FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA 3 9424 00126 1749_ The Minnesota Forestry Association, SAMUEL B. GREEN SOR OF HORTICULTURE AND R0RESTR 1898. taOOQ rOlM ES ISSrET). I STCkAGE IlFfc FKCCfcfcSING-ONE 7 Lpl-i-19H U.B.C. LIBRARY FORESTRY IN MINNESO ., ' BY U.RC. UBRAJn SAMUEL B. GREEN, PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE! AND FORESTRY IN THE MWMMi UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. ■"" / I R^v*. W%/« aJ>i-^l PUBLISHED BY The Minnesota Forestry Association, 1898. THE EAGLE PRINTING CO. DELANO. 0M« Officers of the Minnesota State Forestry Association. PRESIDENT : S. M. OWEN. Minneapolis VICE PRESIDENT- \ WILLIAM SOMERVILLE, Viola. ALFRED TERRY. Slayton. O. F. BRAND. Fakibault. R. S. MACKINTOSH, St. Anthony Park. J. N. CROSS, Minneapolis. ASA PAINE, Caklton. O. A. TH. SOLEM, Hal-tad. 8ECBETABY \ GEORGE W. STRAND. Taylobs Falls. TBBASUBEB '. R. S. MACKINTOSH. St. Anthony Park. i;\i.. i tin 1: . OMMITTBB : JOHN H. STEVENS, Minneapolis. WILLIAM R. DOBBYN. MINNEAPOLIS. J. S. HARRIS. La Cbe» int. H. B. AYRES. Cablton. SAMUEL B. GREEN, St. Anthony Park. CONTENTS, Chapter I. Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. rees. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII PART I. ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. The Tree and Tree Growth. Forest Influences. Tree Planting. Forest Management and Rate of Increase on Durability and Fuel Value of Wood. Propagation. Nursery Work. Chapter VIII. Injuries to Tree-Growth. PART II. TREES OF MINNESOTA. Family Coniferae. Pine Family. Pines, Larches, Spruces, Hemlock, Douglas Spruce, Firs, rborvitae and Junipers. Family Juglandaceae. Walnut Family. Walnut, Butternut and Hickories. Family Salicaceae. Willow Family. Wi1lows and Poplars. Family Betulaceae. Birch Family. Birches, Hop Hornbeam and Blue Beech. Family Fagaceae. Oak Family. Oaks. Family Ulmaceae. Elm Family. Elms and Hackberry. Family Moraceae. Mull,, rry Family. Mulberries. Family Rosaceae. Rose Family. Wild Crab, Mountain Ash, Juneberry, Thorns, Wild Plum 1 Wild Cherries. Family Leguminosae. Pea Family. Honey Locust, Coffee Tree and Locust. Family Aceraceae. Maph Family. Maples and Box Elder. Family Hippocastanaceae. Buckeyt Family. Horse Chestnut and Ohio Buckeye. Family Rhamnaceat. Buckthorn Family. Buckthorn. Family Tiliaceae. Linden Family. Basswood. Family Elaeagnaceae. Oleaster Family. Russian Olive. Family OJeaceae. Olive Family. Ashes. Family Bignoniaceae. Bignonia Family. Catalpa. Family Caprifoliaceae. HoneysuckU Fam ily . Sheep berry. GLOSSARY. IXDEX. A PREFACE. This book has been prepared especially for the classes in forestry in ihe School of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota. It is really a compilation of the lectures and mimeographed notes that I have found useful in my experience in teaching- the elementary principles of forestry. The word forestry is here used in the broad sense in which it is often used in this section and includes much that, strictly speaking, would come under several allied heads. In the use of botani- cal names I have followed, so far as possible, those given by Dr. George B. Sudworth in his "Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States," which has been adopted as the standard for the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. Otherwise the Index Kewensis has been followed. But where these names are different from those commonly used by horticulturists in current literature the more familiar term is also generally given in brackets. I have received many kind suggestions and criticisms f,,om Dr. Otto Lugger, St. Anthony Park: Hon. L. R. Mover. itevideo; and Messrs. John S.Harris, LaCrescent; Clarence . edge, Albert Lea: F. H. Nutter, Minneapolis, and J. M. Underwood, Lake City. Professor Conway MacMillan has furnished many specimens for drawings. My assistant, Mr. W. A. Wheeler, has given much careful attention to the re- vision of the manuscript and has corrected many errors that would otherwise have crept in. I am especially indebted to all these parties who have aided me in this work, and I wish to extend my sincere thanks for their interest and kindness. The drawings, with few exceptions, have been made under my direction by Miss M. M. Cheney. The half-tone illustrations are mostly from photographs taken in the division of Horticulture at various times. The figure of a fire break on the ''Grande Dune," is from a print loaned me by Mr. John Gifford, of Princeton. New Jersey, and that of cut-over timber laDd, by Mr. H. B. Ayres. In the preparation of this book I have freely consulted the ;,Silva of North America,*' (Prof. C. S. Sargent ): •'Illus- trated Flora of the United States, " (Britton & Brown): The publications of the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture: "Baume und Straucher des Waldes," ( Hempel & Wilhelm): and Flora von Deutschland, Osterreich u. d. Schweig. (Prof. Dr. Thome.) S. B. G. University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, July 29, *1898. i PART I. ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. CHAPTER I. THE TREE. A tree is a woody plant with a single stem which from natural tendencies divides into two or more main branches at some distance from the ground and takes on what is commonly known as the tree form. The most evident parts of a tree are stem ( commonly called trunk), branches, twigs, roots, buds, leaves, flowers, fruit and seed. The Stem, Branches and Roots are made up of inner bark, outer bark, sapwood and heartwood. The outer bark, sapwood and heartwood are made up of concentric circles termed annual rings. During each period of growth two new rings are formed — one on the outside of the sap- wood and another on the inside of the outer bark and as we seldom have more than one season of growth each year but one ring is formed on the wood in a year: so that by count- ing the rings of wood in the Figure 1. Cross-Section of Woody Stem — diagram showing (a) outer bark, (b) inner bark or bast, (c) cambium, {d, e, f, g and h) annual rings of wood, and (i) pith. stem we can determine very closely the age of trees. In very 8 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. rare cases we have two periods of growth in one year, as in 1894, when the drouth of midsummer ripened up the wood of the trees by the first of August and the rains of autumn started a new growth, and caused some trees and shrubs to flower in October, but such occurrences are very uncommon and the extra rings formed are readily detected by their being smaller than adjoining rings and less distinctly defined. The age of trees could be told by the rings of the outer bark nearly as well as by those of the wood were it not for the fact that the outer layers of bark fall off as the tree grows older. In some experiments the bark of rapidly growing branches was peeled back in the spring for a few inches, the wood covered with tin-foil and the bark replaced. At the end of the season there was found a ring- of wood outside of the tin-foil, thus sho>ving where the annual growth of the tree was made. The Bark covers the whole exterior surface of the trunk, branches and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up of two parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark and the inner or live bark. These vary much in appearance and thickness on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the White Birch the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough while on our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch or more in thickness and quite brittle. The Sapwood is the portion of the wood next to the bark. It varies much in thickness in different species and in trees of the same species; the most rapidly grown trees contain \l largest amount. It is the most active portion of the wood in the growing tree, and contains considerable plant food and more water than the heartwood. The Heartwood is the wood in the center of the trunk and is generally distinguished from the sapwood by its more compact structure and darker color, though in some cases it may be lighter colored than the sapwood. It is also harder and more valuable for fuel, shrinks less in drying, and is more durable in contact with the soil than the sapwood. There is very little movement of the sap in the heartwood, and it contains less water than sapwood. The Roots furnish water and nourishment that the plant re- ceives from the soil but only the young roots have the power THE TREE. 9 of taking- up the water and plant food; the older roots are most useful in holding- the tree in place. It is common to classify roots into surface roots and tap roots depending on their shape and the depth they go in the ground. Some trees Figure 2. Characteristic Root Formation. On the left two Hack- berry, on the right two White Birch, each 2-year seedlings from same seed bed. The first with a divided tap root, the second without tap root. have nearly all surface roots, as the Birch and Spruce; others have nearly all tap roots which often go to a great depth on dry land as those of the Bur Oak, White Oak, Black Walnut and Butternut. Most of our trees have a combination of the "wo kinds, as the Maple, Hackberry and Ash. Seedling trees ot most kinds have a decided tap root when young but in many species it ceases to grow downward when a few years old. This is true of the Red and Scarlet Oaks which often have a tap root extending four feet in depth before the tree has attained a corresponding height above ground but after about five years large lateral roots develop and the growth of the tap root nearly ceases. Root growth is relatively less to the extent of ground oc- cupied in moist and fertile soil than in dry and poor soil but the roots are proportionately more branched. In wet seasons the root' development is less for a given plant than in dry seasons because the roots may get their needed food and water from a small area. Nursery trees grown on moist rich land 10 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. have a more compact root system than those grown on poor land. At the Minnesota Experiment Station a small Bur Oak growing on dry, gravelly soil had a tap root that was evi- dently 20 feet long, while on moist fertile clay laDd in the same section such trees probably seldom have tap roots more than six feet long. Buds are placed regularly on the young branches and are said to be either alternate or opposite. When they occur on the stump or on roots they are not arranged in any regular order. There are two kinds of buds; flower buds which de- velop into flowers and fruit, and leaf buds which develop into leaves and branches. These can generally be distin- guished from each other by their shape and size and by cut- ting through them and noting their construction. Flower buds are generally more liable to injury from climatic changes than leaf buds. The Leaves of our trees vary much in size and shape. They are simple when composed of but one piece as the leaves of the Oak, Maple and Birch, and compound when composed of more than one piece as the leaves of the Locust, Ash and Black Walnut. Leaves are made up of a framework filled in with cellular tissue and covered with a thin skin. This skin has very many small pores in it called stomata, through which the plant takes in carbon dioxide from the air and gives off oxygen and water. All our trees shed at least a part of their leaves each j'e&r^ All the broad leaved trees and the Tamarack shed their en- tire foliage yearly while our so-called evergreen trees lose a part of their leaves each year. The length of time leaves re- main on this latter class of trees varies from two or three years, in the case of White Pine growing in very severe loca- tions in this section, to perhaps eight years, in the case of Red Cedar favorably located. The time that leaves remain on the branches in the case of evergreens dejjends to some ex- tent on the location and age of the individual tree. The following table gives the approximate length of time that leaves of conifers remain on trees in Minnesota: THE TREE. 31 LENGTH OF TIME THAT LEAVES OF CONIFERS REMAIN ON TREES IN MINNESOTA. Botanical Name Pinus strobus, " flexilis, " resinosa, " divaricata, " ponderosa scopulorum,. " sylvestris " laricio austriaca, " inoiitana pumila, Larix laricina, ' ' europea %... Picea canadensis, " mariana, " pungens, " engelmanni " excelsa, Tsuga canadensis Pseudotsuga taxi folia, Abies balsamea, " concolor, Thuja occidentalis, Juniper us virginiana " communis, Common Name White Pine Western White Pine Norway Pine Jack Pine Bull Pine Scotch Pine Austrian Pine Dwarf Pine Tamarack European Larch White Spruce Black " Blue " Engelmann Spruce Norway Hemlock Douglas Spruce Balsam Fir White " Arborvitae , Red Cedar Dwarf Juniper Year of Falling 2d and 3d. 5th and 6th. 4th and 5th. 2d and 3d. 3d and 4th. 3d. 4th and 5th. 5th, 6th and 7th. 1st winter. 1st 4th and 5th. 4th and 5th. 6th and 7th. 5th and 6th. 5th. 2d and 3d. 5th. 5th. 5th. 4th and 5th. 5th and 6th. 5th and 6th. Flowers are parts of the plant especially modified for the reproduction of the plant by seed. Both sexual organs may be located together in the same flower as those of the Bass- wood, Mountain Ash and Cherry; or in separate flowers on the same plant as those of the Birch, Oak and Black Walnut, or they may be separate on entirely different plants as in the Willow, Poplar, Box Elder and Ash. The Fruit, botanically defined, is the seed containing area 12 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. derived from a single flower. As used in nursery practice the term is generally applied to seeds having a fleshy covering or an adjoining fleshy part. The Seed, botanically defined, is the ripened ovule, but as the term is used in nursery practice it often includes the ovary and other parts that may be attached to it. What is common- ly called the seed of Maple. Ash. Elm, Walnut and Basswood is really the fruit. Distribution of Seeds. The seeds of plants are distributed in various ways, \he most common of which are (1) by means of floats or wings which buoy the seeds up in the air or water and (2) by animals. The seeds of Ash, Arbor Vitse. Box Elder, Catalpa, Elm, Maple, Pine and Spruce have wings which allow them to be blown great distances by the wind, especially when they break loose from the upper branches of high trees during severe winds. The seeds of the Honey Locust are not shed from the pod until after the pod has fallen and as the pod is ten inches or more long and spirally twisted it may be blown long distances on level ground or snow crust. The seeds of the poplars and willows have a cottony float at- tachment which buoys them up in the air. In the case of the Basswood, the parachute-like bract attached to the seed cluster aids in spreading the seeds by carrying them through the air or along the snow crust. The seeds of Mountain Ash, Wild Black Cherry. Hawthorn and others are largely distri- buted by wild animals which eat the fruit and allowT the seeds to pass through the alimentary canal uninjured or carry off the fruit and spit out the seeds. Many seeds or seed vessels have bur-like or sticky coats by which they adhere to animals and are thus carried considerable distances. Very often bodies of water aid in the distribution of seeds since all that are spread by the agency of the wind and most of those that have fleshy coverings will float on the surface of the water and may in this way be scattered. Shapes of Trees. Different species of trees naturally develop different shapes. Some, like Spruces, Tamarack and Balsam have a decided tendency to form a strong stem and to take on a conical form in preference to the development of a crown or head while others like the Basswood, Oaks, Maples and Box Elder develop their crown in preference to their stem. The THE GROWTH. 13 actual shape of trees depends on the space they have to grow in, on the soil, situation, and on the age of the trees. Where trees have plenty of room to grow, and their natural develop- ment is not interfered with, their individual characteristics are most apparent. TREE GROWTH. Assimilation. Plants are made up of various tissues and these are formed of numerous cells. The material of which the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de- rived from the carbon dioxide (carbonic acid ) of the air which enters into the leaves and under the action of light, air and water is there decomposed: the oxygen is given off and the carbon is retained and combined with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, sugar, gum and other plant foods. This process of food making is called assimilation and can be carried on only in the green parts of the plant and in these only when exposed to light and air: Hence, foliage, air and light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth and other conditions being favorable, the greater quantity and better development of foliage and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the tree grow. In general, therefore, the growth of wood may be reduced either by the removal of foliage which reduces the workings surface or by shading which somewhat checks the activity of the foliage by hindering light action. Transpiration. The flow of sap in trees is not well under- stood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood transmits the water from the roots to the leaves where a part enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant and the remainder which is by far the greater part passes off as vapor. The amount thus transpired varies greatly with the species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large in comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon, 15 or 20 pounds of mineral substances and 5000 pounds of water 14 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. in a year it may have taken from the soil and given off to the air from 500,000 to 1.500,000 pounds of water or from one quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has been estimated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to one-third as much water as an equal surface of water. Large deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water a day in dry summer weather. Conifer- ous trees transpire much less water than most deciduous trees: frequently not over one-sixth as much. Mineral Substances are taken up in small quantities and con- sist mostly of lime, magnesia and potash. They are carried to ihe leaves where they are used ( perhaps also on their pas- sage through the tree) with a part of the water in food prepar- ation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up re- mains as the water transpires in the leaves and young twigs and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed, and when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus. The soil of woodlands is improved from year to year if the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground and fire is kept out, since the mineral matters taken up by the tree are largely returned to the soil in a more soluble form and the amount of humus is increased. For this reason there is no need of alternating woodland crops. Almost any soil can furnish a sufficient quantity of mineral substances for the production of a crop of trees provided it is moist and the leaf mould is not removed. Good soils will continue to furnish mineral matter in sufficient quantity even if a portion of the leaf mould is carried away. If however this removal is continued annually for a long period, any but exceedingly fertile soils are likely to become exhausted just as land on which field crops are grown cannot produce crops forever without manuring. The Yearly Round of Life in a Tree. In the spring the tree starts into growth and feeds on the plant food stored up the preceding year; the leaves unfold and commence furnishing plant food. These two sources of food push the growth along very rapidly in the spring and early summer. By the first of July the food stored up the previous season is exhausted in TREE GROWTH. 15 many trees and growth is entirely dependent upon the food furnished by the leaves. The growth at this time is generally much slower than in the spring and as the capacity of the tree for building up plant food increases it commences to store up starch, sugar and other foods in its cells with which to start growth the following spring and the cell walls become thicker and firmer. This maturing of the tree is termed the ripening of the wood and when completed the tree is ready for winter. Our hardiest trees generally ripen their wood early in the autumn and then cease growing although probably some food is being stored up so long as the leaves remain green on the trees. Rest Period of Plants. With very few exceptions all plants require an occasional rest period for their best development. Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by being frozen. And even when plants are kept under growing- conditions the year round they have periods of rest and of ex- citement. During the rest period the plants undergo very few changes and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during mild weather in winter and as evaporation must be going on most of the time from twigs and buds, water must be supplied from the roots. The Amount of Water Lost by Trees in Winter. After many careful experiments A. L. Knisely, M. S., concludes that a Soft Maple standing 30 or 35 feet high with a trunk 15 to 18 inches in diameter near the ground, exposing from 750 to 800 square feet of bark surface, may lose daily by evap- oration from 6 to 7 pounds of water when dormant. An apple tree 30 years old and 15 inches in diameter at the base, expos- ing from 800 to 1000 square feet of bark surface may lose daily while dormant from 10 to 13 pounds of water. These figures are from results obtained during winter weather in New York where the relative humidity of the air is higher than in Minnesota which would lessen evaporation. It is probable that during our winters here the evaporation from trees will greatly exceed that in New York and that greater evaporation is nearly always responsible for some trees being tender here and hardy in New York and other places with similar con- ditions. 16 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY'. We know that in this section after a prolonged period of severely cold weather, the twigs of Soft Maple, Apple and some other trees have a decidedly shrivelled appearance which disappears after a few days of mild weather. Soft Maple trees standing on dry land will sometime in the spring- appear to have been dried out and to have become partly or entirely dead. It is probable that during our coldest weather very little, if a,ny, moisture can be supplied from the roots which may account for this shrivelled condition. Second Growth. Sometimes warm, moist weather in late autumn will cause trees to start a strong second growth in October which draws on the stored plant food and perhaps ex- hausts it and winter sets in before the tissues have again be- come hard and stored with food. In such cases trees are liable to injury. No characteristic of hardiness is more im- portant in plants than that of early maturity of wood. One part of the tree may start into growth without regard to the conditions of the other parts. For instance, a branch brought into a warm room in winter without severing it from the tree will grow for some time. Sun scald is probably due to the bark on the side most exposed to the sun starting into growth very early after which a sudden freeze destroys the young cellular tissue. SOIL CONDITIONS. Water Supply. Water is the most important element in soils for tree growth and the greatest attention must be given to its conservation and distribution through the soil. Trees do not grow to best advantage in very wet or in very dry soil although some can live and almost thrive under such unfavor- able conditions. There is very little land except in the arid region, but that will support some form of tree growth. The soil best adapted to all kinds of trees is one that is moderate- ly but evenly moist, porous, deep and well drained; yet with a subsoil compact enough to transmit the subsoil water from below upwards without its being so solid that it cannot be easily penetrated by the roots. It does not matter about its being stony if it has these qualities. On land that is very wet in this section as the muskegs of northern Minnesota which are covered with Tamarack and Spruce the trees never get to SOIL CONDITIONS. 17 be of large size. In the case of one Spruce grown on such land, 73 years was occupied in growing a tree li inches in diameter and a Tamarack under similar conditions formed a diameter of ouly 1 1-10 inches in 48 years. We also find that growth is extremely slow on very dry land. On very open porous land the water sinks quickly out of reach of the roots and where the soil is too compact it cannot be penetrated by the water or by the roots so that on such soils trees generally suffer for moisture a part of the year. Relation Between Trees and Soils. The growth of trees and the kinds growing on land are good though not infallible indexes to the value of the soil for agricultural purposes. For in- stance, land on which Black Walnut, Hard Maple, Hackberry or Hickory grow to large size is of good quality for grasses, grains and other agricultural crops while Black Oak is gener- ally abundant on dry, gravelly ridges and sandy soil. Where White Pine in this section is the prevailing tree the land is generally of good quality. Norway Pine will endure more drouth than the White Pine, outgrows it, and becomes the prevailing tree on drier land, while the Jack Pine is the most abundant on the very dry sandy lands of Northern Minnesota. In the more humid climate of the eastern states the White Pine grows on very sandy soils. Mechanical Condition of Land in Forests. The agriculturist aims to keep the soil porous yet moderately compact that the roots may penetrate it easily and the sub-soil waters may be readily transmitted upwards to the roots of plants. He aims to pre- vent the soil from becoming too compact and from the loss of water from evaporation by cultivating the surface soil and to keep out standing- water by drainage. The forest grower can- not rely upon such methods because they are too expensive or entirely impracticable. He may indeed plow for his first planting and cultivate the young trees but after a few years cultivation will become impossible and the effects of the first preparation will be lost. He must therefore attain his object in another way, that is, by mulching the soil. The shading is done at first by planting very closely so that the ground may be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind. The shade should be maintained well throughout the life of the 18 ELEJVIEXTARY FORESTRY. tree even if more planting is necessary to accomplish it. and if in later life the trees get thin in the tops or die out. it may become necessary to plant underbrush to protect the land. Undergrowth in Forests may be rather injurious in preventing the proper development of young trees but it is generally very beneficial in retarding evaporation from the surface soil, in retaining the snow in the spring and in killing- out grass and weeds. Forest Floor is a term used to indicate the mulch on the ground in forests. This is made up of the fallen twigs and leaves which remain on the ground where they slowly decay and form a cover of rich mould or humus. This protective covering serves a most useful purpose: it permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate the soil without at the same time making it too compact, thus keeping the soil granular so ihat the air can enter and in the best condition for conducting water while at the same time it prevents washing away of the land and too rapid Or excessive evaporation from the surface: the humus is also an active agent in aiding decomposition of the mineral substances in the soil. Subsoil. Tree growth is less dependent on the condition of the surface soil and more dependent on the subsoil than is the growth of agricultural crops. For instance, in the case of drifting sand overlying a moist subsoil, it has been found that where pains is taken to get the young trees started they will often do well although such land is poorly adapted to agricultural crops. There are many acres of land in Minnesota and Wis- consin that have such conditions and they should seldom be entirely cleared of trees. Washing of Soils. The soils most likely to wash badly are those that are fine grained without much adhesive power, such as fine sand and some kinds of clays. When, however, such soils have a forest growth on them they are protected from washing by the forest floor, tree roots and the humus in the soil. Soils which contain large quantities of humus do not wash much, since the particles of organic matter bind it together: thus we find that newly-cleared timber land which contains large amounts of humus may not wash much for a number of years after the clearing and then commence to wash SLOPE AND ASPECT. 19 very badly. The washing- away then is due to the humus having- become used up and there being nothing- left to bind the soil particles tog-ether. In such cases the application of organic matter will help very materially. For this purpose manure, straw or otljer material may be applied or crops like clover and the grasses, which leave considerable organic mat- ter, may be grown on the land. Crops that leave very little humus in the ground, such asnursury stock, which is dag out by the roots, are most harmful in exhausting the humus in the soil, and land used for this purpose needs heavy manuring with stable manure and an occasional seeding down to grass or clover. Alkali Soils. In the prairie portions and occasionally else- where in this section, we have a kind of soil in which there is a superabundance of carbonate and sulphate of soda. This kind of soil seldom extends over large areas and generally occurs in places lower than the surrounding land. In some places the alkali occurs in such abundance as to coat the surface of the soil with a white crust. On such land very few agricultural crops or trees grow well. The leaves of the trees growing there generally take on a yellowish color and the wood does not mature well in the autumn. Such land should be drained so that the surface water at least can run off. In this way the alkali can generally be washed out in a few years. It is seldom advisable to plant trees on these places, but if this seems desirable, as is sometimes the case on prairies, the best trees to plant are probably the Cottonwood and White Willow. EFFECT OF SLOPE AND ASPECT ON TREE GROWTH. The slope of the land affords drainage and so affects the growth of trees, but trees will grow on any slope, even on pricipices if they can find room for their roots and the soil is somewhat moist. The direction of the slope usually has a very marked effect on the growrth of vegetation. This is especially the case where high ranges of hills and other local conditions modify the climate. A Northern Slope receives no full sun light, the sun's rays fall obliquely in the morning or toward evening according to the angle of elevation. The winds it receives in winter are 20 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. colder than those received by the southern slope, but the few winds which strike it during- the growing season are notstrong, hot or very dry. As the vegetation is a little delayed on a northern slope there is less danger from late spring frosts, than on a sunnier aspect and as the snow melts slowly there is a better chance. for its waters to soak into the ground. In consequence of these facts trees are less liable to suffer from drouth on the same kind of land with a northern than with a southern exposure. The trees keep a more regular form and growth is more uniform and certain. It will generally be found that where timber is cut off from a northern slope growth renews itself very quickly, for tree seeds are most likely to grow under the conditions found there. An Eastern Slope receives the sun in the cool morning hours when the temperature and light are moderate. It is not ex- posed to our hot. dry winds nor to the intense heat of the sun. The soil retains its moisture fairly well and trees make a good growth. For trees it ranks next in value to a northern slope. A Southern Slope receives the most direct rays of the sun, and the full force of our hot, dry winds and beating rains during the growing season. Consequently vegetation is more liable to injury by late spring frosts because of starting earlier in the spring than in any other location. The soil is most liable to erosion from beating summer rains and dries up most quickly after the spring rains. The trees grow irreg- ular in form, the seeds seldom start well on southern or western slopes and when once cleared tree growth is often dif- ficult to renew. As proof of the importance of these con- ditions as affecting tree growth we have the commonly ob- served fact that the south and west sides of steep hills and mountains are more likely to be bare than any others. This can be very plainly seen on the bluffs along the Mississippi River in Minnesota. A Western Slope receives the sun's rays obliquely, but in the warmest part of the day and in this section gets the full force of our hot dry southwest winds. The effect of such an ex- posure on growth is about the same as the southern slope. CHAPTER II. FOREST INFLUENCES. Upon careful observation it will be found that a single large spreading tree growing in an open field appreciably affects climatic and soil conditions in the following ways: (1.) During the day the ground under the tree is pro- tected from the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil not protected. As a result of this protection, the air under the tree is cooler than the air in the open and as it is con- stantly in circulation tends to cool the air in the immediate vicinity of the tree on sunny days. (2.) At night a tree retards the radiation of heat from tne ground under it. This tends to equalize the temperature of not only the soil and air under the tree, but that in the near vicinity. Therefore, though a tree may reduce the tempera- ture of the soil and air on sunny days or during a short period of warm weather, it may, on the other hand, increase the temperature at night or during a short period of cool weather. For example it may be noticed that vegetables growing near trees are frequently uninjured by autumn frosts which destroy those growing in the open. (3 ) A tree aids in retaining water in the surface soil to the leeward by breaking the force of the wind, and thus retarding evaporation, for it is known that evaporation increases with the rapidity of the air currents. It retains the water in the surface soil under the tree by shading the soil and thus retarding evaporation. The large amount of water which is transpired by a tree is largely drawn from the sub- soil and this increases the humidity of the surrounding air without drawing on the water of the surface soil. But some kinds of trees take up so much of the water from the soil as to preclude the growing of crops in such places near them. (4.) The leaves that fall to the ground form a mulch 22 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. which prevents the drying- out of the soil. They check the flow of water over the land, thus preventing- the washing away or compacting of the soil by heavy rains and giving the water a better chance to soak into the ground. (5.) A tree protects from the destructive force of severe winds. A single tree or group of trees may seem to have little effect on tornadoes, but large groups of trees may possi- bly prevent their formation or greatly lessen their violence. Protection from severe winds may greatly affect the growing of plants, since on accountof the winds many plants that m ay- be successfully grown when protected by shelter belts cannot be grown on the open prairie. This protection when present serves to lessen the fuel necessary to warm dwelling houses and also lessens the food eaten by animals. It also keeps the surface soil in fields from being blown away. In these five principal ways a single tree affects the con- ditions of climate and soil in its immediate vicinity. To be sure some of them are not so very evident where a single tree grows in an open field, but where trees are growing in groups or on large tracts of land all of these factors are important in modifying climate and soil conditions and will be referred to at greater length. INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON WATER SUPPLIES. It is very evident that the proDer disposition of water up- on the land is the most important factor in the growing of crops and it is equally evident that nature's changeful and wasteful ways of supplying water to crops are not the best ways of so doing, for we know that not only in the arid regions but in general wherever irrigation is used, crops are produced in greatest abundance and certainty. This once recognized then the proper distribution of the available water supplies becomes a question of immediate interest. Human effort can, to a limited extent, direct the laws of nature that influence climate and soil conditions and it becomes necessary that we have a clear understanding of the forces that are at work in nature in order that we may know where we may or may not expect to be successful in directing them. In order that we may better understand this subject, I quote the following ex- tract on forest influences from the report of the Forestry FORESTS AND WATER SUPPLIES. 23 Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1889, with a few changes in the nature of abbreviations: "The water capital of the earth may be regarded as con- sisting of two parts, the fixed capital and the circulating cap- ital. The first is represented not only in the waters on the earth but also by that amount of water which remains sus- pended in the atmosphere, being part of the original atmos- pheric water-masses which, after the rest has fallen to the cooled earth, remains suspended and is never precipitated. "The circulating water capital is that part which is evap- orated from water surfaces, from the soil, from vegetation, and which after having temporarily been held by the atmos- phere in quantities locally varying according to the varia- tions in temperature, is returned again to the earth by precip- itation in the form of rain, snow and dew. There it is evaporated again, either immediately or after having perco- lated through the soil and been • retained for a shorter or longer time before being returned to the surface, or, without such percolation, it runs through open channels to the rivers and seas, continually returning in part into the atmosphere by evaporation. Practically, then, the total amount of water capital remains constant; only one part of it — the circulating capital — changes in varying quantities its location, and is of interest to us more with reference to its local distribution and the channels by which it becomes available for human use and vegetation than with reference to its practically unchanged total quantity. "As to the amount of this circulating water capital we have no knowledge: hardly an approximate estimate of the amount circulating in any given locality is possible with our present means of measurement: for it appears that so unevenly is the precipitation distributed that two rain-gauges almost side by side will indicate varying amounts, and much of the moisture which is condensed and precipitated in dews escapes our observation or at least our measurements entirely. Thus it occurs that while the amount of water calculated to be dis- charged annually by the river Rhone into the sea appears to correspond to a rain-fall of 44 inches, the records give only a precipitation over its water-shed of 27.6 inches. 24 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. "We must therefore enter into our discussions acknowl- edging ignorance of one of the most important factors, at least as to its numerical or quantitive value. "The distribution of the circulating water capital is influenced by various agencies. The main factor which sets the capital afloat is the sun, which, by its heat and the air currents caused by it, and by the rotation of the earth, pro- duces the evaporation which fills the atmosphere with vapor. Anything, therefore, that influences the intensity of insolation, the action of the sun. or obstructs the passage of winds, must influence the local distribution of the water capital. The great cosmic influences which produce the variability of all climatic conditions, and therefore also of the circulating water capital, are the position of the earth's axis to the sun, by which the angle and therefore the heat value of the sun's rays vary in different parts of the earth and at different times of the year: the distribution of land and water areas, which produces a difference of insolation because the water has less heat capacity than the land, and which also influences the direction of air and sea currents; the configuration of the earth, by which the density of the atmosphere is made unequal, and in consequence of which differences of insolation and of air temperature are induced. Thus we have not only climatic zones, but also continental climates and mountain climates in opposition to coast climates and plain or valley climates. "While this classification of cosmic climates satisfies the climatologist. there are many local climates to be found within the range of the cosmic, and the local climatic condi- tions are those which affect human life and human occupa- tions most sensibly. "The same causes, different only in degree, which modify the cosmic climates, making a classification of the same pos- sible, effect further modifications and give rise to local cli- mates: these causes are different in the degree of insolation, obstruction to air currents, presence of water surfaces, or moisture-laden, air-strata. "Among the factors which thus modify the cosmic climate and help to produce a local climate differing from other local climates, the soil-cover and especially the presence of forest INFLUENCE UPON PRECIPITATION. 25 areas is claimed as one that, under certain conditions, is potent; and this factor being under the control of human agency more than any other possible modifier of climate, must therefore be of greatest interest to us. It is clear from what has been stated so far, that the influences of the forest, if any, will be due mainly to its action as a cover protecting the soil and air against insolation and against winds. That the nature of a cover, its density, thickness, and its proper position has everything to do with the amount of protection it affords everybody will admit. A mosquito net is a cover, so is a linen sheet or a woolen blanket, yet the protection they afford is different in degree and may become practically none. It will also be conceded that it makes a great difference whether the cover be placed before or behind the wind. Just so with the influence of the forest: it makes all the difference whether we have to do with a deciduous or coniferous, a dense or an open, a young low or an old high growth, and what position it occupies with reference to other climatic elements, especially to prevailing winds and water surfaces. In tne following dis- cussions, when the word forest is used, unless differently stated, a dense growth of timber is meant. "The question of forest influences on water supplies can be considered under three heads, namely — influence upon pre- cipitation or distribution of atmospheric water; influences up- on conservation of available water supplies: influence upon the distribution or "run off" of these supplies. INFLUENCE UPON PRECIPITATION. "Whether forest areas are, or are not, capable of appre- iiably increasing precipitatation wTithin their limits or on leighboring ground is still a matter of dispute, and the com- plexity of the elements which must enter into the discussion las so far baffled solution based upon definite and strictly ;cientific observation. Yet new evidence is accumulating all he time which apparently shows that under certain conditions orest areas obtain larger precipitations than open grounds, hat is, they may increase at least the amount of precipitation >ver their own immediate and near lying areas. [In Minnesota popular opinion inclines to the belief that here is a close connection between the existence of forests 26 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. and the rain fall of this section and that with the disappear- ance of our forests will come a much more rigorous climate and a decrease in rain fall. But the records of the weather bureau do not show that there is any connection between the two or that there has been any apparent change in the general climate or amount of rainfall due to the removal of our forests. The flow of water in most of our rivers and in many cases the flow of water from springs and the height of the water table in the land have been most seriously affected by the removal of our forests and should be regarded as the ways by which our water supply is to suffer most severely from deforestation. ] DISPOSAL OF WATER SUPPLIES. "Given a certain amount of precipitation in rain or snow over a certain area, the disposal of the water after it has fallen, and the influence of the forest-cover on its disposal, require our attention. For the sake of convenience we can divide the elements which need consideration in this discus- sion into elements of dissipation, elements of conservation, elements of distribution. "The difference in effect between the first two classes of elements will give us an idea of the amount of available water supply or run off resulting from precipitation, while the third class bears upon the methods of distributing the available water supply. ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. "Elements of dissipation are those which diminish the available water supplies: they are represented in the quantity of water which is prevented by interception from reaching the ground, in the quantity dissipated by evaporation, in the quantity used by plants in their growth, and in that used by transpiration during the process of growing. "Interception. The amount of rainfall and snow, which is prevented by a forest from reaching the soil varies consider- ably according to the nature of the precipitation and to the kind of trees which form the forest as well as the density and age of the growth. "A light drizzling rain of short duration may be almost entirely intercepted by the foliage and at once returned to the ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 27 atmosphere by evaporation: if, however, the rain continues, although fine, the water will run off at last from the foliage and along- the trunks. ••Altogether for the rainfall conditions of Austria, Prus- sia and Switzerland where measurements have been made, a dense forest growth will on the average intercept 23 per cent of the precipitation : but if allowance be made for the water running down the trunks, this loss is reduced to not more than 12 per cent. "The amount of interception in the open growths which characterize many of our western forest areas would be con- siderably smaller, especially as the rains usually fall writh great force, and much of the precipitation is in the form of snow. Although branches and foliage catch a goodly amount of this the winds usually shake it down, and consequently but very little snow is lost to the ground by interception of the foliage. ••There is also a certain amount of water intercepted by the soil cover and held back by the soil itself, which must be saturated before any of it can run off or drain away. This amount, which is eventually dissipated by evaporation and transpiration, depends, of course, upon the nature of the soil and its cover, especially upon their capacity to absorb and retain water. •'The water capacity of litter depends upon its nature and of course its thickness to a certain degree, but is much greater than that of soils. "Altogether an appreciable amount of the precipitation does not run off or drain through the forest cover, but is retained by it: yet while this is apparently a loss, we shall see further on that this moisture retained in the upper strata fulfills an important office in checking a much greater loss due to evaporation, and thus becomes an element of conservation. "Evaporation. The loss by evoporation after the water has reached the ground depends in the first place upon the amount of direct insolation of the soil, and hence its temperature, which again influences the temperature of the air. The nature of the soil cover, the relative amount of moisture in the atmos- phere, and the circulation of the air are also factors determin- ing the rate of evaporation. The importance of evaporation 28 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. as an element of dissipation may be learned from the experi- ments of Prof. T. Ruseell, Jr., of the U. S. Signal Service, made in 1888. We learn from these that the evaporation on the western plains and plateaus may, during the year, amount tfci from 50 to 80 inches, nay. in spots, 100 inches, while the rainfall (diminishing in reverse ratio) over. this area is from 30 to 12 inches and less." Thus in Denver where the maximum annual precipitation may reach 20 inches the evaporation during one year was 69 inches. This deficiency of 49 inches naturally must be sup- plied by waters coming from the mountains, where the precip- itation is large and the evaporation low. (On Pike's Peak alone there may be 45.6 minus 26.8 or 18.8 inches to spare. ) Evaporation from the soil is dependent upon its covering and this is important as the soil in forests is always covered with dead branches, leaves, etc. In some experiments which were carried on in Germany during the months of July and August, 1883, to determine the amount of evaporation from different soils, it was found that from 1000 square centimeters of bare ground 5,730 grams of water were evaporated and that from the same area of -similar soil covered with two inches of straw 575 grams were evaporated. This show's that the naked soil evaporated more than ten times as much as the covered soil. It is evident then that the soil covering has an import- ant function in preventing evaporation. Wind-Breaking Power of Forests. If the loss by evaporation from an open field be compared with that of a forest-covered ground, as a matter of course it will be found to be less in the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the influence of the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air under its cover relatively moister, therefore less capable of absorbing mois- ture from the soil by evaporation. In addition, the circu- lation of the air is impeded between the trunks, and this in- fluence upon available water supply, the wind-breaking power of the forest, must be considered as among the most import- ant factors of water preservation. Especially is this the case on the Western plains and on those Western mountain ranges bearing only a scattered tree growth and where, therefore, the influence of shade is but nominal. ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 29 "The evaporation under the influence of the wind is de- pendent not only on the temperature and dryness of the same, frut also on its velocity, which being* impeded, the rate of evaporation is reduced. "Interesting- experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the changes in the rate of evaporation effected by the velocity of the wind were made by Prof. T. Russell, Jr., of the Signal Service, in 1887. The result of these experiments (made with Piche's hygrometers whirled around on an arm 28 feet in length, the results of which were compared with those from a tin dish containing 40 cubic centimeters of water exposed un- der shelter) show, that with the temperature of the air at 84 degrees and a relative humidity of 50 per cent, evaporation at 5 miles an hour was 2.2 times greater than in a calm: at 10 miles, 3.8; at 15 miles, 4.9; at 20 miles, 5.7; at 25 miles, 6.1, and at 30 miles the wind would evaporate 6.3 times as much water as a calm atmosphere of the same temperature and humidity. "Now, if it is considered that the average velocity of the vinds which constantly sweep the Western subarid and arid )lains is from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum )f 50 and more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to ;eek and the function of the timber belt or even simple wind- >reak can be readily appreciated." Professor King has found in experiments made in Wis- onsin that the influence of even a thin stand of woodland on he rate of evaporation was considerable. In one experiment aade in the month of May the instruments were so placed as o measure the evaporation to the leeward of a scant hedge ow six to eight feet high having in it a few trees twelve feet igh and many open gaps. It was found that at 300 feet from le hedge the evaporation was 30.1 per cent greater than at 20 ;et and at 150 feet it was 7.2 per cent less than at 300 feet, he experiment was made during a moist north wind. It is jfficiently evident, therefore, that even a thin hedge row ex- *ts an influence that can readily be measured. In fact the resence or absence of protecting belts of trees under thecondi- ons often existing on our prairies may make a difference be- tween a good and a poor crop. All who are acquainted with 30 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. our prairie sections know that great damage is often done to wheat, corn and other crops by the hot south-west winds which we are likely to have during the growing months. In Kansas and Nebraska during the summer of 1894 immense tracts of corn, full}* tasselled out, were killed by such winds. At the same time it was noticed that where corn was protected by trees or slopes of land or where the humidity of the wind was increased by passing over bodies of water or clover fields, the injury was greath^ lessened. "What the possibilities of evaporation from hot and dry winds may be can be learned from statements regarding the "Fcehn,*' which is the hot wind of Switzerland, correspond- ing to the "chinook" of our western country. "The change in temperature from the normal, experienced under the influence of the Foehn has been noted as from 26 degrees to 31 degrees Fahr., and a reduction of relative humidity of 58 per cent. A Foehn of twelve hours' duratior has been known to "eat up'- entirely a snow cover 2i fee deep. "In Denver a chinook has been known to induce a rise ir temperature of 57 degrees Fahr. in twenty-four hours (o which 36 degrees in five minutes) while the relative humidit; sank from 100 to 21 per cent. "The degree of forest influence upon rate of evaporatior. by breaking the force of winds is dependent upon the exten' and density of the forest, and especially on the height of th« trees. For according to an elementary law of mechanics th< influence which breaks the force of the wind is felt at a con siderable elevation above the trees. This can be practical!; demonstrated by passing along a timber plantation on th wind-swept plains. Even a thin stand of young trees no higher than five feet will absolutely calm the air within a con siderable distance and height beyond the shelter." Prof. King found that an oak grove 12 to 15 feet hig^ exerted an appreciable effect in a gentle breeze at a distanc of 300 feet. In a strong wind the effect of such a grove woul be felt at a much greater distance to the leeward. It ma, probably be laid down as a rule that a wind break will aff or some protection for one rod to the leeward for every foot i height. ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 31 "It may not be necessary to state that the damage done to crops by the cold, dry winter winds is mainly due to rapid evaporation and that plants are liable to suffer as much by winter drouth as by summer drought. ''This is certain that since summer and winter drouth drouth that is, rapid evaporation due to continuous dry winds, is the bane of the farmer on the plains, rationally dis- posed-timber belts will do much to increase available water supply by reducing- evaporation. Evaporation, of course, goes on much less rapidly within than without the forest. How great this difference is in this section we have no exact figures to tell, but it is certain that it is much more than in Bavaria, where the following result was obtained: In an experiment which was carried on to determine the amount evaporated from April to October it was found that from a certain area without the forest 40.8 centi- meters were evaporated, within pine wood 15.9 centimeters and within deciduous wroods 6.2 centimeters. This shows that the 3vaporation was six and one-half times as great in the open field as in deciduous woods. Transpiration. Another factor by which forests dissipate ■vater supplies and which has been referred to (page 14) is transpiration. The quantity of water so used is as variable is the amount of precipitation and in fact within certain imits depends largely upon it. That is to say, a plant will ranspire in proportion to the amount of water which is at its lisposal. Transpiration is also dependent on the stage of levelopment of the plant, on the nature of its leaves and amount of foliage, on temperature, humidity, and circulation >f the air, on intensity of the sunlight, and on temperature i und stiucture of the soil and on other meteorological conjdi- ion. Rain and dew reduce transpiration, wind increases it. The amount of transpiration depends considerably upon he thickness of the leaves, therefore, the surface of the foli- ge is not a reliable measure but should be compared with the 'eight. In some European experiments carried on during the eriod of vegetation the amount of water transpired by the ifferent species per pound of dry matter in the leaves was as allows: 32 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. Pounds of Water. Birch and Linden 600 to 700 Ash 500 to 600 Beech 450 to 500 Maple 400 to 450 Oaks 200 to 300 Spruce and Scotch Pine 50 to 70 Fir 30 to 40 Black Pine 30 to 40 Average, deciduous trees 470 Average, evergreen trees 43 This shows that there is a great difference in the amounts of water transpired from deciduous trees and evergreen trees. In this ease the deciduous trees transpired about eleven times as much as the evergreens. ''The variability of transpiration from day to day is of wide range: a birch standing in the open and found to have 200.000 leaves was calculated to have transpired on hot sum- mer days 700 to M)0 pounds while on other days its exhal- ations were probably not more than 18 to 20 pounds. But while trees transpire large amounts of water our agricultural crops and other low vegetation transpire much larger amount to the same areas. A small factor in the dissipation of water supplies is the amount of water that is retained in the plant itself. As before mentioned this maj amount annually to about 5000 pounds per acre. The watei in fresh cut woods forms a large part of its weight. In hare woods such as Ash. Oak. Elm and Birch, it forms 38 to 4.' per cent, and in soft woods 45 to 55 per cent or more. ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. In discussing the elemeuts of dissipation as to the degret of their effect under forest cover as compared with the samt elements at work in the open field, we have seen that the shade the low temperature, the relative humidity, the absence o strong air currents and the protective and water-holding capacity of the forest floor are all factors in the conservatioi of the water supplies. We have also seen that the quantity of water lost by evaporation, the greatest sourse of dissipa tion, may be more than six times as great in the open as ir ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION. 33 the forest. The only other conservative effect of forests on water supplies is their effect in retarding- the melting of the snows. This acts as an important function in the prevention of freshets by giving the snow a longer time to melt so that the snow water has a better chance to sink into the ground. It is of course more evident in evergreen than in deciduous forests. On the grounds of the Minnesota Experiment Station where the woodland consists of a low growth of Oak, the snow is often retained in the woods a week longer than in the open. This often allows the snow water from the fields to almost wholly run off before it has begun to flow from the woods. Then again the daily flow of snow water from the woods is much shorter than from the open fields during spring weather when we have warm days and cold nights, for it begins later in the morning and stops earlier in the afternoon. Under the dense -shade and mulch of the cedar swamps of Northern Min- nesota the snow and ice often remain until the beginning of summer. The Indians claim there has never been a time when they could not find ice for their sick in the cedar swamps of that section. This retarding effect on the melting of snows in the spring and in preventing the run-off is of far greater im- portance in the case of streams that rise in the high moun- tains than in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the land is more nearly level. Where streams have their sources in mountains, as those of Colorado and other Rocky Mountain States, the cutting away of the forests causes a heavy flow of water early in the spring and little water in the summer when it is most needed for irrigation purposes. This has become so evident that the Chamber of Commerce of Denver, Colora- do, recently petitioned the President of the United States to "eserve such land in forests and administer it at public expense, and in their petition used in part the following anguage: "The streams upon which the irrigation system of Colo- •ado depend are fed by the springs, rivulets, and melting mows of the mountains, which in turn are nourished and proj- ected by the native forests. Where the forests have been lestroyed and the mountain slopes laid bare most unfavorable onditions prevail. The springs and the rivulets have isappeared, the winter snow melts prematurely, and the flow 2 34 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. of the streams, hitherto equable and continuous, has become fitful and uncertain. Floods and drouth alternating clearly indicate that the natural physical conditions of the region have been unduly disturbed. In winter and early spring, when heavy masses of snow have been accumulated on treeless precipitous slopes, snow and landslides frequently occur with disastrous result to life and property. Even thus early in the present season a considerable number of valuable lives have been sacrificed in this manner." THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. The distribution or "run-off" of the water is often a more important factor in its economy than the quantity available. It is influenced by the surface conditions of the soil cover, by the porosity and structure of the soil and by the slope. There are two kinds of run-off, the surface run-off and the under- ground run-off. The former is likely to do injury by eroding the soil, while the latter is generally beneficial to vegetation in the formation of springs and in raising the water level in the soil. It is evident that the less surface drainage and the more underground drainage the greater the spring-water sup- ply and vice versa. We are, therefore, interested in deter- mining the factors that increase underground drainage and reduce the surface flow. It is plain that whatever retards the flow of water over the land aids it in sinking into the soil. We find this exemplified in swamps where the soft, rough ground retards the surface flow, and in forests where the foliage checks the water in its descent to the ground and the forest floor retards the surface run-off. Theoretically such a cover should promote the flow of springs and maintain the height of water in wells, and in practice we find that this is often the case. In some cases springs had entirely disappeared after the clearing of near-by forests but have commenced their regular flow since the trees have been allowed to grow again. Springs in turn influence the flow of water in rivers so that forests about the headwaters of streams often have a most potent effect in maintaining their flow. There is in fact no influence of the forest that is of greater importance in the distribution of watei v WIND AND HAIL STORMS. 35 supplies than its effect in retarding- the run-off even though its effect in preventing- evaporation is very important. FOREST INFLUENCES ON WIND AND HAIL STOEMS. We have seen that the wind breaking- power of the forest is a very important factor in retarding- evaporation, and in preventing- the drifting- of sandy soil and snow. In the forest the air may be rather still while in the open a piercing g-ale may be blowing- ; in consequence there are no blizzards in a wooded country. Tornadoes of great force have occasionally broken down wide areas of timber in this section but instances are very rare in which they have continued for long- distances through forests, and it is probably true that forests have a tendency to prevent their formation and perhaps entirely break up those of lesser violence. M. Becquerel is said to have found by careful study that in some parts of central France hail storms show a marked disinclination to enter forests and yet occasionally they do so, but nothing- of Ihis sort has been noticed here. FOREST INFLUENCES ON FOGS AND CLOUDS. The influence of forests on fogs and clouds has frequently been mentioned. The fog seems to linger in the woods after it has cleared off elsewhere. Trees act also as condensers and gatherers of dew, hoar-frost and ice; the latter phenomo- non is especially remarkable in the so-called ice storms, where the accumulation of ice on the trees is so great as to break them down. The load of ice on some large trees is probably a ton or more. In this case the tree acts simply as an inorganic body. IMPROVEMENT OF LAND ON WHICH TREES GROW. As has been shown, trees add large amounts of soluble mineral matters to the soil through the fall and decay of their leaves. In the same way they add large amounts of humus to :he land which helps to keep the soil porous and yet makes it nore retentive of moisture and gases. The roots of trees Dften penetrate deep into the soil and bring up plant food that ■vould not be reached by agricultural crops. A part of this s returned to the surface soil by the yearly fall of the leaves 36 ELEMENTARY FORESTRV, and in the twigs and branches that are left on the ground when the tree is cut down. The roots deepen the 3oil and by their decay furnish plant food to the soil and leave channels through which water and air may enter the subsoil. It has been estimated that after a sandy soil in New England is so exhausted that it will produce nothing but red mosses it may be renewed to its pristine vigor and productiveness by the growth of trees on it for thirty years. WHY THE PRAIRIES ARE TREELESS. This question has been answered in many ways but often it would seem by persons not acquainted with the principles of forestry. It seems that the best way of getting a clear un- derstanding of this matter is to consider two extremes of tree growth. Eastern Minnesota has a rainfall of perhaps 26 to 35 inches and a comparatively moist air and at least during a part of the year is well adapted to the growth of the hardier kinds of trees. Here we find the White Pine, Basswood, Oak, Elm, Poplar and other trees attaining large size. Western Dakota has a very light rainfall mostly in the spring and a very high rate of evaporation. Trees can scarcely be made to grow in this section without irrigation, and the low vegetation, the grasses, which require a less amount of water replace the ti'ees. It is evident that between locations having such extremes of tree growth there must be a place where the trees give way to the lower forms of vegetation. Such a meridional zone is found in central Minnesota and though it has probably changed with fluctuating rainfall its general location has remained practically the same for many years. The location of this zone was probably gradually driven eastward for many years previous to settlement by the prac- tice of the Indians of burning over prairies in order to fur- nish good pasturage for the buffalo. Of late years, since the prairie fires have been largely prevented the tree line has moved westward and gained a little on the prairies. When left to itself the western limit of this tree zone would not make very great progress westward but with man's assistance in I cultivation and various other ways it may be extended much I farther towards the arid regions than if left to natural con- ditions. So we find that while great sections of the interioi RAINFALL AND HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE. 37 of this country are treeless on account of lack of water, trees planted on them and properly cared for may often grow- thriftily. But trees planted on our prairies always require more care to make them do well than those planted in sections of greater rainfall and we should not expect them to grow as large as in the timbered sections without irrigation. RAINFALL AND HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE IN THE LAND. A few years ago it was argued by many friends of tree planting that it was practicable bj' the planting of trees to in- crease the rainfall and prevent evaporation in the great con- tinental plain sufficiently to materially change the climate. The large rainfall and the good crops produced for a number of years in the drier portions of this area after considerable planting had been done seemed to endorse all that the most enthusiastic of tree planters claimed. But it must be very evident to any careful student of the subject that such small plantings as were made even had they been maintained could scarcely have had any appreciable effect on the general cli- mate of so vast a territory. It is very evident, too, from a study of the annual rainfall that it has fluctuated greatly in this section and that we have perhaps not recorded the least or the greatest amount for any one year. There are some facts that seem to show plainly that there must have been a time when the water level of our lakes was much lower than it is now or than it was during the very dry years from 1890 to 1895, when the rainfall in most cases pro- duced no flow in the streams. There is a lake near Devils Lake, N D., where in 1890 the old overland trail leading west terminated abruptly on one side of the lake and was taken up again in the continuation of its direction on the opposite side. The trail is clear and distinct, showing it to have been of comparatively recent use. It is a reasonable inference that when this trail was in use this lake was dry. There are places near the shores of Devils Lake where upright stumps are standing submerged in water. The same phenomenon has been noticed in other places. These are almost certain indica- tions of a time or times when the beds of these lakes where the stumps are, were out of water or very nearly so for a sufficient length of time for the trees to grow. The climate must have 38 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. been very dry and the great continental plain, or at least por- tions of it, must have bordered pretty closely upon a desert, and the ''Great American Desert" may have been a reality. It would seem then that the knowledge we are gaining of the unknown past, as well as the I'ecords of more recent years, point to the recurrence of great fluctuations in the annual rain- fall of this section, and it seems probable that such changes follow series of years and that the recedence of our lakes may be followed by periods of higher water. But the influence of the cultivation of the soil on water supplies must be taken into account in this connection, for it is undoubtedly true that man has changed the conditions of the soil sufficiently to greatly influence the run-off. The breaking up of large areas of prairie sod, with its low rate of evaporation, and the planting of such land to agricultural crops with a relatively hisrh rate of evaporation, has resulted in a loss of soil water. Then the cultivated soil takes up more water than the sod-bound prairie slopes, so that it does not have so good an opportunity to collect in lakes and swamps which often supplied the water of wells. And further, the straightening and cleaning out of water courses, and the draining of swamps in the effort to get arable land, has had a similar effect on subsoil water supplies. HOT WINDS. The hot winds of the plains which so often cause serious injury to farm crops in Kansas. Nebraska and the Dakotas have been ascribed to the arid staked plains, whence taking a northeasterly direction they draw all the moisture from the vegetation with which they come in contact. The view has also been presented that they have their origin on the Pacific Coast, ascend the Rocky Mountains, lose their moisture and descend on the eastern slopes. But all theories that ascribe their origin to a distant source are inadequate to explain their phenomena. For instance, all who are acquainted with these winds know that they blow only during very dry weather when the earth is heated very hot, that a good rain speedily brings them to an end. and that they blow only during the day time, commencing about 9 A. M. and continuing until sundown. This daily movement is often constant for several weeks, HOT WINDS. 39 showing- that there is evidently some connection between them and the course of the sun. For these reasons and others which would require too much space to give them here, the best authorities unite in attributing- them to local origin. Mr. George C. Curtiss describes the process of the produc- tion of a typical hot wind as follows: "The necessary condi- tions are those of the 'warm wave,' namely, a diminishing pressure to the northward, producing southerly winds which initially elevate the temperature above the normal. A cloud- less sky favors an intense insolation, as a result of which the dry ground is soon raised to an extreme temperature, and the air is heated from it by radiation, reflection and conduction. The resulting diminution of density due to the rise of tempe- rature furnishes impetus to previously existing horizontal currents, and by 10 o'clock in the morning the hot wind is fully developed. Hundreds of miles of hot dry earth contrib- ute to maintain and feed the current, and gathering strength as the sun mounts higher the hot wind sweeps over the defenseless prairie. Neither hills nor forests rise in its path to break its power or dispute its sway and with no enemy save the tardy raincloud, the fetid blast sucks out the life-sap of the growing grain. It will be readily seen then that each of tne states, Kansas, Nebraska and North and South Dakota, develops its own hot winds and cannot charge them to the account of its neighbors." The local origin of these winds at once suggests the desirability of frequent windbreaks on the prairie farms as offering the most practical way of breaking them up. Irriga- tion of large areas wiil also undoubtedly do much to prevent them. CHAPTER III. TREE PLANTING. The subject of tree planting in this section naturally divides itself under the two heads of prairie planting and forest planting. The former relates to the limited planting of trees on our prairies for ornament, protection and use and the latter to the care and management of timber lands and the planting of trees for profit from their growth. Our people are very generally impressed with the importance of prairie planting for protection and ornament, but are too prone to regard the care and management of timber lands for the pro- duction of timber crops as a matter of little concern and very impracticable. PRAIRIE PLANTING. Whatever the ulterior object of prairie planting the sub- ject of protection to the buildings, their occupants and the cattle in the field should always be first considered. Our crops in this section are most liable to injury from the south- west wind of summer which dries them out and the northwest wind of winter which blows the snow from the land causing it to lose the snow water. It also causes a loss of evaporation which goes on even in winter from the bare ground and from exposed crops causing them to winter-kill. The same winds are also the most uncomfortable to the occupants of farm buildings and are most likely to cause dust storms which should be especially guarded against. Windbreak is a general name given to anything that gives protection from wind. On the prairies it is often applied to a. single row of trees planted for protection. Shelterbelt is a term more often used to signify several or a large number of rows of trees, but the term is often used in- terchangeably with windbreak. Grove is a term that refers to comparatively large bodies PRAIRIE PLANTING. 41 of trees which may be planted for shelter, fuel or other pur- poses. Protection to Buildings may be furnished by a few rows or a grove of trees. It is generally best to locate the buildings in a grove or grow one up around them so that protection may be afforded from every quarter to the best advantage. The garden should also be included in the grove or shelterbelt about the buildings. Distance of the Trees from the Buildings and Roadways. Of what- ever the protection consists it should not be close to the build- ings or to any paths which are used in winter, for the snow drifts which always form to the leeward of such protection . may become a great nuisance under such circumstances during winters of great snow fall. The windbreak had better be placed about one hundred feet back from the buildings, and if shade is wanted it can be obtained from scattered trees near the buildings which will not drift the snow. The same rule applies to the planting of trees on the north side of a road- way. The drifts of snow which would be formed to the lee- ward of a windbreak so planted would take longer to thaw in the spring and would keep the road muddy and in poor con- dition after those that were not protected had become dry and firm. A row of trees is very appropriate by the side of a street or roadway and affords a pleasant shade, and if not planted too closely together will not drift the snow sufficiently to be an objection. Protection to Crops by Windbreaks. The objection to wind- breaks close to driveways may also be made against their use in fields, for they often keep the land for a short distance to leeward wet and in unfit condition to work after the rest of the field has become dry. This is an objection where spring grains are grown, but to winter grains it is an advantage. On the other hand, the protection of a windbreak may give a much needed or beneficial covering of snow to crops on the leeward side. The protection from dust storms and drying winds has already been mentioned. The important question is how to get the advantages without the disadvantages. In many sections the disadvantage of having the snow linger on the field near the windbreak may be overcome by leaving a 42 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. strip of land near it in permanent meadow or use it for a rotation that does not take in crops that require very early planting. But even with spring planted grains it is more than probable that windbreaks properly planted are an advantage when their benefits are considered for a series of years. It ofttimes happens that low windbreaks are more beneficial than high windbreaks in holding the snow on the land, for the high windbreaks often form a great drift that may remain late in the spring, while the low windbreak nowhere forms a large drift, but spreads the snow for long distances. Professor Budd says that in parts of the great continental plain of Rus- sia, where the climatic changes are much the same as in this section, the use of low windbreaks in wheat fields is very common. Height of "Windbreak. From the preceding paragraph it will be seen that low windbreaks may often serve a better purpose than high ones in protecting fields. Exactly what is meant by a low windbreak may be an open question, but for the purposes of this discussion a low windbreak may be consid- ered one under twenty feet in height. In Russia and at the experiment station at Indian Head, Manitoba, windbreaks of Artemisia tobolksiana, which seldom grows more than eight feet high, are often used. About farm buildings windbreaks cannot be too high, and for this purpose the largest, longest lived trees should be used. Kinds of Trees for a Windbreak. In too many instances too many tree planters on the prairies have put out exclusively quick-growing, short lived trees, such as the Cottonwood and Lomb?*rdy Poplar and after fifteen or twenty years they have found their trees dying and nothing coming on to take their places. The quick growing kinds are very desirable as a protection for the near future, but they are often short lived and should never be planted alone. Among them should be planted a sufficient number of long lived and perhaps slower growing kinds to afford protection in later years when the short lived kinds have died out. The soil and location have much to do in determining the longevity of varieties; for instance, the Cottonwood and Lombardy Poplar are generally short lived trees when planted in this section, but when PRAIRIE PLANTING. 43 planted in locations where their roots reach the permanent water level their period of life may be considerably length- ened and they may then even be regarded as long-lived trees. In starting- a grove or windbreak on the prairie in this section, there is probably no better tree to begin with than Figure 3. A young White Willow windbreak on dry prairie at Coteaux Farm. Grown entirely by mulching after being well started. the White Willow. It is quick growing, rather long lived in most situations, makes good summer fuel and renews itself very readily from the stump. The Green Ash would probably rank next as a pioneer tree. The White Elm is also very valuable for this purpose, but generally should follow the White Willow. The Cottonwood may sometimes, though very seldom, be the best to use, but on average prairie land it would be better if the White Willow or Green Ash were always planted instead. After a good windbreak has been secured it is safe to plant out the hardy coniferous evergreens and such trees as the Mountain Ash, European White Birch and other similar ornamental trees. Wind protection is beneficial to all trees and necessary for many of our best ornamental kinds and often makes the difference between success and failure in growing them. Distance Apart. In the planting of groves we should aim to get the land shaded by the trees as soon as practicable and to keep it covered with a canopy of leave3. The United States government recommended the planting of trees four feet apart 44 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. each way with the idea that when so planted they would quick- ly shade the ground and consequently keep out grass and re- tard evaporation. Some successful plantings have been made on this plan, but when planted so closely together the branches grow into the rows after a few years and cultivation must be discontinued. In this section where we have so much very bright sunshiny weather that grass can grow under foliage that would kill it out in a more Uumid climate, we find that trees planted four feet apart ea.ch way seldom afford sufficient shade to kill the grass under them for many years. This is especially true of such trees as the Cottonwood, Lombardy Poplar and White Elm when planted alone as they have open foliage that does not furnish a dense shade. Among tree planters who have had a large experience in prairie planting there has been a tendency of late years to plant two feet apart in rows eight feet apart, and some of our most successful planters prefer even more room than this between the rows. When plantings are made 2x8 feet the same number of trees are required for an acre as when planted 4x4 feet, but the former distance has the advantage over the latter in that the space between the rows can be cultivated for perhaps ten years or more by which time most trees will have formed a dense shade and be able to take care of themselves. Where a much greater distance than eight feet is allowed between the rows we generally fail to get forest conditions for many years and to that extent fall short of an important requisite in prairie planting. The distances given here might need to be modified to suit different varieties and local climatic conditions. Clear Plantings. Most of the plantings on our prairies con- sist wholly of one kind. In some cases good results are thus obtained but they are seldom as satisfactory as plantings made up of several different kinds. One of the greatest draw- backs to plantings made up entirely of one kind is the fact that drouth, insects or funsrous disease may destroy the whole planting at one time while in a judiciously mixed planting this could hardly occur. Mixed Plantings. The mixing of different varieties of trees in prairie planting is so important that it should be very carefully considered by planters. The European foresters, in PRAIRIE PLANTING. 45 recognition of this, have divided trees into two classes, light demanding- or thin foliage species and shade enduring or thick foliage species. The first class includes the Maple, Birch, ( 'ottonwood, Scotch Pine and Norway Pine, which require full sunlight for good development; the second class includes the Spruce, Balsam Fir, White Pine, White Cedar, Blue Beech ( Carpinus caroliniana ), Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya vir- giniana), and Basswood, which will endure considerable shade and consequently may be grown under other kinds. In central Europe the Beech (Fagus sylvatica) is the favorite Figured. A. good tree claim. Planted by Mr. Gardner, of Lyons county. Located on high coteaux prairie. Soil very dry. Has planted about 30 acres in trees. shade enduring species of that section and seems to be espec- ially well adapted there for planting in mixed forests, but is not hardy here and we have no tree that will answer the same purpose as fully here. The Advantages of Mixed Plantings when properly made are as follows: (1) They make possible the growing of species that form a protection in the least possible time and still have coming on in the same grove longer lived and better kinds to 46 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. take their places. (2) Many kinds that are somewhat tender are helped very much by being grown among- the hardier kinds until well established. In this case the protecting trees are called nurse trees. The Scotch Pine is seldom a success when standing alone on our western prairies, but when partially protected by some deciduous tree it stands very well. The same is generally true of Hard Maple in this sec- tion and of Catalpa and Black Walnut in Southern Minne- sota. (3) In good mixed plantings the ground is more likely to be properly shaded than it would be in clear plantings of such thinly leafed species as the Cottonwood or White Elm, which do well and afford good shade when mixed with Green Ash or Box Elder. (4) Mixed plantings are most interesting and ornamental. ( 5 ) They attract more birds by their better protection and the greater variety of food offered. (6) While the chance of injury to some of the species by climatic changes, diseases and insects is increased, the possibility of total loss from any or all of these causes is reduced to the minimum. The most important constituent of a prairie grove of mixed trees should be some well-known durable kind as the Elm, Ash, or Box Elder of which there should be a sufficient number to completely shade the ground when the others are gone. On the outside especially on the north and west it is often a good plan to put at least a few rows of White Willow or possibly Cottonwood to furnish a quick protection. The rest of the grove should consist of hardy sorts and may include some of the evergreens and such fruit bearing trees or shrubs as the Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry, Russian Mul- berry and Juneberry. These latter furnish food for the birds and may often be a help in supplying the home table. The plan of planting with a view of providing some food for birds is not mere sentiment for they protect our gardens from many insects and if we furnish an abundance of Russian Mulberry they will not trespass much on our strawberries or raspberries. It is the author's opinion that in all our prairie planting we should pay more attention to using our native fruits and Rus- sian Mulberry as plants of secondary importance. List of Trees for Mixed Plantings. Some suggestions may be PRAIRIE PLANTING. 47 found in the following lists but several other trees might often be used to give a variety or a tasteful display. For Porous Moist Soils in Southern Minnesota. White Elm, Black Walnut, Green Ash and Hard Maple in equal quanti- ties with a scattering of the fruit plants. The Hackberry may wholly or in part takes the place of the White Elm and the Box Elder the place of the Green Ash. The White Wil- low. Basswood and Soft Maple would also do well in such a location. One of the main kinds might be replaced by the White or Norway Spruce, Douglas Fir or White Pine. In fact such land as this will grow any of the trees adapted to this section. For High Prairie Soils in Southern Minnesota. Green Ash, Box Elder, White Elm and White Willow in equal quantities with scattering of fruit plants. Basswood might be used to a limited extent and White Spruce, Red Cedar, Norway Pine, White Pine or Scotch Pine might be used in the place of one of the main kinds. For Moist, Porous, Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. White Willow. White Elm, Box Elder, Basswood and Green Ash in equal quantities with a scattering of fruit plants. In some localities it might be best to use Cottonwood on the outside of the grove. Hackberry might take the place of part of the White Elm and White Spruce, Arborvitae, Norway Pine, Red Cedar, and some other conifers might be used to a limited extent. For High Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. < ottonwood. White Willow-, Box Elder and White Elm in equal quantities with a scattering of fruit plants. White Spruce and native Red Cedar might also be used in a small way. List of trees commonly planted arranged in the order of their hardiness: Deciduous trees: Green Ash, White Wil- low, White Elm. Box Elder, Basswrood, White Poplar, Hack- berry, Soft Maple, Canoe Birch and Yellowr Locust. Ever- green trees: Red Cedar, Dwarf Mountain Pine, Jack Pine, Bull Pine, White Spruce, Austrian Pine, Scotch Pine, Doug- las Spruce, Norway Pine, Norway Spruce and White Pine. Size of Trees. In the case of deciduous trees it is generally best to start with one year old thrifty- seedlings, although trees ;wo years old may often be used to advantage. The Oak, Wal- 48 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. nut and similar trees are better started from seeds where they are to remain and the White Willow should be started from cuttings. Seedlings. Elm. Ash and Cottonwood may often be pulled from some river bank or lake shore, or bought of nursery men at a very low figure or they may be raised from seeds. White Willow cuttings can generally be obtained from some neighbor or from nurseries. In the case of conifers transplanted seedlings should be used. Whatever the source of any stock that is to be planted it should be thrifty and vigorous and not weak or diseased. Method of Planting. The methods used in prairie planting are much the same as for transplanting in the nursery. In every case much pains should be taken to have the soil in the best condition. It is generally better to delay planting for a year than to attempt it in poorly prepared soil. Tree plant- ings have been made on our prairies by sowing tree seeds broadcast in autumn after first carefully preparing the soil, but the plan is seldom successful. A start can, however, be made from seeds by planting the seeds in hills either alone or with corn or beans. In the latter case the tree seedlings often do very well and do not interfere with the growth of the crop. The seedlings are cultivated in the spring after the crop is removed and as they are in rows this is a very simple matter. The common and generally most successful plan with trees that can be easily transplanted is to start with seedlings and plant in rows. The simplest and easiest way of doing this is to furrow one way, mark out the other way and plant the trees in the furrows at the intersections. If Black Walnut or any of the oaks are wanted in a mixed planting it is generally best to plant the other species first and put in the nuts or acorns afterwards. Where it is desirable to plant seedlings or cuttings to fill vacancies, a pointed stick or spade may be used to make the hole. Whatever method is used in planting it is most important that the soil be packed firmly around the roots so they will not dry out. If the soil is dry it cannot be made too solid around the roots. If cuttings are used they should be made about 14 inches long and in planting be pushed into the loose soil in a slanting position, leaving only one bud above the surface as recommended in the planting of cuttings. PRAIRIE PLANTING. 49 Cultivation should be commenced shortly after planting and be repeated often enough to keep the top three inches of soil loose so as to form a dust blanket to retard evaporation dur- ing dry weather. The soil should never be allowed to become baked hard after a rain, but the crust should be broken up with a horse cultivator as soon after a rain as it can be worked. Cultivation should be discontinued after the first of August in order to encourage early ripening of the wood. The weeds that grow" after this time of year will do no harm. One of the best tools for early cultivation of small seed- lings is Breed's Weeder, which may be worked both ways and cleans out the weeds to perfection. The ordinary corn culti- vator is also a good implement for this purpose. Later culti- vation should consist of working the soil with a one-horse cultivator or plow. If the horse implements are properly used there will be no necessity of hand hoeing for the few weeds that grow in the rows of trees will do no injury to them. Some planters sow oats among the young trees for protection when cultivation ceases, but if field mice are abundant it may be best not to do so. Late in autumn of the first year or two after planting some soil should be turned towards the trees with a plow to protect them. Thinning. In growing prairie groves we should always aim -to have the tops of the trees just touch one another with- out crowding. In order to bring this about the grove must be thinned occasionally, for although the trees would thin themselves if left alone it would be at the expense of growth and perhaps cause serious injury. Trees that are crowded together may suffer more from drouth than those that have plenty of room for their roots. This is especially true of ten- der trees on dry land. If the trees begin to crowd one another the poorest should be removed, but this should be done care- fully and never to such an extent as to let in the sunlight, which would encourage the growth of grass, weeds and side branches. Thinning may be done at any time, but if the wood taken out is to be used for fence posts or poles it would be better to cut in winter and peel at once to aid it in curing. The Proper Location of the Buildings on a Farm is a very im- portant matter and seldom receives the attention which its importance demands. The position of the buildings deter- 50 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. mines the location of the drives and of the shelter belts if any are to be planted. There are many factors which should enter into the study of this question, among the first of which is the lay of the land. Good drainage and good water are the first requisites for the location of a home, after which comes convenience and beauty. It is very desirable that the first location be made just right, since when other improvements and buildings have been commenced it can seldom be changed without much extra expense. In the case of most of our farms the subject of plans is conspicuous by its absence, a& small cramped grounds about inconveniently arranged build- ings bear abundant evidence. In figure 5 is shown four plans suggestive of the proper location of the shelter belts about farm buildings located on level prairies and varying according to the location of the main highway. Five acres in the form of a rectangle, 25 rods wide and 32 rods loag, are included in the land about the buildings and this has a shelter belt five rods wide on the north and west sides and on the south side two rows of trees ten feet apart, with the trees one rod apart in the rows. With- in this enclosure are all the farm buildings, orchard fruit and vegetable garden, barnyards, etc. The house should be with- in 100 feet of the road and the stock buildings at least 100 feet from the house and garden. About the buildings and garden some supplementary windbreaks and ornamental trees and shrubs will be needed for wind protection and for beautifying the place. This arrangement gives plenty of room for the buildings, barnyards, garden and orchards, and while all the land enclosed may not be needed for these purposes, the remainder is well adapted to the growing of general farm crops. .The plans are only suggestive and no attempt is made to work out details, and there are comparatively few farms that they would fit exactly. For instance, while it is desir- able to have the buildings centrally located, their position must frequently be pushed to one side on account of a swamp or lowland which is not suitable for them or their position may be determined by a beautiful natural grove. Figure 6 shows a plan for a south front drawn on a larger scale. It may often be desirable to change the shape of the land enclosed, but in the great majority of prairie farms a plan PRAIRIE PLANTING. 51 similar to this would work out to good advantage and the are-a enclosed by windbreaks could often be increased to ten acres to good advantage. A rule that should be carefully followed in all tree plant- Figure 5. Suggestion for laying out the grounds about the buildings on prairie farms, showing arrangements adapted to a highway located on four different sides. S;ze 30x37 rods, enclosing five acres, exclusive of shelterbelt on north and west sides five rods wide. Rows of trees indi- cated. See figure (6) for further details and suggestions. ings is that the view from the most commonly used rooms of anything that is suggestive of pleasant associations or that is especially interesting or entertaining should not be cut off. 52 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. Under this head would be included the view from the living- room windows of the traveled wagon road or perhaps of the railroad, of the neighboring- houses or perhaps a nearby lake and of the important fields on the farm, especially those where stock is pastured. These views can generally be secured with- Hiefc Ighway Figure 6. Suggestion in detail for laying out the grounds about the buildings on a prairie farm. Highway on south, size 30x37 rods enclos- ing five acres; windbreak on north and west five rods wide. Two rows of trees next to highway. Rows of trees indicated. out seriously impairing the value of the windbreaks by cut- ting small openings in them or perhaps by simply shortening the trees, so that they will not interfere with the line of sight. CHAPTER IV. FOREST MANAGEMENT. The timber lands of Minnesota should as a rule be man- aged so as to get the greatest cash returns from them for that only is practical forestry which has this fundamental feature always in view. For many years the attention of the people of this country has been drawn to the possibility of a de- pletion of our forests and a timber famine in the near future. But increased transportation facilities have made new sources of timber easily accessible to us, which fact together with the use of inferior kinds of trees for lumber has kept the predicted timber famine from materializing until now our people have be- come skeptical on tnis point and look upon these predictions as very premature. To any one who carefully studies the subject however, it will be very evident that our supply of White Pine, that most generally useful of all our timber trees, is fast decreasing and that it cannot be many years before this will be apparent by the advance of prices for this kind of timber. Most of the land of good quality in Minnesota seems destined to be eventually used for farming purposes, but there will always remain a large area of stony or very sandy land that will be unfit for profitable agriculture and which will produce more revenue when used for the production of timber than when used for any other crop. There is also a large amount of land that will not be needed for farming purposes for many years and this should grow timber until needed for agri- culture. Besides this, with the increased value of fuel, lum- ber and other forest products there will come a better appreci- ation of the importance of farm wood lots as a source of fuel, poles, lumber, etc., for farm use and a more general dispo- sition to save some land for this purpose. At present in the greater part of our forested area north of St. Paul the timber is greatly in the way of settlers and the price of fuel is simply the cost of gathering it, no charge 54 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. whatever being- made for the wood itself. This state of things exists because not only in the forests but more especially in the great area of cut-over timber lands in that section there is such an immense amount of dead and down timber that it is seriously in the way and far in excess of the fuel demands of the settlers on those lands for a score of years to come. There seems to be something incogruous in the fact that while one-half of our state is prairie and sadly in want of fuel and other forest supplies, the other half has such a super- abundance of these products that they are going to waste and only a small portion is considered worth marketing. Our Virgin Forests have contained and those remaining now contain a large percentage of trees past their prime and los- ing in value each year they stand. Such forest products should be worked up as soon as a good market can be found for them. The marketing of the products of the virgin forest in Minnesota has added greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the state and under proper management this source of wealth should continue indefinitely. Timber in Minnesota. The most reliable figures place the total area of natural forest in Minnesota in the year 1896 ex- cluding brush land and open swamps at about 12,000,000 acres. The merchantable forest timber on this land consists of about 14,424,000,000 board feet of White Pine, 3,412,000,000 board feet of Norway Pine and 6,000,000,000 board feet of Jack Pine, Spruce, Tamarack and hard woods besides that which is only valuable for fuel. The importance of the lumber industry to the state may be best represented by the value of the finished product. The census of 1890, owing to incomplete returns, does not repre- sent the entire industry yet it gives some idea of its extent as follows: Value of annual product $25,075,132 Capital invested $39,837,000 Number of employes 25,715 Wages paid annually $6,166,266 This estimate does not include wood used as fuel, railway ties, piles, poles, posts, fencing, mine timber, house logs, FOREST MANAGEMENT. 55 Figure 7. primitive forest. White and Norway Pine mixed. Near Mille Laes. 56 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY charcoal, medicinal products or the products of distillation, the total value of which products is very large. The saw mill cut of Minnesota during the past five years has been estimated at 1,323,497.000 feet board measure per Figure 8. Old pine cuttings alter being once burned over. year, of which about 323,000,000 feet has come in from neigh- boring states. The best authorities agree that the normal annual increase on our 12,000,000 acres of forest area should be about 2,000,- 000,000 feet board measure or a mean annual increase of 185* feet B. M. per acre. If this were true it would leave a wide margin to our present annual timber cut without impairing our normal growing stock. In other words this great lumber * This is a very conservative estimate since many observations show- that the annual increase in this section may exceed 500 feet board measure per acre. FOREST MANAGEMENT. 57 industry of so much value to the state would be continued in- definitely under normal conditions. But there is practically no timber land in this state under normal conditions and there is little or no increase on the far greater part of our cut-over timber lands. On this account the continuance of our lumber industry is not hoped for by those engaged in it. In other words we are working our timber resources as though they were a mine which can never be restocked. The timber lands of all civilized countries have passed through about the same wasteful conditions as those which now prevail here. While this does not justify the present deplorable situation here, it shows us that the trouble we are suffering from is a common one, that will right itself with increased population and proper education. Previous to 1700 the forests of Germany were in much the same condition as those here at present and a square mile of forest land could be bought for the present price of one of the oaks planted at that time. Our people are simply uninformed as to the possi- bilities of our forest land under proper conditions. European Systems of Forest Management have been referred to as being applicable to our conditions. But while we can learn much from the history of European forest administra- tion that is helpful in throwing light on and the solving of our present problems, yet our conditions are so very different from those existing in Europe that much discretion must be used in adapting their methods to our present conditions. For instance, in Germany and France there is a profitable market for all that we term forest waste products, such as the smaller top-logs, branches, twigs, stumps, leaves, underbrush and even the roots of trees, while here such material encum- bers the ground and greatly increases the danger of forest fires, which is the greatest source of injury to growing timber. On account of the almost total absence of danger from fires in European forests and the low tax on such property, they are popular investments, so that although forest prop- erty there probably does not yield much over 3 per cent, per annum, there is plenty of capital seeking such investments and on account of the safety of the security, are contented with this low rate of income. Here, on the contrary, forest property is greatly in danger of forest fires, which makes 58 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. investments in young- growing timber extra hazardous. Then again, even if forest property were quite free from danger from fire, our people can find so many more other avenues for profitable investment that yield quicker returns than can be found in Europe that they would be slow to put their money into young forest property for the reason that considerable time must elapse before the \ early increase can be harvested. The Taxes on Timber Lands which are almost generally exces- sive and entirely out of proportion to the value of the lands in this section, are another cause for the non-investment of money in timber lands here. Together with forest fires they have had the effect of discouraging lumbermen from holding their timber lands for a new growth. Dr. C. A. Schenck well says of the situation in North Carolina: "Why should the owner of woodlands pay taxes. Taxes on property are paid all the world over as compensation for protection of property. The commonwealth, however, although not protecting wood- lands at all imposes heavy taxes on them. Such legislation is unjust, but it is more than that; it is unwise, because it prevents the development of economic forestry." In this state (Minnesota) something is being done to protect woodlands, but it is very small indeed compared with the great interests involved, and the taxes levied on forest property are often very excessive. Something must be done to correct this evil if our forest interests are to be properly developed and remain as a source of continuous revenue in this state. The State of Minnesota owns or will own when the surveys are completed about 3,000,000 acres of land in the forest area of the state, much of which is better adapted to forestry than to agriculture, and should therefore be set aside for this pur- pose, but thus far nothing has been done to introduce any reasonable system for the management of this vast area which is not contributing a tithe of what it should contribute to the welfare of the state. Perhaps no state in the union is more favorably situated than Minnesota for carrying out a com- prehensive system of forest management and thus setting an example in good forestry to her citizens which would result in permanent material advancement. RATE OF INCREASE. 59 RATE OF INCREASE IN TIMBER. The rate of increase on timber trees varies according to the kind and age of the trees and the conditions under which they are growing Most of the pine trees cut for log timber in this state have been upwards of 100 years old and some of the White and Norway pine that has been cut was over 300 years old. Perhaps the largest White Pine ever cat in this state was scaled by H. B. Ayres. The tree was 253 years old,* measured 48 inches in diameter on the stump and yielded 4050 feet board measure of log timber. The most rapidly grown trees recorded in this state were: Norway Pine 100 years old, 30 inches on the stump yielding 1050 feet board measure; White Pine, 100 years old, 27 inches on the stump, yielding 1050 feet board measure, and White Pine 108 years old, 32 inches on the stump, yielding 1450 feet board measure. The largest recorded acre yield of White Pine in Minnesota was near Carlton. The full yield of this acre was 111,050 feet board measure and after deducting for rot and crooks 94,204 feet of sound timber remained. The average yield of White Pine is much below this and large areas have been cut that did not yield over 10,000 feet board measure per acre but much of this has been cut too young for best results. Marketable White and Norway Pine may be grown in about 30 years under the best conditions in this section and at this age will probably be about eight inches in diameter and 40 feet high. But such trees are then growing very fast and as the approximate increase in volume of the tree is as the square of the proportionate increase in diameter and the waste in working greatly decreases with the size of the trees, the cutting of them at such an early age would be at a loss of future profits. Such trees have very little, if any, heartwood and yet this kind of timber is being grown and marketed in many of the eastern states. In fact there is very little heart to any of the pine now cut in the New England states as it is practically all young second growth, and is generally mar- keted about as soon as it attains sufficient size to be salable without regard to the fact that it is then making its most rapid growth. From careful observation, the Experiment Station of the 60 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. University of Minnesota estimates that on land adapted to the White Pine with a thick growth of this kind of trees eight inches in diameter, the annual increase should be about 50 cubic feet or 500 feet board measure per acre. In some cases this rate of increase has been more than doubled. The Thickness of the Annual Rings on trees varies with the conditions under which the trees make their growth and is therefore a good index to these conditions. Trees that are crowded so that they make a very rapid upward growth form very thin rings, and when this upward growth ceases owing to the removal or suppression of surrounding trees, much thicker rings are formed. Trees that are grown in the open produce thick annual rings throughout their lives which vary in thick- ness according to varying climatic conditions. Those of the White Pine vary in thickness from one-sixteenth of an inch or less in trees that are severely crowded to one-third of an inch in open grown trees in good soil. Willows sometimes have annual rings three-fourths of an inch wide. The Life History of a Mature Tree in virgin forest may often be determined by a study of the annual rings in connection with the environment of the tree. The Division of Forestry of the Minnesota Experiment Station has made several studies of this kind, among which are the following: Figure 9 shows a section of a White Pine which made its growth under varying conditions. This tree started into growth under Birch and Aspen, and when from twenty to twenty-five years old was nearly suppressed by them. Over- coming them when thirty years old it pushed upward rapidly until about its fiftieth year. It was then set free by fire which checked its upward growth for about twenty-ffve years, when owing to the crowding of surrounding trees it began to again increase rapidly in height. When eighty-four years old fire killed the surrounding trees and set this one entirely free, in which condition it remained until it was cut eighteen years later. When cut it measured fifty-five feet high, thirteen inches through at the base and contained 29.95 cubic feet of timber. During the last ten years it hade mad an average annual increase of 1.5 cubic feet. This study brought out the following facts: (1) While RATE OF INCREASE. 61 rapid upward growth is being made the lateral accretions are slight. (2) Large accretions accompany full leafage. (3) After the surrounding growth is killed, the tree begins to strengthen the portion which receives the greatest strain by- wind, that is, the lower part of the trunk. (4) In approach- ing the top of the tree the accretions are found to diminish as each live branch is passed. Figure 10 shows a section of a White Pine that was en- tirely open grown. This tree was cut when 56 years old and Figure 9. White Pine crowded and then open grown, measured 18 inches in diameter on the stump, 8 inches at 25 feet above the stump and 48 feet in height. The volume of the stem when cut was 28.85 cubic feet; the accretion during the last ten years was 12.52 feet which is equivalent to mean annual increment of 1.25 feet. As the live branches of this tree occupied the whole trunk, the timber was very knotty. A proper crowding would have kept it from forming large branches on the lower trunk, stim- ulated its upward growth and prevented so large an incre- 62 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. ment during- the early life of the tree. But if, as with the former tree, it had been first crowded and then set free, the best timber in the least time would have been secured. The Profit; from an Investment in Land that is stocked with only very small coniferous seedlings is altogether too small and too remote to prove an attraction to investors at present even were the danger from fire entirely eliminated. But there is considerable land that is now stocked with a good growth of young pine of fair size that could be bought and Fig. 10. — Cross Section of White Pine open grown. managed at a good profit if the danger from fire could be greatly reduced. This land in many cases would not have to be held more than ten or fifteen years to secure a good profit on the investment, after which the profit might be made nearly continuous. The rapid growing deciduous trees, such as the Poplar. Willow. White and Yellow Birch, Soft Maple, Ash, Red and White Elm, Hackberry, Basswood, Locust, Black Walnut and Tamarack may sometimes be planted and grown at a profit on waste land that is adapted to them and should RATE OF INCREASE. 63 there be a stock of young trees of these kinds already on the land it can perhaps be soon made to yield a revenue in the shape of posts and fuel and later of timber. Even the slower growing- deciduous trees such as the Red, White and Bur Oak, Fig. 11. — Crowded and open grown Norway Pine. Crowded trees form the mostgood timber in thesh^rt- est time. Open grown trees have many side branches and consequently form poor timber. Hard Maple and Rock Elm increase very rapidly in good soil and could often be made to yield a good profit if properly managed. However, most of the hard wood lands of this section are of such good quality that they seem destined to be generally cleared for agriculture instead of being kept for timber. 64 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. The Cultivation of Trees on timber lands in this section has never received much attention and the only data as to the rate of increase that we have to follow are what can be obtained from the native forests, and these are for this reason only approximately correct. In European countries and elsewhere it has been proved by long experience that more timber is grown per acre, and that the growth is much more rapid on land where some attention is given to systematic forestry than on that which is left to itself, and it will seem reasonable to believe this, when we consider that much of the energy of trees may be expended in fierce competition with neighbors which may weaken them all and perhaps bring about unheal- thy conditions, and that natural forest land is generally unevenly stocked with trees and often with those that are not the most profitable kinds to grow. In the cultivated forests unnecessary crowding is prevented by judicious thinning and the land is kept evenly and completely stocked with the most profitable kinds. RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. Various authors have suggested planting, seeding, prun- ing, thinning and various other ways of continuing or im- proving the new growth in this section, Let us consider these matters separately. The planting of trees has been recommended as a remedy for the depletion of our timber lands. The objection to this is that the first cost of planting is so great that such remedies are seldom justified. It would hardly be possible to stock an acre of land with young pine for less than fifteen dollars per acre and while large tracts of land can be bought for perhaps fifty cents per acre, yet even at this very low price for the land the investment would be too large to start with. How- ever, where the seeding trees have been destroyed on large areas it may be best to do some planting in order to bring about the conditions for natural seeding and occasionally to make the whole stand more uniform by taking up some trees where the growth is too thick and planting in vacancies. Seeding by hand has also been recommended but experience shows that it is difficult to save seed of White Pine at an ex- pense of much less than one and one-half dollars per pound RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 65 and as from three to six pounds are required per acre it will be seen that at least in this case the first outlay is too large an investment for profit except perhaps in a few cases. Natural Reseeding of the land is then almost the only means of restocking- the land, which should receive attention here, as other methods are too expensive. It generally takes place in this section, and the only reason why it is not more suc- cessful is the- frequent destruction of the young seedlings by fires. The small crooked branching pine and other seeding trees that are always left by lumbermen in their operations and generally considered worthless, perform a very important work in producing seed, and it is a pity that there are not more such trees left to produce seed for our cut-over lands. When such trees escape the first burning after the land is cut over, they often remain for twenty years doing their blessed work of distributing seed each year, and when the conditions exist for germination and growth the seed grows and lives. Sometimes where such trees are not left by lumbermen, or where they have been destroyed by fire, it has taken twenty years to get the land properly reseeded to White Pine by the slow process of seeding from trees at a distance of half a mile or more. In some European countries comparatively little planting of timber trees is done, and most of the young trees of some kinds are expected to come from seed scattered by trees that are left at cutting time for this purpose. Indeed, it is a com- mon practice there to thin out as the time comes for final cut- ting, so as to let the light in onto the ground and thus pro- duce the conditions necessary for the new growth to get a start. Renewal of Growth by Sprouts and Suckers. Many kinds of trees and other woody plants can renew themselves by means of sprouts and suckers, or both. Such, for instance, are the Oak. Willow, Ash, Basswood and some other broad-leaf trees: but none of our narrow-leaf trees (conifers) have this power to any important extent. Young vigorous trees have the greatest power of renewing growth in this way. Such a growth seldom attains large size and is best adapted to con- ditions where fuel is the object sought and the land is to be cut over once in twenty or thirty years. After cutting, the 3 66 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. growth is very rapid for a number of years, and then it is often very slow. In cutting with the intention of securing a renewal of forest growth, in this way the work should be done while the tree is dormant, i. e. between the time when the leaves fall in autumn and the trees start into growth in spring. The best time in this section is the latter part of winter or early spring. It is, as a rule, desirable that such trees be cut close to the ground so that the sprouts may come out at or just below the surface soil so ihat they may produce new roots and not have to depend throughout life on the old stump.. The stump, also, should be cut slanting so as to shed water readily, which will tend to prevent rot and thus help to maintain the vigor of the tree so that the young shoots will be better nourished. Pollarding consists in cutting back the side branches of a tree, or cutting off the main stem at a few feet from the ground. The branches may be cut off close to the main stem or at a short distance from it. the latter method being prefer- able. New shoots spring from the cuts and these are again cut when of suitable size. What has been said in regard to the season and manner of cutting in the previous paragraphs is practically true here. This process is mostly used in the case of willows and poplars to obtain material for basket work, small poles, fuel, etc. Pruning of Forest Trees is generally an expensive operation and little is required if trees are properly crowded when young so that they take on an upright form free from side branches. If they are not crowded when young many side branches are formed which generally die out when the trees get large enough to shade all the ground. In some cases these dead branches drop quickly to the ground, and in others they remain for years, producing knots and irregularity in the wood formed in the meantime and should be removed. Trees grown in the open retain their lower branches more or less throughout life and they produce in consequence timber of inferior value as compared with trees grown in crowded woods. Large wounds made by cutting off green branches should In- covered. It is often desirable to remove dead branches RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 67 and it is the practice to do so in some of the plantings of White Pine that have been made in New England. It is said that the lumber there is so greatly improved by so doing- that the operation is a paying one. But under the proper condi- tions for the development of timber trees very little is gained by pruning. The Covering of Tree Seeds in Woodland, whether the seeds are sown naturally or artificially, can often be best accomplished by stirring up the soil with a strong harrow or a brush drag* made of the branches of an oak or other tree having strong* wood. This may sometimes be done most advantageously before the seeds fall and at other times after they have fallen. Where the soil is made loose and the forest floor is broken up before the seeds fall they are generally sufficiently covered by wind and rain. They may sometimes be covered most satis- factorily by driving a (lock of sheep over the land after the seed has fallen, the feet of the sheep pressing the seed into the ground. Thinning is the most important part of the forester's art in securing good timber and in reseeding the land. The ideal condition in the life of timber trees is to secure a natural crop of seedlings so crowded when young as to increase very rapidly in height and produce slender trunks free from side branches. When this crowding has gone far enough the less valuable and weaker trees should be removed to give the better trees sufficient room for their crowns to develop. These remaining trees in the course of a few years will again crowd one another too severely and this process of removing poorer trees must then be repeated. Then when the final stand of tries is approaching maturity, thinning should be commenced to let in light and air to produce the conditions under which seedlings develop to best advantage. In this connection it should be remembered: (1) That increase of wood is proportional to leaf surface and therefore the lands should be kept as nearly as possible covered with a canopy of leaves which should be on trees that are valuable for their timber. (2) That leaves need light: therefore, partly shaded branches form but little and imperfect wood and those that are very heavily shaded die out: crowding prevents the formation of branches on trees and is important in securing 68 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. the best timber. The amount of waste in branchwood varies greatly, it being- very much in trees that are entirely open grown and very little in trees that have been severely crowded. But as over-crowding causes decay it is important to do the thinning as soon as the tree has taken on a proper form. Crowding on one side causes crooks and these can be pre- vented by cutting off the crowding tree or branch. The Ax and Saw, then, as will be seen from the foregoing par- agraphs, furnish the most important means when used judic- iously in securing the best growth of timber in forests and the proper succession of growth on forest land. Waste in Forests occurs, as' has been partially stated, in branchwood. crooks, rot, and in growing of the kinds of trees that are not marketable. The kinds that are marketable depend largely on the demand. In considering this subject it is best to be conservative and to select kinds that are of stable value, and not likely to go out of fashion. Since crowding is best done by small trees among the large timber trees, they should be of a kind that are marketable when small. Much waste in timber is caused by cutting trees when small. The amount of waste in the shafts of straight trees, excluding trunks, branches and bark, may vary from eighty- one per cent in a tree eight inches in diameter and ninety feet high, to six per cent in a tree forty inches in diameter on the stump and one hundred feet high. It will thus be seen that there is great loss from cutting trees when small, especially if they are growing rapidly. * Succession of Tree Growth is an expression sometimes used as though there were a natural rotation of trees on the land. There is nothing of the sort. Sometimes hardwoods will follow pine, or the pine the hardwoods where the two were mixed at the time of cutting and there was a young growth of one or the other kind which had a chance to grow when its competitor was removed. Where land is severely burned after being cut over, the trees that show first are generally the kinds with seeds that float long distances in the wind such as Poplar and Birch or those having fruits especially liked by birds such as the Bird Cherry, which is very widely distrib- uted. These show first on account of getting started first. The pine and the other trees may come in later owing to their RESTOCKING FOREST LAND. 69 being- seeded later or owing- to the later advent of conditions favorable to their germination and growth. It may happen in the case of burnt-over pine land that pine seed is distrib- uted over it the first year after it is burned, but owing- to there being- no protection from the sun the young- seedling's of White and Norway Pine which are very delicate are destroyed. After a young- growth of poplars has appeared the pine seed may find just the right conditions for growth for a few years and finally get ahead of the poplars and crowd them out while in the meantime it is being much improved by the pres- ence of the poplars which grow rapidly and force the pines to make a tall growth. On the other hand, however, the poplars, birches and other trees and shrubs and even weeds may some-, times make so strong a growth as to kill out the young pine seedlings if they are not sufficiently well established at the time the mature growth is cut. CHAPTER V. DURABILITY OF WOOD. Decay in wood is due to the breaking down of the tissues by fungi. In some cases the fungus destroys the woody cells; in others it uses up the starch found in the cells and merely leaves a blue stain (bluing of lumber). Some kinds of fungi attack only conifers, others only hardwoods: some are con- fined to one species while others may affect several species, but probably no one of them attacks all kinds of wood. Figure 1-* shows the discoloration of wood by a shelf fungus. The wood contains the fungus plant which when ready to pro- duce its spores, sends out a shelf-like body on the side of the wood. These shelves contain the spores and may be found on many old decayed trees or stumps. Various odors are produced in the wood by some of these fungi: they may be pleasant as those found some- times in the oak or unpleas- ant as those infesting some of the poplars. By studying both the favorable and the unfavorable conditions for the growth of the rot producing fungi we may learn the best methods of increasing the du- rability of our woods and thus avoid unnecessary- waste. The soil and conditions un- der which wood is grown af- fect its durability. Conifer- mis woods with narrow an- Figure 12. "Shelf" fungus on the stem of a Pine (Hartig). a. Sound wood ; I), resinous wood ; c. partly decayed wood or punk; d. layer of living spore tubes ; e. old spore tubes fdled up; ^.fluted upper surface of the fruiting body of the fungus which gets its food through a great num- ber of fine threads (the mycelium;, its vegetative tissues penetrating the wood and causing it to decay. DURABILITY OF WOOD. 71 nual rings are most durable especially when grown on com- paratively poor soils, in dense forests and at high altitudes. On the contrary, the hardwoods with wide annual rings are most durable and are grown on the low lands and in isolated positions. The wood of most broad-leafed trees produced in the open is more durable than that from the dense forest. Sound Mature Trees yield more Durable Timber than either young or very old trees. A tree is considered mature when it ceases growing vigorously, which condition is indicated by the flat- tening out of the crown, by dead branches in the crown and by changes in the color of the bark. It is not indicated by size since this varies in the same species according to cir- cumstances. A small tree poorly situated for growth may be as old or older than a larger tree growing under better con- ditions. Intense Coloration of the Heartwood is a measure of durability in timber and faintly colored heartwood resembles sapwood in its properties, only surpassing it in dryness. The tannin or coloring matter of heartwood is antiseptic. Where heart- wood does not change its color or is lighter than the sapwood the protecting substances are generally absent and the wood is therefore liable to decay. This is plainly shown in the hol- low trunks of Willow and Basswood. Sapwood Contains More Ready Made Food in forms acceptable to a great number of kinds of fungi than the heartwood. This largely accounts for the fact that sapwood is much more li- able to decay than heartwood. This is especially true in the .•ase of Cedar and Pine where the heartwood is protected by resinous substances. But when the sapwood is well seasoned and heavier than the heartwood it lasts as long. Wood that has been once attacked by fungi becomes predisposed to further decay. The Time of Cutting Timber affects its durability only as the weather at the time of cutting affects the curing process. Wood cut in summer is generally affected by decay-producing fungi, rapid fermenting of sap and by bad checking owing to very rapid curing on the outside. As the cracks thus made go deep into the wood they may increase the danger from fungi. Where summer-felled wood is worked up at once and 72 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. protected by kiln-drying, it lasts as long- as that cut at any other season. Early winter is probably the best time to cut timber as regards durability, since it then seasons slowly at a time when the rot-producing fungi are not active, so that it can cure over on the outside before summer. Many kinds of fungi and beetles find a very favorable place just under the bark of logs. These can be avoided, the curing of the timber hastened and its durability greatly increased by removing the bark soon after felling. When trees are cut in full leaf it is advan- tageous to let them lie at full length until the leaves are thoroughly wilted ( 2 or 3 weeks) before cutting to size. With conifers this is a good practice at any season, and while not practical, yet theoretically all winter-cut trees should be left to Leaf out in the spring before being worked. In this way most of the sap is evaporated, but in the care of timber that is to go at once into the water these precautions are not so important. Heat. | 60 Deg. to 100 Deg. F. I Moisture and Air in moderate quantities produce conditions under which wood quickly decays. It is on this account that fence posts rot off near the surface of the ground, where about such conditions of heat and moisture are usually found during several months of the year. For the same reason what is known as dry rot destroys green floor joists or other timbers where they are tightly enclosed, as under a house without ventilation, since moisture is always present in such places and the timber cannot dry out. Perfectly dry wood or that submerged in water will last indefinitely, and there seems to be no difference in different kinds of wood under these conditions. Pieces of pine wood in good condition have been found in Illinois buried toadepth of sixty feet that must have been there for many centuries. Nearly sound pine logs are occasionally found in the woods of this state, where they have a thick moss covering that has kept them moist and prevented their decay for hundreds of years. The remains of timbers in the piles of the iake dwellers, which must have stood in place two thousand years, are still intact. In these instances the wood was kept moist and never came in contact with the air. It is very evident, too. that wood which is kept in a dry place does not decay, since it may be found DURABILITY OF WOOD. 73 in an unimpaired state of preservation in some of our very oldest building's. Curing is one of the most important processes in its effect on the durability of wood. Well cured wood resists decay far "better than fresh wood, because it contains an insufficient amount of water for the growth of fungi. Green wood covered with paint before it is dry is often destroyed by dry rot, since this fungus finds abundant moisture under the paint and the protection which was intended for the wood really protects its enemy, the fungus. Paint and other wood-protecting com- pounds are efficient only when they are appliedto dry material, which they preserve by protecting them from moisture. But fence posts or other timber to be used in moist places, if well cured, will even if not protected, last much longer than fresh cut timber. The amount of moisture in wood, then, is the most important factor in influencing its durability. Timber is Best Cured Under Cover, where it is protected from the sun and the full force of the wind but has a good circula- tion of air. If piled in the open, it is a good plan to shade it. When piling green or wet amber, place lath or other strips of wood of uniform size under each log, post or tie. In piling sawed lumber the lath should be placed at the ends, as in this position they in a measure prevent checking on the ends. From twelve to eighteen months is generally sufficient to cure wood for ordinary use. while for special work ten or more years may occasionally be required, if green or wret timber is closely piled in warm weather it is likely to rot. The best method of curing timber without resorting to the use of expensive apparatus is to work it up at once and soak it in water for from one to three weeks to remove the sap from the outside of the wood. It will then season more quickly and be more durable than when dried without soaking. Sometimes it is absolutely necessary to thus water season large timbers as it is impossible to get the sap out of them by atmospheric seasoning. Large checks or cracks in the ends of logs or other timber of large dimension may be avoided or greatly lessened by painting the ends with linseed oil mixed with ground charcoal or other material to give it consistency. Covering with cloth or tarred paper also lessens checking. 74 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. Good Coatings for Wood consist of oily or resinous substances that are easily applied in a smooth coat and dry readily, yet do not have any tendency to crack or peel off. They should be applied to the whole exposed surface. Coal Tar is one of the best materials for covering wood to increase its durability. It is best applied hot, especially if mixed with oil of turpentine as it then penetrates more deeply. A mixture of three parts coal tar and one part unsalted grease to prevent the tar from drying too quickly so it may penetrate the wood better is recommended. One barrel of coal tar will cover from two to three hundred posts if it is properly applied. Oil Paints are next in value. Boiled linseed oil is used with lead, pulverized charcoal or other similar material to give it substance. Soaking the dry wood in crude petroleum is also recommended. Lime Whits Wash is a good preventive of decay in wood and although not as good for this purpose as coal tar it is very desirable. As with all other preservatives that are ap- plied to the surface, the wood should be very dry before it is applied and the wash should be applied evenly over all the exposed parts. It is on account of the lime that washes out of the mortar that the shingles on a roof just below the chim- ney last longer than on other parts of the roof. But if white wash is to be applied to shingles it should be applied before they are laid by dipping. Charring those parts of posts or timbers which come in con- tact with the ground is a good preventive provided a thick layer of charcoal is formed and the work so carefully done as not to cause the timber to crack since deep cracking exposes the interior to decay. If not carefully done the timber may be seriously weakened. Antiseptics. The impregnating of timber with sulphate of copper (blue stone), sulphato of iron (green copperas), chloride of zinc, creosote, salts of mercury or other similar material has the effect when properly done of greatly in- creasing its durability. Such antiseptic substances have the power of destroying the rot-producing fungi. The materials are generally applied to fresh logs. If dry timber is to be treated, it is first boiled or steamed to open the cells. A DURABILITY OF WOOD. 75 hollow cap connected with a force pump is placed over one end and the liquid forced through the cup into the wood which results in forcing out the sap at the opposite end and replac- ing it with the antiseptic. All the antiseptics mentioned have been used to some extent for this purpose, but for various rea- sons chloride of zinc is now most generally used. Railroad ties properly treated with this material are reported to last twice as long as those not so treated but owing to the abund- ance of cheap timber in this section the necessity for the practice of such economy is not yet apparent here although commonly adopted in Europe. In the following table is shown approximately the time fence posts will last in Minnesota. This table is based on practical experience in this state: TABLE SHOWING RANGE OF DURABILITY OF FENCE POSTS IN MINNESOTA. (Air dry.) Red Cedar 30 years. White Cedar (quartered 6 in. face) 10-15 White Oak (6 in. round) 8 " Red and Black Oak 4 " Tamarack (Red wood) 9 " Elm , 6-7 Ash, Beech, Maple 4 Black Walnut 7-10 " FUEL VALUE OF WOODS.* "The relative fuel values here given are obtained by de- ducting the percentage of ash from the specific gravity, and are based on the hypothesis that the real value of the combus- tible material in all woods is the same. "It appears from Mr. Sharpies' experiments that resinous woods give upwards of 12 per cent, more heat from equal weights burned than non-resinous woods; the heat produced by burning a kilogram of dry non-resinous wood being about 4000 units, while the heat produced by burning a kilogram of dry resinous wood is about 4,500 units, a unit being the quantity of heat required to raise one kilogram of water one degree centigrade. *This article on the fuel value of woods is taken from the "Report of the Tenth Census," by Prof. C. S. Sargent. 76 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. "Count Ruinford first propounded the theory that the value of equal weights of wood for fuel was the same, without reference to specific distinctions: that is that a pound of wood, whatever the variety, would always produce the same amount of heat. Marcus Bull, experimenting- in 1826 upon the fuel value of different woods, found a variation of only 11 per cent between the different species tested. Rumford's theory must be regarded as nearly correct, if woods are separated into resinous and non-resinous classes. The specific gravity gives a direct means of comparing heat values of equal vol- umes of wood of different resinous and non-resinous species. In burning wood, however, various circumstances affect its- value; few fire places are constructed to fully utilize the fuel value of resinous woods, and carbon escapes unconsumed in the form of smoke. Pine, therefore, which although capable of yielding more heatf than oak or hickory, may in practice yield considerably less, the pine losing both carbon and hydrogen in the form of smoke, while hickory or oak, burn- ing with a smokeless flame, is practically entirely consumed. The ash in a wood, being non-combustible, influences its fuel value in proportion to its amount. The state of dryness of wood also has much influence upon its fuel value, though to a less degree than is generally supposed. The water in green wood prevents its rapid combustion, evaporation reducing the temperature below the point of ignition. Green wood may often contain as much as 50 per cent, of water, and this water must evaporate during combustion: but as half a kilogram of ordinary wood will give 2,000 units of heat, while half a kilo- gram of water requires only 268.5 units to evaporate it, 1731.5 units remain available for generating heat in wood con- taining even a maximum amount of water. "A factor in the general value of wood as fuel is the ease with which it can be seasoned: beech, for example, a very dense wood of high fuel value when dried, is generally con- sidered of little value as fuel, on account of the rapidity with which it decays when cut and the consequent loss of carbon by decomposition." fFrom a given weight. FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. 77 TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IX ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF DRY WOOD.f BOTANICAL NAMES COMMON NAMES Approxi- mate rela- tive fuel value. Specific gravity of absolutely dry wood Crataegus cocci nea Hicoria ovata Os try a virginiana Amelanchier aJnifolia Amelanchier canadensis, 'rataegus tomentosa.... licoria minima ^uercus alba 2uercus macrocarpa ?obinia pseudacacia ^runus americana Viburnum lentago Zeltis occidental's larpinus caroliniana Jlmus racemosa Crataegus crus-galli ^raxinus lanceolata }uercus coccinea *yrus coronaria Jlmus pubescens yrun us virginiana rymnocladus dioicus I cer sa ccharum leer platanoides Heditsia triacanthos White Thorn Shellbark Hickory, Hop Hornbeam Service-berry Juneberry Black Thorn Bitternut Hickory. White Oak Bur Oak Locust Wild Plum Black Haw Hackberry Blue Beech Cork Elm Cockspur Thorn. .. Green Ash Scarlet Oak Wild Crab Slippery Elm Choke Cherry Coffee Tree Sugar Maple Norway Maple Honey Locust 85.85 83.11 82.43 77.95 75.49 74.74 74.39 74.06 72.96 73.00 72.82 72.08 72.26 72.20 71.54 70.71 70.82 70.11 68.98 69.16 68.88 68.75 66.86 0.8618 0.8372 0.8284 0.8262 0.7838 0.7585 0.7552 0.747O 0.7453 0.7333 0.7313 0.7303 0.7287 0.7286 0.7263 0.7194 0.7117 0.7095 0.7048 0.6956 0.6951 0.6934 0.6916 0 6800* 0.6740 *Air dried. fin this table the figures relating to North American species have >een taken directly from or calculated from data in Sargent's Silva of Jorth America and the report of the Tenth Census, and those relating to European species are irom various European sources. 78 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IX ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF DRY WOOD. {Continued.) BOTANICAL NAMES COMMON NAMES Approxi- mate rela- tive fuel value. Quercus rubra Betula lutea Fraxinus americana. Ulmus americana Red Oak Yellow Birch. White Ash White Elm Betula alba European White i Birch Fraxinus nigra Black Ash.. Larix laricina Tamarack. Fraxinus pennsylvanica Red Ash Acer rubrum Red Maple. Juglans nigra Betula papyri fera... Pvrus sambuci 'folia. Morus rubra Prunus serotina Betula nigra Pin us laricio austriaca. Pvrus americana Acer spicatum Acer saccharinum Pinus sylvestris Pseudotsuga taxifolia ... Prunus pennsylva nica Juniperus virginiana Pin us resin os a Populus a lba Pinus divaricata Black Walnut. Canoe Birch... Elderleaf Mountain Ash Red Mulberry Wild Black Cherry... River Birch Austrian Pine American Mountain Ash Mountain Maple. Soft Maple Scotch Pine Douglas Spruce... Wild Red Cherry. Red Cedar Norway Pine White Poplar Jack Pine 66.04 65.34 65.16 64.54 62.72 62.16 61.99 61.65 60.91 59.40 58.08 58.56 58.14 57.42 54.08 53.07 52.52 51.53 50.03 49.11 48.41 47.50 *Air dried. FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. "0 TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF DRY WOOD. (Continued.) BOTANICAL NAMES COMMON NAMES Approxi- mate rela- tive fuel value Specific gravity of absolutely dry wood Bull Pine 46.99 0.473 5 Lareretootli Poplar.. Speckled Alder Black Spruce Ohio Buckeve 0.4700* 46.11 45.88 45.71 45.03 45.00 44.95 44.68 0.4632 0.4607 0.4584 0.4542 Basswood 0.4525 Chestnut 0.4504 Peachleaf Willow.... White Willow 0.4502 0.4500* Black Poplar 0.4500* Black Willow 43.42 42.82 42.20 41 48 41.42 40.66 40.38 40.10 38.81 38.52 38.47 38.02 37.26 36.07 36.11 33.38 31.53 0.4456* Western White Pine. Box Elder 0.4358 0.4358 Hemlock 0.4239 Hardy Catalpa Balm of Gilead 0.4165 0.4161 Butternut 0.4086 White Spruce 0.4051 Aspen 0.4032 Narrowleaf Cotton- Cottonwood 0.3912 0.3889 White Pine 0.3854 Balsam Fir Blue Spruce 0.3819 0.374O White Fir Balsam Poplar 0.3638 0.3635 Engelraann Spruce... 0.3449 0.3164 Pinus ponderosa Picea excelsa Populus grandidenta Alnus incana Picea ma.ria.na ^sculus glabra Tilia americana Castanea dentata Salix amygdaloides... Salix alba Populus nigra.. Salix nigra Pin us flex His Acer negundo Tsuga canadensis Catalpa speciosa Populus halsamifera candicans Juglans cincrea Picea canadensis Populus tremuloides. Populus angustifolia Populus deltoides Pinus strobus Abies balsamea Picea pungens Abies concolor Populus balsamifcra.. Picea engelmanni Thuja occidentalis *Air dried. CHAPTER VI. PROPAGATION. Trees are grown from seeds or by division, the latter term includes increase by cuttings, layers, buds and grafts. Plants grown from seeds are generally more vigorous and longer lived than those of the same species propagated in any other way. Trees should be grown from seeds when it is practicable to do so, but willows and some other trees are apparent exceptions to this rule and seem to do as well when grown from cuttings as when grown from seeds. Varieties do not generally perpetuate their peculiar characteristics when grown from seeds and must therefore be propagated by some method of division. The most desirable trees from which to propagate are those of good form and healthy growth; the latter is the one most important requisite, especially if new plants are to be grown by any method of division. It is not so essential in selecting seeds, as even weak plants inay produce good seed- lings but unhealthy cuttings, layers or grafts are of very uncertain growth. In general it is best that the stock trees be healthy throughout, but a tree may have a rotten trunk due to some injury and still have perfectly healthy branches and be -a desicable tree from which to propagate. SEEDS. Sources of Seeds. In growing trees from seeds the source of the seeds is very important. It may be given as a safe general rule that seeds are most desirable which come from trees grown in as severe a climate as that in which the seeds arc to be sown. It has been found that trees of Box Elder and Red Cedar grown from seeds gathered in Missouri are not nearly so hardy in this section as those from seeds grown in our own state. It has also been found that seeds from the SOURCES OF SEEDS. 81 western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where the climate is very humid, produce trees which are not so well adapted to withstanding- the conditions of this section as trees grown from seeds from the eastern slopes, where the summers are very dry and hot and the winters very dry and cold. Our climate is especially trying to trees and it is necessary to exercise much more care in the selection of tree seeds here than it is in the more favored climate of the eastern and west- ern coast states. There are conditions under which every species of tree thrives best and makes its greatest growth, but the trees produced under these conditions are not always the hardiest. As we reach the limits of their growth, trees have a tendency on account of drouth or cold to become smaller, more compact in form and to fruit younger; e. g., the Box Elder is a large tree in Kansas and Missouri, but as it gets towards the Mani- toba line we find it becomes dwarfed and more bushy inhabit. Towards the southern limit of its range the tree becomes more open in habit and more liable to disease. The Scotch Pine seeds imported into this country are generally saved from the small scrubby trees that are found in the higher altitudes of the Mountains of Europe, because such trees produce the most seeds and they are most easily gathered from them, while seeds are seldom gathered from the large timber trees of this species, and it is very likely that this poor seed stock is responsible for much of scrubby appearance of many Scotch Pine plantations in this section. Trees have a strong tendency to perpetuate qualities which have been developed in them by climate and soil conditions. Hence, even though an essential point in considering the value of any tree is its hardiness, the question of size is import- ant and should be taken into account, as we generally wish to grow trees of as large size as practicable. We may conclude then that since trees from a very cold climate generally lack in hardiness, and those from a very severe climate may lack in size, it is best to procure seeds from the best trees grown near by or from those grown under similar climatic condi- tions elsewhere. It is not generally necessary to limit this range very closely, as a hundred miles north or south of a 82 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. given point will seldom make much difference in hardiness, unless the climatic conditions are very dissimilar. The place where the trees that we are to set out are grown is not of so great importance as the source of the seeds from which they are grown: e. g.. seedlings of Red Cedar grown in Missouri from seeds of native Minnesota trees would be safer to plant here than seedlings raised in Minnesota from the seeds of native Missouri trees. Seedling Variations. In our common trees variations are not sufficiently marked but that we think of the trees as com- ing- true from seeds, and yet careful observation will show to any one that each seedling plant is different from neighboring plants of the same species. Sometimes a seedling will occur that possesses especially pleasing or curious characteristics that are very marked and desirable. In such cases the seed- ling is generally propagated by some method of bud-division and makes a new variety. Iu ihis way have originated such highly-esteemed kinds as Wier's Cut-leaf Maple, which was a chapce seedling of the Soft Maple: the Weeping American Elm, Cutleaf Birch, Weeping Mountain Ash. Pyramidal Arbor vitte, and a host of other kinds that are propagated by bud-division by nurserymen. The person who is on the look- out for these or other variations will have no trouble in find- ing many that may perhaps be worth naming and propa- gating. Gathering Seeds. All kinds of seeds should be gathered when ripe. In some cases it is best to pick them from the trees even before they are quite ripe after which they will ripen if kept dry. Unripe seeds do not keep as well as per- fectly ripe seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds are most cheaply gathered from the ground. In some cases this method can be greatly facilitated by cleaning up the land under the trees so it will be smooth and even. Seeds of some species can often be swept up at little expense from under trees growing along the highway. Germination of Seeds. There are many conditions which affect the germination of seeds: (1. ) Seeds which are thoroughly ripened before they are gathered produce the best plants. Very immature seeds will very often grow, but the tendency with them is to produce GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 83 weak plants. (2.) Freshly gathered seeds, as a rule, are preferable to old seeds for sowing- and seeds that have never been allowed to become very dry are more likely to grow than those which have been severely dried. This is especially true of most of the kinds of seeds that ripen in early summer, the most of which lose their vitality very quickly when stored. (3.) Some seeds, such as those of the Plum, Cherry and Black Walnut require severe freezing vvhen moist in order to germi- nate. (4. ) Seeds that are covered with water will not gener- ally grow. This is true at least of our northern tree seeds. ( 5. ) The seeds of some trees germinate at a temperature near freezing, while others require a much higher temperature. ( 6. ) After seeds of some plants have become very dry, scalding may aid them in germinating, while with others scalding is in- jurious. It is sometimes desirable to soak seeds for one or two days in tepid water and then mix with sand and freeze before sowing. Lindley records that the seeds found in raspberry jam grew after passing through the heat necessary to boil syrup (240 deg. Fahr. ) and that seeds of Acacia and Lophan- tha grew after being boiled five minutes, but our common .tree seeds will not stand such treatment. Stratification, as the term is used in this connection, refers to the storing of seeds mixed with layers of earth, leaves or other material. It is customary to apply the term solely to seeds that are mixed in this way and kept frozen. over winter. It is the common practice with the seeds of such trees as the Black Walnut, Hickory, Basswood, Plum, Cherry and Moun- tain Ash. Where only small quantities are to be cared for they are generally mixed in boxes and the boxes buried in well drained soil out of doors, but where large quantities are to be handled they may be mixed with soil on the surface of the ground and left until spring; such a pile is termed a pit. One of the best materials with which to cover seed pits is inverted grass sod. It is a good plan to have the material that is mixed with the seed so fine that it will easily go through a screen and leave the seeds separated for sowing. We may conveniently classify seeds into three groups: (1) those that ripen in spring and early summer: (2) decidu- ous tree seeds that ripen in autumn, and (3) coniferous tree seeds. 84 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. SEEDS THAT RIPEN IN SPRING AND EARLY SUMMER. Seeds that ripen in spring and early summer should be gathered as soon as ripe, and with the exception of the Red Elm, sown within a few days or weeks, as they retain their vitality but a short time. (Red Elm seed will not grow until the following spring. ) la raising seedlings of this class it is important to have land that will retain its moisture during the summer months or else that which can be conveniently irrigated, since these seeds must often be sown during very hot, dry weather, and as they cannot be covered deeply they are very liable to fail with any but the best conditions. The thousands of seedlings of Cottonwood, Elm and Soft Maple that spring up on the sand bars along our rivers and lake shores, show what are the best conditions for these seeds to germinate. Cottonwood seedlings can be grown by scattering the branches bearing unopened seed pods along rows in moist soil and covering the seed lightly when it falls, but they are of so uncertain growth that most of our nurserymen depend upon the sand bars and lake snores for their supply. Elm, Soft Maple and Mulberry seeds generally grow well on any good moist soil. They should be sown thickly in drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, or in narrow drills. Elm seeds should be covered with about one-half inch of soil, Mulberry with about one-fourth inch and Soft Maple with about one inch. If the weather is dry the soil over the seeds should be well packed, and if the weather continues dry the rows should be watered. Watering, however, is seldom necessary on retentive soil if the soil has been properly packed. With proper conditions seeds so planted will start quickly and grow rapidly; the Elm will grow front six to eighteen inches and the Soft Maple twelve to twenty-four inches high before the first autumn. Such seedlings are large enough for permanent setting in forest plantations or wind- breaks. They may be allowed to grow in the seed bed another year without injury, but should be transplanted before the. growth of the third season begins. SEEDS OF DECIDUOUS TREES THAT RIPEN IN AUTUMN. Seeds of deciduous trees that ripen in autumn may be SEEDS THAT RIPEN IN AUTUMN. 85 sown to advantage in the autumn provided, ( 1 ) the soil is not of such a nature as to become too solidly packed over them before spring: (2) they are not liable to dry up or wash out; or (3) they are not subject to injuries from rodents, insects or other animals. In many locations some or all of these possible injuries may make spring sowing most desirable with most kinds of seeds. Our most successful nurserymen, however, prefer to sow in autumn and trj< to bring about the conditions that make it successful. In the matter of storing these seeds it is difficult to lay down any exact rule to follow and here, as in all other similar matters, considerable must be left to good judgment. As a rule, however, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of hardy plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in sand out of doors. Tree seeds that ripen in autumn may be divided into four classes which require different methods of treatment to grow them: viz., dry seeds, seeds with fleshy coverings, nut seeds and leguminous tree seeds. Dry Seeds, like those of the Ash, Birch, Hard Maple and Box Elder are very certain to grow when sown in the spring in drills as soon as the soil can be easily worked, in the same way as recommended for Soft Maple and Elm. If not sown until spring they will have to be kept over winter and when only a small quantity is to be kept over this is best done by spreading the seeds on the surface of the hard ground, cover- ing with an inverted box and digging a ditch around it to carry off the water, or the seeds may be mixed with sand and kept in a dry cool place. Large quantities may be kept on dry ground under a shed. These seeds will stand consider- able drying, but if allowed to become very dry, hot. or moist, their vitality may be injured or destroyed. Seeds with Fleshy Coverings as those of the Cherry and Plum should be kept from getting dry before planting. The best way to handle them is to separate them from the pulp, mix with moist sand out of doors and keep them moist until planted. It is generally safe to sow such seeds in the autumn on good land but some growers prefer to sow them in the spring. This class of seeds requires to be frozen before germ- inating. If allowed to get dry before being frozen, they 86 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. should be mixed with moist sand for a few days until plump or they may be soaked in water but care must be taken that they do not get water soaked. Sometimes the dry hard shells of such seeds teem to be water proof. In this case if the seeds are of special value it is a good plan to file a hole through the shell so as to let the seed become moist. Most seeds of this class grow the first year if properly handled but some of them, for example, the Red Cedar and the Wild Thorn, even with the best management will remain dormant in the ground for one year before growing. Nut Seeds as those of the Oak, Hickory and Walnut should be handled as recommended for seeds with fleshy coverings but are more sensitive about being severely dried. As they do not transplant readily it is very desirable to plant them where they are to remain permanently. They should be covered about two inches deep. Seeds of Leguminous Trees as those of the Black Locust, Honey Locust and Coffee Tree will stand severe drying for a long time and still grow provided they are treated with hot water just before planting. In this case the hoc water should be poured over the seeds shortly before they are sown and be allowed to stand until cool when it will be found that some of the seeds have swollen up: these should be picked out and the remainder be treated again with hot water and the process repeated until all have swollen. Seedlings of this class generally transplant readily and are managed in the same way that is here recommended for the Ashes and Maples. CONIFEROUS TREE SEEDS. Seeds of such coniferous trees as Pine, Spruce, Tamarack and Arborvitse are dry and winged, but the Red Cedar has a fleshy, berry-like covering surrounding its seed. The seeds that grow in cones are most easily gathered before being shed from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they open and then dried after wrhich those of most species will open and the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees as those of the Jack Pine will not open without artificial heat. These can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or in an oven to a temperature of from 100 to 150 degrees Fahr. Seeds of this class grow readily when sown but must be very CONIFEROUS TREE SEEDS. 87 carefully stored or they will lose their vitality. They should be kept similarly to the seed of the Ash and Box Elder, but are more liable to injury than these kinds from too much moisture or heat, and for this reason some careful growers prefer to always keep them mixed with dry sand in a cool shed. The seeds of the Red Cedar hang- on the tree all winter and must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in strong lye for twenty-four hours, the fleshy covering removed by rubbing them against a fine sieve and then stratified in sand, where they will be frozen during the winter. Even with this treatment they will seldom grow until the second year. 'Raising Coniferous Trees from Seed. The land selected for sowing the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry out easily. It should be so located as to have good circula- tion of air over it that the plants may dry off quickly after rains and it must be so shaded as to keep off about one-half of the sunlight. This latter permits a play of light and shade over the bed all day and is about the condition under which we find nature raising such seedlings where trees partially shade the ground and protect them from the constant rays of the sun. In practice we aim to secure these conditions as follows: A piece of well-drained, rather sandy soil, in an airy place is selected and laid out in beds four feet wide. In May the seeds are sown rather thickly (about three good seeds to a square inch) either broadcast or in rows and covered with about one-fourth inch of sandy loam and then with about one-fourth inch of clear sand. Some of the smaller seeds, like those of White Spruce, should not be covered more than one-fourth inch. Before the seedlings break the ground a frame work six feet above the beds is made and covered with laths laid about one and one-half inches apart running north and south, or with sufficient brush to shut out about one-half the sunlight. If the bed is very much exposed to the winds it should have similar protection on all sides. In such a place as this or in woodlands where these conditions can be fulfilled evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while if planted in the open ground most kinds are sure to fail. The most common cause of failure with those who try to 88 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. raise evergreens is what is known as "damping off" which occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first year. In such a case the seeds start well and the seedlings grow vigorously for a short time or until we have a spell of damp weather and then die off with great rapidity. It seems that the sunlight and the mud that has been spattered on the plants so weakens them that they are liable to disease. For this reason we shade the bed and cover with sand which will not allow the mud to be spattered over the seedlings, and in very moist warm weather we occasionally apply dry sand to dry off the plants. For most kinds of conifers the shade is re- quired for at least two years. Figure 13. Evergreen seed bed shaded with a screen of old brush placed on a frame. Coniferous tree seedlings grow very slowly when young seldom making a growth of more than two or three inches the first year. The most rapid growing of our pines seldom pro- duce a growth of more than sixteen inches in four years and should not be moved to their permanent place until about this time. They should, however, be transplanted from the seed bed to a temporary place when two years old to prevent crowding and to facilitate root growth. On the approach of winter the beds of coniferous seedlings should be covered with about three inches of straw or leaves, evergreen branches or other material that will afford pro- tection from the sun and from alternate freezing and thawing. SOWING SEEDS. 89 This should be removed in the spring after all danger from drying cold winds has passed. SOWING SEEDS AND CULTIVATING SEEDLINGS. Most of our tree seeds should in good soil be covered from one-half to three-quarters of an inch, but this is rather too much for such small seeds as the Birch, Alder and Cotton- wood, while the Black Walnut. Native Plum, Acorns and other large seeds and seeds of Box Elder, Ash, Soft Maple and Basswood may often be covered two inches to advantage if the soil is somewhat dry. It is a good rule not to cover any tree seeds deeper than is necessary to secure permanent moisture and on wet or heavy land only a very thin covering is desirable. If the land is very heavy it is a good plan not only to cover lightly but to sow more thickly then usual as a large number of seeds may be able to push up through the surface soil when a few would fail to do this. The Amount of Seeds of Deciduous Trees to Sow on a given area depends very much on the kind and quality of the seeds and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a rule thick is better than thin sowing. The seeds of Box Elder, Ash and Maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed to the square inch: Elm and Birch should be sown twice as thick. Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed about one inch of row for each good seed. Black Walnut, Butternut, Hickory and similar seeds should preferably be planted three or four in a place, and all but one seedling cut out when nicely started. If sown in drills they should be placed from three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding does not seem to be any hindrance to the making of a good growth by seedlings of most of our broad-leaved trees the first year, but if left thick in the seed bed the second year they are often seriously stunted. On this account such seedlings should be transplanted or thinned out before the beginning of the second year. In nursery planting it is a good plan to sow in freshly stirred land as the seeds are far more likely to get a good start in it than in soil that has remained untilled long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then if the seeds are planted immediately after cultivation has been "riven, and while the soil is still moist, they have at least as good a chance as the 90 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. weeds to start, while otherwise the weeds are soon ahead of the seedlings. It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed until at least the middle of July, after which they may some- times be left to advantage to afford winter protection, but in the case of very small seedlings this protection is best given by a light mulch put on in autumn and taken off in spring and the weeds should be kept out. If the seeds of Red Cedar, the Thorn, Mountain Ash and other seeds that require a long time to start are sown in the spring and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the bed with about an inch or two of hay or leaves: keep out weeds and let this mulch remain until the following spring, when the seeds will probably be in condition to grow and the mulch should then be removed. TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL IN MINNESOTA. BOTANICAL NAMES C< IMMON NAMES Height in inches Pit, i/s strobus flexilis resinosa divaricata ponderosa scopulorum splvestris laHdo austriaca Larix laricin a europea Picea canadensis mariana pil iK/fllS , ngt Imanni excelsa Tsuga canadensis White Pine Western Whi te Pine Norway Pine Jack Pine Bull Pine Scotch Pine Austrian Pine Tamarack European Larch White Spruce Black Spruce Blue Spruce Engelmann Spruce.. Norway Spruce Hemlock SIZE OF ONE-YEAR SEEDLINGS. 91 TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL IN MINNESOTA. {Continued.) BOTANICAL NAMES COMMON NAMES Height in inches /j.s> udotsuga taxifolia. Abies balsamea " concolor Th aja occiden talis Juniperus virginiana.. communis... Juglans nigra dnerea Hicoria ovata...., minima Douglas Spruce Balsam Fir White Fir Arborvitae Red Cedar Common Juniper... Black Walnut Butternut Shellbark Hickory. Bitternut Hickorv. snH.r nigra JBlack Willow. amygdaloides.... alba lucida Populus tremuloides... grandidenta... balsamifera... deltoides /;, tula papyri/era alba lutea Ostrya virginiana Car/, inns m raliniana . Qut reus alba njiacrocarpa.. rubra eoccinea / rlmus arm ricana racemosa Peachleaf Willow White Willow Shining Willow Aspen Largetooth Poplar Balsam Poplar Cottonwood Canoe Birch European White Birch... Yellow Birch Hop Hornbeam Blue Beach White Oak Bur Oak Red Oak Scarlet Oak White Elm Cork Elm 4 3 2 2 3 2 12 12 8 4 10 10 10 6 10 12 10 16 4-8 6-10 4-8 4-6 4-6 4-8 4-8 6-12 6-12 c.-i-: 6-10 92 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL IN MINNESOTA. (Continued.) Vim us pubesce ns Celtis occiden talis Mori'* rubra alba tartarica .... Pyrus ioensis " americana saiitbuci folia Amelanchier canadensit Crataegus tauten to*a Prunus americana t; pennsylvdnica... serotina , i; virginiana Gleditsia triacanthos..., Gymnocladus dioicus... Robin in pst ml a cacia Acer saccharum " platdnoides rubra in " saccharin u m Slippery Elm Hackber ry Red Mulberry- Russian Mulberry Wild Crab American Mountain Ash Elderleaf Mountain Ash Juneberry Black Thorn Wild Plum Wild Red Cherry Wild Black Cherry Choke Cherry Honey Locust Coffee Tree Locust Sugar Maple , Norway " Red " Soft '• Striped '" pennsylvanicum tartarieum Tartarian Maple negundo Box Elder JSsculus h ippocastan um . A EscuJus glabra Bhamnus catharticus Horse Chestnut. Ohio Buckeye. ... Buckthorn Tilia americana Bass-wood. Elaeagnus angustifolia 'Russian Olive tfra tinus nun ricana. lanceolata. ni'/ra Catalpa spedosa. White Ash. Green " Black " Hardy Catalpa. Yitnirnnm lentOQO iBlack Haw. 10-20 8-10 6-10 6-12 4-8 8 4-8 8 4-8 15 12 12 12 8-12 8-12 24 12 12 10 24 4 4 12 6 4-6 6-12 6-12 12 12 12 8 24 4-6 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 93 CUTTINGS. Cuttings are pieces of the branches or roots which have the power of growing- and forming- new plants when placed in moist sand, soil, or other material: for example, the pieces of the twigs on branches of many kinds of willows and poplars when taken while the tree is dormant will root when placed in moist soil, but there are few other trees that grow as readily from cuttings as these; cuttings of the roots or many kinds of trees as the White Poplar, Wild Plum, Yellow Locust and many others that sprout from the roots will grow if treated a bo at the same way as branch cuttings. In growing trees from cuttings the source of the cuttings is not of so great importance as the source of the seed from which the stock trees were grown, for the qualities of indi- vidual trees are probably not permanently or greatly changed by climate. For instance, trees grown from the cuttings of Russian Poplars would he as hardy in Minnesota if the cuttings came from St. Louis, where they had been growing for years, as they would be if imported direct from Siberia, however, owing to a longer growing season at St. Louis the wood might be of a more open texture and perhaps might not resist cold as well as Minnesota grown wood, but after one season's growth in Minnesota it would probably be as hardy. The same would hold true of plants propagated by any method of division. With the exception of willows and pop- lars, very few of our ornamental trees grow readily from cuttings. The best time to make cuttings is in the fall as soon as the leaves will strip easily from the twigs. Most of the willows and poplars will grow readily from cuttings made in the spring and even those made in summer will generally grow if planted in moist soil. For this purpose the smaller branches with the leaves removed should be used. They may also be rooted from growing twigs with the leaves left on provided the cut surfaces are placed in water as they would be if stuck in the soil of a swam]) or treated the same as cuttings of geraniums. These latter ways, however, are not to be de- pended upon for general propagation purposes. The Form and Size of Cuttings is a matter upon which there is great difference of opinion. Cuttings of the Willow from 94 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. one bud each and only an inch or two long- up to those a foot or more in diameter and ten or twelve feet in length, can generally be made to grow, but probably the most convenient size for general planting is one-half inch in diameter and twelve inches in length. They are generally tied in bunches of 100 or 200 each for convenience in handling, and care should be taken to keep all the butt ends one way to facilitate planting. Very large cuttings are liable to decay iu the center and are not best to use, although they often make a very rapid growth. Poles of willows and pop- lars are sometimes laid in furrows where they will generally sprout wherever the bark is laid bare and often make good trees. In Planting Cuttings of ordinary size it is a good plan to have the soil loose and then after marking off the rows the cut- tings can be pushed into the land the proper depth. If not desirable to plow all the land it may be loosened just where the rows are to come. Where a subsoil a bunch plow can be obtained it can be made very of willow cuttings. Useful for this purpose. Cuttings should be planted at an angle of about forty-five degrees, leaving only one bud above the surface of the ground and the soil should be packed firmly around them. I Figure 15. Planted cuttings, showing an^le and depth at which to plant cuttings. Those set in a slanting position settle with the soil and remain firm, while those set vertically may become loosened by the settling of the soil near them, leaving too much of them exposed above the surface unless very great care is PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 95 exercised in planting-. The rows in the nursery should be about four feet apart and the cuttings about six inches apart in the rows, though a much less distance may sometimes be sufficient. In packing- the soil over the cuttings great pains should be taken to get it very solid around the lower end, and if the soil is very dry the firmest pressure of the full weight of a man over the base of each cutting is not too great, in fact when the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm over the cutting. When the soil is moist, however, only enough pres- sure should be used to bring the particles in close contact and close up the air spaces. The Cultivation of Cuttings should commence shortly after they are planted and the top soil should be kept loosened to the depth of about three inches, which while not disturbing1 the solid soil around the base of the cuttings prevents evaporation from the soil. Time of Planting Cuttings. Spring cuttings may be planted at once where they are to grow. Autumn cuttings may be planted out at once, provided the land is not wet. but when planted at this season they should be covered with soil turned toward them with a plow. In the spring this covering should be raked off before the buds swell. The ground being warm in autumn often causes autumn-planted cuttings of some kinds to root before cold weather sets in. and if made up before the first of October they may thus score quite a gain over spring-planted cuttings. If not desirable to plant in the autumn the bundles of cuttings may be kept over winter buried in moist soil, preferably that which is somewhat sandy, where there is no standing water, but much care should be taken to keep them from drying out. To this end the bun .les should be buried so as not to touch each other and have iwo or three inches of soil packed in between them. If they are kept in a cellar, moist sawdust will be found to be good material to keep them in. \ac i. _._unt of growth made by cutting- iries luch according to the kind of plant, size of cuttings, soil, etc. The most of our willows will make a growth of three or four feet on good soil in one season from ordinary cuttings. The Solar Pit. There are many trees that will not grow from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little 96 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. before planting. This is most easily accomplished by means of what is called the ''solar pit," which owes its success to the fact that cuttings root first at the warmer end. It is made and used as follows: The bundles of cuttings are heeled in as recommended. In the spring- they are taken out and buried close together with- the butt ends uppermost in a warm sunny spot and covered with about six inches of soil. A hotbed frame with sash is then put over the spot to warm the soil. Sometimes instead of using sash the soil over the cuttings is cov- ered with a foot or more of fer- menting manure. In either case the soil is warmed and the for- mation of roots encouraged. In Figure 16. The solar pit, . .-, , ./" .-, .. showing bundles of cuttings using the solar pit the rooting in place under glass. process should not be carried so far as to permit roots to show plainly, as they are liable to be broken off in planting out, but the cuttings should be planted out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the butt end. This healing over pr6cess is called callousing and in many plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. LAYERS. Layers are portions of the branches of trees, shrubs or vines which are covered with earth without, being separated from the parent plant and there take root and grow. These are cut oft' from the main plant in autumn or spring and form new plants. Almost all trees and other plants can be rooted in this way. but while some root very easily others require so long a time to do so as to make it impracticable with them. The growing of trees from layers is seldom practiced in this country, but in some European nurseries it is a common means by which to increase special varieties of trees. For this purpose what is commonly known as mound layering is often used. This consists simply of drawing the soil up around the sprouts that come from the stump of a tree, cover- ing the base of them about a foot in depth. It may be done at any time of the year after the sprouts are two or more feet high, but preferably in the spring. After the sprouts have GRAFTAGE. 97 become well rooted they may be removed in spring1 or autumn and treated the same as seedlings. Layering is sometimes practiced in European forests to till up vacancies, and a sim- ilar method is often employed in nurseries. GRAFTAGE. Graftage refers to the growing of one plant on the stem, root or branch of another plant. There are several forms of graftage which are generally known as grafting, budding and inarching. It is a common practice to use graftage in the growing of the different varieties of fruit trees and it is also used to some extent in the growing of some of the varieties of ornamental trees that cannot be gi'own from seed. Trees that are grown by any form of graftage are seldom as long- lived as those grown on their own roots and these methods should be avoided when it is practicable to do so. These methods are not much used in common practice and conse- quently are not discussed at lengtli here. Inarching is a rather unusual way of growing plants. It works on the principle that when the growing stems, branches and roots of the same or closely allied plants are held closely together for some time they become united. Such unions of roots are frequently found in woodlands: in some cases the roots of the same trees and in others the roots of different trees become grown together. Occasionally also trees are found grown together by their branches or stems. Inarching is sometimes used for growing the Cutleaf Birch, in which case the sprouts from a stump of a Cutleaf Birch or the twigs from a small tree laid on the ground are tied to small Birch seedlings which have been grown in pots and plunged to their rims in the ground near the tree. In doing this the bark is removed for about two inches at the point of contact of the twig and seedling, which are then tied firmly together. It should be done by the middle of June, but will often be suc- cessful if done even a month later. They should be kept together until the leaves fall and then the branches from the parent tree should be cut away leaving the seedlings with the twigs grown fast to them. These should be carefully heeled-in over winter and in the spring the seedlings should be cut off just above the union so as to throw all their strength into the adopted twig of the Cutleaf Birch. This method may also be used to replace lost branches on trees or vines. CHAPTER VII. NURSERY WORK AND PRACTICE IN RAISING FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. Nursery. This term is applied to a plot of land used for raising- plants that are intended for planting elsewhere for their final growth. Soil and Cultivation. The best soil for a general nursery is a deep, rich, reasonably level, retentive upland. It is customary to grow most of the nursery crops in row7s so that they may be readily cultivated. The land should be plowed deeply when the crop is planted and the surface soil kept loose and fiue during all the early part of the growing season or until about the middle of July. If the land that has to be used for a nursery is rather shallow, it should be gradually deepened by plowing from year to year and if inclined to dry out. the addition of large quantities of organic matter together with constant cultivation will do much to remedy these defects. The cultivation of a nursery or young forest plantation, provided the latter is planted in rows, should consist in keeping the land stirred to the depth of three inches, thus giving a dust blanket which will protect from drouth. After the first of August much cultivation is likely to encourage a late autumn growth which should be avoided, but a moderate quantity of buckwheat or oats may be sown then and be al- lowed to grow7 the remainder of the season to serve as a w7inter protection to hold snows and prevent the heaving out of the young seedlings by frost. GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. Nursery stock of different kinds has come to be known by such convenient names as seedlings, transplants, street trees, forest-pulled seedlings, etc. Seedlings are young plants grown from seed that have never been transplanted and are generally designated by their size GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 99 or age. They form the cheapest class of nursery stock and are used largely for starting windbreaks. Figure 17. A bunch of Green Ash Seedlings. Transplants are seedlings that have been at least once trans- planted and are designated by the size and number of times they have been moved. They are higher in price than seed- lings but with some kinds of trees they are much more likely to grow and may be well worth the extra price. Evergreens, especially pines, will seldom do well unless once transplanted before being set in a permanent place. Street Trees include the trees of large size which are used for street, shade and ornamental purposes. To be of the best quality they should have been transplanted two or more times and have received some attention in the way of pruning so as to give them a good form. Such trees vary much in quality and price, but the best are necessarily rather expensive. Forest-pulled Deciduous Trees of small size can often be obtained at a very low price and may be as desirable as those that are nursery grown. Forest-pulled Evergreen Seedlings may also be desirable but too often they have poor roots or have been so injured by poor handling that they are generally worthless. Forest-pulled Shade Trees sometimes grow very well, but they are always inferior to good nursery-grown trees. They are greatly improved by having their roots shortened two years before they are to be removed, and when so treated grow very well. TRANSPLANTING. Transplanting is simply the removal of the plant. It may be to some permanent place as a park, lawn, or street, or it may be done for the purpose of improving the root system and to give the tree more room to grow. By shortening the long roots the root system is made more compact and better able to withstand subsequent removal. This may be done by 100 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY transplanting or by cutting around the tree with a spade or tree digger. It is especially desirable to do this to trees that are not easily moved on account of their long branching roots such as the Birch, or to those that have tap roots like the Oak and Walnut. It is on account of their having had their roots shortened so they can all be moved with the tree that nursery-grown trees are generally superior to others. Fig. 18. Extra good roots on a forest grown Elm, used as a street tree. In transplanting it is important to take up a sufficient amount of roots to support the plant, and as a rule the more roots the better the conditions for growth. Very long roots should be shortened unless the tree is removed to a permanent place, in which case all the good roots should be left on the tree. All bruised or broken roots should be cut off in either case, and the top of the tree shortened to correspond. In transplanting trees they should be set one or two inches lower than they formerly stood and the roots should be spread out in the holes without crowding. It is customary to plant many kinds of small trees in furrows made with a plow. Very large trees, those over six inches in diameter, are sometimes successfully planted in winter by taking them up with a ball of earth. This is done by digging a trench around the tree late in the autumn, deep enough to cut most of the roots but far enough away from the tree to leave a large ball of earth. The trench is then tilled in with a mulch of some kind, and when the ground is frozen the tree is moved with TRANSPLANTING. 101 the ball of earth attached, to the hole which has been pre- viously prepared and kept free from frost. After trees have been moved or had their roots shortened in some other way, they should generally not be transplanted again for at least one or two years during which time they will have overcome the injuries done to their root system. The time which should thus elapse will vary with the kind of tree and also with the amount of injury done. Where the injury is severe a much longer time will be required for recovery than where it is slight. Time to Transplant. Planting of trees should always be done when they are dormant or just as they start into growth in the spring, which is generally from the middle to last of April. If for any reason it is desirable to risk the moving of trees late in the spring after the leaves have started they should be cut back severely, all the leaves removed, and great pains be taken to secure all the roots and to prevent their drying out. Very hardy deciduous trees as the Elm. Cottonwood. Box Elder and Ash can often be successfully moved in the fall if the ground is moist at the time of removal but great care must be taken to work the soil in very compactly between the roots so there will be no large air spaces among them. If the trees are large it is a good plan to stake them so they cannot be blown about by the wind. The more tender trees should not be transplanted in this section in autumn and even the hardiest kinds should never be moved at this season unless the soil is moist. Transplanting Evergreens. When seedling evergreens are two years old the}r should be transplanted and this should be done about once in three years afterwards until they are moved to their permanent places. As evergreens are very sensitive to being moved this requires more care than with most deciduous trees. The most important point is to not allow the roots to have even the appearance of being dry. They may be transplanted in the spring as soon as the ground works easily and the roots have white tips and they may be safely transplanted even up to the time that the new growth shows about an inch but at this late time more care must be taken in doing the work than when it is done earlier. Ever- 102 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. greens can sometimes be moved successfully in August or even in the autumn if they are to be carried only a short dis- tance and the conditions of the weather and land are favor- able, but this is not a time for general planting and it is seldom advisable to do it at this season. The very general error is current that June is the best time to plant out evergreens. They may be transplanted at this season successfully if the conditions are just right in every particular, but they are much more liable to failure than when the work is done earlier in the season. At whatever time of the year evergreens are to be moved the work should be done in such a manner as to protect the roots from having even the appearance of being dry, for if dried ever so little the probabilities of their living are much lessened. The kind of treatment that would be considered all right for apple trees might be fatal to evergreens as they are much more suscep- tible to injury from drying. In addition to the above precautions to be taken when moving evergreens, it is desirable to shorten back the limbs about one-third to compensate for the loss of roots. Of course this shortening should not be done in such a way as to disfigure the tree, but when the roots are in any way severely mutilated, the whole top makes more of a draft on them for moisture than the roots can supply. This pruning is not so necessary in the case of young seedling evergreens or nursery grown trees that have been recently transplanted for when they are moved their root systems are not seriously injured. Very small evergreens and other small plants are often set in trenches made with a spade, as shown in figure 19. For this method the soil must be loose and yet sufficiently compact so that it can be cut with a spade and not crumble before the plants can be set out. The beds are made about six feet wide and a board of this length and six inches wide should be used. The soil is thrown out with a spade (^lj to the depth of about six inches, but no wider than necessary to just take in the roots. The plants are then placed in position by hand and a little soil pushed against them to hold them in place. B The trench is then half filled and the soil firmly com- pacted by the feet. The remainder of the soil is then put in TRANSPLANTING. 103 and leveled off, the board is changed to the other side of the row first planted and the planting- is continued in the same way. {CandD.) Such close planting as this is only desirable when it is intended to give special care to the plants, as by shading or watering. Plants should not remain more than two or three years in so close a bed before they are transplanted. When it is desirable to set out small seedlings in rows, instead of beds, a tight line may be used in place of the board. Heeling-in. This term is applied to the temporary covering of the roots of trees with earth to keep them from drying out after they are dug and until they are planted. If they are to be kept for only a few days comparatively little care is Figure 19. Successive steps in planting young evergreen or other very small seedlings, (a) Board in place and trench part- ly opened, (b) Seedlings in place and partly covered, (c) New trench partly opened. (<7) New trench with seedlings in place. needed in covering, but if they are to be kept for several weeks or over winter, especially if the weather is dry, great care must be taken to work the fine soil in among the roots and to pack it solid. A good way of doing this is as follows: Select a dry, mellow piece of ground and dig a trench just large enough to take in the roots of the trees when laid close together in a single row. Place the trees or seedlings in this trench in an upright position a few at a time, and cover the roots firmly and deeply with soil taken from close in front of the first trench, thus making a trench for the next row. In this section if Maples. Cherries and other trees not of the greatest hardiness are to remain heeled in all winter. it is a good plan to bend the tops down and cover with earth. 104 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. This is only necessary for winter protection. The neglect to properly heel in nursery stock as soon as it is received is undoubtedly a frequent cause of failure. Trees, and cuttings will sometimes get so dry in shipment that the bark shrivels. In such cases the best treatment is to bury them entirely for a few days, which will often enable them to recover. Figure 20. HEELING IN. Various stages of the operation. (a) Row of trees with roots covered, (b) A row bent down and the tops covered at (c). Soaking in water will answer the same purpose, but unless very carefully done is likely to injure the wood. PRUNING. Pruning should be avoided as much as possible and yet be done sufficiently to secure the effect desired. If it is begun early in the life of a tree, no large branches need ever be removed, the most desirable pruning being the directing of the growth by pinching off the buds that would develop into undesirable branches: but this is impracticable on a large scale and for this reason in ordinary practice it is often necessary to do more extensive pruning. The Purpose in Pruning Trees is to give them forms that are desirable for the purpose intended: for example, a tree for the lawn or windbreak may be most desirable when covered with branches even down to the ground, while street trees should have a trunk free from branches for eight or ten feet from the ground. Many of the evergreens and some other trees used for ornament naturally take on so regular and desirable a form that it is not necessary to prune them except perhaps to pinch or cut off an extra leading shoot that is likely to make a forked top, while the White Elm, Soft Maple and others PRUNING. 105 need occasional pruning' to remove or shorten awkward branches, at least while the tree is young and growing rapidly. The Proper Time for Pruning is determined by the effect of the operation upon the health of the tree. Dead branches may be safely removed at any season. The removal of live branches during the growing season lessens the leaf surface and hence checks growth. Pruning when the tree is dormant results in a more vigorous growth in the remaining branches. Wounds made by pruning just as trees are starting into .growth do not heal over as readily as those made earlier in the spring or during the period of active growth in June. Wounds made in autumn or early winter generally heal over well, but are more likely to cause bad injuries than if made at the ■close of the winter. These considerations and practical ex- perience have brought about the following conclusions as to the best time for pruning : Large branches are most safely removed during the latter part of winter before growth starts. Small branches may be safely removed at this time or during the growing season, preferably about the middle of June, but such very hardy trees as the Elm, Ash, Box Elder, White Willow and Cotton- wood may be safely pruned at any time in autumn, winter or spring, while the Mountain Ash, Apple, Plum and Wild Cherry are liable to injury if pruned at any but the most favorable seasons. Among the directions to be followed in good pruning are the following: ( 1) Do not cut oft* a single branch unless you have a good idea of what you wish to accomplish and the probable effect of so doing on the tree: better not prune at all than to do it without considering the consequences. (2) Avoid doing very much pruning at one time, especial- ly on small street trees, which, if they have all their branches removed from the trunks to their final height, are likely to make too much growth at the top for the trunk to support well in high winds. A better way is to remove a part of the lower branches and shorten back in summer those that are to be re- moved later: by such treatment a large part of the strength of the tree goes into the top without increasing the size of the 106 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. lower branches, which may be removed in a year or two with- out injury to the tree. (3) After pruning- paint the wounds with good white lead paint to keep the wood from decaying and the injuries from thus becoming permanent. This is not so necessary on very hardy trees as on those that are somewhat tender. (4) Where branches rub together it is generally best to remove one of them. (5) Where bad crotches are being formed by the develop- ment of .two leaders, severely check the growth of one of them by shortening it. thus throwing more sap into the other and making it the leading shoot. ( G) Prevent tne formation of long branches by shorten- ing them. This is especially desirable with the Soft Maple which has a tendency to form long branches that are likely to break off unless occasionally pruned. (7) Where trees have lost their leaders, prune so as to develop one of the side branches into a leading shoot. This the tree always attempts to do itself, but a little judicious pruning will greatly aid it. (8) Every species of trees and shrubs has its own natural form and in pruning do not try to make all of them of one shape, but study the natural form of each kind of tree and encourage the development of this form. (9) When trees are full of frost, the wood cracks very easily, therefore do not prune in very cold weather for bad wounds may then be easily formed. Treatment of Crooked Trees. It is common to have some trees in the nursery that are of vigorous, hsalthy growth but so crooked as to be nearly worthless. The proper treat- ment for most of our shade trees when in this condition in the nursery, if anything is to be made of them, is to cut them off at the surface of the ground early in the spring and then select one of the good strong sprouts that come from the roots of each tree and train it into a straight stem and cut away the others. Treated in this way well-formed trees may soon be grown. Such treatment may also be desirable with small street trees that have their stems hopelessly injured. How- ever, trees that to the novice may seem hopelessly crooked STREET TREES. 107 may only have crooks in them that will be outgrown in a few years. STREET TREES. Success with street trees is perhaps more dependent on good soil about the roots than on any other one factor. If the land is so very sandy or gravelly as to be subject to drouth at least two cubic yards ( two full two horse loads | should be taken from where each tree is to be planted and the same amount of good clay or loam substituted for it. If in subsequent years the trees outgrow the limits of the material supplied, more of it should be added, and if this consists largely of stable manure, so much the b'etter, provided it does not come into contact with the roots of the trees. It is important to do this work thoroughly, for one tree well planted is better than a dozen poorly set out. Kinds of Trees. The best trees for street planting in this section are the White Elm, Hackberry, Green Ash, Basswood. Box Elder and Soft Maple. All of these trees do well in good soil, and with the exception of the Soft Maple they all do well in rather inferior land. Evergreens may sometimes be used to advantage along narrow drives, but they are seldom desirable as street trees. The trees planted should be about two to four inches in diameter near the ground, eight or ten feet high, and of thrifty growth. Much larger trees are some- times set out, but it is not advisable, as a rule, to plant those that are over four inches in diameter. Smaller trees are often planted and do well if properly cared for, but need more attention in directing their growth than those that are larger. But small, thrifty trees are much better for street planting than large stunted trees. In all cases it is more important to have plenty of good roots than a large top, as a top can soon be developed if the roots are srood. Distance Apart. The distance between trees depends on the kind planted and the quality of the land. On rich land in this section the trees named should be put 40 feet apart: in fairly good soil, about 30 feet, and in poor soil 20 feet apart. This gives sufficient room for good development but where a quick effect is wanted it is a good plan to set the trees much thicker than this and use Cottonwood, Willow, or similar fast 108 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. growing trees to alternate with one of the kinds named as de- sirable, with the expectation of cutting out the less valuable when it shall have commenced to crowd the more desirable kinds. Planting. Provided the soil is in the proper condition, the next consideration is the proper planting of the tree. The preparation for this should consist in digging a hole of suf- ficient size to take in the roots without crowding. If the subsoil is very solid clay it should be thoroughly loosened up, and where practicable it is a good plan to dig a trench to the loose soil over a water pipe or sewer, for by this means the roots get into loose soil and drainage is secure which is often much needed on such land. Sometimes a very stiff hard-pan can be broken up to advantage by exploding a small dynamite cart- ridge in a deep hole made with a crow-bar. Before setting the tree, it should have all broken and dead roots cut off. It should then be set an inch or two deeper than it had been growing, the discoloration above the roots indicating the depth at which it had stood. If, how- ever, good drainage cannot be secured, the tree can be planted less deeply, and then have a mound made around it. Fill in about the roots slowly, being careful ( should the tree have a great number of fibrous roots ) to work the earth well in among them and under the butt of the tree. Fine soil free from large stones should be used for this purpose. Pack the soil in firmly, if reasonably dry, with the heels or better still with a rammer, making it as solid as possible around the roots. The object in doing this is to leave no air spaces about them. It is not a good plan to put water into the hole before the tree is set but it may be put in when the roots are just covered and al- lowed to soak away before the remaining soil is put in. As a rule, however, little is gained by watering if the trees have not leafed out and the moist soil is packed firmly around the roots. Water is most needed after growth starts. Mulching. Newly planted street trees are much helped by a mulch of straw, hay, or well-rotted manure: the latter is best as it also furnishes plant food, but hot manure is liable to injure the trunk if piled against it. These materials pre- vent the soil from drying out and this is especially beneficial if the trees are artificially watered. Watering should be done thoroughly or not at all. One PRUNING. 109 good watering should keep the ground moist for two or three weeks in the driest weather we have if the land is heavily mulched when the water is applied. For a good»watering in a dry time about one barrel of water should be given to each street or lawn tree. A hollow should be made around the tree and covered with mulch before the water is applied. This same amount of water might be applied at the rate of one or two pailfuls a day and not be of the least benefit to the tree, if applied to the bare surface of the ground. Fig. 21. Soft Maple Fig. 22. Soft Maple "V Fig. 23. Soft Maple not pruned since it was once pruned showing several times pruned planted out. Liable to close head that is not preserving a main cen- break in its crotches at liable to break down, tral axis. Agood form. any time. A bad form. A good form. The Pruning of Street Trees at the time they are set out is an important matter. If the trees are very tall and slender it is a good plan to cut them off at about 10 feet from the ground and trim off all side branches as shown in -figure 24. For trees that have been pulled from the woods, this is generally the best treatment, while for nursery grown trees thathavehad plenty of room to develop a good top it may sometimes be best to trim so as to leave part of the top. If the trees are trimmed to bare poles before planting some little pruning will be required each season for a number of years to develop good tops while if they had well formed tops in the nursery and were shortened back at planting time much less attention will be necessary. 110 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY In a row of Elms or other trees there will often be found peculiar individual shapes. Some of the trees will take on desirable forms, while others will be spreading- and awkward and perhaps have a tendency to crack in the branches. In some cases a little extra pruning' will bring such unfortunates into shape, but often they are incorrigible and are best replaced by other trees with better forms. Protection should always be given street trees as soon as they are set out and this should consist of something that will pro- tect them from sunseald, gnawing of horses, and whittling by thoughtless boys. A good temporary cover is af- forded by wrapping the trunk with gunny sacking or similar material but a more ' ^ )'i.\ desirable protection is afforded by a „. nA n, slatted wooden frame or box for each Fig. 24. Elm street tree properly trimm- tree, ed for planting out. *- CHAPTER VIII INJURIES TO TREES. The causes of injury to tree growth are many and various; some affecting principally the cultivated trees in windbreaks and shelter belts, and others affecting the forest] plantations and large areas of timber; some injure or destroy the trees or tree seeds and others do damage to the land on which they grow. Saw-Flies and Tent-Caterpillars. At present perhaps the most serious injuries to cultivated trees in this section-result from the neglect to take precautions against leaf-eating insects, such as saw-flies and tent-caterpillars. These injuries may be largely pre vented by the use of Paris Green in a liquid form, ap- plied by means of a force pump, using the solutions from a barrel carried in a wagon or on a stone boat. An or- dinary spraying nozzle should be used with a sufficient length of hose to reach up into the tree. In order to reach the tops of the trees it may be necessary to have a raised platform on the wagon and to attach the nozzle to the end of a long bamboo Figure 25. Elm tree that has been pole. In most prairie planted five years and was pruned to a bare pole when set out. groves this IS practlCa- mm. jpi^ifip 112 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. ble, but with very high trees it is very difficult if not entirely impracticable. Borers and Lice. These sometimes cause serious injury, but it is seldom practicable to combat them successfully. It is generally better to avoid them by planting the kinds that are least subject to injury from their attacks. Where lice are injurious, kerosene emulsion or strong tobacco water are good remedies. In the case of small trees that can be easily enclosed in a tent, the best reined v is tobacco smoke. Figure 26. White Willow -windbreak seriously injured by successive attacks of saw fly larvae. A common source of injury to willows. Mice and Rabbits. Seedlings and small trees of some kinds are liable to injury from rodents, such as mice and rabbits. which gnaw the bark near the surface of the ground and per- haps girdle the tree. They are most likely to do this when the ground is covered with snow, for this furnishes them with a protection under which they can do their mischief without fear of being molested. In the case of small seedlings such injuries may be largely prevented by plowing a furrow or setting boards on edge around the seed bed. If. after each snow fall, the snow is trodden down so as to make a solid path between the seedlings and the grass or woodland whence the mice come, they will be kept out, as they will not try to work through the solid snow. Seedlings that are badly girdled in winter should be cut off at the surface of the ground to INJURIES TO TREES. 113 encourage sprouts from the roots. To prevent the gnawing of larger trees, paint the trunks with a cement or lime wash made rather thick and containing Paris Green in the propor- tion of one tablespoonful of Paris Green to a pailful of the wrash. If skim milk is used in mixing the wash instead of water the material sticks better. Trees that are gnawed badly may often be saved by coating the injured surface with graft- ing wax, blue clay, or other similar material soon after the damage is done so as to prevent the seasoning of the wood, and thus give it a chance to heal over; where the injury is close to the ground it should be covered with earth. The Pocket Gopher. Trees are sometimes injured by pocket gophers eating the roots. Trapping or poisoning may be resorted to or bisulphide of carbon may be used to suffocate them in their burrows. Birds. Most of our birds are helpful in various ways, such as distributing seeds and in destroying injurious insects and such small injurious animals as mice and gophers. They also add to the beauty of our woods and fields and to our pleasure and recreation. But some kinds are provokingly injurious by eating the seeds we wish to gather, or by digging up newly-sown seeds. Where they are troublesome on seed beds they may be kept away by covering the bed with wire netting, which will also serve to keep away other animals. If only birds are troublesome, mosquito netting may be used, or the seeds may be given a light coating of red lead and dried in land plaster or flour before sowing. The sap-sucker does considerable injury to some trees by making holes in* the bark for the purpose of securing insects which go there to feed on the sap. They are sometimes so very injurious that it is necessary to destroy them. The Apple, Box Elder, Maple and most other trees are subject to their injuries. Cattle. The pasturing of cows, horses, sheep and other animals in the woodlands is generally a poor practice, as these animals bro.use off many of the young seedlings, especially those of deciduous trees, such as the Oak, Basswood, Birch, Cherry and others, though they seldom eat coniferous trees. They also compact the ground and destroy many small seed- lings by their continued tramping, especially when present in 114 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. large numbers. Deer, moose, elk and other similar animals are likewise injurious in forests and when abundant may do much damage, though on account of their comparatively small number they do but slight injury. Severe Winters. These may injure many kinds of young seedlings which »vhen two or three years old will be perfectly hardy Seedlings of such kinds should be dug at the end of the first season's growth and be heeled in over winter or pro- tected by a mulch or earth covering in winter. Alternate Freezing and Thawing. Seedlings are often thrown out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing, and io this way have their roots broken. This is most likely to hap- Figure 27. Heaving out by Frost. (a) Tree in natural position, (b) Drawn up by alternate freezing and thawing. pen where the ground is bare; if covered with leaves or grass or shaded in other w*ays this seldom happens. The best pre- ventive is to mulch the surface soil wTith leaves or other simi- lar material, but as mice generally like to live in such places INJURIES TO TREES. 115 poison should be used. It should be placed under the mulch in tin cans laid on their sides so they may be readily found in spring and will not be liable to poison the birds. When seed- lings are thrown out of the ground by frost they should be pushed back and have the earth pressed against them as soon as the ground is thawed in the spring. Lata Spring Frosts are common in the low lands of this section. They injure the trees by killing the new spring growth after it has started several inches. A large number of trees are seriously injured in this way and are classed as frost tender trees, and those that are not liable to this injury are termed frost hardy trees. Among conifers the spruces and bal- sams are much injured by late spring frosts while our pines and the Tamarack. Red Cedar and Arborvitae are seldom if ever in- jured in this way. Deciduous trees recover from such injuries more quickly than evergreens. Among the deciduous trees most liable to injury from this cause are the Ash, Mulberry, Oak. Maple, Basswood, Black Walnut, Butternut and Box Elder, though they do not all suffer in the same degree. Among those that are not sensitive to late frosts are the Elm, Willow, Poplar, Birch, Hackberry, Wild Black Cherry and Mountain Ash. Sleet Storms occasionally do much damage by breaking the limbs. Little can be done to relieve the trees but preventive measures may be taken. If no large crotches are allowed to form in trees and growth kept as near as possible to one central shaft, or the longer branches shortened so as they will not exert too great a leverage, the losses may be reduced to a minimum. Trees having brittle wood or weak crotches as the Soft Maple are much more liable to this injury than those with tough wood as the willows, oaks and elms and need more pruning on this account. Evergreens are likely to be broken by heavy snows that freeze on the leaves. This may be prevented on lawn and shade trees by shaking the snow off from them before it freezes. Frost Cracks are a rather infrequent injury caused by the cracking of trees from center to outside due to uneven con- traction in very cold weather, it is generally accompanied by a loud report. Such cracks are often eight or ten feet long 116 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. and occasionally longer. They generally close up again when the wood thaws out and during the following summer grow over only to burst open again the next winter. This alternate bursting open and growing over may continue for many years until very conspicuous and peculiar wounds are formed. In such cracks insects and rot-producing fungi find favorable lodging places and as a result trees are seriously injured and are liable to decay in the trunk. Thei-e are no practical reme- dies for such injuries. Figure 23. Trees heavily loaded with ice after a sleet storm. Wind. Injuries from wind are common wThere thinning is done to a great extent at one time about shallow rooted trees, such as Spruce growing on moist soil. These injuries can be avoided only by thinning gradually. In many such cases on timber lands thinning is impracticable and it is_then best to INJURIES TO TREES. 117 cut all the merchantable timber, for if left it is sure to be blown down. On our prairies where the soil is light and easily blown away it is not uncommon to have young seedling trees serious- ly injured by the blowing away of the soil around the roots wThich ofien leaves them uncovered for three or more inches. This injury usually takes place in the spring and may be almost entirely prevented by seeding the land to oats about the middle of July at the time of the last cultivation. Sown at this season the oats form a good sod that serves to hold the soil in place until spring when it is easily broken up bycultiva- ation, but even then the roots prevent the blowing away of the soil. Occa- sional strips of grass are also a pre- ventive of this injury. Snow Crust. The settling of a snow crust that has formed on the top of deep snow drifts may cause injury to young trees by stripping off their branches and breaking the stems. It may be prevented by breaking up the crust or by thinly scattering over the snow some sand, ashes or other mater- ial that will absorb the sun's heat and cause the crust to melt before the snow underneath melts. This injury seldom occurs except under drifts and a little good judgement in selecting the loca- tion and arranging the windbreak so as to prevent drifts may obviate this source of injury. Drouth. ' Injuries from drouth may be prevented to a great extent by constant cultivation, but where this cannot be done mulching is a good Fig. 29. Old Frost . X.A . ,, ,. ... „f Cracks in Sugar Maple. substitute. Attention to thinning at 118 ELEMENTARY^ FORESTRY, the proper time so as not to get the soil filled with roots will also help to prevent injury from drouth. Willow windbreaks can be grown without any cultivation after being once well established in the driest portion of Minnesota if they are kept mulched with straw or litter for six feet on each side. Mulch- ing also prevents injury from severe freezing of the roots. Sun-scald. Nearly all of our cultivated trees may be in- jured by sun-scald. This occurs almost without exception on Fig. 30. Trunk of Soft Maple badly sun- scalded. Fig. 31. Section of Trunk OF S C N-SC A LDED BASS W GOD. Showingdead bark and amount of wood decayed. The top and roots of the tree from which this section was cut were per- fectlv healthy at *he time when the trunk broke off at the sun- scald. the southwest side of unprotected trees of Hard and Soft Maple, Basswood, Box Elder, Black Walnut, etc. Oaks and all other trees are occasionally affected. It never occurs when the trees are sufficiently close together to shade their trunks, and for this reason the growth of shrubs and low branching trees should be encouraged on the south and west sides of groves where they do not crowd the principal kinds. FOREST FIRE^. 119 Street trees liable to this injury may be protected by burlap sacking, straw, or other similar material. When injuries from sunscald occur, the loose bark should be cut off down to the live growth and the wood coated with paint, to prevent its seasoning, or the wound wrapped in cloth. Trees inclined to the northeast are most liable to sunscald because the rays of the sun strike the trunk more nearly perpendicularly. Broken Branches and Decay. Large wounds are sometimes formed by the breaking down of a branch or by decay which may have started in a wound made by pruning. In such cases the broken and decayed wood should be cleared away and the exposed surfaces treated with a very heavy coat of white lead paint, grafting wax or other material that will keep out water and disease. If the wound is very large or forms a hole in which water is likely to stand it should be cleaned and painted as recommended and then covered with a sheet of zinc carefully tacked on and the joints closed with grafting wax to keep out water. FOREST FIRES. Forest fires are the one great cause of injuries to forests in this section. All other causes of injury are very slight in comparison to it. and could this one cause be removed it is more than probable that the natural renewal of our timber lands would be sufficient to maintain the timber industries of Minnesota for very many years to come. Fires in this state have destroyed large areas of pine log timber before it could be made accessible to market. It is undoubtedly true that in this section of the country more pine timber has been destroyed by fire than the lumbermen have ever cut. On account of this great danger to pine timber and on ac- count of high taxes, the lumbermen have been discouraged from holding their pine lands for a second growth but prefer to cut every tree that can be made into salable lumber and then abandon the land. But even under suchconditions it occasionally hap- pens that theland is not burned overor only slightly burned for a number of years when it will generally produce a good second cutting. Some land in this state that was first cut in the early days of the logging industry, when it was customary to cut 120 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. nothing but that which would make a ten-inch log-, have been logged two or three times since and with a good profit. Since fires render most of the cut-over lands in this state entirely non-productive, and since the annual increase on ihe trees that should grow on such land is at least 185 feet board measure per acre, it is plain that the loss to the people of the state on the 6,000,000 or more acres of cut-over lands is very large. Forest fires not only destroy a very great amount of property each year, but they occasionally cause great loss of life. In the Hinckley fire of 1894. (which was entirely the re- sult of ignorance and neglect) there is known to have been 424 lives lost, besides a large amount of property, and occasionally in other years settlers have had to flee for their lives and leave their houses and crops to he burned. It is impossible for fires to run over any forest land with- out doing great injury. The amount of damage done by them is difficult to estimate and varies much according to the time of year, the age and condition of the trees, the soil and the severity of the fire. Forest fires are sometfmes grouped into the three follow- ing classes: (1) Underground Fires that do not show much on the surface but which destroy the roots of trees and greatly injure the soil. (2) Surface Fires which burn the leaves and grass in the woods and do much damage by destroying the forest floor and killing the young seedlings. (3) Crown Fires, which run in the crowns of the trees and when once started are almost irresistible. The latter are one of the worst forms and are generally accompanied by surface and often by under- ground fires. The Killing of Mature Trees by any of these three- kinds of fires entails but a slight loss comparatively to the timber, providing it is accessible to market, as the trees can be cut the following winter. But fires that kill the mature growth generally do great damage by killing the young growth and destroying the forest floor. Timber that is allowed to stand more than one or two years after being killed by fire gener- ally suffers much from insects and fungous diseases. This is most evident in the case of White Pine, Birch. Poplar and FOREST FIRES. 121 similar soft woods, but even hard woods are injured by insects if allowed to stand long- after being killed. The Killing of Half-Grown Trees by forest fires causes a loss that amounts not only to the value of the timber trees but to the value of the seeding and shading trees and the forest floor. The value of the trees alone in this case is not a fair standard by which to measure the loss, since at this stage of their growth they are making their most rapid increase and their value should be computed as the amount upon which the increase is paying a good interest. For instance, the Divi- sion of Forestry of the Minnesota Experiment Station found land that was well stocked with young White Pine ( six inches in diameter and fifty feet high) that could be bought for about one dollar per acre, and yet the annual increase on the trees would paj five per cent on a valuation of $100,000 for the next twenty years. The reason why such a state of affairs exists is that there is such great danger from fire that the invest- ment fails to command the money of careful investors. The Destruction of the Forest Floor by fire greatly lessens the probability of an immediate renewal of valuable tree growth upon the land and therefore is one of the greatest injuries to forests. The value of the forest floor can hardly be estimated but the expense that would be necessary after afire to produce conditions as favorable to the seeding- of our timber lands as those found in unburned forests would probably be not less than twenty-five dollars per acre. Light Fires which repeatedly run over the ground and which by the casual observer are thought to be of no importance often destroy the seeds in the surface soil and the young tree seedlings besides injuring the forest floor, and unless such tir«s are prevented it is impossible to secure a good growth of timber on any land. The fires that burn over the land shortly after it has been logged and which feed on the tops and other waste parts of the trees, generally destroy a large number of young seedling trees, perhaps all of them so that in order to secure a new growth seeds must be brought from a distance. Owing to the great heat developed by such fires in dry weather, they are unusually destructive and leave \er\ little humus in the top soil. For this reason land that has 122 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. been burned over in this way is a long- time in recovering from its injuries. Besides the injuries already cited, all forest fires kill or drive out much of the game in our forests. Spring Fires are very injurious to trees and especially ten- der seedlings for trees in the spring of the year are full of sap and can endure but little heat. Summer and Autumn Fires generally run deep into the ground and if the soil is very dry and of a peaty nature burn off the roots of the trees. The result of this is that the trees are blown down in great confusion and form what are known as ;'fire falls."' Where a thick growth falls, it forms Figure 32. A FIRE FALL. Roots burned off and trees blown down in great confusion. an almost impassable barrier which remains in this state un- til decay and repeated fires extending over a long series of years finally destroy the trees and perhaps get the land into condition for a new growth. Causes of Forest Fires. The only natural causes of forest fires FOREST FIRES. 123 are friction and lightning-, both of which occasionally start tires in dead trees, but as such fires are most likely to be set during a rain they seldom do much damage. Practically all the in- jurious forest fires that have devastated the forested part of this section have resulted indirectly either from a lack of ap- preciation of the damage done by them or from carelessness and ignorance. In the disastrous Hinckley fire of 1894 the damag-e was done by a large fire formed by the combination of several small fires that were allowed to smoulder in the swamps near Hinckley for a week or more, which when fanned by a dry hot wind attained an irresistible energy. If we had had a fire law that could have been properly enforced at that time, or if the people near Hinckley had been aware of their dang-er, that great fire, with its attendant great loss of life and property, need not have occurred. Fires often escape from settlers when they are clearing' land and are sometimes started by them to make pasture for their stock. The careless use of fire by the hunters, pros- pectors and others who camp in the forest and leave their camp fires unextinguished is another common cause of fires. Railroads set many fires and should be required to more rigidly conform to the law requiring them to use spark arrest- ers and to keep their rig-ht of way free from combustible material. The moral effect of a properly enforced forest fire law is not only very great in restraining' the careless, but especially in educating law-abiding citizens in the idea that there is value in young seedlings and timber trees. The Prevention of Forest Fires will be most certainly accom- plished by educating our people to an appreciation of the amount of damag-e done by them. In some counties in this state it is impossible to enforce the law against setting forest fires owing- to the belief that fires arc a good thing- for their sections in destroying- tree growth and bringing the land into condition to be easily taken up by settlers. There is some -truth in this claim, but since the tires destroy all increase on the land they sweep over, a large amount of it is thereby ren- dered entirely unproductive long before settlers are ready for it. while in the meantime it might be producing a crop of valuable timber. Then again, it is the greatesl injustice to 124 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. allow one person to burn the property of another, which right is practically claimed by those who advocate the unrestricted use of fire. With a desire in the minds of people to keep out forest fires, there are many precautions that could be taken that would lessen the chances of their starting and when started would aid in controlling them. The first thing is a good fire law such as now stands in Minnesota, which recognizes the fact that the state and county should protect forest property from fire for the same reason that a town or city protects the prop- erty of its citizens from fire. This law puts one-third the expense of enforcing it on the state and the other two-thirds on the county. The chief reasons why a part of this burden should be borne by the state and not by the counties alone are that fires spread from one county to another and the state must be organized to extinguish such fires when they have once started, since it is the only competent author- ity that can do this. Then again, the state of Minnesota owns or will own, when surveys have been completed, about 3,000,000 acres of land scattered through the forested area, besides possibly nearly as great an area that has been bid in by the state for delinquent taxes. A large part of the land the state owns has a valuable growth of trees on it, much of which is liable to injury or destruction by fire at any time and the state can well afford to provide protection for it. Fire-breaks in the shape of clean earth roads, plowed strips, etc., are effective against ordinary forest fires. Very often by clearing up and widening the course of a brook a very efficient fire break may be made which will supplement other fire breaks. It is stated on good authority that fairly satis- factory and very cheap fire-breaks may be made in rough stump land by fencing off a strip about three rods wide and pasturing it with sheep which will kill out all the brush in the course of a year or two. The sheep do this most effectually if the land is rather over stocked and they receive a little grain to make up for their lack of pasturage. Figure .'{.'{ shows a fire-break or lane on Le Grande Dune in France. The Burning of Trash left on the ground at the time of log- ging- is recommended bv some of our best woodmen as a means FOREST FIRES. 125 Figure 33. Fire-break on a great sand dune in France which has been successfully covered with Pine. Seepage 124-. 126 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. of doing- away with one of the sources of our worst forest fires. This trash can be burned early in the spring or at other times when the ground is wet and fire is not likely to get beyond control. On the other hand, it is well known -that there are many seedlings on such land that would be seriously injured or destroyed by such treatment. It is also known that under the trash left after logging are generally found about the best conditions for pine seeds to start and for the seedlings to errow so that some of our best authorities con- demn the practice. It would seem, however, that on account of the great liability of fires starting in such trash, prudence would generally advocate the burning of it while it could be controlled, but this should be done so as to cause as little in- jury as possible to new growth and especial care should be taken to save seeding trees. The cost of such work has been urged against it, but this has often been over-estimated and it seems evident that it is entirely practicable. The Methods of Fighting Surface Fires are various and their use depends on the conditions under which the work must be done. Where possible the plowing of a fire-break a rod or more wide is most satisfactory, but this is seldom practicable within our wooded areas. Back Firing is generally the most successful method of making a fire-break. When this is to be practiced a convenient place to fight fire should be chosen at some distance ahead of the main fire where the back fire should be started after every precaution has been taken to prevent its getting beyond control. Where a supply of water can be obtained surface fires can be most easily put out by applying it through a common sprinkling pot with a good rose sprinkler on it. This is especially effective where fire is running through grass and those who have never tried it will generally be surprised at the effectiveness of this method. Where the fire is burning several inches of leaves a small strip should be cleaned of them before applying the water. Gunny sacks or similar material wet in water- make very effective weapons with which to fight fire. Underground Fires, such as occur in bogs and other soils containing a large amount of organic matter, when once started are often very hard to subdue owing to their great depth, and where not looked after, sometimes burn for a FOREST FIRES. 127 year or more unless we have very heavy rains. They often cause great injury by burning- out all organic matter from the soil and leaving it in poor shape for crops, though a rather severe but not excessive firing of bogs may do much to clear the land of roots and put it in shape for a good hay meadow. Then, too. they often so reduce the level of the land by burning out the organic matter as to make it wet and of no value for agricultural crops. If such fires are attacked soon after they secure a foothold in the soil they are seldom very difficult to put out. Where not deep in the ground or of very great extent, the burning peat may be dug out and watered, but this is often impracticable on account of the heat. In this latter case a ditch should be dug around the fire as close to it as practicable and of sufficient depth to reach standing water or the subsoil. The fire should then be carefully watched to see that it does not get beyond the ditch. It is seldom that sufficient water can be put on a large bog lire to put it out. on account of the great amount of water that dry peat will absorb and the protective covering of ashes and peat usually found over a bog fire. TREES OF MINNESOTA. CONIFEEAE. Fine Family. Trees or shrubs with resinous juice. Leaves commonly needle-shaped or awl-shaped and mostly evergreen. Flowers monoecious or sometimes dioecious, in catkins or cones, des- titute of calyx and corolla. The pollen grains have lateral air sacs which buoy them up in the air and they are occasion- ally carried hundreds of miles by the wind. Fruit either a woody cone with distinct scales as in the pines, spruces, Arborvitae and Larch or a somewhat berry-like cone with fleshy coherent scales as in the Red Cedar. Genus PINTJS. Leaves of two kinds; the primary ones, linear or scale like, deciduous; the secondary forming the ordinary foliage evergreen, from slender buds, in clusters of 2, 3 or 5 together, each cluster surrounded by a sheath of thin membranous scales. Flowers appear in the spring, monoecious; the staminate in scaly catkins clustered at the base of the new growth; the pistillate in scaly catkins borne on the twigs of the preceding season becoming scaly cones at maturity. Each scale is in the axil of a bract and bears a pair of ovules ad- hering to its inner face which peel off. as the scale expands at maturity. Fruit a woody cone maturing in the autumn of the second year. Cotyledons 3 to 12, linear. We have only three native species in this state. Pinus strobus. White Pine. Weymouth Pine. Leaves soft, in clusters of 5, about 3 to 4 inches long, falling at the end of the second or during the third season ; sheath early deciduous. Sterile catkins 5 or 6 together. 132 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 1 Pinus strobus. White Pine. v, .f n!1,„r-il si/e 2. Branch bear- i Krmota bearing staminate flowers, one-half naturas^/e Anther. side ingpisS^frsV WffJ^/«B^^r¥£B!S^^t -S"1"* °ne-haif natura PINES. 133 Cones solitary, 4 to 6 inches long-, slender, cylindrical, termi- nal, pendulous, falling- after shedding their seeds; scales thin and pointless, seeds nearly i inch long- with 8 to 10 cotyledons. A mag-nificent tree and the tallest one of the eastern states. In g-ood locations in this state it sometimes attains a height of over 160 feet and a diameter of 4 feet. One acre was scaled near Carlton, Minn, which yielded over 94,000 feet board measure of sound timber. The White Pine is generally found in this section on rather clayey land. On poor land the Nor- way and Jack Pine generally crowd it out. Distribution. — Canada and the northeastern states and southward along the Alleghanies to Georgia, the Valley of the St. Lawrence and around the Great Lakes. In Minnesota it is common through the northern half of the state, excepting west of Red Lake, and south to the northern edge of Chisago County. It is found occasionally south of this limit as at St. Cloud, Taylors Falls, Cannon River, Mantorville, Rochester, St. Charles and at various points in Houston and Fillmore Counties. In the western and southwestern portions of the state it is not found. Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for evergreens. Thej^oung seedlinsrs will not bear as much sunlight as the Nor- way, Jack or the Bull Pine and will bear considerable shade. Properties of wood. — Very soft, lisrht, weak, compact, straight grained, very resinous, easily worked, of a delicate pinkish brown color with lighter colored sapwood. One of its points of considerable value is the small degree to which it shrinks and swells owing to change in the atmosphere. Not durable in contact with the soil, although the heartwood stands fairly well. Specific gravity, 0.3854; weight of a cubic foot, 24.02 pounds. Uses. — The White Pine is one of the fastest growing and perhaps the most graceful of evergreens for ornamental plant- ing. It grows rapidly when in retentive soil of a loose open texture, but is liable to kill out in wet, compact or very sandy soils. It should not be planted in very exposed situations, "but should follow the planting of the more hardy deciduous trees in such places: it is liable to be killed by drying winds in the early spring on our western prairies. It is not as hardy 134 TREES OF MINNESOTA. as the Scotch Pine nor will it make as fast a growth when young, but is longer lived than the Scotch Pine and in fifteen years will make a much larger and more ornamental tree. Within and near its range it is very valuable for orna- mental purposes. The White Pine yields the most useful timber of the- American forests, it being especially valuable for sash, doorsr blinds, shingles, etc., and for a general purpose timber in building. From the bark is obtained the compound syrup of White Pine now largely used in the United States as an expectorant. Pinus flexilis. Western White Pine. Leaves 5 in a sheath, somewhat rigid, sharp pointed and densely crowded on the branchlets, falling during fifth and sixth years. Cones cylindrical, tapering, 3 to 5 inches long, light brown: scales thick, li inches broad; seeds i to i inch long with 6 to 9 cotyledons. A handsome tree about 50 feet high, resembling the Common White Pine, but of closer, stiffer habit and darker foliage. Distribution. — Mountain ranges from Alberta to Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Propagation. — By seeds. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, compact: color light clear yellow turning red on exposure; sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity 0.4358; weight of a cubic foot 27.16 pounds. Uses. — The Western White Pine is a handsome tree that is little known in cultivation, but promises to be of value for ornamental planting and is doing very well at the Minnesota Experiment Station, where it has been growing six years. Pinus resinosa. Norway Pine. Red Pine. Leaves 5 to 6 inches long, nearly cylindrical; in pairs from long close sheaths, falling during fourth and fifth sea- sons. Cone ovoid conical with rounded base, about two inches long, falling after shedding the seeds; scales of cone slightly thickened at the end without any prickly points; seeds i of an inch long with from 6 to 8 cotyledons. A very hand- some, rapid-growing, robust tree with a straight, uniform PINES. 135 Plate 2. Pin us resinosa. Norway Pine. 136 TREES OF MINNESOTA. trunk covered with a pretty reddish gray, soft, flaky bark: commonly grows about 80 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, but occasionally reaches a height of 150 feet. Wrongly called Norway Pine, for this species is not found in Norway or any; other part of Europe. Distribution. — Found in northern United States and Can- ada, southward as far as Pennsylvania, but reaches its greatest development in the northern part of Michigan, Wis- consin and Minnesota, where it forms large forests even on sandy or dry soil often interspersed with Jack Pine when young. In Minnesota its range is about the same as that of White Pine but does not extend as far south. Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for evergreens. The seeds of this pine are very scarce and difficult to obtain on account of the few produced in the cones and the ravages- of the squirrels. These animals are so fond of the seeds that they often cut into the cones before the seeds are mature and take the larger part. Properties of wood. — Light, hard, not very strong, elastic, resinous and durable, harder than White Pine and more liable- to crack in drying: yellowish white sapwood and reddish heart wood, conspicuously grained, not durable in contact with the ground. Specific gravity 0.4854. weight of a cubic foot 30.25 pounds. Uses. — As an ornamental tree and for windbreaks the Norway Pine will stand much more hard usage than the White Pine, especially on light soil: it has a robust, vigor- ous appearance and would undoubtedly be more commonly planted if young plants of it could be more cheaply obtained. Within and near its range it makes a very fine ornamental tree and is very valuable for windbreaks. The principal value of this timber is for framing, flooring, wainscoting, car sills and ship building. In many ways it is used to take the place of White Pine. In fact, Norway Pine, while in- ferior for general use is frequently mixed with White Pine in lumber yards. While its specific name resinosa would seem to infer the presence of a large amount of resin in this tree, it, in fact, contains comparatively little and is seldom used for the purpose of obtaining resin. PINES. 137 Plate 3. I'inus divaricata. Jack Pine. 138 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Pinus divaricata. ( P. banksiana. ) Jack Pine. Nor- thern Scrub Pine. Gray Pine. Leaves in twos, short, from £ to 1* inches long, acute, rigid, thick, more or less curved and twisted, falling- the second or third season: inner side channeled: margins very minutely serrate, sheaths short: buds very resinous. Cones ovoid acuminate, about 2 inches long, often curved, laterally located on branchlets, often in pairs. They are generally opened by the sun, but where they are in the shade they will remain on the trees unopened for several years until they be- come deeply covered with moss and sometimes until over- grown and imbedded in the wood and bark. The seeds are about i of an inch long with 4 to 5 cotyledons. Those from the old cones seem to grow as readily as fresh seeds when sown. A very pronounced peculiarity of this tree is the habit of forming several whorls of- branches on the new growth. This is especially noticeable when the trees are young and growing rapidly when as many as six whorls of branches may be seen on a year's growth. This tree under favorable con- ditions will occasionally attain a height of 125 feet and. a diameter of 2 feet. However, it is seldom over 70 feet high and 8 to 12 inches in diameter and generally where it occurs in pine forests it is only 40 or 50 feet high. Distribution. — It is distributed from northern New England and the Valley of the St. Lawrence westward along our northern frontier to the Rocky Mountains and north to the Arctic Circle: found growing in sandy land and land that has been recently severely burned. It covers large areas of poor sandy lands in Minnesota. In this state it probably has about the same range as Norway Pine. Propagation. — By seeds. The cones majT be obtained at any season of the year and kept out of doors until spring, when they can be opened by the application of a little heat. The seeds from the old cones seem to have as much vitality as those from young cones. In the woods the cones of Jack Pine often remain closed until a lire sweeping over the land causes them to open and allows the seeds to fall in the loose ashes, where they soon start into growth. On account of this peculiarity it is sometimes called the Fire Pine. The seed- PINES. 139 lings are very hardy and grow without shade. It is one of the first evergreens to start on the abandoned dry pine land of this state. Properties of wood.— Light, soft, not strong, resinous: light yellowish brown in color with thick whitish sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4761; weight of a cubic foot 29.67 pounds. Uses. — The Jack Pine is not a pretty tree and is seldom used in ornamental planting. It is, however, the hardiest native evergreen tree we have and is especially adapted to dry, loose soil, where it has a wondrous power of withstand- ing drouth. It is of rapid growth when young, which together with its great hardiness, has led to its being planted on some of the sandiest dry lands of the West. In the timbered por- tion of Minnesota it often acts as a nurse tree for the Norway Pine which, however, soon outgrows it. The larger trees are generally sawed into lumber and pass as Norway Pine, but they seldom attain a size large enough to be profitably used for this purpose, and much of it is used only as fuel. Pinus ponderosa scopulorum. Bull Pine. Rock Pine. Heavy-wooded Pine. Western Yellow Pine. Leaves 3 to 6 inches long, rigicL generally in threes, but occasionally in twos, falling during third and fourth seasons. Cones 2 to 3 inches long, grayish, with stout prickles. Tree SO to 100 feet high. The species Pinus ponderosa of which this is an important variety is the most magnificent and widely spread of western pines, attaining a height of 200 to 300 feet and a thickness of 12 to 15 feet and having much larger cones and larger needles than this variety. Distribution. — The Bull Pine is found throughout the Rocky Mountain region. It inhabits even the dry sand hills of western Nebraska and Montana and is perhaps the hardiest western pine. Propagation. — By seeds which are large, easily obtained and grow with the greatest certainty if given ordinary treat- ment. Properties of wood. — The wood vales' greatly in quality and value. It is heavy, hard, strong, brittle and compact, neither coarse grained nor durable; color, light red with very 140 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 1. Plate 4. Pinus ponderosa scopvlorum. Bull Pine. End of branch bearing staminate flower, enlarged. ! End of branch- i.par'intTuistUlate flower, enlarged. 3. Anther, open. 4. Scale of pistillate flower attached to bract, front view, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate tto weratr ,„fhPri to bract rear view, enlarged, t;. Cone, one-half of natural size. . . Scale ofcSLreli%won^lf^UiTfilsly.e. 8. Seed attached to wing. 9. Branch snowing voung growth, one-half natural size. 10. Fascicle of three needles one- ha?f n in ra size 11. Fascicle of two needles, one-half natura size. 12. Cross Seetl of "needle from three-leaf fascicle. 13. Seedling, one-half natural s.ze. PINES. 141 thick light colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4619: weight of a cubic foot 28.78 pounds. Uses. — The Bull Pine has the power of withstanding great extremes of drouth and temperature and promises to be of great value for planting on our western plains. It is of rapid growth and while it has a somewhat coarse appearance its sturdy form is far from being unsightly. It is perhaps rather more difficult to transplant than the Scotch Pine, probably on account of its deep tap root when young. The wood is largely manufactured into lumber and used for railway ties, fuel, etc. Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. Scotch Fir. Deal Wood. Leaves 2 in a sheath, li to 2 inches long and of a glaucous hue. falling during third season; sheaths small, persistent, nearly black. Cones about two inches long, taper- ing towards the apex, solitary or in clusters of two or three; scales of cones tipped with a deciduous point. Trees rather inclined to grow crooked and to not keep a straight shaft as in the case of the Norway and Austrian Pines. In this region where it is cultivated, it seldom grows over ten inches in diameter and forms round topped trees spreading 25 to 30 feet. There are several cultivated varieties the most of which are of little value. Distribution. — It is the common timber pine of northern Europe and Asia. Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds if properly man- aged, but requires shade when very small . Most of the seeds of this pine that are commonly sold are gathered in Europe from a dwarf scrubby form that is found on dry poor land. There are probably very few seeds sold from the large timber trees, as they are most cheaply gathered from the dwarf form. This may be a reason why the tree is generally so dwarf with us, although it varies much in size when grown in different soils. Properties of wood. — Yellowish white, soft, light, close grained and easily worked. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.52. Uses. — The Scotch Pine is one of the hardiest of ever- greens, of very rapid close growth when young, but often rather open in habit when old. It generally reaches its 142 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 5. Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. 1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- ing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. Branch bearing pistillate flowers after pollination, one-half natural size. 4. Unopened pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, rear view, enlarged. 6. Scale of pistillate flower, front view, enlarged. 7. Anther, enlarged. 8. Branch bearing ripe cone and young cone, one-half natural size. 9. An open cone, one-half natural size. 10. Scale of cone, one-half natural size. 11. Seeds with wings at- tached. 12. Seed, natural size. 13. Seedling, one-half natural size. PINES. 143 maturity when about 20 years old and seldom lasts much longer when on dry soil. It has been planted more largely than any other evergreen on our prairies and perhaps is as good as any for pioneer plantings. The wood of this tree is valuable for interior finishing and is largely used in Europe, where it is the common timber pine. The celebrated pine of Norway and the Baltic countries is of this species. What has been termed the best form of this and known as Riga Pine has been partially tried in this country but thus far its superiority has not been demonstrated. "This pine yields a considerable portion of the common European turpentine. In Germany a fibrous substance is prepared from the leaves of this and other species of Pinus and Abies, called fir-wool, and a volatile oil is distilled from them called fir-wool oil which is considerably used as a remedy for rheumatism, chronic catarrh, chronic skin dis- eases, etc., in fact, generally for the same purposes as the oil of turpentine. The leaves are made into wadding and cloth- ing ( designated as fir-wool from their origin ) which are supposed to have some merit in the treatment of rheumatic affections. " Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. Black Pine. Leaves 2 in a sheath, dark green, slender but rigid, 4 to 6 inches long, falling during fourth and fifth seasons. Cones 2£ to 3 inches long, conical, not beaked. Tree much more regular in outline than the Scotch Pine; the branches coming out in a very regular candelabra-like fashion. There are a few cultivated varieties. Distribution. — Native of southern and central Europe. Propagation. — By seeds, seedlings require shading when young. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, durable, very rich in tur- pentine. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.57. Uses. — The Austrian Pine in very desirable for planting in this section, rather longer lived and perhaps hardier than the Scotch Pine and of a much darker color resembling most closely the Norway Pine. 144 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 6. Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. 1. Branch-bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch-bear- ing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. End of branch- bearing bud and young cone, one-half natural size. 4. Pistillate flower, natural size. 5. Anther, enlarged, ti and 7. Scales of pistillate flower, front and rear views, enlarged. 8. Open cone, one-half natural size. 9. Scale of cone, one- half natural size. 10. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. 11. Seed, natural size. 12. Seedling, one-half natural size. 13. Cross section of needle. PINES. 145 Pinus montana pumila. (P.^mughus. ) Dwarf Pine. Dwarf Mountain Pine. Leaves dark green, crowded, stiff, twisted, about 2 inches long-, falling- during fifth, sixth and seventh years. Cones, usually in pairs, nearly 2 inches long-, tapering*, with slight points to the scales. A densely branched shrub or possibly a small tree 2 to 10 feet hish. Fig. 34. Pinus montana pumila. Dwarf Pine. Distribution. — Mountains of central Europe. Propagation.— Easily grown from seeds. Uses. — The Dwarf Pine is one of the hardiest of Pines. It is of pretty, close shrubby form and takes kindly to pruning which often greatly improves it. The plants from seed vary quite a little in habit, some being dwarf and spreading while others are quite erect and tree-like. It is valuable for single specimens in lawn planting, for the edges of evergreen groups and for low hedges. Genus LARIX. A genus of large, deciduous, cone-bearing trees. Leaves needle shaped, soft, deciduous, very many in clusters which are developed in early spring from lateral, scaly, globular buds, which are scattered along the shoots of the season. Propagation. — The seeds germinate readily in moist sandy soil and the seedlings are easily raised in the manner de- scribed for evergreens. They should be transplanted very early in the spring and if this is done at the right time the 146 TREES OF MINNESOTA. seedlings will start readily, but if moved after the plants have started they are very likely to fail. Larix laricina. {L. americana.) Tamarack. Ameri- can Larch. Hackmatack. Leaves i to f of an inch long, slender and thread-like, light bluish green, deciduous. Cones £ to 1 inch long, ovoid. A slender, graceful tree 30 to 100 feet high with close or at length slightly scaly bark. Distribution. — Northeastern United States, north of Penn- sylvania, nearly or quite to the Arctic regions and west nearly to central Minnesota; rare farther south than Ramsey and Hennepin counties in Minnesota. It covers vast areas of swamp land in the northern part of this state with a short stunted growth. It fails to reach large size in very wet land, while on land that is not excessively wet it grows 100 feet high and 16 inches through at the stump. In one instance a stunted Tamarack growing on excessively wet land had been 48 years in attaining a diameter of 1 1-10 inches, while on land well adapted to it a tree had grown to the height of 44£ feet with a diameter of 11 inches in 38 years. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse grained, compact, durable in contact with the soil; color light brown; sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity 0.6236: weight of a cubic foot 38.86 pounds. Uses. — The Tamarack may occasionally be used for variety in lawn planting on moist soil and is well adapted to planting along lake shores and around sloughs, but on dry soil it is of little value and we have many far more valuable trees for moist soils. The lumber is largely used in ship building, for fence posts, telegraph poles, railway ties, etc. The inner bark of European Larch is used in medicine and it is probable that the bark of our American species has similar medicinal properties. Two varieties varying in color of heartwood, the red and the white Tamarack, are commonly distinguished. The difference is probably one of age only; the red hearted trees having the more heartwood make the more durable lumber. This tree grows fast and readily renews itself from seed; for these reasons good Tamarack LARCH. 147 Plate 7. Larix europea. European Larch. half1'na^narn?«i^an9ngita^inate,andpjstillate flowers and a mature cone, one- nait natural size. 2. Anther, enlarged. 3. Scale of pistillate flower enlarged Scaet^n on.Hfa^Ch1' one-half natural size' 5. Seed , nluSal Itzl t o?newaTdoWKOwh ^"iSh 7'h Branches showing arrangement of leaves lVnf iv«™ * • *? l - ,5' Brancn showing tip of new growth in spring 9 A hP»Lh m fascicle ?n old growth. 10. A leaf from new growth 1 1 Winter branch showing persistent cone. 12. Seedling kiowhi. u. winier 148 TREES OF MINNESOTA. swamps properly managed should prove profitable in- vestments. Larix europea. European Larch. Leaves longer than those of the Tamarack and of a brighter green color. Cones longer than those of the Tama- rack. A large and important timber tree. Distribution. — Native of northern and central Europe on moist mountain sides. Properties of wood.— Hard, strong, tough, very durable in contact with the soil. Specific gravity 0.62. Uses. — The European Larch has been largely planted in the eastern states in small timber plantations, for windbreaks and ornament. It is superior to oar native Larch for these purposes, but has not succeeded well on our western prairies, probably on account of the dry climate. On moist soil in somewhat sheltered locations it often does well and becomes a graceful pretty tree. Very large and successful plantations of this tree have been made in Scotland and other European countries. The lumber is used for posts, telegraph poles, piles, beams and joists and in ship building. One tree grown at Owatonna, Minnesota, attained a height of about 50 feet and a diameter of 15 inches in 30 years, but so rapid a growth is uncommon here. Genus PICEA. Leaves evergreen, scattered, not grouped in sheaths, jointed on a persistent base, needle shaped, 4-angled, short, pointing every way and all of one kind. Flowers appear, in spring, monoecious: the staminate catkins in the axils of the leaves of the preceding year: the pistillate catkins termi- nal ovoid or oblong. Fruit a cone maturing the first year, pendulous with thin tough scales that open when ripe and dry, to liberate the two. winged seeds, found at the base of each scale. Trees tall and pyramidal or conical in form. Picea canadensis. | 1'. alba. ) White Spruce. Leaves slender. Ho 1 inch long, varying in color from light glaucous to dark green, falling during fourth and fifth seasons. Cones oblong, 1 to 2 inches in length, deciduous in SPRUCE. 149 Plate 8. Picea canadensis. White Spurce. cot" re* "1, „ , """" """ s"""s "'"""'•"- "!""™' «"<■• r. Scale of ylew'Jnree " " Crow wctlon of needle, e-towd. ,. aeneral 150 TREES OF MINNESOTA. autumn or winter of first year, scales thin with entire margins, not rigid, seeds small with thin wings. A graceful tree of pyramidal habit and horizontal branches, sometimes attain- ing a height of over 100 feet with a diameter of 2 feet. There are several varieties of value for ornamental planting. Distribution. — In the United States it is found in northern Maine and westward in certain localities to Montana. It is also found in Newfoundland and Labrador, westward to the Rocky Mountains and north to Alaska. It reaches its best development growing in moist soil. It is found more or less throughout north-eastern Minnesota, but is especially abun- dant near the northern boundary. Propagation. — The species is grown from seeds and the varieties by grafting. The seeds of the White Spruce are often infested by a weevil, which fact, together with their small size and the difficulty in gathering them, makes them high in price and often difficult to obtain. On account of the ease with which Norway Spruce seeds are obtained they are preferably sold by nurserymen. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, compact, straight grained, of only moderate strength, nearly odoriess; color light yellow; sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity 0.4051; weight of a cubic foot 25.25 pounds. Uses. — The White Spruce is one of the best evergreens for planting in this section, generally rather slow in growth but forming pretty conical trees. The wood is largely used for general construction, spars, flooring, sounding boards for musical instruments, paper pulp, etc. It is not distinguished from Black Spruce in commerce. Spruce chewing gum is in part the product of this tree. Picea mariana. ( P. nigra. ) Black Spruce. Double Spruce. Leaves deep green, short, about \ inch in length, scat- tered thickly over the branches, falling during the fourth and fifth seasons. Cones ovoid, oblong, 1 to If inches long, per- sistent; scales very thin, rigid, with an uneven margin; seeds small with rigid wings. In Maine and elsewhere a large tree forming valuable forests. In this section occasionally a large tree but generally small, stunted and seldom cut for timber. SPRUCE. 151 Plate 9. Picea manana. Black Spruce. 1. Branch-bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Branch bearing ripened cones, one-half natural size. 6. Seeds, enlarged. 7. Scale, front view, natural size. 8. Scale, rear view, natural size. '.». General view of tree as found in the muskegs of northern Minnesota. 152 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Distribution. — Northern United States. Canada and north- ward, forming- large forests in some sections. In Minnesota it is found in the white pine belt, though most common in the extreme northern portions. Generally found in swamps known as Muskegs on which the trees with their roots half submerged make a very slow growth. One specimen, the rings of which showred it to be 73 years old, was only H inches in diameter. Propagation. — By seeds. When plants are desired they may be easily gathered from the woods in this state. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, strong, compact and satiny; color reddish with nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.458: weight of a cubic foot 28.57 pounds. Uses. — The Black Spruce is a poor ornamental tree as it soon loses its lower branches, which with its dead persistent cones and dark colored bark makes it appear unsightly. It is also a short lived tree on dry land in this section. Most of the Christmas trees in our market of recent years have been of this kind although the Balsam Fir is also used. The wood is used here to some extent and elsewhere in large quantities for paper pulp, for which purpose it is highly esteemed. In the eastern range of this tree its wood is largely used for flooring, masts, spars, general house and shipbuild- ing, sounding boards for instruments and for any other pur- pose where a light stiff wood is needed. The gum which this tree exudes is valued as chewTing gum and the gathering of it is quite an industry in some sections. The essence of spruce is made by boiling the young branches in water and evapor- ating the decoction. It is used in the manufacture of spruce beer which is a pleasant and wholesome beverage, and it is sometimes useful on long sea voyages as a preventive of scurvy. Picea pungens. Colorado Blue Spruce. Silver Spruce. Rocky Mountain White Spruce. Leaves about one inch long, rather broad, rigid, stout, pointed, usually incurved, falling during sixth and seventh years; branchlets smooth and shining. Cones light brown in color, very prickly, 3 to 5 inches long, cylindrical, with more or less elongated thin truncate wraw scales: seeds small but SPRUCE. 153 larger than those of P. engelmanni. A large tree of strictly conical growth and spreading branches. The seedlings vary greatly in color from a bright glaucous blue to dark green. The form having light colored foliage has become known as Picea pungens glauca. Distribution.— Valley of the Wind River south through the mountain ranges of Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. Propagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by grafting on the same or other species. Properties of wood. — Soft, weak, light, close grained, satiny; color very light brown or often nearly white: sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity 0.374: weight of a cubic foot 23.3 pounds. Uses. — The Colorado Blue Spruce is a handsome orna- mental tree that is now very popular with tree planters in this section and elsewhere in the northern states. It is very orna- mental when young, but its later development is often not so pretty and if not growing rapidly when older it has a rather ragged appearance: of slower growth than the White or Nor- way Spruce, very hardy and well worthy of trial in a small way. The wood is used within its range for fuel and timber, although it is no where very abundant. A hedge of this tree may be grown so close that even a dog cannot get through as the sharp pointed leaves are exceedingly pungent, whence its name. Picea engelmanni. Eng'elman Spruce. Rocky Mountain White Spruce. Leaves f to 1 inch long, pointed but not as prickly as P. pungens: branchlets pubescent. Cones solitary, H to 2 inches long; scales rhombic, the upper ends appearing as though broken off: seeds smaller than those of P. pungens. In form and color of foliage this species resembles P. pungens but makes a larger tree often growing 100 feet in height. In some nurseries it is customary to tell the Colorado Blue Spruce from the Engelmann Spruce by grasping the top of the young tree with the hand when if it pricks only a little, the tree is set down as Engelmann Spruce, while if the pricking is unendurable it is called Colorado Blue Spruce. This method of determining the species generally gives 154 TREES OF MINNESOTA. correct results, but a certain way is to examine the bark of the new growth between the needles, which if slightly downy indicates the Engelmann Spruce, and if smooth and shining, the Colorado Blue Spruce. Distribution. — Northern New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, northward to British Columbia, in the mountains at high elevations. Propagation. — By seeds. Properties of wood.— Very light, soft, weak, very close straight grained, compact, satiny; color pale yellow, tinged with red: sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity 0.3449: weight of a cubic foot 21.49 pounds. Uses — The Engelmann Spruce is a valuable ornamental and timber tree, resembling the Blue Spruce, but it has been tried to only a limited extent. It is the most valuable timber tree of the Central Rocky Mountain region, where it forms extensive forests. In Colorado it is manufactured into lum- ber and is largely used for fuel, charcoal, etc. The bark is rich in tannin and in Utah is sometimes used for tanning leather. Picea excelsa. Norway Spruce. Leaves long, deep green in color, falling during the fifth season. Cones cylindrical, large, 5 to 7 inches long, light colored, often very conspicuous in the tops of the trees. A fine large conical tree with stout branches and generally pendulous branchlets. There are numerous horticultural varieties, some of the dwarf forms growing only 3 to 5 feet high. Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia. Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds which are used in large quantities. The varieties are propagated by grafting on the species. Properties of wood. — Light, strong and fine grained. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.47. Uses. — The Norway Spruce has been largely planted in the more eastern states and is a general favorite as it grows more rapidly than any of our native spruces and is very graceful and stately in form. There are many plantings of this tree in Minnesota and they are holding on well yet the SPRUCE. 155 Plate 10. Picea excelsa. Norway Spruce. t™1'- ^anch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size 2 Branch hear and pyramidal 7orm "' ^"^ V'eW °f tree showi"* looping branches 156 TREES OF MINNESOTA. White Spruce is a safer tree for general planting. Since it is more difficult to obtain the seed of the White Spruce it is probable that the Norway Spruce will continue to be planted. The wood of Norway Spruce is much used in Europe and is largely grown there for timber. The young branches are used in making the essence of spruce as described under Black Spruce. The bark is used to a considerable extent in Europe for tanning purposes. Genus TSUGA. A genus of but a single species in our section. Tsuga canadensis. Hemlock. Leaves linear, flat, i inch long, obtuse, whitened beneath, short petioled and diverging from the sides of the branchlet so as to make it appear flattened, falling during second and third years. Cones small, scarcely longer than the leaves, pendent from the tips of the branches of the preceding year, persistent, with inconspicuous bracts; seeds quite small with thin wings, maturing the first year. A large graceful tree. There are several horticultural varieties in cultivation. Distribution. — Prom Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south as far as Delaware and along the mountains to Alabama. Scarcely found in Minnesota though common near its eastern borders in Wisconsin. A few specimens are found near Clo- quet, and perhaps occasionally elsewhere near the eastern boundary. Propagation.— The species by seeds and the varieties by grafting on the species. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, brittle, coarse grained and not very easily worked: color very light red or brown with still lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4239: weight of a cubic foot 26.42 pounds. Uses. — The Hemlock is unsafe for general planting in this section, as it is very liable to injury from cold winds and drouth, but in extreme eastern Minnesota on moist so*l and in protected locations it has proved desirable for ornamental planting. The wood of the Hemlock is used for framing and general construction purposes where fine finish is not needed. It is loose and warps badly when exposed. The bark is used DOUGLAS FIR. 157 inimmensequantities for tanning- leather and is largely obtained for this purpose in Wisconsin. Genus PSEUDOTSUGA. A genus of a single species midway between the Firs and Hemlock. Leaves somewhat 2-ranked by a twist at the base. Cones upright, maturing the first season. Pseudotsuga taxifolia. [P.douglasii.) Douglas Spruce. Red Fir. Douglas Fir. Leaves linear, distinctly petioled. mostly blunt or rounded, nearly an inch long on old trees but a little longer on young thrifty trees, falling during fifth season: in color generally a rich dark green, but some specimens occur on which the foliage is a light glaucous blue. Cones 2 to 4 inches long, cylindrical: bracts toothed, protruding above the scales and giving a fringed appearance to the cones: seeds triangular, reddish on the upper side, flat, and white on the lower side. A gigantic tree sometimes 200 to 300 feet in height. When young it is seldom very symmetrical in form and is likely to produce heavy limbs unless severely crowded. Distribution.— Throughout the Rocky Mountains and the mountains of California, reaching its greatest height in Oregon. Propagation.— One of the easiest conifers to grow from seeds, which may be readily obtained from the trees in the Rocky Mountain region. Properties of wood. — Hard, strong, durable, varying great- ly with age and conditions of density, quality and amount of sapwood; difficult to work: color varying from light red to yellow: sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity 0.5157: weight of a cubic foot 32.23 pounds. Uses. — The Douglas Spruce is a fine ornamental tree of graceful proportions, good color, rapid growth and wonderful hardiness. Probably one of the most valuable evergreens for general planting in Minnesota and apparently destined to partly supersede the White and Norway Spruce for this pur- pose. It is also the most promising foreign tree for sowing on the cut-over timber lands of this section and should be largely experimented with for this purpose. Two varieties 158 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 11. Pseudotsuga taxifolia. Douglas Spruce. Sca,eo,co„e. from view, oae-half f-*-**^, "J* ££!£» „r«t, Needle, natural size. 11. Cross section of needle. BALSAM FIRS. 159 are distinguished by lumbermen, the Red and the Yellow Fir, the former is coarse grained and dark colored and considered less valuable than the latter. Both kinds are largely manu- factured into lumber and used for all kinds of construction, railway ties, piles, etc. Genus ABIES. Trees of pyramidal habit. Leaves sessile, flat, with the midrib prominent on the lower surface, appearing 2-ranked by a twist near the base giving the horizontal branches a flat appearance. Cones erect on the upper side of the branches, maturing the first year. Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. Leaves narrow, linear, i to t of an inch long, dark green above, whitened on the under side, falling during the fifth sea- son. Cones cylindrical, 2 to 4 inches long, and one inch thick, violet colored; bracts shorter than the scales and tipped with a slender point. The branches grow out usually in whorls of about five each with great regularity and diminishing in length from below upwards forming a symmetrical pyramidal top. This is a very striking habit and gives to the Balsam Fir swamps a characteristic aspect. Tree slender, sometimes 80 feet high. Distribution. — Northeastern United States and Canada, southward to Virginia, westward beyond the Mississippi and far north, growing in swamps and cold damp woods. In Minnesota almost confined to the northeastern half of the state extending south to Chisago and Isanti counties. Propagation. — By seeds, horticultural varieties by grafting. Properties of wood. — Very soft, light, weak, not durable, with distinct coarse grain, color whitish with a slightly red- dish tint toward the heart. Specific gravity 0..')819, weight of a cubic foot 23.8 pounds. Uses.— The Balsam Fir is very striking and very pretty when young. On moist, retentive soil it holds on well in this section but is poorly adapted for general planting and should be used sparingly if at all. The wood is of very little value, and is seldom sawed into lumber. It furnishes Canada Bal- sam, which is an aromatic oil-like resin of considerable com- 160 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 12. Abies balsamea • B»lsa™ ^ ,. Branch bear , Branch taring -mlnate llawen, -e- ^^^. rear view. enlarge, ing pistillate flowers, one-halt natural sue s Branch bearmg axei branch bearing mature cone. «^^~ si/e. ,, Seeds with wings at :, .ones after scales have^eu^^^natu.^ ^ ^ ^ mmira tarhed natural size. «• heen' e1"" ... to I Scale Of cue. lowerview. natural s„e. BALSAM FIRS. 161 mercial importance. It is obtained by puncturing the vescicles (blisters) formed under the bark of the stem and branches which contain from a few drops to a half teasponful each. This is used in the arts and medicinally in chronic bronchial and catarrhal affections. The smaller branches exhale a delightful odor and are preferred by campers in the woods for beds. Abies concolor. White Fir. Silver Fir. Leaves mostly obtuse, pale green, 1 to 2i inches long, with two resin ducts close to the epidermis of the lower sur- face. Cones oblong, cylindrical, 3 to 5 inches long, 1 to If inches in diameter, pale green or sometimes dull purple. A large tree. Distribution. — From Arizona to Southern Colorado, Utah and California. Propagation. — By seeds. Properties of wood. — Very light, soft, coarse grained, com- pact, not strong; color very light brown or nearly white with somewhat darker sapwood. Specific gravity 0.3638; weight of a cubic foot 22.67 pounds. Uses. — The White Fir is justly gaining in popularity as an ornamental evergreen. When young it often spreads out on the ground and seems slow to make an upward growth, but after a few years it takes on a good broad conical form. Its rather long leaves of a pale green color, and its light bark and good form give it a very pretty appearance. It has stood for more than ten years on the grounds of the Minnesota Experiment Station without serious injury and has made pretty specimens about six feet high and nearly as broad. It undoubtedly prefers a moist soil, though it has done very well on good retentive upland. The wood is of very little value, but is used within its range for cheap pack- ing cases, etc. Genus THUJA. Flowers mostly monoecious, on different branches in small terminal catkins, opening in May; anther cells 2 to 4. Scales of the pistillate flowers 8 to 12. Ovules 2 to 4. Fruit an erect, dry, loose cone from one-third to one-half of an inch long, 162 TREES OF MINNESOTA. maturing in the autumn of the first season but remaining- on the branch until the appearance of the new growth the follow- ing- spring. Seeds oval, about i of an inch wide and winged all round. Leaves evergreen, small, awl or scale shaped, closely imbricated and appressed so as to make a flat two- edged branchlet: on the leading shoots the leaves are often ■£ of an inch long. A small genus of evergreen trees and shrubs. Only one species, the Arborvitse, comes within our range. Thuja occidentalis. Arborvitse. White Cedar. A tree 50 or 60 feet high, seldom two feet in diameter, but occasionally much larger than this. There are many varie- ties, the most of which are characterized by some peculiar habit of the branches, or by peculiar coloring of the leaves. Distribution. — From the Valley of the St. Lawrence to Northern Pennsylvania, and from the Atlantic to Central Minnesota. A very common tree in cold swamps and along river banks and lake shores where the soil is moist. In Min- nesota very common in the northeastern portion, west to Rosseau County and south to the south shore of Mille Lacs and the mouth of Snake River. It also occurs occasionally as far south as the southeastern portion of Winona County. In some sections, as along the Mississippi River in the northern part of Aitkin County, it covers large areas with an almost impenetrable growth, which are known as cedar swamps. Not found in the western or southwestern parts of this state. * Propagation. — The seeds of the Arborvitse grow readily, but the seedlings must be protected from the full sunlight for the first year. The many varieties are propagated from cut- tings in a cool greenhouse or frame, and root very slowly. Properties of wood. — Very light, soft, close and often spirally grained, very durable in contact with the soil, light yellowish brown in color, turning darker on exposure: sap- wood thin and nearly white. Specific gravity 0.3164: weight of a cubic foot 19.72 pounds. Uses. — The Arborvitse is a popular plant for evergreen hedges, as it forms a close compact top when pruned, and is loir. ARBORVIT^E. 163 Plate 13. Thuja occidental!*. Arborvit*. •^enlarged. ,,' ^ tin"£ onlh'alf nat""^ * ^ °f P~ with seed attached. 9. Longltudi , . '■ f '"' "' s'ze' r- Cone- «■ Scale reduced. longitudinal section of seed. i.i. Embryo. 11. Seedling 164 TREES OF MINNESOTA. of a bright green color. It stands well in this section when growing on good retentive land, but suffers from a deficiency of moisture in the soil and occasionally from severe winds in winter, and on this account does best in somewhat sheltered locations The wood is largely used for telegraph poles, fence posts, shingles, paving blocks and for the siding of light weight boats, etc. The thick layers of the sapwood which are easily separated are manufactured by the Canadian Indians into baskets and are used to strengthen birch, bark canoes. The fresh branches often -serve the purpose of brooms. A decoction or tincture of the young branches of this tree is used for intermittent fevers, coughs, scurvy, rheu- matism, etc., and externally to remove warts. It is also used in homeopathic practice. Varieties. — Thuja occidentalis wareana. (T. sibirko. i Siberian Arborvitse. This is of a dark rich green color and compact habit. It is one of the best kinds for favorable locations, but not so hardy as the species or variety next described. Thuja occidentalis fastigiata. ( T. o. pyramidalis. ) Pyramidal Arborvitae. Branches and leaves very distinct, fine and handsome. Form upright, regular, pyramidal or almost columnar. Val- uable for variety, probably as hardy as the species and hardier than most of the varieties. Thuja occidentalis aurea. Douglas Golden Arbor- vitae. In habit like the species but with a bright yellow color to the leaves: conspicuous and pretty: rather more tender than the species and occasionally sunscalds severely. Genus JTJNIPERUS. A large genus of evergreen trees and shrubs. Flowers naked, dioecious, axillary or terminal. Fruit a fleshy cone, in some species resembling a berry or drupe more than a true cone. RED CEDAR. 165 Plate 14. Juniperus virginiana. Red Cedar. 1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. ■!■ Staminate flower, enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 5. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. A seed, enlarged. 7. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged, s. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size 9. Transverse sections of fruit, enlarged. 10. Longitudinal section of '.ced. en- larged. 11. Seedling, one-half natural size. 166 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Juniperus virginiana. Red Cedar.* Red Juniper* Savin. Leaves small, evergreen, opposite, scale-like and awl shaped, the former sort minute, the latter about $ inch long and spreading. Flowers dioecious, or very rarely monoe- cious; the small solitary catkins upon lateral twigs appearing in this section in May. Fruit a small dark colored fleshy berry-like cone with a light blueish bloom. Fruit, leaves, and wood are aromatic and resinous. Distribution. — It is the most widely distributed conifer of North America. It ranges from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains and from northern Minnesota to Florida. In western Louisiana and Texas it makes a tree sometimes 80 feet high and 3 or more feet in diameter, buc it is usually very much smaller. In this section it is nowhere abundant, rarely thirty feet high and generally short and bushy. In the north of its range it grows on dry land, while in the south it is often found in swamps. Propagation. — By seeds. For planting the berries should be gathered in Autumn, then bruised and mixed with an equal or greater bulk of wetwrood ashes or strong lye. In three weeks the ashes or lye will have cut the resinous gum so that the seeds can be washed clean. They should then be stratified over winter and be sown in the spring as recommended for coni- ferous seeds in general. The bed should be covered with mulch for the first season as the seeds do not usually start until the second year. There are a number of varieties which may be propagated by cuttings of the young wood or by layers* Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, but brittle and not strong, dull red, with thin nearly white sapwood, very fragrant, easily worked and extremely durable in contact wTith the soil. Specific gravity 0.4926, weight of a cubic foot 30.7 pounds. Uses. — The Red Cedar is a valuable ornamental tree for this section, of rather slow growth except when young, but very hardy and durable. It makes an excellent low wind- break or hedge and bears close priming without injury. The leaves generally turn brown by the latter part of winter. The *Xot the Red Cedar (Thuja plicata) of the Pacific Coast. COMMON JUNIPER. 167 wood is used where great durability in contact with the soil is required, for interior finishing, cabinet making- and for lining- chests and closets in which woolens are preserved against the attacks of moths. It is almost the only wood used in the manufacture of lead pencils and is the most highly esteemed of any wood for the manufacture of pails, tubs, etc. A de- coction of the fruit and leaves is occasionally used medicinally and an infusion of the berries as a diuretic and in homeopathic remedies. Oil of Red Cedar is distilled from the leaves and wood and is used principally in perfumery. Juniperus communis. Common Juniper. Dwarf or Trailing Juniper. Leaves in whorls of 3, pointed at the base, linear, lanceo- late, pointed, dark green on the lower side, channelled and glaucous white on the upper side, one-third to one half inch long, spreading at nearly right angles to the branches, have a strong unpleasant slightly astringent taste, during winter turn to a rich bronzecolor on the lower surface and remain on tree for five or six years. Flowers open late in spring. Fruit during the first year does not enlarge, but resembles the flower bud and does not ripen until the autumn of the third season when it becomes fleshy and berry-like. Sometimes a low crooked tree but in our range and commonly elsewhere in the United Statts a low spreading shrub often forming dense mats three or four feet high. In sourthern Illinois it fre- :M Fig. 35. Common Juniper. quently attains a height of 25 feet and forms trunks 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The foliage of the tree form is smaller than that of the dwarf. Distribution. — The common Juniper is the most widely dis- tributed tree of the northern hemisphere. In North America it ranges from Labrador and Greenland to Pennsylvania on 168 TREES OF MINNESOTA. the east, across the continent to Alaska and northern Cali- fornia and along the Rocky Mountains to Northern Nebraska, western Texas and Arizona. In the old world it is widely- spread over northern and central Europe and Asia. In Minnesota often found along the bluffs of rivers. Propagation. — By seeds as for Red Cedar. Properties of wood. — Hard, close-srrained, light brown with whitish sap wood, susceptible of a fine polish, very durable in contact with the soil. Uses. — The great hardiness and pretty dwarf habit of the Common Juniper make it desirable in some situations for ornamental planting. It readily yields itself to shearing. Many fine specimens may be seen at Como Park in St. Paul and elsewhere. In India the wood and twigs are burned for incense and on the high Himalayan passes are used for fuel. The fruit is gathered in Europe in large quantities for flavor- ing gin and is occasionally used in medicine. Varieties. — There are many varieties that are used in ornamental planting in this country and in Europe, some of which are distinguished by the color of the foliage and others by the habit of growth which may be columnar or pyramidal or dwarf and compact. Some of these varieties in Euglish and Dutch gardens are trained into the shapes of globes, bowls, animals and other fantastic forms. The Sicedish Juni- per, one of the most distinct varieties, has erect branches, which form a narrow pyramidal head. JUGLAXDACE.E. "Wnlirut Family. Trees with alternate, pinnately-compound leaves, no stipules. Flowers monoecious; the staminate in catkins with or without an irregular calyx and several stamens; the pistil- late solitary or in clusters of 2 to 5, their common peduncle terminating the shoot of the season; calyx, 3 to 5 lobed; stigmas, sessile, 2-lobed. persistent. Ovary 1-celled or incompletely 2 to 4 celled with a single ovule erect from its base: ripens into a large fruit, the bony inner part of which BLACK WALNUT. 169 forms the shell of the nut and the fleshy outer part, the husk. Seed 4-lobed, filled with fleshy oily embryo and large crum- pled or corrugated cotyledons. Genus JTJGLANS. Leaves odd-pinnate with numerous serrate leaflets; peti- oles long, grooved on the upper side, gradually enlarged towards the base. In falling, the leaves expose large, con- spicuous, elevated, obcordate, 5-lobed scars. Flowers monoecious, opening in late spring after the leaves; the staminate in catkins, solitary or in pairs from the wood of the preceding year, each with 8 to 40 stamens on very short fila- ments and a 3 to 6-lobed calyx: the pistillate solitary or several in a cluster on a branch of the season; calyx 4 toothed, bearing in its sinuses 4 small petals; stigmas 2, somewhat club shaped and fringed. Fruit large, drupaceous, marked at the apex with the remnant of the style and covered with a fibrous, spongy, somewhat fleshy, indehiscent epicarp ( shuck ) and a rough, irregularly furrowed endocarp (shell); embryo edible. Trees with sweet, watery juice, furrowed, scaly, res- inous, aromatic bark and pith that separates into thin transverse layers. To this genus belong our native Black Walnut, and Butternut and the English Walnut [J. regia) of commerce, which has been long in cultivation and is prob- ably a native of Asia Minor. The Japanese use in large quantities a walnut belonging to this genus. The species here described have long tap roots and but few lateral roots. For this reason they do not transplant easily except when very young or unless the tap roots- are cut when the seedlings are small. In the latter case lateral roots are produced which may be saved in transplanting. It is desirable to plant the nuts where the trees are to remain. Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. Leaves 12 to 24 inches long, leaflets in 7 to U pairs, ovate- lanceolate, lower surface and petioles minutely glandular pubescent, aromatic when bruised. Fruit odoriferous, spongy, usually globose but occasionally oval, solitary or in pairs 11 to 2 inches in diameter, with a rough dotted surface not as deeply furrowred as the Butternut. A large tree sometimes 170 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 15. Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower before an- thesis. enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Perianth of staminate flower, displayed, enlarged. 5. Stamen, enlarged. t>. Pistillate flower, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, natural size. 8. Leaf, re- duced. 9. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. 10. Mature fruit, one-half natural size. BLACK WALNUT. 171 100 feet high and 4 to 6 feet or more in diameter When growing1 in the oj>en it developes a round head and casts a dense shade. Distribution. — From western Massachusetts to southern Minnesota and eastern Kansas, south to western Florida and the valley of the San Antonio river in Texas. In Minnesota formerly a common tree along the creek and river bottoms of the southern part of the state and in a few locations is still rather abundant. Propagation. — By seeds which should be gathered in autumn, kept stratified with moist leaves or sand over winter and sown in the spring. Also grown to some extent by plant- ing the seeds in autumn where the trees are to remain. The varieties are grown by grafting. Old trees may be top grafted like apple trees. Properties of wood.- -Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse grained, easily worked and very durable in contact with the soil. Color a rich, dark brown with a thin, light sapwood. The finished wood has a satiny surface and will take a beauti- ful polish. Specific gravity 0.6115; weight of a cubic foot 38.11 pounds. Uses — The Black Walnut is frequently used for ornament- al planting in the parks of the United States and Europe. In this section, however, we reach the northern limit of its range and find that it is not generally satisfactory when planted in the open, but often does \vell in protected locations and on deep alluvial soils. It can sometimes be used to advantage in timber plantings in the southern half of Minnesota when surrounded by some hardier tree to protect it from the wind. It is liable to sunscald when the trunk is exposed in this section. Many large plantations of this tree have been made in Iowa, southern Minnesota and elsewhere. In good lo- cations the young trees grow rapidly and soon make good, durable fence posts or nut bearing trees. It is one of the most valuable woods found in America and is largely used in cabinet making, interior finishing, gun stocks, etc. and formerly in boat building and for fence rails and posts for which it was highly esteemed. This timber is now very scarce. The nuts are much sought for and find ready sale. They are oily and have a sweet, pleasant taste but become rancid with 172 TREES OF MINNESOTA. age. The husks are used for dying and the leaves are sup posed to possess medical properties. It was formerly believed that this tree could be grown at a profit for its valuable timber but it has been found that the wTood does not take on its dark rich, even color until very old but remains for many years a mixture of yellow and brown, hence, its cultivation for timber has not proved so profitable as was expected. It will, how- ever, make board timber in about twenty-five years. Jug-lans cinerea. Butternut. Leaves 15 to 30 inches long; leaflets 11 to 19, oblong, lanceolate, pubescent, especially underneath: petioles and branchlets clammy pubescent. Fruit 2 to 3 inches long, very clammy pubescent, of a rather pleasant odor when fresh, ob- long, pointed, 2-celled at the base; nut shell deeply and ir- regularly furrowed with rough, ragged ridges; embryo, very rich in oil and of a delicious flavor. A tree occasionally 100 feet high and 3 feet in diameter in forests, but generally much smaller. Where it grows in the open, it forms an immense spreading top. Distribution. — From the valley of the St. Lawrence river to eastern Dakota, southward to northern Georgia and north- eastern Arkansas. Not common south of the Ohio River. In Minnesota common in the southern part except far southwest, extends north to Aitkin county where trees have been found two feet or more in diameter. Propagation. — Same as for Black Walnut. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, rather coarse grained, easily worked, with a satiny surface capable of re- ceiving a beautiful polish, light brown turning darker with exposure; sapwood thin and light colored. Specific gravity 0.4086; weight of a cubic foot 25.46 pound3. Uses. — The Buttnut is occasionally used for ornamental planting in the parks of this country, but is seldom a safe tree to depend on in Minnesota when growing in the open. In protected locations in Minnesota it may be used as a shade tree, but is more valuable in timber plantings. It is found farther north than the Black Walnut and is somewhathardier. The wood is not so valuable as that of the Black Walnut but is nevertheless very desirable for interior finishing, cabinet BUTTERNUT. 173 Plate 16. Juglans cinerea. Butternut. 1. Flowering branch, one-halt natural size. 2. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate flower, j. Digram of Btaminate flower. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Leaf, reduced. 8. Winter branch, one-half natural size. 174 TREES OF MINNESOTA. making- and furniture. The nuts, which ripen in October, con- tain a large amount of oil, are delicious when fresh and are generally preferred to the nuts of the Black Walnut, but like them they become rancid with age. The unripe nuts are sometimes gathered early in June when they are tender and after removing the clammy pubescent by scalding and rub- bing with a coarse cloth make excellent pickles. The inner bark is white but becomes light yellow and ultimately dark brown upon exposure to the air. It possesses mild cathartic properties; that from the root being especially valued as a safe cathartic. The acrid leaves have been used as a sub- stitute for Spanish flies. Sus-ar of excellent quality has teen made from the sap and a dye for coloring cloth a yellow or orange color is obtained from the green husks of the fruit and from the bark, and formed the butternut color commonly used in the early history of this country. Genus HICORIA. Leaves alternate, odd-pinnate with few leaflets. Flowers monoecious, apetalous; the staminate in clustered lateral cat- kins, each cluster on a terminal peduncle; the pistillate 2 to 6 together on a terminal peduncle; stigmas 2 to 4, large. Fruit a smooth or angled nut covered with a f our-valved husk which generally separates at maturity. The leaves of most if not all the hickories are aromatic and astringent and the bark is astringent and bitter. The bark has been successfully used in the treatment of dyspepsia and intermittent fevers and in homeopathic practice. The Indians used an oil made from the nuts. Hicoria ovata. ( Carya alba. ) Shellbark Hickory. Shagbark Hickory. Leaves 8 to 14 inches long: leaflets 5 (rarely 7), obovate to oblong-lanceolate, ciliate; fruit globose, depressed 'at the. apex; nut pale or nearlv white, more or less flattened. 4- angled, thin or thick shelled, covered with thick husk; meat highly flavored. Bark of old trees is very shaggy, separat- ing into wide, rough strips and often falling away in large pieces. A sturdy, beautiful tree, often 70 to 90 feet high in forests, in the open forming an inversely conical top with pendulous branches. HICKORIES. 175 Distribution. — From Maine and the Valley of the St. Law- rence River westward along- the southern region of the Great Lakes to central Minnesota and Kansas, south to western Florida, northern Alabama and eastern Texas. In Minnesota common in a few counties in the extreme southeastern portion of the state. Propagation. — By seeds sown in autumn or stratified over winter in moist leaves or sand and sown in the spring-; also by root sprouts. Grafted only with much difficulty. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very hard, strong-, tough, close grained and flexible, not durable when exposed to moisture. It is light colored with thin nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.8372: weight of a cubic foot 52.17 pounds. Uses. — The Shell bark Hickory is often very ornamental and is used to some extent in park planting. It is also planted for the nuts, which find a ready sale. These vary greatly in size, thickness of shell and in quality, and none but the best should be planted for fruit. The tree is of exceedingly slow growth and is not of sufficient hardiness to warrant planting it in any but a few very favorable locations in southern Minnesota. The wood is largely used for ax handles, baskets, fuel and in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages and wagons. The second growth hickory is tougher and on this account most desirable for these purposes. Hicoria minima. (Carya amara. ) Bitternut Hickory. Swamp Hickory. Leaves H to 10 inches long: leaflets 5 to 9, sessile, lanceo- late to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate; buds orange yellow in winter, resembling those of the Butternut, opening by valves which fall away early. Fruit globular; shuck very thin: nut yellowish, thin-shelled, bitter. The bark does not shell off as in Shellbark Hickory. A slender tree of graceful habit, sometimes 80 feet high but within our range much smaller. It is a more rapid grower than the other hickories. Distribution. — From New England, Ontario, and Minne- sota south to Florida and Texas, in moist woods and near the borders of streams and swamps. In Minnesota frequent 176 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 17. Hicoria minima. Bitternut Hickorv. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 3. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one- half natural size. 5. Cross section of nut. one-half natural size. 6. Longitudi- nal section of nut. one-half natural size. 7. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. WILLOWS. 177 in the southern part of the state, extending- through the Big- Woods north to Mille Lacs County. Propagation. — The same as for Shellbark Hickory. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very hard, strong, tough and close grained, liable to check badly in drying; color dark brown with thick light brown or nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7552: weight of a cubic foot 47.06 pounds. Uses. — The Bitternut Hickory is a good ornamental tree and quite hardy in proper locations in Minnesota. It is prob- ably the most desirable of the hickories either for ornamental use or for hoop poles in this section. The wood is inferior to that of the Shellbark Hickory, but is used for about the same purposes. It is said that in early days an oil pressed from the nuts was used for illuminating purposes. SALICACE^E. AVillow Family. A large family of trees and shrubs mostly inhabiting cold climates. Leaves alternate, simple, undivided and furnished with stipules which are scale-like and deciduous, or leaf-like and persistent. Flowers, dioecious, both kinds in catkins, one under each bract or scale of the catkin, without calyx or corolla; in some cases the calyx is represented by a gland- like cup; ovary 1 or 2-celled. Fruit a 1 or 2-celled, 2-valved pod with numerous seeds attached to a parietal or basal placenta, ripening in early summer and furnished with long, silky down. Genus SALIX. Leaves generally narrow, long- and pointed. Flowers ap- pear before or with the leaves, in terminal or lateral, cylin- drical, imbricated, generally erect catkins; two or more dis- tinct or united stamens; stigmas 2, short. Fruit a 1-celled 2 valved pod. Trees or shrubs with smooth round branches usually found growing in moist land. A large and valuable genus of over one hundred and sixty species, the greater number belonging to Europe and Asia. About sixty species belong to North America. A dwarf willow is found growing 178 TREES OF MINNESOTA. the farthest north of any shrub. Only two tree-like species are indigenous within our range, but there are several foreign kinds mentioned here that are of much value for cultivation in this climate. Propagation. — The willows increase readily from cuttings and are seldom grown in any other way. The cuttings grow readily at almost any season of the year provided they are put in moist soil, even in midsummer, cuttings of firm wood a half inch or more in diameter will grow readily if planted in moist soil, but the best time to make cuttings is in the fall or spring when wood of any age or size will root if properly planted. Some of the weeping varieties are grown by top- working in upright stocks. Uses.— The bark of the trees of all species of Salix with bitter bark yields salicylic acid which is now used medicinally in the treatment of typhoid fever, gout and rheumatism. Dur- ing the Civil war. ground willow bark was used in the treat- ment of fevers in some of the southern hospitals when quinine could not be obtained. The bark of some species is used for tanning leather. The slender tough twigs are used extensively for basket making and tying. They are often cultivated solely for this purpose. The wood of the Willow is not very valuable, but it is used for light fuel, for charcoal to be used in the manufacture of gunpowder and that of some kinds for timber in a limited way. Some kinds are also planted largely for holding the banks of streams and for windbreaks. For ornamental planting some kinds are used that are very pretty in flower and foliage, which quality, taken in connection with the ease with which they are propa- gated, their hardiness and the rapidity with which they grow, have made them largely used. Although most of the Willows flourish best when they have abundant moisture at their roots, many of them will stand wel] on any land good enough for corn, and a few kinds, such as the White Willow, are among the hardiest kind we have for prairie planting. The term osier willows is applied to a large number of Willows having the quality, of furnishing long slender strong shoots that are valuable for basket making and similar pur- poses. The growing of osiers is a matter of considerable importance in. many sections of Europe, but has not been WILLOWS. 179 found profitable in the United States except on a small scale in a few localities. When grown for this purpose, moist rich land is selected and the cuttings are set in rows and culti- vated with great care. The plants are cut back to the stumps each season by the removal of all the new growth. A willow known among horticulturists as the Wisconsin Weeping Willow (botanical name not known) has been grown to a considerable extent here and is our best large Weeping Willow. It attains large size in favorable locations, but is occasionally killed back by severe winters. Salix nigra. Black Willow. Leaves vary greatly in size and outline on differ- ent trees, but are generally narrowly lanceolate, long pointed, serrulate, some- what pubescent especially on the lower surface: when mature 2-J- to 5 inches long, bright green and glabrous above, somewhat paler and glabrous be- neath and sometimes pube- scent on the underside of Fig. 36. Wisconsin Weeping willow, midribs. Stipules persis- tent or soon falling away. CaXkins appear with the leaves; stamens 3 to 7, distinct. Our largest native willow forming a large tree with dark brown or almost black rough flaky bark. Distribution. — Along streams and lakes, New Brunswick to eastern Dakota, south to Florida, Texas and Arizona. Propagation. — By cuttings, but seedlings may often be gathered. Properties of checks badly in white sapwood. foot 27.77 pounds. Uses. — The Black Willow is seldom used for ornamental or timber planting. The wood is used for fuel and the bark domesticallv in the treatment of fevers. icood. — Light, soft, weak, close grained, drying; light reddish brown with nearly Specific gravity 0.4456; weight of a cubic 180 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 18. Salix nigra. Black Willow. !. cowering .ranch of .taminate tree, -^jJ^jSJL J^ZZ branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural sxze. 6. Seal ,ofs am larged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin enlarged J. Longitn dlna^ ^^ ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural s.ze. one-half natural size. WILLOWS. 181 Plate 19. Salix amygdaloides. Peachleaf Willow. 1 Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower will. ' »«"£• «£ larged. 4 Pistillate flower with scale, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 7. Bud and leaf scar. 182 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Salix amygdaloides. Peachleaf Willow. Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed, 3 to 5 or more inches long, slightly pubescent when young, green above, pale and glaucous below with stout yellow or orange colored midrib. Stipules often one-half inch broad on vigor- ous shoots, but scarcely appearing on the weaker branches. Catkins appear with the leaves; stamens 5 to 9. distinct. A small tree occasionally TO feet high. Distribution. — Along lakes and streams. Quebec to the valley of the Upper Saskatchewan River and Oregon, south to Ohio, Missouri and Texas. Common in Minnesota. Propagation. — By cuttings. Seedlings can generally be gathered. Properties of wood.— Light, soft, weak, close grained, light brown with thick whitish sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4509: weight of a cubic foot 28.10 pounds. Uses. — The Peachleaf Willow is not as desirable as several other willows for cultivation, but in suitable locations makes a very pretty tree. The wood is used for fuel. Salix alba. White Willow. Leaves lanceolate, taper pointed and tapering to the petiole, serrate with thickened teeth, silky on both sides when young, less so and pale or glaucous beneath when mature: stipules deciduous. Flowers appear in May with the leaves at the ends of leafy lateral shoots of the season; stamens two. Fruit matures in June. Tree sometimes attains a height of 80 feet with a trunk 3 or 4 feet in diameter and ascending branches. Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia, but was early brought to this country and has become naturalized from the Valley of the St. Lawrence to the Potomac. There are many varieties and probably many hybrids of this with the American and European species. The form of the White Willow commonly used for windbreaks on our prairies has been considered by some as a hybrid between S. fragilis and S. alba and by others as but a variety of S. alba. The pis- tillate tree is most commonly met with here. Propagation. — It can be propagated easily from cuttings of large or small size. In growing this tree for windbreaks, WILLOWS. 183 i -, ^ate 20. Salixalba. White Willow 184 TREES OF MINNESOTA. some planters prefer to use poles instead of common cuttings, laying- them in furrows in the prepared soil, where they are all covered except at intervals of about two feet, at which places they sprout and grow. Properties of wood.— Soft, light, tough, strong and very flexible. Uses. — The White Willow is one of the most valuable trees to use for windbreaks on our prairies. Wonderfully hardy even in dry locations. It sprouts vigorously from the stump and furnishes good straight poles of uniform size, which if cut in summer and the bark peeled off will last for a number of years exposed to ihe weather. When thoroughly dried they make fence posts that will last about six years, but generally are not durable. The fuel if dried under cover has greater value for summer use than is generally supposed. In Europe the wood is used for rafters of buildings, for the lining of carts used in hauling stone, in turnery, for baseball and cricket bats and for any purpose where a very light, strong, tough wood is needed; the leaves are used as forage for cattle and the bark for tanning leather, for which purpose it is con- sidered nearly as good as oak bark. A row of White Willow set about four feet apart with barbed wire put on them makes a very permanent and serviceable fence. Live willow posts or stakes that are used to support barbed wire soon root and become permanent trees in moist soil. The White Willow will not make a good low hedge as it does not stand very close pruning. Varieties. — The White Willow has gives rise to a large number of varieties, among the best of which are the fol- lowing: Salix alba vittellina. Common Golden Willow. A pretty tree at all seasons but particularly so in winter and early spring on account of its bright yellow bark: form like that of the species. This variety has been largely planted but is now generally supplanted by the next, which is a better ornamental tree. This has become naturalized in this coun- try though it is probable that only the pistillate form is found in this section. WILLOWS. 185 Salix alba vittellina (from Russia.) Russian Golden Willow. A very rapid growing-, round, close-topped tree with glossy deep green foliage, bright golden colored bark in winter, and bright yel- U$M'.h Fig. 37. Russian Golden Willow. A round-topped tree. Salix alba britzensis. A variety of the White Willow with attractive reddish twigs in winter, pyramidal form and rapid growth. Valuable for variety in timber plantings, parks, etc. Salix alba regalis. (Sails reqalis.) Royal Willow. A distinct form of the White Willow forming a small tree or shrub: the foliage of which is covered with silky down, which gives it a silvery appearance. A very hardy tree useful for vari- ety in ornamental planting. low, conspicuous, fragrant, staminate catkins appear- ing with the leaves in the spring. One of the best quick-growing tress for this section and very val- uable for giving variety to lawn and timber plant- ings. Under favorable conditions a cutting of this has been known to make a tree 10 inches through the trunk with a top that sp»*ead over 30 feet in eight years. The staminate form is perhaps the only one grown in this country. *"«»*> cat- 8i*e. wtanged. r. Summer branch, one-half natural 188 TREES OF MINNESOTA. silky, appearing before the leaves. A very hardy tree or shrub of graceful habit attaining a height of 20 feet. More difficult to propagate than most willows and occasionally blights severely. Salix purpurea pendula. Willow. (S. napoleonis.) Napoleon Leaves 11 to 2 inches long, linear, finely serrate, green and shining above, dull bluish green beneath: petioles short. Young twigs and petioles reddish. A spreading shrub but when top-worked on an upright stock forms a very pretty tree . ~r- v;//-v -' Fig. 40. Napoleon Willow top-worked on White Willow. with spreading pendulous branches. Hardy at the Minnesota Experiment Station. Known among nurserymen as New American Willow, but often worked on too tender stocks. Genus POPTJLUS. Leaves alternate, broad, more or less heart-shaped or ovate. Flowers dioecious. Individual trees bearing stami- nateand pistillatecatkins and alsocatkins having the two kinds of flowers mixed together occasionally occur. Flowers appear before the leaves in long, drooping, lateral, cylindrical cat- kins, the scales of which are furnished with a fringed margin: the calyx is represented by an oblique cup-shaped disk with en- tire margin: stamens usually numerous: ovarv short: stigmas POPLARS. 189 Dt /in: Tinas P,ate 22. Popu/a," tremulous. Aspe ^ ^^ , lowering branch of ^^f^ffs^ of staminate catkin enlarged. 4. Stamen, enlarged „. Daturft size, v ' Longitudinal section of ptatU^. Beed, enlarged. ID. ^^S natUral m0deof dehiscence natura ^%nlftrged. U. Fruiting branch, one-b of seed, enlarged. 11. &™ - size. 190 TREES OF MINNESOTA. long, 2-lobed; fruit described under family Salicacese, ripening before the full development of the leaves in May or June. A genus of about twenty species of soft wooded trees mostly natives of cold climates, one-half of which are found in North America. Populus tremuloides. Aspen. American or Quaking Aspen. Leaves ovate or obicular with a sharp, short apex, small. smooth on both sides: petiole long, flattened. Flowers in April before the leaves in hairy catkins. Fruit a small, 2- valved capsule: seeds very small. Bark smooth, greenish white except on very old trees; twigs not angular. This is generally a small, short-lived tree, but occasionally it grows 60 or more feet high. The pendulous leaves tremble in the slightest breeze; the silver gray bark is attractive and the autumn color of the leaves is one of the purest golden yellows found among trees. Distribution. — From southern Labrador to southern shores of Hudson Bay, to the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, south to Pennsylvania, Missouri, New Mexico and Lower Califor- nia and through all mountain ranges of the west. One of the most widely distributed trees of North America. In Minne- sota it is found throughout the state and is very common on cut-over timber lands, where it is generally the first tree to take possession of the land after the pine is cut off. It grows most luxuriantly along the borders of swamps and open forest glades. The seed is carried long distances by the wind. Propagation. — By seeds, which grow freely: but the seeds, however, are seldom sown in nurseries as the limited demand for this species is easily supplied by the seedlings which spring up along the lake shores and sand bars. Propt Hies of wood. — Light,, soft, not strong, close grained, of cottony fiber and soon decays in contact with the soil. It is of a light brown color with thick nearly w7hite sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4032: weight of a cubic foot 25.13 pounds. Uses — On account of the color of the bark and the autumn color of the leaves an occasional specimen of Aspen can be used to advantage to give variety to our tree plantings. POPLARS. 191 Although it grows rapidly when young it is of very slow growth when older. The wood is used for paper pulp and occasionally for interior finishing and for turnery. It makes good light fuel if cured under cover. Populus grandidenta. Large-tooth. Poplar. Leaves roundish-ovate with coarse unequal teeth, densely covered with silky wool beneath when young, smooth on both sides when old; petioles flattened twigs, not angled. Flowers in hairy catkins 3 to 4 inches long, the staminate catkins longer than the pistillate, stamens about twelve; seeds very small, dark brown. A medium sized slender tree with greenish grey bark rarely over 75 feet high and 2 feet in diameter; re- sembles the Aspen and is sometimes confounded with it but unlike the common Aspen it rapidly attains considerable size under cultivation. Distribution.— From Nova Scotia west to northern Minne- sota, south to North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee. In Minnesota throughout most of the state in forests, usually in rich moist sandy soil near swamps and streams. Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. Properties of wood.— Light, soft, and close grained but not strong: light brown with thin, white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4632; weight of a cubic foot 28.87 pounds. Uses. — The Largetooth Poplar can sometimes be planted in timber belts to advantage. It makes good straight poles for various farm purposes and for framing: it is also used for wood pulp and occasionally in turnery and for wooden ware. Varieties. — Populus grandidenta has given rise to several varieties with pendulous branches which when grafted on straight stems of the species are used in ornamental planting and form the best weeping poplars. Populus balsamifera. Balsam Poplar. Tacamahac. Leaves ovate, lanceolate, acute or taper pointed, smooth on both sides: petioles not prominently flattened: buds in spring are large and abundantly covered and saturated with a fraerrant aromatic varnish. Flowers appear in April or May: the staminate catkins 2 to 3 inches, and the pistillate 4 to H 192 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 23. Populus balsam itcra. Balsam Poplar. 1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, one-hall natural size. 3. • Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate cat kin. enlarged. *;. Scale without flower, displayed, enlarged. 7. Mature frnit. S. Seed, enlarged. '.». Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, en- larged. 11. Winter branch showing buds, one-half natural size. BALSAM POPLARS. 193 inches in length: stamens very numerous, purple. Seeds with a large cottony float. A large, upright tree with narrow straight top, and nearly smooth gray bark, the largest of the sub-arctic trees. Distribution. — Over the low bottom lands and swamp borders of the greater part of British America and the northern part of the United States. In Minnesota found throughout the northern part of the state. Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, close grained; light brown with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific grav- ity 0.3635: weight of a cubic foot 22.65 pounds. Uses. — The Balsam Poplar and its varieties are occasion- ally used for ornamental planting, but while they are of rapid growth and occasionally make good specimens, their open habit and liability to die in the top make them undesirable for extensive planting. The wood is excellent for paper pulp. The buds are used in liniments; their virtues probably being analagous to those of turpentine and the balsams. Varieties. — Populus balsamifera candicans. Balm of G-ilead. This form has a wider leaf, longer and more resinous buds, more spreading branches, heavier wood, and is a more ornamental tree than the species. It is common in plantings in the northeastern states and eastern Canada. Populus balsamifera intermedia. A European form with close, upright habit, and very thick hard oval leaves which are whitened beneath. It is known to horticulturists as P. laurifolia and P. siberica pyra- midal i*. Populus balsamifera viminalis. A native of northern Europe. The tree is of slender growth with a slightly weeping habit when old; it has sharply angled twigs and willow-like leaves. Known to horticultur- ists as P. Undleyana, P. salicifolia, P. crispa, P. dudleyi and P. pyramidalis suaveolens. Populus balsamifera latifolia. A variety including several Asiatic forms with ovate 7 194 TREES OF MINNESOTA. leaves, cylindrical twigs and general habit of the Balsam Poplar. The forms of this are known to horticulturists here as P. Xolesti and P. Wobsky. Populus ang-ustifolia. Narrowleaf Cottonwood. Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, narrow at base, green on both sides: branches rather slender with smooth bark. Catkins densely flowered, H to 2 inches long: stamens 12 to 20: pistillate catkins lengthen as the fruit grows and when the seeds are ripe the catkins are from two-and-a-half to four inches long. Tree much smaller than the common Cottonwood, it sel- dom being more than fifty feet high and fifteen inches in diam- eter, resembling a willow more than a poplar. Distribution. — It is found along streams, in Montana, As- siniboia. Black Hills of South Dakota and northwestern Nebraska to Arizona. It is the common poplar of southern Montana, eastern Idaho. Wyoming, Utah and northern Colorado. Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. Properties of wood. — Light, soft and weak: light brown with thin, nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0,3912; weight of a cubic foot 24.38 pounds. Uses. — The Narrowleaf Cottonwood is used as a shade and street tree in towns of Colorado and Utah for which purpose it does very well if provided with water and soon forms a conical shapely head. It is hardy in Minnesota, but has been planted here but a few years. Populus deltoides. (P. monilifera) Cottonwood. Car- olina Poplar. Yellow Cottonwood. Leaves large, deltoid or broadly ovate, usually abruptly acuminate, coarsely crenate: petioles laterally compressed. Fig. 41. Leaves of Narrow- V* natural leaf Cottonwood, size COTTONWOODS. 195 Plate 24. Populus deJtoides. Cottonwood. bran.hnr^1^ branCh °f Staminate tre^ one-half natural size. 2. Flowerine branch of pistillate tree, one-half natiir-ii «i»o q a i ^lowering larged 4 ScalPnf„i,H , , &cale of staminate catkin, en- larged 6 JK?i»? f8ti"*te Catkin' enlarged. 5. Cross section of ovary, en- larged * ^"^ "^^ "^"^ 8ize- '• Ma<«re ^it. 8. Seed 196 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Twigs and smaller branches thick, smoother but sharp angled or winged, at length becoming round. When the leaves un- fold they are gummy and fragrant with a balsamic odor, and covered more or less with white soft hairs; at maturity they are thick, leathery and green on both sides. Catkins pend- ulous; the staminate densely flowered and from three to four inches in length and a half inch in thickness: the pistillate sparsely flowered, thin stemmed and often a foot long before the ripening of the seeds. Stamens sixty or more to each flower. Seed oblong, 1-12 of an inch in length, and surrounded by a tuft of long hairs which aid in its distribution. Tree sometimes a hundred feet high with trunk occasionally seven or eight feet in diameter. Distribution.— Prom Quebec south to Florida and west to the base of the Rocky Mountains, from Alberta to New Mexico along banks of streams where it often forms extensive groves. In Minnesota common in the southern part of the state, but rare farther north. Propagation. — By seeds and by cuttings. Seedlings can be obtained in large quantities on the sand bars along our rivers and on shores of receding lakes and this is the chief source of supply. The opinion is common that seedlings are longer lived than plants from cuttings. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, spongy and weak although close grained; dark brown with thick nearly white sap wood. Specific gravity 0.3889; weight of a cubic foot 24.24 pounds. Uses. — The Cottonwood has been largely used in the western states for timber and fuel, as a shade tree and for windbreaks. For all these purposes it is a very inferior tree but on account of its abundance, rapid growth and hardiness it has almost necessarily been largely used in the pioneer work of settlement. As a timber tree it is inferior on account of its timber warping badly in drying and being extremely difficult to season. As a tree for shade and windbreaks it is not so valuable as the Green Ash, White Willow, White Elm or Box Elder: on the dry prairie it is subject to leaf rust, is short lived and fails to make a shade dense enough to keep the grass out of groves. The pistillate form is objectionable on account of the cottony floats with which it fills the air COTTONWOODS. 197 when shedding- its seed. It has, however, done good service in our western states and may continue to be of service in first plantings, but our people had better plant longer lived and more desirable trees mixed in with it to replace it when it fails. Occasionally, however, the Cottonwood can be used to advantage where a quick tree effect is wanted, for where it has plenty of water it will make a great stately tree in a very short time. If one wishes to plant Cottonwood and avoid the "cotton," which is so objectionable, cuttings from the stami- nate tree only should be used as this form produces no cot- ton. The wood of the Cottonwood is used for cheap packing cases, for paper pulp and for fuel. For fuel and lumber the wood should be dried under cover as it decays very quickly wrhen exposed to moisture. Yellow Cottonwood. In some sections along the Missis- sippi and Missouri rivers is found what is known as Yellow Cottonwood, which it is difficult or quite impossible to distin- guish from the common or White Cottonwood by any of its external characters, but there is a very distinct difference in the wood. Some good authorities have thought this dif- ference associated with the sex of the trees, but this is im- probable as the form seems localized. What is known as Yellow Cotton wrood lumber is highly esteemed for turnery and various purposes for which Tulip Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera ) is used and is manufactured in large quantities. It has also been used for the siding of houses with good results. The characters of the wood of each are quite clearly given in a letter recently received from the "Three States Lumber Co.," of Cairo, 111., from which the following is taken: "The Cottonwood belt extends along the Mississippi River below Cairo, and there is also considerable along the Mis- souri River. The Cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley consists mostly of Yellow Cottonwood. This g-enerally grows on low moist land and any Cottonwood that is found growing on land that is subject to overflow is generally the soft yellow variety, known as Yellow Cottonwood. There is some White Cottonwood growing in the southern part of Illinois, on high, dry ground. It is not possible to distinguish one 198 TREES OF MINNESOTA. from the other by the leaves, as in such comparison there is no difference. ''Yellow Cottonwood grows very round at the bottom and holds to size much better than White Cottonwood. It gener- ally has a thick bark: what we term as a corrugated bark. "White Cottonwood has a much thinner and softer bark and is very apt to have a heavy spur root at the bottom. We mean by that it is liable to grow up somewhat flat-sided and ridged near the bottom of the trees. This is somewhat similar to the growth of oak. "Yellow Cottonwood will saw up very smooth; is soft and tender and must be handled very carefully after being manu- factured into lumber in order to prevent the splitting of the boards or their ends. It will dress out through a planer with a very smooth surface and will break off square; it will also take a very nice polish after being surfaced. "White Cottonwood is tough and stringy, is very hard on saws in manufacturing, and will sometimes bend almost double before it will break, and after breaking the ends will be rough. "A White Cottonwood board put through a planer will not dress out smooth the entire surface, but there will be more or less spots that are fuzzy and rough, which is a serious objec- tion to the consumer, as it will not take an even polish. A White Cottonwood board exposed to the sun will also warp and twist to a much greater extent than a Yellow Cottonwood board. ' 'Yellow Cottonwood lumber is not strictly yellow consider- ing it from a color standpoint, nor is it strictly white. There is a tinge in the lumber which impresses you as different from a White Cottonwood board, which to the eye is very distinct.'* Varieties. — Populus deltoides aurea. (P. Van Gertii, Bailey.) Goldenleaf Cottonwood. This variety of the Cottonwood is very desirable on ac- count of the bright yellow leaves on the new growth in sum- mer. It grows freely and in Minnesota has proved as healthy as the species. It is valuable for occasional use to give BLACK POPLAR. 199 variety to windbreaks and is said to be more largely planted in Europe for park decoration than any other American tree. Populus nigra. Black Poplar. Leaves broadly triangular, sometimes with tapering or rounded base, smaller, less deeply toothed and shorter in proportion to their width than those of the Cottonwood which they resemble; leaf stalk flattened. The tree has generally a pyramidal habit of growth and dark foliage. It is less lus- trous than the Cottonwood and grows more slowly. This is probably the tree known in some localities as Norway Poplar or Norway Cottonwood. What has been sent out under the name of Populus betulifolia is probably a form of this species. Distribution. — Europe and Asia. "It must now, however, be regarded as naturalized in this country, having become thoroughly established in many localities." Propagation. — Almost entirely by cuttings in this country. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, compact, not strong. Specific gravity of air-dried wood O.4."). ;!., lrses. — The Black Poplar and its several ,% varieties are used for shade and ornamental li'jl; , trees where a quick effect is needed. The wood {^ffjf'- is used for cheap packing cases, crates and for light fuel. In pharmacy the buds are used for preserving fats. Varieties. — Populus nigra italica. Lombardy Poplar. A common tree with upright branches, making a very straight columnar growth, and on this account very conspicuous. Leaves small and generally with a more tapering base than the species. This is one of the charac- teristic trees of Italy. Its common name is de- rived from Lombardy, one of the provinces of Italy. The treeis supposed to be a native of Persia and Asia Minor. Its peculiar form gives the landscape a crude look where it is much used. Single specimens, however, may be occasionally planted to advantage to give variety to shelter belts. It is Figure 42. Lombar- dy Poplar 200 TREES OF MINNESOTA. hardy in moist soil and on our average prairie soil makes a good growth while young, but soon becomes ragged in the top, and loses some of its branches and occasionally dies. When it becomes ragged in appearance it should be cut back, as it will then often renewT itself. The tree is generally short- lived in this section. It does not afford shade enough for a. forest or shade tree and does not make a good wrind break. Populus alba. White Poplar. Abele. Leaves roundish, slightly heart-shaped, wavy toothed or lobed: the under surface, woolly white, especially early in. the season. Branches round, without angles: buds small. A large spreading tree of rapid growth very much disposed to- sucker from the root. It has given rise to many varieties- that differ from the species in form of tree and leaf and in other particulars. Distribution. — Europe and Asia Minor; naturalized in the United States. Propagation. — By cuttings and suckers. Properties of wood.— White, soft, light, close grained and easily wTorked. Specific gravity of air-dried wood 0.48. Uses. — The White Poplar is seldom planted as it is not so- ornamental as some of the varieties. It is a very hardy tree but is occasionally killed back in very trying locations. It is well adapted to planting in shelter belts where its sucker- ing habit is not a drawback to its presence. The wood is- adapted to inside finishing and to many of the purposes for which White Pine is used. "It is probable that we have no tree with valuable wood that will reach saw log size on our prairie soils as soon as this.'' Varieties.— - Populus alba nivea. (P. argentea. Koch.) Snowy Poplar. This is the commonest form of the White Poplar in this- country. It is known by the snow- white under surface of it& foliage and the 3 to 5-lobed maple-like leaf. It is sometimes- wrongly called Silver Maple from the resemblance of its foli- age to that of a maple. The foliage is so very obtrusive that it is likely to be used too frequently in lawn plantings. It WHITE POPLAR. 201 Plate 25. Populus alba. White Poplar. 1. Flowering branch from staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flower- ng branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate cat- kin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Summer branch, one- half natural size. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Winter branch- let, one-half natural size. 8. Seedling. 202 TREES OF MINNESOTA. may, however, be used sparingly to good purpose to brighten up groups of trees and shrubbery which present too gloomy an aspect. It should seldom, if ever, be used as a street tree as masses of it seem to be out of harmony with every good thing in the landscape. In closely settled communities the down on the leaves often becomes filled with soot and gives the tree a dirty appearance. Hardy everywhere and easily grown from cuttings. Populus alba canescens. Silver Poplar. This differs from the above in having leaves broad or nearly circular in general outline, notched but not lobed but like it in that the leaves and young shoots are downy. Populus alba bolleana. Bolle Poplar. A form of the White Poplar of the same narrow upright habit of growth as the Lombardy Poplar. Leaves somewhat deeper lobed but with the same cottony covering. It differs from the common White Poplar in that it does not sucker from the root and is more difficult to propagate from cuttings which require to be calloused before planting. It is striking- in aspect and should be used sparingly in. ornamental planting. Fig. 43. Leaf of Bolle Poplar. One- third natural size. Populus laurifolia. ( P. certinensis. ) Certinensis Poplar. Leaves on the old wood or slow growing twigs are very different from those on vigorous growing shoots. The former are broadly oval with finely serrate margins and on cylindri- cal twigs. The strong shoots are deeply angled or grooved and the foliage on them is wavy in outline. The trees are sometimes confounded with the Cottonwood from which they are very distinct especially in the Leaves which are on shorter more rigid petioles. A large tree of rapid growth. Distribution.— Introduced from Russia. Probably a native of northern Europe and Siberia. Propagation. — Easily grown from cuttings. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, easily worked and re- BIRCHES. 203 ported as being- valuable for many of the purposes for which pine timber is commonly used. Uses. — The Certinensis Poplar has been tried largely in this section and has proved to be a good quick growing tree for prairie planting. In some localities, however, ithas been infested with a borer which has occasionally done much injury and led to the impression that it is not so hardy as the Cottonwood. The foliage seems to resist the attacks of the leaf fungus better than the Cottonwood. BETULACEAE. Bircli Family. Genus BETULA. Flowers monoecious, apetalous, appearing before or with the leaves; the staminate in long pendulous catkins; stamens 2; the pistillate in erect cylindrical catkins; ovary naked, 2- celled. Fruit a small nut surrounded by a wing and covered by the enlarged scale of the catkin, ripening in autumn. Leaves alternate, simple, dentate or serrate. Trees or shrubs with watery juice. A large genus represented by many species. The bark contains a resinous balsamic oil sometimes used in tanning leather. In parts of this country and Canada the bark and leaves of various birches are esteemed as domestic remedies for diseases of the skin, for rheumatism and gout. An oil obtained from the inner bark by distillation is also used externally for the same purpose. The sweet sap of many species is used as a beverage and is sometimes made into wine. Propagation. — By seeds, which should be sown when gathered or stratified over winter and sown in the spring and the seedlings given some shade during the first season. The varieties are propagated by budding, grafting and inarching on the parent species. 204 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 26. Betula papyrifera. Canoe Birch 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Lateral branch, showing un- folding leaves, stipules and pistillate catkins, one-half natural size. 3 Fruit- ing branch, one-half natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, rear view en- larged 5. Staminate flower, enlarged. 0. Stamen, enlarged. 7. Scale bearing Pistillate flowers. 8. Scale of fruiting catkin, ft Nut. enlarged. 10. Longi- tudinal section of fruit. B BIRCHES. 205 Betula papyrifera. Canoe Birch. Paper Birch. White Birch. Leaves ovate or heart-shaped, dark green on the upper side. The bark is reddish on the twigs under four or five years old and white on the older branches and trunk, and readily separated into papery sheets. A good sized tree frequently 60 or 70 feet high with a trunk from two to three feet in diameter or perhaps in severe locations dwarf ted to a mere shrub. Distribution. — Throughout Canada to Arctic Ocean ("Widest range of any Canadian tree") south to northern Pennsylvania, central Michigan and northern Nebraska and northwestern Washington. In Minnesota generally common in all but the southwestern part of the state. Propagation. — See genus Betula. Properties of wood.— Light, strong, hard, tough and very close grained but not durable. It is light brown tinged with red, with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5955; weight of a cubic foot 37.11 pounds. Uses. — The Canoe Birch is a tree of good form and pretty habit; it is especially beautiful in the spring when the young leaves are unfolding and in the winter is valuable for the con- trast afforded by its white bark with other plants. It lends variety to windbreaks and lawn plantings. Prefers a moist soil but does well on anj retentive soil, and is perfectly hardy. The wood is largely used in the making of spools and shoe pegs, in the manufacture of wood pulp and for fuel. It is one of the very few woods that burn well when green. It decays quickly and should always be cured under cover. The Indians of the north employ it for their sledges and paddles, the frames of their snow shoes and handles of their hatchets. The tough, resinous, durable bark of this tree is impervious to water and readily separated into layers. It is used by the Indians for covering their canoes and houses and for making baskets, drinking cups, etc. Betula alba. European "White Birch. Leaves small, somewhat triangular and tapering, very smooth and glossy. Stem and older branches chalkywhite; 206 TREES OF MINNESOTA. new growth with reddish or dark brown bark. It closely re- sembles the Canoe Birch. Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia and is becoming- naturalized in localities in the United States. Propagation. — See genus Betula. . Properties of wood. — Fairly heavy, moderately hard, does not split well, not durable. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.64. Uses. — The European White Birch is used here for orna- mental plantings, the same as the Paper Birch though it is a smaller tree. In Russia the bark is used in the tanning of leather for its preservative qualities and delightful odor. Many parts of the tree are used in pharmacy. VaHeties. — There is a large number of cultivated varieties of the European White Birch among which the following is the most highly esteemed. Betula alba pendula laciniata. Cutleaf Weeping" Birch. This is a very handsome tree with finely divided leaves and a drooping habit to the smaller branches. Desirable for lawn and park planting in re- tentive moisc soil but is very short-lived in dry locations. Betula nigra. River Birch. Red Birch. Leaves broadly ovate, acute or obtuse at apex, wedge-shaped at base, irregularly serrate or somewhat lobed; when mature dark green and glabrous above, pale and glabrous or tomentose beneath. Flowers open in early spring; stamin ate catkins mostly clustered in 2's or 3's, 21 to 3i inches long; pistillate catkins soft downy, oblong, cylindrical; catkins in fruit 1 to 1£ inches long and about i inch in diam- eter; fruiting bracts tomentose, about equally lobed; nut broadly ovate and wider than its wings, pubescent at its base; Figure 44. Leaf of Cutleaf Birch, y2 natural size. BIRCHES. 207 Plate 27. Betula. lutea. Yellow Bireh. nl. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged^ 3. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. J. Nut, , enlarged. 6. Scale of fruiting catkin, enlarged. 7. Winter branch, showing staminate catkin, one-half natural size. 208 TREES OF MINNESOTA. bark reddish brown. Sometimes a large tree but very often made up of spreading" stems forming a low bushy tree. Distribution. — Massachusetts to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas, where it attains its largest size. Gener- ally found along river banks and in moist places. Propagation. — By seeds, which ripen in June and should be sown at once, making plants eight to ten inches high by autumn. Properties of wood. — Light, rather hard, strong and close grained. It is light brown with lighter colored sap wood. Specific gravity 0.5762; weight of a cubic foot 35.91 pounds. Uses. — The River Birch is seldom used as an ornamental tree, although it is very beautiful and does well in any good retentive soil. The wood is used for furniture, cabinet making, wooden shoes, ox yokes and in turnery. Betula lutea. Yellow Birch. Gray Birch. Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, wedge-shaped or slightly heart-shaped at the base. Bark of trunk yellowish gray and somewhat silvery, separating into thin layers and hanging loosely coiled up in rolls, giving old trunks a very ragged appearance. Fruiting catkins short, oblong. The inner bark, twigs and leaves spicy, aromatic, similar to winter- green, but much less so than B. lenta. A large and very valuable timber tree. Distribution. — From Newfoundland to the valley of the Rainy River, and south to North Carolina and Tennessee. In Minnesota common in woods in north half of the state and rare in the western and southwestern portion. Propagation. — See genus Betula. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and close grained with a satiny surface that takes a fine polish; it is light brown tinged with red with thin white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6553; weight of a cubic foot 40.84 pounds. Uses. — The wood of the Yellow Birch is one of the most valuable of our northern woods and is sometimes termed American Mahogany. It is largely used in the manufacture of fine furniture, hubs of wheels and for small wooden articles such as clothes pins, pill boxes, etc. As fuel it is much superior to Canoe Birch. The bark is used to some extent for HOP HORNBEAM. 209 Plate 28. Ostrya virginiana. Hop Hornbeam. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Scale of staminate catkin, en- enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate inflorescence. 5. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower enclosed in bract and bractlets, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of fruiting involucre, showing nut, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal section of nut, natural size. 210 TREES OF MINNESOTA. tanning- purposes: the volatile oil used for imparting the flavor of Birch to candies, soda water, etc. is derived to some extent from this species though mostly from the Sweet Birch (B. lenta.) It requires a cold moist soil to develop its best form and suffers severely from drouth: on this account it is not desirable as an ornamental tree or for prairie planting. Genus OSTBYA. Flowers monoecious, apetalous; the staminate naked in long pendulous catkins; the pistillate in erect loose catkins: ovary 2-celled, inferior, surrounded by small deciduous bracts and each enclosed in a sac-like involucre which grows and forms a sort of cluster, like that of the common hop. .Leaves alternate. Only one species comes within our range. Ostrya virginiana. Hop Hornbeam. Ironwood. Lever Wood. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, very sharply and doubly serrate, green above and downy beneath. Flowers minute, appearing with the leaves. Seed in short imbricated catkin-like clusters, ripe in August but hanging on into late autumn: nut I to i of an inch long. Bark on old trees dark brown and furrowed, not smooth as in Carpinus. A hand- some tree, generally small but occasionally a foot or more in diameter. Distribution. — From Cape Breton to northern Minnesota and Black Hills of Dakota and south to northern Florida and eastern Texas. In Minnesota common throughout the tim- bered portions of the state except close to the shore of Lake Superior. Propagation. —Generally grown from seeds but may be grown from layers or grafts. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and tough, exceedingly close grained, durable in contact with the soil and susceptible of a fine polish. It is light brown tinged with red or often nearly white with thick pale sapwood. Specific gravity 0.8284: weight of a cubic foot 51.62 pounds. Uses. — The Hop Hornbeam is a very beautiful, hardy tree and is occasionally used for ornamental purposes, but on account of its rather slow growth it is not generally desir- BLUE BEECH. 211 Plate 29. Carpinus caroliniana. Blue Beech. , • o 9 Scale of staminate catkin, 1. Flowering branch, one-half natura^s.ze. -. ^^ ^ 5 enlarged. *. Stamen, enlarged 4 Scale J ,, Fruiting branch, one-half Pistillate flower with bract and b"°"et^11™ natural size. 8. Nut, enlarged natural size. 7. *»\^\ZTe2rZ ™ Winter branch, one-half natural 9 Longitudinal section of nut. enlargea. w. size 11 Staminate catkin in winter, enlarged. 212 TREES OF MINNESOTA. able for this purpose. The wood is used for fence posts, levers, mallets, handles of tools, and medicinally in homeo- pathic practice. Genus CARPINUS. Tall, slender trees or small shrubs. About 12 species in the northern hemisphere, only one of which is indigenous to North America. Carpinus caroliniana. Blue Beech. Water Beech. Hornbeam. Leaves ovate, oblong, sharply serrate, pale blue-green on upper surface and light yellow-green on the lower, smooth and thin, 2£ to 4 inches long, resembling those of the common Beech. Flowers monoecious, appearing with the leaves; the staminate in rathar dense catkins and the pistillate in small slender loose catkins with a 3-lobed bractlet to each seed. Fruit in loose clusters at the ends of the new growth, with large 3-lobed bracts to the involucre, ripening late in the autumn. The nut is 1-6 to i of an inch long. Shrubs or trees 20 or more feet high with smooth, grayish bark and stems often deeply furrowed. Distribution. — From southwestern Quebec westward to northern Minnesota and eastern Nebraska and south to Florida and Texas. Also found in southern Mexico and Central America. In Minnesota common throughout the south half of the state along streams and around lakes. Propagation. — By seeds, which grow irregularly. The varieties may be grafted or budded on seedling stocks. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and clo'se grained; light brown with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7286; weight of a cubic foot 45.41 pounds. Uses. — The graceful habit, dark blue-green foliage and beautiful autumn tints of the Blue Beech make it a desirable tree for parks and lawns on good soil in somewhat sheltered situations. The wood is so very tough that it was used by the early settlers in the northern states for brooms, ox-gads, withes, etc. The toughest wood of our northern forests. 213 Plate 30. Castanea dentata. Chestnut. , • o •> staminate ttower, enlarged. L Flowering branch, one-half natural ««•« ^^ „ Longl- 3 l iagramol Pistillate flowercluster 4. Plst portion 0f fruiting hranch LfflS^-J^n^ySHl^ fruit, one-half natural^. 8. | one-half natural size. ^^g briinchlet. Involucral spine. ». hndoiyu 214 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Genus CASTANEA. Trees or shrubs with watery juice and serrate straigh veined leaves. Flowers monoecious, strong- smelling, ir axillary catkins near the ends of the branches, appearing after the leaves. The staminate flowers in erect or spreading yellowish cylindrical catkins; calyx mostly 6-parted; stamens numerous, sometimes with abortive ovary; filaments slender. The fertile flowers usually 2 to 5 in an ovoid scaly prickly in- volucre at the base of the androgynous catkins; calyx with a 6-lobed border crowning the mostly 6-celled ovary and usual- ly with 4 to 12 abortive stamens; ovules 2 in each cavity butonly one to each ovary usually maturing; styles corresponding in number with the cavities in the ovary, slender, exserted; stig- mas small. Involucre of fertile flowers enlarging and becom- ing globose, mostly 4-valved: in fruit a thick, very prickly bur enclosing from 1 to 3 ovoid nuts. Cotyledons very thick, cohering and remaining underground in germination. Castanea dentata. Chestnut. .Leaves oblong lanceolate, pointed, acute at base, serrate with coarse pointed teeth; when mature smooth and green on both sides. Fruit sweet and edible, ripening in autumn. A large forest tree with gray bark. Distribution. — Maine and Ontario to Michigan and Ten- nessee. Propagation. — Most commonly by seed which should be sown in autumn or stratified over winter and sown in the spring. The seed is very difficult to preserve in good con- dition for germination unless carefully stratified out of doors. When dried it soon loses its vitality and when stratified in the cellar is very liable to mould. The foreign sorts of which there are a number in cultivation are mostly propagated by grafting on the species. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, coarse grained, liable to check and warp in drying, easily split, very durable in contact with the soil, reddish brown with thin light colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4504; weight of a cubic foot 28.07 pounds. Uses. — Within and near its range the Chestnut is an im- portant and very fast growing timber tree that readily re- Li OAKS. 215 news itself from sprouts from the roots. As an ornamental ,ree it is highly esteemed wherever it is hardy. In this section it is not sufficiently hardy to warrant any extensive planting 3f it but has held on well for twenty years in Houston county Adhere are found thrifty trees eight inches in diameter and 40 'eet high at the home of Mr. J. S. Harris. In the forest plant- ation at the Minnesota Experiment Station the young trees ire doing very well. The wood is used in the manufacture of cheap furniture, or interior finishing of houses, for railway ties, fence posts ind rails. Its durabilitv is due to the large amount of tan- lic acid which it contains. An extract of the wood is largely ised in tanning. FAGAOEAE. Oak Family. Genus QUERCUS. • A very large genus of about 200 species which are not ilways clearly defined. The four here described are nearly listinct, but there are great variations in the species and nany undoubted hybrids. Flowers greenish or yellowish, nonoecious: the staminate in slender naked catkins, each lower consisting of a 4 to 7-parted or lobed calyx and 4 to 2 stamens: the pistillate flowers scattered or somewhat clus- ered, each consisting of a nearly 3-celled, fi-ovuled. inferior )vary with a 3-lobed stigma and enclosed by a scaly bud-like nvolucre which becomes the hardened cup (cupule) around he base of the fruit, which is a rounded 1-celled nut or acorn, 'otyledons remain underground in germination. All our pecies flowrer in the spring and shed their acorns in the lutumn of the same or following year. This genus is readily livided into the White Oak and the Black Oak classes. The White Oak class is characterized by leaves with ounded lobes, teeth that are never bristle pointed; edible icorns maturing the first year, inner surface of shell glabrous; wood hard, close grained, durable:- tree with deep )ermanent tap root. 216 TREES OF MINNESOTA. The Black Oak class is characterized by leaves having acute lobes and bristle-pointed teeth: acorns bitter, maturing the second year, inner surface of shell of acorn woolly; woo( porous and brittle; roots spreading1, seldom having- clear 1; defined tap roots except when young. Oak bark is used for tanning leather. The cork of com merce is the older bark of the Quercus suber of southeri Europe. Galls caused by insects puncturing the young anc tender shoots are produced on the branches of most oak trees and are imported in large quantities from Asia Minor, Chin* and elsewhers to be used in the manufacture of inks and dyes The bark of most species is tonic and astringent and as a de coction is sometimes employed as an external remedy. Propagation. — All the species grow readily from seeds which have been kept properly, but if allowed to get dry thej are liable to lose their vitality. The seedlings have tap roots often 3 to 4 feet long when the top is not more than a foot high. On this account the trees are often very difficult and uncertain to transplant, but if the tap roots are cut off a foot from the surface of the ground when the trees are one year old they form side roots and then may be moved with a reasonable degree of certainty within the next few years be- fore they have formed "new tap roots. duercus alba. White Oak. Leaves short petioled, oblong or obovate in outline, ob- liquely cut into 3 to 9 oblong or linear and obtuse mostly en- tire lobes, smooth excepting when young, pale or glaucous underneath, bright green above, turning to a soft wine color in autumn. Fruit an edible acorn maturing the first year, hence borne on the shoot of the season, f to 1 inch long, ob- long, often peduncled, not more than one-third covered by the hemispherical saucer-shaped naked cup which is rough or tubercled at maturity. A noble and picturesque tree some- times attaining a height of 100 feet with a trunk 6 feet in diameter but much smaller within our range. Its bark is rough with longitudinal fissures and of a whitish gray color, whence its name. It is also conspicuous from its holding many of its dead withered leaves until nearly spring and in OAKS. 217 Plate 31. Quercus alba. White Oak. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Portion of a staminate catkin, nlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Cluster of pistillate flowers, en- arged. 5. Cross section of ovary, enlarged, tj. Fruiting branch, one-half natural ize. 7. Cup. one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of acorn, one-half iatural size. 9. A germinated acorn, one-half natural size. his respect it differs from the Bur Oak to which it is closely illied but which sheds all its leaves in autumn. Distribution. — From southern Maine westward through Dntario to southern and central Minnesota and eastern Kan- sas, south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota frequent in lie southeastern and central parts of the state. Propagation. — The acorns of the White Oak naturally start into growth in the first of autumn and often form roots 218 TREES OF MINNESOTA. several inches long by the time the ground freezes. In con sequence of this there is but a short time in which to sow then and this should be done as soon as they can be gathered ir autumn or if planted later great pains must be taken not tc break the radicle which will probably have pushed out. Tht seeds require only ordinary care to secure a good stand i properly managed. Properties of wood. — Strong, very heavy, hard, tough, close grained, durable in contact with soil although liable to check unless carefully seasoned; color light brown with thin lighi brown sapwood. Specific gravity 0.747; weight of a cubic foot 46.35 pounds. Uses. — The White Oak is highly esteemed as an ornamen- tal tree on account of its sturdiness, longevity and magnifi- cent spreading form, although it is seldom planted on account of its slow growth; one of our hardiest trees, although it will not endure as much drouth as the Bur Oak or White Elm. The wood is of great value on account of its adaptability to many purposes where a tough, strong, close grained wood is needed. It is largely used in ship building, in construction, cooperage ( large quantities being exported to Europe in the form of staves), in the manufacture of agricultural imple- ments, carriages and baskets, for the interior finishing of houses, in cabinet making and for railway ties, fence posts and fuel. Quercus macrocarpa. Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Bur White Oak. Leaves large, ovate or oblong, lyrate-pinnatifid or deeply sinuate-lobed or parted, the lobes sparingly toothed or entire, irregular, downy or pale beneath and bright green above, turn- ing to a dull yellow before falling in autumn. Cup (cupule) deep, thick, woody, conspicuously imbricated with hard, thick pointed scales, the upper ones generally awned so as to make a mossy, fringed border, but this is occasionally lacking. Acorns ovoid, almost spherical, half or wholly enclosed by the cup. Bark rougher and darker colored than that of the White Oak. A large tree varying greatly in form, sometimes growing 100 feet high and 6 or 7 feet through the trunk, but in this section seldom over 70 feet high and 3 feet through. OAKS. 219 Plate 32. Quercus macrocarpa. Btir Oak. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size, 2, Staminate flower, enlarged. Pistillate inflorescense, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. Distribution. — From New Brunswick and Nova Scotia vestward to Manitoba, Montana and Kansas and southwest- vard to Tennessee, Indian Territory and Texas. In Minne- sota common or abundant in all except the extreme north- eastern part. Propagation. — Very easily grown from seeds planted in autumn. The seedlings in good prairie soil attain a height yt about 4 feet in five years. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, rather brittle, coarse grained and very durable in contact with the soil; color, rich 220 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 33. Quercus rubra. Red Oak. 1. Flowering branch showing immature fruit of one years growth, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, enlarged. 3. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 6. Cup. one-half natural size. 7. Mature leaf, one-half natural size. OAKS. 221 brown with much lighter brown sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7453; weight of a cubic foot 46.45 pounds. Uses. — The Bur Oak is the most magnificent, most durable and longest lived tree for planting throughout this whole section. It is also one of the most valuable timber trees of North America, although its -wood is rather coarser grained and inferior in strength to that of the White Oak with which it is commercially confounded. Quercus rubra. Red Oak. Leaves oblong-obovate to oblong, moderately sometimes deeply pinnatifid with rounded sinuses, 7 to 9 narrow lobes, these and the teeth being bristle pointed; mature leaves rather thin, turning dark red after frost in autumn. Cup saucer- shaped or flat with a narrow raised border of fine scales, ses- sile or on a very short stalk, very much shorter than the acorn which is oblong-ovoid or turgid-ovoid, 1 inch or less in length, with a bitter kernel. Two years are required to ripen the nut which is consequently found on the old wood below the leaves of the season. Bark smoother than that of most oaks. A tree 70 to 80 or more feet high with a trunk 3 or 4 feet in diameter. Distribution. — From Nova Scotia to the divide west of Lake Superior and to central Kansas, south to Georgia and Tennessee. In Minnesota found along the Mississippi River and occasionally in other parts, but is not very common any- where in the state. Propagation. — Easily grown from fall sown seeds. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained and liable to check badly in drying. Specific gravity 0.6621: weight of a cubic foot, 41.25 pounds. Uses.— The Red Oak has been used to a limited extent in this country and Europe as an ornamental tree for which its stately form, vigorous growth, and fine autumn coloring make it especially desirable. No oak of the northern states is more easily transplanted. The wood which in trade is not distin- guished from that of the Scarlet Oak, is used for interior finishing, furniture and in construction and has a beautiful grain for finishing. It is often used for fuel, but is generally 222 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 34. Quercus coccinea. Scarlet Oak. lar^Fs°Tingbran?0ne"half DatUralSiZe- 2- Pistillate flower cluster, en- larged. 3. Stam.nate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Fruit- ing branch, one-half natural size. 6, Acorn, one-half natural size OAKS. 223 though not universally considered much inferior to the White Oak for this purpose. Quercus coccinea. Scarlet Oak. Black Oak. Leaves oblong or obovate, deeply pinnatifid with broad rounded sinuses and slender lobes divergent and divided at the apex into several teeth which are bristle-pointed. When the leaves unfold they are bright red and covered with pubescence, but towards maturity they become shining green and generally glabrous above, the lower side in this section often furnished with tufts of hair in the axils of the veins. The leaves turn a brilliant red or scarlet in autumn, remain on the trees in this section all winter and fall in the spring. The buds are often slightly pubescent and are smaller and very different from the large tomentose buds of Quercus velu- tina. The fruit which ripens in the autumn of the second year is sessile or on a stalk which is sometimes an inch long; it is oval or globular ovoid with a bitter kernel. A common and often large tree in this section, where it is generally termed Black Oak and is found on .gravelly ridges and sandy land interspersed with Bur and Red Oak. Distribution. — From Maine to the District of Columbia and west to Minnesota and Nebraska. Propagation. — By fall-sown seeds. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained, light or reddish brown with thick darker colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7095: weight of a cubic foot 42.20 pounds. Uses. — The Scarlet Oak is not planted to so great an extent as the Red Oak for ornamental purposes but is fully as desirable because of its beautiful scarlet autumn coloring and rapid growth. The wood is largely used in the manufac- ture of furniture, for interior finishing and for fuel and is not distinguished commercially from that of Red Oak. 224 TREES OF MINNESOTA. ITLM^CE^SL Elm. Family. Genus ULMTJS. Leaves simple, alternate, 2-ranked, short petioled, straight veined, usually rather rough. Flowers appear before the leaves in our species: perfect or rarely polygamous, apetalous? greenish, in lateral clusters: calyx 4 to 9 lobed: stamens 4 to 9 with long slender filaments; ovary superior, 1-celled or rarely 2-celled, flattened: styles 2, short and diverging. Fruit a samara with a broad membranous margin, 1-celled, -1-seeded, ripens in early summer: seed all embryo. A genus of about fifteen widely distributed species which are mostly large de- ciduous trees, three of which occur in our range. Most of the Elms produce hard tough wood that is often difficult to split. The European species have given rise to many varieties differ- ing from the parent species in many ways but chiefly in habit of growth and color of foliage. A form of the European Scotch Elm (U. Montana) with pendulous habit known in nurseries as Camperdmcn Weeping Elm, has done very well in a somewhat protected location at the Minnesota Experiment Station and bids fair to make a very ornamental specimen. The stock on which it is worked (probably U. campestris) however has sunscalded. In China a white mucilaginous meal is made from the inner bark of the Elm and is used as food by the mountaineers of the northern provinces and in the composition of incense sticks. The fruit is employed in medicine and the bark and young fruits are eaten in periods of severe famine. Propagation. — The species are grown from seeds and the varieties by layers, budding, and grafting. With the ex- ception of the Slippery Elm (q. v.) the seeds should be sown as soon as gathered. Ulmus americana. White Elm. American Elm. Water Elm. Leaves 3 to 4 inches long, obovate-oblong to oval, usual- ly smooth on the upper and soft and velvety on the lower sur- ELMS. 225 Plate 35. Ulmus americana. White Elm. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Flower, enlarged. 3. Longi- tudinal section of flower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. t>. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of seed, natural size. 8. Embryo, enlarged. 9. Portion of summer branch, one-half natural size. 10. Portion ot winter branch, one-half natural size. face, coarsely and doubly serrate, taper-pointed, turning- to a bright yellow before falling. Branches small, slender, as- cending, at length spreading and pendulous: twigs and buds smooth, not corky. Flowers appear in April, in dense clusters with slender drooping pedicels. Fruit ripe in May, smooth except the edges which are hairy with incurved sharp points at the apex. A large common tree sometimes 120 feet high and April and May, solitary, small, white on rather long pedun- cles. Fruit a small, solitary, round, sweet edible druper HACKBERRY. 231 Plate 38. Celtis occidentalis. Hackberry. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower before straightening of filaments, enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, expanded, enlarged. 4. Perfect flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of perfect flower, enlarged. . Diagram of flower. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudi- nal section of fruit, natural size. 9. Transverse section of fruit, natural size. 10. Winter twig, one-half n^turahsize. reddish or yellowish turning a dark purple when fully matured, remaining- on tree into the winter; peduncle twice the length of the petioles. Generally a small but sometimes a large tree over 100 feet high and 2 or 3 feet in diameter. The tree resembles the White Elm, but the branches come out more at right angles and the bark is rougher and more closely divided than that of the White Elm. Distribution — From Ontario west to Lake of the Woods, Dakota, Colorado and Arkansas and south to Georgia and 232 TREES OF MINNESOTA. eastern Texas. In Minnesota frequent in the southern half of the state and not uncommon in the Valley of the Red River- even near the extreme northern limit of the state. Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds which should be sown as soon as ripe or stratified over winter and sown in the spring-. Properties of wood. — Heavy, rather soft, not strong, coarse grained, dark or light brown with thick light colored often yellowish sapwrood. Specific gravity 0.T28T: weight of a cubic foot 45.41 pounds. Uses. — The Hackberry is of rapid growth and is one of the best trees for general park, lawn and prairie planting- here. No deciduous tree presents a more graceful appearance in winter when the finely divided spray of the limbs and the small size of the young growth make it very attractive. In this section it is preferred to the White Elm for a shade tree by some experienced planters. It endures drouth well but is- probably not as hardy in this way as the White Elm. It is- also less liable to split in the crotches. The wood to some extent is used to take the place of elm. MOEACE^. XTulberry Family. The largest genus of this family is Ficus, which contains over 600 known species including the cultivated fig {Ficus carica) and the Indiarubber Tree (Ficus elastica). The follow- ing genus contains about 10 species, natives of the northern hemisphere. Genus MORTJS. Trees or shrubs with milky sap and alternate, dentate and often lobed leaves. Flowers monoecious or dioecious (rarely polygamus) in axillary catkin-like spikes, the pistillate spikes ripening into succulent aggregated fruits. Calyx 4- parted, in the pistillate flower becoming fleshy; stamens 4; pistils 1: stigma 2. MULBERRIES. 233 Morus rubra. Red Mulberry. Leaves ovate or nearly orbicular in outline, acute or taper-pointed occasionally deeply lobed. glabrous above, per- sistently pubescent beneath or when young- almost tomentose. Flowers appear with the unfolding- of the leaves. The fruit which is at first bright red, when fully grown becomes dark purple or nearly black and when fully ripe is sweet, juicy and pleasant to the taste. Tt ripens in summer and is from 1 to li inches long. South, it forms a large tree with brown rough bark, but within our range it is a small tree or mere shrub. Distribution. — Vermont to Ontario, Michigan, and South Dakota and south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota it reaches its northern limit in the southern part of the state. Propagation. — By seeds or by cuttings. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, rather tough, coarse grained and very durable in contact wiih the soil. Specific gravity 0.5898: weight of a cubic foot 36.75 pounds. Uses. — The Red Mulberry is sometimes used jn the middle and southern states as an ornamental tree where it forms a large spreading tree forty feet high. It well deserves a place on lawns or in parks but is not very hardy in Minnesota. The wrood is valued for fence posts and is used in cooperage: in the southern states it is often used in boat-building. The inner bark is fibrous and was used by the Indians of ihe southern states for making a, coarse cloth: in early days this fibre was used for cordage. The leaves have been largely ex- perimented with as food for silk worms but they are not so good for this purpose as those of the White Mulberry [Morus alba). Morus alba tartarica. Russian Mulberry. Leaves thin, smooth, glabrous and somewhat shining on both sides, heart-shaped, ovate or orbicular, generally deeply lobed and dentate; the same plant will often have leaves of several forms. Flowers appear with the leaves, generally dioecious or monoecious but rarely polygamous. The fruit ripens early in July and is white or purplish in color and varies from f to H inches in length. As commonly seen it is a low-growing very bushy-topped small tree with lisrht gray bark and spreading branches. 234 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 39. Morus alba tartarica. Russian Mulberry. 1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bear- ing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower-cluster, en- larged. 4. Pistillate flower cluster, natural size. 5. Staminate flower, enlarged. ti. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of pistil, enlarged. 8. Full grown lobed leaf, one-half natural size. MULBERRIES. 235 Distribution. — Native of central Asia. Propagation. — By seeds, cuttings, layers or graftage. The seeds, if sown as soon as gathered, will make plants about one foot high the first season. Properties of wood. — Probably much the same as those of the Red Mulberry. Uses. — The Russian Mulberry was introduced into the western states by the Russian Mennonites, who esteem it very highly for its many good qualities, among which is the ease •with which it is propagated, its rapid growth, the value of the leaves as food for silk worms, its fruit, ornamental appear- ance and the durability of the wood in contact with the soil. It is not perfectly hardy in this section but generally holds on well as far north as St. Paul, although it generally kills back considerably for the first few years after planting. While it can be grown in tree form it is much better adapted to being grown in this section in the form of a windbreak. It bears pruning well and makes a very pretty hedge but is not adapted to turning cattle as it is unarmed. The fruit is insipid and generally small, but in almost every large lot of seedlings a few specimens will be found producing fruit of good size and fair quality. While the fruit is not marketable it is often used domestically and also furnishes a large amount of food for birds just when strawberries and raspberries are ripening and is preferred by them to the more acid berries, hence affords some protection to these more important crops. Objections to its use in ornamental planting are its suscepti- bility to injury by late spring frosts, which blacken the new growth and the early falling of the leaves in autumn. While its leaves are well adapted to feeding the silk-worm and have been successfully used for this purpose in this section in a small way, yet the industry has not become profitable. Varieties. — A variety known as Teas Weeping Mulberry has been partially tried at the Minnesota Experiment Station but has not proved sufficiently hardy for this section. 236 TREES OF MINNESOTA. EOSACEAE. Rose Family. A large family of trees, shrubs and herbs including many of our cultivated fruits and ornamental plants. Genus PYRUS. Leaves simple or pinnately compound, flowers white or rose colored, in corymbs, cymes, or clusters, perfect, regular: stamens numerous: styles 5, (sometimes 2 or 3): carpels of the same number, 2-seeded. Seeds in cells that are made up of horny, parchment-like thin walls. Fruit a pome. Pyrus ioensis. Wild Crab. Western Crab. Leaves simple, oblong or obovate-oval, variously notched and toothed: the lower surface as well as the leaf stalks, short pedicels, and young growth, densely white pubescent. Flowers rose-colored, fragrant, much like those of Pyrus coronaria with which this species was formerly classed and is now some- time referred to as a variety. Fruit round, somewhat flat- tened, dull green with small light dots, hard, bitter, keeps through the winter. A small tree. Distribution. — Minnesota and Wisconsin, south to Ken- tucky and Indian Territory. Propagation. — By seeds or by graftage. It does not form a durable union with Pyrus malus although such unions may last several years. Properties of wood. — Heavy, close grained, not hard nor strong; brown to light red in color with thick yellow sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7048: weight of a cubic foot 43.92 pounds. Uses. — The Wild Crab with its large fragrant flowers forms a very pretty, small ornamental tree. The fruit is made into preserves and cider. When growing in its natural state, the tree is hardy and is seldom injured by fire-blight but seems to be very much subject to this disease when culti- vated, especially after it has been transplanted. WILD CRAB. 237 Plate 40. Pvrus ioensis. Wild Crab. 1. Flowering branch, une-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower with petals removed, natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 5. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 238 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Pyrus americana. American Mountain Ash- Leaves odd-pinnate: leaflets 11 to 17, lanceolate, taper- pointed, bright green above, generally paler beneath. Flow- ers in large compound leafy cymes appearing in May or June. Fruit usually 3-celled, globose or slightly pear-shaped, bright red with thin flesh, one-fourth inch in diameter, ripens in late autumn and remains on the tree all winter unless eaten by birds. A small tree with smooth bark seldom reaching a height of 30 feet and often a mere shrub. Distribution.— From. Newfoundland to Manitoba and south- wards through the more elevated portions of northeastern United States and the region of the Great Lakes. It reaches its greatest size north of Lake Superior and Lake Huron. In Minnesota common through the northern part of the state extending south to Pine and Mille Lacs counties. Propagation. — The species is grown from seeds and the varieties by budding and grafting. The seeds may be gath- ered during the autumn, stratified over winter and sown in the spring, but seeds thus treated will seldom start until the second season. A better way is to put the seeds ten inches deep in a hole and cover with three inches of sand in the autumn. They should remain in such a place until a year from the following spring when the berries will be thoroughly rotted and the seeds may be sifted out from the pulp and sown. Thus treated, they come up the season of planting. Properties of wood. — Soft, light and weak, pale brown with lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5451; weight of a cubic foot 33.97 pounds. Uses. — The American Mountain Ash is used as an orna- mental tree on account of its abundant bright colored fruit but is not so pretty in this respect as the European or Elder- leaf Mountain Ash. The trunk of the tree is liable to sun- scald and when planted in exposed places it should be en- couraged to send up sprouts from the roots and from the lower parts of the trunk. Treated in this way it forms a large shrub of great value from an ornamental point of view and is very hardy even in exceedingly severe locations. The fruit is astringent. It is used in some homeopathic and domestic 7*emedies. MOUNTAIN ASHES. 239 Plate 41. Pyrus sambucifolia. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. 8. Transverse sections of ovary, enlarged. 4. Cluster of fruit, oue- half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit. 6. Cross section of fruit. 7. Longitudinal section of seed. S. Embryo, magnified. 9. Winter buds, one- half natural size. 240 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Pryus sambucifolia. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. Leaves odd-pinnate: leaflets 7 to 15 oblong-ovate, mostly obtuse. Flowers appear in July in small dense pubescent cymes. The fruit is globose, bright scarlet and sometimes nearly a half inch in diameter. It is produced in dense red- branched clusters and remains on the tree into the winter. A small tree that is often mistaken for Pyrus americana from which it is best distinguished by its smaller cymes, its larger and later flowers and its more obtuse and broader leaflets. Jhstributimi. — It is found growing from southern Green- land to Labrador and northern New England along the northern shores of the Great Lakes to Little Slave Lake through the Rocky Mountains to Alaska and northeastern Asia. In Minnesota it is common northward extending south to Lake Itasca and rarely found farther south. Propagation. — Same as recommended for American Mountain Ash. Properties of wood. — Practically the same as American Mountain Ash. Uses. — The large and brilliant fruit of the Elderleaf Mountain Ash makes it the handsomest of all Mountain Ashes and as it is very hardy it is a desirable lawn tree. Like all the Mountain Ashes it is likely to sunscald on the trunk when grown singly and the trunk left unprotected and will do best if several sprouts are encouraged to grow from the trunk as recommended for the American Mountain Ash. Pyrus aucuparia. European Mountain Ash. Leaves odd-pinnate, softer and more graceful than those of Pyrus americana; leaflets 13 to 15, ovate, generally blunt pointed, lower surfaces and stalks downy, at length glabrous. Flowers in May or June followed by large red berries (i inch in diameter ) which hold on into the winter. There are varie- ties with yellow and orange fruit. Tree of fair size, often 30 feet high, much more graceful than the American Mountain Ash. Distribution. — Europe and Asia. * Propagation and properties of wood. — About the same as the American Mountain Ash. Uses. — The European Mountain Ash is a good, small MOUNTAIN ASHES. 241 ornamental tree of graceful habit, conspic- uous for its numerous large clusters of white flowers in May or June and for its bright red and orange fruit in aut- umn and winter. It is about as hardy as the American Mountain Ash but of more rapid Figure 45. Weeping Mountain Ash. growth. It should be treated in the same way. Varieties. — There are several varieties varying in habit of growth and color of fruit. The following is the most com- monly planted: — Pyrus aucuparia pendula. Weeping Mountain Ash. A form with pendulous, graceful habit. It grows freely, is hardy and is interesting for variety. It is largely used as a lawn curiosity. Propagated by grafting onto the American or European Mountain Ash. Pyrus hybrida. Oakleaf Mountain Ash. Leaves 5 to 6 inches long, lyrate pinna- tifid, often pinnate at the base, irregularly and sharply serrate, dark green and glab- rous above, pale and densely pubescent be- neath. Flowers white in large conspicuous clusters. Propagated by grafting onto the European or American species. This Moun- tain Ash forms a very pretty lawn or park tree of upright pyramidal habit, attaining a height of 20 or 30 feet. In hardiness it ranks with the European Mountain Ash. It is said to be a hybrid between Pyrus aria (Sweet Beam Tree) and Pyrus aucuparia. Fig. 46. Leaf of Oakleaf M ountain Ash. % natural size. 242 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Genus AMELANCHIER. A small genus of trees and shrubs with alternate simple leaves, racemose white flowers and edible fruit. Amelanchier canadensis. Juneberry. Service-tree. Leaves ovate or oval, pointed, finely serrate, reddish brown with scattered white hairs when young becoming dark green above and paler beneath at maturity; stipules early de- ciduous. Flowers appear after the leaves in spreading or drooping racemes; petals thin, pure white, about one-half inch long; calyx much shorter than petals. Fruit I to £ inch in diameter; ripens in early summer, dark purple when fully ripe, sweet and edible. A tree sometimes reaching a height of 50 feet but seldom over 25 feet and often a mere shrub. Distribution. — From Newfoundland westward along the northern shores of the Great Lakes to eastern Nebraska and south to Florida and Louisiana. Propagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by suckers, layers and cuttings. Properties of wood. — Heavy, very hard, close-grained, sus- ceptible of a good polish; dark brown in color with thick lighter-colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7838; weight of a cubic foot 48.85 poundss. Uses. — The profusion of white flowers produced by the Juneberry in early spring makes it a pretty ornamental tree or shrub at that time of the year. It may be planted to supply food for the birds or to produce fruit for home use. The wood is occasionally used for handles of tools or other small im- plements. Varieties. — Amelanchier canadensis varies considerably in the form of the leaves, size of flowers and fruit and in habit of growth. The following is the most distinct of these varieties. Amelanchier canadensis obovalis. Dwarf Juneberry. Suscutan-berry. Leaves oblong or broadly elliptical, acute or rounded at the apex, remotely serrate or nearly entire below the middle, coated at first on the lower surface with thick white tomentum. Flowers smaller than those of the species. A small bush or tree common in Quebec, Ontario and the northeastern states, and JUNEBERRIES. 243 in localities westward, to the Mackenzie River, North Dakota, Minnesota and Missouri. A dwarf form of this with large fruit is cultivated to some extent through the northern states. The Indians of Minnesota and Dakota gather the berries in rather large quantities and sell small quantities in some of the remote towns. Amelanchier alnifolia. Service-berry. Leaves broadly ovate, obtuse or rarely acute, coarsely clentate or serrate towards the apex. Flowers, in erect rather dense racemes. Fruit, dark blue or almost black, sweet and juicy. A shrub or small tree which in the eastern limits of its range is hardly distinguishable from some of the broad leaved forms of Amelanchier canadensis. Distribution. — From the valley of the Yukon River south through the coast ranges to southern California and east to Michigan and Nebraska. Propagation. — By Seeds and suckers. Properties of wood. — Arery heavy, hard and close grained, light brown. Specific gravity 0.8262: weight of a cubic foot 51.55 pounds. Uses. — The fruit as found in the wild state is gathered by the Indians and used by them for food. Genus CRATAEGUS. Leaves alternate, simple, lobed or pinnatifid. Flowers mostly in terminal corymbs, regular, perfect, white or rarely rose colored. Fruit a fleshy, drupe-like pome containing 1 to 5 hard one-seeded carpels and having on its summit the per- sistent calyx lobes. Small trees or shrubs armed with thorns. It is very difficult to identify accurately the species of this genus on account of their varying and conflicting charac- teristics. Propagation. — The fruit should be stratified over winter before sowing the seeds, which seldom germinate until the second year. Crataegus tomentosa. Black Thorn. Black Haw. Leaves ovate, to ovate-oblong, sharply cut or toothed, •contracted into margined petioles, pubescent on the lower sur- 244 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 42. Crataegus tomentosa. Black Thorn. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower, natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Cross sec- tion of fruit, natural size. 6. Part of fruit showing seed, natural size. 7. Branchlet showing winter buds, one-half natural size. S. Summer shoot showing stipules, one-half natural size. face. Flowers I inch broad, produced in broad, leafy, pubes- cent, slender-branched cymes appearing- in June. Fruit pear- shaped but occasionally giobose, dull red, half an inch in diameter and erect on the branches. A small tree occasion- ally 15 feet high with a straight trunk and spreading branches making a flat-topped tree or often a shrub with many straggling" stems. Distribution. — From New York to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Texas: not known to be common in many WILD THORNS. 245 localities. In Minnesota common or frequent throughout the state in thickets and along wooded banks of streams. Propagation.— Described under genus. Properties of wood. — Very heavy, hard and close grained; reddish brown with thick, lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7585; weight of a cubic foot 47.57 pounds. Uses. — The Black Thorn is exceedingly hardy, is used as an ornamental tree or shrub and is much admired for its clean, pretty habit, its brilliant foliage in autumn and its bright fruit which remains on the branches all winter. Crataegus crus-galli. Cockspur Thorn. Leaves wedge-obovate or oblanceolate, serrate, firm, deep green, glossy above, dull beneath: petiole short. Flowers appear in June. Thorns very long and sharp. Fruit bright red, globose or rarely pear-shaped. A small tree 20 or more feet high. Distribution. — From the St. Lawrence river southward to Florida and west to Missouri and Texas. In Minnesota rare or doubtful. Properties of wood. — About the same as C. tomentosa. Uses. — The Cockspur Thorn is valuable for hedges since it bears close pruning well, is very hardy and has large thorns. It is a most beautiful and ornamental tree having a good habit, good healthy foliage, brilliant autumn color to its foliage, and persistent red fruit. Crataegus coccinea. White Thorn. Scarlet Haw. Leaves thin, roundish ovate, sharply cut-toothed or lobed on slender petioles. Flowers appear when the leaves are nearly grown. Fruit ripens in September or October and generally hangs on the branches until after the leaves have fallen; glabrous, slightly elongated, bright scarlet, i to \ inch in diameter, hardly edible. A bushy branched tree rarely 20 feet in height, sometimes with a short trunk and short spreading branches which form a narrow head but more often a shrub. Distribution. — From Newfoundland westward to Manitoba and Nebraska, and southward to northern Florida and eastern Texas. In Minnesota frequent and occasionally com- 246 TREES OF MINNESOTA. mon throughout most of the state on rocky banks or hillsides. Propagation. — Described under genus. Properties of wood. — The heaviest Minnesota wood. Specific gravity, 0.8618. Otherwise about the same as C. tomentosa. Uses. — The White Thorn is used for similar purposes in ornamental planting as the others mentioned but is not so desirable. Genus PRUNUS. Shrubs or trees with alternate, simple leaves. Flowers with calyx that is deciduous after flowering: a single pistil with a superior ovary containing a pair of ovules and becom- ing a single drupe or stone fruit. This genus comprises some of our most valued fruits, such as the Plum, Peach, Cherry, Apricot and Nectarine and ornamental plants such as the Double Flowering Almond; all the species here referred to are ornamental when in flower. This genus seems to divide more or less into two groups which are distinguished by the form of inflorescence, one group bearing its flowers in racemes and the other in umbels. It is of interest to notice that it is difficult if not quite impos- sible to graft or bud trees of the different groups together while within each group trees of the different species can be grafted quite readily. Prunus americana. "Wild Plum. Leaves oval or slightly obovate. Flowers appear when the leaves are about one-half unfolded. Fruit large, colored with red and yellow often with a heavy bloom; generally ascerb but frequently good: the parent of our cultivated sorts such as Kollingstone, Wolf, Forest Garden, Desoto, Cheney and others; ripens August to September. A small thorny tree seldom over twenty feet high and generally found grow- ing in thickets. A form of this that flowers very early and has fruit with a thin pit is considered a variety or perhaps a separate species (P. nigra.) The Aitkin plum comes under this head. Distribution. — It is found from New York and New Jersey to Nebraska and the upper Missouri Valley south to northern WILD PLUM. 247 Mexico and western Florida. In Minnesota, throughout the state in thickets along- banks of streams. Propagation. — Grown from the seeds which should not be allowed to become hard and dry but should be stratified if they are expected to grow the following spring. If planted in the autumn as soon as separated from the pulp about two- thirds of the seeds will grow the following spring and the re- mainder the second year. It may also be grown from sprouts and roots cuttings. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, close grained and strong. It is dark brown in color with a thin light colored sapwood and takes a good polish. Specific gravity 0.7313; weight of a cubic foot 46.95 pounds. Uses. — The Wild Plum is pretty in flower and in fruit and is a good hardy ornamental tree as well as a good fruit tree. The fruit of the wild kinds is readily sold and is much used for culinary purposes and many of the cultivated kinds afford excellent table fruits. This is one of the best under- shrubs that can be put in our prairie groves, where it affords protection to the soil from evaporation and at the same time yields desirable though of course inferior fruit under such conditions. Prunus pennsylvanica. Wild Red Cherry. Bird Cherry. Pigeon Cherry. Pin Cherry. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, long pointed, finely and sharply serrate with incurved teeth often tipped with minute glands, thin, shining, green and smooth on both sides. Fruit ripens in July or August, a very small, right red drupe with thin sour flesh and smooth oblong stone that is ridged on the ventral margin. A small handsome tree that seldom reaches a height of 40 feet and is often a mere shrub. It has smooth reddish brown bark which peels off in transverse strips around the tree. Distribution.— Found in moist, rather rich soil from New- foundland west to the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and south to northern Illinois and Pennsylvania; also in North ( 'arolina, Tennessee and Colorado. In Minnesota common throughout all but the southwestern part of the state where it rarely occurs. 248 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 43. Prunus pennsylvanica. Wild Red Cherry. i t;»P 2 Longitudinal section of 1. Flowering branch, one-half J*™^1"^ \ Longitudinal section of nower. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural s 4 Enlbryo. enlarged. 7. fruit, slightly enlarged. 5. Cross sec Uon of **£ Axil of leaf showing stipules, one-half natural size, half natural size. WILD BLACK CHERRY. 249 Propagation. — Grown from seeds which should, be stratified and sown in the spring- or sown in autumn. They are dis- tributed by robins, wax-wings and other birds that eat largely of the fruit. The Wild Red Cherry has thus become a very common tree in waste places, although not so common in our section as eastward, where it is one of the first trees to come in on old timber lands. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, close grained, light brown in color with thin yellow sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5023; a cubic foot weighs 31.30 pounds. Uses.- -The Wild Red Cherry is very hardy, grows rapidly under cultivation and is well adapted to prairie planting. It is shapely and handsome although a short lived tree. In the early spring it is conspicuous by reason of its great quantity of white flowers. It might be used for shade in timber plant- ings and for bird food. The fruit is used for domestic pur- poses and in the preparation of cough mixtures. Seedlings have been used to a limited extent as a stock for the culti- vated cherries. Prunus serotina. Wild Black Cherry. Rum Cherry. Leaves oval oblong, or lanceolate-oblong taper-pointed, serrate, with two to four reddish glands on petiole. Flowers appear in June after the leaves are full grown, in long pendu- lous white racemes. Fruit somewhat larger than a pea, purp- lish black when ripe, smooth, one seeded, rarely two-seeded, ripens in August or September in Minnesota. A larere tree sixty or more feet high but generally much smaller at the limit of its range. Distribution. — From Nova Scotia westward through the Canadian Provinces and northern states to Dakota and south to Texas and Florida. In Minnesota common throughout all but the extreme northern part of the state in woods along shaded lake shores and banks. Propagation. — The Wild Black Cherry is grown from seeds which are produced in great abundance. They should be sown when gathered in the autumn or stratified. over winter and sown in the spring. Properties of wood.— Light, strong and rather hard with a close, straightgrain and satiny surface susceptibleof receiving a 250 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 44. Prunus serotina. Wild Black Cherry. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 5. Cross section of fruit, natural size. 0. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. beautiful polish. It is light brown or red with a thin layer of yellow sapwood but grows darker on exposure to the air. Specific gravity 0.5822: weight of a cubic foot 36.28 pounds. Uses. — The Wild Black Cherry has a pretty and often a stately form when growing single and is very ornamental when in flower and fruit. It is. however, liable to injuries from the tent caterpillar which is very fond of its leaves. It can often be introduced to advantage into timber plantings in CHOKE CHERRY. 251 this section and is an object of much interest on account of its flowers and fruit. It is also a good timber tree. The fruit is often used in a small way for making- cherry brandy and in flavoring- alcoholic liquors. Medicinal properties are found in the bark especially in that of the branches and roots and are readily yielded to cold water for owing to volatili- zation and chemical change boiling- water must not be used. This extract contains hydrocyanic acid and is employed for infusions, syrups and fluid extracts which are used as tonics and sedatives in the treatment of pulmonary consumption and nervous debility. Cattle have been frequently poisoned by eating the wilted leaves. Children occasionally die from eat- ing the kernels of the pits or by swallowing the fruit whole. . Fresh leaves are considered harmless as the poison is formed by chemical action in the leaves after being separated from the plant. The wood is valuable for cabinet making- and fine interior finishing- and is in great demand on account of its fine reddish brown color. Prunus virginiana. Choke Cherry. Leaves thin, broadly oval to oblong-, usually abruptly pointed. Flowers in racemes ( shorter and closer than in P. serotina), appearing- in June. Fruit ripens in summer, red, turning- dark crimson, astring-ent when first colored but later loses much of its astringency and becomes sweet and edible. A strong- tree with scented bark, rarely 30 feet high and gen- erally short and crooked. ( In this section it is generally covered with the excrescences called Black Knot, which are caused by the fungus Plowrightia morbosa.) Distribution. — From Labrador to British Columbia, north to within the Arctic Circle and south to Georgia, Texas and California. Very widely distributed. In Minnesota com- mon throughout the state along banks of streams and lake- shore. Propagation. — Grown from seeds which should be strati- fied over winter and sown in the spring. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard and close grained, but not strong. It is light brown in color with a thick light colored sapwood. The specific gravity 0.6951; weight of a cubic foot 43.42 pounds. 252 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Uses. — The Choke Cherry is a very handsome tree when covered with its abundant racemes of pure white flowers and also when in fruit, but generally it is so disfigured by Black Knot as to make it unsightly. The fruit is used in large quantities by the French Canadians and was formerly an important article of food among the northern Indians and is now used to some extent in the western states. In Minnesota and the Dakotas there is a form that is much superior to the common Choke Cherry in that it has larger, less astringent fruit. Some authors make it a separate species, ( Primus demissa, ) but Prof. Sargent regards it as a variety whose variations are due to the drier climate of the mid-continental states. LEGUMINOSAE. I3ea Family. Distinguished by the butterfly-shaped ( occasionally reg- ular) corolla, usually accompanied by ten monadelphous or diadelphus stamens (rarely distinct): fruit a legume: leaves alternate, compound with stipules. A large and important family, comprising trees, shrubs and herbs. Some of our most important agricultural plants belong here, such as the pea, bean, clover, alfalfa, vetch, pea- nut, etc.. and among shrubs the Siberian Pea Tree (Caragana). Cytisus, Bladder-senna (Colutea) and Wistaria. Important trees belonging here that are beyond our range are the Yel- low-wood ( Cladrastis). Sophora, Laburnum. Mesquit and Red Bud* (Cercis). Genus GLEDITSIA. Gleditsia triacanthos. Honey Locust. Threethorn Acacia. Black Locust. Leaves evenly once or twice pinnately compound: thorns very stout, from 2 to 12 inches in length, and usually sending out two thorns as branches: but in some sections, notably in * Perhaps found in Southern Minnesota. HONEY LOCUST. 253 Plate 45. GledHsia triacanthos. Honev Locust ■^^^t^£^^^,«^« "atural size. 2. Flowering tudinal section of sia,,,!,, n'S ^ hS' 53< TDi^ram of nower. 4 LongI* 254 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Iowa, many trees may be found without thorns and these are especially desirable for wind breaks. Flowers in June, polygamous, greenish and inconspicuous in small spike-like axillary racemes. Fruit a flat, linear, dark-colored pod often twelve inches long- which becomes much twisted as the seed ripens. This pod contains a pulp which is sweet at first but after a few weeks ferments and becomes astringent. The seed ripens in autumn and the pods fall off in late autumn or early winter. The twisted form of the pods assists in the dis- tribution of the seed as the pods do not open until sometime after they fall and may be rolled for long distances by the wind over the frozen ground or on the snow. Distribution. — It inhabits rich woods and borders of streams from western New York, Pennsylvania and Georgia west to southern Ontario, eastern Nebraska and Louisiana. Propagation. — The Honey Locust is easily grown from seeds wThich should be gathered in late autumn, early winter or as soon as the pods fall. The seeds must be scalded in the same manner as recommended for the Common Locust or they may remain in the soil a year before growing. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong and very durable in contact with the ground. It is coarse grained, of a red or bright reddish brown color with thin pale sap wood. Specific gravity 0.6740: wreight of a cubic foot 42. pounds. Uses. — The Honey Locust is a valuable tree for street and ornamental planting for timber belts, wind breaks and for hedges wherever it is hardy; it has a graceful form, is a rapid grower, easy to transplant, very free from insect and fungous diseases and not given to sprouting from the root. The wood is used for fence posts and rails, for the hubs of wheels and to some extent for construction. It also makes good fuel. This tree is not generally hardy in Minnesota though it has stood very well in favorable locations in the southeastern portion of the state and even at St. Paul has done fairly wTell where protected but is likely to kill back in severe winters, though the roots are very hardy and generally renew the top the season following any winter injury. In Iowa and Missouri it forms a large tree often three feet through the trunk. The one-year-old seedlings are rather COFFEE TREE. 255 Plate 46. Gymnocladus dioicos. Coffee Tree. 1 inflorescence from staminate tree, one-half ytural^e^ P**- » no^r,^K^tural ,i,e 3. J»%^?X&> a {gjlon ;= n , «««,« ndfSSf » OTed T. Portion of branch bear mg a ■!■££ BS8 #»£« $g& ?-^i!,;r:rnlrna^rats.no. po^ of wm, 256 TREES OF MINNESOTA. tender the first winter and should be dug and heeled in or heavily mulched at the end of the first season after which they are rather hardy. Genus GYMNOCLADTJS. Gymnocladus dioicus. (G. canadensis.) Coffee Tree. Kentucky Coffee Tree. Leaves very large, two to three feet long1, twice pinnate, each partial leaf stalk bearing seven to thirteen ovate leaflets, the lowest pair with single leaflets. The leaflets stand verti- cally. The color of the leaves is a bluish green. The flowers are dioecious or polygamous, whitish, borne in large racemes which are much longer on the fertile than on the sterile trees. Fruit a large flat pod containing large seeds over one-half inch in diameter surrounded by a thick layer of dark colored sweet pulp. The fruit generally remains unopened on the tree all winter. Flowers appear from May to July. Distribution. — One of the rarest forest trees of North America, found growing from western New York and southern Ontario west to the Minnesota Valley and eastern Nebraska and south between the Mississippi River and the Allegheny Mountains 'to Tennessee. In Minnesota it is found spar- ingly in southern and southeastern portions of the state north to near St. Paul and as far west as New Ulm. Propagation. — Grown from root cuttings or from seeds, which should be scalded before being sown as recommended for the seeds of Locust. Properties of wood. — Heavy, not very hard, strong, coarse grained, likely to check in drying but very durable in contact with the ground: it can be easily worked and takes a good polish. It is rich brown in color, with thin rather lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.G934: weight of a cubic foot 43.21 pounds. Uses. — The Coffee Tree is graceful and ornamental when in leaf and in winter is interesting from its peculiar naked and dead appearanoe. It is one of the latest trees to leaf out and the new growth is strikingly pretty. Tke leaflets near the ends of the leaves are bright pink, while those that opened first are green or bronze colored. The young leaves in June COFFEE TREE. 257 Plate 47. Robinia pseudacacia. Locust. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of the flower. 3. Flower, front view, one-half natural size. 4. Tube of stamens. 5. Longitudinal section of pistil. 6. Legume, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of legume, one-half natural size. are a rich brown color. It is very hardy and is not particular about the soil in which it grows, but attains a largs size only in rich, deep, moist soils. The wood is occasionally used in cabinet making and for fence posts, rails and in construction. As the name implies the seed has sometimes been used as a, substitute for coffee. Its chief value is for ornament. 258 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Genus ROBINIA. Robinia pseudacacia. Locust. Yellow Locust. Black Locust. Common Locust. False Acacia. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, composed of from *9 to 17 leaflets. Flowers white, fragrant, in conspicuous pendulous racemes 3 to 5 inches long- appearing- in latter part of May or early in June. Pods flat, 4 to 5 inches long con- taining* about 6 hard, small and rather flat seeds which ripen in late autumn and often hang on the tree all winter. The light, handsome foliage of this tree constitutes one of its principal charms, the leaves open during- the day and as night comes on close down as if for rest. The young- growth is usually furnished with strong- recurved prickles, thoug-h trees can frequently be found that are entirely free from them, and it is this latter form that is used in some European countries as fodder for cattle. A slender forest tree occasionally reaching the height of 60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. Distribution. — Southern Pennsylvania to Indiana, Iowa and southward. Under cultivation it has become widely distributed. In Minnesota it is found along the Mississippi River as far north as Minneapolis and occasionally elsewhere in this state, sometimes forming trees 50 feet or more in height but generally it is much smaller and often forms mere thickets which are occasionally killed back in severe winters. Propagation. — The Locust is grown from seeds, which may be gathered in the pods, kept in any dry place and planted in the spring. Just before planting the seeds should be scalded severely. This causes part of them to swell. Sift or pick these out and scald those remaining again. Continue this scalding and sifting until all have swelled. The seed can then be sown at once in well prepared soil and will in good soil produce plants three or more feet high the first season. They may also be grown from root cuttings and from sprouts. Properties of wood. — Heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, close grained and very durable in contact with the ground. It is brown or light green with very thin, pale yellow sap- wood. The specific gravity is 0.7333: weight of a cubic foot 45.7 pounds. MAPLES. 259 Uses.— The Locust is too tender for general planting in Minnesota, but in favorable locations it makes a desirable lawn tree on account of its pretty foliage and white flowers. It can be sown in forest plantations but is not generally- desirable for such places on account of its sharp prickles, its tendency to sprout and its liability to being occasionally killed back although it seldom kills out. This tree is subject to the attacks of borers, which generally spoil the value of the timber for manufacturing purposes. The wood is valua- ble for posts, ribs of vessels, tree nails and anything which requires great strength. It is also excellent for fuel. It is a very popular tree in Europe and is said to be more exten- sively cultivated there than any other American tree. The bark of the root is tonic, or in large doses purgative and emetic and is used in homeopathic remedies. Three cases of poisoning in children who had eaten the root by mistake, have been recorded. ACERACEiE. ]Vtaple Family- A family composed of two genera, only one of which is represented in America. Genus ACER. A genus of about 100 species of trees and shrubs, with watery often saccharine sap and opposite simple leaves. Flowers regular, generally polygamous or dioecious and sometimes apetalous; ovary 2-celled having two ovules in each cell. Fruit a double samara. The bark is astringent, and yields coloring matter. Acer saccharum. (A. saccharinum.) Sugar Maple. Hard Maple. Rock Maple. Leaves large, 3 to 5 toothed, opposite, deep green above and paler green beneath. Flowers greenish yellow, in nearly sessile umbel-like corymbs, apetalous, appearing with the leaves in the spring. Fruit a double samara; wings rather 260 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 48. Acer saccharum. Sugar Maple. 1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Pistillate flower, en- larged. 6. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. Win- ter branchlet, one-half natural size. broad; seed ripens in autumn. The foliage becomes very brilliantly colored in autumn. Distribution. — A large and important tree in the northern and middle states, extending- southward to Georgia and north to northern Minnesota. Very abundant in eastern Minnesota though seldom found in the western portions. It occurs at Lake Minnewaska in Pope County, and at the head waters of the Redwood River in Lyon County, and as far west as MAPLES. 261 Robert County, S. D.. where it occurs in the coulies at the head waters of the Minnesota River. Propagation. — The Sugar Maple is propagated by seeds, which should be gathered in autumn and sown at once or kept over winter as recommended for the Ash and sown in the spring. Properties of wood. — Very hard, heavy, compact and strong with a fine satiny surface susceptible of taking a good polish. The perfectly seasoned sapwood is light colored and the heartwood is light brown of various shades. Specific gravity 0.6916; weight of a cubic foot 43.08 pounds. Uses. — The Sugar Maple is very hardy over most of Min- nesota in rich, porous, moist soils when grown in forests and forms our best fuel wood. It does well as a street tree on .suitable soil in the southeastern part of this state if the trunk is shaded. When not thus protected, the trunk is liable to sun scald. In the northwestern and western portions it often winter-kills badly in exposed locations, especially when young, and before becoming well established, and for this reason is not well adapted to general planting. The wood of the Sugar Maple is more valuable and more generally used than that of any other American Maple. It possesses a high fuel value, is largely used for interior finish of buildings, especially for floors, in the manufacture of fur- niture, in turnery for handles of tools and in ship buildinsr for keels, etc. In the United States shoe lasts and pegs are made almost exclusively from this wood. Accidental forms in which the grain is beautifully curled and contorted known as "curled maple" and "bird's eye maple" are common and highly prized for cabinet making. The ashes of the wood are rich in alkili and yield Large quantities of potash. The wood •of the Minnesota and Wisconsin Sugar Maple is so very hard and uneven in grain that it has not been worked much into lumber and the supply of Hard Maple lumber manufac- tured here is mostly imported from Michigan, where clear stock is more plentiful. Maple sugar is almost the exclusive product of this tree. It is made by evaporating the sap, Avhich is procured by tapping the trees in early spring some weeks before the buds begin to swell. About three or four 262 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 49. Acer platanokles. Norway Maple. ^„n- n,t,irai size 2. Staminate flower. 3. 1. Flowering branch, one-half naturasze. StBmen. enlarge feet flower. 4. Underside- of flower -/^'^ ^dinal section of seed. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural sue. 8. Longitudin Leaf, one-half natural size. MAPLES. 263 gallons of sap are usually required to make a pound of sugar. Two or three pounds of sugar per tree is the average yield, but large isolated trees will often yield very much more than this. When tapping is properly done it does not seriously impair the health of the tree. Acer platanoides. Norway Maple. Leaves broad, smooth, thin, bright green on both sides, their 5 short taper-pointed lobes set with coarse taper-pointed teeth. Flowers numerous with both sepals and petals dis- tinct, yellowish, conspicuous, in erect corymbose clusters terminating the shoot of the season, or some from lateral buds appearing with the leaves. Fruit in drooping clusters with large divergent wings spreading 2ito 3i inches, ripening in autumn. Buds blunt pointed and rather divergent; new growth often reddish: juice milky. Resembles the Sugar Maple in general appearance but is easily distinguished from it. Its leaves hold green later than other maples and turn a bright yellow in autumn. A round headed tree attaining a height of from 80 to 60 feet. Distribution. — Northern and central Europe and Asia. Propagation. — By seeds for the species and by budding, grafting or layering for the varieties. Propertiesof wood. — Heavy, hard and durable undercover. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.68. Uses. — The Norway Maple has been much used as an ornamental tree in the northeastern states, where it is long lived and often planted in preference to the Sugar Maple near the sea coast. In this section it has not been widely tried, but at the Minnesota Experiment Station it has never been seriously injured by the cold during the past twelve years and has withstood drouth extremely well. In the very dry sum- mer of 1894, Birch, Black Cherry and European Larch died out in large numbers in the forest plantation, while on similar land near by the Norway Maple grew vigorously, its leaves retaining their dark green color throughout the season. The wood of the Norway Maple is used by the joiner, wheelwright and carver for a variety of purposes. Varieties.— There are many varieties of the Norway Maple, the most durable of which are the two following: 264 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 50. Acer saccharlnum. Soft Maple. 1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2, Branch bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Pistil, enlarged. 6. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longi- tudinal section of samara, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. Embryo, displayed, enlarged. Acer platanoides schwedlerii. Schwedler Maple. A beautiful variety with new growth, bark and leaves of a bright purplish or crimson color which later changes to a- purplish green. A valuable tree which has stood at the Min- nesota Experiment Station for six years. Acer platanoides reitenbachi. Reitenbach Maple. An excellent and striking variety with dark purple leaves which hold their color throughout the season. MAPLES. 265 Acer saccharinum. (A. dasycarpum.) Soft Maple. White or Silver Maple. Silverleaf Maple. Leaves deeply palmately 5-lobed, silvery white and smooth oeneath but downy while young. Flowers greenish, apetalous, Dn short pedicles, in axillary clusters, appearing- before the leaves; ovary and young fruit downy. Fruit with large divergent wings, smooth at maturity though downy when young, ripens in early summer about the time the leaves are Df full size. A large quick growing tree often 90 feet high with more or less pendulous branches and light airy foliage which gives it a graceful appearance. Distribution. — It is found in the north from the Valley of I the St. John River in New Brunswick to southern Ontario: it extends southward through the L'nited States to western Florida and west to eastern Dakota and Nebraska. It is adapted to a wide variety of soils and is especially abundant along rivers, often growing luxuriantly on sand bars and land that is inundated by spring freshets. A very common tree in southern and central Minnesota and north along the Mississippi Valley. Propagation. — By seeds which drop off in early summer, and where they fall on moist soil they soon grow. They are very delicate, however, and cannot be kept in good condition many weeks after they are ripe. If sown at once in good moist soil they will often produce plants two feet or more high the first season and the growth is also very rapid in subsequent years. The ornamental varieties are propagated by grafting or budding on the seedlings and occasionally by layering. Properties of wood. — Light, hard (though not nearly so hard as Hard Maple) rather brittle and easily worked; it is pale, faintly tinged with brown: the sapwood is light colored and thick. Specific gravity 0.5269; weight of a cubic foot 32.84 pounds. Uses --The Soft Maple is exceedingly hardy and of very rapid growth but suffers from a deficiency of moisture in the soil. It makes a very good street and lawn tree on retentive land and is adapted to a wide variety of soils. The limbs are brittle and the crotches of the tree are weak and likely 26G TREES OF MINNESOTA. to break in severe wind storms. This is most apparent where it grows on dry land, but if the trees are pruned occa- sionally they make very satisfactory shade trees and are highly esteemed for this purpose in many sections of Minne- sota. The Soft Maple is also successfully used for shelter- belts. It sun scalds occasionally though not commonly. The wood makes very good fuel and is well adapted for interior finishing and floor- ing" and a form of it having a curly figure is used as- veneering for elegant fur- niture and interior finish- ing. Maple Sugar is sometimes made from the sap of this tree buc it is es- timated that twice as much sap is necessary for a giv- en quantity of sugar from this tree as from the Sugar- Maple. Varieties. — - There are many varieties cultivated for ornamental planting, among the best of which is a form known as Wier's Cutleaf Maple, which has finely divided leaves and a very graceful pendent habit. It is about as hardy as the species and is one of the most satisfactory small ornamental trees. Figure 47. Leaf of Wier's Cutleaf Maple — y2 natural size. Acer rubrum. Maple. Red Maple. Scarlet Maple. Swamp Leaves palmately 3 to 5-lobed, opposite. Flowers crim- son scarlet or sometimes yellowish, generally dioecious: appearing in sessile lateral clusters before the leaves, very early in the spring- often before the snow has disappeared. MAPLES. 267 n Plate 51. /leer rubrum. Red Maple. 1. Branch bearing stamlnate flowers, one half natural size. 2. Branch bear- SESStl^ "^ "" SiZG- 3- *«»'»«• «owr. enCd . Psflhte flower, enlaced. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6.Loniri ZT'J TvT'Z^'T "^ 8lZG- ?- ^nKitud.na. section of Cet m ural size ^ ' ^ ""^^ >' Winter branchlet- one-half 26 8 TREES OF MINNESOTA. The fruit on prolonged drooping- pedicils ripens in early- summer about the time the leaves are expanded and them drops off. This is a slender tree somewhat resembling- the Soft Maple but of much slower growth and more compact habit. It will final 1\ attain as large' size as the Soft Maple. Distribution. — It is found naturally distributed over about the same area as the Soft Maple, but does not appear to be a common tree anywhere in Minnesota and seems to be wholly- absent in the western half of this state. Propagation. — The Red Maple is propagated in the same manner as the Soft Maple. Properties of wood. — Heavy, close grained, easily worked, and not very strong. It is light brown often tinged with red with a smooth satiny surface. The sapwood is thick and lighter colored than the heartwood. Specific gravity 0.6178; weight of a cubic foot 38.5 pounds. Uses. — On account of its slow growth the Red Maple is seldom used for planting, although very hardy. It is, how- ever, very ornamental in the spring when loaded wTith its brilliant red fruit, which often appears while the branches are still destitute of leaves. And the gorgeous blaze of scarlet coloring of its leaves in autumn makes it a very conspicuous feature of the landscape at that season It could often be employed to advantage in ornamental planting. The timber is a valuable fuel; it is used for floors, cabinet work, turnery and in the manufacture of shovels, bowls and small wooden ware generally. The curly figure is sometimes found in this wood and is sometimes used for choice veneering. The sap of the Red Maple is not so rich in sugar as that of the Sugar Maple, but produces a very good quality of maple sugar. Acer spicatum. Mountain Maple. Leaves 3 or slightly 5-lobed, thin, downy on the lower surface, at maturity glabrous above. Flowers small, green- ish yellow, in upright dense, sometimes compound racemes, appearing after the leaves, the fertile towards the base and the sterile at the ends of the racemes; petals much longer than the sepals. Fruit with small erect or divergent wings. With- in our range a low shrub with slender erect branches; in the shade in moist woods the branches are often rather flexible MAPLES. 269 and it is probably on this account that it is given the name of Vine Maple in some parts of this section. Distribution. — Valley of the St. Lawrence to northern Minnesota and the Saskatchewan, southwards through the mountains to Georgia. Common in Minnesota south to Mille Lacs. Propagation. — By seeds. Properties of wood. — Light, soft, light brown with thick lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5330; weight of a cubic foot 33.22 pounds. Uses. — The Mountain Maple may occasionally be used to advantage in shrubbery in shady situations. The tree is so small that the wood is of no special economic importance. Acer pennsylvanicum. Striped Maple. Moosewood. Leaves large, 5 to 7 inches long, palmately 3-nerved, 3- lobed at the apex, finely and doubly serrate. Flowrers green- ish in slender drooping long-stemmed racemes; the sterile and fertile generally produced on different racemes on the same plant, appearing when the leaves are nearly full grown. Fruit with spreading wings, in long drooping racemes, ripens in autumn. An upright shrub in this section seldom taking on a tree form. Distribution. — Maine and Minnesota southwards to Vir- ginia and Kentucky. Propagation. — By seeds as recommended for Ash. Properties of wood. — Light, soft and close grained, light brown with thick lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5299; weight of a cubic foot 33.02 pounds. Uses. — The Striped Maple is used in New York and south- wards for lawn planting and may in this section be used for shrubberies. The brilliant foliage and bud scales in early spring, the graceful flowers and summer foliage, the brilliant autumn coloring of the leaves and the conspicuously striped markings of the bark make the Striped Maple an interesting and attractive feature of the landscape. Well worthy of a trial in shrubberies on retentive soil. Acer tartaricum. Tartarian Maple. Leaves ovate or oblong, mostly undivided, incised-serrate, very bright colored in autumn; young branches tomentose. 270 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 52. Acer negundo. Box Elder .neL^;„^rtefresrr;narr °,nehai( na,urai *» * ««-»• Stamlnate flower. 5. P,stllaTefl0Te/BTs'Ze' * Diaeram °f »<»"'■ *• I Fr„,„og branch. one naltaLa ura rsi,e T^T^T* °' *""• " ■ ,• mmt. Plate 56. Elaeagnus angustifolia. Russian Olive. 1. Flowering branch, natural size. 2. Perfect flower, enlarged. 3. Perfect flower with a part of corolla and stamens removed, enlarged. 4. Upper part of pistil showing style and stigma, enlarged. 5, Corolla, displayed, enlarged. 6. Staminate flower with a portion removed, showing rudimentary pistil, enlarged. 7. Portion of branch bearing fruit, natural size. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 9. Embryo, displayed. 10. Portion of leaf showing stellate pubescence on upper surface. 11. General view of tree. ASHES. 281 Oleaster Family. Genus EL AE AGNUS. Shrubs or trees, silvery-scurfy or stellate pubescent with entire leaves and perfect or polygamous flowers. The lower part of the perianth of fertile flowers encloses the ovary and ripens into a fleshy or mealy mass around the akene-like true fruit: the upper part is 4-cleft and deciduous. Corolla none: stamens 4, borne on the tube of the perianth. Elaeag-nus angustifolia. Russian Olive. Leaves narrowly lanceolate, 2 to 3 inches long, white scurfy on lower side, stellate pubescent ou the upper. Peri- anth whitish outside and yellowish inside. Distribution. — Europe and Asia. Propagation.— By seeds which grow readily, by layers and by autumn-made cuttings. Uses.— The Russian Olive is a very hardy small orna- mental tree of very pretty habit, chiefly valued for the con- trast it gives to plantings. It has proved a very satisfactory tree in this section and has endured drouth well at the Minne- sota Experiment Station and at the Coteau Farm in Lyon County, Minnesota, and in South Dakota. OLEACE^]. Olive Family. Genus FRAXINUS. Leaves opposite, petioled, odd-pinnate with 3 to 15-toothed or entire leaflets. Flowers small, dioecious or polygamous and apetalous in racemes or panicles from the axils of last year's leaves; stamens 2; ovary 2-celled. Fruit a flattened samara, winged at the apex, usually 1-seeded. Propagation. — By seed which may be sown as gathered in 282 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 57. Fraxinus americana. White Ash. 1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 8. Seed, % natural size. 9. Embryo, natural size. 10. Winter buds, one half natural size. 11. Leaf, one-half natural size. ASHES. 283 autumn or which may be stratified over winter and sown in in the spring. A good way to keep these seeds over winter is to place them on the surface of a garden walk putting a box over them and cutting a trench around the box to keep the water away. They will not grow if kept too dry. Fraxinus americana. White Ash. Leaves with 7 to 9 leaflets which are usually rounded at the base and generally entire in outline or very slightly ser- rate. Flowers dioecious appearing with or rather before the leaves. Fruit ripe in autumn cylindrical and winged at one end and surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx. The bark on the young twigs is rather dark, nearly smooth and free from spots. A large and valuable tree commonly confounded in this section with the Green Ash and the Red Ash both of which, however, are smaller trees and much hardier, produce seed at an earlier age and in larger quantities and altogether are better adapted to prairie planting than the White Ash. Distribution.— From Nova Scotia west to northern Minne- sota and eastern Nebraska and south to northern Florida and Mississippi. In Minnesota the White Ash appears to be a rare tree. In the western part of the state and in the Dakotas it is wholly replaced by Green Ash or what seems to be a hopeless mixture of Green Ash and Red Ash. Propagation.— See genus. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained and tough although brittle when old; brown with thick lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6543: weight of a cubic foot 40.77 pounds. Uses. — The White Ash is a good ornamental tree in spite of its late foliage and is desirable for timber belts in the milder portions of this section, but on the prairies does not grow as fast as the Green Ash. The wood is of less value when grown here than when grown in the northeastern states. It is used in immense quantities in the manufacture of agri- cultural implements, carriages and furniture, for the interior fin.shing of buildings and for any purpose where a light colored tough wood is needed. The wood of what is termed second growth trees, i. e., those springing up after the origi- nal forest has been removed or from seed scattered in open 284 TREES OF MINNESOTA. fields is usually superior in toughness to the first growth or large trees. The inner bark of the White Ash has some medicinal properties and is used in homeopathic practice, Fraxinus pennsylvanica. (F. pubescens.) Red Ash. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate to ovate, mostly coarsely ser- rate, velvety pubescent on their lower surface like the young shoots. Flowers dioecious; calyx present and persistent in the fruit. This tree is easily distinguished in the eastern states but in this section it merges into the Green Ash and is often difficult to distinguish from it. JJistrihution. — It has about the same range as the Green Ash but is less common west of the Mississippi River. Propagation. — See genus . Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, rather strong and brit- tle and coarse grained: light brown with thick lighter colored sapwood streaked with yellow. Specific gravity 0.6215; weight of a cubic foot 38.96 pounds. Uses. — In this section the Red Ash is used for planting the same as Green Ash. The wood is often substituted for that of the "White Ash, which is much more valuable. Fraxinus lanceolata. (F. veridis.) Green Ash.. The Green Ash closely resembles the Red Ash, from which it is distinguished in extreme forms by its glabrous leaves and branchlets. and by its rather narrower and shorter and usually more serrate leaves, which are lustrous and bright green on both surfaces. However, in western Minnesota and the Dakotas these two species run together and are often indis- tinguishable. The flowers and fruit of the two species are alike although many forms occur on each. Professor Sargent regards the Green Ash as a variety of the Red Ash. "The bark on the preceding year's growth of the Green Ash is noticebly lighter colored than that of the White Ash, and shows many more rather lighter spots or warts. The leaflets are usually strongly serrate. The leaves are bright dark green in color although somewhat lighter below. The young growth of new wood is usually smooth and glabrous, while the mid veins of the leaves frequently show some pub- escence on the lower side.'- ( L. R. Moyer.) ASHES. 285 Distribution. — From the shores of Lake Champlain west to the valley of the Saskatchewan and eastern range of the Rocky- Mountains and south to Florida, Texas and Arizona. In Minnesota one of the most common trees along- water courses in the western part of the state. It is probable that about all the Ash in western Minnesota and the Dakotas is Green Ash or a hopeless mixture of it with Red Ash. Prop agation. —The Green Ash grows readily from seeds as described under genus. Properties of wood. — Hard, strong, brittle and rather coarse grained; it is brown, with thicker, lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity is 0.7117; weight of a cubic foot 44.35 pounds. Uses. — The Green Ash is one of the hardiest trees known and is very valuable for windbreaks and ornamental plantings on the prairies of Minnesota and the Dakotas; and through- out this section should often take the place of the Cottonwood. Its great hardiness against cold and drouth, its easy propa- gation from seed and its rapid growth make it especially fitted for general planting. The wood is used for the saine pur- poses as White Ash but is of inferior quality. Fraxinus nigra. ( F. sambucifolia . ) Black Ash- Swamp Ash. Hoop Ash. Flowers dioecious or polygamous without calyx. Leaflets 7 to 11, oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; the lateral sessile. It naturally inhabits cold, wet swamps and the low banks of streams and lakes. Generally a small slender tree. The bruised foliage exhales the odor of Elder. Distribution. — Cold swamps and low banks of streams from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Virginia and Arkansas. In Minnesota frequent throughout the state. Propagation. — As described under genus except that seeds of this are different from those of other native species in not growing the first season after planting, but must be kept stratified for one year. Properties of wood. — The Black Ash is heavy, rather soft, not strong, tough, coarse grained, durable in contact with the soil and easily separated into thin layers. It is dark brown with thin light brown or often nearly white sapwood. 286 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 58. Fraxiaus nigra. Black Ash. 1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Pistillate flower showing rudi- mentary stamens, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 7. Embryo. 8. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. CATALPA. 287 The specific gravity is 0.6318; weight of a cubic foot 39.37 pounds. Uses. — The Black Ash is of very little value for planting but might sometimes be used to advantage in wet lands: it is a slow grower and short lived in our prairie soils. It is used extensively in the manufacture of furnitnre, for interior finishing, barrel hoops, baskets and chair seats. For this latter purpose the wood is split yi as many layers as there are annual rings, which may be done very readily. There are peculiar excrescences popularly known as knots or "burls" that form on the Black Ash and sometimes these grow as large as a bushel basket or larger. They are a sort of dwarfed branches. It has been found that when these "burls'' are properly sawed they show a pretty curly grain and make very desirable veneering for furniture and for interior finishing and they are sought after for this purpose. However, in this section the "burls'* seldom if ever grow to sufficient size to become of commercial importance. BiaisroisriA^OE^E, Bignonia Family. Genus CATALPA. A genus of four or five species of trees, natives of the West Indies, North America, Japan and China. Leaves sim- ple, opposite or in whorls of three. Flowers in terminal panicles; calyx deeply 2-lipped; corolla inflated bell-shaped, the 5-lobed border more or less 2-lipped and wavy. Fruit a long slender hanging pod: seed, 2-winged with silky fringe. Catalpa speciosa. Hardy Catalpa. Western Ca- talpa. Leaves large, opposite or in threes, heart-shaped at base, long-pointed, thick, firm, dark green above, falling after the first severe autumn frost. Flowers appear in June in large panicles, very conspicuous and pretty; corolla about two inches long, nearly white, faintly spotted, the lower lobes 288 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate '59. Catalpa speciosa. Hardy Catalpa. 1. Panicle of flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Corolla, displayed, showing- stamens, one-hulf natural size. 3. Single fruit, one-half natural size, 4. Seed, one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of seed, one-half natural size. HARDY CATALPA. 289 notched; calyx purple. Fruit 9 to 20 inches long-, about one- half inch in diameter at the middle and tapering" towards both ends; it ripens in autumn, generally remains on the tree until spring and then splits into two concave valves. The seed is light brown about an inch long and one-third of an inch wide: the wings are rounded at the ends and terminate with a fringe of silky hairs. The ends of the branches die in winter with- out forming a terminal bud. A large and important tree in the forests within its range where it attains a height of over 100 feet and a diameter of 3 to 4i feet. Distribution. — Borders of streams and lakes, and fertile and inundated bottom lands in southern Illinois and Indiana, wTestern Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas. Propagation. — By seeds and it is said by cuttings. Properties of wood. — Soft, light, not strong, coarsegrained, very durable in contact with soil. Specific gravity 0.4165; weight of a cubic foot 25.96 lbs. Uses. — The hardy Catalpa is not a very hardv tree in this section and probably most of the specimens of it growing- north of central Iowa are more or less injured by our winters but they often hold on well in favorable locations as far north. as St. Paul and Minneapolis and form good small trees. They are occasionally killed to the ground but generally re- new themselves by sprouts from the roots. The Catalpa is, however, unfit for a street tree in Minnesota; but may often be used in protected locations in parks and lawns, where it is valuable for variety in foliage and for its beautiful flower clusters. It is of remarkably rapid growth when young and has been used in some of the most successful tree plantings that have been made in Kansas and southern Iowa. Tne wood is used for railway ties, fence posts and rails, and occasion- ally for furniture and inside finish of houses. The Hardy or Western Catalpa was for a long time con- founded with the Catalpa of the eastern states (C. bignonioides) which is not nearly so hardy. 10 290 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Plate 60. Viburnum lentago. Sheepberry. 1. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower, o. Flow- er, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of flower, the corolla and stamens re- moved, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of seed. 8. Side view of stone. 9. Winter branchlet. one-half natural size. HONEYSUCKLE. 291 OAPRIFOLIACEAE. Honeysuckle Family. A family of a few hundred species, including such well- known plants as the common Elder ( Sambucus ), the Snow- berry (Symphoricarpus ) and the Honeysuckle (Lonicera). Genus VIBURNUM. Small trees or shrubs with simple opposite leaves. Flow- ers perfect or neutral; calyx equally five toothed, persistent: corolla five-lobed; stamens five; ovary inferior, 1-celled. Fruit a dry or fleshy 1-seeded drupe: seed flattened. This genus includes the well-known Snowball, which is a sterile form of the Highbush Cranberry ( Viburnum opulus). Viburnum lentago. Black Haw. Sheepberry. Nan- ny berry. Leaves ovate-acuminate, petioles usually winged. Flow- ers perfect, in flat clusters from 3 to 5 inches across, slightly fragrant, appearing the latter part of May or first of June in this section; corolla cream-colored or nearly white, i inch across when open; filament thick; stigma broad. Fruit borne in drooping clusters, oval, abou^t | inch long, sweet, juicy, black or dark blue, thick-skinned, covered with a glaucous bloom, ripens in September. Within our range a broad bush but occasionally a small tree. Distribution. — Quebec to the Saskatchewan and south to Georgia and Missouri. Usually found in moist locations, especially along river and lake shores, but not uncommon in thickets. Propagation. — By seed and by layers. The seeds should be stratified over winter before planting and often remains in the soil a year before starting. 292 TREES OF MINNESOTA. Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard and close grained. Spe- cific gravity 0.7303; weight of a cubic foot 45.51 pounds. Uses. — The Black Haw is a good hardy ornamental shrub for park and lawn planting. It is esteemed for the abund- ance of its beautiful flowers, its vigorous growth, compact habit and its lustrous foliage, which takes on brilliant colors- in autumn. GLOSSAEY Acorn. The fruit of an oak. Acuminate. Taper-pointed or long-pointed, (e. g. leaves of Willow.) Acute. Pointed, (e. g. leaves of Cork Elm.) Albumen. Food stored up in seed with embryo; endosperm. Alternate leaves. A single leaf at a node; not opposite, (e. g: Willow.) Annual. Yearly; a plant which. reaches maturity and dies at the end of a single season, (e. g. Pea, Wheat.) Annual ring. The layer of wood formed each year. (Page 7.) Anther. The pollen-containing sac; enlarged part of stamen. Apetalous. Without corolla, (e. g. Soft Maple. Oak.) 'Arboreous. Tree-like. Assimilation. In plants, the production of organic matter from in- organic matter. Axil. The angle formed by the junction of the leaf-blade, bract, petiole, pedicle or peduncle, with the branch or stalk from which it springs. Back-firing. The burning under control of material in front of a fire to prevent its spreading. Bark. A general term applied to all the tissues outside of the wood proper. (Fig. 1.) Basal. Attached to the base. Bast. The woody fibrous tissue of the inner bark. (Page 279.) Berry. Botanically a fleshy fruit, (e. g. Grape, Currant.) Com- mouly applied to many kinds of fruits, (e. g. Strawberry, Mulberry.) Blade of a leaf. The expanded portion; the wings. Blight. The dying without apparent cause of the tenderer parts of plants. B. M., Abbreviation for board measure, (q. v.) Board-foot. The unit of board-measure; equivalent to a board 12 in. x 12 in. x 1 in. One cubic foot is considered as equivalent to ten board feet, allowing for waste in working. Board-measure. (B. M.) The system used by lumbermen in which the board-foot (q. v.) is the unit. 294 GLOSSARY. Bract. A much-reduced leaf. Budding. The operation and process of inserting a bud with the iu- tention that it shall grow. Bad-division. A term including all methods of propagation except by seed. (e. g. Grafting, Layering, etc.) Bud-variety. A strange variety or form appearing without obvious cause upon a plant or in cuttings or layers; a sport. A bud- variety springs from a bud in distinction from a seed-variety,, which springs from a seed. Callus. The new and protruding tissue which forms over a wound as over the end of a cutting. Calyx. Outer circle of perianth, generally inconspicuous. Cambium. In trees and shrubs, the layer of new growing tissue be- tween the bark and wood. Carbon dioxide. A gas composed of one part of carbon to two parts of oxygen; carbonic acid gas. Carpel. A simple pistil or one of the divisions of a compound pistil. Catkin. A scaly spike:like dense flower cluster. (e. g. Willowr Birch.) Cell. The anatomical unit of living tissues. chlorophyll. The green coloring matter of plants; leaf-green. Ciliate. Hairy on the margin. Cleft leaf. Cut into lobes somewhat more than half the depth of wings, (e. g. Soft Maple.) Compound leaf. One in which the blade or wings are composed of more than one part. (e. g. Ohio Buckeye, Mountain Ash.) Cone . The flower or fruit of a conifer. Conifer. A member of the Pine Family or Coniferae. Coniferous. Cone-bearing. Cordate. Heart-shaped. Corolla. Inner series of the perianth; generally distinguished from the calyx by being of a color other than green. Corymb. A flat-topped flower cluster, in which the outer flowers open first, (e. g. Mountain Ash.) Cotyledon. One of the leaves of the embryo; a seed leaf. Crowded. Said of trees when so closely grown that the development of their lateral branches is interfered with. (Fig. 11.) Crown of tree. See tree-crown. cuttage. The practice or process of multiplying plants by means of cuttings. Cuttings. A piece of a leaf, branch, stem or root which when in- serted in moist material is capable of sending out roots and forming a new plant; a slip. (Page 93.) Cycle. One of the circles of a flower. GLOSSARY. 295 Cymes. A flower cluster in which the central flowers open first. Deciduous. Falling off; said of leaves that fall in autumn. Dehiscent. Said of fruits that open at regular lines. Dentate. Toothed, with teeth pointing outward not forward. Diadelphous. Said of stamens when united into two groups. Dibber. A pointed instrument used for making holes. Dicotyledon. One of the class of plants with two seed leaves. Dicotyledonous. Having two cotyledons or seed leaves. Dioecions. Staminate and pistillate flowers horne on different plants. Divided. Said of leaves when the wings are cut into divisions down to base or midrib. Disiximi. See bud-division. Drupe. A fruit with hard pit (endocarp) and soft exterior (exocarp). (e. g. Plum. Cherry, Peach.) Dry-rot. A kind of decay in wood. (Page 72.) Dust-Jjlanket. A layer of loose earth on the surface of the ground. Embryo. The miniature plant in the seed. Evergreen. Holding leaves over winter until new leaves appear or longer. Family. In botanical classification, a group of plants thrown to- gether because of some natural common resemblances. Some- times used synonymously with order. Filament. The stalk of the stamen. Firebreak. An opening, plowed strip of land, or anything which prevents the spread of fires in forests or elsewhere. (Pig. 33.) Firefalls. Applied to areas where the trees have fallen owing to their roots having been burned off. Flower. A part of the plant especially modified for the reproduction of the plant by seed. Forest. A dense growth of trees. Forest floor. The decayed leaves and twigs which cover the soil in forests. (Page 18.) Frost-liardy. Said of trees, the new growth of which is not easily killed by frost. Frost-tender. Said of trees, the new growth of which is easily killed by frost. Fruit. The seed-containing area derived from a single flower. Fungi. Plural of fungus. Fungous. Pertaining to fungi. Fungtis. A flowerless plant devoid of chlorophyll and drawing its nourishment from living organisms or decayed organic matter. Genera. Plural of genus. 296 GLOSSARY. Generic name. The name of the genus to which the plant belongs and which with the name of the species forms the scientific name of the plant. •Genus. In botanical classification, a group of plants having several or many natural common resemblances: a division of a family. Germination. The actor process by which a seed or spore gives rise to a new and independent plant. Glabrous. Smooth, not pubescent. Glaucous. Covered with a fine white powder as that on a cabbage leaf. Graftage. A system of propagation comprising all methods by which plants are grown on roots of other plants. Grafting. The operation of inserting a scion in a stalk. Grafting Wax. A protective substance used in covering the junction of a graft with the stock, or for the covering of wounds. Bailey's formula for a reliable wax: — Resin, four parts (by weight) beeswax, two parts; tallow, one part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold water. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until n is nearly white. Hardy. Able to withstand a given climate. Heeling-in. The operation and process of temporarily covering the roots of plants to preserve them until wanted for permanent planting. (Fig. 104.) Herb. A plant not woody. Herbaceous. Not woody: said of plants that die to the ground each year. Horticulture. The art and science of raising fruits, kitchen garden vegetables, flowers and ornamental trees and shrubs. Humus. Decomposed organic matter in the soil. Hybi'id. Plant derived from a cross between plants of different species. Hybridizing. The operation or practice of crossing between species. Hypogynous. Said of flowers when all parts are free. (e. g. Buckeye) Imbricated. Overlapped. Inarching. The operation and process of uniting contiguous plants or branches while the parts are both attached to their own roots. (Page 97.) Indehiseent. Not opening at regular lines: not dehiscent. Indigenous. Native, i. e. growing naturally in a given region. Inferior. Said of ovary when all the floral parts are attached above it, (e. g. Wild Crab.) Inflorescence. A flower cluster; mode of arrangement of flowers. Insecticide. A substance employed to destroy insects. GLOSSARY. 297 Involucre. A bract or series of bracts subtending a flower-cluster or fruit-cluster. Irregular. Said of flowers when the separate parts of each cycle are not of the same size and shape, (e, g. Locust.) Lanceolate. Said of leaves when from four to six times as long as broad, the broadest part below the middle and tapering up- ward or both upward and downward, (e. g. Black Willow.) Larva, (pi, larvae) The worm-like stage of insects. Layer. A shoot which, while attached to the plant, takes root at one or more places and forms a new plant, (Page 96.) Leaf -mould. Decayed leaves and other organic matter constituting the forest floor. Leaflet. One of the wing divisions of a compound leaf. Legume. A simple pod opening by both ventral and dorsal sutures; fruit of pea family, (e. g. Locust.) Leguminous. Pertaining to the family Leguminosae; said of plants bearing legumes. Loam. Friable, mellow, r:chsoil containing much humus. Lohe. A projection or division of a leaf not more than half the depth of the wing. Lyrate. A pinnatifid leaf of an obovate. or spatulate outline with the end lobe large and roundish and the lower lobes small, (e. g. Bur Oak.) Manure. Plant food; any substance which promotes plant growth. Monadelphous Said of stamens when united by their filaments in one group. Mono. Prefix meaning one. Monoecious. Both staminate and pistillate flowers borne on the same plant, (e. g. Black Walnut.) Mound-layering. (Page 96.) Mulch. Any loose material that protects the soil from frost or evaporation. Muskeg. A term commonly applied to sphagnum swamps by the Indians and woodsmen of northern Minnesota. Nursery. A plot of ground set apart for the raising of plants that are to be transplanted elsewhere. An establishment for the raising of plants. < >h cordate. The reverse of cordate. (Jblanceolate. The reverse of lanceolate. Oblong. About twice as long as broad with nearly parallel sides. Ohovate. The reverse of ovate. Obtuse. Blunt, not acute, (e. g. leaflets of Locust.) Odd-pinnate. Applied to pinnately compound leaves having a termi- nal leaflet, (e. g. Ash.) 298 GLOSSARY. Open grown. Said of trees when not grown sufficiently close toother trees to be influenced by them. Ovary. The lower or enlarged part of the pistil bearing the ovules. Ovate. About twice as long as broad and tapering from near the base to the apex. (e. g. leaves of Balsam Poplar.) Ovoid. Egg-shaped. Ovule. A rudimentary seed. Palmate. Parts originating1 from a common point, as the veins, lobes or divisions of a leaf. (e. g. Leaflets of Ohio Buckeye.) Panicle. A loose flower cluster, (e. g. White Ash, Plate 57.) Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, applied to flowers of the pea fam- ily, (e. sr. i^ocust, Plate 47.) Parasite. A plant or animal that lives upon and obtains its food from other living plants or animals. Parietal placenta. A placenta upon the wall of the ovai'y. (e. g- Coffee Tree Plate -46.) Parted. Separated nearly to the base. Pedicel. A stalk of a single flower of a flower cluster. Peduncle. A stalk of a solitary flower or the common stalk of a flower cluster. Pendulous. Hanging. Penta. Prefix, meaning five. Perennial. A plant living more than two 3rears. Perfect flower. One having both essential organs i. e. stamens and pistil. ie. g. Wild Crab, Plate 40.) Perianth. The floral envelopes. Pericarp. The ripened ovary; the seed vessel. Persistent. Remaining beyond the period when such parts generally fall. Petal. One of the divisons of a corolla. Peiwle. Leaf-stalk. Pinnate. Parts arranged on opposite sides of a main axis. (e. g. Leaflets of Mouutain Ash.) Pinnatifid. Pinnately lobed or cleft, (e. g. leaves of Red Oak, Plate 33.) Pinnide. A secondary leaflet in a pinnately decompound leaf. (e. g. Honey Locust.) Pistil. The part of the flower bearing the ovules and which ripens into the fruit. Pistillate. Bearing pistils but no fertile stamens. Often used syn- onymously with female. Placenta. Place of attachment of ovules in an ovary. Pollen. Small spores produced by the anthers for the fertilization of the ovules. GLOSSARY. 299 Pollination. The carrying- of pollen from the anther to the stigma. Polygamous. Perfect and unisexual flowers borne on the same plant. Pome. Fruit l^epresented by the Apple, Thorn, Quince, etc. Propagation. The multiplication of plants. Pruning. The removing of branches from a plant to improve its general appearance or to check or encourage growth. Pubescent. Covered with fine short hairs. Quarter sawing. The sawing on the radius but as it is not practicable to do this exactly, the log is first quartered and then sawed into boards, cutting them alternately from each face of the quarter of the log. Sawed in this way the grain of the wood does not show nearly so conspicuously and varied as in that tangentially sawed but the ^rain is narrower and the wood sawed in this way does not warp nearly so much as that tan- gentially sawed and is much more expensive. Raceme. A simple inflorescence in which theflowers are on pedicels and the lower open first, (e. g. Black Cherry, Plate 44.) Regular. Parts of each cycle of the perianth alike, (e. g. Bird Cherr}^.) Boot. Apart of the plant which absorbs nourishment for the plant, or serves as a support. It may be underground or aerial. Root-cutting. See cutting. (Page 93.) Rudimentary. Imperfectly developed or in an early state of develop- ment. Samara. A winged fruit, (e. g. Maple.) Saprophyte. A plant which lives upon and obtains its food from dead organic matter. Sapwood. The outer or latest formed wood of a woody plant. (Page 8.) Sawing. The two methods used in sawing are termed tangential sawing and quarter sawing, q, v. Sewn. The part inserted in the stock in the various processes of graftage. Seed. The body containing the embryo plant; the ripened ovule. Seedling. In nursery practice a young plant grown from seed and not having been transplanted. Seed variety. A variety that comes true from seed. Sepal. One of the divisions of the calyx. Serrate. Saw-toothed, (e. g. leaves of Balsam Poplar.) Sessile. Without stalk. Sheath. In pines, the case-like part surrounding the base of the needle cluster. Shrub. A woody plant with no main stem or trunk; a bush. 300 GLOSSARY. Simple. Composed of one part; not compound. Sinuate. Strongly wavy. Sinus. An indentation. Solar Pit. (Fig. 16.) Spatulate. Shaped like a spatula; broadly rounded at the apex; tapering toward the base. Species. A division of a genus, the plants of which seem to be derived from an immediate common ancestor. Specific gravity. vVeight compared with distilled water at 4 degrees Centigrade. Where used here with reference to wood it refers to absolutely dry wood unless otherwise noted. Spike. A simple dense raceme-like inflorescence with flowers sessile or nearly so. Spore. A reproductive body, commonly applied to those borne by plants that do not produce seed. Analogous but not homolo- gous to a seed. Stamen. Pollen-bearing organ of a flower. Staminate. Said of flowers bearing stamens, but no pistils. Often used synonymously with male. Stem. The main axis or one of the main axes of a plant. It may be underground or aerial. Commonly used in place of petiole, pedicel and peduncle. Sterile. Not fertile; not able to reproduce. Stigma. The part of the pistil upon which the pollen falls and germinates. Stipule. A leaf appendage at the base of the blade or petiole; not always present, (e. g. Black Willow.) Stock plants. Plants used to propagate from. Stoma, (pi. Stomata) Breathing pores of leaves. Stratification. A method of storing seeds with alternate layers of some other material as sand or leaves. (Page 83.) Strobilus or Strobile. A cone. (e. g. Pine, Lycopodium.) Stumpage. The standing timber. Style. The stalk, if present, that joins the stigma to the ovary. Sucker. A shoot from an underground root or stem; often applied to an adventitious shoot above ground. Sunscald. (Page 118.) Superior. Applied to ovary when attached on a level or above the other parts of the flower, (e. g. Ohio Buckeye.) Tangential sawing. The common way of cutting logs by which *,he boards on each side of the center board are sawed by a cut that is tanerent to the annual rings. This method serves to bring out the grain of wood most conspicuously. Tap-root. A central root running deep into the soil. GLOSSARY. 301 Tent-caterpillars. Caterpillars that build silky-iike tents on trees and other plants. Thorn. A hardened sharp-pointed branch. Tomentose. Clothed with matted woolly hair. Top-worked. Said of trees that are grafted or budded at some dis- tance above the ground. Transpiration. The process by which water is taken up by the roots of plants and given off to the air through the leaves and branches. Tree. A perennial woody plant with a single stem which from natural tendencies generally divides into two or more branches at some distance from the ground. Tree-crown. That part of a tree that is branched, forming a head. Tree-digger. Ordinarinarily a plow-like implement having a sharp knife-like blade that is drawn through the soil bv a team and cuts the roots off the trees at a distance from the base of the tree-trunk. Where large quantities of trees are to be dug this is a most important implement. There are various kinds; one style cuts on both sides of the row at one time. Tri. Prefix meaning three. Turgid. Distended; applied to leaves and other parts when filled with water. Umbel. An umbrella-like form of inflorescence, (e. g. flower clusters of Caraway. Parsnip.) Unisexual. Bearing either male or female organs, not both, (e. g. flowers of Willows.) Variety. A distinct and valuable variation from the original. (Page 32.) Valve. One of the parts of a dehiscent pod. Valvate. Opening bv valves. Water capital. The entire water of the earth, Weed. A plant out of place, a generally troublesome plant, not of any appreciable economic value. Whorl. Applied to leaves when arranged in a circle around the stem. Wings of a leaf. The expanded portion; the blade. Windbreak. A single row or belt of trees, which serves as a protec- tion from wind. Wood. The hardened tissue of a stem. A forest. INDEX, Orders and families in small caps in italics. Figures in parenthesis ind Page. Abele 200 I Abies 159 [ balsamea (160) 159 j coneolor 161 Acacia, False 258 ' Threethorn 252 ACERACEAE 259 Acer 259 Acer dasycarpum 265 negundo (270) 271 j penns3'lvanicum 269 platanoides (262) 263 reitenbachii 264 schwedlerii 264 rub rum (267) 266 saccharinum (264) 265 saccharum (260) 259 spicatum 268 tartaricum 269 ginnale 271 .EsCUluS 272 glabra (273) 274 hippocastanum 272 Alkali soils, Occurence 19 Amelanchier 242 alnifolia 243 canadensis 242 abovalis 242 A m eric an A spen 190 American Elm 224 American Larch 146 American Linden 277 American Mountain Ash 238 Annual rings 7 Antiseptics 74 Arborvitae (163) 162 —Douglas Golden 164 — Pyramidal 164 —Siberian 164 Ash— Black 285 —Green 284 — Hoop 7 ; genera in heavy face; synonyms licate illustrations. Page. —Red 284 — Swamp 285 —White 283 Ash-leaf Maple 271 Aspect. Effect on growth 19 Aspen (189) 190 Assimilation 13 Austrian Pine (144) 143 Balm of Gilead 193 Balsam Fir 159 —Poplar (192) 191 Bark 8 Basket Willows 178 Basswood 277 Beech— Blue (211) 212 — Water 212 Bee-tree 277 Betclaceae 203 Betula 203 Betula alba 205 alba pendula laciniata 206 lutea (207) 208 nigra 206 papyrifera (204) 205 BlGNONIACEAE 287 Bighonia Family 287 Birch 203 —Canoe (204) 205 — Cutleaf Weeping 206 — European White 205 —Gray 208 —Paper 205 —Red 206 — River 206 —White 205 —Yellow (207) 208 Birch Family 203 Bird Cherry 247 Birds, Injuries from 113 Bitternut Hickory (176) 175 Black Ash 285 Black Cherry (250) 249 INDEX. 303 Page. Black Haw 291 Black Haw 24-3 Black Locust 252 Black Oak 223 Black Pine 143 Black Poplar 199 Black Spruce (151) 150 Black Thorn (244) 243 Black Walnut (170) 169 Black Willow (180) 179 Blue Beech (211) 212 Bolle Poplar 202 Borers 112 Box Elder 271 Breed's Weeder, Use of 49 Broken branches 119 Buckeye Family 272 Buckthorn . 275 — English 275 Buckthorn Family 275 Buds 10 Buildings on a Farm. Loca- tion of (51) (52) 49 Bull Pine (140) 139 Bur-Oak (219) 218 Bur White Oak 218 Butternut (173) 172 Callousing 96 Canoe Birch (204) 205 Caprifoliaceae 291 Carolina Poplar 194 Carpinus 212 caroliniana (211) 212 Carya alba 174 amara 175 Castanea 214 dentata (213) 214 Catalpa — speciosa (288) 287 Cattle, Injuries from 113 Cedar 162 —Red (165) 166 — White 162 Celtis 230 occidentalis (231) 230 Certinensis Poplar 202 Charring timber 74 Cherry— Bird 247 —Choke 251 Page. — Pigeon 247 — Pin 247 —Rum 249 —Wild Black (250) 249 —Wild Red (248) 247 Chestnut (213) 214 Chinook of the West 30 Choke Cherry 251 Clear plantings 44 Coal-tar 74 Coatings for Wood 74 Cockspur Thorn... 245 Coffee Tree 256 Colorado Bine Spruce 152 Coloring matter of wood 71 Color of wood, a test of dur- ability 71 Condition of land in forests... 17 Conifers. 131 raising from seed 87 Coniferae 131 Conservation, Elements of.... 32 Cork Elm , 226 Cottonwood (195) 194 — Goldenleaf 198 — Narrowleaf..... 194 — Yellow 194 197 Covering of tree seeds 67 Crab— Wild (237) 236 — Western 236 Crataegus 243 coccinea 245 crus-galli 245 tomentosa (244) 243 Crooked trees, Treatment of.. 106 Cultivating seedlings 89 Cultivation 49, 64 Curing wood 73 Curtis, Production of a hot wind 39 Cutleaf Weeping Birch 206 Cutleaf Maple 266 Cuttings 93 Bunch of Willow (94) .94 Cultivation '.>."> Form and size 93 Planting 94 In solar pit(96) 95 Source of 93 30± INDEX. Page. Time of planting 95 Cutting of timber, Time 71 Damping off of conifers 88 Deal wood 141 Decay in wood 70 Dissipation, Elements of. 26 Distance between tree* .. 43 of trees from buildings, etc.. 41 Distribution of seeds 12 water supplies 34 Douglas Golden Arborvitae... 164 Douglas Spruce 157 Drouth, Injuries from 117 Dry rotin wood....' 72 Durability of fence posts 75 Durability of wood 70 Dwarf Juneberry 242 Dwarf Juniper 167 Dwarf Mountain Pine 145 Eastern slope, Effect on growth 19 Elaegnacae 281 Elaeagnus 281 Elaeagnus angustifolia 281 Elderleaf Mountain Ash 240 Elm— American (225) 224 —Cork [227] 226 —Moose 229 —Red 229 —Rock 226 —Slippery (228) 229 — Water 224 —White (225) 224 Elm Family 224 Elm Tree, Pruned (111) Ill Engelmann Spruce 153 English Buckthorn 275 European Basswood 279 European Larch 148 European Linden 279 — Mountain Ash 240 —White Birch 205 Evaporation from soil 27 Evaporation in winter 15 Evergreen seed bed (88) 88 Evergreens, Sowing seed 87 Transplanting 101 FAGACEAE 215 Page. False Acacia 258 Fence Posts, Table of Dur- ability of 75 Fetid Buckeye 274 Fighting fires 126 Fir— Balsam (160) 159 — Douglas.. 157 —Red 157 —Silver 161 —White 161 Firebreak on sand dune (125) 1 24 Firebreaks 124 Fire-fall (122) 122 Fire-law in Minnesota 124 Fires in forests 119 Causes 122 Crown 120 Prevention 123 Spring 122 Summer and autumn 122 Surface 120 Underground 120, 126 Flowers 11 Foehn of Switzerland 30 Food formation 13 Forest fires 119 Forest floor 18 Forest influences 21 on disposal of water sup- plies 26 on fogs and clouds 35 on precipitation 25 on water supplies 22 on wind and hail storms... 35 Forest management 53 European system 57 Forest, Primitive (55( 54 Forest-pulled tre«s 99 Forests, wind breaking power ,. of. 28 Fraxinns 281 Americana (282) 283 lanceolata 284 nigra (286) 285 pennsylvanica 284 pubescens 284 sambucifolia 285 viridis 284 INDEX. 305 Page. Freezing and thawing 114 Frost cracks 115 " inSugarMaple(117) 117 Frost, Injuries from 115 Frost-hardy trees 115 Frost-tender trees 115 Fruit 11 Fuel, Price of 53 value of woods 75 values, Table of. 77 Fungi in wood 70 Fungus, Shell (70) 70 Gathering seeds 82 Germination of seeds 82 Girdling bj' mice 112 Gleditsia 252 triacanthos (253) 252 Glossary 293 Golden Arborvitae 164 Goldenleaf Cottonwood 198 Golden Willow 184. 185 Gophers 113 Grades of nursery stock 98 Graftage 97 Gray Birch 208 Gray Pine 138 Green Ash 284 " seedlings. Bunch of, 99 Growth of trees an index to value of land 17 Growth on muskegs 59 Gymnocladus 256 canadensis 256 dioicus (255) 256 Hackberry (231) 230 Hackmatack 14-6 Hail storms, Forest influences on 35 Hardiness, Tables of 47 Hard Maple 259 Hardy Catalpa 287 Haw. Black 291 —Black 243 —Searlet 246 Heartwood 8 Coloration 71 Heaving out by frost (114)... 114 Heavy-wooded Pine (14<>). L89 Page. Heeling-in (104) 103 Heights of one-year-old seed- lings, Table of 90 Hemlock 156 Hicoria 174 minima (176) 175 ovata 174 Hickory— Bitternut (176) 175 —Shagbark 174 — Shellbark 174 — Swamp 175 HlPPOCASTANACEAE 272 Honey ^Locust 252 Honeysuckle Family 291 Hoop Ash 285 Hop Hornbeam (209) 210 Hornbeam 212 Horse Chestnut 572 Hot winds 39 Inarching 97 Insects, Injuries from Ill Interception of rainfall 26 Improvement of land in for- ests 35 Influence of forests 21 Injuries to tree growth Ill Interception of water in for- ests 26 Investments in timber 53 Investments, Profits from 62 Iron wood 210 Jack Pine (137) 138 JUGLANDACEAE 168 Juglans 169 cinerea (173) 172 nigra (170) 169 Juneberry 212 Juniper — Common 167 —Dwarf. 167 —Red 166 —Swedish 168 —Trailing 167 Juniperus 164 communis 167 virginiana (165) 166 Kentucky Coffee Tree 256 11 306 INDEX. Page. King's Experiments with windbreaks 29. 30 Knisely's experiments on evaporation from trees in winter 15 Larch 146 — American 146 —European (147) 148 Largetooth Poplar 191 Larix 545 americana 146 europea(147) 148 laricina 146 Laurel-leaf Willow 186 Law, Fire, in Minnesota. 124 Layers 96 Leaves 10 Leaves on conifers, Time they remain on trees 11 LEGUMINOSAE 252 Eeverwood 210 Lice 112 Life history of mature tree 60 Light demanding trees 45 Lime whitewash 74 Linden — American 277 — European 279 Linden Family 277 Location of buildings (51,52) 49 Locust 258 Black 252 Common 258 Homy (253) 252 Yellow 258 Lombardy Poplar 199 Lumber industry in Minnesota 54 Maple 259 —Ashleaf 271 — Cutleaf 266 —Hard 259 —Mountain 268 — Norwny (262) 263 —Red (267) 266 — Reitenbach 264 — Rock 259 —Scarlet 266 — Schwedler 264 —Silver 265 Page. —Silverleaf " 265 —Soft (264) 265 —Striped 269 —Sugar (260) 259 —Swamp 266 —Tartarian 269 — White 265 — Wier's Cutleaf 266 Maple Family 259 Marketable timber 54 Mechanical condition of land in forests 17 Mice 112 Mineral substances 14 Mixed plantings 44 Mixed plantings. List of trees for 46 Moose Elm 229 Moosewood 269 MOHACEAE 232 Morns 232 alba tartarica (234) 233 rubra 233 Mossycup Oak 218 Mountain Ash 238 — American 238 — Elderleaf (239) 240 — European 240 — Oakleaf. 241 — Weeping 241 Mountain Maple 268 Mulberry 232 —Red 233 —Russian (234) 233 — Tea's weeping 235 Mulberry Family 231 Mulching trees 108 Muskegs, Growth on 59 Xa n ny berry 291 Napoleon Weeping Willow 188 Xarrowleaf Cottonwood 194 Natural reseeding of timber lands 65 Xegundo aceroides 271 Nettle Tree 230 New American Weeping Wil- low 188 Northern slope, effect on growth 19 INDEX. 307 Page. Norway Maple 263 Norway Pine 134 Norway Pine crowded and open grown [63] 63 Norway Spruce 154 Nursery 98 Soil and Cultivation 98 Work and Practice 98 Nursery stock, Grades of 98 Oak 215 — Black 223 —Bur (219) 218 — Mossycup 218 —Red [220] 221 —Scarlet [222]..'. 223 -White [217] 216 Oak Family 215 Oakleaf Mountain Ash 241 Odors of decaying wood 70 Ohio Buckeye 274 Oil paints 74 oleaceae 281 Oleaster Family 281 Olive Family 281 Osier Willows 178 Ostrya 230 virginiana [209] 210 Paper Birch 205 Pasturing cattle in wood- lands 113 Pea Family 252 Picea 148 alba 148 canadensis [149] 148 engelmanni 153 excelsa l.>4 mariana [151] 150 nigra 150 pungens 152 Pcachleaf Willow 182 Pigeon Cherry 247 Pin Cherry 247 Pine 131 —Austrian [144] 143 —Black 14-3 — Bull [1401 139 — Dwarf 145 — Dwarf Mountain 145 Page. —Gray 138 — Heavy- wooded 139 —Jack (137) 138 —Xorthern Scrub 138 —Norway (135) 134 -Red 134 —Rock 139 --Scotch (142) 141 Western Yellow 139 --Western White 134 — Weymouth 131 —White (132) 131 Pine Cuttings after being burned over (56) 56 Pine Family 131 Pinus 131 banksiana 138 divaricata (137) 138 flexilis 134 laricio austriaca (144) 143 tnontana pumila 145 mughus 145 ponderosascopuloruir.(140) 139 resinosa 135. 134 strobus (132) 131 sylvestris (142) 141 Pit, Storing seeds in 81 Plans for home grounds 51 Planting, Method of. 48 Planting seedlings. Successive steps in 193 Planting to renew timber growth "4 Plum, Wild 246 Pocket Gopher 113 Pollarding 66 Poplar 188 —Aspen (189) 190 —Balm of Gilcad 193 —Balsam (192) 191 —Black 199 — Bolle 202 — Carolina 19 + — Certinensis 202 — Largetooth 191 — Lombardy 199 -Silver 202 — Snowy 200 — White (201) 200 308 INDEX. Page. Populus 188 alba (201) 200 alba bolleana 202 alba canescens 202 alba nivea 200 angustifolia 194 argentea 200 balsamifera (192) 191 balsamifera candicans 193 balsamifera intermedia 193 balsamifera latitolia 193 balsamifera viminalis 193 certinensis 202 crispa 193 deltoides (195)..... 194 deltoides aurea 198 dudleyi 193 grandidenta 191 laurifolia 202 lindleyana 193 monilifera 194 nigra 199 nigra italica 199 nolesti pyramidalis 194 suaveolens 193 salicifolia 193 siberica pyramidalis 193 tremuloides (189) 190 Van Gertii 199 wobsky 194 Prairie planting 40 Prairies, Why treeless 36 Precipitation, Influence of forests on 25 Profits from timber 62 Propagation 80 Protection from -windbreaks 41 Pruning, (109) 66, 104 Directions for 105 Purpose of 104 Time for 105 Prunus 246 americana 246 pennsylvanica (248) 247 serotina (250) 249 virginiana 251 Pseudotsuga 157 douglasii 357 Page. taxifolia 157 Pyramidal Arborvitae 164 Pyrus 236 americana 238 aucuparia 240 aucuparia pendula 241 coronaria 236 hybrida 241 ioensis(237) 236 sambucifolia (239) 240 Quaking Aspen 190 Quarter sawing 299 Quercus 213 alba (217) 216 coccinea(222) . .. 223 macrocarpa (219) 218 rubra (220) 221 suber 216 Rabbits, Injuries from 112 Rate of increase on timber 59 Red Ash 284 Red Birch 206 Red Cedar (165) 166 Red Cherry 247 Red Elm 229 Red Fir 157 Red Juniper 166 Red Maple (267) 266 Red Mulberry 233 Red Oak (220) 221 Red Pine 134 Reitenbach Maple 264 Renewing growth by sprouts and suckers 65 Reseeding, Natural ' 65 Rest period in plants 15 Restocking forest land 64 Rhamnacbae 275 Rhaxnnus v 275 catharticus (276) 275 Ripening of wood 115 River Birch...'. 206 Robinia 258 pseudacacia (257) 258 Rock Elm 226 Rock Maple 259 Rock Pine 139 RockyMountaiqWhjteSpruce 153 INDEX. 309 Page. Root growth, Extent of 9 Root formation (9) 9 Roots 8 Roots on a forest grown Elm (100) 100 rosaceae 236 Rose Family 236 Rot in wood 70 Royal Willow 185 Rum Cherry 249 Russell's Experiment, Effect of wind on evaporation... 29 Russian Golden Willow(185) 185 Mulberry (234) 233 Olive 281 Salicacieae 177 Salix 177 acutifolia 186 alba (183) 182 alba britzensis 185 alba regalis — . 185 alba vittellina 184, 185 amygdaloides (181) 182 laurifolia 186 lucida(187) 186 napoleonis 188 nigra (180) 179 pentandra ... 186 purpurea pendula 188 regalis 182 Sap wood 8 Savin 166 Sawflies, Injuries from . Ill Scarlet Haw 246 Maple 266 Oak (222) 223 Schenck's view on forest tax- ation 58 Schwedler Maple 264 Scotch Fir 141 Scotch Pine 141 Scrub Pine, Northern 138 Second growth 16 Seed 12 Seeding of timber lands 64 Seeding trees 65 Seedlings 98 Cultivating 89 Page. Seedlings, Height of one-year old 90 Seeds 80 Amount to use 89 Coniferous tree 86 Covering 89 Distribution of. 12 Dry 85 Fleshy covered 85 Gathering 82 Germination of. 82 Leguminous tree 86 Nut 86 Ripening in autumn 84 Ripening in spring and Ear- ly summer 84 Sources of. 80 Sowing 89 Stratification of 83 Variations from 82 Seed variations 82 Service-berry 243 Service tree 242 Shade-enduring trees ,. 43 Shading ground in 3roung tim- ber 67 Shagbark Hickory 174 Shapes of trees i 2 Sheepberry 291 Shellbark Hickor3' 174, Shelterbelcs, Plans of. 51 Shining willow 186 Siberian Arborvitae 164 Silver Maple 265 Silverleaf Maple 265 Silver Poplar 202 Silver Spruce 152 Size of trees 47 Sleet storms, Injuries irom... 115 Sleet storm, Trees after (116) 116 Slippery Elm 229 Slope, Effect on growth 19 Snow crust, Injuries from 117 Snowy Poplar 200 vSoft Maple 265 Soft Maple, pruned and un- pruned 109 Soil conditions 16 310 INDEX Page. Soil, Growth an index to 17 Soil, Improvement of in wood- lands 14 Soils, Alkali 19 Soils, Washing of. 18 Solar pit 95 Southern slope, effect on growth 20 Sowing seed 89 Specific gravities, Table ol 77 Spring growth of wood 14 Spruce — Black (151) 150 Colorado Blue 152 Double 150 Douglas (158) 157 Engclmann 153 Norway (155)...., 154 Rocky Mountain White 152 Silver 152 White (14-9) 148 Stratification 83 Street trees 99. 107 Distance apart 107 Kinds to plant 107 Mulching 108 Planting 108 Protection 110 Pruning 109 Watering 108 Subsoil 18 Succession of tree growth 68 Sugarberry 230 Sunscald 118 Sunscalded Soft Maple and Basswood (118) 118 Suscutan berry 242 Swamp Ash 285 Swamp Hickory 174 Swamp Maple 266 Swedish Juniper 168 Tables- Durability of fence posts.. .. 75 Height of one-3rear-old seed- lings 90 Length of time leaves of conifers are persistent 11 Page. Specific gravities and fuel values 77 Transpiration 232 Tacamahac 191 Tamarack 146 Tangential sawing 300 Tartarian Maple 269 Taxes on timber lands 58 Tent caterpillars Ill Thinning 49, 67 Thorn— Blnck (244) 243 — Cock6pur 245 —White » 245 Threethorn Acacia 252 Timja 161 occidentalis (163) 132 occidentalis aurea 164 occidentalis fastigiata 164 occidentalis pyramidalis 164 occidentalis wareana 164 occidentalis sibirica 161 Tiiia 277 americana (278) 277 platyphyllos 279 vulgaris 279 Tiliacae 277 Timber famine, Possibility of a, in Minnesota 54 Timberlands, Management of 58 Timber lands, Taxes on 58 Trailing- Juniper 167 Transpiration 13, 31 Transplanting 99 evergreens :.. 101 Time of. 101 Transplants 99 Tree, The 7 Iufluences of a 21 Tree planting 40 Trees for mixed plantings, Li>t of 47 Trees, Growth in 59 Shape of. 12 Tsuga 156 canadensis 156 Ulmaceae 224 Ulmus 224 americana (225) 224 INDEX. 311 Page. fulra 229 pubescens (228) 229 racemosa (227) 226 Undergrowth in forests 13 Variations from seeds 82 Viburnum 291 lentago (291) 290 Virgin forest, Contents of.... 54 Walnut. Black.. (170) 169 Walnut Family 168 Washing of soils 19 Waste in forests 68 Water, Amount transpired. 1 3 31 Water Beech 212 Water Capital, Circulating... 23 Water Capital, Fixed 23 Water discharged by Rhone... 23 Water, Distribution of. 24 Water Elm 224 Water supplies, Forest influ- ences on 26 Water supply in soils 16 Water table in land, Height of 37 Weeping Birch, Cutleaf 206 Weeping Mountain Ash 241 Western Catalpa 287 Western slope, effect on growth 20 Western White Pine 134 Western Yellow Pine 139 Weymouth Pine 131 White Ash 283 White Birch 205 White Cedar 162 White Elm i 224 White Maple 264 White Oak 216 White Pine 131 Crowded and then open g^)\vn !»">'<) 63 In Minn* sota 50 est < lit in Minnesota... 59 Largest yield in Minnesota.. 59 Open grown (63) 61 Western 134 White Poplar 200 White Spruce 148 White Thorn 245 Page. Whitewash 74 White Willow 182 White Wood 277 Why prairies are treeless 36 Wier's Cutleaf Maple 266 Wild Black Cherry 249 Wild Crab 236 Wild Plum 246 Wild Red Cherry 247 Willow — Almondleaf. 182 —Black (180) 179 — Common Golden 184 —Laurel-leaf. 186 —Napoleon 188 —New American Weep- ing 188 -Osier 178 - Peachleaf (181) 182 —Royal 185 — Russian Golden 185 —Shining (187) 186 -.White(183) 182 —Wisconsin Weeping. 179 Willow Family 177 Windbreaking power o( for- ests ! 28 Windbreaks of White Wil- low (43) 43 Windbreak, White Willow, Injured by saw-fly (112).. Ill Windbreaks — Height of 42 Location of. 41 Protection from 41 Trees for 42 Wind injuries 116 Winds, Hot 38 Wind storms, Forest influ- ences on 35 Winter drouth 15 Winter injuries 114 Wisconsin Weeping Willow.... 179 Woody stem cross section (7) 7 Yearly round of lile in a tree 14 Yellow Birch 208 Cottonwood 197 Locust 258 Pine, Western 139 Oft 1* -../<- Date Due olesti and 3a dentata. _285. jBi; FORESTRY AGRICULTURE LIBRARY m