UNIV. OF ToRONTO LIBRARY in 1 2010 vith rund from University of Toronto A ws FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUIIE VIII PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A BOARD OF EDITORS , With Four Plates and Four Diagrams , Y 5 | (Y 32" CAFIBRIDGE (BOSTON), MASS, 1910 12 ae AN Ely O : ' Voie i j | a “e aay i) Ie 4 - ae) Heo hae be oe * : Dy \ meee : F 77, | ,) : g ATT VE barks Ms tT ES WR Cher Perey rf Ne : ' f ae, le er ¥) TREES. Nok Ge ABR / 4 , Re: TIT! OT, Corie tees BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief. Henry S. Graves, M. A., Forester, Forest Service. Ricuarp T. Fisuer, A. B., Harvard University. WALTER MuLForp, F. E., University of Michigan. Ernest A. STERLING, F. E., Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. FREDERICK DUNLAP, F. E., Forest Service. Finisert Rots, B. S., University of Michigan. Hucu P. Baker, M. F., Pennsylvania State College. CD: Hows, Pr: D:, University of Toronto. RAPHAEL ZON, F. E., Forest Service. CiypE Leavitt, M. S. F., Forest Service. Asa S. WiLiAMs, F. E. THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUB- LISHED ARE: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature and the forestry movement in the United States. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass. Ay 4 - | Fae alee | Ome a HY ities Fas 9 Vint” hie CONTENTS. The Aims and Organization of the Professional Forest School, By Henry S. Graves. Methods of Instruction in the Forest School, ................0000 By R. T. Fisher. ihe Curricalum in Forestry Education, ...... 0.0.6.0: 0. ece ensues By Filibert Roth. Public Responsibility of the Forest School, ..................000- By B. E. Fernow. Ee nee P Se yo its cb L\oe au agi S'olaleidua oh 226 acicia bw By Robert E. Clark. The Indian Forest Service and the Question of Personnel, ........ By Royal Freeman Nash. Some Features of Forest Working Plans in India and of Forest Regulation in the Coniferous Forests of the Himalyas, ........ By Barrington Moore. EvaTE RMAC ANIOUNV CULO Ws DIME. cicl. stale «ss cidegis lets bnoieid acl oye sosle iovevcte shave By B. EI; Terry. (ae Wisschunation of Junipers by Birds, ......2.,c0.00-.550020008 By Frank J. Phillips. The Cost of Forest Mapping and Estimating in Montana, ........ By Karl W. Woodward. The Effect of. Grazing on Forest Conditions in the Caribou Na- Se TERE NN oe eae oe cra t 2 ties clanwraie tdutshals oie leiny pl © are at state die By E. R. Hodson. Comparison of Large and Small Sawmills on Tahoe National SEM yey Ne at Ok Lola ata ms wi uae a atul’s a vba ile mre.a By M. B. Pratt. Maeld’ Bakies of Western Forests, 00.0.0... 2 cece ccs ccccccccceeers Notes on the Wood Structure of the Betulaceae and Fagaceae, .... By Irving W. Bailey, A. B., M. F. Forestry in the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, .. By Samuel B. Green. The Place of Forestry in General Education, ...................- By Herbert A. Smith. Notes of a Civil Engineer on a Forester’s Education, .............. By F. B. Knapp. Seemen or the Forest Service Library, ... 2.0.0.5 -0 ee paren eceeee By Helen E. Stockbridge. DEeairopeationOrest: Notes, 66) bo ale sic bicavaedcewedoentaceds By Charles E. Bessey. MICEWASOR © | WICEEIOT | od 255.6 0 oes 95, 363, 499 Statistics and History, ..........+.»sesusemmaere -- +» 113, 263, 392, 549 Utilization, Market and Technology, .....s.5....-.- IrI, 254, 384, 531 MINSCPMAREOUS, 2) vincitcs. res cae e's eee SRM ioe «nt e y cele 205, 395s 561 Other Periodical Literature, ........... cesses eee ee reese 116, 266, 562 NEWS AND NOTES, ........--.- 000000 -dueeeeen en = nee 123, 270, 395, 565 GEFEN Toc cocc ob eee ein aie oe oon cie a Ane oa 133, 279, 574 REVIEWS: Ashe, forest conditions, Virginia, ....-...+-++++-seseseeees 348 Ashe, woodlots, Virginia, .........----2-seeeeeeeeeereeeecses 349 Baden, forest conditions, .........+-eeseeeer eee er eer eeseecees 340 Besley, report, Maryland, .........---++.s+seebeeeceeres cress 222 Besley, plant life of America, .......-.-.sseseeesereesesseeees 484 Bibliography, Forestry, German, .......--+--+e+sseeererserees 8&8 Blodgett, plant life of America, ........-..2--+e+seeeeeeseeeee 484 Boisen, commercial hickories, .....-.-----+-++eeeeeeeeerteeees 472 Bray, mistletoe pest, ......--.eee eee e cece eee teen cere teens 80 British Columbia, fires, .......... vi cede secon: +0 a 82 Canada, Commission of Conservation, report, ....-.-.+++-+++: 330 Canada, experimental farms, report, .......-.+-eeeeeeeeeeees 83 Canada, forestry report, .....-..--e eee e eee e eter estes eee e sees 75 Chrysler, plant life of America, .....-.++-eeeeee sere seen teens 484 Clements, lodgepole burn forests, .....--+++eeeeeeeeersereeses 477 Vii Bates Wiesdic PLices, CAltada, 6. oodles wecces cere guebe ce caes 480 WE TOO LICAL SOCIELY,) KEPOIts » soc. soe es coc oso ese cieisleinisieciibew es 89 Sere rE CeGeE) yee LONE), soy og aaiyiaitie sain ble Sle 'atale, a ee 227 Reena istry Or “POTeStry, \.\. lbs S ole ae cattle secs ees ee 335 Baumer onlelter damage, 2... kes nelle bee cceeseeneeese 224 ea MEE ALIS Lt C/o). site, oleae cl eltle ee eines screed eae 343 Piao) Eatds fire PTOLCCHON, Ps.) 5 622s see ees cece cee eee 82 RUE AMG Na Sie aa cc ntis iv edudadacuvebewsadesidats 85 EA EMEA ATT OR DOLANY yriide's «lee sa dipiciaisssislak celelabarc dulce das 477 IINAMIEAM SOM ROTINULY, | 2% Sic ot wie cid sic a ge os ae Eee tiene cece naas 486 MR RIRECRED NG REINS fais atleelsn uicislee ae gida.coneeatubeeunsee seedy 475 ReeMslan. ‘forest products; Canada,) ..6..6.5..6..60000 cece ee eae 223 eT ESE TM OTICES OU. obec lh Case clewassagecevelse 74 Mette AMIGA vi)e a lac occ escapes es swees rene sec eetae's 227 em eaidipshire, forestry report, . 022.565 00sec ee cane coos 81 PIERRE AURCOOTEN hc dnd facia tcc sew eu dees Sales pedeyeoaaa as cs 349 SNL TEE CIA > Wales 2 sc cee nga s enlace Vsiae\ciage es dates ne 225 See WISN COMMONS, 2726 5a) sin Soe ois 8a we ee ee sosge sles nome 78 SEE ey NIC REMIT scl sciatic ested dv kde ate cia eeu tte'sle 77, 471 eee ITS SY oye ried calls ae wate so Meenas fa 337 MEINUMERC ERAN ECRETIEEHES: soy oii ss wa s/siein eae bake Suv bole = Qee wa a al 89 NEM CE NMR gs) Fis ae ao vee Sei tik a Pk b ide a Wa me piald slgels sie 228 RCNIGLOSt PLOLCCLION, «2.4005 0¢6 cece + adescveleccsens wane 84 UMAR REA ete icra sen ote! s ba ae Pe wie SG hse torn 2d 0s 475 BePEresres WOO PLeSEfValiONn, .. 2... 6656 cect a eee esse es nees 473 Brome valait lite Of Maryland, 2.00.2. 202.c 28 bec 0 ke secon dine 484 ieavior trees of Hudson River Valley, :.2........0.0.2.02s00. 80 feompe saudaman marble wood, «.... 2.0... .eececccesscese 84 DERM IAE WOOGS, 220). sone ie ss vn hs eae melee nerd be seve. 83 Vanselow, Spessartstaatswaldungen, ...............-.00ceeeeee 87 CRETE Ne Series /hv oele ee a's va A aad wens occ oe w ote's 330, 344 DEMIMETTIECOITY CALOS, hoc... ovis ed cn ole ss clase me 'clengalnee 339 ME “Tap ISSEUSCUALT, (015! 5 6 gene's .ce een yedee KOs tsey ee es &6 INDEX. Adventitious roots, ........- 498 Association, lost logs, Wis- Afforestation, Great Brit- CQUSIL Ae et ac iene). 540 MMe oan win iis.os'* «+ 117. Athletic goods, wood for, ... 388 Afforestation, Scotland, ref., 267 Australia, timbers, ref., ..... 482 y Sitka Spruce, i Sout fepott. =... “231 TELM Ss Ate « 118 Austria, forest budget, ..... 302 Agricultural Science Society, 2 00 Se eee AGO Bacteria, SOUS. Tet.) 2. os. = 268 Alaska, forests, ref., ........ 489 Baden, forest conditions, ...233, 340 Alberta, forest conditions, Pam StLUISEICSS | ols o 2 0 362 Bavaria, Forestry notes, ref., 118 Andaman marble wood, .... 84 : SEALISEIES a les ero 553 Appraising damage, ......... 520 Beech, growth studies, ...... 380 Arbor Day, Wisconsin, ref.,. 491 Dio OER AEOIE Dy. 2 iso eave 498 Arboretum, Ottawa, ........ 83 “ ties, impregnated, .... 533 Argentine, timber resources,. 236 it) A GBEESIE SPTURE. i. cc s\ees 360 Arizona, forest geography,. - 93 Ry PROEAED A AEROS hei at ess, , S| 0 a bad . .104, Irrigation, Congress, Wash- ington, ref., .. 483 % use of windmills, ret eee ee 483 Irritant woods, ref., ........ 117 Insect damages, cause of, .... 361 me pests, let rt ee OPERA Men 90, 267 bs India, ref., ....QI, 354 + new, Nebraska, article, ae 4II Insects affecting maple, ref.,. 120 Insurance, forest fires, ...... 517 italy, forestry; ref., +. /.... Ivory palms, relationships, EP eee eco bis sire ees se 481 Jack Pine, planting, ......... 103 Japan, forest resources, ..... 356 REOLESLE Ye) ack ecc's ao 0s 475 Junipers, dissemination by OD Oe 60 Kansas, forest conditions, ae SS) bc lasea'oe oie oe 489 Kansas, planting, ref., ....... 231 Kattemeier, Das Holz, ref.,.. 351 Kentucky, trees,.ref., ....... 352 Me ryiti) betes 541 Moware) BB. article, ....... 196 Larch Sawfly, England, ref., 268, 275, 562. LAgsen, J. A., article, ...... 462 Leaf concavity and light, 04 Lectures, forestry, outline, LL a ie Ea See 232 Bee testa, Switzerland, 115 Library, forest service, 198 Lignin, determination, ref.,. 563 Lime, effect on humus, ... 365 Literature, botany, — Philip- pines, ref. Oe SE OE NRA 268 Lodgepole pine burn forests, 477 Stlviesuiss a2 wee 479 Loggers’ association, Pa- OME ere cia te eas eee cc 0s 5690 Seepine. clean, .:.......0.. 243 Logging operations, Quebec, 204 Logging railroads, U. S., .. 262 Logging telegraph poles, .... 423 Log handling at mill, ...... 258 Pee tater actic, ..)....... 540 Log rules comparison, ar- RRGECR Ee oe ais ic ase gels ss « 427 Log rule, SIMHOATG, 2.4... 382 Beno WPE Tet rath Sets, 6s 427 IOP NADIE Tela s Oe oaeie ss + « 353 Louisiana, forest conditions, 358, 495 a forest law, ...... 559 4 forests and soils, 462 Eeaupers cue, ls Sis ds. 2s 304 Lumbering, Paraguay, oe par 236 Were | aio es As 494 Lumbermen, forestry prac- ELC EY WES LTA eee ohetaeie 305 Lumber prices, Canada, 480 + record, ref., 483 Ys e, LES.) £ek., 232 umber) weiguts, . 532 cece > - 390 Evon, .G, Boarticle, . 222%. 2: 450 Machines, soil preparation, 246 Mahogany supplies, ........ 258 Maiwen, J. H., Eucalyptus, LEE ae er aCCI nae ates widens 232 Maine decision, ref., ........ 562 Martie 6tilesy orate he Wee: «oe
    427 Management and __ silvicul- BALE Cae nent etree aed nic os z 106 Mangrove, tanning, ........ 260 Maps: ‘water-proof, :'.|.... --- 254 Maryland, conservation com- mission, ref., 483 forest resources, BEES Ge Reo 230 a EEPOEE sees sis )3- 222 zs plant. life, uo... 484 r4 timber supply, 7/1 oPRny, © eee een eae 480 nf wood-using in- dustries, ref., .. 490 Massachusetts, report, ref.,. 478 ;; wood - using industries, sl ae 488 Medullary rays, .......... 178, 268 MrrE.6 Gx Ds Arlicles ci.) «-01)s 4IQ Metal TES ngs eas ahi III, 263, 530 SRE ESSSIAS IS Stee niet 531 Melied (wood. ses coun. wake 112 Mexico, tree growth, ...... 381 Mine timbers, protection, BETO S PERT a ee ieicierw 268 Mining and forestry, ref.,.. 119 Mining, Germany, relation COP TOFESEEY fos oe ts es 3 250 Minnesota, forest conditions, 357 forestry, ref., 268 zs report, ref., 479 Miocene trees, Rockies, 241 Mistletoe pest, ........---- 80 MOORE.) B, aEtICIE. © /q.s,0,0/101 = = AI Moorland reclamation, ref., 563 Mycorhiza, ref., 12] NASH, “ROE. article, ....... +. 33 National Lumberman’s Asso- ciation, report, ref.,. ..... 483 Natural reforestation, Ver- SAE) ooeSe GAaSUe apa apee 241 Nebraska Forest Club An- TEE BR Sees Say Oe eee 227 Nebraska, insect pests, ..... 4II Newfoundland, resources, OT LIE tres ehoyes kus cveiereters 120 New Hampshire, forest con- f erence, ref., 351 ‘f log rule, 427 ¥ 5 policy, 81 a ss report, 81 New Jersey, Commission re- DORE) «secs. 349 ee = forests and forestry, art. 450 - s report, ref., 481 New York, nurseries; -.. 22% 78, 557 “report, 77, 225, 471, 490 New South Wales forestry,. 276 s report, .QI, 482 New Zealand forestry, ..... 276 Nitrogen, fixation, ref., 260 North American conserva- tion conference, ref., ....- 117 Norway Spruce, branchless,. 238 Notes of engineer on for- ester’s education, ......... 106 Nurseries, New York, ...... 78, 557 Nursery practice, Massachu- SELES Rettman «oc aseseel: 478 MSSANarLLe Ye eisicteeste ee esos s I2I Oak, Alsace-Loraine, gr’th, 248 BOOMING S.A sn oe 546 RMECT AGES! tees eee .2 541 paenay. Ofiein;: Tet; . 22.5 - 268 SMM BUSEEMCHUTE: | ccc ais ke hice 181 Obituary, 4 Caller: &. 5. - 404 LAP, Cao: ee 403 Odd eee arguments and objections, 254 : = saving by eter Mer 120, 488 @hio, ‘conifers, ref.,..... 5... 120 “4 dtosestry varticle,. 2..)..;,. 439 Ontario, entomological re- DOSES o.5chacseee 490 eS game and fish com- mission, ref., 564 eS tree species used, 257 Orange River colony, report, BET LM Laas eee eles nel 353 xii Oregon, conservation com- mittee, ref., ..... 4AQI = fises;. i. . Soeeeeee 245, 491 Padouk; tek.,) o.:. cage eeeeeee 492 Paper, fibres: for, refs)soeeen 267 Paper making, Wisconsin, .. 557 Paraguay, lumbering, ....... 236 Paving, blocks; f2-n)eee Renee 544 yellow pine rei. i-cees 483 Peat bogs, web, 2... ose 12] Pencils, juniper, <-. ..4 sneer 574 Pennsylvania, foresters’ con- VentiOn,.\tek.so santo een eee 351 Pennsylvania Railroad, plant- ing, « 127 “ “ pre- serva- tion plant, 399 “ce “c prun- ing, 271 Petwin wood; ref:,. 2.21) -eeee 492 Phenological record, Penn- sylvaniay | 5...) 2 ce ae ee 334 Philippines, botanical _ litera- ture, ref, ..- 268 ty bureau work, Feb a See 501 . forests, ref., 268 - forest condi- tiONnS; Geese 237 % Feport;, 2c. eee 232, 353 AS problems, ref., . 266 Puniips, Fe J., articles 60 Photography, U.S. F.S. ... 561 Pinchot, fight for conserva- tion, Trek> . 225 eee 480 Pine seed extraction, ....... 515 Pine-Tip Moth, ©. 222 3eeaeeer 407 Place of forestry in general education, .; 5.22. seeeeeee IOI Planting, Banksian Paine) 32.0) TOs co-operative, ...... 449 is good vs. poor, .. 504 2 leaflet, shortleaf pine, fel.,oeeceen 489 featlee loblolly pine, ref... :scacueee 489 Re statistics, yo. seaneee 313 * western Kansas, Tefss Slee ee 231 Plow, forest. .20.6.-aeeeeee 246 Policy, Canada,’ 35... .406 eee 274 «. \New Work, ref. pene 119 "Ontario; 22s: 2c eee 129 <6) "| Prussia; (2226. oe 558 Populus, refs... . ..cieo eee 121 Prairies) (ii sa0.n 2b eee 121, 469 PRAT, M: -B., article; ....... Preservation, farm timbers, AS) ey eRe ne WEOGS et). ss “ ; notes, ref., Preservatives, used in U &., Prices, lumber, U. S., ref., BDETTE SHU ANS.) oc) shies 0-0 =~ setinber land, -B:. C., Te Teed de Noid s.e%s, ss) “wood, Germany, ... Private forestry, .....0..-... Productivity, method of in- BREASIIE LOT: tictesteusle tn vs «5 Progress of reconnaissance, PTGle Sie rete eialolesines 6 ss Pruning, a Peer Nai) S cc 03 Prussia, department budget, 393, forest conditions, i MuinGtere + o aaiec oa.e rs a fle Shirase iis le eras a Rte aa a aittige's «5 Pulp industry, Canada ref., 119, Sweden, ref. Fs — export, prohibition, Pulpwood, U. S. statistics, Quality and growth condi- HOVE SiS Ss a ere Quality, wood site influence VEL, Hy eee ee Quebec, report, ....... 232, 337, if logging operations, Railroad ties, Deeche ss rane Imports, Ori- SRI eo sce ce .. pn MEA Ge osnod: oe price TIS, . Railway damage suit, ..... 567, Rainfall distribution, ....... Range problems, ........... Ranger, forest, article, ..... PTT OTMIISi Fhe. cee lteGietas © Ray tracheids, origin, ref., Reboisement, Alps, ref., Switzerland, RECKNAGEL, A. B., article, : Reclamation service, 1 als ROMOMEN ECL, © oss awicies co oad’. Reconnaissance, progress U. (Sta (AG | Sr Recording calipers, Wimmen- SRUZIEY a4 Gace tA ee Reforestation, Brance, jc. 3... Mas sac h u- setts, ref., *y New York, xiii 169 Am. Soc. Testing Materials, ref., Continental forests, Germ, Dendrol Soc., Miss. Bot. Gard., ROP pas kabs css Supervisor’s Mtg., . Reports, forestry Report, QI 352 89 90 302 (see various countries) Reproduction, western yellow BINS “LEM Misa taees cielo es 6: Reserve funds, eae eae 528, Resin canals, White Fir, et Resin yield, factors influenc- MAIS TORE nies bo Abs soa a Rhode Island, report, ref., i SOUS Pia. oes bre Ring shake, theory, aM cb tira cal” Rocky Mountain, forest re- serve, ref., si a yield ta- bles, .. Rotation, determination, Scotch Pine, i Scotch Pine, ern. FP... articles 3. oe Royal Commission, Great BS Ot) TELS, ieee ise el = « Rubber, synthetic, ref., ..... Rubber tree, Brazil ref., Weassia, LOLEStLy., Weviiareles » a REPORT? ucawtertielsio. 366 x 32) + (iga70 x PEt 150 _ *2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Oo : (42,577 X 22) + (117590 x 2) + (215,667) 150 + = 12,519 + 9,472 + 13,180 + 21,288 + 35,277 + 21,507 113,303 157-5 2 eee = 719 trees per annum increment. To find the growing stock, or number of Class M trees which there must always be in the Working Circle to produce the above increment the following simple formula is used: = 4 =. L, in which C = growing stock; i = annual increment; R = felling cycle, and L, = loss of trees in Class M due to over maturity and other causes. Subtstituting we have: 100 98.75 have found above that there are 13,178 class M trees, giving us a surplus of 7,717 trees. As a matter of judgment it is decided to distribute this sur- plus over 60 years. This a, an annual yield for the next 60 years of: Growing stock = 719 X 3 = 5,461 trees. But we 85% a (135178 X soa) + (41,366 XE) + (19770 XT) + 60 (42,577 ory x ron = __43,056--5,461 oo — 5461 mie as 626 trees per annum. The cut for the next 30 years will be fixed at a maximum of 620 trees per year, of which Ioo are to be for free grants and 520 for sale Forest Working Plans in India. 53 The silvicultural system for Deodar can readily be applied to our Douglas Fir and would be without doubt the best system to use under the present extensive conditions in the United States, at least in the Southwest. The above method of calculating the possibility or annual cut is about as simple and safe a method as could be devised. The principal change would be that volume would have to be substi- tuted for number of trees in applying it in the United States. Pani. The Chir (Pinus longifolia). The Chir is the timber tree of the Himalayas next in import- ance to Deodar. It occurs at lower elevations than the Deodar and its associates, and forms a belt between 3,000 and 5,500 feet. The value of the wood is far below that of Deodar, simply be- cause it is less durable and not ant-resistant. The ability to resist white ants seems to be the great criterion for woods in India. Unfortunately but very few species, such as the Deodar and Sal (Shorea robusta), possess this property, and cannot be grown in quantities sufficient to meet the demand, whereas numerous other species which have not this quality, though yielding a good wood for ordinary construction purposes, are difficult to sell. The Chir Pine however has been introduced and its use en- couraged till it is coming more and more into demand for ordi- nary construction where it will not be placed in contact with the ground. Another use for Chir almost as important as that for lumber, is as a source of turpentine and resin. The resin ob- tained from tapping the tree is not as abundant or as rich in ‘turpentine as that from our Longleaf pine, but there is enough of it to form a very valuable and profitable industry. The For- est Department is carrying on this industry itself in a very con- servative manner under the French system of narrow cuts with a cup and gutter, and is tapping a tree five consecutive years and allowing it to rest ten years. It has a distillery in the forest equipped with practically every modern improvement. When the Department has demonstrated that the industry is a profitable one it will sell out to private enterprise, this being the policy in India in regard to all such industries. The striking feature about Chir is its close resemblance to our 54 Forestry Quarterly. Southern Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) and our Western Yel- low Pine (Pinus ponderosa). Its needles are about the same length as those of our Southern Longleaf only they are thinner and more delicate. The crown is conical and more or less regular up to maturity, after which it becomes flattened and irregular exactly as in the case of our Longleaf and Western Yellow pines. At maturity it has a long clear cylindrical bole. It is not fas- tidious as to soil and moisture, though it prefers a well drained silicious soil. It grows on the drier situations, though it could not stand the deep sands of the South nor the dry rocky slopes and mesas of the Southwest in the United States because the region in which it occurs has between 50 and 60 inches of rain- fall per annum. It is the most intolerant tree of the region. Though it will germinate and grow for a few years under partial shade, yet for later development it requires full sunlight. In shis respect it is precisely like our Longleaf and Western Yellow pines. Reproduction is good on areas protected from fire. There is some seed every year and heavy seed years every third year. It comes in abundantly after cuttings. It is not very fire resistant. Trees were seen 17 to 20 inches in diameter breast high by over 100 feet in height which had been so badly injured by a ground fire that they died shortly afterwards. In this case the area had been protected for 15 years and there was a very heavy accumu- lation of grass and litter. The growth is slow. It takes 113 years to reach 24 inches d. b. h and 141 years to reach 28 inches. It reaches a maximum of 4 feet 5 inches d. b. h. by a height of 150 feet. The system required with this tree is one calling for open cut- tings, either the group selection system with large openings, or the Uniform Method, an adaptation of Schlich’s Shelterwood Compartment System. The Uniform Method is practically the same as the Shelterwood Compartment System with its prepara- tory cuttings (often omitted), seed cuttings, secondary cut- tings (for light), and final cuttings, except that the form of cutting is not rigidly prescribed in the working plan for a given area at a given time. A certain block must be regenerated in a certain number of years, but it makes no difference in what part of the block the cut for the year is located, or what kind of a cutting is made. Thus the officer in charge is left free to attend Forest Working Plans in India. 55 to the needs of the forest as they arise; to take trees from that part of the forest which needs cutting most, whether as a seed cutting, a secondary cutting or a final cutting. This is a great advantage over the rigid system of dividing the block into com- partments and prescribing a certain kind of felling for each com- partment for each year of the period, because under the rigid system, at least for Chir, it never works out. The seed cuttings fall in a year with no seed, and the secondary cuttings come too soon or too late, etc. In making the working plan for Jaunsar the Conservator wanted Clutterbuck to divide the whole working circle into 160 compartments (the rotation being 160 years) and prescribe the kind of cutting for each year on each compartment. Clutterbuck refused to do it, and now the Conservator acknowl- edges that he (Clutterbuck) was right. It is claimed that this uniform method gives excellent results in Chir and there is no reason why it should not give equally good results in Southern Longleaf or Western Yellow Pine. The important point in the working plan for Chir, aside from the silvicultural system, is the distribution of the annual cut over the area. The important steps are as follows: (1) A certain rotation is decided upon. In this case it was 160 years. (2) Next, a felling period is chosen which shall be a multiple of the rotation. Here 40 years was taken. (3) The whole working circle is then divided into blocks to correspond to the number of felling periods in the rotation. Four is the number in this instance. (4) The most mature of the four blocks is then chosen to be regenerated in the first 40 year period of the rotation. On each of the other three blocks improvement cuttings are carried on merely to remove the overmature and injured trees so as to save waste. The working circle would therefore present somewhat this appearance, diagramatically: 56 Forestry Quarterly. DIAGRAM OF THE CHIR WorKING CircLE DurING THE First YEAR OF THE First PErtop. a Part of Block I cut over under the Uniform Method. b, c, d t-40th of each of the other 3 blocks cut over under Improvement Fellings. * After dividing up the working circle into blocks, an enumera- tion (valuation survey) is made of all class 1 (24” to 28” d. b. h), class 2 (18” to 24” d. b. h.) trees on Block 1. The number of ex- ploitable trees is found by the principles given above for Deodar, that is by finding the annual increment, the growing stock and the surplus. A certain allowance is then made for trees dying, and the rest divided by 40. This number serves merely as a check on the annual fellings. There is no area check, no division into coupes, etc., but the officer in charge can take the allotted number of trees from that part of the block needing cutting the most, To prevent having too large a cut during the first period and a falling off during the last three, on account of having the repro- duction cuttings on the first block and improvement fellings on the other three during the first period, Clutterbuck suggested that the diameter limit in the blocks under improvement fellings could be changed. During the first period it could be fixed at 30 inches, during the second period at 25 inches, and during the third period at 20 inches. It would seem however that by this system the amount on the blocks under improvement fellings would be greatly reduced until, when the time would come to cut the fourth block there would be a very much diminished yield. It has been suggested by an American forester of a great deal of experience that the same result could be obtained by merely cutting the Forest Working Plans in India. 57 block with the poorest stand of timber during the first period. In this case improvement fellings on the remaining blocks would be carried on only during the first period. This would undoubt- edly be the wiser scheme since probably they would be unneces- sary after the first period. This identical working plan was dwelt upon with special em- phasis by one of the most eminent professors of the Yale Forest School as the one Indian Working Plan of all others which was most suitable for application in the management of Western Yel- low Pine in the United States. To anyone who has seen condi- tions in the South West it must be evident that this plan would be hard to improve on, for the present at least. Conclusion. During the first few years after the Forest Service in the United States took over control of the National Forests all the energies of the Service had to be concentrated on putting the forests under administration; buildings roads, trails, and tele- phone lines and enforcing the regulations, often against strong opposition. Now that this work is nearly completed it is time to turn our attention to the making of working plans for these forests. When it is remembered that upon the working plan more than upon any other one factor depends the future welfare of the forest, it will be realized that before starting in we should consider carefully any suggestions which may be derived from the experience of Foresters in other lands where they have been at it a good many years longer than we have, and where the con- ditions are in some respects similar to our own. BLACK JACK AND YELLOW PINE. By B. E. I. Terry. Although botanists and foresters are unanimously of the opin- ion that the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa, Laws, or Pinus ponderosa scopulorum, Engelm., in the Rocky Mountain region) and the form known as “Black Jack,” or “Bull Pine,” are one and the same species in different stages of development, lumbermen and timber cruisers are almost unanimous in holding that they are separate species. The latter base their claim on the difference in the general appearance of the two forms,—the black rough bark of the black jack as contrasted with the smoother yellow bark of the mature pine, the bushier crown and the difference in the wood. ‘That of the black jack is heavier, coarser-grained, and much more sappy than the wood of the yellow pine, while the knots are loose and surrounded by a ring of pitch, whereas those of the yellow pine are sound. In proof of their assertion that a tree “once a Black Jack is always a Black Jack,” they will point out or refer to trees that have attained the average maximum size of the yellow pine,—3 or 4 feet in diam- eter on the stump,—but which still retains all the characteristics of the black jack. The forester usually defines a black jack as an immature yel- low pine, generally less than 150 years old. Although this defi- nition is substantially correct, the cause of the distinguishing features is to be found in the vigor and rapidity of growth, age being more purely a relative matter. So long as a Yellow Pine grows rapidly and vigorously it will remain a Black Jack. A typical Black Jack in the Rocky Mountain region attains a diam- eter of 20 inches on the stump (18 inches high) at the age of 100 years. I have examined the stumps of a number of trees of that size, which were still growing vigorously, as shown by the wide rings next to the bark, the large quantity of sap and the small proportion of heartwood. A few rods from a specimen of that kind I counted the first hundred rings of a tree which had the characteristic bark of the mature Yellow Pine, but was only 9 inches in diameter on the stump and had attained only 6 inches Black Jack and Yellow Pine. 59 when 100 years old. The rings in the sapwood beyond the hundredth were so fine that they could not be counted without the aid of a magnifying glass. In this case the reason for its slow growth was obvious,—it had been a suppressed or partially sup- pressed tree. The aging of most Yellow Pine that have reached maturity without attaining large size may be attributed to sup- pression, during at least the first 50 or 100 years of their life, although the overtopping trees may have long ago disappeared. The average age of a mature Yellow Pine, four feet in diame- ter, appears to be, in the Rocky Mountain region, about 400 years. I have not found the stump of a Black Jack of those dimensions, but have seen specimens nearly or quite that size in the yellow pine forests of Arizona. Doubtless such a tree, if cut down, would reveal an age much greater than 150 years, but still young when compared with the 400 years of the mature Yellow Pine,— probably 250 or 300 years. Its outer rings would still be of fair width, denoting that vigorous growth had not yet ceased. The sustained vigor and rapid growth of large-sized Black Jacks is undoubtedly due to exceptionally favorable conditions of position and environment. Ordinarily the growth rate greatly declines before the 150th year, and then through a period of 50 to 75 years the tree gradually changes to the mature, or “Yellow Pine” state. A tree in this transition stage is easily recognized and is known to the lumberman as “bastard pine.” Trees of small size with yellow bark, which the lumberman may point out as young yellow pine, will invariably be found, if cut, to have grown very slowly and to be of comparatively great age,—usually much older than thrifty Black Jack several times their diameter. Their slow growth is due to suppression or some other unfavorable condition. None of the characteristics which distinguish the two forms are specific differences, but are due to the difference in vigor and rapidity of growth. THE DISSEMINATION OF JUNIPERS BY BIRDS. By Frank J. PHILLIPS. The importance of birds in tree seed dissemination has long been apparent, but, so far, very little definite work has been done in measuring this influence, and most of what has been done is entirely secondary to some other phase of special investigation. The prime importance of such dissemination is partially apparent in the more or less indefinite statements in the literature of the last fifty years and it is largely these miscellaneous statements and the lack of special investigation that induced the writer to undertake this study.! Phe field work is the result of six years’ observations and em- braces regional studies in Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Nebraska, South Dakota and New Mexico, as well as data from other re- gions which have been supplied by observers along this line. All the available literature has been consulted as well as the U. S. Bio- ‘logical Survey and many prominent state ornithologists. Importance of Bird Dissemination. Out of the widely various means by which seeds are distributed through animal agencies, that by birds is without doubt the one most prolific of widespread results. Birds eat an almost incom-’ prehensible amount of seed from herbs, shrubs and trees, and because of their rapid flight are the quickest means of seed dis- tribution by animals. In the usual forest or forest encroachment condition, the influence of this bird activity is at a maximum, since the great majority of our birds frequent trees and many species habitually feed upon tree seeds and fruits, while many others feed upon them when driven by hunger. Furthermore, the ground beneath the forest is, as a rule, much more suitable for seed reception and germination than a treeless area and hence a larger proportion of seed germinates and grows to maturity than would be the case on a non-forested area where the seeds usually * Kobbe treats the subect in a chapter of his “Birds in Their Relation to Forestry,” an unpublished thesis, Yale Forest School, 1904, but his results are necessarily limited because of the inclusive nature of his subject. Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 61 fall on a site unsuited to their germination, or, if dropped on a suitable site, as on a cultivated area, the resultant growth is likely to be cut down. Birds, then, by their preference for forested areas usually distribute the seed in a good position for the de- velopment and maturing of the plant. Avial influence in tree seed dissemination is frequently appar- ent and most easily studied in fruit orchards, forest plantations, and cultivated fields or other cleared areas, since such areas are usually so segregated as to allow of definite conclusions as to the method of seed introduction. In many instances, however, the undergrowth of a forest and even the forest itself may be directly traced to bird influences. The dissemination of seed over cleared lands is of importance in measuring the spread and regeneration of forest areas, while studies in naturally stocked stands are of importance in determining natural changes of type and the re- sulting improvement or deterioration of the stand arising from this change. Both lines of study are necessary for a definite de- termination of the importance of bird influence. Since the genus Juniperus possesses such a wide range of distri- bution, of habitat and of economic uses, it was selected as being probably the most valuable species illustrative of the desired in- formation. Over large areas it is a genus of great economic importance, and everywhere, over such areas, the work of the birds has been a considerable factor in maintaining and spreading the stand. General Factors Affecting Juniper Dissemination. Because the juniper fruit matures in fall and clings to the tree until late in the following spring, it furnishes one of the best natural supplies of bird food, and it is readily apparent, moreover, to any one making observations even during a single season that it is eaten by a large number of bird species and a countless num- ber of individuals. The distribution of the seed by the birds is increased because of the dark purple color and whitish bloom of the fruit, which makes it readily discernible even at considerable distances. Moreover the persistent fruit remains available when weed seeds and other seed of the herbaceous type are covered by snow. The size of the berries, which range from 0.17 to 0.25 inches with an average of about 0.2 inch in diameter, has some slight effect on their dissemination, since they are more easily 62 Forestry Quarterly. seen in the ground litter than a smaller seed would be. Repeated observations show that the Cedar Bird (Ampelis cedrorum) eats the berries from the ground litter beneath the juniper trees. The desirability of the juniper fruit as food is manifestly of importance. Roughly stated, the protein amounts to 4-6%, the sugar from 10-30%, and the starch and cellulose from 12-20%. Besides these ingredients, there is volatile oil, various acids and mineral substances, all of which combined make a food of high nutritive value. Birds, because of a temperature higher than that of mammals and because of their extreme activity, need a rich food and a rapid digestion. Such food is found in the juniper berry, and its rapid passage through the digestive organs of the bird before germinative power is affected is helpful to its wide dissemination. Dr. E. A. Mearns experimenting with a caged Bohemian Wakwing (Ampelis garrulus) found that more than goo berries of Juniperus scopulorum passed through the bird between 9.00 A. M. and 2.00 P. M. An observation of this kind has much more value than the ascertainment of the mere number of seeds found in a bird’s stomach when it is killed. It is the rapidity with which the seeds are eaten and cast out which bears most directly upon the value of birds in seed distribution. Although the juniper berry is an important winter food, the results of autumnal distribution seem to be fully equal if not greater than those of winter. During the fall, several instances were noted of robins feeding on a single cedar tree in flocks of twenty or more. Other instances were noted in which cedar birds were feeding in flocks of fifty or more, and consumed all the fruit on a juniper tree in a single day. Robins have been noted still feeding on the berries of Juniperus virginiana as late as June 21, and it is believed that more extended observation would show that the berries are eaten throughout the summer. Work of Mammals. In several states, the smaller mammals are credited with con- siderable work in the dissemination of the juniper. In Texas, according to Prof. Bray, the food of raccoons, foxes, wildcats, chipmunks, etc., contains a large amount of juniper fruit and the seeds are often found in the feces of these animals. He finds these animals feeding on the berries as long as they last, usually Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 63 from November first to March first, and considers that mammal- scattered seed are left in a somewhat better condition for germina- tion than are those scattered by birds... In New Mexico, Mr. J. C. Blumer tried germinating such seed but secured no results. In South Dakota, observations made by the writer show that the chipmunks and other squirrels feed on the berries in very limited amounts, four chipmunks being observed feeding on the fruit of the cedar and their mouth pouches found to contain 14, 36, 39 and 51 berries respectively. In New Mexico and South Dakota, it seemed that not more than one to two per cent. of the distribution of the juniper was due to small mammals and reports from nearly every region in the United States point to a very limited distribution by mammals as compared to that by birds. Dissemination in Natural Stands. To maintain a species of a stand of timber under natural con- ditions it is necessary that reproduction replace the growth that is destroyed in the struggle for existence, and also establish new growth upon areas suitable for the species but not occupied by it. The weight of the juniper berry and its lack of special appendages prevent its spread except to a very limited degree by gravity and wind. In dense stands such as occur in Tennessee and the “cedar glades” of Texas or Florida, the effect of the birds is at a maximum for not only do the trees furnish a large supply of food but the number of bird species and individuals, both resi- dents and migrants, frequenting these regions throughout the year aids in bringing about a maximum of seed dispersal. Be- cause of the density of the stands, however, there is greater diffi- culty in determining the amount of seed distributed by birds and that distributed by other agencies. A rough estimate based on the observations supplied by southern investigators places the bird distribution at 60-70 per cent. of the total. This may, how- ever, reach even 80-90 per cent. over large areas. A good example of this influence is to be seen in the reproduc- tion of Juniperus virginiana south of a meridian passing through Maryland and Kentucky, where it grows characteristically beside uncared-for fence rows and, in some cases, the rows of trees are ‘A case of a herd of cattle, being brought from Texas and being har- bored for a few days in the treeless part of Kansas, giving rise to a small juniper plantation came under observation of the editor some years ago. 64 Forestry Quarterly. so regular as almost to convince one that the trees were planted by man. So universal is this growth, that long lines of cedars often indicate the boundary lines of tracts from which the fences have long disappeared. In many cases, along the roadsides where the growth has not been cut down these trees extend a mile or more and have been trimmed to serve as a decoration, while many have been thinned out and used for fence posts. The frequent appearance of all or a majority of these juniper trees on one side of the fence is usually due to the birds facing the wind at the time when the seed is excreted. Granting the influence of the birds to be at its maximum over the large stands of juniper, such as occur in Texas, and Florida, it is pertinent to consider reproduction over other areas as an index both for the regions where the species is less prominent, as well as where it reaches its best development. In these regions, th@ isolation of a single tree or a single stand permits greater accuracy in determining the value of bird dissemination than sample plots in the dense stands. Care was taken to obtain de- tailed observations in natural forests, forest plantations, frnit orchards, old meadows and fence rows and the percentage of growth resulting from bird distribution in comparison to that which was of doubtful distribution was especially noted. Dissemination in Northwestern Nebraska. As a basis for work in this region, it was decided to select steep slope land over which the influence of gradient would be most pronounced in affecting dissemination. Very careful con- sideration was given to slope as well as other influences which might prove to be factors in distribution. Doubtful cases were classified among those which do not arise as a result of bird influ- ence. The study was made in the vincinity of Glen, Sioux. County, Nebraska, over a Box Butte formation. The precipitous hills have an altitude of 400 to 700 feet above the level of White River and are everywhere cut into abrupt valleys or canyons. The juniper in this locality was once more common than at present but has been cut largely for posts and occurs now as a minor tree in a scattered stand of western Yellow Pine. At present, the juniper is found most commonly at the heads of the deeper and more inaccessible canyons. In such places there is still a small amount of material suitable for post timber, but the Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 65 majority of mature trees range from 20-30 feet in height and are too branchy for such use. The presence of the older trees at the heads of the canyons brings about the chance for dissemination of the seeds by gravity, down the slope and down the canyons. Nevertheless, it is ap- parent from the study that the difference between the influence of slope and that of birds in the distribution of the juniper is in favor of the birds. Ona sample plot of approximately 100 acres 56% of the junipers occurred directly beneath the crowns of Western Yellow Pine, 17% occurred beneath or close to juniper trees capable of bearing seed and 28% occurred in open spots where it could not be determined whether the dissemination was due to birds or to gravity. Since the slope was abrupt, it was considered that a large percentage of the juniper growing in the open had originated from seed which was not carried by birds, although probably they carried many of the seed which produced these trees. The pine trees under which the juniper reproduction is found are usually within a few rods to a quarter of a mile of the parent juniper, but the item of greatest importance is the fact that most of the reproduction resulting from the bird work is up the slope from the parent junipers. Another interesting series of cases was found on several dif- ferent tracts of 3 to 5 or more acres, over which there were only one or two mature juniper trees. In no case was any reproduc- tion found beneath the juniper trees or for very considerable distances down the slope, while a large number of cases were found in which the young junipers occurred directly beneath the pine. Over such areas as this, it was easy to see that the entire reproduction was due to bird work. Dissemination in the Black Hills. The Black Hills region of South Dakota reveals an equally instructive lesson. The notes on this region refer to rolling table lands in which the slope influence was too limited to be noticeable in affecting reproduction. According to Professor Graves! “the distribution of red cedar 1Black Hills Forest Reserve, Nineteenth Annual Report, U. S. Geo- logical Survey. 5 66 Forestry Quarterly. is interesting. It is found on high pinnacles above Castle Creek, at an elevation of 6,000 feet; on the high divide above Spearfish Canyon; on the high limestone plateaus above lower Spring Creek; and it finds its greatest development on the brakes at the edge of the prairie. At high elevations it is small, and only scat- tered individuals are seen; at the edge of the prairie, it is often a foot in diameter and is largely used for posts and rails. In Wyoming, on Pine Ridge and in the Inyankara country, it oc- curs in intimate mixture with yellow pine.” Owing to inability to reach any of the areas in South Dakota where the juniper was of commercial value, the prosecution of the work was con- fined to an area near Pringle, South Dakota, where the red cedar may be said to have almost no economic importance, yet where it plainly illustrates the influence of birds as an active factor in its dissemination throughout the entire region. yOn one sample plot of approximately 60 acres 86.2% of the jMnipers occurred directly beneath pine trees, 2.6% occurred be- neath other junipers and 11.2% occurred in the open. Again, on a tableland formed by a series of high hills, an area of approximately 100 acres was found over which there had been a severe forest fire in 1901 which had apparently destroyed most of the ground litter and practically all reproduction up to three inches in diameter. The overstory of Pinus ponderosa, occurring in a stand of 3,000 to 4,000 feet B. M. per acre was slightly in- jured but still formed a fairly dense crown cover for that region. The results as shown in Table No. 1 are indicative of the work which may result from bird influence. Taste No. I. —Burned Area— Entirely Bird Dissemination. Distance of juniper from base of pine in feet: 123 4'5 6 7 8 O10 II 12 13 1415 4eey No. of Junipers: 17 21 26 29 25 31 211116 7 47441301 As stated above, this area was burned over in 1901, and prac- tically all of the undergrowth was destroyed. The junipers were Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 67 introduced since the fire entirely by birds, and according to twenty measurements in 1905 had an average height of 6.2 inches. Dissemination in Natural Forests in Illinois. In northern Illinois one case was noted in which the juniper berries had been transported more than one-half mile by the cedar bird (Amelpis cedorum) to a forty acre woodlot which was being used for pasture. The growth of the juniper in the form of round, densly-topped trees, branching closely to the ground was injurious to the growth of the grass to such an extent as to demand the cutting of the junipers. Since the juniper has been cut out the work of the birds still continues and the encroachment of this species seems to be even more rapid than it was before the first growth was cut. A similar case may be cited in Stephenson County, where dis- semination has resulted from a compartively few seed trees. Thirty years ago, the Red Cedar grew naturally upon the banks of Yellow Creek in small amounts confined almost entirely to the bluffs which border the creek. Since that time, however, the dense growth of hardwoods has been continually culled with the result that the seed carried and deposited by birds has had a better opportunity for growth because of improved light condi- tions and larger space. Over such culled areas, the junipers are found to be growing singly or in groups directly beneath the branches of the hardwoods but they do not occur to any appre- ciable extent in open places. In very dense stands where little cutting has taken place, the growth of juniper is scarcely no- ticeable and that which does occur is stunted in growth. The lack of reproduction, at least over portions of these densely for- ested areas, seems then to be due to the density of the overstory, since the birds probably have deposited as many seeds upon such areas as upon those in which light conditions are more favorable. Another element in this locality which favors juniper growth is the closeness of the limestone to the top of the soil. It is often not more than 6-10 inches to a bedrock of limestone which has a depth of 18 to 25 feet. The reproduction is, however, much better along the banks of Yellow Creek than over adjoining in- land areas and in many instances forms a growth with almost perfect density. A survey of one-fourth of an acre running par- allel to the stream and close to the bank in the shape of a rec- 68 Forestry Quarterly. tangular sample plot 165 feet long by 66 feet broad gave an over- story of 62 hardwoods ranging from 50 to 70 feet in height with an understory of 134 Red Cedars ranging from 1 to 8 feet tall and 55 Red Cedars ranging from 8 to 14 feet tall with a diameter breasthigh of 1 to 3 inches. All these junipers occurred directly beneath the crowns of the hardwoods. Another survey of a similar one-fourth acre sample plot, com- mencing about 5 rods from the creek and running at right angles to it, was taken to show what was considered the average differ- ence between the reproduction along the creek banks and that occurring on higher ground. On this sample plot there was an overstory of 103 hardwoods with 68 Red Cedars ranging from I to 9 feet tall and 17 Red Cedars ranging from 8 to 13 feet tall With a diameter breast-high of I to 3 inches. These junipers like the preceding were directly beneath the crowns of the hardwoods. Growth of Juniper on Poor Sites. The value of the various species of Juniperus on poor sites is of high importance. Practically all the species are capable of withstanding severe conditions, and it is probable that this genus will be used to a considerable extent on poor sites as the work in forestry progresses. Along the dune region of our coastal areas, as well as along that of the Great Lakes, Juniperus com- munis is a valuable species as a soil binder. J. virginiana is also of considerable value from the same standpoint. A three weeks study of the sand dune region bordering Lake Michigan, and extending over the area from Michigan City, In- diana to Holland, Michigan, furnished convincing proof that at least 60 to 85% of the growth of J. virgimiana and J. communis resulted from seeds disseminated by birds. Notes were made regarding the existence of both species as undergrowth beneath large deciduous trees. In most cases, only one to a few seedlings were found beneath each tree. Near Benton, Michigan, 32 Red Cedars were found beneath a large White Oak. This reproduction ranged from three inches to two feet in height. Another case was noted near Holland, Michigan, in which 26 seedlings, rang- ing from two to fifteen inches in height were found growing be- neath a poplar (Populus deltoides). In the first instance, the soil was a light sandy loam, while in the second, it was pure sand of a decidedly non-fertile nature. More striking cases were found Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 69 in New Mexico on poor sites where fully 90-95% of all the repro- duction of Juniperus monosperma and Juniperus pachyphloea was the result of bird work. Brown! obtained somewhat similar results in the bluff societies which border the Huron River in Michigan. Bird Dissemination in Forest Plantations. The study of bird dissemination in forest plantations was made in Illinois, which, owing to the large number of plantations, the rich soil, the presence of numerous birds and the lines of bird migration which pass through the State, may be considered one of the best states for a prolific study. Considering the scarcity of native junipers and the bird dissemination which has come from the few specimens of planted juniper or of those intro- duced by birds, this reproduction becomes still more significant. The line of investigation covered 1,200 miles which was traveled in a circuitous trip commencing near Springfield and extended in general, over the two exterior tiers of counties back to the point of beginning. Out of a total of 69 plantations studied, 37 showed marked results in growth of juniper and other heavy seeded species introduced by birds, while out of the remaining 32 groves, 31 were used as pasture lots for cattle, horses or hogs. This pasturing not only prevented all reproduction but in many cases proved injurious to the large trees in the plantation. The single remaining grove was only two years old and could not be expected to show results. A silver maple grove situated four and one-half miles north- west of Rockford, Illinois, showed the most marked effect. The grove was set out in 1872 with the trees in rows, 6 x 7 feet apart. At the age of five to six years, the trees were all well pruned of shoots and low branches. During the last ten years, a large num- ber of trees have been cut out for fuel and the present stand is estimated to have a density of .6, an average height of 60-65 feet and an average diameter of 7 inches. The tract is 520 feet long by 270 feet broad and the reproduction which was due to birds is as follows: Number. Height. Juniperus virginiana ......... SS ss i te 6 inches to 8 feet Prunus virginiana ........-. 6 ea 1 foot to 4 feet Asparagus officinalis ........ Bin iawn 2 ee 6 inches to 4 feet 1A Botanical Survey of the Huron River Valley, Bot. Gazette. Vol. 40, p. 264. 70 Forestry Quarterly. Another example of bird work is to be found on the Gillis farm near the town of Chambersberg, Illinois. Mr. Gillis has a row of eight cedar trees in front of his house from which the cedar birds (Ampelis cedrorum) have carried seeds a few rods to a large elm. The reproduction beneath this elm consists of 180 red cedar trees varying from 1 to 5 inches in diameter and from 10 to 16 feet in height. The reproduction covers 240 square feet. This practically represents the area of the crown cover of the elm, but owing to the effect of a moderate slope upon which the elm is situated, the seed have rolled or been washed by surface water slightly down hill so that the area of reproduction does not fall exactly beneath the crown cover. Dissemination in Orchards and on Old Fields. Orchards and old fields present valuable sources of informa- tiog. Out of hundreds of such areas noted, it may be conclusively stated that the introduction of Juniperus virginiana was due en- tirely to birds. Cedar birds are more at rest in orchards than in the forest and this may account for the growth of a larger per- cent. of junipers beneath orchard trees than beneath forest trees. Such areas are most frequently noted by laymen and reports from every state east of the Mississippi River show that bird work is prevalent over such areas. A study of such dissemination made at Portage Lake, Michigan is shown in Tables 2 and 3. The fruit-bearing red cedar trees which form the centre of distribu- tion occur about the shores of the lake and are close to the water’s edge. According to authentic local report, there were very few red cedars in this locality forty years ago and most of these were confined to the immediate border of the lake. The zone-like distri- bution from this centre is well shown in an apple orchard of approximately ten and one-half acres which is within one-fourth mile of the Lake. The orchard is level, has a compact ground cover of sod and has been used moderately for pasture. Active cultivation is said to have been discontinued twenty or more years ago and the red cedar has had to fight against sod and the ravages of man and cattle as well as partial shading from the apple trees. Dissemination of Junipers by Birds. 71 TABLE No. 2. Bird Dissemination in Apple Orchard, entirely Beneath Crowns of Apple Trees. Distance of Junipers in feet from base of apple tree: ay oe) hl" A Ee ton Ol TOL TE. 52), 53) 14) 15 16 37/18 19 No. of Junipers: 39 21 34 43 46 55 46 44 34 20 17 2312 8 8 4 2 2 2 TABLE No. 3. Bird Dissemination in Apple Orchard. Number of junipers under each apple tree: eae GF 6S) 10) 18.i2 19 14. 15,.16 17 18 19 20,25 22 23.24 No. of cases observed: PEERS ZELON 7A 2) To SAV ar. EG! OO OO O OP KOE A somewhat similar feature of bird dissemination is seen in Connecticut and adjoining states where there are many old fields which have been cleared and cultivated for years but have been abandoned for a long time and are now covered by grass and weeds. Such fields are largely used as pastures. Over many of these areas, Juniperus virginiana and Juniperus communis are known to grow in great abundance. The trees range in age from 1 to 40 years and frequently occur where there has not been any tree growth for probably a hundred years. There is absolutely no evidence to show that this growth has resulted from the intro- duction of seed by gravitation, man, or any agency other than that of birds. On the other hand, there is excellent reason for the belief that this dissemination is due entirely to birds such as robins and others of a similar feeding class. Robins’ are known to be persistent feeders on the junipers during the spring and fall and are also noted as being ground feeders at the same time. During this study, robins were seen to feed upon the junipers and then to fly to pasture lots where they commenced diligent search for other food. Dissemination of Juniper would naturally result. The birds were seen to excrete seeds of juniper while they were feeding or resting on herbs or shrubs. 1“The Food of the Robin’—Bull. 43, Ohio Exper. Station. 72 Forestry Quarterly. Summary. 1. Birds are responsible for most of the dissemination of the junipers. 2. The work of the birds is at a maximum where the juniper occurs in dense natural stands. 3. Birds are of great importance in distributing juniper seed upwards on slopes and up stream courses. 4. General observations made throughout the study seem to point to the dense southern stands as a centre for the dissemina- tion along the lines of bird migration. Such dissemination is especially apparent along stream courses. The subsequent growth of the juniper also seems to have succeeded best wherever it occurs over limestone areas. 5. The height of the tree directly influences the amount of re- ,Production beneath it, other things being equal, since birds prefer the larger trees. 6. The unexplained growth of juniper over old fields is prob- ably a result of bird work. 7. Mammals distribute only a small proportion of juniper seed. 8. The influence of birds in distributing juniper is not to be measured by the number of seeds which are found in the birds’ stomachs but rather by the rapidity with which the seed are swallowed and excreted. 9. The lines of bird migration, number of birds, prevalence of juniper berries and scarcity of other bird food are undoubtedly factors which affect the distribution of the juniper. 10. The exact influence of birds in hastening the germination of the juniper seed and in increasing the certainty of germina- tion over seed not distributed by birds is a field for future study. Birds That Have Been Found to Eat Juniper Bernies. U. S. Biological Survey. Juniperus—species indeterminate. Canachites canadensis—Canada Grouse. Corvus brachyrhynchos—Common Crow. Empidonax trailli—Traill Flycatcher. Oreortyx p. plumiferus—Plumed Quail. Pedioecetes phasianellus—Sharp-tailed Grouse. Juniperus communis: Merula migratoria—Robin. f Parusatricapillus—Black-capped Chickadee. Dissemination of Jumpers by Birds. Juniperus sabina: Tyrannus tyrannus—Kingbird. Juniperus scopulorum: Ampelis garrulus—Bohemian Waxwing. Juniperus utahensis: Meleagris gallopavo—Wild Turkey. Juniperus virginiana: Ampelis cedrorum—Cedar waxwing. Carpodacus purpureus—Purple Finch. — Corvus brachyrhynchos—Common Crow. Colaptes auratus—Yellow-shafted Flicker. Dendroica coronata—Myrtle Warbler. Dryobates pubescens—Downy Woodpecker. Hesperiphona vespertina—Evening Grosbeak. Hylocichla guttala—Hermit Thrush. Lagopus leucurus—White-tailed Ptarmigan. Merula migratoria—Robin. Mimus polyglottos—Mockingbird. Passerella tliaca—Fox Sparrow. Pinicola enucleator—Pine grosbeak. Sayornis phoebe—Say’s Phoebe. Sialia sialis—Bluebird. Sphyrapicus varius—Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. Tyrannus tyrannus—Kingbird. e5 CURRENT LITERATURE. The Iniluence of Forests on Climate and on Floods. By Willis L. Moore, Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Washington, I9g10. Pp. 38. This report, lately transmitted to the Committee on Agriculture in the House of Representatives, is an important, a useful, and at the same time a mischievous publication. It is important because it brings the discussion of an academic subject (for it is still academic) directly into the political arena. It is useful because it properly inveighs against the irresponsible lucubrations of ill informed people, against the “false reasoning and mistaken state- ments of well meaning enthusiasts,” and effectively lays bare their ignorance. Yet, it is mischievous because it does precisely what these promulgators of ill-supported theories regarding forest influences have done, namely, select the statistics which support their theories and leave out the others. It is furthermore mis- chievous because, in spite of the assurance of the author that he will not be dogmatic and “reserves the right to change or still further modify his views,’ his conclusions will be accepted as dogmas and as proved facts by Congressmen and newspaper writers, and by all those who are fishing for arguments against the forest reformers. Indeed, these will go a step further, they will overlook the saving clauses which the author here and there puts in, and proclaim that the whole idea of forest influences is “bosh.”” As a matter of fact, in spite of the author’s disclaimer of partisanship, it becomes more than once evident that he is biased. This crops out especially in the short reference to the effect of forest destruction on erosion. Altogether, instead of concluding what, we believe an unbiased observer would have to conclude after a full survey of the field, namely, that we know too little to be positive one way or the other, he makes such a positive statement, as that “the runoff of our rivers is not materially affected by any other factor than the precipitation,” which is, of course, not known, and philosophically hardly tenable. Several other bald conclusions could be cited which no thoughtful student of the data would accept in their baldness. Current Literature. 75 With many positions which the author takes, we are, however, in hearty sympathy, and are glad that he has undertaken to smash the false prophets of forest influences, who are dealing in broad generalizations. We have always claimed that the arguments for forest con- servancy as far as they refer to the influence on climate, and to some extent on waterflow, were skating on thin ice. There are however, we believe, data extant from France and Germany, which would make us hesitate to assert that under certain topo- graphic and geologic conditions the forest cover had no influence on the run off. As to the United States, and especially in the river basins which have been referred to in this controversy (the report is made as a rejoinder to several articles appearing in the report of the Na- tional Conservation Commission), we hold that, while much of the forest area has been commercially destroyed, there is nowhere such a denudation as to produce appreciable influence on the run off, a denudation such as we know in Italy and France, the effects of which can hardly be denied. There is a grim joke, just now with the recent disaster of Paris in mind, in the quotation from Belgrand’s report on the floods of the Seine river, which seems to prove that deforestation has decreased the height of floods. We agree with the author that the argument of continued wood supplies is or should be the foremost one for foresters, but we would extend our consideration to those forests in particular which clothe the steep mountainsides and cover the thin archaean rocks, as in Canada, for the mere forest influence; for, these once destroyed, we know leave rocky barrens. The fictions of those asserting broadly the salutary influence of forest cover were at least working for good. It is to be hoped that the mischief which this truth seeker has wrought will not swing the pendulum of forest conservation too much in the wrong direction. 12 Aig ON Report of the Superintendent of Forestry and Irrigation for T9c8-1909. Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada. gro. Pp. 96. Illustrated. According to this report the forest area of Canada may be put 76 Forestry Quarterly. at 500 to 600 million acres with a stand of as many billion feet. The fact is accentuated that this is a mere guess and that informa- tion of any value will be lacking until forest surveys are carried out systematically by the federal and local governments. ‘The collection, by departmental codperation, of annual statistics as to the timber production of Canada in detail is urged also. Attention is again drawn to the lack of definite information re- garding the extensive district under federal administration lying between Hudson Bay and the Rockies—a district of some 400,000 square miles. An annual appropriation of $20,000 for ten years is urged for the necessary exploratory forest survey. The forest reserves proper comprise some ten million acres with some seven million acres of national parks. Forest surveys of these reserves have been continued so that up to date some one and a quarter million acres have been gone over in detail. The showing is not a good one. The survey of the Riding Mountain Reserve (one million acres) show it to be about 20% timbered with a stand of 210 million feet, 20% of which is White Spruce and 54% Poplar. The condition of the Pines Reserve (93,000 acres) is summed up thus: ‘Thirty years ago the reserve was heavily timbered; twenty years ago tie contractors left a heavy slash; following these, fires from the railroad and settlements swept it clean, until now there is not an acre left but is burned over or cut over. Scattered in patches there are 45,000 cords of fuel, one-third dead. This supply will not last ten years, and the whole tract is unsuited for agriculture.” Recommendations are made for the continuance of similar investigations, especially of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, and for the enlarging of some of the reserves. The working of minerals within the forest reserves is subject to special restrictions in addition to the usual mining regulations. All applications for mining leases must pass the superintendent of forestry; leases do not carry surface rights, these being acquired by separate restricted lease; all cutting of trees by the lessee and disposal of slash is under the instructions and supervision of the ranger in charge of the reserve; and other regulations exist to minimize the fire danger. Similar regulations exist in the case of mining claims within Government timber limits. The tree distribution work in the prairie provinces consisted in supplying 2,000 applicants with 2,500,000 trees, mostly hard- Current Literature. 77 woods. General distribution of conifers is expected to begin in 1911, these to be mainly White Spruce, Scotch, Jack, and Lodge- pole Pines. The organization has been changed so that applica- tions are now dealt with directly from the Indian Head nurseries. The hydrographic survey has been given a separate organiza- tion and the past season was occupied in inspection work and stream gauging. A full statement of the irrigation problem in the West is given. The report closes with appended reports of the officials in charge of the different divisions of the Branch. The work of the past year was conducted with a staff of 40 on an appropriation of $100,000. This is certainly very scant when one considers that United States has a staff fifty times as large and an appropriation of half a million. On reading the report one cannot help being impressed by its business-like tone. There are no extra words; it is a vigorous statement of plain facts. All through it runs the cry of lack of information and a call for more generous appropriations. The Forestry Branch sees what is coming in the next decade and is anxious to be equipped when the time comes. yer. WV Annual Report of the Department of Forestry for 19c8. By C. R. Pettis, State Forester. Fourteenth Annual Report of Forest, Fish and Game Commission of State of New York. 1909. Pp. 84. . The work of the department for the year consisted mainly of protection, reforestation, gathering statistics and investigations at the forest experiment station. More than one-half of the report is devoted to the discussion of forest fires. These were especially bad in 1908, largely owing to the long period of scant rainfall. 200,000 acres of timberland, 37,000 acres of which is State property, and 170,000 acres of waste land, were burned over. ‘The fire fighting represented 75,000 days’ labor costing $200,000, with a loss of three-quarters of a million dollars in timber and $45,000 in buildings. The main causes of fires were locomotives, land clearing and campers. The weakness of the protective organization lies mainly in the lack of patrol for prevention—the organization being more for fighting fires—and in the fact that the fire wardens are paid only for 78 Forestry Quarterly. actual fighting. In April, oil-burning locomotives will be in- stalled on lines through the Adirondacks. A lookout system similar to that of Maine should also be established. The fact that forestry cannot begin till the protective system is perfected is accentuated. The mill statistics gathered showed a cut in 1907 of one and one-quarter billion feet worth 24 million dollars, hemlock, spruce and pine leading. A curve of annual production for the last 18 years shows a steadily increasing cut and more and more spruce going into pulp. The cut is much in excess of the annual incre- ment. The work of reforesting State lands was carried on as in pre- vious years, only the operations were more extensive. No new plantations were begun, merely extension of former ones. ‘Two new nurseries were established and the forest experiment station extended. About a million trees were planted in 1908, one-half of which were imported. The system of nursery practice and field planting is described (for full details see Bulletin 76, U. S. Forest Service). A new departure is the furnishing of citizens with trees at cost to be planted under the directions and regula- tions of the Commission. Reforestation work has reached a high standard of efficiency in New York State, but other branches of forestry are at a stand- still. The absurd restrictions imposed by the present constitution absolutely prevent real forestry practice—in fact the present policy is destroying the forests on the 1,655,000 acres of State land. The report contains in addition the regular official returns. As usual it is generously illustrated. J. H. W. How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the Northeastern States. By C. R. Pettis. Bulletin 76, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 1909. Pp. 36. Illustrated. “The information in this bulletin is derived from seven years of nursery and planting operations at the New York State nurseries in the Adirondacks and from studies of planting in New England.” ‘Therein lies its value. General directions are given for the collection of fruits and the Current Literature. 79 after treatment of curing, drying, threshing, etc., to secure the seeds, with the modifications necessary for different species. Next, the subject of nursery practice is gone into. The factors determining the establishment of a nursery and influencing its location are discussed, its shape, the questions of soil, fertilizers, etc. To produce 75,000 four-year-old transplants annually, the writer suggests two acres in order to have a rotation of two- thirds in trees with a soiling crop on the other one-third. Full details are given for the construction of seed and transplant beds, seed boxes and covers, shade frames, etc. The methods of treat- ment of seed beds, seedlings and transplants, both in summer and winter, are given. All these constitute a summary of experience. In the case of White Pine, the writer favors transplanting seedlings after two years and planting out when three or four years old. Such vigorous trees as the latter are necessary only in very unfavorable conditions of ground cover. Often in southern New England the first year seed beds are soaked down and seedlings picked out for transplanting till 50 to 75 per square foot remain; seedlings and transplants are then planted out after another year. The planting work is fully discussed and the importance of organization (as also of the nursery work) from the standpoints of efficiency and low cost is emphasized. A chronological! synopsis of the work of each branch is also given. The usefulness of the bulletin is greatly heightened by the figures of cost and the appendicatory tables, derived from actual operations. In a given instance, to raise one-quarter million White Pine transplants cost $235 the first year, $87 the second and $475 the third, and $975 to plant these 6 feet apart (200 acres). The operation is then perpetual at an annual cost of $1,772. The initial investment is a matter of local conditions. Reforesting operations in New York gave the following figures of cost of production: 2-year-old White Pine seedlings, $1.29; 3-year transplants, $3.19; 4-year transplants, $3.69 per thousand. To grow and plant 2-year-old White Pine seedlings cost $11.68. $7.47 and $5.19 with 4, 5 and 6-foot spacing, respectively; 3-year transplants, $19.30, $12.35 and $8.58; 4-year transplants, $22.57, $14.44 and $10.03. These figures are from large operations in experienced hands, on a basis of labor at 22 cents, lumber at $25, lath at $4 and ro per cent. for fixed charges; they do not include allowance for technical advice and supervision, soil rental, or 80 Forestry Quarterly. interest on investment. Parallel figures are given for other species. Other useful and handy tables are given such as nursery area required for a given number of trees and for planting a given area annually, amount of seed necessary, number of seeds per pound, market prices of seeds, cost of collecting, etc. A few figures of labor capacity are also given. The bulletin is a good one, its value lying in the fact that there are no generalities; explicit details are given for everything, which are the result of practical operations ; and the illustrations are not for decorative purposes. J: Bre Native Trees of the Hudson River Valley. By Norman Tay- lor. Bulletin, N. Y. Botanical Garden. No. 23. . The paper of the above title is one of the two parts of the Bulletin issued as a special Hudson-Fulton Celebration number. The descriptions of the one hundred species enumerated in the paper are non-technical and cover in a general way the leaf, flower, bud and bark characters of the various species. The text is illuminated by twenty excellent photogravures exhibiting the habitus of the more common species. The first half or more of the Bulletin is devoted to descriptions and explanations of the exhibits in the museum conservatories and of the various plantations at the New York Botanical Garden. C. D..H: The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. By William L. Bray. U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin No. 1606. In Texas where most of the observations were made, the harm- ful effects of the mistletoe are the most pronounced between the g6th and 97th meridian. This is a transition zone between the humid and dry climate of the Southwest, and the trees bear evi- dence of their struggle against unfavorable conditions in their sparse distribution and stunted growth. From this zone westward the mistletoe becomes more varied in form and relatively more abundant, coincident apparently with increasing aridity of the climate. In fact, where trees in perfection are the most difficult Current Literature. 81 to find, they are more than elsewhere subject to harmful infec- tion by tlie mistletoe. The author suggests as an explanation of this fact, the necessity of full exposure to light for the best devel- opment of the parasite; the more scanty the foliage, the greater the opportunity for the mistletoe to spread over its host. After describing in detail the life history of the mistletoe, the author enumerates thirty-two species of trees which it infects in Texas. He is unable to explain why in some localities a species is subject to attacks of the mistletoe and in others apparently immune. Since the mistletoe attacks chiefly isolated trees or groups of trees, it has never become a forest pest, its injurious effects, from a commercial standpoint, being confined to orna- mental trees and this only where trees establish themselves with difficulty. Even in the case of ornamental trees, the problem is to hold the parasite in check, not to eradicate it, since to most people, a few bunches of mistletoe add to the ornamental value of a tree. The author found that painting the infected area with creosote effectually prevented its spread, while asphalt paint and laundry soap were ineffectual unless the infected area was wrap- ped with burlap. €2 Des H: Year Book of Forestry. Seventh Annual Report of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 1909. The state of New Hampshire has a well organized and aggres- sive society for the protection of forests, now nine years old. After presenting a forestry bill to the state legislature for three sessions the Society succeeded in bringing about its passage in May of last year. The act provides for a state forester (the Society had previously employed one for several years) and state fire warden and a town forest fire warden in each town of the state. It provides also for the establishment of state forest parks by the Forestry Commission, under eminent domain if nec- essary, whenever funds for the same are provided without expense to the state. Through the influence of the Society, the last legisla- ture passed a bil! compelling the use of spark arresters on all port- able sawmills. (It is not stated whether there is a similar law in regard to locomotive engines. ) Besides a general report of progress, the Year Book contains 6 82 Forestry Quarterly. several papers upon forestry problems notably one by Phillip Ayres suggesting that the state aid town forests in the same manner as it now aids towns in building permanent roads. Sev- eral towns already own forests. CDA Report of Chief Fire Warden of British Columbia for 1909: Department of Lands, Victoria, B. C. 1909. Three hundred and seventy fires were reported, which burned over 30,000 acres of timber land and 40,000 acres of cut-over lands, destroying or damaging 8 million feet. Of these, locomo- tives caused 137, settlers 64, campers 56, donkey engines 23, lightning 19, and 71 were of unknown origin. Thirty-three in- formations for breach of fire regulations were laid and convic- tions secured in 19 cases, the fires aggregating $800. The department consisted of 1 chief warden, 36 deputy wardens "and 80 assistant wardens, with a total expenditure of $40,000, of which $12,000 was paid for fighting fires (850 men). The vigilance of the fire wardens is shown by the fact that 80 per cent. of the fires were discovered in time to be extinguished before dam- age was done, and in the convictions obtained. The chief improvements the past season were in the permit system for clearing land, 2,530 permits being issued and the firing supervised, and in the more thorough inspection of logging engines. It is to be hoped that the patrol system of prevention will be still further developed, with increased powers to the rangers. The problem of slash disposal has not been touched. J. Haw, Treatise on the Protection of Forests from Fire. By W. C. J. Hall and B. L. O’Hara. Bureau of Forestry, Department of Lands and Forests, Quebec, Canada. 1909. Pp. 31. This little pamphlet contains a general discussion of how fires originate and are fought, with general advice to rangers. It is simply and clearly written, and it is to be hoped that it is given a wide distribution, for its function is plainly educational. The day of discussing the importance of forest protection in Canada has gone by—one speaks of it now from the standpoint of necessity. 5. Current Literature. 83 Experimental Farms Report for 1908. Department of Agri- culture, Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 414. Among the many reports included in this volume might be mentioned that of the Horticulturist. It contains, among other matters, an article on the forms of winter injury to trees and a brief statement of the condition of the arboretum, forest belts and botanic garden. The forms of injury discussed are root-killing, bark-splitting, trunk-splitting, sunscald, body injury, crotch injury, killing-back, black-heart, killing of dormant and of swollen buds. Speaking of the forest belts the report says: “The mixed belts, while very interesting as showing the relative ability or ina- bility of the different species to endure shade, could with the greater knowledge gained after twenty years’ experience, be planted now with less loss of good but slower growing kinds. In the mixed belt, for instance, the American Elm, Box Elder, and to some extent the Green Ash have grown so rapidly and formed such a canopy overhead that almost everything else is being killed, or promises to be killed in a short time. One lesson which has been learned is that certain few species would do well to- gether in a mixed belt, and that several good combinations could be made of a few species in each to better advantage than a larger number of species mixed together.” The arboretum contains 3,072 species and varieties, embracing 4,652 specimens, and the botanic garden 2,037 species of herba- ceous perennials. Much time is devoted to the construction of records of hardiness, growth, etc., of these species. On page 345 is given information regarding the present size of 13 species of forest trees planted at Indian Head, Saskatche- wan, mostly in 1892. A more prompt issuance of the report to the public after sub- mission would be a desirable feature. na. iW Indian Woods and Their Uses. By R. S. Troupe. Economic Products Series, Vol. I, No. 1. Published by the Superintend- ent of Government Printing, Calcutta. 1909. Pp. 273. Price, Rupees 2-12. The object of the work is to give particulars of those woods which are used or are suitable for specific purposes. Five hun- 84 Forestry Quarterly. dred and fifty-four species are dealt with. The subject matter is divided into two main parts. In the first, the purposes (ar- ranged alphabetically) for which woods are employed and the kinds of wood used for each are given. In the second part the various woods, mentioned in the first part, are described in alpha- betical order and the uses of each are also given. There are two appendices giving in the form of indices the vernacular names and the English or trade names and in both cases the equivalent scientific name is given. From The Indian Forester, December, 1900. The Andaman Marble Wood or Zebra Wood. By R. S. Troupe. Forest Economy Series, No. 2. Superintendent of Goy- ernment Printing, Calcutta. 1909. This handsome timber is Diospyros Kurzti, a variegated ebony, "the chief value of which is for ornamental purposes, lies in the remarkable effect produced by alternating streaks of black and gray. The monograph deals with the vernacular names, distri- bution, type of forest, description and size of tree, size of timber obtainable, description of wood, weight, strength, seasoning qual- ities, method of working and extraction, outturn, demand, price, uses of the wood and inquiries regarding the timber. There is a good plate to illustrate the variations in type of the marble- wood, but the distinctive feature of the pamphlet is the actual specimen of the wood, a veneer, which is framed in cardboard and accompanies it. This is the first of a series dealing with some of the more important Indian timbers, many of which are at present insufficiently known in commercial circles. Similar pamphlets will be brought out from time to time and will con- tain such information as is likely to be of use to wood-merchants, engineers, architects and others interested in the utilization of Indian timbers. From The Indian Forester, December, 1900. Forest Protection. By C. A. Schenck, Ph. D. This excellent outline of Dr. Schenck’s lectures on Forest Pro- tection at Biltmore should be in the hands of every American forester. It is divided into two parts, Part A dealing with pro- Current Literature. 85 tection against Organic Nature, and Part B with protection against Inorganic Nature. In Part A the chapter dealing with protection against man himself discusses the subject of Adverse Possession and gives considerable space to the subject of Forest Fires, which is dis- cussed with particular reference to American conditions. The chapters on protection against Domestic Animals, Wild Vertebrates, and Insects follows somewhat similar lines to the European text books. The pages dealing with methods of pro- tecting the forest against insect damage are of particular in- terest, the references to literature on the subject being a valuable feature. The third chapter outlines practical measures for combatting pernicious weeds and fungi, and is also written from the Ameri- can standpoint. In Part B, the paragraphs dealing with Protection Against Frost, Heat, Snow and Sleet, Wind Storms, Erosion, Shifting Sands, and Noxious Gases only need to be read to prove that they are written by a thoroughly practical forester. A valuable feature of the book is an Index of Species Affected and a very complete “Index of Malefactors.” ey Ete Ep Re Der Waldbau oder die Forstproduktenzucht. Von Dr. Karl Heyer. Fifth edition by Dr. Richard Hess. Two volumes. Leipzig, 1906 and 1909. This is undoubtedly the most comprehensive treatise on silvi- culture in the German literature, the best for a student who wishes to become fully acquainted with the great variety of sil- vicultural methods that have been practiced or only discussed. Heyer was one of the clearest and most systematic expounders on whatever field he wrote, and his editor, Hess, excels in the same direction. The first volume expounds the theory and methods of silvicultural operations. The second volume treats of applications in silvicultural management. It may be admitted, as some reviewers have urged, that, the work, especially the last volume, lacks “modernism of treat- ment,” that it is impossible to discuss so systematically and dog- matically advantages and disadvantages of this or that system, 86 Forestry Quarterly. and give rules of procedure. The learner, however, will welcome the clearness of language and statement, well aware that, in practice, judgment must direct him in the application of rules. Although the author conscientiously weighs advantages and dis- advantages of natural regeneration and artificial methods, he undoubtedly inclines to the latter, for which those of Gayer’s school will be apt to find fault. B, E. F. Studien iiber die Grundbegriffe und die Systematik der Forst- wissenschaft. Von Dr. Lorenz Wappes. Berlin, 1909. 73 pp. This booklet is of interest in connection with the educational movement lately launched of standardizing the teaching at forest schools. It is an attempt to systematize and classify all that which may be considered forestry science, if such a name is justi- fable. Wappes doubts the propriety of calling what we com- monly so recognize as science, and points out that in practice forestry becomes a mere trade. To this we may object that, while this is perhaps the attitude of the practitioner, the literature of later years testifies to the development of a true science. Char- latans are found in medicine, law, philology or any other pro- fession without justifying us to withhold from those professions the designation science. Nevertheless, his strictures on the trade- like attitude of foresters is perhaps deserved not only in Ger- many but in other countries we know of. We agree with Wappes only conditionally that not the forest, but forest management (forestry) is the basis of this science. “The forest is a natural phenomenon, which is an object of nat- ural science. ‘This cannot be the theme of forestry, for then it would be identical with botany.” He wants to admit only the investigation of the relations of forest to man as the function of forestry science. Surely, this is narrowing the realm un- reasonably. Certainly that portion of botany which concerns itself not any more with the study of the plant, the single tree, but with the aggregation, the forest, with its life history and the conditions and methods of its propagation may be properly segre- gated as forestry science, even though the ecologist may in part occupy this domain of the forester. At any rate we can claim that there is a sufficient, well organized amount of a series of sciences, natural, mathematical, financial, etc., involved in and Current Literature. 87 underlying the art of forestry, to justify the name of forestry science for this aggregate. “The task of forestry investigations is to find out the laws un- derlying forest management as an economic organism, as a pro- cess of production by the natural forces of the forest directed by human endeavor for human purposes; and their aim is to reduce to general laws the phenomena here occurring, i. e., of systems, methods, operations and of the forces at work.” “Into commonplace,” he says, “we may translate the attitude of the forester thus: Where the eye of the botanist sees plants, the forester sees forest; where the layman sees trees the mental vision of the forester is filled with forestry methods and systems. The tree to him is not plant but apparatus for wood production, the forest not phenomenon but means for an economical object, the wood not material but product.” Restricting in this way the field of forestry, Wappes produces a system of forestry knowledge in analogy to biological science, dividing into: Forest-economic Geography; Forestry Taxonomy ; Forestry Morphology (organization of service); Anatomy (business conduct); Physiology (mechanics of forest manage- ment and dynamics, movement of values); Biology of forest management. Altogether while there is much that is suggestive, the author takes a rather high-flown attitude and the attempt to produce a system analogous to that of biological science is not quite suc- cessful and lacks practical as well as theoretical soundness. BB. FE. Die ékonomische Entwicklung der bayrischen S‘pessartstaats- waldungen, 1814 bis 1905. Von Dr. K. Vanselow. Leipzig, 1909. From a review of this volume by Hufnagel, in the Centralblatt, we cull the following interesting facts relating to one of the most noted forest countries of Germany, the Spessart mountains, noted for its legends as well as its magnificent old oaks, many of which now yield as much as 1,000 mark to the Bavarian treas- ury (see F. Q., vol. VI, p. 285 and 437) the history of its man- agement furnishing an insight into the profitableness of forestry in general. Originally covered with oak and beech, gradually, owing to 88 Forestry Quarterly. deterioration, the result of early mismanagement, the pine en- croached until now it forms one-third of the stand. In olden times the beech was more favored as furnishing the best fuel, until the rise of prices of workwood led to the favoring of the oak and reducing the rotation of beech to 120 years and go yeats. The statistics show that from 1821 to 1905 the net income grew to nearly six times, the receipts for wood alone increasing at the average rate of 4.1%. The price of workwood for first class oak rose from 15 cents per cubic foot in 1836 to $1.24 in 1907 and for select as high as $3.30. From 1872 to 1905 prices for the three best classes by 61%, the three medium classes by 30%, the two poorest classes by 18%, showing the relative greater appreciation of the better classes. Meanwhile, while the price for beech workwood of class I nearly quadrupled to now 33 cents, beech fuelwood has remained since 1840 nearly the same in price. It is interesting to note how thinnings have increased to now 35% of the final harvest yield. This is largely due to the increase in pine and mixed growth, which may be thinned after the 30th year, while beech and oak, subject to rights of user, may not be thinned before the 6oth year. BOEL Jahresbericht iiber Veréffentlichungen und witchtigere Ereig- msse 1m Gebtete des Forstwesens, etc., fiir das Jahr 1908. As usually this useful reference volume to the progress of for- estry science is published as a Supplement to Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. The same deficiency which we criticised before and which is a blemish to so much of the German literature continues to appear in this issue, namely, the absence of an index. There is a well sub- divided table of contents, but this is hardly as convenient as a subject index. This lack reduces the usefulness of the work very considerably. While naturally the references are mainly to the prolific Ger- man literature, there is more and more, although scanty room given to foreign, especially American publications. While useful in its way, we would consider the volume more useful, if, like the Forestry Quarterly, it would give fuller briefs of the important articles and a mere enumeration of the ephemeral. B. EB. B: Current Literature. 89 Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gesellschaft, 1909. The current issue of this elaborate annual is of particular interest to foresters in this country. Seven of the papers treat wholly or largely of American species, and three of them are of American authorship. An exhaustive illustrated monograph on the genus Sambucus, by Graf von Schwerin, brings to date the taxonomy and nomen- clature of this genus. Prof. R. Demeker, of New York, dis- cusses entertainingly the development and disappearance of the North American forests, with notes on the characteristics of cer- tain broadleaf species. Unfortunately the paper contains many glaring inaccuracies. Among the many American species treated, Douglas Fir is given special attention. Circular 150 of the Forest Service, on Douglas Fir, is translated, and the relative merits of the “green” and “blue” forms are discussed in papers by Schwappach, Mayr, Seydel, and others. The superior frosthardiness of the slow- growing “blue” form and of the new variety, P. douglasu caesia Schwerin, is attested by seven reports from experimenters. The subject of frost damage to tree growth, with especial refer- ence to exotic (chiefly American) species and to the winter of 1908-9, is given prominence in six papers. L. Beissner discusses at some length the characteristics and desirability of Western Larch (Larix occidentalis) for European planting. Japanese species and forests are treated in three papers, one of them by Prof. J. G. Jack, of Harvard. Johannes Rafn, Copenhagen, con- tributes a valuable article on the germination of tree seeds, which is separately reviewed below. Berd... I, Forest Tree Seed Researches in the Season of 1908-9. By Johannes Rafn. This paper gives the results of a large number of tests con- ducted with seed from many localities. To American readers the results with American species are necessarily of the most interest. These results showed that very many of the seeds collected in the fall of 1908 were poor in quality. The seed of the valuable coast form of the Douglas Fir was notably poor, as were also most of the species of Abies. The author notes in particular the poor quality of the seed of Pinus lambertiana and Pinus insignis go Forestry Quarterly. (radiata), compared with samples of the same species collected in previous years.. He draws the conclusion that the seed supplied to him during three consecutive seasons, 1906, 1907, and 1908, came from cones of the same season, 1906, and that in several cases, European, as well as American, the poor quality of the 1908 seed is directly traceable to its age. Ny Bite: OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. The Forests of the United States: Their Use. By O. W. Price, R. S. Kellogg & W. T. Cox. Circular 171, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. December, 1909. Pp. 25. "Some Insects Injurious to Forests: The Southern Pine Sawyer. By J. L. Webb. Bulletin 58, Part IV, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. November, 1909. Pp. 56. Some Insects Injurious to Southern Forests: Insect Depreda- tions in North American Forests, and Practical Methods of Pre- vention and Control. Bulletin 58, Part V, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. December, 1909. Pp. 101. Veneers for 1908. Forest Products, No. 5, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. December, 1909. Pp. 13. Tight Cooperage Stock for 1908. Forest Products No. 6, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. September, 1909. Pp. 12. Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 1910. A quarterly issue of f. 0. b. mill prices. Twentieth Annual Report of Missourt Botanical Garden. St. Louis, Missouri. 1909. Pp. 223. Illustrated. British Columbia Royal Commission of Inquiry on Timber and Forestry: Interim Report. Victoria, B. C. 1910. Pp. 2. Other Current Literature. gI Courses in Forestry. Bulletin No. 60, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana. 1909. Pp. 8. Annual Report of Botanic Gardens and Government Domains for 1908. By J. H. Maiden, Director. Sydney, New South Wales. Pp. 36. Illustrated. Contains some handy bibliographies. Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, ‘1908-00. Ottawa, Canada. i1g10. Pp. 400. Price, 45 cents. Annual Report of the Department of Trade and Commerce, 1908-09, Parts I & II. Ottawa, Canada. 1g10. Pp. 567-+102. Price, 35 cents. Insect Intruders in Indian Homes. By E. P. Stebbing. W. Thacker & Co., London, England. 1gog9. Price, Rupees 4-8. A popular account of the commoner intruders one encounters in the home, garden and jungle. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Volume 52, number 1872. (Volume 5, number 4 of Quarterly issue.) Washington, Pee) 1910. Pp. 110. Contains an interesting article on the geologic work of man- grove formations in Florida. Report of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station on Fer- tigers. 1909. Pp. 126. Soils of the Umted States. Bulletin 55, Bureau of Soils, Washington, D. C. 1909. Pp. 243, I map. A comprehensive bulletin summarizing the activities of the Bureau since 1898 and giving the classification of United States soil. Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials. Volume IX. 1909. Pp. 608. Contains of interest to foresters: Report of Committee on Standard Specifications for Grading Structural Timber; Some 92 Forestry Quarterly. Results of Dead Load Bending Tests of Timber by Means of a Recording Deflectometer, by H. D. Tiemann. How Much Does it Cost to Grow Timber. By R. S. Kellogg and E. A. Ziegler. A paper read at the annual meeting of the National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association held at Seattle, Washington. July, 1909. Pp. 18. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. The Chiricahua mountain range in south- Plant Geography eastern Arizona is fifty miles long, extend- of the Chiricahua ing almost due north and south, and it rises Mountains. from an elevated plain of approximately 4,000 feet altitude to 9,700 feet above sea level. After spending ten months botanizing in these mountains, Mr. J. C. Blumer has written an interesting paper upon the dis- tribution of their vegetation. He asserts that if three maps of the mountain range were to be drawn to show the three chief factors of its floral geography, the first would give altitudinal zones similar to those outlined by Merriam for the San Francisco mountains of northern Arizona, except for the absence of the two highest zones of Merriam, due to the lack of sufficient ele- vation and except, again, for the presence of evergreen oaks which to a large extent replace the pinyon zone of the San Fran- cisco mountains. The second map showing the distribution of the plants gov- erned by aspect of similar rock outcrops and similar soils of the same altitude, would look like very crazy patchwork, the adjective perhaps to be literally applied to one making such a map, because of the influences other than that of aspect, such as seepage and the physical character of the soil, which enter into the determi- nation of distribution on these sites. The third map based upon the character of the rock strata and the soils without regard to either altitude or aspect would lead to divisions denoted by vegetation on transported soils and on re- sidual soils derived from limestone, recent eruptions (basalt) older eruptive and metamorphic rocks (Andesite, rhyolite, gran- ite, quartzite). . The boundary lines of plant associations and formations based as above upon the rock derivations of the soil are very sharply marked and bear no relation to aspect, and within certain limits, little or none to altitude. For example, the basaltic hills (recent eruptive) are treeless and shrubless, being covered with grasses 04 Forestry Quarterly. and other herbs, while the andesitic and rhyolitic hills (old erup- tive) of the same general altitude and the same aspect are cov- ered with evergreen oaks and junipers. Here, however, the his- toric element may be of influence. The most striking example is that of the evergreen oaks (seven species) which are almost absolutely absent from pure limestone soil. The only oak on lime- stone in the region studied is deciduous and it is found only on limestone. The author believes that the controlling forces in the plant distribution of the Chiricahua mountains point strongly towards the physio-chemical character of the soil. (In this connection the reader is referred to the review of The Soil Preferences of Cer- tain Alpine and Sub-alpine Plants, by M. L. Fernald, in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 6, p. 400.) Science, November, 1909. Pp. 720-724. : BOTANY. Some years ago, Wiesner called attention Concazity of — to the fact that the upper surface of the Leaves and peripheral leaves of woody plants were Illumination. characteristically concave, while the leaves within the shadow of the crown of trees were prevailingly flat or nearly so. He regarded the concavity of the outer leaves of the crown as a protective device against in- jury to chlorophyll by excessive sunlight. Prof. J. Y. Bergen has recently taken up the subject and his measurements confirm Wiesner’s as to facts, but he is not so sure in regard to Wiesner’s theory as to cause. The assumption that greater concavity goes with greater illumination meets many exceptions. For example, in the genera Prunus, Pyrus and Salix all of the leaves of a tree may be concave whether grown in the sun or shade. And more- over, leaves side by side receiving apparently identical illumina- tion vary greatly in concavity. Botanical Gazette, December, 1909. Pp. 459-461. Merwin and Lyon believe the two chief Sap Pressure factors concerned in producing the sap in Birch. pressure of birch stems are root pressure and the thermal expansion of the cell walls. The maximum pressure from each comes in the daytime, the Periodical Literature. 95 former shortly after sunrise and the latter shortly after mid-day. The senior author found that the thermal expansion of a given volume of birchwood, forty to fifty per cent. of which was sat- urated cell wall, to be about one and one half times the expansion of an equal volume of water. Since the external dimensions of the tree change imperceptibly, the change in the volume of wood is at the expense of the volume of the cell cavities. The effect of this is to diminish pore space in the wood and consequently to produce pressure upon the liquid or gas occupying the pores. If the pores were filled with liquid alone, the elastic expansion of the wood due to heat might give rise to very high pressures, but the cell cavities of the wood probably always contain gas. The compressibility of the gas in the wood pores lessens to a considerable extent the effect of thermal expansion in producing pressure. Formulae to determine the amount of expansion of saturated cell walls accompany the paper. Botanical Gazette, December, 1909. Pp. 442-458. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. In an address on the types of rainfall and Rainfall their geographic relations Dr. Ruhl fur- Distribution. nishes the following lucid statement. . The distribution of total precipitation follows mainly two laws. In general a reduction of amount takes place from the equator to the poles, parallel to the relative humidity of the air. In the tropics the largest amounts fall, in the average perhaps 2,000 mm. At the limit of the tropics the air, which in the tropics had ascended due to the heat, returns to the earth, and occasions here a rain-poor zone, which is characterized by deserts and plains on both hemispheres. Going north, a second and subordinate maximum of precipitation is met in the subtropics and lower latitudes, which is caused by cyclonic air movements accompanied by rain. Towards the poles, rains are reduced due to low relative humidity, so that finally the polar regions belong to the driest of the globe, often securing not more than 100 to 200 mm of precipitation. The second law is that generally precipitation decreases from the coast to the interior, mainly because seawinds bring the mois- ture, although evaporation from the soil furnishes not inconsider- 96 Forestry Quarterly. able quantities, as has lately been shown, so that oceans are by no means the only source of moisture. A great difference, how- ever, is produced by location. In the tropics, the trades from the East make these sides of continents rainier than the West sides, where even deserts may exist at the coast close to the sea- shore. From the 40 degree north this condition is reversed, the west-winds becoming dominant. Of all meteorological phenomena rains are most modified by local conditions. The principal cause of precipitation is the ascent of masses of air, hence every elevation, every mountain range, since it forces air to rise, tends to produce rain. Hence the windward side is always rainier than the leeward, so that mountain ranges become division lines between wet and dry country, short distances apart, as is particularly noted in North America, especially British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain districts. In the distribution through the seasons also a great difference Between tropics and the higher latitudes is noticeable, periodicity being the rule in the former, more or less even distribution in the latter. In the mediterranean countries winter rains prevail, and summer is a dry season, the same as all the west coasts of subtropical lati- tudes, while in the temperate zones rains occur at all seasons. A special type of precipitation are the monsoon rains. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. December, 1909. Pp. 541-543. SILVICULTURE. PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Oberforster Sieber reports on the experi- Advance ence with planting spruce under the shelter Planting of — of old stands before their removal ( Vorver- Spruce. jiingungsbetrieb.) This novel method has been practised in the Frankenwald, in the dukedom of Reuss, north of Bavaria, for the last 20 to 25 years, and hence at least a preliminary judgment of its value can be formed. To assure the reader, that Sieber’s judgment is entirely unbiased, we repeat verbatim his final expressions which need to be driven home in our country with its young practitioners. “We cannot strongly enough warn against the assumption, that any one method is the only advantageous one. The very attempts which Periodical Literature. 97 are made in the literature to make one method appear superior to another prove the opposite. So many are recommended with good reasons, that the practitioner must reserve the choice and the right to go his own ways” The region in which this little known method of under- planting was practised in districts of about 10,000 acres in extent, lies on an elevation of from 1,500 to 2,200 feet. While the soil is mostly very fertile, being classed on the average under site elass II, the climate is rather unfavorable, rough and liable to frosts and snow breakages. The stands are rather open, with tops frequently broken, the soil covered often with raw humus in quantities and liable to weed growth, especially huckleberry. The reasons for devising this method of regeneration were various. Natural regeneration had been unsatisfactory on account of the competition of weeds, while soil preparation occasioned too much expense. Clearing was dangerous on account of windfall and frosts from which plantations in the open suffer. Sowing with spruce and fir under the old stands had been tried, but moss choked out and game destroyed the young crop. Hence, the underplanting was tried. In a selection cutting the existing openings were enlarged and denser groups evenly opened up, so that about one third of the volume was removed. Then strips, 1.5 feet wide and about 4.5 to 5 feet apart had their soil cover removed and into these four to five year old spruce were set with the Wartenberg plant iron, a yard apart, keeping five to six feet away from trees. In the darker places only plats or short strips were so planted. It was soon found out that the removal of one- third was not sufficient, and further thinnings for the benefit of the young crop became at once necessary. At each thinning repair planting was done and, of course, existing volunteer growth was utilized. In this way in 20 to 25 years a satisfactory repro- duction had been secured and the old stand entirely removed. In the decade 1885/94 some 425 acres in 52 parcels had been so treated, on areas of upwards to 25 acres in extent. The result is of course an uneven young growth, the first plant- ings 15 to 20 feet in height, the last, on the final skidding trails and roads, of smaller plants. And of course, other stands whose regeneration is not yet completed show a variety of conditions. The main objection raised by the author to this procedure is the 7 08 Forestry Quarterly. possible damage by wind and snow breakages to the old stand and by the felling and skidding to the young crop. The first was found no worse than in a clearing system, the timberwood per cent. show- ing no essential difference. The old stands here evidently were quite windfirm, a condition which by careful thinning practice can be secured elsewhere. The damage to the young crop is undeniable, and it is to be kept in mind that it affects single plants, each of which repre- sents value. Yet, the spruce is remarkable for its capacity for repair. Moreover, the damage can be reduced by timely careful removal to roads of logs and cordwood. This is costly, $2.00 per acre, which is chargeable to the method. The influence of the old stand in preventing frost damage was unmistakeable. Only in portions that were kept too dark loss in droughty years was experienced. * While by a careful investigation, in 1894, it appeared that in these plantings 7% less loss was experienced than in open planta- tions, the author believes that this advantage is only partially due to the method and explained in part by difference in planting ground. Ata cursory inspection, 10 years later, the difference was less obvious, except where the proper light conditions had been secured for the underplantings. An interesting result on the increment of the old stands was proved by careful analysis which brought out the fact that the age-class 81-go had increased its volume increment per cent. from 1.9 in the full stand to 2.3 in the regeneration areas; in the age class g1-100 the figures were 1.5 and 1.9 respectively. Interesting also is the result that the smaller diameter classes show a greater benefit than the larger, especially in the younger age classes as appears from the following: Diameter Class Volume increment per cent. cm Full stands Regeneration areas 20 1.4 2.4 25 1.8 2.4 30 1.9 23 35 2.1 2.2 40 22 2.0 Admitting that the experiences with this method are too few and too short to allow a decided judgment of advantages and dis- advantages of the same it seems to prove itself adequate to secure a satisfactory regeneration. A special advantage of any kind Pertodical Literature. 99 of advance regeneration, the author points out, is that the pro- duction of the soil continues without interruption, while in clear- ing systems, always 1 to 2 years are lost, which under the short rotations profitable for spruce means on large areas a considerable loss. ; The author also points out that with this system larger con- tiguous areas can without detriment be taken into hand than in clearing systems. Ueber Fichtenvorverjiingung mittels Unterpflanzung. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. Dec. 1909. Pp. 631-640. Dr. Schiffel reports on the results of an Growth investigation on the increment of spruce in Studies an experimental area, severely thinned in (Lichtungszuwachs). The stand originated Spruce. in natural regeneration, and at 90 years, having been slightly thinned up to 8o years, still shows age differences of 15 years. The experiment has been carried on for 15 years. The stand was divided into four plots of .5 ha each; the first for comparison was thinned in the usual moderate way, the others were reduced to about .8 of the cross section area found on area I. Five years later another thinning reduced area II to .8, area III to .65, area IV to .5 of the cross section area of the area I. A storm, however, threw the trees on area IV in 1900 and ruled it out, the other areas remaining undamaged. (Showing that a go year old closed stand of spruce may not be opened to half its density.) The results are fully tabulated. The total increment of timberwood was in all three cases almost alike in the 15 years, the thinnings having no influ- ence on quantity of increment, although in area II 52 per cent., in area III gg per cent. more wood was removed than on area I. In all three cases a sinking tendency in the current increment was noticeable. : ToTtaL CURRENT INCREMENT PER HA. Timberwood. 1893/8 1898/03 1903/08 1893/1908 I 14.4 13.6 12 13.3 Il 14.8 13.6 12.4 13.6 Ill 16 14.4 Iz.2 13.8 While this table shows almost the same volumes the factors 100 Forestry Quarterly. making up the volumes were, however, very considerably varied, as appears from the following: I II iI Stem Stem Stem Period. Number Height Diam. Number Height Diam. Number Height Diam, Decrease. Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. Increase. In per cent. of amounts in 1893. 1893- 1908 50.7 13:3) 1366 63.4 13.6 448 75.5 7A 2A The quality is very considerably increased, area III with one- quarter the number of trees that were present in 1903 has nearly double the average diameter as compared with area I. Diameter increment, ring width and diameter increment per cent. remain very nearly alike through the three periods in areas I and IJ, but in area III, a continual increase of all three items in the average tree are noticeable, which is in part at least attributable to the treatment. The increment percents are generally highest on area III, lowest on area I, especially on the smaller stems, while on the 20 stoutest no considerable differences were found, leading to the conclusion that the opening does not influence the increment of the stoutest. (They were in full enjoyment of light before !—Ep.) To avoid error in these conclusions, the increment of the same number (20) of trees of same diameter in the same periods were compared. From this comparison the same beneficial influence of the thinning in area III becomes evident; the difference in diameter increment of trees of same size in favor of area III was for stout trees 13 mm, for medium sized trees 22 mm, for small trees 25 mm. ‘To make further sure of the generality of the influence the arithmetic mean tree was investigated. While according to Weise this tree lies at 40 per cent. of the total number from the stoutest down, in these areas, it was found just so in area III, in area I at 41%, in area II at 45%. To prove that the average tree of the remaining stand, on all three areas 7. e. without reference to the different treatment, gave also the average cross section area, a calculation was made of the 10 per cent. of the trees around the average tree, and it was found that they also represented about 10% of the total cross section increment. The volume increment was found the same in area III with 178 Pertodical Literature. IOI trees as in area II with 244, and in area I with 399 trees. It was found unusually high, namely, 170 cu. ft. per acre, which, occurring in the goth year, compared with the usually noted 100 cu. it. of the yield tables shows what discrepancies there are in the latter. While these data are local, they probably exhibit general laws, at least for the spruce. 1. They seem to prove again formerly expressed statements as correct, namely that an open stand does not produce essential changes in total product of wood, at least when the opening does not go below .65 of the cross section area of a full stand. 2. By opening up, a quality improvement is secured due to the increased increment on the remaining stand, besides increasing the financial advantage due to earlier receipts. 3. The “light” increment takes the places on the smaller trees to a greater degree than on the dominant, originally well crowned trees; here lies mainly the quality increment which must be well differentiated from the automatic improvement that comes from the increase of the average tree diameter due to removal of smaller trees. The author then goes into an exhaustive inquiry whether the actual average tree of a stand represents also the average diameter, cross section area and volume. He comes to the con- clusion that this is the case only as long as the tree number does not change perceptibly, hence, stem analysis for finding the incre- ment of stands can play only a subordinate role. ‘The only sure way of securing knowledge of the volume increment is by measur- ing entire areas at two different times. Zuwachsstudien in einem Fichtenbestande. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst- wesen. December, 1909. Pp. 505-527. There were 184 samples of forest tree seeds Germination tested in 1907 at the Prussian testing sta- of tion for forest tree seeds at Eberswalde Seeds. under Dr. Schwappach, 450 in 1908, and 289 in 1909. The tests made for the state forest officers formed 28% of the whole in 1907; 58% in 1908; and 44%in 1909. Poor seed years deprive foresters of a supply of seed from their forests and their purchases in the market must be tested to determine their value. Thus the poor yield of pine 102 Forestry Quarterly. seed in 1908, and of spruce in 1g09g sent more samples to the test- ing station. The average maximum and minimum of viability for species of which more than ten samples were tested follow: Viability. Species. Average. Masimum. Minimum. Scotch Pine, 97 36 Norway Spruce, 06 50 European Larch, 50 30 White Pine, 52 86 33 European Oak, 74 90 36 These results were obtained in a lighted room at a temperature or 25° C) There are two accepted styles of germinating dishes, one of porous clay, one of bibulous paper. The germination secured is different in the two dishes, the paper giving 9% more than the "clay for Scotch pine seeds. For spruce no difference was evi- dent. Rapidity of germiniation varies in the same way between the two dishes. At the International Congress for Agriculture and Forestry at Vienna in 1907, Officials of the various seed testing stations or- ganized for discussion and agreed upon the following points. 1. When the regular viability test is completed the remaining ungerminated seeds are to be cut open and record made of those apparently viable. For fir, maple, ash and Carpinus the knife is used without first germinating the seeds. Acorns and nuts, and other large seeds are buried in damp sand for 30 days, and then cut open. 2. A variation of five per cent. in the use value is allowable in seeds whose germination per cent. exceeds forty. Below forty per cent. no limit is to be set until further study. 3. Germination tests are to be concluded after a set time as fol- lows: Larix europaea, and nearly all pines, t Chamaecyparis (all species), 20 days Pinus sylvestris, SON asp Pinus strobus and maritima, 60:42 Alnus and Betula, 7-0 le Other Broadleaf Trees, SO747 The germination per cent. found at the testing may be lower than that determined and guaranteed by the dealer due either to a Periodical Literature. 103 deterioration during the interval, or to difference in methods of sampling. Haack has recently studied the effects of secular de- terioration (Forestry Quarterly Vol. VII, p. 328). A sample should truly represent the lot from which it is taken as regards size, color and ripeness. Whether it is thus representative is not readily determined. White Pine seed germinates very slowly, and under ordinary conditions continues to sprout for a year. Quicker results have been secured by exposure to a low temperature (5°-10° C) first, and later raising to 25° C. Stored fir seed deteriorates rapidly. Freshly gathered seeds placed in damp sand germinated very slowly, indicating that they require a period of rest. Fir seeds are usually examined for viability by the knife test. Whether the knife or germination tests better indicate what to expect in seed beds is as yet unknown. Black Locust seeds germinate much more rapidly after a three minute treatment with boiling water. Acorns sprouted in damp sand give results very much below the value indicated by cutting open. Germination when half submerged in water in shallow pans gave higher results, but not high enough. Mitteilungen aus der Waldsamen-—Prifungsanstalt Eberswalde. Zeit- schrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen. November, 1909. Pp. 753-762. Raumer reports most satisfactory expe- Experience rience with Pinus divaricata on the very with poorest sand soil, on which the Scotch Pine Banksian produces only a miserable growth yielding Pine. in 108 years with not over 50 feet in height a final harvest of 1150 cubic feet per acre. An experiment substituting White Pine failed. A small plan- tation of Banksian Pine with yearlings on unprepared soil was choked out by the heather in two years. A second trial on thor- oughly prepared soil proved a great success. The soil work con- sisted in removing the litter and roots, and plowing strips 12 inches wide and 12 inches deep, 3.5 feet apart, at a cost of $8, which was not considered excessive These strips were planted with yearlings, 2 feet in the row, with a planting iron, at a cost of $15 per acre. At the same time a similar area was planted with yearling Scotch Pine. Both plantations started well, but 104 Forestry Quarterly. after 7 years the appearance is very different. The Banksian Pine forms a perfect dense cover of sound plants with a height of over 10 feet maximum, and 8 feet average height, the soil covered with needles, the heather suppressed. The Scotch Pine does not ex- hibit any desirable features. Although there are no fail places, the growth, due to several attacks of the “Schutte” is uneven, heights averaging over 5 feet, with tendency to cripples, the soil covered with heather. Another plantation with Banksian Pine on less carefully pre- pared soil (cost of $4.50) shows as good results. This pine bears seed early, namely, at 6 years, the seed pro- ducing vigorous seedlings. An observation which we have not seen recorded elsewhere, is that the Banksian Pine makes 2 and 3 whorls and length shoots in one year, so that age cannot be de- termined from the whorls. Einiges von der Banks-Kiefer. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, November, 1907. Pp. 582-586. The fact that the “blue’’ Douglas Fir, 1. e. Hardiness the Rocky Mountain form is hardier than of the “green,” i. ¢. the Pacific form has again Douglas Fir. been proven in Germany this last year, not only in seedlings but in older plants. Dr. Fiirst observed that during the winter, 3 year old Douglas Firs died from the top down to one-half, one-third, or entirely, while others standing between the dead and injured remained perfectly healthy. Just so, on trees from 3 to 10 feet in height, two or three years’ shoots became red, while others showed no damage. A portion of yearlings which showed no damage were trans- planted but more than half of 20,000 died, freezing of roots being assigned as the cause. Trees over 12 feet in height, however, showed only occasional small damage. All damaged plants were found to be of the “green” form. It is supposed that an early frost did the damage, for low winter temperatures have so far been well sustained except the unusually low ones of 1879. Auffallende Beschaidigungen von Douglasien. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. November, 1910. Pp. 586-88. Periodical Literature. 105 MENSURATION, FINANCE, MANAGEMENT. Dr. Schiffel, well known for his develop- Theodolite diameter at as ment of the form quotient Dendrometer. middle height breast height I. p. 6 and 56; vol. II. p. 258, 263), as a means of determining more precisely volumes of trees, which, however, requires meas- uring of diameters at middle height, shows how these measure- ments can be done by a simple theodolite with are which permits measuring angles within one minute accurate, and must have a micrometer screw for measuring horizontal movement of the alidade to measure the small angle formed by sighting each side of the tree through the cross-threads. The trigonometric details are given at length with great sim- plicity. The simple attachment for measuring and counting the screw turns is described. ‘Tables for the determination of heights corresponding to measured angles are worked out as auxiliaries for rapid work in the woods, and give the diameters directly without calculation. Practical needs for measuring sample trees are: Sample trees should be straight, at least not incline to or from the instrument ; the base line should not be longer than the height of the tree, indeed, the nearer to the tree the more exact the measurement, foot, middle and top being visible from the instrument. Trial measurements have given most satisfactory results. In the May number of the same Journal (May p. 237) Dr. Wimmenauer points out that the method could not work when trees move, which is much more frequent than supposed, and that then only an instrument with double cross-threads, like his own dendrometer, will answer. Schiffel admits this in part, but claims that the movement at the middle of the tree is not in proportion to that at the top, since the movement is that of an elastic body. With considerable move- ment even the best dendrometer, becomes useless, while small movements can be takn care of by observing the swinging across the cross-threads. Die Waldbussole als Dendrometer. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1909. Pp. 97-107. diameter at (see Forestry Quarterly, vol. 106 Forestry Quarterly. In a scathing article, a lecture before prac- Silviculture tical forest managers at Vienna, Hufnagel and points out, how, in the endeavor for orderly Forest procedure in the forest according to work- Organization. ing plans, the main object, revenue, and the means to that end, silviculture, are for- gotten, or the latter forced into narrow and schematic limits. “Millions have been sacrificed to the moloch ‘order.’ This,” the author says, “is especially true for Germany with its extensive State forest systems, while in Austria conditions are more favor- able, for here forest devastation caused by adherence to working plans has not reached the same extent, and extensive mixed stands, highly differentiated, still call on the silviculturist for thought, consideration and work.” As regards theory and practice of silviculture, they are far apart. Theory presses for a return to natural regeneration, prac- tice prefers artificial planting; the former excludes choice of species since in a large way only the shade endurers can be regen- erated, while the planting practice is apt to limit the choice to the easy transplants, spruce, pine, larch. The call for mixed stands is in natural regeneration an “accidental possibility,” in planting a “‘breadless art” as long as mixing of individuals and small groups is to be forced. What species will be desirable for future use, who knows? Mixed forest, and especially such as Mayr proposes in large groups, and natural regeneration are the horrors of forest organ- ization, because the working plan is to tell exactly when an area is to be cut and regenerated, and even the best artist is unable to furnish this at a given hour. The whole management in working blocks, with different species and rotations disturbs the needs of silviculture. After paying some compliments to Wagner’s one-sided new proposition of strip selection regeneration, based on a few limited observations and to his condemnation of artificial reforestation, he quotes Mayr to the effect that natural regeneration is economi- cally applicable only with a certain minimum of precipitation (about 16 inches) “And why should the regeneration be ‘natural’? Every culture is a forcing of Nature: milk would be an expensive delicacy if cows were treated naturally; hence use natural regeneration only Periodical Literature. 107 where it comes unsought, to mainain certain species that do not thrive when planted, and to preserve natural beauty—those are its limitations.” He then riles against the formalism which forest organization and proper bookkeeping entails upon the forest manager. By laying stress on orderliness in time and space, and especially the latter in the area allotments, he is gradually forced to clear- ing system which is the direct road to orderliness, and the sim- plest. The normal stock or formula methods which attempt only orderliness in time, and which in Austria to the welfare of the forest were much practised and are still in force in Baden, are ex- cellently adapted to bridge over the antagonisms of silviculture and organization; they determine a felling budget by volume, but leave the manager to cut where considerations of silviculture re- quire, the orderliness in space becoming subordinate. “Volume and increment are the foundation stones for the management,” although not as convenient as area. Whatever may be desirable in the State forest, in private forestry the yield is the object. On the other hand, time is money, in the forest more than else- where; the silviculturists forget that if they propose to make the utilization dependent on the success of natural regeneration (in- stead of substituting planting) ; they must insist on the working plan giving them the possibility of making regeneration cuttings at the proper time as needed, perhaps in any stands above half the rotation, but they should not be allowed to leave ripe timber stand- ing until natural regeneration has succeeded. In conclusion the author cites a very successful private forest management in Bohemia, which determines a felling budget by volume for only half the rotation and then leaves free hand to take it where silviculturally desirable in the stands older than half the rotation. Beziehungen zwischen Waldbau und Forsteinrichtung. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. July, 1909. Pp. 289-299. Those who are familiar with the theory of Determining forest organization will remember that the a eventual aim is or ought to be, besides sat- Felling Budget. isfying present needs to approach normal : conditions which would permit a regular sustained yield, changing intermittent into annual, if possible equal revenue. 108 Forestry Quarterly. The most rational way to attain this object is the combination of an area allotment with a formula which attempts to control the volumes and increments. Instead of making the annual budget by area equal to — which would in one rotation establish normal age classes, a shorter period than 7 will usually be found practicable and more to the interest of the owner, say d, making the felling area = le-+ Sa— Sn i é , period of equalization e is determined, a “felling rotation” during which it is most advantageous for the owner from both the stand- point of his present interests and of the approach to normality to cut over his forest. The area budget and the formula budget must be brought into proper relations. The difficulty lies in finding a proper principle for the determination of the period of equaliza- tion. In the area budget this is more or less given by the exist- ing age class distribution, but in the formula budget no such natural conditions present themselves. Properly applied accord- ing to Heyer’s intention, the formula serves merely the purpose of orientation. By introducing various values for e we get an insight how budget and equalization period are related to each other and how the equalization of the growing stock is proceeding, Usually, however, a certain-sized budget is demanded, the need or ability to save or to cut more determines, and not a certain time in which the growing stock is to be adjusted; and with such a demanded budget and a few trial calculations the length of e is determined. This method of procedure Gascard considers moving in a circle, and proceeds to develop an improved method by the following reasoning: If the area alone were used as regulator, the whole forest would be cut over in d years, but since the volume formula is to influence the budget, there would in d years be cut over not the area A, but a. The areas A and a represent the two principles (area and volume) of budget regulation, and if the two are to Ata be equally considered, the average ____ __will furnish the budget 2 Similarly in Heyer’s well known formula b = for d years. In the volume formula the equalization period may according to the original Austrian method be chosen as 1. Periodical Literature. 109 If now the area budget were for the next period not to be normal, on account of age class conditions, but should be only 2/5 of normal, then the budget could not be the arithmetic mean of the area and formula budget. A preliminary reduction of the formula to 2/5 would be indi- cated. This requires, however, a correction, since, if in a normal forest, where area and formula budget are equal, each year 2/5 of the volume budget were cut, the areas cut over would annually become smaller, and in a decade really not 2/5 of the normal felling area would be utilized. To make sure that the annual areas remain 2/5 of the normal decennial area, the volumes must be (if J = increment, b = normal budget, V = volume of cut) : fgee first year: V = 2/5, 0. In the second year: V = 2/5 b + 2/5 J. In the third year, etc.: V = 2/5 b + 3/5 J. In the tenth year: V = 2/5 b+ 12/5 J. Total for to years: 10 K 2/5 b + — Similarly may be deduced the correction of the felling budget in abnormal. forest. If here b, determined according to the formula, is to be taken during d years cutting over the area A, then it corresponds in area to S i. e., equal to the oldest stand of a normal forest of the rotation d area A, and increment /. Hence, the same correction : Bian : : : of the formula is applicable— 7 , in this case, being substituted b for J. The corrected budget then becomes V = 2/5 b + = a If the area budget has been chosen larger than normal, (e. g., because of excess of old age classes) say 5/6, the corrective is deducted, and the formula would read 5/3 b — 5.56 ei The author produces a table in which for varying areas the correctives are calculated for ready use. The author then gives the following example: Given a forest of 348 ha of abnormal age classes, under rotation of 120 years, to be cut over in 100 years, hence, normal decennial felling area 34.8 ha. On account of a very extensive and thrifty regeneration in old stands there is to be utilized in the next decade an excess; 110 Forestry Quarterly. hence the felling area is increased to 55.75 ha. which would contain 1650 fm. According to the formula the volume budget would normally be 900 fm. This is to be modified to correspond to the abnormal felling area. The relation 22-75 approximates 8 Bae : = to which in the table corresponds the corrective 4.80, hence goo fon Oey ee Silviculturally the larger budget 1650 fm would be preferable, but consideration of the approach to normality and sustained yield calls for the lower; a compromise of the two aims would make the arithmetic mean 1523 fm the desirable. This method, the author argues, avoids the trials which the Heyer formula with an arbitrary period of equalizations requires, basing the choice of the latter on sound principle. Dr. Wimmenauer in a note points out that after all the diffi- culty of determining the equalization period—the most advan- tageous time during which to prepare for normality—is not solved, and that really Heyer’s method which calls for a complete working plan as one of the guides seems to be superior. the budget becomes =x goo — 4.80 Zur Frage der Hiebssatzbestimmung. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. November, 1909. Pp. 314-319. That rotations based on value increment Long lie beyond 150 years in pine on good sites Rotations is now well established. In stands of and Scotch Pine 120-200 years old, Dr. Storp Value found that the current value increment still Increment. exceeds considerably the average increment, i. e., has not reached its maximum, hence, a rotation of 140 to 160 years on | and II site was advocated by Frey, especially when the pine is underplanted with beech after 60 years as soil protection and to furnish valuable fuel. Dr. Schwappach in his monograph Die Kiefer, comes to the same results as Storp. He figures for a 130 year old stand on site I, the average annual value increment at nearly $5 per acre, while the current value increment is nearly $6 per acre. For site II the figures are $3.60 and $4.42 respectively. Nevertheless, Schwappach finds the financially profitable rota- tion according to the soil rent theory with 3 per cent., by using Periodical Literature. III Martin’s formula, at 30 to 40, by Faustmann’s at 60 years. He does not, however, recommend this rotation, but, in view of the expected rise in prices, and because the soil expectancy value sinks only slowly with increasing age, he justifies a rotation of 100 to 120 years. Frey chuckles over this jugglery with financial theories. The author then expatiates on the silvicultural method which insures the production of this high-priced, narrow ringed material, namely, dense sowing or dense natural regeneration, deprecating the usual planting with naked root as producing only inferior stands. Dee Erziehung hochwertigen Kiefernnutzholzes. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt. December, 1909. Pp. 609-615. UTILIZATION, MARKET, TECHNOLOGY. A most elaborate theoretical discussion with Efficiency a mass of mathematical apparatus by Dr. of Zelisko determines the conditions under Gang Saws. which gang saws perform the maximum cut, which, of course, depends on the rapid- ity of motion of the log against the saws. This is at present left to be decided by the “feeling” or judgment of the sawyer, which the author hints at as most unreliable, and he points out that the increase of the advance by 1 mm. per oscillation often means an increase of efficiency of 10 to 15 per cent. A simple ingenious attachment is described by which the pro- pelling apparatus can be tested as to whether it works with the determined velocity. Unter welchen V orschubbedingungen erreichen Sdgegatter thre hdchste a Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. November, 19090. Pp. 471-463. That metal ties (of proper construction ) Metal have proved their value is apparent from Railroad the fact that the German Railroad depart- Ties. ment—about 50 per cent. of the German railroad mileage lies on metal—continues to increase their use, so that the Association of Fast-Prussian wood merchants saw fit to pass a resolution petitioning the depart- ment not to favor the metal tie, which “in spite of the demon- 112 Forestry Quarterly. strated superiority of the wooden tie is being employed increas- ingly from year to year.” Silva, 19090. P. 753. By excluding oxygen and after removal of Melted the by-products or without doing so, wood Wood. can be melted in a heat of 800 to goo de- grees under pressure of two atmospheres. The result is a compact amorphous mass, which can be cast into forms. By adding preservatives, this wood can be made inde- structible. Commercial value is predicted for this new material. Bulletin de la Société Centrale Forestiére. 1900. During the year 1908, the imports of wood German into Germany amounted to 2,688,000 tons, ° IV ood against which an export of only 703,000 Trade. tons is to be offset. Of these around two million tons of import, 664,000 tons came in as logs, 632,000 as workwood from European countries, and only 37,000 tons of extra-European wood; 542,000 tons were repre- sented by railroad ties, mine props and fuel, and nearly 100,000 tons by bark. : The total movement of wood on railroads involved 19.3 million tons, 17 million of which represents home trade. Silva, 1909. P. 748. Prices in Germany are of interest as indi- Wood cating what eventually ours must be. The Prices best basis for ascertaining wood-values is in furnished by bids for lumber ‘supplies of Germany. the Railroad Department of Hanover, lately published. These were as follows per M ft. B. M., and they are believed to be lowest prices, ranging slightly higher than the previous year of depression: (ak; Square edged, ....... peaches I Ib. Sweet chocolate 2 Ibs. “prunes 14 lbs. Syrup I qt. Eges 2% doz. Tea 1% |b. Erbswurst Y% |b. Yeast I pkg. Flour 15 lbs. Hard tack 2% lbs.. Ginger 1% Ib. Equipment. An army 7 x 9 tent was found to be the most use- ful for sleeping quarters. "Two men could be accommodated very comfortably and as many as four were often quartered in them. The main objection to camp life is the difficulty in keeping one’s bedding and clothes clean. The best way to avoid this was found to be to use stretcher beds. These beds took the place of cots and are much cheaper and lighter. Since they are merely a piece of canvas with holes at each side through which to thrust Cost of Mapping and Estimating. I51 spreading poles, there was only the canvas to carry from camp to camp. The chiefs of parties who had the most orderly camps made it part of the business of camp pitching to secure head and feet logs and poles for the stretcher beds as soon as the tents had been set up. By using one of the horses attached to the outfit the head and foot logs and poles could be dragged quickly into camp. In this way each man was sure of a clean, dry place to sleep and the extra time and labor spent in this work was more than repaid by the cleanliness and comfort secured. Of course the use of stretcher beds had to be abandoned during the early spring and late fall since they, like cots, require one to have almost as much bedding underneath as over one. Then bough beds were used almost exclusively. Even during the summer some men preferred the bough beds, but the cutting of trees for this purpose was discouraged in the scantily timbered regions. This applied more especially to the eastern side of the divide where the best material for bough beds, the Douglas Fir, had a hard struggle to maintain itself so that it was felt that the Forest Service parties should not set the example of destroying the young, bushy trees best adapted for bed material. For a party of ten or fifteen men, a 14 x 14 mess tent was found to be none too large, but such a heavy tent was to be avoided except when cold weather made it necessary to have the cook stove enclosed. Since a 14 x 14 tent of the army pattern weighs 150 pounds with all of the guy ropes attached it was a heavy load for a packhorse when wet. Of course, if wagons were used as the means of transportation, the weight of the cook tent did not matter so much, but even then merely a wagon sheet was found desirable as a shelter for the cook and his stove during the summer months. For a party of five or six men a I0 x 12 tent with four foot walls was found to be most useful. Made of ten ounce duck such a tent was not too heavy for a pack outfit. All cook tents should have a stovepipe hole fitted with an asbestos ring with a piece of canvas to cover the hole when the stove is not used in the tent. The kind of utensils purchased for cooking depended in part on the method of transportation used. When it was necessary to use packhorses entirely the most important consideration was the reduction of weight to the minimum, and light sheet iron stoves and tin dishes were used. Of course a few graniteware 152 Forestry Quarterly. pots were necessary for the cooking of dried fruits and other materials the acid of which would corrode tin dishes, but as much as possible the lightest material was used for the cooking outfit. While aluminum in addition to its lightness resists the corroding effects of organic acids, dishes made of this material are too ex- pensive for rough use. The pack outfit cook stove must weigh not more than 40 pounds. This is about the maximum weight that one man can handle readily, and with a cook stove of this weight the packhorse that is used for carrying it can also take some of the other bulky articles, which need to be placed on a horse that takes care of his pack. Sheet iron stoves sufficiently large for a party of five or six men can be purchased ready made for about $5.00, but they are apt to burn out quickly and are so lightly made that they don’t stand much hard use. There are given below the specifications of a stove designed by Mr. E. D. Fletcher of the Forest Service for a party of ten men. This stdve gave very good satisfaction, was an excellent bread baker, and withstood a whole season’s packing so well that it will prob- ably last another full season. The cost of this stove, made at a local tin shop, was $20.00. Material—14 gauge sheet iron well riveted Outside dimensions Width 20 inches Length 30 inches Height 14 inches Oven 17 inches x 12 inches x 30 inches (raised 2 inches at the bottom to allow fire to draw under) Fire box 8 inches x 14 inches x 30 inches Asbestos lined drum between oven and fire box with a curvature of 3 inches 2 8-inch holes on top 2 draft holes at end 6-inch pipe hole on top 4 2 foot lengths of telescoping stove pipe. As far as possible it was extremely advisable to have the cook- ing utensils pack snugly. The nesting outfits supplied by sporting goods dealers met this requirement best, but it was out of the question to secure such an outfit when the cooking utensils were purchased at local stores. In place of nesting outfits enclosed in canvas bags, holders of canvas can be made which will not only preserve the dishes but are very convenient for keeping the dishes in camp. These dish holders are made up after the ‘Cost of Mapping and Estimating. 153 pattern of the “wall pockets’ advertised by camp outfitters. Another very great advantage of these holders is that they prevent the dishes from rattling when put upon packhorses. ‘This is a consideration of great weight if there are any wild horses in the outht. Transportation. Wagons were mostly used for transporting the outfits on account of their greater cheapness and convenience. To the uninitiated the places where a careful teamster can take a wagon seem impossible of access for any wheeled vehicle. In gen- eral, it was found possible to use wagons on the eastern side of the divide but west of the divide the hills are not only steep but heavily wooded. In the eastern part of the state it is not so much the lack of rocky ledges and the absence of steep hills which made it possible to use wagons as the fact that there were roads and the stands of timber were open so that wagon transportation was seldom impeded by the fallen trees and dense growth of timber. The cost of freighting by team averaged about 5 cents per hundred pounds per mile. Since packing by horses was about four times as expensive per mile, wagons were preferable for this reason in addition to the greater ease with which the wagon can be loaded. For an outfit of ten men two-horse wagons with a capacity of about 2,500 pounds each were ideal, but a heavy wagon and a light express wagon were often used. The light express wagon was, however, not strong enough to carry much weight and was mainly useful to send to town for the mail and small loads of supplies. The usual price charged for an outfit of four horses, harness, a heavy wagon, and an express wagon, exclusive of repairs, shoeing, and horse feed, was $5.00 per day. Although wagons were used on the east side of the divide as the main means of transportation, at least a couple of pack- saddles were furnished to every outfit in order to have a method of transporting tents and supplies back into the mountains away from the roads for the use of small parties in temporary work away from the main camp. In the western part of the state pack- horses were the chief reliance for transportation. When hired for three or more months at a time these cost $15.00 per month, ‘the owner doing his own shoeing and supplying the pack-saddle outfits. When the work was more than twenty-five miles away from the supply point, a packhorse for each man in the party was 154 Forestry Quarterly. usually allowed, and, even with this number, great care had to be exercised in order to not have too many food supplies on hand when it was necessary to move camp. Mapping. This work was comparatively inexpensive when Gen- eral Land Office or U. S. Geological Survey data were available since it was merely necessary then to check up the maps. The preparation of a contour map, however, when there were merely a few preliminary points from which to work was an entirely different matter. The cost of such work in the rough mountain country was 24 cents per acre exclusive of the final preparation of the map in the office. Estimating. All of the estimating was done by means of caliper strips 66 feet wide. This method was adopted because it. gave rapid results and could be used with unskilled men. The caliper crew, consisting of a tally man, compass man, and two caliper men, covered on the average about 28 strip-acres per day. In the eastern part of the state the average distance traveled per day was over 36 strip-acres but on the western side of the divide the average daily distance was about 20 acres. Since there were 20 working days per month during the period from May to No- vember, one caliper crew should cover on the average 589 acres per month. Land and Timber Valuation. ‘To value the timber it was neces- sary to figure carefully the cost of exploitation. This was fre- quently a very difficult task because the work was generally in re- gions where little logging had been undertaken so that there was a great lack of reliable data to use as a guide in figuring the logging costs. On the eastern side of the main range the timber was so: much scattered that the most economical way to handle it would be by small portable mills. Such mills were quite common in the region and sawed rough lumber for local consumption. The price which these mills obtained gave a very good figure for the average selling price of the lumber. But the problem was more intricate on the western side of the divide where there was enough large timber to justify the erection of permanent sawmills. In these, the output was carefully graded, and it was very difficult to determine the average selling price. Cost of Mapping and Estimating. 155 To determine land valuations careful inquiry was made to ascertain what prices had been paid locally and what rentals dif- ferent kinds of land were yielding. The only two classes of land which were assigned any special value were agricultural lands and grazing lands. The former were divided into those which were irrigable and those upon which water could not be put easily. The price for unimproved irrigable lands ranged from $3.00 up to $25.00, according to their location and the climate of the locality in which they lay. For non-irrigable lands the values varied from $2.50 to $12.00 per acre. The grazing land Was given a price on the basis of the number of stock which could be grazed there during the season. The length of the season, the quality of the grass, the presence of poisonous weeds or noxious insects, and the distance from ranges where the cattle could be wintered were also factors which affected the valua- tion. For summer grazing land, within which class most of the grass land fell, the values ranged from $2.50 to $0.50 per acre. The actual cost of determining the proper valuation for railway lands and timber was not figured separately since the informa- tion upon which the prices were based was gathered in most cases incidentally. Office Work. This work consisted of four parts—the computa- tion of the average stand per acre for the different forest types and stand classes distinguished in the field, the calculation of the area of these types and stand classes to determine the amount of tim- ber, preparation of the final maps from the field data, and the compilation of the reports upon the work done in each National Forest. The estimates, and the timber and land values were given by townships because it was considered inadvisable to at- tempt to calculate more closely when such a large area was coy- ered so rapidly. The work of stand calculation cost about I-Ioc. per acre, including the planimetering of the areas and the prepa- ration of the final tables. Five copies of each map showing the types in colors and the exact location of the railway lands were prepared at a cost of 7-100c. per acre. A high standard was re- quired in the reports. They not only contained all the necessary information but had to be expressed in a clear, forcible English. The points covered are indicated in the following outline. This 156 Forestry Quarterly. work required the highly paid men and cost approximately 17-100c. per acre. General description: Location of area examined ; Topography ; Drainage ; Rocks and soil; Climate; Settlement and transportation. Development of the country (Area examined in its relations, now and in the future, to—) Agriculture; Grazing; Lumbering, Mining. The Forest: General features (natural distribution of types, etc.) ; Species (in order of importance, common and scientific names with altitudinal range) ; Type description (for each type): Name of type; Situation (flat, lower slopes, benches, etc.) ; Altitudinal range; Aspect and gradient (average) ; Species (common names only), principal, associate, in- cidental. Soil: Kind: Character; Depth; Moisture; Humus; Ground cover; Underbrush; Reproduction; Young growth. Density (on scale of 10). Silvical condition; Stages of development; Site quality (on scale of 3) ; Age classes. Merchantable condition of mature stands: Character (suitable for saw-timber, ties, shingle bolts, poles“etc2): Clear length (per cent. of average height for merchantable size ). Virgin, second growth, or cut-over. Damage: Character (fire, fungus, insects, etc.). Average merchantable stand per acre: Saw stand; Tie stand; Cut-over stands; Burned stands. Percentage of volume composition by species. Average number of trees per acre, species. Average height. Average diameter. Valuation of the timber: Factors determining valuation; Estimating (brief outline of method); Location (division of forest into blocks, main Cost of Mapping and Estimating. 157 watersheds) ; Stumpage prices (brief outline of method of arriving at these values). The Land: General features (classification, distribution, etc.). Types and classes (description of each including their adapta- bility to grazing, agriculture, etc.). Valuation of land: Prices paid in local sales; Returns from grazing, farming, etc., in order to fix amount of capital invested; Per cent. of timbered lands fit for grazing where there are no open areas over 40 acres in extent. Table 1.—Area and value of land comprising Northern Pacific holdings (by classes, townships, and blocks). Table 2.—Area of forest types, stand and value of timber (by classes, townships, and blocks). Table 3.—Combined land and timber values of railway holdings. The total cost per acre averaged 2 1-5c. and was divided as fol- lows: Memeld work ©: .occcs. esd s.ko ek. 80% BIE) fi) ested ae SS 4470 eatsportalion,) 26... kk. c5 20% ORE Ci a i he 10% erinments (hs ho eee et bl Al 47 MMCE MOM 2h ooh eit she ess 2% Mpereerwore en. PL. ete 20970 mepore preparation) '..5..'.:. 8% Mena TE ALOU, 52s shelly soe 770 Meet ute Se a te, Y oe iste 4% PEEMBeTAPAY, } o:.2cn os. ss oS: 19% These results can be expected from work done in a rugged mountain region where a rapid but fairly correct estimate of timber and land values is required. THE EFFECT OF GRAZING ON FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE CARIBOU NATIONAL FOREST. E. R. Hopson. The Caribou National Forest comprises 740,740 acres and is located in southeastern Idaho along the Caribou Mountain Range. Surrounding it is a country capable of much development through irrigation, and on the north and west particularly the settling up is rapidly progressing. An important feature of this forest is that it protects, wholly or in part, the headwaters of the Snake, Blackfoot, and Bear rivers, all of which are exceedingly import- ant in present irrigation or power projects. * In view of the importance of this Forest to the region in which it is situated and the different interests dependent upon it, an in- vestigation of the actual condition of the timbered areas seemed necessary. This was carried on with special reference to its use for grazing purposes; the effect of this grazing upon the present cover itself and on the conditions necessary for its thrift and per- petuation by natural reproduction. In the course of this investigation field trips were made over the whole forest from Georgetown, near the south end, to Conant Val- ley, on the north. Special attention was given to certain parts of the forest, in addition to the general observations made while traveling through it. The field examination was made toward the close of the grazing season in October, 1909. This paper is an attempt to view in a broad way the relation between the grazing industry and the silvicultural interests of a forest, and, particularly to bring out clearly the limitations of an intense form of grazing in a forest of this general character. Places Examined in the Forest. At the south end, trips were made in Red Pine Canyon, George- town Canyon to the summit, and down Diamond Creek to a point near the Blackfoot River, and from there east across the range and between Stump Creek and Tygee Creek to Auburn, Wyom- ing. From this point trips were made to Tygee, Smokey, and Effect of Grazing. 159 Stump creeks, Tom’s Canyon, and the vicinity of Thayne. On the way to Gray’s Lake the sheep driveway on Stump Creek and west across the range was examined, and on the way north to Conant Valley the driveway on Keenan and McCoy creeks was also examined. At that point trips were made to Garden, Pritch- ard, Fall, and Indian creeks, and special attention given to the old cuttings on Garden and Pritchard creeks. A comparison was also made of the leased grazing land outside of the forest on the northwest. Character of the Forest. In the Caribou Mountain Range there are three principal for- est types: Douglas Fir, Lodgepole Pine, and Aspen. Aspen as aspen thicket is the most widespread and is important mainly from a protective standpoint, and as a nurse to Douglas Fir and Lodgepole Pine, particularly the former. There being no Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir is the most important type economically. It is the only one in which there are stands of saw timber size of any consequence ; it is also most valuable for other qualities than size, as strength, durability, etc. Lodgepole Pine, while not import- ant economically at present on account of its uniformly small size, has considerable protective value because of the dense stands which it commonly forms. The forest has suffered much damage through fire. This dam- age has continued until very recently. There are many large areas of forest land burned over 50 to 100 years ago; some of these are reproducing satisfactorily and others scarcely at all. The most general burning, according to local testimony, dates back about 30 years. This is supported by the stage of reproduc- tion on much of the burned area. The recent burns date from 5 to 15 years, and are usually smaller in area, but many of them are exceedingly severe on account of repeated burnings over the same area, as well as the unfavorable location for forest growth of many of them. A great majority of these recently burned areas are said to have been fired for the express purpose of improving grazing conditions and to facilitate the handling of sheep. A glance at the forest atlas map sheets of this forest will show that a large percentage of the area has been given as re- stocking burns. This is all too true as to the amount of area- burned, but unfortunately not so true as to the restocking condi- 160 Forestry Quarterly. tion of the tracts. Many old burns are not restocking at all, largely because of lack of seed trees, and others but thinly on ac- count of scattered seed trees. However, these maps serve to em- phasize the fact that a large proportion of the timbered area is in the reproduction stage. From the great extent of the burned areas, it is estimated that the forest cover has been reduced 75% during the last 75 or 100 years. The present forest cover is approximately but one-fourth of the cover at that time. What this means to the regulation of streamflow by seasonable distribution can hardly be estimated in exact terms of figures. That it is enormous can scarcely be dis- puted, for, whatever the difference of opinion as to the influence of forest cover and the accompanying conditions on streamflow on small areas and under special conditions, there is hardly a reasonable doubt when sections, townships, and whole mountain #@ranges are considered. In this important forest function, that of rendering the flow of streams more adaptable to economic use, the efficiency of this forest has been greatly impaired, and is but slowly regaining the original condition through natural restocking. Sheep Grazing. Practically all other grazing than sheep grazing is negligible on the Caribou. In 1907 it is estimated that 450,000 sheep were grazed, in 1908, 400,000 were allotted, and in 1909, 370,000 were allotted. During the present year the allotment for cattle and «horses was 15,000 but somewhat less than this number were grazed. The grazing of 370,000 sheep on 740,740 acres is at the rate of one sheep to each 2 acres. This rate will be still further increased by deducting the cattle range, which in Districts 1, 2, and 4 amounts to 120 square miles, or 76,800 acres. On the area actu- ally grazed by sheep the rate is probably not far from one sheep to each 1.75 acres or may occasionally be as high as one to 1.5 acres. Sheep grazing is distinct from cattle grazing in two points; the method of handling and in the manner of grazing. Sheep are close herded and graze an area more closely each time over ; cattle run at will and graze more lightly; sheep browse to a con- Effect of Grazing. 161 siderable extent on underbrush and rough forage while cattle browse little and live mostly on grass or other strictly forage plants. Sheep in browsing may be placed about halfway between cattle and goats. Goats are able to live on underbrush altogether while sheep are only driven to it as an exclusive feed by scarcity of other forage although they browse to a considerable extent however plentiful the forage. The driveways show to what extent sheep will browse when compelled to live on scant forage. Damage to Timbered Areas from Sheep Grazing. In considering the effect of sheep grazing on the trees them- selves and on the forest conditions, only areas already forested or those which from all indications may be considered capable of reforestation from natural reproduction are considered; south slopes, meadows, areas above timber line, dry rocky points, etc., are excluded. Through the habit of browsing and the method of handling by more or less close herding there is some damage at all times to timbered areas and particularly to the reproduction. ‘This dam- age increases in proportion to the concentration of the sheep and to the scarcity of forage. It is made plain under those conditions but it exists at all times. In the case of small seedlings (one year) it is difficult to detect the damage done as little evidence of it is left. The amount of damage depends upon the stage of development of the stands, decreasing with maturity and density. The damage inflicted by sheep grazing may be separated into two kinds, direct and indirect, the former the actual ‘damage to the trees themselves and the latter that to conditions which insure the wellbeing and reproduction of the forest. The damage to the trees takes place mainly when they are small. After they reach a height of three feet they are beyond severe injury since it is the top or leader which suffers most. Some seedlings are killed outright but the majority are only dis- torted and subjected to subsequent fungus and insect attack. Some are killed by being barked and some by having the foliage stripped off. Seed trees are sometimes killed and this is most apt to happen in unfavorable situations where they are scattering and 162 Forestry Quarterly. are therefore most needed. The sheep hunt the shade of the few trees in such places and kill them out by trampling the ground away from the roots and packing it. The damage to conditions which favor forest reproduction con- sist of injury to the soil, to the soil cover, and to the underbrush which serves as a nurse cover. The soil is trampled and packed hard and prevents or greatly reduces the percentage of germ- ination of seed in addition to the little seedlings killed outright. The destruction of the soil cover destroys favorable moisture con- ditions which are essential to the germination of the seed or to the survival of the seedling in its struggle with the adverse conditions of an arid climate. Likewise a reduction in underbrush lessens the chance for reproduction or deteriorates the quality of the seedlings which are produced. Douglas Fir seedlings under Aspen cover are of much better quality than those open grown which is also true, but to a less degree, of Lodgepole Pine. The cover is conducive to a rapid height growth and the early clearance of the lower branches. Seedlings produced under these conditions are in marked contrast to the short bushy seedlings with a dozen or more leaders which have been browsed by sheep for ten or more years. In the latter there is a loss in quality in addition to time lost in growth. Seedlings are injured to the greatest extent in the following order: Douglas Fir, Aspen, Balsam, Lodgepole Pine, Engelmann Spruce. Practically no damage was done to cedar seedlings. The driveways showed the most severe damage. Practically no reproduction can take place on them and existing reproduction is being killed out. These driveways in the aggregate comprise 3.4% of the forest area of 25,000 acres—a little over one town- ship. Where these driveways pass through timber or over areas capable of producing timber it means just so much area lost to forest growth. Liability of the Forest to Injury from Grazing. As pointed out before, the Caribou Forest has been severely and repeatedly burned for the last hundred years. Three-fourths of it is in the reproduction stage and is classed as restocking burns. The old burns which have produced scattered seed trees as a first Effect of Grazing. 163 crop after the burn, are now filling up the spaces with a second and sometimes a third-crop of young seedlings. There are large stretches of aspen thicket which are largely the result of fire. Some of these thickets protect young seedlings, others have none. There are also burns bare of aspen which have no seedlings. All of these are potential timber areas. There are also some indica- tions that Douglas Fir is capable of extending itself to a limited extent where no forest growth, apparently, has been for a long time. This species is in many places the advance guard of the forest. It is reproduction to which sheep do most injury. Here is a forest, 75% of whose area is struggling to regain its lost ground and is covered with small seedlings or underbrush and other nurse cover suitable for seedlings. Upon this forest at this stage is concentrated the heaviest sheep grazing—at the rate of one sheep to two acres or less. The Douglas Fir type is the most valuable type on the Forest ; its reproduction suffers the most. On the driveways all seedlings suffered alike, Lodgepole Pine equally with Douglas Fir, but out- side there was a great difference; here Douglas Fir on account of its tender foliage was most injured. The injury was most severe at the weakest points, where the seedlings were thinly scattered and at the lower limit where the type was extending into the sage- brush. Therefore the forest is deteriorated both as to the quality of the different species and to quality of its composition. It is re- tarded in covering over burned areas and restricted in extending its area. At present the limit of feed is the only protection which the timbered areas are given. Grazing is pushed to that limit and even past it as’shown by the fact that the present season one grazer with five bands of sheep removed three of them after only three weeks of grazing on account of shortness of feed. The past three years the rate of grazing has been 450,000, 400,000, and 370,000 sheep per year respectively. The past three years have been also very wet ones producing the maximum quantity of feed. With the present number of sheep and a favorable season producing the maximum amount of feed, the amount produced was inadequate. With a dry season half the present number would be a dangerous number. At such a time IT 164 Forestry Quarterly. not only the forage would suffer but the forest would suffer many times the injury it ordinarily does from browsing. Using the forage limit as a means of protection for the Forest is simply moving along the path of least resistance. Grazers de- sire to use all of the feed on the Forest. It is easier at the present time to grant this and let the forest take care of itself or to fancy that the feed limit will sufficiently protect the Forest. It will not and the fact may as well be clearly recognized. The reasons are that the amount of feed is subject to violent annual variations in amount; that these variations are largely dependent on weather conditions during the grazing season and therefore can not be foreseen before the season opens; that some damage is done under the most favorable conditions of forage; that the extent of dam- age depends on the proportion of the Forest in the reproduction stage, that is, it is liable to most damage when there are large gareas of small seedlings. Another important consideration is the length of time the young seedlings on the Caribou Forest have been subjected to injury from grazing. There are probably few places where there has been heavy grazing, that is, to the limit of forage, for more than 25 years. Most places have not been heavily grazed longer than 10 or 15 years. It is probably safe to say that the forest area as a whole has not been heavily grazed for a longer period than 10 years. Ten to twenty-five years is the time required by seedlings under ordinary conditions to reach three feet in height when they are practically out of danger. This period is delayed where burned areas with small seedlings on them are heavily grazed, since a certain percentage are always dwarfed, made bushy, and held back to such an extent that more than 50 years are required for them to reach a height of 3 feet. They are therefore liable to injury much longer than is apparent at first. In future allotments of sheep to the Caribou Forest, it must be remembered that the entire area is now considered and the further fact that it is planned to graze the entire area indefinitely and that too by a very intense form of grazing. It means that instead of a few tracts being grazed, as 25 years ago, and a larger number 15 years ago, the entire area is to be attacked and systematically grazed for an indefinite period. Whatever damage to the tim- bered areas of the Forest attendant on this close grazing (to the limit of feed as at present carried on) will operate over the entire Effect of Grazing. 165 area and for an indefinite period. Hence the importance of keep- ing the allotment within a safe limit. Protective Measures. When any measures for protecting the timber interests of this Forest are considered, the great importance of the sheep indus- try comes to the front and the danger of handicapping it by severe restrictions becomes obvious. ‘There is no necessity of dwelling on this point. The grazing industry is extremely important. It is moreover strong and on this Forest it is strongly intrenched. It is the thing that yields the income and it requires practically all the time and attention of the Forest force. The adjustment of the rights of the different grazing permittees are things that de- mand immediate attention. On the other hand, the timber in- terests are weak. The greater part has not reached the revenue producing stage and it requires little attention. There is there- fore naturally a strong tendency to overlook the importance of the timber areas. This is not due to negligence of the individual officers or to the force as a whole nor is it the fault of the adminis- tration. It is simply due to force of circumstances. The grazing industry on this Forest requires most of the time and attention _ because of its magnitude. The perplexing questions which con- front the administration and demand immediate solution, of necessity, minimize the importance of other interests, particularly when they are not apparent. In adopting restrictive measures to protect the timber tracts on this Forest there are two main courses: one is to make a sub- stantial cut outright of the total amount of sheep grazed on the Forest; the other is to entirely exclude sheep from the principal timber tracts, particularly burns or other areas which consist largely of small seedlings. The latter course would be more effective but would increase the difficulties of administration in the field. It is believed that it would be better at present to make a substantial cut and to exclude sheep wholly from only a few areas largely for experimental purposes but with the view of eventually extending this method gradually. A cut of 60,000 sheep is de- sirable immediately on the Caribou Forest, but im order that the industry may have time in which to adjust itself to the changed conditions, the total reduction must be gradually made through 166 Forestry Quarterly. a period of several years. The necessity for a gradual reduction on account of the large interests, of a business nature, involved should not, however, be allowed to confuse the issue; it should not obscure the fact that a cut of 60,000 sheep is by no means the extreme called for from the timber standpoint alone. From that standpoint a 100,000 cut is amply justified when the liability of this Forest to damage from sheep grazing is considered. During the past year on 740,740 acres, 370,000 sheep were carried, one to each 2 acres. It has been an exceptionally favorable season as have the two preceding seasons and the maximum amount of feed was produced, yet there was a scarcity of feed. In a year of drought half the present number of sheep would give trouble and do great damage to the range and more to the timber. In such an event, with the present allotment many acres would have to be grazed almost as closely as the sheep drive- Ways are and with probably as much damage to the timber. — These dry years will come and must be considered. It is a mis- take to key up the allotment to the number which can be barely accommodated in a good year with the maximum forage. That is the present situation. If it is continued there is certain to be trouble. A cut of 60,000 from 370,000 to 310,000 would still leave the rate high, one sheep to each 2.39 acres, which would be still higher by excluding the cattle range. It is true that the range yields good forage due to a limestone soil, and a large proportion of open country, but on the Weiser Forest, a region with rich soil and good range, there are approximately only 90,000 sheep to 400,000 acres, one sheep to over 4 acres, a rate which is there considered high. The heavy reduction of sheep in future allotments is urgent for the following reasons: 1. The Forest is now grazed to the full capacity in seasons of maximum forage production. 2. A large proportion of the Forest consists of tracts of small seedlings, mostly on burned areas, and therefore very susceptible to damage from sheep grazing. 3. The Douglas Fir type which is the most valuable on the Forest is damaged most. 4. The forest area is prevented or greatly delayed from ex- Effect of Grazing. 167 tending itself and thereby prevented from increasing the value from a watershed protection standpoint. 5. The limit of forage is not sufficient protection for the tim- bered areas, particularly when so large a proportion is in the reproduction stage. 6. Forest cover, particular low aspen thickets, is damaged by browsing and therefore its value as a nurse cover for forest repro- duction is lessened. 7. The Forest is in the process of slowly regaining its original area which had been destroyed by fire; this is retarded by the present heavy grazing. In brief, the sheep industry is to the front at present, but the real object of the Forest is to grow the maximum amount of timber in order to supply the direct demand upon it for wood for the rapidly settling districts around it and to protect completely the headwaters of its streams which will be called upon to the maximum for irrigation and for power as the country is de- veloped. In order to gradually introduce the method of protection by closing timbered areas in the reproduction stage to sheep graz- ing, the northerly slopes of certain canyons should be closed. They may be selected where it is easiest to hold the sheep out. There should be one or two in each district if practicable. They will serve the double purpose of an experiment and of increasing the area protected. It is advisable to close large recently (5 to 10 years) burned areas to sheep grazing where it does not render the administra- tion of adjacent grazing areas too difficult. In order to protect timbered areas, sheep driveways should avoid such areas as far as practicable and when absolutely neces- sary to go through timber the trail should be narrowed down to an eighth of a mile or less, widening out when open range is reached. Also the rate of travel should be increased in the timber if practical and slowed down below the average on reaching the open. The object is to do as little damage as possible to the timbered areas the trails are obliged to pass through. For the purpose of getting more definite information on the extent and precise effect of sheep grazing on forest reproduction, sheep tight enclosures of two acres each are desirable for each of the principal types. The value of these enclosures is, that grazed 168 Forestry Quarterly. and ungrazed conditions are side by side and the results obtained will be sharply contrasted. Evidence of this kind on the ground can not but be most convincing in establishing a grazing policy which will safeguard adequately the silvicultural interests of the Forest. On this Forest there should be at least two enclosures for this purpose; one in the Lodgepole Pine type in Red Pine Canyon at the south end near Georgetown, the other may be located on Pritchard Creek (Conant Valley) in the Douglas Fir type. Conclusions. 1. The amount of injury to the timbered areas of a forest through sheep grazing is proportional to the area in the reproduc- tion stage. 2. In the case of sheep grazing the forage limit does not suffi- tiently protect the timber interests of a forest. 3. Different forest types suffer unequally through the intense form of grazing by sheep; frequently the most valuable types suffer most. 4. The deterioriation of quality in the reproduction of sheep grazed areas is an important consideration in addition to the time lost in growth through browsing. 5. The injury to the conditions which insure the reproduction and well-being of the forest should be given due weight in con- sidering sheep grazing. This is distinct from the direct injury to the trees themselves. 6. All the points of difference between cattle and sheep grazing, particularly, method of handling and manner of grazing, should be considered in determining a grazing policy which will best protect the silvicultural interests of a forest. 7. It should be clearly recognized that the protective capacity of a forest is lowered through damage to the forest cover and the accompanying conditions attendant on excessive or intense grazing. ‘The consequent effect of this reduction in the protec- tive value of a forest on the flow of streams, with the far reach- ing interests involved, should be thoroughly appreciated. COMPARISON OF LARGE AND SMALL SAWMILLS ON TAHOE NATIONAL FOREST. M. B. Pratt. The Tahoe Forest, which is situated in one of the earliest settled timbered regions in California, is particularly well suited for ob- servations on the trend of the sawmill business. The advanced state of the exploitation of its resources makes deductions possible along this line, which though local in character, apply generally to conditions in the northern Sierra Nevada. The rush of gold seekers in early days resulted in a prodigal use of the timber in the vicinity of the mining camps. Small mills were busily engaged in cutting timber for local demand, paying little attention where they cut, and moving from place to place as the supply of timber easily reached became exhausted. On the Foresthill Divide, there were eleven mills in the early fifties, which number had decreased to five in 1876 when mining activities were on the decline. At the present time there is one mill operating on the Divide, the local demand being very slack. Within the past few years, the bulk of the privately owned timber in this vicinity has passed into the hands of a large lumber com- pany. The history of this region is identical with that of other sections, the early demand causing a multitude of small inde- pendent mills to spring up, their number gradually decreasing as placer and gravel mining declined. As railroads and other means of transportation began to open up the country, the value of the timber, which had only been used locally, became apparent, particularly to eastern lumbermen who foresaw the exhaustion of the middle West forests. These men sent out cruisers who located the best of the timber, very little of it being privately owned at that time. Under the loose laws governing the acquisition of public lands, this choice timber land soon passed into the control of large lumber companies. About ten or twelve years ago, the conditions became favorable for the general establishment of large mills of 50,000 board feet daily capacity or more. Small mills which had been cutting more or less for the general trade, began to expand and seek more hold- 170 Forestry Quarterly. ings. They found, however, that the big lumber companies had acquired the best locations, and that they had only a few years run in sight. At once there began a gradual reduction of small mills which reduction is becoming greater all the time as the small private holdings are cut out. The large mills, by running box and cut-up factories, were enabled to utilize the poorer grades of pine, and White Fir, a species that the small man generally left in the woods. The market for boxes for the fruit trade in southern California and for the Nevada mines encouraged better utilization by the large mills, but the small man, having no facilities for disposing of his lower grades, cut only the best of his timber. He had a general market for only the higher grades, and when the timber was of poor quality, filled up his yards with lumber that he could not dispose of. The local trade required only a part of this supply, besides the big mills took away a part of the trade that had formerly all béen his. Some of the small mill-men managed to get along by disposing of a part of their box and commons to box factories, but the sale was uncertain, since the demand for boxes, pickets, lath and other by-products was usually not large enough to war- rant the factory using more of the lower grades than was pro- duced by the large mill with which it was run in connection, The majority of box factories are under the control of an association which provides a market for their output. The short run of the average smal! mill-man and the small capital he has at his com- mand, puts it out of the question for him to run an establishment of this kind. There have been combinations effected between sev- eral small mill-men, but these ventures have not proved successful because of the small scale on which they were conducted. Th small mill-man is able to dispose of his better grades to an advantage, since the prices of No. 2 shop and better enables these grades to be shipped some distance. The sale of the higher grades, however, unless there is a good local trade, is hardly suffi- cient to enable the average small owner to compete with the large mill, and, as a result, more and more of these mills are becoming associated with the large mills and cease to exist as independent concerns. The situation on the Tahoe Forest can best be shown by a pre- sentation of the actual conditions found there. At present there are thirty-three mills cutting timber within its boundaries, sixty Large and Small Saw Mills. 171 per cent. of the Forest being patented land. Of these mills, twenty-nine are independent concerns and four are cutting timber for large mills. Nine of these mills have a capacity of 50,000 board feet or over, the remaining twenty having capacities rang- ing from 5,000 to 50,000 board feet, and averaging about 15,000 board feet per day. Of these twenty independent small mills, five are cutting for the general market in competition with large mills, five are operated in connection with mines and ditch com- panies, cutting for the companies only, and ten cut for the local demand. Six of these independent small mills depend wholly upon the National Forest for the timber they cut. The remainder will either draw upon it within the next five years, or go out of business. There are five of the large mills which have bought timber from the Forest, chiefly small tracts lying adjacent or surrrounded by their holdings. One of these large mills has cut out its hold- ings and has removed to another section; another is dependent upon railroad and government timber; several have holdings esti- mated to last not over five years, and three companies have enough for twenty to twenty-five years run. In addition, there are several large tracts of timber lands in different parts of the Forest held by lumber companies which have not begun cutting. These facts seem to show what the outcome of the sawmill business will be. The small mills competing with the large mills have about come to a point where they will be forced out of busi- ness, except in those localities where government timber can be had in abundance. Unfortunately, the large bodies of govern- ‘ment timber are remote from transportation facilities, the pieces lying conveniently near the railroad being too small to warrant small mills going after them at the present time. The large mills can handle these pieces, however, as they come to them, and it is generally good silvicultural and business policy to sell this timber when applied for, especially when the tracts will be isolated by the removal of the surrounding timber. The independent small mills cutting timber for the local trade, and remote from the large mills, will continue to exist for some time, even though their hoidings are largely exhausted. The fact that they cannot cut timber where they please as in days gone by, has not forced many of them out of business. The general rule is that the small man supplying a local demand, will pay what 172 Forestry Quarterly. stumpage is required and tack the price he pays to the price paid by the consumer. The mines and ditch companies run mills only when there is not an available source of lumber for their needs, and being backed with capital, are willing to pay what the stump- age is worth. The small mill is not a paying proposition as a rule. The anti- quated methods of logging, large circular saws and crude mill equipment wastes as much lumber as is produced. The high price charged for lumber makes it possible for the operator to get along in a way, by leaving the poorer grades, or about half of the timber he fells, in the woods. Even the policy of the Forest Service in selling timber to the local man for local use in preference to the large operator cutting for the general market, cannot relieve the situation, or keep the small man in business for many years under present methods. It is getting harder and harder for the small man to find suitable mill sites except on the holdings of the large operators. It will gradually come about, therefore, that the small mill-men will cut the timber of the large operators under contract. The large mills will not increase in capacity, but rather will diminish and rely principally upon the cut of the small contractors who will operate mills owned by the large companies and equipped with band-saws and other modern equipment. In a few years it will only be in isolated mountain communities that the independent small mill will exist. Even there it is probable that its timber will be bought up by the big mill man if it is possible to get the lumber to his mill at a moderate cost. When the exhaustion of the large holdings, which will be within the next twenty to twenty-five years, occurs, the small mill with modern equipment will be found throughout the mountains. These mills will not have capacities of over 25,000 board feet, will be easily moved from place to place, and will be under the control of large operators. All the present isolated pieces of government timber will then be sought out, since the price of lumber will war- rant considerable expense in getting out the timber. Sawmills operating in belts of White and Red Fir will give place to wood- camps cutting wood for pulp mills. The pulp and paper industry is certain to follow the logger of early days who culled out the pine and left the fir as worthless. Large and Small Saw Mills. 173 To conclude, the present indications on the Tahoe National Forest are that the large mills which now largely control the out- put, will more and more gain control of the small mills operating in their vicinity, and that the independent small operators will go out of business except in remote communities where they cut for a purely local demand. YIELD TABLES OF WESTERN FORESTS. In the absence of published yield tables of our Western Forests the following, constructed by Mr. E. I. Terry, upon admittedly scanty data, referring to northern Rocky Mountain conditions will be welcome. YIELD TABLE FOR WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Kootenai National Forest, Montana. Ouality J— Average Average Average Volume Yield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 400 8.6 45 17 6,800 50 380 9.0 50 23 8,600 60 360 9.5 54 30 10,700 70 330 10.0 58 38 12,600 80 300 10.6 63 50 15,200 90 275 11.3 68 70 19,200 100 250 We 75 90 22,400 10 190 14.0 84 130 25,200 20 140 16.0 94 200 28,500 130 100 17.6 IOI 320 31,600 140 80 18.5 105 420 34,000 Quality II— Average Average Average Volume Vield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre.. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 256 8.4 43 17 4,400 50 250 8. 45 22 5,400 60 245 8.8 48 26 6,400 70 240 9.0 SI 30 7,400 80 235 9.4 56 35 8,400 90 220 10.0 62 40 9,500 100 204 10.8 70 50 10,600 IIO 160 12.2 82 70 11,600 120 100 13.3 89 130 12,800 130 80 14.0 905 170 14,000 140 70 14.6 08 210 15,000 Quality ITI— Average Average Average Volume Yield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 260 6.8 40 10 2,700 50 250 Vee 43 13 3,200 230 7-4 45 16 3,800 70 215 ASG) 48 20 4,400 80 190 8.0 5I 25 4,800 90 170 8.4 54 30 5,300 100 136 8.8 56 4O 5; II0 IIo 9.4 60 55 6,200 120 88 9.9 63 70 6,500 E30 70 10.4 67 100 6,800 140 56 10.8 70 130 7,100 Vield Tables, Western Species. 175 YIELD TABLE FOR WESTERN LARCH. Kootenai National Forest, Montana. Quality I— Average Average Average Volume Yield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B.M. 40 300 9.9 1 70 30 9,500 50 290 10.2 79 40 11,500 60 280 10.4 83 50 13,500 70 260 10.6 86 60 16,000 80 244 10.8 88 70 18,000 90 224 II.0 90 90 20,500 100 204 11.6 92 115 23,500 II0 184 12eA 04 140 26,500 120 168 13.6 08 180 30,000 130 160 14.6 102 210 34,000 140 152 15.7 108 250 38,000 Quality II— Average Average Average Volume Yield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. - per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 320 8.0 60 20 6,500 50 300) -— 8.6 63 26 8,000 60 280 9.3 67 30 9,500 70 255 9.8 71 40 II,000 80 224 10.5 75 53 12,300 go 188 Tine 79 70 13,500 100 154 II.6 84 100 15,500 IIo 136 1251 89 130 17,500 120 125 12.6 04 160 20,000 130 116 13.00 99 200 23,000 140 110° 13.5 104 240 26,000 Quality III— Average Average Average Volume Vield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 285 7.8 55 14 4,000 50 275 8.4 60 18 5,000 60 264 9.0 66 25 6,000 70 254 9.2 69 28 7,000 80 240 9.4 7A) 32 7,600 90 228 9.5 73 37 8,500 100 216 9.7 75 4O 9,100 IIO 208 9.9 76 50 10,200 120 200 10.2 THY 60 11,500 130 190 10.4 79 70 13,000 140 184 10.8 81 80 15,000 176 Forestry Quarterly. YreELtp TABLE FoR MIxED Type oF WESTERN LARCH, WESTERN YELLOW PINE AND Douc tas Fir. Kootenai National Forest, Montana. Quality I— Average Average Average Volume Vield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 330 8.9 65 45 15,000 50 320 10.1 72 55 18,000 60 308 II.4 80 70 21,500 70 205 12.4 90 80 24,500 80 276 Tee 97 100 27,500 90 260 14.00 102 120 30,000 100 224 14.7 106 140 32,500 110 200 15.2 109 170 34,500 120 170 15.7 ie 210 36,700 130 140 16.1 II4 280 38,700 140 120 16.5 116 340 40,500 7 Quality II— Average Average Average Volume Vield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 250 8.2 55 40 9,500 50 232 9.2 Ee) 50 11,500 60 220 10.0 65 60 13,500 70 200 10.8 74 70 15,500 80 180 11.4 84 90 17,000 go 160 12.0 QI 120 19,000 100 144 12.4 97 140 20,600 110 130 12.8 IOI 170 22,200 120 116 Tee 104 200 23,500 130 104 13.6 107 240 25,000 140 06 T3410 109 280 26,500 Quality IIJ— Average Average Average Volume Yield Age No. Trees Diameter. Height. per Tree. per Acre. Years. per Acre. Inches. Feet. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. 40 212 7-5 45 20 4,500 50 198 8.0 50 30 5,400 60 180 8.4 54 35 6,300 70 160 8.8 58 40 7,000 80 148 9.2 63 50 7,800 90 132 9.6 67 60 8,600 100 122 10.0 71 80 9,400 110 112 10.4 75 (ere) 10,000 120 100 10.8 78 TIO 11,000 130 88 II.0 81 130 11,800 140 72 rie 2 83 170 12,500 Yield Tables, Western Species. VoLUME TABLE FOR WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Bitterroot National Forest. DE ea k Number of 16-foot Logs. Inches. 2 3 4 5 10 5 II 6 10 12 7 i 13 8 13 19 14 9 14 21 15 IO 16 24 Bit 16 12 18 26 34 17 14 20 29 38 18 16 23 33 42 19 26 36 46 20 28 40 51 21 31 44 56 22 35 49 61 23 38 54 67 24 42 59 74 25 64 81 26 71 89 27 77 98 28 84 108 29 OI II9 30 131 31 144 32 158 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 All trees scaled as though sound. Scaled to top diameter inside bark of 6 to Io inches. Average height of stump, 1.5 feet. 177 Scribner Decimal C. 6 7 148 157 168 178 190 201 214 226 240 254 269 284 300 316 334 352 NOTES ON THE WOOD STURCTURE OF THE BETULACEAE AND FAGACEAE. Contributions from the Phanerogamic Laboratories of Harvard University No. 25. Irvinc W. Battey, A. B., M. F. During the last two years the writer has carried on a series of investigations upon the origin and development of the so-called “primary” rays of oak and the so-called “false rays” of the birch family. In carrying out this work a large number of woody specimens of American Fagaceae and Betulaceae have been ex- ined microscopically, and several results of interest secured in addition to the solution of the main problem under consideration. As one phase of a forester’s education deals with the origin, de- velopment, and uses of woody tissues, it does not seem amiss to summarize in these pages such results as are of general interest to foresters as well as to botanists. “Primary” and “False Rays.” European and American writers since the publication of Sach’s classic Lehrbuch der Botamk have considered that the primary medullary ray originates as an inclusion of fundamental tissue or ground parenchyma between the so-called primary fibro-vascular bundles, and that its radial extension in secondary growth is secured by the activity of a so-called interfascicular cambium. In contrast to the imagined primary ray the secondary medullary ray is supposed to originate with secondary growth. The “false rays” of the Betulaceae are bands of aggregated secondary rays and have not been known to have any relation to the so-called primary rays of the Fagaceae. The “primary” ray is conspicuously developed in the oaks, Fig, 2, and strongly contrasted in this genus to the small uniseriate “secondary” rays, Fig. r. In fact in the oaks the primary rays are so broad and so strongly developed that they form the most dis- tinctive feature of the wood, the well known “silver grain” which is of great beauty and of consequent economic value in quarter 4 Fy 6. ¢, *0a OF S.245~ € ERY & Ea LA in Woop Structure OF BETULACEAE AND FAGACEAE. Woop Structure or BETULACEAE AND FAGACEAE. Wood Structure—Betulaceae and Fagaceae. 179 sawn oak lumber. As may be seen in Figs. 2 and 4 these rays are composed of homogeneous masses of ray parenchyma, and are the important food storage system of the plant. In marked con- trast to this type of ray which occurs in oaks with deciduous foliage are the rays which occur in most species of American live oaks. In the latter the ray, Fig. 6, consists of a compounding mass of smaller rays, resembling the aggregating ray tissue found in the Betulaceae and commonly designated as ‘‘false rays.” This fact led to the conclusion that the so-called primary rays of oak have been “built up” by an aggregation and fusion of numerous small uniseriate or small secondary rays. The writer has shown in two articles soon to appear that abundant evidence exists among the Betulaceae and Fagaceae showing conclusively that the large so- called primary rays are the result of a compounding process, in which numerous small rays have been fused together into a solid mass of ray tissue. Thus in living species of alder a complete series of stages occur in this compounding process. Starting with alders in which only small non-aggregated uniseriate rays occur, every step may be found in the development of large compound rays, homologous to the rays of oaks with deciduous foliage. In like manner the transformation process may be traced clearly among species of American live oaks. Furthermore my friend and co-worker Arthur Eames has shown that in seedling oaks, in accordance’ with the law of recapitulation, a similar series of stages occur, The earliest formed oak wood, like the adult wood of chestnut, possesses only small uniseriate rays, but with the for- mation of subsequent annual layers of wood the broad rays are developed by means of a compounding process. This fact com- bined with the structure of fossil ancestral oaks from the Ameri- can Miocene shows that primitive oak wood possessed only the so-called secondary rays. With the development of unequal sea- sonal temperatures and the necessity for the storage of food the modern large ray has been built up by a compounding process. It follows that the extant live oaks of the United States possess a less highly organized type of ray structure for the storage of Relation of the leaf trace to the formation of compound rays in certain Dicotyledons. Annals of Botany Ined. ; Reversionary characters of traumatic oak woods. Botanical Gazette Ined. A. J. Eames. On the origin of the broad ray in Quercus. Botanical Ga- zette, 49, pp. 161-167. March, 1910. I2 180 Forestry Quarterly. food than the American oaks with deciduous foliage, since in the former even in the adult wood the compounding process in the ray is ordinarily still incomplete. We thus see that the large rays of oak are in their origin in no way related to inclusions of fundamental tissue or ground paren- chyma between so-called primary fibro-vascular bundles, but have been built up from an aggregation and fusion of numerous sec- ondary rays. The so-called ‘‘false rays” of the Betulaceae are rays which have as yet developed only preliminary stages of the com- pounding process. Further on evolutionary grounds the term compound may be advantageously substituted for primary in designating the large rays of the Betulaceae and Fagaceae. Origin of the Fluted Stem of Carpinus Caroliniana. The large so-called primary rays of oak, or as we prefer to designate them compound rays, are the important food reservoirs of the plant, and it seems highly probable that the flourishing con- dition of this genus may be largely due to the possession of these extensive systems. In addition to their physiological importance these rays have other important relations to the development and properties of oak wood. ‘Thus all foresters are familiar with the difficulties produced by these rays in seasoning oak lumber, and with the decorative effects of the “silver grain” of the wood. It is further to be emphasized that the compound ray has a marked effect on the growth and development of the stem. As may be seen in Fig. 8, which represents the wood of the Blue Beech, there is a strong dipping in of the annual ring in the region of the com- pound rays. In other words the compound ray is a modifying factor in the growth of the stem, and constitutes ordinarily a depressed band of tissue which produces a distinct sag in the outline of the annual rings. In the Betulaceae and Fagaceae numerous compound rays produce in the periphery of the stem a series of depressions and elevations corresponding to compound rays and to areas where they are absent. In certain genera and species (e. g. Betula pumila and Carpinus) the dipping in of the annual rings is very strongly developed, and well marked de- pressions are produced in the outline of the stem. When the bark is removed from a small stem of Carpinus it will be observed that the compound rays produce a deeply furrowed stem which in cross Wood Structure—Betulaceae and Fagaceae. 181 section, Fig. 7, appears strongly crenulated. These depressions are seen in Fig. 7 to correspond to bands of compounding tissue. Fig. § shows a small portion of the stem more highly magnified to bring out the exact relation between the compounding and the depressions in the stem. On the upper left hand corner of the section shown in Fig 7 (marked x) may be seen three somewhat closely approximated rays which have together produced a gen- eral depression in the outline of the stem. In fact in many species of the Betulaceae and Fagaceae where the compound rays are grouped or closely packed a general depression in the growth of the stem is produced by the concentrated pulling in of the com- pound rays. This condition is most strikingly and diagramatically shown in the case of the well known Blue Beech or Carpinus caro- liniana which possesses characteristically a strongly fluted stem. A freshly cut stump of the tree reveals the interesting fact that the striking longitudinal furrows in the stem are produced by bands of aggregations of approximated compound rays, whereas the ridges or ribs in the stem are produced by areas in which few or no compound rays are developed. A small portion of the fluted stem of Blue Beech may be seen in Fig. 9 which shows the bands of compound rays and corresponding depressions, and the wedge shaped segments, devoid of rays, which are thrust forward be- tween the depressed segments. The stems of oak are frequently fluted in this manner but owing to the thickness of the bark the irregular outline of the stem is obliterated. Similarly fluted stems of alder and hazel may be found which serve to illustrate diagra- matically the retarding influence which is ordinarily exerted upon growth by numerous compound rays. Classification of Oak Woods. The writer has had occasion to examine the woody structures of a large number of American oaks (45 species) and in doing this work has secured a satisfactory basis for differentiating the wood of the black and the white oaks. It has been customary to differentiate the wood of the two main groups of oaks, Lepidoba- lanus or white oaks and Erythrobalanus or black oaks, by color, strength, and weight. Although it is possible to use these char- acters in separating the average specimens of such characteristic species as Quercus alba L,. and Ouercus rubra L,., one soon be- 182 Forestry Quarterly. comes confused in differentiating the woods of the other species of the two groups, particularly species from the western and southwestern United States. Thus the writer has in his posses- sion specimens of black oak wood in which the macroscopic char- acters of color, weight, and strength are similar to those of the wood of white oak and vice versa specimens of white oak which appear externally to be black oak. Furthermore marked varia- tions in silvicultural conditions influence the macroscopic proper- ties of the wood formed by the same specimen. Roth has pointed out* the importance of the number and arrangement of the vessels in the summer wood in separating the woods of black and white oaks. Thus the black oaks are characterized by possessing, in transverse sections of the stem, bands of vessels which are of nearly uniform width throughout the annual ring. In contrast to this in the white oaks the number of vessels in the summer wood is greatly increased, causing the band of vessels to widen out considerably in the last formed portion of the year’s growth. Unfortunately this arrangement of the tracheae cannot be de- pended upon invariably, as white oaks with the vessel arrange- ment of black oaks exist. A certain and easy laboratory method for separating the wood of the two main groups of oaks may be arrived at by comparing microscopically transverse sections of Quercus alba L and Q. rubral, In Fig. r is illustrated the cross section of Quercus alba. In the summer wood the vessels are seen to be numerous, of small size, angular and distinctly thin walled. In contrast to this con- dition of White Oak the cross section of Q. rubra seen in Fig 3 shows scattering larger vessels in the summer wood, vessels with thick walls and circular outlines. In both groups there is a marked contrast in size between the vessels of the spring and summer wood. In the case of the white oaks this difference in size is more strongly developed than in the black oaks, and the transition from one type to the other more abrupt. Portions of the large spring vessels may be seen at the base of the sections in Figs. r and 3. Owing to the thickness of the walls tyloses are rarely developed in the summer vessels of the black oaks, but occur frequently in the thin-walled vessels of the white oaks. In the large vessels tyloses may or may not be abundantly developed Timber. Bulletin No. 10, U. S. Forestry Service, p. 68. Wood Structure—Betulaceae and Fagaceae. 183 in both groups. Similarly gelatinous fibers and crystals bearing wood parenchyma cells occur in both groups. Upon the marked difference of the walls in the summer wood the writer has been able to separate with certainty the wood of the following species of American oaks: LEPIDOBALANUS. ERYTHROBALANUS. Quercus alba L,. Quercus rubra L, macrocarpa Michx, coccinea Muenchh, minor Sarg. velutina Lam. lobata Née. texana Buckl, lyrata Walt. nigra L,. platanoides Sudw. georgiana Curtis gambelu Nutt. californica Coop. durandu Buckl. catesbaet Michx. michauxu Nutt digitata Sudw. garryana Doug]. marilandica Muenchh. acuminata Houba. phellos L,. macdonaldt Greene. laurifolia Michx. prinus L,. imbricaria Michx. The live oaks, which have not been included in this classifica- tion are more closely allied anatomically to the black oaks than to the white oak group. Thus the live oaks examined possessed scattering thick walled circular vessels in the summer wood. However the majority of the live oaks are distinct from black oaks in possessing primitive stages of compounding in the big rays, Fig. 6, in being diffuse rather than ring porous, Fig. 5, and in possessing usually no tyloses in the vessels. The following species examined belong to this group to which we may give the subgeneric name Biotobalanus. BIOTOBALANUS. Quercus tomentella Engelm. Quercus chrysolepis Liebm. myrtifolia Willd. dumosa Nutt chrysolepis palmeri Engelm. virginiana Mill. agrifolia Née. emoryt Torr. densiflora Hook & Arm. hypoleuca Engelm. engelmanni Greene. arizonica Sarg. 184 Forestry Quarterly. Among the species emoryi and hypoleuca possess rays with highly organized compound rays, and in Engelmannt numerous thick-walled tyloses occur. In other words the more highly or- ganized live oaks grade anatomically into the black oaks. The development of the compound ray in oaks, backed by paleontological and seedling evidence, shows conclusively that the live oaks are anatomically the most primitive members of the genus Quercus. Modern white oaks are highly specialized in pos- sessing well compounded rays, well marked ring porous vessels, numerous, small, thin-walled vessels in the summer wood, and abundant tyloses. Certain white oaks (e. g., prinus and mac- donaldi) although retaining distinctly the thin walled summer vessels of the white oak possess the vessel arrangement which is characteristic of the black oaks. The black oaks in places grade into the live oaks, but are usually characterized by more per- fectly compounded rays, by tyloses, and by ring porous vessels. We thus see that in the genus Quercus the white oaks are clearly and sharply marked off anatomically from the other groups of American oaks. Similarly the majority of live oaks are clearly marked off from the majority of the black oaks, but a few species exist which represent transitional steps between the two groups. From this we come to the conclusion that as in the case of Pinus (where the internal anatomy of the wood and leaf has been suc- cessfully used by Sargent, Masters, Engelmann, and others in securing a natural classification) the internal anatomy of oaks is of great value in arriving at a natural classification of our Ameri- can species. The external foliar and floral characters as in the case of Pinus are so variable and subject to such rapid modifica- tion that botanists have encountered considerable difficulty in con- structing classifications of American oaks which are not subject to disconcerting exceptions. The ‘differences which exist in the classifications of oaks presented by Sargent, Sudworth, and Brit- ton well illustrate this fact. Internal anatomy particularly of woody plants is extremely conservative and is modified very slowly. For this reason it is useful in studying relationships of plants and in securing generic, subgeneric, and other broad differ- ences, but owing to its extreme conservatism can only be used with great caution in securing specific differences. In other words internal anatomical! characters combined with the most salient external characters may be advantageously used in dis- Wood Structure—Betulaceae and Fagaceae. 185 closing the main natural groups of oaks, but in separating species in the various groups, external characters must usually be de- pended upon. However the study of internal anatomy and an appreciation of the conservatism.of internal characters should serve as an excellent brake upon certain botanists who have de- veloped a mania for naming new species upon slight external dif- ferences. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fic. 1. Quercus alba: transverse section, showing numerous, small angular, thin-walled vessels in the summer wood, uniseriate or so-called secondary medullary rays, and portion of large spring vessel at the base of the section. X 120. Fic. 2. The same: tangential section, showing the highly specialized compound ray or so-called primary ray. The ray is seen to consist of a homogenous mass of ray parenchyma. X 120. Fic. 3. Quercus rubra: transverse section, showing scattering thick- walled summer vessels with circular outlines. A portion of a large vessel may be seen at the base of the section. X 120. Fic. 4. The same: tangential section, showing compound ray with an included fiber, evidence of a fusion process. X 120. Fic. 5. Quercus virginiana: transverse section, showing the character- istic gradation in the size of the vessels in passing from the spring to the “oe wood, the black oak type of vessel, and the absence of tyloses. X 8o. Fic. 6. The same: tangential section, showing the compounding and fus- ing mass of small rays found in the live oaks. X 120. Fic. 7. Carpinus caroliniana: transverse section of twig, showing the crenulated outline of the stem produced by the retarding influence of the compound or so-called false rays upon growth. (x) Group of three com- pound rays which together produce a general depression in the outline of the stem. X Io. : Fic. 8. The same: more highly magnified to show the dipping in of the annual rings in the band of compounding tissue. X 8o. Fic. 9. The same: transverse section of a small portion of the fluted stem, showing the bands of approximated compound rays which produce the longitudinal furrows and the wedge shaped segments without rays which form the ridges or ribs. Natural size. FORESTRY IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.* SAMUEL B. GREEN. There is much interest of a general nature taken in forestry and there is a demand for thorough education along this line. What is needed to properly supplement the magnificent work which has been done by the Forest Service is to get correct ideas in regard to forestry into the minds of the common people. Every state and territory has an agricultural college and experiment station, which receives or will shortly receive for education and experimentation not less than $80,000 per year from the National Government. As a rule, these institutions are well equipped to handle all matters at pertain to rural life, and generally they are in close touch with the rural population and are popular with all classes of citizens. These institutions have done almost nothing for forestry, and yet they are the best equipped class of institutions in the whole country to advance the forestry movement. I would have every agricultural college and every. experiment station well equipped under government supervision to undertake educational and experimental work in forestry. This can be added to the present courses of study at a low cost, and if the educational lines already in vogue in them relating to forestry are co-related and supplemented by one teacher of forestry, they can offer excel- lent courses in this subject. I do not think it desirable, at present at least, to have all these institutions attempt to establish pro- fessional schools of forestry. I think it would be rather unfor- tunate and that they would fall far short of their purpose, and it is something of a question if there would be a demand for such a large number of graduates as these institutions might turn out; but they should confine their work largely to the teaching of farm forestry, which work should be supplemented by plenty of dem- onstrations and experimental work. The class room, unless well supplemented by field work, will not be as efficient as it should be * Read at the Conference of Forest Schools, Washington, D. C., Decem- ber 30, 1900. Forestry m Agricultural Colleges. 187 in the teaching of this subject, and will partake too much of the nature of what might be called “sidewalk forestry.” However, I am not afraid of our having too many well trained professional foresters, and believe it will be a happy time for the forestry situation in this country when we have a larger number of young men properly trained in forestry than can be satisfac- torily absorbed by the forestry situation. A few states will natur- ally lead others in the attention they pay to this subject, and will establish professional schools of forestry; but the states should be expected to entirely care for the support of professional schools of this kind. Where there is not sufficient interest in a state to take hold of such work and put it upon a professional basis, it had better remain a good course in silviculture, teaching it much the same as subjects of general agriculture or horticulture, and no special forestry degree should be given. Who should teach Forestry? In my opinion, it is not desirable to load up the Professor of Horticulture or Agriculture in these institutions with the subject of forestry. They already have all that they can do, and with the close specializing which is coming from year to year in all of these subjects the constant tendency for them is to divide up their work. In my opinion, then, each of these institutions should have a Professor of Forestry, or he may be made an Assistant Professor, and his salary should be about two thousand dollars per year. He should have charge not only of the teaching of the students, but of the experiment work and demonstration grounds, which he should aim to work into and make a part of his instructional work. It might possibly be well to combine the subjects of landscape gardening and forestry in some of the schools where but little attention is paid to either. These subjects can often be taught together to advantage, and there are many good openings for those who are well trained in both branches. Courses of Instruction. ‘The courses of instruction given in institutions of this kind should consist of about three class room hours of six laboratory hours per week for one year, with per- haps fifteen half days devoted to excursions or field work. I want to lay special emphasis upon the fifteen half days of field work. I believe it extremely important that the Professor of For- estry in these institutions be able to take the students into the field and show them how to do the actual work. I also think that 188 Forestry Quarterly. excursions to nurseries and to nearby forests of different types are especially helpful and desirable for students of this kind. I would have the Professor of Forestry a man full of forestry, with a desire to get in close touch with actual growing things; a man who can make things grow and do things on the land. Half of the time devoted to this subject should be put on the subject of identifying trees, learning their uses and the conditions under which they grow. I would give enough forestry mathematics in this course so that the student will have a clear idea of the cus- tomary way of measuring standing and cut timber. Some atten- tion should be put upon the effect of forest vegetation in prevent- ing erosion and the effects of forests on water supplies. The growing of seedlings and their care and management in the nur- sery should come in for much attention and practical work. Enough of the subject of protection should be given so that stu- dents will understand how to deal with the principal enemies of our forests, including fires, insect pests and fungous diseases. My ideal teacher would not divide this work under special heads, but the work in all lines should be continued throughout the year, so as to make a full round of the season in the subject of the uses of trees and in general silviculture. For instance, if the work begins at the middle of the second semester in the northern states, the habits of the trees may be studied as they appear in that season, and the methods of identifying them; and this may be continued throughout the year. As soon as nursery work begins in the spring, the student should be taught seed sowing, transplanting and cultivation, and later seed collecting and general nursery work. ‘Thus in one year, I believe, can be given a good course in silviculture, which is all that is desirable in our agricultural colleges. Forestry in the Agricultural High Schools. In the agricultural high schools there can be but a very limited place for the subject of forestry, and yet we should see to it that at least one semester’s work in this subject is provided for. My experience seems to show that about one semester’s work is all that can be used to advantage for forestry in this class of schools. I think this work should consist almost entirely of the study of trees adapted to the locality, together with their habits of growth, uses and methods of propagation. In addition to this, some little instruction should be given in the subjects of nursery practice and mensuration. An y Forestry mn Agricultural Colleges. 189 experience of over twenty years in this kind of forestry teaching shows me that when this class of students has once acquired such an outline of the general subject of forestry as could be included in one semester’s work, as stated, those especially interested in the subject will begin to experiment in a small way, and soon acquire considerable skill in general silviculture. Short Courses. Most of our agricultural colleges are giving, or soon will give, short summer courses of a popular nature, and in these courses there is an excellent opportunity to introduce some forestry instruction to advantage. Many of these courses are at- tended by teachers and county superintendents, and if they can be interested in forestry and be given the right point of view, they are sure to carry the ideas thus obtained to the children in the schools over which they have charge. In my own case, in connection with our regular forestry work held in Itasca Park, we have a summer school of forestry, and last year there were twenty-five students in attendance, of whom perhaps something over one-third were teachers in our public schools. The work given them was of a popular nature, with enough forestry flavor to give them the right point of view. I think this an important line of forestry work at the present stage of development of forestry education in this country. In this course, lectures and field work were given in surveying, silvicul- ture, forest mensuration, general geology and soils, and botany. More than half of the instruction was given in the form of ex- cursions. The teachers attending expressed themselves as much pleased with the course, and felt that they had gotten a good deal out of it. They certainly went home to their work in autumn with a very different idea of what forestry is than they had when they came to us. The teacher of forestry will naturally become identified with the forestry movement in his state, and will be of great assistance in directing public sentiment into practical methods of conserva- tion, If the establishment of these forestry courses is to be left to state initiative it will be a long time before they are put on a sat- isfactory basis in more than a few of the states. If, however, the matter is taken hold of in a strong, sensible way, and Congress would make an appropriation of, say, five thousand dollars a year for establishing courses in forestry and forestry demonstration 190 Forestry Quarterly. in each agricultural college, it would be but a short time before there would be a wonderful change in the standpoint from which the general public regards forestry. All of these forestry courses should be co-ordinated with the U. S. Forest Service, and the appropriation made by Congress should require a certain degree of efficiency to be acquired on the part of each state in order to insure its continuance. ‘The agricultural colleges are now receiving national appropriations based on similar requirements and supervision by the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, and such extra supervision as required by such a measure could easily be given them. The formation of the vast reserves in the West, and the desire for them in the East, needs the support it would receive from an educational movement of this kind. It would require but a small appropriation to make this effective, and the leaders in forestry education in this country ought to take hold of this measure with @ strong hand and push it to a successful issue. THE PLACE OF FORESTRY IN GENERAL EDUCATION.* HERBERT A. SMITH. The now widely awakened interest in forestry is leading to the introduction of some sort of teaching about it, sometimes as a dis- tinct course either in forestry or in the conservation of natural resources, sometimes as a part of older courses of study, into the curriculum both of schools and of colleges and universities in connection with general as distinguished from vocational educa- tion. This has not gone far as yet, but it reaches into every stage of education from the nature-study work of the primary schools to the elective courses of the student approaching his de- gree. Whether we like it or not, forestry is taking a place in general education. It is important that the teaching of it should be rightly guided and properly co-ordinated with educational work generally. I presume that I shall seem, to most of you, to take a strange position when I say that I think forestry is a cultural subject. To make clear why I hold this I am going to ask you to let me pass very briefly in review certain recent changes in educational ideals which have been illustrated in the content of secondary education. As we all know, secondary education has been in a state of more or less confusion during some years. It has lacked certainty both as to what ends it should aim at and what methods it should use. First of all the sciences, with the modern languages as their allies, successfully disputed the exclusive claims of the old classical course studies. This they did largely on the plea of their own superior practical value. We had reached, we were told, a scien- tific age. The task of education should be to teach us to think scientifically and to conquer the material world. The study of the “humanities,” the ideal of “culture” in education, gave way before the pedagogic outfit of the laboratory and the experimental method and before the spirit of investigation in pursuit of objective * Read at the Conference of’ Forest Schools, Washington, D. C., Decem- ber 30 and 31, 1900. 192 Forestry Quarterly. truth. In short, the new education may be said to have wor- shipped at the shrine of Science-as-an-end-in-itself. Presently, however, a new controversy began. In the ranks of the scientists themselves schism arose. While some of them laid main insistence on rigorous training in method, with disci- plined scientific thinking and power of independent research as their objective, others held to the belief that the pupil should be taught to know as much as possible about the world with which he comes in actual contact, and that knowledge, and useful knowledge to boot, should be the first aim rather than drill. Pedagogics on the one hand, with its enunciation of the*principle that education should begin with the familiar, not the unfamiliar, and should deal with what is real to the pupil, and philosophic thought on the other hand, with its flat denial of the right of science to call its world more than one aspect of reality and its insistence that the vital thing in life is experience, not an abstract from expe- rience, supported the schismatics. And then came the demands of vocational education. The outcome was the pretty complete discomfiture of the party which would have turned our high schools into incubators of fledgling scientists, trained in methods of research and thirsting for scientific discovery for pure love of truth. There is no great crowd of pedagogues now who worship at the shrine of Science-as-an-end-in-itself. Culture, disciplined scientific power, useful knowledge, eco- nomic efficiency—all these educational ideals aim primarily at the good of the individual. And, as a rule, the education which aims at them is not likely to consider moral training an integral part of its work. But our system of public education at public expense justifies itself only on the ground that the education given served the public welfare; and this again leads naturally, if not inevitably, to the conclusion that at least one purpose of such education should be to train in good citizenship. Surely this kind of education means moral education. Now I am ready to begin to build up my argument for the right of forestry to a place in general education. Dr. C. F. Hodge of Clark University published a little pam- phlet a few months ago under the title of “Civic Biology.” ‘This somewhat cryptic title stands for a conception of the function of science teaching, and of education generally, fundamentally dif- ferent from the conceptions ordinarily held. His conception is, Forestry in General Education. 193 I think, well worth my bringing to the attention of this confer- ence. In a word, he holds that the school teaching of biology should be not only practical, as distinguished from purely scientific, but also, civic, as distinguished from merely economic. “Civic Biology” is neither biology taught in order to broaden out the the mind to a well-rounded intelligence, nor biology which seeks knowledge of the laws of life as an end in itself, nor biology which seeks to instruct the individual concerning the life history of such organisms as are likely to affect his personal welfare, nor biology adapted to the service of some special occupation ; but biology applied to community interests. Necessarily such a treatment of any branch of ordered knowledge is rooted not in science but in morals. Every conclusion is an ethical one. By providing meeting-places and putting food for birds we increase the yield of fruit in our neighborhood. By cutting noxious weeds at the proper season we help control a pest. By cleaning up the breeding-places of mosquitoes and flies we improve the public health. How much better it is, thinks Professor Hodge, to aim in our teaching of biology at good citizenship than at individual attainment or advantage for the final result. But in one respect I should modify Professor Hodge’s idea. “Civic Biology” seems to me a somewhat too restricted term. I should substitute for it another, first suggested by my colleague, Mr. Cleveland: Civic Geography. Almost exactly a year ago I attended some of the meetings of the Association of American Geographers, held as a part of the Baltimore meeting of the National Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. I went there primarily because they wished to learn something about what the Forest Service is doing with the National Forests. The very fact that they wished such a paper to have a place on their program is significant. I do not know how many of you have observed what ground the subject of geography now covers, or what its development as a subject of instruction has been. Certainly it is very different from what it was in the days of my own school and college edu- cation. I remember very vividly with what surprise I learned from one of my friends just returned from his graduate studies abroad, some fifteen years ago, that geography was held in the German 194 Forestry Quarterly. higher institutions of learning to be a subject deserving of sepa- rate university chairs and courses. Shortly after that our own universities began to take the subject up. First, I think, came commercial geography. Now it is hard to say what has not come in. The general impression which I gathered from reading the program of the Baltimore meeting and from the papers which I heard there was that the field of geography includes the greater part of human knowledge, and perhaps the greater part of what is now human ignorance; and that biology, botany, zoology, geology, history, economics, and I know not how many other subjects have surrendered their independent standing and are now no more than side shows to the main educational perform- ance run by the geographers. Very likely you know that the geographers make much of what they call “geographic controls.” Human history and hfiman institutions, they point out, are largely the result of en- vironmental influences. The locations of great cities are of course determined by natural causes; the alternation of growing and non-growing seasons, with the subsequent need for a stored food supply, has doubtless played an important part in the de- velopment of property rights. To the study of these geographic controls of man geographic science is now giving a great amount of attention. But there is a geographic control by man as well as a geo- graphic control of man. Human life causes geographic phe- nomena as well as displays them. When wolves are driven from their native habitat, or erosion from a great mountain region is accelerated, or soil fertility is reduced, or an improved variety of wheat is bred, man becomes the control. In the past man’s conquest of nature—in other words, man’s advance in material civilization—has been mainly that of the in- dividual seeking his own betterment through the exercise of intelligence to make nature serve his own ends. But a still larger exercise of intelligence is possible if men will seek to shape their collective action along the lines that will make the earth most habitable and most responsive to human needs. Here is the same underlying idea which Professor Hodge’s pamphlet presents. You will see now why I think “Civic Geography” a better term than his. Already several of our universities are giving courses in con- Forestry in General Education. 195 servation. At Yale such a course is given by one of the pro- fessors of economics. What department it is regarded as falling under is, to my mind, relatively unimportant. But surely it is important that our students who are preparing for life and for citizenship, whether that preparation is in the college course or in the high school course, should at least have the chance to find out how different possible courses in our use of forests and of other natural resources will affect the public welfare. I think myself this is putting it far too mildly. I have already said that - I believe a proper preparation for citizenship necessarily involves training to the right attitude on these questions. If this is true, it is the business of education, secondary education and higher education, to give the training. And it must be a moral training. It must recognize and make clear the duty of the individual, and the responsibility that rests upon the community in matters of public welfare, as well as the effect on the public welfare of certain courses of action. The fact is that our ethics have not caught up with the situation. Old conceptions encumber the path. There is much that has not yet been thought out clearly. Yet with the rising tide of national consciousness, with the awakening of public conscience, with the demand for the moralization of business, with the growing ap- peal of ideals, interest in humanity, and eagerness for service that seems to be taking hold upon our people, and especially upon our young people, may we not believe that a new forward movement in civilization is possible? May we not believe that the public welfare is to be sought as never before through col- lective action in man’s relation to the earth upon which he lives? Now I do not believe that forestry, as such, should necessarily be made a separate course, either in schools or in colleges. But I do believe that from the first stages up—from the nature study in the lowest grades to the courses of the university—provision should be made for teaching the conceptions which are really in- volved in forestry and which we have reached as a result of our national forest work. And I believe it is the duty of those who are engaged in the work of forestry education to do everything that they can both to put into pedagogic form the material which forestry furnishes and to promote the introduction of courses which shall give the general student what I hope you will let me. eall, with a right understanding of what I mean, the cultural— that is the whole-man-developing value of forestry. 13 NOTES OF A CIVIL ENGINEER ON A FORESTER’S EDUCATION. F. B. Knapp. Mr. R. E. Clark says in the March Forestry Quarterly, “Our technical assistants come into the field fresh with knowledge of a character derived from years of college training, and in nine cases out of ten, are entirely ignorant of any of the prac- tical knowledge derived from years of field work.” Many at- tacks are made on the college educated men, and employers find fault with the results of their work. There is much truth in these criticisms often mixed with considerable misconception. KH is not education that does the harm but the lack, too often found, of other essential qualities. A forester, more than most men, is thrown on his own responsi- bility and is sure to have new and unexpected emergencies to meet. He therefore especially needs to be broadly fitted for his work, and anything that helps to so fit him comes up properly for consideration. He needs a good general education, thorough- ness and power of application in his technical training, good char- acter, physical dexterity, power of leadership, a spirit of help- fulness and loyalty, and a development of the finer side of his character. ‘These should be simultaneously developed through his course and considered essential parts of his education. The Rhodes scholarships, civil service examinations, and selection of men for positions of trust show that many of these qualities are practically weighed at present. All of them could well be con- sidered in entrance requirements, promotions and graduation. While the scholastic part of the preparation should not be re- duced, field work ought to go hand in hand with it and form a continuation of the nature work of the lower schools. High school students have the power of taking up many of the simpler forestry problems and, when a college course comes before the technical school, much can be done in this direction. This can be accomplished without undue strain and would merely take the place in a very satisfactory way of some of the present athletics and recreation. ‘The ordinary work of high school and college | Forester’s Education. 197 usually occupies from 1400 to 1800 hours a year, whereas the young man who goes into a shop does from 2000 to 2700 hours or even more. In at least some cases the practical work should extend over a longer period than a summer’s vacation. Not all men engaged in scientific forestry should be expected to have an equally high education. There are needed at least three well defined grades with corresponding titles or degrees: (1) The man well fitted to fill a position like that of Forest As- sistant; (2) One of deeper technical and general education and of more experience, capable of filling a position of considerable responsibility; (3) The specialist who has done advanced work in the post graduate school. Many of the strongest men for their part of the professional work are not naturally students and the first of these grades prepares them well for their life work, while others with the same training will find later that they can return to advantage for further study. The attitude of the technical schools with reference to qualities often considered outside of their province and to the requirements for the different degrees must play an important part in determining the future of the profession. \ GROWTH OF THE FOREST SERVICE LIBRARY. HELEN E. STOCKBRIDGE. The library of the Forest Service contains at present 13,500 books and pamphlets, or four and one-half times as many as in the spring of 1902, when the library of the Department of Agri- culture transferred about 3,000 of its books to the Division of Forestry. Besides a practically complete set of the publications of the Department of Agriculture, and a few works on general and forest botany, this collection contained all of the books classed under the general subject of forestry in the Department Library’s scheme of classification, including the library of the late Professor F. A. G. von Baur, formerly Professor of For- estry in the University of Munich, and editor of Forstwissen- chaftliches Centralblatt. Professor von Baur’s library, which consisted of about 1,700 books on forestry in the German lan- guage, was purchased by the Department in 1897, at the sugges- tion of Mr. B. E. Fernow, then Chief of the Division of Forestry for $400.00. Additions to the library are made in two ways, either through the Department Library by purchase or otherwise, or by gifts or exchanges received directly by the Forest Service. Requests for new books are made to the librarian, who issues an order on the Department Library, if it is a book to be purchased, or writes to the publishers for it, if it is a free publication. The Department Library not only sends to the Forest Service the books for which it receives orders, but all books on forestry are sent there as they are acquired. In the fall of 1904 a large number of bound forestry periodi- cals dating back to 1890 were transferred to the Forest Service, as these were not included in the first transfer of books from the Department. The library continues to take these periodicals regularly, as well as several new ones which have been published since then. There are now 30 current forestry journals received by the Service, in seven different languages. Only about one-half of the books in the present library are works on technical forestry. The Forest Service has expanded in Forest Service Library. 199 sO many directions that it has been necessary to procure books on a variety of subjects to meet the demands of the various offices. For instance, the Office of Dendrology uses a great many botanical and dendrological works. The library has, there- fore, acquired from time to time books of this character, amount- ing to about 600 at the present time. The Office of Law has about 800 volumes of law books purchased from a special fund appropriated for the purpose, which are catalogued as part of the library though filed in that office. Small collections of books have been procured from time to time, as the need arose, for the use of the Offices of Engineering, Wood Chemistry, Wood Pres- ervation, Education, and others. ‘The library takes 37 trade journals, including two from Canada and one from Great Britain, for the use of the Office of Products, and of other members of the Service whose work deals with the subject of lumbering. Besides the publications of the Department of Agriculture, the library has a large number of other government publications, including the reports of the General Land Office, the Census Office reports, many of the publications of the Geological Survey, and others. ‘The books and periodicals on forestry, however, which form the main bulk of the library, are used principally by the Branch of Silviculture, where practically all of the technical forestry work of the Service is done. In extending this part of the library, it has been the aim of the Service to secure all forestry works written in English, whatever phases of the sub- ject they may cover. As there are more books on this subject in foreign languages, however, than in English, the library nec- essarily has a majority of foreign books, especially German ones. In buying new books in foreign languages, care is taken to get only those for which there is some special need, or stand- ard works on the various branches of forestry. For instance, Germany, which has the most extensive forestry literature of any country in the world, has given us a number of comprehensive works on the subjects of silviculture, forest utilization, forest policy, forest protection, and general forestry. All such stand- ard works are in the Forest Service library. In January, 1906, branch libraries were started in the offices of Forest Supervisors on the National Forests. There are now 137 such libraries, containing an average of 65 books each. These books are duplicates of those in the Washington library, 200 Forestry Quarterly. and are of a character suited to the needs of the forest officers in their work. In December, 1908, when the six District Offices were established in the West, branch libraries were provided for them also. ‘These libraries are much larger than the Supervisors’ libraries, containing an average of 450 books apiece. Additions are made to all field libraries on the recommenda- tions of the District Foresters, with the approval of the Library Committee in the Washington Office. The books are purchased in Washington from an allotment of 3,000 set aside for this pur- pose, and are numbered, recorded and set out from the Service library. Card indexes of the books in the six District Offices are also prepared in the library, and are sent out with the books. SOME EUROPEAN FOREST NOTES. CHARLES FE). BESSEy. These stray notes were gathered on.a journey made in 1903. In southern Holland where the land is low and apparently wet, the seedling pines (Pinus sylvestris) are grown in long narrow beds having ditches between them. Each bed is not more than four or five feet in width, and is much rounded up in the middle so that the field looks as though it had been “ridged.” The trees occupied about two-thirds of the rounded surface of each bed, and it was noticeable that the best growth was in the central, higher portions. Somewhat similar nursery beds were observed in Germany, where of course the land is not so wet, and the need for ridging is not so evident. Apparently pine seedlings can be grown in Northern Europe without the necessity of shading by slats or brush, as is so commonly the case in this country. This difference is no doubt owing to the fact that the sunshine is so much more continuous in this country as com- pared with the much more cloudy skies of northern Europe. This is why they need not protect their pine seedlings, and why we must do so. Our clear skies have some disadvantages when it comes to growing pine seedlings. German Forests. In central Germany forest plantations are very abundant, and as one crosses the country in any direction he finds great areas covered with trees of all ages. Southwestward from Berlin towards the city of Halle there are many such forests, especially wherever the soil is sandy. The trees are from slender seedlings a year or two old, to those that must be from seventy-five to a hundred years old, and having a diameter of fully eighteen inches. The plan here is to plant but one kind of tree in a block. Thus on a block of pines only pines are found, while on a block of spruces only spruces are found. There is no mixing of different species. Moreover, the blocks are planted in suc- cession, so that in many places there are continuous blocks of 202 Forestry Quarterly. younger and younger trees, grading down from tall trees, sev- enty-five or more feet in height to those only a foot or two high. The trees which are usually planted in these forest blocks are mostly pines (Pinus sylvestris), although spruces and birches, also, are planted somewhat. In some places the birches are planted in a belt a few rods wide along the sides of the railways, so as to lessen the danger of fires. These forests are treated differently for different purposes. Where poles are wanted the trees are planted very close together, so that they grow up into straight, slender stems which can very easily be trimmed into excellent poles after cutting. In other cases the trees are grown further apart, and the well developed side branches are pruned off for fuel. The amount of fuel obtained in this way from these forests is very large, and must be regarded as one of the most valuable of the forest products for the people of the neigh- borhood. The pruned trees when large enough are cut for lum- ber, and this is now being done on some of the oldest blocks of trees.* In some places the blocks of trees were grown from seed sown directly in the prepared soil. This seems to be true of many of the blocks covered with pines. In other cases the trees are first started in the nursery, and then transplanted to the blocks. When so transplanted they are set in rows a yard or two apart, and gradually thinned down to three or more yards apart. East of Berlin there is a repetition of the planted forests just described. Here it is noticeable that wherever there is*a section of sandy soil, pine plantations have been made upon it. Thus as one travels over the country he finds these forests at irregular intervals, dependent upon the nature of the soil. Apparently the effort has been to avoid taking the good farming lands for forestry purposes; only the sandier lands which are compara- tively useless for ordinary crops, have been used for tree grow- ing. The policy of forest planting has been followed for a long time, as is shown by the considerable size of the trees in many of the forests, some of which were fully eighty feet in height. It is a pretty sight when one has before him a forest consisting of blocks of trees of different ages. Here may be a block of ten to twenty acres of trees all, say ten feet in height. Next to it *It must not be assumed that these observations apply generally.—Ep. European Forest Notes. 203 may be another block of about the same area whose trees are all fifteen feet high, another with trees twenty-five or thirty feet, and so on up to the tallest (and oldest). At a distance these suc- cessive blocks of trees are like gigantic green steps in the land- scape. These are the successive crops which will mature their lumber-yielding trees in a succession of years. ‘They are to be likened to the crops which the farmer grows, only they require from sixty to one hundred years from the planting of the seed to the maturing of the crop. The Doelauer Forest. Before leaving Germany I should speak of the Doelauer For- est near the city of Halle. It covers an area of about 1,600 acres lying about two miles northwest from the center of the old city. Originally much of it must have been a barren series of sandy and rocky hills, mostly unfit for cultivation and too barren to yield good pasturage for cattle. In other words, this tract must have been well nigh worthless. Now it is covered with a good growth of forest trees averaging about seventy years of age. The trees are not all of the same age, but the block system of planting has not been followed here. The trees in many places are in rows six to seven feet apart, and this appears to have been the original plan of the planting. In some places it is evident that there have been at least two successive plantings, and possibly more. Thus in one portion of the forest there are scattered trees of much larger size, and close examina- tion shows that these older trees are remnants of an earlier plantation in which the trees were in rows. The rest of the sur- face is covered with much younger trees set irregularly without any attempt at arrangement in rows. ‘The trees in this forest are almost entirely pines (Pinus sylvestris), and some are large enough to be cut into logs from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Here and there are found oaks mixed with the prevailing pines, and where the forest is traversed by a public road the oaks are much more abundant by the roadside. This appears to be a pro- tective device, there being more danger from fire where the pines closely border the road. We were much interested in examining an outbreak of a fatal disease which had attacked the trees over an area of five or six 204 Forestry Quarterly. acres near the center of the forest. Every tree on the affected area had been cut and removed, and even the stumps had been dug out. The work of eradication was not yet complete at the time of our visit, but it was very clearly the intention of the for- esters to burn up every root so as to rid the soil of the harmful fungi. That the parasitic cause of the disease is the toadstool Agaricus melleus was indicated by several specimens which we found growing from the roots of the few remaining dead and dying trees near the edge of the clearing. Apparently the fungus creeps through the soil, passing in this way from tree to tree, and eventually destroying every one infected. The trained for- esters are able to detect the diseased trees, and shortly before our visit they had gone through the forest and “blazed” all which showed signs of disease. Such treese were to be cut and re- moved from the forest so that they should not become further sources of infection. Many trees were affected, also, with the pine bark beetle, but this is probably an accompaniment of the fungous disease just alluded to. Polish Forests. In the comparatively level country east of Warsaw, in Russian Poland, there are many large plantations of pines on the sandy tracts which occur at intervals of a few miles. Here the trees are started directly from the seeds, and apparently are not trans- planted. At least this appears to be the rule. At first the young trees are very close together, but as they grow larger they are carefully thinned and pruned, as in the similar plantations in Germany. ‘The block system of planting is followed here, also, and it was no uncommon thing to find on the various blocks of a forest, trees of all sizes from a foot in height to seventy or seventy-five feet. Here too, as the trees become larger the side branches are pruned off, and used for fuel. The utilization of the sandy stretches has gone so far that even where the sand is so light as to blow up in naked dunes of con- siderable size, plantations of pines are made with success. It is noteworthy that on the sandy tracts the borders adjacent to the farms, where the soil is less and less sandy, are planted with birch trees instead of pines. Along the sides of the railways which cross the plantations there are five guards to protect the European Forest Notes. 205 forests from fires which might be started by sparks from the engines. ‘These fire-guards consist of perfectly bare ridges of sand two to four yards wide at the edge of the forest, and dis- tant from the track about fifty or sixty feet. These ridges are usually about a foot to eighteen inches high, and are thrown up by digging a shallow ditch on each side. It is evidently the duty of some one to keep the fire guards free from weeds or rubbish, and apparently this is an efficient means of protection. Russian Forests. Passing into Russia proper on the route leading to Moscow, while the general plan of utilizing the sandy stretches is con- tinued, the trees are not planted in rows, but appear to have sprung from seed sown broadcast. There is more water in the soil, and in places it is quite wet. Some of the mixed birch and pine plantations on these wetter lands look neglected, and remind one of the “tree claims” which used to be so common on our own plains, in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. Here a poplar, probably Populus nigra, looking almost exactly like our Cotton- wood, is often intermingled with the Birch in the forests, and often planted about the houses exactly as the Cottonwood is upon the Great Plains. I saw some indications of the spontaneous spreading of the pines from the edge of the plantations. Here and there I saw seedlings springing up in the fields nearest to the forest plantations. Approaching Moscow from the west one finds forests which are quite certainly natural (not planted), and here they consist largely of birch and spruce. South of Moscow for some distance (one to two hundred miles) there are pine forests, but these rapidly diminish, giving way to birches, poplars, elms, etc., and finally leaving the general surface free of forest growth as we enter the great steppes. Here the trees occur as narrow fringes along the streams, and none at all occur on the higher lands except were planted. There are as yet no considerable plantations of trees in that portion of the steppes which I saw, namely, that between Moscow and Rostof-on-Don. As on our American prairies, the farmers some- times plant the white willow for windbrakes. Along the railway the Elm is extensively planted to serve as a snow-fence, and with it is planted an Elaeagnus, to make the barrier more complete by 206 Forestry Quarterly. filling in the spaces between the trunks of the taller growing elm trees. In places a Caragana is used to replace the Elaeagnus, and sometimes the Ash replaces the Elm. The country with its gently undulating surface, its black soil, its low rainfall, and its original treelessness, together with the kinds of trees planted, all remind one of the prairies of Iowa thirty to forty years ago, and the Great Plains of Nebraska and Kansas some years later. The North Caucasian Forests. On the northerly side of the Caucasus Mountains the forests are now very scanty: I say now, for there is reason for believing that the present treelessness is due to deforestation within com- paratively recent times. In fact, I was assured by General Si- paillo that the forests were burned off during the long period (50-60 years) of figthing between the Russians and the moun- tain tribes. However, this may be, the fact is that the northerly slope of the Caucasus Mountains is generally treeless, such trees as occur being almost entirely confined to the sides of some of the narrow valleys. In many places even the valleys are treeless. On the other hand some of the outlying foothills are fairly well covered with trees. Moreover, there are fewer and fewer trees as one goes eastward, and this holds on the southerly as well as the northerly side of the mountain chain. In the vicinity of the famous watering place, Kislovodsk, where the ‘“Narzan” spring sends forth its immense volume of mineral - water, there are considerable belts of forests, consisting princi- pally of oaks, elms, and ashes. As the trees are still young, none being more than forty to fifty years old, I suspect that they have been planted. The probability that this is the case is increased by the fact that mingled with these trees are large numbers of the American Black Locust trees (Robinia pseudacacia), which in places make up the greater part of the forests. Above Kislo- vodsk in the gorges and canyons are scattered birch trees, all, however, small and not exceeding twenty to thirty feet in height. In travelling from the valley to the summit of Mt. Bermamut, a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles, no forests at all were found, and indeed very few individual trees were to be seen. Everywhere the surface is bare of trees. One finds only grassy European Forest Notes. 207 slopes, grassy hills, grassy valleys. If there were forests here once, they have been most thoroughly eradicated. Some distance eastward in the lower valley of the Ardon River the almost level country is treeless except for the locusts (Robinia pseudacacia). In the narrower valley which penetrates the mountains are elms, ashes, beeches, alders, maples, birches, willows, lindens, etc. Now and then these constitute small and fairly dense forests, but for the most part they are growing in quite “open order,” and do not fully shade the ground. Further up the valley pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) appear on the steep sides of the canyon, but even these do not form solid forests, and few of the trees are either large enough, or well enough grown to have much value for timber. Still further up the valley the trees completely disappear, and the whole mountain surface where not rocky, or snow covered, is clothed with a grassy vege- tation. Still further eastward, on the northerly side of the mountains, in the valley of the Terek River, are many trees of the locust (Robinia pseudacacia) with some elms and ashes, and occa- sionally a walnut (Juglans regia). On the low foot hills dwarf oaks which remind one of the shrubby oaks (Quercus gambelt) of our own Rocky Mountain foothills. Following up the valley into the mountains, one finds some pines with the elms, oaks and ashes, but those nowhere form dense forests. In some places they give one the impression that they are now slowly moving up the valley; but I am by no means certain that this is what their appearance signifies. In the heart of the mountains there are very few trees. Here and there are a few birches, and poplars (Populus nigra). The Southern Caucasian Forests. On the southerly side of the mountain range for more than half its length one finds dense forests of pines, spruces and firs. On the northeast shores of the Black Sea these forests come down to the water’s edge and extend upward eight or nine thou- sand feet on the mountain sides, and eastward a hundred miles or more, to and beyond the valley of the Rion River. Here is a magnificent forest covering from 8,000 to 10,000 square miles, which appears to have escaped the destruction which swept the 208 Forestry Quarterly. trees from the remainder of the mountains. In driving through this fine forest as I found it along the upper portions of the Rion Valley, I found it to be as densely studded with large trees of spruces and firs as any I have ever seen in the eastern United States. The forest appears to be actually primitive, and the hand of man has not yet affected it in any way. It is true that much timber has been taken out of it, but this has been by the removal of occasional trees, and not by the destruction of the forest. While this great forest is largely made up of conifers, in which spruce (Picea orientalis) and fir (Abies nordmanniana) predomi- nate in the higher portions, and pine (Pinus sylvestris) at some- what lower levels, there is ofen a considerable admixture of de- ciduous trees, the latter sometimes of large size. Thus I noted beech, two species of maples, elm, ash, chestnut, poplars, birch, and some oak. Still lower in the valley the forests have been largely cut away in order to make room for the farms, but the rougher lands and the hills are still covered, the trees here being quite predominately oaks. Since the latter, are but twenty to twenty-five feet in height they have probably sprung up within the last half century. I was interested in noting that in the parks in the city of Kutais, the ancient capital of Colchis, two American trees were very commonly planted, namely, the locust (Robimia pseudacacia) and the honey locust (Gleditsia triacan- thos). Armeman Forests. Passing out of the valley of the Rion River, to that of the Kura River, which lies eastward, one finds a much drier climate with a corresponding decrease in the forest growth. The “divide” which separates the two valleys is well covered with forests on the westerly side, but as soon as one crosses to the easterly side the forests rapidly disappear from the valley and are to be seen only on the bordering hills and montains, and there, too, in diminishing abundance. Indeed, the hill country bordering the Kura Valley, and southward in upper Armenia, is notable for its scanty forest growth. Whether there were forests here ages ago can not now be determined. Man has occupied this country for so many thousands of years, and so many armies have traversed this region that any forests that may have once grown here must have disappeared ages ago. Here again I noticed the American European Forest Notes. 209 locust (Robinia pseudacacia), thorny locust (Gleditisia triacan- thos) and the box elder (Acer negundo) in parks and other plan- tations. These trees appear to be well adapted to the peculiar climatic conditions which prevail in this region. The annual rainfall ranges from Io to 20 inches, and the soil in many places is dry and gravelly. Crimean Forests. The peninsula of the Crimea is remarkable for the great differ- ences in climate which it exhibits. The southeasterly coast has a fair amount of rainfall, and is sheltered from the northerly winds by the lofty range of the Yaila Mountains, whose crest is not more than five or six miles distant from the sea shore, while their sloping sides run down to the water’s edge. On this nar- row strip vegetation of all kinds is abundant, and here the forests are also in their glory. There are still preserved considerable tracts of oak forests with some admixture of ash, walnut, horn- beam and other deciduous trees. In the Acclimatization Gardens at Nikita there are fine specimens of Thuja gigantea, Sequoia gigantea, Quercus suber, Magnolia grandiflora, Cupressus pyra- midalis, Cryptomeria japonica, Biota orientalis, Diospyros kakt, Olea europea, Juglans regia, Laurus nobilis, Bambusa sp. besides many other common trees from western Europe, and North America. On the emperor’s estate at Livadia, is a fine tree of Juglans nigra fully two feet in diameter, besides most of those mentioned above. Crossing the mountain range the climate changes abruptly, and with it is an equally abrupt change in the forest growth. While the southeasterly slopes are covered with forests, the surface is generally bare of forests on the westerly and northwesterly side. Here again we have brought very forcibly to our attention the fact that natural forests depend upon favorable climatic condi- tions. A sufficient rainfall and some protection from sweeping north winds will insure a forest growth, the absence of these generally results in a deficient or reduced forest growth, or in ex- treme cases, in complete treelessness. A SUPERVISORS’ MEETING. At Portland, Oregon, during the week begining March 21, was held a conference of Forest Supervisors and District Office men from District 6, comprising Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. This meeting was for the discussion of National Forest policy and procedure. Water Powers. District Engineer W. E. Herring’s paper on water power dwelt upon the fact that power is the vital element in our indus- trial development. The two sources available are steam power and water power. Coal, wood, and oil are the fuels used in the wgeneration of steam power and all are becoming more scarce each year. That the price of fuel is advancing is well illustrated on the Pacific Coast where the cost of fuel oil has advanced from 25 cents a barrel, equivalent to about $1 per ton for coal, to $1 a barrel in the past five years. Water power is undoubtedly cheaper than steam power, and as competition becomes more acute the value of water power over steam becomes greater. Advances which have already been made in the distance to which electrical energy can be carried as well as the advances which are sure to come in the near future will tend largely to further increase the value of such power over steam power. ‘The greatest initial in- centive for the development of hydro-electric plants in the North- west has been the existing high cost of fuel. The entire country west of the Cascade Range is particularly well adapted to such developments owing to the heavy rainfall and its distri- bution, the large number of glaciers which act as regulators of the stream flow, and the very rapid descent in the streams. The greatest activity has been displayed in the past two years in the acquisition of power sites on the different streams, and practically all of the more important streams have been covered with power filings and surveys made on them for proposed water power plants. The possibilities of such plants have steadily grown and the most desirable sites have all been taken. Up to the present time there has not been such economical and general development of water power as includes the storage of A Supervisors Meeting. 211 water on a scale at all commensurate with the advantages to be gained. Experience however, with the existing plants in this sec- tion of the country has proved conclusively the value of such work, and in all of the proposed large developments it plays a most important part. Two reasons are given for the neglect of this feature in the past. (1) Poor judgment of the stream flow owing to a lack of continuous records of the flow, and (2), the desire for immediate and large returns on the investment. The operating plants failed signally to provide for storage to tide them over the low water period in the streams, and a majority of them failed further to provide even a small equalizing reser- voir or forebay which could be utilized during their peak load. Lacking either of these it has been found necessary to install and maintain auxiliary steam plants. This is done at a great expense and in many cases could certainly have been obviated had the necessary precautions been taken in the initial construction. The Puget Sound country is the largest market for electrical power in the Northwest. The increase in the amount of power consumed has been remarkably large, particularly in the past few years. In Oregon, west of the Cascades, it is not thought that there will be any large demand for additional power in the next ten years unless the installation of electro-chemical or electro-metal- lurgical works is made. It is estimated that 20,000 horse power additional will supply the needs for the next ten years outside of the Portland market. In Oregon the operating plans have a total installation of 42,703 horse power. A market for electrical power which up to the present time has received scant attention in this portion of the country is to be found on each side of the Cascade range and in the use of elec- tricity for pumping purposes. There are hundreds of thousands of acres of land that need only water to make them as valuable and productive as similar lands more advantageously located for irrigation purposes. The use of electricity for pumping water on to such lands has been demonstrated as practicable at several points with good results. It is thought also that parts of the Willamette Valley and of western Oregon south of the Willamette Valley can be irrigated to good advantage by the same means. ‘This matter is being thoroughly investigated at the present time by different parties and it is certain that within 14 212 Forestry Quarterly. a very short time, possibly during the present season, one or more plants will be constructed principally to supply markets of this kind. Another market which has not been utilized is the use of elec- tricity in sawmills and in logging operations. Owing to the elimi- nation of fire risks and freedom from water troubles in the woods and the saving of a friction loss of from 40 to 70 per cent. in the drives in the mill, careful attention is being given to it by different lumber interests. If found to be practicable many operators will undoubtedly construct small water power plants of their own on or near the scene of their logging operations, and it would seem that construction of small plants where power can not be had from commercial companies will revolutionize to a certain extent the present methods of logging. It would seem that on the larger tracts of timber, where water power could be developed, stumpage Would have an increased value over that on similar tracts where water power is not available. The power companies claim that the Forest Service charge is a charge for water; this is not true. It is merely a charge for the use of lands based upon the special value of the lands for the particular purpose to which they are put. The appropriation and use of water are regulated solely by the States. If part of the works appurtenant to the proposed development are outside the boundaries of the National Forests a deduction from the regular charge is made. Organization. Tuesday’s session was given over to papers on the “Organiza- tion of the National Forest Force,” by C. H. Flory, and the “Con- duct of Timber Sales,” by F. F. Ames. Mr. Flory’s paper gave a detailed history of the development of the organization at present in force in the Forest Service. He pointed out the necessity for broad adminstrative ability on the part of Forest Supervisors and the tendency of the administrative officers of the Forest Service to detail routine matters to Supervisors, and they, in turn, to turn over as large a part of the field as possible to Forest Rangers and Guards. He cautioned the supervisors to select their Forest force from among men who are capable of accepting responsi- bility. A Supervisors’ Meeting. 213 Mr. Ames discussed, at some length, the policy of the Service with respect to the sale of timber on National Forests, and the methods to be pursued by Supervisors in the disposal of timber on their Forests. He called attention to the fact that the Super- visor must take a broad outlook of the problems he has to face. He is entrusted with the supervision of a large estate which in- volves many intricate problems in its administration. The super- visor often has no precedent and no one upon whom to rely. We must plan to care for and harvest a crop which takes years for its maturity. We must take complete account of the stock we have on hand, its condition, accessibility, distribution, and prospective markets. Experiments in planting must be undertaken to show how to replenish our stock. In a few years the timber sale busi- ness of the National Forests will assume large proportions. The estimate of timber on National Forests is 390 billion feet B. M., of which district 6 alone has 287 billion feet. Last year, the sales r in this district, which comprises Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, were less than ten per cent of those made from all National For- ests. There are large areas of mature timber ready for the saw. In many cases, these are now inaccessible and the timber can not now be removed on account of transportation difficulties. How- ever, we should make every effort to make such sales as are ad- visable from a silvical standpoint. Mature timber is now de- creasing in value and the rapid deterioration will soon make it unmerchantable. The quantity of timber sold in the first half of the fiscal year 1910 is approximately four times as great as in a similar period during 1909. Several very large sales are now being negotiated. Timber Sale and Silviculture. Wednesday’s session was given over to papers by B. P. Kirk- land, Supervisor of the Snoqualmie National Forest, and M. L. Erickson, Supervisor on the Crater National Forest. Mr. Kirk- land discussed the reconnaissance work and plans for management of Forests with relation to the future removal of timber west of the Cascade Mountains. A definite record of the age-classes and the condition of all timber on the Snoqualmie National Forest has been obtained. The Supervisor is now in possession of facts which will permit him to arrange a program of sales to insure a perpetual supply of timber from that Forest. 214 Forestry Quarterly. The income to the State of Washington, last year, from the National Forests was $16,000. If all the Forests of Washington were being cut up to their safe cutting limit, they would probably yield an annual crop of about 1,000,000,000 ft. This, under pres- ent conditions, could be sold at about $2 per thousand feet on the average, thus yielding $2,000,000 per annum, 25 per cent. of which going to the State would mean an income of $500,000 yearly to the counties in which the Forests are situated. The receipt of such an income as this would, at once, allay adverse crtiticism of the Forest Service policy, on the ground that they retard development and withhhold revenue from the State. Mr. Erickson’s paper outlined a plan for reconnaissance work and the management of the Forests with relation to the future re- moval of timber east of the Cascades. The type of Forest on the east side of the mountains being so distinctive, from a silvicul- dural standpoint, from those on the west side, it is necessary that they be handled in an entirely different manner in order to guar- antee a rotating crop. Reproduction in the Yellow Pine forests is especially abund- ant, and many will maintain that seedlings spring up without sil- vical treatment, but this is not an invariable condition. Soil, ground cover, moisture and locality factors often preclude Yellow Pine reproduction entirely. Some of the important natural fac- tors influencing reproduction are: 1. Ground cover. 2. Moisture —soil moisture, air, evaporation. 3. Temperature—wind, ex- posure, aspect. 4. Soil itself—erosion, porosity and drainage. 5. Light conditions. During the course of this discussion it was brought out that Yellow Pine seed often germinates best in localities where sheep have grazed over the area of reproduction. Pine seeds to grow must reach the mineral soil and must have sufficient moisture. The cultivation or harrowing of the ground by the hoofs of graz- ing animals furnishes the necessary conditions of germination. However, it was specifically stated that continued grazing would result in the tramping down of the young seedlings, and, there- fore, sheep should not be permitted on the area after the seeds are harrowed in until the young growth is strong enough to resist the trampling of the sheep or cattle. With the grass removed by the sheep or cattle grazing over it, the danger from fire is minimized. The morning session of Thursday was occupied by T. T. Mun- A Supervisors Meeting. 215 ger, who read a paper on “Silvical Problems of Immediate Im- portance in the Northwest.” The fact was emphasized that at present we know very little concerning proper methods of brush disposal, in their relation to reproduction and fire protection. Particularly in the fog belt on the West Coast there is consider- able protest on the part of lumbermen against the dictum of the Washington Fire Warden that slashings should be burned, it being claimed that since in this region the fire season is short and the decay of logging debris very rapid, the burning of logged-off land is unnecessary. Failure to burn results also in saving a great deal of “advance” reproduction and many small trees. Along the foothills of the Cascades burning of slashings is certainly the wisest procedure, but may not be in the fog belt, where for many reasons the selection system seems preferable to a clear-cutting system. Private Forestry. At the evening session E. T. Allen, Forester for the Western Forestry and Conservation Association, spoke of the progress of private forestry in the Northwest and its relations to government work. He showed that this should be a matter of keen interest to the Forest Service because the latter’s success depends very largely upon public understanding of forestry principles in gen- eral without reference to any particular areas or authorities. Thor- ough understanding of the subject by the people, lumbermen, and especially the State Legislature and officials, will remove most of the opposition now encountered by the Service. For this reason Government Forest Officers should make every effort to improve State forest laws and help in their enforcement. The best thing for the Northwest is hearty co-operation between the Govern- ment, the State, and the private timber land owner, all working to the common end of the best forest protection and the highest production of material for the consumer. No one of these agencies can do its best work alone. Mr. Allen predicted much more favorable conditions for the practice of forestry by private owners. At present the fire hazard and system of taxing cut-over lands are discouraging. Neverthe- less, lumbermen are becoming greatly interested and may be counted upon to do all that conditions will permit. In some parts of the United States, lumbermen have been somewhat opposed to 216 Forestry Quarterly. reforms in forest management and have done little more to improve their methods than they were compelled to do by popular agitation. In the Northwest the situation is reversed and lumber- men are the real leaders of reform. This is largely because natural conditions here are peculiarly favorable for private for- estry. As soon as the public realizes that we have here in the Northwest the great field of production for the rest of the United States and can with little effort perpetuate an industry bringing great revenue, both sentiment and legislation will encourage the owner of forest land to make the best use of it. In this connection Mr. Allen pointed out that the government’s policy of selling National Forest timber may be made either to help or retard private forestry. While it should not withhold government timber from use or keep prices so high that they assist monopoly, neither should it ever sell such large quantities at so ow a price that the lumber market falls low enough to prevent private owners from applying improved methods or discourage them from reforestation. Such a result might benefit the con- sumer of to-day temporarily but would inevitably injure the con- sumer of the future by greatly reducing the second crop. In closing, Mr. Allen explained the character and objects of the Western Forestry and Conservation Association. This is a sort of grand lodge of all local associations in Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and California having for their purpose better care of natural resources. Mr. Allen serves as its forester, giving technical and practical advice to its members along all forestry lines. The movement is receiving strong support by lum- bermen as well as by the public conservation associations. Idaho and Washington already have several very effective forest fire associations in which timber owners pro rate the cost of patrol on an average basis. During the past few months similar associa- tions have been organized in Montana and California, and it is expected that Oregon will be well in line before the coming dry season. Forest Products. On Friday Mr. J. B. Knapp, of the Portland office, discussed “The Relation of Products work to National Forests.” Mr. Knapp’s address dealt with the possibilities of the future develop- ment of the timber resources of the Pacific Northwest and the A Supervisors Meeting. 2U7 telation of present manufacturing demands to the future manage- ment of Forest land, both privately and publicly owned. Mr. Knapp stated that fully 12 per cent. of all the timber used in the United States to-day was represented by the Douglas Fir which is produced in the States of Oregon and Washington. As a source of the timber supply of the United States, these two States will rapidly increase in importance. He outlined a plan of pro- cedure whereby the prospective future demand for the purchase of National Forest timber may be obtained. He stated that this plan was now being put into effect. He advocated the immediate sale of all timber on National Forest areas which has been killed by forest fires in recent years, stating that this timber rapidly de- teriorates and, in the course of 6 to 8 years, becomes absolutely unsalable. The Portland office of the Forest Service made an in- vestigation of the burned timber areas on the west side of the Cas- cade Mountains during the summer of 1909 which proves con- clusively that burned timber is quite satisfactory for use in the manufacture of lumber and other forest products provided it is logged before the sixth year after the fire has passed through it, and that the only injury to the timber at this time, is the decay of the sapwood. Many bodies of burned timber are now standing within the National Forests and are rapidly deteriorating. This timber should be sold wherever possible, because its usefulness will soon be entirely destroyed and the sale of it will save for other use equal amounts of green growing timber. Forest Service statistics show that the principal wood-destroy- ing agencies, in the order of their importance, are decay, fire, insects, and abrasion, which destroy large amounts yearly. If a general preservative treatment were adopted for all such timbers as are used in structures where a preservative treatment is ap- plicable, the amount saved would be equivalent to the annual growth on 20 million acres of such timberland as is found in the States of Oregon and Washington. Range Problems. Following Mr. Knapp’s discussion was a paper by H. K. O’Brien, on “Range Improvement and Water Development.” Mr. O’Brien stated that the Forest Service has been carrying on experimental work for the past three years for the purpose of 218 Forestry Quarterly. studying various range problems with a view of bringing about such utilization of National Forest lands as will result in the largest returns possible to stock owners without injury to the growth of the Forests or the forage on the lands grazed. He pointed out that the purpose of the experimental studies was to investigate the possibilities of a rotation system of grazing whereby the range grazed may be allowed to reseed naturally in order to maintain a permanent forage crop of high efficiency without depriving stockmen of the use of the forage of any area. The possibility of increasing the amount of forage or of bettering its quality by means of artificial reseeding with cultivated forage plants was also tried. Methods for the development of the eco- nomical use of grazing land and the best means of handling stock, especially sheep, were also taken up in connection with this investigation. Poisonous plants have always been a source of nfuch loss to stockmen in the past, and remedies for overcoming such loss are being tried out. Perhaps the most important work from a grazing point of view, which the Department of Agricul- ture has ever undertaken has been the coyote proof pasture on the Wallowa National Forest. The real object of this study was to collect information which would make it possible to do away with the unnecessary destruction of forage by herding and trampling. Such a test required a coyote proof fence. In select- ing the area to be fenced, which has an elevation of from 4,800 to 5,400 feet, it was necessary to have one which would provide summer grazing for sheep and would be a suitable site for a test against wild animals. The work was started in 1907; in 1908 the experiments were very satisfactory, the fence being entirely suc- cessful as a protection against coyotes. The report for 1909 which is now being prepared in the Portland office will again prove the worth of the construction of this fence, the efficiency of the fence as a protection against predatory animals, especially coyotes, and the favorable results from the grazing of sheep where they are unmolested in the pasture. The effect of such a systm of grazing upon the sheep and upon the carrying capacity of the range will show its practicability, and the factors which bring about the weight of sheep and the increase in the carrying capacity of the range will be shown to result from a good management which can be practiced on selected areas where the animals are protected from outside disturbances. The record of the hunter who was A Supervisors’ Meeting. 219 employed to protect this experimental pasture shows that 166 coyotes came to the fence during the year 1909 but all were turned away. Seven coyotes were killed by the hunter. The effec- tiveness of the fence in preventing the entrance of coyotes is, there- fore, conclusively proven. ‘The results obtained in the operation of this experimental pasture show that with proper handling of the sheep one herder could care for a band of from 8,000 to 10,000 sheep. It is interesting also to note that the weight of the pasture lambs as compared with six bands herded on areas adjoining the pasture was considerably greater. The average pasture lamb weighed 75.5 pounds and the average range lamb weighed about 10 pounds less. At the Saturday session Mr. Henry Ireland discussed “The Handling of Stock on the Range.” Mr. Ireland discussed at some length the past practice in handling cattle and sheep on the public range, and showed how improper use of the range had resulted in reducing the forage crop and also preventing the natural reproduction of that range. He stated that over-grazing had for many years proceeded arm in arm with improper methods of handling the stock and the combination has caused grazing areas throughout the northwest to depreciate in carrying ca- pacity from Io to 90 per cent. The grazing areas now under administration are still being injured by overgrazing and improper handling of stock, and this condition will continue until such time as all public grazing areas are placed under proper adminis- tration. The frequent failure of the owners of sheep and cattle to supply properly informed herders for the care of their stock results in a condition which is bound ultimately to work a hard- ship on the grazing industry. A proper appreciation of the re- sults of overgrazing on the part of herders would result in a per- petual range of much greater carrying capacity than is now avail- able. The result of improper methods of handling sheep are in evidence almost throughout the grazing sections of the northwest. Many areas that at one time produced a heavy crop of excellent forage have been reduced to dust-beds by the constant trample in the grand scramble that took place every season prior to the date of administration by the Forest Service, and it will require years of careful handling to restore the range to its former condi- tion. For this reason it is necessary in many instances to reduce the number of stock grazed, and obtain a thorough cooperation 220 Forestry Quarterly. between the sheepmen and the Forest Service in the handling of stock on the public lands. Under present regulations each per- mittee is allowed a specific area upon which to graze his flocks during the season and is required to keep within such area and is not permitted to encroach upon his neighbor’s. This sytsem of administration has confined each permittee to his allotted areas and thereby done away with the surging back and forth over the range which results in the trampling down of more feed than is consumed. It also reduces to a minimum the repeated driving of sheep over the areas from which the forage crop has been taken. Promiscuous driving of sheep from one point to another in search of forage is not only injurious to the grazing lands over which they pass but also results in the loss of weight to the sheep and makes them less desirable for sale in the market. At the present time on many of the Forests the plan of bedding the sheep on the range as near as possible where night overtakes them instead of driving them into camp is being practiced with excellent results. Previously it was common practice to bed the sheep at a specified place each night, now it is proposed to bed the sheep at any point near the locality in which they have grazed during the day. Fire Fighting. During the afternoon session, Mr. S. C. Bartrum, Supervisor of the Umpqua National Forest, presented a paper on the pro- tection of the Forests from fire. This paper dealt particularly with the necessity for the construction of proper trails within the Forests in order to make it possible to bring a fire-fighting force into action as early after the discovery of a fire as possible. He called to the minds of the Supervisors the great annual waste in green timber which results from Forest fires carelessly set by campers and originating from other unnecessary sources. Mr. Bartrum spoke particularly of the necessity for active cooperation between the Forest Service and the private owners of forest lands outside the National Forests. Systems of fire patrol have already been put into effect by numerous large timber holders and their coéperation with the Forest Service on previous occasions has re- sulted in a mutual good. The necessity for the enactment and enforcement of satisfac- tory fire laws within the State of Oregon was dwelt upon at con- A Supervisors Meeting. 221 siderable length. At the present time the State itself appropriates $250 annually for the protection of the greatest natural resources which it possesses. ‘This resource is the basis of the present de- velopment of the State, and the lumber industry is more important to the future development of Oregon than all other single re- sources in combination. ‘The Forest Service is expending vast sums of money annually in protection of the timber lands of the State which is included within National Forests. The State itself has taken no interest whatever in protecting the industry upon which a vast portion of its population is directly dependent for its livelihood. The discussion which followed the presentation of Mr. Bar- trum’s paper brought out the fact that the annual decrease in the destruction of timber from fires within National Forests fully justifies the expenditure which the Government is making in pro- tecting this resource. Previous to the establishment of the Na- tional Forests the destruction of timber by forest fires resulted in losses equivalent to the total output of lumber by the manufac- turing industries of the State. Now the fires are very largely con- fined to areas which have previously been burned over and where the hazard is greatest. These are generally extinguished before the green growing timber is seriously affected. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. Graves, in Charge. Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for to08 and 1909. By F. W. Besley. Baltimore, Md. 1Ig09. Pp. 45. This report shows an encouraging progress since the founda- tion of the Board in 1906. The forest mapping and detailed study of forest conditions, county by county, has proceeded steadily till now 18 of the 23 counties are completed. Since the last report 39 woodlots aggregating 4,122 acres and represent- ing a farm acreage of 11,549 acres have been personally ex- amined on application, and advice to the owners given. In addi- ion, two planting plans for 45 acres have been prepared for ex- amined lands. Other codperative work was the installation of a small timber treating plant in conjunction with the U. S. Forest Service and State Experiment Station. 1,000 posts were set in fence lines after treatment and will be kept inspected for com- parison with adjacent similar untreated posts, to relate cost of treatment to increased length of life. The Board is also making a study of the wood-using industries of the State, and experi- ments in growing Loblolly Pine on certain sand lands, in cooper- ation with the Forest Service. Eighty-three fires were reported in 1go9, burning over 21,217 acres and causing damage to the extent of $72,080. Of these 39 per cent. were set by engines (transportation and logging), 14 per cent. each, by hunters and brush burning, and 29 per cent. unknown. ‘The main defects in the protection system are the insufficiency of the number of wardens, their lack of authority to enforce assistance, lack of prompt payment for fire-fighting and absence of fire lines and patrol along railway lines. The average annual expenditure for the last two years has been less than $3,900 or one-fifth of one cent per acre of woodland in the state—certainly a meagre appropriation. The report closes with appended Forestry Leaflets 7, 8, 9. . Leaflet 7 has been reviewed in F. Q. VII. p. 161. Leaflets 8 and 9 deal specifically with the forests of two counties. J. H. W. Current Literature. 223 Forest Products of Canada: 1908. By H. R. MacMillan and G. A. Gutches. Bulletin No. 8, Forestry Branch, Ottawa, Canada. 1g1o. Pp. 18. This bulletin contains the results of the first attempt of the federal Forestry Branch to gather annually detailed statistics of the forest production by correspondence with lumbermen, rail- way, telephone and telegraph companies, etc. Being a new ven- ture the returns are more or less incomplete, but furnish some interesting facts. Tables based upon returns from 1,400 lumbermen are given, showing the quantity and value of lumber, shingles and lath for each province by species. These show a total cut for 1908 of 3,348,176M. bd. ft. of lumber worth 54 million dollars—an average value of $16.27. The distribution of the cut was: Ontario 1,294,794 M bd. ft. (39 per cent.), Quebec 690,135 (21 per cent.), British Columbia 647,977 (19 per cent.), New Brunswick 308,400 (9 per cent.), Nova Scotia 216,875 (6 per cent.), and prairie provinces 189,995, M bd. ft. The cut by species was: White Pine 29 per cent. (Ontario about three-quarters, and Quebec about one-third of a billion feet; spruce 26 per cent. (of which 80 per cent. eastern spruce); Douglas Fir 11 per cent.; Eastern Hemlock 7 per cent.; Red Pine 4 per cent. The shingle cut was 1,499,396 M worth $3,101,996, and lath 671,562 M worth $1,487,125—an average value of $2.07 and $2.21 respectively. Of the shingle production British Columbia supplied 48 per cent., Quebec 27 per cent. and Ontario 15 per cent.; of the lath, Ontario 39 per cent. and New Brunswick 20 per cent, The table of cross-ties purchased is based upon the reports of 47 steam railways with 25,772 miles of track and 32 electric railways with 818 miles. These purchased 13,738,157 and 240,259 ties, respectively, at an average cost of 38 cents. The species used were cedar 39 per cent. hemlock 16 per cent. and larch 15 per cent. Forty-seven per cent. of the ties were hewed. The tables of poles purchased are on reports of 66,544 miles of line requiring 2,433,245 poles. In all 185,807 poles were bought, worth $284,549 at the point of purchase. Of these, 87 per cent. were cedar and 11 per cent. larch. The average price 224 Forestry Quarterly. paid for cedar poles ranging from 20 to 40 feet was $1.11, $2.06, $3.30 and $4.06 by 5-foot classes. The figures on pulp manufacture are incomplete, only 45 mills reporting out of 70. These reports give 363,079 tons of pulp manufactured in Canada, from 482,777 cords of wood, valued at $2,931,653. Of this Quebec manufactured 53 per cent., Ontario 32, New Brunswick 11, and Nova Scotia 4, per cent. The re- duction was 64 per cent. mechanical and 35 per cent. by the sul- phite process. The species used were spruce 87 per cent., balsam 12 per cent. and poplar 1 per cent. The value of spruce as derived from the tables shows regionally quite a variation: Ontarie $7.19, Quebec $5.77, New Brunswick $4.92, Nova Scotia $4.39, per cord. Although the above figures of home manufacture are below the facts, they are significant when con- trasted with an export of 250,000 tons of pulp valued at $17.27 er ton and 794,896 cords of pulpwood valued at $5.48 per cord. Official figures issued from United States give nearly 100,000 cords less.) The importance of the pulpwood industry may be realized when one considers that the value of the spruce cord- wood nearly equals that of spruce lumber in Eastern Canada. The bulletin, though incomplete, will be much appreciated as meeting a much-felt want. One would wish for more discussion of the statistics, however. Tables of figures are not perused by the public in general; the conclusions to be deduced from them must be separated and presented in accordance with the pur- poses for which the statistical information is issued. Graphical representation of some of the leading facts would give them more weight. Rae Sammlung von Abhandlungen tiber Abgase und Rauch- schaden. Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Wislicenus. Tharandt, 1909. So general has the necessity for appraising damage by fumes from smelters and other industrial establishments become in Ger- many, that a periodic collection of the literature on the subject appears desirable, which the well-known expert in this field, Dr. Wislicenus of the forest academy at Tharandt, has begun. So far, three fascicles have been published. The first, by the Current Literature. 225 editor, discusses the basis for technical and legal measures against smoke damage and gives a clear exposé of the present status of the problem. In discussing the conditions which influence the degree of damage it is stated that at the time of leafing the danger is greatest; that conifers are more sensitive to sulfurous acid than broad-leaved trees; that relatively dry air, wind mantles of de- ciduous trees, favorable location with reference to winds reduce the danger. The distance to which the damage may extend can- not yet be stated, topography and winds varying too much. Change in chemical processes to prevent acid production, ab- sorption by basic materials (lime), leeching with water are pos- sible only in exceptional cases. High chimneys: are too ex- pensive and do not necessarily prevent damage at greater dis- tances. It is not centralization but distribution of the volume of smoke, gases over many small chimneys that should be at- tempted. Dilution by artificial draft produced with ventilators is often promising. The necessity of completing legal prescriptions into an organic aerial law, to make clear the position of industrial concerns is accentuated. The second fascicle by Schréder discusses in detail the sources of damage in Saxony and the influence on forest management. He comes to the conclusion that in the forest no preventive meas- ures can be introduced; the prevention must be applied to the industrial establishments. The damage consists not only in less- ening of increment, but increase of insects, fungi, windfall, raw humus formation, soil deterioration, increase of cost in soil culti- vation, etc. Gerlach furnishes a discussion of the method employed for determining the acid contents of the air, which we have re- viewed in the Forestry Quarterly, vol. V. P. 334. Boy FE. Forest Fire Law and Instructions to Patrolmen and Super- visors. Forest, Fish and Game Commission, State of New York. mipany, N. Y. 1909, Pp. 21. This booklet contains the new 1909 fire law by which the old town warden and the district warden system have been aban- 226 Forestry Quarterly. doned and in its place has been substituted a paid fire service. The Adirondacks are divided into three and the Catskills into one district, each under the charge of a superintendent of fires for each district. These districts are further divided into smaller sections and placed in charge of men who are designated fire patrolmen. The scheme is further strengthened by observation or lookout stations on mountains, which are in communication by telephone with the patrolmen. The patrolman system is suffi- ciently elastic in that it may be increased when in the judgment of the Commissioner it is desirable to do so, by appointing men temporarily or by appointing so called special patrolmen, who are located at various points, and have all the authority of the regular patrolman, but do not secure pay except when actually employed. The Town Supervisor is also a part of this system and has the authority to warn out men to fight fire, etc. The pay for ser- vices in fighting fire was heretofore fixed by each town and the State would reimburse any town one-half (4) for reasonable bills expended in this section, provided that not more than $2.00 per day was paid for such services. Under the new law, the rate of wage for fighting fire is fixed at 15 cents per hour, and the law states that any male person over 18 years of age may be sum- moned to fight fire, and prescribes a penalty for the failure of a person so summoned to attend such fire. Another very desirable change made by this law is that those employed in fighting fire are paid cash for their services. This is done through the regular patrolmen and the State advances the money. ‘Then at the end of the season the bills are handed over to the various towns that they may rebate to the State one-half (4) of the expenses of the actual fire fighting. The State ex- pends all of the money for the regular force such as observation stations, superintendents of fires, and regular patrolmen. Another regulation requires the lopping of tops of all conifer- us trees within the forest preserve counties, under a penalty of $25 fine and $2 for each neglected tree. J. H.W. Current Literature. 227 The Forest Club Annual, Volume IJ. The University of Ne- braska. Lincoln, Nebraska. Ig10, Pp. 114. This is an unusually good production for a student organiza- tion and of a type of which there are far too few. The annual was founded by the forestry students of the University of Ne- braska as a medium for the publication of articles on technical and practical forestry, written by students and alumni. _ The present volume contains ten articles all of them distinctly of interest and value to foresters. As examples, one might men- tion the titles of some: Boundary Survey in Kootenai National Forest, describing the method in full detail with statistics; A Northern Idaho Lumbering Operation, useful for its figures of cost; Sample Plots for Forest Studies, in which the writer sug- gests a code for studies, with a view to obtaining definite results of uniform character; Nebraska Forest Fungi, a discussion of the general nature and development of fungi as an introduc- tion to a future series dealing with the local fungus flora, with keys, descriptions and illustrations. A list of the papers read before the club at their bi-weekly meetings during. the academic session indicates a live, enthusi- astic forestry spirit. Some titles are: Grading Lumber in Idaho, Methods of Brush Disposal, Wholesaling and Retailing Lumber in Nebraska, Reproduction Studies in Arizona, Twenty Years Forest Nursery Work, etc. We congratulate the Forest Club. pe ae Wi The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park. By B. E. Fernow. New York, 1910. Pp. 396, 8°. Price $2.50. The volume with the above title is one of the American Nature Series published by Henry Holt and Company and its object is to set forth as briefiy as possible what an amateur planter, or an owner should know about his trees. Depending upon the fact that a knowledge of the nature of trees is necessary in order to care for them properly, the author begins the book with a discussion of their structure and of their physiological and ecological re- quirements. After discussing the nature of disease and death in general, the writer passes to the diagnosis and treatment of 15 228 Forestry Quarterly. physiological diseases, of mechanical injuries, of the attacks of insects and fungi. The chapters on pruning, trimming and re- pairing, on insecticides and fungicides will be of especial value to the tree protector through their wealth of illustration of ap- paratus as well as through their clear cut statements of fact. The topics outlined above occupy six chapters. They are fol- lowed by a chapter on the planting of trees and by one on wood- land park forestry. The ninth chapter which comprises one-third of the volume, tells the amateur what trees and shrubs to plant according to the climatic and soil conditions and according to the object of the planter. The chapter contains brief descriptions of the desirable trees and shrubs. The characteristics of many ex- otics are shown by illustrations. For the owner or protector of ornamental trees, the volume meets a very definite need, in that it is a concise and non-technical compilation of data from many sources, guided into proper place "and form by an experienced observer. While the book is pri- marily written for the tree warden, yet it contains much informa- tion of interest to the forester. Cy Do: Report of the Russian Forest Department for 1908. St. Peters- burg, 1910. The Forest Department of Russia has just issued its report for 1908 which contains, as usual, a very detailed statement of all the activities of the Department. Of all countries, the character of the forests and of the practice of forestry in Russia come closest to those of the United States. A comparison, therefore, of the two countries may be of especial interest to American for- esters. By the end of 1908, the Forest Department had control of over 957,075,000 acres. This forest area has been divided into 1,261 administrative units, or what we call Forests. The total number of persons employed by the Forest Department, includ- ing the teaching staff of the Imperial Forest Institute, was 3,789. This did not include the forest rangers and guards, who num- bered 30,783. Of the 3,789 employed by the Forest Department, 3,275 received a forestry education in the highest schools, while 266 were without special education. The personnel of the Central Forest Administration in St. Petersburg, which corresponds to Current Literature. 229 the personnel of the Forest Service in Washington, was 856, while the local Forest Officers, who correspond to the Forest Officers in the District offices and to the Supervisors was 2,933. The Forest Department supports the Imperial Forest Institute. The teaching staff consists of 42 persons. Toward the end of 1908 there were in all 533 students at the Institute. Of these, 58 graduated and 106 entered the school. The Forest Department spends $243,048 for the up-keep of the Institute. Outside of the Imperial Forest Institute, which is an institution of high stand- ing, the Forest Department supports 33 lower forest schools with 460 students. The Forest Department spent $84,134 for the maintenance of these schools. The amount of timber which the Forest Department designated for cutting was 5,542,898,865 cubic feet, while the actual amount cut was only 2,014,608,785 cubic feet. The amount of timber sold from the Government Forests does not show any noticeable increase as may be seen from the following table: MRIS PH ois) Al civn)ps x duet sso 1,915,609,724 cubic feet. MRIS iced \ oie msleses! a EOOROGe. 210 ir as EAR As ie sa 2.270.225.3006. 0) e 17 3 eae AODG SOA 25) (0s ih tke MME A UE 6 hcl ts «a e'eire! aire Ws RiG2 7729072 0 Vato Besides this, in 1908 there was cut 600,818,694 cubic feet of dead timber. This timber was sold for $26,007,426. There was also given away or sold at a reduced price, 294,233,975 cubic feet of timber at a total value of $2,020,100. The other sources of revenue amounted to $481,948. Of these, grazing brought $150,460. Other uses for which the Forest De- partment received revenue are for leasing fields and cut-over areas for temporary agricultural use, and for selling seed. During the year the Forest Department has placed under regular forest management 824,405 acres. There were recon- noitered 14,539,173 acres. On 1,002,731 acres the plan of man- agement has been revised. The Forest Department has spent $579,464 for planting, assist- ing natural reproduction, and care for reproduction. It planted over 3,915 acres and filled in fail places over an area of 3,051 acres. Natural reproduction has been assisted on over 213,300 acres, 230 Forestry Quarterly. The Forest Department collected in Government forests 2,050,- 054 pounds of seed. Of this there were 56,735 pine seed, and of other conifers 9,944 pounds; oak acorns, 1,687,880 pounds, and of other broadleaf species 76,114 pounds. ‘The collection of the seed cost the Government $30,723. In addition the Forest De- partment bought 179,891 pounds of seed of different tree species for $12,915. The Forest Department owned 261 drying establishments, and 226 storage houses for seed. The Forest Department estimated the loss of timber through fire, insects, water, snow, wind, and other causes at $290,939. Of this $257,433 was from forest fires; insects caused damage to the extent of $7,229, while the damage from windfall amounted to $16,818. BZ ; OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Forest Conditions in the Crow's Nest Valley, Alberta. By H. R. Macmillan. Bulletin 5, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1g09. Pp. 22, maps 2. Illustrated. (1) Forest Resources and Forest Conditions of Prince George’s County. (2) Forests and Forest Management in Kent County. (3) Forest Resources and Forest Management in Har- ford County. By F. W. Besley. Forestry Leaflets, Nos. 8, 9, 10. Maryland State Board of Forestry. Baltimore, Md. Notes on Forest and Ornamental Trees. By H. Ness. Buile- tin 105, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. College Sta- tion, Texas. 1908. Illustrated. Notes as to success of trees planted on the grounds of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Hail Injury on Forest Trees. By F. J. Phillips. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. XIX, No. 3. March, 1910. Pp. 8, pls. 7. Studies of the Needs of Rhode Island Soils. Bulletin 139, Agricultural Experiment Station. Kingston, Rhode Island. 1910. Pp. 103. Other Current Literature. 231 Coyote-proof Pasture Experiment: 1908. Circular 160, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1909. Pp. 4o. { Forest Planting in Western Kansas. Circular 161, U. S. Herest service.’ Washington, D:'C. to09.. Pp. 51. Practical Assistance to Owners of Forest Land and to Tree Planters. Circular 165, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. Pa reop. Pp, 7. Commercial Importance of the White Mountain Forests. Cir- eilar 168, U. S$. Forest Service. Washington, D.'C. 1900. Pp. 32. The Forests of the United States: Their use. Circular 171, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1909. Pp. 25. Methods of Increasing. Forest Productivity. Circular 172, U. ©. Porest Service. Washington, D..C.' rg09. Pp. 16, Reproduction of Western Yellow Pine in the Southwest. Cir- cular 174, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. iIgto. Pp. 16. Surface Conditions and Stream Flow. Circular 176, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 16. Imports of Farm and Forest Products, 1906-19C8. (By coun- tries from which consigned.) Bulletin 76, Bureau of Statistics. Washington, D. C. 1909. Pp. 65. Exports of Farm and Forest Products, 1906-1908 (by coun- tries to which consigned). Bulletin 77, Bureau of Statistics. Washington, D. C. iIg10. Pp. gi. Annual Report upon State Forest Administration in South Australia for 1908-09. Adelaide, S. Australia. I9g09. Pp. 12. Illustrated. Trees and Shrubs of San Antonio and Vicinity. By B. Mack- ensen. San Antonio, Texas. 1909. Pp. 51. Plates 12. 232 Forestry Quarterly. Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber for January, February and March, 1910. U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1910. The Weeks Bill (text). Bulletin 3, American Forestry Asso- ciation. Washington, D.C. tIgi1o. Pp. 4. Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands for 1908-09. Manila, P. I. 1gog. Pp. 20. Annual Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of Quebec for 1908-cy. Quebec, Que. Ig09. Pp. 202. Outline for Lectures on Forestry. Bulletin 5, Forest, Fish, and Game Commission, New York State. Albany, N. Y. 1gro. Pp. 12. - Fourth Annual Report of the Commission of Forestry for Rhode Island. Providence, R. I. t1g1o. Pp. 29. Illustrated. Twenty-second Annual Report of the Experimental Farms, Canada. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. 1909. Pp. 432. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus: Vol. 1, Index; Vol. Il, Part 1. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, New South Wales. I910. Pp. 12+59. Plates 4. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. At the meeting of the German Foresters Black Association in Heidelberg, Prof. Siefert Forest described the conditions of this celebrated Conditions. forest country in Baden. In the State at large, government forests occupy only 17%, corporation forests 47%, large private holdings comprise 11%, leaving 25% for small holdings. The corporation forests have been under State management since 1833, and have been subjected to a strictly conservative treatment, similar to the State forests. Site conditions are very favorable with a rainfall varying from 32 inches at the foot of the Black Forest up to 72 inches in the mountains. As regards composition, mixed forest prevails, with conifers occupying 52%, broad leaved forest 48%. Five sections of country are topographically and climatically differentiated. The mountain country of the Black Forest, with the Feldberg (5,000 feet) its highest point, is divided into a southern, middle and northern section. It reaches up not quite to timberline, but the highest altitudes are occupied by moors with birch and mountain ash.. The soil is for more than half the area gneiss and granite, 29% sandstone, 18% limestone. Two thirds of the forest is coniferous, mostly spruce and fir; pine occupies only 9%, together with oak, in the deeper valleys on the south and west; the higher altitudes of these exposures, which exhibit rather rapid slopes, is occupied by beech and fir, while on the southeast and east slopes the spruce prevails. Timber forest management is found on 88%, leaving 9% to coppice with standards and 2% to coppice. The timber forest is to the extent of three-quarters managed under natural regen- eration, 16% in clear cutting, which prevails in the pure pine and spruce forest, 30% in nurse tree method, 40% under slow re- moval, but only 1.5% under pure selection system, which has only local significance. The rotation in the State forests is for 60% of the area, 120 234 Forestry Quarterly. years, for 26%, 100 years, for 9%, go, and for 3%, 80 years; in the corporation forests for 73%, 100 to 130 years; for 9%, go; for 17%, 80 years. The tendency in the last 4o years has been to increase the rotations, and yet revenues have increased. The actual age class conditions show a surplus of old age classes up to 170 years, which is justified by the fact that under the management they received these old stands show an incre- ment of 85 to 112 cubic feet of wood of high value. The best of this wood brings 20 to 28 cents per cubic foot. Ordinary wood brings from 18 cents to 12 cents for the different classes from I to V. In the Black Forest, a large portion of the area (58%) is man- aged in a slow removal system, a compromise between selection forest and nurse tree system, which makes it necessary to operate gver 30 to 40% of the area simultaneously. The aim is to se- cure uneven-aged, mixed forest adapted to the locality, as far as possible by natural regeneration, and to utilize the increased in- crement due to open position during a long period of the rotation ; thereby securing the highest sustained yield. A careful thinning practice with selective choice of trees to be cut is practiced. In the younger stands every 10 years about 700 cubic feet are taken out. From the 8oth year the thinnings are made partly with refer- ence to the needs of the young growth, partly with regard to volume and value increment. It is not always correct to remove the stoutest members, for suppressed poorly crowned trees do not utilize the light advantageously. Different degrees of open- ing up favor the reproduction of different species. Usually the best reproduction of one species is found under nurse trees of another species. In pure stands the success is less obvious. Damage from removals can to some extent be avoided by prun- ing before felling, and by careful immediate moving of logs, which costs 8% of the total logging cost. The reporter thinks that this system of slow regeneration is commendable as adapted to site, species, character of stands, and permits freedom of movement and eventual combination with other methods of re- generation. In the Wiirttemberg portion of the Black Forest, Prof. Graner reports that a similar method is practised, but the regeneration period is reduced to 20—25 years, and the spruce, advantageous on account of its wider usefulness, is favored by such reduction Periodical Literature. 235 as against the fir. “Natural regeneration has become fashionable, but artificial regeneration has its right and often brings quicker and surer results.” The deficiencies in the age classes of 80-100 in Wurttemberg are explained by the fact that 100 years ago there was an effort made to regenerate only naturally. Since artificial means have again been adopted better success has followed. Another speaker pointed out that the much better soil and more humid climate of the Baden forest favor this kind of natural regeneration with long periods. Die Hauptversammlung des deutschen Forstvereins. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt. February, 1910. Pp. 92-96. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. December, 1909. Pp. 808-8109. With considerable hnmor, Forstassessor Forest Conditions Miller, who acts as professor of forestry m at the Agricultural College at Montevideo, Uruguay. reports on the conditions of this republic on) the) Ta (Platas. Te is) ia. hilly.) plains country without any forest growth except along the rivers, especially near the Brazilian frontier, and a few small colonies which are found in rocky coves (grutas). The tree forms in the southern river valleys are Celtis tala and Celtis Sellowiana, Schinus dependens, Ocotea, Salix. In the northern valleys, be- sides palms, some 20 good timber trees of Brazilian derivation are found with ‘a host of shrubs, in a growth appearing like coppice with standards. ‘These river forests are exploited, mainly for firewood, in the crudest manner. In 1877, a law, similar to some of our tree planting laws, offered prizes for plantations; whoever could show a 4-year old plantation of 10,000 pines (maritima, insigims, canariensis, hale- pensis) spaced 12 feet, was to have a gold medal and $3,200 cash, $75 per acre! for 5,000 pines under the same conditions $750; for 2,500, $375. Again for 100,000 broadleaf trees of certain kinds, a medal and $11,000; for 50,000, $3,000; and for 25,000, $1,500. Besides a few of the smaller prizes, last year the highest was called for, there being three competitors, who all were wise enough to reduce the spacing to 6 feet. The plantings are mostly near the capital. The writer criticizes the law and the execu- tion of it. 236 Forestry Quarterly. The main object of the attempts at planting seems to be to secure windbreaks for the protection of the sheep. Amusing references to the position of the writer, and the uselessness of his attempt to educate foresters finish the article. Die forstlichen Verhaltnisse Uruguays. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagd- wesen. January, 1910. Pp. 27-37. The forests of this country cover large Lumbering areas ; much of which has not been explored. m Lumbering operations have usually ex- Paraguay. tended back only as far as an ox-cart can haul, but in a few cases short railroads of one-half meter gauge have been established. The quebracho, cedro, lapacho, guayacan and ybiraro are the principal species in use at present. Most of the timber is hewed and large quantities afe shipped to Buenos Aires and Montevideo for sawing. Ina mill cutting 300 tons per day, which is equal to 250 cubic meters or 150,000 board feet, 6,000 oxen are used. Sixteen oxen are used for each truck or cart. Hardwood Record, October 10, 1909. Pp. 27-28. The principal timber belts of Argentine Timber Resources Republic lie in the northern, northeastern of and northwestern parts of the country in Argentine. the valleys of the Parana, Paraguay, Pil- comayo, and Bermejo rivers. Most of the timberland is 500 to 4,000 feet above sea level. There is not a large amount of timber but it is of the finest kind. Large dis- tricts are entirely unexplored. Most of the forest is a mixture of a large number of species. Quebracho, urendel, cedro, quina, cevil, mora and others are sound, while palo amarillo and palo blanco are rotten when over- grown. Wind-falls of quebracho, urendel, mora, guayacan and lapacho rot very slowly. Forest fires are almost unknown. Cedro is the only species that floats and hence all operations re- quire railroads. Underbrush is heavy and vines common. Exploitation is crude and simple. The main logging is done by oxen and a peculiar, local, two wheel cart. In many places the logs are loaded on cars by hand or by using oxen. Most of Periodical Literature. 237 the laborers are Indians or of Spanish descent and the principal market is local. American sawmill machinery has been a failure in this region, but French, German and English machinery has succeeded because the makers understood the nature of the wood and local conditions. A list of common names of the most im- portant commercial trees is appended, with brief, general de- scriptions of the wood. American Lumberman. November 13, 1909. P. 47. Mr. W. Klemme, chief of the administra- Philip pine tive section, and next to Major Ahern Conditions. longest in service in the Philippine For- estry Bureau, gives a concise and clear de- scription of forest conditions in the Philippine islands. The whole forest area of about 4o million acres, almost en- tirely government property, is divided into three districts each placed under an American as chief with an American assistant and a number of Filipino foresters, underforesters and guards. Sale of wood; which is so far the principal operation, is made by license to cut over a limited section for a definite quantity in one or more years. Special limitation either in quantity or in lowest diameter is made with regard to certain rarer species, or, in certain regions by their entire exclusion from sale. Altogether a lowest diameter limit is determined for most species. The price paid is for actual wood cut, namely 3.3 cents per cubic foot for the woods of the first group; 2.5 cents for those of the second; and two-thirds of one cent for those of the third group. The first group comprises fine furniture woods, mostly of the Leguminosae, and one of the Verbenaceae, Molave. ‘Teak, although it occurs, is too rare to be of significance. The better class of building woods form the second group, Eugenias and a species of Shorea of the Dipterocarps belonging here. The third group, economically the most important, is formed by Diptero- carpaceae. A fourth group consisting of soft woods is also made up of Dipterocarps, and Pinus insularis, of which extensive tracts are found in the mountains of northern Luzon, at elevations of 600 to 1800 m. This species, a hard yellow pine, attains an average diameter 238 Forestry Quarterly. of 28 inch, up to 3 feet, and heights up to 120 feet. It is located so far too distant from markets. The Spaniards who had a forestry bureau and had a similar grouping system recognized only 8co species as against 2,000 determined by American foresters and botanists. The less valuable species were formerly by law permitted to be cut anywhere for home use, free of charge, but in order to allow better control, definite areas of 250 to 750 acres are now set aside as quasi-communal forests, where such cutting is al- lowed under supervision. The free settlement of land, 40 acres to a settler, is also con- trolled by the forestry bureau. The mapping of the forest districts of Luzon and Mindoro has been completed. Reference to character of scenery, of travel, of population are Made. The climate is said to be agreeable and healthy, tropical heat being rarely experienced. In Manila, the hottest place in the islands, the thermometer varies at noon of the hottest months (April, May) between 86° and 95°, to sink in the evening to 70°, and in the mountains of course, lower temperatures prevail. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. January, 1910. Pp. 1-4. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. The Norway Spruce which is generally Branchless very liable to variation, develops occasion- Trees. ally without branches, forming a slender rod beset with long thick needles, without lateral buds. These monstrosities called monocaulis, monstrosa, aclada, are very rarely, found in nurseries and sowings in a few localities in Baden and northern Italy. As a rule they die early; one, how- ever, cultivated in a garden on Lago Maggiore has an age of approximately 55 years and is nearly 30 feet high. A specimen was found in Bavaria in an 8-year old regeneration, 1 m high like the rest of the growth, but only 1 cm in diameter at the base. It was transplanted to the forest garden at Ipsheim where in 1904, when Vogtherr figured and measured it, it had attained a height of 1.8 m, the iast shoot being 10 inches long, six annual Periodical Literature. 239 shoots being with foliage of normal appearance, each shoot recognizable by a short bare space. There are also on record two specimens of branchless White Fir. Eine astlose Fichte. Forstwissenschaftlisches Cantralblatt. January, 1910. Pp. 59-60. Forstassessor Busse adds to the theory of Frost Splits, the formation of various kinds of damage Ring Shake, to timber by frost. Regarding frost splits Heart Shake. —the radial splits starting from the peri- -phery—two theories are current. Hartig explains that by frost a part of the imbibition water of the cell walls is lost, the wood shrinks, and, if the interior layers have not yet been cooled, tangential strains arise which finally result in tearing apart the exterior layers in radial direction. A newer theory leaves the water in the cell walls, and sees the cause of the splits in mere temperature conditions, the difference in cooling of inner and outer layers, when the temperature sinks below 14° F. . The observations of the author lead him to doubt that the temperature needs to be so low for he has heard the short reports of frost splits at much higher temperatures. Most splits take place shortly before sunrise i. e. at the time of lowest air and soil temperature; they were never heard to take place at noon, afternoon or evening. This would make low temperature appear as the only and absolute factor. If this were true all trees, at least of species most liable, would show frost splits. Hence other factors must play a role, which the author has found in wind and site. The influence of the wind is not due to its temperature as has often been asserted, for then frost splits would preferably be found on east, north east, and north exposures, which the au- thor’s careful investigations deny, but it is due to the mechanical force. A frost split always occurs between two roots or between the collars of two roots. This was observed on oaks, elms, bass- wood, cherry, also ash and beech, although the former has little pronounced root collar, and the latter is least liable to frost splits. A few stems were found where apparently the rule did not apply, but on removing the soil a forking of two large roots was found corresponding to the split. When the tree is swayed by 240 Forestry Quarterly. the wind, the roots are counteracting forces, the wood fibres are tested in tension and pressure by the opposing forces; where the roots exercise tension strains most effectively the effect of press- ure strains are at a minimum; only where the pressure strains i. e. between two roots, are in excess of the tension can a separa- tion of the fibers result. Hence, when by frost a tension on the entire periphery is established and the wind localizes additional strains the failure occurs. The stronger tension and pressure, the severer the strains and the oftener failures occur; hence in old stout-rooted, broad- crowned trees frost splits are most frequent. In younger stands it is always the stoutest members of the stand that are found with frost splits, while in quite young stands they are altogether absent, because wind pressure is small. That frost splits are heard to form on windstill days the author explains by his con- ygction that these are openings of old frost splits where the ten- sion of the frost alone suffices. As to influence of site the author’s observations show that on wet sites splits are most frequent, due to difference of wood structure here, just as difference in wood structure makes differ- ent species more or less liable. The better nourished a tree the less liable to frost splits. It is suggested that the reserve ma- terials act protectively, and when they move towards the crown the most dangerous period for frost splits is entered. The location of frost splits lies rarely above 1 m from the ground, mostly at $m. Near the ground the tree cools the most, here the frost tension is greatest, and probably also the wind pressure. Ring shake is found similarly located but instead of being found between two roots or root collars, it is found on the collar or root, and always where a narrow and a wide ring join. In this case, too, the wind pressure is adduced for explanation, which exercises the greatest leverage or tension in the direction of the radius in this part of the tree. Heart shake, which starts from the heart with the broadest opening towards the periphery, resembling inverted frost splits, the author believes to be due to a drying out of the heartwood, possibly accompanied by lack of minerals, but the wind also plays a role. Frost-Ring-Kernrisse. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. February, 1910. Pp. 74-84. Penodical Literature. 241 Fossil remains of Miocene trees secured Miocene from the Florissant beds of Colorado are Trees considered by Cockerell to be the only of the Rockies. Miocene arborescent forms so far discov- ered in the Rocky Mountains. An inter- esting feature of this Florissant flora is its strong resemblance to the arborescent flora of the present day. Species of Pinus, Se- quoia, Libocedrus, Ulmus, Liquidambar, Acer, Robinia, Quercus, Populus, etc., occur which are similar to modern forms of these genera. That the climate of the Miocene was both warmer and damper than that of the present day is testified by the presence of Ficus, Diospyros, Persea, Sapindus, Anona, Ailanthus, etc., in the Florissant beds. Miocene Trees of the Rocky Mountains. The American Naturalist. January, 1910. Pp. 31-47. The reforestation of sand plains in Ver- Natural mont has been made the subject of a some- Reforestation what extended study by Howe. Forty-five im permanent sample plots have been estab- Vermont. lished and in addition the character of the vegetation secured by too list charts. The result has been to show in detail the succession of vegetation on cut over lands of White Pine and on abandoned fields in this loca- tion. On lands of the former class Pitch Pine forms usually the dominant tree of the second generation. With the removal of the Pitch Pine, White Pine gradually works in again except where fire runs over the land periodically. In the last case a dense undergrowth, largely Pteris and Myrica, excludes tree growth. On abandoned fields, as is the case in other parts of New Eng- land, White Pine is gradually regaining the dominance it once possessed by direct seeding and by supplanting White Birch and Pitch Pine. The Reforestation of Sand Plains in Vermont. Botanical Gazette. Feb- ruary, I910. Pp. 126-148. 242 Forestry Quarterly. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION, Forstmeister Kirchgessner reports inter- Conversion esting data regarding conversion of cop- of pice into timber forest which has gone on Coppice. for some years in the city forest of Eber- bach on the Neckar. The city owns over 3,000 acres of timber forest, besides 5,000 acres of coppice, on which some 850 of the citizens had rights of user. These rights were exercised by dividing the year’s felling area into as many parcels on which the interested citizens could cut the coppice, peel the bark and grow their potatoes—Hackwaldbau! By and by development of industries, railroad building, etc., made this work unprofitable; bark peeling became unprofitable, and no opposition was made to change the coppice to timber forest, the city paying to the citizens having the right of user a fent such as would accrue if the coppice had remained and been used by them, the calculation being made on the basis of the results of the remaining coppice. Large areas of this coppice had under the former methods de- teriorated into heath and grass (Calamagrostis) and useless brush. Here, fire was used as a means of culture. A thorough burning over in high summer when the ground is thoroughly dry, destroys the felty raw humus and destroys a large number of the old useless stocks. In the ashes of these burnings, pine and spruce are planted without further preparation, and thrive prodigiously. If the burning was not thorough, plats must be cleared for planting, otherwise the weeds would choke out the plantation. For planting, 6,000 pines, 1-2 year old, or 3,000 to 4,000 spruce, 3 year old, are used per acre, planted with spade or hatchet. It is important that the planting succeed from the start, as otherwise weeds, fern and broom, will choke it out. As it is, annual weeding (cutting) for two years becomes necessary, when sheep may be driven over the plantation without harm and keep it in order. On the north exposures, one or two cop- pice shoots are left and pruned up, the spruce tolerating the shade; not so on south exposures, where pine is planted which does not tolerate shade. Here the sprouts are cut during the sap at breast height when sprouts and stocks die. This is the only applicable method on deteriorated soils. It Periodical Literature. 243 produces in shortest time par force a good stand but is more expensive than the slower method through the use of the sprouts, which is applicable where the sprout growth is good. Here, at 15 years of age, the first thinning is made for hoop poles, when all that is below 3 inch at base is cut out, but at least the two stoutest sprouts must be left per stock. After two years, such a stand is closed up again. At 20 years, the second thinning takes place, and some of the stands may then be underplanted with fir, spruce, beech, oak, chestnut, maple, either by sowing or planting. Oak coppice is allowed to continue to the 30-50 year and longer, and then perhaps is underplanted with beech. Finally, there are some few areas from which stones are quar- ried and in so doing the stocks are destroyed but the soil thor- oughly loosened. Here spruce plantations thrive without effort. Zur Niederwaldumwandlung. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. April, 1910. Pp. 211-214. In view of the praise for intensive forestry Clean practice which we are wont to see bestowed Logging. - on German, French and Swiss forestry, it is interesting to note a short anonymous article which shows that matters are not everywhere as well de- veloped as we know them to be in general. The writer points out that in the Alpine forests of Switzerland the “brush problem” remains unsolved. Here, as with us, dis- tant from markets and population that might utilize this inferior fuel wood, there is no way of disposing profitably of this material. While logging contracts provide that the felling area is to be cleared of debris and openings to be planted, not much is done in this direction. Objections are raised not so much on account of the fire danger as on account of impeded reproduction. Under the brushwood, volunteer growth is smothered or im- peded, and any new regeneration is made difficult or loses the chance for development; weed growth helps to delay natural regeneration, and ultimately clear cutting and planting become necessities. The hard, narrow-ringed wood of Alpine trees, especially of spruce decays very slowly, and sometimes, densely covering the _ground, the debris makes seeding impossible for years. Fungi 16 244 Forestry Quarterly. (Herpotrichia nigra) and bark beetles thrive in this debris. Burning the brush is considered too expensive and in addition claimed to be dangerous, hence it is recommended to merely pile the brush in heaps or wind rows (which we would think in- creases the fire danger). This should be done in summer fellings immediately; in winter fellings with the first melting of snow, while the brush is still green, when it packs better than when dry. Such green brush heaps are supposed to decay more readily than if piled dry. Schlagréumung. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. April, 1910. Pp. 112-116. Dr. Zederbauer of the Austrian Experiment Storing Station reports trials with various methods Seeds. of wintering seeds. The questions he tries to answer are: How are seeds kept by na- ture until they germinate, and what life processes take place in the resting seed, which questions are basic to a rational keeping of seed. The life processes are transpiration and respiration. Respira- tion is a destructive metabolism; the result of this destruction of organic substance is carbonic acid and water. It is largely dependent on temperature. It increases with the temperature to an optimum, then declines. Transpiration is also dependent on temperature and, in addition, on the humidity of the air. Low temperature reduces both processes. This is an important point for the preservation of seed, and hence ice cellars as used by Haak (see F. Q., vol. VII, p. 328 ff.) are found to be amoest suitabe for storing seed. In the experiments some ten different kinds of storage rooms were used. The seed was sowed and the germination noted. Abies alba and Pinus peuke, which shed their seed in the fall, wintering on the ground covered partly by needles and leaves, are here exposed to low temperature and soil moisture, both of which conditions reduce transpiration. Storage conditions simi- lar to these furnished the best results, while low humidity and temperatures above zero (C.) gave poor results. On the other hand Picea excelsa, Pinus silvestris and Larix europaea, which shed their seed in late winter or spring suffer on moist soil. Low temperature is favorable only in the absence of humidity. Room- Periodical Literature. 245 temperatures, however, did not diminish the germination of P. silvestris. Air tight storage of these species is favorable. Of broadleaved trees only such as shed their seed in the fall were experimented with. They are very sensitive to low humid- ity. Only the thick-shelled ones like Juglans nigra last, but lose a large percentage of germination. On the whole, low tempera- ture and high humidity of air or soil are favorable factors in seed storage. Versuche tiber Aufbewahrung von Waldsaimereien. Cantralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1910. Pp. 116-121. The importance of securing seeds from Seed proper localities is more and more recog- Supply. nized. Lately the German Forstwirt- schaftsrat has had the matter under dis- cussion. Especially the Scotch pine seed from Southern France and Southern Hungary are objected to as producing undesirable growth. A commission was appointed to report on the question. Silva, 1910, No. 13. P. 102. The quarterly meeting of the Oregon Con- Forest Fires servation Association was held December in the ber 21, 1909, in Portland Oregon. A re- West. port was given of the co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service in regard to forest fires during 1909. In Oregon there was a total of 413 fires which burned over an area divided as follows: Merchantable timber, 33,137-5 acres; second growth, 5,607.5 acres; cutover lands, 22,292 acres. The estimated loss is given at 191,213.59 thousand board feet of merchantable timber with an estimated value of $366,539.50. An expenditure of $26,164.71 was made by indi- viduals, lumber companies, etc., in fighting fires and maintaining patrols during the fire season. An additional $5,220.84 was ex- pended by the U. S. Forest Service. In Washington there was a total of 1,309 fires which burned over 27,027 acres of merchantable timber; 12,631 acres of second growth and 25,421 acres of cutover lands. The estimated loss of merchantable timber is reported at 146,809 thousand feet with a stumpage value of $290,489. The cost of figthing fires is $15,- 246 Forestry Quarterly. 705.24 expended by the State; $34,308.52 spent by private owners and $11,710.80 spent by the U. S. Forest Service. The cost of the patrol maintained by Washington Forest Fire Association is computed as a part of the private expenditure. American Lumberman. January I, 1910. P. 46. The planned increase of fellings in Bavarian Machines forests suggest an increased planting pro- for gram and the necessity of reducing hand Soil labor which is now-a-days difficult to se- Preparation. cure and to substitute the use of machin- ery. Weinkauff has constructed a deep-going plow with roller which lifts it over roots and stones, with which two horses in one day plow furrows 4 feet apart and 10 to 12 inches deep on 3 to 34 acres. The saving in cost was 600 to 700 % over the former methods. For cultivating, for preparing soil to a depth of 5 inches, and especially to aid natural regeneration, the spring harrow was found an ideal utensil, excelling the Danish rolling harrow and the Weber grubber in effectiveness, cheapness of work and original cost. The author calls it the soil machine of the future, that will work miracles in natural regeneration. It should be made heavier than for field use and is applicable wherever a horse can still step on the hillside. The author advocates the use of better plant material and fig- ures out a financial advantage from using transplants. Neue Bodenbearbeitungsmethoden und Zukunftswerkzeuge. Fortwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1910. Pp. 46-48. In the mild clnmate of Canton Schwayz at Douglas Fir about 2,000 feet elevation there is a pure im stand of Douglas Fir (the green form), 26 wisterland. years old from seed, planted 10 feet apart, about 14 acres in extent. The 500 trees remaining vary from 4 to 19 inches in diameter and 35 to 73 feet in height, the average tree is 9 inch, and 51 feet; the total volume of the stand is 4,462 cubic feet of growth, or 172 cubic feet per acre per year. The stand is very dense so Periodical Literature. 247 that not only volunteer spruce and fir have succumbed, but even moss cannot thrive under the cover; the soil being covered with needles. The wide spacing has resulted in unimpeded branch growth, which has died for half the height, but not at all cleared, hanging on like that of the spruce or White Pine. Resistance to early frost and snow pressure has been satisfac- tory. The shading quality of the crown combined with rapid growth fits this species to suppress all neighbors; hence it should be planted in small pure groups. Zur Frage des Anbaues fremdlandischer Holzarten. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. April, 1910. Pp. 121-126. Frombling notes that fungus diseases have Conifer in later years considerably increased. The Diseases. cause, he thinks, must be due to practices in the silvicultural treatment, which have weakened the power of resistance of the plants and increased the virulence of the parasites. The cause is found especially in the practice of using plant material imported from localities differing from those in which they are used, and to which the importations are not adapted. Hence, constitutional weakness induces more virulent and disastrous attacks of fungi, which in the native hab- itat were powerless. The importance of seed selection and the return to natural regeneration are accentuated. Stehen gewisse Nadelholz Krankheiten im urspriinglichen Zusammen- hange mit dem Ursprungsorte des Samens. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. April, 1910. Pp. 193-200. A determined war against this destructive Trametes fungus which has greatly spread in the Pini. German pineries has been carried on for four years in Prussia as a consequence of Dr. Moller’s investigations. Some $100,000 have been spent on marking the affected trees and breaking out the stools and paint- ing with “insect lime” the infectious spots. One hundred million cubic feet of affected wood has been cut out. In an extensive article Dr. MGller discusses results and new observations. Der Kampf gegen den Kiefernbaumschwanem. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. March, 1910. Pp. 129-146. 248 Forestry Quarterly. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. Based upon an investigation of over 4,000 Growth oaks in districts of Alsace-Loraine, interest- of ing tables are published by Usener. To Oak. make diameters of 24 inches (60 cm.) there are required: 1. On deep, fresh, calcareous alluvial soil, on unusually favor- able site, 75 years; on less favorable sites 85 years. 2. On less deep keuper (clay) soils of the hill country; 140 to 160 years. 3. On limestone, 150 years. 4. On standstone, 230 to 300 years. The first three positions were in coppice with standards the last in timber forest. The diameter growth was in one district found to be best on west slopes, then follow south slope plateau, east slope, north slope. These differences in the 160 year, e. g., were 46, 45, 42, 38, 36 cm., the average being 40 cm. A finance calculation for one of the sandstone districts devel- oped that, in the decade 1892 to 1902 the average price increase per cent. was 3, for stemwood alone 3.2%, while first class ma- terial appreciated in six years at the rate of 4.8%. In another sandstone district the price increment was only 1.8%. The vol- ume and value increment per cents. on the sandstone soils for narrow-ringed but even-grained wood ran as follows: Volume Increment Value Age. (a) Per cent. (b) R NAN a Ke) () HrReRNH HN NW BROAN GC wWUHHAMN HAR HH WW WWW WZ DO HW ULTO WN WO WWE RUDANDANYNS NIN 00 Periodical Literature. 249 Adding the price increment at 3 per cent. a rotation of 170 years would appear permissible, when the average tree would show 18 inch diameter with a value of somewhat over $10, or 13.5 cents per cubic foot. No calculations were made for the alluvial districts but the statement is made that single trees here bring $250 and more; one case as high as $450. Zuwachsuntersuchungen an Kichen. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. January, 1910. Pp. 4-0. Similar investigations as for oak were made Growth , in the same districts as cited above for of Scotch Pine. Here, the three increment Scotch Pine. per cents., namely, of volume, value, and price were figured as follows: Age. V olume. Value. Price Total Increment Per cent. 90 1.4 6 ES 3-5 100 1.4 oy! 1.5 3.6 110 yi 8 TO 3.8 720°. ie 9 07 3-9 130 ps3 8 1.6 3-7 140 ee 6 1.5 igs: 150 FE 3 1.4 2.9 160 8 et 153 252 Note the culmination at 120 years! The prices used were the average of the actual sale results during the period of 1899 to 1905, which scaled from 8.5 cents for the poorest grade logs to 23.5 cents per cubic foot for the best grade. Cordwood split brought 6.5 cents, round billets 4.6 cents, and brushwood as much as 4.1 cents per cubic foot. The value of trees of various ages figured: Years: go 100 120 130 140 170 Value of tree, dollars: 3.60 5.20 6.30 8.85 10. 15. Value per cu. ft., cents: 10 12 12.5 14 15 16.5 An investigation of the progress of heartwood formation de- veloped the fact that it proceeds somewhat parallel to the diameter development. In the 60 to 180 year old trees an age increase of two years means a progress of heartwood formation of one year at the butt. Zuwachsuntersuchungen an Kiefern. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. March, 1910. Pp. 85-87. 250 Forestry Quarterly. These calipers which record immediately the Wimmenauer cross-section area corresponding to the Recording measured diameter were used by Gayer on Calipers. a valuation survey of some 8,000 acres. The use of the instrument was found easy and less fatiguing than regular calipers, avoiding the calling out of di- ameters. Only in wet weather the usual friction was experienced. Two men, one measuring, the other marking trees, measured per hour according to conditions, from 410 to 680 trees ; the maximum in a 60 year dense pine stand being 760 trees per hour; the aver- age of 68,360 trees was 495 per hour. With the usual calipers it was found that, to do the same, a third man for recording was necessary, the efficiency, therefore, was I : 1.5 in favor of the dearer instrument, which, costing $15 (to be had from W. Spoer- hase-Giessen), saved its greater cost in 25 days. » To get the volume, since both number of trees and cross- section area are obtained directly, a single multiplication with the form-height derived from a table suffices, and is done in one-fifth to one-tenth the time of the ordinary calculations. As regards accuracy, when compared with regular calipers, the errors were found in single cases to lie between +2.7 and —4 per cent., but the sum of results at only .o1 per cent., differ- ences which are explained by difference in points of measurement. The author recommends the use of the instrument highly, but points out that where an insight into the distribution of diameter classes is desired, it is not applicable. Einige Erfahrungen mit der Wimmenauer’ schen Kreisfaichenzahlkluppe. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. March, to10. Pp. 80-90. In an illuminating article Prof. Wagner ex- Financial plains the origin of the law enacted in Sustained Yield Wurttemberg in 1905 which provides for a Management. reserve fund in the State forests. In the legislatures both of Bavaria and Wurttemberg lately objections were raised against the holding over of old stands which are financially overmature and have no value increment. In Wurttemberg this overplus in old age classes (partly 150-180 years) is on the average 5%, and in the Black Forest alone nearly 20%. It was, therefore, proposed to cut into this old stock, especially taking care of favorable market, but, Periodical Literature. 251 instead of accounting the returns as current income, to place the results in a reserve fund from which to eke out incomes during poor years. This would also permit a decrease of cut in poor years and altogether offer the opportunity of freer movement and consideration of market conditions. It was unanimously agreed by the representatives that it is desirable to change the dead wood capital into a live money capi- tal. The author thinks that every forester must agree to the _soundness of this general proposition. As a result of these dis- cussions a plan for 10 years was inaugurated, under which ex- traordinary fellings of one-third (about 10,000,000 cubic feet) above the regular budget were to be permitted with freedom to consider market conditions in the rapidity of fellings, the returns to be placed in the reserve funds; at the end of the period, if still a surplus of old stock were to be found, new provisions should be made. ‘The reserve fund was considered from the standpoint of general State finance rather than from that of sus- tained yield forest management. In arguing the proposition the plan was compared with a simi- lar in vogue for the State railroad administration, where, to even out the irregular financial results, a reserve fund is created. The author points out that the cases are different; that while in rail- roading continuously ups and downs occur, in the forest adminis- tration, a regular lawful rise of income is experienced—from one million in 1880 to over three and a half million dollars, the wood prices having in the last 50 years increased at an annual rate of 2 per cent. When it came to the execution of the law, which, it was de- termined, should first take the surplus in the Black Forest, it ap- peared that great uncertainty existed as to the actual surplus, and provisory felling budgets were made. In two years, however, it was found that not only the total permitted excess for the decade, but some 2 million cubic feet more had been cut due to unforeseen forced fellings, and from the Io million feet of excess fellings about 1 million dollars was in the reserve fund. A squabble then arose as to where the results of the 2 million excess cut should go, the forest administration claiming it for the reserve fund since it represented part of its stock capital, the legislature desiring to apply to the current budget, because of the financial stringency. A revision of the law has become necessary. 252 Forestry Quarterly. The author points out that the budgets for the II and III period are bound to fall short of the normal budget and that the reserve fund must be kept intact as capital for that emergency, a fund which is to equalize the uneven age class distribution. By such a fund the principle of the sustained yield is removed from the field of volume calculation to that of economic financial calcula- tion. Only the interest on that fund should serve as a balance wheel to the financial management. A discussion of the propriety of entering as parts of the cur- rent budget the results from fellings which occur in reducing the rotation, as is now usually done, leads to the request that such in- comes be devoted to intensifying the management by road build- ing etc. Der Reservefonds der witrttembergischen Staatsforsten. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1910. Pp, 29-36. ° Forstrat Keiper publishes a most interesting Working Plans account of a forest regulation work or work- of ing plan from the year 1787 for the count Olden Times. of Saarbriicken, near the French boundary, a district noted even in those days for its coal mines; then well wooded, now one of the most densely populated regions. In the early 18th century the iron industry flourished in these parts, supported by an apparently inexhaustible forest resource. One of these works was supplied with 5,000 cords of charcoal wood for about $200, while the coal miners secured their mine props free of charge. By the middle of the century the insufficiency of wood supplies became apparent; here as elsewhere the possibility of a local timber famine appears, and attempts to introduce coal and to regulate the cutting of wood were the result. The working plan for the Bexbacher Forest is laid down in a volume of 324 written pages, is accompanied by 11 maps, and contains a full description by compartments. Several extracts exhibit the quaint language of the time and the poor character of the woods. The questions were how long the existing wood supplies could furnish a pre-determined annual requirement, how large the increment in older and younger stands, when and to Periodical Literature. 253 what amounts the regenerated forest areas could be expected to assist in satisfying these demands. The necessities of the case led to the adoption of a 50 and 65 year rotation for timber forest, a 35 year rotation for coppice. Altogether some 40,000 acres were involved, nearly 10,000 in coppice, only 7,000 being old timber, the balance under 40 years, and mostly under 30 years. In the preface the author of the plan describes in detail the conditions economic and natural, and accentuates the need of for- estry as we are doing to-day. “Much of the welfare of a country depends on good forestry, per contra, by poor forest management not only are the revenues of the prince depressed, but his subjects are placed in need.” He complains of ‘“‘old oak stands which do not show an eighth of the increment which they would give if regenerated”; of the ‘‘open spots that should be planted,’”’ and recites some of the sowing he has done, asserting that the fine oak-beech stands of former times “‘are not there by accident, but have originated by sowings.” “This I state to show that timber planting is not a business in- vented in modern times but that we derive the greatest benefit from the diligence of our forefathers.” Forest improvement is to be found mostly in sowing and planting, and this must not be left to nature alone, plowing is necessary in many young felling areas and corn may be sowed with the tree seed. He discusses then the manner of felling. No general rule can be given how many trees to leave at first cutting. In some for- ests one-third, in others one-quarter is sufficient, in others only the smaller part should be cut. Later on, the number of over- holders is stated for given positions. The time for a second fell- ing can also not be laid down by rule. On good soils the young growth will stand the shade of the timber longer than on poor dry soil—a wise observation for the time. As a rule two or three years after the first felling the second should follow, and it is best to remove all timber at once in order to give rest to the young growth. Yet gradual fellings are not as disadvantageous as a long waiting for a full seeding. Other silvicultural questions are discussed at length in a quite modern spirit. Introducing the mathematical part of the plan, the author states: “I do not say, that he who does not know how to calculate a cube could not be a proper forester, but nobody who has to do with wood sales will 254 Forestry Quarterly. deny that cubing is quite necessary in forest management.” At that time prices were gauged by the span of the hand; an oak of 8 span brought 8 #., and the author takes pains to show that an oak of 16 span should not be sold at 16 #. because it contained four times the volume of the other. He determines the stand of the whole forest as 485,918 cords, and places the requirements for seven years with 387,456 cords. After the seven years the increment will be,only 1857 cords, and he comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to force the use of coal. Ein Nassau-Saarbriickisches Forsteinrichtungswerk aus dem Jahre 1787. pee nice Centralblatt. January, February, 1910. Pp. 1-19; 73, As a result of experiments with various Waterproof preparations Kaup finds that for making Maps. -maps waterproof, Dr. Fr. Schonfelder’s (Dusseldorf) water-color-varnish answers best. The varnish is applied with a spraying bottle to the colored parts; to the uncolored, with a soft hair brush. After 2 or 3 hours drying the map is ready for use, and in every respect satis- factory. To make additions it is only necessary to remove the varnish layer over the respective portions with alcohol, and to reapply the varnish afterwards. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1910. P. 61. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. For several months there has been a long Odd and detailed consideration of the use of odd Lengths. lengths which the American Lumberman states has brought out more discussion by lumbermen than any other subject has for years. The question is being favored by the National Lumber Manufacturer’s Associa- tion, several Pacific Coast manufacturers, the American Lumber- man, and the U. S. Forest Service while it is being strongly op- posed by many retail dealers, especially in the middle west. It is proposed to standardize odd lengths in the grading rules for western species in drop siding, flooring, ceiling, finishing and Periodical Literature. 255 bevel siding. The standard even lengths range from 6 to 20 feet and odd lengths are already accepted up to 10 feet long, i. e., 5, 7, and 9 feet. The additional lengths, then, would be 11, 13, 15, 17 and 19 feet. The arguments advanced in favor of the proposition are: 1. Odd lengths would favor forest conservation, allowing the occasional cutting of odd-length logs in the woods and trimming to odd lengths in the mill where even length ma- terial is defective or where taper allows boards to be cut from slabs. 2. Increases output of sawmill at a very slight increased cost of milling with no extra cost in stumpage or logging. 3. It has been the custom of many Pacific Coast mills for the last 3 to 9 years to cut odd lengths. A census shows that t19 mills are now following the practice and that the retailers and consumers of this region do not object to the practice. 4. The use of odd lengths has been favored by many asso- ciations for years and has been adopted by the National Hard- wood Association as shown on page 11 of their grading rules. ‘The practice has been followed very largely in hard- wood flooring, especially in basswood, birch and maple cut in Wisconsin. Odd lengths have been widely used and even demanded in New England where 5 foot clapboarding pre- vails. Cypress dealers quotes materia! 1 to 3 inches and wider from 12 to 22 inches long in official lists and find a ready sale for it. 7 s. Odd lengths will not affect more than 4% of the lum- ber supply since not more than 20% of all drop siding, floor- ing, ceiling, finishing and bevel siding ordered will be al- lowed in the odd lengths. Since not more than 20% of the present lumber is clear and only 20% of this amount can go into odd lengths it is estimated that these lengths never can be more than 4%. In answer to each of the above arguments the following objec- tions are raised: 1. Odd lengths will undoubtedly allow conservation in the woods and at the mill but for the most part it will be at an increased cost to the consumer since the carpenter will waste 256 Forestry Quarterly. more lumber in using odd lengths than he does at present in using even lengths. It is pointed out that odd lengths are obtainable in short pieces and that even lengths will allow the cutting of odd lengths wherever necessary; i. e., 12 foot material will cut into 5 and 7 foot boards or 16 foot material will be cut into 5 and g foot, but odd lengths cannot be cut into shorter even lengths or odd lengths, even if it should be desired by the carpenter. It is also held by the retailers that most of the trimming now performed in the mills is due to the desire to raise grades and make more money for the manufacturer than could be made by less strict trimming. 2. The saving to the manufacturer is apparent, but this saving will be more than offset by the increased cost to the retailer in handling and selling. Odd lengths will necessitate more complex book accounts, more bins and sorting stalls in the retail sheds and a larger stock for the same demand. This expense it is claimed will more than offset the saving to the manufacturer and will be at the expense of the retailer and consumer. 3. Odd lengths may be used under local conditions on the Pacific Coast but conditions in the middle west demand a larger per cent. of even lengths. Undoubtedly many odd lengths may be used and have been but a very large per cent. of them would be cut from even lengths in any case. 4. In answer to argument number 4 it is claimed that the Hardwood Association used odd lengths for interior material while the present proposal is for lumber that is largely used for structural purposes. It should be remembered that the hardwood material is end matched and that the hardwood floors are laid on underfloors of another material thus allow- ing the use of any length of hardwood without a weak joint. It is also claimed that the use of short and odd length cypress and short piece, odd length clapboards are not strong argu- ments in favor of the species and material which come from the Pacific Coast to the middle west. 5. All architectural plans are usually based on even lengths in the spacing of rafters, joists, etc., so that odd lengths would not be economical even for their respective spans. lf it is economic for the kinds of material now under considera- tion it should be so for all other classes of lumber. More- Periodical Literature. 257 over the short pieces in odd lengths, as 5, 7, and g feet, are now sold to the retailer at a smaller price per board foot than the even lengths and although there is more profit in handling such material it sells slowly and is much more difficult to handle. In the new arrangement there would not be a de- ‘creased cost to the retailer in odd lengths as there is at pres- ent. 6. It is aimed to charge for odd lengths the same as though such lengths were one foot longer and belonged to the even foot classes. This is manifestly unfair. Many tables and exhibits are shown by the various writers to prove their respective sides of the question. There can be little doubt that the use of odd lengths will increase but it does not seem adivisable to insist that a middle west dealer shall accept 20% in odd lengths unless there is a demand for such material and that practice shows the use to be economical. American Lumberman. Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec., 1909 and Jan. IgIo. Large quantities of Longleaf Pine are being Use used for structural purposes as a substitute of Species for White Pine and Norway pine while hem- In Ontario, lock is coming into much more extensive use because cheaper than northern pine. The use of hardwoods for flooring is more exten- sive than formerly; oak, maple and birch being used principally. Underfloors are often of southern pine. Cypress is used to some extent for doors and sash in place of White Pine. Spruce from Nova Scotia is also used for floors. Oak is preferred for high class furniture but owing to high prices and the necessity for importing from the United States greater dependence is being put on the large supplies of native birch. Ash and elm are used where early English style is used. Poplar is the principal wood for piano cases on which veneers of Mahogany, Black Walnut, Circassian Walnut, oak and other cabi- net woods are used. American Lumberman. Dec. 18, 1909. P. 209. 258 Forestry Quarterly. This problem has been rendered simpler by Handling the use of cableways. In times past it was Hardwood Logs the custom to yard hardwood logs around at the Mill. the mill and haul them by horses when needed. Since recent operations require sawing well into winter it is necessary that the mill have a hot pond to thaw out the logs and wash out grit. The cableway system allows a rapid and cheap transfer of logs from cold pond to hot pond, from yard to hot pond or directly from cars to the log chain of the mill. Since hot ponds fill up rapidly with dirt and bark it has been necessary to shut down the mill, drain the pond and clean by hand once or twice a year. The cableway system allows cleaning of the pond without stopping the mill or draining the pond at a cost of one-fifth the old method. Logs can be decked in the yard to great heights by this system amd so save yard space. Hardwood Record. Oct. 25, 1909. Pp. 24-25. Mahogany, according to Dr. John Gifford, Mahogany occurs in [Florida south of Biscayne Bay Supplies. and in the Everglades over a territory fully as large as the State of Delaware. The for- est types in this region are pineland, hummock and mangrove swamp with the mahogany occurring on the hummucks as a climax forest. The hummock usually is of limestone origin and has a rich, reddish soil while calcareous sandstone which is com- mon in this region is poor in quality and supports Carribean pine largely. Mahogany is seldom shipped from Florida or the Bahamas because of local demand. No mahogany grows in Porto Rico and little in Jamaica. Cuba and Santo Domingo have most of the supplies, but Cuba’s forests are already badly depleted and it is expected that most of the timber will be needed on the island. At present the Cubans are practically trading mahogany for our southern yellow pine. Santo Domingo is the least developed of the islands and contains the largest and best supplies of the species. Even here where the timber is plentiful it costs $30 per thousand to deliver mahogany at the ship’s side. Trees can be bought at 25 cents to $1 per tree according to size and location. Periodical Literature. 259 The principal exports from Domingo are cedar, mahogany, lig- num vitae, lancewood, fustic, greenheart and mora. Most of the timber is dragged by using bulls but the more intelligent operators use a two wheeled cart. Paths have to be cleared and wagon roads are too expensive for small projects. “Where Mahogany Grows in Florida and the West Indies.’ Wood Craft. October, 1909. Pp. 19-22. A report of Forstrat Eulefeld to an associa- Forestry tion of forest owners contains several data and of interest on the relation of the mining in- Mining dustry to forest supplies. We learn that in im the 70 years since 1837 the output of coal in Germany. Germany has increased from 20 million to 2740 million hundred weight, with a corre- sponding increase in wood consumption, and, in turn, making valu- able small dimensions which formerly furnished only cheap fuel- wood, and thereby making forestry more profitable in the mining districts. Substitution of iron has not proved itself practicable, iron being too heavy to handle, too difficult to shape in the mine, and not elastic enough. Durability which formerly controlled the choice of wood for mine timbers does not any more play first role; light weight, cheapness and “Warnfahigkeit,” i. e., the property of giving warning of collapse (result of elasticity?) rule the choice now in the extensive rapid operations, when the wood becomes useless before rotting, Spruce props are the most satisfactory and in good air are as durable as pine, which latter are, however, superior in poor air, the former excels especially in warning quality, but is more ex- pensive on account of competition with pulp wood users. Oak, formerly almost exclusively used, is now discredited on account of expense, which led to the use of immature sapwood material. Treated wood is objected to because as stated durability is of secondary importance and the creosote makes it objectionable to handle. Ventilation is the best means to delay decay. In some of the mines of the Saar district the consumption is about 1.5 cubic feet per ton of coal, which leads to an estimate of a total consumption in Germany of 250 million cubic feet. This - 17 260 Forestry Quarterly. wood consumption represents about 12% of the total cost of pro- ducing I ton of coal. About 80 per cent. of the mine timbers have a middle diameter of less than 7 inches. The extent of the mine timber market was such as to specialize the trade, and in 1904 a trust was formed by 65 of the most extensive dealers, but later, defections and the independent purchases by the mining com- panies, and Russian importations have kept prices below excess. Large quantities come from the Eastern provinces by rail under reduced freight rates, allowed until 1911 for the timber killed by the “nun.” The Russian trade began in 1906 after the war, and in 1908 amounted to over 10 million cubic feet, the wood being floated to St. Petersburg or Riga and transported by vessel up the Rhine. Apparently a calculation leads to the conclusion that this wood from Russia, two-thirds to three-quarters pine, cannot be laid down at the mine for less than 15 cents per cubic foot, to which the handler should add another cent for profit. Yet, the actual sale price remains below 13 cents, differences in the measure at the mine and in the woods explaining the discrepancy. The home grown wood costs the handler about 7 cents to de- liver and, to make a living, he can not afford to pay more than 5 cents to the forest owner, and make one cent profit, while the author calculates that it costs in the average 4.7 cents to produce a cubic foot at 3% profit. Some reflections on the possibilities of cheapening the produc- tion of wood by return to natural regeneration conclude the in- teresting article. Eine Reise ins Grubengebiet Westdeutschlands. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. January, 1910. Pp. 9-16. An article in a journal at Paramaribo Mangrove brings an interesting reference to the trade as which has sprung up with Mangrove bark Tan Material. and extract for tanning, On Dutch Borneo at Pontianak, the Tannadine Company, established in 1903, produces 250 tons extract; the Simpang Co. (1907) 50 tons monthly. On Sumatra, a German firm, in Eng- lish Borneo three firms are engaged in the same trade. The value of the extract is only about $60 per ton. The extract which is sold in 100 pound packages goes under various names, tanna- Periodical Literature. 261 dine, tannoid, saractan, etc., and is specially shipped to England, where it is used for the cheaper grades of sole leather. Four to five tons of bark makes one ton of extract, the bark containing 25.6% tannin. The bark, if carefully removed, renews itself like that of cork oak. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. January, 1910. P. 40. In a series of investigations by Rudeloff into Wood Quality the technical qualities of wood from dif- and ferent localities spruce from Eastern Locality. Prussia, and from the Harz ‘mountains was tested. The conclusion is that what differ- ences there were found could not be assigned to the influence of site conditions, but were due to accidental differences of growth. Certainly the wood from the northeastern locality was found in no way inferior. Untersuchungen iiber die Qualitat von Fichtenholz aus dem Harz und aus Ostpreussen. Zeitschrift fur Forst-u. Jagdwesen. January, 1910. Pp. 43-48. Oak ties in the mountains of Kentucky and Price West Virginia realize 63 cents f. o. b. cars. of In northern Indiana, southern Michigan, Railroad Ties. | and Ohio white oak ties bring 8 to 12 cents more, and red oak ties Io to 15 cents less. This while the market is not brisk. The 63 cents represent about 124 cents per cubic foot of log material. American Lumberman. 1910, February 19. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail- Railroad Ties road is importing railroad ties from Hawaii from and Japan under a contract which calls for the Orwent. the delivery of g00,000 ties by January I, 1910. The ties from Japan are locally known as Japanese white oak and are cut in the northern part of that country while the ties from Hawaii are known as red oak. The railroad officials object to giving exact figures of cost but this has been estimated at 80 cents per tie, which includes une- qual cost, freight charges and duty. The present duty of Japa- 262 Forestry Quarterly. nese cross ties is 10 per cent. ad valorem and amounts to 7 cents per tie. This would make the purchase price equal to 35 cents per tie. These ties are to be used as replacements for redwood which is said to be ideal where dry conditions prevail but rots rapidly where there is moderate moisture. American Lumberman. Nov. 27, 1909. P. 4I. In the early part of 1906 the American Lum- Building berman compiled statistics which showed Logging there were 1460 logging railroads in the Railroads, United States with an average length of 20 miles each, or a total of 30,000 miles. The cost was estimated to be somewhere between $5,000 and $10,000 per mile. Where logging roads are constructed through areas which have little or no agricultural value the tendency has been to build them as cheaply as possible. This expense is relatively "high since the cost of surveying, grading, bridges, ties has been an entire loss while there is a large loss in remaining equipment. Experience has shown, however, that the logging road should be given more consideration than it has, and that the lumbermen, so far as possible, should try to build these roads so that they will have a permanent value in carrying commodities other than logs. The initial investment will be higher but outside capital will be more easily obtained. American Lumberman. Nov. 13, 1909. P. 28. Russia’s principal export centers are Riga, Russian Windau, Libau, Pernau and Reval. Riga Lumber is said to export about one-fifth the total Exports. amount and this city is well located for such trade because nine-tenths of the timber re- ceived is rafted from the western branch of the Duna. Other centers are compelled to obtain most of their supplies by rail. Water transportation also favors the local timber workers since they can purchase raw material in small amounts. However, Baltic ports are developing rapidly because of better facilities for storing and handling lumber than those of northern Russia. More than half of the lumber exported from the Baltic district goes to Great Britain while Germany, Belgium and Holland also Periodical Literature. 263 receive supplies in the order named. The principal uses for the export timber are building material, mine lumbers, pulp, coopers staves and oak wood for ceiling. Round spruce logs are ex- ported in large quantities. American Lumberman. Nov. 27, 1909. P. 41. During the past year Chicago has received Chicago 2,584,512,000 board feet of lumber which as a is the record year in the history of this Distributing Center. great market. This is an increase of 2.6% over the amount handled in 1908. Approxi- mately 15% of the total receipts came by water while none was distributed by this means. A yearly table is given of the receipts and shipments since 1850 with a monthly table of the amounts of schingles and of lumber handled by water and the principal railroads since 1900. American Lumberman. Jan. 8, 1910. P. 30-31. It is curious that the metal railroad tie has Metal not been able to find favor in the United Railroad States. In Germany in the year 1907 the Ties. production of metal ties was 494,000 tons at a value of nearly $15 million, two-thirds of which were used at home. The Mexican railways use a metal tie of 110 Ibs. weight. Ninety per cent. of the ties used there have been in the roadbed for 24 years, the dryness of the climate accounting for the long life. Italy has lately undertaken some trials with 400,000 railroad ties of reinforced concrete. Trials in Hungary with this type of tie do not seem to have been promising and a return to wooden ties has been the result. Silva, 1910. No. 1, p.4; No. 4, p. 20. STATISTICS AND HISTORY. From the report for 1909 of the federal Swiss Department of the Interior, which exer- Forestry. cises stipervisory powers over public forest administrations, the following data may be of interest. There are 195 higher grade foresters employed, who require a 264 Forestry Quarterly. scientific education. The federal government contributed $52,000 to the salaries of cantonal and municipal forest officers of higher degree (about 25% of the total salaries) and $31,000 (about 15%) to the salaries of underforesters, some 1091. Some dozen forestry courses of two to eight weeks duration each, and of varying degrees were given in as many places. The total area of forest in Switzerland is reported as 2,220,000 acres, none of which is owned by the federal government. The cut in the public (cantonal and municipal) forests (which represent 71.5% ) was 66,682,000 cubic feet, or hardly 43 cubic feet per acre. Some 75,000 were placed under new or revised working plans. Over 700 acres nurseries are in existence. Over 22 million plants were set out. Some $82,000 were spent on roads and wire rope ways, to which the federal government contributed 20 per cent. New forest road projects to the amount of $130,000 were sanctioned, with a similar subvention. Some $115,000 were spent for reboisement work, to which the federal treasury contributed two thirds, and projects to the amount of $200,000 with a similar subvention were sanctioned. The government pays also a subvention of $1,000 to the Foresters Association, and $200 to the Underforesters’ Association. Silva, toro.:) No: 4.2.42) (p:20. Some of our modern foresters are inclined History to think that forest finance is a child of of modern birth. This could be said perhaps Forest of the methods, but hardly of the operation Finance. as is shown by Prof. Hausrath, who relates the details of two finance calculations made in the Palatinate, the one in 1767, the other in 1801. The first dealt with over 5,000 acres under polewood manage- ment in 20 to 50 year rotation, and attempts to determine the forest rent value. To be sure, not only administration and cul- tural expense, but the value of the stock on hand and its variations from the normal age class conditions were neglected in the calcu- lation. The interest rate chosen was 5%, but one critic recommended Periodical Literature. 265 only 4%, and the government counselor proposed to reduce the rent by one-third, to make the calculation safe; the difficulty of choosing a forestal interest rate being even then fully realized. The 5,500 acres figured a capital value varying from $16 to $32 per acre, making the rent at 5% vary between 80 cents and $1.60. In the other calculation, the mature and nearly mature stands which could soon (in 5 to 20 years) be utilized wherever natural regeneration appeared possible, were figured together with the , soil as capital represented in their sale value, or as the capitalized value of the average increment at felling age. Capitalization here was calculated with 4%. The following results may be interesting to note. Management. Rotation. Rent Value. Total Value. Beech forest 80 42.60 92.40 Beech forest 90 23.80 59.80 Pine forest 50 39.40 50.90 Coppice with standards 35 28.30 47.70 Oak coppice 20 15.60 15.60 Perhaps the first attempt to calculate a stand cost value was made in 1801 in connection with an exchange transaction, when a 12-year old pine forest was valued by allowing Io Ibs. of seed to the acre, charging the harrowing and adding 4 per cent. simple interest for 12 years. Zur Geschichte der Waldwertrechnung. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jadgzeit- ung. March, 1910. Pp. 77-79. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. MISCELLANEOUS. Besides the University of Oxford, to which England's the Indian School of Cooper’s Hill was Forest transferred in 1905, not less than nine other Schools. institutions provide systematic courses. In addition, two Crown Forests are being worked as demonstration areas. This increase in facilities is mainly due to the report of a committee of the Board of Agricul- ture and Fisheries in 1902 urging provision for systematized in- struction in forestry. For a small country, in which the practice 266 Forestry Quarterly. of forestry is in its infancy, and almost entirely confined to estate management, this number of educational institutions is as- tonishing. Forestry Education in Great Britain. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture. March, 1910. Pp. 969-981. The mere sale of pouiaa permits in Prussia netted in 1908-9 over $600,000. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, 1910,— Forest Problems in the Philippines. Pp. 75-81; 149-154. * An account of the forest conditions and forest problems of these islands, and the work being done by the Bureau of Forestry. Forestry Beginnings in Vermont. Pp. 82-87. A discussion of the policy being developed along the lines of fire prevention and educational propaganda. A New Cypress for Arizona. Pp. 88-90. A description of Cupressus glabra, Sudw. Grazing Leases in Australasia. Pp. 101-103. Gives principal features of grazing systems at present in force. The Effect of the Forest Upon Waters. Pp. 156-173. An importnat contribution to this much discussed subject. Checking Floods in the French Alps. Pp. 199-206. An account of the engineering methods. The influence of Forests on Climate and Floods, Pp. 2009- 240. Critical discussions of Prof. W. L. Moore’s report. Other Periodical Literature. 267 Forest Leaves, XII,— Through What Agencies can the Restoration and Conserwa- tion of Our Forests be Secured. Pp. 107-110; 121-124. Common Insects Destructive to Forest Trees. Pp. 116-110. Canadian Forestry Journal, VI,— Meeting of the Commission of Conservation. Pp. 18-27. Irrigation and Irrigation Development in Canada. Pp. 32- 35. The Indian Forester, 1910,— The Jequié Manicoba Rubber Tree of Brazil. Pp. 1-9. The Timbers of Commerce—Present and Possible Future Source of Supply. Pp. 9-25. A very interesting resumé, by species. Scottish Afforestation. Pp. 25-34. Discusses the English afforestation scheme from Scotland's standpoint. New Fibres for Paper. Pp. 34-46; 102. A general discussion relating mainly to bamboo and various grasses. Quarterly J ournal of Forestry, 1910,— Coppice-with-Standards in the North of France. Pp. 93- 105. An account of the management of the forests of St. Amand (8,190 acres) and Raismes (3,500 acres). Notes on North American Forestry. Pp. 113-119. Impressions of a brief trip to Canada and the Southern Ap- palachians, U. S. The Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, 1910,— Prohibition of Maritime Pulpwood Export. Pp. 83-84; 80. Recent government news from Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick and Quebec. bo ON 0/8) Forestry Quarterly. The Production of Acetates from Esparto and Soda Wood Pulp Liquors. Pp. 86-87. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVI,— Distribution of the Larch Sawfly in Great Britain. Pp. 981-991. Forestry Law in Switzerland. Pp. 1019-1020. Gives some of the provisions of the Forestry Law of the Canton of Vaud, as an example of the working of the Swiss Federal Law of 1902. Quarterly Bulietin of the Canadian Mining Institute, No. 9, 1910,— Protection of Mine Timbers from Fungus. Pp. 25-27. Advocates the use of common salt. The Minnesota Forester, III,— How Italy Does It. Pp. 31. How Switzerland Does It. Pp. 31-3. This and the preceding, statistical. Forestry in Minnesota. Pp. 39-44. Statistics and policy. The Philippine Journal of Science: Botany, IV,— Index to Philippine Botanical Literature. Pp. 677-685. The fifth of this valuable series. Studies in the Vegetation of the Philippines: I. The Com- position and Volume of the Dipterocarp Forests. Pp. 699- 723- The Ohio Naturalist, X,— The Bacterial Flora as a Factor in the Unproductiveness of Soils. Pp. 137-145. The Botanical Gazette, XLIX,— On the Origin of the Broad Ray in Quercus, Pp. 161-167. By the compounding of uniseriate rays. Other Periodical Literature. 269 Canada Lumberman, 1910 — The Foresier’s Value to the Lumberman. March 15, p. 22; April 1, p. 24; April 15, p. 22. Queen’s Quarterly, XVII,— The Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen and the Food Sup- ply. Pp. 297-304. NEWS AND NOTES. The International Committee for the publication of the Bibliog- raphy of Forestry, Professor Dr. Buhler, of Tiibingen, President, under the auspices of the International Association of Forest Ex- periment Stations, has arranged with the Swiss Federal Council for the preparation of the manuscripts and the editing of the work at the expense of the Swiss government. Thereby the principal difficulty of the work is overcome. There are two publications contemplated, namely, a separate catalogue in book from for all publications prior to 1911, running back to 1750; and a current catalogue for all publications subse- quent to 1911 on cards by authors and subjects. The title of each paper, journal reference etc. are to be published in the original language, but for articles published in other than English, French or German a translation into one of these three languages is to be furnished. Subscribers will receive the cards quarterly or oftener. Besides regular subscription to the whole work, yearly subscriptions to single chapters, e. g. silviculture may be had; also the cards re- ferring to any small heading of the classification can be ordered. The price for the annual subscription will be about $10 for white cards, $8 for brown paper, double for both author and subject classification, assuming that about 3,000 cards are to be issued annually. If less are issued, a corresponding reduction, if more, an increase is provided. In order to set the work in motion a sufficient number of sub- scribers must be secured. An appeal is made to all foresters, libraries, etc. to declare willingness to subscribe. For the volume, which is estimated to contain 60,000 references and which will cost in the neighborhood of $6,000, in order to keep the sale price within reasonable limits, an appeal for contri- butions to cover the expected deficit is made to Forestry Associa- tions and other interested circles. It is expected that the prepara- tion of this volume will take five years and hence the contribu- tions, it is suggested, may be distributed over that period. The interest of our American foresters to help this good work on is strongly urged. News and Notes. 271 During the coming fiscal year the Secretary of Agriculture 1s to approve the maximum cut in M. ft. B. M. on each National Forest. This maximum can not be exceeded without special au- thority and will insure the conservative use of natural resources. Each of the six Districts in the West are in addition engaged in estimating the amount of growing stock now on the ground. While so far only tentative figures are available, yet gradually it is hoped to estimate and map all watersheds and their stock of mer- chantable Government timber in the West. At the present actual reconnaissance estimating is furthest advanced in District 3, which includes Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Florida. On June 1 the merchantable saw-timber on the following Forests will have been estimated: Coconino, one-half of the Sitgreaves, one-sixth of the Apache-Prescott Division of the Prescott; Gal- linas Division of the Lincoln, one-third of the Pecos, Manzano, Arkansas, and Choctawhatchee. Reconnaissance was commenced in District 3 during the field season of 1908, and it is expected by the end of the field season of 1912 the sawtimber in the entire Dis- trict will have been estimated. During March 1 to 3, there was held at the State Capitol in Har- risburg the third annual convention of Pennsylvania Foresters. The attendance consisted of the State Commissioners of Forestry, the members of State Foresters’ Service, representatives of Penn- sylvania State College and of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and the interested public. The convention opened with an address by Gov- ernor Edwin S. Stuart, who expressed his belief in forestry as an essential feature of good State policy. Papers read by those in charge of the State forests formed the bulk of the proceedings. The discussions aroused by these were of interest and profit. Ten Pennsylvania State College students of forestry spent the Easter vacation between March 23 and April 6 in the forest plan- tations of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Conewago and Kinzer, Pa., engaged in pruning the locust trees, which form the overstory in the stands at those places, and in planting red-oak and Scotch- pine seedlings where ground fires had killed these species in the understory. Thirty thousand trees were pruned by the students, working a total of 800 hours at a cost of $120. Eighteen thou- sand of them had been originally planted 6’ x 6’ in 1905, while 272 Forestry Quarterly. 12,000 were set out 10’ x 10’ in 1904. They now average 1150 and 420 trees per acre, respectively. The former cost to prune $3 per acre, the latter $2, in round figures. The University of Montana, besides its regular forestry courses, which “are designed to furnish ample instruction in the more fundamental subjects of an education in forestry,’ provides courses of three months duration for rangers of the Forest Ser- vice. The program includes: Dendrology, 2 hours; Silviculture, 2 hours; Surveying and Drafting, 4 hours; Geology, 1 hour; Lumbering, 1 hour; Measurements, 2 hours; Timber Sales and Plantings, 1 hour; Grazing, 1 hour. In addition the District En- gineer of the Service is to deliver lectures on the engineering work most frequently required in the administration of forest lands, trails, roads, bridges, telephone lines, etc. COrrespondence Courses for home study in Agriculture, Horti- culture, Poultry Culture, Domestic Science and Nature Study are now provided by the South Dakota State College at Brookings, with a view of bringing scientific and practical instruction within the reach of those who cannot attend college, yet are ambitious to gain instruction helpful in their work and life. Four systematic courses are offered in Horticulture covering the subjects: 1. Vegetable Gardening. 2. Fruit culture. 3. Floricul- ture. 4. Forestry. Dr. Schenck’s Forest School has spent the first winter season in Germany with Darmstadt as headquarters, making excursions to various parts of southwest Germany. The school returned to the United States on April 9, and it is now located near the former Cornell tract in the Adirondacks. Mr. Austin Cary has resigned his position as superintendent of State forests under the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York, partly on account of ill-health, and Mr. Clifford R. Pettis, F. E., Cornell, 1902, has succeeded to the position. Mr. G. Morris Homans, who had been Assistant District For- ester in charge of Silviculture at the San Francisco office of the U.S. Forest Service, has succeeded Mr. G. B. Lull as State For- News and Notes. 273 ester of California. Mr. C. H. Sellers, who was one of Mr. G. B. Lull’s assistants while the latter was State Forester of California, has followed him into the service of the North American Hard- wood Timber Company, and has charge of its eucalypt nursery at Fruit Ridge, near Sacramento. Mr. G. W. Peavy, formerly of the U. S. Forest Service, has ac- cepted the chair of forestry in the Oregon Agricultural College. Mr. Peavy is a graduate of the University of Michigan and has been prominently identified with forest planting since he became a member of the Forest Service. Development in the forest work of New Jersey seems to be evi- denced by the advertisement of an examination for the position of Assistant State Forester. Candidates must be professional for- esters, with good practical experience; but only $1,000 salary is offered. In order to succeed in doing on a small scale what lack of men as well as money makes impossible throughout the public forests in the Philippine Islands, the Bureau of Forestry there has under- taken intensive study and careful administration on a tract in Northern Negros and another in Bataan. The operations on these tracts are expected to furnish practical experience in the woods for student-rangers, volume and growth tables, and the silvical data essential to a proper administration of Philippine forests. On April 24th a prairie fire burned nearly 200 acres of the forest plantation area in the Government planting near Halsey, Nebr. The plantations are everywhere protected by double fire guards approximately 2 rods broad and at least 100 to 300 feet apart. These fire guards are harrowed each season, yet the use of these fire guards and backfiring did not prevent loss. A subse- quent fire which occurred during a wind of 30 to 4o miles per hour destroyed the planting at North Platte, Nebr., where the Forest Service and the Nebraska Experiment Station are codper- ating. The results of these fires show that adequate fire protec- tion is essential for successful forest growth in the sandhills of Nebraska, and that securing such protection will be difficult and costly. New methods of fire protection are essential and will be tried this season. 274 Forestry Quarterly. The Canadian Provinces this year have been active in amend- ing their timberland administrations. It cannot be said that this was done so much with a view of a conservative treatment as to secure a greater revenue and for other fiscal reasons. The government of Quebec has copied Ontario’s policy of re- quiring all wood cut on limits, pulpwood included, to be manufac- tured in Canada; the annual ground rent is made $5, which is not to be increased until Sept. 1, 1910, except for those who do not operate their limits, foreshadowing a possible increase; the trans- fer bonus is $4 per square mile, the mischievous right not only to transfer but to mortgage the license being recognized by remis- sion of such transfer fee; diameter limits of 13 inch for pine and other trees of 8 inch at 2 feet from ground. The Nova Scotia government has taken power from the legis- lature to prohibit export of pulpwood or other crown lands timber, if deemed expedient; also a provision for the establishment of forest reserves and the appointment of a Provincial Land Sur- veyor to reorganize the survey system which is badly needed. The forest survey begun last year is to be finished this summer. In New Brunswick the question of preventing export of pulp- wood from Crown lands was the subject of a resolution in the legislature which had in view to permit the government to act if it saw fit. A very important change has taken place in Ontario. The stumpage dues for the old licenses have been increased to $1.50 while those paying $2 now remain unaffected; the ground rents have been changed all round from $3 to $5. At the same time, the government has pledged itself not to increase the dues and ground rent for a period of ten years. Tranfer dues of leases have been increased from $1 to $5 a mile; the dues on square timber from $20 to $50 per M cubic feet. There is no doubt these changes are justifiable, indeed, greater increases might have been made for a 10-year campaign. The feature of the new regulations, however, which is regrettable is the abandonment of the cooperative fire protection system. Hence- forth the limit holders are to range their limits without the goy- ernment’s assistance and pay, even for the inspection service. This is shirking public duty, and since the limit holder can be interested only in the standing merchantable timber, no incentive News and Notes. 275 to protect the slashed areas of young growth existing, the future is left without protection. The British Columbia Commission instituted to investigate the timber and forestry questions presented an interim report in Jan- uary, recommending that licenses be renewable from year to year as long as merchantable timber remains on the property, instead of the 21 year limit; but the removal of timber within a fixed time on lands fit for farming. The most successful forestry convention under the auspices of the Canadian Forestry Association was held in Fredericton, N. B., on Feb. 23 and 24. The presence of a large number of lumber- men and the practical tone of the papers presented were the note- worthy features. Two ilustrated lectures, one by Mr. A. Knechtel, Inspector of Forest Reserves, the other by Mr. James Lawler, Sec- retary of the Association, were attended by overflowing audiences. The various resolutions calling for an increase of responsibility and of means of protection against forest fires were subsequently ratified by the annual meeting of the Association in Ottawa. 5 Ontario’s total revenue from woods and forests during the ten months ending October 31st, 1909, was $885,892.44 made up as follows: bonus, $285,571.41; Timber Dues, $529,422.50; Ground Rent, $68,528.53; Transfer Fees, $2,370.00. The revenue from timber dues is for ten months only, and, as many of the accounts did not fall due until December Ist, are small as compared with some other years. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries of London, England, has been engaged in investigating the extent to which the larch trees of Great Britain have been attacked by Erichson’s larch sawfly, which was discerned in Cumberland four years ago. Its attacks cover a large area in northwest England, part of Wales and the southern half of Scotland. As great damage has been done in continental Europe and in America by this pest, the Board has, under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act of 1908, made it compulsory for all occupiers of woods in which the sawfly exists to report its presence to the Board, but owing to ignorance on the part of many owners and occupiers of plantations as to the ap- pearance of the insect, and of the damage it causes, very few 18 276 Forestry Quarterly. reports have been received. The Board, therefore, is issuing a memorandum on the subject, describing the insect and the appear- ance of infected larch shoots, and explaining in what way re- ports should be submitted. The New South Wales Government with the intention of con- serving the existing forest reserves and providing for their re- generation and treatment in the interests of natural reafforesta- tion, has passed a Forestry Bill creating a department and extend- ing the principle of issuing licenses. The Government is em- powered to grant exclusive rights to work large areas. All saw- mills must be licensed, and power is given for the proclamation of comprehensive regulations embracing all phases of forest man- agement. The Government forest reserves in the coastal and central districts make an aggregate of upwards of 7,000,000 acres cofitaining large supplies of magnificent hardwoods and orna- mental soft timber. From a report of the New Zealand Department of Lands it appears that out of a total area of 66,568,876 acres in New Zea- land, about 17,074,000 acres are still covered with forest; in 1886 the forest area was estimated at 21,197,000 acres. It is estimated that there is growing within the Crown and State forests, and on private and native freehold lands, a gross total of about 33,000,- 000,000 sup. ft. of timber that is, or may eventually prove, suitable for commercial requirements. The output of sawn timber for the year 1908 amounted to 413,868,919 sup. ft. and will probably ad- vance to an average of from 450,000,000 to 500,000,000 sup. ft. for the next fifty years. The stock of trees in the State nurseries and plantations amounted on March 31, 1909, to 47,835,217, of which 6,231,479 had been planted during the previous year. Although a very large proportion of the trees planted out in the various areas will not reach maturity owing to repeated thinning, yet it is expected that a sufficient number will attain full size to produce an appreciable quantity of milling timber in 50 to 60 years from the present time, and that each successive year will produce a further supply to assist in meeting the current demand. News and Notes. 277 In the Mississaga forest reserve, Ontario, the timber damaged by fires in 1909 is put down as seventy-five million feet. The fire which injured the reserve came up from licensed lands to the south, and it was found impossible to ascertain the cause of the fire or fix the responsibility for it. Small quantities of red and white pine, both crown and private property, on the Temagami reserve were also damaged. During the coming season the Forestry Branch of the Depart- ment of the Interior, Canada, will have six survey parties in the field, each to consist of a forester-in-charge, three assistant for- esters and a cook. Of these parties two will be in the railway belt in British Columbia, two on the eastern slope of the Rockies, and two on the route on the Hudson Bay Railway. The work of tree distribution from the Forest Nursery at Indian Head will be continued as in former years. The number of fire rangers will be considerably increased. A new timber preservative called cresol-calcium has been in- vented by two Swedish railway engineers. It is claimed to be cheaper than any other preservative and less inflammable. The Forest Service continues its useful news service. Among the subjects treated we note a history of the naval store industry ending up with reference to the Herty system, under which now one-seventh of the entire output of naval stores is secured; a search for pencil wood, the supplies of red cedar which so far has furnished the 325,000,000 pencils annually is giving out; forest fire statistics for 1908 in the National Forests, amounting to a loss of only $300,000 worth of timber, although the year was drouthy and disastrous fires were the rule elsewhere, the cost of fire fight- ing besides salaries being $73,283; reference to the more liberal treatment of squatters in National Forests; the development of San Pedro, California, as a lumber shipping port, some 900,000,- ooo feet, nearly three times as much as Chicago, being hauled; the use of hickory, of which over 330 million feet are consumed worth $12 per M.; an agreement between the Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railroads and the Department of Agricul- ture for more efficient fire patrol, which includes clearing of the 278 Forestry Quarterly. right of way to 200 feet, spark arresters, and close co-operation in fire fighting; manufacture of odd lengths, in which it is shown that in the average of the cases investigated in Oregon and Wash- ington, the loss due to use of even lengths only is over two per cent. which on an output of 750,000,000 feet figures out 15,000,000 loss. COMMENT. The notes on a forester’s education by the director of the Eric Forest School, at Duxbury, Mass., printed in this issue, are much to the point, namely, in recognizing that various degrees and dif- ferent kinds of ability are required to build out a practical pro- fession. This variety may be secured through separate schools of differ- ent degree, or it may be supplied in one and the same institution. We have such varied schools, and at the University of Toronto at least, the three different classes of students referred to by Mr. Knapp, are provided for. Besides the regular four year under- graduate course, there is a six year course, which broadens out not on the forestry side but on the general intellectual development, with a view of giving the men power for advanced work, speciali- zation, and especially for representative positions. There are also admitted Special Students, older men from business and farm life, who without the required academic standing and without aspira- tions to the academic degree, are specially fitted to fill practical positions in the forest. They are attending the same lectures as the others, but do not need to fully satisfy the requirements for the degree. The need for some practical work during the academic course in order to bring the theoretical teaching into relation with the practical application can be sufficiently satisfied, as it is in Toronto, by occasional excursions during the academic session, a ten-day sojourn in a lumber camp, and a four-weeks practice work in the woods with instructors, after the academic session, for either two or three seasons. Adding to this summer employment on sur- veys or other forest work, and the introduction to practice, if not ideal, can be considered satisfactory. To be sure, “lack of other essential qualities’ as in any other profession prevents a certain proportion of students from ever attaining professional value, no matter what the preparation. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- uates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma. The Summer School of Forestry is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 1910 will open early in July and continue seven weeks. For further information, address HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut The University of Toronto and University College Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry. The Faculty of Forestry offers a four year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on application to W.C.SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, Mass. ERIC FOREST SCHOOL Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213 Preparatory course in FORESTRY leading to the Biltmore and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of leadership. SUMMER CLASS; also TUTORING. F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director Economics of Forestry A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Professional and Lay Students By B. E. Fernow, LL. D. 12 mo., $1.50 ze¢. By mail, $1.65 “It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with American conditions.”’ EDWARD M. SHEPARD, New York. “IT find it, as expected, meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for. Pror. F. Rotu, University of Michigan. ‘‘T have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment.” Pror. Dr. ScHwappacH, Eberswalde, Germany. For sale by T. Y. CROWELL & CO., New York. MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN By AUSTIN CARY. Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge, 1910; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00. A newly revised and improved edition of the above publica- tion, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can be had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass. JUST FROM THE PRESS A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORESTRY In Europe, United States, and other countries BY Bemhard E. Fernow UNIVERSITY PRESS, TORONTO Price $2.50 Postpaid To be ordered from the University Press, Univer- sity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Those who are in possesssion of incomplete advance copies can have the revised and missing parts supplied by sending 50 cents to the above address, or to Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass. Back Numbers FORESTRY QUARTERLY For Sale at 50 cents per Number Address Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard St., Cambridge, Mass. Forest Tree Seeds NATIVE AND FOREIGN SPECIES All Guaranteed to be of New Crop DO YOU NEED TREES AT REASONABLE PRICES FOR FOREST PLANTING ? Write for Quotations on large or small Quantities THE NORTH-EASTERN FORESTRY CO. BOX 1131, NEW HAVEN, CONN. FOREST TREES ! FOREST SEEDS! F.0.B. ROTTERDAM Seedlings and Transplanted. By the Million PETER SCHOTT, KNITTELSHEIM Rheinpfalz (Palatinate), GERMANY Wholesale Seeds and Nurseryman ESTABLISHMENT FOR DRYING CONIFEROUS SEEDS ESTABLISHED 1784 The oldest established Seed and Nursery Business in Germany DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES POST FREE ON APPLICATION EVERGREEN AND FOREST TREE SEEDLINGS AND TRANSPLANTS ALSO Seeds for Forest Planting Immense quantities of following hardy valuable sorts. White Pine, Scotch Pine, Ponderosa Pine, Jack Pine, Austrian Pine, Douglas Fir, Balsam Fir, Norway Spruce, White Spruce, Red Spruce, Hemlock, etc., étc. Deciduous Trees Larch, Beech, Birch, Maple, Ash, Walnut, Locust, Elm, Oaks, Catalpa, Speciose, Wild Cherry, Linden, etc.,-etc. ‘Tree Seeds—Guaranteed New Crop A complete assortment of all valuable species, both Native and Foreign. High Germination Quality. WRITE (FOR PRICES Mention this Magazine D. HILL Largest Grower in ‘America Evergreen Specialist Dundee, Ill. Rounded — 1855 LOGGING BY Lidgerwood Systems Incline Hoists Sleigh Hoists Snakers Slackrope Machines Yarders Road Engines Loaders Unloaders Log Handling Derricks Log Handling Cableways Cableway Skidders and All other types of Logging and Log Handling Machinery THE Lidgerwood Cableway Skidder operates independently of ground conditions and Without Damage to Young Growth For Further Information, Address LIDGERWOOD M’F’G CO. 96 Liberty Street, New York, N. Y. BRANCH OFFICES : AGENCIES: Chicago, Ill. Woodward, Wight & Co., Ltd. Allis-Chalmers-Bullock, Ltd. Seattle, Wash. New Orleans, Le. Montreal, P. Q., Canada aesex vel Araki FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vou. VIIT] SEPTEMBER, IQIO. [No. 3. SURVEY METHODS AND COSTS FOR A LARGE AREA. ELLWoop WILSON. The problem before the writer of this article was to map and estimate over 1900 square miles of timberlands at the least expense. The question was considered as to whether it would be better to use a large force and work rapidly or to use a small force and take a longer period, and it was decided that the latter method would offer many advantages. The first cost for equipment would be less, the expense would be spread over a longer period of time, the men would become thoroughly acquainted with the territory, would be more experienced and expert and would take a deeper interest in their work, and would in the end be of perma- nent use to the owners. The result has amply justified this course. The work has improved steadily from the beginning, much valu- able information has been gathered and costs of the work steadily lowered, the cost per square mile having been reduced from $20.00 to $10.270, and a still further reduction is anticipated. Most of the timber limits involved are under license from the Province of Quebec and lie in practically unsurveyed territory. North of the St. Lawrence River a few townships have been laid out and county lines run for a few miles north of the settlements ; a few exploration lines have been run connecting different points in the Province, and the larger rivers have been roughly traversed. No system of triangulation has been attempted, and most of this exploration work has been done with the compass. When the territory under license was first laid out, the general scheme adopted was to lay out “berths” or “limits,” ten miles in length along the rivers and five miles in depth; and where the distance between rivers permitted, rear limits were laid out. The 288 Forestry Quarterly. limits are numbered beginning at the mouths of the rivers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, &c., north or south or east or west of a given river. This scheme has proved very convenient and practical as the limits are almost always tributary to the several rivers, the logs naturally go with the watercourses, and the hauls are as short as possible. These limits were surveyed by the government as they were sold, and rough descriptions given in the licenses. The distance from settlements, the difficulty and cost of transporting men and provisions, the roughness of the country, the deep snow in winter and the black flies and mosquitoes in summer, combined at times with the ignorance or carelessness of the surveyors, made these lines rather inaccurate. The lines, having been run with the com- pass, are often crooked, and the distances often are wrong by as much as three quarters of a mile in ten miles, and sometimes more. Lines as given on the official maps often do not exist on the ground or are incorrectly shown. Lakes are marked where none exist; very few lakes and none of the smaller streams are shown. | The nearest bases for supplies were from twenty-five to seventy miles, and all suppplies, men and outfit had to be driven in sleighs or wagons as far as the roads went and then by dog sled or canoe. In making the forest survey, the question of how much infor- mation was wanted on the maps was governed by the purposes for which they were to be used. As in this province all logging is done by small jobbers who are given sections to work on, and who locate their own camps and roads, the determination of elevations was not considered necessary; but all streams showing the general lay of the land and the natural outlets for the timber were located. Barometric elevations are not very accurate at best, and to be of any value require more time than it was thought they were worth. Supply or logging roads can be laid out by an experienced man or by a man having engineering training, with a hand level and judgment, and when the necessity for such roads arises one is not likely to consult a map giving barometric elevations. On the other hand, boundaries, lakes, rivers and streams needed to be accurately located so that jobbers could be placed, trespasses detected and prevented, fire rangers could travel, and the location of the Company’s timber resources be accurately represented. A thoroughly reliable base for forest Survey Methods. 289 maps and working plans was wanted which would always be of value. The areas in the different types of timber, burns, &c., were con- sidered throughout the work as of paramount importance. In the writer's Opinion, average amounts of timber per acre are of little value if one does not know pretty closely the actual sizes of areas to which these averages are to be applied. Maps made by run- ning out strips do very well where good topographical maps of the country are available, as in the United States, but here are much too inaccurate to be of any real or lasting value, and there is little difference in their favor as regards the cost of making them. Our maps show all rivers, streams, creeks; all lakes, ponds, swamps and muskegs; limit, county and exploration lines ; summer and winter roads, logging roads, trails, portages, camps and dams; boundaries of burnt areas, windfalls, lumbered areas, timbered areas, Black Spruce swamps, Jack Pine in pure stand, &c. Careful notes of types, reproduction, logging condition, logging waste. &c. are made. The scale chosen for the several limit maps is one inch to 4000 feet. (Three-quarter miles to one inch.) This gives room for sufficient detail and would give fifty square miles, the usual area of a limit, to each sheet. A large map four miles to one inch is built up by reducing the limit maps as they are completed. The conventional designations adopted by the Dominion Govern- ment Forestry Branch are used for showing different kinds of timber, &c. After a winter of careful experimenting, a small traverse board, 15 x 15 inches, with telescopic alidade having stadia hairs set 1:100 and its ruler graduated 1 inch = 4000 feet, was chosen as the best instrument. All main traverses are run out with this. For rods long balsam poles are used having a ring peeled for alternate feet. Where the brush is very thick, 300-foot steel tapes are used. Folding canvas rods were tried, but were not at all satisfactory. Minor traverses are run with the plane table using shrill whistles for direction in thick brush, and pacing or 300-foot tape for distances. These traverses are closed on and adjusted to the main traverses. Heavy “Unchangeable” drawing board is used for the field sheets. This consists of two sheets of good drawing paper, pasted together with the grain of one sheet at right angles to that of the other, and the resulting sheet mounted 290 Forestry Quarterly. on linen. This is unaffected by rain or snow to any appreciable extent and holds hard pencil marks well. A good trough com- pass is let into each board and two small spirit levels at right angles to the board; these facilitate leveling up, save much time, and permit of more accurate orientation, A sheet of tough tracing paper is kept fastened over the sheet and a hole is cut over the area to be worked on. This keeps the sheet clean, permits of seeing all the work, and protects from rain and snow. ‘The legs of the light tripod have rubber disks, about three inches in diameter, slipped over them about an inch from the points; these allow of setting up the table on a snow shoe track, or in muddy or moist swampy places, and prevent ice and snow from accumu- lating on the legs when working on frozen lakes. The main traverses are run on large rivers and lakes, and are ,irom ten to fifteen miles long, closing with an error not to exceed I in 300. Areas in timber or burnt land are located by traverses with the plane table, or by resection or offsets. Compass and chain require more time, are more liable to error, must be plotted later, and are less accurate. Limit lines, where found, are re-blazed, new corner posts and other monuments are set, and where the lines have been destroyed by fire or have not been run originally they are run by using the large staff compass or transit. The lines are well cleared out and all trees within ten feet of the line blazed. The most economical party has been found to consist of eight or nine men, occasionally ten. ‘This party is made up of the chief, who lays out the work, keeps all the accounts and records, and does most of the plane-table work. His assistant, who helps with the exploration, looks after the moving of the camps and sees that the party is kept in provisions, and when time and oppor- tunity offer runs an extra plane table. Two rodmen give sights, do the chaining, act as canoe men, and, when moving camp, as packers. A cook and three laborers complete the party. As far as possible the provisions are hauled onto the ground in winter. When the party goes to a new section a “main camp” is located as centrally as possible for a month’s work. Here all the pro- visions, surplus outfit, &c., are placed. The party works from this camp until the distance is too great to walk, when a tem- porary camp is located, and to this the cook’s assistant takes each day or every other day, bread, cooked pork and beans, pea soup, Survey Methods. 291 and stewed fruits. These are warmed and bacon, rice or oatmeal porridge is cooked by the rodmen. Every effort is made to keep the plane-table party constantly busy. In summer, camp is moved and portaging done by canoe and packing; in winter, dog sleds are used, one dog to each sled. A good dog will pull 100 to 125 pounds on a snowshoe track and two hundred pounds on a logging road. They are fed corn or oatmeal porridge with a little suet cooked with it, at a cost of about three cents per day for each dog. In winter, waterproofed canvas “A” tents are used heated by small sheet-iron stoves. The chief and his assistant have a 7x9 tent, the cook a 10 x 12 tent in which he keeps all the supplies and extra duffle, and the men have a tent for themselves. In summer “Baker” tents are used, and the cooking is done out of doors. Aluminum cooking utensils are used as being in the long run much more economical and easier to keep clean, besides being much lighter. Sleeping bags are provided, consisting of a canvas cover with one heavy and two light bags inside. These are warm and very comfortable, much cleaner than blankets, and easier to carry. Canvas-covered canoes have been found to last better than any others. The best length is 15 feet. They weigh, when new, fifty-five pounds each. The food supplied is plain, but the best obtainable. No canned meat or vegetables are used. They are heavy and difficult to pack, not very satisfying, and not so wholesome. Dried vegetables have been used with great success. The wisdom of this regime is apparent, for in five years we have had no serious illness in camp and the men improve in health while in the woods. Special forms as appended are used for requisitioning provisions and for keeping track of amounts used. An inventory is taken of all stocks at the end of each month. The following list shows the amounts of provisions used for ten men for six months. Apples, dried, 85 ibs. Oatmeal, 300 tbs. Beans, 4560 “ Dried onions, 6h Bacon, 625 “ Peas, PION Baking powder, 30% Prunes, 90)" Butter, TAOS Pork, salt, 300 “ Corn meal, 180 “ Pepper, On Candles, 50 doz. Potatoes, dessicated, 306 “ Coffee, ai ibs. Rice, $5.“ Flour, 5200) "S Raisins, Fhe) ee Hardtack, 125) Sugar, 500 “ Lard, 120) Salt, hse Condensed milk, 132 cans Soap, 60 bars Matches, 10dz.boxes ‘Tea, 54 tbs. Macaroni, 40 tbs. Tapioca, pearl, 24 292 Forestry Quarterly. The average cost for provisions per man per day is 17.5 cents. A daily diary is kept by the chief, describing the work in detail and noting all information about the country and timber which he may think of use. Time sheets are kept in detail showing what each man does each day, where he works, and the kind of work; this enables the office to compile accurate, detailed cost statements which have been a great help in tuning up the party and in keeping down costs. The men are paid by the month of thirty days and do not work on Sundays. A detailed statement of costs for the last six months is given below; the cost of each different kind of work being expressed as a percentage of the total cost. General mapping) cao 60 eye iaas bie ceae 27.8770 BUCH Mappinee ss wane ci eusiere ba hae) uate aa Seas 3.49 Wap ANAPPI, 1k wae is apie! Mivcrige i ieee are 1.62 Jack: Pine aap gs (ao ke ec ee hee eee 57 : i ee Total (mappine. 2G. Havin cebkicioeee pane 33.50% paplGiiNiG,. crete Reece ae Le ere a eee 2.71 BE LAC MIS, ia) siege a aes tcl cae bee SE eee 8.54 ORANG oc wn /iaya «wie allenic iets mtetalbbe saiaina et eta 7.90 Caiting out potiages and linesjy.:. 2 -).5,2- den 8.15 WEGMAN CAMPS, ote es toes eke oe goa het bebe pcre 6.35 ‘gsme lOSt, TAM, SICKNESS... Acide ee eee 3.82 Aane lost, Sundays.s0 os sons cee ees oe eiee 10.56 Ganip. Works 5 ok che fee biti ns Weenies 1.63 Board, going to and from the woods, ........ 2.41 Outfit, new outfit for the period, and repairs, 2.48 ESOWISIONS 0). hha jecciats Ghapbe, siz aie sco valede ake cee 8.44 Traveling to and from the woods, ........... 3.34 Costs per square mile for different limits. PMR NINES 28S SELEIIS, tei cate ere ce buae ge *$6.79 per sq. mi. BA NDGA hs weiekees ohethe: Sectipca eal stair aid aaa 10.03 i OSCR Aas cei Mest: iciiahete ts cinratShy 0 eA pe uname 10.12 hi LB ik fe Ore ee Se Ser Se ai PRT 15.75 4 OR OR a PN Sits ars tesa te nce) stale ib loummereterent +18.14 E [Mi G10 1, a Oe ee OAT, ef 12.95 4 Gre igen sea) Savsvet AI ek tian eee 6.74 if *On A, two plane tables were used for six days, and on G, two plane tables for seventeen days. + This limit was further away from base, and portaging charges heavier. Survey Methods. 203 The average cost was $10.279 per square mile, The average cost per day for the party was $18.12. The party averaged 2.43 _ square miles per day. The best day’s work, distance in linear miles, was twelve miles in one day in March on a river traverse when the ice had formed a crust on the snow after a thaw. In the office the plane-table sheets are adjusted and a tracing prepared for each limit, showing everything but the timber. From this blue prints are made for the use of fire-rangers, foremen, etc. Another print is made on which the details of the timber are shown by colored crayons for the use of the management and the logging division. These sheets are also reduced to 1 inch = 4 miles on a large map which shows in color the exact condition of all the Company’s holdings. The Dominion Government con- ventions are used on all maps. All maps are filed, card indexes giving their location in the files and the kind of information shown on each. A vertical file is kept for each limit, in which is placed all information pertaining to it, and these are cross-indexed according to the Dewey Decimal Classification System, using Dr. Fernow’s forestry classification. All diaries, accounts, time sheets, reports, etc., are kept on loose leaves and filed in binders. Part of the territory has been estimated by the strip system, but this has not proved entirely satisfactory, either in accuracy or cost. Some experiments have been tried with the sample plot system with more satisfactory results. As soon as our base maps are completed the same party will go over the territory in detail to estimate the timber. Enough esti- mating has been done all over the company’s holdings to enable improvements to be made in logging methods, and a working plan is gradually taking shape. LOGGING OPERATIONS IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. B. WINEGAR. On the limits of the St. Lawrence River watershed which runs into the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, six big pulp companies do their cutting. They are the St. Maurice Lumber Company, the Laurentide Paper Company, the Belgo-Canadian Company (rep- resenting Belgian capital and having Belgian management), the Union Bag Paper Company, and the Quebec and St. Maurice In- dustrial Company. Both the latter are American concerns. Land is divided in the Province of Quebec into limits of differ- ent areas, and they are generally numbered from the mouth to the head of the river which they parallel. These limits are sold to purchasers for the timber and do not include the ground. ‘Besides purchasing this timber in a tract the companies pay $3.00 per square mile annual ground rent and Crown dues on each one thousand feet of timber cut, the amount varying with the species. As all cullers (scalers) are really Government employes their scale is taken for the amount of timber cut. Settlement is made by operators once each year. This is apparently an admirable system, inasmuch as it really keeps the title of the timber in Gov- ernment hands. Logging is done by the jobber. The various companies have five or six large contractors who divide up the year’s cut between them. The Laurentide Paper Company, who annually cut about one and a half million logs (33 million feet), have six jobbers who cut each year from one hundred thousand to five hundred thousand logs, the cut of the average being three hundred thou- sand. The price paid varies with localities, but an approxima- tion of $5.75 per M. will probably be a fair price. The big jobber (the head jobber) then divides up his cut into smaller parcels, averaging 6,000 logs, to the smaller jobber at a price of about $5.00 per M. Besides making considerable profit on the season’s cut the head jobber sells supplies which yield good returns. The small jobber commences about the first of September to Logging Operations in Quebec. 295 look over his section and lay out his camp. After locating he proceeds to build; his entire camp outfit consisting of one camp (about 18 by 20 feet) in which he houses his men and horses. He considers this economy, one camp is cheaper than two, and in this men and horses live for the fall and winter. He doesn’t con- cern himself about comfort, he is up there to cut logs, and make a few dollars to put into the farm. His outfit for the camp is crude and consists of a square sheet iron stove (without an oven), a few tin dishes, a frying pan, the inevitable bean-chaudron, the pea soup kettle, and a tea pot. ‘The grind stone, a few axes, two saws, a file, a few wedges, a shovel (not for cleaning snow away from the stumps), and a hay fork complete his working tools. He has a lantern and a lamp, the former seldom in working con- dition. Three men to a horse, one man to drive, the other two to saw, is the basis on which the jobber divides the labor. The teamster does the skidding in the fall; he decks on the side of a slope and is able to pile himself. This he does usually with the assist- ance of but one tool, a hook much like a hay hook, sometimes he uses a peavie. Sawing continues until Christmas, for usually the snow forbids it afterwards. After his trip home, he starts to haul. The roads which have been widened out in the fall are usually old portages cleaned out. They are not very wide and are not graded at all; the fall of snow is heavy and this will even out the irregularities. Grading would be impossible on account of the rocks. The country is rough, so he hauls with one horse. His sleigh has about four-foot bunks bolted loosely. Stakes hold the logs on the sleigh, chains are never used in this district ; he uses a jumper or travoy when he can, but prefers the sleigh when the haul is over half a mile. The country is broken and the grades seem impossible to navigate, but his one horse snakes a load where a team would be unable to gain footing. In driving down hill he frequently drops the lines and lets the horse pick his way. ‘The landing is usually on a lake or the side of a river with a steep bank, hence extra help is not needed to pile the logs. On the landing the logs are stamped, the bark mark having been cut in the woods by the sawyers. ‘The culler comes every two weeks during the hauling season, and after culling the logs gives the jobber a slip showing the amount cut. He is paid in the 296 Forestry Quarterly. spring, but some money is advanced about New Year. The amount advanced is not over one-fifth of what his logs represent in the woods. Most logs are cut to a length of 13.5 feet, but the jobber is paid for 13 feet. The six inches are supposed to be lost in the grinding through the rapids and along rocky shores. The wages paid for labor vary from $26 to $35 and board per month, varying according to the scarcity of labor and to the value of the man. The board, which consists of bread, pork, beans, pea soup and tea, does not cost over twenty-five cents a day. Transportation of supplies is expensive, as the jobber is forced to drag them part way by wagon, part by “marcheda,” a travoy for summer use, and part by boat. He may have to load and re- load his supplies six or eight times before reaching his destina- tion. He is satisfied if he can get in a distance of thirty miles in three days. It is impossible to figure the cost of his supplies of hay, oats, etc., at camp, as the men are not paid usually till the cutting commences. What does the small jobber make? If conditions are good, if he can skid to the landing, if the weather is favorable, he makes a small amount. Usually he contents himself coming out even, after allowing himself a fair wage. Most of his supplies are brought in from his farm. Would there be any money in using teams instead of one horse? Would company logging pay? Would larger camps cut timber cheaper? An experiment was tried in using teams about five years ago. That year there were fifty-five teams killed, all owned by one company. ‘Teams cannot work on the mountain sides as do single horses. The most of the horses were killed on the steep slopes with loads. The Laurentide Paper Company, it is said, annually saves $100,000 on jobbing, over company-run camps. As to the question whether larger camps would not pay, at first glance it would seem practical, but on some limits the timber does not grow dense enough to warrant this. To use a large crew of men successfully, timber must be in sufficient stand to warrant steady working. Changing crews about is expensive. Ice roads are out of the question for hauling. The advantage of contract logging lies in the following: First, in many sections the company pays little if anything until the contract is completed. Second, it dispenses with a large office force. Third, a foreman and clerk are not necessary. Fourth, Logging Operations in Quebec. 297 there is no investment in supplies and plant for a season’s work. Fifth, the responsibility for the season’s cut is all in the hands of the head jobber and he must see that the timber is cut. The company uses only a logging superintendent, a bookkeeper and a staff of scalers, who are always kept busy. There is no lost time here. The disadvantage of the system lies in that, in the past at least, there has been a tendency to log wastefully. Logs were left in the woods, tops were not taken out, trees were left hanging and in general the jobber did what he pleased practically. There was no company man to see that the woods were cleaned up. An immense amount of timber has been wasted in the construction of camps, which are good for about one year where the timber is scattered. The Government regulations for cutting timber first protected the young growth. Companies are not allowed to have cut on their limits White Spruce under eleven inches, Balsam under nine inches, Black Spruce under 7 inches. This wise law has had a radical effect on the preservation of timber. In general the other regulations insist on the removal of all sound timber except hard- wood over the minimum limit. What Forestry Can Do. During the past few years a system of fire-ranging has been worked out with very good results. The system is crude at the present time but will work into an excellent fire-fighting machine in the very near future. All fire-guards are appointed as justices of the peace by the Provincial Government, and they have the power both to arrest and fine any one caught setting or leaving fires. The value of this system is proved by the fact that in the month of June of this year fifty-three fires occurred on the Trans- continental Railroad north of La Tuque and on only two of them was it necessary to call outside help; the bill for same being $45. This means that the fire-rangers caught fifty fires before they gained any headway. Fire-rangers are appointed by the Government, but are usually paid by the company whose limits they patrol. The value of an efficient fire-ranging force cannot be overestimated. The Government has issued a number of regulations for the 298 Forestry Quarterly. cutting of timber, part of which has been referred to in the above account. The Laurentide Paper Company sent out inspectors in the fall of 1908 to watch logging jobbers, to see that the Govern- ment regulations are complied with and also to cover points over which the Government had no control, i. e., to see that all logs were barked, marked, stamped} and to see that good pulp wood was not used in the construction of camps, roads, etc. That this system was worked out properly cannot be proven, as the service has been discontinued. That this scheme is absolutely necessary under a contract system of logging, becomes apparent on inspec- tion of any timber land so logged. An inspection system can be built up which could easily be made to pay its expenses the first year. ‘That it would be necessary to keep a large force after the first year is a matter of conjecture, but if jobbers are educated to the value of inspection, close surveillance would most likely not be necessary. : WOODS SURVEYING. James W. SEWALL. In my woods experience it has been frequently forced upon my attention that the training given foresters in plane surveying for woods work is lamentably deficient. I do not mean so much technical and theoretical deficiency as practical deficiency, con- nected in the main with the absolute laying down of their work on the ground. Having had what may be called a decidedly practical training myself, I desire to set forth a few points which may be of some little benefit in the work. In Maine, with the surveys of which I am mostly familiar, woods lines are run for three purposes: (1) That land may be sold; (2) that logging operations may be confined to certain dis- trict limits; (3) that explorers may locate stands of timber. The first purpose is of very slight importance in the wild land districts of the State, as few transfers of property are made, and even when made are in fractional parts of an entire part rather than in separate parcels. Still in years to come more transfers will doubtless take place, and the forester or surveyor should consider his work the forerunner of all the later surveys of his territory. At present, however, surveys bear mainly on the two last pur- poses. Evidently for both these the main thing to be sought is plainness of lines and corners and lasting quality. Here is briefly the method followed by the better land surveyors of our State, with regard to obtaining these results. It goes without saying that straightness of line and accuracy of measurement must also be had, but in those matters the ordinary young forester is proficient, while in the ones I mention he is in nine cases out of ten utterly deficient. I am treating of conditions found in Maine, but which are applicable to many other localities. Corners—A good corner is the beginning and the end of line work. Seek out cedar posts when you can; if you cannot get cedar take juniper, then spruce, then any kind of softwood, then the hardwoods. But remember that a small cedar is worth more that a big post of the other varieties. I have read the markings on a cedar post set in 1797. 300 Forestry Quarterly. Do not be afraid of having your posts large—I do not mean very high, as that causes a falling down tendency—but have them bulky. Let your axeman hew smooth the parts you want to mark, but do not have the lower part hewn; it is needless work and of no benefit. Point the post well, and “snipe” the top into a uniform roof, it looks better and takes little time. Do not peel the bark off till the post is set, as that will make slippery handling. To set, let two or three men, dependent on the size of the post (I have used five), stand about the post, raising it and bringing it down with considerable force a number of times; by working it back and forth a bit, you will find that you can sink it deep and solid in the ground. ‘Then strip the bark away. As a friend of mine remarked, “It looks better and lasts five minutes longer.” Next, stones, if they are to be had, are serviceable. ‘Time and time again I have found an old corner by a ring of stones, the past having been burned or rotted clean away. Don’t be afraid of too many or too big ones. Pile the larger ones a little back from the post in a circle, then wedge in the smaller ones; the more they settle the more tightly they hold the post. Personally, I think a good pile of stones around a corner the most important part of it, and I remember bringing stones a half a mile by canoe in one in- stance. Witness well! that is, blaze down toward the post the trees encircling it, and mark them with your survey mark and the year. Have your men hew the witness trees from where they can con- veniently reach to within a foot of the. ground, and have them get into the meat of the tree. The only instance in which I allow the bark alone to be taken from witness trees is on big, tough hardwoods—and then I have to be in a hurry. As with stones, the witness marks will often guide to the corner after the post is gone. Don’t be afraid of too many witness trees. This being done, the corner is complete: You have a “post set with stones, marked and witnessed.” It will stand—and that is what you want. Lines—The great trouble with young surveyors and foresters seems to be a fear of hurting the trees or the feelings of their axe- men. Have your axemen make spots, not bark-skins. Have them get into the meat of the tree and hew off a wide, long spot; then the next man who comes across your line won’t mistake it for a hunter’s trail. On our own surveys we make spots (partially ; Woods Surveying. 301 decided by the size of the tree) from one to two feet long, put on deep.* A line lightly spotted is a poor one—it neither looks nor lasts well. Then as to the number of spots: Many surveyors seem to think that a line well bushed out, and along which one can see, is all right, whether much spotted or not. ‘This is not the case in woods work. Referring to our reasons for which lines are made, we find that distinctness is extremely necessary. Your chopper cares precious little about hunting a blind line if there is a good spruce handy. Bushing should be as well done as possible, but if expense or time calls it can be shirked. Never shirk spots. Have plenty of them, and have them well put on. Bushing grows up in a few years; spots are the permanent marks of the line. As to the width spots should be put on, opinions vary. Per- sonally I run a line of uniform breadth, either spotting or cutting out all trees within the line. The outer spots of my line are the trees an axeman, standing in the center of the line, can conveni- ently reach with half his axe. We use three kinds of spots. For trees through whose center the line passes. we use the “double spot,” i. e., two spots, one above the other, four in all, on opposite sides of the tree as the line runs. For trees which the line touches but does not center on, the “fair spot,” a single spot on both sides of the tree as the line runs. For trees outside the line center, but within half axe reach, the “quarter spot,’ a spot made wedge-shaped, with the wedge point- ing toward the line. This gives a line heavily spotted so that it can easily be seen and followed, and at the same time one with a definite center. There are other minor points which could be taken up, such as quarter mile stakes, styles of marking, witnessing of roads and streams, treatment of old lines, etc., etc. But if accuracy is com- bined with thorough work, and the work done with the idea that it is done to last, minor difficulties will be readily met. If a course in surveying which compelled the student to go into actual woods practice could be instituted at our forestry schools, I feel that the poor surveying often at present done by foresters would be largely eliminated. Also there is this to be remembered: esti- mates of growth and stand, of conditions and remedies, working plans and type sheets, are all changeable. The survey is perma- nent. It is at the beginning of every development. Do it well. * This practice, without restriction, would hardly recommend itself to a forester, as liable to invite fungus growth.—Eb. REPORT OF SUPERVISORS’ MEETING AT MISSOULA, MONTANA. [The following full account of proceedings at the Supervisors’ meeting in Missoula, which took place in March, has been kindly prepared by Mr. W. B. Greeley, District Forester. The Editor regrets that a more prompt issue of the report could not be secured, but trusts that the delay does not detract from its per- manent value. | Monday, March 21, Afternoon Sesston—Supervisor J. B. Seely, Presiding. The subject “Timber Sales Policy in District 1” was discussed. “Assistant District Forester R. Y. Stuart, in charge of Silviculture, gave a paper which is summarized as follows: In order to control thoroughly the timber sale administration on each Forest, it is essential that detailed data on the timber resources of the Forest be secured as soon as practicable. Having ascertained the timber asset we become qualified to institute methods of forest management,—the data to be secured by a com- prehensive and so far as possible, uniform method of recon- naissance. While at present each Forest, for convenience in administra- tion, constitutes a separate unit, we are approaching the time when the common demand upon groups of neighboring Forests must be met by a contribution from each of them to meet the demand, necessitating full codperation between Forests in the conduct of timber sales. On some Forests where the supply of timber is limited and the need of settlers for the timber in home building is great, the adjustment of supply and demand in relation to the limitations of annual cut can only be brought about gradually. It may be necessary for the public good on such Forests to permit the cut to exceed the annual growth for a limited period, but this action must be compensated for by commensurate reduction in cut when the exigency ceases to exist. Reconnaissance work in the near future on these Forests is urgent. Special provision for reconnaissance work will be made on Forests most in need of it, but this should not deter Forest Super- visors on other Forests from training their Rangers to properly handle reconnaissance projects and conduct the work inde- pendently. Report of Supervisors Meeting. 303 In considering the sale of timber from the Forest, the first aim should be the betterment of the stand. We can not, however, justly withstand the demand for timber from Forests by an over- zealous desire to secure ideal silvicultural results. Not until complete utilization is possible can we attain the success in silvi- culture towards which we strive. ‘These standards should, however, be approached as closely as practicable. The needs of the local community are paramount in the disposi- tion of the timber from the Forest. Sales are particularly desir- able in the development and maintenance of local industries. In no case should a sale be made in excess of the annual growth for the unit, unless the public good demands it, or it is occasioned by a desire to have removed from the unit undesirable species, dead, over-mature or diseased trees, or unless a periodic system of cutting is established, in which case the cutting should be con- fined to periodic growth. While every effort must be made to prevent speculation, en- couragement should be given to prospective purchasers to secure large quantities of Forest timber where it is to the advantage of the Forest that it be sold and the initial investment necessary to conduct the operation makes the purchase of large quantities of timber essential for profit. Local lumber companies who are subjected to keen competition with larger and heavily capitalized companies, and are unable to secure adequate capital to obtain timber holdings, should be en- couraged in the purchase of Forest timber. Where the perma- nency of their industry is dependent in a great measure upon » their ability to secure a constant supply of timber from National Forests, efforts should be made to place their operations on as permanent a basis as is consistent with the rules and regulations of the Department. In such cases the establishment of a period of contract in excess of five years, subject to a revision within a stated period of the salient features in the contract, and the con- duct of the sale under an approved system of forest management applicable to the unit in which the sale area lies, seems desirable. In establishing a stumpage rate, the aim should be to secure the full value of the timber, as well as allow the purchaser a fair profit; for convenience in handling the sale a flat rate is highly desirable. Where the value of the species represented on the sale area, however, varies considerably, it is usually advisable to affix a rate to each species commensurate with its value. Where timber is for local consumption and is not subject to competition from the general market, the stumpage rate should be reasonable and one which will afford the mill man a fair profit. Where the timber is secured for the general market, the prices offered in the general market should be the prevailing factors in determining the stumpage rate. Since the need for minimum stumpage rates has passed, it is deemed a better practice to estab- 20 304 Forestry Quarterly. lish a standard stumpage rate for each Forest, and on the securing of the necessary data in reconnaissance studies, for each unit of the Forest. , In order that the best marking possible may be secured and that the system of marking inaugurated may continue throughout the progress of the sale rather than be subject to the variance in opinion of successive Forest officers in charge of the sale, the need for a Marking Board is felt. This Marking Board should consist of representatives of the Forest and the District Office. The action taken by them in adopting a system of marking for a sale should be binding upon the Forest officer placed in charge of the sale. No change can be made in the marking system adopted by the Board without the approval of the Board. The silvicultural needs of the Forest are paramount. If there be a conflict between silvicultural principles and financial returns, the former must be given the preference. For this reason the betterment of the Forest may prevent the securing of standard stumpage rates, although in fixing standard stumpage rates the ape) for cutting under approved silvicultural methods should e considered and anticipated so far as possible. The sale of adjacent timber should not be prejudiced through a limited sale at present, unless an excellent opportunity is thereby afforded of selling the timber under especially favorable silvicul- tural conditions. The extent to which timber cut should be utilized should be covered so far as possible in the contract. As given in the con- tract, “merchantable” applies to the material which according to class or size has a market value, but the merchantableness of any individual log or piece of material must be left to the judgment of the officer in charge. In general, where the merchantableness of any given material is not specified in the contract, the material should not be considered merchantable if it will not yield a suffi- cient quantity of salable product to pay for its transportation to the mill. Since in the general administration of sales much must neces- sarily be left to the judgment of the officer in charge, it is due this officer that his work be supervised by his superior officers as often as practicable and that he be given the benefit to be de- rived ffom their suggestions and criticisms. Check scaling by lumbermen on National Forests is as much to benefit the man whose work is being checked as to secure a good line-up for the Supervisor and the District office on the efficiency of the men assigned to scaling work. Supervisor W. G. Weigle, of the Coeur d’Aléne National Forest, discussed a number of points in the administration of timber sales in the field, the organization of scaling, preparation Report of Supervisors Meeting. 305 of estimates, marking and supervising of logging. He described in some detail the methods of marking used in White Pine stands in the Coeur d’Alene National Forest. In the sale to J. L. Kennedy, selection marking in White Pine has given excellent results, from five to seven thousand feet of the younger and thriftier White Pine being left per acre and the other species occurring in mixture heavily cut out. This was a stand of uneven-aged White Pine, adapted to selection cutting and so pro- tected by its location in a series of deep gulches as to be com- paratively safe from wind throw. In the general discussion following, several Supervisors empha- sized the necessity of approving timber sale contracts for a longer period than five years in cases where bodies of wholly inaccessible timber are being opened up and an exceptional investment for logging improvements is necessary. Supervisor Fenn empha- sized this point in connection with his efforts to make a sale of pulp timber on the middle fork of Clearwater River to a Michigan concern which is contemplating the installation of a pulp and paper plant at Kooskia, Idaho. Mr. Fenn stated that to a con- cern Opening a virgin territory of this character, a five years’ con- tract did not offer sufficient inducement to justify the initial ex- pense required. The District Forester stated that the Washington Office of Silviculture had indicated its readiness to present a specific case to the Secretary, recommending a timber sale con- tract for a period of ten years with the provision for a revision of stumpage prices and utilization clauses at the end of the first five years. It is hoped that a specific case can be prepared for sub- mission to the Secretary covering this question during the ensuing summer, and that it will be possible to secure sufficient flexibility in this matter to handle such cases as that cited by Major Fenn. Supervisor Seely described the plan initiated by him on the Jefferson National Forest in which the complete reconnaissance of a watershed of Lodgepole Pine will be made with a view to effect- ing a series of small sales to supply local timber users. Following the reconnaissance, a definite system of marking will be worked out and a plan made for cutting a certain portion of the timber under this scheme of marking each year. Mr. Seely requested a general discussion of methods of marking applicable to Lodgepole Pine. Supervisor Preston, of the Beartooth National Forest, described the method of marking which he proposed to follow in 06 Forestry Quarterly. iaty) a sale of Lodgepole mining timber, some ten million feet, in one of the main watersheds on the Beartooth. Owing to the density and even-aged character of the stand, Preston did not think it advisable to attempt selection cutting. He proposed to cut the bottoms and lower slopes clean, leaving the higher and more ex- posed stands on the upper slopes up to timber line intact. Fol- lowing the burning of slash, he feels reasonably certain that good reseeding of Lodgepole Pine will take place naturally. Super- visor Hall, of the Deerlodge National Forest, described a system of marking which has been in effect on the Allen sale since Janu- ary, 1909. Under this method the bottoms and lower slopes are cut clean and solid bodies.of timber are left intact on the ridges, knolls and higher ground generally, or the areas where the tim- ber runs younger and thriftier than in the average. The bodies so left constitute approximately one-third of the entire stand. , Mr. Hall stated that this system is apparently working well, and will, in his judgment, meet the conditions necessary on this sale, viz: satisfactory reseeding with a minimum loss from wind throw. A general discussion followed on methods of marking in indi- vidual sales on various National Forests. Supervisor Preston suggested that steps be taken by the District Office to inform the Supervisors generally of the methods of marking applied in vari- ous types and their results. The District Forester stated that this would be done. ‘The District Forester emphasized that marking and good silvicultural management should be given the first con- sideration in the sales business and the other conditions of the sale, particularly stumpage prices, adjusted so as to make it pos- sible to carry out the method of marking which is adapted to the needs of the forest. He emphasized also the necessity of making the terms of the contract clear to the purchaser on the ground before a sale is consummated, in reference especially to the methods of marking which will be employed. The question was raised by several Supervisors as to the basis for figuring stumpage prices in cases where the timber is in de- mand within the same market for two different uses, as in the case of timber in central Montana which is in demand for both stulls and saw logs, the price for stull timber being higher than for saw timber. After considerable discussion, the District Forester stated that while in general the stumpage price set upon timber should be determined by the use to which the timber Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 307 is to be put by the Supervisor, in cases where it is clear that the same timber is in demand for two different uses, the stumpage price, based upon the manufactured product of the higher value, should be required. Wednesday, March 23, Afternoon Session—Supervisor C. C. Hall, Presiding. The subject “Reconnaissance and Working Plans in District 1” was discussed. Assistant District Forester D. T. Mason opened the discussion with an outline of the plan of the district for recon- naissance and working plans during the ensuing year. He em- phasized that a working plan for the management of a National Forest should be complete, including not only all essential data on the timber but also the information necessary to properly establish the work and policy in connection with grazing, settlement, per- manent improvement and planting. A complete working plan should include full data as to the extent, density and character of young growth and reproduction since this information is neces- sary to properly estimate the future timber resources of the forest. In connection with the data on the actual occurrence of young growth, it is necessary to secure as soon as practicable yield tables showing the amount of timber which will be produced within given periods from young growth of various kinds and densities and on different classes of soil. These yield tables will also be found of great value in determining the forest value of land as against its agricultural value, the present value of imma- ture growth destroyed by fire and the like. As the development of all resources of the forest becomes more intensive, yield tables will be increasingly necessary in order to determine for what purpose various types of lands are best adapted, on what areas, for ex- ample, planting will be justified as against the continuance of grazing. Mr. Mason stated that young growth should be considered on the basis of its future yield as timber, rather than simply classed as cord wood. In connection with the estimate of merchantable timber, its accessibility to market and its condition with reference to maturity and deterioration, are of special importance to deter- mine. This will enable the Service to remove first the stands which are over-mature and make no use of their producing power. 308 Forestry Quarterly. Reconnaissance work will be directly under the Supervisors, the District Office furnishing the general plan which should be fol- lowed and necessary assistance in men and funds in the most urgent cases. In order that results may be uniform on all forests in the district, the preparation of a standard plan which has been furnished to the Supervisors for conducting work has seemed advisable. All reconnaissance work done in accordance with this standard plan can then be considered as complete for, at least, our present scheme of management, and duplication of work by re- estimating areas at frequent intervals will be avoided. It is pro- posed to have the estimates checked as far as practicable by lum- bermen to standardize their accuracy. The standard plan calls for an estimate of each forty-acre tract, with a topographic and type map on a large scale, showing all stands of young growth as well as the areas of merchantable timber. The descriptive data fecorded in connection with the map will show the age and den- sity of all of the immature stands. Separate estimates will be made of each species of timber on a forty, and a general estimate of merchantable dead timber, all estimates being based on timber measured breast high and the number of merchantable iogs. The estimator will determine the percentage of the timber on each forty which because of maturity or defects should be cut within ten years to prevent deterioration; also the percentage which should be cut within twenty-five years for the same reason, and the percentage which should be cut in case a sale involving the area is made. The reconnaissance of the forest will be followed as soon as practicable by the preparation of yield tables to be used in determining the value of various types of soil for forest produc- tion and the annual growth upon which the maximum annual cut must be based. Supervisor W. N. Millar, of the Kaniksu National Forest, out- lined the plan of reconnaissance work which has been developed on his forest. Steps were taken in 1908 to begin the reconnais- sance of the Idaho Division by sketching the course of the streams in unsurveyed territory and determining the approximate location of the divides and the main bodies of timber. The Rangers were required to submit periodical reports of timber estimates made by them as part of their regular duties in accordance with detailed instructions and a demonstration in the field. Each Ranger was provided with a reconnoissance book, Form 321, with sample page Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 309 showing both map and estimate sheet. The timber was mapped by rough age classes. It has been Supervisor Millar’s intention to extend this recon- naissance over the entire Kaniksu as rapidly as practicable. His aim has been to secure the information needed for a silvicultural working plan rather than a working plan based on annual yield, on account of the enormous stand of mature and decayed timber which should be cut over as soon as practicable. The annual yield is so far in excess of the annual cut to date that that factor can be disregarded for the present and the aim of the working plan made simply to put each stand in better silvicultural condi- tion as soon as practicable. Supervisor Millar suggested that the duties of the proposed Marking Board be extended to include the supervision of reconnaissance work on the various forests and the determination of the general policy of management for each forest, the fixing of the annual cut, determining the silvicul- tural system adaptable to each forest, and the like. He advocated also more co-operation between Supervisors either directly or through the District Office in exchanging ideas and the results of methods worked out. He suggested a quarterly publication from the District Office, devoted exclusively to National Forest interests and serving as a medium for the interchange of ideas. Supervisor C. A. Ballinger, of the Sioux National Forest, out- lined the conditions on his forest and the reconnaissance work which has been conducted. ‘The Sioux Forest contains approxi- mately fifty-eight million feet, board measure, of saw timber and is the sole local supply for a tract of country containing about one hundred and seventy-five square miles which at an early date will have a population of ten to fifteen thousand people. The present annual cut in sales and free use has been equivalent to five per cent. of the total stand of timber on the forest. The inadequate supply of timber and the extensive demand have made it essential that the reconnaissance of the forest be made as soon as possible. This plan should include the restriction of the annual cut of tim- ber to the annual yield, with extensive planting operations wher- ever justified by soil condition. Two-thirds of the Sioux Forest has been covered by reconnaissance work and the remainder will be finished this season. The work included a detailed estimate of each forty-acre tract with full notes on the conditions and maturity of the timber and the extent, density and composition of young 310 Forestry Quarterly. growth. Exclusive of transporting men to the forest headquar- ters from Missoula and return, the cost of the work previously done, although conducted under adverse climatic conditions dur- ing November, December, January and February, averaged twenty-eight mills per acre. It is believed that the remaining areas can be covered at a cost of twenty mills per acre. Supervisor Skeels, of the Kootenai National Forest, outlined the plan devised by him for estimating during the current season the timber on Yahk basin, one of the main natural bodies of timber on his forest. This area being unsurveyed, he plans to run a transit base line up the bottom of the valley, furnishing tie points by which each natural logging unit could be definitely located and the base line on which the estimating strips could be used. He believes that much of this work can be done by concentrating tem- porary guards and student employes in this district during the summer and fall. Supervisor Preston, of the Beartooth National Forest, outlined a similar plan for estimating one of the more important water- sheds on his forest. He proposes to run a base line up the main stream, with side transverse lines around the bodies of timber. For purposes of estimating, Mr. Preston plans to split up the tim- ber on the slopes on either side of the base line into blocks, laid out by locating approximately where the section lines, when the area is surveyed, will cross the base lines following the stream. This will furnish a rough system of blocks a mile in width for use in estimating. Preston considers some such method as this ad- visable in order to have the territory estimated split up in definite units, each of which can be located and checked. A sharp debate ensued on the question of surveys in connection with estimates in unsurveyed areas. Supervisors Fenn, R. Bush- nell, Skeels, Ring and Preston advocated transverse surveys fol- lowing the topographical lines in unsurveyed townships rather than attempting to anticipate the public lands survey and deter- mine even approximately the location of the forty-acre sub- divisions. Other Supervisors and members of the District Office advocated the use of the forty-acre system just as far as prac- ticable, in order to furnish definite units, ascertainable on the ground, which can be used in checking estimates. The point was also raised that in much of this district the status of some of the unsurveyed lands, specifically in areas included in the Northern Report of Supervisors Meeting. 311 Pacific grant, unsurveyed school sections on which no timber is to be cut under the present policy of the Service, and areas in which scrip has been located, makes it necessary to locate the section lines in all reconnaissance work. The District Forester summarized the matter, stating that, in his judgment, transverse surveys were preferable in reconnais- sance work where no alienations are involved. .Where unsurveyed railroad lands, school sections or scrip filings are involved, an ap- proximate location of the section lines seems unavoidable. Supervisors Kinney and Fenn urged that the Service make a strong effort to secure the survey of the railroad areas because of the many administrative difficulties involved in their present un- surveyed condition. Superisor Fenn stated that the maximum price allowed for surveys makes it impossible to have this work done under the contract system in many of the mountainous dis- tricts. Supervisors Kinney and Ralph Bushnell urged that authority be secured for Forest Officers to make official surveys, in compliance with certain standards which the Land Office might require. Supervisor Bushnell advocated especially that this authority be secured in connection with the survey of homestead claims secured under the act of June 11, 1906. He stated that the Surveyor General in each State could deputize any competent man of his selection as an official deputy surveyor authorized to make surveys of such claims and urged that this authority be secured for Forest Officers. Nearly all of the Supervisors present advocated this plan, emphasizing especially the cost which the settler on a metes and bounds claim must often incur for survey when he applies for patent. In concluding the discussion of reconnaissance, the District Forester emphasized that it should be of a broad character, including complete information of all the factors necessary for the best management of the Forest. In addition to the merchant- able timber, areas of young growth and their future contribution to the merchantable stand, areas of possible agricultural land, and areas which should be planted, reconnaissance work should in- clude, if practicable, a classification of the grazing areas, showing at least the more important types of grazing land with reference to the best handling of the grazing work on the Forest. The reconnaissance outline has been prepared in order to standardize the work on each Forest and secure uniform accuracy. The de- 212 Forestry Quarterly. tails of the work should be adapted to the conditions of each Forest. The District Office expects the reconnaissance work on each Forest to come up to the standard as to thoroughness and accuracy, but lays down no inflexible system as to the work that must be done. While special crews of men with special allot- ments will be furnished for reconnaissance on the Forests where it seems most urgent, the District Office desires the Supervisors to take up this work independently on their own resources just as far as possible. The District Forester also stated his purpose to make the duties of the Marking Board to include the points suggested by Super- visor Millar, and also to work out some system for keeping Supervisors more fully in touch with the technical work done on each Forest, and provide an easy medium for interchanging ideas, Wednesday, March 23, Morning Session—Supervisor Elers Koch, presiding. The subject “Forest Planting in District 1” was discussed: E. C. Clifford, District Chief of Planting, opened the discussion. He stated that the policy of the District is to centralize seed col- lection upon the Forests where this work can be done to the greatest advantage and that it is hoped to collect 12,250 pounds in the Fall of 1910. He emphasized the necessity for making careful reports upon the seed crop in order to enable the District Office to plan and locate the work of collection to the best ad- vantage. The policy of the Service in this District will be to extensively try out direct seeding, centralizing this work upon a few Forests which contain areas typical of conditions throughout the District. The two principal methods to be used are broad- casting and planting with a hand corn planter at different seasons in order to demonstrate fully the conditions which will produce the best results. Exclusive of the cost of seed, broadcasting should not cost over 75 cents per acre and corn planting, $1.50 per acre. Nursery work will for the present be confined to comparatively large nurseries on Helena and Lolo National Forests and will be conducted on comparatively limited scale until the possibilities of direct seeding are fully determined. The actual management of planting work will be placed upon the Supervisors with general Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 313 supervision from the District Office and it is proposed to push this work as aggressively and on as extended a scale as available funds will permit. Supervisor C. W. Hudson, of the Madison National Forest, followed with a discussion of planting conditions in Southwest Montana. He stated that Douglas Fir areas, after heavy fires, usually restocked with Lodgepole Pine which seems to be the most aggressive species in reforestation in that portion of the District. Where a second heavy burn occurs, usually no refor- estation follows. Such areas remain open tracts and can be re- forested only by artificial methods. Supervisor Hudson attributes the lack of reforestation of the open tracts not to grazing but to lack of moisture during the period when the young seedlings are developing their rooting system. He advocated the perfecting of fire protection facilities for any given area before attempting its reforestation, since otherwise money spent in planting seed is apt to be wasted. In the spring of 1909, six acres on the Madison National Forest were seeded with Lodgepole Pine under various methods at an average cost of $10.46 per acre, $7.32 of this amount being charged to cost of seed. Five acres were seeded to Douglas Fir at an average cost of $11.60, of which $8.00 is charged to seed. One acre was seeded with Yellow Pine at a cost of $10.23. Excellent results were obtained from all of these experiments with the exception of broadcasting on snow and broadcasting on un- prepared soil. In the same spring, 1200 Yellow Pine seedlings, three years old, were planted in five different localities at a cost of $15.00 per acre (excessive on account of travel from one site to another). Only 30% of these trees survived the season, due probably to the excessive drought. In the fall of 1909, 335.83 acres were seeded, using 358 pounds of all species. On Parrot Creek, 90 acres were seeded with Yellow Pine. Twelve and one-half acres were broad- casted without preparation of the soil, at an average cost of 93 cents per acre. Seventeen acres were seeded in furrows, two- thirds with corn planters, and the remainder by broadcasting at an average cost of $2.48 per acre. Sixty acres were seeded with the corn planter in seed spots without preparation of the soil at an average cost of $1.29 per acre. On Wisconsin Creek, fifty- two acres were seeded with Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir, the 314 Forestry Quarterly. average cost under the various methods ranging from $2.00 to $4.15 per acre. On Horse Creek, 130 acres were seeded to Douglas Fir at an average cost of $1.31 and approximately 64 acres to Lodgepole Pine at an average cost of $3.24 per acre. The difference in price being due to the greater cost of the Lodge- pole Pine seed. Mr. Hudson stated that the striking difference between the cost of the fall and spring work was due, in his judgment, to the much larger scale on which the fall work was done, also to the use of a less amount of seed. An examination made on March 14, showed that 90% of the seed sown the previous fall have blighted or decayed. Further examination showed that the same blight or decay has occurred in the seed dropped naturally where the seed used in the fall sowing were collected. Mr. Hudson attributed this fact to the long period during which the sted is in contact with the soil between the time of seeding in the fall and the natural time of germination in the spring, and in the excessive moisture prevailing during that period. He suggested that this might account for the replacing of Douglas Fir by Lodgepole Pine, since Douglas Fir seeds exclusively during Sep- tember, October and November, whereas, Lodgepole Pine is dropping seed at all seasons of the year. Lodgepole Pine is thus able to take advantage of any conditions favorable to germination while Douglas Fir is able to propagate only in years favorable to that species. Mr. Hudson did not consider the fall work a failure since the small percentage of seed still in good condition were shown to be swollen, and a few were sprouting. The experience on the Madison Forest, however, indicates that spring sowing immedi- ately after the snow goes off and the ground thaws is the most favorable season for direct seeding. Mr. Hudson believes that the Service should be prepared to plant extensively with nursery stock areas where it is demon- strated that trees cannot be grown by direct seeding and advocates that each Forest maintain a Nursery of its own of sufficient size to supply its own needs. This is especially desirable since the seedlings could then be grown under climatic and soil conditions similar to those in which they will later be set out. The results from planting on the Madison Forest have as yet been unsatisfactory. Yellow Pine seedlings shipped from Halsey, Report of Supervisors Meeting. 315 although arriving in good condition and transplanted_at once, very largely died, though it is possible that this was due to the stock being set out too late in the season. On the Indian Creek area, the seedlings planted under sage brush lived while those in the open were dead. Similar conditions were noted on the Wis- consin Creek area. Because of these experiences, Mr. Hudson advocated that seedlings be supplied during early periods with some cover, wherever possible, which can often be secured by utilizing sage brush or other brush species on the area planted. Supervisor Bushnell followed with a discussion of planting work on the Helena National Forest. He stated that the Boulder Nursery was in excellent condition with over two million seed- lings on hand. About 600,000 of these will be transplanted this spring. Some little field sowing was done on the Helena Forest last year, covering a variety of experiments and on nearly all of the areas fairly good results were obtained, especially where the corn planter was used. Mr. Bushnell attributed this to the fact that seeds were planted deeper and given better protection from squir- rels and birds, and by being in contact with most soil had better chance for germination. Broadcast sowing gave practically no results whatever. A few hundred transplants of the 1907 nursery sowing were planted in the open ground on the Forest, and the count made in October, 1909, showed a stand of 90 per cent. These were planted on an eastern or southeastern exposure, on an old burn. One thousand three-year-old transplants, received from Halsey, were set out in heavy sod. A count made in September indicated that only 45% had survived, and the partial failure of this area is attributed to the heavy sod which must draw largely on the soil moisture and nutrition. Mr. Bushnell advocated that in planting heavily sodded areas, the sod be removed for a space of sixteen or eighteen inches square around each seedling. In the discussion that followed, the following points were brought out: Supervisor Hall, of the Deerlodge National Forest, stated that the planting of Yellow Pine seedlings in the French Gulch, at an altitude of 7,000 feet, had brought good results, from 90 to 95% of the transplants being alive in the fall of t909. On the Toll Mountain area he had no success whatever in seeding, and poor 316 Forestry Quarterly. success in planting, the gophers apparently destroying all of the seed sown. Mr. Hall stated that, in his judgment, Yellow Pine will grow at an altitude of 8,000 feet on his Forest and stated the extremely interesting fact that this species seems to be immune from damage by smelter fumes. Supervisor Kinney, of the Missoula National Forest, stated that 1200 Yellow Pine transplants on his Forest, at an altitude of 3200 feet, at a cost of approximately two cents per tree, had been planted, and that, as yet, only two per cent. had died. This was on an area so heavily cut over that no reforestation had taken place naturally. Mr. Clifford stated that the only seeding in the District which he considered successful was that by the corn-planter method and that on very dry of rocky situations he believed it would be necessary to resort to the use of nursery stock. Supervisor Kinney differed ith Mr. Clifford in this respect, stating that in the fall of 1909, teen pounds of Yellow Pine seed had been broadcasted on three acres on a south exposure of a timber sale area. An examination this spring, although snow prevented the securing of reliable figures, showed that a good many trees were coming up. A por- tion of this area was harrowed and the remainder merely broad- casted without preparation of the soil. Since no seed crop of Yellow Pine occurred in this vicinity last fall, Mr. Kinney is confident that the seedlings now appearing are entirely from the seed sown. Mr. Kinney advocated the continuance of broad- casting experiments. Mr. Clifford stated that it was not his pur- pose to advocate the discontinuance of broadcasting and ad- mitted that many years’ experiments must be continued before conclusive results could be secured. Supervisor Skeels, of the Kootenai National Forest, empha- sized the large number of factors influencing the success or failure in the experiments, time of planting and origin of seed having a great deal of weight as well as slope and exposure. He advocated cutting up each area into a large number of small plots and conducting small experiments under as many different conditions as possible in order to be sure of methods before ex- tensive reforestation work is undertaken. Assistant District Forester D. T. Mason described the suc- cessful seeding done on the Black Hills National Forest and stated that, while small experiments must be conducted on many Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 317 Forests in order to ascertain the best methods, on such areas as the Black Hills the proposition of direct seeding has passed the experimental stage. On such areas, he advocated conducting direct seeding on a large scale with centralized operations in order to reduce the cost. There was quite a sharp debate on this subject, Supervisor Skeels arguing that a large number. of experi- ments under varying conditions should be tried before extensive reforestation could be justified from the standpoint of cost. Mr. Mason admitted that the work as a whole is still in the experi- mental stage and that experiments must be continued for a great many years. He contended at the same time, however, that where there is a likelihood of success, and initial experiments have given fairly good results, there is no reason why the Service should not go right after seeding on a large scale. Assistant District For- ester Stuart spoke in the same vein and stated that we have every reason to be optimistic on the results of direct seeding, although in each locality broad methods must be developed by experimental work. Mr. Clifford stated that many of the failures have been due to the destruction of the seed by birds and rodents rather than by the failure of the seed to germinate or of the seedlings to properly establish themselves and stated that this point of the protection of seed should be given special consideration. In this connection, Supervisor Ralph Bushnell, of the Cabinet National Forest, stated that squirrels had followed seed from bed to bed on his Forest, destroying most of the seed of six different varie- ties. Aside from the loss of seed due to squirrels, he had secured good results in direct seeding. Mr. Clifford stated that the direc- tions for the treating of seed by poison to protect them from the squirrels were now being prepared. Supervisor Koch, of the Lolo National Forest, stated that broadcast sowing on land originally forested had been tested on his Forest, and had been a total failure. Supervisor Fenn, of the Clearwater National Forest, suggested that in seeding with Lodgepole Pine, an experiment be tried in burning the surface cover first and then broadcasting the seed in the ashes. He believes this to be the natural method under which the pure stands of Lodgepole Pine in this region have usually occurred. Supervisor Marshall, of the Minnesota National Forest, described the successful re-seeding of cut over areas, where 5 per cent. of the original stand of pine was left in cutting. 318 Forestry Quarterly. On many of these areas a splendid stand of Norway Pine seed- lings has now established itself. He attributed the successful reforestation in part to the burning of slash but stated that the best reforestation had been secured on an area burned clean from a fire which got beyond control. In summing up the discussion of sowing and planting, Mr. Clifford emphasized the policy which should be followed of test- ing all methods thoroughly until conclusive results are secured. Associate District Forester Silcox emphasized this same point, stating that broadcast sowing especially should be thoroughly tested until it was ascertained within just what limits this method could be successfully used. He stated that in his belief future planting operations on an extended scale would not be limited to seeding watersheds, but could be extended into regions where a greater supply of timber is necessary for commercial uses. The discussion turned to seed collection and extraction. Super- visor Hall advocated the construction of seed extraction plants with cement floors and small furnaces for heating, stating that the latter secured a much more even distribution of the heat than stoves. Supervisor Ralph Bushnell stated that he had secured good results with the Sibley stove and tent in seed extraction and found this apparatus convenient because readily transported from point to point. Mr. Clifford expressed the opinion that seed could be more cheaply extracted in permanent, well equipped plants located at the most advantageous points. Associate Forester A. F. Potter emphasized the position of the Secretary of Agriculture in desiring the Service to undertake artificial reforestation very aggressively and desired the Service to give special attention to this work. Thursday, March 24, Afternoon Session—Supervisor G. E. Marshall, presiding. ’ The subject “Forest Settlements’ Work and Policy,” was dis- cussed. Assistant District Forester R. H. Rutledge, opened the dis- cussion with a general statement of the policy now governing settlements’ work. ‘The determination of what tracts should be listed within National Forests must rest upon a comparison of land values for agricultural and Forest purposes respectively. Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 319 To permit comparison, these values must be reduced to the same denomination. It is absolutely essential that this work be put upon a basis where the relative values can be shown in dollars and cents. Mr. Rutledge referred to the attitude on the part of some Supervisors in endeavoring to protect the entity of their Forests and showing an unwarranted tendency to retain every tract of National Forest land as though it were a personal possession. The matter must be viewed in a larger and broader light. The permanency of the Forest Service depends upon its ability to give the public treatment which in the long run will be satisfactory. It is our duty to administer the settlements’ work in a manner that will be reasonably satisfactory to members of Congress, who to a certain extent reflect the attitude of their constituents, without going into politics in any way, and so as to appeal to the hard- headed business public. Our administration of the Act of June II, 1906, must insure the actual settlement of agricultural areas while, at the same time, according with the principle of conserva- tion. Expert foresters are clearly the best qualified men to determine the value of lands for forest purposes. Such value should be measured by a progressive, scientific standard, taking into con- sideration the permanent use and productivity of the land, not by the standard hitherto applied by lumbermen, States and other owners of timbered land. In considering the value of land for forest purposes, we must deal primarily with the elements which cannot be immediately removed. These consist of its soil value for producing timber and the expectation value of the young growth or immature timber which has no sale value and must be destroyed if the land is placed under cultivation. In addition to these, there are cer- tain conservation values which we have hitherto attempted to con- sider but which cannot be reduced to a definite monetary basis, values which it is extremely difficult to convince the settler exist at all. Such values should be given a thoroughly secondary con- sideration. The policy outlined by the Secretary of Agriculture indicates that the Service is gradually coming to the position where mer- chantable timber standing upon land will be considered an inci- dental factor in deciding the question of listing, the main points 21 320 Forestry Quarterly. being the character of the soil and the immature timber. If the soil value, and expectation value of the immature timber, plus the value of the merchantable stand is less than the agricultural value of the tract, the trend of the policy, as the Service is now devel- oping it, will be to list the land. If the value of the merchantable stand, added to the other elements of the forest value exceed the value for agricultural purposes, it is probable that the timber will be removed and the land then listed. While the Service is well equipped to determine the various elements of forest value, we are not thoroughly equipped to determine the agricultural value. We have endeavored to established this as a rule by the amount that farmers are paying for raw land of the same character in the locality. This point should be remedied and the determination of agricultural values placed upon the same intensive basis as the determination of forest values. * The decision of the Secretary of the Interior that residence under Forest Service permits cannot be credited against the resi- dence requirements of the homestead law, has very largely nulli- fied the policy of the Service of issuing permits to enable appli- cants to demonstrate the value of the dry areas for agricultural purposes. In Mr. Rutledge’s opinion, the only way to handle applications for such areas is to decide definitely at the time of examination whether or not the land has agricultural value and submit recommendations accordingly. In this decision he felt that the applicant should be given the benefit of any reasonable doubt. , Mr. Rutledge emphasized the necessity for complete informa- tion in settlements’ reports to enable the District Office to pass upon them intelligently. Supervisor Dorr Skeels, of the Kootenai National Forest, dis- cussed the special settlements’ work on his Forest. A strong request has been made for the elimination of a six mile strip along the Kootenai River, containing 279,697 acres of vacant Government land, on account of its alleged agricultural value. A traverse line with transit was run through the center of this strip and every tract of possible agricultural land, timbered or otherwise, definitely located and surveyed and a specific settle- ment’s report made upon it. This examination showed that out of a total proposed elimination, there were 8,990 acres of un- questionable agricultural land on fertile flats and benches along Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 321 the river. Seventy-five per cent. of this land bears a heavy stand of timber. : Yield tables were constructed for the types occupying agricul- tural soil, showing the approximate average value of the bare land for forest production to be $8.00 per acre. The closest esti- mate of the value of the raw land for agriculture gave an ap- proximate average of $20.00 per acre. The average value of the timber in these tracts is $3.00 per thousand feet. The policy was then outlined and approved by the Secretary of listing directly lands having not over 4,000 feet of timber per acre, since the aggregate value for forest purposes, soil value plus merchantable timber, simply equalled but did not exceed the agricultural value. Areas having a heavier stand of timber will be cut under Forest Service sales as rapidly as practicable, and then listed. On areas having no merchantable timber but stands of immature timber, the value of such young stands will be determined as closely as practicable from the yield tables. If the soil value together with the value of the immature stands does not exceed the agricultural value, such tracts will be listed. If the aggregate forest values exceed the agricultural value, the application will be rejected. Mr. Skeels expressed his approval of the general principle in- volved in this selection, though questioning the accuracy of the _yield tables upon which the details were worked out. He felt that this general policy would meet the situation in a rational way, although not entirely satisfying the local settlers and appli- cants. ‘The most serious factor involved is the delay in removing the timber from the areas which cannot be listed immediately, and thereby reviving the former request for an indiscriminate elimination from the National Forests. Supervisor Fenn, of the Clearwater National Forest, spoke at some length, advocating a far more liberal application of the Act of June 11, 1906, than that contemplated even by the policy in the Kootenai Valley. While strongly opposing any attempt to secure lands under this Act for its timber value, Major Fenn felt that the bona fide settler deserved far more consideration than the Service has yet given him, and that the real purpose of the Act of June 11, 1906, has been to a large degree nullified by the arbitrary standards set up by the Service in its administration. Major Fenn cited specific cases of lands in the Clearwater Dis- trict, Idaho, bearing six or seven thousand feet of timber to the 322 Forestry Quarterly. acre, which are being cultivated by settlers under the standing timber and yielding forty bushels of grain to the acre. The timber in this case is practically valueless on account of inaccessi- bility. Supervisor Fenn demanded a specific definition of the term “chiefly valuable for agriculture,” as applicable to such cases as the one he cited. He further emphasized the necessity of having the sentiment of the public with the Service in the handling of such cases, and stated that, in his opinion, the Forest Supervisor should be the advocate of the settler in all Forest questions involving the agricultural values and the scientific determination of forest values. Supervisor Weigle, of the Coeur d’Aléne National Forest, expressed an opposite view, although stating that each Forest has its clearly distinct special conditions. Adjoining the Coeur d’Aléne Forest there are over a million acres of agricultural land, "outside of the Forest boundaries, that is better suited to home- steading than any land within the Forest and for which there has yet been practically no demand. For this reason, Mr. Weigle felt that the Service should be in no hurry to list lands within the Forests. He believed that every piece of agricultural land in the National Forests should be devoted to farming and home building at one time or another; but felt that there will be just as many people demanding homes ten years or fifteen years from now by which time the policy concerning these lands will be more fully established and the lands themselves be far more accessible. He emphasized also the limited appropriation for Forest Service work and the severe demands upon the time of Forest Officers occasioned by the examination of settlements’ applications. Mr. Weigle stated further that on the Coeur d’Aléene National Forest there are over six hundred homestead claims, 80% of which are invalid. He felt that the Service would simply be adding to its trouble by instituting a lot of June 11 claims, many of which will have to be ultimately contested. He felt that the problem is being well worked out in the Kootenai Valley, and that the limit of 4,000 feet to the acre is fully justified to prevent speculation in timber values. He advocated fully the policy of cutting the timber on agricultural land prior to listing in order to do away with the possibility of timber speculation. A very sharp debate ensued among a number of Supervisors on Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 322 the question of what limit should be set in listing timbered lands, and how the agricultural and forest values respectively should be determined. The District Forester undertook to meet Major Fenn’s chal- lenge to give a specific definition of the words “chiefly valuable for agriculture.” He stated that the purpose for which any tract of land within the National Forest is chiefly valuable must be determined on the same basis as would be followed in deter- mining the value of a piece of real estate in the suburbs of a town, or block in the business district, viz.: by capitalizing the income which the tract in question will produce under any one or all possible uses to which the land might be put. The use whose income gives the greatest capitalized value is clearly the use for which the tract of land is chiefly valuable. In applying this principle to areas applied for under the Act of June 11, 1906, it is the duty of the Service to ascertain as closely as practicable what the income from the tract will be; first, if it remains in timber; second, if it is converted into farm land. The respective incomes capitalized at the same percentage of interest give the commercial value of the bare land for the respective purposes. The one consistent policy for the Service to follow is that just as rapidly as it is shown that certain areas will produce more wealth for the community at large by being con- verted into farms than by being’ retained for timber production, such lands should be placed in the hands of settlers. But it is equally our duty to retain areas which it has been shown will produce more wealth by being retained in forest production than by being converted into farms. Otherwise, we are setting up a false economic standard. If the bare ground is more valuable for agriculture than forest production, the Service should make it available for farming just as soon as practicable. If the agricutural value exceeds the value of the bare ground plus a certain amount of young growth or plus a certain stand of timber, the land should be listed imme- diately. If the value of the merchantable timber, added to the value of the soil for timber production exceeds the farming value of the land, timber should be removed prior to listing. Other- wise we are listing timber values rather than agricultural values and simply inviting timber speculation. If the value of the immature growth plus the value of the soil for forest production 324 Forestry Quarterly. exceeds the agricultural value, it is the economic duty of the Service to the community at large to retain the land in forest production until the value of the immature timber can be realized. Then the land should be listed. The District Forester explained fully the policy applied in the Kootenai Valley and made it clear that the 4,000 feet limit simply applied to this Valley, being the best approximate limit which could be worked out from the data on hand as indicating the dividing line between agricultural and forest values. The limit may be greater or less on other Forests as determined exclu- sively by local conditions. It is the policy of the District to extend the general principle applied in the Kootenai Valley to other National Forests as rapidly as sufficient data upon which to base the respective values can be determined. Supervisor Barton, of the Pend Oreille National Forest, ex- ressed the opinion that a soil expert should be secured to deter- mine the soil conditions from the agricultural standpoint in the more doubtful cases. He also suggested that an outline form be substituted for the present settlements report, giving the examiner a better opportunity to report all the information which he can obtain and all data bearing upon the case. Mr. Rutledge sug- gested that, since it is not now possible to secure the withdrawal of rights of way, the Service should endeavor wherever it can be done to adjust the boundaries of settlement applications so as to throw the rights of way out of the areas recommended for listing so that there may be no further delay in the action on such cases. Several Supervisors discussed the possibility of securing authority for Forest Officers to make official surveys of June 11 claims, and emphasized the necessity of doing this in order to lessen the hardship upon the claimants in securing a patent. Thursday, March 24, Evening Session. The discussion of Forest Settlements’ work and Policies was continued. The District Forester outlined fully the situation in reference to dry land areas in the eastern portion of the District. He ex- pressed the opinion that since the present value of these areas for grazing purposes is so slight, if there is any reasonable chance Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 325 of developing an agricultural value, they should be listed. This is especially necessary in view of the decision of the Secretary of the Interior in regard to residence under Forest Service permits, which makes the demonstration “Permit” system very unsatisfac- tory to the settler. The general policy should be to list such areas if they have any possible agricultural value, even though remote, unless such action would actively interfere with National Forest interests, as in the monopolistic control of watering places needed in connection with the use of National Forest ranges or in an attempt to secure sites for enterprises which properly come under special use regulations. Supervisor J. B. Seeley, of the Jefferson National Forest, expressed a somewhat opposite view, referring to the fact that the land laws generally have been used in many fraudulent ways for the acquisition of land illegally. In his opinion, the Forest Service should restrict the acquisition of lands under the Settle- ments’ Act rather than extend it. A general discussion of this matter followed. Supervisor Fenn advocated the general policy outlined by the District Forester. In conclusion, the District Forester emphasized this policy, stating that the Service should rely upon the public land laws and the Department charged with their administration as competent to prevent frauds. SOME SUGGESTIONS ON PREDICTING GROWTH FOR SHORT PERIODS. By J. G. Sterson. The study of the growth of stands for short periods is, it ap- pears to me, of great importance at the present state of develop- ment of forestry practice in this country. In fact, in most private work it is of infinitely greater importance than is the study of the mean annual growth of stands and the making of normal or specific yield tables. But few individuals or corporations are at the present time ready to seriously consider the possibility of securing a permanent supply of raw material from their lands or of incurring any expense in securing reproduction,—much less of making any investment in planting. So that the problem of the total yield at maturity of a species or mixture under actual or normal conditions, and the related problem of the quantity of timberland required to permanently supply a plant of a given size with raw material is not in immediate need of solution in many instances. Private parties are ready, however, I believe, to make some provision which will ensure a second cut from the timber now standing, even though that entails some investment by way of a curtailment in the amount of the present cut or a delaying of all cutting operations for a period. Lumber companies and other owners realize or are coming to realize that with the advancing values of stumpage and the increased growth that can be shown on account of thinning, the leaving of stands of small timber or of a large part of the smaller though merchantable trees of stands of larger timber as a basis for future operations is an extremely profitable investment, if it can be protected from fire. The accessibility of the timber, the density of the stand, the possibility of adequate fire protection and the methods of logging (1. e. whether or not a larger outlay for roads or railroads is necessary than is warranted by the reduced amount of timber to come in cases where part is left) will determine the profitableness of the investment. So that while the time has not yet come when private parties Suggestions on Predicting Growth. 327 are ready to make an investment in reproducing timber, in many cases, could make accurate and trustworthy figures of the probable growth of stands now merchantable but still not mature be obtained, these parties would be ready to remove their timber in two or more cuttings or to delay cutting at all for a period. A study of current annual growth of sample plots is the means of determining this growth for whole tracts. The subject naturally divides itself into two parts,—the study of thinned and of unthinned stands. Prof. Graves in his “Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks” has so thoroughly covered the subject of the future yield of stands after logging that I shall not touch upon that. I shall here consider the determination of the growth of un- thinned stands, first even-aged stands and secondly uneven-aged stands. A volume table of the species must be had for any of this work and it will be assumed that a table based on height and diameter breasthigh is at hand. The field work for even-aged stands is as follows: (1) Lay off plots of at least five acres each in representative parts of the area and proceed as follows for each plot. (2) Record the relative elevation and the nature of the soil of the plot. (3) Tally to the nearest inch all trees over a couple of inches less in diameter breasthigh than the minimum merchantable size. (4) Take a sufficient number of height measurements to con- struct a curve of height based on diameter. (5) Determine the age of the stand by cutting down a few trees of various diameters. (6) Count back at breast height into a large number of trees of all sizes measuring to the nearest one-hundredth of an inch the growth in radius for the last five and the last ten years. Keep the inch diameter classes separate and tally to the nearest inch. The office work is as follows: (1) Average the diameter growth in the last five and ten-year periods for each diameter class and deduct from the present diameter to find the average size of the class five and ten years ago respectively. (2) On a piece of cross-section paper on which the ordinates denote age and the abscissae diameter breasthigh put through points for each diameter class showing the diameter now, five 328 Forestry Quarterly. years ago and ten years ago. (Fig. A.) Draw curves through each of these sets of points and continue same from Io to 20 years in the probable proper direction as indicated by the part obtained from the three points. The assumption of a horizontal direction by a curve signifies that at the age when as shown by the dia- gram the curve becomes horizontal trees of that diameter will have stopped growing. (3) If it is desired now, for example, to predict the growth of the plot for twenty years, note what sizes of trees die before the expiration of that period and discard those sizes from the tally of the plot as taken in the field. (4) Now from the curves read off the average size in twenty years of each present diameter class to the nearest one-tenth of an inch, (5) Using the volume table, height curve made for the plot and the present and future tally of diameters, calculate the present stand and the stand in twenty years. The increment per acre for the whole tract is found by weighting the results per acre of the various plots in proportion to the total area in the forest which has the same soil conditions as the plot. The reliability of this method rests on the assumption—a per- fectly justifiable one—that the smaller a tree is in an even-aged stand the greater the degree of suppression to which it has been subjected. In the case of uneven-aged stands this assumption is not true, so that in that case a grouping for study of growth must be based not on diameter but on degree of suppression. The steps in the field work for uneven-aged stands are the same as for even-aged with the above exception and with the one that the amount of.growth in radius must be measured for each of the last three five-year periods. The curves are plotted on cross-section paper on which the abscissae denote growth and the ordinates diameter. ‘Three points are plotted for each crown class (dominant, co-dominant, inter- mediate and suppressed) to show the rate of growth of a tree of the size of the average tree in the class as given by the tally, of a tree of the same size five years ago, and ten years ago, the rate of growth of a tree of the present size being determined from the last five years’ growth and the same for the other trees. The trend of these curves can be defined by the three points plotted, and the approximate point at which each curve hits the aby , oie Lizmeler ~ Breast:high ~ Jnches. — o2 ; ‘abi (leasrg SF of Se. se ae ~ ~ ~ 4 ~ ~n ss = ° = x Ww & a wey SSO/D Lil “7. 4? ~27/ : S 330 Forestry Quarterly. base line determined. ‘The descent of a curve to the base line signifies that at that average size the trees of that crown class will have died. By dividing the average rate of growth from : ' xO.) now until that time (——'_-) into the amount of growth in 2 diameter, the number of years the average tree of the crown class in question has to live can be determined. It may be claimed that this method for very tolerant species growing in uneven-aged stands is inaccurate inasmuch as in such stands trees now suppressed often start rapid growth and become intermediate or even dominant through the overthrow by wind of trees now overtopping them. Such is of course often the case, but I think that with care in the distinguishing of the crown classes and a short (10-15 years) period of prediction the error arising out of this would be small; it would at least be an @rror on the side of conservatism. These methods are to be recommended not only on account of the ability thereby to predict the death of certain trees, but also because of the ability to more accurately (usually more conserva- tively) decide the rate of growth to apply. In an even-aged stand especially, it is an error to apply to a tree the size of a present diameter class five or ten years ago the rate found by using the last five or ten rings. It is better to apply it to a tree the size of the present tree, but even then in a great majority of cases (in those of trees decreasing in rate of growth) it will be too high. The curves shown in figures A and B will, however, indicate the probable change in the rate of growth during the next few years, and by finding an average rate from these curves the future yield can be more accurately predicted than by the usual method of basing calculations on previous growth with no regard to the trend of the rate of growth. If necessary the curves for the even-aged stand can be plotted with the abscissae growth per year and the ordinates diameter,— one curve for each diameter class. This would necessitate a cut- ting back fifteen rings and would be done only when it was impossible to accurately determine the age or where the age varied in different parts from five to ten years and yet not enough to class it as an uneven-aged stand. \& G owl hi rl] “sik 22 iS SIYIUL ~"224/ «ff fe AAJPLWIOLT Te S67 fueuwog XN > METHOD OF CALCULATING YIELD IN WORKING PLANS IN INDIA. A Correction. By A. D. BiascHeck, Indian Forest Service. I have read with interest Mr. Barrington Moore’s article on Forest Working Plans in India in the Forestry QUARTERLY of March, 1910, but I feel he does not do justice to Indian forestry in describing the method of calculating the possibility of annua! cut, as described by him and recommended for adoption in America. This method is stated to be the basis of the Jaunsar Working Plan. As I have not the plan in question before me, my comments must only be taken to have reference to Mr. Bar- qngton Moore’s description on pages 47-53 of the journal. I feel sure that the description of the manner in which the “average annual increment” (whereby is apparently meant the average number of trees of the present stock annually attaining maturity) is said to be calculated rests upon a misapprehension. The result, 719 trees per annum, is not far from correct owing to two compensating errors, and also, for some inexplicable reason, the provision of seven and one-half years fellings out of the existing stock of mature trees. The errors referred to are— (a) the inclusion in the rotation of the 30 yrs., the period for which survival 6f mature trees is considered; and (b) the exclusion from the rotation of the 20 yrs. during which seedlings attain a height of 5 ft. The correct way to ascertain the number of trees attaining maturity each year is to divide the number of trees of each diameter class which are expected to reach maturity by the number of years in which all trees will pass out of the class into the next highest class, thus— 9,472 35,277 sg 473 = = 1302 13,180 21,567 i ee 6 ee 21,288 ? = 788 = 27 20 Calculating Yield in India. 333 That is to say, every year for the first 20 years 473 trees will reach maturity, then for 30 years 439 trees per annum, and so on. The 13,178 mature trees already existing must either all be considered surplus stock, or, if fellings are to start immediately, 13,178 less the annual coupe is surplus. A method is then given by Mr. Moore for determining the growing stock, which, it is stated, is the number of mature trees which must always be in the circle to produce the ‘increment’ calculated. This has no reasonable foundation; it is merely a method of calculating the number of mature trees which must be on hand to provide seven and one-half years’ fellings allowing for casualties, and expressed in symbols. Apart from this the sur- plus stated as 7,717 trees is wrong, since no account is taken of the number of first class trees attaining maturity during the seven and one-half years. Again, the calculation to ensure disposal of the surplus stock is obviously wrong since it arrives at 626 trees per annum against an annual “increment” of 719 trees; it is unnecessary to go into the errors in detail. The manner in which the maximum annual cut should be fixed is simply by consideration of the number of trees expected an- nually to attain maturity (i. e. 473 in each of the first 20 years, 439 during the next 30 and so on) and the number of mature trees already on hand (viz. 13, 178). In this case it would probably be fixed at 700 mature trees per annum for the period of the Working Plan (30 yrs.); this would be justifiable having regard to the fact that in so doing the surplus stock should be disposed of in about 50 years, while ample margin has been allowed for error in raising the rotation from the 122 years indi- cated to 150 years, and there seems every prospect that after 50 years have elapsed the number hight be considerably raised. Overconservative fellings have been and are undoubtedly often still indulged in in India as has been the case elsewhere, but unless dictated by silvicultural or other special conditions the re- moval of far less than the increment is not justifiable. Mr. Barrington Moore’s article does not bring out clearly that 28” diameter was tentatively fixed as the exploitable size of the deodar, as was probably the case. Some such step has generally to be taken in preparing working plans in India, where data for a more scientific determination of rotation have not as a rule been collected. ~ ~ Forestry Quarterly. 354 ‘soyoul eg’g = ‘OO UulpyuRsyT r6'P | Os OI cccccslrocses|seccesMecces |eccenclecccccleccettiecccselececce GF i og 66 ‘soulei9 XT Ul oung Joy UOMejidiaid Uvotl [BULION T®4O,.L) ZL" 63° S6 16 19 69 19 69 SI £% cerorsleccerelescosstssosoeie (GIBIOAY. ‘M'N ¥ 'N ‘90311 PUM ‘ArzIng “Azey |’ * )**) OE Tr’ | 48 16 ¥9 69 GL GL IL 62 19 19 82 06 08 "M 'N ‘02001q JUSIN ‘“SSOTPNOTDO ‘“AeopD ||" Peon 9b° | 66 6 G9 2 OL TL PL 98 9) 8S 94 ¥6 6Z ‘ur "eB Og ‘AAveq ‘domOYys JapuNnyL, | 46° GP" 40" | 8L° 16 OL 99 FL, iD) #8 IL 1% g9 99 9h 48 86 ‘MS OF CAL “APHOTO “WOMOYS FUST “GOSIN | PVB14) B19) OL” | 6B" G6 16 ¥9 iz ta 9L 91 &% &9 69 64 98 1@ eS ae ee tA DMOTON |e: veep noen| GE oa 16 08 9 64 OL €h €1 GZ 09 8g €4 §8 96 Pie Spc) WANee AQSNChe eA DNOTOn eer oe eeelncG: mnlncas 88 vL 9 GL Gh 84 8L 82 8g +S 94 68 GB ‘a 9 ‘H 'N ‘Sozoorg ‘Aqsnq ‘OOo ‘xwayD |***** "|" """""| Ge" | BE" | 08 2 s9 G OL TL 6L 1@ 89 99 08 18 ve “TN YN ‘498snq ‘oArssorddo ywox, “IBaTD |") BE 8g" 66 8 99 84 84, #8 cL 0g OL G9 8 G6 &% ‘|S ‘dopunyy ‘suyuzqsy UoouLayye oyery fo") 88) PL ve" | 96 16 99 LL GL 84 9L 83 99 $9 68 26 (wa ‘7 'N ‘QUST PUIM “OTeA, “AayINS ‘AZeA |" *****)"** "| OF | GE" | 96 06 99 08 | 94 08 aL 13 69 19 18 #6 12 ‘N 9U3T DUM ‘OrBA “AIqINS ‘AzeA | |) LT 98" 16 18 89 68 64 98 cT 62 89 £9 €8 66 0% ‘MN ‘JU3IT pum ‘O[eH ‘AayNS ‘eaTO |" ]"** "| AT" | 88" | 06 16 s9 9h G4 €L 81 1G 69 09 08 18 61 ‘N 03 ‘§ 02 ‘M PUIM ‘Azey ‘ApnorD |°°*""")"**"" "| OF 96° 6 06 9 iz TL €L ai GZ £9 au) GL 148 8L "M ‘N ‘ULv014S Usi ‘Aayns ‘1vepa = Avqd ‘UlVI YUSIN | ST” GG" 20° IL’ | 96 66 €9 GL 19 (A ji, 43 €9 09 OL #8 11 ‘M ‘S§ ‘uOOUIDIJe pue 4yusia w40ys AAvOH | 00°C | 06°% | 00° To’ | OOL | OOL Ff &9 89 #9 99 8 tL $9 89 TL LL 9L ‘MN Y ‘M 9UST PUIM “ApnoTO “AqqIng | |) peqt)n4qsip | 66 66 ras) GL 04 rah 9 9% 09 gy 9L, #8 cI ‘O[ey, ‘pulMd JO uns ON ‘Aa}[NS pue AzBA } ***)*****) 40° £3" 66 66 09 89 19 OL cL 8% Gg go OL 9h FL ‘PUIM ON ‘dojUl SuUlIeala ‘Apno[O |******|°***"*| LO" 63° 16 96 6¢ ce) £9 99 8 9L 9¢ #G £9 OL &L ‘purm ON ‘Avp Apno[g ‘uret 4USIN | 80° | 03° peqt/N4SIp | 86 96 6¢ 99 £9 99 FL 9L 0g eg *9 1) eee abana’ AE ‘T'S y ‘§ ‘MOOMIAITe O9VT Urey ‘“Avp ApnorH | 2B14) 0dvI9) PaqtinysIp | OOL | OOL F 49 69 Le 09 8 eL 0g zg 9g en a at ‘aT ‘S ‘Bp ApnolO ‘urerl parvy JqsIN | OO'T | ATT | 00° AS ¥6 66 9g G9 09 29 6 ZL 1g oe 09 #9 sicscns ener Qt ‘M 'S ; 01 ‘M UO ‘ur ‘d Z UleYy ‘Apnola suraso0yy | 60° 1 peqsijnysip | OOL | OOL § 9g (ay) 9¢ 9g cL #3 8g SF 89 GL pede ee c(i) ‘MN ¥ ‘M ‘SSO[PNOTD YSOUTTY “ABAD || Fe" SP 66 66 4g 99 09 09 GZ 18 GF G7 OL 82 8 “M ‘utd ApHOTO ‘W'B Iva “TeMOYS IUSIN | 20° 40° tel [g° 98 98 9¢ #9 09 Z9 &I LL rae} 1g S9 89 4 ‘MN ¥ 'N PUIM ‘“ABO[D AVG ‘“UleL FOSIN | SL" | ZL’ | GL’ | Fe | 96 6 8g 69 | $9 9 11 VG ag 9g 6h 08 9 ‘pum ‘Gg UO ‘Ww ‘d TL Urey ‘4yslu ApnojpH | IL’ FG" £0° él" 66 16 9¢ 19 19 29 seeeestoosees! NoqiingsIp | peqaingsip | °°" °°" * g ‘PUIM ‘N ‘MOG ‘sSa[pnofa ‘rvafD || | IL’ | 68" 16 96 9g g9 a) €9 IZ 0g cP SF 99 Cheesecake, ‘ur ‘d p SUlIBIO ‘“Ulel ‘ut “Bw puB AUBIN | FOL | F2°T | £0" 60° 16 $ $9 8g 1g 6g g g LY LP 09 69 a‘) ‘puUIM “MN “pow ‘ABp AveO “User IOSIN | O° (Abo [tes || teres o6 oO 9¢ 99 €9 g9 CL ¥G *g 8F 99 GL "6 ‘pula “MA OFBIOPOW “ApNoO[O ||” “| poqiingsty | OOT | tit § eg 9g 0g 1g g 8 0g 6g gg 09 wale ete “93 ‘bg ‘soypul gad “up ng | “94040 “‘qroquelge yy soeldod ) fe) S) S) S) ° ° ) ee eect geeee pee eeee oe he aa BB oe eR) RISB = |e) ee eral etter ha eet “LO PEO M 7 ” oe Ke ma Ko Ke Mn : ‘uol} “AQIpIUON AL “THOS “LOFTON g f i ‘ é Uley -g10dvaq OAIyB TOM UUITAA UyU3TAA osuvy UMUIUI, | aN ExB Kya *aINISIOW ‘0.138 19d W9,T, = S555 = = “AOTUWOM VL ‘TL ‘FOI AQ AWOPBOY 4So10T 09RIgG BlUBATASHUE oY} YB po}VANSNVU! Udeq Svy YOIYM solios B FO L ‘ON SI 4I °48010}UJ JO SI PAOdIA [VIIZO[OUDYd SuMOT[OJ oy} yey, ‘Spooy UO AT[eladse ‘SoouENBUY ySe1OF OF PABST UY W94}{ 1M Sureq MOU Ss] Yon Og ‘Vd ‘OLIV LNOW ‘O6bT ‘ANAL ‘GUOOAU TVOIDOTONAHd CURRENT LITERATURE. A Brief History of Forestry in Europe, the United States and other Countries. By B. E. Fernow. Toronto, 1910. 438 pp. $2.50. This volume has been reviewed in its incomplete state (lacking the history of the United States) in F. Quart. vol. V, p. 54. The foreign professional press has since brought four reviews from competent pens. Dr. Schwappach, himself the author of a history of Germany, fills six pages of the Forstliche Rundschau with abstracts from the volume, covering several countries, without comment, Of several other countries he says: “The forest history of these countries is generally only brief and little satisfactory: destruction of virgin treasures on one hand and feeble beginnings of better management on the other. Yet the study of these conditions too, under the guidance of the interesting expositions of Fernow, is very instructive.” Prof. W. R. Fisher in the Quarterly Journal of Forestry de- votes seven pages to a more critical review, from which the fol- lowing extracts are taken. “Dr. Fernow’s History of Forestry is a welcome and im- portant addition to our literature, and it is the first account of the subject in English.” “Fernow writes admirably about German forestry, with which he is thoroughly acquainted.” Three pages of extracts follow. “On turning to Fernow’s account of French forestry, it is evi- dent that he has not studied that subject sufficiently. While giving the French full credit for the admirable work they have done in planting, also in controlling mountain torrents by planting bare hillsides, he says that outside these works French foresters have not developed forestry to any noticeable extent. Those acquainted with French forestry know that this is not correct.” No special basis for this exception is given except the following: “Fernow is not sufficiently posted up in French forest litera- ture, which includes besides the books he mentions a very com- prehensive work on forest technology by Mathey, and treatises on 22 336 Forestry Quarterly. silviculture by Mouillefert and Fron, besides the splendid Economie Forestiére by G. Huffel to which he has referred.” (These volumes were published after the chapter was in print.) “He also omits to mention the best French forest magazine, the Bulletin de la Société forestiére de Franche Comté et de Bel- fort, which can compare in excellence with any European forestry magazine.” ‘The French have abolished all rights to litter in forests, though such rights still persist in some German forests.” “A very full account is given of Indian forestry, though even here the author is misinformed in stating that the Provincial Ser- vice is to some extent recruited from the natives. Except in Burma it is composed principally of natives of India.” “We have no space for further reference to this comprehensive history, and we can only hope that the author will be able soon to publish a second edition in which the inaccuracies referred to may gbe corrected.” Such a corrected edition will probably appear within a year. The Revue des Eaux et Foréts reprints in translation the review of Prof. Fisher in addition to one furnished by M. Ch. Guyot, Director of the forest school at Nancy. Naturally this reviewer, too, finds fault with the lack of praise for French forestry, and naturally with more feeling, yet in perfect good tone. The simple statement of fact, that “French forestry literature has never been prolific and to this day occupies still a limited amount of shelfroom,” meets with the retort that in such matters it is not quantity, but quality, that one must examine. In the end, however, the reviewer agrees that “from certain points of view and to a certain measure we deserve this unfavor- able impression of our forests and forestry on the part of strangers.” Lack of self-appreciation by Frenchmen and lack of traveling in foreign countries due to parsimony, account, in part, according to the reviewer, for this misjudgment. “If, to give ourselves a better appearance, it were possible for the administra- tion to endow our educational institutions better; if especially the only French forest experiment station were in personnel and material direction developed for the important service which it would then be able to render to our forests, then we would not have to complain as regards the too small place which M. Fernow has assigned to us in his history, but, on the contrary, we would Current Literature. 337 have to thank him for the service which without intention he would have rendered us.” The review of Dr. Fankhauser in the Schweizerische Zeit- schrift fiir Forstwesen is in entirely different tone. ‘With great skill has the author brought the voluminous material into a rela- tively small volume and yet has brought out everywhere the es- sential in clear and easily intelligible exposition in such a manner that one obtains a good insight into existing conditions. The chapter devoted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the author has utilized the more important literature and how ex- cellently he has understood to orient himself in complicated con- ditions.” “The greatest interest naturaly attaches to the forest history of the United States, especially when it is considered how recent the attempts to secure an orderly forest management. A telling proof of the remarkably rapid and healthy development of for- estry in America is to be found in this very volume which sprung from the young American movement, fills already an important lacuna in forestry literature of the world.” We believe that these extracts from competent reviewers will suffice to assure the reader of the value of the book. PoE OW. Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the Province of Quebec, for r9c9. Quebec, 1910. 202 pp. In the section of Woods and Forests is found, besides the usual statements of revenue collected in various forms, which for the year in question remains below the million dollar mark, the first annual report of the Forestry Service, as well as of the Bureau of Forestry. There are 67,428 square miles under license, from which 554,000,000 feet B. M., a little square timber and other small material, besides 360,000 cords of pulpwood and nearly a million railroad ties were cut, the stumpage dues collected amount to $650,000, ground rents to $207,000 and the total collections to $906,360. The organization of the forestry branch of the department is not readily intelligible. _ Apparently the Woods and Forest Branch is in charge of a Superintendent under the Deputy Min- ‘ister of Lands and Forests, and in this branch the Bureau of 338 Forestry Quarterly. Forestry under a Superintendent and the Forestry Service under a Forestry Engineer (unfortunate nomenclature!) are inde- pendent sections, each reporting directly to the Minister. The bureau seems mainly to be occupied with the protection of timber- lands against fire, on which subject a short report, illustrated by poor photographs, is submitted. In addition the officer in charge is also in charge of the Laurentides National Park. The Forestry Engineer, Mr. G. C, Piché, seems to be engaged with six Forestry Agents and some sixty rangers to superintend the logging operations on the timber limits, or at least some of them, four counties containing 500 square miles being mentioned as under such charge, besides 400 square miles of unsurveyed country. A general description of the country, its topographic features, agricultural condition, industries and trade is followed by a short forest description, and history of its development is ygiven. It appears that through farm settlement since 1820 the 1,600 square miles of country have to the extent of 50 per cent. been settled. Of the 800 square miles of timber 25 per cent, has been burnt over, and the farms contain about 25 per cent. of poor woods. A discussion on the existing lumbering and settling methods is followed by suggestions for the future, which call for an increase in technical staff; for an inventorying of the limits for the purpose of devising better methods of cutting; for studying rates of growth, reproduction, burning of refuse; for marking trees to be cut with varying diameter limits. The writer prop- erly says: “It is better to spend our money in effectively pro- tecting the forest,” than in planting, which latter should be done only where protection against fire is assured. A few suggestions how fire protection can be improved, a dis- cussion on supervision over settlers’ lots and local saw mills con- cludes this report, which furnishes an earnest evidence that the Province of Quebec will soon have developed a better forest policy. That private endeavor in the Province has not been behind the government’s beginning is shown by the publication, with com- ments by Mr. Piché, of a forest survey made by Mr. Lyford for the Riordan Paper Company, to which we hope to return later in detail. Current Literature. 339 Commission of Conservation, Canada. Report of the First Annual Meeting, Held at Ottawa, January, 191% 216 pp. Contains the act establishing the Commission, with amend- ments; the organization in committees and their brief reports; and the various addresses delivered at the meeting, namely, “In- augural Address,” by Hon. Clifford Sifton; address by His Ex- cellency, Earl Grey; ‘Scientific Forestry in Europe: Its Value and Applicability in Canada,” by B. E. Fernow; “The Conserva- tion of Agricultural Resources,” by James W. Robertson; “Pos- sible Economies in Production of Minerals of Canada,” by Eugene Haanel; ‘The Conservation of the Natural Resources of Ontario,’ by Hon. Frank Cochrane; “The Conservation of Water Powers,” by Hon. Adam Beck; “Fish and Game in Ontario,” by Kelley Evans; ‘“Fur-bearing Animals in Canada and How to Prevent Their Extinction,’ by F. T. Coryden; “Measures for the Maintenance and Improvement of the Public Health,” by P. H. Bryce; “Diseases of Forest Trees,” by H. T. Gussow; “Insects Destructive to Canadian Forests,” by C. Gor- don Hewitt; “The Water Wealth of Canada, With Special Reference to the Ottawa River Basin,” by Charles R. Coutlee. Vermont Forestry Cards, Nos. I, 2, 3, 4. This is a novel way of reaching the public ear for conservation by giving information of everyday value on a postal card. The first card gives the number of second growth small hardwood trees required to make a cord, and connects this information with the waste entailed in cutting such trees. The second card gives equivalents of lumber and cordwood from logs of various diameters. The third, entitled “Compound Interest Made by a Log,” shows that a 14-inch log contains double the amount of lumber of a 10-inch log, an argument for leaving the smaller trees. The fourth card gives shipping weights of various classes of lumber. Forest Fires in Vermont. By Austin F. Hawes, State Forester. December, 1909. 48 pp. Gives in detail reports of fire wardens, with calculations of the damage, which for four years has been estimated at $35,682, the 340 Forestry Quarterly. expense of fire fighting as far as reported amounting to $11,209 additional. The different districts most liable to fires are dis- cussed in detail, with maps, and in a summary the author discusses methods of improving conditions in fire fighting; his recom- mendations include the establishing of telephone lines, look-out stations, authority for the Forester to prescribe preventives in logging operations and better organization. Statistische Nachweisungen aus der Forestverwaltung des Grossherzogtums Baden fiir das Jahr 1907. Karlsruhe, 19009. This most instructive volume contains more than its title indi- cates, giving, as it does, a very complete statement of forest con- ditions of the country, which can boast the best financial results from its forest management. It is of special interest in view of the discussions with regard to an overstock of old stands and the propositions to reduce the same, which were briefed in this journal. A general geographic description is followed by a discussion on the distribution of forest areas. With 38.6 per cent. of forest the country is one of the best wooded in Germany, with varia- tions of 26 per cent. in the valley land to 57 per cent. in the Black Forest. The composition is half conifer, half broadleaf trees. Beech and Spruce represent each one-fourth of the total. Fir and Pine with Larch a little more than another one-fourth of the make-up; and Oak one-tenth. A little more than one per cent., say less than 2,000 acres, is devoted to exotic introductions. The crown forests represent only 17 per cent., but 47 per cent. of municipal and corporation forest are also under direct man- agement and control of the government. It is interesting to note that the first working plans do not date back of 1836, when for timber forest the volume allotment method, for coppice simple area division was applied. Ten years later, at the first revision of the plans, an approach to the com- bined allotment method and also to a normal stock method was made, an attempt at securing normal stock conditions being pre- scribed. Soon the plans were made only for the next decade vith a summary area distribution for the following periods. ™n 1869, Heyer’s method in general terms was adopted and has Current Literature. 341 for the last 40 years been used. Every 10 years, age, increment, and stock is determined for each stand and the distribution of the total stock in the several age classes; then making a comparison between actual and normal stock for each age class, the budget for the next 10 years is determined. (See For. Quar. Vol. VII, p. 87.) As normal increment is taken the increment at felling age of some well stocked and well managed stand with the actual species and system of management as basis. As actual increment the current increment for the decade was used at first, but later the actual average at felling age (as Heyer does). The average nor- mal stock in the crown forests has been determined as 4,275 cubic feet, the average normal increment as 77 cubic feet (1.8 per cent.). Silviculturally it is of interest to note that in the last 30 years an increase in conifer growth by Io per cent. has taken place, partly by planting of waste places, partly by underplanting in deciduous forest; so that, while in 1876 conifer forest represented 40 per cent., in 1902 it had increased to 49 per cent. Timber forest.is the prevailing type in crown and municipal forest, with 95 per cent. in the first, 86 per cent. in the latter. In the whole country selection forest is represented by 7.7 per cent., but if the private forest area is excluded, not more than 1.6 per cent. is managed under this system. Natural regeneration, and that in long regeneration periods (see F. Qu. Vol. VIII, No. 2), is practiced on 80 and 7o per cent. respectively of crown and municipal forest, or altogether on 58 per cent. of the total forest area, leaving 26 per cent (47 per cent. on private forest) for a clearing system. Favorable climatic and site conditions warrant the adherence to natural regeneration. The rotations in the crown forests vary from go to 120 years for the bulk, in a few smaller areas up to 130 years. From the nor- mal and actual stock data rotations of 111 and 108 years would be figured. These calculations are interesting in view of the lately brought charges that a surplus of old stock was on hand and should be removed. The opposite seems the case, namely, a discrepancy in stock of some 27,000,000 cubic feet. But in the distribution over the age classes, it is admitted, abnormality exists in that the age classes over 100 years are in excess, the others 342 Forestry Quarterly. showing deficits. The cause is sought in the excessive fellings at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, which were resorted to in order to pay war debts, the young age classes at that time established representing the present old stands. Special attention in the management (and in the report) is given to a thorough utilization of the “light increment.” It is recorded that a 120-year-old fir stand, site I, during the last 18 years showed an increment of 303 cubic feet per acre and year; a I11-year-old spruce stand, site I, an increment of 230 cubic feet; a 141-year-old beech stand, site II, opened up, an increment of 145 cubic feet. In the crown forest the cut has in the last 30 years been in- creased from 61 to 93 cubic feet per acre (an increase of 53 per cent.). In the municipal forests also an increase of 34 per cent. gs noted, to 85 cubic feet. The workwood per cent. has also risen from 40 per cent. to 50 per cent. in the crown forest, and to 45 per cent. in the municipal forest. There are considerable variations noticeable from district to district, the volume produc- tion varying from 24.3 to 187 cubic feet and from 49 cents to $13.98 per acre. The average value of wood per cubic foot in 1907 was 6.9 cents for fuel and just double, 14 cents, for workwood. Since 1850, the average price of all wood has risen from 3.3 cents to 9.3 cents, or at the annual rate of nearly 2 per cent. compound for 57 years. The gross returns have doubled in the last 30 years to $8.99 per acre, and, since the expenses have not increased proportionately, the net revenue has risen more than 100 per cent, namely, from $2.45 in 1878 to $5.23 in 1907. In spite of the prevalence of natural regeneration the expense for cultures is 22.7 cents per acre, not less than the average of all other State forest depart- ments with the exception of Saxony and Hesse. All forest property of Baden is under surveillance, and, with a few exceptions, the municipal and corporation forests are directly managed by the State forest administration at the rate of one per mil of taxable forest value. Private property is only so far under control as to require a permit for clearing, which is rarely denied, especially when replanting is contemplated. The question of forest taxation and its history is also specially Current Literature. 343 discussed. In 1854, the basis for taxation was the value of 15 times the normal yield on the stump, which generally brought the tax to 4.4 per mil. In 1878 this was reduced to 2.8 per mil. Meanwhile the rise of wood prices produced a disproportion. be- tween agricultural and forest values, and the old rate was re- established in 1880. The new tax law of 1906, which changes the real estate tax into an income tax, was not applied in forest taxation. Instead, the forest value is determined by using the average price for five years in calculating returns including thin- nings, and, after deducting cost of normal management, capitaliz- ing this net forest rent with four per cent. By this calculation the acre of crown forests represents a tax value of around $108, that of the municipal forests a tax value of $105. The detail of administrative organization, system of education, salaries, etc., and many other points, are fully set forth and illus- trated by tabulations of data. Bo Bok Die Beschatfung des Kiefern-und Fiditensamens, eiist, jetzt und Kiinftig. Von Oberforster Haak. Aus Mitteiumgen des Deutschen Forstvereins. 1909, No. 6. 32 pp., 2°. This is an exhaustive treatise on all the practical questions which can arise in the use of the seed of the two species, the Scotch Pine and Norway Spruce, but much of it would also refer to other seeds. An extensive reference to the literature on the subject accompanies the very interesting account. The author provides the following summary: 1. Much of the pine and spruce seed lately in the market has been of inferior value partly on account of undesirable derivation, partly on account of low germination per cent. 2. To obviate this dangerous condition a fuller utilization of home crops is necessary. It is possible to secure by proper in- stallation seed out of cones before it has lost one per cent. of germination, and to conduct the drying process without any loss. The higher the germination the smaller amounts of seed will be required. 3. Not cheapness but goodness and proper derivation, it should be generally understood, must be the aim, and should be de- manded by all users of seed. Not less than 85 per cent. germina- tion should be acceptable. 344 Forestry Quarterly. 4. Not only the number of plants but their quality and the as- surance of success of a plantation depends on the quality of the seed; the plant per cent. is the decisive moment. 5. If a contract has been made at a certain germination per cent., say 85 per cent., and the dealer can finally furnish a better per cent., he should be allowed to furnish less quantity. 6. Under such rules a more intensive germinating test should be required, namely, 10 days instead of the usual 30 for pine, at which time, if the conditions were proper, the quality can be adjudged. Very many details are given in the body of the text. Forest Fires in Vermont. By Austin F. Hawes, State Forester. Publication No. 2, Vermont Forest Service, Burlington, Vt. 1909. 48 pp. 7 The initial step in enacting a Vermont forest fire law followed the disastrous fires of 1903. The next step was the establishment of the State Forest Service, closely following the wide fire dam- age occurring in 1908. This report purposes to give the results of the first four years’ operation of the law; to point out the methods of fire prevention and control employed by the wardens, not only the effective methods but those having less practical results; to bring out any defects in the law and to make sugges- tions that will result in a more efficient and economical warden service. In Part I a brief summary of the wardens’ reports for the four years is given, together with the list of towns that either reported or failed to report for any one year. During this time 144 fires were reported from go towns. @emaldcea burneds: 3. fis ssh. a3) oo eae 16,733 acres. Total-estimated damage, .)..2.<. = s/s0.2= 5% $35,682 56 Total cost of extinguishing so far as re- PRORICGY patelstile PU s's aibsicieds aid b ao eee 11,209 13 Causes were as follows: Burning brush or stumps, ............-. 27 18% Hunters and fishermen, ..... au es dies 20 14% Railrondaiace 622122 sta a's 3 HT ieee 9 5% Tncendiaty, “ooo os0 5 ls AN) Se 19 13% Current Literature. 345 ME AMSe TINKNOWN, 7 ofa cease Bd cao \ees os 65 45% MATERCMAMCOUS, 2.55 /.°k om vucaemeeia OS eenie in bs 8 9 including the following named _ causes: Automobile, balloon, berry pickers and saw mill. Part II gives by counties and towns the amount paid by the State for fire claims in 1908. The State pays any amount ex- pended by a town in excess of 5% of the grand list. The total cost of these fires was $9,039.32. The total cost to the State, 20 towns, was $5,962.89. The total cost to the towns not having State aid, 70 towns, $1,789.92. Thus where State aid was required 66% of the expense was borne. Part III deals with the field investigations conducted during the summer of 1900. The State was divided into fire districts. The five that sus- tained the worst fires were visited and the area of each fire mapped. A full report of the fire, its cause, history, method of combating, efficiency of the officers in charge, attitude of the people towards fires, estimate of damage, including merchant- able and unmerchantable hardwoods, and conifers and young re- production, and various other details were obtained and em- bodied in the report for each district, together with a general description of the district covering industrial, agricultural and forest conditions. Maps of each district showing the location of all fires visited, both for 1908 and older fires, are inserted. The illustrations given are applicable to Vermont conditions. Fire wagons, such as are used in Massachusetts and which might be used in a few of the more thickly populated regions, as well as where roads and distances will permit, are shown. Also a complete set of a system of lookout stations and towers which are proving their usefulness in Maine and New Hampshire. Part IV embodies a summary of the results obtained and the recommendations that it is believed will improve the efficiency of the forest law. Briefly it was found: 1. That the mountainous districts suffered the most damage 346 Forestry Quarterly. 2. That the chief cause of fires is carelessness due to hunters, clearing land or smokers. 3. That unless a season of prolonged drought occurs there are very few fires of any account. 4. That hardwood belts should be maintained wherever pos- sible, as one means toward protecting coniferous forests. 5. That on steep slopes the soil is usually totally destroyed, pre- cluding any further reproduction. 6. That where the damage to soil is not so severe, all valuable reproduction is killed or overcome by a heavy seeding of poplar, cherry, birch, blackberry and raspberries. 7. That in many cases the scene of the fire was reached too late for greatest efficiency and economy of labor, or that fighting ceased before the fire was entirely extinguished. 8. That in bad fire districts the present warden is inadequate b€cause of the rough topography, distance of warden’s home or lack of telephone communication. Thus, often no recognized official is in charge. Lack of permanency in holding the office means inexperience and absence of a warden or recognized official results in inadequate expense accounts. Based on the results of this report it is suggested that the State forest law be amended in the following manner: 1. So as to allow all wardens $2.00 a day for time spent in connection with their duties as wardens whether actually fight- ing fires, investigating suspicious smoke, patrolling in danger seasons, writing report or other work looking to the prevention of fires. 2. To give the State Forester authority to divide towns, where he believes there is particular danger from fire, into two or more districts ‘and appoint in each district an assistant or district war- den who shall serve for a year, but be under the authority of the first selectman. The aim would be to reappoint from year to year, during good service, the same men, just as will be done in the unorganized towns, so that there will be in these bad fire districts men of experience to assist the first selectman in his work. 3. That the State Forester be authorized to expend out of his appropriation such moneys as the Board of Agriculture and Forestry recommend for the maintenance of a telephone at the house of any permanent warden, and for paying the expenses of Current Literature. 347 such wardens as he may invite to a local meeting for the discus- sion of fire problems. This would not be an additional expense to the State, and has for a precedent the meetings of road com- missioners; it is also along the line of the Massachusetts law, where a special appropriation of $2,000 is made for this pur- pose. Most of the serious fires burned largely in cut over land and gained in this slash a heat and momentum which not only dam- aged the reproduction but enabled them to sweep through adjoin- ing forests. The lumbermen of New York, who suffered so much by fires in 1908, secured the passage of a law compelling the lopping of the branches of all softwood trees from the tops at time of lumbering. This is so that the tops will come in contact with the soil, and being covered with snow, will soon rot so that they will not be a menace for fires in the future. This is rather a drastic law and I would suggest the following modification for Vermont : 4. Whenever a forest owner believes that his property is to be endangered by the lumber operations on a tract nearby, he may complain to the State Forester when such operations are be- ginning. The State Forester shall cause all such complaints to be examined, and if he shall so order, the branches of all softwood tree tops being lumbered shall be lopped. Upon neglect of the owner to carry out the instructions of the State Forester within a specified time he shall be subject to a fine of not over $500. The payment of such fine shall not in any way release him from suit for damages should he be responsible for fire thereaiter. It would rarely be necessary to require the lopping of these tops on any considerable areas. A strip one hundred yards wide on the side next the complainer would usually be sufficient, but the width of the strip would depend upon the topography. The Forest Commissioner in 1908 had great difficulty in audit- ing the fire bills because many of them were sent in long after fires which he knew nothing of at the time they were burning. 5. The law shall oblige the first selectman to notify the State Forester as soon as the expense of fire fighting for a calendar year reaches $100, and the State should not be obliged to pay toward the fighting of any fires which occur before such notice is given. 6. Whenever any lumber company or group of forest owners 348 Forestry Quarterly, are willing to go to the expense of incorporating such a station and connecting it with the necessary telephone service, the State forester shall be authorized to spend money from his annual ap- propriation for maintaining a watchman at such station during such period as the State Forester may think advisable. “Forest Conditions in Virginia and Proposed Measures for Forest Protection.” By W. W. Ashe, Forest Assistant, U. S. Forest Service. House Document No. V. Communication from the Governor of Virginia. Richmond. 1910. 20 pp. The information in this circular was collected by the Forest Service in co-operation with the State of Virginia, the object being to outline a practicable forest policy for the State and to propose needed legislation. The author discusses the present forest conditions and shows that the maximum lumber cut has been reached and is at present maintained only by cutting smaller and smaller trees each year. The present output is approxi- mately three times the annual growth, while fires and improper methods of lumbering are steadily reducing the present small increment. Within twenty years the industrial concerns which are dependent upon forest products will have difficulty in obtain- ing their supply of timber within the State. Just criticism is made of the radical change in logging opera- tions. The former custom of culling the larger trees has been superseded by the present clear cutting system, which not only increases the fire danger but leaves few or no seed trees, changes the character of the forest types, and reduces the value of the next crop. If the State will educate the land owners to protect their 15,000,000 acres of forest lands from fire and institute proper methods of management, a shortage in the timber supply may be avoided and the present cut maintained. The author, in his proposed forest policy, advocates a law which will provide for the appointment of a State Forester, the establishment of educational courses in forestry in the colleges and schools, and lectures at farmers’ institutes throughout the State, the employment of fire wardens in localities where fires are most dangerous, the revision of the system of taxation of forest Current Literature. 349 lands, and the maintenance of municipal and demonstration forests. J.cHeoP; “The Farm Forests of Virginia and Recommendations for Their Improvement.” By W. W. Ashe, Forest Assistant, U. S. Forest Service. Richmond, Va. 1910, 12 pp. This circular, published by the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of Virginia, is intended to present to the people of the State in convenient form directions for the management of their farm forests. It was prepared chiefly from data obtained in a study made by the Forest Service in co-operation with the State. There are approximately 10,000,000 acres of farm land, or two- thirds of the State, in forest, which should be improved so as to be of profit to the owners. A brief description is given of the forest types found in the State, followed by simple but excellent recommendations for treating the different types. The neces- sity for fire protection is strongly pointed out. Farmers are ad- vised to plant up areas of waste land during the winter months when they can not attend to other farm work. The necessity for educational work is emphasized. This circular is not a handbook to tell Virginia farmers how to carry on all kinds of forest operation; it is rather a prelimi- nary treatise intended to show the thoughtful people of the State the importance of developing and maintaining woodlots in con- junction with farms, and how this may be done profitably. It should receive the careful attention of all persons who have the economic welfare of the State at heart. bee lead Fifth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commis- sion of New Jersey, for the Year Ending October 31st, 1900. This report emphasizes the fact that the important problem in New Jersey at the present time is to control forest fires, and that it is useless to advise forest plantings or to urge that woodlands be cared for until adequate fire protection can be assured. During the official year ending October 31st, 1909, 563 forest fires were reported, burning 93,525 acres, causing a damage of $133,944. The cost of the Fire Service for the year was $13,772. 350 Forestry Quarterly. This shows a greater number of fires than was reported for any previous year. This is due mainly to the incompleteness of earlier reports. The efficiency of the present organization is well shown and its existence justified by comparing the average num- ber of acres burned over for each fire and the amount of damage done during the three years since its inception, compared with previous years. During the last three years the average number of acres burned over was 112, with a damage of $166 per fire, while the average for five previous years reported was 1,155 acres, with a damage of $4,636. Of the 563 forest fires reported, 8% burned less than one acre, 38% less than 10 acres, 77% less than 100 acres, 94% less than 500 acres, and only 3% more than 1,000 acres. One hundred and forty-five of these fires were caused by loco- motives, 62 by brush burning, 55 by smokers, 14 incendiary, 30 ngiscellaneous and 257 unknown. Only 11% of the fires were due to brush burning, as compared with 25 to 30% for previous years. This shows that the law requiring permits for burning brush near a forest is being vigor- ously enforced. Three thousand four hundred and twenty-five of these permits were issued during the year. Forty-seven per cent. of the known causes of fires were due to locomotives. This is a “serious indictment” and justifies the action taken by the Forest Commission in the law of 1909 with regard to the establishment of fire lines along railroads where they traverse forests. The report contains illustrations and de- scriptions of these fire lines. The whole work of construction is to be done by the railroads and at their expense within five years, one-fifth to be finished each year. The total length to be cut by March 1, 1910, by the different railroads in the State was 1793 miles. The result of this attempt to lessen the number of fires started by locomotives will be awaited with interest. The report gives a description of the organization of the Forest Fire Service as amended by the law of 1905 and states the duties of each official. Of the 2,000,000 acres of forest land in New Jersey only 9,897 acres are now owned by the State. It is not the aim of the Forest Commission to acquire large tracts of land, but to “confirm and strengthen private forest interests,” and to manage the State lands as demonstration areas. Other Current Literature. 351 The report closes with a description of the different activities of the Forestry Department outside of fire protection and the management of the State forests and with a statement of the needs of the department for the future. JAE OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Proceedings of the First Convention of Pennsylvania Foresters. Held at Harrisburg, March, 1908. 1910. 49 pp. Published by the Department of Forestry. Contains fourteen papers on various problems of interest to the State. Forest Conference Under the Auspices of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. August, 1909. 33 pp. Contains five addresses, among which is one on Taxation of Forests of Professional Interests. Der Waldbau. Von Dittmar. Neudamm. I910. 279 pp. Mk. 4.50. While intended for every class of foresters, it is apparently written for underforesters; without special merits. Das Holz. .Von H. Kattmeier. Leipzig. 1910. 143 pp: Mr. 1.25. Intended for laymen, but in the chapter on wood trade, written by a tradesman, are things of interest to foresters. Natur und Kurst im Walde. Von Theodor Felber, 2nd edi- tion. »Praventeld. oro, 134 pp. Fr: 4. Of value to those who desire to foster the beautiful in the forest, as in municipal forest parks, etc. Der Wald als Erzieher. Von R. Diesberg. Berlin. rgto. 204 pp. ME. 5. A philosophical discussion which has attracted a great deal of attention in the country of its author. It discusses silvicultural 23 352 ' Forestry Quarterly. and managerial problems and political economy questions in an original somewhat revolutionary and idealistic manner. Studies in Ornamental ‘Trees and Shrubs. By H. W. Monroe. 74 pp. Allustrated. Berkeley, Cal., 1910. (University of California publications, botany, Vo. 4, No. 1). Published to supply the demand for information concerning the better sorts of ornamental trees and shrubs adapted to California. City Tree Planting; the Selection, Planting and Care of Trees Along City Thoroughfares. 26 pp. Illustrated. Detroit. 1910. (Detroit City Plan and Improvement Commission. Report No: x.) Native Trees of Kentucky; a. Handbook. 140 pp. Illustrated. ‘Kentucky Federation of Women’s Clubs. 1910. Tree Culture. 35 pp. Illustrated. Stillwater, Okla. gro. (Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 86.) The Trees of California. By W.L,. Japson, 1909. 228 pp. Illustrated. Cunningham, Curtis & Welch. San Francisco. Gold Coast; Report on Forests. 238 pp. Illustrated, map. London. Wyman & Sons. tg10. (Colonial Reports, Miscel- laneous. No. 66.) Reports on Certain Continental Forests. By F. L. Cowley- Brown. 83 pp. Illustrated. Madras. 1908. (India Madras Presidency—Forest Department. ) Tables Showing the Progress in working Plans in the Provinces Outside the Madras and Bombay Presidencies Up to 31st Decem- ber, 1908. By A. M. F. Caccia. 44 pp. Calcutta. ig10. (India—Forest Department—Forest Pamphlet No. 9.) Progress Report of Forest Administration, 1908-09. 23 pp. Calcutta. Superintendent Government Printing. ig1o. (India- Andaman Islands—Forest Department.) Other Current Literature. 353 Progress Report of Forest Administration in Baluchistan, 1908-09. 41 pp. (India—Baluchistan—Forest Department.) Calcutta. Superintendent of Government Printing. 19009. Orange River Colony—Department of Agriculture—Forestry Division. Fifth Annual Report, 1908-09. 56 pp. Blomfontein. 1909. India—Forest Department—Review of Forest Administration im British India for the Year 1907-08. 1910. 54 pp. Superin- tendent of Government Printing. Calcutta, India. Philippine Islands—Bureau of Forestry. Annual Report of the Director of Forestry, 1908-19cg@. 1909. 20 pp. Manila, P. I. Instructions for Making Forest Surveys and Maps. 1910. 51 pp. Illustrated. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. Table for the Measurement of Logs. By N. W. Spaulding. 1909. 20pp. California Saws Works. San Francisco. The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. By C. P. Willis. «i910. 19 pp. Illustrated. Farmers Bulletin 387, U S. Department of Agriculture. Hail Injury on Forest Trees. By F. J. Phillips. 1gto. 8 pp. Illustrated. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. 19, No. 3. The Beech. By S. W. Maury. tIgo9. 16 pp. Illustrated. Nunemacher Press, Louisville, Ky. The Gungko. By S. W. Maury. 1909. 15 pp. Illustrated. Nunemacher Press, Louisville, Ky. Studies of Fruit and Nut Bearing Trees. By E. R. Mosher. 1908. 52 pp. Illustrated. C. W. Bardeen. Syracuse, N. Y. 354 Forestry Quarterly. Studies of Our Cone Bearing Trees. By E.R. Mosher. 1909. 34 pp. Illustrated. C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. Studies of Our Oaks and Maples. By E. R. Mosher. 1909. 14 pp. Illustrated. C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. The Planting and Care of Shade Trees. 82 pp. _ Illustrated. Forest Park Reservation Commission, Paterson, New Jersey. State Printer. 1909. Indiana State Board of Forestry. Ninth Annual Report, 19009. 88 pp. illustrated. Indianapolis, Ind. 1g1o. Wood Preservers’ Association. Proceedings of the Sixth An- nual Meeting, 1910. 168pp. Galesburg, Ills. 1910. : Notes on the Legal Aspects of the Conservation Problem. 20 pp. Denver. Colorado Scientific Society. Igio. Conservation of Natural Resources; Special Message of the President of the United States Transmitted to the Two Houses of Congress, January 14, 1910. 11 pp. Government Printing Of- fice. Washington, D. C. Quebec—Department of Lands and Forests. Report for the welve Months Ending 30th June, 1909. 202 pp. Plates. Quebec, IgIo. The Blue Pine “Polygraphus’ Bark Borer. By E. P. Steb- bing. 7 pp. Illustrated. India—Forest Department. Leaflet No. 5. Calcutta. IgIo. The Large Deodar Bark Borer. By E. P. Stebbing. India— Forest Department. Leaflet No. 4. Calcutta. 1909. Burmese Leza Wood, Lagerstroemia Tomentosa. By R. S&S. Troup. 1909. 6 pp. Illustrated. Forest Pamphlet No. 10, Department of Forestry. Calcutta, India. Carallia Wood (Carallia integerrima). By R. S. Troup. 1go9. Other Current Literature. 355 Q pp. Illustrated. Forest Pamphlet No. 11, Department of Forestry. Calcutta, India. Special Relations of Forests to Rivers in the United States. By W. W. Ashe. 21 pp. Government Printing Office. Washing- ton. 1909. Outline for Lectures on Forestry. By Austin Cary. 12 pp. Albany, N. Y. 1910. (New York—Forest, Fish and Game Commission. Bulletin 5.) PERIODICAL LITERATURE. GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. That the efforts to secure rational conser- Swiss vation of resources meet opposition in other Reboisement countries than ours which have more need W ork. for it, appears from an article of Prof. Decoppet, in which he relates the struggle in the Canton Tessin from 1876 to 1908 to secure rational man- agement. During this period nearly $400,000 (55% contributed by the Bund, 20% by the Canton) have been spent in checking torrents and avalanches and reforesting waste mountainsides, which per unit of area is three to ten times as much as other cantons have spent. A commission was instituted to investigate the reasons for this disproportionate expenditure. The success of the reboisement work in the Val Colla is shown by word and picture: ‘Who has not known the former condi- tions of the region cannot imagine to-day what it was. The region, formerly desolate and continuously giving rise to appre- hension in the lower valleys, is now a pleasing landscape with numerous successful forest plantations.” Here, the people had proper appreciation of the value of the work. Elsewhere inimical disposition of the people fearing curtailment of grazing privi- leges rendered the work difficult and willful interference was frequent. To overcome these private interests, a new law pro- vides for purchase of State (cantonal) forest areas. The Commission criticizes the management of the reforesta- tion areas and pleads for a better support of the foresters by the magistrates. Ueber die von 1876 bis 1908 im Tessin gemachten V erbauungsarbetten. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. March, 1910, pp. 73-82. Although Japan supports a dense popula- Timber Resources tion most of the area is mountainous with of an abundant supply of timber. Lumbering Japan. is done in a small way, and the timber is rarely cut into lengths exceeding 10 to 12 feet. In towns and cities it is handled in log form or split log Periodical Literature. 357 form, the logs are stood on end in the yards and all material is cut to order. Where it is handled in board form it is sold in small shops much as sugar or flour. Little of the lumber used exceeds one-half inch in thickness, and much is less. Timbers, large and small, are put together by mortising, and no iron of any sort is used in many of the largest buildings. Japan produces oak which rivals the best in the United States, and exports both to China and the United States. At Nikko the empire maintains a wonderful plantation of Cryptomerias which is nearly 200 years old and contains trees said to be 300 feet high. Mature trees are cut and replaced by planting. American Lumberman. March 26, Iogto. Virginia has about 15,000,000 acres of Timber forest land which is equal to 58 per cent. of of the area of the state. One million acres Virgima. are covered with virgin forest; 800,000 acres are badly burned brush or waste land, of which 200,000 acres can be developed. Cutover land is restocking slowly on account of fires. At least 2,000,000 acres are held by farmers, and this represents more than three-fourths of the $100,000,000 capital invested in the forest lands of the state. In 1900, the average pine log in the Norfolk district was 16 inches in diameter while at present it is only 14 inches. The annual lumber cut of 1,200,000,000 board feet at present is four times what it was in 1880, and represents at least three times the total annual growth. ‘Two-thirds the lumber is supplied from old growth. ‘The principal increase in cut has been for paper pulp, tanning extract, railroad ties, mine timbers and poles. American Lumberman. March 5, 1910. Originally there were approximately 28,- Minnesota's 000,000 acres of forest in Minnesota of Forests. which conifers covered 18,000,000 acres. At present there remain 15,000,000 acres of forest land covered with merchantable timber of various kinds. Sawlog timber of all species aggregates 20,968,g02,000 board feet and is found in 21 counties. In the past thirty years 4o billion feet of timber have been cut, and the present cut is about one 358 Forestry Quarterly. billion feet annually. The State Forestry Board has charge of three forest reserves as follows: Pillsbury forest of 1,000 acres near Cass Lake, of which 200 acres have been planted with conifers, Burnside forest’ of 20,000 acres in St. Louis county, and the Itasca state park of about 15,000 acres. In addition, the State has acquired 2,700 acres in the Fond du Lac Indian Reser- vation in Charlton County, which will be made a forest experi- ment station. The State is authorized to buy land for forest re- serves, but no money has been appropriated for this purpose. The United States owns the Minnesota National forest of 294,752 acres near Cass Lake and the Superior National forest of 909,734 acres in the northeastern part of the state. American Lumberman. March 109, 1910. Louisiana has an area of about 28,000,000 yf orest Resources acres, 13,000,000 acres of which are of alluvial. The remainder is upland largely Louisiana. under the protection of levees. Approxi- mately 4,269,928 acres is in pine lands; 9,000,000 acres in cypress; and 3,338,486 acres in oak, gum, willow, persimmon, hickory, magnolia, beech, elm, sycamore and poplar. In 1908 there were estimated to be 516 saw-mills with a cut of nearly 3,000,000,000 feet of lumber. The Lumber Trade Journal. May I, I9I0, p. 17. After six years’ experience in the Philip- Tropics Future pines as an ecologist and forester, Dr. H. Source of Construction N. Whitford concludes that: Timbers. 1. The virgin forest area of the Philip- pines comprises approximately 40,000 square miles or about one-third the total area. 2. Seventy-five per cent. of the virgin forest area (30,000 square miles) is covered with forests in which the members of the dip- terocarp family predominate. 3. The members of the dipterocarp family, comprising an aver- age of 75 per cent. of the volume, can, from a forester’s and lum- berman’s standpoint, be divided into three tree groups, viz., the hard and durable yacals, the apitongs, and the lauans. 4. The apitongs and lauans can furnish by far the greatest amount of timber. The apitongs can be favorably compared to Periodical Literature. 359 the hard pines in general mechanical properties, the lauans, to the soft pines. 5. From many standpoints the dipterocarp family is to the Philippines what the pine and oak families are to the United States and other temperate countries. 6. Success in virgin forest growth should be measured in terms of bulk or bulk and annual increment combined. 7. The nearer the climatic, edaphic, and biotic conditions reach the optimum, the heavier the bulk of the forest and the simpler the systematic arboreal composition. 8. If measured in bulk alone, some temperate regions as com- pared with the Philippines show greater success in forest growth. If annual increment is used in combination with bulk, the forests of the Philippines will compare favorably with forest growth in temperate regions. g. If the tropics in general are like the Philippines in the above respects, they can be depended on to produce woods to compete with general construction timbers grown in temperate regions. 1o. An inventory of the forest resources of other tropical regions will give scientific and economic results of great im- portance. The important points, from a forester’s standpoint, brought out by this article are: (1) That 75 per cent. of the volume of Philip- pine saw timber is composed of trees belonging to the family Dip- tocarpaceae, which will furnish lumber to serve the same pur- poses, in general, as the pines and oaks are used for in the United States. (2) In volume the Philippine forests do not attain such a great yield per acre as certain portions of northwestern United States. (3) “It is believed that the rate of growth in the tropics is much greater than in temperate zones, that generally speaking the softwood forest trees will reach maturity in one-half to two- thirds of the time they require in regions where climatic condi- tions inhabit growth entirely for a considerable part of the year.” So that from the forester’s standpoint of increment for future yields, the tropics in general and the Insular possessions in par- ticular, offer a more profitable field for the growing of timber than do temperate climates. (4) It is extremely important that an in- ventory be completed of the forest resources of all tropical regions concerning the amount and character of the timber of which there is little reliable information. (5) If the tropics in general are like 360 Forestry Quarterly. the Philippines in regard to timber resources, they can be de- pended on to produce woods to compete with general construction timbers grown in the temperate regions. The Composition and Volume of the Dipterocarp Forests of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science. December, 1909. 22 Pp. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. Wibeck has investigated by inquiry and Change search in literature and maps back to the m 14th and 13th century, the question as to Forest Types. whether the beech in Sweden at its northern limit is being crowded out by the spruce. The beech, originally the more valuable tree on account of the mast, was early protected; indeed, in 1414 or thereabout, cutting beech and oak was forbidden in the city forest of Waxid, and in 1647 an ordinance was promulgated and again in 1725 ordering the planting of these species; but, by 1793, full liberty in their exploitation was given. Since then the beech has receded, owing to the opening up of the dense stands and deterioration of the soil, fire assisting. In the beech selection forest, spruce, beech, birch and pine in various proportions establish themselves, and finally the spruce becomes victor. Locally, bog formation by the encroaching of bogs into beech forest would lead to the same result. In clearing of beech forest, the birch with some admix- ture of spruce and pine becomes prominent. Sometimes heather comes in to be followed by juniper and finally by a return of beech or spruce or pine. Where plant societies meet in relatively natural conditions the beech remains victor over oak, elm, basswood, ash; where no frost danger and the soil not too wet, beech also conquers in the pure birch forest, and also sometimes displaces pine, so that one type changes into the other according to circumstances. The sequence of these changes and displacements is shown schematically. While the beech in this zone of its distribution probably always occurred only in islands occupying favorable sites, it is now fre- quently displaced by spruce. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsdksanstalt. Haftet 6, 1910. Periodical Literature. 361 In a very detailed investigation from tree Variability to tree on a limited area, some 141 spruces of were carefully described by Nils Sylven Spruce. especially with regard to branching form and position of leaves, form of cones and scales, and silvical characteristics. It was found that differences in these respects occur independently of each other so that it is difficult if not impossible to make a classification. Difference of branching alone seems to be hereditary. As regards branching habit five types were found and these types show also important silvical variations. The ‘“‘comb” type (with pendulous twigs) was found to be less liable to fungus trouble and also more rapid in diameter growth, probably due to favorable exposure to light of the foliage of the hanging branchlets. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsdksanstalt. Haftet 6, 19009. Dr. Kanngiesser brings together pictures, Ingrowing classifies and explains the various forms Phenomena. of ingrowing which are apt to occur in the woods. Virgin woods, mismanaged woods, pastured woods, and hedges furnish most frequent examples. He distinguishes branch copulations, stem copulations, handled trees, two-legged trees, cross-barred trees, hanging trees, snail trees, spiral growths, the copulation of different species, and root copulations. Literature references are given. Verwachsungen. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. April, 1910, pp. 123-128. ! An interesting biological contribution is Cause furnished by Prof. Wachtl in explanation of of the frequent experience that in attacks Insect by the nun certain specimens of spruce are Damages. not or less affected. He points out that Picea excelsa has two distinct varieties—a matter unfortunately forgotten in silvicul- tural practice—which vary not only in descriptive characters of cones (chlorocarpa and erythrocarpa) and wood (hard and soft) but also in phenological regard, the soft-wooded, yellow-fruited variety leafing out later than its congener. This fact the author suggests renders it in part immune from the attacks of the early 362 Forestry Quarterly. insect development. While he has not determined whether those immune trees invariably belong to the same variety, he cites the observation of having found on an early leafing spruce fully developed caterpillars of the nun, while other spruces were still in full winter rest. He believes the origin of insect pests to come from groups of early leafing variety, and accentuates the need of distinction between the two in silvicultural operations. Neue Gesichtspunkte iiber die Ehtstehung von Nonnen Kalamititen und die Mittel zu threr Abwehr. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Apr., I910, pp.145-151. Bailey has pointed out that in the evolution Anatomical of modern pines from Cretaceous ancestors Characters there has been a gradual modification of of certain anatomical characters of the wood. Pine Wood. Cretaceous pines as well as Prepinus were : characterized by thick-walled ray paren- chyma, piciform lateral ray pits, by the absence of marginal ray tracheids, and by abundant tangential pitting of the autumnal tracheids. In the development of modern species there is a well marked tendency for the disappearance of thick-walled ray cells, for the appearance of large lateral ray pits, for the development of marginal ray tracheids, and for the loss of tangential pitting of the autumnal tracheids. In as much as these modifying pro- cesses have progressed with varying degrees of completeness in living pines, variations in anatomical characters afford a basis for the classification and identification of pine wood.. Especially is this true of the lateral ray pits. The large pits of Pinus strobus and P. resinosa have developed by the enlargement and fusion of numerous piciform pits of the ancestral type, such as occur in — the nut pines of the southwestern United States and Mexico. Many intermediate steps in the transformation process exist in the hard and soft pines and are of diagnostic importance. Anatomical characters in the evolution of Pinus. American Naturalist. May, IQI0. In German forests such birds as nest in hol- Nesting low trees have for some years past been fur- Bowes. nished with nesting places by hanging hollow billets of wood in trees. These last only two or three years and worst of all shrinkage of the bark Pertodical Literature. 363 may entirely close the opening, possibly imprisoning and starving the inmates. Clay nesting boxes have recently appeared on the market and proven equally acceptable to the birds. They last well, are cheaper in price and in cost of hanging and afford better protection against squirrels and other predatory climbers by offering them no foot- hold. Der Vogelschutz. Silva. May 13, 1910, pp. 148-9. SOIL, WATER, AND CLIMATE. Since 1902, the Experiment Station of the Forest Cover Forest School at Nancy has carried on and comparative observations upon the tem- Temperature of Soil. perature of the soil under forest and in the field. The results of these observations were published by Mr. Cuiff, and Huffel quotes in his article the data obtained by Cuiff. The observations were carried on by means of three series of thermometers which were located at depths of .20, .40, .60, and 80 meters in three places: under high forest, under shrubs, and in the open field, at a distance of 50 meters from the forest. The observations were continued from i1go2 until 1905. They brought cut, in addition to the generally known result that forests moderate the fluctuations of the temperature of the soil, also the fact that the average annual temperature of the surface of the soil is the same under tall and under low forest. In summer, however, the soil is perceptibly cooler under a low forest than under a high forest, while in winter the reverse is true. It has also been observed that the amplitude of the annual fluctua- tions generally decreases with the depth, and that it is narrower under a forest than outside of it. In 1905, records were kept every two hours during 25 days. These records showed the daily fluctuations in temperature. It has been found that the amplitude of the daily fluctuations is less in the forest than in the field, and in a young forest it is greater than in an old one. Also that the maximum temperature is reached under an old forest later than under any other cover; in the open field it is reached earliest of all. In 1907, the soil thermometers were transferred to the forest 364 Forestry Quarterly. of Menelle in Vosges, where observations were begun on January I, 1908. Observations were carried on also in three parallel series. The first series of soil thermometers was placed within a 100-year-old stand of spruce, the second, in a wind-fall which had grown over with brush, and the third, in a clearing within the forest. At these places observations were carried on also on the temperature of the air. Huffel states the results of obser- vations for 1908 and makes the following conclusions: (1) Soil covered with forest is cooler in summer, up to a depth of 80 centimeters, than a bare soil. (2) In summer the temperature of the air in the forest is also lower than outside the forest, but the lowering of the temperature of the air in the forest is less than that of the soil. (3) The disappearance of the forest perceptibly affects the temperature conditions of the air and the soil, which has been yclearly demonstrated by the observations in the windfall. Huffel’s results do not, of course, add anything new to what has already been established by numerous observations in many different places throughout the world. They are merely illustra- tions and confirmations of the general results conclusively estab- lished by previous observations. Influence du Couvert de la Forét sur la Température du Sol. Revue des Eaux et Foréts. December, 19009. On the basis of five series of experiments Soil Physics and exact measurements under beech, oak Influenced and mixed oak and beech stands, Dr. Wal- ' by lenbock determined the influence on soil Species. conditions of these several types of forest, and shows clearly the superior favorable influence of the shady beech in the character of the soil flora, and increase of water capacity, and other physical soil conditions. He summarizes: 1. The physical conditions of forest soils depend on the species forming the stand and the soil cover depending on it; 2. The dead soil cover formed under the dense shade of pure beech forest increases water capacity of the soil in much greater degree than the living vegetation found in pure oak stands; 3. The effect of the soil surface due to the favorable influence of humus accumu- lations on physical conditions of stiff loam soil is experienced Periodical Literature. 365 under beech to three times the depth under oak; 4. With oak and beech in mixture the water capacity of the soil depends upon the percentic participation of the beech in the mixture, for upon it depends the degree of shade which represses the living soil flora in favor of a dead cover. Bodenphysikalische Untersuchungen in Mischbestanden von Eiche und Buche. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, April, I910, pp. 151-156. Dr. Helbig reports on the results of a series Effect of of experiments made at the laboratory for Lime on soil physics in Karlsruhe to determine how Humification. lime in different forms and amounts influ- ences the decomposition of dry raw humus of fir. Hitherto, it has remained undetermined whether decom- position of vegetable substance is favored or not by addition of lime. The experiments were made in pots, placed in the open, filled with fresh humus, and treated with different quantities of carbonate of lime, chemically pure, and of quicklime, and the investigation continued for four years. From the tabulated findings the author concludes: That lime favors mineralization of the dry humus in question, quicklime acting more rapidly than calcium carbonate. With increase of lime decomposition was accelerated up to a certain optimum. Further additions produced decreased action. Proportionality of progress and quantities could not be deter- mined. Einwirkung von Kalk auf Tannentrockentorf. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. May, 1910, pp. 271-277. Robbins has made interesting comparisons Climatology between the distribution of vegetation in and the various plant zones of Colorado and Vegetation in topographic and climatic conditions in Colorado. these same areas. Variations in altitude, wind, precipitation, temperature, and humidity are seen to correspond to variations in the floras of the following plant zones, Plains, Eastern Lower Foothills and Mesa, Eastern Upper Foothills, Montane, Subalpine, Alpine, San Luis Valley, Middle Park, and Western Sage and Lower Foothills. Climatology and vegetation in Colorado. Bot. Gaz. April, I910, pp. 256-280. 366 Forestry Quarterly. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION. Dr. Cieslar, having visited the district in Wagner's which Wagner for the last ten years prac- Strip ticed his new form of selection forest, ex- Selection plains the rationale of the system with a System. view to its possible adoption in Austria. The district Gaildorf lies in Wurtemberg (between Stuttgart and Nuremberg) in a hill country mostly on very good loam soil, comprising altogether not over 3700 acres divided into two ranges, the one to which the description applies of about 2000 acres. The original stand was a mixture of .6 spruce, .25 fir and beech; younger stands below 55 years are pure planted spruce, except the youngest, which under Wagner’s procedure have reéstablished the mixture. The fact that with a rotation of 100 years the age class above 80 years contains nearly 30% is most favorable to a method which requires a very large number of points of attack for securing the regeneration. Although the yield per acre is as high as 103 cubic feet (including thinnings), 54 of the 72 sub- divisions, each in the average of 28 acres extent, are under opera- tion, with 88 felling areas or regeneration fronts. A map illus- trates the checkerboard location of these felling areas. A preliminary statement points out that light, temperature, and soil moisture are the three factors which a manager can influence and should secure in optimum during the regeneration period; soil moisture especially is essential to secure regeneration, hence in rainpoor districts natural regeneration is difficult and in dis- tricts with large rainfall easy. Under the cover of nurse trees evenly distributed the crowns keep away much moisture and transpire much, so that the young growth is at a disadvantage. In group system on quiet days more rain is secured to the soil, less so on windy days. An uneven distribution of crown cover here is more favorable both as to light and moisture. In a strip system these advantages would be still greater, more rain and light reaching the regeneration, but if carried on as hitherto by _ fellings from East to West, to avoid windfall, late frosts, drouth, and strong insolation, loss of moisture to the regeneration from west and northwest rains are experienced. These consider- ations lead to Wagners strip selection system, beginning fellings Periodical Literature. 367 on north sides in strips by selection and clearing the selection strip when regeneration is established, then progressing south- ward. While progress from northwest to southeast would be still more favorable from the point of view of moisture condi- tions, considerations of windfall prevent it. A detail examination of meteorological data is necessary to determine whether or how this procedure is applicable elsewhere. Due to climatic conditions it can be accepted as correct, that in middle Europe everywhere the northwest and north sides of stands excel over all other exposures in ready seeding and regen- eration, “the west sides, being exposed to winds, the south and east sides to sun are more or less sterile.” By progressing with the fellings as Wagner does, from north to south, the regeneration can be secured even in regions where the precipitation is of modest amount, moisture, as the author elaborates, being the main factor of success. In Gaildorf, however, the precipitation is ample, 16 inches. Wagner’s proposition to proceed from north to south has ac- cording to him also the advantage that the regeneration on the north side is less exposed to late and winter frost, than the east and south exposure threatens. Snow accumulates on the north side and protected on the south side by the old stands, melts more slowly, occasioning more winter moisture; also the dew is here more frequent and persistent. Less damage from logging is also secured. By choosing a strip method of procedure with the fellings the operation is kept on a small area and the regeneration period can be shortened, so that soon a change from overhead shade to side shade can be secured. The method also presents the great ad- vantage that in the regeneration of mixed tolerant and intolerant species the former are reproduced in the opened-up stand under crown cover, thriving well, while the light-needing species like pine and the less shade-enduring like spruce regenerate by seed from the neighboring stand later under the side shade. This could be well observed everywhere as typical, the tolerant species securing the slight advantage in height growth which is needed by them. The progress of the regeneration depends upon the success, which can be easily judged on the small areas; mistakes can hardly be made. When the strip is satisfactorily regenerated it 24 308 Forestry Quarterly. is quickly opened up, the side shade being sufficient for the young growth. There are then three fellings, modified as needed: an uneven opening up of a strip as in a selection forest or group system, on the northside; then further opening up as the regen- eration demands, while a second strip is opened up like the first; a removal felling. There are, therefore, eventually three strips of varying conditions or felling types at each point of attack. If the regeneration develops favorably fellings are made every year, mostly however, every two or three years, and, if regener- ation is slow, four years. The “regeneration fronts’ extend for 500 to 1000 feet so that per front from 2500 to 5000 cubic feet are cut. This method is to be sure applicable only where an intensive management and the maintenance of ample means of transporta- tion are possible. * The silvicultural results are praised by the author without stint. Everywhere fir and beech is satisfactorily developed under the cover, while spruce is to be found as a product of side seeding in large numbers within the length of the timber height. It could also be observed that where east exposures had been opened up the regeneration was poor, a sparse beech growth without spruce. For the conditions prevailing, then, the method must be con- sidered a great success. But in less favorably located, moun- tainous territory its value, the author thinks, would be greatly limited, the variable wind danger and the cost of carrying so many felling areas make this intensive silvicultural system im- practicable. Here, the principle of large area management is imperative. Only here and there may the conditions be favorable for the strip selection system. Wagner's Blendersaumschlag. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Feb. IQIO, pp. 49—. During the last half of last century, plant- Sowing ing, which before had been the exception, or became the rule, crowding out not only the Planting. practice of sowing but of natural regenera- tion even where this was not necessary. Lately, lack of success with planting has somewhat modified the attitude towards sowing. Frombling recalls the early history of this movement in Hanover. Periodical Literature. 369 Sixty or seventy years ago the custom of planting oak saplings, a number for each one cut and at various family festivals, was still in vogue in the oak pastures and in the Luneburg heath, the material being mostly secured by theft, if necessary, from natural . sowings, and often of no value or promise, producing the runts of the well known “Hutewald.” Even after the plant material was grown in nurseries, the planta- tions of saplings with wide spacing to save expense, done with most painstaking care, were not of much more value. Conifer planting, usually in bunches, dug with the ball out of sowings, was then so rare that it deserves no mention. Alto- gether, plantings were children of necessity only, until Biermans showed that all species, but especially conifers, could by fertilizing richly with ashes, be brought to rapid development in nurseries. This gave the impetus to a general extension of planting. Bier- mans was hailed as a prophet and became the most celebrated forester of the time. Thirty years later the writer came into charge of Biermans’ district, and for eleven years had to work to remove the damage done by his experiments carried on on a large scale without proper consideration. Yet his influence was for good, and planting practice became general until now the results demonstrate where it has advantages and where not. The advantages of planting have been overstated, and the dis- advantages of sowing have also been overstated. The author points out the well known, yet in practice often overlooked, law of the difference of inherited vigor in seeds and germs and the capacity for development of the different members of a stand. The fear of the struggle for existence in a dense sowing is un- justified; it is the best means of Nature to preserve and improve species; where it is prevented, retrogression and eventual ex- tinction is the consequence. These simple natural laws of de- velopment need more consideration in discussing the pro and con in the question of sowing or planting. Unfortunately poor or good endowment is not so readily recognized in the seed or young plant that the planter could make his selection; he cannot avoid mixing good and poor and only too late is the difference exhibited. In the struggle for existence the élite becomes strong. Hence it cannot be otherwise than that every plantation must be made with a larger amount of seed than 370 Forestry Quarterly. would suffice otherwise; this is nature’s method of selection. Hence, generally sufficiently dense sowings have a great ad- vantage over plantings. It is an error to consider the extensive death of individuals at first as a loss to be deplored; inborn inability to live is the reason, and the exclusion of the weak is welcome. It is of ques- tionable value and mostly a mistake to anticipate the natural clearing much, for one runs the risk of favoring the unfit, until it is fully decided which by their natural endowment are fit to be maintained. The error of adjudging the large loss during their youth in dense sowings as due to exterior, unfavorable influence on each other of the members of the stand, led to a reduction of the amount of seed used and to substitution of planting. If each seed were capable of growing into a tree, the low amount of one pound per acre which is now-a-days recommended for pine could be still further reduced. On the other hand, the excellent stands inherited from,our forefathers, which may serve as models, originated from multiples of the amount of seed now believed sufficient. “Whoever has had the advantage beyond the limits of an ordinary generation of observing the origin and progress of these stands must shake his head over the modern ideas, and counsel return.” Dense stand calls more rarely for expensive repairs, covers the soil, furnishes earlier intermediate harvest and more valuable final harvest, and the saving at the start proves finally waste. Since no planting as regards numbers and density compares favorably with a full sowing every planted stand must exhibit the disadvantages which come from insufficient density. As the spacing decreases the disadvantages become less, and the reverse. Hence, the planting of several plants on a plat approaches in its advantages a sowing. The author criticizes at length the attempt at forcing the de- velopment of plant material in nurseries, because in this way naturally unfit and poorly endowed material is grown which when transplanted to the forest has no capacity for thriving in untoward conditions. He admits that in intensive nursery management in the repeated transplantings a selection is made, ruling out the poorer material, but he doubts whether at that stage the true character of the material is discoverable. Even among saplings Periodical Literature. 3 71 poor stock occurs. He advocates the wander camp, when the material is grown under the precise conditions under which it has to battle. While repeated transplanting may have value in help- ing over ihe dangers of infantile troubles on the planting area, it would be an error to think that beyond this the measure produces results in the future development of the stand. Intensive nursery practice increases the cost of planting which is then attempted to be met by reducing density, and thus indirectly influences un- favorably the planting practice. He criticizes, therefore, the planting of four-year-old transplants of Spruce at four and one- half feet spacing, himself advocating two-year-old untransplanted stock, two of them eight-inch apart in plats of three square feet spaced three and one-half feet, which is relatively cheap and effective. Another objection to the intensive nursery practice the author finds in the unpardonable neglect of natural regeneration in places where it would be successful. Summarizing, the following principles are announced : 1. Only a dense position in early life enables a stand, no matter of what species, to produce the best results. 2. Since in plantings the spacing must always be wider than in sowings, the latter deserves in principle the preference. 3. Since special conditions only too often force to planting, it is to be insisted that sowing or natural regeneration be employed wherever success with these methods is promised. 4. Every planting is to be made as dense as possible and in order to save cost with youngest possible material. 5. Nursery practice should be as simple and natural as possible. All forcing in seed or transplant nurseries is objectionable luxury, which is bound to react unfavorably. Regarding the causes of the retardation and suppression of indi- viduals in a stand the author accentuates that individuals of the same species, once retarded and suppressed under the pressure of the same species, can never recover, if set free. On the con- trary, the suppressed stand of one species under another species, as Spruce under Pine, or Beech, Spruce, Fir under Oak can grow into successful stands upon the removal of the dominant growth. Saat oder Pflanzung? Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. May, 1910, PP. 253-271. 372 Forestry Quarterly. From the Danish Seed Control Station Miss Germination Jacobsen reports experiences of five years Tests. with some 150 species of forest trees, some new and rare and difficult of germination. The special aim seemingly has been how to improve methods and to reduce time of germination without vitiating results. The author criticizes some of the propositions of Schwappach to secure uniform practice at seed control stations, made in Vienna in 1907, as objectionable. The “Jacobsen” germination apparatus consists of a zinc pan filled half with water, across which glass rods or perforated zinc plates are laid. On these are placed circular woolen rags, on these open cotton rags and on these paper. ‘The seeds are placed on the paper and a clear glass cover placed over the whole so that full daylight has access. From the woolen rags wicks are hanging down into the water, &nd daily every three hours the water is heated to 36° C., and then allowed to cool. Under the glass cover the temperature rises to 26° or 28° C. Under this treatment all Picea species and other small grained seeds like Chamaecyparis, Larix, Thuja, and small- seeded Pseudotsuga and Pinus germinate best. The largest seeds of Pinus and Abies do not- stand this heat and deficiency of moisture. These are placed on filter paper in room temperature, or else in sand. Some germinate better on a porch than in a warm room. Among these Pinus strobus. The rule for the duration of tests is 30 days, but as Zederbauer has shown (See F. Qu. Vol. IV, p. 203), this is too long, most species having germinated long before. The author proposes 20 days for the apparatus in use. To show that what is considered best conditions of germination does not always prove so, the author cites a series of germinations of P. strobus, noting the number of seeds germinated from period to period and those remaining fresh but not germinated at the end of the time of testing. Fresh, Days, 30 60 70 100 130 not germin. In warm room, 2 9 14 18 22 60 On unheated porch, 0 3 30 69 73 16 Apparently the lower temperature was more favorable. It is suggested that especially seeds which are adapted to winter con- Periodical Literature. 373 ditions do not germinate well until spring, no matter when they are placed for germination. The question arises whether it is proper to count the 60 fresh but not germinated seeds as germinative or not. If the knife is supposed to furnish a satisfactory answer, then these seeds should also be figured in, the method evidently being the cause of their delayed germination. Tables accompany the article giving details of germination tests of over 100 species in which are stated the number of samples tested, the weight per 1,000, the germinating “energy” (Germination per cent. within one-third or one-half the length of test); the germinative power (per cent.) ; the number of fresh ungerminated grains at end of test; and the length of ger- minative period. Keimpriifung von Waldsamen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Jan., IQ10, pp. 22-28. In view of the lately reported work of prun- Pruning ing by the students of the Mont Alto forest in the . school an article by Schmuziger is of in- Forest. terest on the practice of pruning. He points out that several decades ago pruning was extensively practiced in Europe. Knotty wood bringing 0.5 to 0.9, in the average 0.7, and less of the price of clear wood, a clear stick of beech 8-inch in diameter bringing double the price per unit of a 16-inch knotty log, such pruning seemed justified. To save in expense, lots were given for a small payment to poor people to prune, using the wood for fuel. After some decades the disadvantages of this pruning were recognized; a reaction set in, and green pruning, especially in spruce and fir, was tabooed. The author adduces authority to show that both height growth and volume growth are diminished by green pruning. (See F. Qu. Vol. VII, p. 447.) He discusses behavior of various species in cleaning themselves; the time at which pruning is least danger- ous (early spring); the danger from fungus growth; the obser- vation that forking is an individual habit and is not corrected by pruning. He comes to the conclusion that for the growing of workwood green pruning is not needed; that the removal of dry branches in conifers is, however, justified where it can be done 374 Forestry Quarterly. without too much cost and with care. It should then be confined merely to the best, selected specimens, for with the inferior material it is of no use. Such pruning should not take place until the stand is at least 20 to 25 years old. Green pruning is in place only where better species are to be protected against inferior and the entire removal of the latter is not desirable on account of soil protection. Aufastungen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. May, 1910, pp. 155-164. The question as to whether the green variety Frost of Douglas Fir is or is not frosthardy in Hardiness Germany is discussed, based upon experi- of ence, by Graf von Wilamovitz. He points Pseudotsuga. out that the situation in which the tree is to be planted must decide which variety to choose, namely, in severe and dry situations and on poor pine soil the green Canadian mountain form (Fraser River) or else the blue variety of the dry Rocky Mountains, but on fresh sites, good spruce and oak soils, the green form from the Coast is preferable because of its more rapid growth. In growing seedlings by all means avoid the use of fertilizer, which increases danger from frost. It is expected that soon German seed of Douglas Fir will be available. Ist die griine Douglasfichte in Deutschland frosthart? Zeitschrift. f. Forst u. Jagdwesen. June, 1910, pp. 360-363. The poorest forests found in Rhennish Rhennish Prussia, as in many other parts of. Germany, Conditions. are the small lots in the hands of peasant owners. Small forest owners were rare in the middle ages and only became numerous when the “mark” for- ests were parcelled out. These small owners were at first subject to a strict supervision, a state of affairs terminated under the in- fluence of the French Revolution. The earliest clearing was for farm land, but this removed the forest only from the best sites and in the valleys. Charcoal and mine timbers soon made heavy inroads on the remaining upland forests and the peasant owners took no care for future crops. They reaped, but never sowed. And even this ill-treatment was made worse by the removal of the leaf litter and its fertility. Periodical Laterature. 375 In a single county (Kreise) of Rhennish Prussia there are 7,000 parcels of forest of an area less than one acre, with a smaller num- ber of somewhat larger area. Anything like a forest policy is pre- cluded in such a state of affairs. For cash in hand the owner must harvest what he can and leave reproduction to nature. That such methods ruined the forest goes without saying. Small forests can only be maintained by co-operative management and must be satis- fied with low interest rates. The larger forests and especially the communal forests, which should set examples of proper manage- ment for smaller owners to follow, have not always done their duty in this respect. Improvement societies and the cities have fur- nished better examples and initiated the movement for the proper appreciation of forest property. This movement once started has made rapid progress until at present even poorly-wooded areas are worth $500 per acre. Most city forests are not managed for income, to be sure, but for sanitary, social and aesthetic purposes instead; the question of maintenance and improvement of the soil is nevertheless the main question here as elsewhere. Litter-gathering has reduced the fertility of the soil, and wash- ing has laid bare the roots of trees, until the heath itself will only grow on the lower slopes, leaving the higher entirely bare. Oxygen and water are excluded from the soil by the puddled sur- face and the ordinary processes of weathering are interrupted. The secret of successful planting under these conditions is thor- ough preparation of the soil, beginning with deep plowing six months before planting. It will generally be found sufficient to cultivate strips 80 cm. wide and 130 cm. apart whether seeding or planting is done. ‘These strips must of course run with the con- tours. For planting use beech mixed with red oak and white pine; do not use Norway spruce or substitute the German for the American oak. The mixture should be made either by rows or groups. A thorough hoeing each spring is almost necessary for several years. The planting of Norway spruce is to be avoided, for although it has been widely used it has succeeded only on the best soils. The spruce does nothing to improve the soil and has many other short- comings dwelt upon at length in this place. Pine is better, reproducing naturally in these heath soils, and although not doing its best, thrives far better than the spruce and 376 Forestry Quarterly. at the same time improves the soil, preparing it for beech and oak. The advantage of pine over spruce is clearly shown where the two are planted in mixture. If the spruce thrives sufficiently well the less valuable pine can readily be held in check; where soil condi- tions are untoward the spruce develops into an understory under the pine. In most impoverished soils it will be found advisable to follow these coniferous stands with beech and oak. For the oak, planting with plants several feet high is preferable to seeding or to setting smaller plants. The German oak is less suited to these poor soils than the American red oak, and the use of the exotic species is strongly recommended for this reason and also because it easily maintains itself in mixture with beech. Even when the ground is seeded with birch just after planting, a single cutting is sufficient to prevent for all time any injury to the mixture from this source. » Regeneration of hardwood sprout forests is somewhat more dif- ficult, especially inasmuch as these areas are exposed to damage from factory smoke, so that broadleaf species must be used. Planting is best here, too, and care must be taken to loosen the earth, for the roots not only in the strips but later also in the inter- vening space, by plowing. Where outlay is a controlling factor the same result may be secured somewhat more slowly by seeding well-prepared strips. If desirable the Austrian pine and the Banksian pine may be used on the poorer soils, while for spruce the Litha spruce or Colo- rado blue spruce may be substituted. Wiederaufforstung verodeter Waldlandereien auf den Auslafern des rheineschen Tonschiefergebirgees. Silva, April-May, 1910, pp. 121-3; 131-3; 137-9. The thrift of the Douglas fir introduced into Smoke Germany under Bismarck by John Booth Affects has been very satisfactory in many locali- Pseudotsuga. ties; elsewhere it has been destroyed in early life, due, as some have said, to frost injury. The needles turn brown or red in late winter and drop off. Green needles are put forth in the spring, but their size and color make it clear that the vigor of the plant has been impaired. This loss of foliage recurs two or three times and then the tree dies. There are many indications that the whole injury is not due Periodical Literature. 279 to frost. Atmospherii contamination with factory smoke (car- rying SO*), soil, and climate have in turn been held to account for the loss. To these dessication has now been added as a new explanation. The damage is done on warm days in late winter while the roots are frozen. The warm dry air increases transpiration while the frost-bound roots furnish no water from the soil. Dessication results and the foliage is discolored. Less evident, though quite as serious, results occur in the cambium, reducing its vitality and finally ending its activity. Das Verhalten der griinen Douglasie. Silva. May 27, 1910, pp. 163-4. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT. In a very thoughtful discussion Schiffel Increment points out that a knowledge of increment Per cent. per cent. will become more necessary and will eventually form an integral part of any forest description. Citing a number of authorities he shows how much they are at variance as to how increment per cents. are to be figured, whether at simple or compound interest and as to whether the manner of progress in increment should influence the method of calculation, whether an arithmetical or geometric pro- gression is involved. In quite elementary and convincing manner the author shows that in the usual comparison and percentic expression of the dif- ference of two measurements, as for instance in comparing the two diameters of a stick or the variations in height of a stand, the method of calculation knows nothing of a series but concerns itself merely with a summary quantity, comparing the end result with the initial base, such as a simple interest calculation gives. Similarly, if a forest 10 years ago had a net value of $50,000 and to-day the value is $75,000, the increment per cent is 25000 X 100 50000 = 50%, i. e., the net yield in to years has increased by 50%, or annually by 5%. ‘This calculation, although expressed in money, nobody will find fault with, for the nature of the problem does not require that annually the increment of $2,500 be added to the original amount of $50,000; it is justifiable to count the incre- ment as not a part of the initial capital. 378 Forestry Quarterly. Another method of per cent. calculation originates in the con- ception of the year’s increment as a quantity not capable of dif- ferentation from the base, 7. ¢., not as a simple multiplication but a real growth in the physiological sense. Then an arithmetical series results: h + (h + i) te (h+ i) +1 -+ (h-+ 2i) +i, etc. If now the annual increment per cents. are calculated ac- cording to the formula p = 100i, we secure not equal annual a increment per cents, but a falling geometric series, because with the same numerator the denominator grows according to an arith- metical progression, 7. e., because the calculation is not based on the initial amount but on each preceding and varied member. The point is made that not in the difference of the progress of increment but in this manner of calculation the methods of deter- mining the increment per cent. differ. » The difference of the results in the calculation are brought out in the following example: Age Height Increment Current increment per cent related to preceding member Initial member 15 Se 4 8. 8 16 5-4 5 9.25 10 L7 5.9 6 10.16 12 18 6.5 u7, 10.7 14 19 Cha 5 6.94 10 20 styl 4 5.19 8 21 8.1 5 6.17 10 22 8.6 6 6.97 12 23 9.2 4 4.34 8 24 9.6 4 4.16 8 25 ite) Total 72.01 100 Arithmetic mean 7.2% 10% Another example is furnished to support the principle. The character of the increment, whether during the period of calcula- tion it rises, falls, or remains equal, has no practical influence on the amount of the arithmetical mean annual increment per cent. According to the problem to be solved either of the two methods of per cent. calculation is applicable. If in any period of life the current annual increment per cent. of a tree is to be calculated, it would be contrary to nature and incorrect to relate the increment to any former dimension or volume, but it must be related to the dimension or volume of the Periodical Literature. 379 previous year. If this is the correct attitude, then the same method should be pursued in determining an average or current annual increment per cent. for a longer period, be it for volume or for its value, which is nothing but volume multiplied by price per unit; that is to say, the method in which each annual amount appears as a member of a series, resulting from the addition of the increment to the previous member. Yet, practically, this is not possible, hence a method which is satisfied with the knowledge of initial and end member of a period is needed. We assume, therefore, the average annual increment per cent. as an annually - equal one, and assume that it takes place in a rising potential series, although the actual progress is quite different. In this way we come to a compound interest calculation: H = h, 1.op". It would be a grave error to assume that any member of the series could now be found with this per cent., which is determined only for the end result. The author summarizes: 1. The method of increment per cent. calculation must be chosen with reference to the nature of the problem. 2. The increment calculation for trees and stands in dimensions, area, volume and value is made for time and should be based upon the principle that the amount of annual growth be added to the initial amount. 3. The annual increment per cent. depends on the amount of increment and on the base to which it is referred. It sinks with decreasing or stationary increment and can also sink with rising increment. 4. The arithmetical mean and current annual increment per cent. of a period depends in very small degree on the progress of increment within that period, so that for its calculation any dis- tribution of the whole increment (if not too extreme) may be sup- posed without altering the value of the average annual increment per cent. 5. The simplest and also correct formula for determining the current annual increment per cent. within a given period for trees and stands is 1.op? = N. V = initial stock, N = amount at V end of period n. These tenets do not agree with those of Baur, Judeich, Stotzer, and Miiller, who make the manner of progress of increment in- 380 Forestry Quarterly. fluence the method of calculation and make a difference between volume and value calculations; they agree with Guttenberg’s and Kunze’s. Interesting relations between different increment per cents. are shown and explained. A new development of Pressler’s formula shows that it does not merely approximate the truth but gives theoretically correct values under the supposition that the average increment in the year of the middle of the period prevails through the whole period. Kunze’s discovery that the area increment per cent. is approximately double the diameter increment per cent. is shown as of considerable practical value. Ueber Zuwachsprocente. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Jan. 1910, pp. 6-20. id Interesting calculations on value increment Growth of beech, made on 2,655 trees on different : Studies sites in Alsace and Loraine by Usener, show on that no very considerable growth differences Beech. on different sites and exposures were found. except on the Jura limestone. East ex- posure in one of the localities showed the largest increment. Yet in two districts on red sandstone formation and at about the same altitude, the financial aspects varied considerably, owing to differ- ence in market. In the one case, the average value per cubic foot of 130 to 150-year-old wood was 5.8 to 5.9 cents, and per tree $4.33 to $5.45; in the other case the figures were 7.8 to 8.2 cents and $4.80 to $7.60 per unit, respectively. . In the first case the price increment during g years had been 2%, in the other case 2.8%. In both places the price increment for workwood was not very different, namely, 2.5 and 2.4%; but fuelwood showed only 1.8% increment in the first and 2.2% in the second place. The three different increments stood as follows: Case I Age. Vol. Qual. Price Vali. a b c a+b+c Increment per cent. 120 3 zi 1.9 SDS 1306 tes I 1.9 Sow 140 9 I 1.9 220 Case II 130 2. 2 Paes 4.5 140 25 3 252 4.5 Periodical Literature. 381 The large volume increment in the last two positions is ex- plained in that it refers to trees of open stands with broad crowns. price increment, and the writer expects still further increases with industrial development. The main factor influencing the value increment is here, too, the Zuwachsuntersuchungen an Buchen. Allgemeine Forst. u. Jagdzeitung. Feb., 1910, pp. 46-48. The author, who is a consulting forester, has Tree Growth spent over two years in Mexico and made a m special study of some of the possibilities of Mexico forestry. Spanish Cedar is represented in Mexico by three species—Cedrela odorata, Cedrela occidentalis, and Cedrela oaxacensis. The last named is a scrubby tree found only on the plateau near Oaxaca, has its range fixed by altitude, and is not merchantable. The second is found on the drier soils of the West coast, while Cedrela odorata is generally distributed throughout the Gulf coast states, where there is a large amount of rainfall. Both commercial species have wood of the same reddish-brown color; both show a satinlike finish when planed, and both have the same characteristic pungent odor. The author measured logs cut for export and for home use as well as studied standing trees and makes three classes of logs, namely : Class 1.—Logs that grew rapidly throughout the life of the tree. These logs showed an average diameter growth of 14 to 2 inches a year and in rare cases even more. ‘This class constitutes less than 5 per cent. of the total, because conditions favoring such growth are rare. Class 2.—Logs that showed narrow annual rings throughout the life of the tree. Their growth averaged } to } of an inch in diameter each year. Class 3.—Logs that had narrow rings for 15 to 35 years with a subsequent and often quite sudden increase in growth, followed by a natural slowing down due to age and size. The majority of logs were in this class, and the yearly diameter increase in early life averages about 3 of an inch with a frequent increase to 1 inch or 14 inches. The trees of the first class usually started on burns or windfalls which occurred on the best sites where there was a warm, rich, 382 Forestry Quarterly. deep sandy loam with plenty of humidity and soil moisture. Class 2 grew on a poor soil where rapid growth is impossible at any period of life, or were overtopped, or crowded by grass from germination to maturity. Class 3 constitutes the majority because the cedar is tenacious and because in a majority of cases the seed must germinate in dense shade and the plant must wait for an opportunity to get room, or until it outgrows the overstory of other species when it rapidly increases in diameter. The author claims that the normal growth is represented by Class 1 with an average diameter growth of 1} inches per annum and which is estimated to give a yield at a 10-year thinning of 15,000 board feet, with another thinning of 25,000 board feet at 15 years and a final cutting of 35,000 board feet at 20 years. This would give a total of 75,000 board feet in 20 years. There are two species of Mexican Ash which grow nearly as fast as Spanish Cedar and are suitable for many purposes. Mexican Pine under good conditions will grow 1 inch in diameter per annum while Mahogany often grows at the rate of 3 of an inch in diameter a year. Eucalyptus is reported as growing faster than in California and “‘roble,” which is related to Catalpa, is mer- chantable in 15 to 20 years. American Lumberman. March 26, IgIo. As lumbering extends into new regions and Umiform improvements in machinery are used new Log log rules, says Mr. Ross, have been thought Rule. necessary for the changed conditions. Up to the present, 54 different rules have been devised of which 46 may be described as board measure rules and the remaining 8 as volume rules. Of the 46 board measure rules 17 are from formulas, 17 from diagrams, 8 from mill tallies and 4 from combinations of these. The formula class includes the Inter- national, Champlain, Universal, British Columbia, Preston, Baxter, Doyle, Ake, Square of Three-Quarters, Square of Two-Thirds, Cumberland River, Forty-five, Ropp, Vermont, Winder, Stillwell and Orange River Rules. The diagram class includes the Scrib- ner, Maine, Bangor, Parsons, Quebec, Spaulding, Favorite, Hanna, Drew, Baughmann Rotary Saw, Baughmann Band Saw, Derby, Partridge, Wilson, Finch and Apgar, Warner and Young- love Rules. The mill tally rules include the Carey, Chapin, Dusen- Periodical Literature. 383 berry, Saco River, Northwestern, Wilcox, Herring and Schenck. The combination class includes the Doyle-Scribner, Doyle-Baxter, New Brunswick and Boynton. ‘The volume rules include the Ohio River Cube, Constantine, Ballon, New Hampshire, Nineteen Inch Standard, Twenty-one Inch Standard, Twenty-two Inch Standard and Twenty-four Inch Standard. The saw kerf waste is always some fraction of the area of the end of the log and increases as the square of its diameter. Simple arithmetical calculations show the percentage of waste for given kerfs to be as follows: Saw kerf I-2 7-16 3-8 5-16 1-4 3-16 5-32 1-8 7-64 3-32 Percentage waste 33.) 120 27a cA ZO 16 73h TE 10 8.6 The deduction necessary for square-edging the boards is almost proportional to the bark surface of the log, and therefore increases directly as its diameter. The only rules which rationally provide for edging are the International, Champlain, Universal, British Columbia, Baxter and Preston. In addition the International is the only rule which properly allows for normal crook and taper. The saw kerf of this rule is one-eighth of an inch with a safety factor of an additional one-sixteenth of an inch for uneven sawing. It was constructed for logs 3 to 60 inches in diameter and 8 to 20 feet long. A test of the International Rule was made at one of the mills in the Ottowa valley and showed that the rule is an exceedingly accu- rate one. The scale of 402 White and Red Pine logs as they came to the saw carriage was 82,920 board feet and the actual product was 83,288 board feet, which is an over-run of four-tenths of one per cent. By overlapping the diameters between 6 and 17 inches for the sake of comparison with other rules the following results were secured: Diam. of Per cent. over-run of saw-cut as small end WNo. of logs compared with the scale by in inches tested International Champlain Scribner Doyle 6-8 28 2.6 10.3 33 143 7-9 54 2.3 8. 35 115 8-12 IOI 0.0 Fi 34 72 10-17 104 -I.I ye 23 45 18-20 90 0.5 6.7 14 24 21-24 126 4 He 14 18 25-33 31 -0.5 3.3 9 10 25 384 Forestry Quarterly. These figures show that the Scribner and Doyle rules are not suitable for small logs, which ought to be especially significant, since logs are constantly getting smaller. Another point in favor of the International is that it can be modified for saws of different kerfs. Another table shows the undesirablility of the Doyle rule for small logs: Diam. of 16 ft. logs Scales in inches. Doyle Champlain Scribner Quebec Actual Interna’l 4 0 8 7 12 6 5 5 I 14 13 15 12 15 6 4 22 18 16 19 20 7 9 32 24 24 30 30 8 16 43 32 32 40 45 9 25 56 42 45 55 55 10 36 7 54 59 67 70 12 64 105 79 80 IOI 105 * 14 100 146 114 120 154 150 Granting the value of the International for board measure, the author argues for the adoption of the cubic foot as the best all around standard of measure since it is absolutely fair to both buyer and seller, no matter whether the material be manufactured into boards, dimension stuff, lath, shingles, pulp, veneer or other products. Canada Lumberman and Woodworker. May 1, IgIo. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY. In Germany metal ties are used to such an Railroad extent that lately an association has been Ties. formed to further the use of wooden ties. At the annual meeting of this association last year beech ties were especially discussed by Schneidt, when it was shown that the unsatisfactory experience with impregnated beech ties was due to improper treatment. Beech ties properly treated with zinc chloride and laid in Alsace in 1892, after 16 years’ service had still 95 per cent. in track. In France, beech ties treated with 75 pounds tar oil last in the average 30 years. The reason for this long life is the possibility of a thorough im- pregnation of the porous wood, in which respect it is superior to oak and pine. Only the small amount of heartwood does not take Periodical Literature. 385 the liquid readily. This red or gray heart is due to an injury of the tree, broken branches, etc., which admit a fungus. This, how- ever, surrounded by well treated wood is not great injury, and the Prussian Railway Administration allows 3 inches of red heart, makes, however, objections to gray heart; other administrations admit both. The weight of an impregnated beech tie is 260 pounds, heavier than any other used, for oak ties treated weigh 220 pounds, pine 144 pounds, while the iron ties mostly used weigh only 130 pounds, so that here, too, lies an advantage for the beech tie. The checking of ties can be prevented by proper piling. Other points in proper treatment are given. A calculation of cost shows that a kilometer of iron tie bed costs 29,169 mark against 22,774 mark on beech ties. At another occasion the same authority stated that in France a superstructure of beech ties with wooden tie plates, three-eighths inch thick, instead of iron tie plates, has been in successful use for several decades, and trial stretches with the same construction in Prussia for 34 years have also proved themselves most satisfac- tory. Another advantage of the beech ties is that for this tie a gravel bed suffices, while the iron tie requires the best broken stone bed. Die buchene Eisenbahnschwelle. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Feb., IQIO, pp. 87-91. Buchenschwellen. Aligemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. April, 1919, p. 148. The final results of ten years of timber Quality physics work on spruce alone is published by of Janka from the Austrian experiment station, Spruce. the third publication on the same subject, different localities being involved in each. One remarkable result is that the red wood of the so-called hard (off-wind) side of a tree grown in the open shows greater weight and greater hardness, but a smaller compression strength and elasticity, than the wood of the soft (wind) side. Otherwise the lawful relations between specific weight, strength and hardness are maintained without reference to locality, and, since hardness is the easiest and simplest test, this may eventually serve as a gen- eral test of quality. The quality of wood can be judged from the character of the failure, poor quality shows a smooth fracture, medium quality a jagged, good quality a splintery fracture. 386 Forestry Quarterly. The old rule that wide-ringed coniferous wood is poor, narrow- ringed wood good quality has no basis, for the specific weight and hence strength depends on the summerwood per cent.; but in general it is true, as long as summerwood per cent. and width of ring are proportional. Besides ringwidth, the even or unevenness of grain is of im- portance as regards quality, evenness being desirable. A medium width of 2.2 mm (1 inch in 11 years) which corresponds to an average specific air-dry weight of 42 to 43, seems to be the most desirable. To grow the best material, dense spacing at the start, close cover in its youth, moderate thinning during the principal growth period and open position at higher age is recommended. Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreichs. XXV. Heft, 1900. Practically every kind of lumber is used for Box boxes. In the South, however, cottonwood Lumber. is the favorite for whiskey and other white boxes, since it furnishes the whitest of the Southern woods. The sap of red gum is often used as a substi- tute and although this sapwood has been considered jess valuable than the heart, this is largely due to careless piling. Cypress and yellow pine are also used largely. Handle manufacturers often use pine for box ends because it holds nails well, and cypress for the sides since it is stronger. Low grade pine will also work up into box material with less waste than any other Southern wood, but high prices often limit its use. The St. Louis Lumberman. Nov. 15, 1909, p. 81. During the middle eighties the use of Black Black ~ Walnut for furniture became very limited Walnut. because of the demand for oak furniture and the scarcity of walnut. Since that time large amounts of the Walnut have been exported to Germany, but its use in the United States has been limited. For a long time Circassian Walnut has been in use, but now there is a revival and a strong demand for Black Walnut to be used in the making of “solid Circassian furniture.” The demand for Black Walnut is largely for thick stock. Hardwood Record. May 10, Ig1o. ptt Periodical Literature. 387 Softening logs for veneer machines may be Veneers. done by live steam, exhaust steam, hot water or a combination of these. Steaming rapidly with live steam causes more checks and cracks than any other method. The best method employed for the most valuable logs is to soak them for about twenty-four hours in luke-warm water and then turn in steam to raise the temperature gradually so that there will not be a great difference in the inner and outer tempera- tures of the log. Too much boiling or too high a temperature may cause the log to become tough and stringy and it is claimed by some that the temperature should be kept just below boiling. It is also claimed that steam is better for some species while hot water is better for others. St. Louis Lumberman. March 15, 1gto. Western hemlock produces lumber superior Western to that of Eastern hemlock. It has been Hemlock. used for flooring and found to be durable. When sawed with slash grain it produces a beautiful effect and takes a good finish. It is a splendid barn board and the coarser parts are unexcelled for ship-lap. A large quantity is used for screen doors, the material being sent East for manufacture after which doors are again shipped West. For siding this species is superior to spruce and in the Middle West, where it is largely used for railroad ties, it has been found to last longer than pine and as long as Douglas Fir, while it holds a spike better than either. On the Columbia River hemlock is used for paper pulp and the manager of the American Extract Works has stated that the percentage of tannin from several sources is as follows: Washington, 17.04; Pennsylvania, 13.28; Quebec, 10.16. Dry, sized dimension stuff weighs 2,000 pounds to the thousand. Hemlock withstands the attack of teredo better than Douglas fir, and in the Philippines withstands white ants better than pine, Douglas fir or spruce. It is estimated that there are seven or eight billion feet remaining in Washington and four or five billion feet in Oregon. On the west slope of the Cascades it forms 5 to 25 per cent. of the stand, while in Clallam and Jefferson Counties, Washington, there are large areas of pure stands. West Coast Lumberman. Feb. 15, Ioto. 388 Forestry Quarterly. Probably in no other line are there as high Wood requirements made as in woods used for for bats, golf sticks, Indian clubs, dumb-bells Athletic Goods. and similar articles. Unusual requirements are made as to durability, strength, elas- ticity and absolute clearness. Sapwood only is used in bat manu- facture and clear, second-growth ash is preferred to old seedling trees. The standard bat stick is 38 inches long by 2% inches square at one end and 24 inches at the other. Second class sticks are 32 inches long and 2} inches square without taper. Most of the ash for bats comes from Ohio and to a limited extent from Tennessee. The sticks are piled regularly with plenty of air for circulation and given one year’s seasoning in the open. The so-called willow bats are made from basswood which is selected for absolute clearness and straightness. The rough sticks are shipped green and are a little longer and larger than ash sticks, being 40 inches long before dressing. A few months is required for seasoning. Bats are turned by lathe after standard patterns. Maple from the North is used for Indian clubs and is cut in square sticks 2} to 5 inches thick and to even lengths in feet. It is shipped green and seasoned one year at the factory. Short ends are often used for dumb-bells. For golf clubs clear sapwood of second-growth hickory is required in stock one inch square and four feet long. To insure against worm injury the stock is shipped from woods to factory as quickly as possible. After one year’s seasoning the sticks are rounded and then stored in kilns for 3 months’ further drying. In the kiln the sticks are stacked in layers of five with numerous cross pieces to prevent warping and each stack is weighted with six to seven pounds per super- ficial foot to prevent warping. After this process the golf sticks are turned to pattern in a Chapman automatic lathe which is fed automatically from the bottom of a rack in which the sticks are piled six to eight deep. After shaping, a simple lathe is required to turn the small end for receiving the iron collar. Hardwood Record. Apr. I0, IgIo. Ship knees are made largely from Douglas Ship fir, tamarack and oak, but fir is preferred Knees. because of elasticity, durability and even- ness of grain. Fir is also preferred over oak because tannin rusts the iron fastenings while resin does not. Periodical Literature. 389 The mild climate of the Pacific region is peculiarly favorable for the production of even grain while the cold climates are likely to produce shakes. Low swampy ground with a clay bottom seems to produce the best fir knees. The best knees are made by the natural crook of the trees and are secured by digging around the larger roots, then cutting them off and allowing the tree to fall. Enough of the butt is left to make the upright hub of the knee. Saws are used to split the tree and axes for reducing the knee to the proper dimensions. Knees are sold according to thickness, and the thicker the knee the longer the arms are. The thickest knees are used in the keel, lighter ones go under the decking, and, if there is an overhead deck, still lighter ones are used for it. One of the largest knees furnished from the Pacific coast had a thickness of eighteen inches with arms respectively seven and twenty-eight feet long. West Coast Lumberman. Feb. 15, 1910. The Gilmer method of destructive distil- By Products. lation which has been in use in the South for the past six years is said to be the best method yet devised for the southern pines and to have produced the following high average: Cost per cord, dry weight Results. 3,500 pounds: 8 gallons turpentine, ..... $4 00 PC OLC DWOO. psec! s, sus: ciece oie ve aie HIS On SOneallonsy tale cai sise eis e's. 4 00 Lo 1G Ser Pee tio see 200 500 pounds metallic charcoal General expense, ........... I oO APSR GME unre SER ce aia SEN 5 00 TREIZIE «to HAR ORO EE ae ena Se I 00 8 gallons tar oil, at Ioc, .. 80 WOMMAMENCIES! Vai eae ss hoes I oO To Om pines OMmacere ce 35 Gas (used as fuel in $6 50 Pale tay eau cera ens teh octet ats 50 200 gallons compound wood RECTUS HO Re etiet end settle $14 65 The Dobson-Hanford mechanical and steam process is said to have produced the following results in wood pulp and other materials, Cost per cord, green weight, Results. 4,500 pounds: 1,800 pounds fiber, $0.01 per PMCOLE WOOKS bacrcavetic c sseiees « $I 00 TD LORRALG AL A Gea tes Stele aS IA aR $18 00 Cost of manufacture, ....... 400 8 gallons turpentine, at $0.50, 4 00 General expense, ........... I 00 100 pounds resin oil, at $0.05, 5 00 $6 00 $27 00 390 Forestry Quarterly. By this method the wood is “hogged,” then ground and sub- jected to steaming, after which the juices are pressed out by hydraulic pressure. These juices are separated into turpentine, wood and resin oils, and a strong clean wood fiber is left which is suitable for fancy and common paper. The Lumber Review. Apr. 15, I910, p. 42. The following weights for lumber have Weight been established from actual tests which of were performed under the advisement of a Lumber. committee of the Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association. An accumulation of informa- tion was received from different sections of the country, showing the everage weights of the different varieties of wood and the different character of manufacture. Attests have been submitted Showing the results, which are now the official standard weights, to be absolutely accurate. Kind of Pounds per Wood. Thickness. Condition. 1,000 ft. dry. ASh;(z inch and ‘thicker—rouch,’ .<'..0..')/. 2 26a eee 3,500 Basswood, 1 inch and thicker—rough, ................. 2,600 Beech, t.inch and shicker—fou¢gh, |: \.).2 le ee ee eee 4,000 Birch, t/inch and thicker—rouch, .. 62/2/25 /.s\.-112 2s ee 4,000 Buckeye; 1 inch and thicker—roucgh, 0.0.0. 44.2 eee 2,600 Butternut, 1 inch: and. thicker—rough, (022... 42.1. ae 2,800 Cherry, a (inch and thicker—roush; \..)0 0) 4,000 Chesinut, 1 inch and thicker—rough, |... 44..a(... eee 2,800 Cottonwood, 1 inch and thicker—rough, ................ 2,800 Bim. (soft),,1 inch and thicker—rough, ....... .).. )).eenee 3,200 Elm (rock), 1 inch and thicker—rough, ................ 3,800 Gum, inch and thicker—rough, red, ...:.....\: Sm 3 S SS SS ee OLS Se ee eS SARS a = = SN 428 HEQ “HAH & GH SONWQ A h & . m mn me me % kg m m°* IT 18500 3.56 34 16.39 50. 90.6 2.45 69 2.6 1.55 .00270 .0040 Fl 42600 3:50 48 302 11.1 2¢ 2.85 80 6.5 1.70 .00447 .0006 III 4450 4.49 55 10.60 36.5 80.1 3.60 80 10.7 2.2 .00820 .o180 IV 3300 5.19 62 10.42 34.3 77.2 5.00 97 16.9 2.4 .01040 .0234 These figures show the great differences which the early change—when six years old—in the crown cover has made, While area I shows by far the largest volume, with its excessive num- bers it exhibits small height, small crowns, small diameter, the average tree containing one-half to one-quarter the volume of the average tree of any of the other positions. The close rela- tion of crown to diameter is apparent. To show that the un- certain diameter measurement in such small trees is not respon- sible for the differences a careful analysis of cross sections is made and tabulated, and pictured so that the history of progress in increment is also clearly brought out. In the first three areas, in 1901, when six years old, the aver- age tree in all had the same diameter, hence the subsequent varia- tion must be explained by the difference of treatment. In area IV, in which only élite trees were left, the average stem had, of course, already a larger diameter. In area I, the very next year after the thinning had been made and a close crown cover had reéstablished itself, a reduction in annual ring width, annually accentuated, is visible. While in area II, the diameter growth is less than in III and IV, and is reduced after 1906, it is larger than in area I. The competition Periodical Literature. 509 of the roots of the soilcover part of the growth accounts for the retardation. Area III shows a reduction after 1908, when the crown cover had reéstablished itself and lower branches had begun to die. Area IV showed an absolutely even progress, but since crown cover was established in 1909, a reduced ring width is to be expected. In 1904, both height growth and diameter growth showed in all cases a relative reduction, explainable by dry summer. This and other data establish a direct relation between height and diameter growth in young stands, with one exception in area II which was explained by a difference in water capacity of the soil, Another series of plantings with different spacing, namely, 3, 4.5, and 6.5 feet, of 17 to 22 years standing, shows the same relation between height, diameter, crown length and density. The crown cover, 7. e. touching of lowest branches, had estab- lished itself here in the first area in the 9th year with a little less than 4,000 plants to the acre; in the second area with 1800 trees in the 12th year; in the third area with only 1,000 trees in the 14th year. The fear that the most widely spaced, namely 6.5 feet, planta- tion will not clear itself in proper time the author dismisses with the remark that the lowest branches had already begun to die in the 22nd year up to 4.8 feet, when the height was 25 feet, and the diameter close on 4 inches. This result with say 1,200 plants to the acre, an open stand from the start, shows that this spacing on best fresh to moist loam soil, is, for spruce, most advantageous. Another experiment, also tabulated, refers to the effect of a thinning made in a stand on first class site, a plantation spaced 4.25 feet square. When 15 years old one part was thinned re- moving about half the trees without selection so as to leave those left in a schematic spacing. At the age of 25 the following conditions were found: Height Average Diam. Number V olume yee Area I 34 3% 2060 6742 Area II 37 434 1090 6568 Thinned 510 Forestry Quarterly. The second area, with almost half the number of trees, showed nearly the same volume, with an average diameter 27% larger, the height being practically the same. From a comparison of the 400 stoutest trees it appears that the crown length in the first area had decreased from 92% to 48% of the total height, in the thinned area from 92% to 56%, that is to say clearing had progressed satisfactorily even in the open position. This experiment shows that even severe openings on good sites during the stage of greatest height increment fill up rapidly and exercise an advantageous influence on diameter and height growth without depreciating the volume increment. Height Growth Crown Length Stem Classes Height Diam. Last 5years Percent. Age No. p. a. ft. in, in. of Height AREA I. Not THINNED. I 444 25 2.3 13.8 23 II 445 31 Zi 18.6 30 28 Tit 444 36 3.6 20. 46 TV: 445 40 4.3 22.4 47 V 445 44 5.6 24.8 49 Average 2223 38 3.5 20.8 47 I 143 57 Ge 6.4 26 igi 144 61 6. 10. 26 AS! ) LET 143 66 he 11.6 37 IV 144 73 8.2 14.0 37 V 144 80 TOLS 18.0 45 Average 716 66 7.6 T2: 34 AREA IV. S&vERELY THINNED. I 311 31 2.9 17.6 37 II aie 36 sor 19.6 47 237) 311 39 4. 224 48 BY: 312 4I 4.8 23.6 48 V 312 44 6. 24 52 Average 1559 40 4.4 22.0 49 I 102 60 se7/ Fhe 28 II 102 69 6.9 ETO 31 48 III 102 74 8. 14.4 30 IV 102 77 OQ. 16.4 40 V IOI 79 1027. 18.4 42 Average 509 73 8.2 14.2 38 Periodical Literature. 511 That thinnings which do not interrupt the crown cover remain without influence on the development of the stand is shown by another experiment on four areas, 28 years old, thinned moder- ately in varying degrees. The tabulations show that the difference in volume of the stand with a larger number of trees is to be found in the subordi- nate tree classes i. e. in the less valuable portion. The stoutest 400 trees were in 20 years not affected in any way by the mod- erate thinning. The ring width had already begun to be reduced. Another table shows the small difference which has resulted in the more severely thinned area in comparison with the least se- verely thinned stand. What increases are noted are to be accredited to the automatic increase of the average height and crown length by the removal of the inferior stems; the same stem classes show in both cases the same height growth; the crowns developed alike in both cases. Influence on diameter development and even on ring width can only be secured by opening of the crown cover in the stage of maximum height growth, when the length of crown has not yet sunk under one-half of the height of the trees. The conclusions are: 1. The growth of spruce in open position furthers height and diameter growth. On best sites 1,000 plants in even distribution suffice to secure a closing up sufficient for the clearing process and taper. 2. Diameter growth is in close relation to crown development expressed in not abnormal crown by relation of length of crown to length of shaft. A reduction of crown length produces reduc- tion of diameter increment. 3. In the period of maximum height growth the crown length must not be allowed to sink below half of the shaft length. In this period even severe openings are quickly closed, Beitrage zur Begriindung der Lehre iiber die Erziehung der Fichte. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. July, 1910. Pp. 291-309. Dr. Heck reports at length on the incre- Results ment and other conditions of several ex- of perimental plots in beech on which he has Heck’s been practising his “free or individualized Thinnings. thinning method” (see F. Q. vol. III, p. 40). Some of the areas have been under treatment since 1877, others only since 1905, and one since 1908. 512 Forestry Quarterly. Heck classifies the trees, not only into crown classes, but into form classes, namely, a, straight, longboled, clear stems; b, me- dium, shortboled stems; c, crooked, branchy and rough stems, and several other inferior classes. He finds in all areas, that the best forms have the largest increment, the increment percents even in the area which has been under observation only for the last five years showing for the a trees 3.09%; for the D trlees 2.12%; for the c trees 1.92%, Comparing two areas, the one of which had been thinned in the E-grade of the experiment stations 11 years ago, and then again in 1906, with the area thinned once according to Heck’s method in 1905 in a stand 86 years old, the total increment of the former, to be sure, was larger, namely 3.25 square feet as against 2.62 square feet; but, if the increment is compared by form cla@Sses, the advantage of the Heck method is apparent, the a trees in his area showing 44% increment over those of the other area. Comparing the older sample plots in beech, it is found that in a stand thinned according to Kraft’s prescription the 39 a trees of crown classes I to III represented 23.4% of the total cross section area, as against 24.8% in 1897; while the 39 trees in the Heck area of the same form and tree classes represented 35.3% as against 29.5% in 1897. That is to say during the age of 58 to 70 years the former area did not develop its workwood per cent. while the latter, although stems of the I to III classes had been re- moved, was considerably improved. In 1909 the cross section area increment of the two areas for these three tree classes of the best form was 27 and 47.3%, respectively, of the total incre- ment, accentuating the advantage of favoring the best forms as against the crown classes. The author then discusses in great detail similar experiments in Ash stands. Various incidental matters having to deal with the method are also discussed. Among them the question of the practicability of measuring annual increments, as the author does. He admits the difficulty but contends that with a Fried- rich magnalium caliper and always reading the lowest measure- ment, even the monthly growth can be ascertained. In meeting the objection that the two areas, now longest under observation and hence most relied upon to show the superiority of Periodical Literature. 513 Heck’s over Kraft’s thinning practice, are not comparable be- cause of difference of site quality as expressed by heights, the author points out that there is only one year difference in age, and that the height difference was originally only 26 inches and ten years later only 39 inches, while according to Eberhard’s height-yield curves a difference of nearly 120 inches may occur in the same site class. Various methods were used to determine the average height, none of which exceeded the above stated differences. Aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen. Allegemeine Forst-und Jagd- Zeitung. August, 1910. Pp. 279-293. The variation of Norway spruce and prob- Spruce ably of other spruces is great, and is also with found in the color of cones; red and green Red and Green and striped ones occur, but not mixed on Cones. the same individual tree, one or the other color being persistently produced on the same individual. Red cones prevail in Alpine situations, green ones more frequently in the plain and lowlands. Under the same climatic conditions the green-coned trees leaf out later than the red-coned trees. The expectation that the progeny of an indi- vidual with one or the other variety would behave like the mother- tree was not verified in an experiment by Zederbauer, who sowed 20 beds with seed from 20 trees in 1907. In the spring of 1g09 and 1g10 they leafed out quite similarly in about two weeks with- out regard to their derivation. The author therefore expresses doubt whether it would be practicable to grow the late-leafing variety exclusively in order to avoid the damage by the Nun, as proposed by Wachtl (sek F. Q. VIII, p. 361). Griin-u. rotzapfige Fichten. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. July, 1910. Pp. 310-311. Up to the present time it has been the Willows custom to reproduce the basket willow and by others by cuttings. The reason for this Seed. was the extreme difficulty of collecting willow seed and the impossibility of stor- ing the same. A continuous reproduction by this unnatural method, however, tends to deterioration in quality and short du- 514 Forestry Quarterly. ration of life. In order to prevent this and maintain full vitality and quality regeneration by seed from time to time is essential. When mature, the minute seeds are imbedded in a white tomen- tum and are disseminated with the same. If collected in the tomentum, they may retain their vitality for several days, but if separated from it, they will hardly keep for a day. An interesting method of collecting seed and sowing it in the nursery, which may also be used for artificial fertilization, was suggested in a note by Grams. A cylinder 30 cm. in length and five cm. in diameter, con- structed of wire and muslin is slipped over a twig with female flowers and tied at both ends, For artificial pollination, this cyl- inder should be put in place before the female flowers are fully developed. As soon as this condition is attained, a flowering bfanchlet of a male tree is gently thrust into the cylinder and the male catkins brought in contact with the female flowers. To in- sure fertilization the male branchlet can be kept in the cylinder for a few days. As soon as fertilization is observed by a swell- ing of the ovary, the cylinder is removed to allow the seed to ripen. The capsules turn yellow at maturity and to prevent dis- semination the cylinder is slipped on again. The small greenish- black seeds must remain in the tomentum until the time of sowing, which should take place immediately after the seeds leave the capsule. The seeds still covered with tomentum are spread out on the moist soil of the seed bed and pressed down firmly. Germination takes place in twelve to twenty-four hours. The seedlings should be kept moderately moist and protected from wind, hot sun, and heavy rain. They could be transplanted in a few weeks, for which purpose a light sandy soil is best adapted. A height of eighteen to forty inches is obtained the first year. Unless cross breeding for new varieties is to be undertaken, the process of artificial pollination is not needed; the cylinders are then attached just before the seed capsules begin to turn yellow. It is evident that this method is more expensive than reproduc- tion by cuttings, and would only be resorted to at intervals, when a superiority of stock is required to prevent deterioration. Re- generation by cuttings is and will remain the cheaper and simpler method. Vermehrung der Weiden durch Aussaat. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd zeitung. July, 1910. Pp. 265-66. Periodical Literature. 515 Forstmeister Wiebecke publishes an article New full of interest on the methods of extract- Experiences ing seed of pines as practiced, or to be in practiced, in Eberswalde. Seed He first deprecates the fact that while in Extracting. the price lists for clover, which may cost not more than $20 to $30 per 100 lbs., 10 different sorts, coming from 8 different localities with guarantees, percentages of germination and of cleanliness and ranges of prices are given, for pine seed, no guarantee of cleanliness, no guarantee of place of supply, no price differences (except as to quantity), besides relatively low germination per cents are noted. He points out the difference in the latter respect between the material furnished by small collectors who use bake ovens or merely room heat as against that from large extracting plants. Pointing out the disproportionate lack of success with seed of lower germination per cent (see F. Q. Vol. VII, p. 328) he ad- vocates the gathering of supply on own account in years of plenty, which occur every two or three years, and then gives a very full detail description of how an ideal small or large seed extracting plant should be constructed and run, supporting cer- tain arrangements by citing experiences which suggest their adoption. We regret that lack of space prevents the giving of the details which do not admit of briefing. Die Anwendung neuen Erkennens und Kénnens auf die Kiefernsamen- darre. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. June, 1910. Pp. 342-360. A novel experimental plot to study causes Frost and effect of frost has been established by Effects. the Danish Forest Experiment Station, namely in a frost hole on a meadow. The forms of beech planted in this hole are described with illustra- tions. The cause of the frost hole resulting in the killing of young shoots is accredited to the high ground-water table to- gether with the action of the winds. Nattefrostens Visking i ung bogeskov. Meddelelser udgivne ved For- soeks Kommissionen. 1908. Pp. 1-28. 516 Forestry Quarterly. The importance to which the appraising of Damage damage due to smelter fumes has lately as- by sumed makes every contribution to the sub- Obnoxious ject of value. Dr. V. Rusnov reports in Gases. detail four careful expert investigations in different localities of Austria. He states that in the present stage of our knowledge the chemi- cal and macroscopic investigations are of primary, the micro- scopic investigations of the foliage of secondary importance. The value of Wiehler’s method of directly determining the sul- furous acid contents of leaves is doubted, since too small quanti- ties of BaSO4 (of 80g dry needles .o044g) are weighed, and the minimal contents of SO2 (.oo15 per cent) are too uncon- vincing evidence. Various proof has been brought that the gulfurous acid very rapidly changes into sulfuric acid in presence of moisture, and it is likely that sulfuric acid plays an important role in the damage. The author concludes that the determination of the total sulfuric acid contents in the plant gives the best judgment of the degree of the damage. In his analyses the needles, cleaned of dust, soot and sand, were dried until no loss of weight occurred, then finely ground, treated with a solution of chemically pure, entirely sulfur free soda and incinerated carefully over gas absolutely free from sul- furetted hydrogen. In the ash the sulfuric acid was determined as usual by the use of chloride of barium. We can here give only the summaries of the four investigations in the following tabulation of the chemical analyses leaving out other data. District I Location Distance 0 from Degree of Sample Factory Direction Spruce %SO3 Fir %SO3 Damage a 750M S. Ia 72 Ia .69 severe b 250001 SS Ib se) Ib -44 light _ c 31007 SSW. Ic 24 Ic 29 very light d 3100 SE. 1d .19 1d .20 healthy District II—(Scotch Pine). Location Distance Direction %SO3 Appearance of Needles. a adjoining S: .43 severely damaged, partly dead b 400m E. .68 very severely damaged, mostly dead c 600m SE. 34 quite severely damaged d 700M SE. .23 very little damaged e goom SW. .22 normal, healthy Periodical Literature. 517 District III Direc- Part of Degree of Location Distance tion Spruce Crown %SO3 Damage a 500-60071 NW. Ia top Te very severe 500-600m NW. 2a top 1.21 rs t 500-600 NW. 3a top 1.27 = 6 b 500-600 NW. Ib middle 85 severe c 150071 NW. ike top -19 perfectly sound District IV Loca- ODis- Direc- Eleva- Black Age of Degree of tion tance tion tion Pine Needles %SO3 Damage 100N2 SW. 20m Ia one year .53. slight two year -94 ‘i a 300711 SW. 70m Ba one year .67 two year .59 % three year. 61 x 4oom SE. 70m 3a one year .71 more severe two year .96 x rs 400m SSE. 70m 4a one year 65 e two year .86 He Hs 25001 S. 150m Ib one year .24 perfectly sound two year .19 i The four examples unquestionably prove the existence of chronic damage from fumes, a macroscopic investigation on the forest limit showing that for some time the increment had been retarded. How long the damage by SO2 and SO3 can exist without killing the individual was shown by a decided retardation of annual rings for Io years. Quality of soil and climatic conditions influence the resistance of a species. This difference of behavior of species is strikingly shown in the Scotch and Black (Austrian) Pine. Spruce also shows greater resistance than Scotch Pine and Fir. The examples show also the necessity of and the reliability of a sample of healthy foliage for comparison, without which no sure judgment of the damage can be formed. Uber die Feststellung von Rauchschaden im Nadelwald. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. June, 1910. Pp. 257-268. An article by Gartner which gives also Forest Fire reference to a number of similar articles dis- Insurance. cusses the possibilities, difficulties and methods of introducing an obligatory forest fire insurance. In a table he works out results for the government forest area in Hesse on the basis of the statistics of actual fires from 1881 to 518 Forestry Quarterly. 1906, and shows that if a compulsory premium of 4 cents per acre had been paid, as advocated by Keiper (see F. Q. vol. VII p. 472), the damage having been about $650 per annum, a loss in excess of insurance premiums of $845 per year would have been experienced. Since the author foreshadows the publication of a longer article on the subject we can leave the rest of the discussion to be briefed from the larger article. Waldbrandversicherung. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. June, 1910. Pp. 224-227. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. On this subject we have briefed articles of Rapid, Accurate Schleicher in vol. IV, p. 166, and in vol. V, Method of p. 221. These articles advocating the use Measuring of the space number in ascertaining volumes Stands. of stems led to a controversy in which Forstrat Schubert and Forstrat Dr. Wim- menauer take part. Schubert objects that, since the elements for determining the cross section area by means of the space number are secured through sample areas, it might as well be found directly from the sample area. Incidentally the merits of Zetzsche who was the first to propose the circular sample area are defended, which method Schleicher has discredited. The failure of Schleicher’s method is found in the faulty construction of the space table (see F. Q. vol. V. p. 221) by having based it on the number of trees not in the circle, but in the square circumscribing the circle of the sample area, which furnishes a result 27.3 per cent different than the circle itself. The conclusion of Wimmenauer is that with certain changes the method is not entirely wrongly based, but for practical use too cumbersome and artificial. Abermals “Neue Methode zur raschen und genauen Ermittlung des Holz- gehaltes ganzer Bestande.” Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. June, 1910. Pp. 199-205. Periodical Literature. 51g Dr. Borgman publishes an _ exhaustive Bark article on the loss in volume and value by and measuring spruce timbers (full boles) when Volume barked. According to v. Guttenberg the of bark of spruce on best sites represents 7 Spruce. per cent to 8 per cent, on poor sites, Io per cent to I2 per cent, of the total stem volume. Borgman’s investigations show still greater per cents, further, that the loss increases from the stoutest to the lower stem classes; and that the bark per cent increases more rapidly than the middle diameters, namely from 10.9 per cent for 5 inch diameters to 15.4 per cent for 3 inch diameters. A very elaborate value calculation shows for three sites losses of 8, 9, Io per cent in volume, II, 12, 13 per cent in value for logs, and 16, 17, 18 per cent for long poles. Then introducing the cost of peeling, he comes to the conclusion that the price of peeled log material must be increased at least 15 per cent, of poles 30 per cent to account for loss in volume, reduction in class or sortiment and cost of labor. Ueber den Verlust an Masse und Wert, etc. des Fichtenlangholzes in entrindetem Zustande. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. October, 1910. Pp. 583-620. In Vol. VI, p. 432 we give a sample of the Yield Tables yield tables for Scotch Pine, managed of Thinned under a system of severe thinnings with Pine Stands. underplanting, based on some 125 sample plots. Dr. Wimmenauer now publishes, in a series of tables, the base material and method of constructing these tables. Again he shows that to secure best results the cut should from the 4oth to the soth year, be so made that always about 130 square feet of cross section area are left standing per acre. He differentiates three stem classes: 1. final harvest crop, 1. e., the best stems which will probably last to the end of the rotation or felling age; 2. persisting intermediate stand, which is reserved for future thinnings; 3. subordinate stand, destined soon to be removed. The number of the first class trees selected moves generally between 40 and 100, average 80 per acre. A table shows what cross section area of this class remains when a certain per cent 520 Forestry Quarterly. of trees is removed and what the corresponding cross section area of the removed will be. The increment was determined by Pressler borer with careful method, taking two borings on opposite sides and alternating from tree to tree the direction of the bore holes, A most important result, the author states, is that by continued thinnings the width of the annual ring can for decades be main- tained at the same amount. ‘Thus, while on site III the un- thinned area showed from decade to decade ringwidths: 1.72, 1.01, .gO, .74, .68 mm, the corresponding series in the thinned stand Tan: ))1-26,/1a i 20 120.1, ama In dense stand a decrease of annual ringwidths is noticeable from the 30th year, while in the thinned the approximately even ringwidth or even increase continue to the r11oth year, with variations, of course. The average ringwidth was finally calcu- lated for the three site classes as, 1.75, 1.50, 1.25 mm, respec- tively. Heightgrowth is not at all or very little influenced by the open- ing up of the stand, certainly not decreased. The form factor is not, as one might expect, reduce, but if anything increased. In a comparison of a yield table for pine grown in close crown cover with that derived from the severely thinned areas it is learned that not only quality production but the total quantity production per acre was increased in the latter: Close stand Open On_ I site at 140 years 18,700 cub. ft. 21,050 cub. it. On II site at 140 years TAOOO pe aan: TOS 75 ee On III site at 130 years TTOO0. ty aaa 12.5008 (aaa The applicability of the tables is, of course, confined to stands treated in the same way. ‘They show the value of this manage- ment for the species in question. Ertragstafeln fur Kiefern im Lichtungsbetrieb. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. September, 1910. Pp. 321-333. With the growing appreciation of the value Appraising of forest properties, the practice of apprais- Damage. ing damage to it needs more and more careful consideration. Although damage by game will probably rarely come under discussion in the United Periodical Literature. 521 States or Canada for a long time to come, the methods and con- siderations that enter the determination of such damage are sug- gestive for other cases of damage. In F. Q., vol. III, a long article by Fernow elaborates the gen- eral principles to be employed in determining damage, and in the same volume an article on the evaluation of damage by game (for which one might substitute “cattle’’) was briefed. Gretsch eluci- dates further the practice in the latter case as evolved in tlhe government instructions laid down by the forest administration in Baden. It is interesting to note that until 1848 hunting in Baden was a legal right exercised either by the crown or the landed proprietors who exercised jurisdiction. At the same time by law of 1833 the owner of the hunting right was responsible to the owner of the forest or field for any damage over $2 which the game might make. This law of nearly eighty years ago pre- scribed with remarkable insight into proper finance calculation the manner of appraising the damage. When, by law of 1850, the right to hunt was finally, under restrictions, reserved to the owner, damage by game could only be assessed against renters of the hunting right if specially provided in the contract or lease under the law of 1833. This law served its purpose till 1898 when a new law more definitely defined the assessable damage; and in 1904 the in- struction in systematic form of evaluating the damage was elaborated. After describing the different kinds of damage by game, and game birds, the principles of evaluation are stated. If the damaged plant can recover, the damage consists in a loss of increment, which is experienced in the eventual final harvest, or sometimes in eventual thinnings. Hence the present value of such increment loss is to be the assessed damage. It is also to be considered that either this loss in material yield may be suffered, or a loss in quality, by mal-formation or rot. If the damage is such as to call for replacement of the plant no matter whether the destroyed stand was created by natural re- generation or artifically, the cost of production from the time of origin is to be recompensed. A proper description of the damage in all its detail is, of course, the basis for calculation. In figuring the loss of increment by comparing the yield to be 522 Forestry Quarterly. expected at final harvest from undamaged parts with that of the Cn, I.opn it is recommended to use a somewhat moderate interest rate, namely, 2.5 per cent. Experience figures are used for determin- ing the material loss, for prices the average of actual sales for the last three years in similar forest serves. Intermediate returns are figured, extended to harvest time and discounted, at 15 to 50 per cent of final harvest yield, the higher figures for higher rota- tions, better sites and more valuable species. If the cost of the stand is to be figured for small areas the interest calculation may be dispensed with as too insignificant. Otherwise a rate of 34 per cent is used in the formula: (S+A+C) 1.opm— (S+A) is employed; S, the soil value being the usual sale value of such soils; A the cost of administration is by experience found to lie between 5 and 8 cents per acre; C, the cost of planting is figured by present cost of plantmaterial and labor, keeping in view that repair planting is more expensive than original planting. A schedule for reporting is given, and five examples show the detail of the procedure. damaged parts, according to the well-known formula, C= Der Wildschaden und dessen Ersatz im Grossherzogtum Baden. Forst- wissenschaftliches Centralblatt. October, 1910. Pp. 541-556. It is well known that the determination of Practical the time at which the forest crop is ripe, is Determination — one of the most important and at the same of time most difficult problems with -which Rotations. forest management has to deal. The Prus- sian Forest Administration charged Dr. Martin with the task of determining rotations for the Scotch Pine on the basis of the elaborate yield tables by Dr. Schwappach. He based the calculations on the well-known formula, which A+D—N .op-c, u in which A represents the value of the final cut; D, the sum of the thinning yields; N, the value of the normal stock or wood capital; c, the annual expense of cultures; u, the rotation or num- ber of felling areas of the normal management class. expresses for an annual management the soil rent Periodical Literature. 523 The result of these calculations for different parts of the mon- archy was that for regular pine stands in mild climate and good markets for all sortments (valley of the Main), a rotation of 120; in districts with poor market for small dimension and in cooler climate (Northeast Germany) a rotation of 145-150 years. For branchy stands unfit for better class of logs in both East and West districts at 60 years, and in coal mining districts, where mine timber is saleable, even 50 years show the equation at maximum. To explain these remarkable variations is the object of the present article. Two facts and ruling conditions produce the re- sults, namely, the persistence in value increment of pine on suit- able sites, and the varying requirements of interest on the wood capital. As regards the first fact the author points out that nothing generally applicable accurate can be stated since quality changes are produced by small differences of site, especially depth and looseness of soil and difference of exposure. Excluding the 10 per cent to 20 per cent of small dimension wood which the final cut furnishes and limiting the discussion to workwood (logs) alone, even here quality and sale value are not always in relation and the grading of logs can only be made by dimensions in 5 to 7 classes. Prices too, are locally and in time limited and have value only for a limited area. A table is then given of average prices which the author con- siders characteristic for various regions. All the figures show the very rapid increase in price with increased dimensions. Even stands with dry rot did not decrease their value increment until 140 to 160 years. Thus logs of less than 18 cubic feet contents in Prussia bring from 7 to 12 cents, the best class of over 70 cubic feet contents 25 to 30 cents per cubic foot. In Hesse the logs are graded by diameter classes (middle diameter) from over 20 inch, to 16 inch, 12 inch, 10 inch and below 10 inch with prices of 24, 22, 16, 12, 11 cents, respectively. If these dimensions and prices are related to the age, difference in silvicultural treatment adds to the difficulty of applying them. The author bases his calculation on the dimension classes current in Southern Germany (Bavaria), which refer to a diameter at a given height. The time necessary for the formation of such a 8 524 Forestry Quarterly. dimension class is that which is required to make the length or height and the diameter at that length or height. In his calcula- tions he assumes for good sites an average ringwidth per year of 1/5 cm (which would make the rate about 6 to 7 years per inch). The author admits that this method of averaging is open to criticism, but gives good reasons for making the assumption. The length-diameter classes, then, he finds to require the fol- lowing years to attain the required sizes. Stem class I length 58 feet—6o years diam. 12 inch—75 years 135 years Stem class II length 58 feet—so years diam. 9 inch—55 years II5 years Stem class III length 52 feet—so years diam. 7 inch—4z2 years 92 years Stem class IV length 46 feet—42 years diam. 6 inch—35 years 77 years Accordingly the value increment of the stems in two districts in Bavaria were found to progress as follows :— Age: 135 II5 92 77 years District I. value: 38 28 25 19 MK Difference : 10 3 6 ij District II. value: 34 Dy 22 y Difference : 7 5 8 ¥ In Hesse the place of measurement is uniformly taken at 3.25 feet (10m) height. A similar calculation for the whole of Hesse makes the value increment appear as follows: Age: 167 142 117 Q7 years Value: 36 32 25 18 MK. Difference: 4 G | of bY The figures show, like others, that up to 140 years the value increment is considerable but not uniform, and varies according to different sites and management. Periodical Literature. 525 After some further calculations the author concludes that in districts adapted to pine production the value increment per cent in the period 120 to 140 is still at least 1 per cent, while the volume per cent is also still 1 per cent, and it is to be expected that with improvement of silviculture and increase in prices the tendency will be that both values will rise. The rest of the article is an illuminating expose regarding the proper choice of an interest rate on the wood capital which the appreciation of the soil rent theory requires. He rehearses the well- known arguments for a lower interest rate in forest calculations, combats the theory of a difference of private economy and public economy, the latter as not requiring calculation of capital and interest, takes the proper position that no mathematical formula, without an intelligent choice of the values can be useful, and advocates (without referring to the originator of the idea, Baur! Ed.) different rates of interest for rotations of different length. The important question of the ripeness, after having properly presented the general points of determination, must be solved by investigating it for limited districts of similar site and market conditions and within these management districts for the single stands or typical stand aggregations. “Whatever the conditions, value must have a greater influence on rotation than volume.” Altogether the author concludes that the requirement of an adequate interest does for good stands of pine lead to high rota- tions, for poor stands to low ones. Die Umtriebszeit der Kiefer, etc. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. June, 1910. Pp. 363-387. Stephani points out that for best results the Practice district officer who knows conditions and in people in his district should be given con- W ood siderable discretion in selling timber. He Sales. points out the difference of small and large owners, the latter being obliged to develop a sale policy and to sell at prices which would allow the dealer to live and make a decent profit so as to hold his market. For the government as. owner general economic considerations also enter. 526 Forestry Quarterly. The largest possible number of people must be given opportunity to buy, struggling industries must be favored, without going too far in this direction. As to sale conditions, no one-sided ones are justified which de- liver the buyer to the mercy of the seller( as is the case of the timber limit sales of Canada!) Such condition as refusal of al- lowing for defects and undermeasure in its general statement is untenable in equity. As regards payment, the author advocates a short credit system (not over six months, except in special cases) as is customary in other trades, in such a manner that cash payment is an advantage to the buyer, a discount being given for it. The question of selling on the stump or felled material, and ynethods of sale whether by bid or auction or out of hand are dis- cussed. Sale on stump he calls the child of undeveloped condi- tions. (It is largely the method in France!) It has the advan- tage to the seller that he can leave his stock standing if not ad- vantageous prices are offered. In selling felled material—the usage in most German govern- ment forests—the buyer has the advantage of thorough inspection of the material and hence of fair valuation, while the seller is more easily forced to accept a bid price, and cannot cut always to most advantageous lengths, as if for instance a brisk market for railroad ties would have given better profit by cutting to tie sizes. (From silvicultural points of view the felling on own account is, of course, preferable!) Sale out of hand depends in its results on the capacity of the seller, who deals with a single buyer or group of buyers, unless a definitely settled price—government tax—is applied. For satis- fying a local demand, especially of adjoining settlers this is the best method, especially to keep the local population friendly. It is also advantageous when it appears desirable to encourage woodconsuming industries, say a local sawmill. The advantage and the assurance under exclusion of competition to secure the necessary quantity of raw material permits the buyer to give a better price. ‘This method is also the best for fighting the forma- tion of rings, if it is known that an auction sale may be displaced by an out of hand sale. The dangers of this method of sale are that, if an official, charges of favoritism are apt to be brought, Periodical Literature. 527 and that, if the method is continued as a rule, competition is de- stroyed and actual favoritism might occur. Auction sales may be of four kinds, namely, a public, oral one, which may either be conducted by upward or downward bid, or a secret, written bid, which may be either unlimited as to number of buyers or limited. The first of these, public and oral upward bidding, seems to satisfy the interests of buyers as well as sellers best, provided sufficient publicity is given. The buyers make the price, no charge of overreaching can be made against the seller, an ad- vantage especially to government officials. The advantages of this form are, however, apt to be counteracted by the formation of rings, buyers agreeing to keep the price down, for which the public gathering, hence the knowledge of who is a competitor, gives good opportunity. Those not in the ring may be forced to overbid themselves. Such ring formations are especially apt to occur when times are poor; when they are flush, rings are apt to go to pieces. These rings, which are a phase of modern business life, the author contends are quite natural phenomena and have some rights for their existence. They must be met not with the feel- ing of a sustained wrong but with quiet intelligence and tact. Sometimes it is possible to make reasonable arrangements with the ring. It is evident that in Germany these rings of wood handlers are thoroughly organized, which makes even the remedy of out of hand sale, which, if the auction does not produce a reasonable price, may be resorted to, nugatory. The public downward bid—the seller proposing a highest price and gradually reducing it—is in vogue in France and some German government forests. The method may be useful in breaking rings, when a member of the ring falls out of his role seeing a specially desirable allotment come to a reasonable price. His incensed companions cannot punish him by further bidding. The special advantage of this kind of bidding is that the small man can compete with the large buyer and cannot be forced to the wall. Sale by sealed bids has some advantages to the seller who if not securing highest prices is likely to secure fair value, but it can bring much damage to the buyer, hence should not be re- 528 Forestry Quarterly. sorted to as long as auction sales are practicable. This method is, however, growing in Germany and many complaints are made by the handlers. It appears a useful weapon against abuse of ring formations. although not an absolute remedy, when these are thoroughly or- ganized. Even without these certain financially strong firms can under this method become masters of the market, keeping others out by controling for instance means of transportation. Under circumstances, when for instance the amount is too small to call for general bids, a limited group of local buyers who are in position to use it, may be invited to bid. Seeing that every method has its advantages and disadvan- tages the author recommends not to confine one’s self to any in particular, but according to circumstances vary the method, "public auction remaining preferable unless special reasons call for deviation. gol Einige Betrachtungen tiber den Holsverkauf im Walde. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. October, 1910. Pp. 517-535. In the desire to equalize the annual net Forest Reserve returns of the forest management of Wiirt- Funds temberg state forests the administration and had proposed to create a money reserve Sustained Yield. fund from which deficiencies were to be eked out. The chamber went a step further and with unusual insight and good business sense authorized the administration to vary the cut from year to year according to market conditions, remaining behind or exceeding the annual budget. This, Eberhard considers the most important advance in economic administration. In two years since this law went into effect it showed its vaiue. The extraordinarily high wood prices of 1906 and 1907 produced not only the money reserve fund provided for the decade 1907- 1917 by a cut of a round 10 million cubic feet netting $1,000,000 but also a further cut of 2 million cubic feet netting $200,000; altogether $1,200,000 to meet any decline in prices. In 1908-9 prices did drop for coniferous logs by 2/3 to 1 cent per cubic foot, but the management had not commercial sense enough to reduce the cut, as it should have done, at least in the coniferous dis- Pertodical Literature. 529 tricts. Next year, 1909-10 prices advanced again by I to I 1/3 cents, and the fund if it had been drawn upon could have been easily replenished. Meanwhile it appears from discussions in the legislature that the reserve fund idea was launched mainly to promote the cutting of supposed surplus of old age classes and the question how to use this fund and a change in the law is under consideration. This surplus has been variously figured at between 100 and 160 million cubic feet, including the expected increment of a 20-year period, the lower figure being more likely true. The author points out that on a property with over 1,800 million cubic feet stock and over 35 million cubic feet annual increment, which the state forests represent, 100 million is not such a very large sur- plus. If this surplus is not translated into money, but remains in natura it means the putting off of the cutting over each age class for only a few years. And even if by proper thinning prac- tice the rotation were lowered, older age classes becoming over- stocked, these not having grown up under such thinning practice really needed the longer time to produce the desirable dimensions. The actual overmature stands in the Black Forest are pine, whose cut could be delayed without damage. Indeed, the author inveighs against the extensive artificial plantations of pine and spruce which have been necessitated by rapid removal methods, and thinks that with natural regeneration a longer regeneration period is desirable. The main object of forest reserve funds in large administra- tion is to be able to take advantage of market conditions. Theo- retically this is a simple proposition, practically difficulties double and treble. Increased cut—in 1907-8 the cut was increased 15% in the average—is easily accomplished, but reduction has never yet been practised on a large scale, because consideration of the organization especially of labor, which in most places depend on this employment, is necessary. Yet the author thinks, 15 to 20% reduction would not be impracticable in Wiurttemberg and in smaller administrations of 30 to 50%. The author points out that forest management has the advan- tage that it can defer harvest several years without damage, more- over, it is favored by the fact that industrial or price movements proceed in undulations with a rising tendency in which depres- 530 Forestry Quarterly. sions rarely last more than one or two years. Thus since 1891, the two years, 1902 and 1903, and the one year, 1909, were years of depression with price differences of 4 to 1.2 cents per cubic foot. Hence one may figure the amount of reserve on a prob- able depression of not over three years in succession, which would make the reserve fund needful for Wiirttemberg conditions with 1.7 million dollars an ample one. Dr. Eberhard then in no uncertain tones charges the adminis: tration with incompetency in recognizing the value of the law and in an illuminating manner discusses growth and management conditions in Wiirttemberg. It would appear that during the last 100 years the stock on hand in the state forests has increased by 1% per year and the wood prices by 2% per year, the total stock capital having thus grown from 10 million to 100 million dollars in value. It was therefore ridiculous to talk of endan- gered sustained yield and stock decimation. Improved technique to secure highest production js all that is needed. Der Geldreservefonds der Wiirtembergishcen Staatsforsten, etc. Allge- meine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. August,1910. Pp.293-300. Meanwhile the bill for a change of the law Reserve regarding the reserve funds has been sub- Funds mitted to the legislature and enacted. It in reiterates the authority to make extraordi- Wiirttemberg nary cuts to the extent of 35 million cubic feet timberwood, and to make the needful expenditures for wood choppers, cultures, and roads. The ex- penditure for the latter two items are restricted to $3.60 and $7.20 per 1,000 cubic feet, respectively. "The returns for these extraordinary cuts are to be invested at proper interest rates. From this fund any reductions in the regular cut due to unfore- seen silvicultural causes are to be made good in the forest budget. The fund is also to be used for the purchase of additional forest land and for extinction of servitudes. The receipts for any sales of forest property are to be returned into this fund. The interest is to be used to make good any deductions from the fund or else be considered as current receipts of the forest adminis- tration. Periodical Literature. 531 At the same time the Minister of Finance is empowered to re- duce the regular cut in case of sinking prices as long as the reserve fund can make up the difference in the annual budget. These provisions are to be in force for Io years. Hitherto 10,600,000 cubic feet were cut in extraordinary utilization, and the fund with interest has grown to over $1,000,- ooo. No need for using the fund has as yet appeared. Die Reservefonds der Wurttembergischen Staatsforsten. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. October, 1910. Pp. 556-558. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. So strenuous has the war against metal Wooden ties become, that a society for the further- US. ance of wooden superstructure has been Metal Ties. formed in Berlin—no doubt stimulated by dealers in ties, and in opposition to the steel interests. At a meeting one speaker claimed that numerous profiles of metal ties were still on trial as against the simple persisting pro- file of the wooden tie; that the metal tie requires more bed ma- terial and crushes the same sooner; that to equalize the expense of a wooden tie lasting 15 years would have to have a duration of 34 years; and since an equal duration of about 15 years is assumed by the railroad department the wooden tie was infinitely superior. Bolts, as fasteners, with accurate boring of the holes to receive the bolts in combination with improved impregnating processes would greatly extend the life of wooden ties. A member of the Prussian parliament weakened the arguments by declaring that at least in localities where beech ties were pro- duced, the metal tie should not be used, whatever were done else- where; he claimed that one million dollars could be saved by a return to wooden ties. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. September, ro1o. P. 352. Interesting data regarding the use of metal Metal Ties ties in Prussia were brought out in the dis- in cussions on the forest administration Prussia. budget in the Landtag, when a member } asked for more liberal use of wooden ties, apparently on behalf of dealers. He claimed that pine ties witl) 532 Forestry Quarterly. all fastenings cost $5,080 per mile, including $200 for transporta- tion to place of use, while iron ties cost $6,000 with an average cost of transportation of $365, hence the difference was nearly $1,000 per mile in favor of wooden ties. Annually 10 per cent of wooden track was being replaced by iron; this to the detriment of Prussian forest revenue. The minister of railroads had stated to the dealers, that “Jf the eco- nomic superiority of the iron tie should make it necessary to extend the use of it, he would give time enough for wood dealers to adjust themselves and regard would be had for the forestry interests.” The Oberland-forstmeister replied, that, as long as it was necessary as at present to import over 500 million cubic feet of wood, no fear of damage to forestry interests need be entertained from the change to iron ties. It was true since 1906 the call for wooden ties had decreased, but this decrease was general, including iron ties. Die Etatsverhandlungen, etc. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. August, 1910. P. 302. An article by Schneidt, formerly in charge Wood of all the impregnation works of the Prus- Railroad sian Railroad Department, sings the praise Ties. of impregnated beech ties, which appear if properly treated with heavy oils of tar the most durable (24 to 30 years) and cheapest. They have proved so satisfactory that in 1908 70 per cent of all the ties used were of this description. It is the most easily impregnated wood, and can be most thoroughly filled with the preservative except ‘the red or gray heart which is itself so durable according to 12 year tests as not to need the preservative. A first class beech tie takes up 80 lbs. of tar oil making it weigh 265 Ibs. and giving it thereby unusual stability in the roadbed, while the ties of cak cannot take up more than 18 Ibs. and weigh 220 lbs., ties of pine, treated, weigh 155 lbs. and those of iron 130 lbs. In practice, however, only 35 Ibs. of tar oil are left in the tie, the tie being first filled up and the surplus oil being pressed out by air pressure, It is also claimed that tie plates are not necessary with the hard beech ties, a saving of 80 cents as against soft wood ties. The tar oil is secured by distillation of gas and coke tar; the Periodical Literature. 533 light oils, benzols and carbolic acid oils, which are not fit for this use, being driven off first, and the heavy oils which distil at a temperature above 235° being used. The residue, 50-60 per cent pitch, is used for making briquettes, largely fired in locomotives ; the price of tar oil having in the last decade ranged from 40 to 80 cents according to the possibility of using the pitch. It is admitted that beech after felling is liable to considerable shrinking and season checks. This is to be overcome by careful stacking under cover, by bolting the ends and other means, which, to be sure add to the cost. Die buchene Eisenbahnschwelle. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. June, 1910. Pp. 360-362. Dr. Schwappach’s report on a series of Durability careful experiments on the durability of of beech ties has evidently been used by the Wooden writer of the above briefed article. Ties. In 1896-7 the Forest Experiment Station at Eberswalde, in co-oporation with the Railroad Department at Berlin, undertook seven series of tests with 7o railroad ties each treated differently, namely: (1) sound, middle-aged wood without red heart, winter-felled, immediately treated ; (2) the same treated after 6 months; (3) and (4) the same, summer-felled, treated immediately, and after six months; (5) oldest possible yet sound wood, winter-felled, immediately treated; (only 3 ties used.) (6) old wood with small red heart, winter-felled, immediately treated. All these to be treatel with creosote (carbolic acid tar oil). (7) sound, middle-aged wood, summer-felled, treated after three months with zinc chloride, at least 11 Ibs. per tie. To prevent season checks, half the ties were bolted, the other half painted with a special paint, which latter was not only cheaper but more effective—they must, however, be 2 inches longer to allow for cutting off the ends before treating. The provision of immediate treatment (proposed by Strass- burger) was found practically impossible. Even after three 534 Forestry Quarterly. months, under the treatment season checks developed, hence six months drying before treating was found necessary in all cases, except that in case (3) the trees summer-felled were leit with their foliage for four weeks and then worked into ties and painted and left another four weeks when they could be treated without checking. A yearly inspection is made, every tenth tie is dug out and carefully inspected, the other ties more cursorily, and the result carefully recorded in a ledger with an account for each tie. Two other series were added to test the Hasselman process which consists in treating with a mixture of aluminium sulfate, ferrous sulfate, copper sulfate and kainit. The two series of tests of this process proved it a failure. Of all the 455 other ties used after 12 years not one has had to be replaced! Only in series (4) was in 1906 a partial rot noted in a few cases, which could be explained by insufficient treatment, the painting having caused wet spots to remain which the tar oil could not penetrate, so that in 1909 no progress of the rot was noted except in one tie. The ties from trees summer-felled and left in the leaf—a usage from the 18th century—proved itself most satisfactory in seasoning. All the ties looked so sound that another 12 year duration may be predicted. The red heart—which does not absorb the fluid— has remained perfectly sound. The ties treated with zinc chloride and 12 Ibs. tar oil also re- mained perfectly sound, but the difficulty of securing a satisfac- tory liquor of these two materials for the use in large operations rules out the process. The treatment with tar old after Riitgers and Riiping leaves 33 Ibs. of tar oil in the tie. Failure is always to be credited to improper handling and lack of care in using only sound wood. Versuche iiber die Verwendbarkeit des Rotbuchenholzes zu Eisenbahn- schwellen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. July, 1910. Pp. 427-432. Periodical Literature. 535 During 1906, of all ties used in the United Use States, 11.5 per cent were treated with pre- of servatives ; in 1907 it amounted to 12.9 per Preservatives. cent; in 1908 it was as high as 21.1 per cent. During 1908 there was used in the United States 57,548,268 gallons of creosote and 18,843,804 pounds of zinc chloride besides small quantities of other pre- servatives. Nearly three-fourths of the creosote used came from Europe, Great Britain and Nova Scotia. The average life of the untreated tie is said to be seven years while the treated tie is conservatively estimated to last seventeen years. In 1900 there were 13 timber treating plants while in 1910 there were 83 and several more contemplated or being constructed. Conservation and Preservation of Forest Products, West Coast Lum- berman. August, IQIO. Schwappach refers to the finding that com- Quality pression strength of pine and weight are and related, yet with modifications due to Growth growth conditions, the favorable sites pro- Conditions. ducing strength with less weight. He now combines his own and Janka’s investiga- tions on spruce to prove the same relation, tabulating the results of both investigations on 141 trees from 14 growth regions. Janka, assuming a normal air dry moisture content of 15 per cent, calls the compression strength with that moisture per cent divided by the weight with the same per cent the relative quality quotient ; and on this basis Schwappach makes his comparison. He comes to the most interesting result, that in general the quality of spruce wood, as far as expressed by weight, compres- sion strength and their relation, improves from south to north. Grouping somewhat the regions from which the material was drawn he finds that the quality quotient in the most southern range, Vienna Forest, Southern Tirol, Central Alps, lies at 83-84 in the Bohemian Forest, Eastern Carpathians, Northern Tirol lies at 88-90, in the Thuringian Forest, Sudetes and East Prussia between 91 and 95, while the Silesian plain and Harz mountains have the quotient 96 and 98; the lowest quotient was found ex- ceptionally with 76 in the Erz mountains, a southern location, a 536 Forestry Quarterly. high plateau in exposed location, severe climate with high moors and raw humus. (The necessity of adding site quality to geo- graphical location—climate—seems evident !) The relation between ring width and compression strength is brought out by a comparison of some of the material. East Prussian material below 50 years old with an average ring width of 3.7 mm showed a strength of 371 Kg per q cm, that from 70 to 84 year-old wood with a ring width of 2.2 mm a strength of 412 Kg. While Hartig had come to the conclusion that ring width alone is not the essential but the summer wood per cent, Janka points out that the width of the ring after all determines quality since a greater specific weight is never connected with wide rings, and since the weight of narrow ringed wood never sinks below a certain limit. The reason is that in spruce the re- lation of summer wood to total ring width under normal condi- tions remains the same with narrower or wider rings. Narrow ringed wood shows a relatively large percentage of summer wood and hence is stronger. With the pine on the other hand, a larger per cent of summer wood goes with considerable ring width. The importance of this finding is pointed out, since ring width is the only factor which the silviculturist can influence. The Austrian and Prussian data side by side show the relation: AVERAGE RING COMPRESSION. CoMPRESSION WIpTrH. STRENGTH. STRENGTH. mm Kg per q. cm Kg per q. cm Austria. Prussia. I 400 470 1.5 395 457 2 378 447 2.5 351 398 3 336 380 3-5 328 367 4 320 353 The greater strength of the Prussian wood for same ring width suggests that other factors are at work influencing weight and strength, and Schwappach suggests difference of growth conditions making a difference in anatomical structure. Periodical Literature. 537 Both authors come to the conclusion that for best quality pro- duction the average ring width should not exceed much 2 to 2.2 mm in the average, which in 100 years would represent 16 to 18 inch trees. The question arises whether quality is paid for to pay for the loss in quantity. The author then takes issue with Janka’s propostions for growing spruce; natural regeneration or dense sowing or pos- sibly closely spaced planting, growing in dense crown cover, only in later life more open positions to secure dimension, etc. Schwappach then takes the same position as Schiffel and Boh- dannecky (see p. of this volume), opposing the close posi- tion in plantations and advocating early thinnings to secure crown lengths of 30 to 40 per cent of stem height. Einfluss der Herkunft und Erziehungsweise auf die Beschaffenheit des Fichtenholzes. Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen. August, 1910. Pp. 455-473. In the Year Book for 1910 of the American Specifications Society for Testing Materials, page 121, of Structural Timber is defined as “all such Structural products of wood in which the strength of Timber. the timber is the controlling element in their selection and use.” Structural tim- bers are divided into Trestle Timbers, Car Timbers, Framing for Building, Ship Timbers, and Cross Arms for Poles. On pages 123-4 an attempt is made to standardize the names of structural timbers. The term “Douglas Fir” is to cover the timber likewise known as Yellow Fir, Red Fir, Western Fir, Washington Fir, Oregon or Puget Sound Fir or Pine, Northwest and West Coast Fir. The term Southern Yellow Pine includes both Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine—these two terms being descriptive of quality rather than of botanical species. Western White Pine includes the timbers sold as White Pine coming from Arizona, California, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington. It is also known as “Western Yellow Pine,” or ‘Ponderosa Pine,” or “California White Pine,” or “Western White Pine.” The term Idaho White Pine includes shipments from northern Idaho, Western Montana and Eastern Washington. East of Minnesota the terms Hemlock, Spruce and Tamarack have their usual mean- ing, but on the Pacific Coast the related species are known as 538 Forestry Quarterly. Western Hemlock, Western Spruce and Western Larch, respec- tively. On pages 122-3 are definitions of such standard defects of timber as sound, knotty, loose, pith, encased, rotten, pin, standard, large, round and spike knots; small, standard and large pitch pockets ; pitch streak; wane, ring shake and through shakes; and rot, dote and red heart. There are good photographs of the various kinds of knots and pitch streaks, which lend interest to the definitions. These specifications are to serve as standard classification. Year Book American Society for Testing Materiais, rgzo. Austrian foresters seem to have little faith » Felling Trees in the possibility of felling trees by elec- by tricity. A glowing fixed wire is con- Electricity. demned as too easily broken and apt to burn the wood unevenly. While a coarse glowing wire moved back and forth rapidly would meet these objections, it also is pronounced impracticable on account of the difficulty in maintaining a constant current in the wire. Das Fallen der Biume mittels Electricitat. Centralblatt. f. d. g. Forst- wesen. August, September, tg10. P. 422. Trials with the new safe explosive, to Cahiicit which brief reference was made in F. Q. Dangerless vol. VII, p. 475, in roadbuilding have fur- Explosives. nished satisfactory results in every respect, in blowing out stumps and roots and even whole trees without spoiling their values, as well as in rock blast- ing. The explosive is so safe that the State railways transport it without restriction. Besides being absolutely safe the handling is less time consuming as there is no need of tamping the car- tridge which comes into the market in paper cover, 4 inches high and a little less than 14 inch thick at 4 cents apiece. A hole is made in the ground, not in the root-stock, with an iron rod to a depth of say 5 feet, slanting toward the center of the stock. After the stronger side roots have been kerfed or partially cut through, several cartridges are introduced and with them a Periodical Literature. 539 copper blast capsule with fuse. It is this copper capsule alone which is to be handled with ordinary care, the cahticit cartridges are perfectly harmless. The hole is then filled up with dry earth, lightly pressed in, and after the cartridges are covered 12 to 15 inches the additional earth cover is stamped down with the foot so as to make a close fit, when the fuse is lighted. In rock the boreholes are made, at most, 1} inch wide. Die Anwendung des neuen Sicherheits Sprengstoffes Cahiicit im Forst- betriebe. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. June, 1910. Pp. 324-330. Up to 1902 the Doyle rule was the official Scaling rule of British Columbia and each mill had in its own scaler. The Government appointed British Columbia. several scalers without salary who could be called on in case of dispute. In Igor a committee of three was appointed to devise new scale methods which resulted in the British Columbia rule which was made com- pulsory west of the Coast Range. Since July 1, 1909, this rule has been legal for the entire province and since July 1, 1906, the Government has had an official supervisor and scalers west of the Coast Range. These scalers are paid monthly Government salaries and the Government in turn charges five cents per thou- sand for all scaling, or if called for, grading. The mill pays all scaling fees but charges the logger one-half. In August, 1906, the loggers and millmen adopted log scale rules for all species except cedar and these rules are recognized by the Government but not legalized. 1. Flooring logs are reasonably straight, not less than 30 inches in diameter nor less than 20 feet long; clean and free from defects that would impair value for clear lumber. 2. Merchantable logs are not less than 14 inches in diameter ; sound; free from rotten knots or bunch knots; reasonably straight ; and the grain straight enough to insure strength. 3. Rough logs have visible defects such as crooks, bad knots or other defects impairing their value and lowering their grade below merchantable. 4. Cull logs will not produce 50 per cent of their contents in salable lumber. Log Scaling in British Columbia. Mississippi Valley Lumberman. Sep- tember 2, IQIO. 9 540 Foresiry Quarterly. Log rafting on the Pacific ocean is thought Log to have originated with Capt. H. R. Robert- Rafts. son of Astoria, Oregon, and to have be- come a success largely through the efforts of the Benson Logging and Lumber Company. Ocean going rafts are 600 to 700 feet long, about 50 feet broad by 30 feet deep at the center, and taper about 100 feet at each end. They are built in a cradle or frame having one detachable side. The sides of the cradle are vertical posts 22 feet long, connected under- neath by pairs of sills, each sill being attached to one post and arranged to telescope when unlatched. Binding timbers extend the whole length of the cradle. After being built up 20 feet the main tow chain is laid from stern to stern with about 50 feet pro- jecting from each end. ‘“Herringbone’’ chains are fastened to tHe center tow chain and drawn diagonally to the circle chains to which they are attached. The safety of the raft depends upon the tow chain. “Pacific Ocean Log Rafting,” American Lumberman. June II, 1910. The idea of gathering lost logs by an as- Lost sociation has prevailed for a considerable Logs. period in New England and the Lake States. At Ashland, Wisconsin, such an asssociation has been active since 1888 and originated because it was found too expensive for each owner to operate independently in such work. The log owners incorporated and appointed a committee who one year sold the logs on the beaches at a fixed price per thousand board feet and another year gave a contract for picking up the logs and delivering them at a specified place. Still another year, the logs were delivered at a specified mill, sawed into lumber, and the lumber sold to the highest bidder. The writer maintains that such an association is necessary along the Columbia river where it is held that a large number of rivermen are making a living by catching logs lost from booms. “Organization of a Log-Owners Pick-Up Association’—The Timber- man. June, IQI0. Periodical Literature. 541 Some interesting facts well-known to kiln Kiln driers are summarized as follows: Drying. 1. White pine, poplar and several Pacific coast woods, after being water-soaked for a considerable period. dry much more quickly and satisfactorily than when not floated or held in a log pond. 2. Green cypress piled on sticks enclosed in a steam box and subjected to several hours of exhaust or live steam will lessen weight from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds to the thousand board feet. 3. Lumber placed either in a steam box before entering the kilns or subjected to exhaust steam, after being placed in the kilns, materially lessens the time for kiln drying. The lumber is less likely to case-harden, check, or split. 4. Steaming mahogany, oak and black walnut under a moderate pressure for a limited time does not injure the wood fibre but breaks up the cellular structure of the wood.* 5. Lumber piled on sticks in a steam cylinder with a moderate pressure and limited time allows kiln drying in from 12 to 36 hours and air drying will be reduced 30 to 60 days. If steam treated further staining is eliminated, borers do not work, the color of the wood is distributed; warping, twisting and bucking are practically eliminated, splitting and checking are minimized and future swelling and shrinking are slight. The author is sweeping in some of his general statements and cannot be entirely substantiated. “Common Sense Applied to the Seasoning of Lumber.” Hardwood Record. Aug. I0, IgIOo. An interesting experiment at one of the Grades. hardwood mills during December, 1909, shows some indication as to the grades of lumber secured from oak logs. Quartered Quartered Plain Plain White Oak Red Oak White Oak Red Oak Logs Logs Logs Logs Fas 4570 30% 207% 31 %6 No. 1 Common 37% 429% 21% 30% No. 2 Common 0% 11% 7% 10% No. 3 Common 2% 5% 2% 2% Dimensions 7%0 3% 12% 16% Ties sas ‘ee 29% 11% * Mr. Tiemann, of the U. S. Forest Service states that this is a mistake; that the cells do not break but that microscopic slits occur which also occur in air drying. 542 Forestry Quarterly. The general run of averages for the month gave quartered oak amounting to 33 per cent distributed as 14 per cent Fas, 15 per cent No. 1 common, 3 per cent No. 2 common, and 1 per cent No. 3 common, while plain oak amounted to 67 per cent distributed as Ig per cent Fas, 17 per cent No. 1 common, 4 per cent No. 2 common, I per cent No. 3 common, 22 per cent ties and scantling, and 4 per cent dimension stuff. Manufacturing Cost of Lumber. Hardwood Record. Feb. 10, 1910. A compilation by R. S. Kellogg shows the Grades. following grades for species in Northern Wisconsin: Firsts & ” Seconds No. I No. 2 No. 3 Hemlock 4576 30% 25% Basswood 25% 25% 23% 2790 Birch 2370 2576 2370 2076 Elm 19% 2470 2470 3370 Maple 167% 2570 25% 34% “Hardwood Grade Percentages.’ American Lumberman. August 6, 1910. In manufacturing sawn lumber and its use Wood in the industries, 67 per cent of the wood is Waste. lost ; in cordwood the loss may be as low as 5 per cent; in posts and rails 20 per cent; in hewed ties 70 per cent and in cooperage stock approximately 78 per cent. It is suggested that sawmill waste should be more largely used by the cooperage industry and by the manufacturers of small products such as clothes-pins, meat skewers, handles, brushes and toys. “Necessity for Reducing Waste.” Barrel and Box. June, 1910. Professor P. Klason of Sweden has shown Sulphite that the organic substances in the waste Waste. from sulphite mills consume much of the oxygen dissolved in the water. In small streams this can go so far that the oxygen is reduced to less than 2 cubic centimeters per litre which is the minimum for the life of fish. It has also been noted that fish living in such contaminated water get a disagreeable oil taste when boiled. Periodical Literature. 543 Added contamination is noted in the disagreeable smell and taste of the water, the deposition of pulp fibres on the grass along shore, the killing of young fish by obstructing their gills, and destroying the mating places of fish. The writer states that col- lecting the waste in large reserve ponds which held all or most of it during low stream flow had proved an efficacious remedy and cites the pond at Fredriksberg, Sweden, as a good example. A striking piece of work has been done in this country on the refuse from sugar beet factories which is very similar to pulp waste. ‘The remedy proposed by Mr. Robinson in the Report of the Michigan State Medical Board for 1909 is to construct dams and thus increase the oxygen content of the water. The use of the dam in small streams is much more feasible than the reserve pond. “Purification of Waste Water from Sulphite Mills.” Pulp and Paper. August, 1910. Dr. von Schrenk states that blue stain Blue fungus grows only in the medullary rays Stain. and not in the wood fibres as is sometimes claimed. This seems to be due to the starches, sugars and oils found in the rays and not acids as has been popularly supposed. During the past two years it has been found that the relative quantities of moisture and air in the wood have a strong controlling influence. Dr. Ernst Mtinch found that the maximum growth obtained when there was 15 per cent or less moisture and this will probably be a basis for preventive measures. The blue stain is not a color of the wood but is due to the presence of the brown mycelium of the fungus which prob- ably gives a blue color by reason of its division. Bicarbonate of soda, borax and mercuric chloride have been found to be effective preventives but borax is unreliable and mercuric chloride too strong a poison for the average manufacturer. Many of the poor results of the treatment are due to careless methods and a lack of exact knowledge. It is necessary that the exact strength of the alkali be known and that the supplies be controlled by different vats of concentrated solution and water which are properly mixed in the dipping tank. It is advisable to have the dipping solution hot in order to obtain a perfect coating 544 Forestry Quarterly. and to pile the lumber as soon as possible, being sure to use chemically treated cross strips. The author believes that good results can be secured if technical men are in charge even if our present information is imperfect. “Prevention of Blue Stain in Lumber.” The St. Louis Lumberman. July I, IQIO. Fossil remains of the teredo have been Counteracting found in petrified woods but the work of Teredo. the mollusc first attracted attention about 300 years ago when its work on wooden ships was especially destructive. It is found in all ocean waters except those of polar regions and is represented by many species. The worst infested waters are the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Pine, oak, cedar, mahogany, ebony, teak and lignum vitae are only a few of the species affected while such a soft wood as the palm may be immune. The greatest development of the teredo occurs in areas where fresh water and salt water meet. Mahogany and cedar logs have been destroyed in four months. Such work could be prevented by turning the logs while piling may be protected by sheathing with copper. Many experiments with paints, pitch, coal tar and chemicals have failed, but recently napthaline oils forced into the wood under heavy pressure has given good results. This process is so expensive, however, that its use is limited. “Destructive Work of the Teredo.” American Lumberman. July 23, IQIO. Probably the earliest method of wood pay- Wood ing was the corduroy road which was a Paving. crude method used on extremely bad areas. The planked road followed and was in turn followed by many kinds of wood blocks. This paving was first laid in London about 70 years ago, fir blocks being used which were 6 to 8 inches across and 6 inches deep. The first use of wood paving in the United States is unknown but there is one street in Philadelphia which seems to have been paved with wood in 1843. Within a few years a large amount of wood paving was used, Chicago and Detroit using round cedar blocks 6 inches Periodical Literature. 545 long set on end in sand or mixed sand and gravel. This paving was cheap and soon became decayed and roughened. Comparatively recently the chemically treated block has come into use. The three principal methods of creosoting are known as kreodone-creosote, creo-resinate and carbolineum, which are similar processes with a variation in the chemical used. In the first process the seasoned blocks are sterilized in dry heat at 240 degrees Fah., and the preservative forced in at 70 pound pressure until 12 pounds to the cubic foot are absorbed. ‘This usually takes 2 to 3 hours. The second process is like the first except fifty per cent of melted rosin is used with the creosote with the idea of closing the pores. In the last named method carbolineum is used. ‘This is an insoluble chemical compound of high specific gravity, which remains liquid summer or winter and is non-volatile. The principal cities mentioned as users of creosote blocks are Minneapolis, Chicago, New York and New Orleans. It is claimed that the heaviest traveled streets in the world such as the Rue de Rivoli, Paris; Avenue de L’Opera, Paris; King William street, London, and Oxford street, London, are paved with wood blocks. It is claimed by the author that the ten qualities of good paving are more nearly fulfilled by wood than any other material. These qualities are: Reasonableness of initial cost. Cost of maintenance in condition. Facility of making repairs as needed. Durability under necessary traffic. Freedom from unnecessary noise. Sanitary quality or freedom from dust. Freedom from decay or disintegration. Freedom from absorption. Foothold for horses. 10. Low resistance to traction. 2 ST ee ee ‘o “Merits of Wood Pavements.” Mississippi Valley Lumberman. Sep- tember 2, IQIo. 546 Foresiry Quarterly. Single factories use as much as 2,500,000 Coftins. board feet annually and it is estimated that the whole industry uses 30,000,000 board feet annually of hardwood lumber. The manufacturers do not limit their choice of species and nearly every hardwood is used in some connection. The principal requirements are dryness and proof against moisture. - Plain oak, quarter-sawed oak, ma- hogany, poplar, basswood and teak are most largely used and the last mentioned wood is particularly desirable because of its in- destructible nature. “Utilization of Hardwoods.” Hardwood Record. September 10, rog10. Butter dishes have been made principally Butter from maple but are made from any wood Dishes. that will stand steaming, cuts well and does not have a sap that will leave a taste. Black Gum, Tupelo Gum and Red Gum are used in the south with Black Gum a favorite. On the Pacific coast spruce and fir are largely used. “The Butter Dish Trade.” St. Louis Lumberman. August 15, 1910. Oak flooring is manufactured principally Oak by flooring concerns but is also being Flooring. manufactured more and more by sawmills which make a specialty of oak lumber. The low grade problem is a serious one in oak and the manufacturers are finding that the narrow strips of flooring cut into all lengths offer one solution. There is also developing a good market for common stock in oak flooring for use in the floor center that is to be covered by a rug or for use in kitchens. At present there is a tendency toward narrow widths and two thicknesses. The favorite widths are 14, 2 and 2} inches face while formerly it was made as wide as 31 inches and very little was narrower than 2} inches. It is held that the narrower strips look better, stay placed better, and do not shrink enough to leave an unsightly crack, while they are an advantage to the lumbermen since a more than proportionately greater amount of flooring can be sawed from common lumber if small widths are used. The two standard thicknesses are 13/16 inch made from one inch Periodical Literature. 547 stock and 3/8 inch made from one inch stock which has been re- sawed or split. “Oak Flooring.” The Wood Worker. June, rgro. The scarcity of oak timber for cooperage Gum purposes has led to the introduction of the Barrels, steel barrel for high class uses and the sub- stitution of gum for barrels used for syrup and glucose. This species has been used for some time in slack cooperage. The Standard Oil Company tried gum for oil barrels but found it unsatisfactory because the glue used was disinte- grated by the oil and the stave was not heavy enough. It is said, however, that the gum barrel is used abroad for heavy oils and lubricants. The principal centers of use for the gum barrel are New Orleans, where it is used for molasses, and New York City, where it is used for glucose. The gum stave has an advantage over oak in being fully 25 per cent lighter but the manufacture is more complex since the log must be flitched at the mill, then cut into 36 inch blocks which are in turn sawed with the grain. The gum barrel can be sold at $1.25 to $1.40. “The Gum Barrel,’ Barrel and Box. September, 1910. Gum staves eight years ago were only an Gum. experiment and for a time were not con- Staves. sidered of much value because of a poorer joint than elm and not so good holding power. The timber is brittle and demands a sharper knife than elm or many other hardwoods while the problem of turning out bright staves is difficult because of climate. By good manage- ment as high as 60 to 8o per cent of bright staves may be secured. Many manufacturers shut down during the rainy season while others manufacture barrels for lower grade use during this period. Most of the high grade gum staves are produced in Missouri Arkansas, and Mississippi but mill run stock is also produced in Virginia and West Virginia where the timber is not so good. Higher grade material is used for gum staves than in elm, red oak or other species where the best cuts are often used for higher class use. Gum staves are used almost exclusively in the South 548 Forestry Quarterly. for sugar barrels and have given good service for miscellaneous purposes such as for chemicals, high grade salt, etc. This species has also largely taken the place of elm for fruit barrels in New York and Michigan while it is used exclusively in the South. Prejudice against the gum stave is held in New York city and vicinity by sugar barrel manufacturers and in Michigan and some of the central states by flour manufacturers. “The March of the Gum Stave.” The Southern Lumberman. July 16, IQIO. Teak exports from Siam for the year end- Teak. ing March 31, 1909, amounted to 7,693,037 tons worth $4,259,907 which is a decrease of $546,338 as compared with the previous year. Teak ranks "second in the list of exports and is principally used for shipbuild- ing, furniture, rolling stock and the better class of wooden houses. It contains an oil which prevents the rusting of iron or steel imbedded in it and is not attacked by the white ant. The survey of Siam’s forests started in 1907 and is not yet completed. Only trees 76.5 inches in girth can be girdled for cutting. Bankok is the principal market. “Teak Forests of Siam.” American Lumberman. July 9, 1910. It is of interest to establish values even for Price of the wood of rarer trees. Some Honey Gleditsia Locust trees were cut in the park at Sans Wood. Souci (near Berlin). They had been planted about 70 years ago and showed only one inch or so of the light colored sapwood with a fine red to brown heart. There were six logs of 20 to 24 feet and a middle diameter of 12 inches, altogether 125 cubic feet which sold at 19 cents a cubic foot, a very good price considering that the wood was entirely unknown. Two wagonmakers and a broker divided the lot. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. July, 1910. P. 266. Periodical Literature. 549 STATISTICS AND HISTORY A most extensive and complete record of Prussian matters connected with the forest ad- and ministration of Prussia and cognate sub- German jects is contained in an article by Semper. Statistics. As regards felling budgets, it shows that in the years 1906, 1907, 1908, the cut was increased 18, 19, and 26 per cent above the proposed budget and that the actual cut in 1908 was nearly double that of 1870. Taking only timberwood (over 3 in.) the per acre cut increased from 29.7 cubic feet to 56 cubic feet (total cut 65 cubic feet). The workwood per cent improved from 30 to 63. The price for all wood rose from 3.9 cents to 6.6 cents, and for workwood alone is now 9.4 cents per cubic foot, prices in 1907 having been somewhat higher. The net result per acre has more than doubled, namely the gross yield from $1.66 to $4.28; the net yield from $.87 to $2.13 per acre of forest land— the latter figure showing a loss of 29 cents over 1907, similar to a drop in 1901, which is explained by an increase in the cost of administration, especially woodchopper’s wages. These have grown from 1.2 cents in 1906 to 1.55 cents in IgIO. The great significance for the forest administration of the in- creasing mine timber requirement is illustrated by the growth of coal production which in 1908 had grown to 594 per cent (nearly 148 million tons) of the output of 1870, and which consumes at the rate of 1.6 cubic foot per ton. This consumption alone re- quires a third of the total cut, or one half the workwood, and this accounts largely for the increase of the workwood per cent. The import of this class of wood, from Russia and Austria, in 1907 was 161,000 tons, in 1908, 362,000 tons. A slump in price against 1907 is explained mainly by the un- usual high prices (up to 16 cents per cubic foot) and the unusual coal output of 1907. A similar slump was experienced in wooden railroad ties, namely for pine from 71 cents to 69 cents; this, owing to in- creasing importations from Russia. Interesting figures are quoted from official sources as to the iron tie and wooden tie consumption on Prussian railways. About 30.5 per cent of the 550 Forestry Quarterly. mileage (an increase of a half per cent since 1905) is laid with iron. In rebuilding in 1908 nearly 44 per cent was laid with iron, showing no decrease in the appreciation of this superior track. In new construction, while in the last three years the consump- tion of wooden ties had grown by to per cent, that of iron had grown by 27 per cent. Reference is then made to the article on beech ties briefed else- where in this issue. Unsatisfactory experience with some of the impregnated ties, and the cost of treatment with creosote, the author assigns for the doubt in its superiority. In the wood industries, while 1907 was a banner year, 1908 proved a year of recession. The total cut in the empire—some 700 million cubic feet—remained nearly the same, the increased gut of Bavaria, representing about 3 per cent of the whole, made little, if any, impression on the market. But importations, which in general represent 70 per cent of the home production of work- wood were curtailed by more than 1,300,000 tons under the previous year. The import statistics of Germany, being the second largest importer of wood in the world, are of interest. They have grown from 2,320,000 tons of forest grown material in the quinquennium of 1866-71 to 10,990,000 tons in the average of 1902-7; and in this last period they rose from 7,643,000 in 1902 to 13,031,000 tons in 1908, a year of depression. These 13 mil- lion tons represent the excess of import (6,899,000 tons) over export (400,000 tons) of shaped materials expressed in round log material. The import comes in the following shapes: 1,a00 Tons. Logs and Bolts, 3,455 Sawn, 1,683 Hewn, 307 Railroad ties, 405 Cooperage stock, 42 Pulpwood, 833 Exotics, 84 6,899 The pulpwood importation is more than four times what it was in 1901. Cellulose and paper are export articles. Russia and Fin- Periodical Literature. 551 land furnish over half of this material with Austria-Hungary a iclose second, Sweden and the United States with 448 and 385 thousand tons being small contributors. A table of occupations shows that of the 11,256,254 workers in all industries 11 per cent are occupied in wood working in- dustries, a loss of one per cent from the number in 1895. The whole movement of wood on railroads was 19 million tons, to which inland water transportation adds over 30 million tons, to get a picture of the whole trade. A curious difficulty in handling the freight tariff on wood is interesting to Americans. All exotic species which have been grown and are cut in Germany pay a different freight rate than the imported, the latter being favored. So far, only Robinia, Cottonwood, White Pine, Walnut and Chestnut are charged this rate. But as there are a number of imported species like the poplars which can hardly be distinguished from native ones, the latter sail under false colors. Soon, the writer declares, the list of exotics which are grown and regularly cut at home will have to be enlarged. An interesting discussion on the formation of rings among wood handlers and of strikes in woodworking industries shows that these troubles have become common. In 1908 some 40,000 men in 1,600 factories being on strike, of the 430 strikes more than half had partial or full success. The improvement in the salaries of all forest officials, which went into effect in 1909, has placed the latter into satisfactory conditions. Colonization of wood choppers and building of dwellings for wood laborers, for which annually $25,000 are ap- propriated, has not produced the desired results, the colonized men on account of the size of the farms, 12.5 acres, soon becoming independent, and the renters of dwellings leaving soon. Now the size of the colonist’s parcels of land, single locations in the neighborhood of settlements rather than large colonies, are to be kept within 2.5 acres, but no obligation to work is to attach to them,only some advantages in the way of pasture and wood are to be given. The various methods employed are discussed. In 1892 one man for every 40 acres or nearly two working days for every acre were employed. In 1908, one laborer for every 37 552 Forestry Quarterly. acres, and only 1.6 days for every acre of woodland were re- quired, while the total number of laborers has increased. They are simply not working as many days, the number of season workers having increased. At the same time the labor require- ment has increased on account of more intensive management. Wages have considerably increased in a short time. In 1904 in given localities daily wages varied for men in summer 36 cents to 62 cents, in 1908 from 44 to 77 cents; in winter, nearly the summer rates of 1904. (Yet woodchoppers if skilful, being paid by the piece can make $2 and more!) Forstwirtschaftliche Riickblicke auf das Jahr 1908. Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen. May, 1910. Pp. 293-316. Of the total area of 7.4 million acres, 87 ° Prussia per cent is devoted to wood production. Forest Department For the administration of this area a force Budget. of 6,129 men is employed. ‘Their salaries, except those in the six highest positions, vary from $275-$1,800 per annum exclu- sive of the perquisites like house rental, etc. The total receipts for the year 1910 are figured at $33,950 divided as follows: Wood, 88 % By-products 4 ae Chase, 0.4 Jo Peat, 0.1 % Forest schools, 0.097%o Sale of land, 6.4 % Miscellaneous, a The expenditures, estimated at $17,330,000 will be distributed among the following items: Current administration, 76 % Educational purposes, 0.6% Buying out servitudes, road, cabin and tele- phone construction, 14.4% Miscellaneous, 9 % The balance of profit, $16,611.25, will be larger than during Periodical Literature. 553 the last fiscal year on account of the heavy cutting necessary to remove the timber killed by the nun moth in eastern Prussia. Der Etat der Domdnen-forst- und landwirtschaftlichen Verwaltung fiir das Etatsjahr roro. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Aucsust, Septem- ber, 1910. Pp. 411-413. From the official report, which the Bavarian Bavarian Forest Department issues periodically that Statistics. for the year 1905 is reviewed, from which a few items are of interest. Yield of workwood per acre varies from district to district as much as from 12 to 128 cubic feet! The highest net money yield for wood is secured in Suabia with $7.20 (here also the highest workwood per cent, 59 occurs) the lowest with $2.67 in Upper Bavaria, the average for the Kingdom being $4.14. Forest by-products yield around $14,000 or 15 cents per acre. This almost pays for the planting which consumes a little over 16 cents per acre of. the total forest area; or else for the road build- ing which consumes over 18 cents. If we read that in the year 79 forest fires occurred but burned over only 240 acres we may conclude that carelessness—almost the only cause—is not yet out of the world, but effective service is keeping its results in check. In 1906, 58 fires ran over 220 acres. The planting was done on 11,000 acres with 86 million conifers at a cost of $240,000, besides insignificant planting of broadleaf species (on 1,200 acres) and repair planting on about 6,000 acres In private forests during the four years from 1902-1906 around 60,000 acres were cleared, but the planted area is reported as 85,000 acres, or an increase of forest area of round 15,000 acres. Mitteilungen aus der Staatsforstverwaltung Bayerns. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. July, 1910. Pp. 241-251. In an official volume prepared for the meet- Baden ing of the German Foresters Association Statistics. conditions of Baden’s forest administra- tion are described on 139 pages, with 13 graphic charts, showing the changes during the period of 1850- 1904. It appears that the rotations have gradually been in- 554 Forestry Quarterly. creased not only in the State forests, but also in the communal forests. While in 1862 50 per cent of the former and 18 per cent of the latter were managed in 120 year rotation, in 1902 the percentage was over 59 and 30 respectively. Naturally the stock capital has also increased, from 3,200 to 4,000 cubic feet, and from 2,830 to 3,930 cubic feet in the two classes of forest. In the 55 years the gross receipts of the State forests have risen from $550,000 to nearly $2,000,000; the expenditures from | $250,000 to $850,000; the net receipts from $300,000 to over $1,000,000. The value of this domain which is stated as $35,000,000, was therefore quadrupled in the 55 years. . Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. July, 1910. Pp. 411-413. Official records of United States lumber Lumber exports for the year ending June 30, IgIo, Exports. show a large increase. In shipments to the principal importing nations of Europe there is an increase amounting to 7,487,000 feet or 4 per cent for the United Kingdom; 11,124,000 or 21 per cent to Belgium; 4,223,000 feet or 18 per cent to France; 6,414,000 or 10 per cent to Germany; 12,986,000 or 44 per cent to Italy, and 15,390,000 or 23 per cent to Netherlands. In shipments to minor import- ing countries, not named, there was a decrease of 1,826,000 feet or about 6 per cent. Notable increases occur in this hemisphere. Argentine Re- public had an increase of 64,837,000 feet or 36 per cent; British North America 62,094,000 feet or 49 per cent; Cuba 60,289,000 feet or about 75 per cent; Central American States and British Honduras 21,560,000 or 57 per cent; Mexico 25,297,000 or 30 per cent, and Chile 4,155,000 or 25 per cent. Brazil is the only exception with a decrease of 992,000 feet or about 3 per cent. Some Orient shipments were even more remarkable. China had an increase of 36,537,000 feet or 117 per cent; Japan 4,409,- ooo feet or 56 per cent; Philippine Island 5,887,000 feet or 36 per cent; other Asiatic and Oceanic countries 45,615,000 feet or 58 per cent; British Africa 8,886,000 feet or 90 per cent and the rest of Africa 1,253,000 feet or 7 per cent. British Australasia Periodical Literature. 555 showed a falling off of 23,116,000 feet or 17 per cent and Hong Kong 1,956,000 feet or 56 per cent. Miscellaneous countries, not enumerated, imported 72,000 feet of which 2,000 feet was increase. Boards, deals and plank show an increase of 336,667,000 feet or about 25 per cent and most of this is due to the demand for line, joists and scantling in which the increase is 4,150,000 feet or 19 per cent; hewn lumber has an increase of 294,668 cubic feet or 10 per cent; sawn lumber 68,410,000 feet or 18 per cent; logs and round timber 21 per cent; shingles 3,188 M or about 24 per cent, box shooks about 17 per cent, and other shooks 5 per cent. The five principal Gulf ports of New Orleans, Galveston, Gulf- port, Mobile and Pensacola show an increase in boards, deal and plank except Gulfport. Comparing figures with the rest of the country it is found that the timber shipped from Mobile approxi- mates 16 per cent, Pensacola 15 per cent, Gulfport 11 per cent, and New Orleans Io per cent or more than one half of all ship- ments abroad. | “Lumber Exports,” The Lumber Trade Journal, Sept. 1, 1910. The cut of southern yellow pines as re- Cut ported July 15, 1910, for the past six of months, is considerably greater than in the Southern years of 1906 and 1907 when the cut was Pine. especially heavy. ‘The net increase in cut above 1907 being 213,347,386 feet or 151 per cent for 147 mills which reported both years. The net in- crease in shipments is 10.6 per cent over 1907 and the total excess of shipments over cut is 7.14 per cent for 218 mills in 1910 as against 1.27 per cent for the same mills in 1909. The net in- crease in cut in 1910 over 1909 for 218 mills is 23.65 per cent and the net increase in shipments is 20.40 per cent. ‘These statistics include reports from Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. “Yellow Pine Statistics,’ The Southern Lumberman, July 23. 10 556 Forestry Quarterly. A comprehensive study of Canada’s ex- Canada’s ports and imports for the fiscal year ending Trade. March 31, 1910, is compiled by the Depart- ment of Customs. The total export amounts to $53,522,142 of which $12,393,903 went to the United Kingdom and $36,061,920 went to the United States. ‘The total import amounted to $11,462,522 of which $251,422 came from the United Kingdom and $10,912,619 came from the United States. A list of all goods exported during 1910 is contrasted with 1909 and for March, 1909, with March, 1910. This is scheduled under 45 headings of lumber, dimension material, logs, etc., and and 10 headings of manufactured wood. The imports of dutiable goods are classed under 10 headings and of free goods under 28 headings. “Canadian Lumber in Foreign Markets,” Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, June 15, I9gI0. A preliminary report of the Census Bureau Pulp Wood on the wood pulp industry brings out the Consumption fact, that in the years from 1907 to 1909, and practically the quantity of pulpwood used Prices. remained the same, namely, 4 million cords (worth nearly $35,000,000) producing about 2,500,000 tons of woodpulp. But the price has somewhat increased, namely, from $8.16 per cord to $8.60. The year 1908 shows a depression in consumption, but not in price, which was $8.37 per cord. The most striking change, however, is the steady falling off of spruce consumption, which in 1907 represented 68.1 per cent; in 1907, 64.5 per cent; in 1908, 60.5 per cent of the total product, and the increase of price for this product was at the rate of 4.8 per cent in 1908, and another 6.7 per cent in 1909, the price in the latter year being $9.96 or $1.36 above the average price for pulpwood. A slight falling off in importations of spruce is also noticeable, the price having risen from $9.60 to $11.35 for such. Balsam is largely substituted for the expensive spruce, in 1907 double that used in 1908 being reported, the price in the latter years being $8.31. Birch, beech, maple, gum and basswood also figure in greater amounts. Periodical Literature. 557 Wisconsin outranks all middle western Paper states in paper making and is the third Making state in the Union. It has 75 mills owned in by 45 different concerns which yearly Wisconsin. manufacture 459,000 tons of paper, 264,900 tons of ground wood pulp, and 216,000 tons of sulphite pulp. This amount of pulp requires 300,000 cords or 645,000 tons of spruce and 540,000 cords or 1,350,000 tons of hemlock. A cord of spruce averaging 4,300 pounds yields 39.53 per cent or 1,700 pounds of ground wood pulp while a cord of hemlock yields 800 pounds in sulphite which shrinks to 727 pounds or 14.54 per cent of the cord when made into paper. It is only 30 years since the real manufacture of paper in Wisconsin began along the Fox River and the price of spruce wood for a considerable period was only five dollars per cord while now a comparatively inferior quality commands ten to eleven dollars per cord. Hemlock which had no value at that time has a higher value now than spruce did then. The direct investment in Wisconsin represents about $30,000,000 with over 7,000 employes and an annual product valued at $23,000,000. This does not include the woodsmen or carriers. “Address by B. R. Goggins,” Mississippi Valley Lumberman, June 10, IQIo. ; The Forest Commission of New York was Forest established in 1885 but the first recom- Nurseries. mendation for reforestation was contained in the report for 1898 and the first tree planting was done in 1go1 in the Catskills. The first nursery was provided for in the laws of 1898 when Cornell University was authorized to plant, raise, cut and sell timber. The first nurseries were established at Axton and Wawbeek in 1899 on a 30,000 acre tract in Franklin county set aside for teaching and demon- strating practical forest management. In 1901 a four acre hardwood nursery was located in Ulster county south of Brown’s station and a coniferous nursery of two and a half acres at SaranacInn. ‘The first of these nurseries failed because it was located on a side hill which had a gravelly soil. The Saranac Inn nursery is located on sandy soil and has 558 Forestry Quarterly. a water tank and pipe system supplied by water from a hydraulic ram. Many experiments have been tried with resulting dis- coveries of great value to the profession. In 1906 a cooperative experimental nursery of two acres main- tained by the U. S. Forest Service and the New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission was established just east of the Saranac Inn nursery. The area was increased in 1907 to 4.2 acres and the work is being devoted to seedlings and transplants of a large number of species. The Axton nursery was abandoned in 1908 and the Wawbeek nursery in 1909 while a site of ten and a quarter acres was selected at Lake Clear which is close to Saranac Inn and has a favorable soil. In 1908 the Commission was authorized to dis- “tribute trees at cost to citizens of the State, which amounted to 28,000 trees in 1908; 1,200,000 trees in 1909, and 2,400,000 trees in 1910. During 1908 a nursery of 5.1 acres was established at Salamanca and subsequently increased to 11.1 acres. The soil here is a sandy loam with a gravel sub-soil. These four state nurseries aggregate about 30 acres and pro- duce an annual product worth $10,000 at market prices. The seed beds are 4 x 12 feet and will produce about 10,000 seedlings to the bed. “Tree Nurseries in New York State,” The Southern Lumberman, Aug. 13, IQIO. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION In view of the movement in the United Forest Policy States of bringing private forest property in under some kind of government control, it Prussia. is of interest to note the position taken by the Minister of Agriculture, Domains and Forests in the Prussian legislature when an extension of govern- ment control over private deforestation was asked for. The Prussian law of 1875, which can be called into requisition against a mismanagement of private forests requires that the ad- joiner who fears damage from such management bring an action, but he must not only bear the costs but also pay to the owner whose management would be interfered with whatever Periodical Literature. 559 difference in financial results would be caused by a change of management, Naturally nobody, except occasionally the government, utilizes this law. The Minister, however, did not think that any other law of a more stringent interference would be justifiable or have practical effect. In Bavaria where a more strict superveillance of private forest property exists, it was by no means in better condition. He recommended, however, an extension of the method, in vogue for several years in various provincial agricultural coun- cils, of providing experts to give advice to forest owners (see F. Q. vol. V, p. 438). Under this provision in the province of Brandenburg some 300,000 acres were now under such advice, and other provinces were following the good example. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. August, 1910. Pp. 304-305. The new law provides for a Department of Loutsiana Forestry with a register of the state land Forest office as ex-officio forester who shall re- Law. ceive $500 salary and $300 traveling and incidental expenses. A state forester is provided for who shall have direction of all forest interests and matters pertaining to forestry within the jurisdiction of the state. The forester shall receive a salary of $1,800 per year and $600 office and traveling expenses. Areas reserved for forestry purposes cannot aggregate more than 10 per ‘cent of the area of any parish. Forest fires caused by negligence are punishable by a fine of not less than $20 nor more than $300 and by imprisonment of not less than Io days nor more than six months or by both fine and imprisonment. Anyone maliciously causing forest fires may be fined not less than $25 nor more than $1,000 and imprisoned not less than three months nor more than five years or by both fine and imprison- ment. Anyone causing forest fires is liable for damages and in case of reproduction this damage is to be calculated as the expense of artificial planting and cultivating such growth to the point of de- velopment at the time when the fire occurred. Cost of fire fight- 560 Forestry Quarterly. ing may also be charged to anyone negligently or wilfully causing forest fires. Parish game wardens are to be fire wardens without extra pay and the state forester has the power to appoint volunteer fire wardens upon the recommendation of five or more reputable per- sons. ‘These wardens have the power of arrest, the power to call out men between the ages of 18 and 55 to fight fires and the granting of permits to burn brush, etc., during seasons of mini- mum danger. Provision is also made for a reduction of taxes when private owners shall enter into an agreement with the state forester for reforesting lands not assessed at more than five dollars per acre. “Louisiana’s Forest Law,” The Lumber Trade Journal, July 1, igo. . In the debates of the legislature regarding Hunting the proposition not to administer the chase in in the government forests but to rent them Prussia. to the highest bidders, in order to secure a larger income, the Minister of Agriculture showed unsatisfactory results from this method in other states. Baden had rented the chase on 235,000 acres at 6 cents per acre but had abandoned the method as undesirable, the hunting being entirely spoiled at the end of the contracts. In Alsace-Lorraine, on account of French competitors the hunting on half the State forests, 195,000 acres, was leased at 11 cents per acre. Bavaria renting the hunting on about one mil- lion acres gets a little over 6 cents an acre. Prussia’s 7.5 million acres brings now $150,000 and in future when the lower chase is also administered will bring an income of $200,000 or about 3 cents per acre; a few parcels in the West being rented for eight cents an acre. But the larger possible income would lead to inconveniences, friction, take away pleasure of the foresters. and in the end leave the hunting in poor condition, after first having increased the damage by game. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. July, 1910. P. 258. Periodical Literature. 561 MISCELLANEOUS The “Touring Club of France,” an organi- Reforestation zation of now 16,000 members with 364 in branches, is one of the main agents in pro- France, moting the reforestation of denuded land. Some 4,000 acres have been planted up, 920 nurseries with 50 acres, furnishing plant material. Improve- ments of meadows were made on 1,200 acres and altogether $50,000 expended. Recently the society has sent a memorial to the officials of the sections of mountain country in which the floods which inundated Paris rose calling their attention to the advantages of communal forests. The few municipalities which have them are realizing good returns from the money invested, ranging from go cents to $1.40 per acre annually. But in addition to the income such forests would exert a beneficial influence whose effects would be felt far beyond the community to which the forest belonged. In view of the fact that 4o per cent of the cultivated area of France is now artifically drained and that the run off from these areas is very rapid, many floods could be prevented if the run off on other parts of stream basins could be retarded. This can be ac- complished most effectively by the reforestation of the denuded mountain slopes by communal forests so that in addition to help- ing themselves by establishing such plantations, the mountain communities would be aiding the lowlands by preventing the rapid accumulation of flood waters in the lower reaches of the streams. Der franzésische Touring Club, etc. August, September, 1910. Pp. 414-416. An interesting account of the work of the Photography photographic division in the Forest Service in comes to us through German sources. U. S. Forest Harrer describes in detail the organization Service. and methods of procedure in the making of maps, and in the collecting and printing of photographs. We learn that about 100 million acres of forest reservation have been mapped and that some 80,000 pictures have 562 Forestry Quarterly. been collected. He uses the information as an incentive for his own government (Bavaria) to use similar means. Die photographische Abteilung der amerikanischen Forstverwaltung. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. June, 1910. Pp. 348-352. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, 1910,— State Regulation of Timber Cutting. Pp. 280-290. A discussion of the opinion of the Supreme Court of Maine as to power of state regulation. ° The History of Resin Canals in White Fir. Pp. 351-356. The New Forest Products Laboratory. Pp. 387-403. An outline of the class of work to be carried on at the new Forest Service laboratory opened in June at Madison, Wis- consin. Agencies for the Restoration and Conservation of Forests. Pp. 481-489. The Protection of Forests from Fire. Pp. 509-518; 580- 595. Publication of bulletin 82, U. S. Forest Service, in six instalments. The Reforestation of Denmark. Pp. 525-529. Deals with the reclamation of the Jutland heaths. The Philippine Bureau of Forestry and its Work. Pp. 539-544. Official statement of conditions. The Forest and the Nation. Pp. 607-610. An address delivered before the second National Con- servation Congress, St. Paul, Minn., September 8, by Mr. H. S. Graves. Other Periodical Literature. 563 The Indian Forester, 1910,— Notes on the Forests of Heppenheim in Hesse-Darmstadt. Pp. 191-202. Details of the system of management. Some Factors Which Influence the Yield of Resin from Pinus longifolia. Pp. 278-283. The season of year, year of successive tapping, time be- tween freshening of cut, and vigor of tree. Bagasse for Paper. Pp. 428-431. This, the refuse crushed sugar canes, cannot be seriously considered as a substitute for wood pulp. Report on the Paper-Pulp Industry in Sweden. Pp. 438- 450. A consular report on methods of manufacture. Production of Synthetic Rubber. Pp. 489-490. German Turpentine Substitutes. Pp. 491-492. Root Infection of Trametes Pini. Pp. 559-562. Dry Rot in Timber. Pp. 620-622. Canadian Forestry Journal, VI,— The Brown-Tail Moth in Canada. Pp. 43-44. British Columbia Timber Problems. Pp. 47-51. The Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve. Pp. 55-57. Forest Fires and Railways. Pp. 69-74. The Spruce Budworm. Pp. 93. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, IV,— Observations on the Large Larch Sawfly with Sugges- tions for Remedial and Preventive Treatment. Pp. 203-221. 564 Forestry Quarterly. Lays stress on the value of mixed stands, underplanting, etc., to provide soil conditions least favorable to safety of cocoons and pupal stage of the insects. A Disease of the Alder. Pp. 221-224. Valsa oxystoma, Statistics of Danish Forests. Pp. 300-305. Rhizina undulata. P. 308. A fungus attacking conifers. Witches Broom on Spruce and Larch. P. 309. : Declared by Tubeuf to be a mutation and not due to para- sitic causes. Coombe Plantation, Keswick. Pp. 348-359. The Minnesota Forester, III,— The Brush Burning Law. Pp. 62-64. Discusses criticisms of the law. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVII,— Financial Aspect of the Growth of Scots Pine. Pp. 189- 194. Forestry in Hesse and some other German States. Pp. 199-205. Deals with development during last ten years, with com- parative statistics. Reclamation of Moorland on the Continent. Pp. 205-211. The steps taken to promote this work in Germany, Aus- tria, Denmark and Sweden. Coombe Plantation, Keswick. A Successful Plantation at a High Altitude. Pp. 265-283; 353-370. Financial and other data of a sixty-year plantation, mainly larch and spruce. Other Periodical Literature. 565 Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXIII,— Belgian System of Planting on Turfs. Pp. 153-157. Results of experiments begun in 1907. Notes on Creosoting. Pp. 172-179. The Cultivation of Willows. Pp. 191-196. Teredo navalis and other Sea-Worms. Pp. 196-204. The Protection of Timber Against White Ants. Pp. 227- 228. The Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, 1910,— How I made Sulphite Pulp with 8 per cent Sulphur. Pp. 153-158; 179-183; 207-212. Determination of Lignine in Sulphite Pulp. Pp. 172-173. The Botanical Gazette, L,— The Origin of Ray Tracheids in the Coniferae. Pp. 1or1- 115. Oxidizing Enzymes and their Relation to Sap Stain in Lumber. Pp. 142-147. Suggests treating sap lumber in long tanks of boiling water as a practical method of preventing stain due to chemical dis- coloration. Forest Leaves, XII,— The Improvement of Farm Woodlots. Pp. 133-135. A practical article. Some Notes on Wood Preservation. Pp. 154-158. Deals with the production and character of creosote oil, methods of preservative treatment, figures of cost, etc. Bod and Gun, XII,— Ontario Game and Fisheries Commission 1909-1910: In- terim Report. Pp. 313-376. NEWS AND NOTES. By inadvertence a news item in the last issue on page 400 refers to the summer term for forestry students of the University of Michigan. This should have read Michigan Agricultural College. We understand that the University of Michigan does not carry on a systematic summer term work. The Public Domain Com- mission referred to in the item is not the old Forest Commission which it has supplanted. Another piece of partial misinformation, we regret to say, slipped into the previous issue on p. 273, where Mr. C. H. Sellers, fofmerly assistant to the State Forester of California, is said to have followed Mr. Lull into the employ of the North American Hardwood Timber Company. As a matter of fact, Mr. Sellers had left the State Service before Mr. Lull, and owns the nursery at Fruit Ridge Road himself. We may add that the news service of the Quarterly cannot pretend to be perfect; indeed, it intends to record personalia only as far as they show advance in the professional-employment of foresters, and as far as possible, to confine itself to notes of gen- eral interest to the profession. The past summer has been one of the worst for a long time in the matter of forest fires in the Western States. A guess rather than a well-based estimate places the amount of commercial timber destroyed at two years’ cut or around 8o billion feet (six billion in National Forests), and the value in the neighborhood of $200,000,000. ‘ These estimates put forward by ‘American Forestry’ are chal- lenged by lumbermen as greatly excessive, and especially the statement that private owners suffered more—over ten times— loss than the national government, the argument being that the private forest owners (lumbermen) are always prepared to send fire-fighting crews into the woods, and the government is not. They believe, moreover, that the salvage will be much greater than is anticipated and that the market will not be affected by averproduction from the burned timber. News and Notes. 567 In the United States Circuit Court, at Deadwood, S. D., the government, this summer, won a signal victory in the case against the receiver of the Missouri River and Northwestern Railroad Company, in which damages were claimed for the destruction of timber by sparks from the defendant’s locomotives. The jury brought in a verdict for the plaintiff, allowing practically the full amount asked. The total sum demanded was $3,728.85 and the verdict was for $3,659.45, a difference of but $69.45. This item was the alleged value of the cord wood destroyed, amounting to 2314 cords at $.30 per cord. The government claimed that the wood before the fire was worth $.60 per cord and as it was subsequently sold for $.30 they claimed the difference, which was not allowed. The important feature of the case was the allowing of $12.00 per acre for reproduction and the suit was unique in that this establishes a precedent of the greatest value to the Forest Ser- vice. It is the first time that a court in the United States has decided that trees of such immature growth have a value that may be determined and for which damages may be estimated and al- lowed. The item of reproduction in this case was $1,094.40 or $12.00 per acre for 91.2 acres and it was allowed by the jury in full. The other item allowed was for the partial destruction of 675,000 feet of mature timber, originally valued at $6.00 per thousand, but a credit of $2.20 per thousand was allowed the defendant as the fire killed timber was subsequently sold at that price. This added $2,565.00 to the reproduction allowance. The basis for the valuation of the reproduction were the figures derived from the actual operations of this kind in the Black Hills National Forest during the past season, when 1,500 acres were reforested by seeding. Thus the Forest Officers, in their testi- mony, were able to give exact figures for the work already per- formed and thereby put a definite value on young trees, which to practical lumbermen would be worthless. This may be a very important feature in connection with the many forest fires along the railroads, which the Forest Officers have been obliged to fight during the summer just ending. 568 Forestry Quarterly. Nearly at the same time the settlement recently made with the Burlington Railroad Company, for the destruction by fire of tim- ber on the Forest Reserve in the Galena district of the Black Hills, was accepted by the government. The terms of settlement were arrived at during a conference several weeks before. By this settlement, the government will be paid the entire amount of the actual damages sustained, which has been esti- mated at $6,750. As the matter was settled out of court, the question of double damages did not enter into the negotiations. The fire which swept 1,000 acres of the National Forest below Galena, was started by sparks from a Burlington locomotive in September, 1908, and was fought by soldiers from Fort Meade and by employes of the Homestake Mining Company, whose tim- ber lands in that section were threatened by the conflagration. e soldiers were called in when the fire appeared to be endan- gering the army wood reserve, which is located below the Galena district. The items included in the amount of the settlement are 500,000 feet of timber, $6.00 per thousand, $3,000; 300 acres of repro- duction at $6.66 per acre, $2,000; expenses of fire fighting, $1,- 500; damage to soldiers’ clothing, $140; total, $6,750. In addi- tion to this sum which the Burlington will pay in settlement, the railroad company is said to have been put to an expense of about $5,000 in conducting a survey of the fire swept district and se- curing estimates of the extent of the damage. It has been suggested that the Burlington Company was prob- ably urged to the settlement by reason of the recent action of Judge Garland of the United States Court, who overruled a mo- tion of the company to strike out of the government’s declaration the clause relating to the recovery of double damages. ‘This was taken as an indication that the court would probably hold the double damage law valid, if the case came to trial. Another inci- dent, which is believed to have induced the Burlington to seek a settlement out of court is the victory of George Bennere in the Lawrence County Circuit Court last term in the case in which he recovered a judgment of $3,300 from the railroad company for timber destroyed on patented land owned by him in the same dis- trict and burned in the same fire which damaged the government forest. News and Notes. 569 In Forest Service District No. 2 encouraging results of seed sowing three and four years ago led to sowing nearly 3,000 pounds of seed of Western Yellow Pine, Austrian Pine, and Lodgepole Pine as well as 1,000 pounds of Douglas Fir seed. This seed covered about 1,400 acres and was planted in various ways; in hills 3 x 3 feet apart by using a corn planter; in newly plowed furrows; in holes dug by grub hoes, and in broadcasting after burning low brush. On the Pike National Forest in Colo- rado 500 pounds of Douglas Fir seed were sown on a burned area in the West creek district from which Denver obtains a portion of its water. Here the seed was put into hills by corn planters; into seed spots one foot or more in diameter and six feet apart, prepared by heavy rakes, and into lines five feet apart made by grub hoes along contour lines of the hill, spaced 5 feet apart, and after dropping the seed rakes were used to cover it. Some seed was broadcasted on snow that fell May 16 and 22 and some was broadcasted on bare ground and raked in. In the Nebraska sandhills about 200,000 trees were planted of Jack Pine, Scotch Pine, and Western Yellow Pine, and in Kansas sandhills 150,000 conifers and hardwoods. About 35,000 western yellow pine were also planted in Bear Creek Canyon of the Pike Forest. It is understood that plans are made for gathering immense quantities of seed for next year’s sowing. At this stage of seed sowing and tree planting in National Forests the greatest need is for well planned experiments under diversified conditions and a careful elimination of the mere scattering of seed. It is well known that the Secretary of Agriculture believes that remarkable results may be secured from seed sowing but before such results can be secured a large amount of experimentation will be neces- sary. On July 21, 22 and 23 there was held in Portland, the Second Pacific Logging Congress. There are many lumber associations which handle the finished product, but if we are not mistaken, the Pacific Loggers Association is the only organization of loggers in this country,—an organization of men whose brains and muscle make possible the harvesting of the forest crops. There is hardly another association whose meetings could be of greater interest 570 Forestry Quarterly. to the forester than the ones held during the session of the Log- ging Congress. The papers touched upon practically all phases of logging operations. ‘The scaling of logs,” “Handling of ex- plosives,” “The value of topographical surveys and maps in con- nection with logging operations,” “Handling logs on steep grades,” “The gasoline locomotive,” “Electricity in connection with logging,” “Taxation,” “Growth of timber” are only a few of the subjects which were discussed at the Congress. The purpose of the loggers’ association is to create a feeling of solidarity among the loggers of the Northwest and raise the loggers occupation to the dignity of a profession—logging engi- neer. ‘The modern methods of logging, especially in the moun- tainous regions, tax the ingenuity of the ablest engineers and the ,modern logger is an engineer in the truest sense of the word. Every forester has a deep interest in such a movement and shouid wish it fullest success. In attempting to develop a high type of logging engineer, however, it must not be forgotten that logging is only one phase —the final phase—in the management of timber lands. With the area of timber land rapidly decreasing, and the increase in stump- age prices, there is rapidly growing a tendency toward holding for future crops timber land by private owners in the Northwest. Under such conditions, the timber land will form the largest part of the timber owner’s investment and its handling in such a way as to perpetuate it will be as much the concern of the manager of a timber tract as the logging-off of the mature timber. Logging when properly carried on is the most effective means for improv- ing the forest. In order to properly handle a timber tract, the logger, therefore, will have to adapt his logging in such manner as to leave the logged-over areas in a condition capable of con- tinued productiveness. The logger, therefore, will have to be also a forester and the forester a logger. Only when the forester fully understands the details of logging operations, or the logger can foresee the effect which logging operations will have on the future of the forest, can there be any forest management. The type then of man who will in a few years be needed to handle the large timber lands to the best advantage to the timber owners and to the country is a forest engineer,—a man who will com- bine the knowledge of logging with the knowledge of forestry —— LL eS LT ee Pe ee eee eS ~~ News and Notes. 571 An attempt to develop merely a logging engineer means stopping half way. What is really needed is men who, with a thorough, theoretical and practical knowledge of logging, would combine no less a thorough understanding of the life of the forest and the methods of its handling so as to secure continuous yield. Such type of a forest engineer exists in British India, in France and other countries, why then not in this country? The various papers presented before the Pacific Logging Con- gress are published in full in the August number of ‘The Timber- man.’ Nearly every paper contains items of interest to the forestry profession and the entire set makes this issue one of the best ever published by any trade journal in this country. A few of the most important articles are as follows: Handling of Logs on Steep Ground; Building Logging Railroad with a Piledriver; Cableway Yarding System; Necessity for the Logging Engineer in Modern Logging; Map Showing Logging Operations, Costs of Grades and Outputs by Landings of English and Tyee Lumber Companies; Housing and Feeding Logging Camp Outfit on Wheels ; Use of Fuel Oil with Proper Burners ; Topographic Sur- vey and its Economic Value in Logging Operations. The sixth Congress of the International Union of Forest Ex~ periment Stations met at Brussels from September 10 to 20 im connection with the Exposition. The Belgian government had voted $1,800 towards the entertainment of the guests who came from all parts of Europe, as well as from Japan and America. The United States were represented by Prof. Roth, and Canada by Dr. Fernow. < A number of excursions to various points of interest was ar- ranged. A method of planting a moor was shown, which is done in a peculiarly Belgian manner of mound planting with spruce, which has been found the only satisfactory species for these peaty soils. A stand of 48-year old Picea rubra showed its inferiority in amount of production to the Norway Spruce. A plantation on ground similar to the Landes, sand and sand dunes underlaid with impermeable hardpan, with Scotch Pine proved a profitable investment in 40-45 years, the material sell- ~ 1? 572 Forestry Quarterly. ing for mine props and bringing $270 per acre; cost of planting varying from $5 to $40 according to conditions and method. One-year seedlings are used; or 2-year transplants on the dunes. A series of thinning experiments in spruce grown on peat, was exhibited in the forest of St. Michael, another in beech in the forest de Soigne. Much interesting discussion was aroused, to be briefed later. In view of the frequent and alluring offers of Mexican and Central American railroad ties which are made to railroad com- panies in the Eastern United States, a recent news note is interest- ing for its statement that the largest cargo of railroad cross-ties ever brought to Vera Cruz, Mexico, was unloaded in October from a British steamer, the source of the ties being Port Huron, New Zealand. These ties were consigned to the Vera Cruz Terminal Company and the Mexican (Vera Cruz) Railroad, being divided about equally between the two companies. They are sawed blue gum ties, and are said to be free from knots and other defects, and of more lasting quality than any that can be obtained in Mexico, and, it is claimed, they can be laid down in Vera Cruz about as cheap as Mexican ties can be bought. The plantation promoters and others who offer Mexican ties in the United States make great claims for their durability and hard- ness, and intimate that they are available in large quantities. It is apparent that if the Vera Cruz Railroad brings ties from New Zealand, either they are not aware of the possibilities of home supply or the offers of Mexican ties for delivery in the United States are not well-founded. Another interesting feature in con- nection with this importation is that the Vera Cruz Railroad has experimented extensively with steel ties, but they having proved unsatisfactory, all renewals will be made with wooden ties. As an aftermath of the forest fires in Montana and Idaho this summer, it is reported that the Forest Service is advertising the sale of two billion feet of fire-damaged timber. White and Yellow Pine, spruce, fir, and tamarack are offered at 40 to 50 cents on the dollar, and if the timber is removed within the next three months it will be as good as green timber, while it will not entirely lose its value for at least three years. The prices for News and Notes. 573 burned timber range from $2.00 for White Pine to 50 and 75 cents for other timber. In connection with the actual fire dam- age, it is estimated that the high winds that preceded and ac- companied the fires caused a loss from breakage equal to that caused by the fire. In the case of White Pine, reports from certain districts indicate that while the loss of logs from burning is approximately 10 per cent, the loss on the same kind of logs from breakage is often more than 40 per cent. The government of Ontario is slowly beginning to work to- wards a more conservative forest policy. This fall it has bought out for $290,000 the right of a lumber company to the balance of the timber not heretofore cut in Algon- quin Park, over an area of 350 square miles. This park of 1,733 square miles was set aside 17 years ago, but under timber license to various companies, including, as in this case, hardwoods which at the time were valueless but now have become commercially available. It is mainly a game preserve, but eventually may be- come a real forest reserve. At the beginning of the academic sessions of the Faculty of Forestry at Toronto University, Mr. J. E. Lapham, of the U. S. Bureau of Soils gave a practicum on soil survey, with excursions to the Don Valley, one of the best examples of glacial and lacus- trine deposits, and to Lewiston, N. Y., studying the various soil types established in the survey of that section of the State of New York. The need of soil knowledge, the methods of pro- cedure in classifying soils is especially important in setting aside forest reservations, and in excluding the farm soils. Another forest school, attempting a high grade education, was started in the province of Quebec this summer, under the au- spices of the Crownlands Department of the Province, and affili- ated to Laval University, with G. C. Piché as director. Admis- sion is based on a competitive examination. ‘Ten scholarships are provided to make entrance attractive, as well as the promise of employment by the government. To secure the scholarships, a year’s work for the government at $25 a month and traveling expenses is required before entrance. 574 oresiry Quarterly. The possession of both English and French is required. A nursery is at the disposal of the school for practice work. Mr. G. B. MacDonald has been elected to the professorship in forestry at the State College, Ames, Iowa. Mr. MacDonald graduated from the forestry course at the University of Nebraska in 1907 and has had considerable field experience in California, Idaho, Montana, Colorado and Nebraska as well as minor assign- ments in other states. His work has largely been in forest plant- ing and he is well qualified for his work in Iowa. An interesting report from the Faber Pencil Company has been received by the U. S. Forest Service as a result of specimens sent in from Arizona and New Mexico. Alligator juniper was noted agbeing somewhat hard; one-seeded juniper as being spongy and suited for only cheap grades of pencils, and western red juniper as a very close grained, fine quality wood with red color, aromatic odor, and fine qualities for pencil making. Since there are large quantities of this juniper in the southwest it seems probable that it will be used for pencil material. In May representatives of the Internationa] Paper Company and American Realty Company set out near Bangor, Maine, 150,000 three year old spruce trees, imported from Norway. These trees were set out with a spacing of 6 feet each way and the large planting is due to the success of 10,000 trees set out in 1909 by the same interests. What is believed to be a world’s record for wood sawing wags made when two men sawed ten cords of 18-inch elm wood in eight hours and 15 minutes. COMMENT With this issue, at the end of another year, the Editor desires for himself and his board of collaborators to explain their attitude as regards the character and contents of their publication to those of their readers who might be inclined to criticize and to those who are inclined to help along. The QuartTERLy is still, as it has been for the last eight years, a labor of love, the subscription list having never been sufficient to pay for its publication, since the number of professional readers is still insufficient. The danger of a financial surplus has every time been met by increasing the amount of material or printed pages. Naturally, neither any of the collaborators nor of the contribu- tors are paid for their services, nor is it possible to launch out on more liberal use of illustrations, on account of insufficiency of funds. Moveover, the work of briefing and editing, proof- reading, distributing, etc., is done by men crowded with other work, hence, in the nature of the case, the work must be done hastily, errors may creep in or matters that should be taken care of are overlooked. But the Editor will always be glad to have such errors and oversights pointed out and corrected if possible. As regards the contents of the journal, the Editors can also see possibilities of expansion and improvement. Expansion is, to be sure, limited by finances and the time which is at the disposal of the Editors. As regards the character and quality of original contributions, _ the Editors have been careful not to be too critical. The Quar- TERLY was to furnish the opportunity of literary expression for the budding profession, a profession manned almost entirely by young men, the first graduate issuing from an American forest school only a decade ago; it was to stimulate and encourage literary effort among a class of busy men engaged as a rule in strenuous field work. Hence, it has been the policy to accept and print almost any contribution offered, and even to exercise as little as possible editorial revision. The Editors have rarely solicited articles but have relied mainly on voluntary contribu- tions. 576 Forestry Quarterly. The contents of the Quarterly, then, represent, not the best but the average of the literary accomplishments of the profes- sional men at the present time. There are to be found in it con- tributions of the highest professional value and such of merely ephemeral interest; there is a range of subjects from mere de- scriptive matter to highly philosophical dissertations, and every phase of a forester’s interest is represented, without an attempt on the part of the Editors to accentuate one phase more than an- other. It was thought desirable to acquaint our subscribers with the state of affairs and explain the attitude of the management, and to invite those who are interested in a raising of their profession to higher standard and are capable of doing so, not to “sit back,” but come forward with assistance, especially by contributions to the“original literature of the journal. Mr. Mell’s article printed in this issue, in which he tries to establish the possibility of utilizing the length of wood fiber to determine site quality, should not be allowed to go out without comment and a word of caution. We were glad to print it as a contribution to a new line of thought on a subject on which we are unfortunately still too ignorant, namely, the influence of site conditions on the quality of our crop. If Mr. Mell had reversed the position of his ques- tion in this way, namely, making fiber length a function instead of a criterion of site quality, we would have been more ready to accept his conclusions and to acknowledge their practical value. For such investigation the microscope has its indispensible use ; but we doubt very much whether a forester will ever turn these findings to practical account for ranging his forest into site classes. lL.ife is too short for such method! For such purposes the misroscore is too fine. The outward result of long fibers as expressed in vigorous height growth is all sufficient for such gross determination as is needful in the forester’s practice. Moreover, wood is such a variable material, there are such radical variations to be found in the same tree, due to variation of light conditions and seasons on the same site, that the sampling would even for a microscopist be an almost hopeless task. There are some minor points in the introductory remarks of the Comutent. 577 article which are open to question. The causes of differentiation in spring and summer wood, for instance, as far as we know, are as yet entirely in the realm of theory. Evidently ring-porous and diffuse-porous woods cannot, as the author seems to do, be treated as alike. Generalization from the behavior of one species or genus to species and genera of a different class of wood is, to say the least, dangerous. We would, however, encourage the author to proceed with his investigations with the suggested change of problem to be solved, when we predict fruitful results. In this connection the briefed article on another page of this issue regarding relation of quality to site may be of interest. Since the possible profits from long-time management of forest lands depend to a considerable extent upon the capitalized value of the land, the present agricultural boom in the South will have the effect of discouraging lumbermen in the use of their lands for permanent forest production. Throughout Florida and in parts of Georgia and South Carolina, the demand for cut-over forest land for agricultural purposes is very active, and the real estate people are reaping a veritable harvest from the thousands of home-seekers in this widely-advertised region where conditions are described as ideal. Real estate men have been making for- tunes by buying cut-over land at a low price and selling it to the settlers for two or three times the original cost; and the lumber- man who might have considered holding his cut-over land for such second growth as nature would provide, either with or with- out his help, is now looking towards the disposal of this land at the attractive prices offered. There is bound to be a reaction, for the most optimistic must admit that a large percentage of the cut- over land is not suitable for agriculture, and no doubt many of the settlers who are now going into the South will have cause to regret the activities of the real estate man who persuaded them that ten acres of sterile sand or clayey swamp would provide a home and fortune. In the meantime, however, many of the large holdings which should have been kept intact and devoted to forest production will have been broken up, and the opportunity for the practice of forestry on them lost. It is to be hoped that when the reaction does come, the timberland owners will better appreciate 578 l‘orestry Quarterly. the possibilities of timber production, and not be so easily per- suaded to dispose of their holdings. American Foresters, and particularly those in Federal employ, will do well to regularly read the Indian Forester. On account of the similarity of administrative problems many of the articles are particularly apropos. In the September number, under the title “Forest Divisions,” by Mr. F. A. Leete, a number of prob- lems in regard to permanent improvements, including “rest houses,” roads and firelines are briefly discussed. “There was a definite scheme of buildings, that all arrangements were made well ahead, while the artizans moved from place to place and wasted no time.’ Is it not equally essential that the Forest Ser- vice should go further than the annual improvement plan, but in- stead plan for work over a period of 5 or 10 years so far as vary- ing local conditions will allow? Mr. Hodgson’s notes on cleared firelines will be particularly applicable on some of the National Forests. Under “correspondence” a communication from Mr. E. M. Hodgson brings up “Fire Conservancy in Indian Forests.” It is the old problem of absolute fire protection in Burma as opposed to systematic burning. Since this seems to be a mooted question, would not Indian Foresters profit by arranging for very comprehensive experiments to determine systematically, which methods give the best teak reproduction ? Instructive reviews have been contributed on the progress re- ports of Forest administration in (1) The Central Provinces and Berar, 1908-09, (2) The Mysore State for 1908-09, (3) States Under the Bhopawar Agency, C. I., for 1908-09. A digest of these reviews shows (1) that in the haste to pre- pare working plans “ill-considered and unworkable schemes” have arisen. In speaking of the ideal working plan the reviewer states, the result should be a practical compromise between the wants of the people and the silvicultural requirements of the forest. Personal discussion, presumably on the spot, should dis- pose promptly and finally of difficulties which would otherwise have to be thrashed out later on at the expense of reams of paper and pints of ink.” During the year Central Provinces spent for roads, 3.8 rupees ($1.21) and for buildings 4.8 rupees ($1.54) per square mile. On the other hand in the United Provinces the Comment. 579 expenditure was 16.5 and 20.9 rupees respectively. Eighty per cent of the total area of forests remained open to grazing and on the grazed area averaged one animal to every 2.6 acres. Men- tion is made of damage from overgrazing and of the meager data on cultural operations. The net revenue was twenty-one per cent of the gross revenue and presumably included the cost of the satisfactory local forest school which was recently started. From the State of Mysore we learn that forty per cent of the net revenue was from the sale of standing trees. There seems to be a lack of suitable personnel in this administration, but efforts are being made to secure trained men from Dehra Dun, The work accomplished in the States under the Bhopawar Agency does not seem to be considered satisfactory to the re- viewer. No new working plans were sanctioned or prepared; little progress was made in the construction of roads; forest of- fences increased, and “No less than thirty-six per cent of specially protected areas was burnt over and fifty-seven and one-half per cent of generally protected areas.” Little artificial reproduction has been attempted. On the other hand the receipts amounted to 194,338 rupees ($621.88), expenditures 72,196 ($231.23), sur- plus around $40,000.00. The surplus is almost double the average for the period 1903 to 1907. From a financial standpoint the Federal Forest Administration in India seems to be immeasur- ably superior to that of the United States. A note entitled ““Turpentine Substitutes” speaks of manufactur- ing a pseudoturpentine from petroleum. TS. W., Jr. The heated discussion of forest influence on stream flow con- tinues with considerable acrimony but with little real addition of fact to substantiate or controvert the claims that have been made. This discussion will probably continue for a long time to come and the great need is for a thorough investigation extending over a period of years. One writer says, it would be well worth the expenditure to carry on measurements over several typical water- sheds, then completely deforest one or more of them, partially cut over others and leave still others undisturbed. Such an investi- gation would definitely settle most if not all of the disputed ques- tions here and abroad. It is quite questionable whether such a 580 Forestry Quarterly. drastic experiment would be practicable or even definitely settle anything. Meanwhile European investigators are busy gather- ing definite data as they naturally present themselves. Once more we beg to protest against the confusing of forestry with arboricultural operations with street trees. We refer to a recent article in a leading forestry periodical dealing with a city “forester’s” work. No doubt a man with a training in the sub- jects basic to the science of forestry is well equipped to care for trees in city parks and streets. But the education of the public as to what forestry really is seems to progress slowly enough without the circulation of articles which spread false conceptions of the art. a Same ae de _— ig ss uf : my Pax, on . | de 5 . SD Forestry quarterly if F77 ves Biological & Medical Sarial KHCrials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY - STORAGE