Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

° Issued September 30, 1920
Washington, D. C. Revised March, 1930

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

By

WILBUR R. MATTOON, Extension Forester, Forest Service
and
ERWIN H. SHINN, In Charge, Agricultural Instruction, Extension Service

Page
Introduction . . shiiat (oyellentenle wrebteiie wervel lois
Sources of Information .......-
Community Survey
Illustrative Material
The Home Project
Topic I. Forest Trees and Forest Types .
II. Protective Effects of Forests . . ... ~
IIL, Location and Extent of Farm Woodlands
IV. Growth of Trees and Forests
V. Forest Reproduction
VI. Forest Planting
VII. Protecting Woodlands
VIII. Improving Woodlands by Cutting Trees
IX. Products from the Home Woodlands .
X. Measuring and Estimating Timber . .
XI. Using Farm Timber
XII. Marketing Timber .
Supplement ........

FRONTISPIECE

Bul. 863, U. S. Department of Agriculture

SS SSS eee

’

1 F ‘

Joqmt}Z of} Jo yINq oq} donpoid suliey sojv1g Audeu Uy

‘\so10f OMOY ITAL

: Issued September 30, 1920
Washington, D.C. Revised March, 1930

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

By Wirpur R. Martroon, Haetension Forester, Forest Service, and Erwin H.
Se in charge, Agricultural Instruction, Office of Cooperative Extension
Wor.

CONTENTS
Page : Page
MMEROMUCHIOMMe ea ee eee ae a Se en ale t -|¢; Lopic: V= Korest reproduction! 22.222". 2._ 15
Sourcestobinformation=.: 22222 ane0 Ue ees 2 Web onestrplantitigs ee seen meee Pe 16
5 ®OMMMULMI YES UTA CVE pa ee ee 2 VII. Protecting woodlands_____________ 17
MMussravivemmeaterialomes steel: een. ye ee 3 VIII. Improving woodlands by cutting
heghome rol ecta seas eee ee eee 3 ‘Chern tte ly oie See ee ene ut Oo aa 21
Topic I. Forest trees and forest types____---- 4 IX. Products from the home wood-
_ II. Protective effects of forests__________ 9 TEATS AR PN Le ii ena ae UE 24
III. Location and extent cf farm wood- X. Measuring and estimating timber -- 25
ASIN Gets wetele en lee pags ee ee 12 XI. Using farm timber_._._-__.________ 27
IV. Growth of trees and forests___----_- 13 XII, Marketing timber_..-....._._--_-- 29
INTRODUCTION

It is essential that our people become better acquainted with the
importance and value of the many forest tracts of small size con-
stituting our farm woodlands. The uses and commercial value of
different kinds of trees, the management of a tract of woods, and the
action of trees in checking soil erosion and modifying climate should
be common knowledge to an intelligent people. Much can be done
to enlighten the general public as to the importance of such matters
in our elementary and rural high schools. If the subject of forestry
is properly taught, the interest of school children can be actively
aroused and their support enlisted.

The intelligent management of the home forest is now of recog-
nized importance in good farm management. Forestry has a defi-
nite and valuable relation to farming. The farm requires timber
for building and repairing as well as wood for fuel. Trees are
needed on farms for the protection of soil against erosion, for the
shelter of livestock and crops against dry winds of summer and cold
winds of winter, for the beautifying of the farmstead, and in general
for the comfort of man. The home of many of our game animals
and birds is in the woods.

The lessons which follow present the subject of farm forestry
from the standpoint of the important local kinds of forest trees and

94231 °—380——1 i

D4 BULLETIN 863, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

their uses, the proper location of woodlands on the farm, their eco-
nomic value to the farm, the different farm-timber products, measur-
ing and marketing timber, utilizing timber rightly on the farm, pro-
_ tecting and improving woodlands, and planting young trees. A
knowledge of farm forestry, applied along simple lines, should make
farming more profitable. These lessons have been prepared to give
to the organized school work in elementary agriculture additional
impetus in forestry, to provide material for instruction that is within
the range of elementary pupils, and to furnish a topic for home
projects that may be worked out profitably to every community and
with real educational value to the pupils themselves.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The best use can be made of a publication of this kind only when
there is available in the school library, a supply of ready references
for the use of both students and teachers. Almost every State agri-
cultural college has one or more bulletins on some phase of forestry,

and when available, they may be obtained by writing to the dean of.

the agricultural college. |

Farmers’ Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture
to which reference is made in this bulletin, cover many of the topics
to be studied. These bulletins will be sent free, as long as the supply
lasts, to any resident of the United States. Application should be
made to your Senator or Representative or Delegate in Congress or
to the Chief of Publications, United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C. Because of the limited supply, applicants

should select only a few numbers, choosing those which are of special -

interest and ordering but one copy of each. When the free supply
is exhausted, bulletins can be obtained from the Superintendent of
Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at the
price of 5 cents. Other publications of this department are also for
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, but: they are more often
technical bulletins which may be of interest to those only who wish
to specialize in the subject.

Classified lists of department publications on different agricultural
subjects, one pertaining to forestry, are issued by the Division of
Agricultural Instruction, Office of Cooperative Extension Work,
United States Department of Agriculture, for the use of teachers and
extension workers. A number of textbooks on-forestry are suited to
the needs of teachers, and some of the elementary books may be used
by students. The Forest Service of this department issues circulars
on various phases of forestry which may be obtained directly from
that bureau. | ie ee tie

COMMUNITY SURVEY

The best way for the teacher to become informed about the interest
of the local people in forestry is through a community survey in
which students may assist in assembling important information about
woodlands and forests in the locality. This first-hand knowledge
of the community’s interest should be a valuable aid to the teacher
in motivating the work. The survey should be educational in char-
acter and planned to determine the kind of woodland, whether hard-
wood, conifer, or mixed type, and the important species of trees in

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 3

the forest or woodlands. It is important to make records of their
abundance and their use and commercial value, the leading rough
timber products that have been sold, and the prices received. Such
information may be collected and tabulated.

On a map of the township or one drawn by the students the homes
and farms of the different families should be indicated. The acreage
of each farm, the number and location of the buildings, and a sketch
of the woodlands should be indicated.

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL

The proper use of illustrative material will arouse much more in-
terest in the subject and will make for greater success in teaching.
It is a good plan for teachers to provide a good collection of illus-
trative material and keep it available for use when needed. Many
times students can greatly assist in assembling suitable illustrative
material. Splendid illustrations can sometimes be procured from
bulletins, books, and other publications. Pictures that show the re-
lation in size of crown and trunk of a typical tree growing in the
open and a tree growing in close stand illustrate important facts.

Drawings of the cross section of a tree trunk showing how the
tree increases by a new ring of growth each year stimulates interest.
Students may be induced to collect leaf specimens of trees of the
_ district and mount them on cardboard, after pressing and drying
the leaves. Samples of different kinds of woods obtained from trees
of uniform size of the locality may be mounted on boards or in
frames or racks constructed by students. ‘The various specimens of
woods may be classified and mounted by students into groups, such
as hardwoods, soft woods, or oaks, maples, and pines. A collection
of such woods should be a part of the teaching equipment of every
school. Charts showing the relative importance and uses of the most
abundant woods should be made. Lantern slides showing important
facts about forestry should be used in connection with certain lessons.
The Extension Service, United States Department of Agriculture,
_ Washington, D, C., has available slide sets pertaining to forestry.

THE HOME PROJECT

The use of the project method of teaching has gained wide recog-
nition in recent years. There can be no doubt that the intelligent
use of the project aids in motivation. An advantage claimed for
the project method is that it gives a better hold on subject matter
and develops a better plan of reasoning.

It is generally agreed by teachers of agriculture that instruction
in that subject should follow certain definite lines: (1) It should be
seasonal. (2) It should be local in its interests and development.
(3) It should meet the interest of the pupils. (4) It should be
practical. The home-project plan affords the best means of meeting
these conditions, especially the practical side. The pupil is working
out for himself the principles and theories taught in the classroom.

The term “ home project ” applies to instruction in elementary and
secondary agriculture and includes each of the following requisities:
(1) There should be a plan for work at home covering a season more
or less extended. (2) The plan should be a part of the instruction in

4 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

agriculture of the school. (3) There should be a problem more or
less new to the pupil. (4) The parents and pupil should agree with
the teacher on the plan. (5) Some competent person should super-
vise the home work. (6) Detailed records of time, method, cost, and
income must be honestly kept. (7) A written report based on the
record should be submitted to the teacher. This report may be in
the form of a booklet.

Type of forestry project—A. project in forestry must of necessity
be of a much different type than a project in farm crops or animal
production. The slow growth of forest trees and other factors in-
volved make it a project covering more than one season. However,
forest projects can be conducted and made of much value to the
student and community. Among the forestry projects that can be
carried out, the following are suggested: (1) The renovation of a
farm woodland, (2) the replanting of a woodland and subsequent
care of the young trees, (3) the planting of forest trees on some erod-
ing lands or other waste ground on the farm, (4) mapping and
finding area of a forest tract, (5) cutting and marketing farm forest
products, (6) giving especial attention to the proper cutting of trees
and to the removal of the parts of the trees not marketed, and (7)
a study and survey of forest fires, insect enemies, and the diseases of
the common forest trees.

Topic I. FOREST TREES AND FOREST TYPES

Aim.—To teach students to recognize at sight the chief forest trees
of the locality.

Sources of information.—Bulletins of the State foresters and State -

colleges of agriculture on forest trees; Check List (Miscellaneous
Circular 92; forest-distribution map; forest-tree key and descrip-
tion of 100 important forest trees on pages 48 to 52. The Forest
Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., is ready to identify leaves, fruit, buds, and wood that puz-
zle the young forester.

Illustrative material_—The best illustrative material for this lesson
is to be found in the woods, where the trees may be seen and their
characteristics studied. If this can not be done, pictures of typical
trees may be used. Blackboard sketches showing the forms of
different trees are easily made and should be used in this lesson.

Guides to study.—Getting acquainted with the important kinds of
forest trees in your locality. Their various common names and other
names. A few trees are known widely by the same common name,
but many are called by different names in various sections of the
country. The importance of botanical names for certain identifica-
tion. Distinguishing the different kinds or species of trees by some
well-marked characteristics of leaf, bark, fruit, seed, buds, or twig
arrangement.

Conifers: Trees bearing cones, such as the pines, spruces, firs, hem-
locks, cedars, junipers, larches, and cypress. How do bald cypress
and the larches differ from the others? Distinguishing character-
istics of each group or genus, and something about its different mem-
bers or species, particularly those that occur locally.

Hardwoods: Trees, most of which have wood harder than that of
the conifers and broad leaves which are deciduous, or are shed in the

Fate

Per ms . erin s
hla: i RNa I I AO mt ON

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 5

fall. (Fig. 1.) Kinds of hardwood trees which are evergreen.
Group the hardwood trees into general groups, such as the oaks,

FicurE 1.—White oak, a tree of wide distribution and high value, representative of
the hardwood type

maples, elms, and others, and identify as many different species of
each as possible.

Kinds of trees which are associated together in different forest
types, such as (a) ridge type, () slope or cove type, (¢) bottom-

6 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

land type, and (d) swamp type. What trees locally are associated to
make (a) coniferous forest type, (2) pure hardwood type, and (c)
mixed hardwood and conifer type.

Practical exercises Gathering leaves and fruit of the important
local forest trees; press in wrapping paper, folded and labeled with
place and date. (Fig. 2.)

FiGuRE 2.—White oak leaf, flower, fruit, and winter bud; a, Pistillate or female flower; b, staminate or male flower; c, winter bud

Studying the shape and size of leaves; trace a leaf of each of the
important kinds of trees, and label with name, place where found, -
and date.

Grouping trees by kinds of fruit borne—nuts, keys, berries, cones,
ete. :

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 7

Collect samples of winter buds from leading kinds of trees, label-
ing with name of tree, place of collection, and date.

Study of winter buds, with drawings of buds and twig arrange-
ment.

Collect tree blossoms from red and silver maples, willows, catalpa,
elm, oak, dogwood, tulip poplar, basswood, buckeye, and magnolia.

Field study.'\—Now to the woods, that you may come into personal
touch with the forest trees of your own neighborhood.

Leaves: The leaf is the trade-mark of the trees. Gather the
leaves, study and compare them to gain a first knowledge of the trees
as individuals, then as groups. The tulip poplar writes its name
plainly upon its square-cut leaf, but the boxelder has a leaf some
what resembling the ash, though its seed is similar to the maple key.
(Fig. 3) Wherein does the ash leaf differ from that of the locust or
the hickory? The oaks are divided into the red and the white oaks.
What is.a typical leaf of each class?

You will probably begin this study in the autumn, so before the
leaves fall and your memory of them fails press and either mount
them or place in paper folders, and label with name, place where
found, and date.

If the foliage of the black gum is now reddening, that of the red
gum will also soon begin to color, and presently all the woods will
seem as if on fire. The autumn colors will help to identify your
' trees and beautify your herbarium. A few of the broadleaf trees
and all the conifers except the larches and bald cypress are evergreen.
Separate the conifers into the pines, spruces, cedars, or other cone
bearers of your woods, and divide into as many species as you find.
Draw a diagram, and under the two heads, broadleaf trees and coni-
fers, group the trees that you identify, with a short description of
each.

Fruit: While you are gathering leaves, bring in the fruit, or seed, |
that you find—the pulpy fruit, nuts, berries, pods, winged seed, and
tufted seed of the broadleaf trees and the cones of the conifers, and
add to your herbarium.

Buds: As the leaves fall, gather the bare branches and study the
winter buds that hold next year’s leaves and flowers, from the big
bud that tips the horsechestnut to the long, sharp bud of the beech.
Label them as you did the leaves.

Bark: The sycamore bark tells its own story, but do you know
the bark of the elm from that of the ash? Contrast the glove-fitting
bark of the beech with the rough-and-ready coat of the shagbark
hickory.

Branches: Each tree has its own way of branching, though its
form is not always so definite as the red cedar spire. What is typi-
cal of the white-oak bough? The leaves of the scarlet and the pin
oak are considerably alike, but what is the character of each tree?
Draw a leafless elm.

Flowers: When spring comes and the buds are bursting, do not
forget the flowers of the forest trees. They form a clock dial for the
advancing year. So, as they bloom in succession, bring in the blos-
soms of the willow, the maple, the elm, and the cottonwood, until
you have gathered the last flower of June, and seed are on the wing.

17The sections on field study in Topics I and III were contributed by Miss Lucy Keller-
house, formerly of the Forest Service.

8

BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FEA OAK

FUGIAT
SIICKOLY

Whive QS/7

Aa 2 Hoyke , SOAR ee
(Reduced—not

tas NA

oe

FicuRE 3.—Leaf outlines of a few important species of forest trees.
to uniform scale)

CS,

wey ea

Bpemgae. SAW ay

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 9

While you have been getting acquainted with your trees, you
have learned that they prefer certain localities; you have found the
willow by the stream, the yellow or tulip poplar in the valley, the
ved oak on the higher ground, for one needs much moisture in its
soil while another will grow in a drier situation. You have dis-
covered that certain trees “ hobnob ” together because of similar re-
quirements for soil, moisture, and light. In this way you will learn
to group your trees into forest types when you begin your practical
work as the forester of your home woodland.

Correlations.—Drawing: Sketch the different types of trees in
the district; make drawings or tracings of the different shaped
leaves. Mount these drawings and file with other illustrative
material.

Language: An account of a field trip carefully written will make
a good English exercise. A tree booklet describing the different
types of trees, telling where they are found, some of their charac-
teristics and uses, illustrated by original drawings and neatly bound
with an attractive cover page, will furnish an excellent crill both
m language and in drawing.

Topic HW. PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF WOODS

Aim.—To teach how the forest or woods conserve soil moisture,
check erosion, and modify temperature.

Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 173 and 1071; Cir-
cular 19; Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigation.
(Forest Service Circular) ; publications of State forestry agencies or
departments.

Illustrative material_—The best illustrative material will be found
in a field trip to the woods and field. Actual examples of the effect
of the trees on woods can be pointed out. If a field trip is not prac-
ticable, illustrations may be clipped from papers and magazines
showing the erosion on unprotected hillsides and the use of trees as
shelters in pastures and about the farm buildings.

Guides to study.—With an acquaintance formed with the different
species of trees, it will be worth while to learn their value both as in-
dividual trees and associated together in woodlands.

Timber or wood products: Trees, grouped according to their value
for wood or timber. (This is expanded in Topic IX.)

How a forest cover conserves the water from rainfall or melting

snow. (Fig. 4.)

Flow of streams from open and from forested land; seepage and
springs. Protecting watersheds of city reservoirs and headquarters
of large streams from erosion and floods. State and municipal
forests. The 159,000,000 acres of Government national forests held
for protection of watersheds and streams and for a permanent tim-
ber supply. Private owners hold four-fifths of the total standing
timber in the United States.

How trees protect the soil against erosion and the formation of
gullies on steep slopes. (Fig. 5.) Examples of local hillsides and
regions of the United States.

Effect of woods as shelter against hot dry winds and cold winds
for growing grain and fruit crops, livestock, and the farm home,

94231 °—30——_2

10 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The difference felt in temperature of the air in midsummer out in
the open road or field and in the shade of a single tree or of woods.
The same as experienced on a cold windy day in winter.

Field study.—In an excursion with the teacher to the hills and
fields the class can learn, by actual observation, the bond between
the forest and the river.

As soon as the pupil leaves the open and enters the cool shade of
the woods he will note the forest floor—the undergrowth of young
trees and shrubs, the ferns and moss, and the litter of fallen leaves.
With his jackknife, or a trowel, let him dig down beneath this cover
into the mold of many years of fallen leaves. The soil will be spongy

The forest floor. Leaves and twig litter on the ground beneath the trees,
spongy layer of decomposed vegetable matter or humus, this and the lower layer of
soil interlaced with tree roots and rootlets, and the clay subsoil. Dense growth of
seedling and sapling trees covering and protecting the soil

FIGURE 4.

and moist. What happens when rain falls or snow melts? Under
the shadow of the forest it sinks into the spongy earth. (Fig. 4.)

What becomes of the rain and snow that the forest has soaked up
like a sponge? Find a spring. This is where the stored water is
seeping out to feed the streams. The rainfall that has been held back
in the hidden reservoir of the forest is here transformed into a
steady supply of water for the pasture, the farm, the mill, and the
city.
Let the class now return to the open and dig into the soil on the
unwooded slope. It will be found dry and hard. What happens
when the rain falls or the snow melts on the open hillside? It is not
held back and absorbed but rushes down the slope. In a heavy rain
the streams rise rapidly. Perhaps the class will find a bridge that

ists RIAU ne

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 11

has been carried away in a freshet. Some one may tell of the log
bridge on the farm that was destroyed. Then what happens when
the winter snow melts upon the unprotected mountain slopes and
the spring rains swell the rivers? (Figs. 5 and 6.)

While the class is on the open hillside, places will be found where
the soil, which has no roots to bind it, has been washed away by the
rain, and on some steep slope there will be deep gullies dug into the
ground.

Where does the soil go that is washed down the slope? Into the
stream. Perhaps the stream carries the silt into the water supply of
a city. If there is a river near, a sand bar may be found that has

Figure 5.—Effect of deforestation. Washing of soil and devastation of valuable farm
lands at the heads of streams

washed down from the hill country. What do muddy rivers mean
to the harbors near the coast? Who has seen a dredge at work
scooping up the silt to keep the channel free? This means a vast
expense to the country. (Fig. 6.)

The pupil who has noted these facts about woodland, soil, and
stream will begin to see the relation which the forests of our country
bear to the well-being of the land. The little examples that he finds
in his own neighborhood of soil protection and good streams, of
erosion and flood damage, are intimations of the larger meaning of
the Nation’s forests to farm land and industry and commerce. His
own home woodland is a part of nature’s plan to aid man and his
enterprise,

1: BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Topic III. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF FARM WOODLANDS

Aim.—To teach how to determine the location and area of land on
the farm on which trees should be grown as a crop.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 358, 745, 1071, and
1117; Department Bulletin 481.

Guides to study—Places about the farm where forest trees and
woods should be kept. Timber is a poor-land crop. Places where
forest trees are profitable: (1) Poor soils. (2) Steep slopes. (3)
Eroding soils. (4) Rocky land. (5) Wet land. (6) Unused cor-
ners or waste places.

Extent of woodlands in the locality: Proportion of crop land and
woodland. The total acres of woods on 10 to 20 representative
farms in a locality.

Figure 6.—Effect of deforestation. Sand bars in the stream channels. Millions of
dollars are spent yearly in dredging our rivers to keep them navigable

Practical exercises—From the data gathered in the survey con-
struct a chart showing the proportion of crop land and woodland,
the total crop acreage, and the total woodland acreage. Study the
places where you find trees growing and list such locations as in-
dicated in topics for study. What type of trees do you find com-
monly growing in each of these localities?’ What farms could profit-
ably ‘plant forest trees? What sort of trees should be planted in
case a young forest is established ?

Correlations—Dr awing: Draw a map of a farm or of the school
district, locating the poor soils, steep slopes, eroding soils, rocky
land, wet land, unused corners or waste land, and mark on this map
the names of the trees that grow on these places or that could be
profitably grown thereon. (Fig. te)

Language: Write a report showing the advantages of using the
poor soils “and waste lands for tree planting, giving examples “from
the farms of the district if possible.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 13

Arithmetic: Problems showing comparative acreage of crop land
and woodland, and percentages of each, will be suggested in the
study of this lesson.

Topic IV. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS

Avm.—To teach how trees and forests grow.

Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 173, 1071, 1256, 1486,
1517, and 1534.

Illustrative material —Potted seedlings, pots or boxes, and seeds
of trees. A chart showing roots, stems, and leaves of a tree. A chart,

FIGURH 7.—Rough, steep, and poor lands and inaccessible parts of the farm increasing
farm income by growing trees in permanent woodlands

or better, an actual cross section of a tree stem showing different
parts of the stem, such as annual rings, heartwood, sapwood, bark,
and cambium. (Fig. 8.) Leaves mounted so that their structure
can be studied. Branches showing bud and twig arrangement.
Drawings showing shapes of crowns of trees grown in the open and
grown in close stands. (Fig. 9.)

Guides to study.—The life of a tree and why it is necessary to
know something about how trees live.

The leaves, trunk, and roots, and function of each in the tree’s
existence. How the tree breathes and gets its food from the soil and
air; what travels upward and what downward in the branches and
stems, Structure of the leaf and different parts of the trunk.

14 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

How the branches lengthen and the tree trunk increases in size;
the location, color, and structure of the living tissue or cambium
layer. What are annual rings, heartwood, and sapwood?

Requirements for growth: Air, light, moisture, and heat.

Loe
I \

i oe

EN

(

“NS
AN
\y

| li mith)

i |

WW
WN
Ly
SEZ LZ
o_2ZZZZ
SSE = aS

SN
—

——

=\
\\
)) })

——
—
=

==
CE
CAI

Ge

Wa
A

Yo

Me
\

V&

———
—
=

KK

{

i
Hl
|
It
|
\
i

|
\
\

!
|

|
(

i
b
J

|
!

|
|
‘

\

)
\

|
|

I
i
Ul

2S—s = a = se

i)

=

<

FIGURE 8.—How the tree trunk grows. All growth takes place in the cambium, lying
between the inner bark and sapwood. This is a very thin layer of living cells which
divide and subdivide, forming on the outside bark and on the inside wood (A). The
inner bark, or last tissue, is soft and moist. Its function is to carry the food prepared
in the leaves to ali growing parts of the tree (B). By a gradual change the inner bark
passes into outer bark, a corky layer composed of dry, dead cells. This serves to protect
the living stem against evaporation and mechanical injury (C). The woody growth
during one season is called an annual ring. In the spring the newly formed eells are
thin-walled and spongy, while in midsummer and fall the walls of the cells become
thicker and denser. This difference can be distinguished in many kinds of trees as
light-colored spring wood and darker colored summer wood. Sapwood (D) is the lighter
colored band of wood beneath the bark, often from 1 to 2 inches thick. It carries the
sap from the reots to the leaves. Heartwood (E) is formed by a gradual change in the
sapwood by which it becomes darker, heavier, and often more lasting. Most of the irees,
but not all, form heartwood. Pith is the soft tissue on the innermost part of the stem,
about which the first woody growth takes place in the newly formed twig (Ff). From
it extend the pith rays (G). These are flat, vertical bands of tissue which connect the
pith with the various Jayers of wood and the inner bark. They transfer and store up food

Trees in association—a stand. Influence of trees upon each other.
Difference, if any, between shape of crowns of open-growth trees and
those grown in close stands. Influence of different light and soil-
moisture supply.

Effect of tree density (number of trees in a given area) upon
growth of the individual tree. Natural dying out of trees in close
stands with advancing age. Understocked, well-stocked, and over-

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 15

stocked stands and the production of (a) saw timber and (0) cord-
wood per acre under each condition. ?

Practical exercises —Make the following tests to show require-
ments for growth: Place a potted forest tree seedling in the dark
for a few days; withdraw moisture from one and supply moderate
amounts of moisture and excess moisture to other seedlings; sub-
ject plants, if possible, to different degrees of heat. Note results.
Erect a pole or 1 by 2 inch timber strip close beside a young, thrifty
sapling pine or hardwood. At regular intervals of a week or month,
mark on it the total height of the growing tree. Keep a record also
of the dates and measured heights.

Figure 9.—Effect of light supply upon the form and commercial value of trees. A, Elm
which grew up among other trees of the same height but since cut down. Clear
trunks make valuable lumber. B, This elm grew standing in the open. Trees with
short limby trunks are useful chiefly as firewood

Topic V. FOREST REPRODUCTION

Aim=—To teach how trees reproduce themselves.

Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 173 and 1177.

Illustrative material—Make a collection of seed specimens of the
classes indicated under ‘“ Guides to study.” Either mount these
seeds on cardboard or put them in wide-mouth bottles. Clip pictures
of young forest growth. :

Guides to study—Seeds: The various devices of nature for dis-
persing the seed widely. Tree fruits with (a) wings, plumes, etc. ;
(6) pulpy fruit with bony seeds sought by birds; (¢) rich nut kernels
liked by rodents and birds, and often buried or otherwise stored
away; (d) light seeds which float or roll along the bottom of
streams. Species of trees whose seeds are (a) carried by wind, (0)
water, or by (c) birds and animals. (Fig. 11.)

16 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Sprouts: Different species of trees which reproduce themselves
by means of sprouts from stumps. From what part or parts of
the stump do sprouts arise? Species which sprout from surface
or lateral roots. Influence of the season of the year when cutting
is done upon the vigor and growth of sprouts. Influence of age
of parent tree upon success of sprouting.

Natural forest reproduction: Young growth. (Fig. 10.) Condi-
tions under which young growth starts in woodlands. A forest
without young growth is hke a community without children—it
will die out. Need for large numbers of young trees for perpetua-

FicurE 10.—Woods with plenty of-young growth coming on to take the place of the
larger trees when cut

tion of the forest. Competition and shading out of the weaker
seedlings and saplins.

How the forest travels: (a) By wind; (0) by animals, birds, and
water. (Fig. 11.)

Age groups of young growth: (a) Seedling, (0) small sapling,
(c) large sapling, (d) small pole.

Topic VI. FOREST PLANTING

Aim.—To teach how to reforest land by direct seeding or planting
seedlings.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 134, 4238, 1123, 1256,
1312, 1405, 1453, and 1486; Department Bulletins 479 and 933.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS inv

Illustrative material.—Procure pictures showing different methods
of planting seedlings for a farm forest or woodland.

Study the habits of growth of young trees of the community. Col-
lect pictures of important local trees and specimens of leaves, fruit,
and bark, and keep available for class use.

Guides to study.—Starting a young forest by direct seeding or
by transplanting nursery-grown seedlings. Sowing the seed direct
where the trees are wanted. Kinds of trees started this way:
Usually the species difficult to transplant on account of large, deep
taproots, such as hickories, walnuts, some of the oaks, longleaf and
some other pines. Collecting the seed. Storing the seed over winter.
Sections of the country (North) where seed sowing is best done in
the spring and (South) where it may be done in the fall or early.
winter. Preparation of the soil and method of planting seed of dif-
ferent kinds. Care of growing seedlings.

Planting seedlings grown in nursery beds. (Fig. 12.) Prepara-
tion of nursery beds and sowing of seeds. Kinds of trees commonly
raised in nursery beds. Age of seedlings fit for planting. Need for
transplanting seedlings in nursery prior to planting out in the woods
or fields. Season of year for successful planting and method of
planting. Sources of injury or loss and means of combating.

Regions where forest plantations are needed and commonly started.
Purposes for which plantations are set out. Kinds of trees profit-
ane in plantations. Pure and mixed plantations, and advantages of
each.

Planting steep slopes and eroding soils with forest trees to check
soil wastage and land destruction. Kinds of trees suitable for taking
hold quickly and multiplying on such dry banks.

Filling up large opening in the woods and improving existing
woodlands by planting desirable species of trees.

Utilizing poor soils and so-called waste places about the farm by
planting quick-growing, useful kinds of trees: Black locust for fence
posts, pine and other species for use as treated fence posts.

Trees about the farm and farmstead for shade, nut production,
and ornamental purposes.

Practical exercises —Visit if possible, a near-by section where
forest trees are being planted. Talk with local farmers or foresters
as to the best methods to use in caring for young forests. Make a
list of the kind of forest trees observed on the field trip, and classify
the trees in order of their commercial importance. Learn to identify
different local trees.

Topic VII. PROTECTING WOODLANDS

Aim.—To teach how to determine causes and extent of injury to
trees and methods of prevention.

Sources of information.— Farmers’ Bulletins. 178, 1117, 1169, 1177,
and 1188; Forestry Bulletin 117; Miscellaneous Circular 79; State
publications. The United States Department of Agriculture and
the State agricultural colleges will be glad to render assistance by
identifying and furnishing information concerning various forest
insects and plants.

9§4231°—30——_3

18 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BY WIND

—_

A
!
=~
=f
;

.
BME 9

Ah ek) em

| feb. eset eee

naw

2 a *
Wheve!?

sycamore

FIGURE 11.—How the forest travels: By wind

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 19

BY ANIMALS

SVICKOrY |
WOAllUL
BUIVES1IU?
OaA

FIOSICY/OCUST
LCL S1170177O/7

BCCC/7

BY BAD)

AFCACELA-
Cherry

BY WATER

CVI CSS
Jupe/o GUT

Corfornwood
Wiliows ve = ste
Maples i MS eee i

Fiaurre 11.—How the forest travels: By animals; by birds; by water

20 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Illustrative material—FPictures of forest fires, burnt over wood-
lands, forest rangers, their camps and equipment, copies of the
United States Forest Regulations, and charts for fire prevention
will make excellent illustrative material. Pictures of trees damaged
by insects or fungi, samples of damaged wood, samples of insecti-
cides and materials used to prevent insects from damaging trees
should also be used.

Guides to study.—F ire, the arch enemy of the forest: It kills large
numbers of the smaller trees and kills or weakens the vitality of the
older trees; the humus layers over the ground are destroyed. The

FIGURE 12.—Planting a pine forest on worn-out and idle farm land. Fire and
grazing should be excluded

loss of the protective covering exerts a marked effect in causing the
soil to dry out and become hard as a result of which the rain is shed
off rapidly following dry weather, much as when it falls on a house
roof. Trees in farm woodlands and city parks are often seen drying
at the tops, most usually from this cause.

HELP
PREVENT WOODS FIRES
BE SURE your match is out before throwing it away.
DON’T throw away burning tobacco.
CHOOSE a safe place and make your camp fire small.

PUT OUT your fire with water and then cover it with
earth.

DON’T make large brush heaps. Choose a still day for
burning and plow furrows to protect near-by woods.

BE CAREFUL WITH FIRE

IEEE pd 8D eet bt
4 a 3 TAR

ee ae bl ar yy 2

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 21

Forest rangers employed by the States and Government for the ad-
ministration and protection of the State and national forests.
Private timberland owners protecting their lands in cooperative
effort with the State and Federal Governments. What type of men
are required for forest rangers whose duties require them to live
out of doors and ride or work in all kinds of weather? Each
national forest divided into districts in charge of rangers. Fire-
protective plans worked out in great detail for preventing, detecting,
and fighting fires as soon as possible after they start. Fire-fighting
equipment, such as lookout peaks and towers, telephone lines, and fire-
fighting tool boxes at convenient points over the forest. Cleared
and burned lines as firebreaks. (Fig. 13.) Airplanes and radio
also have their uses.

Protection for State forest lands by similarly organized methods.
Federal cooperation with the various States authorized by the Weeks
law, for the protecting against fire of headwaters of navigable
streams.

The grazing of livestock has much the same effect in removing
the protective covering and packing the ground hard. Cattle and
horses browse off the tender young seedlings and tramp down the
upper soil layers. (Fig. 18.) Sheep and goats are very destructive
to young seedlings, particularly when closely herded. Hogs feed
upon most kinds of acorns and nuts, although by rooting up the leaf
litter they sometimes favorably expose the mineral soil for the quick
germination of tree seeds. Hogs are very destructive to the seed
or mast of the longleaf pine, and the young seedlings are killed in
large numbers by animals stripping off the thick, sweet, spongy
bark from the roots.

Damage by insects: Leaf and inner bark-eating, twig-cutting,
bark and wood-boring insects. Methods of checking spread of insect
infestation by right methods of cutting.

Fungi in forest trees as a source of the dying and injury of many
trees. Some trees more immune than others. Importance of keeping
woods in a healthy growing condition and rightly cut in order to
combat the spread of fungous diseases.

Practical exercises—What damages to woodlands occur in the
district? What forest protection is in use in this locality? Do you
find any disease or insect attacking any special group of trees? Are
farm animals allowed to graze in farm woodlands? If so, what
damages do you notice?

Topic VIII. IMPROVING WOODLANDS BY CUTTING TREES

Aim.—To teach how to improve woodland by cutting.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 1071, 1117, 1177, 1256
1486, 1517, and 1534; leaflets 29 and 30; Department Bulletins 139
and 308; State foresters’ publications.

Illustrative material—Charts or illustrations showing results of
overcrowding and of proper thinning out of forest trees. Pictures
showing results of careless felling of trees. If possible, visit a forest
where these results can be actually shown by observing rings on
stumps or cutting into trees that have been several years previously
thinned. In an even-aged group, note different sizes of trees of same
age as result of differences in growing space.

D> BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Guides to study—Cutting the individual tree rightly; why as
little as possible of the tree’s stump on top should be left in the
woods; careful felling of trees. What is liable to happen to trees
injured by another falling?

Figure 13.—Good forest practice is to keep stock out of the woods and to prevent
fires. Trees, like other crops, require protection: A, Plenty of shade for stock
in the pasture and an untrampled and unbrowsed woeds; B, a plowed and burned
firebreak saved. these pine saplings

Thinning out overcrowded stands of forest trees. How fewer and
fewer trees can grow on an acre as the trees increase in size. Avail-
able light supply for growth. Purpose of thinning to utilize timber
that would otherwise die and go to waste. Also to stimulate the
remaining trees to increased growth, which means increased value.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 23

Improve the woods by proper cutting, taking out (1) the mature,
(2) broken, crooked, diseased trees, and (3) the slow- erowing and
less-valuable species of trees. (Fig. 14.) Most woodlands have

}
i | i
yi { yy
| ! |
: /
H i
|

(0 or

=-— — eee ewe awe ee ew oe ee —

|Sugar Maple)
LETT TT
| (Mature)| Mature)

Zi, l

vaesiat

Ficure 14.—The growth and e of timber stands are increased
by repeated thinning. The trees removed can generally be used
or sold profitably for firewood, treated fence posts, or small tim-
ber: A, Before thinning pines. Fifteen overcrowded trees. B,
Trees to be cut in thinning a stand of northern hardwoods

(shaded trees to be cut)

many such trees crowding out young, promising trees of the better
kinds. Making woodlands yield a profit on the investment, increas-
ing farm income and the selling value of the farm.

24 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Practical exercises —The facts taught in this lesson should be
verified by actual observation in trips to forests. Study first hand
the results mentioned in the lesson. A good project would be the
improvement of a forest plat by proper thinning, including the
removal of diseased, defective, overcrowded, and dead trees, and
undesirable species.

Correlations —The class in drawing may construct the charts men-
tioned under “ Illustrative material.” They should also make draw-
ings of trees showing development under adverse conditions and of
others under proper conditions.

Language: A survey of the general practice of home forest im-
provement of the district with a written report of the same will
afford a very good exercise in language.

Geography: A district or county map locating the farm forest
areas and designating those under improvement. An outline map of
the State locating the farm forest areas.

Topic IX. PRODUCTS FROM THE HOME WOODLANDS

Aim.—To teach what products from the home forest to use for
home and for the market.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 1071, 1117, 1210, 1256,
1366, and 1486; leaflet'29; Miscellaneous Publication 26; Bulletins 12,
605, and 753; Department Circular 327; Yearbook Separate 779.

Illustrative material_——Prepare a wall chart showing in a tabulated
form the various wood products. In each product column write the
name of the tree or, better still, place a sample of the wood that
furnished that product. Prepare another chart showing in like
manner other timber products such as nuts, roots, bark, gum, and
edible fruits, listing the trees the same as in above chart. Any of the
products from root, bark, gum, etc., will also make interesting and
useful illustrative material.

Guides to study—Wood, in a rough state, is the principal farm
timber product. What kinds of wood are used for the following
rough products: (1) Saw logs; (2) poles and piling; (38) fence
posts; (4) bolts, blocks, or billets for (a) cooperage, (6) implement
handles, (¢) wagon and automobile spokes, (d) pulpwood (5) cross-
ties; and (6) fuel wood. The sizes and other requirements for each
of these various wood products, including the species of trees which
are best suited and bring highest prices on the market. (Fig. 15.)

Forest trees which produce nuts of commercial value; roots, bark,
gum, and edible fruit. List of these products under each head and
what they are used for commercially.

Lumber is manufactured from the product of the woodland saw
logs. (How to measure sawed lumber treated in Topic X.) That
work is ordinarily done by the sawmill man rather than by the
farmer.

Practical exercises —W hat is the chief use of wood in the district?
What other forest products are made or used here? What trees
furnish the greater amount of wood? What kind of lumber is
sawed in the district?’ What becomes of this lumber? If there are
any wood-product factories in the district arrange for a trip to the
same and study the various processes from the rough wood to the
finished products. What timber in the district is most valuable?

™ i NE

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 25

Why? An interesting study to make is the part forest products play
in the construction of machinery, transportation lines, airplanes, etc.

Correlations —Geography: Trace the timber products of the dis-
trict to their market. In a like manner locate the source of timber
products brought into the district and trace their probable route.
On a State map locate the timber areas and learn, if possible, the
important kinds of trees in each area. Locate the great lumber
regions of the United States. From what ports are forest products
of the United States exported ?

Arithmetic: Construct problems in which the prices of timber
products are used. Use, if possible, the value of the forest products,
the price of timber land, and prices of the miscellaneous forest
products.

FicuRE 15.—High-grade saw logs and rough stave boards cut from woodlands

Language: Make a study of the forest products of the district and
write a report of your study. Another report of value will be that
on the forest products that are imported into the district.

Topic X. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING TIMBER

Aim.—To teach how to measure and estimate timber.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletin 1210; Forest Service
Bulletin 36; publications of colleges of agriculture or State foresters ;
handy sets of log and tree scale sticks (for northern trees apply to
Federal Land Bank, Springfield, Mass.; for southern pines, to
American Forestry Association, Washington, D. C.)

Guides to study.—Measuring saw logs: Show how the diameter
at the small end is found by measuring inside the bark along an
average line, or two measurements taken at right angles and the
two averaged. The diameter and length found, the approximate
lumber contents is found by referring to a copy of some log rule;

26 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

probably the most common rule in use is the Doyle, although for
small logs under 16 to 20 inches it is very inaccurate, because from
one-third to one-half more lumber is usually sawed out than is indi-
cated by the rule. The international log rule (for 14-inch saw kerf)
gives more nearly what small mills cut from logs. (See page 43.)

Illustrative material—Procure any good pictures showing how
saw timber is measured and estimated. Observe and study the con-
tent of tables for scaling
logs.

Correlations _—Language:
Write an account of a
method of scaling logs.

Arithmetic: Scale and es-
timate the number of feet
in a given saw log.

How bolts and billets are
measured. What makes a
standard cord of wood?

Allowances made for de-
fects in saw logs, bolts,
or blocks, and in other
material.

Estimating standing
trees: Finding approxi-
mately the contents of
standing trees in cords or
board feet of lumber by
measuring the diameter at
breast height (41% feet
above the “ ground), esti-
mating or measuring the
number of 16-foot log cuts
in the tree, and by the in-
formation given in Farm-
ers’ Bulletin 1210. (Fig.

Are Ae eee eee ee 16.) Find the merchant-
timber ‘a acne ‘of shortleat aaa ““W able contents of the tree
expressed in board feet.

Estimating whole woods: Applying the same method to all the
trees on a measured one-tenth or one- -quarter acre, and thereby esti-
mating the contents per acre. Recording the measurements by dif-
ferent species on a simple blank form ruled in squares in two
directions.

Practical exercises——This lesson should be essentially one of prac-
tice. The class should measure logs according to the Doyle and inter-
national rule (page 34), standing trees by the use of volume tables
for trees and tree-scale stick (fig. 16), and cordwood by dimensions of
the piles. A good exercise for the more advanced students is to make
estimates on logs and standing trees and then by applying the Doyle
and the international rules or the volume table test the accuracy of
the estimates. The practical value of this lesson is in acquainting
the pupils with comparatively easy ways by which they can measure

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 27

logs and cordwood and estimate the amount of lumber or cordwood
in trees.
Topic XI. USING FARM TIMBER

Aim.—To teach how to make the best use of farm timber.

Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 622, 744, 1071, 1117,
1177, and 1210; leaflet 29; Department Bulletins 683, 718, 753,
884, 909, and 1007; Department Circular 64; publications of State
foresters and colleges of agriculture.

TAG

—

i
‘a
A A
WAS

\

SS
—— ——
i
—

\

nC
\\

TRUNKOF
STANDING TREE
ATBREASTHEIGHT |

44 FESTHIGH

”

nf IN

oY
Cie

FIGURE 17.—Hstimating the saw timber in a tree by the use of a tree seale, or
cruiser’s stick. A, if the stick is held horizontally against the trunk of the tree at
a specified distance from the eye, the observer is able to read directly the diameter
of the tree outside the bark. The standard is called the ‘ breast-high.”’ diameter, and
is taken at a height of 41%4 feet above the average level of the ground. B, the
stick is graduated so that, when held a specified distance from the eye of the
observer who stands a specified distance from the tree, the observer cam read the
unaber. of 16-foot-log lengths of the tree. The principle is that of two similar
riangles

Illustrative material—Again a field trip will furnish the best illus-
trative material for this lesson. Note the height of the stumps
where timber has been cut, the careless felling of trees causing the
injuring of young trees, the tops and large hmbs left in the forest.
In the absence of field trip, pictures may be shown illustrating the
points mentioned above.

Guides to study—The right using of timber on the farm should
begin at the time the tree is cut. Waste of good timber in the woods
is altogether too common nowadays, when wood is high priced and
getting scarcer.

High stumps mean usually that the best quality of the timber in
the tree is wasted. Often the value of the timber left in high stumps

28 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

is sufficient to pay for all the costs of logging. Saw logs can now

be taken profitably from the tops which had to be left only a few
years ago. Wherever possible the tops should be worked up into
crossties, mine props, or firewood. By careless felling of trees much
promising young timber is broken and destroyed.

High grade and valuable timber should not be used in places about
the farm where less valuable woods will answer the purpose. Some-
times choice white oak worth $40 a thousand feet in the log for
veneers is split up into fence posts or black walnut used for farm
gates because it will not split. Substitutes can be found by children
upon inquiry from their parents or neighbors. ; |

Small and young timber cut in making improvement thinnings in
overcrowded stands can often be sold or used on the farm for posts,
poles, or firewood, instead of being allowed to decay in the woods.
(Fig. 18.)

FIGURE 18.—Small pine logs cut in improving the woods by thinning

Treating of fence posts: Short-lived woods when soaked in hot and
then cold creosote last from 10 to 20 years as fence posts. As the
supply of long-lived woods, such as black locust, osage orange, red
cedar, chestnut, mulberry, and catalpa become scarce, treated fence
posts are being increasingly used. Almost all farms have some com-
mon woods growing, practically all of which take coal-tar creosote
readily.

Preeid exercises.—In a field trip to the farm forests note what
care is taken in felling trees, the disposition of limbs and tops, and
the height of the stumps. What examples may be found where an
expensive wood is used that could be replaced by a cheaper sub-
stitute? What high-priced timber is found in the district? What
is the common method of treating fence posts? How do telephone
and telegraph companies protect their poles? What good and what
bad example of the use of farm timber can you mention ? |

>

fm

ee er ee ee ee

> Sg Se we Tovetle v

a ke rs ;
ve a ae ee

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 29

Correlations.—Language: Make a written or an oral report on the
methods of cutting and handling timber on the farm, with especial
reference to disposing of waste timber. Write a short account of
the best methods used in the preservation of timber used in posts,
railroad ties, and other lumber.

Arithmetic: Measure the height of stumps in a cut-over piece of
timber and calculate the amount of lumber wasted. If one hundred
7-foot black walnut fence posts averaging 5 inches square in size can
be replaced by 100 locust or red cedar posts of the same size, calcu-
late, on the basis of local prices, the amount saved by the substitution.
If creosoting a softwood post costs 15 cents each for treating but will
make it last three times as long as one not treated, assuming average
present local prices for labor in replacements and cost of untreated
posts, what will be saved in 20 years in fencing a quarter section of
land with posts spaced 12 feet apart?

Topic XII. MARKETING TIMBER

Aim.—To teach where and how to market farm timber.

Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 1100, 1210, and 1459;
Department Bulletins 683, 884, 909, and 1007; Leaflet 29; Yearbook
Separate 856; bulletins of the State colleges of agriculture and State
foresters.

Illustrative material——Timber price lists. Addresses of firms deal-
ing in timber. Local prices for cordwood, posts, crossties, and piling.

Guides to study.—F inding the best markets: Before timber is cut
its approximate size and amount by species, and its disposal should
be determined as definitely as possible. How to find buyers of cut-
timber products. How are logs, bolts or billets, piling, posts, cross-
ties, and firewood generally sold? Advertising in the newspapers,
consulting neighbors who have recently sold timber, consulting State
foresters and reliable experienced men.

The owner protecting himself by a simple form of written con-
tract: Much loss comes to sellers of timber products by failure to
observe this precaution and to have the agreement in proper written
form.

Selling timber standing: Selling for a stated sum by the acre, or
a lump sum for the whole tract or “ boundary.”

What to sell and what timber to keep growing in the woods;
what timber to sell and what to use at home. Choice logs of certain
woods bring high prices and can be profitably shipped long distances
by rail or water. (Figs. 19 and 20.)

Cooperative marketing of farm timber: Carload lots of logs, etc.,
the least amount that can profitably be shipped. Many wood
manufacturing concerns buy direct from producers in carload lots.
A farmer may not have sufficient white-oak saw logs or hickory spoke
blocks to pay to ship.

Practical exercises—What timber is being sold in the district?
Who is buying it? To what place is it being shipped? What stand-
ing timber is sold in the district? What cooperative shipping of
timber do you find? Visit a wood yard and note methods of hand-
ling the wood and get prices per cord on the different sizes of wood.

Correlations —Abundant exercises in arithmetic will be suggested
by the prices of timber and amounts sold. If a price lst of timber

30 BULLETIN 863, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 19.—The best timber brings high prices and can usually be shipped for veneer
or quarter-sawed lumber. Several owners can join in marketing a carload lot

and its products at the final market can be had, some interesting
problems can be worked out by comparisons with local prices.

For a language exercise make a report on the various kinds of
timber marketed, prices paid, methods of transportation, and
markets.

‘

Hy OB a8 eye A RRR KAY

FIGURE 20.—Oak spoke blocks, piling, and crossties ready for shipment

SUPPLEMENT

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TOG FORESTRY ON FARM WOODLANDS

DIRECTIONS FOR REQUESTING THESE PUBLICATIONS

Of the following list of publications, some are available free upon applica-
tion; others can be had only by purchase. Changes in these lists occur almost
daily. Therefore the best way is to write to the United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for those you wish to get. The free publi-
cation will be sent to you, and you will be informed of those that are available
only by purchase. Upon receipt of this information application should be
made to the Superintendent of Documents. Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C., inclosing the money, preferably in the form of postal or express
money order, although cash will be accepted. It is risky to send cash. Stamps
will not be accepted.

FARMERS’ BULLETINS

134. Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 5 cents.

173. Primer of Forestry (pt. 1). 5 cents.

258. Primer of Forestry (pt. 2), Practical Forestry. 5 cents.

423. Forest Nurseries for Schools. 5 cents.

622. Basket Willow Culture. 5 cents.

744. Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. 5 cents.

745. Waste Land and Wasted land on Farms. 5 cents.

1071. Making Woodlands Profitable in the Southern States. 5 cents.
1100. Cooperative Marketing of Woodland Products. 5 cents.

1117. Forestry and Farm Income. 5 cents.

1123. Growing and Planting Hardwood Seedlings on farm. 5 cents.
1169. Insects Injurious to Deciduous Shade Trees and their Control. 15 cents.
1177. Care and Improvement of the Farm Woods. 5 cents.

1178. Tree Surgery. 5 cents.

1188. Southern Pine Beetle, Menace to Pine Timber of Southern States. 5

cents.

1210. Measuring and marketing farm Timber. 10 cents.

1256. Slash pine. 5 cents.
1312. Tree Planting in Great Plains Region. 5 cents.

1256. Tree Planting in Great Plains Region. 5 cents.

1366. Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar. 5 cents.

1392. Black Walnut for Timber and Nuts. 5 cents.

1405. Windbreak as a Farm Asset. 5 cents.

1417. Idle Land and Costly Timber. 5 cents.

1453. Growing and Planting Coniferous Trees on Farm. 10 cents.

1459. Selling Black-Walnut Timber. 5 cents,

1486. Longleaf Pine Primer. 5 cents.

1517. Loblolly Pine Primer. 10 cents.

1534. Shortleaf Pine Primer. 10 cents.

FOREST SERVICE BULLETIN

36. The Woodsman’s Handbook. 25 cents.
61. Terms Used in Forestry and Logging. 5 cents.
117. Forest Fires. 10 cents.

DEPARTMENT BULLETINS

12. Uses of Commercial Woods of United States; Beech, Birches, Maples,
10 cents.

139. Norway Pine in the Lake States. 10 cents.

152. Eastern Hemlock. 10 cents.

3

2

BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

153. Forest Planting in Eastern United States. 10 cents.
272. The Southern Cypress. 20 cents.
285. The Northern Hardwood Forest, Its Composition, Growth, and Manage-

ment. 20 cents.

308. Shortleaf Pine, Its Economic Importance and Forest Management. 15

cents.

479. Nursery Practice on National Forests. 5 cents.

481. Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in Eastern United States. 15 cents.
544. The Red Spruce, Its Growth and Management. 20 cents.

605. Lumber Used in Manufacture of Wooden Products. 5 cents.

638. Forestry and Community Development. 10 cents.

683. Utilization of Elm. 10 cents.

718. Small Sawmills, their Equipment, Construction, and Operation. 10 cents.
753. Use of Wood for Fuel. 10 cents.

884. Utilization of Sycamore. 5 cents.

898. Turpentine, Its Sources, Properties, Uses, Transportation, and Market:

ing, with Recommended Specifications. 15 cents.

909. Utilization of black Walnut. 30 cents.
933. Black Walnut, its Growth and Management. 20 cents.
1007. Utilization of Basswood. 20 cents.
1061. Longleaf Pine. 15 cents.
1491. Timber Growing and Logging Practice in Central Hardwood Region,

=,

Measures Necessary to Keep Forest Land Productive and to Produce
Full Timber Crops. 15 cents.

DEPARTMENT CIRCULARS

. How Lumber Is Graded. 10 cents.
. Government Forest Work. 10 cents.
. Turpentine and Rosin, Distribution of World’s Production, Trade, and

Consumption. 5 cents.

. French Turpentining System Applied to Longleaf Pine. 5 cents.

CIRCULARS

. Forests and Floods. 10 cents.
. American and the World’s Woodpile. 5 cents.

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS

. Growing Pine Timber for Profit in the South. 5 cents.
. Why Grow Timber? 5 cents.

LEAFLETS

. The Farm Woods—A Savings Bank Paying Interest. 5 cents.
. Cutting the Farm Woods Profitwise. 5 cents.

YEARBOOKS

. Farm Woodlands and the War. 59 cents.

—

. Wood for the Nation. 9 cents.

. How the Public Forests are Handled. 5 cents.
. Putting Wood Waste to Work. 5 cents.

. Timber, Mine or Crop. 15 cents.

. Forestry and Forest Products. 5 cents.

=

MISCELLANEOUS CIRCULARS

_ Forest-Fire Prevention Handbook for School Children. 15 cents.
92.

Check List of Forest Trees of United States, Their Names and Ranges.
40 cents. :
_Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigation. 20 cents.

454. Naval Stores Production, Consumption, and Distribution. 5 cents. (Trade

Information Bulletin 454.)

H|
i
‘)
;

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS ByS)

STATE FORESTRY DEPARTMENTS

Forty-two States have departments of forestry, all of which publish more
or less material on varied phases of the subject. Applications should be ad-
dressed to the State foresters at the following places:

Alabama, State Commission of Forestry, Montgomery.
California, State Board of Forestry, Sacramento.
Colorado, Department of Forestry, Fort Collins.
Connecticut, State Park and Forest Commission, Hartford.
Delaware, Forest Conservation Commission, Dover.
Florida, Florida Board of Forestry, Tallahassee.
Georgia, State Board of Forestry, Atlanta.
Idaho, State Coopertative Board of Forestry, Moscow.
Illinois, Department of Conservation, Springfield.
Indiana, Department of Conservation, Indianapolis.
Iowa, State Forestry Commissioner, Des Moines.
Kansas, State Agricultural College, Manhattan.
Kentucky, State Department of Agriculture, Labor and_ Statistics,
Frankfort.
Louisiana, Department of Conservation, New Orleans.
Maine, State Forest Service, Augusta.
Maryland, State Department of Forestry, Baltimore.
Massachusetts, Department of Conservation, Boston.
Michigan, Department of Conservation, Lansing.
Minnesota, Department of Conservation, St. Paul.
Mississippi, State Forestry Commission, Jackson.
Missouri, State Department of Forestry, Columbia.
Montana, State Forest Department, Missoula.
Nebraska, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
New Hampshire, State Forestry Department, Concord.
New Jersey, Department of Conservation and Development, Trenton..
New York, Conservation Commission, Albany.
North Carolina, Department of Conservation and Development, Raleigh.
North Dakota, State School of Forestry, Bottineau.
| Ohio, Department of Forestry, Wooster.
Oklahoma, Oklahoma Forest Commission, Oklahoma City.
Oregon, State Board of Forestry, Salem.
Pennsylvania, Department of Forests and Waters, Harrisburg.
Rhode Island, Department of Agriculture, Providence.
South Carolina, State Forestry Commission, Columbia.
South Dakota, Department of Schools and Public Lands, Custer.
Tennessee, Department of Agriculture, Nashville.
Texas, Texas Forest Service, College Station.
Vermont, State Forest Service, Montpelier.
Virginia, Virginia Forest Service, University.
Washington, Department of Conservation and Devolopment, Olympia.
West Virginia, Game and Fish Commission, Charleston.
Wisconsin, State Conservation Commission, Madison.

34 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

RULES FOR SCALING LOGS

TABLE 1.—The contents of logs, in board feet, scaled by the International log
rule (using saw cutting one-fourth-inch kerf)

Diam- Length of log in feet
eter at
top end
of log 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 20
inside
bark
(inches) Contents of log in board feet
6 u 10 13 16 19 23 27
G 12 15 19 24 28 33 39
8 16 21 ME 33 39 45 52
9 23 29 36 43 51 59 68
10 29 37 45 54 64 75 86
11 36 46 57 68 80 92 105
12 44 57 70 83 97 iL 127
13 52 68 83 100 116 133 151
14 62 80 98 117 136 1&6 176
15 73 94 114 136 157 180 204
16 84 108 131 156 181 207 233
17 96 123 149 177 205 235 265
18 110 139 169 201 232 265 299 |
19 123 156 190 225 261 297 335 |
20 138 174 212 251 290 330 372
21 152 193 234 279 321 366 412
22 168 214 259 307 354 404 453
23 186 235 285 337 388 442 497
24 203 257 311 367 424 481 542

TABLE 2.—The contents of logs, in board feet, scaled by the Doyle log rule

Diam- Length of log in feet

eter at

topend

of log 8 | 10 12 14 16 18 20

inside

bark

(inches) Contents of log in board feet
6 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
a 4 i) 7 8 9 HQ 4f 11
8 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
9 12 16 19 22 25 28 31
10 18 22 27 31 36 40 45
11 24 31 37 43 49 55 61
12 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
13 40 51 61 71 81 91 101
14 50 62 75 87 100 112 125
15 60 76 91 106 121 136 151
16 72 90 108 126 144 162 180
17 84 106 127 148 169 190 211
18 98 122 147 171 196 220 245
19 112 141 169 197 225 253 281
20 128 160 192 224 256 288 320
21 144 181 217 253 289 325 361
22 162 202 243 283 324 364 405
23 180 226 271 316 361 | 406 451
24 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

KEY TO COMMON KINDS OF TREES *

The following key is intended only as a guide in the identification of the more
common kinds of trees. It is based on prominent, distinctive characteristics
which can be readily observed by those who have no special training in botany.
Most of the terms used require no explanation.
To use the key, decide first, by an examination of the leaf, in which of the
following seven sections your tree belongs; then turn to that section, and from :
the descriptions there given determine what kind of tree it is.

“This key and the following tree descriptions are by William H. Lamb, formerly Scien-
tific assistant in dendrology, Forest Service. :

aa te eT ee ee

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 35

Section.
Trees with needles or scalelike leaves, mostly evergreens, bearing cones___-_ I
Trees with broad leaves:
Leaves simple—
Alternately attached to twigs—
NVeithes toothed: CA Sess ue 86 oe ce ee Se, ee ee cee II
Hages-neither toothed nor notcheds 22 = 2 at 2 aa eee II
Opposite on twigs—
WWalielar TOOEME CaCO SES oe ee nek Ee Ba Ieee ner ae Bey ee IV
Hodges neither toothed nor notched == 2252s ee V
Leaves compound—
Aiternately. attached:-to, twitSee =o mud see ee eee ee ee VI
OW POSiCe ON EVV IS Sa ses 28 ees Oe eae Se a ee a Vil

THE CONIFEROUS ° TREES
I. Trees with needle or scalelike leaves, mostly evergreen, bearing cones

A. Leaves needle-shaped :
(1) Leaves clustered—

(a) Leaves long, from 1 to 18 inches, 2 to 5 in a cluster. Cones
large, with many thick, woody seales_.._-__ (Pinus) Pine.

(b) Leaves short (less than 2 inches long) in brushlike clusters
of 12 to 40, falling off in late autumn or eariy winter.
Cones very small, with thin scales, remaining on tree for:
OnE Or MOre! Seasons tae See ee (Larix) Larch.’

(2) Leaves single—

(a) Leaves seattered around twigs; falling off when dry or
dead. Cones elongated, with thin scales. Twigs rough-
ened by leaf-scars.

(xv) Leaves stiff, often sharppointed and more or less
PFOULSTCC Cia eee Se re eee (Picea) Spruce.
(vy) Leaves soft, flat, rounded or notched at ends,
the bases abruptly contracted into threadlike
SUOMIS 2 sro hed ose tale (Tsuga) Hemlock.

(6) Leaves in two distinct rows, one on each side of the twig;
falling off in late autumn or early winter. Cones small,
oat) =Ti cee: Se eee eae (Taxodium) Bald cypress.

(c) Leaves often in two rows on the sides of the twigs of lower
branches and mostly flat, those on upper branches stouter
and arranged on the sides and tops of the twigs. Cones
long, erect, produced only on upper side of topmost
branches; the scales falling off in autumn, leaving spike-
like central axes of the cones attached______ (Abies) Fir.

18% oes sealelike, pointed, overlapping, closely forming flat or four-sided
wigs.
(1) Twigs four-sided. Cones spherical or ball-like, with small, thick
scales armed with a spurlike point; seed with very narrow, hard
SVU RS a SE ER IN Sa ap el ei me OR A el A (Cupressus) Cypress.
(2) Twigs flattened.

(a) Cones elongated, with only a few thin scales; bent back on
IDAMCHES! shoe wile Eyer Nad aoe: oi (Thuja) Arborvite.

(6b) Cones spherical, very small, berrylike, with thin scales
armed with a tiny point; seeds with a broad, thin wing

| ® ONG EWORSIC CS S22 22 = i aie ae (Chameecyparis) Cedar.

(c) Cones berrylike (showing indistinct outlines of, but no
separation into, scaly parts). Leaves either short, scale-
like, and sharpjointed, or much longer, needlelike, stand-
ing out loosely, and attached in pairs or in threes on the
LWA Sta i ARG dk ae ee (Juniperus) Juniper.

3’ Cone-bearing.

The larches are peculiar in having single, scattered leaves on the new or: terminal
twigs produced each season. These should not be mistaken for the “ single” leaves borne
throughout by other kinds of evergreens,

36 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

THE BROADLEAF TREES

II, Leaves simple, alternate, lobed, and with toothed edges, or only with smooth
or coarsely toothed edges

A. Leaves deeply lobed, or with large notches.
(1) Leaves as wide as they are long. Fruit, a swinging ball, 1 to 114
inches in diameter.

(a) Leaves with finely toothed margins; star-shaped, the di-
visions pointed. Fruit, burlike balls, from which, when
ripe, smail, winged seeds may be shaken. Bark rough.

(Liquidambar) Sweet gum.

(0) Leaves with smooth margins, 3 to 5 inches long, pointed
lobes, the space between the lobes rounded. Fruit, a
rough ball, easily broken when ripe: composed of closely
packed, long, narrow seeds which have hairlike bristles
at their lower ends and are attached to a bulletlike
central part. Old bark of trunks and large limbs peel-
ing off in thin, curled pieces, leaving pale inner bark
showing in irregular patches_____ (Platanus) Sycamore.

(2) Leaves longer than wide.

(a) Leaves large, with deep, roundtopped, or with pointed
bristle tipped lobes, or only with coarse marginal teeth.
Fruit, an acorn, resting in a separate cup.

(Quercus) Oak.

(6) Leaves small, with little sharp teeth on margin. Twigs
bearing sharp thorns. Fruit small (like a little apple),

. spherical, with bony seeds______ (Crategus) Hawthorn.
B. Leaves one-sided (one side of leaf shorter at base than the other side).
(1) Leaves large, oval, 5 to 10 inches long, heart-shaped. Fruit, a
cluster of small, woody balls 43 to % inch in diameter, hanging
Fron a narrow. leafike DigdG aes 2 Soe (Tilia) Basswood.
(2) Leaves 3-veined at base, with long, tapering points, which gen-
erally turn to one side; edges smooth, or with small teeth of
uniform size. Fruit, a small berry about 4% inch in diameter.
(Celtis) Hackberry.
(3) Leaves with straight lateral veins, oval: edges double toothed (lit-
tle teeth on the larger ones). Fruit in clusters, dry, flat, with
papery wings all around the seeds_______________ (Ulmus) Elm.
C. Leaves even sided (both sides of leaf the same length)..
(1) Leaves oval, evergreen, thick, with short needlelike teeth. Fruit,
a. bright-red: berry: SS ee ee eee (Ilex) Holly.
(2) Leaves more or less elongated, deciduous, with one tooth at the
end of each side vein. .

(a) Trees with smooth, bluish-gray bark, and long, pointed,
chestnut-brown buds. Fruit, a small, three-cornered nut,
in a spiny husk which splits open at the top into three
DAPES: Bee = eee oe ree ee ene eee = eee (Fagus) Beech.

(6) Trees with ridged, grayish-brown bark. Fruit, large,
spherical, covered with dense, needlelike spines; splits
open from the top into 3 or 4 divisions, and containing
several thin-shelled, chestnut-brown nuts.

(Castanea) Chestnut.

(3) Leaves very narrow, long, pointed, finely toothed. Small branches
slender, usually tough. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled

WITH: “Cotton = i(Sdeds ) = === ee eer (Salix) Willow.

(4) Leaves somewhat triangular in outline, broad at base, pointed,
toothed. Buds of some species coated with aromatic gum.
Branches coarse. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled with
‘Seatton = (Seeds) 252254 ee ee aes (Populus) Poplar,

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 3ST

C. Leaves even sided—Continued.
(5) Leaves oval, pointed, with sawlike teeth.
(a) Fruit a tiny sealy cone.

(v2) Bark of trunk and branches peeling off in thin
papery sheets. Leaves double toothed (little
teeth on the larger ones.) Fruit (‘‘ cones’’)
borne singly, pendulous, scaly, falling apart
when ripe, seeds with gauzelike wings on two
STG no are Fe Be aber Rak Ae eae Ak (Betula) Birch.

(y) Bark smooth or broken, but not peeling. Leaves
with small teeth. ‘“* Cones” several in a cluster
cn stiff, upright stems, hard, woody, not falling
apart; seed with narrow wings on two sides.

(Alnus) Alder.
(0) Fruit, a berry; fleshy, edible.

(a2) Leaves large, 3-veined at base, often irregularly,
deeply lobed; containing milky juice. Fruit
similar in appearance to a blackberry.

(Morus) Mulberry.

(y) Leaves small or medium sized, feather-veined ;
containing green juice; fruit (cherry or plum)
with one hard-shelled, flattened or spherical seed.

(i) Seed (‘‘ stone”) flattened. Fruit large

and short-stemmed____ (Prunus) Plum.
(ii) Seed spherical. Fruit small and long-
Stemmed==2- 222 3 (Prunus) Cherry.

III. Leaves simple, alternate; regularly or irregularly lobed, edge neither
toothed nor notched
A. Leaves with deep lobes.

(1) Leaves with blunt ends (appearing as if cut off), and with two,
pointed, side lobes. Flowers tuliplike. Fruit conelike, pointed,
upright, composed of long, thin, overlapping, winged seeds.
Bruised twigs have a peppery odor__(Liriodendron) Tulip Poplar.

(2) Leaves with rounded ends; oval, often with a lobe on one side,
making the leaf mitten-shaped, or sometimes with a lobe on each
side. Bruised twigs and inner bark of trunk sweet-smelling.

(Sassafras) Sassafras.
B. Leaves without lobes.

(1) Bruised twigs with peppery odor.

(a) Leaves oval (evergreen in one species) or elongated,
pointed, large. Flowers large, at ends of branches.
Fruit conelike, with a bright red seed in each division.

(Magnolia) Magnolia.

(2) Bruised twigs without peppery odor.

(a) Leaves broader at top than at the base, 8 to 12 inches
long, with very short leafstalk. Fruit fleshy, edible,
clongated, 3 to 4 inches long, with thick, yellowish,
smooth skin when ripe, and large, bony, flat seeds.
Buds brown and haiky. 2-222 (Asimina) Papaw.

(6) Leaves broadest at middle, oval, 3 to 10 inches long.

(v) Fruit short-stalked, spherical, 1 to 14% inches in
diameter; when ripe pale orange color, sur-
rounded at base with old flower-cup; very
bitter, but edible after frost.

(Diospyros) Persimmon.

(y) Fruit long-stalked, elongated or spherical, solitary
or in pairs, with thin flesh and a ridged stone
OTESCC GS a eee ee Terre as (Nyssa) Gum or Tupelo.

(c) Leaves rounded or heart-shaped, 3 to 5 inches across.
Flowers pealike, pink, appearing before the leaves.
Fruit, a dry flat pod, 2% to 3% inches long; in dense
clusters on sides of branches; seeds, hard, small, oblong,
Pair 0G) Oa (oy Ores aaa ge ane wy Ola eae nS el Mi (Cercis) Redbud.

(3) Bruised or cut twigs and leaves with milky juice.

(a) Leaves with narrow points. Twigs bearing thorns. Fruit
large, orangelike, with smooth, uneven surface, 4 to 6
inchessin; Giameters.-= 22. 22— = (Toxylon) Osage orange.

38 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

IV. Leaves simple, opposite, with lobe-toothed edges

A. Leaves with large (often lobelike) teeth. Fruit in pairs, each part with a
conspicuous, fiat, very thin wing. Fruit matures in spring or in autumn,
when it becomes dry and yellowish-brown________________ (Acer) Maple.

= V. Leaves simple, opposite, edges neither toothed nor notched

A. Leaves very large, heart-shaped long-pointed. Flowers showy, trumpet-
like, in large upright clusters. Fruit, a long, cylindrical pod, 6 to 14
inches long, containing closely packed, flat, dry seeds, with fringed wings
atelier Glaser 2 aac ae Tee See eee eee (Catalpa) Catalpa.

B. Leaves rather small, oval, tapering at base and point. Flowers conspicuous,
white (occasionally rosy), appearing with the expanding leaves. Fruit,
a small cluster of two-seeded berries, turning red in autumn.

(Cornus) Dogwood.

VI. Leaves compound, alternately attached to twigs

A. Leaflets small, many, attached along two sides of a main stem. Fruit, a
flat, bean, dry or fleshy pod.

(1) Leaflets with small wavy teeth. Pods flat, broad, long, often
twisted, thin-skinned, with thick, cheesy, sweetish pulp about
seeds. Trees with long, keen, branched thorns on the trunk.

SENSIS Honey locust.

(2) Leaflets not toothed.

(a) Twigs with pairs of short, keen thorns. Leaflets oblong,

rounded at ends. Flowers showy white, in large clus-
ters. Pods small, flat, thin, dry, with small seeds.
; (Robinia) Black locust.
(6) Twigs stout, thornless. Leaflets oval, pointed. Flowers
greenish, with violet odor. Pods large, flat, thick, with
greenish jellylike pulp (poisonous) around the large,
black-brown seeds__________ (Gymnocladus) Coffee tree.
B. Leaflets large. Fruit, spherical, with a separable or inseparable husk, con-
taining a hard-shelled nut.

(1) Leafiets narrow at base becoming larger at outer end. Nut light-
-colored, smooth, in a husk ween Separates more or less ¢com-
pletel into four parts when ripe__-__________ (Hicoria) Hickory.

(2) Leaflets broader at base, becoming narrower at outer end. Nut
dark, rough, in a fleshy husk which is inseparable by natural
divisions and turns black when old. Pith of twigs forms numer-
OUS cCLOSS-PATCLtLON G2 es ee eee (Juglans) Walnut.

VIII. Leaves compound, opposite on twigs

A. Leaflets arranged along two sides of a main leafstalk, with a leaflet at the
end.

(1) Leaflets generally 3 (sometimes 5), toothed only near the ends.

Fruit, a cluster of dry, winged seeds, arranged in pairs like those

OF MB le = ee oa a ae Se Ce (Acer) Boxelder.®

(2) Leaflets generally more than 8 (38 to 11), and either not toothed

or with small teeth. Fruit, a cluster of single-winged, dry, oar-

shaped!) Seed Sif sits 26 seas ee ee ee (Fraxinus) Ash

B. Leaflets (5 to 9) clustered at end of a main leaf-stem. Fruit, with a thick,

warty or prickly husk, which separates into several parts containing a

Shimy Drowns Nit es ere ee a Pe re sts 8 ae (Asculus) Buckeye.

> Boxelder, a true maple, differs from the others in having compound leaves.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

39

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES‘

Name

Distribution *

1. White pine (Pinus strobus) _-

2. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) -

2

. Red or Norway pine (Pinus
resinosa) . :
4, Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) ___-

. Loblolly pine (Pinus txda) _-

on

6. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echi-
nata) .

7. Spruce pine (Pinus glabra) _-

8. Virginia pine (Scrub pine)
(Pinus virginiana).

9. Pond pine (Pinus rigida sero-
tina).

10. Slash pine (Cuban pine) (Pi-
nus caribaea) .

11. Longleaf pine (Pinus palus-
tris).

12. Tamarack or Larch (Lariz
laricina) .

13. White spruce (Picea glauca) -
14. Black spruce (Picea mariana)

15. Red spruce (Picea rubra) ___-

16. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) -

17. Southern cypress ( Tazodium
distichum).
18. Balsam fir (A bies balsamea) _.

19. Southern balsam fir (Abies
frazeri).

20. Northern white cedar ( Thuja
occidentalis) .

21. Southern white cedar (Cha-
maecyparis thyoides) .

22. Red cedar (Juniperus vir-
giniana) .

23. Red gum
styraciflua.)

24. Sycamore (Platanus
dentalis).

(Liquidambar

occi-

25. White oak (Quercus alba) ___-

26. Bur oak (Quercus
carpa).

™Macro-

27. Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata)

28. Post oak (Quercus stellata) ___

8 Kastern half of United States.

7 Stated only i in very general terms.

Northeastern and Lake States
and Appalachian Mountains.

Northern tree, best growth
north of Lake Superior.

Northern tree, associated with
white pine.

Northeastern and middle At-
lantie States.

Southeastern United States—
Coastal plain, New Jersey
to Texas.

Middle Atlantic and Southern
States, with hardwood trees.
Piedmont uplands, New
Jersey to Texas.

Southeastern States____._____-

Middle Atlantic States to In-
diana.

Southeastern States in Coastal
Plain. Scattered.

Southeastern and Gulf States,
in poorly drained soils; up-
lands in Georgia, associated
with longleaf pine.

South Atlantic and Gulf
States.

Northeastern and Lake States
and in Canada to Alaska;
best growth in Canada.

Northeastern and Lake States
and Canada.

Northeastern and Lake States
and in Canada to Alaska.

Northeastern States, Canada,
and Appalachian Mountains
Northern and Eastern States
and in mountains to Georgia.

South Atlantic and Gulf
States; in Swamps.

Northeastern and Lake States
to southwest Virginia.

High southern Appalachian
Mountains.

Northeastern and Lake States
and eastern Canada.

Swamps of eastern and Gulf
Coast States.
Eastern United States_________

Central and Southeastern
United States.
Eastern United States________-

Central and Northeastern
United States to the Dako-
tas, Nebraska, and Texas.

Southeastern United States____

Eastern United States________-

Characteristics

Fine timber tree; leaves in clusters of 5,
3 to 5inches long.

Common on sandy soil; leaves in clus-
ters of 2, 34 to 1% inches long.

Leaves in clusters of 2, 5 to 6 inches
long.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 3 to 5 inches
long.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 6 to 9 inches
long. Cone, 2 to 3 inches in diameter

Leaves in clusters of 2 and sometimes 3,
3 to 5inches long. Cone small, 1 to
2 inches in diameter.

Leaves in clusters of 2, 1144 to 3 inches

long.
Do.

Leaves 6 to 8 inches long, tree similar to
pitch pine but cones remain closed for
several years. Cone egg-shaped.

Leaves in clusters of 2, sometimes 3, 8 to
12 inches long. Important turpen-
pentine tree.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 8 to 18 inches
long. Important turpentine tree.

Leaves needle-shape, 34 to 114 inches
long, in dense, brush-like clusters;
falling off in winter.

Leaves 44 to 34 inch long, arranged
singly around the smooth twigs;
whitish.

Similar to white spruce, but twigs are
minutely hairy; cones strongly at-
tached.

Similar to black spruce, but cones begin
to fall when! ripe.

Leaves 44 to 2 inch long, attached by
tiny leatstalice: cones 14 to 34 inch

long.

Leaves 14 to 34 inch long, falling off in
winter; cones ball-like.

Leaves \V% to 114 inches long; cones up-
right, falling to pieces when ripe.

Similar to balsam fir, except that the
cones are covered with protruding
scaly bracts.

Leaves scale-like; cones 4 to 4% inch
long, bent backward on twigs, which
are flat.

Cones ball-like; leaves somewhat re-
sembling arborvite.

Leaves scale-like, those on young shoots
and seedlings awl-shaped and spread
ing; young cones changed into a firm
berry.

Leaves star-shape; fruit a bur-like ball
suspended by a long stalk.

Leaves broad and coarsely toothed;

base of leafstalk inclosing a winter
bud in peculiar manner; fruit a hard-
surfaced, long-stalked ball.

Leaves deeply lobed, not bristle-tipped;
acorns ripening in one season.

A white oak with fringe-edged acorn
and larger leaves more deeply lobed.

A white oak with acorns completely or
almost covered by the thin cup.

A white oak with leaves cut deeply
above and below the middle lobes,
forming the suggestion of a cross.

Most of these are important as commercial timber trees; a few, however,
are small sized and included because of their botanical importance and wide occurrence in mixture with
timber trees, particularly i in second-growth forests.

More detailed descriptions of the ranges of trees in this list, and of

all the trees indigenous to the United States and Canada, will be found in Check List of the Forest Trees

of the United States.

(Forestry Bulletin 17.)

40)

BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47,

48.

49.

Name

Chestnut oak (Quercus mon-
tana).

Red oak (Quercus borealis
maxima) .

Black oak (Quercus velutina) -

Pin oak (Quercus palustris) __|

Southern red or Spanish oak
(Quercus rubra).

Water oak (Quercus nigra) __-

Willow oak (Quercus phellos) -

Live oak (Quercus virginiana) -

Basswood ( Tilia glabra) _____-

White basswood (/7ilia
heterophylla) .

Hackberry (Celtis occi-
dentalis) .

American elm (Ulmus ameri-
cana).

Slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) -
Cork elm (Ulmus racemosa) -

Holly (Jlex opaca)

Beech (Fagus grandifolia) ____|

Chestnut ( Castanea dentata) _

Chinquapin (Castanea pu-
mila).

Black willow (Saliz nigra) ___

Balsam poplar (Populus bal-
samifera) .

Cottonwood (Populus del-
toides).

Distribution

Characteristics

Northeastern United States
and Appalachian Moun-
tains. Common on ridges.

Eastern United States_________

Central and Southeastern

States.

Southeastern United States___

Eastern United States_________

South Atlantic
States.

and Gulf

Northeastern United States ___

Middle and South Atlantic
States.

Middle Atlantic States to the
Dakotas, Kansas, and Mis-

souri. :
Eastern United States________

Northeastern United States ___

Eastern United States_________

Northeastern and Middle At-
lantic States.

Middle and Southern States___

Eastern United States_________

Northern United States______-

Northeastern United States___

A white oak with leaves resembling
those of the chestnut, and with long,
large, shallow-cupped acorns.

Leaves deeply cut, with bristle-tipped
points; acorns ripening in 2 seasons;
large, with very.shallow cups.

An oak with thicker, large, glossy
leaves which are more or less minutely
woolly beneath; acorns with small
cups, aS deep or deeper than wide.

A red oak with smaller leaves and
smaller and shallower cupped striped
acorns.

A red oak with leaves very deeply cut,
the upper central portion being very
narrow and sometimes slightly
curved, and with dense, tawny-
yellow wool beneath.

A red oak; leaves not toothed, small,
tapering from broad top-end to the
base; sometimes 3-lobed. Small
acorns with shallow cup. Much
planted as street trees throughout
South.

A red oak with leaves resembling a
smooth-edged willow or peach leaf.
Much planted as street shade tree
in Middle Atlantic and Southern
States.

An evergreen oak with narrow, smooth-
bordered leaves which are turned
under on the edge and pale-woolly
beneath and glossy above; small,
pointed acorns with long stalks.

Leaves smooth, broadly heart-shaped
with finely toothed edge; fruit a
cluster of little woody balls sus-
pended from the middle of a long
narrow leaf-like bract.

Similar to basswood except that the
leaves are whitish (or minutely
woolly) beneath.

Leaves finely toothed, long pointed;
fruit a long-stalked, single-seeded
berry with very thin, sweetish flesh.

Leaves Sharply toothed; fruit flat, pap-
ery, about 14 inch long, fringed
around with tiny hairs.

Long leaves, very rough on the upper
side; inner bark is slippery when
chewed, and the fiat fruits have a
smooth edge.

Differing from other elms in having

fruit minutely hairy all over, and
twigs with conspicuous, corky ridges.

Evergreen tree, the leaves having spiny
teeth, and fruit a bright red berry,
remaining attached through the
winter.

Leaves with saw-tooth edge; fruit a
light brown spine-covered bur con-
taining a 3-cornered brown nut.

Long narrow leaves with sharp, for-
ward-pointing teeth; fruit aspherical,
spiny bur containing several! brown
nuts. A plant disease is rapidly
killing chestnut.

Leaves smaller than chestnut and
finely woolly beneath; but one nut in
the spiny husk. Mostly known asa
shrub, but reaches tree size.

Leaves slender, long-pointed, and
finely toothed. The largest of our
eastern willows, difficult to distin-
guish from other willows.

Large leaves, very broad at base,
toothed, whitish beneath, with round
leafstalk. ;

Leaves triangular, long-pointed,
toothed, smooth, with flattened leaf-
stalk.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

4]

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name

Distribution

54.

58.

59.

60.
61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

73.

74.

. Swamp cottonwood (Popu-

lus heterophylla).

. Aspen (Populus tremuloides.)
_ Large-tooth aspen (Populus

grandidentata) .

. Paper birch (Betula papy-

rifera).

Sweet birch (Betula lenta) __-

. Yellow birch (Betula lutea) ._-
. Red mulberry (Morus ru-
bra).

. Wild plum (Prunus ameri-

cana).

Wild red cherry (Prunus
pennsylvanica) .

Choke cherry (Prunus vir-
giniana) .

Black cherry (Prunus sero-
tina).

Yellow poplar (Liriodendron
tulipifera).

Sassafras (Sassafras offici-

nale).

Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) -

Swamp black gum (Nyssa
biflora).

Tupelo gum (Nyssa aquati-
ca). Known also as cotton
gum. Associated with
cypress.

. Sour tupelo gum (Nyssa

ogeche).

. Sweet bay (Magnolia virgini-

ana). Known also as
sweet magnolia.

. Cucumber-tree (Magnolia

acuminata) .

. Mountain magnolia (Mag-

nolia frasert) .

. Bigleaf magnolia (Magnolia

macrophylla) .

Persimmon (Diospyros virgi-
nianda).

. Redbud ( Cercis canadensis) __

Osage orange (Tozylon
pomiferum) .

Sugar maple (Acer sac-
charum).

South Atlantic and Gulf States

Northern and Western United
States.
Northeastern United States.

Northern United States_______

Northeastern United States ___

Southern States______________

Swamps of Southeastern
Coastal States.

Swamps, South Carolina to
Florida.

Coastal swamps, Southeast-
ern and Gulf States.

Eastern United States_________

Native to Arkansas, eastern |
Oklahoma, and Texas, but |
widely planted throughout
eastern United States.

Eastern United States________

Characteristics

Heart-shaped leaves with round leaf-
stalk, minutely woolly on underside
when young; smooth later.

Leaves broad, finely toothed, leafstalks
flat, longer than blades.

Leaves broad, coarsely toothed, with
flattened leafstalks.

Leaves broad at base, finely toothed,
fruit a papery cone which falls apart
when ripe; white bark peeling off in
thin sheets.

Bark dark brown, hard and close, not
peeling off in sheets; tiny scales of
cones smooth, not minutely hairy
along edges asin yellow birch.

Bark yellow-gray; tiny scales of the
cones minutely hairy along edges.

Leaves large, heart-shaped, sharply
toothed; fruit red or black, black-
berrylike.

Leaves conspicuously veiny, pointed,
finely toothed; fruit red or yellow
with short stalks; branches with
spinelike twigs. Small tree.

Smooth red-brown bark; leaves re-
semble those of the peach; _ fruit
bright red when ripe, long-stalked in
clusters of3 to 5.

Fruit in a long cluster, ripe berries
glossy black, bitterish, producing a
puckering sensation in the mouth.

Fruit resembles choke cherry, but
smaller and thin-fleshed.

Leaves large, blunt or with deep notch
at end; flowers large yellow; tulip-
like; fruit a woody, upright cone.

Leaves oval with one lobe like a ‘‘ mit-
ten,’’ or with a lobe on each side.
Twigs and inner bark fragrant.

Large tree; leaves oval with smooth
edge. Fruit an elongated black ber-
ry with seed but little flattened and
searcely ridged.

Small tree; resembling black gum, but
fruit, which also grows in pairs, has a
flattened and ridged stone.

Large tree; fruits produced singly, with
a stalk longer than the fruit; stone of
fruit sharp-edged or winged.

Small tree; resembling tupelo gum,
but fruits with stalks shorter than
the fruit itself.

Small flowers, white, fragrant.
silky-white beneath.

Leaves

Leaves large, oval, smooth-bordered,
pointed; flowers greenish yellow;
fruit slender.

Flowers white; leaves deeply lobed at
base, forming ‘‘ears.’’

Flowers large, white; leaves very large,
with ‘‘ears”’ at base, and white be-
neath. Largest leaved tree in North
America (20 to 30 inches long).

Leaves oval, smooth, with smooth
margin; fruit orange colored, 1 to 144
inches in diameter, edible in late fall
after frost.

Leaves heart-shaped, smooth margin:
fruit a pealike pod in clusters of 4
to 8; flowers resembling a small rose-
colored sweet pea.

Glossy leaves with smooth edges;
fruit a heavy ball, resembling an
orange, 4 to 5 inches in diameter,
milky juice.

Leaves 3 to 5 lobed with large rounded
teeth; fruit a pair of keys ripening in
autumn. Yields maple sugar.

42

80.

82.

83.

90.

91.

92.

. Honey

BULLETIN 863, U.

S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name
- |
. Silver maple (Acer sac- |
charinum).

76. Red maple (Acer rubrum) __-

7. Boxelder (Acer negundo, in-
cluding 6 varietal forms). |

. Hardy

eatalpa (Catalpa

SPeci0sa).

. Dogwood (Cornus florida) ___

Blue dogwood ( Cornus alter-
nifolia) .

locust (Gleditsia

triacanthos) .

Black locust (Robinia pseud-
acacia).

Kentucky cofiee-tree (Gum-
nocladus dioicus).

. Peean (Hicoria pecan) _______-

5. Bitternut hickory (Hicoria

cordifor mis).

. Water hickory ( Hicoria aqua-

tica).

. Shagbark hickory (AHicoria

Distribution

/ South Central States, widely

cultivated elsewhere.

Eastern United States________!

]

Characteristics

Yields maple sugar.

Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, finely toothed;
reddish fruit ripening in spring or
early summer. - Yields maple sugar.

_ Leaves compound, the leaflets toothed;
fruit ripening in early summer and
remaining on trees during winter.

Leaves large, heart-shaped; fruit a long
“pod’’ filed with flat seeds which are
tufted ateachend. A better shaped
tree than common catalpa (Catalpa
bignonioides).

Eastern United States i oa pia Leaves mostly clustered at ends of

Northeastern States and Ap-
palachian Mountains.

Central States and Minnesota

to Texas. Widely culti-
vated elsewhere.
Appalachian region, widely

cultivated and naturalized
all over United States.

Mainly in Ohio and Missis-
sippi Valleys.

Mississippi Valley

Eastern United States_________)

Gulf States and Lower Mis- |

sissippi Valley.
Eastern United States_________

ovata).
. Big nut shagbark hickory |____- 6 | 9 Oc RD Atma RAE 2
(Hicoria laciniosa).
89. Mockernut hickory (Hicoria |_____ a Fe eee ete a Ey els ee
alba).
Pignut - hickory (Hicoria \____- 1G 2h ae ae Bee ee ee
glabra).
Black walnut (Juglans nigra) \----- (OS. 225 ee ee
Butternut (Juglans cinerea) __/____-do SE Sa Ble Be eee
White ash (Frazinus ameri- zeratie GG: 22 ee eee ee

93.

cana).

branches, with slightly wavy mar-
gins; flowers white with four large
bracts resembling petals. Leaves
opposite.

Leaves resembling those of flowering
dogwood, but alternate in arrange-
ment; white flowers without the four
large petallike bracts.

Leaves Goubly-compound, the leaflets
with slightly wavy margins; fruit a
flat pod a foot or more in length,
twisted when dry. Trees with
large branching thorns.

Leaves compound, leaflets with smooth
margins; fruit a pod 3 to 4 inches
long. Trees with pairs of short
thorns at the base of leaves and
twigs. Wood heavy and durable in
the ground.

Leaves doubly compound, the pointed
leaflets with entire margins; fruit a
large, woody, wide pod, 6 to 10 inches
long, 144 to 2 inches wide containing
a greenish jelly, which is poisonous.
Trees without thorns.

Bud scales few, shell of nut thin, husk
wing-ridged, with large cavities; nuts
elongated with sweet Kernel.

Nut broader than long, without angles,
sary thin shelled; bitter kernel, husk
t

Nut broad, with bitter Kernel.

Buds with many scales (all of the
preceding hickories have buds with
few scales); bark loosening from trees
in shaggy strips.

Leaves large; large, angled, thick-shelled
nuts with thick husks splitting to the
base; bark shaggy as in preceding.

Leaves large, hairy; buds large, bud-
seales many; bark closely furrowed,
not separating from the trunk. Nut
with thick husk, large, angled, thick-
shelled.

Leaves small, smooth; fruit abruptly
tapering at base to thick stem (resem-
bling a small fig); husk barely split-
ting at top end and usually retaining
the nut.

Leaves compound with toothed edges;
spherical fruit growing singly or in
pairs; bark brown, furrowed.

Leaves compound, with toothed edges;
fruit in hanging clusters of 3 to 5,
pointed and elongated, with viscid
hairs when young. Velvety cushion
just above leaf-scar; bark gray and
smooth on young trees.

Smooth twigs, opposite; leaves com-
pound, leaflets toothed or wavy on
the margins and paler beneath; seed
with a plump, well-rounded body and
a wing extending almost entirely
from the end and borne in dense
clusters. High-ground tree. .

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS A3

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name Distribution Characteristics

94. Red ash (Frazinus pennsyl- | Eastern United States________ Differs from white ash in having young

vanica). twigs and leaflets (beneath) velvety
and wing of seed extending down
along sides of seed body, which is

2 narrow. A low-ground tree.

95. Green ash (Frazinus penn- |____- (8 KO GE 7) SE NT | Like the preceding, except twigs are
sylvanica lanceolata). smooth, leaflets sharply toothed;
| body of seed and pointed wing very

narrow. Low-ground tree.
96. Pumpkin ash (Frazinus pro- | Southern States______________-_ Resembling red ash, but seeds are very
= funda). much larger, sometimes twice the

size. Swamp tree.

97. Black ash (Frazinus nigra) ._| Northern and Lake States____- Leaflets stemless, finely toothed, 7 to

11; seeds with a flat, wide wing, which

extends conspicuously down _ the

sides of the seed body and is blunt.

Swamp tree.

98. Water ash (Frazinus caro- | Southeastern States___________ Leaflets oval-elongated, barely pointed;
liniana). seeds with a very broad, short-

; pointed wing. Swamp tree, often

| “ i on inundated river Swamps.

99. Ohio buckeye (Aesculus | Ohio and Mississippi Valleys__| Leaves palmately compound like horse-

glabra). chestnut; fruit knobby, prickly,
spherical. Small tree.
100. Yellow buckeye (Aesculus |____- (GOV Ss rn at aM an i pee Leaves resembling the preceding, but
octandra). ee smooth. Large tree (90 feet
igh).

ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

March 10, 1930

Secretary: of Agriculiwres= 22 22 eee ARTHUR M. HYDE.

AIS SUSUGIE = SCCEECLOI Ye = ee es ees R. W. DUNLAP.
Director. oj. Scientific Work _. A. F. Woobs.
Director of Regulatory Work __________—_.- WALTER G. CAMPBELL.
Director of -—ELUENSION W OTe ee C. W. WARBURTON.

Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. STOCKBERGER.
tration.

Director of Information = M. S. EISENHOWER.

SOUGCIL OTS i 2 Be Bee ee a eae ee HY. L. MARSHALL.

Weather ’BureQus 22 eee ee ee CHARLES EF. MArvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry__—__---__- = JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief.

PUT COA. Of. 2D OUT LOWS U1 eee ae O. E. REED, Chief.

Burea- of Liant Ins 2 ee eee WILLIAM A. TAyLor, Chief.

UG CSE SCONCES ee ee eed See Re Y¥. STUARTCiief.

Bureau of Chemistry and Soitls_____-_____-_- H. G. Knicut, Chief.

BUG Of LE NLOMOLOGY = ee ee C. L. Martatt, Chief.

Bureau of Biological Survcey=- 2 PAUL G. REDINGTON, Chief.
BUG. 0}. Pubic sh0tds = Se eee THOMAS H. MACDONALD, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics____-----~-- Nits A. OLSEN, Chief. >
Bureau of Home Economics________-___-__- Louise STantey, Chief.

Plant Quarantine and Control Administration_ LEE A. Strone, Chief.

Grain Futures Administration______________. J. W. T. DUVEL, Chief.

Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration_.. WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.

Ojice of Lapenment Staion ——_———., Chief.

Office of Cooperative Extension Work______-. C. B. Smiru, Chief.

TOT Tf nS aS Da BR ne Siete es REN CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Librarian,
44

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - - - Price 10 cents