Bavarian system, one of the best on the Continent, of train- ing lads for the subordinate forest service of the State, is begun when they are from fourteen to sixteen years of age. It extends over two years, during which the young lads go through a course of practical instruction, and receive tuition in the principles of Forestry, Arith- metic, Book-keeping, &c. There are five such elementary Forest Schools in different parts°of the country, and the results attained have proved most satisfactory. The Sylviculturist, or Scientific Head-Forester, requires, first of all, a practical training in the operations of Forestry, and then a course of theoretical instruction, combined with opportunities of visit- ing forests in which the various operations of natural and artificial regeneration, the tending, and the utilising of sylvicultural crops may be seen as they should be done, and very often also as they should not be done. Such a course goes over all the ground covered in the instruction of practical foresters; but it should, of course, be much more thorough and more comprehensive, and therefore can only be successfully entered upon by men having a very good preliminary education. On the continent of Europe, throughout all the State forests and on the woodland estates of the nobility, the supervision of sylvicultural operations is, as a rule, only intrusted to highly educated men of this class. The following curriculum may be taken as a fair analysis of Forest Science as taught at the great Continental Universities and national Forest Academies.’ 1 Article on Forest Science: its Aim and Scope, in the National Review for 1889, pp. 681-690. 5 Ot EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. I. Introductory Studies in the Cognate Sciences, stating the aims and objects of Forestry from national-economic and proprietary points of view, and giving a concise account of its history, and of the forest laws from earlier times up to the present. To this branch belong the general grounding in geology, botany, and zoology, the mathematical studies, and the application of mathematics to Forestry in surveying, levelling, and road-making. 1. Petrology and Sylvicultural Chemistry.—One cannot conceive the growth of forest produce without soil; hence it is necessary that a good knowledge be acquired of what, for want of a better and. more compre- hensive name, is generally in England called “agricultural chemistry.” This subject, comprising not only geology, but also chemistry and meteorology, treats of the mineral constituents of the various kinds of rocks ; of their decomposition and the formation of soil; of the various physical properties of soils and subsoils; of the mutual relations between soils, sub- _ soils, and vegetation ; of the influence of latitude, elevation, gradient, and aspect, on forest-trees ; of the influence of forests on temperature, atmospheric and soil moisture ; of the effects of different atmospheric conditions (wind, rain, snow, frost) on forest vegetation, We. 2. Botany.—The natural step from knowledge of soils is towards a knowledge of the vegetable covering they bear. The scientific forester on the Continent is taught not only the general principles of vegetable morphology, physiology, and pathology, but his special attention is directed to the classes and varieties of plants most important to his work, and to the fungoid and other non-parasitic diseases by whose attacks they are liable to be damaged or even destroyed. Many useful conclusions relative to the proper treatment of forests being deducible from the individual mosses, grasses, or plants found on the soil, he is taught to know most of these, whilst at the same time his knowledge regarding the forest-trees of Europe and the imported species of foreign growth is thorough. 8. Zoology.—Under this heading the student of Forestry is taught con- cerning useful and injurious birds and insects, and about the habits of the game and vermin that are to be met with in woodland estates. II. Sylviculture is, in the broadest sense of the term, often used synony- mously with Forestry ; but, within its narrower limits, it is that branch of forest science which treats of the cultivation of useful forest products, and the formation, treatment, and reproduction of woods. After preliminary instruction regarding the habitat and peculiarities of the timber trees in general cultivation, their relations to soils and situations, the various modes of rearing trees in high-forest, coppice, or coppice with standards, the advantages of mixed forests, and the general rules regulating the prosperity of the different kinds of trees in mixed forests, this branch may be divided into two main sections—(1) the Formation of Forests, and (2) the Tending of Woods. The former teaches the various methods by which forests can be formed artificially by sowing or planting, or naturally in reproducing them by means of seed from parent trees, shoots from the root, or layers and cuttings. In the case of artificial production and reproduction, the approved methods of pre- paring the soil for seed-reception, of sowing the different kinds of seed, or 56 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. forming nurseries, or planting out young plants at various ages and under various circumstances, &c., are all fully described ; while, in the case of natural reproduction, attention is called to the special peculiarities of each kind of tree, for example, as regards the most advantageous age for commencing preparatory fellings, and the manner and extent to which the subsequent clearances of the seed-trees should take place. The section relating to the treatment of existing forests sets forth the most advantageous methods of weeding and thinning out thickets or young plantations, and instructs generally in the normal treatment of various classes of forest during the usual periods of rotation. Theoretical instruction is also given as to the modes in which forests of inferior growth may gradually be improved, and brought into a good normal condition, or how one class of forest may be transformed into another offering greater advantages —e.g., coppice, or coppice with standards, into high-timber forest—often a matter of extreme difficulty in practice. III. The Protection of Forests aims at shielding the woods—so far as lies in the power of the owner—from the manifold dangers (wind, fire, insects, &c.) constantly threatening their existence or development. A knowledge of the forest laws of the country must certainly be classed as pertaining to the protection of forests, in order to check or punish such destructive acts of men as injury to boundary-marks, illicit appropriation of forest produce, or incen- diarism. How important a chapter is formed by the protection of forests from fire is best known to those who are acquainted with tropical or sub- tropical countries, although even in the temperate zone—e.g., the great North- German plain—costly and well-planned measures against fire are also an absolute necessity, and not always a success. Apart from the actions of men, danger to forests may arise from inor- ganic causes, such as storms, excessive rain, snow, hail, frost, drought, or else from enemies in the animal and vegetable worlds. The damage done by goats, sheep, pigs, deer, mice, squirrels, and birds is on the whole of minor import- ance to that perpetrated by insects. Protection of forests teaches all that can be taught in the way of preventing, minimising, and repairing damage caused by such enemies. In this respect the aid of zoology is greatly needed with reference to the study of birds and of insects, but especially of insects. During the first years of existence many weeds (including trees or shrubs out of their proper place) threaten the development of young forest growth, and against such dangers also defensive measures are requisite. Young seed- lings, as well as growing timber, are often liable to attacks from various kinds of sporadic and epidemic fungi and other parasitic plants, with the life-history of which the scientific forester must be acquainted, in order to be able to combat them, and to grow timber free from the effects of such deteriorating influences. It is only of comparatively recent years that this particular branch of study has received the attention now admitted to be necessary ; but those acquainted with the ravages of Peziza Willkommii and Trametes pini in Larch and Pine plantations, and those whose pockets have to suffer in consequence, best know how desirable such knowledge is in those to whom the management of forests is intrusted. Dangers arising from the inorganic causes previously mentioned cannot indeed be totally prevented ; but it is the object of this branch to set forth the EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 57 practical treatment within our power to obviate or repair damage, and a thorough knowledge of the subject is perhaps more immediately productive of apparent beneficial results in this than in the other branches of the science. IV. The Utilisation of Forest Produce.—lt will be readily admitted that those engaged in the production of timber ought to be thoroughly ac- quainted with the technical properties of what they produce—for instance, with regard to timber, its specific weight, hardness, toughness, flexibility, con- traction and expansion, durability, effects of various kinds of flaws, &c. ; for to some extent these are dependent on, or may be affected by, the treatment accorded to the growing timber. By way of example it may be mentioned that, after years of hot dispute and acrimonious paper war, it has in Germany come to be generally admitted that timber grown by means of natural regen- eration is in many technical respects superior to that grown artificially from seed or in plantations; for in the latter case the poles early begin to show a tendency to forked growth, that is not usual in natural woods. To be in a position to satisfy customers, and to classify timber for dis- posal in the most advantageous lots, the controlling forester must be also acquainted with the uses to which various sizes and qualities are put. Ship- builders, miners, railway contractors, furniture manufacturers, &ec., all make different demands for timber ; and all can best be satisfied when their require- ments are properly known and studied. A sound practical knowledge of all the tools, implements, and machinery used in the felling and extraction of timber is also essential. Timber transport by land does not merely include dragging by oxen, horses, buffaloes, or elephants, but necessarily involves road-making, the formation of dragging- paths as feeders, the construction of sledge-ways as in western France, of shoots and timber-slides as in southern Germany and Austria, of wire cable- ways as in Switzerland, and of tramways as in northern India. Knowledge in this branch often makes the whole difference between having large forest- tracts practically unremunerative, or making them yield handsome returns. Timber transport by water demands a knowledge of the various methods for utilising, in the most advantageous manner, limited supplies of the carrying power, as well as of the best measures to be adopted when an enormous carrying power cannot be brought under control. As forest produce is not confined merely to timber, the minor products also require study. Turpentine, resin, rubber, cutch, and other gums and oils are valuable forest products in different parts of the world; hence it is necessary to know how they may best be won, and how the sources of supply may be properly conserved and improved. The same applies to the utilisation of tanning barks, so extensively cultivated here and on the Continent. The technological education further includes a knowledge of the conserva- tion of wood by impregnation and other methods, of charcoal-burning, of the preparation of peat, of the collection of tree-seeds and their transport and preparation for sale, of the fabrication of cellulose in paper-making, of the manufacture of potash, &c. Last, and not least, instruction is necessary about saw-mills, for it not infrequently happens that one is called upon to work saw-mills, either by water-power or steam, in the vicinity of the forests, in order to enable the produce to be favourably disposed of by reducing to minima the costs of transport to the available markets. 58 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. V. Management of Forests and Valuation of Timber Crops, con- stituting the fourth and last great branch of forest science, treats of the most advantageous arrangement and conduct of all business connected with the management of forests. 1. Organisation of the executive staff, arrangement of the forest areas into estates or divisions under the control of the same, subdivisions of estates or divisions into blocks and compartments for convenience of working, and directions regarding office business and the maintenance of cash and other accounts, are requisite in the case of very extensive owners, such as the State. In these cases rules are generally laid down in a codified form for the guidance of those concerned. 2. Valuation of Forests forms the second section. The introductory part, involving a certain knowledge of algebra, gives a thorough grounding in the various methods of calculating the probable future value of different kinds of forests formed, or yet to be formed, on different situations, under varying circumstances, with different ultimate objects and periods of rotation, with different initial costs and costs of maintenance, and yielding varying returns at different periods ; in discounting, for comparison with initial and progressive outlays, the probable values of different crops of forest produce, with different periods of rotation, and yielding various returns at different periods of their growth ; in estimating what is likely to be the best age for reproducing exist- ing forests so as to have, without allowing the soil to deteriorate, the highest net percentage of profit on the past, present, and probable future outlays for formation and maintenance; and in ascertaining generally what are likely to prove the most remunerative timber crops for any land under consideration. 3. Timber Mensuration includes not merely the measurement of stems felled, stacked timber, and the like, but also the computation of the cubic contents of growing trees individually by means of various methods with or without instruments, or en- masse by means of trial areas, or by the use of average-tables, based on past results, arranged for the different kinds of timber, at different periods of their growth, and on the various qualities of soil and situation. It further teaches the methods of estimating the age of trees individually, or their probable average age collectively, and—which is of immense importance in calculating the financial value of a forest, and enabling the best working-plan to be formed for its future treatment—explains the most approved and reliable methods of ascertaining the annual or periodical increase of growth in height, girth, and cubic contents, either for trees individually or on the average for whole forests or portions of forests, and of arranging such data in the most practical form of reference tables for guidance elsewhere or in the future. 4. The Formation of Working Plans is the last section of this branch, and indeed forms the key-stone in the whole science of Forestry. Its object is so to arrange work in a forest, with regard to areas and to periods of time, as best to effect and ensure the ends desired. The data requisite before this arrangement of work can be made, necessi- tate a survey and plan of the whole area, the determination of the qualities and capabilities of soils at different parts of the area, a complete catalogue and description of the whole stock of growing timber, an estimate of the annual rate of increase of each portion, detailed information relative to the mutual EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 59 relation between stock and annual increment, and a statement of the past history of the forest as to outlays and returns. These data having been care- fully studied, the “working-plan” can now be framed for whatever period is considered most advantageous or convenient ; and this, corrected by periodical revisions, forms the basis upon which operations are conducted. It usually consists of— (a.) An introductory or general portion exhibiting the results ascer- tained in collecting the above-mentioned data. (6.) The plan of fellings, aiming at procuring equal supplies of produce yearly or periodically, and, so far as possible, of nearly equal annual value, and from nearly equal areas. (c.) The plan of cultivation, dealing with the reproduction of timber cleared, or the sowing or planting up of areas not yet under forest growth. Such are the special subjects forming the curriculum at the great forest schools on the Continent. In the Bavarian Forest Service only students who can produce their Absolutorium from the highest class of schools, which entitles them to matri- culate at any university, can enter the Forest Academy at Aschaffenburg. Here they have a two years’ course of theoretical and practical instruction, which is followed by a two years’ course of lectures at Munich University, and by three years of practical work, of which the first and third are in the State forests, and the second in the Forest Secretariat, in order to learn official routine. In Prussia the students have one year’s practical work as apprentices first of all, and then proceed for two and a half years to one of the two great academies (Neustadt-Eberswalde and Miinden). After two years’ practical work they have to attend a university for one year, and are thereafter employed on practical work till they receive their appointments as Oberforster. It may be considered by some that, with such an amount of education as is here inferred, a man might do better than be a sylviculturist. This may indeed at first sight seem correct, but in reality it is not; for any one possessed of the above theoretical and practical knowledge can command a fair salary even in these days of excessive competition in most walks of life. It is not probable that any one having the requisite amount of knowledge will at the present time find difficulty in obtaining a situation as a head- forester, at a salary equal to the income of most rural clergymen and country practitioners of medicine. Probably one of the very reasons why there are so many foresters in situations at extremely low salaries is, that they are unscientific men, who are not entitled to look for the same remuneration as a good sylviculturist might expect. Let practical foresters try the experiment of educating themselves as above suggested, and the probability is that they will find it to their material advantage. No far-seeing proprietor of extensive woods will hesitate about paying a good salary to a good man, when he can foresee that the result will be an improvement in the annual returns 60 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. from his woodlands, and an enhancement in their market value as an investment of capital. Many foresters in Britain obtain salaries from £70 to £300 per annum ; and great difficulty is often found in getting men of practical ability, combined with the necessary training, to fill vacancies. Pro- prietors are now too well aware of the value of a really good and intelligent practical forester not to employ him, although at a high salary. And there can be little doubt that if there were any body of scientific sylviculturists whose services could be procured for the general supervision and superintendence of sylvicultural operations on large estates, their services would be appreciated by large landed proprietors, and would be in good demand professionally. In no other art or science has the Anglo-Saxon race displayed such decided neglect and indifference as with regard to Forestry. Even the word Sylvi- culture is not commonly found in the most recent dictionaries of the English language, or in the glossaries of technical and scientific terms. And yet Britain and America own the largest and the most valuable timber tracts in the world. It was not until 1866 that the necessity of having any of the servants of the State trained in forest science had practically made itself felt in Britain, and then only in so far as her Indian forests were concerned. In that year was held the first competition for appointments to the Indian Forest Service, and of the quality of the work done by the men trained in Germany (1867-75) and in France (1867-85) high testimony has very frequently been borne by the Indian Government. The Continental system of training for such candidates has now ceased, and their education is being conducted at the Indian Engineer- ing College, Cooper’s Hill, Surrey, by two professors lecturing on the various branches of Forestry, assisted by teachers of the cognate sciences. The course of training, however, still includes a term of residence, an apprenticeship, and a prolonged tour in forests in southern Germany and France, in order to give the students opportunities, not at present to be had in this country, of seeing the results of forest management and operations on a large scale. It is indeed humiliating to Britain that—except at Cooper’s Hill College, where a three years’ course, at a cost of £183 a-year for board and tuition alone, is essential—there is not in the country any school where young men can acquire an efficient grounding in the principles and practice of Forestry. This want has very frequently been felt by young men who wish to improve themselves, and to study this branch of rural economy; but up till the present perhaps the best thing they can do is to put themselves under some prac- tical forester of experience, where the woods under his charge are considered to be well managed, and at the same time to study the best works on the subject of Sylviculture, and see if such management is in accordance with the principles of Sylviculture. EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 61 But for any thorough and systematic training in Forestry on a large scale, there is no other course open at present than for the student to proceed to the Continent; and for preference he should betake himself to one of the great schools of Germany, the home of Forest Science. There are in this country no opportunities for the education of those who wish to learn Forestry in all its branches. In France there are good schools for the training of foresters, and also in Ger- many; but of course few students are able and willing to go to the Continent in order to learn what they very properly think they ought to have facilities for learning at home. The conclusions which the Parliamentary Committee on Fores- try arrived at in 1887 have previously been quoted (see p. 10) in part; and as the remaining portion of their report has special reference to the question of education in Forestry, it is here continued un extenso :— ““Your Committee recommend the establishment of a Forest Board. They are also satisfied by the evidence that the establishment of Forest Schools, or at any rate of a course of instruction and examination in Forestry, would be desirable, and they think that the consideration of the best mode of carrying this into effect might be one of the functions intrusted to such a Forest Board. * As regards the Board of Forestry, the Committee submit the following suggestions :— “1. That the Board should be presided over by a responsible official (an expert by preference) appointed by the Government, and reporting annually to some department of the Government. “© 2. That the Board should be so constituted as to comprise the principal agencies interested in the promotion of a sounder knowledge of Forestry, especially the various teaching and examining bodies, as well as the professional societies. “3. That the following bodies should be invited to send delegates to the Board :— The Royal Agricultural Society of England ; The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; The Royal Dublin Society ; The Office of Woods and Forests ; The Linnean Society ; The Surveyors’ Institution ; The English Arboricultural Society ; The Scottish Arboricultural Society ; and, that the Director of Kew Gardens should be a member ex officio. “That the Board should also comprise three members of each House of Parliament, and a certain number of owners or managers of large woodlands, a preference in the latter case being given’ to those who are in a position to afford facilities for study in their woods. 62 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. “4. That the functions of the Board should be— (a.) To organise Forest Schools, or, at any rate, a course of instruction in Forestry. (6.) To make provision for examinations. (c.) To prepare an official syllabus and text-book. “5, That the examiners should be required to examine in the following subjects, namely :— (a.) Practical Forestry. (b.) Botany. (c.) Vegetable Physiology and Entomology, especially in connection with diseases and insects affecting the growth of trees. (d.) Geology, with special reference to soils. (e.) Subjects connected with land agency, such as land drainage, surveying, timber-measuring, &e. “The expense of secretarial staff and examiners need not, in the opinion of the Committee, exceed £500 a-year, and the cost might be considerably reduced by fees for diplomas. “The fact that the Indian Government already incurs some expense in promoting the education of Forestry students for the Indian service, suggests the adoption of the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill as a nucleus for the proposed Forestry instruction. “Inducements might be offered to the agricultural colleges and the Surveyors’ Institution to send their students for examination, by a system of exemption from examination in certain preliminary subjects in respect of which the candidates could produce a certificate of proficiency.” Nothing has yet been done towards the establishment of this Board of Forestry, as the following extract from the parliamentary report in the 7imes of Friday, 24th March 1893, will show :— “ Wr Collings, for Sir J. Lubbock, asked the President of the Board of * Agriculture whether he proposed to take any, and, if so, what steps to carry out the recommendations of the Select Committee on Forestry. “ Mr Gardner. As was stated by my predecessor in reply to the similar question put by the right hon. baronet on the 6th of March 1891, the statutory powers of the Board of Agriculture are strictly limited, and we have no means and no power of giving effect directly to the recommendations of the Select Committee either as regards the establishment of a school or schools of Forestry, or the creation of a Board of Forestry. I am, however, in full sympathy with the desire to promote the development of education in Forestry, and we are, I think, doing all that we can in that direction. We have continued to make a substantial grant towards the cost of lectures in the University of Edinburgh under the auspices of the Royal Scottish Arboricul- tural Society, and towards the cost of the chair which has been established in the Durham College of Science to include the teaching of Forestry. A course of free instruction to practical foresters and gardeners in connection with the Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, to which we have devoted the sum of £150, is now in progress; and in view of the fact that a course of lectures in Forestry has been started in connection with the Glasgow and West of EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. 63 Scotland Technical College, we have increased our grant to that institution. We also propose to continue to give the statistical information as to woods and plantations which was supplied for the first time in 1891. I shall always be glad to receive and to consider any suggestions for the increase of sound technical knowledge on this subject.” And yet, when the editor of the present work offered, in 1892, to translate gratuitously, subject of course to the consent of the respec- tive authors, one of the leading German works on each of the four main branches of Forestry —i. Sylviculture, ii. Protection of Forests, il. Management of Forests and Valuation of Timber Crops, and iv. Utilisation of Forest Produce—on condition that these works on The Science of Forestry should be published on whatever terms the Board of Agriculture might consider reasonable, the offer was declined, on the plea that, as the Government of India were paying the cost of text- books in course of preparation for students at Cooper’s Hill, the British Treasury need not be asked to incur any expense on the matter, for the funds would probably not be sanctioned. At present the highest certificates (first and second class) that can be obtained in Forestry are those granted by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, whose examinations in Practical Forestry, Botany, Chemistry, Land and Timber Measuring, Forest Engineering, Arithmetic and Book-keeping, are held annually in March. The practical steps that have been undertaken in consequence of this Committee on Forestry consist first of all in the following clauses of the Board of Agriculture Act of 1889 :— “© 2.—(2.) The Board of Agriculture shall also undertake the collection and preparation of statistics relating to agriculture and Forestry, and may also undertake the inspection of, and reporting on, any schools which are not public elementary schools, and in which technical instruction, practical or scientific, is given in any matter connected with agriculture or Forestry, and the aiding of any school which admits such inspection, and in the judgment of the Board is qualified to receive such aid and the arding of any system of lectures or instruction connected with agriculture or Forestry, and the inspec- tion of and reporting on any examinations in agriculture or Forestry. **(3.) The Board of Agriculture may also make or aid in making such inquiries, experiments, and research, and collect or aid in collecting such in- formation as they may think important for the purpose of promoting agriculture or Forestry. “4. It shall be lawful for her Majesty the Queen in Council from time to time by order to transfer to the Board of Agriculture such powers and duties of any Government department as are conferred by or in pursuance of any statute, and appear to her Majesty to relate to Agriculture or Forestry, and to be of an administrative character ; 64 EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. “ Provided also, that nothing in this Act contained shall in any respect affect the exclusive control of the Secretary of State in Council of India over the candidates for the Indian Forest Department at Cooper’s Hill College or elsewhere.” Under the powers thereby conferred, the Board of Agriculture pay one-half of the stipend, or £250 a-year, towards the support of the Chair of Agriculture and Forestry instituted at the Durham College of Science in 1891, £100 a-year since 1891 towards the Lectureship of Forestry instituted (temporarily) in 1889 at Edinbureh University, £150 a-year towards the free instruction of foresters and gardeners at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and similar aid towards instruction at the Glasgow Technical Institute in the West of Scotland. It would not cost very much to form schools of practical Forestry at woodland centres like Lyndhurst in the New Forest and Coleford in the Forest of Dean for England, as well as at Dunkeld in Athole and Grantown in Strathspey for Scotland, where lads could be trained as foresters and overseers, as at the elementary sylvicultural schools of Bavaria. Nor would it involve any great annual outlay to endow a Chair of Forestry at Oxford or Cambridge, at Edinburgh, and Aber- deen or St Andrews, and at Dublin or Belfast, in order to afford students, going through the ordinary Arts course, opportunities of obtaining sound instruction in Sylviculture or the modern science of Forestry. The total annual outlay for the establishment of six Chairs of Forestry at different universities, and the maintenance of four elementary Forest Schools, would not amount to more than £4500, which is surely a small price to pay for the national benefits derivable from the better management of woodlands which we know to have cost more than £20,000,000 to form, and which, if properly tended, should have a present value of probably more than £50,000,000 (see p. 27). British Woodlands.—The forests and woodlands of this country consist of two distinct classes, National or State and Private. According to the report of a Select Parliamentary Committee, ap- pointed in 1889 and 1890 to inquire into the Administration of the Department of Woods and Forests and Land Revenues of the Crown, which was published in 1890, it appears that the national woodlands are as follows :— “1, The woods, forests, and land revenues of the Crown consist of the following particulars :— “In England.—WLand situate in twenty-three counties, containing 69,627 a. 2 r. 27 p., producing a rental of £82,081. “Windsor Park and woods, containing 15,175 acres. BRITISH WOODLANDS. 65 “The New Forest, containing 64,834 acres. “The Dean Forest, containing 18,710 acres. “‘Other woods and forests in Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, Northamptonshire, Surrey, and other counties, con- taining 16,574 acres.” The evidence adduced before the Committee showed that the status of these national woods was as follows :— “ Windsor Forest.—Windsor Forest and Park comprises 15,175 acres; of this 5355 acres are maintained as the domain attached to Windsor Castle. The remainder is not regarded as part of the residential property of the Sovereign. - “The Ranger is appointed under the powers reserved in section 135 of 10 Geo. IV., and he has the sole control of the deer, game, fish, and herbage. “The entire expenses of Windsor Park and the contiguous property in 1887-88 amounted to £23,237. Of this sum £4227 represents the salaries and allowances of the Rangers’ Department and the Commissioner of Woods’ Department ; £8650, the cost of repairs and maintenance of roads, drives, fences, and care of plantations, &c. ; £3822, repairs and maintenance of lodges in Windsor Great Park, Ascot, and Bagshot ; and £1088 for rates and taxes. The entire income in the same year was £4442, 4s. 6d. “The New Forest.—The income of £10,777, 5s. 2d. derived from this large tract of land appears to be relatively small, but it must be considered that the profitable rights of the Crown in this estate are very limited. “The surface of the soil in the open forest is subject to the rights of common, the timber in the recent inclosures has not reached maturity, and even in the older woods the rights of the Crown are greatly restricted by the provisions of the Act of 1877. “The method of dealing with this estate was at that time carefully con- sidered by a Committee. The policy then deliberately adopted by Parliament was, that the New Forest should be administered principally with regard to the preservation of its ornamental character, and not with an exclusive view to the profit to be derived from it. “ Your Committee have not thought fit to reopen this question, as they concur in the policy then adopted. They have found nothing in the evidence adduced to show that there has been any departure in the administration of the forest from the principles laid down in the Act of 1877. “ The Forest of Dean.—The Committee are of opinion that, having proper regard to the rights of commoners and the convenience of those engaged in mining industries, the best available income is obtained from the surface ; whilst, as in the New Forest, regard is paid to the preservation of the natural beauty of the woods. “ Possibly a larger income might be obtained by the sale of the surface and the reinvestment of the proceeds; but a difficult question would have to be dealt with in the purchase of the right of commonage enjoyed by tenants and freeholders of certain parishes. This would be detrimental to the welfare of, and repugnant to the feelings of, the inhabitants of the district ; whilst the destruction of the forest would be most regrettable. iV Oh: ahs E 66 ; BRITISH WOODLANDS. “Tt is doubtful whether an ‘Assistant to the Deputy Surveyor’ is required for the surface of Dean Forest, considering the large number of wood foremen and keepers. “The Committee have taken evidence as to the peculiar conditions under which, by customs confirmed by Act of Parliament, the mineral proper- ties in the Dean Forest (both coal, ironstone, and quarry stone) are ‘ galed’ (leased) to freeminers only on perpetuity leases, which are in almost all cases alienated by the original ‘ galees.’ “They have not considered it within the scope of their inquiry to examine to what extent these peculiar conditions are, or are not, conducive to the further development of the mineral field, nor as to the desirability or feasibility of purchasing or extinguishing the interest of freeminers in the undeveloped properties. Evidence was, however, taken as to some modifications, under existing conditions, which ought to be made in the laws which direct the conduct of the Commissioners. “Tn the Forest of Dean sites have been granted by the Crown for churches and church schools, while Nonconformist bodies for their places of worship, and the ratepayers for their board schools, have been compelled to pay a full competition price for their sites. Contributions in money also have been made towards the purposes of the Church of England. The Com- missioners are advised that they are entitled only to make such contributions to the Churches of England and Scotland.” Among the recommendations made by the Committee it was determined that “The allotments set out and allotted to the Crown in severalty in Alice Holt Forest, Bere Forest, and Parkhurst Forest were by the Acts devoted to the growth of timber for the Royal Navy. As no timber is required by the Admiralty from these properties, the restriction as to their being devoted to the growth of timber, and also any similar enactments affecting the New Forest and the Forest of Dean, should be repealed.” The grave mismanagement of these properties as woodland estates was pointedly referred to in the report from the Committee on Forestry in 1887, which has previously been quoted (see p. 10). The Private Forests include 98 per cent of the 3,005,670 acres returned in 1892 as under woodlands and nurseries through- out the United Kingdom. These include all the ornamental woods and game-preserves belonging to the landed gentry, in which sylvicultural crops are reared either for shelter or for ornament to the estates, or purely as sources of private income to their holders. With regard to each of these classes a few remarks, descriptive of their general condition at the present time, will not be out of place here. State Forests.—Out of a total of 115,293 acres, only 57,304 acres are actually under timber-crops in the several forests named as belonging to Government. The crops cultivated are chiefly Oak, with STATE FORESTS—PRIVATE FORESTS. 67 a small proportion of the other kinds of trees, usually planted on spots of land considered unsuitable for the growth of Oak. These crops are of various ages, from mature growth down to plantations formed but a few years ago; the majority of the crops may, however, be said to consist of pole-forests and young tree-crops. Previous to 1852 nearly all the crops in these forests had been so much neglected as regards thinning and draining, that their healthy and normal development had been arrested; but since that date great improvements have been effected in dealing with them. Systematic thinning is now carried out, and some attention is paid to endeavour- ing to keep the land in a dry and healthy condition. So far as the nature of the soil is concerned, there is no reason why much better crops should not be raised in these forests if they were put under the executive charge of competent officers trained in Sylviculture, whose hands should not be tied by senseless enactments. Private Forests.—With regard to the woods and plantations of private proprietors in this country, both in England and Scotland, a very considerable improvement has taken place within the last forty years. Previous to 1850 the greater part of the woods and plantations on private properties, in all parts of the country, was in a most unsatisfactory condition, but since that date vast improvements have been effected with respect to drainage, thinning, and tending and now, on most estates, draining, planting, and thinning are fea carried out systematically. This not only promotes better health among the older classes of plantations, but also enables sounder pro- posals to be made regarding the better conduct of planting operations. Before planting is undertaken on any piece of land, the fitness of its condition for the growth of trees should be duly considered, and only those kinds of trees selected for planting which are likely to succeed best on the given soil and situation; whilst at the same time the most advantageous density of the crop should also receive careful consideration. On examining the older class of plantations upon private properties, it is at once evident that a very large number of these have been formed of species of trees for which the land was not naturally suited. In consequence of this, a large proportion of them have had to be cleared of late years, in order to permit of the land being replanted with crops better suited to its productive capacity. The process of clearing the unhealthy portions of the crops has, in many cases, been judiciously undertaken and well carried out; hence the acreage under such unhealthy plantations is gradually becoming less and less, while the extent of land under young and healthy crops is annually on the increase. With the dissemination of better knowledge among practical 68 FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. foresters, the younger class of plantations, those under about thirty years of age, are reaping the advantages of more rational treatment : most of these are in a fair state of management, and promise to yield valuable timber in due time. A greater degree of intelligence is now brought to bear on the general management of plantations on most properties than seems to have been the case more than thirty years ago. And if only better opportunities were given by Government for sound instruction in forest science, this encouraging circumstance would entitle us to expect that the woodlands of Britain would soon become greatly improved, and be in a much more promising condition than they now are. There is good reason to hope that, now the tide of improvement has fairly set in towards advancement in this department of rural economy, the Art of Forestry will shortly receive a more open recog- nition at our universities, and a more liberal share of the public “money now being invested in the encouragement of technical educa- tion, than is at present the case. Forestry in Britain.—The art of Forestry is still in its in- fancy in Britain. From the nature of sylvicultural crops, which re- quire a considerable number of years to elapse before the many experiments and practical operations bear fruit, the final results of the sowing, and planting, and tending, are not so quickly harvested as in the case of agricultural crops. To this cause, and to the compara- tively small area of our woodlands, are attributable the very slow progress which has hitherto been made in Sylviculture, as compared with agriculture, throughout Britain. Every man of ordinary powers of observation will readily admit that when any land is planted with timber-trees the crops will ordinarily require at least fifty years in order to attain good marketable dimensions, even in the case of most species of conifers; whilst with broad-leaved species of trees a longer time must generally pass by before the main crop can be utilised, and more particularly in the case of Oaks, which take longest before they attain their full technical and financial maturity. Practical Forestry,' as at present generally seen in operation throughout Britain, seems to be classifiable under nine headings :— 1. The sowing and schooling of the young plants in the nur- sery previous to their being planted out in their permanent sites ; 2. Fencing the lands to be planted, in order to separate them 1 The attention of the reader is here called again to the vast difference between Forestry—i.e., Sylviculture—as taught and practised on the Continent; and Forestry —i.e., Arboriculture mainly—as practised in Britain. The above classification of Prac- tical Forestry should be compared with the sylvicultural curriculum gone through by students at the German academies and universities (see p. 55). FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. 69 from the agricultural portions of the estate, and to prevent cattle from getting into the plantations ; Drainage of wet portions, and soil-preparation of the land intended to be planted ; 4. The planting out of the young trees intended to form the Crops ; 5, The pruning or trimming of such trees as seem of a branch- ing and rough habit of growth ; 6. The thinning of woods for the promotion of the growth of the better portion of the respective crops ; 7. The stripping of bark from such of the trees as can yield a supply suitable for tanning purposes ; 8. The utilisation, or felling and disposal of the mature crop of timber ; and, 9. The conversion of timber. With regard to the mode of sowing and schooling young plants in the nursery, great improvements have been effected within the last twenty or thirty years. Previous to that date, the usual method was to sow the seeds of the different sorts of trees very thickly in the beds, so as to raise as many plants as possible from a small piece of ground, and to allow the young plants to stand two years in these seed-beds before beginning to school them by removing them to the nursery-lines. Now, however, the majority of arboriculturists agree that the young plants are much improved in health and strength by sowing thinly in the seed-beds, and by removing the young seedlings into the nursery-rows when they are yearling plants. Besides this improvement, another has been effected by attention to a judicious system of rotation in cropping. This was not attended to by the older class of nurserymen, and the consequence was that their young plants became unhealthy from the same sorts being repeatedly grown on the same piece of ground, without any intervening crop; for as one particular class of seedlings extracts precisely the same kind of mineral food from the soil as the preceding crop of the saine species, a rotation of seedling crops was found advisable as in agriculture. eS) Any difficulty on this score could, however, in the editor’s opinion, easily be got over by manuring, provided the disease among the seedlings was not due to parasitic fungi. With regard to fencing, the chief improvement that has been effected within the last half-century consists in the use of wire and of iron straining-posts. And this is a very great improvement in- deed; for it is not only more ornamental than any other description 70 FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. of fence, but is also infinitely more durable than the old system of fencing with wood alone, and is therefore by far the cheaper method in the long-run. Drainage and soil-preparation, in the proper sense of the term as applied to woodlands, may also be said to be an improvement of our own day. Formerly it was not only little applied, but, even where practised, was done on such a shallow principle as often to be quite inoperative. For leading off surplus moisture from wet parts of woodlands, simple cuts of some 12 in. in depth were, at a compara- tively recent date, considered quite sufficient. Now, however, ex- perience has shown that open trenches of from 3 to 4 ft. in depth are often absolutely necessary. Owing to the more thorough appli- cation of the principles of drainage and soil-preparation, crops of good timber can now be grown on land which was formerly thought quite unfit for the eaedecuiad of timber. As regards the formation of mixed forests or plantations, much experience has also been gained within the last twenty or thirty years. And from the practical knowledge that has thus been gained, particular kinds of trees may now be grown on certain descriptions of land, which were formerly considered unfit for planting, with any hope of success, with these special kind of trees, or indeed often with any sort of tree at all. Sylvicultural chemistry and vegetable physi- ology have given us much insight into this branch of forestry ; for by a knowledge of these we can now understand not only the nature of soils and of their component parts, but also the requirements of the different species of trees as to mineral food imbibed by the suction- roots in the form of soluble nutrient salts. And with such know- ledge at disposal, we are now in a better position for utilising given soils to their utmost capacity in producing marketable crops of timber. Pruning was, generally speaking, one of the branches of arbori- culture which was even less understood by the older class of foresters than by those of the present day, imperfect enough as the knowledge of the latter often shows itself to be. Fifty years ago, the system that was practised consisted chiefly of lopping off all large branches from the stems, without respect to age, size, or kind, and simply leaving the bare trunks standing like so many May-poles. The science of vegetable physiology has, however, become somewhat better known since then, and pruning is now done very sparingly ; for it is well-known that the removal of large branches from trees deprives them, according to the extent of the operation, of the organs with which nature has provided them for the assimilation of the food they take in by their roots. In this branch of Arboriculture, FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. iQ therefore, important improvements have taken place of late, owing to a slightly better knowledge of the laws which regulate the healthy erowth and development of trees. Thinning plantations for the promotion of the growth of the better classes of individual stems is a branch of Forestry still either imperfectly understood or inadequately practised. It is not economy to allow trees in a plantation to stand so long unthinned as to become crowded, as the struggle for individual supremacy on the part of the dominant stems, and for existence itself on those that are becoming dominated, is thereby needlessly prolonged; the pro- ductive capacity of the soil becomes dissipated in the struggle, in place of being at once available for the enhanced increment of the dominating trees, a portion of which will ultimately form the mature crop. Although Arboriculture, or the growth of ornamental timber, is well understood in Britain, the backwardness of Sylviculture is very extraordinary ; and more especially is this the case, when the great improvements that have been attained in the other branches of rural economy are taken into consideration. Notwithstanding the general high standard of intelligence among our landed pro- prietors, who usually exhibit a far-sighted policy in the improve- ment of the agricultural portions of their estates, it cannot be denied that many of them are generally short-sighted with respect to the sylvicultural branch of their estate management; although by proper attention to it, and by endeavouring to understand the natural laws of tree-growth, they might be gainers financially to a considerable extent. Fortunately, however, within the last twenty or thirty years a great number of proprietors throughout England and Scotland, as well as in Ireland, have adopted a mode of thin- ning, on a regular and systematic principle, by which the crops are kept, at all stages of their growth, in a regular state without crowd- ing, and therefore at all times in an equally healthy condition ; whilst they are never allowed to become crowded before thinning, as used to be the case on most estates. The importance of thinning as a cultural operation has previously been adverted to (see page 40). But one most important point, not referred to above, is the density of the crop at the time of the formation of planta- tions. As compared with Continental plantations, those formed in Britain are generally wanting in density. Owing to the smaller number of plants per acre, the costs of formation, of filling blanks, of weeding, and of clearing during the earlier stages of development, are undoubtedly less; but thick low branches get formed, whose snags become embodied in the bole, and ultimately lessen its technical and monetary: value very considerably. 72 LAWS AFFECTING PRIVATE WOODLANDS IN BRITAIN. The stripping of the bark from Oak and other sorts of trees, for the purpose of tanning, is an important branch of Forestry in many parts of the country, and especially in those localities where Oak forms the chief woodland crop. In this branch but little improvement has been effected of late years, although a better mode of drying the material might well be adopted than the present rather primitive method of seasoning it unprotected in the open air. The utilisation of crops of mature trees—that is to say, the felling, the transport, and the selling or conversion of the timber— is now, from the use of machinery by steam-power, a comparatively easy process compared with what it was previously, when only horse and manual power could be applied. But although in this branch of Forestry very considerable improvements have also been effected of late years, yet very much may be easily learned from Continental experience. The formation and the working of timber-slides, for conveying logs from distant hillsides to public roads, floating streams, or lines of railway, are matters that should receive far more attention in woodland tracts than has ever yet been paid to them in Britain. Laws affecting Private Woodlands in Britain.—There can be no doubt that the legal questions, apart from merely annual rating, connected with the utilisation of timber on entailed landed estates, have got a great deal to do in preventing the formation of large plantations. The following appear to be the main features of the case with reference to estates in tailzie under Scots law (Bell’s Dictionary and Digest of the Law of Scotland, 1890, pp. 1078, 663, 1059) :— Growing Timber.—Questions regarding the right to use growing timber may occur between the fiar and the life-renter, the landlord and the tenant, and between the heir in possession under an entail and the next substitute. ‘“* With regard to the rights of a life-renter, it was decided in Macalister’s Transactions, 27th June 1851, (1) that though a life-renter is entitled to ordi- nary windfalls of wood, he is not entitled to cut for sale any growing timber, or to sell trees blown down by an extraordinary storm ; but he is entitled, at the sight of the fiar, to cut grown timber, or use blown-down trees, for repair- ing the fences and other purposes of the estate ; (2) that he is not entitled at his own discretion to thin plantations, but he is entitled to do so at the sight of the fiar, to whom the cuttings belong; (3) that he is entitled to cut down copse-wood, which was in use to be cut down at intervals of twenty-two years, provided he is in possession when the usual period of cutting arrives ; but he is not entitled to anticipate that period... . “ Life-renters are entitled to the fruits and annual produce of the subject life-rented ; and they may possess by themselves, their servants or tenants ; but the trees planted for ornament cannot be cut down by the fiar during the currency of the life-rent. The life-renter must leave the subject in as good condition as that in which it was at the commencement of the life-rent. In LAWS AFFECTING PRIVATE WOODLANDS IN BRITAIN. 13 general, he has no right to cut growing timber, even though planted by him- self. But there are exceptions to this rule in the case of (1) underwood, and ordinary (but not extraordinary) windfalls ; (2) timber required for the maintenance of the estate ; (3) sylva cedua, or coppice-wood, which is cut periodically, when it comes to maturity. “ Fiar, as contrasted with life-renter, is the person in whom the property of an estate is vested, burdened with the right of life-rent. . . . He cannot cut the ornamental timber, though he may make the necessary thinnings, not hurting the amenity. “ Sylva cedua is a wood which, on being cut, stoles out again for another cutting, so as, by proper management, to yield a yearly profit, which may be turned to account by a temporary usufructuary, as a life-renter or wadsetter on a good title, but not by a mere tenant, unless his lease expressly so provide. “Woods are reserved to the landlord ex lege. And even a lease of lands with ‘woods’ gives only the power of cutting wood for repairing or building houses upon the ground, but not of selling or otherwise disposing of the wood. The tenant in such a case may cut willows, when young, as a crop, but he is not entitled to cut willow-trees of a large size. A tenant selling or destroying the timber on his farm renders himself liable to a claim of damages, or to certain statutory forfeitures. “An heir in possession under an entail is entitled to cut the timber as long as his possession lasts. In one case in which an heiress of entail, who was eighty years of age, quarrelled with the next heir, and advertised a sale of all the planted timber on the estate, the court refused to grant an interdict, although the heir offered the value of the whole if preserved. The court have, in a few instances, granted interdict against the sale of unripe timber, or ornamental timber, necessary to the amenity of the mansion-house ; but it has been remarked that it requires a strong case to authorise judicial interference. There has been some fluctuation in the decisions on the question, whether the heir in possession can give a right to cut timber, to last beyond his own life ; but it would appear that he cannot.” Under English law the timber is in general regarded as part of the estate, and the money arising from its sale is treated as capital, the interest thereon being paid to the owner in possession. The word timber includes, as a rule, only Oak, Ash, and Elm; but it ex- tends to other trees which are comprised in the term by local custom. An important case as to the right of limited owners of landed estates to cut timber and retain the proceeds was decided in 1891. From 1862 onwards Lady Dashwood was tenant in life of large estates, mostly in Buckinghamshire. A great portion of them was under Beech-woods, and it was customary for the owner to cut down mature trees annually, and dispose of the wood to chair- makers. By the custom of the county of Bucks, Beech-trees are timber; and after Lady Dashwood’s death the next heir contended that, in appropriating the proceeds of the sales, she had been taking what legally belonged to him and his successors. In granting the decision the court held, having regard to the actual practice on the estate rather than to the strict rule of law, that 74 LAWS AFFECTING PRIVATE WOODLANDS IN BRITAIN. Lady Dashwood, in following the custom of her predecessors, had acted within her right (see Hazell’s Annual, 1892, p. 678). But there can be no doubt that the present Rating of Wood- lands also acts as a deterrent against planting; for although the rates must be paid annually, and therefore increase at compound interest like all other investments of capital, yet long periods of time must elapse before the owner of woodlands can recoup himself either for the costs of the formation of the plantation, or the rental derivable from the ground, or the annual rates, or the outlay for weeding, clearing, tending, and protecting before even the early thinnings yield the slightest return. Considering the nature of woodland crops, how long they take to mature, and to how many dangers they are exposed from storms, insect enemies, fungoid diseases, and other organic and inorganic causes, woodlands should not, as at present, be assessed on a par with the surrounding arable and pasture land. Such a rating is absolutely unfair. Even if it be retained at the same rating per acre, however, the owner of woodlands might easily be allowed an easement, in comparison with arable and pasture land, by not being called upon to pay the amount of the simple total of annual ratings (free from accumulations at compound interest) till the year in which the sylvicultural crops on any given area are being utilised. This would help to encourage planting operations on poor land, and would entail no really substantial loss to the Treasury from year to year. (See also Note on page 85.) During the very year in which the duty was taken off foreign timber, rates were first imposed on British woods. A double blow was thus dealt at one and the same moment to the extension of an industry, or, to speak more correctly, an enterprise, that was far more in need of being bolstered up than of being strangled. It is a fact that waste land, after lying bare for decades, and becoming so deteriorated as not to be worth 1s. an acre for any pastoral purpose, has been known to produce more than £1 an acre under wood ; whilst at the same time the timber crop, by protecting the soil from the deteriorating effects of sun and wind, and the scouring and im- poverishing action of heavy rainfall, considerably enhanced the pro- ductive capacity of the land, and raised its immediate future pro- ductivity either for subsequent woodland crops or for a better growth of pasture-herbage. This system of rating, and the most iniquitous system of railway lines granting preferential rates for the haulage of foreign timber as compared with the carriage of home-grown wood, have militated against the extension of woodlands. The evidence given on these points before the Committee on Forestry in 1887 was as follows :— LAWS AFFECTING PRIVATE WOODLANDS IN BRITAIN. 75 By Mr Clutton, Crown Receiver of the Midland Counties, and a past President of the Surveyors’ Institute :— “©1932. From your experience do you think that the present system of rating woodlands has a prejudicial effect in preventing landowners planting as much as they otherwise would do !—It is very difficult to say ; but everything that weights woodlands, or the growth of woods, of course is an obstruction to a certain extent: moreover, the clause under which they are rated is so indef- inite that it is very difficult to rate woods justly. “1973. I will ask you the question generally. Do you think for a series of years, calculating the loss of rent and the loss of interest upon the rent, timber can be said to pay /—I think so, if it is judiciously planted and judi- ciously managed. With regard to a subject upon which the chairman asked me a question just now, the subject of rating, I quite admit that the accumula- tion of rating is very much against the paying of woodlands. “1974. That is a necessary expense, however, which must be taken into consideration, is it not !—It has only been imposed in modern times. Under the Act of Elizabeth there was no rating on woodlands. “1975. But it is now an expense which must be taken into considera- tion !—Quite so.” By Mr Powell, a Welsh law-agent :— 2056. Could: you give the Committee what you consider to be the reasons for the diminished amount of planting, and of the general growth of timber at present ?—The diminished amount of planting is caused first, no doubt, by the scarcity of money and the depressed times, and also by the long period which the proprietor has to wait for a return of his money. I think also that the rating of woodlands has had a deterring effect on plant- ing. I think it was a most injudicious law to pass; it was just the last straw that broke the camel’s back. Other countries are endeavouring to extend the planting of timber. In the United States, for example, as an encouragement to planting, all land planted is exempted from taxation ; and not only that, but a premium or bounty is offered for planting. It seems to me England is taking less care for the conservancy of her woodlands than any other country. ©2057. Do you think that the railway preferential rates given to foreign timber have affected the prices of home-grown timber ?— Yes, that has affected the prices, and consequently the inclination to plant. I think the rates at present are most unequal and unfair. Foreign timber landed at Hartlepool, for example, comes from Hartlepool to Wales at a less rate than that for which we can send British timber half the distance. And then, again, the rates for the conveyance of timber in England contrast most unfavourably with the rates in America. We can send timber for 700 miles in America for less than we can send it 100 miles in England. 2108. As regards the question of rating woodlands, we have had it in evidence that judicious planting gives a considerable amount of shelter, and also benefits all the district round. Would that be a reason for treating woodland differently in the matter of rating from arable or pasture land !— The advantage gained by shelter would show itself in the increased value of the arable and pasture land, and the increased rating should come in there. For instance, I have planted a very large extent of land in Devonshire, and 76 LAWS AFFECTING PRIVATE WOODLANDS IN BRITAIN. also in Wales, for shelter. To give shelter has been the main object of planting there, because it was too high to expect timber to grow profitably. I consider in many cases the value of the shelter has been equivalent to 2s. 6d. an acre upon the whole land ; that is, it would increase the rating value of the land round it by 2s. 6d. an acre. That is one reason why land which is planted should be exempted from rating, because the ratable value of the adjacent land would be increased. “2116. Do you think that before woodlands were rated there was a larger amount of planting than since !—It would be a very difficult thing to say. But I am sure of this; that the rate has had a deterrent influence upon planting. I am certain, from my own knowledge, that the very fact that the woodlands would be liable to be rated has deterred people from planting so extensively as they otherwise would have done.” Similar evidence, which need only be referred to without quoting, was also given respecting the preferential rates of railway haulage for foreign timber, by Mr Britton, of the firm of Richard Shelton & Sons, timber merchants, Wolverhampton; Mr Thomson, head - forester on the Seafield estates in Strathspey; and Mr Gilchrist, head-forester on the Powerscourt estates at Enniskerry. Until the passing of the Improvement of Land (Scotland) Act, 1893, owners of land in Scotland were only able, with the sanction of the Board of Agriculture, to charge their estates for the planting of woods and trees in cases where the planting was for the express purpose of providing shelter. But by the Act ‘in question this limitation has been removed, and applications may now be made to the Board for sanction to charge estates, under the provisions of the Improvement of Land Act of 1864, with the cost of planting, whether for shelter or otherwise. This amendment should pave the way for the extension of Sylviculture on a purely financial basis. The Future of Forestry.—The ameliorating effects of Forests on the climate and soil of tracts whose average annual rainfall is below 40 inches, are beginning to be acknowledged by all who give attention to the subject; whilst their technical and material value may be gauged by the fact of our importing forest produce to the extent of over £20,000,000 annually, about one-half of which might quite easily be grown in Britain. Intelligent and thinking men of all ranks will be found to admit that woodlands are of infinitely more importance in the economy of any nation or country than they have hitherto been acknowledged to be. Seeing this, therefore, and noting the fact of the depressed state of agriculture, it is to be hoped that the time is rapidly approaching when the re-formation of the woods that can be proved to have once existed naturally in Britain, and the planting and distribution of trees, will be undertaken with due regard to well-defined natural laws, and when the art of Sylviculture will be elevated to the position of a Science, and will THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. ei) be taught at our universities in such fitting manner as its importance demands. Great improvements have taken place in most departments of Rural Economy within the last fifty years ; but it is to be hoped that the advances to be made in the immediate future will be greater still. Hitherto the improvements that have been effected in Forestry and Arboriculture have been mainly brought about by practical foresters, without the application of even much or sound elementary scientific knowledge. But now that foresters in general are becoming better acquainted with Vegetable Physiology and the many other laws of nature, and are being zealously assisted in their observations by a large number of men of science, it is only reasonable to expect that even by the end of the present century the Science and Art of Forestry will be very much better understood than it is now, and that it will have emerged from the mists and clouds which have hitherto obscured it in Britain, and will be brought out into such a degree of promin- ence, that a clear light may be cast on this page in the book of nature. The indiscriminate clearing of forests, which has been going on continuously and unchecked in most parts of the civilised world, is now being watched and condemned. For the last quarter of a cen- tury the attention of Continental scientific men has been drawn to the effects of these clearances, which are found to lessen the regular supply of moisture within the soil, and consequently to render it very much less fertile to the agriculturist, as well as to have other undesirable effects that have already been noted. It therefore follows that a greater or less proportion of every country, varying according to its climatic conditions, requires to be kept under woods or forests, in order to obviate too much dryness, and to retain a due amount of moisture for the thriving of agricultural crops. In connection with this, a great and very important question at once suggests itself. What proportion of a country should be kept under woodlands regu- larly dispersed over it; and what proportions should be kept as arable land, and as pasturages, with a view to maintaining the highest possible degree of fertility in the cultivated portions of the land, and at the same time to regulate the humidity of the air to that condi- tion which is most conducive to the health of the inhabitants and the live-stock? This is a question which cannot yet be answered satisfactorily. Before a correct answer can be given, extensive investi- gations will still have to be made on the subject. It is a problem towards the solution of which scores of trained scientific men are now diligently engaged in recording meteorological and agronomic observations in many different localities throughout most of the countries on the continent of Europe, as well as throughout the United States of America. Although the lead in this respect was taken by 78 THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. France, the activity has become greatest in Germany. In France, Prussia, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, and Austria, forest meteorological stations are located where diurnal ohservations as to the temperature and humidity of the soil and atmosphere are recorded, both within the forest and away out in the open. It seems un- worthy of the great position which Britain occupies, to find her standing aloof from such investigations; for the peculiarity of her insular position would yield results that might be of great service from a scientific point of view. In carrying out any system of experiments for ascertaining the proportion of land that should be kept under trees in any particular country, and in each particular part of the same country, the inves- tigations require to be conducted under the superintendence of scien- tific men, who have in different parts of the country agents prepared to carry out their instructions with proper instruments, and who would receive from these agents, and present to the public, at regular stated intervals, the results of their observations on the subjects of the barometric, thermometric, hygrometric changes, winds, &c., &c. Such observations require to be made in woodlands, on open lands, on dry lands, on wet lands, on marshy lands, on water, by the sides of rivers, by the sides of lakes, and at all the various elevations embraced in the country, so that deductions might be drawn from the results, when collated and corrected for comparison. The extent and particular character of each district experimented on would require to be carefully noted, together with the geological character of the land, and the aspect of the same. Until the results of such experiments, carefully conducted in every part of the country, are available, no sound opinion can be formed as to the exact extent of plantations which should be formed on any particular part of the country, with a view to its being put into the best possible state for the health of men and cattle, and for the rearing of agricultural crops to the best advantage. ‘This is a branch of rural economy having a very direct bearing on the national welfare, and is a subject to which every one interested should give the benefit of his influence and support; for it is only by united and continuous appeals to Government that any practical steps are likely to be arrived at. At present the subject is comparatively little understood by the great majority of the land- owners, who are most of all pecuniarily interested in the matter; and it is not altogether to their credit that they do so little towards the furthering of scientific instruction and research as regards Forestry. It must always be kept in view, however, in carrying out inves- tigations on this subject, that even when correct conclusions may be arrived at with respect to- the amount of planting required for any particular country, such conclusions must always remain liable to be THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. 19 subsequently affected by the altered condition of neighbouring tracts. Even our own peculiar climate appears to have undergone great changes within the memory of man, and account has to be taken of this. Without a judicious distribution of trees, no country can be cultivated by the farmer to the fullest productivity of the soil; there- fore Forestry may be truly said to be the pioneer of agricultural improvement. Look, for example, at the state of farming on the prairies of North America. Many settlers have there been obliged to abandon their farms or holdings through the excessive dryness of the climate, and in consequence of storms of wind destroying their crops and withering the pasturage, after once the- surrounding forests had been cleared away, owing to the want of trees to protect their crops from storms, and to maintain a due humidity in the air. This state of things, on plains that have become treeless wastes, attracted the notice of the United States Government about twenty years ago, when the Zimber Culture Act of 1873 was passed to encourage the growth of timber on the western prairies. Any person planting 40 acres of timber trees on Government land thereby became entitled to 160 acres at the expiration of ten years. The Timber Culture Act of 1873 was amended in 1874, so as to confine the privilege of entry to heads of families, or persons over twenty-one years of age, and to citizens of the United States, as well as to restrict the amount to be entered to 160 acres for one person. It also allowed homesteaders to obtain the patent by planting one-sixteenth of the homestead with trees. It was again amended in 1876, to allow an extension of time for perfecting the title in case of the destruction of the trees by grasshoppers ; also to permit of seeds and nuts being planted instead of trees. And in 1878 the number of acres required to be planted was reduced to 10 for every quarter section, and in the same proportion for smaller quantities,—but requiring closer planting—viz., 27,000 trees per acre. Five acres were to be broken in the first year, and five in the second, and planted with trees in the third and fourth years. This Act also repealed the homestead provision of the Act of 1874. It is Forestry, therefore, that is to render those vast plains habitable for men, and profitable to the American nation. The American people are now quite alive to the great advantages of woods for the successful improvement of their vast prairie-lands, which possess soil naturally of a rich character; and in the hands of such an energetic people as they are, those territories which are now almost uninhabitable for man, owing to want of trees, will ere long become teeming with human industry and overflowing with wealth all from a judicious encouragement of Arboriculture. Since 1848, in the thirty-six years ending in 1884, no less than 80 THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. nine million acres of waste land have been reclaimed in France, the principal areas being approximately shown thus :— PRODUCE. 1848. 1884. Increase. Acres. Acres. Acres. | Grain : : 34,500,000 37,500,000 3,000,000 | Various crops - | 23,000,000 24,500,000 1,500,000 | Forest. : 16,000,000 20,700,000 4,700,000 | Total . . | 73,500,000 | 82,700,000 9,200,000 Sylviculture is perhaps ultimately destined to be equally effectual in the improvement of the treeless regions of South America, for the amelioration of the deserts of Africa, and for the improvement of the vast wastes of Asia and Australia. Can any one doubt that, under a well-directed system of forest conservancy and of planting trees, those regions could not be made highly profitable for agricultural occupation ?. Might not the recurrence of such terrible famines as have hitherto been only too common in some parts of our Indian empire be, to some extent at least, checked by a wise and judicious system of planting, and by the better conservancy of the forests still existing throughout that great country ? A good system of Sylviculture might be the means of improving all those regions, and of rendering them better abodes for man, and for all his dependants and his industries. On vast tracts, which are now considered unculturable, there may yet be formed, by means of the assistance of scientific Sylviculture, productive land capable of supplying the requirements of populations for which the present culturable area of the globe would not be able to provide the requisite space at the present rate of increase in the populations of civilised countries. Sylviculture and Arboriculture may easily change the natural aspect of every country in which forestry is practised. Take the case of our own island as an example. Trees brought from all the temperate regions of the globe are now cultivated here,-and the result of this must be that in time the woods and parks will exhibit features of scenery of a more or less foreign nature. Another gener- ation will see the dark forms of the noble Silver Fir (Picea nobilis) and the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) towering in majestic grandeur above the smaller trees of our woods and plantations ; while the Mammoth-tree of California (Wellingtonia gigantea) will in time stand out above all. These grand Californian species will, in the course of time, form fine contrasts to the many other foreign species spread around and under them. THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. 81 The sister arts of Sylviculture and Arboriculture are of vast importance both to the welfare and the pleasure of all nations; and no people can be said to be wise and economic which does not attend to their advancement. The future of Forestry is not confined to any one people or nation; it is a universal science, and an art capable of being cultivated so as to promote the comfort and the happiness of every people in every clime, and to secure rich harvests to the industry of all nations that will put its precepts properly into practice. The future prospects of Forestry in this country are more promising now than they were a quarter of a century ago. Then practical Forestry was but little understood, even by those who paid most attention to it; but now landed proprietors, scientific men, and practical foresters are beginning to see that unless in the future a well-applied and judicious system of Sylviculture is adopted in this country, the effects of our neglect will certainly be felt when the present surplus supplies of other countries are no longer available for the satisfaction of our demands for timber. The only safe manner in which the future benefits derivable from a system of Sylviculture, based upon natural laws and carried out with well-directed judgment, can be securely realised, is by the thorough education of practical foresters and sylviculturists. Upon these must chiefly depend the planning, the carrying out, and the supervision of all the operations in connection with the forma- tion, tending, regeneration, protecting, utilising, and general manage- ment of the forests of the future—not only in this country, but in our colonies and dependencies as well. Care should be taken, therefore, that in the near future we may have a class of foresters who have received a sound general education in all the theoretical knowledge of their profession, combined with a good practical training, in which they may have proper opportunities of testing the soundness of the scientific teaching they receive. It is extremely undesirable that foresters should be men of theory alone. It is essential that they should be practical men; but they can only be well equipped for practical work when they have become thoroughly acquainted with the fundamental principles of scientific Forestry. So long as no well-organised system exists in this country for the education of foresters, the advancement of Sylviculture must be slow; for no art can flourish so long as it feels the want of a sure scientific foundation. From a purely national-economic point of view, therefore, it would appear to be the duty of Government to establish, from national funds, such means of education for foresters as will be for the future benefit not only of this country, but also of all her colonies and dependencies. VOE.. I. F 82 THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. And among foresters themselves, at the same time, well-concerted and united action is also requisite, in order to further the interests of their technical education. To a certain extent this object is attained in the case of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, which has as its aim the advancement of Forestry in Scotland. But hitherto the action of this society, though decidedly useful in some important respects, has certainly not been quite so vigorous as might - have been expected from a body of really zealous men earnestly striving after what they view as an important object. This society is now, along with the Highland and Agricultural Society, taking a leading part in endeavouring to raise funds in order to estab- lish a Chair of Forestry in the University of Edinburgh. But up to the present the efforts on this behalf have only realised sub- scriptions to the extent of £2250 out of £5000 required to be collected before the Board of Agriculture can be approached with a request to grant other £5000 in order to provide the university authorities with the minimum sum of £10,000 for the endowment of a professorial chair. When the requisite sum has been obtained, it is to be hoped that the University authorities will give their high sanction to the admission of such a chair within their Faculty of Science ; and that when the first Professor thereto is elected by them, he may be a thoroughly trained sylviculturist, and one in every way properly qualified to further the advance of the science of Forestry, and the arts of Sylviculture and Arboriculture, throughout Scotland. Despite the fact that our British woodlands amount altogether to three million acres only, the British empire contains at the present moment more extensive and more valuable timber-producing tracts than are owned by any other country in the world. Even to confine our attention to home conditions entirely, it has very recently been urged by Mr Munro Ferguson, M.P.,! that in the planting up of the Highlands of Scotland will be found the true and practical solution of the crofter question and the settlement of the deer-forest difficulties. This con- viction on the part of certain members of Parliament led to the following question being put to the Secretary of State for Scotland in the House of Com- mons, on 13th November 1893 :— Waste Lands in the Highlands.—“Dr Macgregor asked the Secre- tary for Scotland whether the Government, in framing the measure for Local Government in Scotland, would consider the desirability of giving to county or district councils power and facilities for planting waste and unproductive moorlands in the Highlands, where there were millions of acres unfit for arable or pastoral purposes, but well suited for afforestment. “Sir G. Trevelyan. This is a large and interesting question, which, as the hon. member is no doubt aware, was raised before the Select Committee 1 Contemporary Review, October 1893, pp. 521, 522. THE FUTURE OF FORESTRY. 83 on Colonisation in 1890 by the hon. member for Leith Burghs (Mr Munro Ferguson). I observe that it has recently been brought under the notice of the Highlands and Islands Committee, and I can only at present say that I shall be glad to give careful consideration to any scheme which may be laid before me for the development of the waste lands of the Highlands by Forestry.” And again, on 12th December 1893, in the House of Commons, attention was drawn to the subject in the following terms :— Afforestation in Scotland.—‘ Dr Macgregor asked the Secretary of State for Scotland whether in connection with the Local Government Bill for Scotland the Government would consider the expediency of enabling county councils to acquire waste moorlands in the Highlands at prairie value for the purposes of forestry, at the same time empowering the county councils to assess the ratepayers for the necessary operations of planting and maintaining such lands,—thus not only improving the climate but creating work for the people and shelter for stock and game; the whole to be the property of the community in each county respectively. “Sir G. Trevelyan. I have already answered the hon. member in reply to a question on the same subject. I have as yet received no communication from County Councils on the matter, implying that they are desirous of having powers for dealing with afforestation, and in any case the question must be answered irrespective of the Local Government Bill.” Reafforestation in Ireland.—‘ Mr Field asked whether the Govern- ment was prepared to grant, out of the funds voted for reafforesting in Ireland, a sum sufficient to start the planting of Willow and Osiers in suitable localities ; and whether instructions will be issued to the Congested Districts Board to immediately promote the reproductive industry. “ Mr Bryce for Mr J. Morley said: The Congested Districts Board have already planted about 2 acres of land in the county of Galway with Osiers as an experiment, and are willing to consider any scheme submitted to them relative to the development of Osier cultivation, and—having due regard to other claims upon the Board’s resources—to assist in developing any such schemes which, in their opinion, may reasonably be expected to be successful.” And a week later, on 19th December 1893, attention was once more called to the same matter as under :— Afforestation in the Highlands.—“ Dr Macgregor asked the First Lord of the Treasury if the Government would consider the desirability of encourag- ing local authorities, by means of loans and otherwise, to plant the waste moorland in the Highlands and other parts of the country, thereby creating work for thousands of the unemployed, besides the future advantages of profit and improvement of climate, &c.; and would the Government, with as little delay as possible, initiate legislation for this purpose ? “ Mr Gladstone said this important subject had been taken special notice of by the Commission now sitting on Lands in the Highlands, and that being so, it was obviously the duty of the Government to wait and see what was reported on the subject by the Commission.” The British Sylva.—The forest trees which are indigenous to Great Britain and Ireland are also of spontaneous growth through- 84 THE BRITISH SYLVA. out the neighbouring countries on the continent of Europe, such as in France, Belgium, and Germany. ‘This is easily accounted for when the general similarity of the climatic conditions is considered, as well as the probability that the British Isles at one time formed part of the continent from which they are now separated as islands. Much controversy has always existed among our botanists as to the kinds of trees which may be considered truly indigenous to our islands among all those now found growing spontaneously in the woods. This, however, is excusable when the fact is taken into consideration that probably some of the species introduced by the Roman invaders many centuries ago have now become acclimatised within these islands, and consequently have by some been con- sidered entitled to rank as indigenous to the country. It cannot be surprising, however, to find that the really indigenous trees of the country are but few in number compared with those of most other countries. This follows partly from the small extent of land embraced, and partly also from the fact that there is not much probability of tree-seeds being brought from the Continent and de- posited here’ in the excreta of birds after a long flight across the German Ocean. The following list may be considered as embracing not only the principal timber-trees, exclusive of their varieties, recognised by botanists as being really indigenous to the British Islands, but also as including some kinds that are now of spontaneous growth, al- though concerning many of these doubts are entertained as to their being truly indigenous or being merely denizens that have in course of time become acclimatised :— Small-leaved Lime-tree, Tilia parvifolia. | Common Birch, Betula alba. Broad-leaved Lime-tree, 7. platyphylla. | Dwarf Birch, Bb. nana. Common Maple, Acer platanoides. | Black Poplar, Populus nigra. Sycamore, A. Pseudo-platanus. | White Poplar, P. alba. Common Holly, Llex aquifoliwm. Aspen Poplar, P. tremula. Hawthorn, Crategus oxyacantha. Common Cherry, Prunus cerasus. Grey Poplar, P. canescens. Scots Pine, Pinus sylvestris. Mountain Ash, Sorbus aucuparia. | Common Yew, Taxus baccata. Common English Elm, Ulmus campestris. | Common Ash, Fraxinus excelsior. Wych Elm, U. montana. | Common Alder, Alnus glutinosa. Sessile-fruited Oak, Quercus sessiliflora. Willows many, chief timber kinds— Common Beech, Fagus sylvatica. Bedford Willow, S. Russelliana. Common Oak, Q. pedunculata. | White Willow, Salix alba. | Common Hornbeam, Carpinus Betulus. | Cracking Willow, S. fragilis. From the above list it will be seen that of the many kinds of trees at present cultivated in the British woods and plantations, only a small proportion are really indigenous to, or of spontaneous growth in the country, and that the greater number has been introduced from THE BRITISH SYLVA. 85 time to time. This becomes more apparent when it is considered that there are believed to be, at the present time, considerably up- wards of 300 different kinds of trees growing in our woods which attain to the dimensions of timber-producing trees. Even some of the kinds named in the above list as being of spontaneous growth are certainly recognisable as not originally belonging to our islands; but so far as the practical purposes of Sylviculture are concerned, they may now be considered as trees of native origin. Besides, so little is known about the earlier introduction of exotic trees into these islands, that only assumptions can be made on the subject of whether the doubtful trees are indigenous or not. And from the point of view of practical Forestry it does not in the least matter whether any of the doubtful kinds of trees were, or were not, originally and truly indigenous to Great Britain. What is of far more importance is that, from long experience, they are known to thrive in our climate, and to reproduce themselves naturally from seed—+.e., they have long ago become denizens or naturalised trees in Britain. In the case of some species, however, like the English Elm and the Lime, the fact that seed-production is dependent on an unusual degree of warmth during spring and summer, as in 1893, dis- tinctly points to exotic origin in a warmer clime than ours. Note on Rating of Woodlands.—In Scots Law, under the Valuation of Lands Act, 1854, § 6, in estimating the yearly value of lands and heritages, the same shall be taken to be the rent at which, one year with another, they might in their actual state be reasonably expected to let from year to year. Where they consist of woods, copse, or underwood, the yearly value shall be taken to be the rent at which they might in their natural state be reasonably expected to let from year to year, as pasture or grazing lands (Bell’s Dictionary and Digest of the Law of Scotland, 1890, p. 1106). 86 CHAPTER If THE BROAD-LEAVED SPECIES OF TREES. THE broad-leaved kinds of trees usually planted for cultivation as timber, or for the ornamentation in our woods, plantations, and parks, are comprised within the following list :— Cupulifere, 1. Oak, Quercus. Hippocastane,13. Horse-Chestnut, dsculus. " 2. Beech, Fagus. Tiliacec, 14. Linden or Lime, Tilia. " 3. Sweet-Chestnut, Castanea. | Juglandee, 15. Walnut, Juglans. Oleacee, 4. Ash, Fraxinus. Magnoliacee, 16. Tulip-tree, Liriodendron. Ulmacee, 5. Elm, Ulmus. Amygdalacee, 17. Cherry, Prunus. Acerine, 6. Maple and Sycamore, Acer. | Pomacee, 18. Hawthorn, Thorn, or Salicacee, 7. Poplar, Populus. Quick, Crategus. " 8. Willow, Salix. " 19, Rowan or Mountain- Betulacee, 9. Birch, Betula. Ash, Sorbus. " 10. Alder, Alnus. Papilionacee, 20. Laburnum, Cytisus. Platanee, 11. Plane-tree, Platanus. " 21. Acacia, Robinia. Carpinee, 12. Hornbeam, Carpinus. Tlicine, 22. Holly or Holm, Jlex. The above list contains all the genera of broad-leaved trees that are usually in cultivation in our plantations; and it is purposed to devote the various sections of this chapter to a full description of these, giving to each genus a separate section, in which will be described the distinctive character, habits, and peculiarities of all the species of it that are cultivated. At the same time particular reference will be made to the mode of cultivating them to the best advantage, so as to attain the highest economic qualities in their timber. For the sake of convenience the species will be grouped together in their natural families, although otherwise not arranged with any attempt at classi- fication according to one or other of the natural systems of botany. CUPULIFERZ Ricu. This family of the great order of Amentacece or catkin-bearers is char- acterised by having the fruits surrounded by a cupule or cup formed of ‘THE OAK. 87 aggregated bracts, and is now represented in Britain by two indigenous genera, Oak and Beech, and one acclimatised genus, the Sweet-Chestnut. These three genera are distinguished botanically as follows : 1— I. Female flowers singly or in clusters in the axils of the leaves or in axillary shoots (forming loose spikes), and each surrounded by a cupule, which finally becomes So nae and surrounds the nut from below. Oak . ‘ : 1. Quercus. II. Female flowers in terminal phon or siaiierea at the ieee of the male catkins ; each covering-bract encloses 2 or 3 of the flowers, which develop into 2 or 3 nuts enclosed within the one cupule, that finally bursts open for the shedding of the seed. (a) Female flowers in separate terminal bunches ; male catkins with a long petiole, and hanging down from the side ; cupule covered with short, soft prickles; nuts three-cornered and sharply pointed. Beech . : f 2. Fagus. (5) Female flowers clustered at the fies of fe, long spike-like male catkins ; cupule covered with long, thin, interwoven prickles ; nuts Stee and plano-convex. Chestnut . 3. Castanea. 1. THE OAK, Quercus (LINNZAN SystEM, Mona@cta PoLtyANDRIA). Character of Genus.—Flowers, unisexual. Males, disposed in long, slender, pendulous catkins, in groups. Each flower consists of 8 or more stamens, and these are attended by 6-8 bracteas, that are coherent at the base, and resemble a 6-8-parted calyx. Female flowers, erect on axillary peduncles, a few upon a peduncle. Each flower consists of a pistil, whose ovary and the basal part of whose style are invested with an adnate calyx toothed at the tip. Style, short. Stigma, 3-lobed. Fruit, an acorn; its lower part having an imbricate cup (Loudon, Zrees and Shrubs, 1875, p. 846). Apart from doubtful species, A. de Candolle enumerates no less than two hundred and sixty-one distinct species of the Oak, the majority of which inhabit the northern hemisphere between the 30th to 60th degrees of latitude. Only six of these need, however, be referred to—viz., the two British kinds, the Common English Oak, Quercus pedunculata, and the Durmast Oak, Q. sessiliflora, as they are preferable to all other sorts for the quality of their timber; the Turkey Oak, @. cerris; the Holm Oak or Evergreen Oak of the south of Europe, Q. //ex; and the two American kinds, the Searlet Oak, @. coccinea, and the White Oak, @Q. alba—as these are hardy, and calculated to produce a highly ornamental effect in our plantations. 1 Willkomm, Forstliche Flora von Deutschland und Oesterreich, 2 edit., 1887, pp. 382, 383. * All the generic and specific descriptions contained in this chapter have been corrected in accordance with the above work. 88 THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. These six species of Oak are distinguishable as follows :— I. Bracts of the eupule convex, broad at the base, and then suddenly con- tracting, grey. Shell of the acorn thin, smooth inside, and without any trace of internal divisions. Seed ripens within one year. 1. Foliage deciduous annually. Leaves with wavy-edged lobes or pinnatipartite. (1) Leaves with more than 5 pairs of primary side-veins, of an elongated oval form, and with many wavy-lined indenta- tions ; glabrous, at any rate when fully developed. (a) Leaves with short petioles, and a broad, crinkled, heart-shaped base. Flowers arranged sidewards on peduncles. i . L. Q. pedunculata Ehrh. (b) Leaves with rather long petioles, and somewhat wedge-shaped at their base. Flowers sessile, often clustered in racemes 2 . 2. Q. sessiliflora Sm. (2) Leaves with 3-5 pairs of primary side-veins and lobes ; the under-surface mostly pubescent . : og alba Li: 2. Foliage persistent (evergreen). Leaves small, leathery, stiff, some- what shortly oval, and with a greyish pubescent or downy under- surface ; edge entire, or with sharp pointed crinkles 4. Q. Ilex L. II. Bracts of the cupule broad at the base, and then narrowing gradually, brown. Shell of the acorn thick, downy inside, and with three false divisions. Seed only ripens in the second year. 5. Q. coccinea Li. II. Bracts of the cupule loose and recurvate. Shell of the acorn thin, and without trace of any internal division. Seed only ripens in second year. Leaves thin, coarse, unequally serrately dentated or pinnatifid 6. QY. cerris L. (1.) THE PEDUNCULATE or COMMON ENGLISH OAK, Quercus pedunculata Ehrh. Synonyms—Q. Robur L.; Q. Robur I. pedunculata DC.; Q. pedunculata Willd. Specific Character.—Leaves on short footstalks, oblong, smooth, dilated upwards; sinuses rather acute; lobes obtuse. Stalks of the fruit elongated. Nut oblong (Loudon, op. cit., p. 849). Distribution.—The @. pedunculata is a native of nearly all parts of Europe, from Sweden in the north to the Mediterranean in the south; and it is also said to be found in the north of Africa, as well as in*Asia Minor and the Caucasian districts. It is the pre- vailing Oak in all our British woodlands, and in the forests of France as well, but is said not to be more common in Germany than the Sessile Oak. Its northern limit is below 58° in Scotland and below 63°26’ on the west coast of Norway; but it sinks to 60° in Sweden, and still further as it trends eastwards. Its southern limit for Europe is hardly assignable, as its special characteristics would often appear to become interchangeable with those of Q. sessiliflora. Its total distribution may be assessed as comprising altogether about 26° THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. 89 of latitude and 66° of longitude, and its finest development is attained in the south-eastern part of Central Europe, more especially through- out Hungary and Croatia." As compared with the Sessile Oak, the Common Oak is rather a tree of the plains and uplands than of the hills and lower mountain ranges, or of lofty plateaux. In general more is done throughout England for the artificial distribution of the latter as a timber-tree; but, in the rapid production of wood and bark on coppice-hags, the former deserves more favourable attention, and in high-forest it also undoubtedly forms a better bole than the Common Oak. The spontaneous growth of this species in Central Spain, as well as in Western Russia, clearly proves that it can endure not only great summer heat, but also great winter cold; during May, however, its young foliage is sensitive to late frosts, and it is liable to suffer from drought when the summer flush of leaves appears during August, although this is to a far less extent the case in our damp insular climate than throughout the drier regions of Central Europe. Description of Tree.—The @. pedunculata, generally speaking, forms a large, massive-stemmed, and spreading-topped tree, naturally disposed to throw out large limbs, and to become what may properly be termed a ramifying and flat-topped tree. The appearance of the tree is, however, very much influenced by the soil and situation upon which it grows. When growing on a high, exposed site and a poor soil, it becomes of a stunted, low-stemmed, flat-topped character, whereas on a low-lying situation, with a deep strong soil, it assumes a more upright habit; and this again is, of course, modified by given circumstances, according as the trees are drawn up through being close together, or have a freer growing-space from standing far apart. In the former case their crowns become comparatively small, whilst the boles are tall, and drawn up; but in the latter case they attain that full development, both of stems and branches, which renders the Oak so much admired as an ornamental tree in landscape scenery. It necessarily, however, follows that the favouring of ramification for esthetic purposes is entirely inconsistent with the production of a maximum of timber in the stem or bole for purely utilitarian and technical purposes. This, in fact, constitutes the great difference between Arboriculture and Sylviculture. This species is easily dis- tinguishable from the Q. sessi/iflora by its leaves having very short petioles or foot-stalks, as compared with those of the leaves of the other kind (see Figs. 1 to 4), and by the stalks of the fruit being elongated. Even during their leafless winter condition they may be easily distinguished, as the buds of the Common Oak are shorter, 1 Willkomm, op. cit., p. 395. 90 THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. thicker, and blunter than the longer and more pointed buds of the Sessile Oak. Economic Uses of Timber.—Although Oak timber is not now so much required as formerly in the construction of large ocean- going ships, still it is largely used for the building of small coasting vessels; and a very large quantity of the smaller sizes of trees is used annually in mining operations. . This technical fact, that crooks and ribs of iron are now used in ship- building in place of Oak-pieces of natural curved or crooked growth, is one of which the importance cannot be overlooked from a sylvicultural point of view. All the Oak plantations made throughout Britain during the greater part of the last two hundred years in the State forests (New Forest, Alice Holt, Parkhurst, Forest of Dean, &c.), as well as by private landowners, were Leaf, buds, and fruits of the Common Oak (Q. pedunculata). formed with the express intention of growing wood suited for the purposes of shipbuilding. Ramification, favoured by free-growing space, was therefore advantageous as well as highly esthetic. But now the best prices are obtain- able for long, straight, full-wooded, clean boles, free from knots and branches ; and these can only be obtained by growing the trees in woods in such a manner that ramification and crown-development are confined merely to the normal healthy limit, so long as the stems are still capable of being stimulated in the direction of growth in height. Oak timber is also used for a great variety of purposes in con- nection with house-building, carpentry, cabinet-making, furniture, agricultural erections and implements, &c. In short, the uses of Oak timber are so numerous and so well known that it would be superfluous to attempt to enumerate all of them here. In point of THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. 91 durability generally, the timber of no other tree grown in Britain takes equal rank with it; hence it assumes the first place among our hard- wooded sorts for general economic purposes. From a purely financial point of view, the only tree that may be said to surpass it in paying value as a high-forest crop for the sake of its timber is the Larch. It belongs to the very heavy class of woods, having a sp. gr. of over 0.75 ; its sp. gr. is 1.04 whilst still green, and 0.76 when seasoned in the air. That is to say, when stems have to be floated in order to arrive at a convenient market, some amount of seasoning will have to be provided for in the forest, such as ringing or girdling the stems to a depth of 3 or 4 in. almost a year before felling them. In Hanover the stems are often barked, and allowed to stand thus for one year. Soil and Situation.—The rate of growth and the quality of Oak timber, like those of all other trees, depend very much upon the nature of the soil and situation upon which it is grown. Throughout Britain the best-grown Oak-trees are generally to be found on somewhat heavy and deep clay soils, or on argillaceous loams of considerable depth, into which the roots can penetrate well and ramify freely, without any check from a change in the character of the subsoil. The Oak will, however, thrive well on all soils, even on those of a very light and sandy nature, provided they are not wanting in depth and freshness ; though in the majority of cases the largest trees and the best quality of timber are usually to be found on deep lands of an argillaceous and heavy character. Where such description of land is still given up to timber crops, the pedunculate Oak thrives excellently on flat or undulating stretches of deep soil formed by alluvial deposit; and in such cases far less depends on the argillaceous, or the loamy, or the sandy consistency of the soil, than on its depth and other generally favourable physical properties. Such land, how- ever, is nowadays seldom to be found unutilised for agricultural purposes. For marshy tracts the Common Oak is better suited than the Sessile Oak. On light loams and sandy descriptions of soil individual trees of the Common Oak may attain a girth of from 12 to 18 ft. near their base. But they are then generally short of stem, ramify excessively, and are accordingly large-crowned in proportion; while trees of anything like the same girth growing on deep heavy land usually develop very much longer and cleaner boles, and therefore form better proportionate and more valuable stems. On high-lying and exposed situations the Common Oak will grow, and even become timber of useful size, although the soil be but poor ; but for all such localities the cultivation of the Sessile Oak seems 92 THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. preferable. In order, however, to produce timber of the best descrip- tion, whether as to dimensions or quality, this common species of Oak should preferably be planted on rather low-lying or merely undu- lating tracts, and on a soil that is not wanting either in depth or in moisture. As a matter of actual practical fact, and despite differences in sp. gr. and other similar tests, the durability of Oak timber in general depends less on the specific kind of timber of these two principal species than on the general quality of the soil upon which it is grown. The height attainable by the stems depends, however, mainly on the depth and the general quality of the soil. Propagation and Culture.—When grown in high-forest, the Oak is usually raised from acorns, as the fruits are named. Seed-production may begin about the twentieth year in coppice-woods, but does not set in until about the fiftieth to sixtieth year in trees raised in the open from seed, and not until about the seventieth or eightieth year in timber-crops growing in close canopy. ‘The acorns generally ripen in the months.of October and November, and germinate during the following spring. So soon as they are ripe, they should be gathered and either sown immediately or else stored carefully, because they are very apt to lose in germinative capacity by being long kept, more especially if measures be not taken to ensure that they are being kept dry and in a cool place. Only good sound acorns should be collected, and not those that are worm-bored or below the normal size. If kept perfectly dry and cool, however, the acorns may easily be preserved all winter and sown in the spring; but as they are extremely apt to be injured by careless keeping, the better way is to sow them at once when gathered, except where voles, squirrels, and other vermin are troublesome, or where late frosts in spring are to be feared. Winter Storage of Acorns.—The main points to be kept in view in storing acorns are (1) to prevent them from germinating too early, or from becoming overheated, in which latter case they decidedly lose in germinative capacity, and (2) at the same time to avoid drying them so far as to cause them to rattle in their shells. The danger of premature germination is less in the case of the British than the Durmast Oak, whose smaller acorns are more difficult to store safely through the winter months. The best procedure that can be adopted is as follows: The acorns should be spread out on dry airy places, and frequently turned by means of the rake, or the shovel if in high heaps—a measure that should be attended to in the case of acorns to be despatched to other parts of the country in autumn, as well with regard to those that are to be stored throughout the winter. When frosty weather begins to make its appearance, they should then be stored in broad ditches about one foot deep, made in dry airy places, the output from which is ranged round the storing- THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. 93 place in order to prevent rain from entering it. Above this a roof is erected of thatch, straw, furze, reeds, &c., just high enough to let a man get under- neath to turn over the acorns with rake or shovel occasionally to prevent their getting overheated. In order to facilitate this operation the ditch and the roof-covering should be made somewhat longer than is absolutely required for the quantity of acorns when filled up to a depth of about afoot. The shifting in the position of the vacant space at each end at the same time forms an excellent means of control when orders: have been given for airing the acorns. So long as there is no hard frost, the ends of the roof-covering may remain open for the circulation of air; but in very hard weather it is advisable to close them up with straw or material similar to that of which the roof is composed, and if necessary the roof itself should be thickened. When warm spring weather sets in before it is deemed prudent to sow the acorns, the doors or coverings at the end may be closed again, and ventilation effected principally by means of small holes in the roof, which must of course be closed during wet or very cold weather. Before sowing the acorns in spring, their quality should be tested ; this can easily be done by making transverse sections of a few of them. If steeped in water before being sown, those that float on the surface should be put aside, as not likely to yield satisfactory results (Burckhardt, Sden und Pflanzen, 1893, pp. 52-55). In sowing the acorns in the nursery in autumn as soon as they have been gathered, it is best to place them in rows upon the surface of the ground, after it has previously been dug and prepared, and to cover them with about 2 in. of earth; for spring sowing a covering of only 1 to 1} in. is sufficient, as the thicker the covering of soil, the longer will germination be delayed. In sowing them the rows should be marked off about 15 in. distant from each other. The breadth of the seed in the row may be about 5 in., and the seed may average 1 to every 5 sq. in. In covering the seed, the earth should be gathered up from the ground upon each side of the row that is sown, until it is of the desired depth upon the acorns, care being taken not to come too near the seed upon the sides of the row, but to keep the earth rather heavier there than above; for it is generally upon the sides of the rows that vermin make their attacks upon the seed. Acorn Poisoning.—It may not be out of place here to note the fact that in years with warm dry spring and summer weather like 1893, during which a much larger number of fruits come to maturity than in ordinary years, there is often considerable danger of cattle being poisoned by eating largely of the acorns, which they consume with avidity. Considerable mischief was done from this cause during the autumns of 1868, 1870, and 1874, the greatest sufferers being young cattle under two years of age, whilst milch-cows and cattle over three years old were seldom affected. For those specially interested in this matter, it may be remarked that a leaflet on the subject was issued by the Board of Agriculture during September 1893 (marked A 15>23), 94 THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. in order to give timely warning to graziers before the rich harvest of the acorns of 1893 ripened and fell. Where any strong head of deer is maintained, the acorns form good feeding-material for the herds during the winter months. After the acorns have been sown, fair attention must be given to see that vermin do not devour them. In the winter season, if mice or rats are in the neighbourhood, they will be certain to attack them ; and if they do, traps must be used in order to destroy them. And in the spring months, if pheasants or any other birds commence upon the acorns, nets may be used in order to cover and protect the rows ; or if these be not easily obtainable, the rows may advantageously be covered somewhat closely with the branches of trees, which will keep back birds, and at the same time allow a free circulation of air to the surface of the earth. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, which will generally be about the end of May, the branches should be removed in order to give the seedlings the full benefits derivable from free exposure to light and air. In localities apt to be visited by late frosts, however, caution should be exercised in this respect ; and if this can be conveniently arranged for on small areas without incurring any prohibitive expense, it will be best to remove the branches each morning, and replace them towards nightfall. Attention should be paid to keep the seedlings clear of weeds, as rank growth of grass and other herbage greatly endangers their early wellbeing. As a rule, the seedling plants should only stand one year in the seed-rows ; when left longer, they are apt to become drawn up and comparatively weakly. It therefore seems preferable to adopt the plan of planting them out in rows when one year old; for when the plants thus treated have stood three years in the lines, they are usually very much superior to others that have been left for two years in the original seedling state, and have then stood for other two years in the nursery rows, although both are of the same age. They should, therefore, be transplanted into the nursery-ground, in rows about 2 ft. apart, keepmg the plants in the rows about 4 in. from one another; and in this state they may remain for any length of time, according to the size that the plants may be required. That is to say, if the transplants are not required to be large, two years in the rows may be enough, though in no case should less be allowed; but if the transplants are required to be sturdy and large, then three and even four years may perhaps be no more than sufficient. On good nursery soil a height of 3 to 34 ft. may be attained within two to three years after transplanting ; but in order to attain a height of 9 to 12 ft., other four to five years are requisite. Before then, they will be standing THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. 95 too thick in the transplant-beds, an evil that may be remedied by removing every alternate plant, and either planting it out, or else setting it in other special transplant-beds, with a reasonable amount of growing-space. The Oak, during the first year after being transplanted, makes very little progress in growth, but merely establishes its roots in the eround. During the second year it begins to send out new shoots, and from the third year onwards it usually grows vigorously. It would be superfluous to enter into detail of the many fine specimens of the Q. pedunculata that are to be found in the parks of the landed proprietors of Great Britain, and more especially of those in many parts of England. There are, indeed, few great estates of long standing in any part of the country that cannot boast of some fine old specimens of Oak-trees in their home-parks; and it would here be out of place to make reference to any historical trees or to others celebrated on account of their dimensions. Sylvicultural Characteristics of the Oak.—The Oak is one of the essentially light-demanding trees which can ill brook any interference with its full enjoyment of light and air, or, in other words, that demands for its normal development a comparatively large growing-space. This nat- ural tendency becomes more marked as it increases in age, after once its main growth in height has been completed. And as, at the same time, high periods of rotation are requisite before the timber acquires its best dimensions and highest marketable value, it therefore follows that, unless it be either grown along with a more densely foliaged tree like the Beech, or be underplanted in order to protect the soil against the deteriorating effects of sun and wind, the soil is apt to lose in productive capacity under the somewhat sparse and usually insufficient leaf-canopy of the Oaks alone. The modern Continental system of Oak cultivation consists, therefore, in the formation of Oak crops,'—either pure on good, deep, fresh soils, or else in admixture with other species like Beech; and on moist soils, even along with Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, or Alder,—and then afterwards, when the chief growth in height has been attained about the 70th to 80th year, in cutting out these other kinds of trees, and either allowing them to shoot from the stool so as to form a natural undergrowth, or else sowing or planting some soil-protect- ing species of underwood like Beech or Hornbeam. During the whole of this earlier period of its existence, it is of course essential that the Oak, which is to form the ultimate crop, must be constantly protected during all the operations of weeding, clearing, and thinning, so as to remain growing in advance of any competitors for light and air. The freer enjoyment of light and air which is thereafter accorded to the standard Oaks either by thinnings or by partial clearances, conducted every ten to twenty years for the express purpose of stimulating their increment in girth, is accompanied, as 1 A more detailed account of the Continental methods of growing Oak will be found in the editor’s British Forest Trees, 1893, pp. 193-211, and Studies in Forestry, 1894, chapters vii., x., and xi. 96 THE COMMON ENGLISH OAK. experience in the State forests of Germany has abundantly shown, by rapid and material improvement both as regards the quantity and the quality of the timber produced. It attains, in fact, to a very great extent and in an improved form, not only the practical advantages regarding light and air formerly obtained by growing the Oak as standards over coppice in the old form of copse, but also combines therewith special advantages of its own in the formation of the longest possible bole, having the maximum of full- woodedness at the top end as compared with the girth near the butt end. After being stimulated from time to time by partial clearances, the Oak then usually attains its material and financial maturity about the 140th to 160th year, when it is at least equal in dimensions to stems of considerably greater age that are merely treated by the ordinary method of thinning. When such Oak-forests come to be regenerated, this can generally be effected very easily by natural means, for the soil is usually of anything but inferior quality, else it would not be so profitable to grow Oak as to cultivate mixed coniferous crops upon it. A certain amount of soil-preparation, either in strips or patches, will generally be sufficient to yield a crop of young seed- lings ; but, if desired, the dibbling in of acorns, more or less regularly over the area, may in many cases be carried out at a comparatively small cost. When once the seedlings have made their appearance, the standard trees require to be cleared away soon, for the Oak, being a light-demanding species, suffers even under the broken shade of the parent trees; although on good, fresh soils, of course the risk of damage being done to the young crop by over- shadowing is not so great as where the soil is poor and dry, and the night dews are necessary for the wellbeing of the seedlings. As the standards are being cleared, blanks may be filled either by planting, or by sowing acorns, or else by introducing other kinds of trees, of which, on all soils that are not of a distinctly good class, and more especially if they have a tendency to be deficient in moisture, the Beech is to be most recommended. On better and moister classes of soil a larger choice of species is open, most of which hold out financial promises exceeding any that may be predicted for the Beech. But wherever there can be any danger of the soil deteriorating under the lighter shade of the Oak, Ash, Maple, Sycamore, &c., an admixture of some shade-bearing and soil-improving species is essential in order to safeguard the land against exhaustion and loss in productive capacity, for the maintenance of the continuous productivity of the soil ts the first fundamental principle in Sylviculture. Throughout the whole of the Rhine district, and the neighbouring parts of France, Belgium, and Holland, Oak coppice-woods occur very extensively, and yield high returns. They are worked with a rotation of sixteen years usually ; but this varies locally from about twelve to eighteen years, accord- ing to the nature of the soil and situation, and the age at which the young bark begins to lose its smoothness and become fissured,—for the quantity of tannin contained in it diminishes when the cortex becomes rough and rugged. When Oak coppice-woods are being formed for the first time, planting is greatly preferred to sowing, as leading more quickly to the attainment of the object in view, and as being safer on the whole, although more costly. Some- ' times the seedlings are put in whole, as in the ordinary method of planting, and afterwards cut back close to the ground when they have established them- THE DURMAST OAK. 97 selves firmly in the soil; but at other times the stems are lopped off with a clean cut against a wooden block, and only the roots are planted in the ground. The chief points to be kept in view in such coppice-woods are to see that the clearing and weeding operations are carefully performed, so that the Oaks remain in undisturbed tenancy of the soil. The regeneration of the annual hags takes place spontaneously by shoots from the stool, which, besides being vigorous, often improve their hold upon the soil by forming root-systems for themselves independently of the parent stool, when the fell- ing of the poles takes place low down, just over the ground. The shoots thrown out by the Sessile Oak are straighter and somewhat more vigorous than those of the Common Oak, so that they yield more wood and bark ; the quality of the bark of the former stands also in slightly higher esteem than that of the latter, more especially when the woods are formed on hilly slopes at any considerable elevation. Good, although not necessarily deep, soil and a warm southern exposure are requisite for the satisfactory growth of Oak-bark coppices. And though, with the increased and still increasing use of other tanning materials, the growing of Oak-bark may not on the whole pay so well as it once did, before ocean-communication was so good and cheap as it now is, yet the fact that a great deal of such bark is still annually imported from the Continent proves that if the proper localities be chosen, and proper methods of treatment of the woods be adopted, our home sylviculturists ought surely to be able to hold their own in open market against foreign-grown bark handicapped with various handlings and freightage. There are many thousands of acres along railway cuttings and embankments that might thus be utilised very profitably, besides helping to provide useful employment for many thousands of the poorer classes who are usually unemployed during the early spring, when the sap begins to flow and the harvesting of the bark takes place. For the private landowner this form of crop has the great advantage of locking up far less capital, and yielding substantial returns much sooner, than most other woodland crops ; hence, wherever there seems fair prospect of the bark being disposable at remunerative rates at any neighbouring town, this method of utilising shallow but otherwise good soil, having a warm exposure, is worthy of consideration. (2.) THE SESSILE or DURMAST OAK, Quercus sessiliflora Sm. SynonyMs—Q. Robur L.; Q. Robur LI, sessilijlora DC.; Q. sessilis Ehrh.; Q. sessiliflora Sal. Specific Character.—Leaves on longish foot-stalks, deciduous, oblong, smooth; sinuses opposite, rather acute; lobes obtuse. Fruit sessile. Nut oblong. Leaves, when young, pubescent beneath (Loudon, op. cit., p. 852). The above are the distinguishing characteristics of this species from the scientific point of view of the botanist; but as it might not be sufficiently distinct for the recognition of it from the other species,. Y. pedunculata, were the two descriptions laid before a person unacquainted with botanical terms, the subject may well be VOLE L G 98 THE DURMAST OAK. illustrated by reference to woodcuts (see Figs. 1 to 4). It will be observed that the two most distinguishing characters of each of the two species of our indigenous Oak which have been referred to are that the leaves of Q. pedunculata have very short petioles or leaf- Leaf, buds, and fruit of the Sessile Oak (Q. sessiliflora). stalks (Fig. 1), while the fruit has comparatively long peduncles or flower-stalks (Fig. 2); Q. sessiliflora, on the other hand, has com- paratively long petioles (Fig. 3), whilst the fruits are entirely sessile or without stalks, and are also frequently clustered in racemes (Fig. 4). Young foliage of the Sessile Oak is generally more or less pubescent on the under side, and even the older leaves usually show traces of this pubescence at the angles formed by the side-veins ; but in the Common Oak the leaves are quite smooth or glabrous. In the former, again, the side-veins always end in the lobes ; whereas in the latter they may also terminate in the indentations (Burckhardt, op. cit., p. 15). These constitute the chief macroscopic or most prominent distin- guishing characters of the two species. But they are not always to be relied on; for even in examining a number of leaves upon the same tree, some of them may perhaps be found to answer to the THE DURMAST OAK. 99 descriptions of both species. Generally speaking, however, these differences between the two kinds do hold good to a very great extent; and any experienced person who has been long in the habit of examining the leaves of each species can at once, even from the forms as already explained, distinguish the different species. And besides this, for use during the leafless winter period of rest, there is another mark of distinction, which is perhaps even more decided than the differences noted between the fruit and the leaves—viz., the difference between the buds upon the young shoots. The buds of the Q. sessiliflora are more prominently brought out upon the wood, and more sharply pointed, than those of the @. peduneulata ; and in the former the wood at the base of the buds is also more fully developed than is the case with the latter. See Fig. 3, where a piece of the young wood is shown; and compare the buds as shown there with those upon the young shoot in Fig. 1, which represents a piece of the young wood of the Q. pedunculata. As exhibited in Fig. 1, the young wood swells but slightly at the base of the buds in the case of Q. pedunculata ; but as shown in Fig. 3, the young wood swells boldly at the same point in the case of Q. sessilijlora. The distinguishing characters that have been pointed out are, how- ever, by no means constant, for they may very often be found blended together in one tree. But this is easily accounted for by the fact of the two species being indigenous, and being often found crowing together, from which circumstance many trees may have been produced which are no doubt what may be termed hybrids, and which throw back more or less completely to one or other of the parent forms. When, however, the trees distinctly develop their own true characters, the differences above noted will hold good, and will serve to point out to which of the original species they belong. So far as hybrids are concerned, sometimes they approximate nearer to the one species, and sometimes to the other, without any apparent preference upon which to establish a rule. Distribution.—The Q. sessiliflora is dispersed over nearly the same range of countries as the @. peduneulata, and they are generally found growing together from Sweden southwards to the Mediter- ranean. It is found largely in Britain, in France, and in Germany, where it often forms very extensive forests, along with the Common Oak, Beech, and other trees. Its distribution is, however, somewhat more restricted than that of the Common Oak towards the north and the east. Its northern limit is below 59° in Scotland, below 60°11’ on the west coast of Norway, and below 58°30’ in Sweden, whence it trends east across central Russia to about 54° towards the southern portion of the Ural Mountains; from there its eastern limit passes 100 THE DURMAST OAK. across the Crimea to Asia Minor, where its southern limit begins about the 40th degree of latitude. It can, however, at the same time ascend vertically considerably beyond the elevation attainable by the common Oak. The explanation of this seeming anomaly must be that whilst the Sessile Oak can bear less winter cold than the Common Oak, yet it can thrive with less of summer warmth (Willkomm, op. cit., pp. 406-409). Wherever there are extensive natural forests of Oak both species will usually be found growing together, although on lowland tracts the Common Oak will vastly outnumber the individuals of the sessile species. According as the woodlands stretch, however, to the higher uplands and the hilly tracts, the trees of the latter species will gradually increase in number. From natural spontaneity of this sort useful hints may be gained by the sylviculturist, and as a rule it will be advisable to propagate that species chiefly which seems to form the majority of the old crop. Throughout Central Germany in old coppice-woods, and in Oak forests that have been reproduced naturally, the Sessile Oak is more numerous than the pedunculate, which would point to its probably being able to bear shade somewhat better than the Common Oak ; but in younger forests raised artificially by sowing or planting, a preference seems to have been given to the latter species, probably on account of the somewhat larger size of the acorns (Burckhardt, op. cit., p. 14). Description of Tree.—The two species grow nearly alike, so far as the dimensions attainable by the trees are concerned; but it may be generally observed, with respect to the @. sessiliflora, that it assumes a more open and upright habit of growth than the @. pedun- culata. The limbs of the former are not generally so crooked or knee-bent and gnarled as those of the latter; whilst trees of the former kind have a cleaner bole and in all respects a lighter aspect than those of the latter. It is usually about ten to fourteen days later in breaking into leaf than the Common Oak. Economic Uses of Timber.—For all purposes to which Oak timber is applied, that of the Sessile Oak is used as plentifully as that of the Common Oak, and in old buildings its durability has practically been found to be almost equal to the timber of the latter kind, although it is somewhat softer and easier to work. And what is of even more importance to the landowner, the wood of the one kind fetches the same price as that of the other, for buyers do not differentiate between the two species. When young, the timber of the Durmast is of a more open texture than that of the Common Oak of the same age; but as it becomes older, it is found nearly as compact and solid as that of the latter. Its sp. gr. is just a very little lower than that of the wood of the Common Oak, being 1.01 when green, and 0.74 when seasoned. Seasoning to some extent, either by means of girdling, or barking, or of letting the logs le in the forest, will therefore be requisite before they can be safely floated down streams to convenient sale-depots. THE WHITE OAK. 101 Soil and Situation.—These are in general the same as have been stated with reference to the Common Oak, except that the Sessile Oak is more frequent on hilly land, whilst the Common Oak is the chief species on low-lying tracts. Both demand, in order to thrive in high-forest, a fair depth of soil, and more especially a consider- able amount of freshness, or even moistness, in it. It may be re- marked here, however, that the Durmast Oak makes a much better hedgerow tree than the Common Oak does; because in such a situa- tion it maintains more of an upright habit of growth than the latter, and is more easily kept from spreading out its branches over the land, and injuring the field-crops by the heavier shade it thus casts. Propagation and Culture.—For this species these are the same as described with reference to the Common Oak. (3.) THE WHITE OAK, Quercus alba L. Specific Character.—Leaves oblong, pinnatifidly serrated ; pub- escent underneath ; lobes linear-lanceolate, obtuse, entire, attenuated at the base. Fruit pedunculated. Calyx somewhat cup-shaped, warty, and flattened at the base. Acorn oval (Loudon, op. cit., p. 862). Distribution.—The White Oak is plentiful in Canada, and in the Northern States of America generally, especially in the western portions of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it grows to large dimensions on most of the better parts of the land, and more particularly where the soil is rich, light, and dry. The tree is very plentiful in the upper parts of the valley of the Madawaska river, a tributary of the Ottawa in Canada West: it is always to be found there on the rich lands, and but seldom on the poorer soils. Description of Tree.—In looking at a well-branched speci- men of the Q. alba, it resembles very much the British species Q. sessiliflora ; but on good land the leaves are larger, and the hollows along the edges of the leaf are deeper. The bark of this tree is of a whitish colour, and from this circumstance the tree has derived its name “ White Oak.” The colour of its bark is a feature in the appearance of the tree sufficient to enable any one to distinguish it from all other Oaks. In its native forests the Q. alba forms a grand tree, attaining a height of 75 to 90 ft, and is considered the best of all the American Oaks with respect to the technical value of its timber. On the valley of the Madawaska specimens of this tree may often be seen measuring from 60 to 70 ft. of stem clear of branches, and having a diameter of 4 ft. at 30 ft. from the ground. Some of these trees, when standing, measured about 110 ft. high, >>? and when cut down were found to contain each upwards of 500 102 THE WHITE OAK. cubic ft. of timber. On examining the cross sections and counting the annual rings, they were found to be upwards of 400 years old. It was introduced into Britain in 1724. Economic Uses. — As already stated, the White Oak is one of the most valuable trees of the genus in America. It is largely used in housebuilding, and in fact it is in use for most purposes, from shipbuilding to handle-making. a ee THE COMMON WHITE WILLOW. fife Willow by its broad oval leaves, pointed and generally twisted at the tip, which are of a smooth dark-green colour above, but covered with greyish down beneath. It is, however, in general a tree of only the second or third magni- tude, and is very frequently to be met with as a mere shrub on hillsides. (1.) THE COMMON WHITE or HUNTINGDON WILLOW, Saliz alba L. 5 Specific Character.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, serrated, silky on both sides; the lowest serratures glandular. Stamens hairy. Germen smooth, almost sessile. Stigmas deeply cloven. Scales notched. Flowers yellow; May (Loudon, op. cit., p. 761). Distribution.—This species, although perhaps not truly indige- nous to Britain, has at any rate maintained itself since the fifteenth century. It is found occurring frequently in most parts of Europe, from Sweden south- wards to the Mediterranean, and is also said to be found in the western portion of Asia. Hooker (Students’ Flora, p. 337) considers it native. Description of Tree.—The White Willow, in a situation favourable to its natural re- quirements, attains the dimen- sions of a first-class tree, and has an agreeable and elegant outline; hence it is a species well worthy of a place in any extensive park or lawn, where the soil is deep, strong, and somewhat moist, and the sit- uation not too much exposed. Its growth is very rapid, and it is thus well adapted for plant- Foliage of the White Willow (S. alba). ing in any situation in a park where it may be wished to hide a disagreeable object. The leaves of the different sorts of Willows have a close re- semblance to one another; differences, indeed, can only be detected and distinguished by a careful examination of their texture, more than by any conspicuous variations in shape. The White Willow has the leaves edliptic-lanceolate, or between oval and lance-shaped, and serrated, the lower serratures bearing small glands. Both sides 174 THE COMMON WHITE WILLOW. of the leaves are covered with very fine silky hairs, which lie closely upon the body of the leaf, giving the leaves a whitish appearance, and causing a beautiful effect when they are slightly moved by the wind. Fig. 31 represents the leaves and young wood, as taken from a plant in the month of August. This Willow makes one of the best of all trees for the purpose of coppicing or pollarding, and forms a very profitable crop in coppice-woods when cut over at periods of from three to twelve years so as to yield poles of various sizes. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of all the tree Willows is much sought after, and is preferred in all cases to that of the Poplar. It is reckoned more tough and durable than the latter, and is used for a great variety of country purposes. It makes excellent char- coal for powder manufacturers, and is much sought after for this industry; but it is not easily procured in sufficient quantity. It is also particularly adapted for lining to stone-carts and coal-waggons, for which purpose there exists a fair market for large quantities of it. When struck by a stone or by any other heavy body, the deal pro- duced from the Willow is not readily injured nor split, as is the case with deals made from the Fir and Pine trees; and it is this quality of toughness in the wood which makes it so valuable for technical purposes. As a paling-rail, it will last much longer than the young immature wood of the Scots Pine or Spruce Fir. On the Continent all available kinds of Willow-wood are used as the framework or base for veneered furniture, for packing-cases, and as the raw material for match and wood-pulp factories. It would seem well adapted for the manufacture of railway trucks, as it would have the advantage of being tough as well as light. The sp. gr. of Willow wood in general is about 0.85 when green and 0.53 when seasoned ; hence it is floatable without requiring to be seasoned before being launched into the stream for conveyance to any distant mart. Soil and Situation.—The White Willow requires a good deep and somewhat moist soil, such as that usually to be found on the banks of lakes and rivers, before it can grow as rapidly and profit- ably as it is capable of doing. The best and largest trees of this species are often, however, to be found by the sides of streams running through sheltered glens or ravines. In such a situation, if the soil be at all moderately good, the trees grow up very rapidly, and attain large dimensions in an astonishingly short time. The White Willow does well on most soils if these are not too light and dry, and if the situation be not too exposed. It cannot be said to be anything but accommodating with regard to soil, so long as this contains the requisite quantity of moisture ; but its finest dimensions are undoubtedly attainable on deep loamy or loamy-sandy riverine tracts of a marshy description. THE COMMON WHITE WILLOW. 175 In order to have the Willow assume good dimensions and produce a clean bole of good technical quality, the trees should be planted in a mass, so as to be drawn up quickly in their struggle for light and air; and when this competition is being waged too keenly for healthy growth, thinning may take place as required, in order to allow them to have more growing-space for their development. This is par- ticularly necessary with regard to the White Willow, which is very liable to set off into large branches if left to itself in any open part without lateral confinement. But where planted somewhat closely together, or if mixed with a few Conifers, it rises to a great height before branching off; and when the thinning operations are carefully attended to, excellent timber is produced. As its wood is soft and open in the grain, the Willow, and indeed the Poplar too, should never be pruned except in the young state. If any branches of considerable size be taken from a full-grown tree, the wound never heals up; the weather takes effect upon the cut part very quickly, and soon rot is produced, rendering the timber near it useless. Unless the wound-surfaces are small and can cicatrise easily and rapidly, the wood soon becomes infected with fungoid diseases occasioned by various species of Polyporus; for the soft porous wood of Willows and Poplars is little able to resist the penetration of the hyphe and the mycelium into the woody tissue when once the fungoid spores have lodged on the surface of the wound, and have begun to germinate. Propagation and Culture.—No forest-trees are easier of propa- gation than the Willows. Indeed their characteristic in this respect is almost proverbial. All that is necessary is to put a cutting of young wood into the soil in the spring, and in the following autumn it will be ready for transplanting out into the open. Many even recommend the use of pieces of the older wood for cuttings in pro- pagating the Willow; but though success be attainable in both ways, yet it will almost always be found that the cuttings from the last year’s wood make the best plants, which ultimately develop into the most rapid-growing and the finest trees. This species is very plentifully distributed over the country. Its general dimensions, under favourable circumstances, may be said to range up to about 70 ft. in height, with a stem averaging about 3 ft. in diameter at breast height. Of such dimensions there are specimens to be found on most estates affording a favourable soil and situation for the tree. 176 THE CRACK WILLOW. (2.) THE CRACK, CRACKING, or REDWOOD WILLOW, Saliz fragilis L. Synonyms—S, decipiens Hoffm. ; 8. fragilissima Host. ; S. monspeliensis Forb. Specific Character.—Leaves ovate-lanceolate, pointed, serrated throughout, very glabrous. Footstalks glandular. Ovary ovate, abrupt, nearly sessile, glabrous. Bracteas oblong, about equal to the stamens and pistils. Stigmas cloven, longer than the style. Flowers yellow; April and May (Loudon, op. cit., p. 759). Distribution.—This tree was also not indigenous to Britain, but was introduced along with the White Willow in the fifteenth century, and has become very thoroughly acclimatised. Description of Tree.—The Crack Willow is a tree compara- tively more common in Scotland than in England, where the White and the Bedford Willows are the two species of this genus that chiefly occur as timber-trees. It is in all respects a more hardy species than either of these two other Willows; and on this account it deserves to be more cultivated in Scotland than they are. In the north of Scotland especially it prevails largely, and is there known as the Red- Wood Willow, from the timber having a red- dish tinge when cut up. It is much prized throughout Scot- land for the usefulness of its timber ; and, indeed, on many cold-bottomed lands in the north it produces timber of a good size, and this often too upon a very poor soil. This is also a very fast-growing tree. When planted on a good soil and in a sheltered situation, it may even attain about 70 ft. in height, and 8 ft. in circumference at 4 ft. from the ground, when it is only about thirty-five years of age. The leaves of this species very much resemble those of the White Willow, being slightly downy when young. Fig. 32 represents the leaves and young wood. There is one peculiar feature in this tree that may here be noticed—viz., its aptitude to become what is termed stag-headed or dry in the top, when found growing upon a Foliage of the Crack Willow (S. fragilis). THE RUSSELL WILLOW. LTT soil not naturally suitable to its normal requirements. This is the principal reason that it is so much kept out of lawns and parks ; for when stag-headed, it certainly becomes rather unsightly. But as, when well grown, it is quite as fine and ornamental a tree as the White Willow, which is often to be found in parks, it would be unwise to attempt to keep this fine Willow out of all park scenery, provided the soil be capable of nourishing it properly. Wherever it is planted upon a loamy soil, from which it can have a sufficient supply of nourishment, as will generally be the case in the low- lying parts of parks and lawns, experience shows that it not only grows rapidly, but will maintain its health throughout both stem and crown as well as either of the other two species, the White and the Bedford Willows. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Crack Willow is, in the practical estimation of country carpenters, somewhat more durable and tough than that of either of the other tree-Willows. And as a matter of practical experience in estate management, less diffi- culty is found in selling it for country purposes than any other wood of the Willow kind. Practical builders say that as a timber for flooring it can scarcely be surpassed, as it is extremely light, and lasts a long time. It is, generally speaking, used for all the purposes for which the timber of the other two kinds is utilised ; and it would seem to have special recommendations for employment in the construction of railway waggons and trucks. Soil and Situation.—The Crack Willow will attain fair dimen- sions on a greater variety of soils than either the White or the Bedford Willow can thrive on; still, in order to grow it well, and to obtain timber of large dimensions, it requires to be planted on a deep, rather moist soil, and in a sheltered situation. Propagation and Culture.—tThis tree is, like the other Willows, very easy of propagation, and may be regenerated or multiplied by means of slips or cuttings in the same manner as has already been described with reference to the White Willow (see p. 175). The average dimensions of this species, under moderately favour- able circumstances, may be said to range up to 50 ft. in height, with a stem about 2 ft. in diameter. In many parts of the country, however, on very favourable soils and situations, it frequently attains 70 to 80 ft. in height, with a stem 3 ft. or more in diameter. (3.) RUSSELL or BEDFORD WILLOW, Salix Russelliana Forb. SynonymM—Salia fragilis var, Russelliana Hooker. Specific Character—Leaves lanceolate, tapering at each end, serrated throughout, very glabrous. Footstalks glandular or leafy. VOL M 178 THE RUSSELL WILLOW. Ovary tapering, stalked, longer than the bracteas. Style as long as the stigmas. Flowers yellowish; April and May (Loudon, op. cit., p- 760). Distribution.—This tree is of course a native of Britain, for it is merely the British hybrid or cross between the two former species, the White and the Crack Willows. It is to be found in most of the marshy woods and osier-grounds throughout Eneland. Description of Tree.—The Bedford Willow is another tree which is, arboriculturally, well worthy of a place in pleasure-erounds. It has a much better effect upon a lawn or park than any other of the Willow genus, having a bold outline and rather a rugged habit, which gives it, when viewed from a distance, the appearance of an Ash more than that of a Willow. As described in the specific char- acteristics, the leaves of the Bed- ford Willow are lanceolate, taper- ing, and serrated ; they are without hairs, and are smooth on both sides. Even by this difference alone the Bedford Willow may be readily distinguished from the White Willow; but there is the additional difference that the leaves are also larger than those of the latter. Fig. 33 is a representa- tion of the leaves and young wood as in the month of August. Economic Uses of Timber,— ; 4 The timber of this tree is used for Foliage of the Russell or Bedford Willow (S. Russelliana). much the same purposes as those stated with regard to the wood of the White Willow. There is, indeed, scarcely any difference in the quality of the timber of the two sorts, and both kinds of wood are employed alike for all the objects stated with reference to the White Willow (see p. 174). Soil and Situation.—What has already been said with regard to the soils and situations best suited to the White Willow is in every respect equally applicable to this species. Under somewhat similar circumstances, they both appear to attain about the same magnitude as timber-trees. When planted upon an exposed situa- tion, the branches of the Bedford Willow are very apt to be broken BETULACEZ. 179 down by high winds, a tendency naturally inherited from the Crack Willow. But in many other respects it may perhaps be considered a somewhat more hardy tree than the White Willow. Propagation and Culture.— What has been stated with regard to the White Willow (see p. 175) may be applied in all respects to this species. There are many specimens of the Bedford Willow, both in England and Scotland, that are from 70 to 80 ft. in height, and have stems of from 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. BETULACHZ Bartt. The family of the Betulacew consists of the two genera, Birch (Betula) and Alder (Alnus), the majority of the species of which inhabit the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. These two genera are distinguished botanically (Willkomm, Waldbiichlein, 1889, p. 105) as follows :— Buds sessile, and enclosed by several bracts arranged spirally ; male catkins mostly in clusters at the top of the previous year’s shoots ; female spikes only appearing simultaneously with the foliage, and situated at the end of the short shoots consisting of but a few leaves. Under each bract of the catkin 2 or 3 flowers with 4 stamens, each of which is situated at the corner of a thin leaflet ; anthers divided into two halves ; under each of the 3-lobed bracts of the spike there are 3 ovaries, which produce a broad-winged nut. The cylindrical, petiolated, and pendulous catkins fall to pieces on ripening, leaving only the spindle. Flowering takes place after the flushing of the foliage. Birch ; : . Betula. Buds petiolated or stalked (except in the Alpine Alder, 4. pied. where they are sessile), and covered with 2 or 3 thick bracts. Male and female flowers on one branching stalk, on the upper part of which the catkins are situated, and on the lower part the spikes. Under each catkin-scale 3 distinctly separate flowers with 4 stamens and floral bracts crosswise ; under each bract of the spike only 2 ovaries, from which unwinged (except in A. viridis), compressed, and angular nuts are produced. The spikes develop into long cones with thick woody bracts, which are at first cemented together with a kind of waxy resin, but which on ripening open and let the seed escape, without falling to pieces and detaching themselves from the spindle. The empty cones remain long on the tree. The flowering (except in A. viridis) takes place long before the foliage flushes in spring. Alder . : , : - ; . ; : : : Alnus. Out of a total of 37 species of Birch, 8 are indigenous to Europe. Of these latter 5 are to be found in the central and north-western portions of the Continent, including Britain ; but as they gradually merge into each other, it is impossible to determine any hard-and-fast lines of distribution for the various species. Only one species is of true sylvieultural value, the Common Birch, Betula alba L., which was described by him as occurring “in Huropa frigidiore,” but which was subdivided by his pupil Ehrhart into the warty kind 2B. verrucosa, and the velvety kind B. pubescens. But though these may quite justifiably be ranked as separate species, the more comprehensive specific name of Linnzeus may here be retained, as the sub-species exhibit only com- paratively unimportant sylvicultural differences. The warty race extends further to the north and east, whilst the pubescent goes further south. The 180 THE COMMON BIRCH. latter is the Birch most frequently to be found in moist or wet, low-lying soil, and the former is the ruling kind on drier situations; but they are very often to be found growing together on the same soil. The warty race appears to be the more frequent in the Highlands of Scotland, where it thrives well in the humid atmosphere. Of arboricultural interest there are two exotic species, B. lutea and B. papyracea, which were introduced into Britain from North America about the middle of last century. These three species, now to be described, are distinguishable (Willkomm, Forstliche Flora, 1887, p. 301) as follows :— I. Outer layer of the bark of the stems white. 1. Leaves rhomboidal or ovate and long-pointed, entire at the base, but doubly, and often trebly, serrate along the upper edges; more or less velvety or pubescent on young shoots, but not on any of the foliage of the older twigs (B. pubescens and B. verrucosa, Ehrh.) . : : : : : : : : . WB. alba. 2. Leaves large, ovate, and shortly pointed; entire at the lower edge, but doubly serrate along the upper edges . . Bb. papyracea. II. Outer layer of the bark of the stems brown or brownish-yellow. _ 3. Leaves large, ovate, and pointed. Young shoots pubescent and with- out waxy warts . 3 : : : , : . B. lutea. 9. THE BIRCH, Betula (Linn2zAN System, Monacra PoLyANDRIA). Character of Genus.—Sarren jlowers: Catkins cylindrical, lax, imbricated all round with ternate concave scales, the middle one largest, ovate. Corolla none. Filaments 10 to 12, shorter than the middle scale, to which they are attached. Anthers roundish, 2-lobed. Fertile flowers: Catkins similar but more dense; scales horizontal, peltate, dilated outwards, 3-lobed, 5-flowered. Corolla none. Germen compressed. Styles 2. Stigma simple. Nut oblong, deciduous, winged at each side. Flowers whitish, in pendulous catkins (Loudon, op. cit., p. 838). (.) THE COMMON or SILVER BIRCH, Betula alba L, Synonyms—B, pubescens et B. verrucosa Ehrh. Specific Character.—Leaves ovate, acute, somewhat deltoid, unequally serrated, nearly glabrous. Flowers whitish; in England, in February and March. Fruit brown; ripe in September and October (Loudon, 77d.) Distribution.—This tree is a native of most parts of Europe, and especially of the northern and the mountainous tracts. In the extreme northern parts of the continent of Europe it occurs only as a small tree or large bush; while in the central portion, particularly in eastern Prussia and western Russia, it forms extensive forests along with the Alder and the Aspen, and develops into a tree of very THE COMMON BIRCH. 181 considerable dimensions—often attaining a height of 50 to 60 ft. It is indisputably a native of Britain, and forms, even at the present day, considerable natural forests in the north of Scotland. In Strathspey, in Braemar, and around Loch Tummel there are natural forests of this tree, which give a most pleasing effect to many of the hill-slopes that otherwise might present rather a bleak appearance. Description of Tree.—The Birch is one of the most graceful of all our native trees, and is in consequence generally found in all well-arranged landscape scenery. As compared with many of our forest trees, it attains at best but very inferior dimensions as a timber-tree; but it is not so much on account of the value of its timber that the Birch is generally a favourite, as on account of its eracefulness—in which respect no other forest tree surpasses it. This is particularly the case with the pendulous variety, known as Fig. 34- the “ Weeping Birch,” which is also to be found growing wild in many of the higher districts throughout both England and Scotland. A particular recom- mendation of this variety is that it is of a more rapid growth than the common Birch; and on this account the generality of young plants are now raised from the seed of the weeping variety, which is easily known by the drooping tendency of its branches, and also by small white rough spots or verrucosities upon the bark of the young trees. The foliage of the Birch is small (see Fig. 34) and in spring it has a_ peculiarly sweet smell, particularly after a Bee Yarns, \’ 3 rc iY te Vat shower of rain. Foliage of the Birch (B. alba L.) Economic Uses of Timber.— The wood of the Birch is by no means of great durability, in whatever situation it may be placed. It may, however, be utilised in a large variety of ways, both for outside and inside work; but for use in the open air, as in the case of a post in a fence, it is of very inferior durability, and does not last much more than three years. In this respect the wood of the Birch resembles that of the Beech. Even when used for furniture, it is apt to be very soon affected by dry rot. It is much used for making herring-barrel 182 THE COMMON BIRCH. staves, for which purpose it suits excellently; and it is much sought after for making charcoal in gunpowder manufactories. But perhaps the most important use to which the wood of the Birch is applied is that of making bobbins for thread manufactories. Very large quantities are used for this purpose now, and the advantage of this to the grower of the wood is, that for bobbins he can dispose of even the branches down to 1 in. in diameter. One such bobbin-mill, situated about half-way between Pitlochry and Loch Tummel, carries on an extensive industry solely in the manufacture of bobbins. Throughout the whole of Strath Tummel the Birch grows luxur- iantly, although the woods are only treated arboriculturally, and no attempt seems made to manage them on anything like sylvicultural and financial principles. The wood of the Birch has a sp. gr. of 0.96 when green, which decreases to 0.65 after seasoning. Hence, if floating operations require to be carried out before the logs can find their most favourable market, some little period of seasoning will be requisite to ensure their floating well. On the Continent the wood is used by cartwrights, turners, carvers, and cabinet- makers,—the blocks with gnarled excrescences commanding good prices for the better classes of furniture. Soil and Situation.—In longevity as a tree the Birch is not to be compared with the Oak or Sycamore; but, on a good dry soil suited to its requirements, it lives to a great age. The Birch is a species by no means particular as regards soil and situation—in fact, it is one of the most hardy trees we possess, being found to exist as a shrub or a low tree in the mountainous districts of Scotland, at an eleva- tion of fully 3000 ft. above the level of the sea. Yet notwith- standing this hardihood, it does not attain good dimensions unless planted upon a fair soil, and at an elevation something under 1500 ft. above sea-level. The verrucose variety prefers naturally a dry sandy or a stony soil, which is generally of a poor quality; but the pubescent variety, which attains the largest dimensions, thrives best upon moist soils of sandy-loamy nature, even though they rest upon a subsoil that is by no means dry. Even a very considerable amount of soil-moisture is by no means prejudicial to this latter kind, pro- vided always that this is not allowed to remain stagnant about the roots. Propagation and Culture.—This tree is raised in the nursery from seed, which is generally ready for gathering before the end of September, or about the first week of October. When gathered, it should be kept in a dry and airy loft or room all through the winter, and should be sown in the month of March. In sowing it, care should be taken that the earth upon which it is sown be very finely wrought by the spade and rake. The soil ought to be light, and the surface made as fine as oatmeal before sowing; and even in the act THE COMMON BIRCH. 183 of covering the seed, great care is necessary to see that it is not em- bedded too deep. In fact, the slightest covering of earth is sufficient ; and this, too, should be of the finest quality. The seed is always sown on beds about 34 ft. broad. When the soil cannot be got of a nature fine enough, a very good plan is merely to sow upon the pre- pared surface, and give the seed no covering at all, but merely a slight beat with the back of the spade, in order to keep the wind from blow- ing it about. By this plan excellent crops of young seedling Birch may be raised in the nursery-beds. About the first week of June the plants will be seen to come up abundantly and thickly all over the beds; and as they are easily in- terfered with by weeds, they should receive every attention in the way of keeping the beds clean. One year after the seeds have been sown, the young plants may be lifted and transplanted into rows in the nursery-ground; and when they have stood there for two years, they may be put out into the open. But if wanted of a larger size, they should be allowed to remain in the nursery another year before being finally transplanted. In the south of England, and on sandy soil with a warm exposure especially, the seed may sometimes be matured in August, and fall so as to germinate before the vegetative season closes. Where such is the case, the young seedlings can easily be bedded in the nursery during the following spring, for seed that has been stored over the winter takes four or five weeks to germinate and loses quality generally. The Birch is an excellent tree for planting on exposed parts of an enclosure where there is little soil, and that only of a poor and thin quality. For, on such lands, it will soon make a cover, and may perhaps ultimately become a more valuable broad-leaved crop than any other that could be formed, although for these conditions Scots and Black Pine are very accommodating coniferous species. As a coppice-wood, the Birch occasionally answers well. This form of treatment may sometimes be more profitable than Oak- coppice, as, for instance, when the small wood produced can be sold locally either for powder-wood or bobbin-making. Sylvicultural Characteristics and Importance of Bireh.—In many sylvicultural respects the Birch closely resembles the Aspen (see p. 168). It is the most essentially light-demanding of the broad-leaved species of trees, and, like all light-demanding trees, forms rather a deep root-system. From Ebermayer’s analyses (op. cit., pp. 230, 235) it appears not only to make smaller demands for mineral nutrients than any other species of broad-leaved tree except the Common Alder (which agrees with sylvicultural experience), but also to require rather larger quantities of soil-moisture for transpiration through its foliage than the Sycamore needs per unit of dry substance; and, in this respect, it stands on almost the same level as the Rowan or Mountain- 184 THE PAPER BIRCH. Ash, which is very often to be found growing along with it. When, therefore, the verrucose variety is seen growing on soil that is apparently dry at the surface, it still requires, and is able to draw, comparatively large supplies of water from the soil by means of its deep and wide-spreading roots. It is also endowed with the other characteristics of essentially light-demanding trees,— rapidity of growth, and a lightly foliaged crown. As it is at the same time a hardy tree, it is therefore well adapted for acting as a nurse to less sensitive species like Oak, Ash, Sweet-Chestnut, Beech, or Silver Fir. But when once its period of useful service is at an end in this respect, it is often hard to get rid of the Birch ; for on good soil it possesses great reproductive capacity, and this more frequently takes the form of throwing out shoots from the stool than of producing stoles or root-suckers. But its reproductive power in forming stool-shoots is not of continuous energy, and one of the best ways of keeping it down is to cut them out regularly for broom-making. With its thin crown and light annual fall of foliage, the Birch is not naturally endowed with the qualities desirable in any tree forming pure forest ; and though such crops are to be seen in some parts of Scotland, they are merely examples of that want of scientific knowledge of Forestry that may be noticed generally throughout Britain—for in those cases the soil is certainly not used to its best sylvicultural advantage. Where the Birch can thrive in pure woods, the soil will support better species if planted and tended rationally. It attains its best development when growing in mixed woods along with other species like Aspen, Alder, and Hornbeam on moist localities, or with Scots Pine on drier situations. For admixture with Spruce or Douglas Fir it is less suitable, as its long whip-like twigs scourge and damage their leading- shoots. And it further resembles the Aspen by being the host upon whose leaves the fungus Melampsora betulina has its change of generation for the production of Cwoma Laricis on the foliage of the Larch (Jour. Royal Hort. Socy., vol. xiv., 1892, p. 133). Under favourable circumstances it can hold out a rotation of 80 to 100 years; but in the majority of cases it will have to be cut out at about forty to sixty years of age, when it begins to make demands as to growing-space that are incompatible with the financial promises it can hold out. When trees stand near areas about to undergo regeneration, they should be felled; for the seed production of the Birch is large, and the light seed is easily wafted to great distances, where it may perhaps spring up as a troublesome weed on areas undergoing regeneration. At Aboyne Castle there is a Birch-tree 50 ft. high, with a girth of 9 ft. near the bottom ; and in the forest of Ballochbuie, on the estate of Invercauld, Aberdeenshire, there is a tree of this species which measures 6 ft. 8 in. in circumference at 4 ft. from the ground. (2.) THE PAPER BIRCH, Betula papyracea Dryand. SynonyMs—B, papyrifera Mich.; B. lanceolata Hort. Specific Character.—Leaves ovate, acuminate, doubly serrate ; veins hairy beneath; petiole glabrous. Female catkins on long foot- stalks, drooping; scales having the side-lobes short, somewhat THE PAPER BIRCH. 185 orbiculate. Flowers greenish-white; May and June. Fruit brown; ripe in October (Loudon, op. cit., p. 842). Distribution.—This tree is also a native of North America, and was introduced into Britain in 1750. In Canada specimens of it attain very large dimensions, not unfrequently from 90 to 100 ft. in height, with a diameter of stem exceeding 44 feet ; but in general it does not attain much over 70 ft. in height, with a stem of from 24 to 3 ft. in diameter. It is plentiful on good land all over Upper Canada, and is generally found in the neighbourhood of the tall birch ; but it prefers the drier soils, whilst the latter is naturally better suited for those of a moist nature. Description of Tree.— The Paper Birch is easily known from the tall Birch by its leaves being smaller, and of a darker green in colour. Its branches are also more slender than those of the tall Birch, and its bark is more silvery and shining. It forms a beautiful object in the Canadian forests, furnishing, in those parts of them throughout which it grows, a lively contrast with the Limes, Maples, and other species of trees with which it is associated. The native Indians of Canada make their canoes from the bark of this species, for which purpose they strip the stems. It also forms a fine ornamental tree in a park, its beautiful white bark contrasting well with the dark green of its foliage, which is thick and plentiful on the branches of well-grown specimens. Both this species and the following are well worthy of cultivation in the parks and on the lawns of landed proprietors in Britain; they are quite hardy enough for most places at all favourably situated, and may therefore be con- fidently recommended to notice. They are as easy of cultivation as the common British Birch; and from being of stronger growth, they are calculated to produce an effect of a pleasing, though somewhat different, character upon the landscape much sooner than can be arranged by means of that species. The leaves being larger are more easily agitated by the breeze; and this circumstance produces a peculiar effect, especially when contrasted with the bright silvery hue of the bark on the stems. This species, which is only a tree of the second magnitude, has a straight cylindrical bole, upon which the tough outer layer of bark, in fissuring, forms long rolls like paper (hence its botanical name). It is a very hardy species, and is little apt to suffer from frost. It possesses, like the Tall Birch (B. lutea), an arboricultural value only, and is of no account sylviculturally. Soil and Situation.—In its native forests this tree requires a deep, dry, and humose soil. It is not to be found on soil of a wet character, such as that on which the Tall Birch generally occurs, but occupies gentle knolls and ridges having a dry subsoil. Like 186 THE TALL BIRCH. the latter, it will not sueceed in any exposed site, but should have a low-lying situation, with the shelter of other trees. Propagation and Culture.— The Paper Birch is chiefly raised from seeds imported from America. The seed of both this and the Tall species can easily be had cheaply from seed-merchants in New York; and any nurseryman in Britain could have no difficulty in rearing large quantities of these trees at a cheap rate, provided he had orders for them from landed proprietors. As they have been very little inquired for, they have not been much reared; hence they are scarce and high in price. But were there any constant »demand for them, nurserymen here could soon supply them at a very moderate cost. (3.) THE TALL BIRCH, Betula lutea Mich. SynonyM—B. excelsa Dryand. Specific Character. — Leaves ovate, acute, serrated ; petioles pubescent, shorter than the peduncles. Scales of the strobiles having the side-lobes roundish. Flowers greenish-white; May. Fruit brownish ; ripe in October (Loudon, op. cit., p. 844). Distribution.—This tree is also a native of North America, and was introduced into Britain in 1767. It is chiefly to be found on deep and rather moist lands throughout most parts of Upper Canada, especially in the valley of the Ottawa, where it occurs very plenti- fully in the natural forests. Description of Tree.—The leaves of this tree are very much larger than those of the common British Birch, being generally from 3 to 4 in. long, and from 2 to 3 in. broad, and with sharp irregular teeth on their margins. In the natural forests of Canada it forms a tall stately tree, often rising up to a height of from 80 to 90 ft., with a stem of from 24 to 34 ft. in diameter. In some instances it may even be found attaining a height of 95 ft., with a stem nearly 4 ft. in diameter; yet generally speaking the trees are not so large, but more frequently measure only from 70 to 90 ft. in height, with stems of from 2 to 3 ft. in diameter. When this Birch stands alone, it forms a fine ornamental object, being clothed with branches, and thickly folaged down nearly to the ground. Many specimens of this species to be met with on the sides of rivers and lakes in America are of a highly ornamental character, being well clothed with branches down to the water’s edge, and presenting the most perfect festoons imaginable. It may well, therefore, be recommended as an ornamental tree in parks and on lawns in Britain. In such situations it would make a fine contrast with many other of our common trees, as its habit is to grow upright, and to become clothed THE ALDER. 187 with branches from top to bottom when grown in an open part and on a suitable soil. This species, which rarely assumes the dimensions of a tree of the first magnitude, possesses for Britain merely an arboricultural value. As a forest- tree it cannot be compared to our own indigenous Birch. With its soft pubescent young shoots and its bronze-yellow bark, however, it forms a very agreeable and striking feature near the margin of ponds or streams. Soil and Situation.—In order that it may thrive well, the Tall Birch requires a good, deep, and rather moist soil. Fine specimens of it may, indeed, be met with on dry ground in Canada; but in all cases the largest and best developed trees grow on the sides of rivers and lakes, and on the edges of swamps, where there is a sufficiency of moisture for their roots, without its being stagnant about them. It requires also to be planted in a well-sheltered situation; for although it is quite hardy enough to stand the climate of Britain, still it will not grow to a good size unless on a low-lying site, and sheltered by other trees. Propagation and Culture.—This tree is propagated by seeds imported from America, which may be had from any extensive dealer in foreign tree-seeds, The species is as easily raised from seed as the Common Birch, and the same treatment is necessary in rearing them both. 10. THE ALDER, Alnus (Linn/an System, Monacra TETRANDRIA). Character of the Genus.—JSarren jlowers numerous, aggregate, in a loose cylindrical catkin. Calyx a permanent wedge-shaped scale, 3-flowered, with two very minute lateral scales. Corolla com- posed of 3 equal florets. /ilaments 4, from the tube of the corolla. Anthers of two round lobes. Fertile flowers fewer, aggregate, in an oval firm catkin. Calyx a permanent wedge-shaped scale, 2-flowered. Corolla none. Styles 2. Stigma simple. Nut ovate, without wings (Loudon, op. cit., p. 852). Of the fourteen species of this genus known to exist throughout Europe, Asia, and America, only eight are to be found in Central and Western Europe. These are all small trees, some of them scarcely attaining tree-size, but merely remaining shrubs; and none of them can be said to be ornamental. Perhaps the only species to which it is necessary to make reference here is the Common Alder (A. glutinosa), as it is sometimes found a useful tree for planting on cold, wet sites, where few other trees can thrive so as to give profitable returns. 188 THE COMMON ALDER. From an arboricultural point of view it is rather a disappointing tree. Although during the summer months its thick dark-green foliage is of a pleasing colour, the outline of the tree is heavy and formal; and when the autumn comes it does not contribute much to the forest tints, for most of the leaves drop off without even temporarily changing their colour. THE COMMON ALDER, Alnus glutinosa Medic. Syyonyms—Betula alnus L.; B. emarginata Ehrh.; B. glutinosa Lamk. Specific Character.— Leaves roundish, wedge-shaped, wavy, serrated, glutinous, rather abrupt; downy at the branching of the veins beneath. Flowers brownish; March and April. Fruit brown; ripe in October (Loudon, ibid.) Distribution—The Common Alder is found all over Europe, and always in moist places, such as swamps. Indeed it is found growing in situations which are too wet for either Poplars or Willows to thrive in. It occurs also along all the northern parts of Asia, and in the north of Africa. This is one of the compara- tively few trees truly indigenous to Britain. It is found along the j banks of our rivers, and on marshy parts of our waste lands. In these cases it 1s seldom to be met with of large dimensions, but generally as a small tree, somewhat prone to branching growth. Its horizontal distribution concides to a large extent with that of its near relative the Common Birch. Although it does not stretch so far northwards towards the polar limit of growth, it reaches somewhat further south. But it lags far behind the Birch with re- gard to vertical distribution, for, even throughout central and southern Europe, it remains a tree of the plains and low- Leaf died serie Connon eae lying localities rather than of the hills. (A. glutinosa). Its finest development is attained in western Russia and eastern Prussia, where vast Alder-marshes are occupied by this species either in pure woods or in admixture with Birch and Aspen chiefly ; but Oak, Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Lime, Pine, and Spruce are all often to be found associated with it there on the classes of soil best suited for their respective requirements. Under these circumstances it there attains a height of from 50 to 60 ft. Description of Tree.— Fig. 35 represents the leaves of this tree, and also the catkins containing the seeds. When of spon- THE COMMON ALDER. 189 taneous forest growth, the Alder seldom attains a height of more than 40 ft.; but where attention has been paid to it arboricul- turally, or when it has been drawn up in close canopy along with other forest trees, it frequently, upon a good loamy soil, attains a height of from 50 to 60 ft., with a proportionate girth. In no case will it, however, attain a large size unless it has a considerable degree of moisture for its roots, as may always be found by it upon the margins of rivers. The bark of the Common Alder, in the case of trees approaching maturity, is nearly black, and is full of clefts. When they are still young, and the tree is in a state of vigorous growth, the branches have a triangular form; but when mature they are round. The Alder is well known all over Britain, as there are few wet parts by the sides of our streams and smaller rivers where it is not found. When once the Alder enters into the stage of seed-production, about the 15th to 20th year, its hitherto rapid growth in height reaches its culminating point, and is only inconsiderable thereafter. Hence, when worked as coppice with a rotation of twenty to thirty years, the soil can be made to yield more timber than if any longer period of high-forest rotation be tried. Hconomic Uses of Timber.— The wood of the Alder is by no means valuable, nor is it generally applied to many pur- poses. It is reckoned one of the most lasting of all woods for any underground work, such as piles for bridges; and it 1s even admitted to last for a long time when protected against the effects of changes from dry to moist. But it is one of the least durable of woods for any common outdoor work, such as fencing ; posts of this timber often become useless in less than one year, as they rot at the part between the earth and the air. Still, both as a tree-crop and as a coppice- wood, it is very valuable for making charcoal for powder, and for sawing up into herring-barrel staves. For both of these purposes it is much sought after, and sells readily in most parts of the country. When used in places where it is nearly always under water, or kept wet and shut off from the atmosphere, it is endowed with considerable durability ; but otherwise it is soon apt to become worm-eaten and rotten. Its chief use on the Continent is for the manufacture of cigar-boxes, for which its light, reddish, cedar-like wood is well adapted. Even in such small matters fashion and habit are all-powerful ; and white cigar-boxes of Willow or Poplar, although equally good for practical purposes, would not command the same market-prices as those of the hitherto prevailing colour. Coppice-woods of Alder worked with a rotation of thirty to forty years often yield very good financial returns; but good soil suitable for Alder-woods is generally capable of being more profitably utilised as meadow-land. The wood has an average sp. gr. of 0.83 when green and 0.54 after seasoning. 190 THE COMMON ALDER. Soil and Situation.—The Alder is by no means particular as regards quality of soil, but moisture is indispensable. Throughout the Highlands of Scotland, and in some of the northern hilly parts of England, large tracts may be found under this tree. It is always found growing best in swampy low-lying grounds, and on the margins of rivulets; and this at once indicates the circumstances favourable to its growth. The Alder will, however, attain its normal dimen- sions as a timber-tree when planted on any low-lying site, having a strong soil with a moist subsoil, such as lands upon which the Poplar and Willow are also found to thrive well. On these situa- tions it can easily attain a height of 50 to 60 ft, with a stem » of from 2) to. o ft. in) ‘diameter The localities offering the most favourable conditions for its development are tracts in which the atmosphere is humid and the soil moist. It is a tree of low-lying situations, and, when ascending hillsides to any considerable elevation, is almost entirely confined to the immediate vicinity of the brooks and streams, where it can obtain abundant supplies of moisture. It does not form any decided tap-root, but develops a large number of thin strands, which gradually extend themselves deeper down into the soil, and produce large quantities of suction-roots. Propagation and Culture.—The Alder may be propagated by cuttings and layers of the young wood, but is principally grown from seed. Although the former method is sometimes resorted to, the plants obtained by such means are of little real worth, and can never attain such good growth as those which are raised from the seed. The young plants ought, therefore, in all cases where healthy trees, and not mere shrubs, are desired, to be grown from the seed. Of course these remarks do not apply to the extending or propagating of the varieties of this genus, such as the A. laciniata, or cut-leaved Alder, and others, which must be propagated by slips or cuttings and | layers, in order to retain their temporary characteristics. The seeds should be gathered in the month of October, or at least as soon as the scales of the catkins or seed-vessels begin to open a little. When the catkins are gathered, they should be well exposed to the sun upon a sheet for a few days in the open air, when the scales will open widely, and allow the seed to be separated by a slight rubbing and turning with the hands. Many seedsmen, when they gather the seed of the Alder, simply lay it past in a dry room, and turn it frequently, till the seeds fall out of their own accord. - It should be sown in the month of March and only slightly covered. When the seedlings have stood one year in the seed-beds, they should be planted out in rows in the nursery-beds, and there they may be allowed to remain one or two years, according to the height that the transplants may be desired. THE PLANE-TREE. 191 Sylvicultural Characteristics and Importance of Alder.—In many cases, soils suitable for the best development of Alder may be drained so as to serve a higher purpose as meadow-land. When planted up with a crop of Alder, however, this grows rapidly, and soon attains marketable dimensions for the industries utilising its wood. It possesses strong reproductive power of shoot- ing from the stool, although not endowed, like its close relative, the White Alder (A. incana), with any considerable capacity for throwing up stoles or root-suckers. Its foliage is not insensitive to late frosts; but when young shoots have been injured, they are soon replaced by a new flush. More damage is often done to it when floods occur at the time the buds are opening in spring. Whilst, like all other trees, thriving best when its foliage is fully exposed to light and air, it is not so essentially light-demanding as many other species. But on inferior soils, containing less than the most advantageous degree of moisture for its thriving, it requires a large amount of growing-space, and has only a diminished productive and reproductive capacity. On good soils, how- ever, it forms thick coppice-woods, and, worked with a rotation of about twenty-five to thirty years, can yield good financial returns if there is any market for its wood near at hand. When grown under standards of Oak and Ash, it can endure a considerable amount of shade; but under such circumstances the yield from the Alder is of course greatly diminished. Too low a period of rotation undermines the reproductive capacity of Alder coppice ; for then the reserve supplies of nutrients stored up in the stools get exhausted, when the growth of stool-shoots becomes sparse, and the soil is overrun with grass of a rank description. It fruits freely almost annually from about the fifteenth to twentieth year ; and as the seed is small, it hardly requires any covering with soil on the seed-beds. The seedlings are slow of growth after germination, but before autumn can attain a height of about 1 ft. They bear transplanting well, and plants of even 6 or 7 ft. in height may be easily and safely removed and planted out. Natural reproduction of high-forest of Alder is not recommendable ; for the wet localities on which its cultivation is profitable have a natural tendency to rank growth of grass and similar weeds, which interfere with the thriving of the young seedlings. And for the same reason sowing is less reliable than planting. PLATANEZ C.LARKE. 11. THE PLANE-TREE, Platanus (Linna2an SystEM, Monacra PoLyANDRIA). Character of Genus.—/owers unisexual, collected into globose or oblong catkins of different sexes, involucrated or naked. Jale flower having the perianth composed of numerous small linear pieces, intermixed with the stamens. emale flower with the scales absent, or intermixed with the flowers; perianth adhering to the ovarium, cup-shaped, or ending in small pilose bristles. Carpe/s 1 or 2, 1-celled, horned at apex, coriaceous. Seeds solitary in the cells, pendulous. Albwmen none (Loudon, op. cit., p. 927). 192 THE ORIENTAL PLANE-TREE. Five species of Plane are known to botanists, of which four belong to North America, but none to western Europe. Only two of these species of the genus need be referred to, as they are the best known, and at the same time the most ornamental—viz., (1) the Oriental Plane-tree, P. orientalis; and (2) the American Plane, P. occidentalis. These two trees of this genus are by some of the Continental botanists considered as mere varieties of but one species, which has been termed P. vulgaris Spach. This may quite easily be the case, for the differentiating influence of climate may similarly be noted in the case of the Black Pines, z.e., the Austrian Pine (Pinus austriaca) and the Corsican Pine (Pinus Laricio). These are all over the Continent recognised as one species merely, but are distinctly kept apart as two independent species by British arboriculturists. The plants possess a strong reproductive capacity of shooting from the stool, which would render them well adapted for coppicing and for pollarding ; but, unfortunately, wound-surfaces are apt to offer little resistance to the entrance of fungoid spores, and soon become spotted. The wood is yellowish- white and hard ; it has large pores, and the annual layers are intersected by numerous medullary rays. For their best development they require a deep, light, moist, and humose soil, and are capable of thriving even with a higher degree of soil-moisture. For Britain they possess much more arboricultural interest than sylvicultural importance. (1.) ORIENTAL PLANE-TREE, Platanus orientalis L. Specific Character.—Leaves 5-lobed, palmate, wedge-shaped at the base; the divisions lanceolate, sinuated. Stipules nearly entire. Flowers greenish-yellow; April, May. Fruit brown; ripe in October; persistent great part of the winter (Loudon, 77d.) Distribution. — The Oriental Plane-tree is a native of the Levant, Asia Minor, and eastwards as far as Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan. It seems to have been cultivated in Britain as an ornamental tree for the last 350 years. It is said to be found on Mount Etna at an elevation of 2000 ft. above the sea-level; but its true home is the mountainous region of the Steppes, where it ascends the Taurus range to a height of 5000 ft. It occurs also of true forest-growth in Greece and on the outlying ranges of Mount Athos (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 539). It seldom attains its full dimensions as a timber-tree except in low-lying and level parts of the country, on a light deep soil, in the neighbourhood of running water. Description of Tree.—The Oriental Plane is said to be one of the noblest trees of eastern Europe, where it grows to a height of 70 and 80 feet, and, with widely spreading branches and a massive trunk, forms altogether a majestic object. As an ornamental tree, no species which attains so large a size has a finer appearance when it stands THE ORIENTAL PLANE-TREE. 193 singly or in small groups upon @ lawn where there is room to allow its lower branches, which stretch themselves horizontally to a con- siderable distance, to bend gracefully towards the ground, and turn up at their extremities. The tree is in all respects peculiarly adapted Fig. 36. Spray of the Oriental Plane (P. orientalis). for pleasure-grounds, and for growing in town gardens. It, and especi- ally the variety acerifolia, known as the “ London Plane,” seems to be very little affected by the injurious action of smoke. This species thrives well in Britain, and attains very considerable dimensions, VOL. I. N 194 THE ORIENTAL PLANE-TREE. where sheltered by other trees, on parks and lawns. It is easily distinguished from the Maples—although the leaves of the Maple are somewhat similarly shaped, and the bark of the Sycamore also scales off in flakes to a slight degree—in the winter season, by the alternat- ing arrangement of its buds; or in the summer season, by its leaves having five main nerves or veins (not seven as in the Maple), and having stipules, and also by not being arranged in opposite pairs like Maple leaves. Fig. 36 represents a twig of the P. orientalis with its leaves and stipules. The leaf-bud is concealed in the hollow leaf-stalk. Economic Uses.—In the native countries of this tree its timber is used for various purposes in furniture-making and carpentry. From some specimens of stems cut up in this country, the timber seems of about as good a quality as our Sycamore, and, we should say, might be used in all cases in which that is used. When seasoned it has a sp. gr. of only 0.58, so that it is a very light description of timber, and would be easily floatable immediately after felling. It is not, however, as a timber-tree that it is cultivated throughout Britain, but only as an ornamental species; and in this respect few trees can rival it. Tt deserves very special recommendation for the planting up of streets in towns and cities, as its foliage resists, better than that of any other species of tree, the clogging and disease-producing effects of sulphurous acid, and of the carbonic and other impurities with which the atmosphere of densely populated and manufacturing centres is laden. It is easily distinguishable from the American Plane by its bark scaling off much more freely during the winter months, and by usually having 2 or 3 fruit-balls, whereas in occidentalis they are generally solitary. Soil and Situation.—A light, deep, free soil, moist, but not wet in the subsoil, is that on which the P. orientalis thrives best ; and the situation should be sheltered, but, at the same time, not shaded or crowded by other trees. It will scarcely grow in strong clay and on elevated exposed parts; nor will it thrive in places where the Lime-tree does not prosper, as it is somewhat more sensitive to late frosts than that species. On the whole, it may be said to have a fair amount of accommodative power with respect to soil; but situations that are either very dry or very wet are not favourable to its normal development, and soils containing a large per- centage of lime are also not naturally suited for it. In this latter respect, however, it is not so sensitive as the Sweet-Chestnut and the Maritime Pine, upon whose growth and development carbonate of lime acts very prejudicially. Propagation and Culture.—This tree may be propagated by seeds, layers, or cuttings. The fruits, which ripen plentifully in THE AMERICAN PLANE-TREE. 195 Britain in fine, dry, warm seasons like 1893, should be gathered in October or November, the balls being broken by the hand or by threshing them with a light flail; the seeds may then easily be separated from the husks and cleaned by the usual process. The seed may either be sown out immediately in the nursery, or else mixed with sand and preserved in a dry place, secure from frost, till February or March. The fruits may also be kept in the balls or catkins till spring, either by allowing them to hang on the tree, or by gathering them in autumn and spreading them out in a dry loft. The general practice is to sow the seeds in autumn, or as soon as gathered or received from the Continent. They should be sown on a moist rich soil and in a shady situation, and should only be covered as lightly as those of the Birch, Elm, or Alder. Or it may suffice if the seeds are merely made to adhere to the soil simply by beating them in lightly with the back of the spade, and not covering them at all; but in this case it will be necessary to protect the seed-beds with litter of some sort, in order to prevent damage from the winter frosts. The plants will come up during the following spring. The tree is commonly propagated by layers, however, which root freely. The general method of reproduction throughout Northern Germany is by means of s/¢ps taken from the one- or two-year-old wood. They are inserted, like willow-slips, about a foot apart, in good, light, nursery soil ; and when two or three buds are left above the ground, they soon shoot from these. The slips are planted in the nursery during the spring. Variations of this species are numberless. Even from the same fruits hardy and tender varieties may be produced simultaneously. There are many good specimens of the Oriental Plane to be found at various places in both England and Scotland, some of them rising to heights from 60 to 80 ft., with stems of from 3 to 6 ft. in diameter. Being of rapid growth, and affording a good shade in the open, it is eminently suited for the formation of avenues, «ce. (2.) AMERICAN or WESTERN PLANE-TREE, Platanus occidentalis L. Specific Character.—Leaves 5-angled, obsoletely lobed, dentate, wedge-shaped at the base; downy beneath. Flowers greenish; May. Fruit brownish ; ripe in October and November (Loudon, op. ci¢., p. 931). Distribution.—The American Plane is found over a large extent of the North American continent, from the eastern seaboard to the Western States, and from the southern parts of Canada southwards to the Carolinas. It is plentiful on the sides of rivers in the State of Pennsylvania, and also on the Grand River in Canada; but is hardly ever found on dry inland parts far removed from the rivers. 196 THE AMERICAN PLANE-TREE. In Europe it is more extensively cultivated throughout Southern Germany and Austria than elsewhere. It is there frequently to be met with forming avenues. It is, however, capable of being cultivated everywhere throughout Britain, as it grows and flowers as far north as 58° in Western Norway. As it is of rapid development, and yields a fairly good wood for many ordinary purposes, its cultivation is deserving of some attention. Fig. 37 i) Fe MH / Yy ‘N iit, LY i]; IN I MYYU Mil nN tn SN Y) i ne NG ‘ iL Til al ( : \ ry Sige VE LY) j i My Wf Wy Yy Spray of the American Plane (P. occidentalis). Description of Tree.—This species is of much more rapid and upright growth than the Oriental Plane, already referred to, and has broader and less deeply cut leaves (see Fig. 37). - THE AMERICAN PLANE-TREE. 197 “Both species ripen seeds in Britain, in fine seasons. P. occidentalis is readily known from P. orientalis, in the winter season, by its bark scaling off much less freely, or, in young or middle-sized trees, scarcely at all; and, in the summer season, by its leaves having red petioles, and being but slightly lobed, instead of being palmate, like those of the P. orientalis, which have green petioles, and by its globular catkins being nearly smooth, while those of P. orientalis are rough” (Loudon, 7bid.) The leaves of the Western Plane are rounded off, and not usually heart- shaped at the base, and have, as a rule, only three main nerves and three lobes ; those of the Oriental Plane are either wedge-like or heart-shaped at the base, and have five main nerves and five lobes. The young foliage and leaf- stalks of the former are also usually covered with a yellowish-white primrose bloom, whilst the stalks are of a reddish-brown colour. In the latter the young leaves are pubescent or downy on the under surface only, and the leaf-stalks are shorter and mostly green. In the Western Plane the fruit-balls are usually solitary ; whilst in the other species there are generally 2 or 3 seed-balls on each spike. The American Plane is also easily distinguishable at a distance from the Oriental Plane by its more upright habit and rapid growth, especially when placed on a low-lying level part, near to running water. On the whole, it is not quite of so ornamental a habit of growth as the P. orientalis ; its outline at all stages of development is somewhat stiffer, and therefore rather less graceful, than in the case of the latter. But even making full allowance for this, it is a hand- some tree, and well worthy of a place in any well-sheltered park on a site by a river-side, where its generally tall form and beautifully waving masses of leaves give it a character peculiar to itself, and add quite a foreign element to the scene. Economic Uses of Timber.—In America the timber of this tree is not held in much estimation; and it is hardly ever used for any technical purposes when Maple can be obtained instead. It is some- times, however, used for furniture-making, and for some parts of the inner work of house-building. It is rather a handsome wood when cut up, and beautiful pieces of furniture may be made from it; but it is short-grained, is easily broken, and does not last well. Like the wood of the Lime, its light timber is well adapted for being used as a base or frame-work in the manufacture of veneered furniture. Soil and Situation.—In order to give the Plane a fair chance of succeeding it must be planted on a deep, open, and porous soil of a cool nature, but not wet, as on the sides of rivers; and the situation must be a sheltered one, otherwise it will not thrive. Specimens of this tree growing on the sides of some of the rivers in Pennsylvania attain a height of fully 100 ft. and form stems of from 3 to 6 ft. in diameter. In these cases the soil is generally of a deep, moist, sandy nature, and very rich in humus or vegetable matter. 198 CARPINEA. Propagation and Culture.—This Plane is often propagated in Britain from seeds imported from America. The seeds should be sown in a cold frame in February or March, and shaded from the sun till the plants have come up and gained some strength. Afterwards they should be gradually exposed till they are accustomed to the sun- shine; and when they have become hardy enough the frame should be removed, and the plants left to themselves to mature their growth in the open air. During the following season they will be fit for transplanting out into lines in the nursery; this may be done in the same manner as specified for the Sycamore. This tree may also be reproduced from slips or cuttings, which root quite freely and form excellent plants; it is as easily propagated in this way as the Willow or the Poplar. It may also be reproduced by layers, and by this mode a large proportion of the plants reared in Britain are propagated (see under Oriental Plane). There are very fair specimens of this species in many of the streets and open spaces, and in most of the parks in the neighbour- hood of London; and in different parts of England there are specimens even of larger dimensions than those of the Oriental Plane. In Scotland also there are many good trees of this species. CARPINEZ DO6t1. The Carpinee, or Corylacee as it was named by A. de Candolle, is a family scattered throughout the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, and especially frequent in central Asia and eastwards to Japan, which consists of 4 genera and 18 species, whereof 3 genera and 6 species belong to Europe, and occur of spontaneous growth through- out central and southern Europe. These genera are (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 355) distinguishable as follows :— I. Carpinee. Nut } to } of an in. in length. 1. Nut encircled at the base by a large flat-lobed or indented toothed bract. Hornbeam : . ‘ : ; : Carpinus. 2. Nut enclosed in a hollow, conical, net-veined bract. Hop-beech Ostrya. II. Corylee. Nut ? to 1} in. in length, and either covered or hidden by the envelope formed by the bracts. Hazel : : : Corylus. Of these only the Hazel (Corylus) is indigenous to Britain, whilst the Hornbeam (Carpinus) was introduced before the close of the fifteenth century. The Hop-Beech (Ostrya) is of more recent in- troduction, and is almost solely confined to arboreta and botanic gar- dens; even in its own home throughout southern Europe it plays a comparatively unimportant part as a tree of true forest growth. Hazel.— According to the scheme of this work, only timber-pro- CARPINEZ.. 199 ducing trees are here treated in detail; but the Hazel, though only a shrub, certainly demands some little passing notice for its true sylvicultural importance in most parts of Britain. It possesses special value as coppice-wood, since stool-shoots of three or four years of age can be very usefully and remumeratively disposed of as hoops for barrels and all similar purposes. It has excellent reproductive capacity, and sends out numerous straight shoots from the stool whenever it is cut back. It can thrive on all kinds of soil, but attains better development and stronger reproductive capacity on fresh or moist limy, loamy, alluvial, or humose soils than on those of an inferior sandy description ; sour marshy land and heavy stiff clays are not well suited for its growth. Even on shallow rocky hill- sides it can often yield a fair return, when a mere handful of earth here and there enables it to establish itself, and in such situations its heavy fall of leaves annually tends greatly to the enhancement of the productive capacity of the soil. It can be of considerable ser- vice in filling up blanks in Oak-coppice on patches of soil that are not good enough for the Oak, as it can be worked advantageously in the same rotation (14 to 16 years) as the main crop. Throughout southern England it often forms a large proportion of the under- growth under Oak standards, and is by no means the least profitable part of the underwood, as the long straight stool-shoots can be utilised for a great variety of purposes, and yield fuel of no mean quality. And in addition to that, the revenue obtainable for the col- lection of the nuts is sometimes capable of yielding a very fair return. The Hazel-stools retain for a long time their reproductive power, as the shoots coming up out of the ground from near the base of the stem often take root for themselves, and thereby give additional vigour to the parent stool. In Oak-woods with a sparse growth of underwood, any Hazel throughout the coppice-crop may advantage- ously be utilised by bending back a few of the stool-shoots and layering them, in order to increase the density of the crop: as these soon strike root for themselves, they do not draw their supplies of food from the parent stool when once they have established them- selves away from it. As most of the woods in England are not sufficiently dense to utilise the soil to its fullest degree, and at the same time to protect its productive capacity thoroughly, this method deserves a trial wherever it can conveniently be adopted; for it has the merits of being cheap and rational. When Hazel plants are required for filling up blanks in existing plantations, or for the formation of new coppice-woods or underplanting, the method of layering will produce good plants more quickly than raising them from the seed ; this latter method, however, presents no difficulties of any kind to be overcome, its only drawback being that the seedling 200 THE COMMON HORNBEAM. plants are of much slower initial development than those obtained by layering. The method of layering has previonsly been described with regard to the Elm (see p. 136). Despite its good thick foliage, the Hazel is rather a light-de- manding species of shrub; hence its highest returns can only be expected from coppice in the free enjoyment of light and warmth, and not when it has to be content with a diminished supply under the shade of standards. Even when allowed to develop to its full extent, it forms only a minor tree of about 20 to 22 ft. in height. 12. THE HORNBEAM, Carpinus (LinN2AN SysTEM, Monacra PoLyanprta). Character of the Genus.—Jlale flowers: Catkin lateral, sessile, cylindrical. Bracteas imbricate. Flowers consisting of 12 or more stamens inserted at the base of a bractea. -Anthers bearded at the tip, l-celled. Female flowers in lax terminal catkins. Bracteas of two kinds, outer and inner: outer bracteas entire, soon falling off; inner bracteas in pairs, each 3-lobed. Calyx clothing the ovary to near its tip, and adhering to it; toothed at the tip. Style very short. Stigmas 2, long, thread-shaped. /ruit not attended by the involucre ; ovate, compressed, ribbed, clothed, except at the base, and tipped with the adnate calyx ; woody ; including one seed (Loudon, op. cit., p. 916). Only one species of this genus need be referred to here—viz., the Common Hornbeam (C. Betulus), as it is the chief timber-tree of the family, is very hardy, and under favourable circumstances attains a considerable magnitude. THE COMMON HORNBEAM, Carpinus Betulus L. Specific Character.—bBracteas of the fruit flat, oblong, serrated, with two lateral lobes. Flowers yellowish; May. Nuts brown; ripe in October or November (Loudon, ibid.) Distribution.—The Common Hornbeam is a native of all parts of central Europe, being found in France, Germany, Italy, the south of Russia, and in the west of Asia. It is also a native of England, Ireland, and the southern parts of Scotland. Description of Tree.—It is a singular fact in the history of the Arboriculture of this country, that although the Hornbeam, when grown on a good loamy soil, often forms a stem of from 2 to 3 ft. or even more in diameter, with a height of from 60 to 70 ft, and though, under such circumstances, it is a very ornamental tree with a thick and spreading crown of foliage, yet it has not been much cultivated. It has been neglected, and reduced to the position of THE COMMON HORNBEAM. 201 a mere hedge plant. This may have arisen from the great ten- dency that the tree has to ramify and remain short of stem, and thus not worth much as timber; whilst, of course, this ramification directly enhances its general fitness for hedging purposes. It is, Leaves and fruit of the Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus). notwithstanding, a tree capable of being cultivated to very con- siderable timber size, as good specimens of it may frequently be found growing in plantations along with other trees, where it has its tendency to ramification checked by standing in close canopy among 202 THE COMMON HORNBEAM. them. In fact, the Hornbeam is so seldom seen of the dimensions of a timber-tree, that practical foresters of long experience may even be excused for occasionally failing to recognise it, and for conceiving it to be merely a species of Beech. It certainly does much resemble the Common Beech; but it is very easily distinguishable by the Jeather-nerved and plaited appearance of the leaves, as well as by the difference in the seed or nuts, which have a flat, leafy, three- lobed appendage (see Figs. 38, 39). Hornbeam is chiefly reared for hedging purposes; and as it stands pruning well, and has a strong reproductive power, it answers admirably for this purpose. The Hornbeam is easily distinguishable from the Beech by the usual fluted growth of its stem, and although the leaves are ranged on the twig in the same manner and correspond as regards size and outline, yet there can be no mistake made about them, as the Beech-leaf has an entire edge, whilst the Hornbeam-leaf is doubly serrate. During winter the buds are smaller than those of the Beech, and the slightly bent side-buds are always pressed closely down against the twigs. Except in western Russia, where it attains its finest dimensions, and takes the place of the Beech as a forest-tree, it does not usually grow to more than 60 ft. in height, with a stem of about 2 to 24 ft. in diameter. Nor does it attain so high an age as the Beech, for after about its 100th to 120th year it is apt to become stag-headed and unsound in the bole. But it retains its re- productive capacity of shooting from the stool to about 95 years, like the Oak. During the development of the buds annually large numbers of diminu- tive adventitious buds are also formed near the base of the bud-axis, and when the twigs are clipped or removed these attain development. It is to this fact that its special adaptability for hedging purposes is attributable. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Hornbeam is white, of a very hard texture, and heavy as compared with many other kinds of timber; it is also a very cross-grained kind of wood, and therefore rather difficult to work up for technical purposes. It is, however, often used by country carpenters for many of the rural purposes to which the timber of the Beech is applied. It makes excellent firewood, and forms charcoal of very superior quality. It is seldom that the Hornbeam is to be found in this country of dimensions large enough to make it valuable as a timber-tree, for the great majority of the specimens remain comparatively small, and are really often only fit for firewood and charcoal. On the Continent the wood of the Hornbeam is, owing to its extreme toughness, prized for cogs, &c., for machinery, and is also largely used for making carts, moulds of different sorts, boxes for planes, wedges, working-benches, flails, agricultural implements, wooden pegs for shoes, and the like. It can only be accounted durable when utilised in dry places. It has a sp. gr. of 1.05 when green and 0.74 when seasoned, so that it is on the whole at least as heavy as the Sessile Oak. It is difficult to split, and shrinks a good deal. THE COMMON HORNBEAM. 203 Of all the European woods it possesses the greatest heat-producing power as fuel, the list being headed by Hornbeam, Beech, and Birch. Soil and Situation As a hedge plant, the Hornbeam will thrive on most soils, excepting those of a chalky nature. As a timber-tree, however, it attains its largest dimensions on lands of a stiff and rather clayey nature. Continental experience of this tree has shown that it thrives best on a fresh or moist, deep, loamy-sandy or rich marshy soil, but that it also attains good development on fresh loamy or limy, and deep sandy soils. On shallow, dry soils, and warm sunny exposures, as also on soils that are constantly more or less wet, it does not develop beyond the dimensions of a large shrub ; it can therefore in such circumstances only be utilised as coppice, whereas under more favourable conditions it ranks as a tree of the second magnitude. It is essentially a tree of the plains and of low-lying localities, and can there often yield good service as underwood on soils that are somewhat too moist for the Beech. Propagation and Culture.—The fruit does not generally ripen in Scotland, but in England it easily attains germinative capacity. It should be sown when gathered, in the month of October, as the greater part of it generally requires to lie dormant for one year in the ground before germinating; or the seed may be stored till one year after ripening and then sown out, when it germinates in the following spring. The plants should be planted out into nursery- lines when one year old, and allowed to stand for two years before being put out to their permanent sites. The Hornbeam can hardly be said to be of much Sylvicultural Im- portance in Britain. Its chief claim to attention rests on its shade-bearing capacity, in which it resembles, but does not quite equal, the Beech, and in its undoubtedly strong power of reproducing itself by shoots from the stool. It is therefore sometimes of value for the underplanting of standards of Oak, where the soil requires an underwood of some shade-bearing and essentially soil-improving species in order to prevent it from deteriorating and losing in productive capacity, but where the land is somewhat too moist for the Beech to thrive. Throughout Britain, however, thanks to our damp climate, the same object can very often be attained quite efficiently by underwood of other species that hold out better prospects of yielding fair monetary returns. But where an underwood of Maple and Sycamore, Sweet-Chestnut, Hazel, and the like, shows signs of failing to protect duly the productive capacity of the soil, con- siderations regarding the latter point to the introduction of Beech and Horn- beam to a greater or less extent; and whilst on the drier classes of land the former should be given the preference, on soil that is moist, or even has a tendency to wetness, Hornbeam will usually perform its duties more efficiently and yield the more satisfactory results. In coppice-woods, when felling takes place deep down near the ground, this genus often throws out stoles or 204 THE HORSE-CHESTNUT. suckers as well as stool-shoots. Where firewood is in demand, coppice-woods of Hornbeam, worked with a rotation of 20 to 40 years, can yield good returns. As it bears seed freely from about the age of 30 years, and as the long bract attached to it enables the seed to be borne far by the wind in autumn, all Hornbeam-trees should be cleared away from the vicinity of tracts in which crops of Oak or Beech are being regenerated naturally. For the Hornbeam springs up easily, and is often difficult to exterminate owing to its great repro- ductive power. It is one of the hardiest species of trees against late frosts, and is there- fore specially adapted for undergrowth in damp low-lying tracts, where less hardy species fail to thrive. Underwood may easily be formed either by sowing or planting. In many parts of England the Hornbeam is to be found 70 ft. in height, and with stems ranging from 30 to 36 in. in diameter. In Scotland it frequently attains a height of from 50 to 60 ft. with stems over 30 in. in diameter. It seldom attains an age of over 150 years, but usually begins to exhibit signs of senile decay about the 100th or 120th year. HIPPOCASTANEZ DC. 13. THE HORSE-CHESTNUT, Zsculus (Linn2AN SysteM, Hepranpria Monoeynia). Character of the Genus.— Calyx campanulate. Petals 4-5, expanded, with an ovate border. Stamens with the filaments recurved inwardly. Capsules echinated. Leaflets sessile, or almost. sessile. Leaves palmately divided, with stalked leaflets, generally rough. Capsule rough (Loudon, op. cit., p. 124). The only species of this genus that need here be referred to is the Horse-Chestnut (4sculus Hippocastanum). This is a tree of great magnitude and beauty, and therefore well deserves a place in any park, as it may be said to be the only flowering large tree we have upon our lawns. It is called the Horse-Chestnut from the fact that the Greeks and Turks used the seed medicinally for the cure of glanders or strangles and of pulmonary diseases in horses. Through the whole of central and western Europe the Horse-Chestnuts are favourite trees for the formation of avenues and of ornamental lines of trees in towns, not only on account of the beauty of their flowers in early spring, but also of the fulness of their foliage throughout the summer. There are several kinds of Horse-Chestnuts, but in England the Common Horse- Chestnut is the only species that is to be met with frequently. These others include the Red Horse-Chestnut (A. carnea Willd.) and the two American species (the genus Pavia of Boerh.), the Yellow Horse-Chestnut (#seulus flava Ait. = Pavia flava Much.) and the rarer Purple Horse-Chestnut (seulus pavia L.=P. rubra Lamk.) ‘The first-mentioned is most probably merely a hybrid of the Common and the Purple Horse-Chestnut. OL THE COMMON HORSE-CHESTNUT. 20 THE COMMON HORSE-CHESTNUT, Asculus Hippocastanum L. Synonym—WHippocastanum vulgare Gaertn. Specific Character.—Lceaflets 7, obovately cuneated, acute, and toothed. Flowers white, tinged with red; May. Fruit brown; ripe in October. Buds long, large, greenish-brown, covered with resin (Loudon, zbid.) : Distribution.—This tree is a native of the mountains of Greece. It was introduced into Britain from Asia, however, by way of the continent of Europe, about the year 1629. Description of Tree.—The Horse-Chestnut is of rapid growth, Fig. 40. a SYP ie, SS Oth 4 ee yy ARS YZ = SEEN E IN Neco ie YS = NE PRA / Hy = TSANUIARY AiZe = aa | PANY hy as ees Pee Ih \; My TO ase SY; ZO = Seven-lobed digitate leaf of the Horse-Chesinut. Shoot showing buds and leaf- scars of the Horse-Chestnut (42sculus Hippocastanum), and in a few years attains a very considerable size. It is by no means a delicate tree, although a native of countries having a much warmer climate than Britain. It is, in fact, a hardy species, so far as regards the degree of cold which it can bear; but from the short- erained texture of the wood, which is brittle, it is not at all adapted for growth in an exposed situation. Though the crown has a some- what formal outline, the leaves (Fig. 40) have a very fine massive effect when the tree is placed among others of a more light and airy character; and as the foliage flushes early in the season, accompanied 206 THE COMMON HORSE-CHESTNUT. by the rich pinkish-white flowers, this genus is upon that account more worthy of a place upon the lawn. The naked tree is in winter of a stiff and ungraceful character, the young shoots being large and not numerous (Fie. 41). The lower branches are usually pendulous, and with curving, upturned ends. The rapid growth of the young wood of this tree is remarkable, the shoots of the year’s growth being generally perfected within one month from the time of the opening of the leaf-buds. The Horse-Chestnut, when standing in an open park, has, like all other trees, but in a more marked degree, a tendency to spread out massive limbs rather than to grow to height of stem; and in this form it is always most ornamental, being clothed from bottom to top with branches spreading out a large surface of leaves, which, with their accompanying flowers, produce an admirable effect in the month of May. This tree was long supposed to be indigenous to Central Asia, until in 1879 Th. v. Heldreich proved it to be a native of the mountainous regions of northern Greece, Thessaly, and Epirus, where, at elevations of 3500 to 4500 ft., it is found growing in association with Walnut, Plane, Ash, Maple, Oaks, and Holly. It has been said to occur extensively in the Himalaya Mountains ; but the species occurring there is not the Zsculus Hippocastanum—tt is the Zsculus indica, Colebr. = Pavia indica, Royle (Willkomm, op. cit., pp. 774, 775). Economic Uses of Timber.— Although the wood of the Horse-Chestnut is soft, and by no means adapted for requirements in which durability and strength are objects, still there are many purposes for which it is useful, such as flooring, waggon-bottoming, turnery-work, and many of the similar uses to which the timber of the Poplar and Willow is applied. In Britain, however, the Horse- Chestnut is never cultivated with a view to its timber, but solely as an ornamental genus; and as such it is well known to every one. It is an excellent tree for planting on the sides of roads near towns, and in parks and public places, for the smoke does not seem to injure it much; but its spreading habit must be repressed by trimming the lower branches when it is used for the ornamentation of the sides of streets in towns. On the Continent there is a fair demand for its timber by turners and cabinetmakers, and it is of special value for the purposes of carvers ; otherwise its durability is not sufficient to recommend it for general use. It has a sp. gr. of 0.90 when green and 0.57 when seasoned. Like other softwoods, its timber is well adapted for the manufacture of wood-pulp and cellulose. Soil and Situation.—In order to attain large dimensions, and to have the full appearance which its massy foliage and heavy limbs are calculated to produce, it requires to be grown upon a good rich loamy and dry soil, and in rather a sheltered situation; at least, it THE LIME-TREE. 207 must be in a situation where it is not apt to be exposed to severe storms of wind, such as in a park among other trees, or on the sides of roads in plantations. Where late frosts are frequent, the trees are apt to be very much inter- fered with in the setting of their fruits. Propagation and Culture.—This tree is propagated from the seed, which is termed a nut. These are generally ripe in the month of October, and they should be sown immediately when gathered, as they are extremely apt to lose their germinative power if kept long. They should be sown in rows, in the same way as has already been recommended for the nut of the Sweet-Chestnut. The young plants make vigorous shoots during their first year, and are fit for being planted out into nursery-rows when one year old. They may remain in the latter either for one year or for two years, according as the transplants may be wished to be small or large. It is perhaps unnecessary to remark that the nuts ripen freely in this country, and should be gathered before they fall from the trees, which they gen- erally do in the month of November. “The rearing of seedlings and transplants offers no special difficulties to contend with. The seed is usually put into the prepared seed-beds in autumn, being sown in rills with about 4 inches between every two seeds. Care must be taken to have the smooth side upwards and the grey scar undermost, otherwise malformation of the root-system and weakly seedlings are the results, as was proved by experiments in the forest-nursery at Carlsruhe.”— (Nisbet, British Forest Trees, p. 309.) This tree also attains very large dimensions under favourable cir- cumstances, being frequently found of from 70 to 80 ft. in height, and with stems of from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter. TILIACEZ Juss. 14. THE LIME-TREE, 7%lia (Linn%ZAN SysteM, PotyANpDRIA MonoGynta). Character of the Genus.—Calyx 5-parted. Petals 5. Stamens numerous, free, or somewhat polyadelphous. Ovary globose, villous, 1-styled, 5-celled; cells 2-ovuled. Nut coriaceous, 1-celled 1-2- seeded, from abortion (Loudon, op. cit., p. 63). Loudon, in his Encyclopedia, originally distinguished and described 4 species of the Lime-tree as natives of Britain, 3 as natives of North America, and 1 as a native of Hungary. The four sorts described by Loudon as species, and as natives of Britain, were the Common Lime-tree, Zilia rubra; the intermediate Lime, 7. intermedia; the 208 THE COMMON LIME-TREE. small-leaved Lime, Z. parvifolia; and the broad-leaved Lime, 7. platyphylla. The specific characters of these four kinds were given by Loudon as follows :— 1. Leaves cordate, unequal at base; petioles and suckers hairy ; axil of veins beard beneath ; fruit globose, smooth . : 5 Luerbnae 2. Leaves cordate, acuminated, serrated, smooth, twice as long as stalks ; axil of veins beard beneath ; fruit membranous, oblong, deformed, 2-seeded . ‘ : : T. intermedia. 3. Leaves cordate, round, coumianie! elke serrated, smooth, scarcely longer than stalks; axil of veins beard beneath; fruit round, very thin and brittle . ; : : T. parvifolia. 4, Leaves cordate, round, eCuminmicl acl serrated, a little downy beneath ; fruit turb., woody, with prominent ribs. 7. platyphylla. Even although botanical differences exist with regard to these different kinds of Lime-trees, yet the whole genus Tilia is really of so little sylvicultural importance throughout Britain that it will best suit the purposes of the present work to class them all together (as was originally done by Linnzeus), and consider them as merely varieties of the one tree—viz., the LINDEN or Lime-TREE (Tilia europea), or the common European Lime. Sylviculturally and arboriculturally there is really no difference worth mentioning in respect to the general habits and peculiarities of the trees, all requiring the same treatment in their general cultivation, &c. Hence reference will here be made only to the species which are given as natives of Britain, for, whether as timber or as ornamental trees, they are very much superior to the others. The majority of Linden or Limes are indigenous to the warmer temperate zones of North America and Asia, and the few species native to Europe were by Linnzeus classed as 7’, ewropea. Strictly speaking, however, there are two distinct species indigenous to central Europe, which are thus distinguishable :— 1. Leaves smooth; upper side dark-green ; under side dull bluish-green, with rusty-brown hairs in the angles of the ribs ; cymes bearing many flowers (7. ulmifolia, Scop.) : : . TL. parvifolia, Ehrh. 2. Leaves hairy; under side grass-green, shining, and with whitish hairs in the angles of the rib; cymes bearing three flowers (7. platy- phyllos, Scop.) — . : : : . TT. grandifolia, Ehrh. THE COMMON LINDEN or LIME-TREE, Tilia europea L. SynonymMs—7". parvifolia and 7. grandifolia Ehrh.; 7. wlmifolia and 7. platyphyllos Scop.; besides other synonyms for each of these two species. Specific Character. — Petals without scales. Leaves cordate, acuminated, serrated, smooth, except a tuft of hair at the veins beneath, twice the length of the petioles. Cymes many-flowered. THE COMMON LIME-TREE. 209 Fruit coriaceous, downy. Flowers yellowish-white; August and September. Fruit yellow; ripe in October (Loudon, Zvees and Shrubs, 1875, p. 64). Distribution.—The Lime-tree is found in the Alps of Switzer- land, in the north of Italy, and also in Spain and Portugal. It is likewise found in Russia, Sweden, and Germany. It was originally introduced into Britain by the Romans; but the large-leaved species apparently died out, for it was reintroduced during the eighteenth century. Except in rare instances, it does not ripen seeds in this country, which is a proof that the tree is not truly indigenous to Britain. The short-leaved species has been cultivated in Britain from time immemorial (as may be proved by the derivation of many ancient names of places throughout both Scotland and England), and consequently, like some species of our other trees, has become a demizen—1.e., 1t is now so far naturalised as to be constitutionally as hardy as a native. Throughout central Europe the small-leaved Lime occurs much more extensively than the broad-leaved species, which is that most frequently to be found over southern and south-eastern Europe and in south-western Asia. The former forms extensive woods throughout western Russia, Poland, and eastern Prussia, where it is often associated along with the Oak and the Elm. The Limes are essentially trees of the plain, and do not ascend the hill- sides to any great elevation. Description of Tree.—The Lime-tree is one of the most beautiful and interesting of our ornamental trees in the month of July, when in full flower, with leaves in their freshest state. Many object to it as being of a stiff and formal outline with a clumsy habit, and as not presenting that light and shade which are required for picturesque scenery. This is no doubt true; but in well-chosen situations, such as along the sides of walks or avenues, it is one of the most desirable of trees. Even when standing singly, freely exposed to the open air, and when in contrast among other genera, it forms a beautiful object when in full flower; indeed, as an ornamental tree, in almost any situation, few can object to its presence. This tree, under favourable circumstances, attains very large dimensions, often reaching a height of 100 ft, with a stem over 4 ft. in diameter near the ground. It also lives to a great age, and may often be found in a sound state of timber when upwards of 200 years old. The leaves of the Lime are of a fine light green, and are described by botanists as cordate, acuminated, and serrated (see Fig. 42, a). There is a peculiar appendage attached to the peduncle of each of the cymes of flowers of the Lime-tree, termed the floral leaf, out of which the flowers protrude, as it were (see Fig. 42, 0). VOL SIr O 210 THE COMMON LIME-TREE. As has already been noted, the cymes of the large-leaved Linden have only three flowers, whilst those of the small-leaved species (shown in the above figure) have more than three flowers. They both do fairly well in the impure atmosphere of towns, and are well adapted for lopping and pollarding, as they easily develop large numbers of adventitious buds near their crowns. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Lime is white in colour, and of a peculiarly close and soft nature, hence particularly well adapted for all kinds of turning-work. It is much sought after for boards upon which to cut leather. It is also used in the making of musical instruments, as in the case of sounding-boards for piano- Fig. 42. Leaf and fruit of the Small-leaved Lime (T. europea L.=7. parvifolia Zkrh.) fortes, for which purpose large quantities of it are often disposed of. It is also used in the making of charcoal for gunpowder. In Russia and Sweden, the inner bark or bast of the Lime-tree is manufactured into the bass-mats which are so much employed in this country for various rough purposes. The wood of the Lime possesses little durability, and even in dry places is apt to be attacked by insects. It is the lightest wood produced by any of the broad-leaved species of European trees, having a mean sp. gr. of only 0.74 when green and 0.45 when seasoned, so that it is no heavier than Spruce- wood. On the Continent it is used extensively for the fabrication of wood-pulp, for piano and organ manufacture, for coarse carving, and as the framework for veneered furniture. Owing to its lightness, it can be highly recommended for packing-cases and the like. Soil and Situation.—The Lime-tree is found to thrive well on a great variety of soils, if not too poor and too dry, and if not exposed to heavy storms. It attains a large size on deep, rich, light loam, THE COMMON LIME-TREE. 78) when well sheltered among other tall trees; but the best specimens may sometimes be seen growing upon a strong, deep, clayey loam, rather of a moist nature than otherwise in the subsoil. In general it may be said to thrive best on a good strong loam, and in a low- lying and sheltered situation; but it becomes a fair and handsome tree on lighter lands, if the soil is deep and the situation sheltered. The Lime-tree is very easy to transplant with safety at a considerable age and size. Hence it is also useful in filling up gaps, or for making groups so as to produce an immediate effect upon a lawn. Both the large-leaved and the small-leaved Linden require a good deep soil, upon which they make much the same demands as the Beech. But the former makes higher demands than the other, both with respect to soil and to temperature ; and, as it is at the same time the more handsome tree of the two, it should in general receive the preference for planting out in parks and avenues in southern England. For Scotland, for poorer land, and for the smoky atmosphere of towns, the small-leaved Lime has decided advantages. Propagation and Culture.—The fruits very seldom ripen thor- oughly in Britain, and it is only during very fine seasons that the seed acquires good germinable capacity. The Linden is therefore generally propagated by layers, by means of which it is very readily multiplied. Being a soft-wooded tree, it easily strikes root by layer- ing. Nurserymen in Britain, however, sometimes get seeds from the Continent, where they ripen perfectly; but as the plants raised in this way take a long time to attain sufficient size for sale, and for transplanting into their permanent sites, the mode of rearing them by layering is most generally adopted, as by this method they can be reared of a given size in half the time that is required to have plants of the same height by growing them from seed. In raising the Lime from seed, the seeds should be sown as soon as received, because, if they are preserved dry till the following spring, they will not come up equally—many of them not till the second year. Some, however, mix the seeds with sand, or very fine earth, which should not be so dry as to extract the natural moisture from the seeds, nor so damp as to induce rot in them. If kept in sand or fine, not too dry, earth, they should be sown in the following spring, and will come up equally in summer. For the reasons stated, however, layering is the mode by which the plant is generally propagated in our nurseries; and when the layers are one year old, they may with all safety be removed from the parent stock and planted out in the nursery rows, where they can remain for one, two, or even three years, according as the trans- plants may be wished to be small or large. It may be remarked here, that there are no fewer than fourteen varieties of the Common Lime-tree enumerated in the catalogues of 22 THE WALNUT-TREE. British nurserymen, all of which can of course be reproduced by layering. It would hardly be correct to speak of any sylvicultural characteristics of the Lime in Britain, for it is really only of arboricultural importance for the formation of avenues and as an ornamental tree in parks and open spaces, and along broad roadways in towns. This latter position, once largely occupied by the Lime and the Elm, has, however, in our huge modern cities i been found to be perhaps more suitable for species like the Plane, that are even hardier against the action of injurious constituents, like sulphurous and nitrous acids, contained in abnormal quantities in the atmosphere. Wherever bee-keeping is largely in vogue, Lime-trees have a special value, as the honey- bees visit them frequently during the time of flowering in July and August. When supplies of seed may be had after warm dry seasons like 1893, it should be sown out in the seed-beds as soon as gathered in autumn, the rills on the beds being about 8 in. apart, and the seed being covered with about 3 to 3 of an inch of earth; and it is well to cover up the beds in spring with some sort of protection against early germination and simultaneous danger from frost. After they are planted out as yearlings into the nursery- beds, they require to be trimmed from time to time, as they often exhibit a decided tendency towards excessive lateral development. The large-leaved Lime is of more rapid growth than the small-leaved kind, and at the age of seven or eight years transplants of the former are usually as large as 10- or 11-year-old plants of the latter. They are provided with strong reproductive power, and are therefore not much liable to permanent damage from late frosts, being endowed with a good capacity for throwing out fresh shoots or foliage when twigs have been nipped. This reproductive capacity, combined with a fair power of bearing shade, would suit them for coppice-growth as underwood were their market value equal to that of other species of woods. The Lime-tree, on favourable soils and sheltered sites, attains large dimensions, there being few estates of any standing in Britain which cannot boast of trees of this species upwards of 70 ft. high, and with stems over 4 ft. in diameter. On many places, however, they are to be found of even from 90 to 100 ft. in height, and with stems of from 5 to 6 ft. in diameter. JUGLANDEH DC. 15. THE WALNUT-TREE, Juglans (LinnzAN System, MonacrA PoLyaNnpRtA). Character of Genus.— Flowers unisexual, moncecious. ale flowers in cylindrical, drooping, solitary catkins. Calyx of 5-6 scales. Stamens 18 to 36. Female flowers solitary, or a few in a group, terminal upon a shoot developed in the same year. Calyx ovate, including and adhering to the ovary. Petals 4. Stigmas 2-3, THE COMMON WALNUT-TREE. 213 fleshy. Fruit adrupe. Covering of the nut a fleshy husk of 1 piece that bursts irregularly. Mut woody, of 2 valves. Leaves compound, alternate, exstipulate, deciduous; imparipinnate, of 5-19 leaflets, all but the terminal one in opposite or nearly opposite pairs; all serrate, and all spreading in one plane (Loudon, op. cit., p. 732). There are many species and several varieties of the Walnut, chiefly natives of North America, but the only one that need be referred to here is the Common Walnut (Juglans regia), which is known to have been in cultivation in Britain since 1562 at least. THE COMMON WALNUT-TREE, Juglans regia L. Specific Character.—Leaflets in a leaf, 5-9; oval, glabrous, obscurely serrated. Fruit oval, situated upon a short inflexible peduncle. Nut rather oval, rather even. Flowers greenish; April and May. Fruit with a green husk, enclosing a brown nut; ripe in September (zdem). Distribution.—The Walnut was formerly considered to be a native of Persia, and eastwards throughout northern India into China. But the investigations of Th. v. Heldreich have shown that, like the Horse-Chestnut, it is indigenous to the mountainous tracts of Greece, where it may frequently be found of true forest growth, along with Oaks and Chestnuts, in damp valleys and bordering the watercourses at elevations varying from about 2000 to 4000 ft. In Bosnia it is also to be found forming large pure forests, and from there it extends eastwards across the Caucasus (Willkomm, op. cit., p- 806). This tree is cultivated in every part of Europe, as far north as Warsaw, both for its fruit and timber. In Britain it generally ripens its fruit in most parts of the country lying to the south of the river Forth, but to the north of this it may be said to do so only in fine seasons. Description of Tree.— Under favourable circumstances, the Walnut in Britain becomes a tree of very considerable dimensions, producing a thick stem with an ample crown of foliage. When the tree begins to get old, it has a thick and deeply furrowed bark on tie stem, but on the branches the latter generally remains of a lightish grey colour, and smooth. The leaves, especially when bruised, have a strong aroma, often very perceptible in the warm weather of summer. The leaflets, ranged generally in three or four opposite pairs with an odd terminal leaflet, are oval in shape, smooth, and somewhat serrated (see Fig. 43). Economic Uses of Timber.—The Walnut has hitherto been culti- vated chiefly for its fruit, but there can be no doubt that it might be turned to good account for its timber also. When the tree is young 214 THE COMMON WALNUT-TREE. the timber is soft and white, and worthless as compared with that of most other young trees; but after it has attained an age of 50 to 60 Fig. 43. \ i) \ \\ C 1K Dy HIN i fi \\ \\ N \ YS Ne | \\ I if \\ SS ii \\ \\ \\\ \\ \ \ —S = = —> = == “\ = = === | SS. = = \ S= ~SSS=— SS Imparipinnate leaf of the Walnut (Juglans regia). years, the duramen gradually becomes hard and solid in the interior of the tree, until at about eighty years of age it assumes a very close THE COMMON WALNUT-TREE. 215 texture and a dark-brown colour, with beautiful markings. It is very much sought after for furniture purposes, and for these it brings a high price when of really good and solid quality. It is also very largely used for gun-stocks, as no other description of European wood has been found so suitable for this purpose. In general, however, this tree is chiefly cultivated for its fruit, which is much in demand for the table in most parts of the civilised world. In its young and green state this is pickled and preserved, and when ripe it is used as dessert by all people who can afford it; while in the countries where it grows plentifully, the poorer classes use it as food. Throughout southern Europe, where the tree attains an age of 300 to 400 years, and a diameter of about 40 in., the wood of the Walnut is very largely used in the manufacture of furniture. In most parts of central Europe it ranks almost equally with mahogany for the purposes of furniture-making, and not infrequently fetches an equal price with that timber. But, in general throughout northern Europe, its importance is to a far greater extent arbori- cultural than sylvicultural. Soil and Situation.—To grow the Walnut well, and to a really valuable size, it requires to be planted in a deep and strong loamy soil, rather light than heavy, and by all means deep and dry; for it throws out large and strong tap-roots, and if these get down into wet or bad subsoil the tree will not thrive. It may do well on a considerable variety of soils, if these are of a deep, light, porous, and dry nature; but it will not succeed on a heavy or cold-bottomed land. Continental experience shows that even on light, deep, humose soil, the Walnut is an essentially light-demanding species of tree, and, in addition to free exposure to light and warmth, requires to occupy a situation not much exposed to cold bleak winds. It is apt to suffer damage from late frosts in May, just at the time when it breaks into foliage. Propagation and Culture.——This species is always grown from the nuts, which are generally ripe about the beginning of October. They should be sown in rows, and covered to the depth of about 2 in. As they are very apt to lose their vitality if long kept, they should be sown as soon as possible after they have been obtained, whether they may have been imported or collected near at hand. As the plants throw out strong tap-roots during the first year, they should be lifted when only one year old and planted out in lines. This will cause them to become more fibrous in the root, and safer to plant out into their permanent sites. There are several varieties of this tree, and these are propagated by budding, grafting, and layering. 216 THE COMMON TULIP-TREE. For sylvicultural purposes two North American species—the Black Wal- nut (J. nigra L.) and the Grey Walnut (J. cinerea L.)—are said to have yielded favourable results in Continental experiments. They are of rapid growth, appear to stand the climate of Europe well, and are not so liable to be damaged by late frosts. In America they are trees of true forest growth, as their fruits have little edible value. The Black Walnut is said both to be an ornamental tree and to yield splendid timber. It is said, also, to be much hardier than the common species. The average dimensions of the Common Walnut, in favourable soils and situations in Britain, may be stated as about 60 ft. in height, and about 30 to 36 in. in diameter. It indeed sometimes attains the height of 80 and 90 ft., with stems over 4 ft. in diameter, but these are only very exceptional cases. MAGNOLIACE. 16. THE TULIP-TREE, Liriodendron (Linn2zAn SystEM, PotyanpRIA PoLyGyYNIA). Character of Genus.—Cuarpels 1-2-seeded, disposed in spikes, indehiscent, deciduous, drawn out into a wing at the apex. Calyx of 3 deciduous sepals. Corolla of 6 petals, conniving into a bell- shaped flower (Loudon, op. cit., p. 36). There is only one distinct species of this genus, the Z. tulipifera, which is a free-growing tree, attaining a large size in this country, and especially in the southern and midland counties of England. THE COMMON TULIP-TREE, Liriodendron tulipifera L. Synonyms—ZL. procera Salisb.; Tulipifera Liriodendron Miil. Specific Character.—Leaves smooth, truncate at the top; 4- lobed, resembling a saddle in shape. Flowers large, solitary, terminal; variegated with green, yellow, and orange colour; fur- nished with two deciduous bracteas under flowers. Flowers greenish yellow without, orange within; June and July. Strobile brown; ripe in October (idem). Distribution.—The Tulip-tree is found growing naturally in the woods of Canada, and those of the United States as far south as Carolina and Georgia, and also very abundantly in Tennessee and Kentucky. It appears to be more frequent in the southern than in the northern parts of Upper Canada, and it is also plentiful in New York State, and in Pennsylvania, where it is called the Tulip Poplar. It was introduced into Europe from North America either in 1665 or in 1688. Description of Tree.— This tree is easily known by its THE COMMON TULIP-TREE. O17 leaves. These are quite characteristic, being unlike those of almost any other tree, and in outline very much resembling a riding-saddle (see Fig. 44). In America beautiful specimens of the Tulip-tree may be seen growing naturally in the woods, and where they have space to develop their branches they form splendid objects in the month of July, when in full flower. They may be found of from 90 to 100 ft. in height, with stems of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter, and straight Fig. 44. ee ROSGG|Q . “it Ny . Se : Re \ : \\ SS — X Win ==> Ss a — nt) iL DM Ty = aes Z ae, = —> = iM = (7 i = (a ill Vl 7—S Z di UI \er a 7 A NGA Yf Wy WV Va, G Vy Zi > YANKE = ’ Ve y, j 7 SS V4 IS BA \\ XV = Qs =. A) Vip ane Me Le S CN GZ Ys = i vi YYYy Y jtiipp : a Xx “ la LA Msp aM 4 Spray of the Common Holly (Ilex Aquifolium), Distribution.—The Holly is a native of most parts of the middle and south of Europe, and is frequently to be found of spon- THE COMMON HOLLY. 241 taneous growth in woods and shady places, on light dry soils, having a large proportion of vegetable matter. It abounds largely in many of the German and Swiss forests, particularly in those of the southern and middle states. In England the plant is plentifully distributed in natural woods, especially in the New Forest in Hamp- shire, and the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is also plentiful in many parts of Scotland—as, for example, in Lord Seafield’s woods on the north side of Loch Ness. Description of Tree.—The size attained by the Holly depends very much upon whether it grows in a cultivated or in a wild state. When merely of spontaneous growth it is seldom to be seen of more than 20 ft. in height, while in the cultivated state it may attain upwards of 60 ft., and may even contain a fair quantity of timber in its stem. The Holly, however, is not cultivated for its timber, but almost exclusively for its ornamental effect, which is beautiful at all seasons of the year, from its being evergreen, and from its enlivening effect in winter when clothed with its clustering berries. Along with the Yew, it forms one of the best of our native evergreen hedges. When growing as a tree, its crown assumes a conical shape; and as, owing to the numerous adventitious buds which it develops, it has a strong reproductive power, it stands cutting and trimming well. This latter capacity was utilised to a great degree in old-fashioned gardening, the shrubs often being made to assume fantastic shapes. Holly attains a great age; many trees are known to be several hundred years old. For ornamental and horticultural purposes, several varieties are propa- gated, of which the chief are the white-and-yellow foliaged kind (var. varie- gatum), the prickly leaved kind (var. ferox), and the smooth, entire-edged kind (var. enerme). These varieties are extensively cultivated in gardens throughout Britain, Holland, Belgium, France, Southern Germany, and Switzerland. Hconomic Uses of Timber.—When an old Holly-tree of some size 1s cut down, it may be very readily disposed of at a good rate to cabinetmakers for furniture. The wood is also utilised for various purposes by many other tradesmen, such as turners and engineers. * The wood is of a dull greenish-white colour, hard, heavy, tough, and of a fine and equal texture, with plainly marked annual rings and fine medullary rays. In technical qualities and value its wood closely resembles that of the Yew. Soil and Situation.—The soil on which Holly thrives best in Britain is a light dry loam, containing a good deal of humus or vegetable matter. Fair specimens of it and of its varieties may often WIL, I Q 242 THE COMMON HOLLY. be found on soil of a heavy as well as on that of a poor character ; but really healthy, thriving specimens are seldom to be met with on a soil that does not contain a large percentage of humus, such as is generally found in very old woodlands. Like the Hawthorn and the Hornbeam, the Holly is largely made use of for hedging. Few shrubs are really so well fitted for quick hedges, for it forms an almost impregnable fence, in addition to being evergreen. Not only is it desirable from the shelter it affords, but its appearance is at all times pleasant. Although the Holly is very hardy, and will sometimes grow to a good size on poor and exposed sites, still, in order to have it thrive well, it should be planted in rather a sheltered part, where it has the protection of larger trees to shield it from storms. It grows well even under the shade of other trees. The Holly is a species of shrub capable of bearig a considerable amount of shade, although it is only when growing in full exposure to light and warmth that it can develop into a small tree. It is frequently to be found of spontaneous growth in cool, shady spots on fresh loamy, sandy, or limy soil, for, like the Yew, a certain amount of lime in the soil seems to be advantageous to its growth and development. On good classes of land it may sometimes be troublesome as a weed during natural regeneration of the crop. It possesses a very considerable reproductive capacity in sending out shoots from the stool, and is often to be found cropping up in coppice-woods ; but when the period of rotation extends beyond about ten years, as is usually the case, it gradually disappears from the woods, as it is of slow growth, and gets suppressed by more rapidly growing species. Propagation and Culture.— The Common Holly is always propagated from seed, but the several varieties of it are reproduced by budding and grafting, and sometimes by slips or cuttings. The mode of gathering and preparing the seed, as well as the method of sowing it, is in all respects the same as has already been described with regard to the cultivation of the Hawthorn. The seeds of both require about two years to germinate; hence the use of land may be saved for one year by storing the fruits for that time. That is to say, if the seed of the Hawthorn and the Holly be sown when it ripens in autumn, it will usually lie dormant for a year and a half in the ground before it comes up; but when stored either in or out of the ground (see p. 225), and not sown for sixteen months after the gathering, it comes up during the spring in which it is sown. The Holly is of slow growth at all its stages; hence it will be found advisable to let the plants stand for three years in the nursery-lines before transplanting them into their permanent sites. By this method of treatment they form good spreading fibrous roots, and develop into strong plants—points which are necessary to be kept THE COMMON HOLLY. 243 in view in order to ensure success in the cultivation of good hedge- plants. When Holly plants of a large size are wanted for putting out, they should be twice transplanted, and allowed to stand four or five years in the nursery-lines,—care being taken to give them room to develop themselves, and not to confine them in their young stages. It would seem to be a preferable and much more practical plan merely to remove every alternate plant, and only transplant for the second time the alternate plants removed. By this means exactly one-half of the plants would obtain double the amount of growing-space, without any expense being incurred on their account, and, what is more important, without their root-system or assimilative capacity being in any way interfered with or disturbed. As Hollies, even in their young state—say, when merely two-year- old seedlings, and just when they should be removed from the seed- bed into the nursery-rows—always suffer to a greater or less extent by removal if the atmosphere be at all dry, care should be taken to transplant them only during wet weather. It is well to remove them from the seed-bed to the nursery-lines in wet weather about the end of April ; and even although the weather should be damp or wet, no harm is done by giving the roots a thorough watering, after the first spadeful of earth is put on them. This assists the plants in establishing themselves in their new home; for if they lack moisture they soon wilt, and many are certain to die off. One of the largest-girthed specimens of Holly is probably that in Col. Lloyd-Verney’s grounds in Llanidloes, Montgomeryshire, which has a circum- ference of 30 ft. and a height of 43 ft. CHAPTER III. THE CONIFEROUS SPECIES OF TREES. As this work professes to treat merely of such trees as are well known, and have been proved to be worthy of cultivation in our forests, plantations, and parks, only such genera and species need here be described as have shown themselves to be hardy enough for our climate, and as are suitable for being reared either for timber-produc- tion or for ornamental effect. The greater number of them will be found quite hardy enough for the climate of the milder parts of Scotland; and all of them are perfectly hardy and in other respects suited to develop into useful and ornamental trees in the southern and central parts of Britain. Many of them, that but a few years ago were comparatively rare, have indeed already become well known and appreciated arboriculturally ; whilst others of them are also now comprised among the kinds usually cultivated in our plantations for the sake of their timber. All the kinds now about to be de- scribed are, therefore, well adapted for growing in our climate, and are capable of being utilised either arboriculturally or sylviculturally. A—CONIFERZi Juss. The great natural order of the Conifer, of which, curiously enough, only the Scots Pine and the Common JUNIPER (together with the psewdodrupaceous and non-coniferous YEW) are indigenous to Britain, is divisible into the following families and genera (Willkomm, op. cit., pp. 57, 58) :— I. AraucarrEx®.—Andreeceum or male organs with 6 to 20 anthers. Cone-bracts arranged spirally; outer scale (bract) and seed-scale united, or only separate at the apex. Ovule single, inverted, and attached longitudinally to the scale. Cone large, upright, and woody: the seed ripens only in the second autumn after flowering. Dicecious evergreen trees having regular branch-whorls and naked buds. ARAUCARIE. 245 Il. Asretrne£.—Anther scales with 2 anthers. Cone-bracts arranged spirally ; outer scale (bract) and seed-scale separate, or only united near the base. Ovules dependent, 2 being situated at the base of each scale. Cones woody: in some cases the seeds ripen during the year of flowering, in others not till the second year. Moncecious and mostly evergreen trees and shrubs, whose branches usually develop in regular whorls, and whose buds are usually naked. III. Cupresstne2.—Anther scales with 3 to 6, and only seldom 2 anthers. Cone-bracts, 4 or numerous, ranged crosswise, singly, or in clusters of 3 or 4; outer bract and seed-scale indistinguishably united. Gemmula upright, with 2 or numerous ovules on each bract. Cones small in size, and either woody or having a pulpy sarcous development like a berry. Moncecious and dicecious trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, with branches ranged irregularly round the central axis, and having naked buds. IV. Taxoprne#.—Anther scales with 2 to 5 and seldom 9 anthers. Cone-bracts arranged spirally ; outer scale (bract) and seed-scale united to form 1 bract, but still plainly distinguishable. Ovules, 3 to 9, less frequently only 2, and sometimes only 1; sometimes upright on the seed-scale, some- times reflexed or even inverted. Cones woody: in some cases the seeds ripen in the year of flowering, in others not until the second year. Trees either moncecious or dicecious, mostly evergreen, whose branches sometimes develop in whorls, and sometimes only irregularly around the central axis, and whose buds are naked. The genera that are of value or interest in Britain are comprised within the following :— J. ARavcARIEH#: 1. Araucaria. II. ApieTINEZ: 1. Pinus, 2. Picea, 3. Tsuga, 4. Pseudotsuga, 5. Abies, 6. Larix, 7. Cedrus. III. CupresstnE#: 1. Cupressus, 2. Chamecyparis, 3. Thuja, 4. Biota, 5. Libocedrus, 6. Juniperus. IV. Taxopine#: 1. Cryptomeria, 2. Sequoia, 3. Taxodium. For convenience of arrangement, the Zaxus or Yew will also be considered along with the Conifers, after all these various genera have been dealt with ; for, as its fruit is not a true cone but a false berry, or pseudodrupe, it has now been formed into a separate family, 7’axacew (Lindl.), forming the sole family of the natural order Pseudodrupacee Willk. I. ARAUCARIE. None of the genera of this family is indigenous to Europe. All belong to the tropical and subtropical zones of the southern hemi- sphere. It is one of the smallest of all the natural families of trees, as it consists of only one genus, Araucaria, of which two species, the Chili Pine (4. imbricata) and the Norfolk Island Pine (A. excelsa), have been introduced into Britain for cultivation in parks and arboreta. 246 THE CHILI PINE. Generic Character ' of Araucaria.—Lofty trees. Flowers dicec- ious; males in spikes; anther-lobes 8-15, pendulous ; pollen globose. Cones globular, scales very numerous, spiral, deciduous, united with the bracts. Ovule 1 to each scale, more or less winged, inverted, and more or less united with the scale itself. Cotyledons epi- or » hypogeal (Masters, List of Conifers and Taxads in Jour. Royal Hort. Socy., vol. xiv., 1892, p. 197). THE CHILI PINE, Araucaria imbricata Pav. (Linnaan System, Diacra MoNnADELPHIA). Specific Character.—Leaves in whorls of from seven to eight in number, ovate-lanceolate, spirally placed, rigid, concave, straight, smooth, shining, deep green, very pungent, closely imbricated or placed so as to overlap each other like the tiles on a roof, and cartilaginous on the margin. They entirely cover the stems, and are persistent for several years, } to 1? in. long, very sharp-pointed, somewhat thick- ened at the base, but without any foot-stalk, and remain on the shoots for years quite green, though they get more separated, closely pressed down along the stem, and turned backwards as the tree increases in circumference (see Fig. 49). Its branches are horizontal, somewhat ascending at the extremities, regularly divided laterally, in opposite pairs, and quite straight, from five to seven in a whorl, diminishing in length as they ascend higher up the tree, until at the top they terminate in the leading shoot, and form a kind of pyramidal head. The lateral branches are long, straight, in opposite pairs, and regularly divided; whilst the branchlets are cylindrical, thickly covered all over with leaves, rather slender, undivided, and mostly bent downwards. The male and female flowers occur on separate trees. The male catkins are ovate-cylindrical, and in clusters of from six to seven at the ends of the branches; whilst the female flowers are solitary and erect. Cones very large, globular, solitary, and standing erect on the ends of the top branches. They are from 6 to 8 in. broad and from 6 to 7 in. long, and are of a dark-brown colour, with the scales regularly and closely imbricated; but when ripe they are deciduous, and very soon fall to pieces (Gordon’s Pinetum, 1858, p. 24). Distribution.—This tree forms vast forests, at an elevation of 1600 to 2200 ft., on the slopes of the Andes, in that part of Chili 1 Throughout this chapter the generic descriptions given are those adopted by Masters, and published in the Report of the Conifer Conference of 1891; but as no specific descriptions are given in that list, the original descriptions, taken by the author partly from Loudon (as in the case of the broad-leaved species of trees) and partly from Gordon’s Pinetum, 1858, have been revised and allowed to stand for the present edition. THE CHILI PINE. 247 inhabited by the Araucanian Indians, a people who are said to pride themselves on their name, its signification being frank and free. It occurs also in southern Chili, on the western slopes of the Andes, often reaching the snow-line, but never more than 2000 ft. below it. It is likewise found in great abund- ance on the mountains of Caramavida and Naguelbuta in Chili, and in the neighbourhood of Conception. It was introduced into Britain in 1796. Description of Tree.—The Arau- caria grows often to the height of 150 ft. in Chili, and female trees are said to attain a height of over 200 feet. Even in England, speci- mens have been known to reach a height of 50 ft. and a girth of nearly 20 in., at 35 years of age. Its ap- pearance is altogether unique, and quite different from any other tree that has been introduced into this country. It is quite hardy enough to thrive in this climate, for Con- tinental experience shows that it can grow in the open in all localities where the temperature does not sink below —15° C. (or 5° Fahr.) during the winter (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 58). The stem is in all cases perfectly straight, and up to a considerable age it is covered from bottom to top with the hard and sharp-pointed leaves, while the branches droop at first, and again ascend, giving the whole tree a formal and peculiar aspect, somewhat suggestive of the arms of a candelabrum. This re- markable tree is now too well known Fig. 40. Shoot of the Chili Pine (Araucaria imbricata). and appreciated to need any special recommendation here. It is quite hardy in most parts of Britain, even in the north of Scotland, whenever it is planted on a suitable soil and situation. The Araucaria is, however, somewhat slow in the production of timber in Britain; hence it is not likely ever to be found of any sylvicul- tural value, but will merely remain of arboricultural interest for the decorating of our parks and lawns. It is, however, a handsome and 248 THE NORFOLK ISLAND PINE. highly ornamental tree, and deserves a place in all dry and airy parks, as it presents a striking aspect when contrasted among other trees. The seeds are about 1 in. in length, and have an edible kernel of an almond-lke flavour. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this tree is said to be hard and of a very solid nature; but whether the wood produced in this country may be so or not still remains to be satisfactorily proved. Soil and Situation.—The Araucaria is known to grow fairly well on most soils that are not wet in the subsoil. In order that it may really thrive, however, it should be planted out in a light soil, and not in heavy, argillaceous land, so that its roots can get down with- out hindrance. The tree will not prosper on low-lying or damp situations; on such localities it generally sickens and becomes un- healthy at an early stage, as also do most other of our non-indigenous kinds of trees. Besides a dry and deep soil, it prefers free exposure and an airy situation. It does not thrive if exposed too much; for it is little able to withstand high winds. Propagation. and Culture.—The Chili Pine is raised from im- ported seed, which germinates very freely and readily. The seed is generally sown in cold frames, and the young plants are planted out into the nursery after they are one year old; but seedlings need protection during the first winter. They require frequent trans- planting within the nursery with a view to encourage the develop- ment of fibrous roots, in order to ensure their establishing themselves when once they are removed to the piaces which they are to occupy permanently. Many fine specimens of this Araucaria are now to be found in all parts of the country, from the south of England even to the north of Scotland. Trees of it are common, of heights ranging from 40 up to about 60 ft., and nearly all appear healthy and seem still to be making progress. The great Araucaria at Dropmore, which was planted in 1830, is now 70 ft. high, and girths over 8 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground. THE NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, Araucaria excelsa R. Br., Differs from the Chili Pine in having bright green, slightly curved, blunt-pointed, compressed, and indistinctly four-cornered foliage nearly $ an inch in length, but broadening at the base, and cover- ing the twigs thickly. The branches stand in regular whorls of five or six; the twigs are ranged in double comb-like rows along the branches. The cones are situated terminally on long stalks; ABIETINEA. 249 they are almost spherical, but not so large as those of the Chili Pine, being rather over 6 in. in leneth and rather under that in breadth. Whereas in the Chili Pine the seed is large, unwinged, and edible, in the Norfolk Island Pine it is large, broadly winged, of a blackish- brown colour, and not edible. On the Norfolk Island, where it is indigenous, it is a magnificent tree, said to attain a height of considerably over 200 ft. According to Continental experience, it is well suited for cultivation arbori- culturally in all localities where the winter temperature does not sink below —10° C. (or 14° Fahr.) Il. ABLETINEZ Ricu. From a sylvicultural point of view this is undoubtedly by far the most important group of trees so far as Europe is concerned. The seven genera into which the indigenous species and the denizens in Europe are naturally divisible are thus distinguishable (Willkomm, op. cit., pp. 64, 65) :— A, Cone-scales narrow, and more or less thickened towards the apex ; seed only ripens during the second year after flowering ; resin-ducts varying in number and disposition. Evergreen trees and shrubs, whose leaves, ranged spirally round the short shoots, are usually from the second year onwards divided into 2, 3, or 5 needles, contained within a membranous sheath. Pines. : : : : E ‘ : « L. Pewus Lh. &. Cone-scales thin, broad, and becoming thinner at the edges. a. Needles (leaves) single, ranged spirally around the twigs, and persistent for several years. Seeds ripen in one year. Evergreen trees. a. Older (defoliated) twigs rough, owing to the prominence of the adherent bases of the needles on the leaf-scars ; bracts of the female flower-spike smaller and shorter than the seed-scales ; cones mostly pendulous, and with the scales persistent on the spindle or rachis. (a) Leaves sessile, 2- or 4-sided, ranged along the upper and under sides, and with two lateral resin-ducts. Spruces. ; , : ‘ : 2. Picea } Lk. (>) Leaves petiolated, 2-sided, with a single resin-duct running along the back of the leaf or needle. Hem- locks ; : : : : . 38. Tsuga Endl. 1 Tn accordance (1) with the acknowledged system on the Continent, to which he has always been accustomed, and which he has already adopted in his British Forest Trees, 1893 ; (2) with Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum ; (3) with Masters’ List of Conifers and Taxads, formally approved at the Conifer Conference, 1891; and (4) with the Index Kewensis, 1893, vol. i. pp. 2 and 3,—the editor has here introduced the correct scientific nomenclature for Spruces and Silver Firs, in place of that fixed by Loudon, which has hitherto been generally accepted by nurserymen and arboriculturists throughout Britain. bo Or (S) THE PINE. 8. Twigs smooth, leaf-scars not prominent ; bracts of the female flowering-spike considerably longer than the seed-scale. (a) Leaves petiolated, 2-sided, with 2 lateral resin-ducts be- low the under surface; leaf-scars transversely oval; cones pendulous when ripe, with the scales persistent to the spindle or rachis. Douglas Firs 4. Pseudotsuga Carr. (>) Leaves sessile, 2-sided, with 2 lateral resin-ducts near the edges ; leaf-scar circular ; cones erect, but with de- ciduous scales which fall away from the spindle on the ripening of the seed. Silver Firs . 5. Abies! DC. b. Needles (leaves) of the short shoots clustered in tufts, but occurring singly on the long shoots that develop later on. a. Deciduous trees, whose cones ripen within one year from the flowering. Larches . : : : ; 6. Larix Lk. B. Evergreen trees, whose cones only ripen during the second year after flowering. Cedars . : : ~ ds Cedrus Tk. l. THE PINE, Pinus L. (LINN#ZAN SysTEM, Monamc1a MoNADELPHIA). Generic Character.—True Pines are evergreen trees, with the adult leaves persistent, in tufts of 2, 3, or 5; the flowers are moncecious, males in catkins; pollen cells winged; cones ripening in the second year, woody; scales (relatively) thin at the tips in § Strobus and § Cembra, thick in § Pinaster. Wing of the seed ultimately separable, dilated above, prolonged below into two claw- like processes which chp the wings of the seed. Cotyledons variable in number, 3-sided, usually entire, whilst the primordial leaves are denticulate (Masters, op. cit., p. 224). The Pines are all evergreen trees, for the most part of large size, and indigenous to the hilly regions of Europe, America, and Asia. They are, in respect to economical purposes and to their general utility, perhaps the most useful of all trees to mankind. Nearly all the species flower in Britain in the months of May and June; and they generally ripen their cones within two years of the flowering. They all require a light, porous, dry soil for their normal development, and none of them grow healthily unless they live in a pure air, such as is always found on elevated sites, and at a considerable distance from the smoke of towns. They are all unfavourably influenced in growth by wetness in the soil, and they do not succeed on heavy land retentive of much moisture. They are in all cases found to develop more healthily, and to attain a greater age, on a soil that is rather poor than rich; and most of the species which have been introduced from America and Asia attain better development in Britain when planted on situations having aspects between the south-west and north, than when they are put out on easterly or southern exposures. 1 See footnote on previous page. THE SCOTS PINE. ay The Pines are of a gregarious habit of growth, and as they are at the same time light-demanding rather than shade-bearing species of trees, Pine-woods are comparatively thin as compared with woods of Spruces and Silver Firs. Even when growing in isolated positions, they throw off the majority of their lower branches, and form comparatively straight, full-wooded, and clean boles, the bark of which becomes thicker and more cortaceous and fissured with advancing age. The leaves or needles are persistent only from 3 to 6 years, although on inferior classes of soil they are of shorter duration ; defoliation takes place in the autumn under normal circumstances. As they approach maturity the shoots of the branches forming the crown continue more vigorous than the leading shoots, and the crown consequently becomes rounded off, in place of remaining more or less conical like that of Spruces and Silver Firs. Most Pines have a well-developed tap-root, and a deep, as well as wide-spread- ing, root-system, which enables them to offer considerable resistance to the violence of storms. The timber of most of the species of Pines is usually rich in resin, and, like all trees which have a decided tap-root, they form a duramen or heart- wood of a considerably deeper colour than the alburnum or sapwood. The various species of Pines may conveniently be considered in the following order :— I. Two LEAvEsS on NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH— (1.) Pinus sylvestris. (6.) Pinus resinosa. (11.) Pinus inops. (2.) ou austriaca. (7.) « pyrenaica. (12.) wu muricata. (3.) 0 Laricio. (8.) « Brutia. (13.) 1 persica. (4.) «1 Pallasiana. (9.) 1 Mughus. (14.) « pinea. (5.) « Pinaster. (10.) « Pumilio. (15.) 1 halepensis. II. THrEE LEAVES oR NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH— (1.) Pinus Gerardiana. (5.) Pinus Benthamiana. | (9.) Pinus Sabiniana. (2.) « miacrocarpa. (6.) un rigida. | (10.) ou Jeffreyii. (3.) « Bungeana. (i) ie ecadiarGe | (11.) « tuberculata. (4.) 1 ponderosa. (8.) on insignis. III. Frve Leaves on NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH— (1.) Pinus Cembra. (4.) Pinus Lambertiana. | (6.) Pinus monticola. (2.) «1 Strobus. | (5.) Montezumee, (7.) « Hartwegii. (3.) « excelsa. According to Willkomm (op. czt., p. 166), there are at least 83 species of Pinus, with more than 170 varieties. I. PINES HAVING TWO LEAVES OR NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH. (1.) THE SCOTS PINE or COMMON FIR, Pinus sylvestris L. SynonyM—P., rubra Mill. Specific Character.—Leaves in pairs, rigid, from 14 to 24 in. in length, somewhat waved and twisted; slightly concave on the upper and convex on the under surface, of a light bluish-green or greyish colour; finely serrulated on the edges, sheaths jagged and 252 THE SCOTS PINE. slightly ringed. Cones, from 2 to 3 in. long, and from 1 to 14 in. broad, terminating in an irregular 4-sided, projecting point, often recurved. Seeds, with the wing, from 1 to 1} in. long; seed-leaves from 5 to 7 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 184). Distribution.—This is the only one of the Pine genus which is truly indigenous to Britain; and in so far as regards the general utility of the timber preduced by it, it is at least inferior to no other species which has yet been introduced. It becomes a tree of first- rate magnitude in favourable situations, and is one of the most hardy of our forest-trees, being found in Scotland growing up to 2000 ft. above the level of the sea. At one time this tree formed vast pure forests throughout the Highlands of Scotland, as well as in many parts of the Lowlands, as is evident from fossil records, and from the remains of forest yet existing. There may here be mentioned, in particular, the remains of the natural Pine-forests still to be found around Invercauld, Rothiemurchus, Glenmore, Abernethy, and Duthal, where there are by far the finest specimens of the Scots Pine to be found in Britain. Although this tree has in Britain received the name of the Scots Pine’ from the fact that it is our only indigenous coniferous tree of true forest growth, it is by no means confined mainly to this country. It is found growing natur- ally throughout most of the countries in the north of Europe and Asia, but has not yet been found of spontaneous growth in America. It abounds very plentifully throughout the great north German plain, as well as in Sweden and Norway. From these countries ' The nomenclature of the Conifers in ordinary English is a vexed question, and just as great confusion exists about it as has hitherto existed with regard to the scientific names of the Picea, Abies, Tsuga, and Pseudotsuga. Pinus sylvestris was the only tree of the Abcetinew indigenous to Britain, and its name was Fir ; of that there can be no doubt. For it is directly traceable from the old Anglo- Saxon Fuhr, which still survives as Fuhre or Féhr, the common modern names of this tree throughout northern Germany (although the term Avefer or Pine is of more common occurrence in the north, and is usual throughout southern Germany). Its Gaelic name was (ruithes, which still survives in a few place-names, e.g., Kingussie. If, however, the different genera of the A bictinee are all to be called Firs, this cannot fail to produce immense confusion, as well as being most unscientific and very far from practical. The nomenclature is absurd, and badly in want of improvement, which calls Pinus Laricio the Corsican Fir, and Pseudotsuga Douglasti, Picea grandis, aid Araucaria excelsa respectively the Oregon, the Vancouver Island, and the Norfolk Island Pines. It seems preferable to settle the matter once for all; and the following nomenclature is accordingly suggested as a practical solution of the difficulty :— All species of the Genus Pinus to be known always as Pines. " " Picea (Link.) 1 " Spruces, " " Tsuga " " Hemlocks. " " Pseudotsuga " Douglas Firs. " " Abies (DC.) " " Silver Firs. " " Larix " " Larches. " " Cedrus " " Cedars. THE SCOTS PINE. 253 its timber is largely imported into Britain under the name of “ Red Pine,” as contrasted with the “Baltic deals” of Spruce, and the “White Pine” of the Silver Fir, and is reckoned to be the best quality of Pine timber imported from those countries. Although not enjoying such a large European distribution as the Spruce, the Scots Pine has a greater general distribution; for it is to be found through- out the major part of Europe, and also over a large portion of northern Asia. The area over which it occurs stretches from western Spain eastwards to the drainage of the Amur, and from Lapland and Arctic Russia southwards to Upper Italy in Europe and Asia Minor and Persia in Asia. Both its polar and its equatorial limits form broken lines owing to climatic causes ; but the total area of its distribution may be assessed at about 123° of longitude and 30° of latitude, or rather over one-third of the northern hemisphere. From the climatic conditions obtaining in portions of this great area, it is therefore evident that it can thrive normally with a lower average annual temperature than the Larch ; and the essential conditions for its growth are thus summar- ised by Willkomm (op. czt., p. 208) :-— “The more essential conditions for the thriving of the Scots Pine are a period of winter rest for at least three months, with at least an equal period of active vegetation annually, during which the sky is not continuously obscured or darkened by misty clouds ; a sunny situation, such as the southern slopes of mountain-ranges ; protection against accumulations of snow and ice; and light, porous, sandy-loamy soil, with a continuously moist subsoil, or else a generally dry or fresh soil.” Description of Tree.—The Scots Pine is easily recognisable from any of the introduced species by its buds, leaves, and cones. The buds are what are called ovate, blunt, and pointed, and around the central bud, from which the leading shoot develops, there are gener- ally from four to six smaller buds set closely (see Fig. 50). The cones are generally in pairs, and when ripe are of a reddish-brown colour. In the natural forests yet remaining in Scotland specimens of the Scots Pine are to be found which have attained large dimensions. Some of them measure from 12 to 13 ft. in circumference near the ground, and have a height of about 80 ft.; whilst many of them are between 300 and 400 years of age. When the Scots Pine is full grown and somewhat advanced in age, there are few trees that can be said to be more picturesque. The stem is comparatively smooth, though not so smooth as that of Spruces and Silver Firs, and is generally straight and clear of branches for a considerable way up: if in healthy growth, it has bark of a reddish colour on the upper portion of the bole, which is usually deeply furrowed, and from which the cortex scales off freely on the reddened upper portion. This reddening of the Pines is usually a sign that the locality is favourable to their development. 254 THE SCOTS PINE. The foliage of the Scots Pine is persistent for from 2 to 3 years ; but this, as well as the characteristic reddening of the stems and the size of the cones, depends to a very great extent on the general nature of the soil and situation. In the forests of the Continent, where it is treated sylviculturally, so as to stimulate it to the formation of a long bole during the period of most active Spray of the Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). growth in length, it can attain a height of 100 to 120 ft. in woodland crops at the age of 70 to 120 years. The length of the foliage, the length and straightness of the bole, the persistence of the leaves or needles, and consequently the density of the crown and the capacity for maintaining close canopy as a timber-crop, depend most essentially on the general quality of the soil with regard to depth and freshness, and of the situation with regard to freedom from exposure to exhausting winds. THE SCOTS PINE. 255 The evergreen Conifers (including the pseudo-drupaceous Yew for convenience) retain their foliage as under (Burckhardt, op. cit., p. 249):— Soc Ds Te SO Years. Years. Scots Pine, Weymouth Pine F : : | 2 3 Black Pine, Maritime Pine : : : a 3 4 Cembran Pine, Mugho Pine : | 4 5 Spruce, Balsam Fir, Picea alba and P. nigra . 5 vi Silver Fir 6 9 Yew . : ; ; : : | 7 12 Spanish Silver Fir ; 3 ; : au 10 _ 15 According to the Report of the Conifer Conference in 1891, p. 570, the largest Scots Pine reported on in Britain is at Studley Royal in Yorkshire: it has a height of 90 ft., and a girth of 117 ft. at 5 ft. from the ground. Economic Uses of Timber.—The quality of the timber of the Scots Pine is very much influenced by the nature of the soil and situation upon which it is grown, as well as by the age at which the tree is cut. The close-grained, highly resinous timber produced upon cold high-lying districts in the north of Scotland is found, when of mature age, superior to that imported from any part of Europe; while that which has been planted and reared in the Lowlands of Scotland, as well as in rather rich soils in many parts of England, is not nearly so good, although of the same age. The technical uses to which the timber of the Scots Pine is applied are almost endless, no sort of wood being so generally used for almost all kinds of purposes to which timber is applhed. When of a fair size, but not quite of the dimensions of large timber—as, for example, when having a diameter of between 6 and 8 in.—large quantities of the young trees thinned from plantations are used for making staves for barrels of dry goods, and for many other similar minor technical purposes. When of large timber-dimensions, and fully matured, the Scots Pine enters largely into the general economy of the country, its wood being utilised very largely in the form of boards and scantlings of various dimensions, as well as in the shape of beams, for building purposes. Vast quantities of Scots Pine tithber are also used for railway sleepers. So great, indeed, is the demand for good and well- matured Scots Pine timber for this purpose, that every one who may have it to dispose of should be able to get it sold readily at a good price. Our home plantations are not able to supply half the demand for this class of timber, and in consequence large quantities are every year brought from abroad. 256 THE SCOTS PINE. Considering that the world’s demands for timber are growing annually, whilst the area of possible production is yearly decreasing, it should need no elaborate argument to point out to landowners the immense value that may be attachable to mature woods in the course of another half-century. In mean sp. gr. the wood of Scots Pine ranks next to that of the Larch among European Conifers of extensive distribution (see table on p. 331). And as it only amounts to 0.82 when green and 0.52 when seasoned, it follows that Pine logs may easily be floated to distant marts, immediately after being felled. It is not so elastic as Larch or Spruce, but more so than Silver Fir; but it shrinks to about 3 to 5 per cent of its volume when green, whilst these other woods only shrink from about 2 to 3 per cent. In general durability it ranks only below the Pedunculate Oak and the Larch among European timbers. Soil and Situation.—The Scots Pine is not a tree that can be said to be particular with regard to the quality of the soil upon which it may be grown; in this respect, indeed, it is one of the most accommodating of forest trees. The best qualities of Scots Pine timber are, however, produced in Scotland upon a gravelly loam, resting upon a dry stratum of rotten rock ; but excellent timber may also be formed’ upon a dry sandy loam. A thin light surface-soil, resting on a subsoil of gravelly till, has also often been observed to erow Scots Pine so as to yield an excellent quality of timber. The natural forests of Pine in Strathspey are generally growing on land that may properly be termed a sandy gravel ; and on this description of land Pine timber of large size, and of the best quality, is produced. There, also, on sandy loam, the trees grow to large dimensions; and, even when allowed to stand to so great an age as 200 years, are found to yield timber of fine quality and mature healthy condition. In short, Scots Pine may be found of good growth on almost every variety of land; but a dry light sandy or gravelly loam appears, on the whole, to be the class of soil best adapted for the growth of large crops of this species. And so long as the land on which the Scots Pine is planted be dry, it will prosper in any situation that is not too elevated or too exposed for tree-crops to thrive well in this country. The investigations and analyses of Continental scientists have proved (see table on p. 332) that Scots Pine makes only moderate demands on the soil for mineral food, in which respect it ranks much below Silver Fir and Larch, and lower than Spruce; and with regard to the amount of water actually with- drawn from the soil for purposes of transpiration it ranks below Black Pines and Larch, but above Spruce or Silver Fir. This seems somewhat contrary to actual sylvicultural experience, until it is considered that by means of its deep tap-root it can imbibe large quantities of moisture from the subsoil of land that appears dry in the upper layers. On binding soils it neither grows so well, nor produces such good timber, as on lighter soils of any description. THE SCOTS PINE. 257 Propagation and Culture.— The Scots Pine is entirely propagated from seed. The three-leaved species of Pine are, like Larches and some of the Silver Firs, endowed with slight reproduc- tive power of shooting from the stool and rooting from slips; but this is of no sylvicultural importance whatever for coppice-growth, and is purely of an arboricultural interest. The cones ripen in the second autumn after the flowering, and the seed is shed during the ensuing spring ; hence, for nursery requirements, the cones should be gathered during the winter, and preferably in December and January, as the scales afterwards open more readily with heat than when they are harvested in November (see also chapter ix., on the Manage- ment of Nurseries). When the desired quantity is collected, and the seed is wanted for sowing during the following spring, the cones should be placed on a timber-kiln made for the purpose. They may be laid on from 6 to 8 in. deep, and the heat in the kiln raised to about 110° Fahr.; but great care must be used by the operator not to raise the heat to more than 116° at the utmost. Brick kilns, as well as metal ones, are very unsafe for this purpose, and should not be used. Even when the cones are heated on wood, very considerable care is necessary not to apply too great an amount of heat to them, as a very slight overheating will be certain to destroy the vitality of a large portion of the seeds, and this must be carefully guarded against. With a heat of 110° to 114°, the cones should be fit for being removed in about eleven or twelve hours. They should be turned once every two hours during the time they are being warmed ; and at each turning all the seeds that come out should be gathered up. At the end of twelve hours, all the cones will be opened up in their scales, and the seeds that remain in them will come out on being well shaken in a riddle. This is the plan adopted by nursery- men who have large quantities of cones to extract seeds from. But for a small quantity, the seeds may conveniently be extracted by exposing them to the heat of the sun; this will open their scales, and the seeds will fall out by gentle threshing with a light flail or piece of stick. When the seed has been extracted, it should be stored past in a dry cool place till required for sowing. The following extract from Burckhardt (op. cit., p. 269), perhaps the greatest of all the practical sylviculturists of the present century on the Continent, may be compared with the above method of winning the seed, and with the remarks immediately preceding that description in the last edition of this work :— “The harvesting of the seed from the cones is usually undertaken directly by the foresters and woodmen, although in some cases contracts are made with approved seeds- men for delivery of seed under certain stipulations as to quality, &c. In many districts the harvesting of the seeds of Conifers forms an important branch of trade and industry. VOL. TI. R 258 THE SCOTS PINE. “The worst quality of seed is delivered by peasants, who heat the cones in their baking-ovens, whilst the best quality is obtainable by exposing the cones to the sun’s warmth ; but care must in the latter case be taken to procure the seed only from trust- worthy persons. When seed harvested by means of the sun’s warmth is used, hardly two-thirds of the quantity of seed is requisite for the ordinary operations of sowing, and the most vigorous plants are produced ; hence it can be strongly recommended for use in the nurseries. Although it is dearer in price, seedsmen buy it eagerly, in order to mix it up with older seed. “The construction of seed-kilns has been considerably improved of recent years. The warming of the cones takes place with heated air, and a special contrivance admits of the seed falling down into a cooling-chamber as soon as it drops out of the cone. Whether the use of perforated trays ranged as shelves, or of wire cylinders that are kept turning round like coffee-roasting machines, deserves the preference, is a point not yet decided. “When the harvesting of the seed is completed, the cones are used as fuel for the kiln. The warmth that should be applied varies according to the nature of the kiln, but is in general greater for Scots Pine than for Spruce cones; it is usually kept at or below 127° Fahr. for the latter, but may be somewhat higher for the former; and the Scots Pine seed is less likely to be damaged by the rapid change of temperature on falling into the cooling-space. “ The cleaning of the seed from the seed-wings or bracts takes place either by thresh- ing in half-filled sacks, or by moistening it slightly with water, an operation requiring caution ; but in both cases it has to be cleaned subsequently in sieves or winnowing- machines.” In sowing the seed,a piece of very fine light ground should be chosen as the nursery. It should be well prepared by digging and by repeated raking until the earth is fine enough. The ground being properly dug, and made very fine by the rake as the digging is proceeded with, it should be marked off into parallel beds of 4 ft. in breadth, every two adjacent beds having a path 1 ft. broad between them. The seed should be sown at an average of about two seeds to the square inch. When sown, it should be covered up with about a quarter of an inch of very fine soil. The plants should be allowed to remain only one year im the seed-beds, at which stage they are termed yearlings or one-year-old seedlings. They should then be schooled by being transplanted into nursery-rows. When they have remained there one year, the plants are termed one-year-old transplants; if they stand for two years, they become two-year-old transplants, and so on. In forming plantations on high-lying parts of the country, Scots Pine may be put out either as yearling seedlings or as two- year-old schooled transplants that have stood for one year in the nursery-lines. But if the transplants are wanted to be of about 9 in. in height before they are planted out, then in that case they would require to stand for two years in the nursery-rows. Perhaps the best crops of the Scots Pine in Britain are to be found at Gordon Castle, Castle Grant, and at Invercauld. But throughout various parts of the country trees of this species are to be found ranging from 70 to 115 ft. in height, and with stems of from 3 to 5 ft. in diameter. THE SCOTS PINE. 259 The leading Sylvicultural Characteristic of the Scots Pine is unquestionably its relation towards light and shade, for this furnishes the key to all the special characteristics peculiar to its growth as a forest-tree. Even though in our damp insular climate it undoubtedly forms a better crown of foliage, and can therefore maintain itself longer in canopy as a forest crop, than on the sandy soils and in the dry climate of the great north German plain, upon which it is the chief tree, yet there can- be no doubt that it must be classed as a light-demanding species of tree when compared with the more densely foliaged Conifers like Common and Menzies Spruce, Hemlock, Douglas Fir, Silver Fir, Nordmann’s Fir, and even the Black Pines (Austrian and Corsican). Its growth is not usually so straight as that of the Spruces or Silver Firs, for its leading shoot is apt to be damaged by numerous insects and by fungoid diseases, nor are the boles formed so clear of branches and so full-wooded as in the case of those other trees. Although the branches formed by the Scots Pine are somewhat thicker than those of the Spruce, yet they are sooner thrown off, owing to the inherent light-demanding nature of the tree. But of course this natural demand for light is not so distinguishable on good fresh land and on sheltered situations as under less favourable conditions of soil and climate. Under no circum- stances, however, can it ever be utilised as a suitable species for underplanting, which is the special characteristic of the shade-bearing species having denser foliage. On the better classes of land Scots Pine will thrive well when inter- mixed with either coniferous or broad-leaved species of trees of slightly slower growth, so that it can keep its crown comparatively freely exposed to the light and air: in such mixed crops it is less exposed to attacks from insects or fungoid diseases, and forms a better bole and a larger proportion of heartwood than when grown in pure crops. But on inferior land, not good enough for the profitable growth of other kinds of forest-trees, the best use that can be made of the soil is often to plant it up with Pines and afterwards to thin them out well, about the 25th to 35th year, when they begin to exhibit their natural tendency, thus reducing the number of trees per acre so as to have an increased individual growing-space for the survivors, and then to underplant them with some good shade-bearing species; for by the rich fall of needles, ‘and the beneficial shade of the young crop, the quality of the land will usually have become greatly improved in the meantime. Crops of Scots Pine treated thus will be found to yield fair returns at 50 to 70 years of age even from rather poor land. Existing forests of Scots Pine may easily be regenerated naturally under parent standard trees on the better classes of soil; but on the inferior kinds of land only artificial regeneration should be attempted. The formation of new woods may also take place, as in the latter case, either by sowing or planting ; but on the whole planting is usually preferable, as it is rather safer, and, with the young classes of plants that may be utilised, need not always be much more expensive than sowings often prove before the filling up of blanks is completed. Continental experience shows that the use of naked, well-developed yearling seedlings or two-year-old transplants is preferable to that of older trans- plants with balls of earth around them ; for the plants can be put out without 260 THE BLACK PINE. much danger of the tap-root being injured. On light sandy soil, when planting can take place easily with wedge-like notching spades, the plantations can be formed at a very low cost per acre. Throughout the German forests, there are always temporary nurseries made near where planting operations are likely to be carried out in the immediate future, so that the plants may be ready at hand whenever required, without any special costs being incurred for material or for carriage. This also obviates the risk of the transplants sickening before reach- ing the area to be planted up. As a rule, the planting operations are carried out in spring; and with small plants, like yearling seedlings and two-year-old transplants, close planting at about 3 ft. by 3 ft., or else in rows, giving the same growing-space per individual plant, is favoured. It soon shoots ahead in upward growth, in which respect it is only excelled by the Larch among European Conifers. The young plants do not begin to form regular whorls until their third year. Whenever cones can be conveniently collected, it is advisable to harvest the seed for home use, or at any rate, to obtain it only from trustworthy seeds- men, and under guarantee that it is not imported from Germany; for experience has shown that young seedlings and transplants raised from foreign seed are much less hardy as regards late frosts and drought, such as occurred in England during 1893, and that they are also more liable to attacks from the ‘‘leaf-shedding”’ disease caused principally by the fungus Hysterium pinastri, although it may also result from drought and frost. (2.) THE BLACK or AUSTRIAN PINE,! Pinus austriaca Hoss. Synonyms—Pinus Laricio austriaca Endl.; Pinus nigricans Lk. and Host.; P. pinaster Bess.; P. Laricio Pokorny., Heuff., and Schur.; P. maritima Ait. and Koch. » P= Specific Character.—Sheath with from 3 to 5 rings, at first of a clear ash-grey, then becoming reddish, afterwards darker, and at last black. Leaves in twos, from 2 to 5 in. long, seldom and but slightly twisted; when young, erect; when older, standing out, and curved towards the twig; outer surface half-round, dark, green, glossy, and with a sharply serrated margin; inner surface nearly even, but slightly dotted along the ridge; points prickly, of a yellowish-brown or fawn colour. Buds large, the leader often from 1 to 14 in. long, ovate, with a long pomt. The cone does not arrive at maturity till October in its second year; it is conical, rounded at the base, 2 to 3 in. long, pointing horizontally, or nearly so; of a light - brown colour, polished, and shining. Seeds very closely re- 1 The Austrian Pine, the Corsican Pine, and the Taurian Pine are by Continental sylvicultural botanists now always included as mere climatic varieties of one species, the Brack Prye (Pinus Laricio Poir.) But as they have long been treated by British arboriculturists as separate species, no attempt is here made to group them together as one great distinctive race of the Pine genus. For the information of the student it may here be noted that a monograph on the Black Pines (Austrian and Corsican) is to be found in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1876, fourth series, vol. viii. p. 220. See also Trans. Scot. Arbor. Socy., 1875, pp. 52-59. THE BLACK PINE. 261 sembling those of the Corsican Pine (P. Laricio); and the cotyledons from 6 to 8 in number, as in that species. The bark of the shoots of the current year is of a greenish-yellow, regularly and deeply raised by the insertions of the leaves, furrowed, and shining (Loudon, op. cit., p. 959). Distribution. The Black Pine grows indigenously in Austria, in the Breima Forest (Wienerwald), the Banat, upon the Demoglet, near Mehadia, and in the neighbourhood of the Snowy Mountains, at higher altitudes than the Common Silver Fir. It was first intro- duced into Britain by Lawson of Edinburgh in 1835. It is a characteristic tree of the Austrian flora, where alone it forms large natural pure forests throughout lower Austria, Carinthia, Hungary, Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, as well as along the coast. Its climatic requirements are a hot summer, a mean annual temperature of not less than 453° Fahr., and a winter that is not excessively cold (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 232). Description of Tree.—The Austrian Pine is easily distinguish- able from all the other Pines introduced into this country by its very strong and robust habit of growth, by the stiffness and strength of the leaves, by their prickly points, and by the very decided dark appear- ance of the foliage over the whole tree. Any one having once care- fully examined this tree can hardly afterwards mistake it for another species, as there is a natural robustness in its whole habit of growth which distinguishes it from all the other Pines. It is, without doubt, a tree of great hardihood; in this respect, indeed, it is not exceeded even by the Scots Pine. In several localities throughout Britain woodland crops formed of this species are to be found growing luxuriantly at elevations of upwards of 1000 feet above the level of the sea; and not infrequently they appear to be making even more rapid progress than the Larch and Scots Pine growing along with them in mixed crops. Besides its hardiness as a forest tree, this Pine has the advantage, from an arboricultural point of view, of a somewhat irregular outline in the natural distribution of its branches ; and from this fact it may be considered a tree well worthy of a place in any arboretum or ornamental plantation. On favourable soils and situations it grows to a height of 70 to 100 ft. and forms a stem of 10 to 12 ft. in girth; but on very poor, dry, limy land its development is often little better than merely to form a large shrub of upright pyramidal shape. In Austria it is often to be found of enormous dimensions, and sometimes attains an age of over 500 years. One of the celebrated giant Pines in the Wienerwald near Vienna is over 20 ft. in girth at breast-height (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 229). 262 THE BLACK PINE. Economic Uses of Timber.— Although, in Britain, we have not yet any mature plantations of trees of this species from which to judge of the Austrian Pine as a timber-producing crop, yet its general healthy appearance and its very thriving habit seem to indicate that it may be destined to become of very considerable sylvicultural utility in this country. It is well known to be highly valued for general technical purposes in Austria, where it is of equal importance to what the Scots Pine is in Britain. Its wood is somewhat heavier than that of the Silver Fir, the mean sp. er. being 0.97 when green, and 0.51 when seasoned (see table on p. 331). In point of durability it ranks close to the Scots Pine. It is somewhat harder than the latter, but is not so elastic. Like the Scots Pine, it has a greater shrinkage (3 to 5 per cent) than Weymouth Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, Larch, or Arborvitee (Zhuja), whose loss in bulk is usually only from 2 to 3 per cent of the volume when green. The timber of the Austrian Pine is better adapted for utilisation in the ground, and for pit-work, than for general building and carpentry purposes. No other resin is so rich in oil of turpentine as that of the Austrian Pine. In this respect it surpasses even the Maritime Pine; for 100 lb. of Austrian Pine resin yields from 14 to 20 Ib. of oil of turpentine, and about. 60 lb. of colophonium or rosin (Gayer, Morstbenutzung, 7th edit., 1888, p. 501). Soil and Situation.—With regard to soil, so long as this be neither stiff nor wet, the Austrian Pine is a species of tree that is decidedly of an accommodating nature. It attains good growth even upon dry sloping banks, where the soil is of a deep and porous, light, loamy description, and thriving plantations of it may also be seen on most kinds of land, provided that these have been made dry by drain- age, if naturally inclined towards wetness. It is a tree well adapted for producing a considerable degree of shelter to less hardy species planted along with it; for its massy foliage forms a great protection from winds, and its rapid growth ensures this within a very short time after planting. It is said to attain large dimensions of timber in favourable situations; and from its general thriving habit of growth in Britain this expectation seems well founded. It grows well on sites near the sea-shore, and in this respect is nearly as hardy as the Cluster Pine. Continental experience seems to indicate that the Austrian Pine develops best in a warm and dry climate, and that, although its best development is undoubtedly attained on a limy sodl, yet it is one of the most easily satisfied trees with regard to the mineral nature of the land on which it is planted out. According to Ebermayer’s analyses (see p. 332), the Black Pine withdraws less mineral food from the soil than any of the other great coniferous timber-trees of Europe; but, though able to thrive on what seem dry sandy soils at the surface, it withdraws more water from the soil for transpiration through its foliage than any of these other Conifers usually grown on financial principles. THE BLACK PINE. 263 Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this tree is easily pro- cured from thosé localities on the Continent where it is indigenous. The seeds are a good deal larger than those of the Scots Pine; hence in sowing them in the nursery they should be much more thinly distributed on the bed than those of the Scots Pine, and covered up a little more deeply with soil. In forming plantations of this kind of tree, whether for shelter merely or to grow up to maturity as timber crops, the plants do not require to be put out so close together as in the case of the Scots Pine; and yearling seed- lings or two-year-old transplants need not stand closer than 4 ft. by 4 ft. The Sylvicultural Utility of the Black Pine rests mainly on its great accommodative power on the poorer classes of limy or sandy soil, and on its undoubtedly greater capacity for bearing shade than the Scots Pine, although it can hardly be ranked among the class of shade-bearing trees like the Silver or Nordmann’s Firs. By the happy combination of these natural capacities, aided by the unusual length of the dark leaves or needles forming its foliage, it is possessed of great power in improving soils that have become deterio- rated at the surface by injudicious exposure to the exhausting action of sun, wind, and rain ; for whilst sun and wind rob the soil of its moisture by evapo- ration, violent downpours of rain wash away the soluble nutrient salts out of the upper layers of earth without their being utilised profitably for tree- growth. Owing to its greater capacity for bearing side-shade than the Scots Pine, the Black Pine has a better crown of foliage; but it cannot be said to main- tain any very much better canopy overhead, or to be content with a much less individual growing-space throughout all the stages of its development, for the Black Pine shows an unmistakable tendency to spreading growth and ramification. With the above exception, its sylvicultural characteristics closely resemble those of the Scots Pine. It is equally hardy as regards frost ; but even on sandy soils it can withstand the effects of long-continued drought better than the Scots Pine, as the experience of 1893 has proved in Southern England. On good classes of soil the Black Pine may easily be regenerated naturally by removing all the stems except about 25 or 30 per acre as parent standards. But on the whole most attention is given to artificial regeneration ; and in that case, as well as in the formation of new woods, planting is generally preferred to sowing. For light classes of soil in which notching or other simple methods of planting can take place, a preference is usually given to the use of naked yearling seedlings or two-year-old transplants ; whilst when three- or four-year-old transplants require to be utilised in the planting 1 For example, in a young mixed plantation of Larch, Scots Pine, and Black Pine, in the Tudney woods belonging to Magdalen College, Oxford, that was formed two or three years previously on a light sandy soil below the average in quality, the drought of 1893 killed off most of the Scots Pine, and a good many of the Larch, whilst the Austrian Pine stood the trial much better, hardly any of the latter species being injured. 264 THE CORSICAN PINE. operations, they are generally put out with balls of earth around the roots. In the schooling of plants in the nursery-beds, the yearling seedlings are usually put out at 6 in. from plant to plant, in rows about 10 to 12 in. apart ; and in the course of a couple of years they develop into sturdy transplants. Black Pine woods are most productive of good seed between the ages of 30 to 60 years. The cones should be collected in March or early in April, before the seed begins to be scattered during warm days. In the State forests of Austria the seed is harvested by exposure of the cones to the sun’s warmth ; but kilns are also in use for the supply of seed to seedsmen. According to Burckhardt (op. cit., p. 462), these kilns are worked by means of air-chambers heated to a temperature of 104° to 111° Fahr., which are warmed from below, and have funnels or vents in the ceiling for permitting the escape of the vapour and gases formed by the heated cones. When the operation has been carefully conducted, the seed should have a germinative capacity of 75 per cent; for, in this respect, Black Pine seed is only second to that of the Spruce (75 to 80 per cent). (3.) THE CORSICAN PINE, Pinus Laricio Poir. SynonymMs—Pinus Laricio Poiretiana Endl.; P. L. calabrica Delam.; P. corsicana Poir. ; P. sylvestris maritima Ait. Specific Character.—Leaves two in a sheath, from 4 to 6 in. long, dark green, often twisted, and rather slender for its class, and with shorter sheaths (see Fig. 51). Cones solitary, or in pairs; seldom more than 3 or 4 in. long, and 14 in. broad near the base, conical, straight, or sometimes slightly curved near the points. Buds ovate, with a long narrow point, and resinous. Seed-leaves from 6 to 8 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 168). Distribution.—The Corsican Pine, a species of Black Pine, was first discovered in Corsica, hence its name. It is said to form large forests on the mountains of Sila in Calabria, and it has been found throughout most of the countries of southern Europe, in Greece, Crete, Italy, Sicily, Corsica, and Spain, as well as on the Caucasian mountains in Russia. It is said to have been introduced into Britain in 1759 by Vilmorin. It attains its finest development on the island of Corsica, where stems cf from 10 to 20 ft. in girth are still not uncommon. According to the estimates made by von Seckendorff, some of the gigantic stems in the Valley of Trottalia are from 1500 to 1800 years of age (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 229). Description of Tree.—The Corsican Pine is a rapid-growing tree, which attains a height of from 90 to 120, and sometimes even 150 ft., with a proportionate girth of stem, according to soil, situation, and climate. It is a very hardy and accommodating tree, and is said to be found on Mount Etna at elevations between 4000 and 6000 ft. Even in this country its character for hardihood is fully established ; THE CORSICAN PINE. 265 Spray of the Corsican Pine (Pinus Laricio). 266 THE CORSICAN PINE. and it is acknowledged to be a tree in all respects adapted to become valuable in Britain for timber-production. From the very fact of this kind of Black Pine being indigenous to an insular climate, it is all the more worthy of attention throughout Britain from a sylvicultural point of view; for in the case of the Black Pines, as well as of other trees—e.g., the Pacific coast and the inland varieties of Douglas Fir —the best results are attainable with genera that are already by heredity accustomed to a damp insular or coast climate. The Corsican Pine forms a handsome, open-branched, pyramidal- shaped tree, growing very rapidly, and attaining maturity at a com- paratively early age, generally within from 70 to 90 years after planting. From this species of Pine having been introduced into this country over 130 years ago, and from its seed being abundant and cheap, it is now plentifully distributed over most parts of Britain ; and it is a general favourite with all tree-growers, for it establishes itself readily, besides being both free-growing and ornamental in its general character. It is easily known from any other of the many exotic Pines by its very rapid and upright growth, for it often makes leading-shoots of from 2 to 3 ft. in height in one season, and indeed seldom adds less than 2 ft. per annum to its height after once its root-system has become well established in the soil. It is also easily known from other species by its branches being in regular whorls, and spreading out in an open, horizontal manner, which gives the whole tree that free, open, airy character so peculiar and graceful in this Pine. And it may further be readily distinguished by its leaves being wavy and set more loosely on the branches, and by their having shorter sheaths than most other Pines of the same class (Black Pines), by their being thinly dispersed over the shoots, and by the terminal buds of its shoots being comparatively long, and tapering to a point. Few of the Pines that have been introduced into Great Britain promise to become so useful as the Corsican Pine. Even in this country it grows much more rapidly, and, ceteris paribus, attains a larger bulk of timber in a given time, than the Scots Pine. It flowers in May, and its cones ripen in the November of the second year. From a purely arboricultural point of view, its full rich foliage, its deep root-system, and its great longevity (for stems of 1000 years are not rare in Southern Europe) should secure for it a welcome in ornamental woods and throughout the residential portions of large estates. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this tree is of a whitish colour, but brownish in the heartwood; it is coarse in the grain, but is well impregnated with resin. It is, however, of con- siderable elasticity; is fairly easy to work, and is said to be very THE CORSICAN PINE. 267 durable. Although no great practical experience has yet been had of the quality of the wood produced by it in Britain, yet, as there is a considerable extent of land under crops of it, ere many years elapse ample opportunities will be given of forming a good estimate of the utility of home-grown timber of this species. It holds out fair sylvi- cultural promise of being valuable as a timber-tree in this country ; and it may specially be recommended for the planting up of soils that are somewhat below the average in quality. It may be grown in pure forests if desired; but, in accordance with the principles of Sylviculture, it is preferable to grow it in mixed forests along with other species of trees suitable for the given soil and situation. Soil and Situation.—The Corsican Pine is by no means particular with regard to the quality of the land on which it grows, provided that the latter be porous, deep, and dry. Most soils, from a stiff clay loam to a sandy soil, are able to produce good crops of it; but, like all other Pines, it attains its most rapid growth in height on a light, dry, sandy loam, with a deep, open subsoil. It makes the least progress on heavy, cold, moist, argillaceous land. The more sheltered the situation, the better are the trees enabled to develop. They do not thrive well on high-lying situations in this country ; for the comparatively weak roots are not adapted to resist the influence of high winds acting with the leverage of a heavily foliaged top. The situations most favourable to its development seem to be low-lying or only moderately elevated localities, where it is not exposed to high winds. In all other respects it is as hardy a tree as even the Scots or the Austrian Pine. Propagation and Culture. —The Corsican Pine is always in Britain propagated from seed, which can be got in abundance from the Continent. The seeds should be sown thinly on the seed-beds, say not closer than one seed to the square inch; and as they are somewhat large, or about twice as large as those of the Scots Pine, they should be covered with about three-eighths of an inch of earth, which is more than the covering of soil required by Scots Pine seed. Its Sylvicultural Characteristics are practically identical with those already detailed with regard to the Austrian Pine, which also belongs to the Continental species of Black Pines. The Corsican Pine is now plentiful on most estates throughout Britain, and many specimens may be found ranging from about 60 to 80 ft. in height, and having stems of proportionate girth. The two largest stems recorded by the Conifer Conference in 1891 were 79 ft. high and 53 ft. in girth (at 5 ft. above the ground), and 693 ft. high and 7 ft. 73 in, in girth, For monograph on the Corsican Pine, see Zans. Scot. Arbor. Socy., vol. x1., part i1., 1886, pp. 181-187. 268 THE TAURIAN PINE. (4.) THE TAURIAN PINE, Pinus Pallasiana Lamb. Syyonyms—Pinus Laricio Pallasiana Endl.; P. maritima Pall.; P. caramaniea Oliv.; P. taurica et tatarica Hort. Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, very long, sharp-pointed, erect, rigid, 5 to 6 in. long, and channeled above; smooth, crowded, and of a shining dark green; sheaths short, } in. long, covered with scales, and torn on the margin; white when young, but dark-brown when old. Buds ovate, 14 in. long, and resinous, with the sides hollow. Branches scnttored irregularly alone the stem, robust, and incurved upwards; some of the lower branches are nearly equal to the stem in size. Cones, ovate-oblong, tapering to a point, without footstalks, often curved near the end, 4 or 5 in. long, and 1? in. broad at the widest part near the base; horizontal or incurved down- wards, mostly single, or in threes round the branches, and of an ash-grey colour. Seeds, middle size, with a broad wing (Gordon, Op-ch.p. Lio). Distribution.—The Taurian Pine is, like the two preceding species, considered on the Continent a mere climatic variety of the comprehensive species BLACK PINE (P. Laricio Poir.) It seems to be confined chiefly to the central regions of the Crimea and of Asia Minor, where it forms forests: of considerable extent on the western slopes of the chain of lofty mountains which runs along the coast of the Black Sea. Loudon says this species was first introduced into England by Messrs Lee & Kennedy of the Hammersmith - Nursery, who raised a number of plants from seeds sent to them by Professor Pallas from the Crimea about 1790. Description of Tree.—The Taurian Pine is a large tree of spreading habit, which generally sends out numerous large, declining, and horizontal branches from the summit to the base, and whose lower branches often nearly equal the main stem in size. The bark becomes cracked, rugged, and brown, and then scales off. It is a rapid-growing tree, and is easily distinguishable from the other Black Pines by the huge knots formed along the stem, and by the large dimensions that some of the lower branches generally attain. The tree is perfectly hardy, and grows rapidly: it is well deserving of a place in our parks as an ornamental object, but can hardly claim any attention from a sylvicultural point of view. In the tracts to which it is indigenous it is to be found from the size of a small tree, bearing tiny cones, up to 100 feet in height, and bearing cones of 4 in. in length. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Taurian Pine is said to be of a very durable nature, but, judging from the char- THE CLUSTER PINE. 269 acter of the older specimens that have at times been utilised in this country, it must be an exceedingly difficult wood to work on account of its knottiness. Even if its rate of production were much greater, therefore, it could hardly be recommended for extensive in- troduction as a timber-tree, for many of the other Pines produce timber that is equally durable, while it is very much more easily worked up into planks. ; Soil and Situation.—The Taurian Pine accommodates itself without difficulty to a considerable variety of soils, and in this respect must be allowed to possess a great advantage over many other Pines of more recent introduction. Specimens may sometimes be seen in excellent growth on poor, thin, gravelly soils, and others again on a stiff loam; but in all cases it requires a dry and porous subsoil. It also grows well on limy soils and chalk lands, and thrives in situations near the sea-coast. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Taurian Pine is easily procurable from seedsmen on the continent of Europe, who import it from Asia Minor, and healthy plants may be reared by sowing the seed in beds, very much in the same way as previously detailed for the common Scots Pine. Some prefer, however, to treat it in the manner that will be more particularly detailed with reference to the Pyrenean Pine (see p. 277). At various places, both in England and Scotland, good specimens of this Pine are to be found, some of them now ranging up to over 50 ft. in height, and having a girth of over 74 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground. (5.) THE CLUSTER or MARITIME PINE, Pinus Pinaster Soland. Synonyms—Pinus maritima Lamk., Poir., DC.; P. Pinaster Loud., Link., Endl., Carr. Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, dark green, 6 to 8 in. long, rigid, broad, and very stout, slightly serrated on the margins, and thickly set on the branches in dense whorls; sheaths ? in. long, imbricated, and pale yellow when young, but turning nearly black when old; buds ? in. long, white, woolly, imbricated, and non- resinous, with the scales turned back at the points. Cones from 4 to 6 in. long and 24 in. wide at the broadest part, which is below the middle, and of a light shining brown colour, and growing in clusters of from 4 to 8, but sometimes more in number, in a horizontal direction, and without any footstalks. Seeds oblong, with wings 14 in. long, and nearly $ in. broad. Seed-leaves from 7 to 8 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 177). Distribution.— The Pinaster is indigenous to the south of Europe and to both shores of the Mediterranean; from Greece it 270 THE CLUSTER PINE. extends eastwards into the western portion of Asia. It is most abundant in Spain, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It was introduced into Britain in 1596. From Portugal to eastern Greece, and from Dalmatia to Algiers, its natural distribution extends over more than 30° of longitude and 10° of lati- tude. But it is principally to be found on islands, and upon stretches of country within the influence of a purely sea-board or insular climate, where it frequently forms almost pure woods, as well as mixed forests in association with the Black Pines and broad-leaved species of trees. Willkomm considers (op. ctt., p. 235) that the climatic conditions for its growth are a mean annual temperature not below 533° Fahr., and a mean winter-temperature of at least 43° Fahr. Description of Tree. — The Pinaster or Maritime Pine is a large and rather handsome tree, closely resembling the Black Pines in general appearance, which attains in Britain a height of from 40 to 60 and even 70 ft., with stems of from 2 to 3 ft. in diameter. When standing alone, it forms a wide-spreading tree of massive appearance. The stem is clothed with a deeply furrowed coarse bark, which gives the tree at all stages of its growth a peculiarly rugged aspect. The branches are in regular whorls, and always turn somewhat upwards. The leaves are in pairs, and generally from 6 to 8 in. long, although sometimes they are found nearly 1 ft. in length (see Fig. 52). Groups of cones, varying from three to eight in number, point outwards in star-like clusters, and hence the name of Cluster Pine. This tree has a decided tap-root, which goes deep into the soil, when that is dry and favourable for its development; but its lateral roots are generally weak in proportion to the size of the tap-root, and from this circumstance, as well as from the tree forming a heavy densely foliaged crown, it is generally found leaning over somewhat to one side, in place of being quite erect and perpendicular. It isa very hardy tree in all low-lying situations throughout Britain; but it is not suited for planting on exposed, highly elevated parts of the country. Yet no tree of the Pine genus is better adapted than the Cluster Pine for growth as a crop along the sea-shore. In such situations it can withstand the blasting influences of the strongest sea-breezes of our climate; and in this respect it is one of the most useful trees we have. This Pine, named Pin maritime, has been much used in France in covering immense tracts of barren sandy grounds, especially the Landes or wastes situated to the south of Bordeaux, on the Gulf of Gascony. These Landes are composed of drifting sands, and have been covered by thriving plantations of this tree, which are now said to be very valuable, both for the timber N PINE. THE CLUSTER Fig. 52. Spray of the Cluster Pine (Pinus Pinaster). 22 THE CLUSTER PINE. they produce and on account of the resin and tar prepared from them, as well as for the shelter provided for agriculture. The Maritime Pine is, at all stages of its growth, of a very. branching and spreading character. When it is planted along the sea-shore, and has plenty of room to develop its branching habit, it therefore forms the best possible protection for the rearing of more valuable and less hardy trees in the lee of this cover; but if the trees forming such an outer belt or fringe be confined in growth, or limited in individual growing-space, they show their natural tenden- cles as a distinctly light-demanding species, lose their branches very quickly, and soon assume a drawn-up and weakly appearance. Hence in the cultivation of the Cluster Pine great attention should be given to keeping the crowns of the individual trees clear of each other at all stages of their development. Tl the regions where it is indigenous the Pinaster sometimes attains a height of over 90 to 100 ft., and a girth of 12 to 15 ft. It also has consider- able longevity, although not so largely endowed with vital power as the Black Pines. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Pinaster is soft and by no means of a durable nature; this species is therefore not to be recommended as a sylvicultural crop, seeing that in this respect it is far surpassed by the Black Pines, as well as by our indigenous Scots Pine, which even in the comparatively early stages of its growth yields a better class of timber. In the south of France and in Spain, where it abounds, the wood of the tree is, however, much used for various purposes, such as for boards and scantling, and for the making of packing-boxes. Over 125,000 acres of these barren Gascon Landes have been planted up with the Maritime Pine, which, besides improving the national-economic and agricultural capacity of the district, has given rise to a great industry in timber, and in the manufacture of “ Wrench turpentine.” Its richness in resin is, however, dependent on a warm climate. Being of rapid growth, the wood has broad annual rings, but is coarse in fibre; the heartwood is reddish-brown, very resinous, and heavy, though of comparatively little elasticity or durability. Soil and Situation.—A deep, dry, sandy soil, or even a light loam, that is always porous and dry in the subsoil, is most suitable for this tree. It does not do well on chalk, nor on any description of calcareous soil. With respect to situation, the nearer it is to the level of the sea, the more thriving will be its growth. As already stated, it will not thrive in Britain on any inland or lofty situation away from the sea: on such localities it invariably languishes and THE RESINOUS PINE. 273 dies off prematurely ; but near the coast, where the wintry cold is mitigated by the comparatively mild sea air, it is hardy enough. Propagation and Culture.—The Pinaster begins to produce seed on the Landes as early as its fifteenth year. In Britain it is propa- gated from the seed, which is generally procured from the continent of Europe. The seeds are somewhat large, and when placed in the bed ought to be covered with about three-quarters of an inch of fine earth. They should be sown about the middle of April; or, when the season is late or spring frosts may be apprehended, the sowing may even be delayed until the beginning of May. The young seed- lings germinate quickly, and develop comparatively rapidly whilst of yearling growth. They should be transplanted out into nursery- rows when one year old, and after they have thus been schooled for one year, they should be lifted again in the following May, and then bedded for a second time, in order to stimulate them to make fibrous roots. When they have been twice transplanted, and have attained three years of age, they will be ready for planting finally into the open. The Maritime Pine possesses little sylvicultural interest for Britain, except as a means of forming woods for shelter along coast districts, so as to enable other species of crops to thrive better under their lee. For this purpose it can be advantageously utilised in admixture with Black Pines (see p. 262). Good specimens of the Pinaster or Maritime Pine are to be found in most parts of Britain, and of course more especially on estates that lie near the sea-coast. But in exposed-parts its length of life is very short. The largest stem recorded by the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 68 ft., and a girth of 10 ft. at 5 ft. from the ground. (6.) THE RESINOUS or RED PINE, Pinus resinosa, Soland. SynonymM—P, rubra Mich. Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, 5 or 6 in. long, straight, stiff, yellowish-green, thickly set on the shoots, compressed, and collected in bunches at the extremities of the branches ; sheaths, nearly 1 in. long, white on the young leaves, but shorter, jagged, and darker with age on the older ones. Branches, rather naked, straight, open, and reddish-brown, the larger ones on the trunk more distant than those of the Corsican Pine (P. Laricio); buds, long, pointed, and very resinous. Cones, pale reddish-brown, shining, hard, ovate-conical, rounded at the base, 2 in. long, 1} in. broad, and with very short footstalks. Seeds small, with the wing ? in. long (Gordon, op. cit., p. 183). NAOH Ue S 274 THE RESINOUS PINE, Distribution.—The Red Pine is found in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Northern States of the North American Union. It is never found growing to a large extent in any particular part of its native forests, but only in comparatively small patches as portions of the crop here and there, and never covering many acres in extent in any one place. It is seldom found intermixed with other Pines, or with any other kinds of trees, but is generally to be met with alone, and always on dry, gravelly, sandy, or rocky soil, never on flat land with a moist subsoil. It was introduced into Britain in 1756. Description of Tree.—The timber of the Red Pine, which must not be confounded with the Redwood yielded by the Sequoia sempervirens of California, is decidedly the best produced in the American woods; and besides the good quality of its timber, it is also a handsome tree when standing alone with its branches well extended. When fully developed, this tree has a distinctive char- acter from all other Pines; for its leaves or needles are borne in dense bunches on the ends of the branches, which gives it a pecuhar outline, differing from that of all the other trees of this genus. It should therefore be at once recognisable, even at a distance, when found growing among other Pines. In the American forests groups of the Red Pine may always, even as far off as about 400 or 500 yards, be distinguished from other Pines by the redness of their bark and by the tufted appearance of their leaves on the ends of the branches. This species never attains very large dimensions even in its native forests; it is there seldom to be found of more than 80 ft. in height, and with stems of from 18 to 30 in. in diameter at 5 ft. from the ground. Specimens are, however, occasionally to be seen measuring about 3 ft. in diameter at 5 ft. from the ground; but these are evidently very old parent stems, for other trees of the same species are usually to be found growing round about it, but with a diameter not above 15 in. to 2 ft. The leaves or needles are thickly set on the ends of the young branchlets, while they are but thinly scattered on the older branches ; and this circumstance gives the tree the peculiar character above mentioned. On examining the foliage, the needles will be found to have very much the appearance of those of the Corsican Pine; but they are much lighter in colour. The Corsican Pine is the only one of the Black Pines for which it may easily be mistaken; but it is easily distinguished from that species by the peculiarity referred to, and by the tree being much more open and light in its whole aspect and habit of growth than the Corsican Pine. The Red Pine has been but little cultivated in Britain as yet. Besides being of arboricultural interest, it may even possess no mean THE RESINOUS PINE. 275 value as a timber-tree, for its wood is of the first class; hence it may prove worthy of the attention of landed proprietors for planting on favourable sites in young plantations, not only with the object of obtaining good timber later on, but also for ornamental effect among other trees in parks and throughout the residential portions of large estates. It is hardy in this climate, and is of a free habit of growth when put out upon a favourable soil. Economic Uses of Timber.—The concentric circles of the wood of this tree are remarkably close, and present a fine compact grain, although unfortunately this also indicates a slow rate of growth; it is very heavy when newly cut up, and there is always a large quantity of resin in it. The timber is justly prized in Canada and the United States for its strength and durability, and it is well known in Britain under the name of Red Pine, large quantities of which are imported every year from Quebec. It is employed in inside house-finishing in America, for boat-building, and for numerous technical purposes. It cuts up into beautiful, clean timber. At saw-mills on the Ottawa stems upwards of 35 ft. long are often converted into planking without a single knot becoming exposed to view. For its useful qualities as timber, this tree cannot be too much extolled. But the unfortunate evidence of its narrow annual rings unmistakably stamps it as a slow-growing species; and this is a matter that financial and scientific sylviculture must look to in the very first instance. It cannot, therefore, be expected to prefer such claims to the attention of the British landowner as species like the Douglas Fir and the Menzies Spruce. Soil and Situation.—The Red Pine attains its best development on dry, sandy, or gravelly land, or on good soil formed from rocky débris. In Canada it is seldom to be found on any other than sandy and gravelly soils, and on perfectly dry knolls and ridges. In plant- ing this tree in Britain, it should therefore be put out on soils of a similar nature, and never in flat or low-lying situations where there is any tendency to coldness or wetness in the subsoil. And in place of being used as an outer belt or fringe, it should be planted in the interior of plantations, where it may have shelter from the surround- ing trees; for, where indigenous, it is always found surrounded by other trees, which afford it shelter. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Red Pine is easily procurable from any seedsman in America. In sowing the seeds and transplanting the yearling seedlings into rows in the nursery, the work should in all respects be carried out in the same way as has already been described in respect to the propagation of the Scots Pine. What has previously been stated in detail with regard to the 276 THE PYRENEAN PINE. propagation and culture of that species for arboricultural purposes, is equally applicable as regards the Red Pine. Of this species there are many healthy and promising specimens in Britain: those at Kew in England, and at Castle Kennedy in Scotland, may be mentioned as probably including some of the finest. (7.) THE PYRENEAN PINE, Pinus Laricio var. pyrenaica Loudon. Specific Character.— Leaves in twos, rarely in threes, long, rather fine, stiff, straight, and of a bright green colour, thickly set on the branches, and 6 or 7 in. long, channeled on the inner sides, and sharp-pointed ; sheaths, $ in. long on the young leaves, smooth, entire at the margins, and dark brown, but on the old ones very short, shrivelled, rough, jagged, and nearly black. . . . Cones, 24 in. long, 14 in. wide, conical, tapering a little to the base, on short, slender footstalks, mostly solitary, and pointing horizontal. Seeds, rather small, with a narrow, pointed wing, ? in. long (Gordon, op. cit., p. 183). . Distribution.—The Pyrenean Pine seems to be confined chiefly to the Pyrenees, hence its name. It is found in the forests of both France and Spain, often occupying the highest ranges of the moun- tains in those countries, which accounts for its well-known hardiness in our climate, even in the north of Scotland. It is said to grow intermixed with other Pines at very lofty elevations on the Pyrenees, and to be found only in dry localities. It was introduced into Britain in 1854. This species, together with the Calabrian Pine (P. Brutia), seems very closely allied both to the Corsican Pine (P. Laricio) and to the Aleppo Pine (P. halepensis). The botanical distinctions between the two former are so comparatively slight that Continental botanists regard them as mere climatic varieties of one species; and for a long time doubt existed as to their being anything but more or less constant varieties of the broad and comprehensive original species of Black Pines (P. Laricio). Description of Tree.—The Pyrenean Pine is, without doubt, one of the handsomest species of the genus, forming, when well de- veloped, a majestic tree, from 70 to 80 ft. high, and with a propor- tionate girth of stem. It is a highly ornamental tree when found standing alone; for its dense masses of foliage, of a clear, transparent green colour, gives the whole tree a noble aspect, and creates a very striking effect. It is very hardy, and grows to a considerable size in a comparatively short time; consequently it may be recommended for extensive planting in Britain as an ornamental tree, for which purpose it is well adapted. THE PYRENEAN PINE. pA hg: It is easily recognised from the other species of the coniferous family by the beautiful transparent colour of its bark and foliage, and by its cones growing for the most part singly on the young shoots. The leaves or needles are long and fine, but very strong and upright, and are arranged round the branches like the hairs of a camel-hair pencil. The branches are stout and of a bright orange colour, and the buds are conical, with a long tapering point, covered with downy scales, and full of resin. The tree when young resembles the Aleppo Pine (P. halepensis) in appearance ; but when it becomes older it grows more rapidly, attains a greater height, and assumes a more pyramidal form. The cones also resemble those of the Aleppo Pine in having strong footstalks ; but instead of pointing downwards, they are always in a horizontal position. These distinctive marks should be sufficient to enable this beautiful Pine to be easily dis- tinguished from all the others. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Pyrenean Pine is said to be white and dry, and nearly without turpentine. It was in former days much used by the Spanish Government in the arsenals of Carthagena and Cadiz for decking ships; but, on the whole, it is of inferior quality as compared with the wood of many of the other Pines now grown in Britain. The place of this tree in British rural economy is therefore merely that of an ornamental species in arboreta, parks, and lawns, or along the sides of roads in planta- tions. For such purely arboricultural purposes it is as well adapted as any other species of Pine. Soil and Situation.—The Pyrenean Pine thrives well and makes rapid growth on most soils that are of a fairly loamy character, and dry; but the best specimens are usually to be found growing on a light, deep, dry, sandy loam. Although the tree is perfectly hardy in our climate, still it requires to be sheltered by other trees in order to attain its full development to the majestic proportions to which it is capable of expanding. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Pyrenean Pine is procurable from the Continent, and may be had from any respectable seedsman there at a moderate cost. It should be sown in beds, or in a bed, according to quantity, in the same way as has been already detailed with reference to the arboricultural treatment of the Scots Pine. The yearling seedlings should be planted out in the nursery-rows much in the manner recommended for the plants of the Common Pine, and should be kept in the nursery-beds until large enough to be transplanted into their permanent sites. Some sow the seeds of this and other of the newer Pines in cold frames, and in boxes in glass houses ; but, where it can be avoided, this mode of treatment should not be adopted, as by far the healthiest and hardiest plants of the 278 THE CALABRIAN PINE. coniferous species of trees are procured by sowing the seeds on the open ground, just in the usual way adopted with the Scots Pine. In propagating all the newer Conifere, however, a good plan is to shade the beds by a cloth stretched over them, and fixed on iron or wooden pins made for the purpose. This cloth or canvas may be of any convenient kind, and should be stretched about 1 ft. above the surface of the beds. By being thus shaded, the seed germinates better than when fully exposed to the sunlight; but as soon as the seed has sprouted and the young plants appear, the sun-shades should always be removed during cloudy weather. (See also remarks on PisolZs) At many places, both in England and Scotland, there are thriving and ornamental specimens of this tree to be found, especially at Drop- more, Hopetoun House, Keir, and Castle Kennedy. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 was 35 ft. high, and had a girth of 53 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground. (8.) THE CALABRIAN PINE, Pinus pyrenaica Lapeyrouse. Synonyms—Pinus Paroliana Webb ; P. Loiselewriana et pyrenaica Carr.; P. Parolinii Vis. ; P. hispanica Cook. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in twos, rarely in threes, from 6 to 8 in. long, very slender and wavy, glabrous, spreading, channeled above and convex below, serrulated on the margins, with a sharp point, and of a bright-green colour. Sheaths 4 in. long, of an ash-colour, quite entire, and not falling off. Buds 2 of an inch long, pointed, woolly, and free from resinous matter. Cones stalk- less, generally in large clusters, but sometimes singly on young trees, ovate, and smooth, 2 to 3 in. long, and flattened at the base, of a deep - brown colour, and remaining on the tree for years. Scales depressed, umbilicate, and slightly concave at the apex (Gordon, op. cit., p. 164). Distribution.—The Calabrian Pine is said to be found in Cala- bria, on the mountain of Aspero, at an elevation of from 2400 to 2600 ft. It occurs also in Cyprus, Crete, Asia Minor, and Syria as well as in Southern Italy, and is by Continental botanists regarded merely as a climatic variety of the last species, the Pyrenean Pine (P. pyrenaica); whilst both of these were formerly taken to be but varieties of the comprehensive species Black Pine (P. Laricio). Description of Tree.—The Calabrian Pine is a tree of only medium size, and not always even of the second magnitude. It has many large and spreading branches, thickly set with long, bright- green foliage. The bark is of a greyish-brown colour, smooth, but Die ie —— THE MUGHO PINE. 279 covered with depressed tubercles. It resembles the Aleppo Pine (P. halepensis), but is easily distinguishable therefrom by its leaves or needles being of nearly double the length, and by its cones being without stalks, and growing in large clusters. The habit of the tree somewhat resembles that of the Corsican Pine (P. Laricio) at first sight; but a slight examination of the leaves shows the difference at once, those of the Calabrian Pine being very much more slender and somewhat longer than those of the Corsican Pine. It is quite hardy in most parts of Britain, and forms a handsome, wavy-leaved, ornamental tree. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Calabrian Pine is said to be of excellent quality ; but as there are no mature trees of this species in Britain, no judgment can be formed as to the quality of the wood produced by it in our climate. As compared with many other coniferous species of comparatively recent introduction, however, it has no claims to offer for sylvicultural attention on any large scale; its value is purely that attachable to a tree of some arbori- cultural interest. Soil and Situation.—The Calabrian Pine thrives well on most soils of any dry leht character, when it has the advantage of a mild, favourable exposure, and enjoys a moderate amount of shelter. It forms a fine ornamental tree, and is well worthy of a place in every arboretum. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this Pine is procurable through seedsmen on the Continent. It does well when sown on any warm-lying piece of ground, of a light and fine description ; but richness of the soil is apt to stimulate the seedlings to abnormal erowth in height, which predisposes them to disease, and makes them over-sensitive. Otherwise, the young schooled plants are hardy and accommodating, and are fit for transplanting into their permanent sites in the third or fourth year, according to the size that may be wanted. Seeds of this Pine are now comparatively plentiful, and the plants are therefore not nearly so high-priced as they formerly were. At Bicton, Devonshire, and at Castle Kennedy in Wigtownshire, there are good specimens of the Calabrian Pine, ranging from 40 to 50 ft. in height. (9.) THE MUGHO PINE, Pinus Mugho Poir. SynonymMs—Pinus montana Du Roi and Mill.; P. Pumilio Mughus Loud. ; P. Mughus Scop. and Forb. ; P. uncinata Gand. ; P. humilis Link. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles two in a sheath, from 1 to 2 in. long, twisted, rather broad, stiff, and of a dull green colour. 280 THE MUGHO PINE. Cones 14 to 2 in. long, ovate and stalkless, growing 2 or 3 together, rather erect, with hooked scales, more fully developed on the outer side, and full of resinous matter. Branches ascending and numerous, thickly covered with foliage, and with a greyish-brown bark (Gordon, op. cit., p. 172). Distribution.—The Mugho Pine is found on the mountains ex- tending from the Pyrenees eastwards into the Alps of central Europe. This particular Mugho kind is more especially to be found in the Pyrenees and the southern Alps, whilst the other species of Mountain Pine, the P. Pumilio,is more common in the colder northern Alps, in Bohemia, and in the Black Forest. The former is principally found on the drier localities, whilst the latter is more often in the occupa- tion of marshy land. It was introduced into Britain in 1785. Under the comprehensive specific name of Mountain Pine (Pinus montana Du Roi and Mill.) numerous varieties are now included in one species by Con- tinental botanists and arboriculturists. These varieties include P. Mughus Scop.; P. Pumilio Hinke; and P. wncinata Gand., which, however, are usually kept distinct by British nurserymen. Description of Tree.—The Mugho Pine is of a low, spreading, dwarfish habit of growth, seldom being found more than from 20 to 25 ft. high, and more frequently only from 10 to 15 ft. in height ; in fact, generally speaking, it forms only a mere bush or shrub. This species is readily known from all other Pines by its numerous ascend- ing branches, which are ‘thickly covered with dark-green leaves or needles, forming, as it were, a large bush or scrubby, stunted tree, Whose main axis has become lost, and whose place is taken by many side-leaders. It can assuredly not be considered in the light of a timber-tree, for it seldom has stem enough to make it valuable in this respect ; but as a quaint, and in certain circumstances perhaps even an ornamental, specimen in plantations it is perhaps well deserving of a place, especially on any bare, exposed, and prominent point. Its great hardiness ensures its making a very ornamental cover on bleak treeless tracts; and even when contrasted with the lighter green of other Conifers, or with the foliage of broad-leaved trees, the very dark green of its foliage produces an agreeable change and a decided effect. It is also well adapted for planting out in order to hide from view any undesirable object that may be visible from roads or walks lead- ing through parks or lawns; for its very numerous and densely foliaged branches completely shut out from view any object immedi- ately behind them. Soil and Situation.—The Mugho Pine will succeed on any soil and situation on which the Scots Pine grows, as it is equally hardy, and is found of spontaneous growth on the same descriptions of THE DWARF PINE. 281 land. With respect to the most suitable soils and situations for this tree it may be remarked, however, that on low-lying parts of the country, and on a good deep sandy loam, it often develops into a tree of a fair size; but on high-lying tracts, where it is much exposed, and on a poor thin soil, it forms only a many-headed bush, or a dwarfish, stunted tree. Propagation and Culture.—The Mugho Pine is propagated from seed in the same way as the Scots Pine. The seed may be collected plentifully from the older trees growing in this country ; but if fresh supplies be desired from its Alpine home, they can, of course, be obtained from any respectable seedsman on the Continent. The cones should be collected early in the autumn of ripening, as they often open and scatter the seed before the end of the year. This tree is to be found in most collections of Conifers in Britain, the specimens usually attaining a height of from 15 to 25 ft. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 24 ft., and a girth of 2 ft. 10 in. at 5 ft. above the ground. (10.) THE DWARF or MOUNTAIN PINE, Pinus Pumilio Hanke. Synonyms—Pinus montana Walth.; P. Mughus var. Pumilio Koch; P. sylvestris var. Pumilio Gand.; P. mageilensis Schouw.; P. uliginosa Neum. Specific Character.—Leaves two in a sheath, curved, short, stiff, somewhat twisted, thickly set on the branches, from 2 to 24 in. long, with long, lacerated, woolly, white sheaths when young, but which afterwards, as they get older, become much shorter, and dark brown, or nearly black. Cones from 14 to 2 in. long and ? in. broad near the base, two or three growing together, pendulous, of a dull brown colour, and bluntly egg-shaped. Scales about the size of those of the Scots Pine, but not so much elevated in the centre. Branches turned upwards, and very numerous, forming a dense bush, with the lower branches creeping on the ground, but growing, in favourable situations, into a small tree from 20 to 50 ft. high, with a grey and rather smooth bark (Gordon, op. cit., p. 180). Distribution.—The Dwarf Pine is found on the mountains of central Europe, on the southern slopes of the Alps towards the east, and beyond the usual limits of trees, but scarcely lower than 4000 ft. of elevation, nor higher than 7500 ft., where it prefers a swampy soil. It also grows on the northern slopes of the Alps, and is very common on the Carpathians, where it occupies a region above the Common Spruce Fir; but at great elevations it becomes merely a stemless, spreading bush creeping along the ground. It was intro- duced into Britain in 1779. Zon THE DWARF PINE. With regard to the distribution of this species, and to its relation to the Mugho Pine (P. J/ugho), with which it forms the comprehensive Continental species Pinus montana, see the detailed description of the preceding tree. Description of Tree.—This species of Mountain Pine assumes more the character of a handsome evergreen shrub than of a tree; and on this account it is very interesting as a variety among, and a contrast to, most other Pines or trees of a taller habit of growth. The aspect of the Mountain Pine, when it is seen among the giants of its tribe, can hardly fail to elicit admiration; for it relieves the monotony and sameness of character that the latter present when they are viewed as a whole among themselves. It forms a beautiful bush when planted in woods, or along the sides of roads running through them, and in such situations contrasts pleasantly with the outlines of the taller trees forming the background: it is in such positions that its use may be chiefly recommended. It closely resembles Scots Pine of low dwarfish growth (for which reason it received one of its synonymous botanical names, P. sylvestris var. Pumilio); but it is somewhat less glaucous or pale bluish-green in the general appear- ance of its foliage. The leaves or needles are also much more thickly set on the branches than with the Scots Pine, and the sheaths on the leaves of the current year are much longer and whiter, especially towards the extremities of the shoots. In short, this species is readily recognised. from all the others of the Pine genus by these detailed characteristics of the leaves and buds; but in order to assist the young forester still further in distinguishing it from other species, it may be added that the Dwarf Pine seldom makes long shoots of more than 4 in. in length in any one season. And it may further be remarked that, on breaking a branch, there exudes from the broken part a fluid resin which has a fragrant aroma, differing from the smell of the resin of other Pines even of this same Pinaster class. Soil and Situation.—The Dwarf Pine is a very hardy species, and will grow on any soil and situation upon which the Scots Pine can maintain itself. It is by no means particular with respect either to soil or situation, and it is found to thrive well on most descriptions of land. Still, in order to enable it to attain its best development, it should be planted behind the shelter of other trees, or in such situations as along the sides of roads or of walks leading through plantations, as there the vigour of its foliage is increased by the shelter afforded it. When seen among hard - wooded trees, and especially in winter, when the latter are bare, it forms a dense, ornamental, and very large and spreading bush of rather pleasing appearance. Propagation and Culture.—The Dwarf Pine produces its seeds ee THE JERSEY PINE. 283 at the same time of the year as the Common Pine: in order to pro- cure the seeds, the cones should be gathered and treated in very much the same manner as has already been detailed with regard to that species (see p. 257). The seed should be sown in the nursery in the same way as the seeds of the Common Pine; but they should be covered up more lightly with soil, as they are smaller. Along with the Mugho Pine (which equally deserves the name of Mountain Pine) this Dwarf species is of immense national-economic importance throughout the Alpine districts, where it forms the upper limit of tree-growth in the “ ban-forests ” maintained as State property for the prevention of the formation of avalanches, and for the protection of the agricultural lands lying far off in the plains below. In the Tyrol and Vorarlberg alone, more than 77,000 acres are stocked chiefly with these Mountain Pines, whose spreading, tough branches, and dense foliage, keep back the snow, and whose root- systems bind the soil whilst it is sodden with rain or melted snow. At Dropmore this species is found to grow to fully 20 ft. in height ; whilst at Castle Kennedy specimens of the same age are only about 10 or 12 ft. in height. At various other places, both in Scot- land and England, it is found varying from 12 to 20 ft. in height, and forming wide-spreading bushes, or dwarfish, stunted trees, of a very ornamental character. (11l.) THE JERSEY or SCRUB PINE, Pinus inops Soland. Synonyms—Pinus variabilis Lamb ; P. virginiana Mill. Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, short, rigid, and sharp- pointed; from 2 to 24 in. long, bright-green, and scattered equally all over the younger branches. Sheaths short, entire, and about } in. long. Branches irregularly placed on the stem, twisted, with the more slender branchlets pendulous, and the young shoots covered with a fine, violet, glaucous bloom. Buds blunt-pointed and resin- ous; the stem and larger branches emitting tufts of leaves or abor- tive shoots. Cones oblong-conical, tapering slightly to a blunt point, and drooping; from 2? to 3 in. long, and 14 in. broad, very hard, and of a glossy yellowish-brown colour, with short, thick footstalks, and usually solitary. Scales elevated, pyramidal, 4-sided, terminating in an awl-shaped, strong, projecting prickle, pointing outwards or slightly reflexed, } in. broad, and nearly all of a size. Seeds very small, with a narrow wing, rather more than $ in. long. Seed-leaves from 6 to 8 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 167). Distribution. — The Scrub Pine is found very abundantly throughout most of the Northern ‘States of America from the Hudson River down southwards into Carolina, and especially wher- 284 THE JERSEY PINE. ever the soil is of a poor and sandy description. In such situations it grows to a height of from 15 to 30 ft., or sometimes even 40 ft. In the barren tracts of New Jersey, in particular, this species covers large tracts of waste land, which are known as the “Pine Barrens.” It was introduced into Britain in 1739. Description of Tree.—The Jersey or Scrub Pine forms a tortuous- branched low tree, having a large portion of the more slender branches pendulous, and the wood of the shoots of the current year very glaucous, and tinged with violet-—a characteristic which may be said to be almost peculiar to this species—while the stem and larger branches produce small tufts of leaves or abortive shoots. The branches grow from the stem, not in whorls, but irregularly, more in the manner of deciduous trees than is usual with the majority of the Abietinew. The bark in old trees is deeply furrowed, and through the fissures resin exudes in such abundance as to give the stem and branches the appearance of being candied over with sugar. The appearance of this tree is strikingly peculiar, as the whole plant, when old, is almost covered with the exuding resin, which emits a very pleasant fragrance or balsamic odour, especially during sunny weather. From these peculiarities this species is easily recog- nisable from all other Pines. It cannot be recommended as a timber-producing tree; but it well deserves a place along the sides of roads in woods and planta- tions, where its singularity of form and its delightful fragrance would give it an interest and make it worth cultivating from an esthetic and ornamental point of view. And at the same time it is a very hardy species. In Britain the resinous matter does not exude nearly so plentifully as is the case in America, where the sun is warmer and altogether more powerful. Soil and Situation.—Although in its indigenous home this tree is generally found only on dry sandy wastes, still it will grow and thrive on most lands that are of a dry, light character. It develops best in Britain when planted within the influence of the shelter of other trees, and on such situations as along the sides of roads in plantations. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Jersey Pine is easily procurable from America. It should be sown on fine, light, dry, and well-prepared ground; and, as the seeds are small, they should only be covered very slightly with soil. In various parts of England the Jersey Pine has attained heights of about 30 ft. Some of the best known specimens are at Kew and in the Derby Arboretum in England, and at Castle Kennedy in Scotland. BISHOP’S PINE. 285 (12.) BISHOP’S PINE, Pinus muricata Don. Syynonyms—Pinus Edgariana Hartweg. Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, not very thickly set on the branches; from 34 to 4 in. long; very stiff, rather broad, blunt- pointed; hollow on the inner side, round on the outer, and of a deep-green colour. The sheaths are rather short, smooth, and not more than 4 in. in length on the young leaves, and only slightly persistent on the older ones. Seed-leaves on the young plants in fives, and rather short. Branches not very numerous, but tolerably stout, and rather irregular. Buds below the middle size, imbricated, much pointed, and destitute of resinous matter. -Cones in clusters of from 4 to 7, and set in whorls round the stem. They are reddish brown when young, but change to a grey or ash colour when old; somewhat pendulous, and nearly straight, or very slightly incurved on the side next the branch; 3 in. in length, and 14 in. broad near the base, and tapering to rather a blunt point. The base is slightly uneven, and the cone sessile, or nearly so. Scales largest on the outer side of the cone, particularly those near the base, where they are conical, nearly straight, or slightly bent backwards near the base, much elongated, pointed, and } in. in length; the scales on the inner side of the cone, and at the point, are much the smallest, quad- rangular, and nearly flat, except those near the point, which are rather more elevated than the others, with a slight ridge running across their middle, terminated by a short, straight, broad prickle in the centre: each cone contains from 9 to 10 rows of scales, within each of which are two very small dark-brown seeds, with wings 4 an in. long (Gordon, op. cit., p. 173). Distribution.—This is a very distinct Pine, and was first dis- covered by Coulter at San Luis Obispo, in Upper California, to the south of Monterey, at an elevation of 3000 ft., and within ten miles of the sea-shore. Hartweg also found it growing on the western declivity of the mountains near Monterey, and within three miles of the sea-shore. Jeffrey found it on the Siskyon Mountains, in California, at an elevation of 7500 ft., growing in moist soil near the summit. It was introduced into Britain in 1848. Description of Tree.—Bishop’s Pine does not attain large dimensions, but only develops into rather a dwarfish, stunted kind of tree; it is seldom found above 40 ft. in height, and forms a stem of about 12 in. in diameter. It has very much the appearance of the Remarkable Pine (Pinus insignis) at first glance; but, when closely inspected, it will be found to be quite a distinct tree. It is a hardy species, and is well deserving of a place in parks, and along the sides of roads in plantations ; for though of small size, it is an ornamental tree. bol 286 THE PERSIAN PINE. Economic Uses of Timber.—Bishop’s Pine has no sylvicul- tural value for Britain, as it does not attain the dimensions of a timber-tree. It is merely as an ornamental species that it can be recommended, and for purely arboricultural purposes it deserves some little attention. Soil and Situation.—This species grows well on any good light soil; but in our climate it requires a good and sheltered site, where at the same time it can have free exposure to light and air. It does not stand confinement among larger trees. Propagation and Culture.—Bishop’s Pine is raised from seeds procurable through American seedsmen. Even in California, its native region, it is not found very plentifully; therefore the seeds are scarce, compared with those of some other kinds, and are still somewhat high-priced. As the seeds are small, they should be sown on finely prepared soil, and but slightly covered with earth. After sowing, the bed should be shaded by a canvas cloth or sun-shade stretched over it, or covered with an awning of Spruce branches, in order to prevent the sun and weather from injuring the seeds before they germinate. .As soon as the young seedlings begin to appear, however, the awning should be gradually removed. If possible, this should be commenced during dull weather; for if removed during dry, sunny weather, the sudden change from shade to sunlight would be certain to kill off a large proportion of the tender seedlings. None of the seeds of the newer Coniferze should be sown till well on in the month of April, or even until the 1st of May; for if sown out earlier, the young seedlings are very apt to be injured by late frosts in our uncertain climate. Specimens of Bishop’s Pine are plentiful in all good collections of the newer Coniferze, and many of them have attained heights of over 30 ft. (13.) THE PERSIAN PINE, Pinus persica Strangways. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in twos, twisted, rather stiff, sharp-pointed, and not spreading; dense, and tufted towards the ends of the branches; of various lengths, from 2 to 5 in. long, deep green, channelled on the inner side, and convex on the outer one, with the edges rough and finely serrated; seldom remaining longer on the tree than the second year. Sheaths persistent, short, } of an in. long, rather smooth, but shrivelled, not jagged at the ends, and guarded at the base with rather a broad, lanceolate, recurved scale, of a bright-brown colour, although green at first. Cones ovate, tapering to a very blunt point, and rounded at the base, 5 in. long and 3 in. across at the widest part; mostly in clusters round the stem or principal top branches, but frequently solitary, and pointing down- THE PERSIAN PINE. 287 wards ; of a dull greyish-brown colour, with a hard smooth surface, short foot-stalks, and destitute of resinous matter. Scales slightly elevated, nearly 1 in. broad, with apex depressed, and hollowed in the centre. Seeds large, with a broad wing 14 in. long. Branches regular, short, and rather slender, but mostly pointing upwards; the larger and older branches rather naked on the lower parts, but tufted with leaves towards the points. Buds imbricated, very thready, and free from resin (Gordon, op. cit., p. 176). Distribution.—This species is a native of the south of Persia, whence it was introduced into Britain by the Hon. W. F. Strangways. Description of Tree.—The Persian Pine very much resembles the Aleppo Pine (P. halepensis), but is readily distinguishable from that by its longer and stiffer leaves, and by their being somewhat twisted, which is not the case with the leaves of the latter. The cones of this tree are also much larger than those of the Aleppo Pine; and whilst the latter is generally a tree of a low and spreading habit of growth, the Persian Pine is of a freer development, attains large dimensions, and is tolerably hardy. Economic Uses of Timber.—In Britain there are no speci- mens of this tree that have attained sufficient size to enable a correct judgment to be formed as to the quality of its timber. So far as experience has gone, however, it is not at all probable that it can ever be of any real sylvicultural value to us, or become of much use on account of its timber. Although it is hardy enough to grow as an ornamental specimen on sheltered and warm-lying sites, it is by no means adapted for growing even on moderately elevated and exposed sites; and it can never compete with Conifers like the Douglas Fir and the Menzies Spruce, either in quantity or quality of the timber produced. Soil and Situation.—The Persian Pine requires a deep, dry, light loam, and at the same time a warm and sheltered site, before it can thrive well. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Persian Pine is as yet very scarce, and is only procurable through seed-merchants on the Continent. When obtained, it should be sown on a piece of fine, light, dry soil, in a warm situation, and shaded till the young seed- lings appear, after which they should gradually be exposed fully to the light and air. In some nurseries the seeds are sown in a cold frame, and the seedlings transplanted into the open ground when one year old. The young transplants require to be protected under a frame during the first winter. This is a very doubtful species, imperfectly known; it is probably P. pyrenaca or P. halepensis. Staph, who collected in South Persia, was never able to recognise it. 288 THE STONE PINE. (14.) THE STONE PINE or UMBRELLA PINE, Pinus pinea L. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in twos, from 5 to 8 in. long, straight, very robust, and of a deep shining green colour. On young plants they consist of a glaucous single bract-like leaf, thickly set on the shoots, and without any sheaths, and from amongst which afterwards spring the true leaves. Sheaths when young } in. long, but afterwards they become torn, and reduced to half their size. Cones from 5 to 6 in. in length, and nearly round or bluntly ovate, of a pale brownish glossy colour, very solid, and not coming to maturity till the third year. Scales large, from 2 to 24 in. in length, and 14 in. broad, with the thickened part pyramidal, and frequently 6-sided, but mostly having but 4 ribs, from the 4 angles, which terminate in a blunt prickle. Seeds very large, ¢ in. long, with rather a broad but very short wing. Seed-leaves from 9 to 10 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 179). Distribution.—The Stone Pine is a native of Italy, Spain, Greece, the coast of Barbary, and some parts of western Asia. It is also found wild in the south of France, but it is doubtful if it is in- digenous there, as it never forms forests, and very rarely woods of any considerable extent. It was introduced into Britain in 1548. In addition to being partly indigenous, and partly artificially distributed, throughout the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, it is also to be found on the Canary Isles and in Madeira, although it is there probably not of true spontaneous growth. Description of Tree.—In Britain this species attains only the size of a low tree, from 20 to 25 ft. in height, and having a rounded- off and bushy appearance. Its character among other trees is, how- ever, very striking; its long leaves and round cones produce a fine effect when the trees begin to advance in age, if this species be made to grow among other Pines of a more upright habit, or among broad- leaved trees. The branches are spreading, and when old are well clothed with deep-green foliage: the whole forms a round or bushy tree, with a reddish bark, which is generally cracked and furrowed. The Stone Pine is often mistaken for the Cluster Pine (P. Pinaster), as the leaves or needles of the two trees are very much alike. The nature of the two species is, however, quite distinct ; for the Cluster Pine grows up quickly into a tree of open habit and form, attaining in a few years the dimensions of a timber-tree, while the Stone Pine in all cases retains its characteristic as a large-spreading, densely foliaged bush or dwarfish tree. In the case of trees of some age, the two species are at once distinguishable by means of the cones; for in the case of the Stone Pine these are round, while in the Cluster Pine they are conical in shape. THE STONE PINE. 289 In the countries in which it is indigenous the Stone-Pine can attain a height of 100.ft. and a girth of 16 to 20 ft., although these dimensions are unusual. It can there also attain an age of over 500 years. It begins to produce seed about the age of twenty years, and is most prolific between its 40th and 60th years. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Stone Pine is whitish, moderately resinous, and very light. It is used in Italy and in the south of France for the general purposes of carpentry and joinery ; but in Britain the timber is of little or no use, and the tree can only be cultivated for its esthetic effect. Like the two Moun- tain Pines, it answers well for growing for the purpose of hiding objects immediately behind it, as it forms a dense bush compactly clothed with its long leaves and beautifully rounded and shining cones. Even where indigenous, the Stone-Pine is regarded rather as a fruit-tree than as a timber-tree. Its edible seed or “ Pine-nuts” are largely sold throughout the towns of Upper Italy, where they are brought to market in large quantities. One forest alone, near Ravenna—now destroyed—yielded on the average 6000 bushels of Pine-nuts annually (Willkomm, op. c7t., p. 242). In this respect it resembles the Gerard Pine (P. Gerardiana) of northern India. Soil and Situation.—The soil for this tree should be deep, light, and dry, and the situation sheltered and warm. ‘The plants should not be crowded, however, but should stand free of each other; for it is a light-demanding species of tree, and when planted thickly, or in close contact with other trees, it soon loses its natural characteristics, and appears rather unsightly. Propagation and Culture.—The seeds of the Stone Pine are procurable from the continent of Europe in great abundance. They have a very thick shell. Cultivators generally sow them in boxes in the winter time, and shelter them under a frame till spring, keeping the earth rather moist in order to soften the shell. In summer most of the seeds will come up, although a portion of them will probably remain in the earth without germinating till the second year. Some prefer to break the shells of the seeds before sowing them; but this operation is apt to destroy the germinative power of much of the seed. The plants are very tender during the first two years, and require to be protected from our winters by being kept under glass frames. The young plants, when yearling seedlings, should be transplanted out into the open nursery-beds, and merely covered with a frame during winter. When they are three years old they will be quite hardy enough to stand our winters, and may at that age be planted out into their permanent sites. Like the Cluster Pine, the Stone Pine has long tap-roots, and in consequence of this many cultivators grow them in pots singly, thereby avoiding the frequent transplanting which is VOL. I. al 290 THE ALEPPO PINE. necessary in order to stimulate them to the development of fibrous roots when raised in the open nursery-beds. When grown in the open ground they require to be transplanted every spring, in order to secure fibrous roots for safe final transplanting; by this method the healthiest plants are secured. At Derby Arboretum, at Dropmore, and at Elvaston Castle, there are fair specimens of this Pine, ranging up to over 30 ft. in height. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 30 ft., and a girth of 4 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground. (15.) THE ALEPPO PINE, Pinus halepensis Mill. Synonyms—Pinus maritima Lamb.; P. Pithyusa Strangw.; P. arabica Sieb. ; P. Abschasica Fisch. ; Specific Character.—Leaves in twos, but sometimes in threes, of a deep green, from 24 to 3 in. long, thickly set on the younger branches, and very slender, not remaining longer on the branches than two years, in consequence of which the branches of old trees have a naked appearance, and the head an open, thin, and straggling aspect. Buds { of an inch long, imbricated, roundish, and entirely destitute of resin. Cones pyramidal, rounded at the base, smooth, solitary, or in pairs, 24 to 3 in. long, and 14 in. broad, inversely turned downwards, with a footstalk ? of an inch long (Gordon, op. cit., p. 166). Distribution.—The Aleppo Pine is a native of Syria, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo and Jerusalem. It is found in Barbary, on the mountains of Atlas, on the hills of Provence, and in the neigh- bourhood of Toulon in France; it is also common in Spain. It is always found on dry, sandy, warm soil, and thrives well even among rocks, where few other trees could prosper. It was introduced into Britain in 1683. As a matter of fact, this species of Pine is to be found from the western coast of Portugal eastwards into Arabia and Armenia, but chiefly in the tracts bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It is much more closely allied with the Pyrenean Pine (P. pyrenaica) than any other species; but while that Pine forms woods in Western Europe, this species forms forests, often pure, on the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor, as well as on the Balearic Isles. Its finest development, however, is said to be attained on the Lebanon range, where it assumes the proportions of a tree of the first magnitude. Description of Tree.—The Aleppo Pine may be characterised as a low, spreading tree, seldom attaining a height above 40 ft., except under very favourable circumstances. It is somewhat sensitive and THE ALEPPO PINE. 291 tender in the climate of Britain, and has therefore been very little planted, although it is now a long time since it was introduced into this country. In favourable situations, however, such as at Drop- more in Bucks and several places in northern England, it has suc- ceeded well, and has developed into trees of no mean magnitude ; some of these are considerably over 50 ft. in height, and have stems of over 15 in. in diameter. When the tree is young it soon forms a spreading head with slender branches, and those of the last two years’ growth are clothed with very fine deep-green foliage, thus giving this species a beautifully soft and wavy expression. When it becomes old, however, the tree has a naked and straggling character, from the foliage never remaining persistent for longer than two years. This is not a tree to be planted for the sake of its timber, but merely as a specimen in a pinetum or in a park, where diversity and variety of effect in the way of fine foliage are the chief objects in view. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Aleppo Pine is white, and has a very fine grain. On the Continent the tree attains large dimensions of timber, and there the wood is considered very superior, being used in joinery, as well as for building purposes. In Britain, however, it is not adapted to grow as a timber-tree, but merely as an ornamental species, in favourable situations. As the wood is very resinous, it is used as torches by fishermen on the - Istrian coast, whilst it is also employed for the manufacture of gas for illu- minating purposes. The bark is rich in tannin, and is used for dyeing (Willkomm, op c?t., p. 239). Soil and Situation.—In Britain this tree requires a light, dry soil, and a sheltered and warm situation. It does not thrive on a rich soil, as under such circumstances its growth is stimulated too rapidly ; the young shoots are rendered too succulent, they do not ripen well under our sun, and consequently die off during the follow- ing winter. To grow this species at all well, even in England, it must be planted in a poor, light, dry soil, in which mineral richness is not at all likely to stimulate abnormal growth during the first three or four years after planting. Under these circumstances the plants will make but little progress for some time; but this preserves them for later development. Their woody-fibrous tissues are mostly formed only during the warm summer months, and can therefore harden well before autumn, so as consequently to stand our winters ; hence the trees remain healthy and uninjured by cold. When the roots have become well established in the ground, the plants grow more vigorously ; and when these still retain their healthy condition, they can develop into good specimens of the tree. 292 GERARD 'S PINE. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Aleppo Pine is readily procured from Continental seedsmen. It requires to be sown in a warm spot, and the plants should be covered with a frame during the first two or three winters, till they are of sufficient size and hardy enough to be planted out into their permanent sites. Fair specimens of this Pine are common in the south of England. Il, PINES HAVING THREE LEAVES OR NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH. (1.) GERARD’S PINE, Pinus Gerardiana Wallich. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes, stiff, three- edged, stout, and bluntly terminating in a short point, from 3 to 5 in. long, of a bluish-green colour, and glaucous when young. Sheaths short at first, and composed of dry, reddish-brown scales, but soon rolling up and falling off. Branches ascending, but the lower ones spreading, and the branchlets short, somewhat slender, and irregularly disposed. Cones of a bluish colour, ovate, oblong, or somewhat cylindrical, widest at the base, from 6 to 8 in. long, and from 12 to 15 in. in circumference near the base. Seales thick, blunt, much recurved and spiny at the points. Seeds nearly 1 in. long, cylindrical, almost wingless, pointed at both ends, of a dark- brown colour, and agreeable to eat (Gordon, op. cit., p. 195). Distribution.—Gerard’s Pine is said to be found in great abun- dance beyond the influence of the periodical rains, on the northern side of the Snowy Range of mountains in Kunawur, where it grows on very dry rocky ground. It is found, also, to the north of Cash- mere, and on the Astor Mountains in Little Tibet. Gerard states its highest limits on the inner Himalayas to be from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above the sea-level. It was introduced into Britain in 1815. Description of Tree.—Gerard’s Pine develops into a large tree of conical shape, not of a tall character but of large girth of stem. It is easily recognisable from all the other three-leaved Pines by the fact that the sheaths from which the leaves proceed are scaly, and fall off very soon. Another peculiar feature of this species is its smooth, silvery-grey bark, which falls off in silky-like flakes. It is a very slow-growing Pine, but is tolerably hardy, and is therefore worthy of a place in our arboreta and parks; for its general habit of growth is sturdy and massive-looking, and contrasts pleasingly with the taller and more slender development of most of the other Pines. Economic Uses of Timber.—Where it is indigenous, no par- ticular value is attached to the wood of this Pine. But even if it were good and durable, this species can have no other than a purely . arboricultural interest for Britain. THE LARGE-CONED PINE. 293 Soil and Situation.—Gerard’s Pine requires a good, light, and dry soil, and a warm and sheltered situation, before it can thrive in our changeable climate. If there be any considerable degree of smokiness in the air at places where it is planted, it will not grow at all, but will dwindle and die. Like all the other Pines, it likes a clear, pure air. In this respect, however, it is even more sensitive than most of the other species, and therefore healthy plants of it are never obtainable from nurseries near towns. Propagation and Culture——The seeds of the Gerard Pine can be had in great abundance from India, as there they are sold as an article of food, just in the same manner as the “ Pine-nuts” of the Stone Pine (P. pinea) in Italy. They should be brought home in the cones, in order to preserve their vitality unimpaired. They germinate freely when sown in a light friable soil; but the young plants in most parts require protection during the first winter, whilst they are still yearling seedlings. After they have been transplanted, how- ever, they become more hardy; and in all favourable situations they soon become stout, strong, and fit for planting out into their per- manent sites, which should invariably be such as are sheltered from prevailing winds. Well-grown specimens of this species are still rather scarce in Britain. It is, however, to be found in most of the larger arboreta in England, and particularly at Kew, where some of the specimens are now of fair size. (2.) THE LARGE-CONED PINE, Pinus Coultert Don. Synonyms—Pinus macrocarpa Lindl. ; P. Sabiniana var. Coulteri Loud. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes, stout, and rather stiff, from 9 to 12 in. long, and of a glaucous-grey colour, ribbed on the inner side, rather flat, imcurved, pointed and com- pressed. Sheaths ragged, thready, persistent, 14 in. long on the young leaves, but shorter and torn on the old ones. Branches stout, rather distant, but regularly placed in whorls on the stem, nearly horizontal, slightly elevated towards the extremities, and tinged with violet on the young shoots. Cones conical - oblong, tapering to the point, solitary, very large, 12 to 14 in. long and 6 in. broad, very hard, smooth, pale yellow, with a polished surface, and frequently weighing from 3 to 4 Ib. each (Gordon, op. cit., p. 202). Distribution.—This species is indigenous to California, and is found on the mountains of Santa Lucia, near the Mission of San Antonia, within sight of the sea; it thrives at an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 ft. It was introduced into Britain in 1832, and, as 294 THE LARGE-CONED PINE. its botanical name imphes, its cones form a very striking feature in the character of the tree. Description of Tree.—The Large-coned Pine is a free-growing, handsome, and hardy tree, which in its native country attains a height of from 80 to 100 ft. with a stem of from 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. This Pine is easily known from all others by its very long and stout leaves or needles, and by the branches being nearly horizontal, distant from each other, and therefore giving the tree an open and airy aspect; it is further distinguishable by the violet tinge of the bark on the young shoots. This is a species that is very much admired, as its long waving leaves give it a peculiarly graceful aspect when seen in contrast with Pines of a more densely foliaged habit, or with broad-leaved trees; whilst the glaucous grey of its foliage is seen to great advantage when the tree stands among any other species of a darker colour. It should be planted in every park and aboretum where a suitable soil and situation can be had for it ; for where variety of Pine foliage is an object, there are none of the genus more ornamental or deserving of a place than the Large-coned Pine. Economic Uses of Timber.—This species can also put forward no claim to sylvicultural attention on account of the quantity or quality of the wood produced. It can only be recommended as an interesting tree on account of the beauty of its foliage, and the unusual and striking size of its cones. Soil and Situation.—The Large-coned Pine, although it may be said to be hardy, and is found to grow freely in many parts of the country, is somewhat capricious with regard to soil and situation. It requires a very good, deep and porous, dry, light loam, and an open, dry subsoil ; while the situation must be such as to prevent the direct rays of the sun acting on it till near mid-day. Trees of this species are often found to lose their tops from the action of the sun’s rays on them in the early part of the day, after a night’s frost in the begin- ning of summer; but where such exposure can be prevented, the trees do well, keep their leaders entire, and form good ornamental specimens. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Large-coned Pine may be procured either direct from seedsmen in America, or through seed-merchants on the continent of Europe, who act as their agents. Like the Stone Pine, seedlings of this species also require the protec- tion of a frame during the first winter after they have come up; but when once they have been transplanted into the nursery-ground, they will be found hardy enough to stand there in the more open parts of Britain, where the climate is mild in winter. There are many good and promising specimens of: this species in —- THE CHINESE LACE-BARK PINE. 295 many parts in Britain, but more particularly at Elvaston Castle, Kew, and Castle Kennedy. In these places there are healthy trees of the species, of heights ranging up to 40 ft., and even more. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 was 44 ft. in height, and 44 ft. in girth at 5 ft. above the ground. (3.) THE CHINESE LACE-BARK PINE, Pinus Bungeana Zuce. SynonyM—Pinus excorticata Gordon. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes, very stiff, con- vex on the back, and acutely keeled on the inner face, from 2 to 3 in. long, and thickly set on the branches, frequently in bundles towards the ends of the shoots, somewhat in whorls, and irregularly three-edged. Sheaths composed of numerous loose scales, which soon fall off and leave the base of the leaves naked. Buds non-resinous, and formed of several reddish-brown, smooth, fringed scales, largest at the base, and rough at the edges. Male catkins from 5 to 6 lines long, cylindrical or conical ; when young, placed alternately at the base of the young shoots, but frequently afterwards very distant, owing to the rapid elongation of the young shoot. Branches long, very slender, little divided, glaucous, and covered with a smooth grey bark, ren- dered a little rough on the stem and older branches by the transverse scars forming rhomboidal-shaped figures, which in due time are shed, and give the stem and branches a very peculiar appearance. Cones ovate or slightly conical, broadest near the base, 24 in. long and 14 in. diameter, and obtuse-ended (Gordon, op. cit., p. 190). Distribution.—This Pine is a native of the north of China, and was introduced from that country by Fortune in 1846. It is cultivated by the Chinese as the ‘‘ Lace-bark Pine.” Description of Tree.—Although from China, this species is quite hardy and free-growing, and attains a height of from 30 to 50 ft. It is a very distinct and peculiar Pine, as in a young state its bark resembles the skin of a pea more than that of a Pine-tree. As the plant increases in age, however, the thin outer cuticle or epider- mis peels off in silky-like scales, leaving the branches and stem with a ereyish-white surface. Another peculiar characteristic of this Pine is that, in the annual production of young shoots, its new leaves are at first furnished with perfectly formed sheaths, which soon fall off, leaving the leaves or needles sheathless, in the same way as the outer bark falls off the stem and branches. This is not a tree at all adapted to become of sylvicultural im- portance in this country; it is to be recommended only for the peculiarity of its appearance, for the variety it forms among other Pines, and for its arboricultural interest as a strange species. 296 THE HEAVY-WOODED PINE. Soil and Situation.—The Lace-bark Pine comes from the coldest and poorest districts of China, where, however, the summers are intensely hot. It is therefore found to be quite hardy in Britain, and by no means very particular as to soil and situation. The former should, however, be light and dry, and the latter favourable, and not exposed to prevailing winds, in order to ensure the thriving of the species in our changeable climate. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Lace-bark Pine is very scarce, owing to the difficulty of obtaining it from the north-west of China, whence alone it must be procured. It is got now and then, however, through the influence of merchants in that part of the country. The seeds germinate readily when sown in the usual way, and the plants soon make progress and become fit for planting out. This species is scarce as yet, and few good specimens are to be seen in this country. It is to be found, however, among the collec- tions at Dropmore, at Kew, and in the York Nurseries. (4.) THE HEAVY-WOODED or YELLOW PINE, Pinus ponderosa Doug}. Synonyms—Pinus brachyptera Englm.; P. nootkaensis Man.; P. Parryana Gord. ; P. Beardsleyi Murr.; P. Craigiana Hort. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes, from 8 to 10 in. long, twisted, rather broad and flexible, thickly set on the branches, sharp-pointed. Sheaths 1 in. long, smooth, but much shorter and shrivelled on the old leaves. Branches few, in regular whorls, robust, twisted, and somewhat drooping. Buds _ bluntly domed, with a prominent point, and full of resin. Cones straight, ovate, tapering to both ends, particularly towards the apex, 34 in. long and 1? in. broad; in clusters round the branches, on very short stout footstalks, and bent downwards (Gordon, op. cit., p. 205). Distribution.—The Yellow Pine is found plentifully on the north-west coast of America, from California southwards into New Mexico, and particularly on the banks of Spoken River and the Kettle Falls of the Columbia, west of the Rocky Mountains, as well as in Rose River valley in California. It was introduced into Britain in 1826. Description of Tree.—The Yellow Pine, when advancing in age, is remarkable for the twisted character of its branches, which are disposed in regular verticillate whorls. The timber of matured growth has a much higher specific gravity than that of most Conifers (see table on p. 331), and is said to be so heavy as almost to sink in water. The tree grows to large dimensions, generally attaining a height of from 60 to 100 ft. with few branches, and a large girth of THE HEAVY-WOODED PINE. 297 stem. It is a free-growing, hardy tree, and makes rapid progress when planted out on a suitable soil and situation. In eastern Nebraska this is called the ‘Bull Pine.” According to Engelmaine, it attains gigantic dimensions, resembling those of the Douglas Fir and the Menzies Spruce in the Rocky Mountain forests. Economic Uses of Timber.—Even judging from specimens erown in this country, the timber of the Yellow Pine is of fair quality, and is likely to be serviceable in Britain for many technical purposes in which a fine polish is not requisite. It seems coarse- grained, but strong; and as the tree is hardy and free-growing, it may perhaps become one of our forest-trees, producing timber for various requirements. In California, the home of many species of gigantic Conifers, the heavy wood of the Yellow Pine is said to be of excellent quality and very durable. Soil and Situation.—The best specimens of this species in Britain are to be found growing on a poor gravelly soil, or on sandy loam-land. The soil for this species, as for most others of the Pine genus, should not be of a rich nature; for under such circumstances the plants generally grow too luxuriantly, and consequently do not ripen the woody tissue of the points of their shoots sufficiently to enable them to resist the frosts of our winter. The situation for the Yellow Pine should be airy, but not much exposed. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this species is still scarce, although it is obtainable every now and then from the Far West, though only in small quantities. It may be sown, and the plants produced from it may be reared in the usual way, as they are quite hardy and easy of cultivation ; it is well, however, not to expose the young plants to danger in localities where late frosts are common. At Elvaston Castle, Dropmore, Kew, Linton Park, the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, and at Hopetoun House, there are specimens of this Pine of various, heights, from 20 to upwards of 60 ft., all forming healthy and promising trees. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 63 ft., and a girth of 9 ft. 2 in. at 5 ft. from the ground. Sylvicultural Qualities of the Yellow Pine.—Continental experience of the Yellow Pine as a forest-tree shows that it is decidedly accommodative with regard to the mineral nature of the soil, but that it thrives best on a deep loamy sand. Although at first of rapid growth, it afterwards develops more slowly. It is not improbable that this species may be found of sylvicul- tural importance to Britain. In any experiments having this object in view, it would seem advisable to intersperse Yellow Pine, Bentham’s Pine, and Larch along with Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce, and to thin out and 298 BENTHAM’S PINE. utilise the three former light-demanding species wherever the two latter begin to catch them up and to interfere with their normal development. It does not appear to be able to stand the winter cold of the Continent, and is there said to be liable to be attacked with the “ leaf-shedding”’ disease. (5.) BENTHAM’S PINE, Pinus Benthamiana Hartwee. SyvonymM—Pinus Sinclairii Hooker. It is now generally referred to P. ponderosa. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes in each sheath, thickly set on the branches, dark green, and resembling those of the Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa), but much longer, usually 11 in. in length, very stout, rather flat, with a slightly elevated rib running along their inner side. Sheaths partly persistent, and nearly 1 in. long on the leaves of the young shoots, slightly shaggy, except at the extremity, where they are very ragged or torn. Branches rather numerous, very stout, spreading, and somewhat irregular, with a rough bark. Buds large, dark brown, much imbricated, and generally free from resinous matter, although sometimes there is a little. Cones in clusters of from 3 to 5 together, slightly pendulous, and quite straight, 6 in. in leneth, and 24 in. broad at the widest part, which is rather below the middle; the base is unequal-sided, owing to the numerous very small scales there curving to one side and forming a kind of hood round the base of the cone, which is quite sessile (Gordon, op. cit., p. 188). Distribution.—This valuable Pine was first met with on the mountains of Santa Cruz in California, a coast-range running due north across the bay from Monterey; afterwards it was found in the Sacramento country, growing upon the ridge generally termed “ The Californian Mountains.” It was introduced into Britain in 1847. Description of Tree.—This is truly a noble species of Pine, and is in all respects hardy, being entirely a tree of the mountains. It is said to attain a height of 200 ft. in its indigenous habitat, with a stem of from 9 to 10 ft. im diameter. Hartweg says of this Pine :— “ After crossing the Chuba River, you pass the prairie and enter the mountains near Bear Creek, where you have to pass through an interminable wood of Sabine’s Pine (P. Sabiniana) ; and in ascending the gradual acclivity of the mountain, you quit the region of the latter and enter that of Bentham’s Pine (P. Benthamiana), which seems to be characteristic of the upper region.” This species very much resembles the Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa) in its appearance while young, but is readily distinguishable from it by the greater length of the leaves. On specimens of twigs taken from a tree of about 15 ft. in height, the leaves or needles are often nearly 10 in. long on the average; whilst those on similar specimens taken from the Yellow Pine are only from about 7 to 8 in. in length. THE STIFF-LEAVED PINE. 299 This is undoubtedly one of the Pines which is likely to become a timber-tree in Britain; for it is both hardy and ornamental, and therefore is worthy of a place both in the parks and in the planta- tions of this country (see note to description of the Yellow Pine). Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Bentham Pine is said to be somewhat lighter and more elastic than that of the Yellow Pine, and also of even a more durable description. Soil and Situation.—This species is by no means difficult to suit with respect to soil, provided that it is not of a heavy or clayey nature, and that it is deep and dry. It does well on most light loamy soils, and makes annual shoots of about 2 ft. in length, even in moderately exposed situations. It appears to be a very valuable species, and should be cultivated as much as possible in our plantations, for it makes no great demands as to the mineral quality of the soil, and is of a very accommodating nature as a tree crop. Propagation and Culture.—A fair supply of the seed of this tree has been procured of late, and therefore it may now be obtained from most nurseries at lower prices than formerly. It should be sown in the same way as the seed of the Scots Pine, and similar treatment to that detailed for this common species may be accorded to the seed- lings and transplants of the Bentham Pine. At many places, both in England and Scotland, specimens of this Pine are now to be seen ranging from 40 to 50 ft. in height. (6.) THE STIFF-LEAVED or PITCH PINE, Pinus rigida, Mill. Synonyms—Pinus canadensis trifolia Duham.; P. Tueda rigida Ait.; P. Loddigesii Loud. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes in each sheath, from 3 to 44 in. long, stiff, rather broad and sharp-pointed, light ereen, and spreading. Sheaths short, 2 of an in. long, and white on the young leaves, but afterwards becoming nearly black and shrivelled. Branches very numerous on the upper part of the tree, and compact. Cones ovate-oblong, from 24 to 34 in. long, and 14 in. broad, on short stout footstalks, in clusters of 4 or 5 round the top branches, and remaining on the tree for years (Gordon, op. cit., p. 207). Distribution—-The Pitch Pine occurs in most parts of the United States, from New England southwards to Virginia, and is found grow- ing both on dry and on wet soil. In America it is known by the name of the “Pitch Pine,” owing to the abundance of resin contained in it. It was introduced into Britain either in 1750 or 1759. Although found on sandy and marshy soil in many of the inland tracts of North America between latitude 38° and 44°, its finest development as a tree of true forest growth occurs in the Alleghany Mountains, where it often forms extensive woods. 300 THE STIFF-LEAVED PINE. Description of Tree—In America the Pitch Pine grows to a large size in some parts of the country. On light sandy lands in the State of Pennsylvania it may be seen upwards of 80 ft. in height, and with a stem of fully 2 ft.in diameter. Good trees of this species may also be found growing on the edges of swamps, where the ground is wet; but on poor high-lying parts it forms only a large-headed bush. This tree has a thick, dark-looking, coarse bark, deeply furrowed on old trees, and it is generally of a very branching habit of growth, seldom having a clean stem, even when found growing in masses or among other trees; and in consequence of this its wood is very knotty. It cannot be said to be a highly ornamental tree, nor is it valu- able on account of its timber; but from its hardiness, and its very accommodating habits as to soil and situation, it is well adapted for planting on many sites where variety is an object, and where few other sorts of Pines would grow in such a way as to secure this end. Economic Uses of Timber.— Wherever it can be had, the timber of this tree is used for many purposes in America; but the wood of this species is now comparatively scarce. In Britain it is of no economic value, the tree being grown in most places merely for variety among other Pines, and for its arboricultural interest. The durability of the timber in America depends on the nature of the soil on which the trees are produced. When grown on the moun- tains, its wood is very resinous and durable; whereas the “Sap Pine” wood yroduced on low-lying marshy land is soft and of little value. Even where indigenous, it is a tree of the inland tracts, and not of the sea-board stretches having a damp climate. Soil and Situation—Few Pines are more accommodating than this one in respect to soil and situation. To grow it well, however, it requires a light, friable, deep soil, and a situation that is not too much exposed. Propagation and Culture.—These are in all respects the same as the Scots Pine. The seeds can be easily procured from any seed- merchant in New York. Plants of it are now quite common in this country, and nurserymen quote them at very reasonable prices. Sylvicultural Characteristics of the Pitch Pine.—Experiments con- ducted during the last half-century in the State forests of Prussia show that this species of Pine, when treated as a forest-tree, has a very marked resem- blance to the Common Pine. It is somewhat slower in growth, as at 50 years of age the trees are not above 50 ft. in height ; but it is equally hardy throughout Pomerania and Silesia, and has a stronger recuperative power in healing wounds inflicted by game and other enemies. It may therefore be THE RADIATED CONE PINE. 301 possessed of some sylvicultural interest for the Highlands of Scotland, as it can thrive both on dry soil and on marshy land, although, of course, it grows best on tracts that are fresh or moist. Like the Scots Pine, it is a light- demanding species of tree. On the poorer classes of sandy soil throughout Northern Germany it has been found to be perhaps preferable to the Scots Pine, although, of course, it is also, under such very unfavourable circum- stances, exposed to danger from excessive drought. Specimens of this Pine may be found at Dropmore, in Bucks, of heights ranging from 50 to 60 ft. (7.) THE RADIATED CONE PINE—Pinus radiata Don. SynonymM—Pinus insignis var. macrocarpa Hartweg. Specific Character.— Leaves or needles in threes in each sheath, very slender, twisted, deep green, thickly set on the branches, and from 3 to 5 in. long. Sheath short, smooth, { of an in. long on the young leaves, but much shorter on the older needles, and only partially persistent. Seed-leaves on the young plants from 7 to 8 in number, rather long and slender. Branches compact, numerous, rather regular, and slender, particularly the lateral ones. Bark light brown, and rather smooth. Buds small, numerous, imbricated, and full of resinous matter. Cones mostly single, but sometimes in clusters of two or three together, rather conical, very hard, slightly incurved, pendulous, of a glossy light-brown colour, 6 in. long and 3% in. broad near the base, which is uneven as well as the sides, the outer side being much the longest. Scales radiant, largest at the external base and down three parts of the outer side of the cone, deeply divided, much elevated, and prolonged into a blunt-pointed nipple, 4 an in. in leneth and # of an in. broad; those nearest the base are bent backwards, the others being more or less convex, widest at the base, bluntly conical, slightly angular, and terminated by a blunt point; the scales on the inner side of the cone, and for four or five rows round the point, are very much smaller, quadrangular, and slightly elevated, with their points quite flat or slightly depressed (Gordon, op. cit., p. 206). Distribution.—This beautiful Pine was first discovered by Coulter in Upper California, in lat. 36°, near the level of the sea, and almost close to the beach, where it was growing singly to the height of 100 ft. Hartweg also met with it on the descent towards the sea on the mountains of San Antonio, sixty leagues south of Monterey, where it formed a small wood extending along the beach, and where its deep grass-green foliage at that time of the year formed a marked contrast to the parched-up vegetation round about it. It was introduced into Britain in. 1829. Description of Tree.—This tree thrives best when growing singly, SOs THE REMARKABLE PINE. and within the influence of the sea; in such situations it attains large dimensions, and is of an upright habit of growth. It is a beautiful Pine, and very much resembles the Remarkable Pine (P. insignis) at first sight; but a closer inspection shows that its leaves or needles are much shorter and more slender than those of that species, while its cones are nearly three times as large, and have their scales much more elevated. The Radiated Cone Pine, in its natural habit of growth, forms a beautiful straight-stemmed tree, clothed with branches down to the ground: it is quite hardy in our climate, and accommodating with regard to soil. . Economic Uses of Timber.—The late Dr Coulter says that this species forms excellent timber, of a very tough description, and admirably adapted for boat-building, for which purpose it is much used at Monterey. It is as yet too early to express an opinion con- cerning the capacity of this tree for timber-production in this country ; but judging from specimens of home-growth, there is every reason to believe that it will probably prove useful for its timber, as well as an ornamental tree in our parks and arboreta. Soil and Situation.—This Pine thrives best on a poor gravelly soil on inland situations, considerably above the sea-level. It is said to be well adapted for planting near the sea; but only experiments can show whether in this country it will in this respect prove of any- thing hke equal value to the Black Pines and the Pinaster for forming belts of shelter along the sea-coast (see p. 262). But at all events it is quite hardy, and seems to succeed well on most light soils, and on situations that are not too high-lying or too much exposed. Propagation and Culture.—This Pine is easily cultivated from the seed, which is now neither so scarce nor so high-priced as it was a few years ago. (8.) THE REMARKABLE PINE, Pinus insignis Douglas. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles three in a sheath, deep erass-green, rather slender, usually straight, but often twisted in all directions, very densely set on the branches, of different lengths, from 4 to 6 in. long, ribbed on the inner sides, and sharp-pointed (see Fig. 53). Sheaths very short, smooth, and rather more than 4 of an in. long. Branches numerous, rather irregular, and thickly set with slender branchlets at the extremities. Cones ovate - conical, much pointed, most developed on the exposed side, particularly towards the base or outer part, 3} in. long and 24 in. broad, mostly in clusters of from 3 to 5 round the stem or principal branches at the top of the tree, of a pale yellowish brown when ripe, and with a THE REMARKABLE PINE. 303 smooth glossy surface. They point downwards, and remain for several years on the tree. Seeds middle-sized, nearly black, and with an ample wing, more than 1 in. long. It takes two years to mature its cones and seeds (Gordon, op. cit., p. 197). Distribution.—This very interesting Pine is a native of Cali- fornia, throughout which it is found growing in various parts. It was introduced into : Britain by Douglas in 1833, and has become widely spread over the country on account of its very graceful habit. Description of ‘Tree. —In its native habitat this extremely handsome Pine attains a height of from 80 to 100 ft, and forms stems of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter, whilst the branches are feathered with foliage down to the very ground. It is toler- ably hardy, and makes very rapid growth; but it has a tendency to throw out autumnal shoots when planted in low-lying sites where there is a rich soil and a humid air, and under such circumstances it is of course very apt to get its soft leading-shoot frost- bitten. When planted on soil of a very dry nature, or on a somewhat elevated situation having a free ex- posure to sun and air, this tendency is checked ; Spray of the Remarkable Pine (Pinus insignis). it then ripens its wood thoroughly early in autumn, and in consequence of this is not injured by our winters. This is a very graceful tree, having a free and irregular branched habit of growth, whilst its beautiful grass-green foliage renders it an admirable object in a park or on a lawn among other Pines of a 304 SABINE’S PINE. darker hue, or among deciduous trees: in the latter case it becomes a beautiful object, increasing the grandeur of the most highly finished landscape. Economic Uses of Timber.—Sufficient opportunities have not yet been given for forming any correct judgment as to the quality of the timber produced by this Pine in Britain. But its value must in any case remain of a purely esthetic and arboricultural nature; for - any attempt to treat it as a forest-tree, to confine its growing-space, and thus limit its ramification, must be fatal to its ornamental char- acter, and to the beauty of its foliage. Soil and Situation.—This species of Pine should be planted on a light, dry loam, preferably of a poor rather than a fertile descrip- tion, and in a situation where it can have free access to sun and air without being exposed to strong winds. Like many other species of Pines of recent introduction, it continues growing too late into the autumn to harden its shoots properly, when planted on rich soils and low-sheltered sites ; and from this cause it often loses its leader. But when planted out on poorer classes of land, it matures its shoots early, and gets through the winter uninjured. This tree thrives better near the sea than in inland districts, and is of better growth in the west of Scotland than on the east coast. Propagation and Culture.—The Remarkable Pine is raised from seed in the usual way; but the young seedlings require the protec- tion of a frame during the first winter, as, until they have formed perfect wood and leaves, they are always apt to be injured by frost. Good specimens of this Pine are now plentiful in the country, many of them of heights ranging from 60 to about 90 ft. and hav- ing stems of proportionaté girth at the base. The largest specimens reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 had, in one case, a height of 90 ft. and a girth of 11 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground; and in another, a height of 68 ft. and a girth of 13 ft. (9.) SABINE’S PINE, Pinus Sabiniana Douglas. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes in each sheath, rather slender, from 10 to 12 in. long, glaucous grey in every stage, twisted, and when fully grown bent downwards, and drooping dur- ing winter, sharp-pointed, angular on the inner side, but rounded on the outer side. Sheaths 14 in. long, nearly entire at the top, with numerous rings, and wrinkled when old. Branches numerous, not very robust, covered with a violet bloom when young, and devoid of foliage, except near the extremities. Cones ovate, most developed on the outer side, particularly towards the base, pointing downwards, pressing against the stem, and remaining on the tree for a number SABINE’S PINE. 305 of years, from 8 to 10 in. long and 6 in. wide, on footstalks 24 in. long, and full of resin, particularly towards the base. Scales spatula-shaped, flat on the inner side, and rounded or slightly angular on the outer side, 24 in. long, and 14 in. broad on the larger bracts, but much less on the smaller scales towards the base, terminated by a strong, sharp, incurved hook, particularly on the exposed side and at the base, where some of the points are quite straight, and pointing upwards or towards the top of the tree. Seeds 1 in. long, oblong, tapering to the base, and flattened on the inside, hard-shelled, short-winged, and edible, and nearly double the size of those of the Large-coned Pine (P. macrocarpa). Seed-leaves from 8 to 10 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 208). The cones of the Lambert or Giant Pine (P. Lambertiana) are, however, still larger than those of this species, being from 12 to 16 in. long, and also like the Stone Pines (P. pinea and P. Cembra) containing edible seeds. Distribution.—This species is also a native of California, being found there on the western Cordilleras of New Albion at a great elevation, and in woods on the heights near Monterey at El Toro, a high mountain to the east of that place. It was introduced into Britain in 1832. Description of Tree.—The Sabine Pine is a handsome tree, attaining a height of from 100 to 150 ft., and with stems of from 2 to 5 ft. in diameter: when growing in any isolated position, it is regularly furnished with branches down to the ground. It is said never to be found in masses or pure forests, but always inter- mixed with other kinds. The tree is of a tapering habit of growth, in which respect it somewhat resembles the Spruces and Silver Firs, whilst its long foliage gives it a very graceful appearance. Hconomic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this species is said to be white, but not of a durable character. It is therefore only as an ornamental tree on lawns and parks that it can be recommended for cultivation in Britain; but for this purpose it is admirably ad- apted. Its enormous cones are objects of very considerable interest. Soil and Situation.— Although the Sabine Pine is tolerably hardy, it is very particular with respect to soil and situation. It is found to thrive best in this country when planted in sheltered ravines and in hollows, where the soil is deep and somewhat rich in humus. It can also thrive fairly well, however, on any light land that is neither too much exposed nor at too high an elevation; but on such parts its growth is slow as compared with the rapid development attained in low-lying and sheltered hollows. Propagation and Culture.—The: information already given in detail with respect to the arboricultural propagation of the Remark- VOL, I. U 306 JEFFREYS PINE. able Pine (P. insignis) is equally applicable to the rearing of the Sabine Pine in the nursery. The seed of this species is still some- what scarce, and therefore plants of it have not yet become low in price; the cones ripen in November. In most of the extensive arboreta in this country specimens of the Sabine Pine are to be found, of heights ranging from 20 to 25 ft. and more. The climate of Britain, and more especially of the colder northern half, is hardly suitable for this species to be introduced largely, for it demands a considerable degree of warmth before it can attain good development. The largest specimen of this tree reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 24 ft. anda girth of 25 ft. at 5 ft. from the ground, and is growing at Pampisford in Cambridgeshire. (10.) JEFFREY’S PINE, Pinus Jefreyii Murr. © Synonrus—Pinus Jefireyana van Houtté; P. deflexa Torrey. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in threes, pendulous at the ends, deep green, keeled on the inner face, rounded on the back, very acute pointed, and from 8 to 9 in. long; sheaths persistent, 14 in. long when young, but very much shorter, lacerated at the ends, and of an ash-grey colour when old. Buds short, stout, imbricated, and resinous. Branches horizontal, a little declining, rather slender, and of a light yellowish-red colour. Cones large, ovate-conical, tapering most to the point, 8 in. long, and 34 in. in diameter at the widest part, which is near the base, and for the most part produced in clusters round the branches (Gordon, op. cit., p. 198). Distribution.—This species of Pine was found by Jeffrey in the Shasta valley in northern California, growing on poor sandy soil, and was introduced into Britain about 1852. Description of Tree.—The Jeffrey Pine forms a handsome tree, and is a hardy species, besides being a free grower. In its native country it attains a height of from 100 to 150 ft., and forms a stem of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter. In this country it makes fair pro- egress, there being now many specimens which have attained a height of 40 to 50 ft., although none of them have yet been planted for forty years. This species is by some considered to be merely a variety of the Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa). Economic Uses of Timber.—In quality the timber of this species closely resembles that of the Yellow Pine. Soil and Situation.—The Jeffrey Pine does not seem to be very particular with respect to soil and situation. It is to be met THE TUBERCULATED CONED PINE. 307 with in fairly healthy development on most soils, whether of a sandy or a stiff clayey-loamy description, and on situations sometimes sheltered, and at other times a good deal exposed. It therefore seems to be a hardy and accommodating tree, and is perhaps destined to prove as useful as it is ornamental. Propagation and Culture.—As the seed of the Jeffrey Pine is still far from common or cheap, some care should be taken with it in the nursery. It should be sown in good soil in a sheltered corner, and the young seedlings should be protected during the first winter of their existence with a frame, in order to prevent their being in- jured by frost. After they are a year old, they should be trans- planted into the nursery-lines; when they have once formed perfect wood and leaves they become quite hardy, and require no further protection. Were it not that the seed is still somewhat scarce and expensive, the young seedlings would really not require any pro- tection at all during the first winter; but it is well to use every convenient precaution in order to avoid risk of damage to the tender seedling plants. Specimens of this Pine are now common, of heights ranging from 40 to 50 ft. The largest specimens reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 have respectively a height of 50 ft. and a girth of 3} ft. at 5 ft. from the ground, and a height of 48 ft. with a girth of 6% ft. They grow in Fife and Lincoln —1.e., both on the eastern side of Britain. Sylvicultural Characteristics of the Jeffrey Pine.— Experiments have, during the last century, been made in the State forests of Prussia with this species as well as with the Yellow Pine. These prove the Jeffrey Pine to be accommodating, for whilst sandy soils are most favourable to its development, yet it can do fairly well even on heavy, binding land. In its’ sylvicultural character it resembles the Scots Pine, and is, like it, a light- demanding species of tree. It has not the same strong claims to sylvicultural attention that are possessed by several of the other Californian Conifers. (11.) THE TUBERCULATED CONED PINE, Pinus tuberculata Gordon. Synonyms—Pinus californica Hartweg ; P. attenuata Lemmon. Specific Character.— Leaves or needles in threes in each sheath, thickly disposed on the branches, bright green, rather stiff, broad, and flat, with an elevated rib running along their middle on the inner side, 44 to 5 in. in length. Sheaths short, smooth, and not more than 4 an in. long on the young leaves, but much shorter on the older ones, and only partially persistent. Branches not very stout, rather numerous and irregular, with a roughish bark. Buds below the middle size, imbricated, and not very resinous or pointed. 308 THE TUBERCULATED CONED PINE. Cones mostly in clusters of four, but sometimes solitary or in pairs, and only produced on the main stems, of a long, conical shape, nearly 5 in. in length, and from 2 in. in breadth, the outer surface curved, the inner straight, widest near the base, and gradually tapering to the point, quite sessile, and uneven-sided at the base, very hard, of a light-brown colour, or silvery grey when old, very glossy, and full of resinous matter: they stand off at nearly right angles when old, although rather pendulous when young, and remain on the trees for years without even opening or shedding their seeds (Gordon, op. cit., paz): Distribution.—This tree was first discovered by Coulter to the south of Monterey, near the level of the sea, where it was inter- mixed with other Pines, and especially with the Radiated Cone Pine (P. radiata), almost close to the beach. Hartweg also found it growing on the Santa Cruz Mountains, sixty miles to the north of Monterey by land. It was introduced into Britain about the year 1847. Description of Tree.—This is a tree of slow growth, which seldom attains more than 40 ft. in height, and forms stems of only from 10 to 12 in. in diameter. While still young it is a handsome tree, and prettily clothed with green foliage; but when old it assumes a gnarled and rather deformed appearance. It begins to bear cones at a very early age, which at first are produced only on the main stem. The cones are persistent on the tree for a long time. Jeffrey found trees with as many as 20 whorls of cones on the trunk, which were the growth of as many years; and the branches were also covered with cones in the same way as the trunk. As the tree grows older, the branches, as well as the leading- shoot, begin to bear cones; and as, even when the tree has a girth of 3 ft., they do not fall off, but remain persistent until they rot away on the stem and branches, the appearance of the mature tree, covered with cones, is very peculiar. It is quite hardy, and is in all respects suitable for arboricultural purposes in the climate of Britain. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this species is said to be red and hard; but further than that little seems known as to its technical quality and practical uses. It may be remarked here, however, that the species is not likely ever to become of any economic or sylvicultural value in Britain, as its rate of growth is too slow. Its place with us is therefore only as an interesting specimen among other Pines in a pinetum or park, or along the sides of roads in our plantations, where its cone-retaining characteristic will always give it an aspect peculiar to itself among trees of a different tendency or habit. THE CEMBRAN PINE. 309 Soil and Situation Arboricultural experience in Britain shows that this tree thrives best on a light, deep, dry loam, and on rather low-lying sheltered situations. Propagation and Culture.—The details already given with regard to the Jeffrey Pine are also applicable with respect to this species. At various places throughout Britain the Tuberculated Coned Pine is to be found of heights ranging from 30 to 40 ft. II. PINES HAVING FIVE LEAVES OR NEEDLES IN EACH SHEATH. (1.) CEMBRAN, SIBERIAN, or SWISS STONE PINE, Pinus Cembra L. Synonyms—Pinus montana Lamk.; P. mandschurica Regel. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in fives, from 2 to 3 in. long, sharp-pointed, 3-ribbed, one of the ribs green and shining, and the other two white (see Fie. 54). Sheaths deciduous. Buds broad, vlobose, with a long narrow point, whitish, without resin, and mostly solitary at the end of the shoot. Cones about 3 in. long and 23 in. broad, ovate, erect, and of a violet colour. Seeds very large, wing- less, and edible (Gordon, op. cit., p. 219). Distribution—The Swiss Stone Pine is indigenous to Siberia, Tartary, Switzerland, Italy, and some parts of France. It is said to be sometimes found on the mountains of Switzerland at a greater height than any other species of Conifer. It is also found plenti- fully on the Alps of Hungary and Austria. It was introduced into Britain in 1746. This Pine is in reality far more of an Asiatic than a European species of tree, for its chief distribution lies throughout central Asia, and in comparison with that, the tracts in the Alps and Carpathians, to which it is indigenous, are small, and mere outlying patches from the main area of distribution. Description of Tree——This is perhaps one of the hardiest of all the species of Pine introduced into Britain, and is very readily distinguished from any of the others by its erect habit of growth, by the shortness of its annual shoots, which, even under the most favourable circumstances, very seldom exceed 12 in., and by its branches being regularly disposed in whorls from the bottom to the top of the stem. It is of slow growth at all stages, and on most classes of soil, even when young, seldom grows more than 10 in. in any one year: from this it will be seen that it has no claim to be planted as a timber-tree. And it cannot even be said to be in itself a tree of any ornamental character; still, when properly placed among other trees in a park, its effect is rather striking in 310° THE CEMBRAN PINE. combination with Pines and other trees of a spreading habit of growth ; and for this reason it deserves a place in any park scenery. The slowness of its development makes this tree unsuited to be Spray of the Siberian, Cembran, or Swiss Stone Pine (Pinus Cembra). planted among other Pines and Firs in a plantation; for in a very few years it gets completely suppressed when standing among trees of a more rapid growth. The best manner in which to utilise it for THE CEMBRAN PINE. 311 arboricultural purposes is therefore to plant it in pure patches, or merely as individual or single specimen trees on a lawn or in a park. Its formal character makes an effective contrast to other trees when it is found standing on the sides of roads in a plantation, and in such situations it lends itself well to landscape gardening. When of spontaneous growth at the higher elevations in its Alpine home it takes nearly 70 years to attain a height of 6 ft.; even when grown arti- ficially in its quickest time of development, from the 10th to the 50th year, it ‘only increases less than 9 ft. in height there on the average. Regular whorls are only formed by it there from the 6th to the 30th year, and its total height seldom exceeds 70 ft., whilst its stem varies from 3 to 5 ft. indiameter. Such trees are often from 500 to 700 years in age (Willkomm, op. cvt., p. 172). Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber, when matured, is said to be of fair quality, though rather soft. Of course in this country it will never be grown for the sake of its timber, but it is said to be much used on the Continent for wainscoting and joinery purposes. The wood is of a light-brown colour when matured, and is known throughout Russia as “ Siberian Cedar.” In the countries where this tree abounds, the inhabitants live much on the seeds as an article of diet; indeed many of the poorer classes in eastern Russia often have but little else than these ‘‘Cedar-nuts” for their winter’s food. Soil and Situation—The Siberian or Swiss Stone Pine is by no means particular as to soil and situation, as it will grow in most places where the Scots Pine succeeds. Still, in order to attain a good size, and to get it to develop as quickly as possible, it must be planted on a good deep, rather light soil, which ought to be dry, whilst the situation should not be too elevated or exposed. Its spontaneous growth in the Alpine districts, in very exposed localities near the perpetual snow and the glaciers, shows that the Cembran Pine is of a very hardy nature. Its natural requirements are a short but very warm summer, and a soil that is constantly fresh or moist, but not binding: given these conditions, its best development is attained on somewhat argillaceous, loamy, or limy soils. Propagation and Culture.—The seeds of the Cembran Pine should be sown at once after they are gathered, as if not, they are apt to lie dormant in the soil till the year following that in which they are sown. When they have become dry by keeping, the best way is to cover them with damp sand, and allow them to remain over summer. They ought to be sown during the following spring, however, and not later than the month of March. As the seeds are large, they should be sown thinly, and covered with about three-quarters of an inch of fine earth. The plants are very easy of culture, as the roots are 312 THE WEYMOUTH PINE. always well fibred, and it is therefore easy to manage the seedlings in the way of transplanting. They should have two summers’ growth in the seed-bed before removal into the nursery-lines, as even then they will be but small as compared with other Pines. After standing for two years in the nursery-rows, they will, though four years of age, not generally exceed 1 ft. in height, and at this stage they should be planted out into their permanent sites. In the higher Alpine tracts the seed production does not commence till about 60 years of age; but in milder localities like Britain it often begins at the age of about 25 years, and even earlier. In the Engadine, Cembran Pine seed is sown in strong boxes of larch- wood covered with wire-netting, in order to protect it from voles and birds. These boxes, which are about 8 ft. long by 3 or 3 ft. broad, and 2 ft. deep, are divided into two halves by a board running down the middle in order to give support to the wire-network above. They are let into the ground, and then filled up with good soil, on which the seed is sown. A box of this description costs about £2, 5s., and can contain from 10,000 to 12,000 seed- lings when the seed is thickly sown (Burckhardt, op. cit., p. 467). The Cembran Pine is now so well known and so common, that it is unnecessary to make reference to any particular place where specimens of it may-be seen. They are fairly plentiful in this country, and many of them have attained a height of from 40 to nearly 70 ft. The two largest specimens reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 were respectively 683 ft. high by 5 ft. in girth at 5 ft. above the ground, and 45 ft. high by 9 ft. in girth, and were growing in Kent and Northumberland. (2. THE WEYMOUTH PINE, Pinus Strobus L. SynonymM—Pinus canadensis quinquefolia, Duham. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles five in a sheath, very slender, 3 to 4 in. long, 3-sided, soft, and of a light-glacuous or bluish-green colour, marked when young with silvery channels on one side. Sheaths very short, almost wanting, and soon falling off (see Fig. 55). Branches short, in whorls, thinly clothed with foliage, and having a smooth shining bark. Cones long, narrow, lax, slightly curved, cylindrical, tapering to rather a sharp point, and pendulous, from 5 to 6 in. long and from 1} to 14 in. broad, with a foot-stalk ¢ in. long. Seeds small, ovate, of a dull-grey colour, and with the wing 1 in. long (Gordon, op. cit., p. 239). Distribution.—The Weymouth Pine, or “ White Pine” of the Americans, is indigenous throughout Canada and all the Northern States of the American Union. This tree is to be found abundantly THE WEYMOUTH PINE. 313 in most parts of Canada, and especially in the valleys of the rivers Ottawa, Madawaska, and Gateneau, where large quantities of it are felled every year and floated down the river St Lawrence, whence it is shipped for Europe. It was introduced into Britain in 1705, and was extensively planted first of all on Lord Weymouth’s estate in Wiltshire, from which fact it derives its common European name. Spray of the Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus). It occurs most frequently between 43° and 47° north latitude, from the east of the Mississippi and the Alleghany Mountains northwards to the Gulf of St John and Lake Winnipeg. It is a very hardy species, and even in Livland and Kurland can endure the severe winters and the hot short summers of the far north of Europe, when planted out in parks as an ornamental tree. Description of Tree.—In its native habitat this Pine grows to very large dimensions. Throughout Canada and New Hampshire the stems are on the average about 150 ft. in height, and are about 2 ft. 314 THE WEYMOUTH PINE. 9 in. in diameter at 5 ft. up from the ground, although many of them measure upwards of 200 ft. in height, and have stems of from 5 to 7 ft. in diameter at 4 ft. up from the ground. On counting the annual rings on the stumps from which such stems were cut, their ages were found to range between 350 and 425 years. Pure natural forests of the Weymouth Pine are seldom to be met with on a sandy soil, but are generally to be found on gravelly ridges and knolls; whilst, on dry land of a more fertile description, it is usually to be seen forming mixed woods, in association with Beech, Lime, Maple, and other broad-leaved species of trees. And it is in these mixed woods that trees of the largest size are invariably to be seen. The Weymouth Pine has a very strong tendency to straight upright growth; it has generally a stem free from ramification for at least two-thirds of its height, and the branches are never of large dimensions ; nor do they extend far out from the stem. Even in the case of trees about 200 ft. high, the branches seldom ex- tend more than 20 ft. out on either side, and are always arranged in regular whorls, with clear spaces between, formed by the long leading- shoots. On young trees the bark is very smooth, and the leaves are longer than on old trees; in general appearance the needles have a very close resemblance to those of the Nepaul or Lofty Pine (P. ex- celsa). As the tree advances in age, however, the bark becomes rough, or on matured specimens even rugged, and of an ash-grey colour; but it never scales off in flakes like the bark of many other Pines. When grown singly, the Weymouth Pine forms a handsome tree ; but, in order to develop satisfactorily in a comparatively isolated position, it requires shelter from other trees around it, as in this country it will not prosper in an exposed situation. It is a tree well worthy of a place in any park in Britain, as, on favourable soils and situations, it rapidly attains very fair dimensions, especially in the warmer tracts of central and southern England. Even in Scotland it reaches a height of 60 to 70 ft, and may contain upwards of 40 ft. of timber, when little over 40 years of age. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the species is more used in America than that of any other Pine; the ‘“‘ White Pine,” indeed, forms the major portion of the Pine-wood so largely imported into Britain from North America. Where it abounds, most of the houses on the country-side are built of it; and in the towns the wood- work of the houses is chiefly made from it. Indeed there are few pur- poses to which wood is applied in America for which ‘‘ White Pine” is not used. Even in Britain the imported timber of this species enters largely into the construction of our houses, and of many other erec- tions. It is not, however, so valuable as the “Red Pine” timber THE WEYMOUTH PINE. SALA from the Baltic, which is harder, more durable, and less liable to the attacks of insects and fungi (dry-rot). The wood of the Weymouth Pine is light and soft, and its mean sp. gr. of 0.83 when green and 0.39 after seasoning stamps it as one of the lightest of Conifers (see table on p. 331). But durability cannot be said to be its strong point; for it ranks along with Aspen, Lime, Poplar, and Willow as the least durable of the forest-trees now cultivated in Europe. Like these species of wood, however, it should be admirably adapted for the manufacture of packing-cases or of cellulose for paper. It is soft in texture and even in grain, and can accordingly be worked and planed easily ; and as it only shrinks from 2 to 3 per cent, it is well adapted for working up as flooring, or for the foundation of veneered furniture. Soil and Situation.—In order that the Weymouth Pine may thrive well in Britain, it requires to be planted on a good, deep, dry, and light loam, and in a somewhat sheltered situation. It often does well on dry sloping banks among other trees, where it has sufficient room to spread out its branches a little, but has still some slight shelter to protect it against heavy storms. In America it is to be found growing on most descriptions of land, though seldom on sandy or on heavy argillaceous soils. The best quality of timber is almost always produced on gravelly knolls and ridges. This Pine requires a deep soil on account of its deep-reaching tap-root. Continental experience has shown that, though it grows well on sandy soils resting on a moist subsoil, yet it thrives best on loamy and clayey land; even when this is of a marshy description, it can often be rendered dry by the strong transpiration of water from the foliage of pure woods of this tree. A dry soil is unsuitable for it. It is rather a tree of the lowlands and of sheltered valleys than of exposed hilly or mountainous tracks. Propagation and Culture.—Like all others of this genus, the Weymouth Pine is raised in the nursery from seeds, which generally ripen in this country about the end of October, and should be col- lected at once in order to prevent the seed from being scattered in November. The cones are easily opened, and the seeds extracted from them afterwards, by exposure to the sun. When the cones are gathered in early autumn and the seed has been taken from them during the winter, it should be sown about the beginning of April, and the seedlings dealt with in every respect as recommended for the rearing of the common Scots Pine. There are many fine specimens of the Weymouth Pine throughout various parts of this country. At Dropmore it may be seen over 80 ft. in height, and with strong stems of proportionate girth; at Kew it has attained similar proportions ; and in other parts of England there are even larger specimens, such as that at Longleat, where it is over 316 THE WEYMOUTH PINE. » 100 ft. high, with a stem above 3 ft. in diameter. In Scotland, also, the tree attains fair dimensions, although the climate is not warm enough for its normal development as a lofty tree of first-class timber- dimensions. The two largest specimens reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 are growing in Perthshire. The largest is one at Logie, near Scone, which was then 90 ft. in height and 7} ft. in girth at 5 ft. above the ground. Sylvicultural Qualities of the Weymouth Pine.—Thanks to the sylvicultural attention that this species of Pine has, for upwards of a century, received in the State forests of Germany, more is known of its characteristics, when of European growth, than of those of most of the American Conifers. It is of more rapid development than Scots Pine during the early stages of growth, and forms woods containing a larger number of stems per acre, as, without being exactly a shade-bearing species of tree, it can thrive with less intensity of light than the Scots or even the Black Pines: after attaining the age of 20 to 30 years, however, it makes only a slightly increased demand for individual growing-space, and for a stronger ramification than is necessary for the normal thriving of Spruces and Silver Firs as woodland crops. In rapidity of growth and in the quantity of timber produced, it excels all the other European Conifers; whilst, through its great transpiratory power and the rich fall of soft, easily decomposable needles, it has no mean capacity for the improvement of inferior soil of rather a moist description. It is admirably adapted as a very hardy species, for filling up blanks in plantations on low-lying localities exposed to late frosts, where the side-shade cast by the rest of the crop might prove too great for the thriving of Larch and Scots Pine. With reference to its density of crop, and its productive capacity, Burckhardt (op. cit., p. 455) says as follows :— “ Along with the rapid development of the Weymouth Pine is combined a remarkable density of crop, maintained till its maturity, and differing entirely from the natural habit of growth of the Common Pine and the Larch, which thin themselves with advancing age, often to a very serious extent. In this respect the Weymouth Pine has much in common with Spruce and Silver Fir. Crops raised by planting are often so very crowded as to hinder the natural selection and development of the predominating stems, so that they need to be well thinned. “Clearance of the crop at about 60 to 70 years of age yields a large quantity of timber. Even pole-forests and young tree-forests give a large return in timber. The mean annual increment in timber produced by 30- to 50-year-old crops, growing in close canopy on loamy, sandy, and marshy soils of only average quality, we have found to amount to 137 cubic ft. per acre, or including the returns of previous thinnings, 178 cubic ft. per acre per annum. From other sources the quantity of timber in a 70-year-old crop is assessed at nearly 14,400 cubic ft. per acre. All crops will not yield such returns, especially when covering extensive areas ; but the fact remains that this species is highly productive of timber. But so long as we cannot be sure of disposing of the wood, its rate of production cannot lead to extensive plantations being formed of it. More might certainly, however, be done than has hitherto been the case in order to provide stores of material for the supply of the coming future demands for timber.” Even if planted out in blanks in young Scots Pine woods, it catches the latter up within six or eight years, and then begins to suppress that more valuable species. For the formation of plantations of Weymouth Pine, yearling THE NEPAUL PINE. 317 seedlings or two-year-old plants are put out naked. Planting should be closer than with the Common Pine, and is in Germany usually at 3 ft. by 3 ft. on inferior dry soil, or at 4 ft. by 4 ft. on land of better quality. There must be a considerable demand for the seed of the Weymouth Pine in some parts of Europe, for 74 acres of pure Weymouth Pine near Frankfort were let annually for the 22 years, 1865 to 1886, at an average rental of £27 a-year, merely for the collection of the cones for seedsmen (Yorst- und Jagdzeitung, 1886, p. 706). The formation of extensive plantations of the best of the Californian Conifers, and especially of Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce, seems to hold out financial and sylvicultural advantages to Britain, far greater than any that can be offered by the Weymouth Pine or by any other exotic species of Pine. (3. THE NEPAUL or LOFTY PINE, Pinus excelsa Wallich. SynonymMs—Pinus Strobus Hamilt.; P. Strobus excelsa Loud.; P. Nepalensis Pinet. Woburn.; P. Dicksoniana Hort.; P. Peuce Griseb. ? Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in fives, very long, three- edged, very glaucous on the inner faces, bluish green, and rounded on the outer one, from 6 to 8 in. long, very slender, and mostly drooping (see Fig. 56). Sheaths short at first, but soon rolling up, and finally falling off. Branches in regular whorls, and spread- ing; those near the bottom reflected, while the upper ones are more or less ascending; branchlets slender, long, and spreading; male flowers in dense clusters. Cones solitary, or sometimes two or three together round the leading-shoots, of a cylindrical or somewhat coni- cal shape, from 6 to 9 in. long, and about 2 in. broad near the base, tapering towards the point, and with a foot-stalk nearly 1 in. long; when young of a pea-green colour, and somewhat erect, but when fully grown completely pendulous, and of a pale-brown colour, full of resinous matter in the shape of transparent drops (Gordon, op. cit., p. 222). Distribution.—This species is from the Himalayas, where it is found plentifully along the central range, extending from Kafiristan eastwards to Bhutan and Nepaul, at elevations of from 5000 to 10,000 ft, and attaining a height of from 100 to 150 ft. It was introduced into Britain in 1823. In the Kamaun district of north-western India it forms extensive forests in association with the Deodar Cedar. But it is also indigenous to Europe, if it be identical with the ?. Pewee which Grisebach found on Mount Peristeri in Macedonia, Pancic on the Koru in Montenegro, and v. Janka on the Perim- dagh in the Balkan range: recent evidence, however, goes to show that, though closely allied, it is not identical with that species. In these European habitats it is found at 5000 to 6000 ft. above the sea-level as a low tree, although near its upper limit it is merely a bushy shrub (Willkomm, op. ezt., p. 189). THE NEPAUL PINE. (Pinus exc Spray of the Nepaul or Lofty Pine THE NEPAUL PINE. 319 Description of Tree.—The Nepaul Pine has a very close resem- blance to the Weymouth Pine (P. Strobus), but is readily distinguish- able from it by the needles, these being very much longer on the Nepaul than on the Weymouth Pine; whilst the cones of the former are much thicker than those of the latter. The Nepaul Pine is a tree of open growth, with spreading branches, and a somewhat conical outline; it is in all respects ornamental, and should be planted freely in Britain, as it is perfectly hardy. It is a very rapid- growing Pine, but does not thrive when exposed to high winds and storms. In moderately sheltered parts of the country, however, it crows well, rapidly attains a good height, and is not affected by the frosts of our climate. It grows best when~ planted in large patches, either by itself or else mixed with Larch, in plantations of that tree. Specimens of this species thrive well under such circum- stances on situations nearly 1000 ft. above the level of the sea. When the tree stands alone as an isolated individual stem, it is apt to get broken by heavy winds; but when growing in a mass it is supported on all sides, and develops quickly. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Lofty Pine remains somewhat soft, even when fully matured; it is white, but remarkably compact. This Pine is said to produce in abundance a highly fragrant and resinous turpentine. In this country it is not likely ever to be produced on any extensive scale for the sake of the quality of its timber. But it is a hardy species, and being of an ornamental habit of growth, it deserves attention from an arboricul- tural point of view; it is a large fine tree of a light-green glaucous colour and spreading habit, very hardy and ornamental. Soil and Situation—The Lofty Pine is not particular with regard to soil and situation, as good specimens of it may be seen growing on most kinds of soils, and in sheltered as well as exposed situations. In order that it may thrive, however, it requires an open, light, dry, and deep soil, and a situation in some moderately sheltered part of the country. It demands free exposure to air and light, and plenty of individual growing- space, for it does not stand being crowded among other trees; when grown in a plantation, therefore, the trees should be given ample room, as if they have not sufficient growing-space for ramification, they will become drawn up, slender, and unornamental in a very short time. Propagation and Culture.—Seeds of the Nepaul Pine are now comparatively plentiful. They should be sown on light well-pre- pared soil, and dealt with in the beds as recommended for the sowing of the Scots Pine. The plants are easy of cultivation, and when the yearling seedlings have been transplanted into the nursery-rows, they soon become large enough for planting out. LAMBERTS GIANT-CONED PINE. (Su) bo S The Lofty Pine is now plentifully distributed over most parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and specimens of it, ranging from 50 to 60 ft. in height, are far from uncommon. It is cheap enough to be planted largely, for seedlings of 1 ft. in height now cost only from 9d. to 1s. each. The loftiest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference in 1891 had a height of 70 ft. and a girth of 6 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground; whilst the largest had 16 ft. of girth, with a height of 44 ft. (4.) LAMBERT’S GIANT-CONED PINE, Pinus Lambertiana Douglas. Specific Character.— Leaves or needles in fives, 4} in. long, rather stiff, of a dull but not shining green colour, rather rough at the edges, and slightly glaucous when young (see Fig. 57). Sheaths very short, or nearly wanting on the old leaves. Branches in whorls, numerous, rather pendulous towards the extremities, and densely clothed with foliage. Cones very large, from 12 to 16 in. long, and about 4 in. in diameter, deep brown, cylindrical, tapering to the point, mostly straight, and destitute of resinous matter, pendulous when full grown, although nearly erect when young. Seeds large, oval, x of an inch long, and with the wing 1? in. long, and dark brown. They require two years to ripen, are pleasant to the taste, and are used for food by the North American Indians (Gordon, op. cit., p. 228). Distribution.—The Lambert or Giant-coned Pine, also called the “Sugar Pine,” is indigenous to the northern parts of California and of north-west America, and is frequently found intermixed with other Pines and Firs, generally about a hundred miles inland from the sea. In its native habitat it is said to attain its greatest dimensions when growing upon a pure sandy soil. It was introduced into Britain by Douglas in 1827. Although distributed between the 35° and 45° of latitude in North America, it nowhere forms pure forests. Description of Tree.—The Lambert Pine attains large dimen- sions in its native parts, being found growing from 100 to 200, and even according to some accounts 300 ft. in height, and with stems from 7 to 15 ft. in diameter near the ground; it has an open and pyramidal crown of branches spreading out over a clean bole of about 100 ft. From the appearance of specimens in this country, it seems to be an open-crowned, free-growing tree, with wide-spreading branches, but has nothing very characteristic or remarkable about it. It is, however, perfectly hardy in this climate, which is a great recom- mendation for it. Plants of this species appear never to be at all injured by the frosts and rapid changes of our climate. LAMBERT’S GIANT-CONED PINE. 321 Like those of Sabine’s Pine and of the Stone Pines (P. pinea and P. cembra), the seeds of the huge 12- to 16-in. cones (whence the name “ Giant- coned Pine”) of this species are edible. The resin exuded from this tree is sweet, and forms the well-known “ chewing-gum.” Fig. 57. Spray of Lambert's Giant-coned Pine (Pinus Lambertiana). Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Lambert Pine is said to be white and soft. There will soon in this country be trees large and old enough to enable a correct judgment to be formed as to the quality of the timber produced by it in our climate; but VOL. 2. x Se THE MONTEZUMA PINE. it is not likely that this Pine will be able to assert claims to sylvi- cultural attention. Soil and Situation.—The Lambert or Giant Pine does not appear to be very particular with respect to soil, as good specimens of it may be seen growing on poor gravelly land, on a light peaty soil, on light as well as on heavy loam, or even on argillaceous soil. If the land on which it is planted be dry, and the subsoil open and permeable, it will succeed on a great variety of soils, and find conditions for its normal thriving; but it seems, on the whole, to do best on a light loam, rather of a poor than a rich description, and on situations freely exposed to light and air—for, like most Pines, it is a light-demand- ing species of tree. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this Pine may be sown on any well-prepared piece of ground in the usual way, as it vege- tates freely, and the young plants, being hardy, require no protection whatever. The Lambert or Giant Pine was about twenty years ago strongly recom- mended for sylvicultural introduction on an extensive scale into the State forests of northern Germany in admixture with Larch and Spruce; but the proposal was severely criticised by many of the best sylviculturists, for many other species of Conifers seem far more deserving of attention from those financial and economic points of view which form the basis of the modern science of Sylviculture. In this respect Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce, as also the Black Pines, have claims to attention which perhaps surpass those of nearly any other exotic Conifers of recent introduction. At many places in England and Scotland there are fine healthy specimens of the Lambert or Giant-coned Pine that have attained a height of from 40 to 50 ft. The largest specimens reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 had respectively a height of 50 ft., with a girth of 62 ft. at 5 ft. above the ground, and 45 ft., with a girth of 9 ft. (5.) THE MONTEZUMA or MEXICAN PINE, Pinus Montezume, Lamb. Synonyms—Pinus occidentalis Humboldt ; P. Russelliana Lindl. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles in fives, from 3 to 4 in. in length on the wild specimens, but on young plants from 4 to 5 in. long, rather stout, rigid, 3-edged, and rough at the angles, thickly set on the young branches, and supported by long, sharp- pointed, brown scales at the base of each sheath, of a dark green on the upper surface, and slightly glaucous on the under side on the young leaves, but on old full-grown leaves dark green on both sides. Sheaths persistent, or not falling off, nearly 4 an in. in THE MONTEZUMA PINE. 323 length, and rather rough or jagged on the ends. Seed-leaves on the young plants from 6 to 8 in number. Branches few, very irregular, rather stout, and twisted. Bark very rough, particularly on the young wood, which is covered with numerous long, broad, sharp-pointed scales. Buds few, imbricated, non-resinous, and rather lengthened. Cones in clusters of three or four together, but frequently single, nearly horizontal, from 4 to 6 in. in length, and 1? in. broad at the widest part, which is near the middle, then tapering to both ends, and slightly incurved, but especially towards the point, which is rather small (Gordon, op. cit., p. 232). Distribution.—The Montezuma Pine is plentiful in the moun- tainous districts throughout many parts of Mexico. Hartweg found it on the mountains of Mexico, near Ajusco, forming a tree 40 ft. high. It occurs also on the mountains of Orizaba, at an elevation of about 10,000 to 11,000 ft., where it grows to a height of 40 to 60 ft. It was introduced into Britain in 1826. Description of Tree.—This species of Pine does not attain great height or dimensions of stem, and may be characterised as a broadly spreading, thinly branched, and rough-barked Pine, only worthy of being cultivated as a variety in a pinetum. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Montezuma or Mexican Pine is said to be very resinous and of excellent quality when grown in the subtropical forests of Mexico; but in Britain it is not wanted for its timber, as the indigenous and the many other exotic Pines are much superior to it for timber-production. Soil and Situation.—Although, in a general way, this species may be said to be hardy in this country, still it has been found very fastidious with regard to soil and situation: for healthy and satisfactory development it seems to require a good light loamy soil, and as sheltered and favourable a situation as can be allotted to it. Propagation and Culture.—Young plants of the Mexican Pine require to be protected by a frame during the first and also often during the second winter, until they have succeeded in forming good hard woody tissue, and have become less sensitive to the effects of cold. Specimens of this Pine are by no means uncommon throughout the arboreta of Britain. The Montezuma Pine possesses hardly any claim to sylvicultural atten- tion, for its general growth and development are inferior to those of the Wey- mouth Pine belonging to the same 5-leaved class of Pines. But with its long needles, sometimes in young trees attaining a length of 8 to 12 in, it is undoubtedly a very beautiful ornamental species for arboricultural purposes and landscape gardening. 324 THE FIVE-LEAVED MOUNTAIN PINE. 6.) THE FIVE-LEAVED MOUNTAIN PINE, Pinus monticola Douglas. SynonymM—Pinus Lambertiana brevifolia Hort. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles five in a sheath, short, smooth, and blunt-pointed, from 3 to 4 in. long, rather 3-sided, slender, glaucous-green, and with a silvery appearance when young. Sheaths short and imbricated. Cones long, cylindrical, 7 in. long and 1? in. wide, tapering to rather a blunt point, smooth, and full of resin, generally in whorls, and on short footstalks. Branches rather stout, short, and densely clothed with foliage (Gordon, op. cit., p. 233). Distribution. — This Pine is indigenous to northern Cali- fornia, where it is found growing abundantly on Trinity Mountain, at an elevation of about 7000 ft, on a very poor soil formed from granite rock; it is also to be met with on the still higher mountains at the Grand Rapids of the Columbia, and on the rocky banks of the Spoken River. It was introduced into Britain in 1851. Description of Tree.— This forms a very handsome tree, being well clothed with foliage, while the branches present a fine irregular outline. It is said to grow to a large size in its native parts, and even in this country has proved itself of rapid growth. It is very hardy, too, which is a great recommendation for it; it deserves a place in every park and pinetum, where its dense foliage is cal- culated to produce a good effect among trees of a more open habit of growth, Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this Pine is said to be of a white colour, fine-grained, and tough. Soil and Situation.—It thrives well on most kinds of land, and appears to be of an accommodating nature. Good specimens of it may be seen in Britain doing well on a very light and gravelly soil, as well as on land of quite an opposite character. It seems a hardy tree, and possesses considerable power of accommodating itself to a great variety of soils, provided they are deep, porous, and dry. It stands well in an open airy situation, but can hardly be said to thrive if exposed to frequent storms. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this species of Pine is still somewhat scarce, consequently the quotations of nurserymen for young plants are higher than those obtaining for most other kinds of Pine. The plants come up perfectly well when the seed is sown on the open ground in the usual way, but, from the scarcity of plants of the species in the country, cultivators usually protect the seedlings with a frame during the first winter after they have come up. This is done, however, more from a fear of losing any of them than from the young plants being sensitive or really requiring protection. There are now many fine specimens of this Pine in various parts HARTWEG’S PINE. 325 of the country, of heights varying from 50 to 70 ft. The specimens at Dropmore in England, and those at Keir in Scotland, are probably the best that are to be seen in Britain. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 was a tree at Scone measuring 714 ft. in height, and having a girth of 5 ft. 11 in. at 5 ft. above the ground. (7.) HARTWHG’S PINE, Pinus Hartwegii Lindley. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles generally in fives, though frequently only in fours, very dense, 6 in. long, rather slender, curved, and of a dark-green colour. Sheaths long on the young leaves, but with a shrivelled appearance on the old ones, and jagged at the ends. Branches few, very robust, and irregularly placed on the stem. Cones growing in clusters, pendulous, 4 to 5 in. long, and nearly 2 in. broad, oblong, tapering to the point ,which is rather blunt, incurved, and of a dark-brown colour (Gordon, op. cit., p- 226). Distribution.—This species was found by Hartweg on the Cam- panario Mountain in Mexico, at an elevation of 9000 ft., where its lower limit appears to commence when the upper limit of the Picea religiosa 1s reached. It is also found growing to a height of about 100 ft. on the mountains of Orizaba, and near the Real del Monte, at an elevation of nearly 10,000 ft. It was introduced into Britain in 1839. Description of Tree.—This is a very handsome species of Pine, which attains a height of fully 50 ft., and develops a dense, compact crown of beautiful dark-green foliage. It is a very robust tree, with stout branches, which form a striking feature in its general habit of growth ; and it is readily distinguishable from most other Pines by the very strong appearance of its shoots, to which its long slender leaves give a peculiar effect. It is hardy enough for favourable localities in Britain, and is deserving of a place in our arboreta; but it possesses no claims to sylvicultural attention. Economic Uses of Timber.—Hartweg’s Pine does not seem to be possessed of any value for timber-production in this country, although in its native climate its wood is said to be of excellent quality. There the timber is said to be very durable, and to be largely impregnated with resinous secretions. It is never, however, likely to become valu- able on this account in Britain. Its place here seems to entitle it only to the attention of the arboriculturist for ornamental planting; but for this purpose its character is well suited. Soil and Situation.—In order to’ attain its best development, this species of Pine requires to be planted on rather a poor and light 326 THE SPRUCE. loam, and to have the free exposure to light and air requisite for an essentially light-demanding species of tree. If planted on a rich soil, its young shoots are of a soft and immature description, and are therefore liable to be injured by frost. Propagation and Culture.—Although this species of Pine is hardy enough for growing in the milder and more favourable parts of southern Britain, still the plants are somewhat sensitive and tender when young; they should therefore, like those of the Aleppo Pine (P. halepensis) and some other species, receive the protection of a frame for the first two winters after coming up. Hartweg’s Pine has not been largely planted in this country ; but at Kew and at Castle Kennedy there are specimens of from 80 to 40 feet in height. The largest specimen reported to the Conifer Conference of 1891 is one on the Mountstuart estate, in Bute, which measured 33 ft. in height and 1 ft. 10 in. in girth at 5 ft. above the ground. 2. SPRUCE, Picea Link. (LiInNZAN System, Monacra MoNnaDELPHIA). SynonymMs—A bies DC. ; Abies Loud. Generic Character.—The leading characteristics of the Spruce Firs are: the projecting cushions at the base of the leaves, which give a rough, pegged appearance to the shoots; the four-sided leaves (flat in the section Omorica), uniform in structure; the usually pendu- lous woody cones, ripening in the first year, and the scales of which do not fall away one from the other, as in the Silver Firs. Bracts concealed, not projecting, free from the scales except at the base. Stamens in spike-like masses. Anthers 2-lobed, apiculate. Pollen- cells winged. Seeds small. Seed-wings obovate, separable, covering the upper side of the seed. Cotyledons 8-10, 3-sided, toothed, primary leaves flat, denticulate. Willkomm makes two sections— I. Hupicea, with four-sided leaves; and II. Omorica, with flattish leaves with stomata, and with white bands on the upper surface (Masters, op. cit., p. 220). The Spruces or Spruce Firs are all evergreen trees, indigenous to Europe, Asia, and America, and are remarkable for their tall, erect, pyramidal forms, and dense foliage. In Britain they flower in May and June, and ripen their cones in the spring of the following year. All the species bear seed at a very early age, and all of them may be readily propagated by cuttings taken off in the spring or in autumn ; throughout Britain this is generally the practice by cultivators of some of the rare species. It is also a genus of trees possessing very great sylvicultural and THE SPRUCE. 5 AT arboricultural value. They are easily distinguished from the Pines by their tall pyramidal form, by their more rapid growth, and by their comparatively slender branches, which seldom attain the dimen- sions of timber, and which gradually die off under the shadow of the Fig. 58a. Spray of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), dense crown of foliage as the trees grow old. But besides this characteristic, the trees of the genus Picea are still more readily dis- tinguishable from those of the genus Pinus by the disposition of their leaves on the branches. In the Pines the leaves of the short shoots are divided into two or more needles in each sheath; whilst in the Spruce Firs the leaves or needles grow singly, and are scattered 328 THE SPRUCE. chiefly along the upper sides of the branches (see Fig. 58a and Fig. 58d). The Spruces are trees that generally maintain density of canopy much longer than the Pines. Hence crops formed by them make smaller demands for growing-space as they advance in age. Spray of Spruce (Picea excelsa), showing the disposttion of the needles on the twigs. During the late summer, 3 to 5 buds are developed along with and im- mediately under the terminal bud, and these form a whorl during the following spring. These are not again budded in whorls; but 2 or 3 buds generally form near their ends, and these develop so as to give the extremities of the twigs a 3-pronged, fork-like appearance. As the foliage is persistent for several years, the Spruces are a class of trees naturally capable of bearing a consider- able degree of shade; hence they remain long in close canopy, and in their strong upward tendency of growth form straight long stems that clear them- selves thoroughly of branches. When growing in isolated positions, they retain a dense mantle of foliage down to the very ground, and assume a conical outline. (1.) THE SPRUCE, SPRUCE FIR, or NORWAY SPRUCE, Picea excelsa Link. SynonymMs—Pinus Abies L.; P. Picea Du Roi; P. excelsa Lamk.; Abies Picea Mill. ; Abies excelsa DC. and Loud.; Picea vulgaris Link. Specific Character. — Leaves scattered, solitary, 4-sided, deep sombre green, curved, stiff, sharp-pointed, more crowded together THE SPRUCE. 329 laterally than on the upper and under sides, and nearly 1 in. long. Branches on young trees nearly horizontal, and disposed in regular whorls from the base to the summit; but on old trees the bottom branches drop off, and the others become rather pendulous. Cones produced on the points of the upper branches, and when full grown becoming pendent; they are from 5 to 7 in. long, and 14 to 2 in. in breadth. Seeds very small, with a wing ? in. long. Seed-leaves from 7 to 9 in number (Gordon, op. cit., p. 3). Distribution.—The Common or Norway Spruce is indigenous to the hills and mountains of Europe and Asia, in places where the soil is moist, and the atmosphere cold and humid. It is, however, most common in Norway, Sweden, Lapland, Denmark, and the north of Germany. It is also found on some of the mountainous districts of France, on the Alps, the Pyrenees, and in Switzerland. It was introduced into Britain in 1548. No other European Conifer has such a wide distribution throughout Europe as the Spruce ; and, indeed, among forest-trees altogether, it is probably only surpassed in general distribution by the Scots Pine, the Rowan, and perhaps also the Birch. Its northern limit begins on the west coast of Norway at 67°, sinks to 65° in Sweden, and then ascends to 69}° in Finland, where it reaches its polar limit, which thence trends in a south-easterly direc- tion across Russia. Its eastern limit is not determinable, as it gradually merges into the Siberian variety (Picea obovata), having smaller and thinner foliage, and conical cones only about half as long as those of the Common Spruce. In general, however, longitude 553° may be taken as about its eastern limit. In south-eastern Europe its southern limit is in Servia about 43° latitude, whence it trends westwards in a curve across northern Italy and above Nice, thence following the southern boundary of the Cevennes, and stretching across the Pyrenees down to below the Maladetta Mountains, where its lowest equatorial limit is reached. From there it returns at an acute angle into the mountainous regions of France (Willkomm, op. cit., pp. 77-79). The Spruce is essentially a tree of the mountains, and not of the plains or the lower hills; but the height to which it ascends the mountain-slopes varies, of course, enormously with the geographical position of any particular point. Thus in Norway at 67°, where the snow-line begins at 5600 ft., it does not ascend to higher altitudes than 2700 to 2900 ft., whilst in the Central Pyrenees it occurs at 4000 to 5000 ft., and is to be found in the Upper Engadine at an elevation of 6500 ft. above the sea-level. Observations in various parts of Europe have shown that in order to commence active vegetation in spring a mean cumulative warmth of 372° C. (or 670° Fahr.) is requisite, and that the Spruce will only thrive in those localities in which the sun is above the horizon for at least 14 hours at the precise time at which this total of warmth is reached in spring. Thus, near Vienna this degree of warmth is reached when the day is only 13 hours 54 minutes in duration, and there the Spruce will not thrive ; but at Kalten- leutgeben, at an elevation of over 1000 ft., that total amount of warmth is 330 THE SPRUCE. reached only two days later, when the day is actually of 14 hours’ duration, and there the Spruce finds the essential condition for its thriving fulfilled (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 92). This is a point that should receive careful con- sideration before the Spruce is very extensively planted in the southern parts of England, as it seems to be the natural law limiting the artificial distribution of this tree for sylvicultural operations. Description of Tree.—The Spruce is one of the tallest of the - European Conifer. In the countries to which it is indigenous it frequently attains a height of 150 to 160 ft. and forms full-wooded stems of from 4 to 5 ft. in diameter; and even in Britain it is not unusual to find specimens above 100 ft. in height, with stems of between 2 and 3 ft. in diameter. It assumes a distinctly pyramidal habit of growth. When growing in the open, the stem rises like a perpendicular stalk, clothed with a conical mantle of slender, feathered, horizontal branches from bottom to top. These, when the tree stands free and alone in an isolated position, gradually become smaller and shorter as they are found higher up the stem, thus giving the tree a very regular conical outline. In the younger stages of growth the slender branches generally stretch out horizontally, but in old trees they droop a good deal, and this pendulous habit gives the tree a very graceful appearance. The Spruce is nearly as hardy in Britain as the Scots Pine. But it does not thrive well on high-lying sites if the soil be at all thin and dry: where the soil is favourable, however, it thrives in low-lying situa- tions, as well as at considerable elevations, and is as hardy as any forest-tree that has become a denizen in Britain. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Common Spruce is, next to that of the Scots Pine, perhaps the most useful for boards, planks, and roofing scantlings which has hitherto been grown in this country. It is of excellent quality when of mature age, being very light and pliable. The quality of the wood of this tree is, however, like that of the Common Pine, very much influenced by the nature of the soil and the situation upon which it is produced. When grown on a thin dry soil, the wood is brittle and short-grained; but when grown upon a deep loam, resting on a cool subsoil, it is of a much superior character. In its younger stages of growth the Spruce yields a far more durable timber than Scots Pine of the same age; but the reverse is the case when the trees are full grown, and when their timber has been allowed to attain its full technical and marketable maturity. With the exception of the Silver Fir, the Spruce forms a more full- wooded bole than any other European Conifer. This point is of very great importance from a financial point of view; for the technical utility, and con- sequently the market value, of long logs depends to a great extent on the THE SPRUCE. ook proportion which the diameter of the top-end bears to that of the butt-end. Thus, whilst the form-factor of the Silver Fir ranges from 0.44 to 0.57 (the ideal true cylindrical bole being = 1.00), that for Spruce varies from 0.41 to 0.58, and for Larch from 0.33 to 0.51. The wood of the Spruce is full of numerous microscopic resin-ducts, as well as often containing hollow spaces filled with resin. The best quality of wood is of a reddish-white colour, but both colour and texture, weight, tough- ness, elasticity, and general durability are to a considerable extent dependent on the nature of the soil and situation upon which the trees are grown. There is no marked change between alburnum or sapwood and duramen or heart- wood, as in the case of the Larch and Scots Pine; and, indeed, both in coni- ferous and deciduous trees, any very distinct and immediately perceptible distinction in the nature of heartwood of a markedly different colour from the younger wood seems to have some very close connection with the formation of a pronounced tap-root, and with very unmistakable demands for light and for a large individual growing-space. According to Gayer (Lorstbenutzung, 1888, p. 28), the mean sp. gr. of the chief species of Conifers—which are all lighter than the broad-leaved trees, except the Aspen, White Alder, Silver Poplar, and Lime—is as shown in the following table :— | SPECIES OF TREE. Green. Seasoned. Larch . é ; : ; 3 0.81 0.59 Scots Pine . ; P : : 0.82 0.52 Black Pine . : : 5 ‘ 0.97 0.51 Silver Fir . ‘ ; : : 0.97 0.47 Spruce . ‘ : F : : 0.76 0.45 Cembran Pine : - ; ; ax 0.44 Weymouth Pine . ; Z : 0.83 0.39 Wellingtonia. : : ; : 5 0.38 Spruce is, therefore, a very light wood, capable of being easily floated immediately after being felled. But, for a Conifer, it is comparatively hard : it ranks between Elm, Beech, and Sessile Oak on the one hand, and Silver Fir, Horse-Chestnut, Alder, and Birch on the other. Along with the Silver Fir it heads the list of woods that are easy to split; whilst it ranks only after the Yew and Larch with regard to elasticity. In general durability it slightly surpasses the Silver Fir, and when grown at high elevations, so that its annual zones are narrow and its stem full of resin, it is classifiable as a durable wood, although still ranking below Larch and Scots Pine timber that is not of the first quality. Soil and Situation.—This tree is naturally inclined to grow on cool land having a moist subsoil, and in Britain it is found to suc- ceed best in a low-lying and rather sheltered part. Indeed, upon a high site, if much exposed to strong or cutting winds, it is liable to be blown down, and seldom attains anything like large dimen- sions of timber in this country; and this is more especially the case Bie THE SPRUCE. if the soil upon which it is planted be of a dry, thin, sandy, or cravelly nature, for then the tree generally becomes attacked by fungoid disease, and rots at the heart before it arrives at anything like a useful size. It is in sheltered hollows, with good deep soil and cool subsoil, that the Spruce attains its best dimensions in this country ; and in such situations it is frequently found of from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with stems of from 2 to 3 ft. in diameter. The Spruce grows well on moss-land, after it has been drained and the excess of stagnant moisture has been removed. The tree likes a cool and moist, but not a wet, subsoil. With regard to this particular species of tree the experience of Continental, and more especially of German, sylviculturists is very much greater than our own. ‘There it has been found to thrive best in a cool, damp, humid atmos- phere; and the drier the climate of any particular locality, the greater are its demands for soil-moisture. Hence it is essentially a tree of the mountains, although, owing to its shallow root-system, it is little fitted for planting on localities where the crops are exposed to strong winds. With regard to mineral nutrients, it makes moderate demands on the soil; whilst in respect to the amount of water actually required for transpira- tion, it in reality makes only limited demands. Ebermayer’s classification (op. cit., p. 231) of the Conifers, which make far more moderate demands than the broad-leaved trees, is as follows :— As to mineral food withdrawn As to soil-moisture withdrawn for from the soil. transpiration. I. Making great-| Silver Fir, Cembran Pine, Cembran Pine, Austrian and Corsi- est demands. Larch. | can Pine, Larch, Weymouth Pine. | II. Making moder- | Spruce, Weymouth Pine, Scots Scots Pine, Spruce, Mountain | ate demands. Pine. | Pine. | | III. Making least | Austrian and Corsican Pine, Silver Fir. | demands. . Mountain Pine. As regards transpiration, this classification may seem inconsistent with practical experience ; but it must be borne in mind that, thanks to their deep- reaching tap-roots, Larch and Pines can draw constant supplies of moisture from the subsoil, whilst a sufficiency can only be obtained by the Spruce when the soil is already so moist that a fair proportion of the aqueous precipitations is retained near the surface-soil in the layers permeated by its shallow root- system. It will be noted that long-needled Pines transpire more than Spruces and Silver Firs. Whilst making rather more demands on the general quality of the soil than the Scots, Austrian, and Corsican Pines, it can thrive on land that is too inferior for the production of satisfactory returns by means of broad-leaved crops of trees; and as it is a densely foliaged species, protective of the soil, it gradually (with proper treatment) improves the quality of the land by hus- banding nutrients, and thus gradually enhancing its future productive capacity. THE SPRUCE, 390 Its finest development is attainable on sandy-loamy soil, but it can do well on moist sand, or even on somewhat tenacious land. Where a certain degree of soil-moisture is indicated by the spontaneous growth of weeds like foxglove, epilobium, ragwort, and succulent grasses, the Spruce is almost sure to thrive. It can hardly be disputed that in Britain the development of the Spruce is not so good as throughout central Germany. This fact is probably explain- able by the circumstance that in its true northern home throughout Germany, Norway, and Sweden, as well as in the Alps and over all its southern distri- bution, it has a very long period of complete winter rest from active vegeta- tion, accompanied by a very low temperature for two or three months at a time ; whereas in Britain, on the contrary, the autumn is often of long mild duration, and there is practically very seldom any lengthy period of continuous hard frosty weather, such as is the usual characteristic- of the climates in which the Spruce is indigenous. That our damp, mild, insular winters, which form a very marked contrast with the dry, cold, continental winters of central and northern Europe, tend to predispose the tree to fungoid disease of the stem, can hardly excite surprise in any one who gives the matter careful consideration. Propagation and Culture.—The Spruce is propagated by seed in exactly the same manner as the Scots Pine; and as the details regarding the gathering of the cones, the harvesting and sowing of the seed, are in every essential respect similar (except that the seed of the Spruce ripens and should be gathered in the early parts of spring), reference need here only be made to the detailed de- scription of these operations already given under the Scots Pine (see p. 257). The Spruce Fir, however, is much slower in growth than the Scots Pine while in its seedling state. The seedling plants remain two years in the seed-bed, but they generally require three years in the nursery-rows before they are fit to be put into their final situations in the forest, or even more if they are wanted of large sizes. Asa nurse for hardwood trees, the Spruce does not answer well. Robinia, Larch, Birch, and Scots Pine are far superior for this purpose, as the side-shade they cast around them is not so dense. Besides its being of too rapid growth and too densely foliaged for the deciduous, broad-leaved hardwoods, Spruce has the additional disadvan- tage of forming very fibrous and matted roots. Now these, from their matted closeness, keep the air and moisture from penetrating into the soil for the benefit of the root-systems of the hardwoods, which send their roots deeper down, and consequently much injury is often done on this account. Spruce, like all the densely foliaged species of the coniferous tribe, may thrive well for timber-production when planted pure as a forest crop by itself; but, for various sylvicultural reasons, it is much preferable to intermix it along with other species of trees, broad-leaved kinds as well as Conifers, and to grow them all in mixed woods. It then not only forms a finer stem, but it is also less ex- es THE BLACK SPRUCE. posed to the danger of becoming windfall during violent storms, or to suffer from the attacks of noxious insects or from infection with fungoid diseases. Sylvicultural Characteristics and Importance of the Spruce.—From the very nature of its shallow root-system, the Spruce may be seen to be more naturally adapted for growth on mountain-sides than on alluvial deposits of light soil, where a tangled mass of shallow surface-roots could afford it little support against the violence of high winds, more especially of the south- western storms that often come when the lofty crown of foliage is heavy with moisture, and the ground is sodden with rain. Although rapid in early development, it is not at first of such quick growth as the Scots Pine; but it continues to grow in height for a con- siderably longer period, and it is not until about the 70th to 120th year (according as the soil is of inferior or better quality) that the crops begin to show signs of having reached their full mercantile maturity. It differs again essentially from the Scots Pine in its relation to light ; for whilst the Pine is a light-demanding species, requiring a relatively large individual growing-space when it is beginning to attain the dimensions of a timber-tree, the Spruce is a shade-bearing species, content with a comparatively small growing-space. It therefore remains in close canopy till it reaches its full maturity, and is not only a good soil-protecting, but also, as has previously been explained, a soil-improving species. It is consequently well adapted by nature for the recuperation of soils that may have become temporarily deteriorated under lightly foliaged deciduous crops. But in many cases the same sylvicultural advantages may be attained by means of the Douglas Fir, which yields more remunerative returns in Britain than the Spruce. The needles of the Spruce are persistent for from 5 to 7 years, and though they are short, they form a very thick and close canopy of foliage overhead. Local markets for wood will, of course, in each case determine the age at which crops of Spruce should be utilised ; but on the Continent a rotation of 60 to 90 or 100 years is considered most advantageous. In the formation of young woods, planting of Spruce is preferable to sowing; the plants should be put out between the ages of 2 and 5 years, at distances varying from 2 ft. by 2 ft. to 3 ft. by 3 ft. Good specimens of the Spruce are plentiful in most parts of Britain, and therefore it is unnecessary to refer to them as being found more particularly in any special locality. Trees from 80 to 110 ft. in height, and with stems of from 2 to 3 ft. in diameter, are common in many parts. (2.) THE BLACK SPRUCE or BLACK AMERICAN SPRUCE, Picea nigra, Link. Synonyms—A bies denticulata Poir.; Pinus nigra Ait.; P. Mariana Du Roi ; P. marylandica Hort.; Abies nigra Michx. Specific Character.—Leaves or needles solitary, spreading regu- larly all round the branches, somewhat 4-sided, very short and stiff, THE BLACK SPRUCE. 335 of a sombre dark green, } in. long, thickly set, and erect. Branches horizontal, or in the case of old trees very slightly drooping at the ends. Cones pendulous, egg-shaped, 14 in. to 1? in. long, and # of an inch broad, deep purple in colour when young but of a reddish- brown when ripe. Seeds small, with a little stiff wing (Gordon, op. cit., p: 7). Distribution.—This tree is indigenous to the Northern States of America, from Canada down to South Carolina and California; but it occurs most abundantly between the 53° and 54° of north latitude. It is also very abundant on lands resting upon a cold subsoil in the province of Lower Canada, where it forms large forests intermixed with the Hemlock (7Z'suga). It is to be found plentifully on a great variety of soils in the valley of the Ottawa, intermixed with Wey- mouth Pine (Pinus Strobus) and various kinds of broad-leaved trees. It was introduced into Britain in 1700, and is now frequently to be found in parks and arboreta. Description of Tree.—On deep soil the Black Spruce frequently attains a height of from 80 to 100 ft.; but even the tallest stems are seldom of more than 24 in. in diameter. Generally speaking, it forms a tall slender tree with a pyramidal crown, whose branches spread horizontally, and frequently droop at the ends in the case of old trees. The stem has usually a smooth, blackish bark, is very straight, and as it diminishes regularly from the bottom to the top, it has a low form-factor, indicative of a conical shape of the bole. The whole tree has an open and airy appearance, from light being admitted between the whorls of branches. These are never of a massy or heavy character, like those of the Common Spruce, but are light and pointed, each tier showing its outline distinctly. The tree is well worthy of a place in any park or lawn, for its light spiral form and dark-coloured foliage contrast agreeably, on well-chosen sites, with trees of a flat and denser habit, and especially with those having foliage of a light-green colour. It has always a good effect when planted along the sides of roads in a plantation of broad-leaved deciduous trees, or of Larch, as in such situations the contrast between it and the other trees is very striking, both in summer and in winter. Hconomic Uses of Timber.—In America the timber of the Black Spruce is much valued for its strength, lightness, and elasticity. It is extensively used in house-building, and for fencing purposes, in all localities where it is abundant. The timber is considered durable, and is therefore applicable to many purposes; but it is seldom found of such large dimensions as to make it available for requirements where bulk of timber is an essential condition of its utility. Soil and Situation.—The tree is well known to be perfectly hardy in Britain, and to grow on a great variety of soils. Good 336 THE WHITE SPRUCE. specimens of it may be found growing on almost all lands that are not too light and dry; but it appears to thrive best on a deep, some- what mossy soil, with a cool, moist subsoil. It grows under much the same conditions as to soil and situation as does the Common Spruce; it luxuriates on land having a cool subsoil, and occupying rather a low-lying and sheltered situation. It does not succeed on a very dry site, or in exposed positions. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of this tree is abundant throughout North America, and may easily be procured from nursery- men, Like the seed of all the other North American Spruces and Firs, it should be sown on a light, dry, well-prepared, and rather rich piece of land, and on a warm site and a sheltered situation. The seedlings should stand for two years before being planted out into the nursery-beds, within which they may remain for other two, three, or four years, according to the size of transplants desired for planting out in the open. When very large transplants are required, it is advisable to change them once a-year in the nursery-beds, in order to stimulate the production of rootlets; otherwise large trans- plants form long roots, and when these are removed during the single operation of transplanting, the plants fail to establish themselves readily in their permanent home. Good trees of this species are common in the country, not only in britain but in Ireland as well, many of them having attained heights of from 40 to 70 ft. (3.) THE WHITE SPRUCE, Picea alba Link. SynonyMs—A bies glauca et curvifolia Hort.; A. canadensis Mill.; Pinus alba Ait. ; Abies alba Michx. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, incurved, sharp-pointed, glaucous, 4-cornered, and scattered round the branches; about ? in. long, but frequently longer, and not very thickly set on the branches. Branches compact, and rather dense. Cones oblong-cylindrical, 2 to 24 in. long, and rather more than 4 in. broad at the thickest part, slightly tapering to the point, pendulous, and not very firm (Gordon, op. cit., p- 2). When the cones are ripe, they are of a lghtish-brown colour. Distribution.—Like the Black Spruce, this species is also a native of the Northern States of America, from Canada to Carolina, but is very much less common than the Black Spruce. In America it is generally to be found on dry light lands, and very frequently grow- ing along with or in the close neighbourhood of Weymouth Pine (P. Strobus). It was introduced into Britain in 1700. Description of Tree.—The White Spruce is easily distinguished from all the other species of the genus Picea by the lighter colour of THE WHITE SPRUCE. 337 its leaves, which are of a somewhat hoary grey colour,—hence its name. Even where indigenous this is not a tall tree, nor in any respect one of large dimensions ; for it is hardly ever to be met with over 45 or 50 ft. in height, or with a stem of more than 12 to 14 in. in diameter. It is a beautiful small tree, however, and forms a perfect pyramid when found standing alone and unencumbered. It deserves to be more planted in Britain than it has been; not for the sake of its timber, however, but as an ornamental tree in parks and lawns, and along the sides of roads in plantations. In these situa- tions its light colour and beautiful pyramidal habit of growth would produce varied and agreeable effects when seen contrasted against a background of other trees of darker shades and more rounded out- line. in the American forests opportunities frequently present them- selves for admiring the gorgeous effect produced by this tree, when seen in the autumn in combination with the dark foliage of Pines and the yellow and crimson leaves of the Sugar-Maple. The pro- prietor who may wish to produce a rich colouring of foliage in any particular part of his grounds has only to plant some dark-leaved clumps of Austrian or Corsican Pine in the background, the Sugar- Maple in front of that, and then again the White Spruce in front of the Maple; and when these trees have attained a fair size, he will find the autumn colourings admirable—the yellow, red, and crimson of the Maple, the very dark green of the Pine, and the hoary grey of the White Spruce, blending so as to produce a brilliant effect, almost beyond the art of the painter. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of this tree does not appear to be applied to any technical purposes. In America its timber is not valued at all by the settlers, as in all cases they prefer the wood of the Black Spruce or the Pine, which are usually found erowing along with the White Spruce. Soil and Situation.—This tree thrives best on dry sloping banks, where the soil is light and deep. It grows on heavy land also; but on the latter classes of soil it never attains the same dimensions as it does on lands of a light and deep description. Like the Black Spruce, it prefers a sheltered situation; but it does not stand con- finement among other trees. In the American woods, wherever confined in growing-space by the side-shade of other trees, it remains a mere unsightly pole; where, however, it stands alone, it bears a feathery mantle of foliage right down to the ground. Propagation and Culture.—The methods of producing and of regenerating the White Spruce are in all respects the same as has already been stated with regard to the Black Spruce. At Castle Kennedy and at Hopetoun House there are some good specimens of this Spruce. VOL. I x 338 THE MENZIES SPRUCE. (4.) THE MENZIES or SITKA SPRUCE, Picea Sitchensis Carriére. Synonyms—Pinus Menziesti Dougl.; P. sitehensis Bongard ; Abies Menziesti Loud. ; A, sitchensis Lindl.; Picea Menziesti Carr. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, thickly scattered on the young shoots, narrow, linear, rigid, sharp-pointed, and incurved (see Fig. 59. Young spray of the Menzies or Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis). Fig. 59), leaves or needles rich vivid green above and quite silvery below, from 2 to 1 in. long, soon falling off after the first season, and leaving the old branches very naked, warted, and with a jointed appearance. Buds ovate-pointed, and covered with resin. Cones THE MENZIES SPRUCE. 339 3 in. long, and 1 to 1} in. broad, pendulous, cylindrical, blunt- pointed, and with the scales loose and not compact. Bracteas small, and hidden in the scales; seeds very small, and winged (Gordon, Op: cit pel). Distribution.—This fine species of the Spruce genus was first introduced to notice by Douglas, who sent it home from America in 1831, and named it in honour of one of his predecessors as a pioneer in the American woods, Menzies. It is found between 40° and 57° north latitude, and occurs in great abundance in Northern California, on the island of Sitka or Sitcha, and also in the Shasta country. It ascends the Rocky Mountains to a height of 7000 ft. Description of Tree.—This forms a highly ornamental tree, being of a pyramidal habit of growth, thickly branched, and covered with dense foliage, having a beautiful silvery-green aspect. It is thoroughly hardy, and of very rapid growth. It ought to have a place in every arboretum, park, and ornamental plantation, as no doubt it will become ere long one of our forest-trees, This handsome tree is of rapid growth, and is, along with the Douglas Fir, the most important of our introductions from America. It attains in California a height of nearly 200 ft., with a girth up to 30 ft. It is im- patient of shade from above, but can thrive well in the side-shade cast by other species of equal height. Economic Uses of Timber.—Douglas describes the matured timber of this species as being of excellent quality; and there can be no doubt that this is the case, even judging only from the appear- ance of the wood of some of the larger specimens that have been grown in this country, and many of which are now from 60 to 80 ft. in height. The timber seems hard, firm, and of a durable description. The quality of the timber produced on the Continent of Europe is said to entitle it to rank between the Douglas Fir and the Common Spruce. Soil and Situation.—The Menzies or Sitka Spruce, like all the other Spruces, luxuriates in a cool, moist, loamy description of land. It succeeds on most lands, however, that are not altogether too light and dry; but it makes the greatest and most healthy progress on rather loamy lands, which are porous, and at the same time some- what moist and cool. Although doing fairly well on dry soil, it appears to thrive best on fresh, mild, sandy or loamy soils. When plantations are formed by sowing, some light nurse, like Larch or Birch, is requisite to protect the seedlings against drought and late frosts. The growth of the seedlings is somewhat slow at first, but from the third year onwards it develops more rapidly than the Common Spruce. » 340 THE HIMALAYAN SPRUCE. Propagation and Culture.—The seeds of the Menzies Spruce are now easily procurable, and plants are obtainable at very reasonable rates from nurseries. Plants, however, in the absence of seed, can be readily procured from cuttings; and to this mode of propagation cultivators are obliged to resort when seeds are not to be had. It should usually for plantations be transplanted as a 4- or 5-year-old — schooled plant from the nursery-bed. At first it requires some protection against drought and late frosts, but soon outgrows this, and is then a very hardy species. In nearly all good pineta in Britain there are specimens of this beautiful Spruce, many of them ranging in height from 40 to 60 ft. at 40 years of age. (5.) THE HIMALAYAN SPRUCE, Picea Morinda Link. Synonyms—Pinus Khutrow Royle; P. Smithiana Lamb.; Abies Smithiana and A. Khutrow Loud. Specific Character.—Leaves, singly at nearly equal distances round the shoots, mostly four-sided, somewhat curved, from 14 to 2 in. long, and having very sharp points (see Fig. 60). Its branches spread out horizontally, but those nearest the bottom of the tree are somewhat bent downwards; the lateral branches are very numerous, slender, and drooping. The cones are pendulous when matured, from 5 to 6 in. long, and about 24 in. broad, ovate-oblong, or nearly cylindrical; they have very even, brown, obovate, rounded scales, covered with a glaucous bloom when young. The young cones are at first upright, but owing to their own weight and the slenderness of the branches, they soon become pendulous (Gordon, op. cit., p. 12). Distribution.——The Himalayan Spruce is found on mountains in the interior of India, where it is more frequent on the cool northern slopes than on any other aspect. It forms extensive forests on the great Himalayan ranges of Northern India, at elevations of from 7000 to 12,000 ft. above the sea-level. Thence it extends east- wards into Japan. It was introduced into Britain in 1818. Description of Tree.—The Himalayan Spruce is a magnificent tree, often attaining a height of from 140 to 160 ft., and with stems of from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter near the ground. It is a tree of a very graceful habit. On young stems the branches have an upward ten- dency, but as the trees become older the branches assume a horizontal position from their own weight, and finally in old specimens they gradually take a drooping form, more especially those of them that are situated at the lower part of the stem; and from these branches all the branchlets and small twigs droop downwards in a very grace- ful manner. It is hardy in the climate of Britain ; and though not THE HIMALAYAN SPRUCE. 341 at all likely to be of any real sylvicultural importance, yet it has a decided arboricultural interest. Hence it ought to be cultivated in every park and pinetum. It produces a fine effect when planted along the sides of roads and drives running through plantations. But it can be recommended only for ornamental pur- ! poses, as its timber is soft, Erianliee | and is said to be, even in Britain, of a very perish- able nature. In _ order that it may thrive well, the Himalayan Spruce re- quires to have a cool nor- thern aspect, as in its own home. Economic Uses of Timber.—As already just stated, the timber of this species is comparatively worthless, so that for timber-production it has no claim to our sylvicul- tural attention. Soil and Situation.— The Himalayan Spruce, like the majority of species of this genus, prefers a rather moist, deep soil, but without any tendency to stagnancy of the water in the subsoil. The soils upon which it thrives best are those of a light de- scription, that are deep, Fig. 60. cool, and moist, but not Twig of the Himalayan Spruce (Picea Smithiana). wet. These conditions of soil can always be secured by planting on slopes where there is a good natural drainage, or by artificial draining where that is necessary. A somewhat cool and shady situation is favourable to its develop- ment; for even in our humid, temperate climate it does not thrive so well as it is capable of doing, when it is planted out on warm, exposed, southern aspects. But with a judicious degree of shade and shelter combined, such as may easily be had when it is planted along the sides of roads in plantations, it thrives well, and soon BL ys THE ORIENTAL SPRUCE. becomes a highly ornamental tree. It is chiefly the want of atten- tion to points lke these in the cultivation of the Himalayan Spruce that has been the cause of many of the specimens planted in the country not succeeding so well as their owners were led to expect. It will not stand confinement, however, among other trees; it must have perfect freedom all around. That is to say, it appears to be less capable of bearing shade than the majority of the Spruce genus, and makes considerable demand for individual growing-space. As, however, this tree possesses no sylvicultural value for Britain, this demand for light is of no great consequence ; for all trees culti- vated with a view to the full development of their arboricultural qualities demand a larger growing-space than they could have as forest-crops. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Himalayan Spruce is procured from India from time to time, but is still far from plentiful. It may be treated, in sowing it in nursery seed-beds, in the same manner as the seeds of the Common or Norway Spruce ; and after the young seedlings have come up they may be trans- planted out into nursery-rows in the same way as detailed for that tree (see p. 335). In the absence of seeds, plants may be procured by propagation from cuttings; but these do not grow so freely as seedlings. Some of the finest specimens of this tree are said to be at Drop- more and Elvaston Castle in England, and in the grounds of Hope- toun House and Keir in Scotland. At Shelsley Court, Worcester, there was in 1849 a tree of this species which had a height of 120 ft. (6.) THE ORIENTAL or SAPINDUS SPRUCE, Picea ortentalis Lk. SynonymMs—Pinus orientalis Lamb ; Abies orientalis Poir. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, very dense, partially 4-sided, covering the branches on all sides, deep green on both sides, narrow, but not sharp-pointed, from 4+ to $ an inch long, and rather stout. The branches are straight, slender, and well covered with foliage. The cones are pendulous when full grown, cylindrical, tapering regu- larly from near the base to the point, which is small, 24 to 3 in. in length, and about # of an inch broad at the widest part, which is near the base. Bracteas shorter than the scales, and enclosed (Gordon, opcit., p.29). Distribution.—The Oriental Spruce is found on the coast of the Black Sea, on the loftiest mountains of Imeretia, in Upper Mingrelia, and the neighbourhood of Teflis, forming pure forests in close canopy between Guriel and the Adshar Mountains, at an elevation of 4200 to 4800 ft. above the sea-level. It was introduced into Britain in 1838. ALCOCK’S SPRUCE. 343 Description of Tree.—The Oriental Spruce is said to attain the size of a large and lofty tree of the first magnitude. It is a very hardy tree, apparently as much so as the Common or Norway Spruce ; for it seems to be comparatively insensitive to the frost of our severest winters. It appears, however, to be rather a slow-growing tree, at least in Britain, as in most places it seldom makes more than a growth of 12 in. in height in one year, although under very favourable condi- tions it often grows more rapidly. In the countries to which it is indigenous it is said to attain a height of from 70 to: 80 ft.; but in Britain it lags behind most of the other Spruces of recent introduction as regards its rate of growth in height. Clear drops of resin, called “ Sapindus tears,” exude from the tips of the young twigs. Hconomic Uses of Timber.—The timber of the Oriental Spruce is full of resin, and is said to be of excellent quality, very tough, elastic, and durable. So far as one may yet estimate the quality of the timber produced by this tree in Britain, it promises to furnish wood of a useful kind; but with its slow rate of growth it can never offer sylvicultural attractions like those of the Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce. Soil and Situation.—With regard to soil and situation it appears to make demands very closely resembling those of the Menzies or Sitka Spruce (see p. 339). Propagation and Culture.—The seeds of the Oriental Spruce are chiefly obtainable from seed-merchants on the continent of Europe ; they are almost black, and have short broad wings. The sowing of the seeds and the treatment of the young plants in the nursery are in all respects the same as has previously been described for the propaga- tion of the Common Spruce (see p. 333). In many arboreta throughout Britain there are specimens of the Oriental Spruce which range in height from 50 to 60 ft. (7.) ALCOCK’S SPRUCE, Picea Alcoquiana Masters. SynonymMs—A bies ajanensis Lindl.; A. Alecoquiana Hortor.; Picea jezoensis Carr. ; P. Omorica Pan.; P. ajanensis Fisch.; P. bicolor Mayr. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, six lines long, and half a line broad, curved, rigid, 4-sided, sharp-pointed, and crowded on all sides of the shoots. They are deep green above, somewhat concave, and streaked with glaucous bands below, and on twisted footstalks, placed on diamond-shaped cushions along the shoots. | Cones solitary or subaggregate, oblong-cylindrical, obtuse at the ends, 2 in. long and 4 in. in circumference. . Distribution.—The Alcock Spruce is found on the sacred moun- 544 THE RED SPRUCE. tain Fusi-Yama, in the province of Surunja, on the Island of Nippon in Japan, at an elevation of from 6000 to 7000 ft., where it forms a noble tree, with very small leaves, which are glaucous on the under side. Introduced by Messrs Veitch & Sons in 1861, it was named after Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British minister at the court of Yeddo, in Japan. This species is often mixed up in gardens with P. ajanensis. The latter is believed to be related to the Omorica Spruce (Picea Omorica Pan.), which was discovered in Servia in 1872 by Professor Pancic of Belgrade. The Ajan Spruce (Pzcea ajanensis Fisch.) is found in the drainage of the Amur and in Mongolia. Together with the Menzies or Sitka Spruce these Omorica species exhibit slight botanical differences both from Spruces and from Silver Firs ; hence it is not improbable that they may soon be formed into a genus Omorica by themselves. Their bark is scaly like that of Pines, and not smooth as with Silver Firs and other Spruces. But P. Alcoquiana really belongs to a different set from the Menzies, Ajan, and Omorica species. Description of Tree.—In its native lands this is a large tree, attaining a height of over 100 ft. As the Alcock Spruce is but of recent introduction into Britain, no large specimens are yet available from which to form a reliable estimate as to the true character of the tree ; but it appears to be in all respects sufficiently hardy for our climate. It certainly forms a beautiful, silvery-foliaged tree, of a very graceful habit of growth; and it may confidently be recom- mended as a species in all respects worthy of occupying a place in our arboreta and parks. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood is said closely to resemble that of the Common Spruce, but to be somewhat harder and more durable. Its chief interest is of a purely arboricultural nature, as it does not hold out anything lke the same financial and sylvicultural promise as some of the other Spruces of recent introduction. Soil and Situation.—This species is by no means particular as to soil and situation, provided that the former is not wet, and that the latter is not exposed to strong winds. Fair specimens of it are to be met with throughout Britain on a great variety of soils, and apparently in healthy growth. Propagation and Culture.—The seed of the Alcock Spruce is scarce ; hence plants are frequently raised from slips, as is also the case with the Patton Spruce (see p. 351). (8.) THE RED SPRUCE, Picea rubra Link. Syyonyms—Pinus rubra Lamb.; Abies rubra Poir.; A. nigra var. rubra Michx. ; Picea rubra Carr. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, very slender, awl-shaped, rigid, sharp-pointed, thickly and regularly scattered all round the THE RED SPRUCE. 345 branches, somewhat 4-sided, $ an inch long, and of a glaucous, pale ereen colour. The branches are horizontal and slender. The cones are oblong, egg-shaped, tapering regularly to both ends, pendulous, about 1 in. long and } an inch broad, and of a reddish-brown colour (Gordon, op. cit., p. 11). Distribution.—The Red Spruce is found plentifully throughout Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the northern parts of North America. It occurs extensively around the Hudson Bay territory, and extends up into the Arctic zone, where, as a shrub, it is to be found at the limit of tree-growth (Willkomm, op. cit., p. 96). In Britain, into which it was introduced in 1755, it is in all respects hardy enough for our comparatively mild climate; for it can thrive even in the north of Scotland. Description of Tree.—It forms a tall and handsome tree, vary- ing in height according to the nature of the soil and situation. On good, deep, loamy land, in the northern parts of Canada, it is to be found attaining a height of over 80 ft. There it forms a fine, upright, pyramidal tree, clothed with a mass of branches and foliage from the ground to the top. It may be recommended as a beautiful and highly ornamental tree among others of a spreading habit, whether in plantations, parks, or lawns; for in all cases its tall and regularly tapering form contrasts well with that of other trees of more lateral development, such as Pines and deciduous trees gener- ally, when all are planted out merely in isolated stems. Economic Uses of Timber.—The timber of this species is of a reddish colour and is hard and durable; it is much used in New- foundland for many technical purposes. Like the Patton and the Alcock Spruce, any value it has for Britain is of a purely arboricul- tural and not of a sylvicultural nature. Soil and Situation.—Although the Red Spruce is a native of the colder regions of North America, still it will not attain its best development in Britain unless it be planted on a good, deep, and rather dry soil, and in a sheltered situation. Propagation and Culture.—The Red Spruce is easily raised from seed sown in the nursery on open ground in the same way as the seeds of the Common Spruce. The seeds are very small, and should therefore not be covered with more than, at most, about $ an inch of very fine earth. As the seedlings are very small at the end of the first year, they should be allowed to stand two years in the seed-beds before they are transplanted into the nursery-rows. 346 THE COMMON HEMLOCK. 3. HEMLOCK, 7suvga Endl. (Linnz%an System, Monascta MonaApDELPHIA). The genus Tsuga comprises 6 species, of which 3 are indigenous to North America and the other 3 to Eastern Asia. So far as Britain is concerned, none of the species possesses any sylvicultural interest; but they are of arboricultural value as: graceful exotics. deserving of attention in arboreta and parks. Like the Spruces, the Hemlocks have their leaves persistent for several years. Generic Character.—Evergreen trees, with flat or angular, stalked leaves proceeding from prominent cushions (as in Picea), generally spreading, distichous or apparently so, but erect and in many rows in 7. Pattoniana. One resin-canal runs through each leaf beneath the mid-rib. Buds scaly. Male flowers lateral. Stam- ens on stalked heads. Anthers crested, opening lengthwise. Pollen two-lobed (discoidal in Pattoniana Engelmann). Seeds very small, wing obovate. Female cones terminal. Scales persistent, more or less woody (Masters, op. cit., p. 254). (1.) THE COMMON or CANADIAN HEMLOCK, Tsuga canadensis Carr. SynonyMs—Pinus canadensis L.; Abies canadensis Michx.; Picea canadensis Lk. Specific Character.—Leaves solitary, flat, and irregularly dis- posed in two rows, from $ to ? of an inch long, downy when young, rough at the margins, blunt-pointed, bright, vivid light-green on the upper surface, and with two silvery stripes underneath on each side of the mid-rib. Branches are numerous, slender, and downy when young, spreading, and rather flat. Cones are pendulous on the extremities of the branches, from 2 to { of an inch long, and from 3 to ¢ of an inch broad, of an oval shape, green when young, but brown when ripe. Bark smooth, and of a light colour (Gordon, op. cit., p. 14). Distribution.—The Common or Canadian Hemlock is found nearly all over Canada as far north as 49°, and in the greater part of the northern and eastern states of the North American Union. It is very plentiful in the Canadian woods, from Quebec as far west- wards as Lake Huron. There is, indeed, no tree that is more plentiful in the forests of Canada. It is generally to be found occupying banks on the sides of rivers and along the edges of swamps; sometimes, however, it is also to be found on dry lands, but in such cases the trees are smaller than when growing on a cool, deep, moist soil. This species was introduced into Britain in 1736. Description of Tree—The Canadian Hemlock is one of the THE COMMON HEMLOCK. 347 handsomest trees found in the American woods. In its earlier stages of development, up to about forty years of age, the tree is of a re- markably graceful habit of growth, from the uniform disposition of its still somewhat slender branches all round the stem: these are invari- ably of a pendulous or drooping habit at the ends, and are thickly foliaged with light green leaves. As the trees become older, how- ever, and begin to approach maturity, the branches become larger and stronger; and as these stand out horizontally, they give this species very much the character of the Cedar of Lebanon. In the American woods, where the trees of this species are seen in perfection at all stages of growth, they present very varied outlines, according to their age. In the Canadian woods it is not uncommon to find Hemlock trees over 100 ft. in height, and with stems of from 4 to 5 ft. in diameter. The Common Hemlock has been much neglected by British arboriculturists. Landed proprietors may well be recom- mended to utilise it more than they have hitherto done for orna- menting their home parks; for few trees are more graceful in outline and more ornamental than the Hemlock, not only when it is young, but also when it approaches its maturity. It has proved itself thoroughly hardy in Britain, although it requires a sheltered situation in order to reach its finest development. The height generally attained in North America by the Canadian Hem- lock, when of. true forest growth, is from 75 to 80 ft.; but Continental experience of experimental plantations shows that in Germany it develops only into a small tree of from 40 to 65 ft. in height. Hence it possesses no sylvicultural value whatever ; but that in no wise detracts from its importance from a purely arboricultural point of view. Economic Uses of Timber.—The wood of the Canadian Hemlock is not at all valuable, even in the countries where it reaches its great- est dimensions. In America it is used only for rough planking, and never for any purpose requiring strength and durability. The tree, however, is very valuable for its bark, which is used all over Canada for the tanning of leather. Soil and Situation—The Common Hemlock thrives best on a deep and somewhat moist soil, and in all cases requires a sheltered situation. In the Canadian woods the largest and handsomest specimens are to be found growing on cool, moist, light, deep, and rich land. Propagation and Culture——The Hemlock is propagated from seed, which is imported from America. When received immedi- ately after its ripening in the early spring, the seed should be sown in April, on sheltered seed-beds, and in a fine light soil— and as the seed is small, it should only be covered slightly with 348 THE CALIFORNIAN HEMLOCK. earth. The seedlings should stand two years in the seed-beds before they are transplanted into the nursery-rows. They may stand in the nursery-beds for two, three, or four years, according as small or large plants may be wanted; but if they are desired to be of a large size before the final planting out, they should be frequently transplanted in the nursery in order to increase the number of short fibrous roots. Otherwise, when of a large size, they cannot be transplanted safely, owing to the damage done to the main roots. Specimens of the Canadian Hemlock are now plentiful in most parts of Britain, many of which have attained heights of from 50 to 60 feet. (2.) THE CALIFORNIAN HEMLOCK, Tsuga Mertensiana Carriére. SyyonymMs—Pinus Mertensiana Bongard ; Abies Mertensiana Lind. and Gordon ; A, Albertiana Murray; Tsuga Albertiana. Specific Character.—Leaves green, glaucous beneath, irregular in size, from 4 to ? of an inch in length, and about 3's of an inch broad; they are solitary, grow spirally round the branch, though disposed in an alternate manner, are flat, slightly canaliculate on the upper side, with a mid-rib on the under one generally blunt-pointed, and having a very short footstalk, and are rather thickly placed on the branchlets (see Fig. 61). Branches very numerous, slender, and more or less bent downwards at the ends; branchlets very slender, flexible, long, drooping, and somewhat downy when young. Cones nearly 1 in. in length, pale brown, solitary, oblong-ovate, without any footstalk, and pendulous at the ends of the shoots. Distribution.—The seed of this tree is said to have been first sent to Britain by Jeffrey in 1851, under the name of Abies taxifolia. On further supplies of seed arriving, the species was examined care- fully and was supposed to be Bongard’s Pinus Mertensiana, which is described in Gordon’s Pinetum under the name Abies Mertensiana, by which it is still extensively known. It was believed, however, to be a new species, and was consequently named in memory of the late Prince Consort ; hence it was for a time known by the specific name of Albertiana. The Conifer Conference of 1891, however, adopted the name given above, Z'suga Mertensiana. It is to be found throughout Oregon, Northern California, British Columbia, and Vancouver Island. Description of Tree.—As the Californian Hemlock is of com- paratively recent introduction, no home-grown specimens of it are yet large enough for the purpose of enabling a correct judgment to be made with regard to its general character and habit. Where indigenous it is said to be a fine, graceful, round-headed tree, of 100 THE CALIFORNIAN HEMLOCK. 349 to 150 ft. in height, and with a stem varying from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter. Judging from the appearance and habit of the young trees in this country, it is an elegant and graceful tree, which bears a dense mass of foliage on long, slender, and drooping branches. This species very much resembles the Common Canadian Hemlock ; but Fig. 61. tr —_ A / SSN ft \ Z ve it is more open in its ramification and development of branches, and is certainly a much freer grower, assuming a more upright and tree- like form from its earliest years. It is found to be rapid-growing and hardy in the climate of Britain, and has succeeded well even in Scotland, where one of the oldest, and perhaps one of the best, | Spray of the Californian Hemlock (Tsuga Mertensiana). 350 PATTON S HEMLOCK. specimens in the country is to be found growing at The Cairnies, in Perthshire. This specimen was raised from the first seed that was sent home. The tree is worthy of a place in every arboretum, and must in time become a general favourite with all ornamental planters in parks and throughout the residential portions of large estates. ‘ Hconomic Uses of Timber.—Very little can be said as to the timber produced by this species. Gordon says (op. cit., p. 19) with regard to this wood that it is “ white, very soft, and yields but little turpentine”; whilst Brown remarks that “the timber is said to be firmer, finer, and straighter- grained than the Canadian Hemlock Spruce.” Soil and Situation.—The Californian Hemlock does not seem to make any very special demands with regard to soil, as in Britain it appears to thrive and to grow healthily and rapidly in most soils. So far as an opinion may be offered concerning this species at pre- sent, it appears, like the Common Hemlock and the majority of the short-leaved Natural reproduction of Spruce or Silver Fir in patches. a Young seedling growth, above which the parent standards have been cleared away in order to provide a sufficiency of light, air, dew, &c., for its further normal development. & More extensive patch, now being regenerated by the seed shed. ¢ Exhibiting the method of extending the patches of seedling growth. BB The extent to which the reproduction is being carried out. It of course stands to reason that these different classes of fell- ings are not carried out with anything of stencil-like regularity for different kinds of forest-trees, or even for one and the same indi- vidual species within the area operated upon. Thus, in the case of VWAOIES UE 2N 562 REGENERATION OF WOODS. Oak or Scots Pine, preparatory fellings may not be requisite; there may perhaps be no layer of dead leaves or needles to be stimulated into more rapid decomposition by allowing them to be more freely exposed to light, warmth, and moisture. They are, however, usually necessary in all crops of shade-bearing trees, like Beech, Spruce, and Silver Fir, which maintain even till their maturity a considerable density of canopy overhead. And in the same manner, with reference to the gradual clearances of the parent trees, when once a satisfactory crop of seedling growth has been obtained, the standards must be cleared away with due regard to the specific and concrete demands of the seedlings for light. The seedlings of light-demanding species, like Oak and Pine, become sooner intolerant of overshadowing than those of shade-bear- ing trees; and on somewhat dry sandy soil any species of seedling will need to be freed from shade at an earlier stage of its develop- ment than on fresh or moist loamy soil. In the former case the seedlings droop unless they can obtain the benefit of the night-dews ; whilst in the latter case not only can they thrive with smaller sup- plies of light, but they even require to be protected somewhat against late and early frosts. So favourable is our humid climate to the growth of young seed- lings, that there can be no doubt natural regeneration might profitably be carried out to a very considerable extent in the case of our exist- ing woodlands. And if actuarial calculations be made on purely financial principles, then the benefits of the system must become very apparent—more especially when comparisons are made with the cost of expensive plantations, the plants for which are bought from nurserymen at an outlay, for material alone, often far exceeding the expenditure necessary for the natural regeneration of woods by seed. It has been previously pointed out (see p. 518) that mixed woods have great advantages over pure woods; and in this method of re- generation excellent opportunities are given for the advantageous in- troduction of all such species of trees, broad-leaved or coniferous, as are desired to be introduced either in groups or patches, or merely as individuals here and there on pieces of land specially suitable for their cultivation. In the above method the forester must take an active part in stimulating the mature crop to seed-production. But it not infre- quently happens that even the simple enclosure of woods, or the mere prohibition of grazing, will result in successful natural regeneration, on the mature trees being removed. ‘This system is open, however, to grave objections; it is much too haphazard for properly conducted sylvicultural operations, and gives no guarantee that the crop, which springs up in place of that harvested, is such as may be desired or NATURAL REGENERATION BY ENCLOSURE MERELY. 563 expected. Light-winged seeds, like those of Birch, which lie dormant for years, then often spring up as weeds, and interfere with the utili- sation of the soil in the most economic manner. Natural Regeneration by Enclosure merely.—In countries which have lately been to a large extent cleared of their natural erowth of forest, as is the case in the United States and Canada at the present time, much of the land so cleared could be readily again occupied by trees, were it properly enclosed, so as to prevent cattle destroying the young plants as these rise on it. It is quite certain that large tracts of the land now lying in the unprofitable condition referred to would produce, within a few yeavs, a young and promising crop of nearly all the kinds of trees that formerly grew upon them, were they only protected from the inroads of cattle by fences erected around them. In the majority of cases where clearings of the forests have been made in North America, young seedlings immediately spring up all over the ground, which would soon grow up to form a thick and healthy crop, were it not that cattle eat them as they appear above the surface ; hence they are prevented from rising so as to form crops of any value. In many parts of Canada it may often be observed that, where the forest has been cleared, and where cattle are not kept in any considerable number, the cleared land becomes covered again with a dense crop of trees within a very short time; these grow rapidly, and might easily be made valuable if attention were paid to thinning the trees and to weeding out the less remunerative species. This natural law of reproduction in respect to trees is taken advantage of to a large extent in many parts of the continent of Europe. Where work is conducted in a highly scientific manner, this often forms the chief method of reproducing the forests. With more or less of artificial aid in the filling up of blanks, this method secures full crops over all the ground, which have a greater density than would be attainable by planting, except at a high cost. The same method is now being practised on a large scale, though rather on extensive than on wtensive principles, in India, Australia, and New Zealand. There, where large portions of the natural forests have been cut down, the Governments are enclosing the land and protecting the young trees which spring up naturally on it; and in this way healthy crops are being established, where formerly only too often a mere scrub jungle followed upon the clearings. It is well to bring this fact under notice; for were it properly acted upon in all countries having lands in a similar condition of unprofitableness, new crops would ere long be established, and only a small outlay would afterwards be required to plant up the spots where young seedling growth had failed to germinate. . 564 ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION OR FORMATION. Planting.—Planting having hitherto been one of the most im- portant operations of the forester in Britain, every point bearing upon it, and having a tendency to secure its success, should be carefully and maturely considered before engaging in it; otherwise failure is as likely to attend the operation as success. Every judicious and intelligent forester, before he commences to plant any enclosure of considerable extent, should calculate how he is to get on with it under all or any circumstances that are likely to occur, so that he may never be taken unawares whatever may happen. During the planting season this can always be managed by having other works besides planting ready to go on with if the weather should prove unfavourable. Thus draining, road operations, and thinnings may be kept on hand, so that at any time the men can be turned to these if the weather proves unfit for planting; and the whole arrangement of work may be so ordered that at an hour or two’s notice all the hands can be put to planting when the weather takes a favourable turn. The planting season ought to be to the forester what the harvest season is to the farmer,—a time of anxiety and looking out on the weather; for the results of inattention in this respect are often very great. Large areas may sometimes have to be replanted from no other real cause than that of doing the work hurriedly, and in an apparently cheap manner. But let it be kept in mind that work done hurriedly is generally only half done. Artificial Regeneration or Formation must, of course, consist either of sowing or planting. As a matter of fact, the choice between sowing and planting has practically been settled in this country by the adoption of planting as a rule. This does not, how- ever, prove anything; for there is probably less known about scientific Forestry, or Sylviculture, in Britain than in any other country in Europe, not even excepting Greece and Turkey. In comparison with natural regeneration, the advantages of the artificial production of forest crops consist mainly in being absolutely independent of seed-years,—for nowadays supplies of seed can easily be obtained from other localities and even other countries, whenever requisite——and in the freer hand that is undoubtedly left to the sylviculturist with regard to the general nature of the crop and the introduction of other species of trees in forming mixed woods. And when the methods of sowing and planting are simple and com- paratively inexpensive, artificial regeneration of woodlands does not always or necessarily come more expensive than natural regenera- tions in which large blanks require to be filled up artificially. As operations can also be confined to small annual areas, the work of supervision and tending is also simpler than when several annual uid CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING. 565 falls are grouped together for the various classes of fellings in natural reproduction necessarily extending over several years in the case of even the most light-demanding species of trees. There appears good reason for believing that formerly in the oak-woods of England, sowing was carried out to a greater extent than is now the case. Thus, among the orders of James I. for the conduct of operations in the New Forest, it was specially commanded that, after the requisite work of soil-preparation had been completed by “ploughing of the land for raising of new woods,” acorns were to be gathered and planted “by men’s hands ”—<.., sown, most prob- ably in the manner now termed dibbling.’ Choice between Sowing and Planting.—The proper method of approaching this subject is the actuarial one, although, of course, there are given circumstances of soil and situation for which sowing is not naturally adapted. But, apart from such cases, it is a well-known fact that the remunerativeness of woods and the quality of the timber pro- duced depend to a far greater extent on the tending of the crops at all stages of their development, than on the method of forming the crop from seed. And this being the case, the question of initial costs of formation becomes of great importance when calculated at compound interest till the harvesting of the mature crop, 70, or 100, or 150 years hence. The following extract? will exhibit the chief points to be taken into consideration in otherwise estimating the comparative advantages and dis- advantages of sowing and planting operations under given circumstances :— “Where woodland crops are to be formed for the first time, a choice only exists between sowing and planting, in connection with which—leaving out of sight the special requirements of the various individual species of forest-trees— certain general considerations require to be weighed. “With regard to soil, experience has shown that on places unfavourable to the early development of young crops planting is preferable to sowing, owing to the greater sensitiveness and need of protection of young seedlings during the first stages of their existence. And better results are usually obtainable from planting than from sowing, both on very damp, wet, cold, or stiff soils with a tendency to being lifted by frost, and on very loose soils apt to dry up easily, or on such as may have become deteriorated superficially through insolation and exposure to exhausting winds, or are apt to be in- undated, &c. Where, owing to rank growth of grass and weeds, young growth has to struggle for its existence, sowing is the exception and planting the rule, more especially when the species of trees forming the young crop are of slow youthful development. Unfavourable situation with regard to climate, by retarding the growth during the first few years, also weights the balance in favour of planting, especially in raw localities exposed to frost. But on soils scelles, pamphlet on Arboriculture of the New Forest, 1893, p. 7. 1 La 2 Nisbet, Studies in Forestry, 1894, p. 172. 566 CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING. merely fresh and of a light mild consistency, the happy mean between loose and stiff, neither apt to become too heated or too rapidly cooled, and having no immoderate tendency to rank growth of weeds, sowing is principally adopted, as also on rocky, stony outcrops where there is hardly sufticient soil for the proper carrying out of planting operations. “On the Continent sowing was formerly most generally practised, and it was not till the introduction on an extensive scale of the method of total clearance with artificial reproduction that the present preference for planting became general abroad. In Scotland the total destruction of the woodlands, originally clothing vast extents of still bare mountain-sides, naturally led to the artificial formation of forests wherever the proprietors desired to grow timber, and in the vast majority of cases the condition of soil and situation— raw northern climate, rank growth of heather, heath, and other weeds, and deterioration of the surface soil by long exposure to the effects of sun and wind—naturally pointed to planting as the best, often the only, means of attaining the object in view; as good nursery seedlings, and especially sturdy transplants, had less difficulty in establishing themselves than tender seedlings germinating on the area had in overcoming the disadvantages with which they had to struggle during the first two or three years of their existence. “Where sowing can take place under the shelter of standards or in the lee of crops nearly mature, it is much more likely to be satisfactory than in the open; but under nearly all circumstances there is usually a good deal of work and outlay required for the filling up of blanks, so that the final cost of such young crops is not always less than if planting had been carried out over the whole area at the outset.” The sowing of tree seeds at once.on the forest-land has been largely put into practice in the United States of America. But ex- perience has sometimes shown that in that part of the world the rear- ing of woods from seeds sown at once on the forest-land is attended with much greater trouble and expense than the raising of planta- tions. The crops are apt to be of a patchy and irregular character. On some parts the young trees may be about 10 ft. high; whilst on other parts they are not over half of that height, and may not even exceed 2 ft. in height. Very many of the seeds fail to germinate, or blanks are caused by seeds having been sown too deep or too shallow ; late frosts kill off many of the young plants after they have risen above the ground; birds and mice destroy a large portion of the nuts ; weeds choke many of the plants; and the frost of the first winter after sowing destroys many seedlings.. All these failures have to be made good during the second year, partly by resowing and partly by transplanting from places where the plants stand thickly. Such resowing and planting does not always succeed, however; and generally these operations have to be performed in the third and even in the fourth year after the first sowing, before the crops can be made of proper density. Hence the crops look irregular and patchy. CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING. 567 In Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, a considerable extent of woods has been raised from seeds sown on the land; but in nearly all of these cases the crops are also found patchy and irregular, and not equal, as a whole, to crops reared from young trees planted out from nurseries. Foresters in Britain should, however, make experiments in this branch of tree-culture, in order to satisfy them- selves as to its advantages and disadvantages. The author recom- mends planting as a rule, and sowing only where planting cannot, owing to some particular circumstances of soil, be. well put in operation. It is not advisable to lay down hard and fast rules-as to the general advantages of sowing and planting; for, in all given cases, concrete factors are present which must be known and studied before any sound opinion can be expressed. But certain broad natural principles are of course applicable with reference to soil and situation, organic and inorganic dangers, and cost of production, such as have previously been referred to. It is well worthy of our attention that in Germany, where Sylviculture is much better under- stood and practised than in Britain, broad-leaved trees have always been repro- duced to a far greater extent naturally than artificially ; and that with regard to conifers, natural regeneration and sowing are being far more practised now than was the case 20 or 25 years ago. There it has been found as a practical fact that in plantations the young trees exhibit a marked tendency towards forked growth, and that in other respects the quality of the timber is not so good as in crops formed by seed-shedding or sowing. On this matter the evidence of so eminent an authority on Sylviculture as Professor Gayer of Munich is worthy of consideration ; and it is as follows : — ‘But that the rapid initial development of many plantations considerably affects the quality of the timber produced in comparison with that yielded by crops formed by means of sowing, and that consequently the timber of the former is less able to with- stand the attacks of fungi later on, is no longer a matter of doubt or question, ‘‘Tt must, however, be expressly stated that the youthful development of timber- crops can afford no reliable indication for the future quality of the mature fall. Expecta- tions, anticipations, and suppositions in this respect have no justification ; for the whole matter depends most essentially on the later treatment of the crops (whether formed by sowing or by planting) during the operations of thinning out.” The editor’s opinion by no means coincides with the author’s in this matter ; for unless any special circumstances of soil and climate point to the desirability of planting, then the best financial position and the most favour- able conditions for the young timber-crops are, on the whole, to be obtained by sowing in preference to planting. For further information as to the methods of sowing adopted with regard to each species of forest-tree, the student may be referred to the editor’s British Forest Trees, 1893. 1 Waldbau, 1889, pp. 383, 384. 568 SEASON FOR PLANTING, Season for Planting.—Opinions have sometimes been expressed that the months of March and April are the only proper season of the year adapted for planting operations; yet in many cases autumn planting is really preferable. The months of November and Decem- ber are perhaps best for the planting of broad-leaved species of trees, and February, March, and April for the planting out of coniferous species. If the ground intended to be planted be naturally dry, both broad-leaved and coniferous species may be transplanted in the months of October, November, and December; but if naturally wet, or if the drains have only recently been made, then it is better to delay the operation till the spring months. Healthy plants may be transplanted at any season of the year; but it is only in accordance with the laws of vegetable physiology that the least dis- turbance in the organism should take place in autumn, just after the completion of the active period of vegetation, or in early spring, just before its commence- ment. And, as has previously been remarked with reference to such disturb- ance (see p. 466), it is reduced when large balls of earth are used, so as to mini- mise the interference with the normal balance between imbibition of food-supplies and water, and.transpiration and assimilation in the foliage. When the balls of earth are proportionately large, the planting operations may even be carried out in summer if necessary; but, on account of financial reasons, operations should be confined either to the spring or autumn. At these seasons the tem- perature of soil and atmosphere are not so low as to damage the plants during the operation, nor is the climate so dry as to injure them by excessive trans- piration. But in favour of spring planting it may be said that almost im- mediately after the transplanting the young plants throw out their new roots and establish themselves on the whole more easily ; whereas, if planted before then, they are more likely to be lifted by frost during winter, or to have their hold on the ground loosened slightly by high winds. On the Continent spring planting is the rule, and autumn planting the exception. When there is so much work of this nature to be done that some of it must be performed in autumn, then the operations are carried out on soils not liable to be lifted, and with species which flush their foliage early in spring, like Larch, Elm, and Chestnut. Where planting operations are not carried on extensively, it may be an easy matter to delay work till a certain time in the year, as the private opinion or convenience of the person intrusted with the work may suggest to him; though where 300 or 400 acres are intended to be laid down in wood in one season, it is always found necessary to take advantage of the whole season from the middle of October till April, whenever the weather will permit, in order to have the work all done before the growth of the plants begins, which is generally about the middle of April. Those who advocate planting in the spring months only may say that when the operations are to be executed upon an extensive scale, a greater number of persons may be em- — Pa a A ay SEASON FOR PLANTING. 569 ployed, so as to have the work done in the shorter time; but in most districts the number of good hands that can be put on in order to have the planting of a piece of ground quickly accomplished is often practically limited. Every experienced planter who has had occasion to employ a considerable number of men, in order to get through his work as fast as possible, is aware of the difficulty there is in getting a large number of labourers, from any neighbourhood, properly qualified to conduct the operation well, and as it ought to be done. Common country labourers are seldom acquainted with planting operations, and require at least more than a week’s practice before they can be safely intrusted to carry out the work properly. When a number of inexperienced men are brought together to plant, the work is always badly done, and consequently is seldom attended with satis- factory success in the end. In planting extensively, therefore, it is preferable to perform a part of the work in autumn, to prolong the season of operations, and to do the work in a proper manner with a limited number of experienced men. In planting-up extensive areas with a few good hands at dis- posal, it is not necessary, or even advisable, to begin at one end or side of the plantation, and to proceed regularly over the whole area. On almost every large piece of ground laid out for an extensive new plantation, there is generally a variety of soils and situations; and of this variety of soils and situations advantage should always be taken. When the weather is fine and open, the men may be set to plant upon the most exposed sides or parts of the ground; and when the weather is cold or wet, they may be told off to plant upon the most sheltered parts. Again, in the case of frost coming on, they may be put to other works, such as thinning, making new roads, Xc., which can easily be undertaken during hard weather. This will keep the workinen in constant employment. By conducting planting operations in the above manner, ten ex- perienced hands will do far more work in four months than twenty inexperienced men in two months; and, what is of more importance, the work by the few hands will be much better done, and prove far more satisfactory in the end. A very good common-sense rule is to plant dry ground with an open subsoil in autumn, either with broad- leaved species, Pines, or Firs, and to plant ground naturally cold in the subsoil in spring; also to plant dry, light, and open-bottomed lands in wet weather, and to confine to dry weather operations on ground naturally cold in the subsoil. Any planter who may go to work upon these principles will find the results beneficial. Even when planting operations are confined to the early spring, a commence- ment should of course be made with species of trees like Larch, Birch, Elm, and 570 METHODS OF PLANTING. Chestnut, which break out early into leaf; and the warmer exposures should be planted up before the colder hollows or northern exposures are operated upon. As activity of vegetation is not stimulated so early on these latter situations, there is no necessity for their being planted up so soon as the other warmer localities. The deciduous trees on the whole flush their new foliage earlier than the evergreen conifers ; and this point deserves practical attention, as well as the fact that Pine, Spruce, and Silver Fir have a somewhat greater power of establishing themselves when they have already begun to flush their new foliage, than is possessed by the majority of other species of trees. And so far as individual species are concerned, the older the material used for planting, the more nearly should the actual operation coincide with the most favourable season, &c.—.e., just before the opening of the buds in spring. As a rule, it is better to confine operations in autumn to deciduous species, and to plant out all the evergreen conifers only in spring; for the latter are more apt to be shaken by winds during the winter. Methods of Planting.—In the planting of young: forest-trees, three different methods are in practice among foresters. The first is that of pitting; the second is that of notching, either with the common spade or the planting mattock; and the third is that of tumping or planting on mounds. 1. Pit-planting should be employed for all broad-leaved species of trees, for two years’ transplanted Larch and Pine, and for three years’ transplanted Spruce or Silver Firs. The pits are made with the common spade, at various distances, from about 4 to 16 ft., as the case may be. That is to say, if the whole of the area operated on is intended to be planted with deciduous species, and with two years’ transplanted Spruce or Pine, then the whole ground will need to be pitted to the distance required, care being, however, taken to make the pits for the hardwoods larger than those intended for the coni- fers. In order to do the work properly, all the pits for the hard- woods should be made first, say 15 in. on the side of the square, and 14 in. deep; then, having the pits made at these distances, say, .of 16 ft. from pit to pit, make those for the Firs and Pine 9 in. on the side of the square and 10 in. deep, and just as close one to another as may be considered sufficient for the nature of the ground, or say 4 ft. over all. If, after having the pits made for deciduous species upon a piece of ground, it is found advisable to plant up with one year’s transplanted Pine, then no more pits will require to be made there; for it is not necessary to be at the expense of making pits for any Pine plants which have been schooled for less than two years. In the making of such pits as are above described, the work may often be given out by contract, the contractor being bound to cut off the upper turf as thinly as possible, and to lay it on one side of the intended pit; and in taking out the soil in the act of making the pit, he lays it upon the opposite side, which comes to be of great Se METHODS OF PLANTING. 5Tt advantage in the act of planting. Where the soil is hard in the pit, the pick must be used to open it up to the desired depth. Pits for broad-leaved species, made to the dimensions already named, generally cost about 1s. 6d. per hundred, where there are no large stones or roots of old trees, or from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hundred where these do occur ; those for Pine cost about 1s. per hundred in the former case, and about 1s. 6d. in the latter. i In the case of planting a piece of ground among old roots, the remains of former trees, the pits should be made at least six months previous to their being used. By thus having the soil in the pits exposed for a few months to the weathering influence of the atmos- phere, it is rendered much more suitable for planting operations. The manner of planting the young trees in those pits must be regulated according to the situation of the ground to be planted. If the situation be low and sheltered, only one plant should be put into the centre of each pit. And when once the plant has been brought into proper position, the layer of turf taken from the top of the pit should be divided equally into two, and replaced closely upon the earth again, with the grass side uppermost. But if the situation be rather exposed, then a plant may be put in each of the corners of the pit; and by so doing it is kept firm in its place, through finding sup- port against the sides of the pit. This latter method should always be practised when the plants are apt to be blown about by winds and storms. In planting in such pits, great care is necessary to see that the plants are made perfectly firm in the new soil of the hollow. But in order to attain security, no tramping or treading with the feet should be allowed until the whole of the earth has been put in. Ifthe planter begin to beat the earth upon the roots of the young trans- plant while they are only half covered with soil, he is almost sure to do them injury. When once all the roots are well covered with soil, and the pit filled up, then a good firm tramping with the feet is necessary, in order to keep the plant properly in its place until its roots take hold of the soil. After the earth has been all put into the pit and made firm, the turf should be bedded over the whole as closely as possible, and made firm, in order to keep out the drought. It is, however, only necessary to plant in pits those trees which are of rather large size, such as broad-leaved species, Larch, Firs, and Pines, that have been schooled for two years or more. Transplants of tender age or size, having smaller roots, only require to be planted in the natural surface-soil, which is generally free and open to the roots of all small plants. In Germany, on most classes of soil for which pit-planting is considered preferable, the work is usually carried out by means of conical or circular spades, which are also used for lifting the transplants out of the nurseries 572 METHODS OF PLANTING. (usually close at hand; for, in sylvicultural operations conducted on a financial basis, it is found very much cheaper to raise the plants than to purchase them from nurserymen), so that the balls of earth fit in exactly into the pits or holes made for their reception. By this means the disturbance is minimised, and there is much less danger of the plants being moved by wind before they succeed in establishing themselves firmly in their new and permanent home. ‘ There are many such instruments in use throughout the Continent (see Figs. 109, 110); but in general utility none of them surpasses Heyer’s cylindrical spade, which was first introduced to the notice of planters in Scotland by the editor in 1876 in the following words : !|— Fig. 109. ‘*This little instrument, if not already in use in Scotland, is worthy of introduction. The cylindrical spade (Fig. 109) is from 30 to 38 in, in height; the handle of wood is fastened by iron bands to the wooden stalk, the lower part is of iron. The lower diameter of the cylindrical sheath varies from 14 to 5 in., but 3 may be taken as the average ; the upper diameter is a few lines more, and the height is usually equal to the diameter. The stem of the young plant being _ allowed to pass through the opening ¢ a, so as to come in the middle of the circle, the instrument is forced into the soil up to d, where a small iron plate prevents its further progress. One side, ¢ e, is sharp- ened, the other remaining blunt, so that there is little danger of the Heyer’s Cylindri- workman cutting his fingers in getting out the ball of earth. The cal Spade for whole is turned by means of the handle, and then drawn out, plant planting work, and earth remaining in the cylinder owing to friction. By placing the hand across } d, inverting the instrument, and, if requisite, applying Fig. 110, a slight pressure from above with the thumb, the cylinder of earth A falls gently into the hand. The holes into which the plants are to be brought are prepared with similar instruments of the same dimen- sions, and are thus rather larger than the balls of earth; but both having been slightly compressed during the operation, the first shower of rain (after planting out) corrects this. On inserting the balls, the workman (or boy) presses them down firmly with his thumbs, so as to facilitate their adhesion to the surrounding soil. A lad or a woman can with a circular spade of 2 in. diameter plant 700 or 800 seedlings per diem, including carrying them a short distance from the nursery. For dry loose sand, or for very wet soils, this instrument is not in- tended ; such soils are not cohesive enough to form the balls of earth.” 2. Notching. — The method of planting termed notching or slitting is done with the common spade or the planting-mattock. It is the practice most com- monly in use for the planting of all small naked Cylindrical Nur- 3 ; 3 i sery Spade for seedlings, such as two years’ seedlings, or one year’s lifting trans- plants. transplanted Pine or Larch. The great point to attend to in this system of planting is to see that the cut or notch be properly closed about the young plant after it is inserted: this should be done by the planter using the heel of his shoe in beat- 1 Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 1876, p. 234. METHODS OF PLANTING. 573 ing the cut all quite close again. The system of notching-in plants with the planting-mattock is done upon the same principle as that by the spade, and is generally practised upon a thin hard surface, where the latter could not be used conveniently. Planting by the system of notching is carried out by a man and a boy, and may be explained as follows: The operator, with his spade, makes two deep cuts upon the turf, crossing at right angles exactly where the plant is to be put in (Fig. 111). He next inserts his spade across one of the ends of the four rays, as at a, which may be about 5 or 6 in. from the centre, this insertion of the spade being made on the side next himself. When the spade is inserted at a, he bends the handle or head of the spade towards himself, and nearly to the ground. | At this stage of the operation the turf will open in the centre of the cross in four equal parts, but most from the point a; and at this instant the boy inserts his plant at the point a, where the spade intersects the ray from the centre. Immediately on inserting the plant he will draw it to the centre, while the planter will retain his spade for a moment until the boy has the roots rightly adjusted after pass- ing them through the cut. As soon as this is done the operator raises up the handle of his spade, letting the earth and turf down upon the roots of the plant; he then makes all the cuts close and compact about it by tramping with the forefoot first, and then with the heel. If the cuts do not close tightly, as is sometimes the case when the sod is of a hard benty nature, a little piece of thin turf may be taken from the open space and placed over the cut, in order to keep out the drought; and this also gets tramped in with the foot. When the situation to be planted by notching is upon a sloping brae, the operator should stand with his back up the hill and his face looking down. By doing so, he inserts his spade for the opening of the turf at right angles with the rise of the ground upon the upper side; and in this case the water coming along the surface is intercepted by the cuts, and retained for the advantage of the young trees. Another point to attend to in the putting out of young trees by notching is to see that they are not inserted too deeply, for this is an error in planting which very often takes place. In order to avoid this error, so detrimental to the health of the plants, the boy should be instructed to hold the young tree between his forefinger and thumb, just about 1 in. above where the earth has been formerly. When he puts it into the cut, he should hold it firmly by that part until the turf falls down into its place; and if he finds that the turf, when down, is much above the points. of his finger and thumb, he must pull it up a little, so as to have these resting upon the surface Fig. 111. a 574 METHODS OF PLANTING. of the turf. By attending to this precaution, the young trees will have a better chance of succeeding well. The boys are frequently left to make the plants firm in their place; but this should never be allowed by any man who wishes to do anything like his duty to his employer. The forester in charge must therefore see that the men employed on the work of planting should be made accountable for the planting out of the young plants in a proper manner, and not the boys. For light descriptions of soil there are some German methods of plant- ing very closely allied to notching in their principle. They are all based on applying pressure to the soil so as to bring it in close connection with the roots ; hence they are not applicable on binding land, as that would be apt to flatten the root-system of the small naked plants, which are alone used in this way. The following is one of the best of these for ordinary purposes. The principle and method will easily be seen from the accompanying illustra- tions (see Fig. 112). In this the planting-stick may either be an iron instru- ment or simply a crooked bit of wood shod with Fig. 112. iron at the tip, about 3 to 4 in. broad at the top, 4 and 1 to 2 in. broad at the point. The first insertion (@) into the soil is at right angles to form the bed for the plant ; the next is as in the figure (>), and takes place, with simultaneous pressure in the direction from to a so as to fix the seedling, when the plant has already been brought into place. In order that the roots may lie properly, the plant is inserted deeply into the The Planting-stick. hole, and then pulled up into its true position, so as to prevent it becoming twisted. A third pressure with the instrument (c) is made in order to close up the aperture at b. The whole work can be easily done by one man, woman, or child. This is an extremely cheap method. In order that the naked seedlings may not be exposed to drought, the roots are kept well moistened by being mlched or steeped in a loamy solution when given out to the planter. This method of planting is very easy to learn. The chief point to be insisted on is that the plant should be inserted well into the first opening ; then it must be shaken slightly, and drawn up to the required height. 3. Tumping or Planting on Mounds.—In this method the roots of the plant are brought above the level of the soil, in place of being put in below it. It is a form of planting that is practically only in application on very damp soils, prone to rank growth of grass and other weeds, or on land having an unfavourable subsoil, which it is not convenient to trench or plough up. It is not likely ever to acquire any very extensive practical application, for it is rather a costly method. And if drainage works be executed, planting operations will usually be more successful, and not in the long-run more expensive, by means of simpler methods. The soil has to be scraped together and arranged in a mound, of greater or less height according to the circumstances of each case. When the plant is METHODS OF PLANTING. 575 brought into position, and the earth has been well placed around its roots, the whole is turfed over with the grass cut away from the spot occupied by the mound (see Fig. 113). From the great amount of manipulation required, it can easily be understood that this method is somewhat expensive. Some combinations of all the above methods can take place, as may be readily understood, without any detailed descriptions, from the following illustrations (see Figs. 114 to 116). Thus, in the first of these (Fig. 114), a combination of pitting and tumping is exhibited, im which the earth loosened from the pit is formed into a mound with a hollow encircling it, so as to retain Fig. 113. Ordinary method of Tumping with Combination of Pitting and Tumping with naked plants. naked plants. Biganns. aes Fig. 116. Combination of Pitting and Tumping with Combination of Notching and Tumping with balls of earth. naked plants. rainfall : this method is adopted in Germany on very dry soils. A similar method is exhibited in the next illustration (Fig. 115), showing how large transplants hollowed out of the nursery-beds may be made into mound plants in shallow pits—a system said to yield good results in the Black Forest when old grass-lands, in situations exposed to late frosts, are being planted up. The remaining illustration (Fig. 116) exhibits a combination of notching and tumping employed on old grazing-land and moist land overgrown with weeds. The sod of turf is turned back, so that its upper surface comes to lie on the face of the ground ; and then on this raised sod, of about 12 to 16 in. square, the plant is notched in by the ordinary method with the planting-stick or by means of a heavy notching-iron (Fig. 117) having a long stalk, and weigh- ing from 16 to 22 lb. It consequently requires a strong man to work it with both hands ; whilst a boy inserts the plants in the manner already described as to the use of the planting-stick. The great point in planting with this instru- ment is to prevent any vacant space being left near the base of the roots of the plant. It is therefore necessary for the man to pull the top of the instru- 576 METHODS OF PLANTING. ment towards himself when the plant has been inserted, shaken slightly, and drawn up to the position it should occupy in the ground. By this jerk he Heavy Grubbing-iron used for Notching. closes the lower earth against the deeper rootlets; and then by pressing the handle of the notching-iron towards the plant, the upper portion of the root-system becomes firmly fixed in the soil. A repetition of the pressure at a little distance helps to bind the soil, and to prevent a deep pocket being left for the lodgment of water. Of course there is here a decided tendency towards pressing the roots into an abnormally flat shape not natu- ral to young plants ; hence the method is only applicable to very light soils. Under such conditions it is, along with notching by means of the planting-stick, one of the most rapid and the cheapest methods. Where, however, small plants can be put out by means of Heyer’s cylindrical spades, involving only small balls of earth round the roots, no method of planting can well be cheaper; and by the adoption of the latter method there is an easy solution of one of the great problems of planting on soils of medium consistency—viz., how to plant up large areas of land, in a short space of time, and at a comparatively small out- lay, so as to obtain satisfactory results. Trimming of Plants.—Whenever plants are trans- planted a certain amount of disturbance is caused through- out the organism ; and in order to balance the derangement which takes place in the root-system, or imbibatory portion of the plant, a corresponding trimming of the crown is requisite in order to curtail the demands of the foliage for food-sup- plies, and more especially for water for the purposes of transpiration. Now it is self-evident that the larger the class of transplant, the more likely is damage to occur to the roots ; and consequently the greater is the need of adjusting the rate of transpiration to the capacity of imbibition. All such deliberately inflicted injuries are, however, to a greater or less extent a drag on the normal development of the plants; hence, whenever possible, the use of small material and of simple methods of planting is advisable in preference to larger transplants and costlier methods of planting. But as transplants must, from the nature of the rank growth on many classes of land, often be used, a certain amount of trimming Pruning or Trimming Shears. can hardly be avoided in the in- terests of the initial growth of the young plantations. And when the plants have in the nursery-beds formed long straggling rootlets, and these are not cut away by the use of the cylindrical HINTS CONCERNING PLANTING. 577 spade in lifting them from the beds, then some of the roots may require to be cut back, as well as the twigs of the crown. For such trimming operations on young plants the use of garden-shears is strongly to be recommended (see Figs. 118 and 119). The trimming should take place either in late autumn or in early spring ; and care must be taken never to injure the leading-shoot. Hints concerning Planting.—In planting on bare rocky soil, the work may often be performed by means of the planting-mattock (Fig. 120). The handle of this instrument is generally made about 36 in. long, and of a piece of good Ash-wood. | The. lip or cutting end, a, is about 44 in. broad, and somewhat sharp; and the length of the one side, from the face to the eye, is about 12 in. The other side, instead of being broad and sharp, is made to taper to a point, as in the common pick (see 6). In using this implement Fig. 120. for the purpose of planting upon thin, stony, or rocky ground, where the spade could not be used to advantage, the operator takes it into his hand in the same manner as he would do a common pick, and first pares off a thin part of the turf with the Te Planting-Mattock. broad end a, exactly on the spot where he intends to plant a tree. Having taken off a sod of turf about 6 in. square, he next with the pick-end loosens the soil to the depth of about 8 in., bringing up at the same time to the surface any stones that might interfere with the planting of the tree. In this manner any number of men may be employed, care always being taken to keep to the specified distances as nearly as circumstances will permit. In general, every two men employed with the planting- mattock are followed by a boy or man having the trees in an apron, which he plants in the spots prepared. In planting with small seed- lings, he uses an implement called the planting-hoe (Fig. 121). The iron part of this implement, from @ to 0, is generally about 9 in. long. The lip or sharp end at @ is made about 4 in. broad, and is not so sharp as the lip of the mattock, as it has to be used in the earth; the handle may be about 15 in. long. The person who is intrusted with the planting of the seedlings in the spots previously prepared by the men with the mattocks, carries his plants in an apron before him. In using the planting-hoe, he keeps it in his right hand, and digs it into euch spot; and by pulling it, when in, a little towards himself, he makes a sufficient opening at the back of it to hold the roots of the young tree, which he puts in with his left hand, insert- ing the roots very carefully. As soon as the roots are properly in- WOH. Ts 20 Fig. 121. The Planting-Hoe. 578 HINTS CONCERNING PLANTING. serted, he withdraws the instrument, taking care at the same time not to disturb the plant in its position. When the implement is out, he gives the earth, upon the side of the hole next to him, a push with its lip, in order to bring the loose earth into the hole about the roots of the newly inserted plant; and a finish is given by tramping and making the plant firm in its place. In this manner three men will put out up to 2000 plants a-day. : This is very much the same as the German planting-stick (Fig. 112); but the latter instrument seems somewhat simpler and more handy. On very bare or rocky surfaces, it is not always possible to get as much earth in a certain spot as will properly cover the roots of small seedling plants. Where this is the case, it is a better plan at once to sow the seed of the trees; indeed this is the only way of getting young trees to grow in certain districts. This plan has been adopted in some parts of the West Highlands of Scotland, and has been attended with good success. Trees, of almost every common variety, may sometimes be seen growing upon old walls, or in any chink of a stone where the seed has only got a small portion of earthy lime or other decomposed matter to vegetate in; and in this position they may attain consider- able dimensions, so as even to rend into pieces the wall in which they have got a footing. Similarly, in the crevices of rocks trees of very large dimensions may sometimes be found growing, which indicates that, where a young tree can only obtain a very slight footing for fixing its roots, it can often establish itself securely. Many bare rocky parts of our country might easily, under proper management in growing the seeds of forest-trees upon them, be made very productive and valuable, not only as a shelter to the surrounding country, but as yielding a profitable crop of timber. The Oak, the Ash, and the Birch, for example, are all well adapted for this purpose, and might often be made to yield very fair returns as coppice—the Oak and Ash in moder- ately exposed, and the Birch in high and exposed, parts of the country. The first crops on such land might hold out no immediate promise of re- munerativeness ; but if proper species of trees were sown, the productive capacity of the soil might be greatly enhanced through the formation of humus, and by the protection of the land against insolation and the drying effects of wind. In such localities crops of Spruce raised from seed develop a large root-system, which protects the woods against windfall. For first crops, in reclaiming exposed rocky tracts, the editor would suggest Spruce, Mountain-Pine, and Larch to be sown experimentally. Where sowing operations are carried out on poor, thin, rocky soil, the seed is not so apt as otherwise to be destroyed by mice, birds, and other vermin, which are in the habit of frequenting more favoured spots for the sake of cover and shelter. HINTS CONCERNING PLANTING. 579 In growing trees from seed in such situations, it is necessary to keep the patches clear of weeds for the first two years. In the planting of coniferous species, care should be taken not to put them in too deep; for in this respect most of them are sensitive, and fail to establish themselves in a rapid and satisfactory manner. In planting trees in pits, the planters should always be very careful to see that the best portion of the soil is put next the roots of the plants. If this point be not attended to, the success will not be equal to what it might be. They should also bear particularly in mind to chop down and pulverise with the spade all soil which is laid close to the roots. If merely put in about them in lumps, vacuities will be left, which will probably cause water to lodge there and increase danger from frost ; whereas, when the soil is made firm and small, it gets in about the tender roots, prevents the lodgment of superfluous moisture, and decreases the danger of the soil being lifted by frost. Where pitting is performed upon a sloping piece of ground, such as the side of a hill, the earth, as it is taken out of the pit, should be put to the under side, and close upon the edge; and when the plants are placed in the pits, the good soil upon the upper edge of the pit should be broken well down with the spade, and put in about the roots of the young trees. The soil which was taken out of the pit is still left lying upon the under side, in order the better to protect the roots from drought and to retain moisture about them: it thus forms, when the tree is planted, a bowl in which a little moisture can be retained in its descent down the hill. These depressions also tend to collect dead foliage; and this, on decom- posing, fertilises the soil, and tends to enhance its productive capacity. Fig. 122 illustrates this sort of pitting: a represents the earth taken out of the pit; 0 the tree standing in the pit which has been filled up with earth by reducing the bank behind as at d; whilst the original slope of the ground is indicated by the line from ¢ to e. owX Spruce, although not indigenous to this » Ws country, will do well when planted in a high aly _ exposed situation, and may even attain very SZ y I y good dimensions if sheltered by other more GY “a hardy trees, such as the Pine and Larch. Li ~ SS Every planter, therefore, desirous of producing ¢ \ Sa a variety of trees in any high part of the s country, may plant Spruce so as to raise timber of good and useful size, if the soil be not too light. For light soil, Pines of various species will probably yield more profitable results. Fig. 122. 580 DENSITY OF PLANTATIONS. In planting trees in ravines and steep hollow parts, the distance between the plants should not be measured according to the slope of the ground, but in the manner represented in Fig. 123, drawn to the scale of an eighth of an inch toa foot. The line a 6 represents a sloping bank to be planted with forest-trees at 4 ft. apart; the places of which are shown in the figure at c, c, ¢, c. By measuring upon the line a 6 with an eighth- of-an-inch scale, it will be at once seen that the distance between each tree from ¢ to ¢c is 6 ft. If the plants be put in at 4 ft. by 4 ft. along the slope, then the trees would really have a lateral growing-space of only about 24 ft. imstead of 4 ft. In taking distances for planting trees in a case of this nature, the operator must always keep his measure-stick, if he use one, in the position pointed out in the figure by the line from ¢ to d. Or, in other words, he must, when taking a measurement for planting another tree, set the one end of his measure- stick at the bottom of the last tree planted; keeping it level, he then lets fall a perpendicular from the other end for the place where the next tree is to be planted, as shown by the dotted line from d to «. This seems to presume that the planters will work continuously down- wards from above, then upwards from below. It would, of course, be a great saving of time and of energy to plant in horizontal lines, which should pre- viously be marked out by the forester or plantation overseer. Density of Plantations.—Every private proprietor of land, in planting a portion of it with trees, has usually in view— 1. The deriving of the greatest possible clear or net revenue from the land under a crop of wood, without diminishing its productive capacity. 2. The most economical way of attaining this end; and, 3. The quickest possible way of producing both shelter and revenue from the land planted. This third point is of course practically included in the second. Forest lands are naturally divisible into three distinct classes— (1) sheltered and low-lying; (2) moderately sheltered and low-lying ; and (3) high-lying and much exposed. Each of these classes of land demands particular attention, in order to come to a sound conclusion as to the proper distance for planting trees. Oe DENSITY OF PLANTATIONS. 581 1. With regard to the distance at which young plants should be put out in a sheltered and low-lying situation, every one is aware that trees will in such a situation grow more freely without any artificial means being used to protect them, than they would were the same species to be planted in an exposed part. The artificial method used by experienced planters for the protection of young trees growing upon an exposed part is to plant them pretty closely to- gether, so that they may soon afford shelter to one another. Hence, in a sheltered part of the country, they may be planted at any dis- tance consistent with future good management and profit; and this must be regulated according to the demand for the various sizes of wood required in the neighbourhood. Take, for exaniple, the case of two estates, both situated similarly in a low-lying and sheltered part of the country, but the one in a neighbourhood where small wood is much in demand, and the other where no such wood could be sold to advantage. In the case of the former proprietor, whose estate is situated in a neighbourhood where small trees or thinnings are much in demand, it would not be wisdom in him to plant at such wide distances that he could not thin out any of his plantations till his trees become nearly of timber size. The plants might therefore be closely planted at 3, 34, or 4 ft. apart. Again, in the case of the proprietor whose estate is situated in a neighbourhood where no small wood can be sold to advantage, it would not be wise of him to plant his trees so closely as the other proprietor, seeing that he cannot get any of the small thinnings sold as they may have to be taken out in order to give the others room. All the pre- liminary operations of tending would therefore be weedings and clean- ings going to swell the costs of the plantation; whereas the thinnings can only be said to begin when the returns obtained on their disposal cover the cost of the operation, or yield a tangible monetary profit. Undoubtedly it will be best for him to plant at such distances that the weedings and clearings are reduced to a minimum, without inter- fering with the development of the plants, until they attain a size fit for useful purposes in the neighbourhood before the thinnings can begin. In these two comparisons the author believes the whole secret as to distance in planting in sheltered localities to ie. In such situations they might be planted at 4 to 5 ft. apart, as at this distance, tree from tree, they will be able to stand together till such a time as they will be, when cut down, fit for most country purposes, without doing injury to one another. 2. Again, laying aside every local consideration as to the sale of the thinnings, trees growing upon what may be termed moderately low-lying and sheltered parts of the country, or in a situation between sheltered and exposed, ought to be planted more closely 582 DENSITY OF PLANTATIONS. than those in a sheltered locality, both on account of the general health of the trees individually, and of the plantation as a whole. In order to make up for the shelter possessed by trees in a naturally sheltered site, those in a less protected part require to be planted so closely as to produce shelter to one another artificially, and that to as great an extent as the nature of the site may demand. In such situations, again, he would advise planting at 3 ft. to 4 ft. apart. At distances much wider than 4 ft., the young trees will hardly thrive well: they would probably be much checked by exposure and want of due shelter. 3. In all situations which may be termed high-lying and exposed, or very exposed, no young trees should be planted more widely than 34 ft., whether the weedings, clearings, and first thinnings may meet with a ready market or not. The great point to be aimed at, in the erowing of timber in such situations, is to produce shelter as quickly as possible among the trees themselves; and this can only be done by planting rather closely at the outset. Even although a portion of the trees should be cut out (weeded and cleared) as they become too close, and allowed to le as useless and unsold, no objection should be made. They will have answered their purpose, namely, that of producing artificial shelter for a time, and of developing the plantation as a whole much more healthily and quickly than could have been done without them. These considerations comprise, in the opinion of the author, the whole art of judging as to the distance at which trees should be planted in any given locality of country. This distance will in all cases be regulated by the demand for timber in the neighbourhood, whether that may be for small or large, or both together, and at the same time by the site of the ground to be planted. If the situation be sheltered, the trees may be planted more thinly, as local circum- stances may demand; and if it be exposed, for the sake of the general and future health of the plantation the trees must be planted closely, in order to produce artificial shelter. He therefore recommends generally, that on low-lying and natur- ally sheltered parts of the country broad -leaved species of trees should be planted at 15 ft. apart, and made up with nurses to 5 ft. over all; that on moderately sheltered parts they should be planted at 12 ft. apart, and made up with nurses to 4 ft. over all; and that on high-lying and exposed parts Pine and Larch only should be planted, and at distances varying from 34 to 4 ft., as the case may be. The Question of Density in Plantations is one of the weakest points in British Forestry. It is no exaggeration to say that there is a most lamentable want of knowledge on the subject. It is entirely owing to the want of know- ledge in the past that the most of our coniferous woods are so rough-stemmed mine PY ~ a> gt ura DENSITY OF PLANTATIONS. 583 and knotty as to be shut out of use for Government work unless specially passed for the purpose. Such a restriction has never been applied to timber imported from the Continent, where the woods are managed on rational principles, so as to form long, clean boles, free from branches and knots. About 20 years ago it was the practice to have the woods very open. Thus Campbell Walker, in his Report on English and Scotch Forests, 1872, in speaking of the Scone woods, says :— *“Mr M‘Corquodale lays it down as a rule that the average distance between trees in a plantation should be one-third their height. Thus, if trees average 30 ft. high, they should stand 10 ft. apart, and so on.” This is no doubt an excellent rule of thumb for Arboriculture ; but for Sylviculture it is entirely inapplicable, as being uneconomical and inconsistent with those financial considerations which should form the basis of all forest operations throughout Britain. The author’s opinion, expressed in the preceding paragraphs, is already a step in the right direction; but it has no true scientific foundation. It is guided almost solely by financial considerations as to the time at which thin- nings can be made, so as to yield an early return from the initial costs of for- mation of the plantation. It overlooks the fundamental fact that the density of the plantation, and the weedings and cleanings that are usually necessary, at more or less of outlay, before thinnings can yield any returns, and the thin- ’ nings themselves, are all factors and operations that should be undertaken with the express intention of producing a mature crop of timber of the highest financial value, in the shortest space of time, and in the most economical manner. The true sylvicultural object in making plantations of different density has mainly reference to the time at which the young crop should form close canopy in order to utilise the productive capacity of the soil to its fullest extent, and in the most economical manner.! Sylvicultural experience in Germany—and they have the advantage over us of understanding and of practising Forestry on scientific principles there—has shown “that under ordinary average circum- stances the plants should be able to form canopy in about 5 years’ time, and that the necessary individual growing-space should be fairly well assured to each plant until between the 10th and 15th year. . . . 3- to 5-year-old Spruce, Silver Fir, and Oak should not be planted more than 40 in. apart.” ? Soil and Situation of course exert great influence in the matter of fixing the density. On all lands of an inferior nature, that are apt to become heated, or wherever the conditions are unfavourable to the development of the young crop, planting should be closer than under more favourable conditions. The Species of Tree is also of great importance ; for light-demanding kinds, like Larch or Scots Pine, cannot thrive if planted so close as shade- bearing species. And, again, Silver Firs, that are slow in beginning to shoot upwards, require to be more closely planted than other kinds of trees which are of more rapid development in their early stages of growth. 1 A fuller consideration of the principles involved will be found in the editor’s Studies in Forestry, 1894, chapter viii., pp. 158-178. 2 Gayer, op. cit., p. 354. 584 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. The Size of the Plants is of course also one of the main factors; for young naked seedlings must be put out closer than stout transplants. The Market for Thinnings certainly deserves attention. But this should be treated as a subordinate matter only, and not as one of the factors primarily determining the density of the plantation. The Costs of Formation also deserve consideration ; for the greater the density, the higher is the cost of planting up land. This factor is of course moderated by the use of small material, and the choice of simple methods of. notching and the like on land favourable to the latter. The gist of great sylvicultural experience, which we shall do well to weigh and test, is contained in the following extract from Gayer : !— “In general, the experience won in planting wide has not been favourable ; and in many localities, in order to reduce the cultural costs, sylviculturists have gone so far as to plant shade-bearing kinds of trees even at distances of 74 to 10 ft. apart. Wide planting is only judicious when it concerns light-demanding species like Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Elm, Lime, and Larch, which are of rapid growth, and which are being put out as large trans- plants of 6 to 8 ft. in height; but otherwise close planting deserves the preference. Whilst the absolute density of plantations must depend in each concrete case on all the various factors of influence, the average results of experience prove that, in general, the distances at which plants should be put out in squares range as follows :— For Shade-bearing Species and the Oak. For plants under 8in. inheight . : : 1 to2 ft. apart. " from 1 to 2 ft. " : : : 2 to 22 " " " 3to4 n " . . . 22 to 4 '" " n 6to8n " 5 Ps a 4 to 10 " For Light-demanding Species. For plants under 8in. inheight . : : 12 to 33 ft. apart. " from 2 to 4 ft. " : : . 34 to 5 " " n 6to8 un " ; : , 5 ft. or more apart.” Conduct of Planting Operations.—In all planting operations the overseer should be a man who has a fair amount of practical knowledge. Unless he has had experience upon an extensive scale, he will not be able to judge for himself in any extraordinary contin- gency. A man who is allowed to undertake planting operations without proper practical training is generally put out by every change of the weather, and then does not know how to proceed. In such extremities he seeks the advice of others, who very probably are as ignorant in the matter as he is himself. Hence an inexperienced man is hable to take injudicious advice, and then the whole work goes wrong; time is lost, the work is badly done, and, in the end, failure may be the result. This state of things often happens in planting operations. For the guidance of those, therefore, who may not have had much experience, a few simple instructions may here be laid down as to the best method of procedure in the carrying out of extensive planting operations. 1 Gayer, op. cit., p. 354. CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 585 All the land intended for the growing of timber-crops should be drained or otherwise prepared for planting, as has already been ex- plained in chapter vi. Care must be taken to ensure that the drains have had sufficient time to act upon the land, that pits for the larger- sized plants have been opened a sufficient length of time to ensure that the soil taken out of them has been improved by the weather before commencing to plant,’ and that any other operations have been performed which are likely to contribute towards success. When all the necessary preparations have been carried out, the person who is to take the management of the work must, before commencing opera- tions, duly consider the nature of the situation in which he is about to plant. Suppose, for example, that it may be an- extensive piece of moorland containing several varieties of soil. In this case, he should first begin upon one side of the ground, and make notes as to the kinds and quantities of trees he will require for each particular part. Thus, for instance, it may be naturally divided into the following classes of land :— . Thin heathy ground, with high exposure. Good loamy soil, upon a slope. . Moss 2 ft. deep, resting upon clay. Deep moss, but well dried. Strong clayey soil, upon a level. . Light sandy soil, resting upon rock, Bare rocky parts, and here and there good dry loam. Having ascertained the different extent of each class of soil, either by actual survey or by estimate, the forester should next put up a pin, with a number upon it, in the centre of each compartment, and enter a corresponding number in his note-book, with, for example, the following details :— “IC: ore OO lS No. 1. Twenty-seven imperial acres of thin heathy ground, to be planted with Scots Pine, Austrian Pine, Spruce, Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce, and Larch, one year transplanted, of each an equal number, and at 4 ft. apart. No. 2. Ten acres of good loamy soil, upon a sheltered slope, to be planted with 193 Oak and 193 Ash to the acre, and made up to 4 ft. with smaller Beech and Sycamore, of each an equal number. No. 3. Twelve acres of moss, 2 ft. deep, resting upon clay, to be planted with 193 Oak and 193 Ash per acre, and made up to 4 ft. with Spruce and Nordmann’s Fir. No. 4. Twenty-four acres of deep moss, well dried, to be all planted with 2-year transplanted Scots Pine and Spruce, Sitka Spruce, and Douglas Fir, at 4 ft. apart, 1 It is an advantage of Heyer’s cylindrical spade, and of similar implements for planting, that the balls of earth fit into the holes made for their reception. Hence the pre- liminary operations can take place at any time, when convenient, or even simultaneously if desired. 586 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. of each an equal number, excepting 3 acres in the centre, which cannot con- veniently be drained, and which must be planted entirely with Alders, at 4 ft. apart. No. 5. Thirty acres of strong clayey loam, upon a level, to be planted with 1210 Oaks to the acre, and made up with Sycamore and Beech, to 4 ft. apart over all. No. 6. Seventeen acres of light sandy soil, resting upon rock, to be planted with 302 Scots Pine and 302 Larch, 18 in. high, to the acre, and made up to 4 ft. over all with 1-year transplanted Austrian and Corsican Pines, of each an equal number, No. 7. Forty-three acres of bare rocky ground, with here and there spots of good loamy soil, to the extent of 6 acres in all. The bare rocky ground to be planted with 2-year seedling Mountain Pine, Larch, and Scots Pines, of each an equal number to the acre, and making them stand 3 ft. plant from plant. The good loamy soil to be planted with Ash, at 12 ft. apart, and made up with Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, and Beech, to 4 ft. over all. It should be noted that it is often preferable, having consideration to variations in the soil, to introduce the better classes of trees in patches here and there, rather than scattered equally over the whole area. Now, supposing the forester to have gone over the land, and to have marked down in his note-book the different natures of the soil and the kinds of plants that he considers will be most likely to thrive there, he must next calculate the number of each kind of tree he will require to have brought forward for the planting of each of these different classes of land. In order to assist him in this calculation, the following table will be found useful :— TABLE sHow1nc THE NUMBER OF PLANTS REQUIRED PER IMPERIAL ACRE, FROM 1 TO 30 FT. APART. Distance. Imperial acre. Distance. Imperial acre. Distance. Imperial acre. | Ft. Numbers. Ft. Numbers. Ft. Numbers. 1 43,560 83 603 16 170 14 19,360 9 537 164 164 2 10,890 94 482 17 150 o4 6,970 10 435 173 142 3 4,840 103 395 18 134 34 3,056 — || - 11 360 183 127 4 2,722 114 329 19 120 4h 2,151 12 302 193 114 5 1,742 12} 270 20 108 5} 1,440 13 257 22 90 6 1,210 134 239 24 75 64 1,031 14 222 26 64 7 889 14} 207 28 55 74 774 15 193 30 48 8 680 || 154 181 32 42 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 587 In the above case the calculation drawn up by him would be as follows :— STATEMENT or tHE Numbers anp Kinps or Younc TREES REQUIRED TO PLANT THE DIFFERENT COMPARTMENTS IN —— PLANTATION, UPON THE Estate oF ——, 1894. Be ablinga vik 2 Be le z a | a ca] Ss} & = g | 4 a 3 2 Folia |S £ Sess see | 0) i ee aah ee a ere en Sn Ce I as, Heyy 5 5 7 = = 3 a a o 5, = 5 i) A < mM < Rn a n 4A ° < ==} Th < 5) = 1 | 27] 12,249 | 12,249 | 12,949 | 12,249 | 12,249 | 12,249 73,494 Bel 10 1930|1930}11,680}11,680} .. | .. Ea |e eeet 8) 2 2316 | 2316|14,016|14,016] .. | .. .. | 32,664 4 | 24/14,200| .. [14,290] 14,291) 14,291 8166] .. .- | 65,328 5 | 30 3630 39,015/39,015| .. | .. .. | 81,660 6 | 17| 5,134] 18,003 5,134 18,003] .. | 46,274 7 | 43|59,694| .. .. | 4,840] 4,840] 59,693 1812] 4,840} .. | .. | .. |59,693] 195,412 peer ee = | 163 | 91,367 | 30,252 | 26,539 | 31,390 | 31,390 | 77,076 | 7876 | 6058 | 69,551 | 64,711 | $166 | 18,003 | 59,693 | 522,052 It is hardly necessary to give any explanation of the above state- ment. Upon looking back to the particulars concerning the second compartment, as they were supposed to be noted on the ground, it will be seen that it contains ten acres, which number is stated in the second column from the left hand in the above table. Next, it was to be planted with 193 Oaks and 193 Ash to the acre. Now, if these numbers be multiplied by 10, for the number of acres, this gives 1950 Oaks and 1930 Ash for the whole district; and these figures are accordingly entered under Oak and Ash in the statement. But the plantation is to be made up to 4 ft. with a mixture of equal numbers of smaller Beech and Sycamore. Now, taking the table of distances to hand, it will be found that, in order to plant one imperial acre with trees at 4 ft. apart, 2722 are required; but as 386 Oak and Ash already go to the acre, this quantity must be deducted from the 2722. Consequently 2336 Beech and Sycamore remain to be planted as a matrix; and as these ruling species are to be mixed in equal numbers, just exactly the half of the last number, or 1168 of each, will be needed for every acre. And as there are ten acres of ground to plant in this instance, the total number of Beech and of Sycamore required will be 11,680, which must accordingly be entered in the statement. In the same manner the number of plants requisite for each of the other districts is determined; and in the summing up of the whole it will be at once seen that, in order to plant the whole 163 acres, the forester will require to bring forward 588 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. to the ground 522,052 plants of the various kinds and requisite sizes stated in their respective places. When these preliminary steps have been taken, the forester must next arrange for the requisite number of plants to be brought forward and sheughed in their respective compartments—z.e., lodged temporarily in the soil, if the nursery be too far off to have the plants transported simply as required. Great care is requisite in bringing forward the young plants to see that it is done during open weather, and when there is a little moisture if possible; and if the plants are to be brought far from the nurseries, all their roots should be covered during the journey, in order to prevent the air from having any bad drying effect upon them. As soon as the cart arrives, a deep dry part of the ground must be chosen for sheughing or laying them in. This requires to be done in a very cautious manner, care being taken not to employ too many hands on the work at once. If this point be not carefully attended to, there will be a great chance of failure in the results of the work. It may be remarked here, however, that the plants need not be all brought forward at one time, but only as many as may be wanted for planting one or two compartments; for if they are all lifted at once from the nursery and sheughed on the area to be planted up, then they might, in the case of bad weather coming on, have to lie so long as to get injured in the sheugh. In the present instance the sheugh- ing is merely referred to in order to illustrate how it should be gone about, whenever necessary. Wherever large sylvicultural operations are contemplated, financial con- siderations demand that the plants should be grown in nurseries by the forester. Forestry cannot be practised on the soundest financial principles when large sums have to be paid to nurserymen for plants. On extensive wood- land estates there ought always to be a permanent nursery for schooling plants ; and besides that, where planting operations are likely to be conducted in the course of two or three years, temporary nurseries can easily be formed here and there in convenient localities, so as to have a good supply of plants available. This method is not only much cheaper, but it creates less disturbance in the plants than when they have to be transported for considerable distances, either on carts or otherwise. In sheughing the young trees, a trench should be dug deep enough to hold the roots easily ; and the turf and earth which are then taken out should be put upon that side of it which is meant to be the out- side when the work is done. On having this earth levelled along the back or outside of the opening, if the broad-leaved trees are intended to be put in first, this may be done without loosening the bundles (for it is presumed that the plants are tied up in bundles), as they are not apt to spoil although they lie some time in the ground in a crowded state; but if the plants are Firs or Pines, then CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 589 the bundles should be opened out, and the plants spread out upon the side of the trench, but not more than 2 in. thick. When the whole length of the trench is filled with the plants, whether deciduous or coniferous, the finest of the earth from the next trench should be put on their roots, and made up with a sufficient quantity of soil so as to cover the roots of all the plants laid in, as well as to make another opening large enough for another row. When the roots are thus suffi- ciently covered, the whole should be trodden down slightly in order to keep out frost. After this has been done, any fine earth in the bottom of the trench which is to receive the next row should be filled into the open parts about the necks of the plants in the line put in, so that no spaces may be left for the air to get down to the roots. After re-levelling the surface of fresh earth which is put above the roots, the front of the new trench may be lined off and filled up as before. Many planters are very careless about this part of the work, and sheugh in the plants in a very casual sort of manner; but the plants should be as carefully put into the earth as if they were to remain in the sheugh for months. Should frost set in, and should snow follow, then the plants may lie in the sheugh for perhaps a couple of months. When the weather breaks, if such plants be made use of for planting operations, a large proportion of them will most probably die. Such a manner of going to work would not only be discreditable to any forester, but also ruinous to the proprietor. And in the same manner all the plants belonging to the other compartments should also be sheughed in a piece of dry soil. The editor begs to point out that all this unnecessary expense, risk, and trouble arises simply in consequence of the custom in Britain of plants being bought from nurserymen, in place of being reared either in temporary nur- series on the area planted up, or in a permanent nursery conveniently situated near some central point on the estate. In all countries where Sylviculture is practised on rational principles, the owners of woodlands cultivate their own seedling crops in nurseries. The young trees having been all brought forward and sheughed in their respective places, the superintendent of operations must next consider the number of men he may require for carrying out the actual work of planting. In this case he had much better select a few good hands, and have the work done properly, than gather to- gether a number of labourers, who have perhaps never planted a tree before, and who may very likely be regardless as to how the work be done, provided they receive their daily wages. If useful instruments like Heyer’s cylindrical spades (Fig. 109) be used, the most ignorant hands—men, women, or children—can do the work just as well as the most intelligent workmen. To make a hole in the ground with an 590 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. instrument, for a boy to fill up with a ball of earth practically of the same size, requires no knowledge that cannot be acquired thoroughly in a few minutes, even by a very ignorant person. Say, for example, that the planting is to be commenced about the 1st of February, and that the forester, on account of having other plantations to make the same season, is anxious to have the plantation in question—that is, the 163 acres referred to above—finished in the course of four weeks. There are thus 163 acres to be planted in four weeks; but at that season of year it is more than likely that a portion of the time will consist of broken and bad weather. In order, therefore, to have the work finished if possible by the time specified, instead of calculating that it is to be done in twenty-four days, he must deduct a portion, and say that the work is to be done in eighteen days. He will thus have 479,375 plants to put into the eround in eighteen days. By the system of notching, he may gener- ally calculate that a man in a short winter day, working from eight in the morning to four in the afternoon, and allowing one hour for rest, should plant one thousand young trees with ease, and at the same time do his work well. If aman be much hurried at his work, he cannot do it well: the forester should, therefore, not hurry his men unreasonably, but should only make them give a fair day’s work, and then it will be much better done than otherwise. As the whole is to be completed during the month of February, when the men, instead of working from eight to four, can work from seven to five, each man will be able, with the assistance of a boy, to plant 1500 plants if experienced in the work ; but if inexperienced, the hands may perhaps not plant over half that number. Now, if the total number of trees to be planted, 522,052, be divided by 1300, the number that a man can plant in a day, it will be found that the whole task will represent about 402 working days. But if twenty men be employed, they will plant 26,000 in one day; so that twenty men should finish the work in about twenty days. As, however, all the planting that has to be done in pits will take much longer than notching, special calculations will have to be made. Say, for example, that of the above 522,052 plants, 450,000 can be notched, whilst the remaining 72,052 must be planted in pits, and that the latter can only proceed at the rate of 500 per man per day, then the actual number of days’ labour required will be— 450,000 72,052. It will therefore take 10 men 49 working days, 20 men 24% days, 30 men 164 days, or 35 men 14 days, to complete the work; hence, arrangements must be made accordingly. CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 591 After making a calculation of this nature, the forester should, when the men begin work, keep a note of the number of the trees planted during the first day or two, and compare the work actually done with his previous estimate. By doing so, he will ascertain how far the estimate is likely to be correct, and will accordingly be able to put on more men, if necessary, in order to ercomy ete the operations within a given time. Now, supposing that the forester has all his men ready to com- mence work, that he has given them orders to meet him on the ground at a certain time, and that he intends to commence by planting No. 1, being 27 acres of thin heathy soil, not adapted for the growing of broad-leaved species, to be planted with Scots Pine and Larch, 4 ft. apart, one year transplanted, of each sort an equal number. On the morning appointed he should be on the ground before any of his men are collected. For, if he be a man of an indolent habit in the morn- ing, the men will very likely prove the same; consequently the work will not go on in a prosperous manner, and there will be small hopes of getting through it in time. When all the gang is collected and ready to begin work, he will arrange the work to be done during the day. If it have the appear- ance of being fine weather, he may put the men to plant upon the most exposed parts of the grounds; but, otherwise, he should begin operations upon the most sheltered parts. He should come provided with three or four poles, such as farmers generaily use for straighten- ing and measuring off their furrows; and while it is still dark and the men are collecting, he should pace off, upon one side of the ground to be planted for the day, the proper breadth for the men to be em- ployed upon. At the end of that distance from the outside, he should put up one of his poles as a guide for the innermost man to go by in the act of planting; and in the same manner he will mark off the whole length of the ground by one or two more poles before the men commence. The poles being set to the breadth required, he should next see that each of his men has provided himself with a boy or a girl for handing him the young plants, and that each of these attendants has brought a strong apron for holding the latter, so as to protect their roots from the wind, as well as to keep them together while he takes out one at a time with his right hand. He should also examine the sort of spades the men have brought to work with. For the purpose of notching, a half-worn common garden-spade is a very useful imple- ment, and more especially when it has a blade of about 8 to 9 in. in length. In all notching operations, therefore, every man should be told to bring along with him such a spade as above described; for experience shows that the man who uses a new one cannot plant 592 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. nearly so well, or so rapidly, as he would do with a half- worn, sharp-edged tool. However, those who may not be satisfied with using old spades will find in any nurseryman’s warehouse an excel- lent implement, the planting-spade, made specially for plantation purposes. These planting-spades are of the same form as a common garden-spade, but are smaller in the blade. They have the shears, or that iron part which clasps the wooden handle, made stronger than - in the common garden-spade, in order to resist the more certainly the strong pressure which is sometimes put upon the handle in the act of notching upon the tough turf. The corresponding instrument in Germany, the notching-iron (see Fig. 117), is made entirely of iron, except the top-handle. But in many cases there is simply an iron knob in place of any cross-piece at the top-end. Having satisfied himself on these points, the forester should next cause some trustworthy old man to take charge of the plants that have been sheughed, and his duty will be to give out to the boys the different species of plants as they are required. This must not be permitted to the lads themselves, as they would most likely remove the earth from the roots of the plants when they came to take away a quantity ; and, besides, they might make mistakes as to the quantity required to be taken at one time. The boys should be instructed to go to this old man whenever they require plants, and to bring with them in their aprons each time about 50 Larch and 50 Scots Pine, with their roots laid inwards. That is to say, the old man will take 50 plants of Larch and place them in the boy’s apron, say upon the left side, with their tops out and their roots inwards, and he will also take 50 Scots Pine and place them in a similar position upon the right side of the apron. This precaution is necessary, in order to protect the roots from the winds and drought. It is not necessary that the man should count every plant he puts out; but if he count a few times, he will very soon be able to give the boys about the desired number, care being taken to give about an equal number of each kind of plant. When the men, with their attendants carrying the plants, are all ranged in a line upon the edge of the ground to be planted, so that their backs are towards the plantation-ground and their faces towards the fence or boundary from which, they are to start, and each man has been given his breadth to plant, the forester should take a spade and show them how he wishes the planting to take place. He should also explain the manner of keeping the proper distance between each two consecutive plants, and must at the same time show the boys how to put the plant into the notch when it is opened by the man, as has previously been described. CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 593 He should now see that his men go to work according to the in- structions given them, while he also exercises sharp supervision to see that they make the boys insert Larch and Scots Pine alternately into the notches. As has previously been explained by the editor, it is often preferable to mix the species in small patches, rather than in a stencil-like, regular, and forced manner, irrespective of variations in the quality of the soil. It is only in the former case that the fullest advantages of mixed planting can possibly be obtained. More especially is this the case with regard to two species like Larch and Scots Pine, whose natural requirements as to nutrients, and whose accommodative power on soil not exactly favourable to them, are vastly different. . The men may now go on briskly with their work, the forester keeping a sharp look-out behind them, to see that they do the work according to the directions given. If there be any new hands among them, he will, of course, have to pay most attention to them; whilst he can leave more to themselves those whom he knows to be well acquainted with the work. He must go backwards and forwards among the planters, minutely examining the work, and seeing that it is being conducted properly. When the least fault is observable, it ought to be checked at once, and the fault laid to the person who did it; and if he persist in doing the same thing over and over again, the better way is to pay him off at once, rather than run the risk of having the work badly done. An example will thus be made among the men, showing them that the orders of the forester must not be trifled with. Every cut made with the spade in the act of planting a tree should be firmly closed, in order to prevent the lodg- ment of water, and to obviate increase of danger from frost. When any boy has his supply of plants nearly finished, he will give these to the man whose assistant he is, and run for a fresh supply while the man is planting them. As the supply of plants is generally not far off, and as the old man is ready to give them out at once, a boy may be back with a fresh supply before the man has the few remaining plants notched in. Some planters have one boy serving the others with plants, but this method is open to the objec- tion that the roots are more exposed to drought. When the planters have arrived at the other end of the ground laid off for them by the poles, the forester will, from the pole at which they ended, measure off another space of the same description as the first, and cause the men to fall in upon it, and plant back- wards another breadth of land, ending in a line with where they pre- viously commenced. In order that the men may not be delayed, he should have the land measured off previous to their finishing the first piece, and should make the pole at which the men end the last to be VOL., I. 2P 594 CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. removed, and the first to begin at again. By going to work in this manner, he can always be on the spot to see his men fall into their proper places again upon the new land; and thus the planters will cross and recross the ground until they have the district finished. When there may be any odd corners to finish, upon which the whole number of men could not be profitably employed at once, the forester should cause a few of his most trustworthy hands to com- | plete the work, and carry off the others himself to commence upon another compartment. Whenever the day may turn out wet, the men should only be allowed to work as long as the ground is not saturated with rain— that is to say, as long as the young plants can be placed firmly in the eround. As soon, however, as the earth fails to set properly around the plants, orders should be given to drop work. Upon dry ground, however, this state of things will seldom occur. Nae supposing that the planting of compartment No. Lhas been finished, and that the forester wishes to go on with work in the next compartment, No. 2. This consists of 10 acres of good loam upon a sheltered slope, and is to be planted with 193 Oaks and 193 Ash to the imperial acre—ze., each species in squares of 15X15 ft. and then to be filled up with smaller Beech and Sycamore to the distance of 4 ft. over all—ie., to a total of 2722 per acre. Here it is under- stood that the pits have been all made a considerable time previous to the actual planting, and that it is now intended to plant, beginning with the Oak and Ash. As stronger transplants will be used for these two species, the boys will not be able to carry so many plants as they previously did in the case of the smaller Pines and Larch; hence about half the previous number, or about 50 in all, will be a fair load. It is best to plant out the Oak first of all in squares of 15 ft.x 15 ft. and then to plant the Ash in the middle of these squares, so that they will also be at 15 ftx15 ft. A difficulty will now face the forester, for he will find that with double squares of 15 X 15, giving 386 plants per acre, he will not be able to place the remaining 2336 plants per acre conveniently at 4 ft.x 4 ft. all over the land, and will therefore have to adopt 3? ft.x 3 ft. for convenience in filling up with the Beech and Sycamore. It will be evident that, in order to use a 4 ft.x4 ft. scale for filling up, he should, in the first instance, have calculated the Oak and Ash at double squares of 16 ft.x16 ft, or else have ordered a sufficient number of Beech and Sycamore for making up to the number of 3112 plants per acre, at 3%. 3 ft. He can easily help himself out of the difficulty by using all ihe Beech and Sycamore at 3? ft. apart, and then either getting more plants or filling up the blanks with any convenient species easily obtainable and suitable for the soil. CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS. 595 This is again a case in which the advantages of the Continental method of planting in patches, and not with any stencil-like regularity over the whole area, are distinctly evident. For the Oak and the Beech can thrive on the somewhat drier patches of soil, whilst Ash and Sycamore will undoubtedly thrive best on the moister land. The bulk of the Oak should therefore be put out on what appears to be the better and drier land, and filled up with Beech chiefly ; and the bulk of the Ash should be planted on the moister ground, and filled up with Sycamore chiefly ; whilst on the remainder of the compart- ment the mixture may be more general, according to the number of plants of each kind still at disposal. In the above case the editor has deliberately varied the data, so as to show how the forester must learn to help himself in any difficulty, or when a mistake has been made either by himself or others. The utility of any forester is in great measure proportional to his power of extricating himself from diffi- culties that must arise now and again. Such mistakes do occur; and if there are temporary nurseries close at hand, or if a permanent nursery is maintained on the estate, a fresh supply of the most suitable plants can easily be obtained on the shortest notice. In the act of planting in the pits, if the situation be exposed, the plant should not be put in the centre of the pit, but rather in one corner of it (Fig 124, a), so as to obviate the bad effects arising from the wind shaking young plants before they establish themselves. In the former position Fig. 124. the young plant has two firm sides to rest upon instead of the open soil all around it, as is the case when it is planted in the centre, as at 6; but in the - latter position it has food-supplies more easily avail- able, and can develop its root-system more equally all round. These are matters of detail that must be decided by the forester according to the given circumstances of each concrete case; for no hard-and-fast rules are applicable in planting operations. Where the situation is sheltered, planting is advisable in the centre of the pit; but otherwise it may be recommended to insert the plant at the corner opposite to the direction of the prevailing strong winds in spring. Whatever position, however, may be resolved on, the boy holds the plant in its place until the man with his spade fills in all the loose earth taken out of the pit; whilst the boy keeps moving the plant slightly up and down until he finds the earth heavy about its roots. When the whole earth is in, the man should take hold of the plant, and judge if it is too deep; if so, he should pull it up a little, and then with his feet make the soil firm about the roots of the newly inserted plant. As it is understood that in forming the pits the turf, when taken off, has been divided into two equal parts, the man will next take the divided sod and place it, grass undermost, upon the surface of the pit, with 596 PLANTING IN MOUNTAINOUS TRACTS. the plant in the centre, and make it quite firm and close about the same. The earth upon it should then be pared off, and put with care upon the joining all round, the whole then receiving a firm treading down with the feet. And in a somewhat similar manner all the other compartments will be taken in hand, each being completed before a move is made to the adjoining compartment, and a commencement being made with - the large transplants before the work of filling up with smaller trans- plants or seedlings is undertaken. Planting in Mountainous Tracts.—In making plantations on what may properly be termed mountainous parts of the country, say at elevations ranging from 1000 to nearly 2000 ft. above the level of the sea, they should always have a very much larger area than plantations on a lower-lying tract of land. Unless planted in large masses so as to afford shelter for themselves, however, the individual crops fail to attain any considerable value. As a rule, the higher- lying the site of a plantation is, the larger it ought to be, so as more certainly to secure the advantages of artificial shelter in proportion as the means of natural shelter are wanting. The want of attention to this very essential point in dealing with plantations in very high- lying or mountainous parts of the country is the cause of many of the existing woods throughout such districts being found of so very little value to their proprietors. Im the Highlands of Scotland, as well as in many parts of the northern counties of England, plantations ex- tending to only a few acres in each case may be found on sites fully 1500 ft. above the sea-level; hence the result is that the crops are stunted and comparatively worthless, whether as shelter to their neighbourhoods or for producing timber profitably. Had these plan- tations been made to extend over 300 or 400 acres in each case, their crops would probably have been very much more valuable to their proprietors in every respect. And had they been made still larger in extent, they most likely would have been even more valu- able; for the value of plantations in mountainous districts generally increases more or less proportionately with their acreage. When the extent of a plantation in a mountainous district has been fixed upon, the first points to attend to are the draining of all parts of the land that are found either wet or retentive in the sub- soil, and the soil-preparation generally. There is, generally speaking, far too little attention paid to this very important point by most planters at the present day. The great majority are satisfied with making a few open cuts on absolutely wet spots, and think that for the purpose of growing a crop of trees, it is unnecessary to spend money on land which, often erroneously, they consider naturally poor. This is one of the many great mistakes that obtains in British fores- PLANTING IN MOUNTAINOUS TRACTS. 597 try at the present day. But as the matter has been fully threshed out in chapter vi, there is no reason for here even recapitulating the advantages of soil-preparation. No farmer of intelligence would now expend labour and means on land without first seeing that it was thoroughly drained and prepared for the best growth of crops. And yet proprietors of woodlands still go on in the old way, planting crops of trees on land without preparing it first of all, although, without more or less preparation, it is naturally unsuited for the best and most profitable development of trees. Hence the many unsatis- factory crops of young trees now to be seen all over the country. On all mountainous districts soil-preparation is perhaps more necessary than on lower-lying parts; for, in situations that are natur- ally cold, the land requires to be made warm in order to stimulate the vegetative energy of trees in our cool, damp climate. In prepar- ing land for planting on all very high-lying districts, therefore, it should be borne in mind that much of the future success of the crop will often depend upon how this soil-preparation is carried out. If inefficiently performed, the crop will often be unsatisfactory; but, if thoroughly done, it may contribute very greatly towards the financial success of the sylvicultural operations. The nature of the soil and of the surface-herbage should next be considered, with a view to judging what kinds and sizes of plants ought to be used. In all probability, however, it will be found most advantageous, on such a high-lying part of the country as we are now supposing we have to deal with, to plant coniferous species only, as the cultivation of broad-leaved trees is on the whole less profitable in such localities. A large choice, however, remains open, from Pines, Larch, Spruce, Douglas or Red Fir, Menzies or Sitka Spruce, Noble Fir, and other exotics, which have proved themselves hardy in this climate, and hold out fair promise of produc- ing good, useful timber in large quantities. The advantages of forming mixed woods should also be kept in view. The sizes of the plants to be used must in each case be regulated to a certain extent by the nature and strength of the herbage grow- ing on the surface. On the lower-lying parts of the land embraced, there will most likely be hollows and flat portions on which the herbage is grass with ferns intermixed. On such tracts both grass and ferns are likely to grow to considerable strength in the summer time; and consequently schooled plants (2-year-old transplants) of a strong and somewhat tall description may have to be used, in order to avoid the danger of having them choked by the weeds. For seedlings that have been transplanted, even for one year only, pits will usually have to be made, as it would be unsafe to plant young trees of any con- 598 PLANTING IN MOUNTAINOUS TRACTS. siderable size by the common system of notching. The pits for these may be made to the breadth of a common spade on the side of the square, and at least 10 in. deep; and in making them, attention should be paid to loosening the earth in the bottom of each pit with a pick, after it is hollowed to the desired depth. The pits for this class of plants should be all made at least three months previous to the time of planting, in order that the soil thrown out and the earth - on the sides and bottoms of the pits may have become ameliorated by the action of the weather before it is put to the roots of the plants. Under such circumstances it becomes a question whether tumping or mound-planting may not be preferable,—that is to say, cheaper, and as likely to prove successful. For, in tumping, smaller plants can be notched in at less ex- pense ; and if they can only be protected against the rank growth of weeds by being thus raised up, then smaller plants establish themselves more readily than larger transplants. And in such cases, where a home nursery is close at hand, excellent results can be obtained at a moderate cost by the use of large cylindrical spades (see Figs. 109, 110). The condition of the herbage on the surface of the parts lying next above these lowest levels will now have to be taken into account before deciding as to the size of plants to be used on them. The herbage may be heath, or it may be of a grassy description, according to the nature of the soil; but in either case, from its being at a higher elevation and probably on a poorer quality of land than that on the lower-lying parts, it is not likely to attain nearly the same strength in summer. Consequently a smaller size of plants may well be used on these parts,—say, for example, yearling seedlings that have been schooled for another year in the nursery. As these are of small size, varying from about 3 in. in the case of Spruce, or 4 in. for Scots Pine, up to 9 in. high in the case of Larch, they may be all planted by the common system of notching. With regard to the highest-lying portions of any tract to be planted up in a mountainous district, the herbage is generally of a very short description, and for the most part consists of heather or short wiry mountain grass. And here the soil is for the most part so poor and thin that no tree will thrive so well on it as the Scots Pine; hence this species should mostly be cultivated on those tracts, with other species sparsely mixed, in order to see how they thrive. In such localities yearling seedlings schooled for another year generally answer best ; for they are always well supplied with roots in proportion to the size of their tops, and if properly put into the ground rarely fail to establish themselves well even in lofty situations, provided always that the plantation is of large extent, and that the plants are put in closely, This class of plants may be planted by the common system PLANTING ON HILLSIDES AND HIGHER UPLANDS. 599 of notching, or with the planting-iron, as is generally done in the planting of high-lying districts in Scotland. In tracts that are really classifiable as mountainous, it is usually advisable to raise the crops from seed, and to reproduce existing woods by the method of natural regeneration. Say, for example, that mixed seed of Scots Pine and Spruce be sown, and come up as a seedling crop, then other species whose seed is dearer and less plentiful, like Larch, Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, &c., may be introduced here and there by planting, wherever considered suitable. In planting on mountainous districts, no plants should be used but such as have been reared on exposed and airy sites, and on land that is of only average quality. Plants taken from rich ground in sheltered nurseries never succeed well when planted out on mountain- ous districts. Hence, for planting on mountain-land, the nurseries should be on land of about the average quality, and should be situ- ated as near to the plantation as can conveniently be arranged; and this fact should be kept in view, as otherwise much loss and dis- appointment may ensue. } Tf the nursery soil be much better in quality than the land to be planted up, then, owing to the greater difficulty in obtaining the food-supply that they have hitherto been accustomed to, the plants wilt for a long time before estab- lishing themselves properly in their permanent home. But if the nursery-soil be of poor quality, then the initial development of the plants, or what might be termed their constitutional vitality, is low, and they are naturally sluggish in establishing themselves on being disturbed by removal from the nursery. Planting on Hillsides and on the Higher Uplands.—The hilly tracts of Britain, say those of from 500 to 1000 ft. above the level of the sea, embrace a large extent of the country, chiefly through- out the southern and midland counties of Scotland, the northern counties of England, and Wales. Their soil is for the most part of a licht description, well adapted to the healthy growth of all the coniferous trees; while the surface is undulating, presenting varied aspects within comparatively small areas. Here the soil is generally of a richer nature than obtains on higher-lying districts, and in consequence of this the natural herbage is usually of a grassy char- acter, with comparatively little heath and heather. The soils and situation embraced under this class are particularly favourable to the development of most species of coniferous trees, whether Pines, Larches, Spruces, Silver-Firs, &c.; whilst on the lower-lying parts of many of the districts, the land is often very suitable to the cultivation of woodland crops of Oak, Beech, Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, and other broad-leaved species. . 600 PLANTING ON HILLSIDES AND HIGHER UPLANDS. In planting on such parts of the country, the plantations do not require to be made nearly so large as is advisable on the more distinctly mountainous tracts; for artificial shelter is not so necessary for the health of the crops. In planting on all moderately elevated parts of the country, therefore, the individual plantations may be made of any convenient extent, according to the purpose intended; but it is well to bear in mind that on the higher land, and in the more exposed localities, the woods should be made more extensive and compact than on the lower tracts with sheltered positions. Supposing, for example, that an area of 200 acres has been marked off for a plantation on a site averaging about 700 ft. above the level of the sea, and that this has been done in summer or in early autumn, whilst the proprietor is residing on his estate. The land should first of all be broken up in the autumn and prepared for the reception of the timber-crops in the following spring ; for, whether the necessary works consist of drainage or of other soil-preparation, or of both, it is essential that at least a winter’s period be given so as to allow of the sinking or the weathering of the soil to be accomplished in a more or less thorough manner, with- out entailing the land lying unproductive during the period of active vegetation, when loss of increment would be occasioned, and the soil might become overgrown with rank weeds. As the herbage on the surface of land situated at an elevation of 700 ft. is, generally speaking, of a strong-growing nature in summer, the plants used must here again be proportionally strong; for were only small plants used, the grass and other rank growth would choke them, and probably kill off many of them during the very first year after planting. In planting on such land, therefore, the broad-leaved species should be placed out on all the better portions of the land situated on the lower parts. The more valuable species like Oak and Ash may be put out as sturdy transplants of about 2 ft. high, and about 8 to 10 ft. apart; whilst the intervening spaces may be filled up with Beech, Maple, and Sycamore, so as to make the final distance from plant to plant not more than 4 ft. over all. Should nurses be desired to stimulate the plantation to more rapid growth in height, Larch and Pine may be used in such proportions as may be considered most judicious on taking the nature of the land and everything in connection with the case into consideration. On all land of such description the editor would recommend the method of mixing in small patches, as being the only natural system of utilising to the fullest extent the latent productive capacity of the soil. The admixture of Larch and Pine with Beech and Sycamore will tend to the production of finer timber than can usually be grown in woods consisting of coniferous species only. PLANTING ON LOW-LYING TRACTS. 601 In such situations, if the growth of weeds be not vigorous, or if tumping be adopted, smaller plants may be used than will otherwise be necessary; for large plants often fail to establish themselves well when planted by the notching system. But, wherever the use of larger transplants has been decided upon, these pits should be prepared at the proper distances for the reception of the plants; and care should be taken to see that the base of the pit is well loosened with the pick, so as to aerate the soil. Under all ordinary circumstances it is preferable to regenerate existing woods in such localities by the method of natural reproduction under parent trees, and to plant up the blanks that are found to exist, after the clearance of the parent standards, with the species most suitable for the soil and for the object of the proprietor. An important point in connection with pit-planting is to allow the pits to lie open for at least three months, so as to permit the soil thrown out of them to become weathered before it be returned and put about the roots of the young trees. This is a matter generally by far too little attended to; for young trees, that have been planted in pits immediately on their being opened, are usually considerably longer in establishing themselves than when the earth has been ex- posed for a considerable time before it is put to the roots of the plants. It may here be remarked that, in dealing with plantations on moderately elevated parts of the country, the herbage may not always be found of such a strong character as to necessitate the planting of the trees in pits; for some parts of it may be found to consist of heath or of very short grass, &e., &c. On all such parts, then, where the herbage is short and the site comparatively high-lying, the plants may be planted by the common system of notching; or the method of throwing back a sod of turf and notching on to the top of this little tump or mound may be employed, as has previously been described. Wherever the soil-covering of herbage is of a dry nature, especially in the case of heather or gorse, the land should be burned over carefully, so as to retard the growth of weeds, and at the same time to manure the land to a certain extent by the mineral ash thus returned to the soil. That the fire should be kept well in hand, of course stands to reason, Notching operations with small plants can then often be carried out suc- cessfully, which otherwise might have failed through the plants being over- shadowed and choked. Planting on Low-lying Tracts.—In planting on what may be termed low-lying parts of the country,—that is to say, on plains or uplands under 500 feet in elevation above the sea——there is not, generally speaking, the same degree of natural drainage in opera- 602 PLANTING ON LOW-LYING TRACTS. tion that obtains in higher-lying tracts, where the land is generally undulating and hilly. Hence, if the land have any tendency to be cold and wet in the subsoil, the drainage must be carefully attended to, especially on the flatter and hollow-lying portions ; other- wise the crop on such parts will be apt to prove less satisfactory than it might easily be made. On such land mixed crops of broad-leaved trees may be planted, - each species being put out on the kind of soil which seems to suit its natural requirements. Such mixed plantations may be formed either in small patches of each kind of tree separately, or else with all the species intermixed individually, according as the circumstances of the case or the object of the planter may suggest. And when nurses for these are required, owing to danger from late frosts, Larch, Pine, Birch, or all of these, may be interspersed individually. But the choice of species is in this case mostly dependent on the nature of the land, and the prospect of a good sale for thinnings as the nurses come to be removed, when no longer required to promote the development of the main crop. It may be remarked that these nurses are only a means to an end, and that end is the development of the main crop. If nurses be left too long, in the hope of thereby yielding more remunerative thinnings, then the well- being of the more valuable portion of the crop is jeopardised in an unneces- sary and uneconomical manner. When good, strong, loamy land of this class, and of about 200 or 250 feet in elevation, has been thoroughly drained or otherwise pre- pared for planting, during the previous autumn the kinds of trees to be planted must be fixed upon, as well as the most economical method of forming the young crop. If the tract be low-lying and moist, then the probability is that the herbage must be very strong in the summer time; hence plants of large size may have to be used. Again, if stout transplants are used, then they, or the more important species at least, may have to be planted in pits, unless the Continental method of tumping, by turning back the turf-sod, and notching in through it, can be adopted. But, in the case of the smaller plants used for filling in, this may often be arranged so as to effect a considerable saving in the costs of formation of the plantation. Where there is a strong growth of weeds like raspberry, bramble, foxglove, St John’s wort, and the like, the broad-leaved species forming the permanent crop may have to be of sizes ranging between 3 and 4 ft. high ; while, if nurses be requisite, Larch trans- plants ranging from 24 to 30 in., or Pines of about 12 in. high, will have to be used. These may be planted at such distances apart as the nature of each given case may suggest. 4 ve PLANTING OF WASTE LANDS. 603 Where existing woods are approaching maturity on this class of land, natural regeneration is simple and safe. But if once the land be cleared of the crop, the soil soon becomes overrun with a very rank growth of weeds, which necessitates high costs of planting, often without attaining anything like equally good results. Whenever the principal species in question has been regenerated, other species can be intermixed in patches or individually, as seems most advantageous. During the course of the autumn, the pits for the young trees should all be made, in order that the soil taken out of. them, as well as on their sides and bases, may be improved by the action of the weather before it is returned on the roots of the plants. The pits for the hardwoods should be made from 12 to 15 in. on the side of the square, and those for the nurses about 8 or 9 in.; and the soil at the base of the pit should be well loosened with the pick. In planting on uplands between 300 and 500 ft. in elevation, with what may be termed an open and airy exposure, and a deep, open, and naturally dry soil, many of the newer coniferee—such as Red or Douglas Fir, Sitka or Menzies Spruce, and Resinous or Red Pine—may be planted out as permanent crops along with Scots, Austrian, and Corsican Pines, Larch, Spruce, and Silver Fir. In planting crops of the newer coniferee on parts of plantations exposed to late frosts, the Larch should always be.used as nurses to them. Although usually of more rapid growth at first, it does not injure their development by overshadowing them heavily, as is so often the case when evergreen Pines or Firs shoot ahead in growth. The districts of the country embraced under this head are of all others the best adapted for the growth of a wide range of species, whether of broad-leaved or coniferous genera. On the lower-lying tracts, where the soil is generally of a heavy and strong nature, deciduous trees of all kinds attain their quickest growth and their largest and most valuable dimensions: while, on the higher-lying stretches of upland, where the soil is generally of a lighter and drier character, most of the deciduous species and all the coniferous trees— even those that may be considered somewhat tender on higher-lying sites—find soils and exposures favourable to the attainment of their best dimensions and their highest rate of increment. Planting of Waste Lands.—Under this term are included all such tracts of country as are either too high-lying for profitable agriculture in their present unsheltered state, or of too poor and unpromising a character to be remunerative to the farmer or the erazier. These two classes of waste lands comprise large tracts of soil which are at present unproductive, but which might easily be brought under sylvicultural occupation, with great ultimate benefit both to their owners and to the community at large. 604 PLANTING OF WASTE LANDS. Enterprises of this sort should not be rashly entered into; but, when once sound opinions have been taken, and the matter can be proved to be of national- economic advantage, then the task should be begun and performed in a worthy manner. Within the short space of almost one month three questions have been asked in the House of Commons concerning the planting up of waste moorlands in the Highlands of Scotland (see pp. 82, 83). Wherever such land can be shown to give any remuneration for the first crop of timber, it is certain to pay much better under future crops, provided the management be rational ; and land that may not pay for the first crop will be so improved under wood- land covering as to pay better during succeeding crops. The only serious con- sideration is that with regard to any probable increase of rainfall in districts that are already apt to suffer from too much rain rather than from danger of drought ; and this point can only be settled by a careful study of all the physical factors in each individual case. Of the class of waste lands which are too high-lying for profitable agricultural occupation in their present exposed condition, there is a large extent in the north of Scotland, in the north of England, in Wales, and in the north and west of Ireland. In all these parts of the country there are extensive tracts of land on which the natural herbage is generally poor from long deterioration of the soil and ex- posure to storm; and from such tracts only a very small rental can be obtained in their present unsheltered state. The land on the parts referred to is not generally so poor in its natural constituents as to prevent its cultivation being profitable. But its altitude and its general exposure to storms have hitherto prevented farmers embarking capital on its improvement, as, without shelter, this would not yield a remunerative return; and therefore, paying only a nominal rent to the proprietor, they use it as pasturage for sheep only, or for cattle of an inferior description. Now, were these high-lying districts judiciously clothed with plantations, so as to produce shelter and thus improve the physical conditions of the adjoining land, excellent farming might be possible on them, or good root-crops might be raised for the rearing of first-class cattle; and a higher return, inde- pendent of the value of the plantations as timber-crops, might be indirectly obtained by the proprietors from their estates. In many other countries besides Britain there are extensive stretches of land similarly unfavourably situated, and producing in their present exposed and unsheltered state only a poor herbage, on which the better class of farm animals cannot be maintained. In all such cases, however, the judicious formation of plantations spread over them is all that is necessary in order to render the waste lands more valuable from an economic point of view. Another class of waste lands consists of those that are of too poor and unpromising a character to ensure their cultivation being remunerative to the farmer. Such tracts usually consist of poor PLANTING NEAR THE SEA-COAST. 605 and generally sandy wastes, situated on the lower-lying parts of a country. In Britain there is but little of this class now left; for within the last fifty years it has been nearly all reclaimed by agri- culturists, and has often been made highly remunerative. But in many other countries, and especially in Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the United States, there are very extensive tracts, yield- ing only a coarse and indifferent pasture, or producing merely a few stunted trees here and there. The poverty of the existing crops on such barren tracts does not arise from the land being defective in latent productive capacity for sylvicultural or agricultural crops, but from its being unprotected against the exhausting and deteriorating influences of sun and wind. Here also is a great field for improvement by Sylviculture, not only from an agricultural point of view, but also from a climatic and national-economic standpoint ; for were these extensive plains clothed with plantations here and there, the climate would soon become moister and cooler, and rainfall would probably increase, and with these advantages the land would certainly become productive. Practical examples of this may be quoted in the case of parts of the Russian steppes, which were planted up about 60 years ago, and in the great sylvicultural achievement, the rebovsement of the Landes near Bordeaux. Vast tracts of poor deteriorated soil, with a subsoil of moorpan, throughout Northern Germany have during the last 20 years been reclaimed by the subsoil- plough and planted up, to the great advantage both of the National Forest De- partment and of the neighbouring peasantry (compare notes on pp. 6 and 610). Planting near the Sea-Coast.— On most landed properties lying near the coast it is often found difficult to get plantations to thrive within the blasting influence of the sea-breeze. The follow- ing mode of procedure may, however, be adopted with a fair prospect of success. Having lined off a belt of land, not less than 200 yards in breadth, along the tract of coast to be planted up, it should be fenced in, with a stone dyke if possible, upon the side next the sea, whence the most biting winds usually come. This stone dyke should usually be about 6 ft. in height ; but if stones for this purpose can- not be got conveniently, a turf dyke of about 4 ft. in height may be erected instead, and on the top of this a wire fence formed of 3 ft. in height. The wire fence should be closely watiled with branches of Spruce, or of any other tree or shrub which may be found most con- venient, as the object is to secure a fence of about 7 ft. in total height, for the purpose of breaking the force of the sea-breeze, and thus sheltering the young trees to be planted inside. Upon all headlands jutting out into the sea, the line of fence should be made to take 606 PLANTING NEAR THE SEA-COAST. a bold convex bend in the same direction, thereby increasing the general width of the plantation. While the protection-wall is being erected, all wet parts of the land should be drained, or trenched, or otherwise prepared, for planting operations. These preliminary works ought to be carried out during the autumn; whilst the work of planting up should be performed during the month of. April following, as experience has shown this to be the best time of the . year for planting on land lying along the sea-shore. Pits should be made for the reception of the young trees at least three months previous to the time of beginning planting; and these should be formed about 3 ft. apart over all. For such planting operations the use of large cylindrical spades is advan- tageous, unless the soil be too dry and light for the balls of earth to hold well together. The kinds of trees most suitable for this class of planting in- clude the Sycamore, the Maple, the Beech, the Black Pines (Austrian and Corsican), the Maritime Pine, and the Cluster Pine, and prob- ably also the Sitka or Menzies Spruce, the Vancouver Island Pine, and the sea-coast or Pacific variety of the Red or Douglas Fir. Close planting is essential to success; the distance between the plants should not exceed at most 3 ft. by 3 ft. (4840 per acre). It is of course intelligible that on such tracts only sturdy plants can be profitably utilised ; hence those transplants will be most likely to establish themselves rapidly and successfully that have been already schooled in more than one nursery-bed, and. have consequently a compact, fibrous root-system, which can be easily lifted by a large cylindrical spade, and replanted in a hole formed by the same or any other spade of similar size and shape. The broad-leaved species will not come away rapidly. Many of them will, in the case of pit-planting, even die down to the ground during the second year after being planted. But the proprietor and the forester must not be at all discouraged upon this account; for it is quite natural that the young plants should do so, as they must suffer considerably by being at once transplanted from a nursery to the open ground upon the sea-coast. In order to strengthen the growth of such young deciduous plants as show indication of wilting badly after they have been in the ground for one year, they should be cut flush with the surface of the soil in the early spring, and they will then send out strong young shoots of a hardy nature. By this time the conifers should be beginning to shoot ahead in growth, so as to afford some shelter to the ground. If the land be not of a nature suited to the healthy growth of deciduous species, it will be better to plant the ground all over with conifers alone. Though the PLANTING NEAR THE SEA-COAST. 607 Beech, Maple, and Sycamore all stand the sea-breeze well, yet if the soil be very light and mossy, or very poor and thin, as often occurs along the sea-shore, they have not much chance of obtaining adequate food-supplies during the first time of planting. Many conifers, on the other hand, and more especially Pines, not only make compara- tively slight demands on the land for food-supplies, but are at the same time remarkably accommodative on soils not favourable to their natural requirements as to food and moisture. They can therefore often thrive and flourish upon poor, light, sandy soil. If the fence be made of sufficient height to produce a proper degree of shelter to the young plants, they will make fair progress, and in a few years will be found to form canopy; and some years later thinning may be commenced. On poor land of this description, all the operations of thinning should be carried out gradually and frequently, in order to obviate any dissipation of vital energy in an individual struggle between the trees for light, and warmth, and growing-space—in fact, for the very essentials of life. But, at the same time, the thinning operations should invariably be so light as not to break or interrupt the leaf-canopy ; for that would expose the soil to the exhausting effects of sun and wind, would dissipate by evaporation the small supply of soil-moisture, and would blow about the dead foliage, in place of giving it a fair chance of decomposing and forming humus for the amelioration of the land and the enhancement of its productive capacity. For the regeneration of timber-crops on such situations, natural reproduction in small patches is recommended, in order to avoid breaking up the canopy to any great extent, and thus exposing the soil to the inimical action of sun and wind. It must not be expected that the conifers will rise high or make fine-looking, tall trees, at any rate whilst the first crop is on the ground. But, if they receive careful attention in the way of tending, they may, after assuming a very bushy habit for the first 10 to 15 years, ultimately develop into fair timber-trees. Trees that immedi- ately begin to rise high in such a situation would be at once beaten down by the gales from the sea; but if their root-systems become thoroughly established, and spread themselves before they make strong leading-shoots, then they soon form a good shelter to everything else near them. In other words, growth in height cannot take place vigorously until after canopy has been formed for several years, and the productive capacity is beginning to be enhanced by shade, protection of soil-moisture, and the forma- tion of humus. Hence close planting is a very important means of assisting in the development of the plantation ; and those methods of planting deserve the preference which offer the formation of canopy in the shortest time—z.e., 608 PLANTING NEAR THE SEA-COAST. which admit of the greatest density of the plantation, without any undue outlay for material and work. When once such an outer belt of shelter-wood has been formed, and has succeeded in fairly establishing itself, other plantations may more easily be formed behind them, owing to the shelter they afford. In making plantations inside of the belt of shelter-wood, any kinds of trees suitable for the land may be used; for the soil should now . be well screened from the blasting influence of the sea-breeze, and may therefore be dealt with in the usual way, according as the nature of the land in each case may require. The advantages of such a belt of shelter-wood along the coast are immense, both from a sylvicultural and an agricultural point of view ; for its ameliorating influence places the whole of the property in the position of an estate situated several miles inland. Hence thriv- ing plantations of all other kinds of trees can more easily be reared on it; while agriculture can at the same time be more profitably pur- sued than where the land hes open to the breeze. In planting within the influence of the sea, although the species of trees already named should usually be the principal kinds put out, yet, by way of variety, many other trees may be mixed along with them, for the sake of arboricultural or esthetic effect. Thus, the Common Yew, the Evergreen Oak, the Turkey Oak, the Pear-tree, the Dwarf Pine, the Elder, the Mountain Ash, the Service-tree, the Huntingdon and the Bedford Willows, and the Abele and Ontario Poplars, may all form part of the mixed crop. If a proper density of canopy be maintained, there should be no underwood ; but where the proprietor wishes to treat the plantations arboriculturally, and not on a purely sylvicultural method, the underwood may consist of the Common Broom and Furze, together with Sea Buckthorn, Guelder- rose, Common Hawthorn, Scots-rose, the Snowberry, the Common Mahonia, and Privet. All of these succeed more or less in situations under the influence of the sea-breeze; but of course they should be used only on the more sheltered parts, where variety and effect may be an object. We may also remark, that of all the plants named as suitable for underwood here, the Sea Buckthorn is the hardiest, and may safely be used on the most exposed points. The Barberry often grows freely and rapidly on land of this description ; but it should be cut out persistently if the woods are in the vicinity of arable land, as it forms the host of the fungus Puccinia graminis Pers., which causes rust in wheat. It nourishes the Heidiuwm berberidis Pers., which has a change of generation with Uredo linearis, and with its winter-form Puccinia graminis (Hess, Forstschutz, vol. ii., 1890, p. 168). The following brief description of the method adopted in planting up the PLANTING NEAR THE SEA-COAST. 609 ‘Holkham sandhills on the Earl of Leicester’s Norfolk estate may be both of interest and of use :-— Planting on the Coast of Norfolk.!—Holkham Sandhills were rabbit- warrens until the year 1850. They extend about 3} miles along the Norfolk coast, are from 5 to 25 chains wide, and are bounded by the German Ocean on the north, and on the south by rich pasture-land reclaimed from the sea, dating as far back as 1660, when the first enclosure was made. These hills are held together by the Psamma arenaria, a plant having a strong creeping perennial root, with many tubers at the joints about the size of a pea. It is planted and encouraged on the Norfolk coast to aid in fixing the sand against the action of the wind and tides, which it does in a remarkable manner ; whilst the marrum, or bent-grass, is considered of so much importance that there are severe laws to prohibit its being destroyed. The sea lyme-grass (Hlymus are- narius), & strong, rough, glaucous plant, common on sandy shores, is also frequent. here, and answers the same purpose as the bent in fixing the sand. About forty years ago small experiments were made with the Black Pines and the Common Scots Pine, which were thoroughly protected from rabbits; but no great amount of success was anticipated, as the soil was almost pure sand. At the end of the first season the plants were all alive, had made shoots of 1 or 2 in., and seemed healthy ; the second year they did so much better that attention was drawn to their success, and arrangements were at once made to shoot off the rabbits, and to plant a small portion of the hills annually till the whole was brought under wood. The east end of the hills, nearly 2 miles in length, which was only partly planted previous to 1875, is now a thriving plantation, not only forming a shelter for the adjoining pasture, but considerably enhancing the beauty of the landscape ; and the trees are doing much better than might have been expected. In 1877 the plants had in many cases established themselves well, though the tops of the Corsican Pine were much injured by the northerly winds and blowing sands. The tops of the hills were about this time planted up, principally with Black Pines. When these began to establish themselves, the Corsican Pines, which were cut by wind, began to improve; and by 1882 a very decided improvement was visible. Since then, owing to the progress the plantations made, they have been considerably extended. The proportions in which the plants are used are :— Species of Tree. Proportion of Crop. Distance between Plants. - ; = | Per cent. / Corsican Pine , : : : 50 planted 8 yards apart. Austrian Pine : : : : 25 ie, ED bOnY, " Scots Pine . : , ; : 20 " " " Maritime Pine. : ; : 5 " " " As the plantations are ornamental (arboricultural), and are not planted for profit (sylvicultural), these distances have been fixed so as to give plenty 1 See article in The Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 1893, p- 350. VOie I 2. Q 610 PLANTING ON MOSSY LAND. of room for the trees developing their laterals. The Austrian and the Maritime Pines, being on the higher and more exposed situations, and fully exposed to every storm from the German Ocean, are planted 5 to 7 yards apart ; hence they cannot possibly make the same growth as the Corsican Pines, which are more sheltered. Many of the latter are now full of health, 30 to 35 ft. high, and with lateral branches covering an area equal to a circle of 8 yards in diameter. The Scots and Austrian Pines are making a proportionate growth. In addressing the Prussian Minister of Agriculture on the subject, Prof. Wagner recommended Lathyrus sylvestris, a strong perennial-rooted species of the Everlasting-Pea tribe, for cultivation throughout the immense tracts of barren sandhills along the coast of Northern Germany, and pointed out that it would form a far better means of bringing these vast wastes under profitable and permanent cultivation than the planting of Pine and Spruce. Little faith was put in that statement, however, until its correctness had been proved by private experiments on a large scale. The latter were conducted for many years and at heavy expense, on sandhills where sylvicultural crops of Pine and Spruce had been tried, but had failed owing to the majority of the young trees being partly smothered or uprooted by the ever-shifting sand, whilst the survivors were vegetating so weakly that the experiments were tantamount to failure. But now a flock of sheep is kept on the Lathyrus fodder grown on. the identical sandhills where six years ago not a blade of grass could be seen. In all calculations relative to reclamation or improvement of land by means of planting, it must be distinctly borne in mind that the first crop of timber cannot possibly be equal in quality to the succeeding crops, if the first crop be properly managed. Under judicious management of the first crop, the productive capacity of the land will be greatly enhanced ; and this will not be of the nature of any unearned increment, but will be purchased by a part of the original outlay in establishing the first crop (see notes on pp. 6 and 605). Planting on Mossy Land.—Moss or peat-soil consists in general of decayed vegetable matter, which has accumulated in a flat or hollow part having an impervious subsoil, usually of plastic clay. When left to itself, a tract of mossy land is always laden with stag- nant water, which cannot escape downwards in consequence of the impervious nature of the stratum whereon it lies. The water con- tained in the moss-soil can escape only by evaporation from the surface; hence it is evident that the soil of dripping peat-hags must at all times be cold as compared with other land lying upon an open or porous subsoil. In consequence of this cold nature of the soil, valuable woods are never to be found growing upon unreclaimed moss-land, but only a few stunted Pine, Birch, Willow, and Alder, with an even more unproductive soil-covering of heath, heather, and rough grasses and bog-plants. Moss-land, even after being dried by drainage, is usually at first of a dull and inert character, and not apt to produce good crops until the soil becomes of an earthy nature later PLANTING ON MOSSY LAND. 611 on; but then it is often characterised by great fertility. This inertness is the more observable in such moss-lands as are purely of a humose character, and without any considerable mixture of inorganic matter, such as the classes of land known by the name of flow or soapy moss, or dripping peat. Two different descriptions of moss-land may he distinguished, according as it contains less or more of inorganic matter, or is of a purely humose character; and these differences are very important from a sylvicultural point of view. In bringing moss-land under timber-crops, the ae point to be attended to is its drainage ; for before this be thoroughly accomplished no other work can be snarelaan The draining of moss-land is performed in the usual way by open trenches (see p. 534 ef seq.); but with this exception, that the drains should in all cases be made about one-third deeper than the depth they are intended to remain at permanently. Thus, if it be wished to have the trenches to remain at the depth of 4 ft. after they have been opened, then they will have to be made about 5 ft. 6 in. deep in the first instance. This is necessary on account of the great subsidence that always takes place in moss-land after the water is removed from it by drainage; indeed, in the case of very light flow-moss, the subsidence may even amount to nearly one-half of the original depth of the drains. In draining moss-land for planting with trees, if the moss is not over 6 ft. deep, it will be found advantageous to open out the trenches to the subsoil ; as only then can the land be made perfectly dry, and suitable for the healthy growth of trees. To drain moss-land properly for sylvicultural crops, the trenches should be open to the depth of from 5 to 6 ft. in the first place, in order to make allowance for subsidence, and they should be dug at distances not wider than 35 ft. apart. If, however, the moss be shallow, as often happens, the drains need not be made so deep. For example, if the moss be found only about 3 ft. deep on the average, then, in order to secure an average depth of 4 ft. for the drains after the moss had subsided, they would require to be opened to the depth of 5 ft. in the first instance, thus allowing 1 ft. for sub- sidence in the moss on the surface; and so on with any other depth of moss, always allowing one-third of its depth for subsidence. In all cases moss-land should lie from twelve to eighteen months under the cleansing action of the drains, as there are generally in- gredients (like humic, geic, and ulmic acids, &e.) lodging in land of this description which are found injurious to the health of young plants, and which require to be removed before planting can be successfully undertaken on it. This is a point which should never be lost sight of in dealing with the afforestation of moss-lands. Many young planta- tions of large extent, formed immediately after the drainage had been 612 PLANTING ON MOSSY LAND. performed, have completely failed owing to this point having been neglected ; while the second planting thereby necessitated, though done only two years after, was perfectly successful, simply from the moss having become cleansed of the bad ingredients which had lodged in it, and which had been drained off before the second crop was planted. German experience on the subject varies somewhat from the above method. Thus Burckhardt (op. cit., p. 561) says of the moors on the great North German Plain :— ‘‘Every moorland drainage-scheme should be begun early and continued gradually to its completion; hence 5 or 10 years, or even more, may be required, according to circum- stances. For the trenches can never be dug at once to the depth that they should eventu- ally have. By gradual shrinkage the moor settles itself and gains in density ; whilst in other cases the trenches are closed up by the soft mossy soil, or nasty fissures are formed, or outlay of one sort or another is occasioned. As a rule, soft, boggy moors should only be drained to a depth of 2 ft. to begin with.” The question, as to how the drainage of extensive moors in mountainous districts may affect the climate of any locality, is of particular interest with regard to the Highlands of Scotland. Large and extensive experience on the subject is nowhere available; but the following extract (Ramann, Jorstliche Bodenkunde und Standortslehre, 1893, p. 400) represents the opinion of a sylvi- cultural specialist on the matter :— “Tn general there will be no reason, especially in mountainous tracts with copious summer precipitations, to be too apprehensive about the drainage of marshy land at high elevations. It is proverbial that such moors are like sponges, which refresh with their moisture the thirsty neighbouring lands in time of drought. This sounds exceedingly well; but it is exceedingly doubtful if it be true. Often enough mountain-moors are more injurious than useful to the surrounding land, owing to their low temperature and their strong evaporation. And it must be recollected that these moors are, almost with- out exception, old forest-lands that have become unproductive and swampy.” Such is also the case in the Scottish Highlands. For they originally bore a woodland covering, of Scots Pine chiefly; but the 24,000 men employed during the reign of Edward I. by John of Ghent, in burning the woods, destroyed most of them, and the private interests of landlords completed the work of destruction towards the close of the past, and during the present, century. Burckhardt’s opinion on this particular subject—and it is the opinion of one of the greatest of German sylviculturists—is worthy of consideration. It is as follows (op. ezt., p. 568) :— “ Mountain-moors especially offer a difficult problem for solution ; and the question whether or not they may be planted up so as to yield a continuously profitable sylvicul- tural crop has not yet been satisfactorily and finally answered.” Planting operations on moss-land have no special difficulties to contend with ; hence notching in with the planting-stick (see Fig. 112) is to be recommended as cheap and effective. Hags of dripping peat, even after they have been well dried by draining, will not grow hard- PLANTING ON MOSSY LAND. 613 woods to any advantage, with the exception of Ash, which will do well in moss as a coppice; Spruce Fir and Scots Pine, however, both thrive fairly well on mossy land, the Spruce being introduced in largest numbers wherever the situation is sheltered. In a mossy soil, plants of any description never establish themselves quickly ; hence new plantations make very little progress for the first few years from the time of planting, owing to the humose soil being inert and dull, until it becomes of a more earthy nature. In planting wp moss-land having a considerable portion of sandy or earthy inorganic matter in it, Poplars, Willows, Birch, and Alder may be used, of the usual kinds grown for timber, together with Spruce and Silver Firs, and the Scots, Austrian, Corsican, and Cluster Pines, all of which will succeed. These should be planted at distances not wider than 4 ft.; and of course they can be mixed in such pro- portions as may be considered most suitable to the circumstances of each given case. As a rule, the chief species should be that whose requirements are best satisfied by the nature of the soil and the situa- tion; and practically this can only be determined after due considera- tion of each individual case. Even crops of excellent Oak timber may sometimes be met with upon a mossy surface-soil resting upon clay, when the land has been well drained, and the moss has sub- sided, so as to permit of the roots finding their way down into the clay, whence they could derive mineral nourishment. Upon a soil of this description, Larch and Scots Pine also thrive well. As Burckhardt remarks (op. cit., p. 568) :— “When, on moorland soils, we see almost all kinds of trees thriving in some places, and especially when we see Oak, Birch, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Pine growing satisfactorily, whilst in other places accommodating species, like Scots Pine and Birch, only produce dwarfish crops, the explanations are in some cases to be sought in the varying nature of moorland soil, and in others in the method of treatment adopted ; but both of these mat- ters demand great attention.” Where the more expensive method of pitting is adopted, the plants ought to be of fairly large size; but if the area be notched up with the planting-stick, or if the situation be at all exposed, then smaller plants should be used. Poplars and Willows about 50 in. high, and Firs and Pines from 6 to 9 in., ought to suffice for most localities, unless the growth of weeds becomes very rank and luxurious. Even then, the cheap and simple method of notching on tumps may still remove any necessity for the more expensive pitting with costlier material. If the moss be not over 3 ft. deep, Oak, Ash, Elm, and Birch may be used with fair success, as these kinds generally thrive well when once their roots get down into the subsoil; still, as a sylvicul- tural crop on moss-land, softwoods and conifers will usually be found 614 COPPICE FOR POWDER-WOOD. the most remunerative. The Birch, Elm, and Oak thrive well on thin moss resting on a substratum of clay; hence, where variety is an object in the crop, these may be introduced in small patches here and there within a matrix of conifers. As the most profitable crop on sandy moss, in a high-lying situa- tion, there is no tree that will usually render a better account of itself than the Scots Pine. Ample proof of this exists in many parts of the north of Scotland and the north of England, and especially in many of the natural forests in the districts of Braemar, Abernethy, Duthal, Rothiemurchus, Glenmore, and others. In these localities there are large tracts of moss-land containing a considerable portion of sand, on which the Scots Pine has attained very fair dimensions. In planting on moss of a purely humose character, Scots Pine and Spruce should be the chief species used; and more recent exotics, like Red or Douglas Fir, and Sitka or Menzies Spruce, may be introduced experimentally, though only to such an extent that their loss would not interrupt the leaf-canopy of the crop materially. Silver Fir, Oak, and some other hardwood kinds, sometimes do well where the moss is so thin that their roots can reach down to the subsoil before they attain any considerable age; but where it is so deep as to prevent the roots getting down to the subsoil, they soon become stunted and unhealthy, and die off prematurely. Hence in all cases the nature of the tree-crop must be suited to the depth and general condition of the moss or moorland being operated upon. From the foregoing statements relative to the growth of various trees upon moss-land, it will appear that Scots Pine, Spruce, Silver Firs, Willows, Poplars, Alders, and Birch are entitled!to most con- sideration in the planting up of moorlands. This statement must, however, only be taken with the qualification that, if the situation be very high-lying and exposed, Silver Fir and Spruce, Willows, Poplars, and Alders will not do well. Under such circumstances, Scots Pine and Birch would be more suitable, as being hardy and adapted for a high situation. It may be observed, further, that the Austrian, the Corsican, and the Cluster Pines, as also the deciduous species named, should not be planted out upon moss-land, excepting where it is in comparatively low-lying localities or on only moderately elevated situations. Coppice for Powder-Wood.—This is a branch of Forestry gener- ally too little attended to. And this is the more remarkable when the value of wood suitable for powder manufacturers is considered, and also the large extent of waste-land in the country which might, with great advantage to its owners, be made to yield crops suitable for this purpose. Indeed, in the north of Scotland, and in the northern counties of England, there are large tracts of high -lying ground at present ' COPPICE FOR POWDER-WOOD. 615 yielding only a stunted and unprofitable herbage, which, were they planted with plants suitable for the manufacture of powder, might be made to yield handsome rentals. As this class of wood-produce does not require to be of large dimensions, it could be the more easily reared in high-lying districts of the country, and might easily be conveyed thence to the places where it was to be used. It is, perhaps, not generally known- that a large supply of the wood used in this country for the manufacture of the finer kinds of powder for small-arms and fowling-pieces is imported from Belgium and Germany. The wood which is chiefly utilised for this purpose is that of the Black Alder or Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), a shrub found to be extremely easy of cultivation in most kinds of soils; and as it brings from £10 to £14 a-ton, in the peeled state, in the British market, it is certainly worth the attention of landed pro- prietors to cultivate it as a part of their woodland crops." It ought to be humiliating to us as a great nation that the main supply of wood suited to the manufacture of the finer kinds of powder for small-arms has to be brought from foreign countries, seeing that we might so easily grow it ourselves as a profitable crop in the economy of our landed estates. In addition to the Alder Buckthorn, the Alder, and the Beech, the other kinds of trees and shrubs whose wood may be utilised for the manufacture of powder comprise various kinds of Dogwood (Cornus), Willows of various species, Birch, Hazel, Mountain-Ash, and Wild Cherry. When properly formed and managed, coppice-woods composed of these species may often be found to prove very profitable as woodland crops. In growing these kinds for a supply of powder-wood, each should be planted in patches by itself, rather than mixed with the other kinds; for each species has its peculiar property, and therefore its own value with the powder-manufacturer. Once fairly established on a piece of ground, all these kinds produce heavy crops of shoots and yield a large return per acre, more particularly the Alder. The shoots should be all treated as coppice in rearing them for a supply of powder-wood ; and they may be cut over, stripped of their bark, and sold to the powder-manufacturer at any stage of their growth, as large wood is never wanted for the purpose of powder-making. 1 The market is no longer so remunerative as formerly, as is explained in the follow- ing extract from the editor’s British Forest Trees, 1893, p. 340 :— “Black Alder was formerly rather prized for the preparation of charcoal for powder ; but of recent years Alder and Beechwood have been more generally used for this purpose, the former being solely used for the manufacture of smokeless powder. Where it occurs in any quantity, it yields pea and bean sticks where Spruce and Silver Fir poles are not available, also good sticks for umbrellas, walking-sticks, and similar petty purposes... . When it is coppiced with a rotation of 3 to 6 years, it shoots freely from the stool.” 616 PLANTING OF SCRUB-LANDS. Indeed, when the shoots are comparatively small, a higher price is eiven for them than for larger rods; for in the young state of the shoots the powder made from them is finer than when made from older and larger growths. The Black Alder (Lhamnus) is the most valuable of the species named, as it is used for making the very finest kinds of powder. The Dogwoods come next in value; whilst Birch, Hazel, and Alder follow in the order named. The Mountain-Ash and the Wild Cherry are only of comparatively little quality; and Willows rank even lower for the purposes of powder-making, although they are all in use, however, for making different qualities of powder. Softwoods have also a special and more recent value over hardwoods for utilisation as wood-pulp for paper-manufacture, an industry which is practically at present confined to the continent of Europe. But it would seem to offer very fair prospects for moist land in the Highlands of Scotland, as it not only promises quick returns for money laid out in reclaiming and planting, but also would fall within the Sylva cedua, which are of such importance from the point of view of entailed estate- holders under Scots law (see chapter i. p. 73). Planting of Scrub-lands. — It often happens that land to be planted is much overgrown with broom, furze, hazel, and various other kinds of brushwood; and wherever any of these are found to prevail, they should be removed by grubbing them out by the roots with the mattock, or by trenching, if necessary, before planting. Broom and furze are, generally speaking, easily got rid of by grub- bing them up with the common mattock. But Hazel and other strong-rooted kinds of plants are more difficult to deal with; and it is usually found necessary to trench the ground occupied by them in order to get them entirely removed. In clearing broom and furze from a piece of land before planting trees upon it, the best way is to give out by contract the work of grubbing them, either at so much per acre or at so much for the whole, according to the extent and character of the scrub to be re- moved, but binding the contractor to take out every plant by the roots. Work of this kind may be contracted for at various prices, according to the closeness and strength of the plants to be dealt with. Patchy crops may be grubbed out at 20s. per acre, while in other cases it may cost 70s. per acre; but in the latter case there will probably be a close crop of very strong furze. On the average, however, such work may be arranged for at about 40s. per acre, in- cluding the burning of the brushwood on the ground. In contracting for work .of this kind, the forester requires to look carefully after the contractor, to see that he takes out all the plants by the root. When PLANTING OF SCRUB-LANDS. 617 this class of work is carelessly performed, and a large proportion of the plants is only cut over under the surface, the roots left in the sround throw up another strong crop of whins during the following year; and this soon forms as strong a crop as before. Hence work of this nature requires the careful attention of the forester. In dealing with the removal of Hazel and of similar strong-rooted plants, however, the case is different: it is always found necessary to use both the spade and the mattock in order to root them out pro- perly. Where the plants are few in number, and have large clear spaces between them, it will be found the easiest and cheapest plan to dig out each plant separately, and to fill up the hole immediately. Wherever the plants form rather a close crop, or nearly so, on the eround, the cheapest and most satisfactory way is to trench the ground all over, so far as it is occupied by the scrub or brushwood. This trenching need not be of a deep character, but only just enough to enable the contractor for the work—for it should usually be done by contract—to get sufficiently deep to take out every plant by the roots. From 1 ft. to 15 in. will be found a sufficient depth of trench to remove the roots of most kinds of brushwood of this description. Land may be trenched and cleared in this way, after having strong stocks of Hazel and Birch standing at an average distance of 9 ft. apart, for about £7 an acre. This sum, however, does not include the cost of removing the roots from the land after trenching, as this can be done by the proprietor’s own workmen apart from the contract. In planting up land that has just been cleared of broom or furze by the use of the mattock, the young plants may be put in either by pitting or notching, according as the nature of the situation to be operated on is of a mountainous, moderately elevated, or low-lying situation ; and these specific classes of land have already been treated of elsewhere in the present chapter. In the case of an exposed piece of land having been trenched for a crop of young trees, it should never be planted immediately ; for the loose and very open character of the land, before the turf begins to settle and decompose, exposes it to the effects of drought to such an extent as to prove injurious to a large proportion of the crop. If the trenching be performed in the autumn, however, the land may be safely planted in the spring following. This precaution is not so necessary in the case of trenched land on a sheltered part, as here the plants are not nearly so liable to be injured by winds blowing them about. In all cases of planting on trenched land, larger plants may be notched in than is advisable on untrenched land; for, in soil that has been thoroughly opened up and aerated by trenching, the roots of 618 REPLANTING OF WOODLANDS. comparatively large plants establish themselves much more easily and rapidly than on land that has undergone no special preparation. The size of the plants that can be most advantageously used must in all cases, however, be regulated by the nature of the soil and of the situation. Where there is a strong growth of heather, juniper, whins, and the like, burning of these during late summer is often very advantageous before be- ginning the work of trenching in autumn. And at the same time the mineral- ashes yielded by the scrubby growth of brushwood acts as manure for the enrichment of the soil. Wherever such firing of gorse or heather is to take place extensively, it should be conducted on a well-considered plan; and of course measures must be taken to prevent the spread of the fire into any neighbouring plantations, or beyond the area to be operated upon. Replanting of Woodlands.—Many hold the opinion that a crop of trees will not succeed satisfactorily on land that had been formerly under a crop of the same sort of trees, and on which they had become matured ; and the reason invariably given for this is, that the former crop had exhausted the land of the proper food for a second of the same kind. In the author’s opinion the statement is, generally speak- ing, true, with respect to the growth of any kinds of trees planted on lands not adapted to their healthy development; while it is in error when applied to the growth of the same kinds planted on lands in all respects adapted to their healthy development. It is from not considering the question from both of these points of view that false conclusions have been arrived at on the subject. That such a question should be raised at all, indicates the low level of sylvicultural knowledge in this country. In natural forests crop succeeds crop; and when changes take place, they can easily be accounted for by the relation of the different species towards light and shade, frost, &c., or by the power of the seed of certain light-winged species lying dormant (like Birch) for many years, and asserting themselves whenever they have favourable sup- plies of light. By these means the changes noted by Evelyn (see p. 520) are logically and satisfactorily accounted for. The researches of Continental sylvi- cultural chemists—Ebermayer, Wollny, Ramann, and others—prove that there is practically no danger of any species of high-timber crop exhausting any given mineral food-constituent from the soil, so long as the crop is managed with due regard to the maintenance of a normal density of canopy for the protection of the soil against the effects of sun and wind, and so long as the dead foliage is retained on the soil for the formation of humus. The student will find a résumé of the latest information on the subject of the demands of the various kinds of trees for food-supplies (see p. 332) in the editor’s Studies in Forestry, 1894, chapter iv. (see also chaps. ii. and iii. of the present work). Where soil and situation are suitable for any given species of tree, and the crops have been and are still properly managed, the latter may be regenerated REPLANTING OF WOODLANDS. 619 either naturally or artificially; but where crops have been grown in localities not naturally favourable to them, then of course difficulties of more than the usual nature will be attendant on regeneration, whether natural or artificial. And in the latter case the less suited the soil and situation are for the given species, the greater will be the difficulty in regenerating the crops. For example, on the low-lying tracts and the table-lands of the south generally, apart from the hilly and mountainous districts of the country, it is seldom found, except under peculiar circumstances, that Larch and Pine yield any great out-turn of timber in a sound state when planted as a crop on land that had been before occupied by trees of the same sorts; while, on the granite districts of the north, there are large tracts that have produced a second, and even a third crop of the one or the other of these trees, each successive crop seeming as healthy as the one before it had been. Larch and Scots Pine are light-demanding trees. Now, if the woods have not been underplanted when the crops begin to thin themselves and can no longer protect the productivity of the soil in a satisfactory manner, then of course the soil gradually becomes deteriorated, regeneration becomes more difficult, and the productive capacity of the land sinks. But, on richer and more fertile granite soils, an underwood will in most cases spring up of trees and shrubs which can thrive with less light on such good land than they would require on poorer soil containing smaller amounts of nutrients in an easily available form. The facts recorded by the author agree with the observations of the editor; but the deductions therefrom vary essentially, as already indicated. In the natural Pine-forests of Strathspey and Braemar, crop has succeeded crop probably for thousands of years; and still those grow- ing there at the present day seem to produce as good, and healthy, and large stems as any of those found lying in the mosses, which are the remains of crops that had stood and grown on the same land many centuries ago, And notwithstanding all the successive crops of Scots Pine that have grown in these forests, whenever any portion is suffi- ciently cleared of old trees to admit of air and light reaching the soil, a crop of young and healthy seedlings rises up thickly all over. This indicates that successive crops of the same tree will grow each as healthily and as luxuriantly as its predecessor on the same piece of land,—provided always that the kinds used are planted in the soil naturally adapted to the species of tree in question, and that the crops are maintained in good canopy. The conclusion to be drawn from this is, therefore, that in order to grow trees upon any piece of land, it is only necessary to do the work on the principles that nature has pointed out to us—viz., to plant species of trees whose normal requirements can be satisfied by the given soil and situation, and to maintain such normal density of canopy throughout all stages as will 620 REPLANTING OF WOODLANDS. suffice to protect the productive capacity of the soil without crowding the plantations so as to interfere with their healthy growth and ereatest financial economy. Any attempt to.show that a rotation of timber crop may be beneficial, or even necessary, as in the case of agricultural crops, must exhibit want of knowledge of sylvicultural chemistry. Evergreen coniferous crops in pavr- ticular, if properly managed, leave the land much richer in nutrients in an available form than when the land was originally planted with them; and soil which has been allowed to become temporarily exhausted by badly managed broad-leaved crops may be recuperated by one crop of evergreen conifers, so as to become suitable once more for the growth of deciduous trees. But mis- management is in such cases the sole cause of the necessity for any change of crop. This has nothing to do with the demands of the trees for one particular kind of food in greater quantities than a properly protected soil can yield in continuity. In the great natural forests of America successive crops of the finest of timber have been and are still being raised, under the same natural law. There, where Nature has had her own way without any interference from man; the crops of past ages are lying rotting in all stages of decomposition ; while matured and young trees of the same kinds form the crop now growing on the soil. And wherever a clearing has been made by the winds, young seedlings of the same kinds as the parent trees rise quickly up in their places, all as healthy as the older trees of the crop, and likely to attain equal dimensions of timber. But in every case each kind of tree has its own peculiar site and soil: the Pines occupy the dry and gravelly ridges; the broad-leaved trees luxuriate in the rich, loamy, and clayey lands; while the Larch and Arborvitee thrive best in cool damp hollows. It is the neglect of applying to Forestry this sort of knowledge that is the cause of failures in planting generally, whether the land may have been formerly under a crop of trees or not. Larch may be planted after Larch, Pine after Pine, and broad-leaved species after broad-leaved species, in all cases where the land is naturally adapted to their healthy growth, and where rational treatment is accorded to the growing crop. It may therefore be inferred from the foregoing remarks that no particular course of preparation is necessary on land in order to ensure the healthy growth of a crop of young trees on it after the clearance of a previous crop of timber, provided always that the prin- . ciples which nature has pointed out are attended to in dealing with it. But at the time of regeneration a certain amount of soil-prepara- tion may be necessary either for the reception of the seed in the case of natural reproduction or sowing, or for the speedy establishment of the young plants in the case of artificial reproduction by means of REPLANTING OF WOODLANDS. 621 planting. This more especially holds good with respect to such land as has borne a crop of old timber, and on which a large quantity of decayed vegetable matter rests which must be thoroughly aerated before it can decompose and humify normally. In artificially reproducing crops of Pines, Spruce, and Silver Firs, it is often necessary to grub out the old stumps left in the ground, so as to prevent lodgement for beetles; but otherwise any leaving of the land fallow is simply a waste of productivity and a deliberate exposure of the soil to the deteriorating influences of sun and wind. The former wasteful plan of Scottish foresters in allowing land to lie unproductive for a period of four years after clearing the mature crop, and grubbing up the stumps, and preparing the soil, was not believed in by some of them, as the following extract from Campbell Walker’s Report on English and Scotch Forests, 1872, shows :— “ As already stated, Mr M‘Corquodale (Scone Forests) does not consider it impossible to replant land from which a crop of timber has been recently removed, and does not agree with Mr Grant Thompson (Strathspey Forests), that it is necessary to wait until the natural herbage or vegetation returns ; but he does consider that, in order to plant successfully, special treatment is necessary. “ He appears to have given the matter much attention, and has arrived at the con- clusion that it is the beetle, and the beetle only, which interferes with the growth of young trees planted on land recently cleared of conifers. He has contributed several papers on the subject to the Scottish Arboricultural Society, and tried various methods for overcoming the difficulty, arriving at last at the following, which he has now no hesitation in recommending: Allow the land to lie entirely waste for one year, excluding all cattle and sheep, in order to allow grass, &e., to grow. Then burn it when dry, and plant out by the double-notching system. “This plan should not cost more than 15s. per acre, all told; and the saving by not allowing the land to lie waste for a number of years, as in Strathspey, is very considerable.” In the author’s opinion, a change of crop is often absolutely necessary on woodland in order to ensure entire success in replanting it. Thus, where a crop of Oak has been grown on very light and therefore unsuitable land, a crop of Larch and Pine will succeed admirably ; and where a crop of Larch has been grown to maturity on land of a heavy description, hardwoods will succeed well. Tn the editor’s opinion, when once species of trees have been selected that are suitable to the soil or situation, no rotation of crop is necessary except it be prompted by financial considerations. Sylvicultural experience conducted on the Continent on a very much more extensive scale than in Britain, and by a much more highly educated body of men than British foresters are at the present time, has proved the correctness of this view. But if plantations be formed of insufficient density to begin with, and be allowed to grow up with a growing-space beyond the absolute requirements of the individual trees for healthy growth and development, then the woods must be considered to be mismanaged from the sylvicultural point of view; and in woods that are mismanaged, rotation of the crop may often become necessary. 622 HEDGEROW TIMBER. Hedgerow Timber.'—At the present time, when so much neces- sity exists for the most thorough agricultural utilisation of arable land, many are crying out vehemently against hedgerow timber, and declaring that all hedgerow timber-trees are injurious to the raising of plentiful and healthy crops in the fields upon the edges of which they are planted. And'that this is true to a certain extent cannot be denied. But that hedgerow trees are injurious to the crops in the adjoining fields cannot so much be attributed to the presence of the trees themselves as to bad management in growing them ; for if any- thing, however useful in itself when properly managed, be allowed to overstep due order and balance, it becomes an evil instead of a good. This is just the condition of a great many hedgerow trees, particularly in England, at the present day. In many cases the kinds of trees have not been adapted to the nature of the soil, hence they spread too much ; and in most cases the trees have been entirely left to nature, instead of being trained up with the view of doing good as shelter to the adjoining fields. They have thus often become injurious; have been allowed to spread out their branches widely upon all sides; have been irregularly and most injudiciously planted; have been topped and mutilated, and made to answer any purpose but that of doing good to the farmer. In short, hedgerow timber at the present day is a part of Arboriculture that is least understood; and yet its proper management is of the greatest importance both to the proprietor and the farmer. Hedgerow trees, when trained up and managed upon right principles, instead of being a nuisance to farmers, become of first-rate importance in all well-cultivated districts; and instead of impoverishing the land, they become a source of fertility to it. But although the former may often be said to be the general state of things relative to hedgerow trees, there are nevertheless many fine examples of their being well managed; and in such cases, farmers say that they are very much benefited by the shelter produced by the trees, and would not upon any account part with them. The physical fact remains indisputable that all portions of the crops lying to the west, north, and east of the hedgerow trees do not get full and abundant supplies of light and warmth from the morning, noonday, and afternoon sun. No matter how fertile any land may be, it is the light and the warmth of the 1 The editor’s opinion on the matter of hedgerow timber has been previously expressed (see p. 511). Hedgerow trees rob the agricultural land of its productive. capacity ; whilst the timber itself is not of such good technical quality as might be produced in pro- perly managed woods on true forest soil on the higher uplands, and in hilly and moun- tainous tracts. For the benefit of the student, it may here be remarked that an essay on MHedgerow and Field Timber will be found in the Zrans. Scot. Arbor. Socy., vol. xi., part iii., 1887, pp. 550-561. HEDGEROW TIMBER. 623 sun that furnish the energy for calling the productivity into account. Now, hedgerow timber mechanically intercepts the light and warmth of the sun ; hence it directly prejudices the productive capacity of all land falling within the length of its shadow. If any one be sceptical about this, let him make unprejudiced and unbiassed observations during the ripening of the grain next summer. Let him also weigh a few ears of grain taken from near the north side of the trees, and contrast the result with that yielded by grain, from the same field, that has been sown and has grown in the full enjoyment of light and warmth, and of the sun’s life-giving energy. The planting of hedgerow trees is generally done with a three- fold view,—(1) of raising useful timber in the country, without occupying much breadth of land exclusively for that purpose; (2) for the production of shelter for stock and crops in the adjoining fields ; and (3) for zsthetic effect. Now, all these three objects can be attained without any injury whatever being done to the agricultural produce of the country. In some districts, both in England and Scotland, where attention has of late been paid to the pruning of hedgerow trees, much good has arisen from their influence. In all cases, trees planted in hedgerows are freely exposed to the air; consequently the natural habit of trees under such circumstances is towards ramification. But if the forester apply his knowledge and practical skill to trees under these cireum- ‘stances, he can, by the timely use of his knife, check this rambling habit ; and it is in a great measure from the want of this application of timely pruning that a large proportion of the existing hedgerow trees are now of so little value as timber, and so ruinous to the fields. That shelter has been produced to the fields from the existence of trees about them is evident; but then the amount of good which has been done in this respect has been overbalanced by the shade they have cast upon both sides from the spread of their branches, causing a deficiency in the actual crop upon the shaded parts. Thus it cannot be said that much real good has arisen from the presence of hedgerow trees of the older class. This approaches to the editor’s view. But he must insist on the fact that pruning is only a mitigation of the evil, and that the evils of over-shadowing must remain so long as the trees are planted out in hedgerows. The total clearance of hedgerow timber would be a death-blow to the beauty of English rural scenery ; but Arboriculture differs from Sylviculture in not being trammelled by financial and economic considerations. That they are an ornament to the country, and the chief beauty of rural scenery, is undeniable. But the farmer, who has his rent to raise off the land, feels no pleasure when he looks upon the trees in his hedgerows, and is aware of their doing him much damage. He 624 HEDGEROW TIMBER. simply becomes desirous of having them removed, in order that he may have the land now occupied by them brought into more profit- able cultivation. In travelling through some parts of England, one is particularly struck with the manner in which the majority of the hedgerow trees have been planted. They have often been put out upon raised banks of earth, with sometimes a deep ditch on each side, at other times with a ditch upon the one side and a dyke upon the other. Frequently, too, this bank of earth is overgrown with thorns, brambles, and other weeds, making altogether, with the broad-spreading trees, a formid- able mass of very considerable extent. This is the state of things that farmers complain of. Now, in order to grow hedgerow trees upon right principles, the trees in this state should be taken out, tiles put into the ditches on each side in order to convert them into proper drains, the bank levelled down over them, the ground trenched, and a requisite quantity of lime put into it in order to decompose all the old roots the more quickly. If this were done in the spring months, the ground so dealt with should be well manured and put under green crop; and in the autumn a hedge of Thorns or Beech should be planted in one continuous straight line upon the surface, putting in a young tree at every 12 yards for hedgerow timber. In renewing the fences in this manner, any alteration could be made that might be considered an improvement upon the old style, such as omitting the renewal of some of the fences altogether, and con- sequently enlarging the fields so far as might be considered neces- sary; and in carrying out such improvements, the direction of the line of many of the present fences could be altered so as to suit the wishes of the proprietor. A great error has been made with regard to the raising of hedge- row timber in planting those sorts of trees which are of a spreading habit, and are not easily kept within due bounds. If hedgerow timber be considered desirable, then the following are the only kinds of trees which should be planted in the neighbourhood of fields: Oak, English Elm, Sycamore, Maple, Birch, Sweet-Chestnut, Black Italian Poplar, and, in some situations, the Cracking Willow. These are all trees more or less of an upright habit, and such as, by the timely use of the pruning-knife, can be easily kept within due lateral bounds. The Ash is often found growing as a hedgerow tree; but it ought to be planted very sparingly under such circumstances. When standing alone and exposed to light and air, its top is extremely liable to branch off into large limbs; and, what is even worse, the roots of the Ash are of all other trees the most searching upon land, which they impoverish very much. The Beech is another tree frequently found growing out of place HEDGEROW TIMBER. 625 in hedgerows. Under the heavy shade of Beech-trees a thorn hedge will not prosper; and neither grass nor grain can thrive under the shadow of its dense foliage. These prejudicial effects are enhanced by its ramifying habit when standing alone; and this can hardly be appreciably altered by pruning. Another characteristic of the Beech is that, when growing in a free open situation, it is always found leaning to the sheltered side; that is to say, if-the prevailing winds of the district be from the west, the tree will be extremely bare of branches upon that side, and over-heavy upon the opposite side——an obliquity which is of course particularly out of place in hedgerow timber. The Spruce, Fir, and Pine tribes are all trees of an upright habit ; but they are not adapted for standing alone. They always thrive best when congregated together. Besides, the roots of these trees run too shallow for growing upon the borders of fields, where the plough must have free access up to their very stems. Hence no coniferous species of trees should be planted out along hedgerows. The training up of the young trees for planting in hedgerows is a matter of the greatest importance, and should be carefully attended to. Trees of the kinds that have been above recommended for hedge- rows should all be raised in the nursery for the purpose: this should be done by every proprietor. They should also be frequently trans- planted in the schooling-beds, in order to secure every plant being well furnished with healthy fibrous roots. The transplants should be pruned and trained into an upright shape, each with a single leader only while in the nursery-ground ; and the size of the young trees should be from 6 to 8 ft. when they are transplanted. If trees for hedgerows are planted of sizes much above this, they do not establish themselves so well; for they are more apt to ramify than to grow in height, and that is a tendency which is, of course, to be avoided. When once the hedgerow-fence has been formed with thorns, and spaces have been left in it at intervals of 12 yards for the young hedgerow trees, these should be selected according to the nature of the soil. And upon both hedge and trees being planted, a fence or paling should be put up on each side if there are to be cattle in the fields ; whilst the subsequent tending of the hedge must receive the attention elsewhere indicated (vol. ii. pp. 11-25). These hedges, when at their full size, should never be more than 3 ft. in diameter at the base. As the trees grow up, they should be regularly pruned, so that each of them may have a clean stem of from 10 to 15 ft. high, in order to allow the hedge under their crown to have free exposure to light and air. And as the crowns of the trees in- crease in breadth, the branches should be well shortened in, so that, when the trees have arrived at 30 years of age, their side branches may extend only a few feet upon each side of the fence. In order VOL. I. 2R 626 COST OF PLANTING. . to keep them in this state, they should have their branches shortened in every two or three years ; and even when they have attained full size, they should not be allowed to extend over the hedge more than 8 or 10 ft. upon each side. The whole art of growing hedgerow trees consists in having these things properly attended to. This system possesses many advantages over the older method. Under the old system of growing hedge-fences and hedgerow trees, there was generally from 8 to 15 ft. of land wasted upon the boundary of every field ; whereas by the method above recommended, and which is being practised in some districts of Britain, only 3 ft. in breadth, at most, is occupied by the fence or hedge. And as the trees are not allowed to grow beyond a certain breadth, their shade does not so materially injure the crop, even when seed is sown close in to the side of the hedge ; whilst, as the hedges are never allowed to grow above 44 ft. high, and the trees are kept clear of branches on their stems for at least 10 ft. up, a free current of air is allowed to pass everywhere, keeping both the hedge and crop upon the land in a healthy state. A 10 ft. gap between the top of the hedge and the base of the crown would tend very seriously to annihilate the shelter which is said to be the great advantage yielded by hedgerow timber—apart from its admitted great esthetic beauty. The trees, when treated in the manner above recommended, in consequence of being so much kept in upon the side branches, soon become tall, and form fine trunks of timber. In order to gain this end quickly, the top of each tree should have the lead from the very first, and no side branch should be allowed to gain strength upon it. This system of growing trees in the form of hedgerows is, how- ever, adapted only to level and low-lying parts of the country, and not to hilly and exposed tracts ; for on the latter trees require to be grown in masses, in order to produce shelter both to themselves and to the neighbouring fields. Cost of Planting.—In calculating the expenses likely to be in- curred in the laying down of a piece of land under a crop of young forest-trees, the proprietor has to consider, first, the nature of the figure in which he may intend to lay out his plantation. On the form or figure of a plantation much of the expense of fencing it de- pends; and as this item very frequently forms in Britain a consider- able proportion of the entire cost, it will be proper here to show the circumstances which, when attended to, lessen this expense. When a proprietor intends to plant a piece of land upon his estate, say to the extent of 50 acres, he cannot exactly calculate the sum that may be required for fencing until he has laid out and actually measured the line of plantation, unless he shall fix upon a rectilinear figure. COST OF PLANTING. 627 In order to lay out a plantation of 50 acres in extent in the form of strips of 4 chains or 88 yards broad, the proprietor would require to erect 5676 lineal yards of fence to enclose it; and supposing the fence used in the enclosing of this plantation in the form of strips to be stone dyke, costing 1s. 6d. per yard, then the whole expenses of fencing, in this instance, would amount to £425, 14s.—equal to £8, 10s. 3d. per imperial acre upon the land enclosed. But supposing that, instead of laying out the 50 acres in the form of strips, the proprietor wished to lay out the same quantity of land in the form of a regular square, then the side of a square that would contain 50 acres will be 490 yards; consequently the four sides added together will amount to 1960 lineal yards, which would be the extent of fencing required, instead of 5676 as in the first instance, although the same quantity of ground is enclosed in both cases. Supposing, as before, the 1960 yards to be stone dyke, at 1s. 6d. per yard, the whole expense of fencing the 50 acres contained in a square would be only £147, or £2, 17s, 9d. for each acre of the land enclosed. Now, this at once indicates the advantage of forming all plantations in a solid compact form when fencing is necessary, in order to minimise the outlay. And by the cheaper method a much more valuable plantation is raised, apart from any other consideration connected with the mere fencing. The above examples prove that the expense of fencing ground for new plantations can only be estimated when the land has been sur- veyed and mapped. The two following instances exhibit the maxi- mum and minimum cost in the whole of the author’s experience of fencing :— 1. For small plantations on home ground with broad-leaved trees, enclosed by wire fence 4 ft. high :— To average expense of fencing, per acre, with wire fence, 76 yards at 1s. 6d. : ; . : £514 0 To 100 yards of open drains, at 2d. per yan ; : 016 8 To 1800 pits, at 1s. per 100 . : : O18. 76 To 200 broad-leaved trees, at 30s. per 1000 ‘ ' 06,0 To 1600 Larch, at 20s. per LOOO . : : 1.23), 6 To four days of a man planting an acre, at 3s. ’ é 012 0 soe) ibe} hs! For an enclosure of 500 acres of moorland with Pines and Larch enclosed by wire fence :— To average expense of fencing, per acre, with wire fence, 20 yards at Is. : ; F 3 £1, 03,0 To 100 yards of drains, at 2d. per yard : : : 016 8 To 1200 Pines, at 5s. per 1000 : : : ; OGG To 1200 Larch, at 10s. per 1000 he wena : ; 012 0 To three days planting, at 3s. : : : 2 09 0 £3: 37 8 628 COST OF PLANTING. When plantations are made of small extent, the expense of fenc- ing comes to a relatively very high figure per acre, as is shown in the case of the first example; while the larger they are made, the less it is per acre, as shown in the second example, in which the entire cost on the acre for fencing is only 20s. It may further be stated that in planting in some mountainous parts of the country, where the en- closures are made very large, the expense of fencing is. comparatively small per acre, in some cases not costing over 5s. per acre. On this branch of the work, therefore, as may be noted from these examples, much of the expense of British planting depends, and this is mainly regulated by the size of the enclosure. The great Continental forests are not enclosed in any artificial manner, except in the case of immense deer-parks, round which a “ Gitter,” or 7 ft. high paling of wood or wire, is erected, in order to keep the deer from straying. It is worthy of notice here that the expense of fencing the enclos- ures is often far greater than the costs of planting. In the first example given, the actual planting cost £3, 8s. out of a total of £9, 18s. 8d. per acre; while in the second example it is only £1, out of a total of £3, 3s. 8d. Hence, under the present system in Britain, the greater part of the expense of laying down land under plantations is often incurred for fencing and draining the enclosures. The following costs of cultural operations in Bavaria may be of interest, and perhaps also of use to foresters in Britain (Gayer’s Waldbau, 1889, p. 597) :— A man’s wage is calculated at 1s. 9d. per diem. A woman’s ! " 1s. 24d. " The cost of a 2-horsed cart is 9s. " " 1 " 4s, 6d. 1 1. Cost of forming Nurseries— (a) Preparing compost-heaps . £0 1 & to£0 2 O per 36 cubic ft. (6) Earth-work—consisting of turning over the soil twice (in summer and the following spring) with the spade to a depth of 12 to 16 in., clearing the soil of roots, knocking out the earth from the turf-sods, burning the roots and turf, and spreading the ashes over the whole soil, pre- paring the soil with the iron rake, laying it out into squares, and form- ing the beds and the paths between them . 714 0 to 8 O O peracre. 2, comme the Seed in the Nurseries— , strewing the beds with searched cae baEe pressing in the rills with sowing-boards, and sowing the seed carefully, covering up with compost- earth and turf-ashes, and turning over the soil of old seedling-beds . 216 0 to 3 0 O per acre. a? ee ee ee ee ee af Ee? ele ¢ eo nr ~I 10. Vale COST OF PLANTING. . Schooling or Transplanting 1- or 2- year-old seedlings from the seed- beds into the nursery - lines, and strewing compost over the beds at the end of June ; Planting out yearling Pines, 0 Oak, Alder ; 2-year-old Beech, Spruce, Maple, Sy- camore, Alder, Ash ; 3-year-old Sil- ver Vir, &c., without balls of earth, from the seed-beds to open grassy land by means of the small cylin- drical spade, and applying compost to them. Planting alone, without any applica- tion of compost-earth : Planting, with application of compost, on very strong and binding land, hard to work . . Planting as above on very gr assy land, and including the preparation of the soil in the previous autumn, by means of turning back the sods of turf in pieces of 18 in. x 10 in. Planting as above on strong and binding land, difficult to work, and apt to damage the planting imple- ments . Planting of tr ansplants 2 2 to 3 tt. high and with balls of earth, including transport from the nursery and soil- preparation in the previous autumn . Planting broad-leaved transplants of 34 to 5 ft. high—especially Ash, Elm, Maples, in Willow and Poplar coppices — without balls of earth, and including soil- preparation in autumn and transport from the nurseries . Planting cuttings of Willow and Pop- lar in trenches 1 ft. deep and 40 in. apart, to form coppice ; this in- cludes cutting the slips in February, sheughing them till required, pre- paring the trenches, and covering the slips with earth . Sowing seed on soil from which the stumps have been grubbed up Sowing in Rills after preparing the soil in strips 2 ft. broad and 4 ft. apart Ditching. Fort ming main ‘drains 6 ft. broad at top, 1 ft. broad below, and 40 in. deep Forming side-drains 16i in. W wide at top, 10 in. wide below, and 16 to 20 in. deep £0 2 0 4 0 8 0 8 0 19 0 14 a) 017 0 3 0 16 END OF THE FIRST 0 to £0 0 to 0 0 O” to -0 0) to, 6 0" to, 2 0 to 0 0 to. 1 0) to I 8 to 0 OF to 72 0 0 VOLUME. bo 10 On bo §29 per 1000. per 1000. per 1000, per 1000. per 1000. per 1000. per 1000. per 1000. per acre. per acre. per acre, per 40 running ft. per 40 running ft. BOOKS FOR FORESTERS. THE BOOK OF THE LANDED ESTATE. ConNTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT oF THE ReEsourcES OF LANDED PROPERTY. By ROBERT E. BROWN, Factor and Estate Agent. Royal octavo, with Illustrations, 21s. THE LARCH: A PracticaAL TREATISE ON ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT. By CHRISTOPHER YOUNG MICHIE, Forester, Cullen House. With Illustrations of Remarkable Trees. New and Cheaper Edition, with an Introductory Chapter on the LArcH DISEASE. Crown 8vo, 5s. “Within its pages he will find more information upon the best modes of treatment and culture of the larch tree, whether in the nursery or plantation, than in any other book extant in the English language.” —Journal of Forestry. ‘“‘The work is a most valuable addition to our standard literature on arboriculture. The lover of trees will find the book full of curious and interesting material ; while to owners and managers of woodlands the volume must prove of the highest practical utility.”—Banj Journal. THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY. By the SAME AUTHOR. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. “A thoroughly practical and sensible work....... The author gives much excellent advice, the result of practical knowledge and careful study.” —Morning Post. “This is a manual of practice of the very best kind, as good in its way as ‘ The Larch,’ by the same intelligent, observant, experienced forester.” —#ield. ‘He gives information founded on long practice on almost every point connected with the subject.”—Journal of Horticulture. ‘©A book of an eminently practical nature,...... dealing with evident ability with every ques- tion that is likely to meet the forester in his daily work.’”’—Scofésman. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpinsurGH anp Lonpoy. BOOKS FOR AGRICULTURISTS. PRINGLE’S LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. Revised and Edited by JAMES MACDONALD, Secretary, Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Third and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. “The general subject of food and feeding is dealt with from the most modern point of view. © The varieties, breeding, and general management of cattle, sheep; farm-horses, pigs, and poultry are all discussed in a thoroughly practical way, and few farmers would fail to find here sound and useful hints that would well pay for the perusal of the book.”’—Daily News. “This is the third edition of a work the value and authority of which have long been recognised by the stock-raising community....... The chapters devoted to the treatment and rearing of cattle give very valuable instruction and information, which those who make the production of beet their special object will find it to their advantage to study.’’—Dorset County Chronicle. M‘COMBIE’S CATTLE AND CATTLE-BREEDERS. Enlarged, and with Memoir of the Author by JAMES MACDONALD, Secretary, Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d, ‘¢Much as we enjoy the first part of the book, which is mainly a record of trading incidents, the hints on breeding and care of cattle are most useful. The student will do well to carefully study this section of the book; every sentence being the result of practical experience, is thoroughly reliable.” —%eld. HISTORY OF POLLED ABERDEEN OR ANGUS CATTLE, Gtvine AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN, IMPROVEMENT, AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BREED. By JAMES MACDONALD and JAMES SINCLAIR, Editor of ‘The Live -Stock Journal.’ Illustrated with numerous Animal Portraits. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. “«This is a book for cattle-breeders to buy and to study.”— Field. THE STOCK-OWNER’S GUIDE. A Hanpy Mepicat Treatise FoR EVERY MAN WHO OWNS AN OX oR Cow. By G. 8. HEATLEY, M.R.C.V.S. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. ‘*A work that will prove of the highest service to stock-owners. The arrangement is admirable, and the various diseases are described in clear and simple language.”—armers’ Gazette. THE WILD RABBIT IN A NEW ASPECT; or, Rassit-Warrens THAT PAY. A record of recent Experiments conducted on the Estate of the Right Hon. the EARL OF WHARNCLIFFE at Wortley Hall. By J. SIMPSON. Small crown 8vo, 5s. ‘* Mr Simpson’s book will be found of great value....... It is literally packed with interesting knowledge, all gleaned at first hand, and calculated to be of great interest to any one starting a rabbit-farm.”—Pall Mall Gazette. ‘A sound practical guide to the treatment of rabbits and rabbit-warrens.”—Morning Post. “This is a valuable book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in farming and sport.” —Shooting Times. THE HANDY BOOK OF BEES, AND THEIR PROFITABLE MANAGEMENT. By A, PETTIGREW. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. ““The author of this volume is evidently a practical man, and knows a great deal more about bees and their habits than most of the bee-keepers in England ; indeed, he may be said to be a very master in the art of bee mysteries.” —Gell’s Life in London. ** We recommend his book to all who wish to spread a knowledge of this useful art among their neighbours and friends.”—Zand and Water. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpinsureH anp Lonpon. 2 Brown, James The forester Oth ed., enl. AUTHOR The forester. TITLE toe DATE LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Q@ tho PL. Ge & Ol 6€ 9 WALI SOd JIHS AVE JDNVY CO M3IASNMOG LV 11