UNIV. OF ToRONTO LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/forestryquarterO9newy & 6 FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME IX PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A BOARD OF EDITORS With Ten Plates, Four Cuts and Four Diagrams CAMBRIDGE (BOSTON), MASS. 1911 a 6) re eons k Hi f; Yeh Ali iy \eeah BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief. Henry S. Graves, M. A., Forester, Forest Service. R. C. Bryant, F. E., Yale University. RicHArD TJ. FisHer, A. B., Harvard University. WALTER MuLForbD, F. E., University of Cornell. ERNEST A. STERLING, F. E., Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. FREDERICK DuNLApP, F. E.., Forest Service. FILIBERT Roru, B. S., University of Michigan. FRANK J. Pups, F. M., University of Nebraska. Hucu P. Baker, Pu. D., Pennsylvania State College. C. Di Hows: Ph. D., University of Toronto. RAPHAEL ZON, F. E., Forest Service. CrypE Leavitt, M. S. F., Forest Service. Asa S. Wiis, F. E. THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass. CONTENTS. Some Notes on Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) in Western Ontario), By L. M. Ellis. Comfortable Camps as a Means of Increasing the Efficiency of 2 Sods LSS rg 0 SRS AAR SN li Sa em erat ne na To By S. B. Detwiler. How Fascines are Made, By S. B. Detwiler. Grain and Texture in Wood, By Samuel J. Record. The Equipment and Operation of a German Seed-extracting Es- SPUD REPEATED ON ASE 7 Ue ba OP Re REE PE ORG Ee [Ca a Translation by Sidney L. Moore. Some Facts on Forestry Conditions in Sweden, By Max H. Foerster. The Swedish Forest Conservation Law, By B. E. Fernow. Fixation of the Dunes on the Coast of Jutland, By W. J. Morrill. Supervisors’ Meeting at San Francisco, Hoerestry and the Lumber Business, 2.0.2.0. 60000 ccccsccccceececes By. J. E. Rhodes, Secretary, Weyerhauser Lumber Company. New View Points in Silviculture, By Raphael Zon. The White Pines of Montana and Idaho—Their Distribution, Quality PECL: TUESESR thsi tac BRAISED By F. I. Rockwell. Seasonable Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees, By John F. Preston and Frank J. Phillips. Pith Flecks or Medullary Spots in Wood, By Samuel J. Record. Silvicultural Treatment of Abandoned Pastures in Southern New Ee Me ant ss Gea'e kus ee ce bidd v ale Ge eee SCRA Sua By Philip T. Coolidge. ee ae ie i ney ee a ey Ca Oe OC A MC ak ee RAE YS ip Sg ee ee By Lincoln Crowell. Supervisors’ Meetings at Boise, Idaho, and Ogden, Utah, ........ Peeeenreciition.or Lr. beinrich Mayr, .. 2). .is.6s ses ess cans teens By Hugh Potter Baker. Consumption of Basket Willows in the United States for 1908, .... By C. D. Mell. The Need of a Vigorous Policy of Encouraging Cutting on the Memenitals POLEStS, Olvthe PACINO COaSt, losin otters ccuesecas cures By Burt P. Kirkland. Paample of a German Working: Plan, ...... 2.0.0.0. 60cccesneecece: Translated by A. B. Recknagel. SERINE BISLCSE SME WEY, ae cisc's 6 a cictdla“e sia clidiecleiveeétinbeseqaneses By James W. Sewall. vi The Biltmore Stick and its Use on National Forests, ............ 406 By A. G. Jackson. A Method of Assessing Fire Damage in the Southwest, .......... 412 By Robert Rogers and Barrington Moore. Results of “Light Burning” near Nevada City, Cal., .............. 420 By M. D. Pratt. Nomenclature of Divisions of Area in Working Plans, ............ 425 By Barrington Moore. Report of Supervisors’ Meetings at Denver, Col., ................ 429 Frank J..Phillips—An Appreciation, 22.40.55 6005 cls ses vee seen 450 By J. C. Blumer. The Yale ‘Transplanting Board) \...0) 504.0.) c Oden gee 539 By J. W. Toumey. The: Rise of Silviculture, (05 0502 0.)5 dalece seek obee pene an eee 544 By Dr. Jentsch. Translated by Frederick Dunlap. Winter Reconnaissance in California, ! ssc 0.chscucwess veces een ' 557 By R. F. Hammatt. The “Hand-loggers” of - British Columbia, 0.25... sess eee 563 By Louis Margolin. Rotation of Cutting to Secure a Sustained Yield from the Crown Timber Lands: of British ‘Columbia,)'\...!... 0... 00.< 0) dn eleet eee 568 By Leonard S. Higgs. A Confusion of Technical Terms in the Study of Wood Structure, 575 By C. D. Mell. Report of Committee on Forest Fires, Canadian Forestry Associa- PIOUS © aie in sac eieid celal d oleye Cela ele aia ieee ele o lae OSTEO PIE ekaie oa rene 578 Canadian * Volume: Tables, 4. 3:<'s\s'sicte\ ofe-oieche fd gua aletorprecs ala ein tie ace 5890 By Ellwood Wilson. CURRENT: LITERATURE, 7 jvc ssc stot onte vee nner 75, 270) 454, 505 Other Current: Literatures’: i. sats cialelicies errs tee Neaialstate II5, 202, 470, 615 PERIODICAL ‘LITERATURE, \sa:¢ tenet sialon ha nena 124, 301, 476, 620 Botany and» Zoology, * hives wise valence eee 124, 301, 476, 620 Forest, Geography and Description, ........0-.:++x+0ssnaee 476 Mensuration, Finance and Management, .......... 129, 319, 495, 648 Politics and. Legislations \.'s.c.s.0 cess» dns isle dane sloln ae ene 3390, 644 Silviculture, Protection and Extension, ............ 125, 308, 481, 622 Soil, Water and Climate, oobi 52 sc. c.< vist ticles ciate ean 303, Statistics and ERIStOry, |. sind aie sv edels ae eee ataenen 157, 337, 506, 643 Utilization, Market aed Dechnolowy, 4. <.cpinioh sete 136, 333, 503, 642 Miscellaneous, «ics .ccanne ods caitane nc aee eaten 163, 344) 511 Roads. and Survey,. os. c.c0 sus os waco sno binmiciuns oiblh ois een 306 Other” Periodical Literature, 1...) cgi dtu dda eee 164, 346, 512, 645 NEWS AND: NOTES, cicbscece. ccotncoie saealetdae rete 168, 349, 514, 649 COMMENT, | sa's ie vie els ks bein ease gly v/8vnip 9.5, earn 185, 362, 527, 654 INDEX. Abies concolor, | i... .\i00enee 622 American Forestry Associa- Administration, IAmstiiag +... xin fOO ton, cc wake eae 578 “ dala 4 SOM 5°09 Andamans, refi, ) iste emi IZI vice, rev... 2 Appalachian, denudation, ref., 204 Africa, timbers., ref., ....... Arbor Day, ref., .......-+++- 297 PTAs SOEs: Viiv Giete's 0.9 60 00% 164, Tee Argentine, trees, ref., ...... 300 Allen, practical forestry., ref., 473 Arkansas., ref., nile Gale ents 123 American foresters’, proceed- se birds; -rets. hecss- 617 PRU RER 8 ov o.p ited oa'd wie 471, 617. Armillaria mellea, ref., ..... Aspect influencing soil mois- ture, Aspen, Weigle, rev., Associations, SE ROS np aeE 182, 183 qalS'® 616m 8.9 ce 662 68S FO Be eee ewan forest fires, 367 oh in Germany, 525 western, ...... 352 Australia, pines., ref., ....... 300 Austria, administration, ..... 160 BVA SEARISEICS) clu atc tis.' 0% are 338 i, LOMRATICT CAESAR ORE 644 Paves, H. P.,/article, ...'... 268 Pate OOSt TEL..8 2. «ier ois)oy.s.ei0 = 348 Bark beetles, new genus, .... 480 Bark-weevils, ref., ........ 116, 292 Rie Sahitya sd on: a's. 5 0 tei 153 Basket willow, ref., .......-- 347 Bavaria, forests, ref., ....... 648 . working plans, 327 PREECE Vavnicl ste rsiciaisiaiohsiersiere: ste 612 Belgium, exotics in, ref., 300 ve StAtiSKiES mM ususe oie 330 Bern State forests, ......... 510 Betula lenta, range, ref., 647 Bibliography, ref., Ba iare oe 473 dendr ology, GREVAN ces sti 609 s international, 653 Baltimore, forest school, 350 Biltmore Stick, mensuration, ATETCLe pk ena sictats so 406 - FADIES LETS, os 20-- 473 ESCEMIAEIDS. f fsieieipimiciore'e sess eve 2° 335 Bird migration, ref., ........ Tl7 Blueberry culture, rev., -.--. 281 Blue stain, lumber, ref., 512 Biumer, J. C., article, ...... 450 Bogs, cause, ......----++e+9: 481 Bookkeeping, woodlot, .....- 332 Borneo, trees, ref., .....---- 647 Botany, morphology and physiology, ref., ......-+--- 119 BRS aba oes sls a ace cee oe 154 fibre and wood, ref.,.. 470 BB RWOOG,, occisc cee ses es 180 British Columbia, h a n d -log- gers, ... 563 “ ‘6 lo gg in g, ref., 646 si a log rules, 361 ¥ * log scaling, Fetes. 3 648 3 < lumber camps, 142 4 * TOPOL) estas 75 5 . rotation c utting, article, . 568 Brush burning, ....... 179, 420, 435 Brussells’ Conference, ref.,... 167 Bud and twig key, ref., ..... 618 @ableways) (Uses sree feree wel e > 143 California, TEL is bee ae 122, 166 flora, oR a 298 ay Silvie TOWN sere) ae 95 rf southern, trees, ea LRA Bent eme IOI winter reconnais- sance, article, 557 Caliper, self-recording, ..... 495 Camps, comfortable, article,. 15 DEVAL 6 se cieem ms 142 Canada, TECiprocilys, ic). - =<. 186 ra experimental farms, Le DR Bites SAAS 123 - cross ties, rev., .. 285 5 forest products, 649 ne forest reserves, S24 < forest survey, ...307, 400; ref., 474 - Hudson Bay road conditions, ....... 468 o INSUrAances sea. sete 174 a Die, Tet. eee 166 = pilpweod, “A. 0 eve: 159 rs Rocky. Mountains, ... 175 fe statistics, 82, 85, 150, 235, 293, 299, 464, 465, Tels piencciisace 407, 512, 649 nf telegraph poles, ref., 209 Castilla, rubber plant, ref., 117 Cutalpax Tek, oa sseace <3 >=! 208 Cedar of Lebanon, ref., 513 6 Redes ee DOWIE 4.0 a5 a: <4 173 CVT d do) pee en ONCOL 469 “ use and enemies, ..... 149 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, . 62 Chapparal, California, rev., 458 Charcoal, manufacture, ....136, 141 Chestnut, bark disease, ref, 205 blight, commission, 353, 518 SS insects, rev-,......- 105 . SWeeis Tele) sie nes 513 ¢ MRCIGLTEN os nna cia betel 5 = 337 @hinass forester: pycieciersiesiane > 517 Clearing by fire... 2/522 2<4 179 Cocoanut palm, ref., ........ 117 Colorado, forest schools, 358 Conifers, ecology, ref., ...... 165 ra identification, fefs..\) 465 4 sprouting, ref., 512 Connecticut, Pete gentamac ts ales 119 forest work, 351 a8 insects, ref., 295 - report, ref., 472 Cornell forestry department,. 522 3 state forester, OE Aer RITE 605 Pusha tie II7 Ode rete seg tL 107 ¥ American, 516 S Commission, 183 “9 om mission, Canada, ...474, 523 is handbook, ref., 295 4 Sweden, article, 59 ik W ashington, TOL we elise 298 CootipcE, P. T., article, 253 Cooperage, statistics, ref., 203 Coppice, Management, ref., 616 uf vs. high forest, 501 Hi with standards, management, 641 OraSd fettay lt chaebol Gui BetR sul AW tere getie 180 CostaRica Tet. Hosein sees 165 Cost, growing timber, rev., .. 107 Ail yei Poy esen pol=e Me Rea a Rs SIN red 144 “producing lumber, 333 PEO VERIEEES Ol te iatoiel craig sietatats) = 156 Cottonwood. nieces oaecn TS7 Creosote, volatilization, rev., 604 CRowett, ‘Ls article: viiwaen 262 Cubavmaterials ineratianreunins 208 Cypress, by- -products, Se ia 360, 413 TISESH GREVig ten aievenite 469 Damage by fire, assessing, ar- a tel reSE eae Oe ye 412 = by gas, refs; i. ssiee 348 Damping off, ...........+.- 301, 492 Deerlodge Ranger). -ids ees n* 527 Deer raising, ref., .......... 117 Dendr ology, bibliography, FOV has ha hy mete nceinne: Pee 609 Density, measure, ......-+-- 497 ‘s and spreading, 125 Desert, plants, distribution, SENG) ree has eS eee rate 100 DETWILER, S. B., article, ..... 15, 18 Diameter and price, ....:..-- 133 Dibble, flew, ....0- tes scses 484 Diseases, fungous, rev., ....-- 07 Douglas Fir, Cline, rev., 460 SAMOS v0 Page: By ak gement, Pete Uy ce te 470 Dunes, fixation in Jutland, BPEL Gs, he's (pein ioiete einrsl ee wlaleime 62 Dun tap, F., article, transla- RATIONS siv'c Coren koa ons peeve 544 Durability, post timbers, rev., 291 ae ee 279 po SS Ee ee 167 # BSAVATIOS: casinos ed 345 & commercial, ..... 161 Electricity. seasoning, ref., 61 Exuis, L. M., TERRI ine Vane : Elm leaf beetle, ref., fare ithaca 619 Elms, European, rohan 646 Engineers’ field manual, ref., 118 Eucalyptus, ref.) iig ee 121 California, rev.». 03 a Florida, rev., ... 283 eg Hawaii, ref., 618 fs alee ties, 180 - asmania, ref., 300, 3 yield in Califor- sis nia, Urey. eee 105 Exotics, Belgium, ref., ..... 300 Germanys. /. Sootna 490, 622 Explosives, rei. 2. cameeeee 120 Fascines, articles: iis'ci ap eens 18 Farming In| fOGESLSH 17 fat eee 307 Felling machine, .......... 143, 520 Fernow, B. E., article, Bey 59 Fertility, plains area, ref., 203 Bertilization; (self, .¢..4seene 620 Fertilizer, ref. ali: GAN Ee ae 513 in forest produc- TION; Wisin eee cies 626 Bibre™ boxes, (2. ea pe oe 154 roo materials Shee biel 181 Finance, problems, ......... 134 Fir, Balsam, volume table, .. 593 “Douglas, Germany, 313 “Douglas, resistance to INISECES, \.' veiw aie laaieetee 314 Fire damage, assessing, ar- i article; 6... ee 412 “light burning, article, 420 ‘“‘ prevention, ref., ...... 615 Fisher, W. R., obituary, .... 184 Fisheries department, On- tario, Te; +... cccceeeeeem 299 Floods and grazing, ref., .... 614 Flooring, ‘refs. ...+.csyeameee 207 Foerster, M. H., article, .... 45 Fokienia, refi,’ .:. \:. see see 348 Food reserves, article, ...... 232 Forest conditions, ref., ...... 120 Forest farming, ....:.c8ess% 317 Forest fire association, Ore- eS, Oe 517 Forest fire association, Wis- COnSitl, ..s.ovnthsehaesene 517 Forest fire law, Oregon, ref.,. 618 “protection plans, fefis. avec 615 Forest fires, ....186, 367; ref., 164, 346, 347; rev., 90 “ “ae Canada, ref., 200, 512; rev., Canadian report, BUPICL Sy laste tales 578 : “conference, ref., 207 . SASS) cide hile ney eae 174 - “legislation, Can- AGAR PUR ic tain wats 524 is i epoeus alt 1O ms Washington, 516 * “new legislation, 52 = Noam « Caro- lina, ref., 206 % “Ontario, ref., 166 "4 Be UR MER RD asin ove 179 4 Fed aN LUE SUeTiy en eeu 92 “ “Washington as- sociation, ref-, 208 i “wardens, ref.,. 472 Forest influence, evaporation, ref., 2 \5b2 es on run-off, ref., 616 Forest influences, ref., ...... 647 Forest policy, Schenck, ref., 300 Forest products, Canada, 82, 85, 285, 209, 464, 465, 467 Forest products, consump- BROT at Se Te VS imac oe 5 ole 610 Forest products, U. S., ref. 470 Forest ranger, ref., ......... 645 Forest reservations, ........ 185 Forest reservations, Appa- tidal, tele stiier od ose 169; ref., 292 Forest reserves, ref., ....... 347 Forest reserves, contracts, MPESER MRC Sf SECU Acs sve) o's ck SU hoe 118 Forestry Association, Ameri- CTA OI Seas BO eee Ee 355 Forest school, Biltmore, .. 359 Forest schools, Se ae 161, 162, 182 cs ref., ..164, 472, 645 647 ih re Bavaria, 345 ss * Colorado, 358 a a Montana, 358 Forest survey, Canadian, ar- LIK SC GRE Phe eA RE 400 Forest waste, eRe ars hey 616 Misra faetors:, TAL... ....'ss.4< 347 ETS Coola ys yw ws 107 ee ASSOGIATIOUS y aeiciosas SII Fungi, parasitic, ref., ....... 207 Fustic wood, ref., .......... 270 Game market, ref., ......... 616 Game protection, ref., ...... 471 Germany, forest conditions, . 506 forestry associa- PAIS HSS EO ro ag 525 ¢ notes, ref., Se Ae 646 re value of hunting, 511 ix Grades, law. eo Neves ee Grading ‘tales i's 322 aas'. Grazing and floods, ref., Great Britain, ref., Carn, CUPEIO sce cites dd he see Gymnosporangium, rev., Gypsy moth, disease, ref., Hamnatt, R. F., article, : Harvard forestry club, ref., x Hawaii, report, ref., Hawthorns, LOL vivant Height measuring, ref., Hemlock rust, ref., Hesse, management, Betcha mse Hiccs, Leonard §., article, High ‘forest vs. coppice, . History, Cy Cs Alyn |S eetelle see alse wiaiele as of forestry, ref., ELUMIUGH Rene a. acts a oieci teres Hunting in Germany, Illinois, conditions, rev., .. ig TELS r Meco iis dot aan trees, ref., Impregnation, CESS: isas Poo atest Bisse Increment and moss, borer, new, mathematics, per cent. table, .. selection forest, trees, ref., of tree classes, value and quality, , forest service, ref., . lumbering, reports, woodlots, ref., Pnciariay mets ste ere ose Swieneport, refs Indian reservations, tion, ref., Insects, ref., cambium miners, ref., Canada, ref., Connecticut, ref., control, ref., damage, devastation, forest floor, injury, ref., introduction, ref., May beetle, pests, ref., spruce bud worm, . wood-boring, ref., Towa, conservation, ref., Treland, ref., “ 118, ee et ofeietole eis iele ss. ¢ oe regula- ee | se eee eee e eae abe em) a, a) eee tee eee ew ewe Alt hae an eee eens Pe ee 129, § Irrigation, Sagas Sisto eigte 122 Lumbering and forestry, ar- 4 AATOLs cee | 209 11 Co) CON er or el DR 195 COMDMRAS OT via cs 519 Jack Pine, article, .......... : Mahogany, ot PERSE oct ea a 152 Jackson, A. G., article, ..... 406 Columbian, ref., 615 Raper n ei gtr SoC 167 Maine commission, ref., .... 118 «" forest conditions, ... 365 insect devastation, soe ee UE SG SAE RS 354 Maple ‘syrup, rev., .....00ene 104 Cl caner imi 4 sk 70 Map making, ref... 1.0) 20.) 166 Jentscu, Dr., article, ...... 544 Marcorin, L., article, 2... 563 MOIR OIG LS ULM GA ouiaic eck 527 Maryland, forest work, .... 357 Juglandaceae, ref.. ......... 165 Massachusetts industries rev., 287 Juglans cathayensis, ref, ... 646 May beetle, combatting, ..... 128 Juniper seeds, germination, Mayr, appreciation, ........ 268 Ste Vegi itd ea Nhe re 646 |. Characterization, .... 362 Junipers, sprouting, ref., .... 512 silviculture, rev., .... 205 Jutland, dunes, article, ...... 62 iste C.D, ‘article; 2. Sse 271, 575 ensuration, Biltmore Stick, Kamtschatka, forests 476 article, 06 ; Cen teks oG articles ics bay pagkiee beeen 4 Kegs, PERT TET Sy Po om 154 Mensuration, CLTOESs | )s Saivicies 628 Kentucky, SS gg TEVis sss un eeS Ae ties, a Germany, ... .. 508 ; wood industry, Michigan, Forestry Associa- eT eo cahtiok a eulald 206 HOT Sie opus ee ee 182 KirkKLANpD, B. P., article, .... 375 Michigan, report, ref., ..... 207 ores ree. AC Waa athe 348 Minnesota, report, rev., .... 463 ci taxation, rei. 2).. pemee Labor, sonar article, .... pe", Masson, (fet) io: pee craeiaenene 12k: 128 ‘ aig Anbar pie aaa P 505 33 Ozark mountains, «National Forests, ... 505 TEV., sere eeeeee 110 Bakr: ihnglzie sSiakvole mation aR 178 Moles, life history, ...i.:v0: 124 Beatles pike ecccae nese a Montana, forest schools, .... 358 1 forest, ref., .... 34 Moore, B., article, .......... 425 planting, rev., ...... 611 'S: Tuaertitle, . ste 26 Soe tat aii aad ref., 295, 7 Moors}, /cause)\).../:c.tae see 481 ¢ y TCTs weeeeeeeeee 4 te cultivation; sacs 306 Spee pe a Ae Coa As 623 Morritt, W. J., article, ref.,. 62 egislation, forest fires, .... 352 Moss and increment, ....... 126 Light and shade plants, .... 476 “and soil humidity, ..... 480 Litt ae pn Deiat scr eis 455 Municipalities, forestry, ref., 166 itter and insects, .......... 479 Museum, woods and forestry, 182 Loans on forest property, .. 638 Lodgepole pine, ............ ISI Log Catnip,’ prices, ions, sande 176 Natal, tree growth, ref., 299 Logging, British Columbia, National, ee da felling poli- ey Ore ee ood ana 646 cy, articlé;, \%\.'2. disse cee 375 Bid). ise hand, ia seieh National forests, labor, ..... 505 Columbia, article, 563 ‘ planting, ......-. 350, 363 “camps, feeding, ... 334 forests, property Re le comfort, ve LGy LAS rights, ecocsccece 349 “ congress, rev., ..:. - - pare ne 182 e COB, Srna es neater 144 Parks, We wy oe cee 514 a % Tia machine, .... 520 Naval stores, light chipping, ROAM, | os oacievente Mane 146 TOV, a dip o s's vicina eee 606 SUT: CHDIC; <3, scarves area wie's 319 Newark, tree commission, “ Cumberland River, .... 133 PET hc. 608 “slides, dynamics, ....... 503. New England, pastures, ar- Loranthus, in India, ref., ... 646 tiCle; “ysis 7 vale Wee eee 253 Lumber, freight rates, ref., .. 618 New Hampshire, rt} Pa AL 123, 164 “ statistics, ref., ..... 203 association, 515 New Jersey forest fire legis- lation, forest laws, ref., forest park com- mission, rev., forest work, New York Conservation Com- mission, forests, ref., forest. work, nurseries, scaling, Nitrogen, ref., fixation, ref., pan North America, phytogeo- BEAD EV CVs) s 165 PrISSiay Statisties, 50 vs skies vty: 337 ad waste lands, ........ 339 Pulpwood, Canada, 159; rev., 85 e consumption, U. S., 1909, ref., 115 > and paper, ref., 347 4 StAlIstics. elaine aan 20S Quebec, Tees rethinks ,121 : convention, ref., 347 x square timber, ...... 147 Ouebrachos- se ssossanceencs 148 # IOS PINS ier eine 350 Railroad ties, ref., II5; rev., 285 SY concrete, ... 181, 360 ic ators cic smh AA 508 % a: specifications, 177 Railways, forest, ref., ..... 348 RECKNAGEL, A. B., article, EFAS ARON, ty eis be vee eta ok 301 Reconnaissance, winter, Cali- POTN ee Cas be cee weet eae 557 ReEcorpD, S. J., articles, ...:.. 22, 244 Red cedar, growing, ....... 173 Reforestation, ref., ......... 119 REVIEWS: Abrams, California trees,...I0OI Bates, windbreaks, ....... 509 Betts and Smith, eucalypts, 93 British Columbia Commis- SIONS sure sane tees 75 Bureau of chemistry, ma- ple-Sap, SYFUp; sais ne eee 104 Canada, forest fires, 1909, 80 forestry report, . 7 lumber, 1909, .. 82 , pulpwood, 1900, 85 Cline and Knapp, Douglas Big} HSES,) occa 460 Connecticut, State forester, 605 Coville, blueberry culture, 281 Crumley, post timbers, ... 2QI Dickson, conditions of Hudson Bay road, ..... 468 Duggar, fungous diseasés, 07 Forestry Branch, Canada, (370 ie Pet, eee ee hee 78 Forest service, U. S., for- BBW AOGUCESE to's ois car ae oe 610 xu Graves and Ziegler, wood- man’s handbook, fire protection, handling wood- lands; San memects “ Hall and “theall, Illinois’ CONdIHONS es: eee Bee Hall and Maxwell, com- mercial woods, n stream flow, Harshberger, North Ameri- Cani/SGEVey. o; .u.asce mee Hawes, state forester, 1910, Herty, light chipping, Huffel, Economie forestiére Indian Forester, 09, Jepson, silva of California, Kellogg and Ziegler, of growing timber, ..... Kempfer, preserving poles, cost Kern, Gymnosporangium, . MacMillan, Canada, cross LIES. Vc) ust ene Siisiesaneenars Transplanting board, Yale, article. cits cute steerer Transportation; |) i<.ssuneeete * cableways, 143, Trees, leaf key, ref., “ planting, ref., to plant, ref., Tsuga canadensis, ref., “heterophylla, eee eee jo) mb's an ere “ se eee eee "Pupelos: \) osis..3 cae eee Turpentine, limits, value, ... Turpentining, Gilmer’s sys- tem, Twisting, pines, ref., ........ United States, standing tim- ber, ref., Utilization, change of species, Valuation, Forests; sitsoc nee Wiirttemberg, Value and volume, relations, Vancouver, tet. ©... eeneree Vegetative cycles, .......... Venieersjncc. ck eee eee ER Statistics) Feiss sae Vermont;,..50 00 eee eee 1 forest management, TOL Cle dae Ane = forests,’ tet.) werk " report; \Lev., sieaniae Volume’ table; 9.32552 3.2 ecu * y Canadian, ar- ticle; "eee e 5 and felling results, a and value, relations, Wages, woods labor, ....... Wagon hubs, ....5 stajsear 181, Walnut burls;.. 2.7.2 eee Washington, LOLs fe apeeeee association, for- est fires, ref., ao conservation, ref., (J. ease Py + forest fire 1egis- lation; ‘svesee Waste lands; reéf.;\.. aeeeee e Prussia, fea ae Water, duty; ‘ref;- -saesecse and forests, + cheer i movement in trees, power, ref: ues ones “ee “ Cascades, ref., succulent plants, ref., sunnly in Great Ba- sin, ref., see eee eee West Virginia, report, ref., 206, 473 wood indus- try, ref., White Pine, blister rust, GOVE cts seed tests, ..... western, article, WWIERBECKE, article, ..:......% Willows, basket, article, .. 5; culture, ref., ref., AME Mpiia fale’ aia! .m; sip) mite Witson, ELLwoop, article, Windbreaks, ref., ......... Wind, soil movement, ref.,.. Wisconsin, POV ieee ate sears forest fire legisla- EL OMNE NS seven Sny et ve industries, rev., FIVERS LETS. sc ase taxation, ref., Wood alcohol production, “industries, Kentucky, rev., TOV ory jee Massachu- setts, rev., North Caro- lina, rev., Oregon, LOVE eae West Vir- ginia, ref., “e “ “ “ “ee 296 Wisconsin, DOV is nic /n'aje.c oe distillation, ref., Woodlot, bookkeeping, Woodlots, POE REEEIE) Woolbecker, ref, taming Wood, penetrability, rev., Woodpulp, Scandinavia, ref., r testing, ref., structure, terms, ar- TICLE ee ae texture and_ grain, BTCA stem ny tells Soe Woodworking machinery, Woods, commercial, ref., ... Working plans, Bavaria, German, ar- ticle, nomencla- ture, ar- ticle, World, resources, rev., .... Wirttemberg, forests, value, Wurzburg, forest ordinance, Wood, “ “cc “ee Yew, ape et Om Ie Me fae ee et) Cr Wick ga Te ey) Xvi JOURNALS BRIEFED. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales.— Allgemeine ung.— L’Alpe.— American Forestry.— American Lumberman.— Appalachia.— Forst- und Jagdzeit= Barrel and Box.— Botanical Gazette.— Bulletin of American Geographical Society.— Bulletin American Mining Engineers.— Bulletin of the New York Botani- cal Garden.— Bulletin de la Societe Dendrolo- gique de France.— Bulletin Societe forestiere de Franche—Comte et Belfort.— Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science.— Institute of Canadian Forestry Journal. Canada Lumberman and Wood- worker:— Centralblatt f. d- g. Forstwesen.— Cultura.— Experiment Station Record.— Forest Leaves.— Forstwissenschaftliches blatt.— Central- Gardeners’ Chronicle— Hardwood Record.— Indian Forester.— Journal of the Board of Agricul- ture.— Lumber Review.— Lumber Trade Journal.— Minnesota Forester.— Mississippi Valley Lumberman.— Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Landwirtschaft.— Nee York Lumber Trade Jour- nal.— Ohio Naturalist.— Philippine Journal of Science: Bo- ' tany.— Pomona College Journal of Econo- mic Botany.— Praktische Blatter fur Pflanzen- bau und Pflanzenschutz.— Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences.— Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters.— re and Paper Magazine of Can- ada.— Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian Mining Institute.— Quarterly Journal of Forestry.— Revue des Eaux et Forets.— Rhodora.— Rod and Gun.— Science.— Schweizerische Forstwesen.— Sierra Club Bulletin. Silva.— Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift. Southern Lumberman. Southwest. St. Louis Lumberman. Zeitschrift fur Timberman. > Timber Trades Journal.— Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. Woodcraft-— Wood Worker.— Zeitschrift wesen.— fur Forst- und Jagd- i? , ool ete ~ has. 4 eon a SS cans maar ~ oe ) eas A Detwiler. B. S. a. linnesot \ Ny ar} Be les asc Ite tand, 5 ick Pine J: ’ FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vou. IX.] MaRrcH, IQII. [No. I. SOME NOTES ON JACK PINE (Pinus divaricata) IN WESTERN ONTARIO.* By L. M. Eu.is. The Jack Pine —Pinus banksiana or divaricata—does not rank with White Pine, or Norway Pine, although it is a valuable species, and is becoming increasingly more so as the virgin supplies of the better kinds are becoming exhausted. The wood makes excellent railroad ties, and by its cheapness, a large supply being available, it has become the tie tree par excel- lence of Western Ontario. It grows chiefly on burnt-over areas—the extensive stands of it to be found in that part of the province are due, to a large extent, to past fires. This character of occupying brulé country it shares with aspen, with which it is frequently associated. These two trees are pioneers in that they are not components of the climax forest type of the region which is composed of a White Pine—hardwood—balsam association. As a lumber tree it is inferior, as it never attains a very large size, barely over 18 to 20 inch diameter. It furnishes knotty lum- ber; the wood is soft and weak. DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION. Its botanical range covers the great Laurentian region. It is found from Nova Scotia to the valley of the Athabasca River, and down the Mackenzie to about latitude 65° North, ranging south- *The writer has mainly relied on his own investigation in the field. He has also consulted notes furnished by H. R. McMillan in Bulletin 6, For- estry Branch, and a report on tie timber to the Northern Pacific R. R. Co. e Forestry Quarterly. ward to the coast of Maine and through the Northern States to Minnesota, common and of large size in the region north of Lake Superior. Along the southern limit of its range, for instance in Wiscon- sin, it remains a small tree, usually, less than 10” in diameter and below 60’ in height. It reaches its maximum development north and west of Lake Superior, west of Lake Winnipeg and north of the Saskatchewan River, where it frequently reaches a height of 85’ to go’ with a straight trunk, sometimes free of branches for 30 feet, but rarely exceeding 20” in diameter breast high. North of Lake Winnipeg it rapidly deteriorates into an inferior tree, seldom exceeding 8” in diameter and 50’ high. ‘The trees of larger diameter are normally infected with heart rot. In Western Ontario, and elsewhere, the Jack Pine occupies all the poorest sands where White Pine, Red Pine, or even aspen and birch no longer thrive. However, it can and does grow on the better soils, for instance on sandy loam. It never covers large areas in pure stand, but occurs in smaller stands of from five acres to several hundred acres in extent, wherever successive fires have swept over the country and have so reduced the humus contents of the soil that only the hardy Jack Pine can thrive. It is normally associated with aspen and White Birch on the burned over areas, and while in the earlier stages of its develop- ment it appears in pure stands, later owing to the open crown conditions, birch, balsam, spruce slowly creep in. In fact the presence of birch is always a sure indication of merchantable Jack Pine. On the ridges and exposed situations where the soil is shallow and poor (causing low water content), Black Spruce enters the mixture to a large extent. Typical Jack Pine forest has a characteristic vegetation of its own. Alnus viridis and several species of Vaccinium are more generally found here than elsewhere. The dry soil and maximum light conditions are inducements to the growth of these plants. Other shrubs common to the forests of this region are Mountain Ash, Sorbus americana; Mountain Maple, Acer spicatum; Hazel, Corylus americana. Under young stands of Jack Pine the ground cover is extremely sparse, but it increases when the stand becomes somewhat open Some Notes on Jack Pine. 3 or is mixed with birch. With density reduced to 60% to 80% a vigorous growth of herbaceous plants springs up, the most common being Cornus canadensis, Lycopodium—several species ; Aralia nudicaulis; Clintonia borealis; Pteris aqwilina; Lonicera canadensis; Gaultheria procumbens; Unifoliwm canadense ; Smilacina trifolia; Chiogenes hispidula; Coptis trifolia. Tue Forest. Jack Pine has adapted itself to many different sites and condi- tions, but in general it is distingushed from the other pines by its ease of reproduction and growth on sandy barren soils. It grows, however, under varied conditions of moisture, from the pure absolute muskeg with 70% to 80% water content to the bald rock ridges where 5% water content is sometimes high in the heat of the summer. However, it is only on the warm, granular, well drained, deep soils of the upland that the Jack Pine grows to the sizes necessary for tie-timber. “The optimum water content for its development varies from 10% to 20%.” Relatively dry coarse sand with comparatively small amount of humus are typical sites. Given certain natural conditions it is possible to foretell with fair accuracy the future forest cover of the region. Jack Pine and Aspen will inevitably reclothe the bald burn and make their appearance very soon after the fire has swept over the region, the Jack Pine seeking the higher and drier sandy soils, while the Aspen establishes itself on the richer loamy soils of the benches and bordering on lakes. By the agency of fire the field of Jack Pine is being extended throughout districts, where at one time White Pine reigned supreme. At least two principal types of Jack Pine forest may be distin- guished : Type 1:—Jack Pine in mixture with White Birch and Black Spruce on deep, well-drained soil, a mixture which produces the largest returns in sizes suitable for cross-ties. 4 Forestry Quarterly. TABLE No. 1. Composition on Site I. (Average of 11 Acres) Number of Trees Per Acre Diameter White Black Breast high Jack Pine Birch Aspen Spruce Balsam 4 inches 1.0 26.2 8 13.0 Si) oz Mase, 2A 7, ry, 2035 5 (eg Le 22.5 4.2 19.2 .25 7S ee 6.0 25.0 2.7 15.2 75 SSR 12.5 16.7 4.2 9.5 75 9 : 175 7.0 4.5 6.5 .50 TOU; 12.5 2.5 Sey, 2.5 .50 oh eee 12.2 D7 3.0 a> bel3 1 el rp. E:2 2.5 a7 625 re tt 11.0 5 In7, .02 .25 FA 6.0 Ay .25 Toe 5 .02 TOM 1.0 goo REY 93.0 128 27 oI 4 Per cent. ...... 27% 37% 8% 27% 1% Trees, 10 inches and over in diameter b. h. Total BaiO 59.0 11.6 6.4 1.50 Per cent. 42.0 44.0 8.4 4.6 1.0 The yield of Jack Pine in the diameters 10” and over in the above average is perhaps 25% higher than the average yield for the entire district. Type IJ: Jack Pine in mixture with Black Spruce, Balsam Fir and White Birch on scanty, impoverished, cold and poorly drained soils. All the higher hills, ridges, low lands bordering on muskegs are included in this site. In the Lac Seul country the largest part of the interior regions are occupied by this mixture. The Jack Pine here rarely reaches merchantable sizes, and never in such bodies as to make exploitation profitable. Some Notes on Jack Pine. 5 Pe) TABLE No. 2. Composition on Site II. (Average of I0 acres) Number of Trees Per Acre Diameter Jack Black Balsam, Breast high Pine Spruce Fir Larch Birch Aspen 4in. & under 8.2 124.4 44.1 8 20.8 4 ae 8.8 41.7 hee 1:4 4.3 6 Gy: 16.5 40.4 4 1.6 8.8 1.8 Fe 27.4 16.4 33 2.0 4.8 a tis 32.8 14.1 ue 1.4 1.5 1.9 g. 16.8 12.3 .2 6 4 ‘s TO 9.6 9.0 aS 2 aah 3.2 3.0 2 I 12 in. & under 1.6 al sie Wis Ae Memtalen.| cis: 125.4 235.3 47.4 Ria 40.6 4 Pen cent, |<. 27 50.4 ree sells 8.6 nes Trees 10 inches and over in diameter breast high. ‘Ulva eee 14.9 12.0 oO 6 Oo are Per cent. ...54.0 43.0 ) 2.0 fe) 1.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF JACK PINE. Form.—Jack Pine on well drained deep soils attains a height of 80 feet, and not uncommonly even 85 feet. In diameter breast high outside the bark 18 inches may be considered a maximum figure (12”—15” is the average natural size). Isolated speci- mens have been measured 22” d. b. h. and go’ high. Under normal forest conditions the crown is narrow and rather open, covering only the upper portion of the tree. Where it grows in the open the branching system is wide and spreading. The limbs pendulous and laden with cones, the whole resembling very closely a typical orchard apple tree. It is short and stunted and would be of use only for fuel when maturity is reached, between 85 and 100 years; but rot sets in at about 100 years, and the tree rapidly deteriorates to a useless condition. Peristency of branches is very characteristic, more so than in other pines. Even under dense crown cover the dead limbs remain on the tree. Knotty lumber results. However, the knots do not seriously affect the use of Jack Pine for ties. ‘Under average conditions, the clear height of the stem varies from 30% to 45% of the total length, depending on the age and situation. 6 Forestry Quarterly. Taper.—The taper of Jack Pine is not at all excessive. Exces- sive taper is always an indication of poor soil and difficult condi- tions of growth, while the full-boled tree is found only on deep loamy soil with optimum silvical surroundings. Other things being equal the taper is greater and more variable from the ground to diameter breast high, and in the top. For the mer- chantable portion of the tree for a length of 8 feet, the taper varies from .6 inches to 1.4 inches, with an average of 1 inch; (like most other Canadian species) while in the crown and butt it is much greater and ranges from 1 inch to 3 inches per unit length of 8 feet. TABLE No. 3. Taper of Logs. Basis 79 trees Diameter breast-high, Diameter inside bark at given height above ground. Outside bark Inches oft. s7ft.25ft 33ft anti. 49ft 577K WoC ye tae 5 4.9 3.6 1.6 3 6 5.9 4.8 BG: Teg 2 7 6.5 5.2 4.1 2 ‘2 8 7.5 6.5 Bi, 4.7 3.4 2.4 Ay D 9 8.6 7.8 6.9 6.1 Ga 3.0 Ti 5 4 10 9.5 8.2 785 6.6 5.8 4.1 2.6 Rr, II 10.2 9.5 BETA Whe 6.8 4.8 3.0 I.I 12 10.9 10.0 8.9 8.1 Wie 5.8 3.6 2.0 4 13 i ey, 11.0 10.1 at 8. 7.0 Rai a8 8 14 12.2 1L.3 10.6 9.5 8.4 7.4 Bey, BUF Lg 15 13.0 11.8 11.2 10.2 8.8 8.0 6.0 3.5 2.0 16 1347 12.8 il.2 10.7 9.4 8.4 6.4 4.0 2.2 Bark.—Jack Pine has a thin bark which is fissured into irregu- lar confluent rounded edges, with close scales of reddish color. It increases in thickness from that of fifteen inches on the sapling to that of six inches on the mature tree standing in the open. The percentage of bark as compared to that of the total volume of the tree varies but little. The average on 100 trees being found to be 11%. It might be expected that as the volume of the tree increases the bark percentage should decrease, but there is not more than 1% difference in the percentage amount on a if tree as compared with a 15” tree. Some Notes on Jack Pine. 7 SILVICULTURAL REQUIREMENTS. Soil and Moisture.—Although Jack Pine owing to its frugality, hardiness and fecundity, grows on a wide range or soils, it never- theless demands for its best development fairly deep sandy glacial till, such as is found on plateaux upland,—gently rising ground where the drainage is good, and the moisture not far beneath the surface. It grows still vigorously where hardwood, such as birch and aspen will no longer thrive, where successive fires burning off the loam and humus have created conditions unfavorable for their growth. Over wide stretches of Laurentian country where these condi- tions are present the Jack Pine holds the field. A mechanical analysis of typical pine soils made by the U. S. Forest Service shows how, under natural conditions, the Jack Pine seeks the coarser soils, although not necessarily confined to them. The following table shows the percentage of the species found on the different grades of soil. = = eS = = = = == = a) . BeOS Sn E : 3 Species Ss 3 aN Sue ? = x9 S = Sees Ss} = >5 SS =e en me Xe) x wz w Po ee pe ey ae Ss ic 0 = x, H S) White Pine 1.3% 6.8% 7.270 22.% 29.1% 7.6% Red Pine -4%o 3.7% 12.0% 62.47% 6.7% 2.8% Jack Pine 2.5% 34.2% 30.9% 13.9% 4.19% 3-7% It will be noted that coarse sand and medium sand comprise in a large degree the soils of the Laurentian country where Jack Pine reaches its best development. Hundreds of square miles of just such sandy land exist between Fort William and Kenora, deposited by glacial action, land which is stocked with sapling growth of Jack Pine—potential wealth, which would become actual, if the fires were kept out for 75 years. On the better soils Jack Pine in maturity averages 12 to 16 inches in diameter breast high outside the bark, and 75 to 82 feet high, producing 3 to 5.2 ties per tree; whereas in Type II, low flat, ridges, etc., Jack Pine is short, stunted, a low wide spreading 8 Forestry Quarterly. tree with excessive taper, and is very limby, never growing much more than 10 inches in diameter and 60 feet high, Compared with its associates it will withstand considerable drought and frost and it is altogether peculiarly adapted to thriy- ing under xerophytic conditions. Jack Pine is a comparatively deep rooted tree; where spruce and balsam fir are blown down by the hundreds, Jack Pine easily holds its own. The tendency under average conditions is to develop strong laterals, rather than tap root, thus securing maximum food materials and optimum moisture. These laterals ramify in all directions 12” to 24” beneath the surface. Up to ninety years of age wind has practically no effect on the tree, but as it becomes over-ripe and its vitality is reduced it is more susceptible to wind action, and much valuable timber blows down before it is noticeably deteriorated. Where there is excess of water content in the soil the roots of the Jack Pine are forced to grow closer to the surface, the windfall is more frequent, but as the species here never reaches an average size which would permit of harvesting for tie, or saw material, the increased damage due to windfall is of small import. Tolerance.—Jack Pine is most intolerant of shade at all ages. This intolerance accounts in part for its presence in pine islands during the younger stages, where, by the exclusion of quick grow- ing broad-leaved species, it secures the optimum amount of light necessary for its existence. For reproduction the optimum seemingly is sunlight. Under mature forest the average density is such that the light admitted is below the minimum necessary for the young tree, so that seed- ling growth is very rarely found under mature stands. During the seedling stage the Jack Pine can hold burned over land, provided it can secure complete possession of the ground from the beginning, but if the faster growing Aspen enters into competition with it, it quickly succumbs to the broad leaved tree. In later life the open symmetrical head of the Jack Pine admits the maximum amount of light to the growing crown. Owing to the inability of Jack Pine to endure even its own shade, in the transitional change it gives way to other trees which are capable of growing under less favorable light conditions, e. g. spruce, balsam, White Pine. Seed Production.—With the optimum amount of light, cones POLE GEE Whip ey a We ario. Ont ses, a reupine Port anu-Po ag Matt on ck Pine Plain a J a, Nebrask 140). p. IK F.@,, Vol, (see oO t=) fter planting O years a irk Pine Plantation in the Treeless Sand Hills, Holt County, c J éz Some Notes on Jack Pine. 9 appear at the early age of ten years, but in close stands they do not appear until 5 to 1o years later. This early fruiting partly explains the persistent re-appearance of the tree on areas which have been burnt over repeatedly within the last 60 years. Where the soil is deep and loamy, and other conditions are favorable, seed production is delayed, but the increased quality of the seed balances the later fruiting. The period of maximum seed production lies between the ages of 40 and 90 years. “At a rough approximation a normally developed tree, 15” diameter and go years old, would produce annually 300 to 500 cones, with 10 to 30 seeds per cone (the larger the cone the more the number of seeds per cone).” It will be seen that seed produc- tion from a mature Jack Pine forest would reach considerable proportions, but as there is practically no reproduction under the mature stand the seed produced counts for little unless the area is burnt over, when the viable seed is at once awakened into activity. Ten days after a fire had passed over the Clearwater country (Summer 1910) Jack Pine seedlings 1 to 2 inches high were growing (scores of thousands to the acre) over large portions of the district. During growing seasons of excessive dryness the production of seed is more abundant than at other times, but no definite alternation of seed years has been observed. Cones may persist on the branches from Io to 25 years, or even longer and are serotinous. It has been said that fire is the only medium by which cones release their seed, but this is certainly not entirely true, for a fair percentage of the cones open when still on the tree, to be sure, after several years; the cones becomes dry, contract, open and the seed is released. During dry summers many cones are opened when in a wet season they would remain closed. Soon after opening on the tree, limbs bearing cones may be broken off by the wind, or trees are blown over and squirrels, etc., bring cones to the ground. ‘Then the sun opens many cones, but a large percentage are never opened until expanded by sudden heat—by fire—when the seed falls on the fresh mineral soil to germinate-and restock the area. Germinating power of Jack Pine is high, namely, 60% to 75%, and it is retained for many years, provided the cone is sealed. The facility of reproduction after fires, and the inability of 10 Forestry Quarterly. reproduction under mature stands, means that Jack Pine forests can in nature only be secured by fire. This fact will be borne out by further investigation. Danger and Diseases.—Jack Pine is fairly resistant to fire. During early youth, however, up to 30 years of age, the thin, soft bark of the sapling offers no resistance to the forest fire, while the resinous foliage presents an ideal fuel for the flames. Sweeping fires receive a great impetus when pure Jack Pine stands are encountered, and it is here that the greatest damage is done. The adult tree is not as susceptible to damage by fire, the bark being thicker and firmer. Yet in an ordinary ground fire as much as 60% of the stand may be so weakened that the stock will eventually die, death being caused by the killing of the root system or either by insects. Jack Pine is one of our most hardy species, and rarely injured by frost even during the earliest stages of its development, and altogether it can adjust itself to extremes of temperature which are very common to its range of distribution. The normal healthy tree is practically free from insect attack of every kind. Rare instances have been noted where the leaders of sapling trees have been wounded, resulting in a resinous excre- scence interiorly on which a pupa was developing—‘presumably Retina comstockiana’’—beyond this case no insects have ever been observed attacking the healthy tree. The weakened, or fire-killed tree, however, is the subject of attack immediately after the fire 7. e. if during the summer by bark and wood destroying insects common to the region, e. g. genus Monohammus and Pissodes strobi. In two seasons after the attack, the wood will be so riddled as to be useless for lumber, although not damaged so seriously as to prevent its use for tie purposes. Porcupines seem to have a particular liking for the bark from trees 10 to 14 inches in diameter, and, although the damage is not widespread, individual cases have been seen where as many as 18 trees on a quarter acre have been girdled by a band one foot high around the stem, with all the enclosed bark eaten clean away. Some Notes on Jack Pine. II RATE OF GRowTH. Comparing the following figures and tables derived from studies in Western Ontario with those obtained for Jack Pine for other regions, e. g. Minnesota, and northern Saskatchewan, it is found that relatively the pine of the district compares most favorably with them all, and indeed outstrips the growth in Minnesota, while the Pine of the Lac Seul region is a much inferior tree. It may be said that nowhere else does the Jack Pine reach better development than in the district studied. Seedlings grow very little during the first five years of its existence while it is establishing a firm root system needed to compete with the ever thirsty aspen and birch. On well drained soils the sapling soon shows its quick response to favorable con- ditions of soil and light, so that by the first decade it is 8 feet high. The annual growth after the establishment of the root system is from I to 1.5 feet. This rate holds fairly uniform for about 40 years, after which it steadily decreases, falling to an imper- ceptible amount at 100 years. Height of growth is a very good indication of soil conditions, for while on fertile soils the mature tree reaches 80 feet to 86 feet, on poor, wet, cold soils a mature height growth of 60 feet is very good. TABLE No. 4. Height Growth on Average Soil Conditions. Basis: 100 trees Age Height Age Height 5 years 1.5 feet 60 years 64 feet 10 a 8 “ 65 és 61 ‘“ 15 oe 17 “ec 70 ae 70 ia) 20 oe 28 , 75 ae 72 “oe 25 is 36 ‘ “a 74 . ga ° 42 “s Boa Bayes Be bh. « Raia oo Tei. 40 * A 2 es Age. * 54 ‘ ss ae 80 Oyen. 58 % LOGE Bret 55) wi 61 4 PIO} 14 S15 The following tables of diameter growth are based on a com- plete stem analysis of one hundred trees taken under fairly aver- age and normal conditions of growth. 12 Forestry Quarterly. The greatest growth seems between the ages of 10 and 20 years. During early youth, because of the density of the stand, the growth goes into height, but once the competiton for light is lessened, volume and diameter growth become more prominent. From the 40 to 70 years the progress is uniform at nearly 1.5 inch per decade. Then it slowly declines, and at about go years, the diameter accretion is practically at a standstill. TABLE No. 5. Diameter Growth. (Basis: 100 trees) Age Diameter breast high Age Diameter breast high 5 years 60 years 11.7 inches LOnne: .8 inches Olin: TS Anny ES 2.0 7ho) abc TRO es 20 “ 4.0 “ 75 “ 13.5 “ Nae bi Bats SO TA: 07%) = ach 7 a ae Be iii 14.5 e Beatie SAL sen: Gon es 14.9 © Agus Si SE a OS) pee 15.2 AS Rs CaN Oe 100m TO SO.) 4: TONS) LOB Ria: epee Ru Bek ks II.0 TE 10.2 TABLE No. 6. Time Required to Increase Diameter one inch, under Average Conditions. Time required to grow Diameter breast high Age one inch Inch Years Years I II II 2 15 4 3 18 3 4 20 2 5 22 2 6 25 3 7 29 4 8 34 5 9 41 7 10 48 7 II 55 7 I2 62 7 13 70 8 14 80 10 15 gl II a mal ° N — n Some Notes on Jack Pine. 13 TABLE No. 7. Volume Growth (exclusive of bark) under Average Soil Condi- tions. Basis: 100 trees. Diameter Total volume Diameter T otal volume Breast high of Stem. Breast high of Stem. 2 .26 9 13.10 3 .70 10 16.90 4 1.50 II 21.26 5 2.54 12 25.75 6 4.15 13 30.40 7 6.30 14 35.20 8 9.30 15 39.80 16 42.90 17 44.50 TABLE No. 8. Rate of Growth in Volume. Annual rate Increase invol. of increase in (ORM o EN a & Age Vol. per inch of D. B. H. volume Inches Years Cu. ft. Per cent. Per cent. 7 29 6.3 48 9 8 34 9.3 4I 6 9 41 13.1 20 4 Io 48 16.9 25 3 II 55 ores 18 FN 12 62 25.75 18 2 13 70 30.40 13 1.3 14 80 35.20 13 an 15 OI 39.80 8 5 16 107 42.90 4 TABLE No. 9. Yield of Ties on average soil conditions. Based on Actual Measurement. Vield of Ties Diameter No.1Tie No.2 Tie Cull Tie Total breast high Age O67" 28 6" £6" «8 57 45" *8' All kinds 9 41 1.0 10 48 8 3 1.9 II 55 3 2.0 1.0 3.3 12 62 1:2 1.8 8 3.8 13 70 2.2 1.5 8 4.5 14 80 3:2 K5 -4 5.1 15 QI 3.8 r3 i 5.4 16 107 4.0 1.2 2 5.4 14 forestry Quarterly. It will be seen that for a 15” d. b. h. the yield is greatest and it suggests that a rotation based on value increment should not exceed go years, for after the age of 90 years the volume incre- ment and in this case that means also value increment is practi- cally at a standstill. Cut to a diameter limit of 10 inches, measurements of 30 sample plots on poor rocky soil and open stand developed not more than 18 ties to the acre. But mature stands on good, well drained soils produced in an average of 50 sample areas, taken over several thousand acres, 150.5 ties, of which 17 per cent. No. 1; 43 per cent. No. 2, and 4o per cent. culls—a yield, which by proper silvicultural management could probably be increased by at least 25 per cent. COMFORTABLE CAMPS AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF WOODS LABOR. By S, B. DETWILER. Any reduction in the cost of lumber production tends to hasten the application of better methods of forest management. Improvement in machinery has progressed much more rapidly than increased efficiency in hand labor. Sixty to eighty per cent. of the cost of lumber is money paid for manual labor according to Captain J. B. White, of Missouri. At the mill there is a better opportunity to apply labor saving methods than in the woods and the larger mills, at least, are fairly well organized, yet much remains still to be done. One of the largest mills in Minnesota was recently rearranged, and as a result the cost was reduced from $3.80 to $1.90 per M. An Arkansas firm is said to save $1.50 per M. by an improved system of transportation and piling in the yard; five men do the work which formerly required thirteen. In the woods the logging boss reigns supreme and resents any innovation as a reflection on his ability or as a useless fad. He depends on close supervision and the loyalty of his men to keep down costs. High wages, increased cost of supplies and a poorer class of men are causing lumbermen to turn their attention to a more systematic management of the woods work. One firm investigated the loss ‘from poorly laid out ice roads and engaged an engineer to locate the roads at all their camps, with very satis- factory results. A Michigan operator is using an efficient cost- keeping system which shows the work performed by the various crews, and the total cost of each operation. In Wisconsin, a camp with accommodations for men and horses has been built on car trucks, in order that the men might save time in going to their work. Piece labor is advocated by some as a method of cheapen- ing woods operations, and in many cases, undoubtedly, it will prove practical, especially where only one class of material is gotten out, such as ties, cordwood or pulpwood. Any method which conserves the energy of the men and systematically organizes their work, is of value, but no system 16 Forestry Quarterly. will succeed unless the human factor in labor is recognized and the utmost advantage taken of it. Camp bosses recognize the value of good fellowship, strict discipline and bounteous feeding, and they are not slow to take advantage of benefit derived from competition between individuals and crews. Nearly every fore- man has his own methods of holding his men, and frequently it is his personality and his ability to enforce his commands that are his greatest asset. The environment of a camp is seldom con- ducive to the greatest efficiency of labor, especially near towns. Alcoholic liquors, improper diet, poor ventilation, and lack of amusement are all factors which must be reckoned with in nearly every camp. Also, the lumberjack of the early days has been largely replaced by less intelligent foreigners, and it is becoming more and more difficult to hold men of the desirable class. As forestry practices are adopted by loggers it will become more necessary to have crews of trained and intelligent workmen, and this class of men must be attracted by something more than mere wages. Men of this class must either be furnished with homes, or with comforts in camp that will in some degree compensate for the lack of home life. A great army of men who are down and out through dissipation, drift from camp to camp. It is impos- sible to estimate the loss from this cause, but there is little doubt that much of it would be avoided if these men were placed under conditions where they could regain their self-respect and bodily vigor. A lumber company operating on the Mississippi river in Minnesota and Wisconsin has a camp which was built with a view of supplying more than ordinary comforts. The fact that the timber is situated along a navigable stream made it possible to use a floating camp, and the necessity of frequently changing the base of operations made it economical to use a camp that was easily moved. A two-deck excursion barge, 24 by 120 feet, is fitted with a steam heating plant, incandescent gasoline lamps, and a pressure tank for water supply. The upper floor is equip- ped with double-decked spring bunks and mattresses. The for- ward portion of this floor is reserved for a reading room, and contains tables for writing. A wash-sink, bathtub and a stove to dry clothes in wet weather are also provided. The lower floor consists of a kitchen and dining room, with modern conveniences, and with ample storage room for supplies. A small room for the 1. Floating Lumber Camp, capable of accommodating 90 men. 2. Kitchen and Dining Room, Floating Camp. j. Wash Room, Floating Camp. Increasing Efficiency of Wood Labor. 17 accommodation of the cooks, and a store and office combined are also on this floor. Numerous windows and a half dozen venti- lators give an abundance of air and light. Hardwood floors and painted wood work make it easy to keep the quarters clean, and the camp was inspected and fumigated by a physician at least once in two weeks, when a large crew was employed. The camp will accommodate go men. The original cost of the barge was about thrice that of the ordinary tar paper camp, and the equipment about a thousand dollars more than the usual furnishings. Since the camp is good for twelve or fifteen years, or more, the outlay is not excessive, while the comfort and cleanliness of the “hotel” holds the men, and makes them more self respecting. The camp has been in use only one year, so that the ultimate results are unknown, but the experiment shows promise of great possibilities in the conser- vation of labor. Most camps cannot be fitted up in the style of this camp because they are not permanent. If the problem were studied, however, much could be done to improve them. A small board and tar paper camp was built in sections, 10 and 12 feet long, and fastened with bolts so that it could be quickly taken down and transported. The cost was increased about 50% (mostly for labor), but made the building many times more valuable. Camps of this kind would not only save money, but could be made to add much to the comfort of the men. HOW FASCINES ARE MADE. By S. B. DEetTwIter. The improvement of our rivers for navigation affords an excellent, though very limited opportunity for forest manage- ment. ‘The dams and shore protections which confine the currents and keep the channel scoured, are constructed of bundles of brush (fascines) weighted with rock. Along rivers where improvements are being carried on, the forester can make the cleaning and thinning of young stands profitable. Since this is usually difficult to accomplish, a description of fascine making on the upper Mississippi river may be of interest. The brush used on the upper river (St. Paul to mouth of Missouri river) from the beginning of improvement work in 1878, to June 30, 1910, totals slightly over 8,000,000 cubic yards, about one-fifth being used in shore protections, one-twentieth in repairs, and the remainder in constructing dams. About four and one- third cubic yards of brush are required per lineal foot of dam. Approximately 200 miles of shore protections and 225 miles of dams have been built on the upper river. The specifications of the U. S. Engineer’s office for brush are as follows: ‘“Fascines shall be made of live brush, sufficiently trimmed and choked to form a compact mass, 20 feet long and 12 to 15 inches in diameter, and tied with bands of lath yarn or wire not more than 4 feet apart.” Bundles down to 10 inches in diameter are usually accepted but they must hold out in length, although any length in excess of 20 feet is not paid for. Brush cut for fascines may be 4 inches in diameter at the butt, although 3 inches is usually the limit. The species are seldom named, although the willow is preferred because the bundles pack better. In constructing the dams the fascines are closely packed into mats, 12 feet or over in length, held together by three or more pairs of binding poles which are secured by ties of lath yarn or wire. Poles must be 20 feet long, 3 inches or over at the butt, and are piled and paid for the same as brush. The mats are loaded with rock according to specifications, and sunk, the butts of the bundles being down stream. The shore revetments (“rip-rap’”) How Fascines Are Made. 19 are more frequently built entirely of rock above low water line, but mats are used for a foundation under water. On the lower river the mats are elaborately constructed. The prices paid for brush are usually from 17 to 19 cents per cubic yard, the range being 12 to 26 cents. In 1910, in the first division, the contract for 60,000 cubic yards, loaded on the barge, was let at 22 cents per yard. The successful bidder sublet con- tracts at 90 cents per cord (about 18 cents per cubic yard). This price was the highest paid in over Io years, on account of the high price of labor, scarcity of brush and the extremely low water. Although summer cut brush is much preferred because it packs better, it was decided to get out winter brush in Division I, in 1911. The contract calls for 70,000 cubic yards at 17.9 cents per yard, 60 per cent. of which must be banked this winter. The contractor will get most of this brush from the tops of trees cut for logs and cordwood. The government owns hundreds of acres of low islands in the Mississippi river, which are reserved for the production of brush for river improvement. Willows (Salix nigra, and sandbar willows of the fluviatilis type) are the principal species on these “towheads” and form dense stands. The contractor does not have to pay stumpage for this brush, but can cut it at his own discretion. The brush is cut clean and the stumps low, and in five or six years the sprouts can again be profitably cut. The maxi- mum yield per acre from a fully stocked stand of willow where the trees run 2” to 4” in diameter at the butt, is about 1,500 cubic yards. The War Department tried some experimental willow plantations on over-flow lands near St. Louis, but without success. However, observations seem to show that the higher portions of the towheads may be completely seeded to willow if the proper measures are taken. The brush cutter prefers to cut willow because it is lighter and more convenient to handle, and consequently more profit in it. Where, however, willow is scarce they go to the higher bottoms for other species. This land is usually owned by private indi- viduals, who charge I or 2 cents per cubic yard for stumpage where cutting is unrestricted. The professional brush cutter often has a good idea of the principles of thinning, and stands which are excellent examples of such cutting, and which show greatly increased growth, are to be found in many places on the 20 Forestry Quarterly. river. This has led many owners to permit responsible contrac- tors to thin young stands of maple, ash, elm, birch, etc., free of charge. The brush men trim the live side branches to pack in the top of the bundle to make it hold its diameter, hence the appear- ance of the stand after thinning is very pleasing. Trees in the open are frequently trimmed to the top; one such tree, a birch about 20 years old, furnished 19 bundles of brush from its side branches. An experienced brush cutter covers the tract systematically, beginning near the banking ground and cutting successive strips. The brush is placed in wind-rows, in piles of sufficient size for a bundle. These piles are allowed to dry for three days to a week and are then tied. In tying, the brush is first lifted onto a rack about 16 feet long made after the fashion of a sawhorse. Some- times three short racks are used instead of having them joined into a long one. The work is greatly facilitated if the ends of the cross sticks on which the bundle rests are long and slightly curved downward, since this prevents the brush from catching while it is being tied. Two men work together in tying. The brush is compressed by the use of two wooden arms about 3 feet jong, which are connected by a rope 18 inches long, tied about 3 inches from the lower end of the sticks. One arm is passed beneath the bundle and then back over the top so that the rope forms a loop around the bundle. By pressing down on the arms, using the 3 inches at the lower end as a fulcrum, the bundle is choked tight. One arm is fastened under the cross piece of the rack, leaving a man free to tie the brush. Strings are usually cut 52 inches long, and double strings are frequently used on the first two ties to prevent the bundles from loosening during handling. Lath yarn is preferred to wire because, though more expensive, it saves time and does not hurt the fingers. After tying, the bundles are carried into convenient piles with the butts placed in one direction. They are then loaded on wagons with special racks which are made so that the brush may be tipped off without handling. Three men work together in loading (a driver and two loaders). The brush is dumped on the bank of the river or a slough and is then carried on the barges. A barge will hold 2bout 400 cubic yards, and this quantity can be loaded by six men in half day, under average conditions. The bundles are piled A. Interior of 18 year-old stand of River Birch prior to thinning. Mississippi River Bottoms, Wisconsin. B. Thinning 18 year-old stand of River Birch for fascines and cordwood. Mississippi River Bottoms, Wisconsin. How Fascines Are Made. 21 evenly 5 to 6 feet high, and the brush is measured when it is delivered at the works. A crew of 6 or 7 men work together to best advantage in cutting brush. Figures of average cost of making willow fascines were obtained in Ig10 at several camps where the best work was being done. The cost will vary with the men and the wage, the character of the brush and its location, and the stage of water. In high water for instance, the ground is too soft for teams, and the brush must be carried directly to the barge, but the barge can then be placed to better advantage. Average Cost of Fascines per Cubic Yard Cutting, 1 man at $2.00 cuts and piles 80 cu. yd. per day, $0.025 Tieing, 2 men at $2.00 ea. tie and pile 100 cu. yd. per day, 0.040 Hauling, 3 men and team at $2.00 ea., bank 400 cu. yd., per day, 0.020 Leading, 6 men at $2.00 ea. load 400 cu. yd., in % day, 0.015 Lath Yarn, per cubic yard, 0.010 Total cost per cubic yard, exclusive of stumpage, $0.1 10 Eleven cents per cubic yard may be taken as the average cost _ where the wages are about $2.00 per day, and all the conditions are favorable. At this figure the average haul should not exceed three-eighths of a mile, or possibly a half-mile. Under exception- ally favorable conditions the cost may not exceed 7 or 8 cents. Under unfavorable conditions the cost may easily run 15 to 18 cents per yard. Accordingly, the returns per acre may be very low or may run as high as $150.00 to $200.00. GRAIN AND TEXTURE IN WOOD. By SAMUvEL J. REcorp. Much confusion exists not only in the popular conception but also in the minds of professional men and authors regarding the proper use and meaning of the terms ‘grain’ and ‘texture’ as applied to wood. Many writers use the terms interchangeably and without defining them. Others who attempt definitions fail consistently to agree, as will appear from the following excerpts. Boulger' explains his use of the term ‘grain’ thus: “The elements of the wood are generally parallel in direction to the axis of the stem or limb in which they occur—i. e. the wood is straight grained; but they may be spirally twisted round the stem, or oblique, in which latter case if successive layers lie in the opposite directions the wood is cross grammed. A slightly wavy longitudinal course in the elements of the wood produces the condition known as curly grain, frequent in maple; whilst slight projections or depressions repeated on the outer surface of successive annual layers produce the bird’s-eye and landscape varieties in the same wood.” It appears from this statement that the arrangement of the wood elements determines grain. Laslett? refers to grain as ‘“‘the lines and planes of structure.” Again he says: “Grain—a term it is not easy to define, but which refers to the kind of surface—rough, smooth, coarse or fine—left after the action of a tool.” This coneeption agrees fairly with that of Boulger, that grain is concerned with the arrangement of the wood elements. Baterden® in his recent work defines a specific use of the term: “Wood is called ‘coarse grained’ or of ‘bigger bait’ if the annual rings are wide apart, and ‘fine grained’ if they are close.” ; “Wood” by Boulger, second edition, pp. 32-33. “Timber and Timber Trees” by Laslett, page 4. *“Timber” by J. R. Baterden, page II. Grain and Texture in Wood. 23 The Century Dictionary is authority for this definition: “Grain is the substance of wood as modified by the quality, direction or arrangement of its fibers.” This embraces the conception of the writers quoted but intro- dues a new attribute, viz the quality of the wood elements. In only one publication* so far issued from the Government Forest Service is a definition of grain attempted. From a page of discussion is quoted the following: “The terms ‘fine-grained’, ‘coarse-grained’, ‘straight- grained’ and ‘cross-grained’ are frequently applied in woodworking. In common usage, wood is ‘coarse- grained’ if the annual rings are wide, ‘fine-grained’ if they are narrow; in the finer wood industries a ‘fine-grained’ wood is capable of high polish while a ‘coarse-grained’ wood is not, so that in the latter case the distinction depends chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an acci- dental case of slow or rapid growth.” In order to ascertain the conception of the term ‘grain’ now held by members of the U. S. Forest Service, expert in wood, the writer obtained from them memoranda from which two excerpts follow: ““Grain’ is properly used to designate the structural composition of wood resulting from the character and the association of its component elements within the annual or other periodic layers of growth. It follows that differ- ences in the thickness of the layers of growth do not affect grain and that characteristic differences of grain are due, solely, to the arrangement, direction, size, and form of the elements of the wood.” “Grain designates the structural composition of wood, resulting from the form, size, arrangement, and direction of its component elements of fibers and vessels. Accord- ing to this usage, grain takes account only of the assem- bling of the different elements within the layers of annual growth. * * * If the fibers and vessels which make up the wood are small, the wood is considered fine grained ; if relatively large, it is coarse grained.” This amplifies the definition of the Century Dictionary but introduces a new phase, viz: That the width of rings or layers of *“Timber,’ Bulletin 10, Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., pp. 21-23. 24 Forestry Quarterly. growth never have direct bearing upon ‘grain.’ This is so opposed to the popular conception that it can only serve to increase confusion without gain in exactness of expression. Stone® considers ‘grain’ in reference only to the size of the wood elements without reference to their arrangement or direc- tion. “A plank may be ‘fine grained’ in one part and ’coarse grained’ in another, whereas if the plank is cut from the outside of the tree (tangentially), the grain or size of the pores and cells may be uniform throughout.”’ Although the term ‘texture’ is frequently used in describing woods, few writers attempt definitions of it, while many use it as a synonym in part for ‘grain’. Gayer ® says: “The texture of planed wood depends upon its anatomi- cal structure, on the arrangement of its fibres and the direction in which it has been sawn. * * * Wood is said to be even-grained when it possesses fine medullary rays, and not only equal annual zones, but narrow summer zones, as in slow-growing sessile oak, spruce or silver fir. Wood is also even-grained in the case of many fruit trees, with evenly distributed pores (pear, apple, service tree, <2) (te aR na ages “Fine-textured woods are those which show freedom from knots, fine or even grain, fine waviness, or other marks. As a rule dense broad-leaved species are more finely textured than porous woods, and more easily polished. Coarse-textured woods are coarse-fibred, light, porous woods, those with considerable difference between the spring- and summer-wood, and knotty wood.” The lack of harmony in the above cited usages of the terms ‘grain’ and ‘texture’ is due for the most part to their attempt to embrace too wide a field. Wood is a complex structure composed of definite elements with infinitely variable arrangement. Almost without exception, authorities agree that arrangement or direc- tion of these wood elements affects ‘grain’. Disagreement and confusion results when size, form, and character of these elements are included. It remained for Prof. J. W. Toumey, of the Yale Forest School, to suggest a practical way of overcoming these difficulties. He °“The Timbers of Commerce” by Stone, Introduction page xiv. *Schlich’s Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, pp. 60-61. Grain and Texture in Wood. 25 considers ‘grain’ as referring wholly to the arrangement or di- rection of the wood elements, and employs the term ‘texture’ when referring to the size, quality or fineness of these elements as affecting the structural character of the wood. He further holds that neither term has specific meaning without the use of some qualifying adjective as ‘fine,’ ‘coarse,’ ‘uniform,’ etc. It ap- pears to the writer that this use of terms brings order out of con- fusion, and best of all coincides in very large measure with the popular conception and usage of the terms. Some of the adjectives used to give ‘grain’ specific meaning are: coarse, fine, even, uneven, rough, smooth, straight, cross, spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, landscape, bird’s-eye, gnarly, and silver. All of these terms refer to certain arrangements of the wood elements and several of them are dependent on the lay- ers of growth. For example, ‘coarse grain’ means wide growth rings; ‘uneven grain,’ irregular growth, etc. ‘Straight grain’ as applied to a tree occurs where the wood elements are parallel to the axis of growth: as respects a board, when the radial and tangential planes of structure are parallel to its length. Sawn boards are often cross-grained even when cut from straight-grained logs, while straight-grained sticks may be split from a spiral-grained tree. The most common attributes of texture are coarseness and fineness, evenness and unevenness. Coarse-textured woods have many large elements or the average size is large as in Castanea (Chestnut). Even or uniform texture applies to woods exhibit- ing little variation in the size of the elements as in Juniperus vir- ‘gumana (Red Cedar). Following are instances of the use of both terms in describ- ing woods: Pinus strobus (White Pine), medium texture and grain; Pinus taeda (Loblolly Pine), medium texture and coarse grain; Sequoia sempervirens (Redwood), coarse texture and fine grain; Pinus edulis (Nut Pine), fine texture and grain. In summary, the writer contends that ‘grain’ should be em- ployed in referring to the arrangement or direction ot the ele- ments of woody structure, while texture should refer to the rela- tive size, fineness or quality of these elements. THE EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF A GERMAN SEED-EXTRACTING ESTABLISHMENT.* By ForstMEISTER WIEBECKE. TRANSLATION BY SYDNEY L. Moore. Among the problems that confront the practicing forester to- day, whether in private, state, or federal service, is the import- ant one of securing a large annual supply of seed of the desirable coniferous species for his reforestation work. Extensive refor- estation has been initiated within the last few years by several corporations and states. ‘The federal Forest Service in particu- lar has within the last two years increased very largely the amount of such work upon National Forests. The natural con- sequence of this activity has been a tremendous increase in the cemand for forest tree seed. In the case of coniferous species, large quantities of seed have been imported from Germany because of the lack of a sufficient supply of native seed. This lack of native seed is due to the fact that the forest tree seed business has not yet been developed in this country to the extent necessary to supply the demand. There is now a demand (which is going to increase constantly) for coniferous seed in bulk, at a low cost, with high germinative power and high purity. This means that establishments for the exclusive handling of coniferous seed, according to the most ap- proved methods, have got to be constructed either by private in- dividuals as a commercial enterprise, or by the large private and federal forest administrations to supply their own needs. At present, there are very few or none of these establishments in this country. I believe, therefore, that a description of the equipment and operation of such a seed-extracting establishment, as given by the German forester Wiebecke, will be of great interest to many American foresters. ‘The description which follows is a trans- lation of the greater part of an article by Wiebecke, printed in the “Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen” of June, 1910. Wiebecke *Although this article was briefed in ¥. Q. Vol. VIII, p. 515, we re- produce this complete translation because it covers the subject exhaust- ively. German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 27 gives in detail the plans and methods of operating a seed-extract- ing plant for Scotch pine, in short, his ideas of a model seed- extracting establishment for pine seed. For his purpose he cites the successes and failures that have attended the operation of the plant at Eberswalde where numerous experiments have been con- ducted to determine doubtful points. Wiebecke’s article is as follows: I. Location of the Seed-extracting House. 1. If one is at liberty to determine the location of a seed- extracting house which is to be built, it is recommended to place it at a concentration point of the greatest possible accessibility, a point from which roads radiate connecting the forests and in the vicinity of railroad stations leading to it. The yard, etc., about the seed-extracting house is by all means to be paved (for easier approach in soft weather). The location far from a railroad of the Eberswalde seed- extracting house, which also lies at a distance from the main ‘road, causes excessive transportation costs, which I can show to be 4 cents (.15 marks) per 2.2 pounds of seed (1 kg.). 2. The seed-extracting house must be located upon an open flat, exposed to sun and wind,—so much the better to dry the cones in the shed; the smoke bothers no neighbors and neighbor- ing fire danger is avoided. 3. The seed-house manager (in the case of larger seed-extract- ing houses the seed-house secretary) must invariably live nearby, as well as the seed-house foreman; the purchasing of cones must go on at every hour of the day, for the sake of an abundant supply at all times; the seed-house business itself requires con- stant supervision day and night from a reliable foreman. II. The Cone-shed. Large high sheds located within the forest wherever possible and in open places, with solid or close-jointed board walls are the suitable thing. Bins constructed contiguous to one another if possible, of a size 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 cubic feet = 770 bushels of cones (270 hl.) to the bin, are the proper thing in this shed. Cones gathered in December, or better still in January and the 28 Forestry Quarterly. following months, harvested in sunny weather, stored dry, and transported in dry weather and then placed in the shed, give little trouble as a rule in storage, so that they can even be kiln-dried safely during the following summer if they have been purchased so abundantly as to make this necessary. But even if the drying-kiln should first begin to handle the cones in January, and wanted, if possible, to take only dry ones, it could get cones (at advanced prices) gathered in November when there was no snow (consequently harvested more easily) which were suitably stored somewhere until removed to the seed-extracting house; rainy weather and snow during their transportation and unloading from the railroad are more fre- quent than desirable. Often the cones mould in the large bins, sticking fast to one another, and must be continually worked over, and suffer even then. Cones collected in February open, accord- ing to experience, more easily than those gathered early; the constant changes of sunny warmth, of cold, and of dry wind ripen up the cones on the tree; cones properly handled in late winter can be opened with increasing ease in the summer. Upon this basis, I recommend a cone-shed of light, open rafters, with flat roof and a central passage, the roof of which is raised at the sides about 20 inches (4 m), and provided with slat- shutters. The elevation of that part of the roof over the cen- tral passage, and having the sides formed of slat-shutters is necessary since experience in old roofed sheds with closed roofs shows that the topmost layers of cones in the bins are made moist by sweating on account of the lack of circulating air; the upper cones retain after several months storage 4.4 pounds (2 kg) of water to 220 pounds (100 kg) of weight more than those which are stored compactly pressed together, apparently more unfa- vorably, in the middle of the large bin. The floor of the whole shed should be made of asphalt or ce- ment; the former is better protection against ground moisture. It must be raised about 20 inches (4 m) above the outside ground, and as a safeguard against the entrance of rodents, etc., should be protected by a surrounding ditch about 20 inches (50 cm) deep plastered and cemented on the inner side, or in some other suitable manner. Also the doors of the central pas- sage should be made tight against rodents, to a height of 20 inches (.50 m), but for the rest with movable slat-shutters to German Sced-Extraciing Establishment. 29 allow free circulation of dry air (wire net doors with movable slat-shutters over them). The outer walls are also made of movable slat-shutters such as one commonly finds used cheaply and easily in the better equipped brick kilns. They are shut tight in damp weather and opened when it is sunny and windy, in the same way as the door slat-shutters. Standing on both sides of the central passage and arranged at a distance of about 12 inches (30 cm) apart so that it is possible to clean them are cone-silos, which are 10 feet (3 m) deep (from the central passage toward the outer wall), five feet (1.5 m.) wide, and for ease in filling them not over Io feet (3 m) high. The floor of these is sloped strongly toward the central passage (a i to 2 slope) so that the cones will run out through a chute. It is made of oak slats placed on edge, close together, and cut I 1/5 x 3 inches (30 x 75 mm( with 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch (15 to 20 mm) space between. The walls of these silos are made of gal- vanized wire net which is strong and of suitably small mesh sup- ported on oak poles. Every such silo would hold about 340 bushels (120 hl) of cones after allowance for the space occupied by the poles, braces, and walls; therefore two or three silos take a carload or double carload of cones; one silo, about three farm- ers’ wagons full of cones. Smaller quantities can be kept sepa- rate by laying old sacks between them. The number of these silos necessary for the contemplated extent of the seed-house business is placed behind on another on both sides of the cen- tral passage. The cones in them are continuously surrounded and reached everywhere by dry air; they continuously dry and ripen. According to occasional observations of the extraction cost of cones dried in this manner as compared with fresh cones, one can reckon in Eberswalde a reduction in favor of the former of about 6.5 per cent. If one wants to mark off in the individual silos the quantity of each particular lot of cones by colored marks for the sake of keeping check on them, this can be easily ar- ranged; it is practicable, but it can not serve as a basis for the measuring of cones and payment for them, because the higher filled the silos are, so much the more compressed are the cones, and consequently the diminished quantity removed from a silo seems unfair to the person who originally supplied the cones. 30 Forestry Quarterly. Tests of weight at the Eberswalde cone bins which are im- practically equipped and 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 cubic feet, with tight walls and cement floors, showed that from 220 pounds (100 kg) of weight 22 pounds (9.8 kg) of water was dried out in the seed-house shed; in the case of longer storage the drying out was raised to 33 pounds (15 kg) without shoveling the cones over. III, Preliminary Drying-room. Invariably in conjunction with the cone-shed a preliminary drying-room is constructed, equipped with similar silos (but perhaps 63 feet (2 m) wide), with strong, heavy, outer walls, and heated from 77° to 95° F. (25° to 35° C.) through the sur- plus hot air of the seed-extracting house. This room if of such size that the seed-house workman can easily manage to store in it a supply sufficient for 10 to 15 kiln-days; requiring, therefore, about 4 to 6 silos. Ventilators remove the moist air. More emphasis must be placed upon the continuous removal of the moist air. Only in this way can a more rapid and safer drying be accomplished at moderate degrees of heat. It must be effected in the cone-shed through an active circulation of air, in the preliminary drying-room with ventilators and in the real drying-kiln by means of exhausts. Cones preliminarily dried at a moderate temperature in this manner open easily and with specially good germination energy in their seeds. ‘Time, expense, and danger from heat in the drying-kiln are saved. How eminently important the establish- ment and operation of this sort of preliminary drying-room is for the careful, cheap, and more rapid extraction of seed, (with the application of the most careful possible temperatures) is shown from investigations in the Eberswalde drying-kiln: Cones dried out in the cone-shed from 112 to 101 pounds per 2.8 bushels (51 to 46 kg per hectolitre), lost during the 7 days in which they were preliminarily dried at 91° F. (33° C.) in small compartments through which air circulated, 13 pounds (6 kg) more of water. The ripest cones began to crack open on this seventh day. Ac- cordingly, therefore, the original weight of freshly delivered cones which equals 112 pounds per 2.8 bushels (51 kg per hl) was reduced through drying in the air and in the preliminary drying-room to 88 pounds (40 kg). The favorable result thus German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 31 obtained lies in the fact that an unusually short time and mod- erate temperature will accomplish the complete final opening. The application of 77° to 95° F. (25° to 33° C.) in this pre- liminary drying-room in which the cones remain Io to 15 days according to their condition, before kiln-drying, corresponds to the noon-day temperature at which cones sown in plantations crack open voluntarily. The treatment in the drying-kiln, then, serves only to hasten the completion of the process, to effect the complete opening of the more resistant, hard-opening smaller cones, etc. Arrangements for heating this room can be effected without cost for special heating material, through suitable management of the hot-air combined with the drawing-off of the resulting damp air. Such heating arrangements are found operating with special economy in all veneer factories, chair factories, furniture works, etc., which must subject their wood to a special drying process. They are not new, nor especially costly, nor difficult for the in- dustries which are concerned with them. Just as little so is the arrangement of the following. IV. Drying-kiln. It was formerly the opinion (and Borgmann and von Penz even about 1900 remodeled and managed the Eberswalde drying- kiln according to this principle) that the still-closed cone could be kiln-dried with higher degrees of heat because it protects the enclosed seed, but that care must be taken, therefore, to have the seed fall out of the opened cone as soon as possible into a cooler room. This idea has indeed, in a certain respect, been most in- fluential for drum drying-kilns, etc. It is not to be doubted that every superfluous delay in a high temperature can do no good to the seed. However, the application of higher degrees of heat to cones still closed and therefore containing moisture is (contrary to the opinion just expressed) especially dangerous, as in general living things (and the embryo in the seed is such a thing) can ‘resist dry heat better than moist; in every case numerous experi- ments in the Eberswalde drying-kiln have shown (and Over- forester Haack has given attention to th’) that cones which are 32 Forestry Quarterly. taken fresh from the delivery wagon and at once exposed to a temperature of 131° F. (55° C.) until they crack open (that is for about 20 hours long) preserve on the average only 7 per cent. germination while the same cones preliminarily dried for several days in rooms warmed from 77° to 86° F. (25° to 30° C.) and then kiln-dried at about 104° to 122° F. (40° to 50° C.) for 6 to 8 hours and finally kiln-dried for a short time until they crack wide open, in the hottest part of the drying-kiln at 122° to 131° F. (50° to 55° C.), showed (in the average of over 1,000 tests in the year 1908-9) 87.6 per cent. germination (the maximum amount- ing to 98.7 per cent.). From this observation the practice has been developed for the Eberswalde drying-kiln of treating the cones first dried in the preliminary drying-room (which unfor- tunately is only a primitive one) for several hours in the coolest part of the drying-kiln and then exposing them gradually more and more, through constant transposition of the drying trays, to the in-flowing hot air. In this way it has been possible, without increasing the degrees of heat, to shorten the process in the drying-kiln with a great increase of the germination per cent. 3ut it is especially dangerous that in the ordinary kiln-drying establishments of the Prussian Forest Administration cooler and warmer air must be let in by constant changes of the inlet valves and with continuous observation of the thermometer, whenever the temperature in the drying-chamber ascends over 131° F. (55° C.) or threatens to fall below 113° F. (45° C.), with the re- sult that the air-valves must be handled every 8 to 12 minutes. Every brief neglect makes itself felt through the whole contents of the drying-chamber (about 45 bushels) (16 hl), resulting in a great decrease of the germination energy. The often discouraging results of plantations (despite all la- bor and care) have for a long time been correctly traced back to careless and too severe kiln-drying of the seed with the con- sequent weakening of its vitality; the seeds will indeed germinate if kept long enough (especially in germination testing apparatus cleverly chosen and carefully attended to); but they can not withstand unfavorable weather in the plantation and endure ex- posure to the weather which stronger seeds (those, for instance, released naturally or resulting from cone-sowings) vigorously overcome. It can not be left unmentioned that in the tenth edition of German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 33 Gayer’s ‘‘Forest Utilization,” 1909, the chapter upon the equip- ment of seed-extracting houses contains some dangerous obser- vations. For example, “to extract seed at 140° F. (60° C).” The chapter has in general remained almost literally the same since 1878 and still earlier (4th and 5th editions) ; it proves how little kiln-drying science has progressed since then in the knowledge of foresters. The average Scotch pine seed germination is often given them as only 65 per cent. My conclusion is, therefore, that cones should be slowly dried at first in the preliminary drying-room and exposed to continu- ally increasing degrees of heat up’to the highest temperature of 113° to 122° F. (45° to 50° C.), and this process shortened as much as possible by the removal of the resulting moist air. For this purpose the following arrangement of the drying-kiln should serve: In the preliminary drying-room the cones are spread out flat upon wood drying-trays about 51 inches (1.3 m) long and 30 inches (75 cm) wide. ‘The floors and sides of these consist of wooden slats nailed near each other with a space between; | recommend soft wood slats between which little cones possibly do not stick so fast as between oak sticks. The drying-trays are about four inches (10 cm) deep, but should be covered only with one copious layer of cones so that when the cones increase in size upon opening, there is still sufficient room. These drying- trays are then shoved into a carrying rack, above one another about 10 to 15 high, so that they stand over one another with two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) space between, and so that the workman can fill the highest tray from the ground. The whole rack is mounted on a low truck moving upon rails, and after opening a sliding door is pushed into the drying-kiln in which a current of dry air circulates around every tray. The drying-kiln is a room about five feet (14 m) wide, 64 feet (2 m) high and 26 to 30 feet (8 to 9 m) long with tight walls which takes 10 such trucks (with tray racks) coupled to one another on the broad side. Hot air is let into this drying-kiln through a series of separate openings on both sides. The hot air apertures are arranged on both sides in a series above one another from the bottom to the top and especially in the vicinity of the exit-door of this drying- kiln, while air holes are located near the entrance-door, through 3 34 Forestry Quarterly. which the moist air forming in the drying-kiln is constantly drawn out. Once more should the importance of the removal of the moist air be emphasized here; it must be drawn backward toward the entrance-door in order to prevent the cones which are getting more and more dry from becoming heated again with moisture present. | The exit-door of this drying-kiln consists of panes of glass .12 to .15 of an inch (3 to 4 mm) thick, properly framed; the kiln- master can, therefore, see whether the cones have opened prop- erly. According to the time of year, the quality of the cones, etc., the opening of the cones occurs in periods of time of different length which practice and observation soon learn to recognize. The order of operation is as follows: The kiln-master opens the exit sliding door, draws out the truck nearest to him, at the same time pulling forward the others nearest the door, goes to the entrance door, opens it and shoves in a truck filled with fresh-drying-trays, which he couples to the next truck in order to close the entrance-door again. The operation is a continuous one, going forward day and night so long as there are cones. It is uneconomical, even harmful, to cool off the drying-rooms oftener than is necessary to clean the stove grates, draughts, flues, etc. Competent stove-factories design stoves requiring the least possible interruption in heating for continuous efficiency. It is not at all difficult for present day science to control the hot air accurately and to maintain it constantly at a tempera- ture of 104° to 122° F. (40° to 50° C.) with occasional attention to a reliable little regulating apparatus. One need only think of the central heating system employed in modern houses every- where. In order to guard against all contingencies thermographs and hygrographs, visible from the outside, are constructed in the drying-kilns (also as a check upon the kiln-workman). The design of the drying-kiln, the introduction of warm air maintained uniformly at 113° to 122° F, (45° to 50° C), its regular distribution in the drying-kiln and the removal of the damp air as it cools, is not at all new to the technique concerned with such things; similar operations are carried on in many kinds of industries; I call to mind, for instance, the drying ar- rangements in modernly-equipped pasteboard factories. The German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 35 method of drying just described can easily be looked after by one man even if two such drying-kilns are set up beside each other at one working place from which the thermograph, etc., is ob- served and upon which the emptied drying-tray trucks are shoved back in order that they may be pushed into the entrance- door after being filled in the preliminary drying-room. Each individual drying-kiln should hold 10 trucks coupled broadwise to one another because according to experience at the Eberswalde drying-kiln cones which opened with difficulty were dried out after 10 changes of the trucks, at 90-minute in- tervals at most; cones which open easily require 40 to 50 minutes in each position, when there are 10 changes from the coolest to the hottest parts of the drying-kiln. If one should use fewer drying-tray trucks coupled behind each other, the cones would be brought to the greatest heat too quickly ; if one should arrange more trucks in a series in a drying- kiln it would be necessary to force so much the more hot air into the excessively long space and to remove moist air from it, and the drying-kiln would be cooled down on account of the very frequent removal of the trucks which are finished. However, one can secure every possible service from a drying-establishment by arranging many drying-kilns near each other, as desired. I want especially to lay stress upon the recommendation, for medium-sized and larger establishments, that a hot-air drum, or something similar be placed between the heating-stove and the drying-kiln. The heating-stove is fired with empty cones, occasionally supplemented with coal. Besides this I will mention the fact that it is superfluous, with the latest science of heating, to provide for the drying-room in the loft above the heating equipment, as done hitherto in com- mercial seed-extracting houses. Such an arrangement serves merely to increase the cost, since all the thousands of bushels of cones must in such a case be lifted up to it. V. The Churn-room. The opened cones taken out of the drying-kiln are quickly emptied into the churn-room, which is about 20 feet (6 m) long and three to four feet (1 to 1.1 m) wide with neatly cleaned, solid walls. 36 Forestry Quarterly. The emptying out of the cones must be done quickly in order that the cones, which close again upon cooling, (especially at their base), may not hold fast the seeds. With this object the entrance to the churn-room is invariably located near the exit from the drying-kiln. The churn-room likewise is warmed by hot-air to 77° to 86° F. (25° to 30° C.), in order to keep all moisture away from the cones and seed. In it a wooden box with a funnel-shapped bottom is set up, about 39 inches (1 m) above the floor, into which the workman empties the drying-trays taken fresh from the drying- kiln. By manipulating a slide door he lets the cones fall into a churn. The latter consists of a cylinder with its sides constructed of thin iron bars, of the same style as a sorter for cleaning grain. They are known to all older seed-extracting establishments. By the rotation of the churn the cones are shaken about, slowly downward, while they give out their winged seeds. The winged seeds fall through the bars upon the floor of the churn-room which is rounded in the shape of a gutter lined with tin, and drawn out into a funnel closed with a slide-door, which readily conducts the collected seeds into the wing-removing room. The workmen must avoid entering the churn-room, even with felt slippers, to sweep up the seed, in the manner hitherto prac- ticed. The Scotch pine seed is easily crushed or compressed and every such wound forms an infection point for fungi; or else, as in many other cases, the embryo instead of coming out normally (with root tip foremost), comes out of the seed coat with the cotyledons foremost,—a useless little plant. Germination tests show that every injured seed, commencing a few hours after the injury, festers a mould distinctly visible to the unaided eye after three or four days. Uninjured seeds do not! Numerous tests at the Eberswalde seed-house with seeds arti- ficially torn or nicked have shown (sometimes in every case) cotyledons breaking through first (“rump-born”). All these seed are useless for sowing in plantations. The churn must have a diameter of about 31 inches (80 cm) and a length of 16 feet (5 m) and be set up with a fall of 39 inches (1 m) at the most (this can be regulated) ; it is revolved rapidly (from the outer room). The empty cones, shaken around in it, fall out of the end into a funnel-shaped trough which empties into a shed from which the cones can be easily removed German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 37 for fuel or for sale without the necessity of the cone-purchasers, etc., entering the true drying-rooms. VI. Empty-cone Shed. This can be built, as cheap as possible, with board walls and a floor made secure against the entrance of dampness. On account of the fire danger it is recommended that it be built with walls closed on all sides, and made air-tight possibly with roofing- paper or better, calked with oakum, and of such size that the whole drying process will not be interrupted and harmed by an inopportune overflow of cones. VII. The Wing Removing Room. The winged seed gathered in the churn-room is here, once a day, put into sacks. If cones from different collectors or for different tests are kiln- dried on the same day, each kind is sacked separately. ‘The winged seeds are in these sacks freed from the wings by carefully beating the sacks with soft leather flails and grinding them around frequently. This method is the most careful one known to me. If well carried out, it removes the wings from Scotch pine seed with such completeness that, in the plantations, the seed runs smoothly out of the smallest aperture of the seeding machine. With seed from which the wings have been so removed, it has been possible to distribute evenly, with the Drewitz machine, 4.4 pounds (2 kg) in 6.2 miles (10 km) of seed furrows. Other methods leave behind wing particles or injure the shells of the seed. Each sack is given an enclosed label with the notations: Kiln- SX 3) ee 1, Cones delivered: Dy va.' tessa! ; Derived ( Date.) (Name. ) PUGMNE Ge 3h de, yh kiln-dried COnes,:'..02 6 s<)5%). winged seed. Thus (bushels. ) (pounds. ) one can easily prove, by germination tests of each sack, the quality of the supply and care exercised on each particular drying day. The sacks are then finally hung up in this room for several 38 Forestry Quarterly. days. The temperature of the room is kept at 77° F. (25° C.) in order to keep out moisture. On convenient days, but at least once a week, the contents of each sack separately is cleaned in one of the best, well-known grain cleaning machines. In this way particles of wings and dust are blown out; needles and cone scales are sifted out, sterile seeds are separated out by the machine. The separation of large and small seed is also accomplished, but not in a useful manner. Ordinary grain cleaning machines work by means of an air-blast and manipulation of sieves. But by the air-blast larger seeds with bits of wing attached are blown together with wingless smaller seeds. Numerous germi- nation tests have shown only unessential differences in germi- native power between the two sizes. But since it has been shown that larger and smaller seeds have different “use-value” it is recommended that the seed be sorted according to size in a suit- able sorting-machine. The proper label is put back in each sack after it has been filled out with the weight of the winged seed and the wingless seed. The cleaned seed is still kept in this moderately warm room. Once a week a small number of seeds are taken from the product of each day or of each assortment in order to carry on germi- nation tests with them. VIII. Germination Chamber. A compartment about three feet square (1 m) is sufficient for this; fitted up as a miniature green-house, continuously heated by hot-air to about 86° F. (30° C.); under its glass panes stand the little “cellars,” tin boxes, (Improved and described by Over- forester Haack) and upon the bridges of these are laid about 100 seeds on a strip of flannel or blotting paper, the edges of which hang down into water. The practical application of this at the Eberswalde seed-house has resulted in the use of blotting-paper only, the seed being allowed to lie free upon it, and the individual tin boxes, which can comfortably hold 10 tests of 100 seeds each, being covered with very large plates of glass, lying loose upon them. ‘The seed are then always visible, germinate quickly, and after 170 germination hours give a result which is accomplished in the quickest and most useful way to be of practical value. We German Seed-E-xtracting Establishment. 39 germinate three parallel tests of each day’s seed assortment, so that any incorrect handling in the germination chamber can be definitely established. If all three tests are proportionate, the particular assortment of seed is traced back to the cone-collector and poor values are penalized or high values commended. If the three tests turn out unequally new seeds of the same assortment are on the seventh day at once put in, in order to determine definitely any mistakes in the drying process. The practical working out of several thousand germination experiments at Eberswalde has confirmed the opinion of Haack that in the case of fresh seed from good cones all the really useful seeds have germinated in 7 days. For example, about 1,000 experiments in 1909 with seed from Pomerania showed, in the best instance, 98.7 per cent. of germinated seed after 170 germi- nation hours; at the Eberswalde seed establishment this is called “germination energy,” (contrary to those testing establishments which compute the germination energy after a very much longer time,—in a manner of little use for practical application). The total result, achieved after 21 germination days, is called, at the Eberswalde seed establishment, ‘‘germination capacity”, (likewise contrary to the testing establishments which continue observa- tions up to the 43rd day). The average of all experiments with local seed from December 1908 to June 1909 gave a germination on the seventh day of 87.6 per cent., on the twenty-first day of 92.2 per cent. Therefore, in the later weeks only 4.6 per cent. germinated, which has no significance in practical plantation sowing. If the quality of the seed has been authentically established in the germination chamber, it is thrown together according to its germination quality (though naturally the different assortments are kept separate) and also according to the principle that every forester who supplies cones can receive back the seed extracted from his own cones. So much of the seed as is to be used early in the spring is stored in suitable dry rooms, in little sacks holding about 66 pounds (30 kg). IX. The Granary. The different lots of seed mentioned above, which are to be used soon, are placed in this room, in little individual sacks. Its 40 Forestry Quarterly. size depends upon the maximum amount of seed being extracted during the winter months, from December to April. It must be mouse-proof, dry and of a uniform temperature. All the other seed, in particular that being cleaned from April to December, is stored in the wing-removing room until the completion of the germination tests, after which it is finally dried out for an hour just inside the exit door of the drying-kiln in order to remove any absorbed moisture. (This final drying out has the same object which the prudent farmer aims at when he spreads out his hay in the midday sun just before putting it in, in order to dry out the dew or other moisture before putting it in). The seed is then at once poured into glass carboys; these are corked and sealed and taken into the seed-house cellar. X. The Seed-house Cellar. Older experiments by Cieslar and others as well as more recent, very exact, year-long experiments by Haack have shown that the storage of cones, be it ever so well done, in order to open them in subsequent poor seed years, does not prevent the germination capacity from falling off from year to year until it speedily becomes useless for practical sowing. ‘The experiments have further shown that the germination capacity remains much more constant if the pure seed is shut up in the dark, uniformly dry and cold. One is perhaps warranted in stating the proposition in the following way: ‘The seed contains a living thing which is capable, on the one hand (1) of protecting itself to a certain degree against inopportune development, on the other hand (2) of taking advantage of favorable moments for development and growth. Concerning (1): In the dry summer season the outer corky layer of the seed, the seed coat, becomes hard; it seems indeed as if the inner, thinner seed coat also becomes corky to protect itself, since the seed shrinks and no longer fills out the inside of the outer capsule. One can easily recognize, in the case of larger kinds of seed, as for example oaks, how when laid upon too dry ground they germinate with difficulty, after long delay, or not at all. While the same oak seeds, if one splits the outer hard shell German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 4I absorb water quickly and readily, the seed coats are distended and the seeds develop. In a similar way many Scotch pine seed are delayed and, there- fore, useless in dry planting seasons, or else do not develop at all, because their outer seed coat hardens too much in order to protect them against summer dryness, no longer lets in sufficient water and the embryo does not break through. Concerning (2): In every case when in summer or autumn sufficient humidity accompanies the warmth always prevailing at these seasons, the seed tries to develop (also when on rainy days the air in the ordinary granaries is sufficiently moist) ; every such attempt soon ceases again, when dry weather ensues; but each time the vitality is weakened so that all seeds by weakening them- selves are ruined. (Even potatoes stored in cold dark cellars can be prevented from germinating for a long time, whereas they germinate quickly when in the spring before planting they are spread out upon barn-floors for 8 to 14 clear, moist, warm days). These observations perhaps explain why the above mentioned recent experiments lead to the conclusion that the germination energy can, by the exclusion of light, Seu and heat, be preserved for several years. Thereby is the opportunity afforded to preserve the surplus of abundant seed-years in a useful condition for poor seed-years, which seldom continue longer than one or two years. For this a seed-house cellar is needed, high enough so that a man can enter it upright; large enough so that as many carboys can be placed in it upon shelves (in two tiers on both sides of a central passage 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2 m) wide as are needed to preserve the seed. The Eberswalde seed establishment has connected with it a primitive experiment cellar built into the ground. It is dark; it is located upon and in a dry sand-hill; it is about 3.3 feet (1 m) high covered over with earth and straw; the thermograph in it shows that it maintains a constant even temperature of about 46° F. (8° C.); double doors with straw filling and a closed entrance vestibule protect it against the entrance of heat and cold. In it stand hundreds of glass carboys such as can be bought comparatively cheaply from druggists who obtain sulphuric acid, etc., in them. Storage in this earth cellar at the Eberswalde seed- establishment showed an unimpaired germination vitality up to 42 Forestry Quarterly. the present time (middle of May, 1910) of the seed which had been extracted and stored since the beginning of April, 1909. It is recommended that carboys of this sort, but somewhat stronger, be specially blown, capable of holding exactly one quart (1 litre) or 66 pounds (30 kg) of seed. A number is placed upon each one with oil paint; corresponding numbers in a catalogue show the assortment, germination, etc., of the contents. In order to carry them into the cellar flat, strong osier baskets with strong handles are recommended. Besides each carboy stands a little medicine bottle, similarly filled with the same seed, painted with the same number, and out of these we take test samples so as continuously to watch over, in the germination chamber, the preservation of the seed. The glass carboys are more convenient and easier to open and shut than soldered tin containers concerning the tight soldering of which there may be reasonable doubts, since we know how often canned vegetables spoil because the little cans are frequently not tightly soldered. The cans could of course be screwed air tight but there have recently been doubts as to whether the oxidation of the tin does not injure the enclosed seed which forms carbonic acid. The contents of the glass carboys are always visible and the division of the seed in the spring is easily managed by the use of these carboys which contain 66 pounds (30 kg) in each case. In building seed establishments the cellar should be constructed near the extraction house, with double insolated walls and a protecting double vestibule, possibly under the cone-shed or under the living quarters of the kiln master or foreman. Since, however, according to Haack’s investigations the seed preserves its germinative energy better the nearer the tempera- tur is maintained constantly at 32° F. (0° c), one will have to build the cellar as the ice-cellars of large breweries are built. A sufficiently large and strong vault is constructed and insolated walls and roof are built about it. Ice is put between the vault and the outer walls, care is taken to constantly remove the water from melting and thus a suitable temperature is maintained. The cost of building such a seed-extracting establishment can not be much higher than the cost of the usual conventional seed- house having the same annual capacity. The cost of constructing the cone-shed will be somewhat dearer; everything else is the German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 43 same as for an ordinary seed-house of similar size, even if built in accordance with the latest science and arrangements. The construction of the drying-kiln and the heating system will perhaps cost more; but they can not cost excessively since many factories possess similar equipment for much less valuable products than Scotch pine seed. Every home has a central heating system, while we are concerned only with the heating of a few small rooms which can be effected cheaply by hot air. The fuel is chiefly empty cones and coal. This feature is especially economical. By having practical equipment the operation of the plant is simplified for the workmen; continuous operation makes the most of the buildings and other arrangements, and increases the utility of the heating system, thereby making the cost of operation cheaper. All in all, the current expenses of the seed-extracting house are cheaper than hitherto. The cost of the cellar is a new addition, but it must be figured in, if the results of the latest investigations and experience are to be made use of in our actual practice, which certainly requires them; this cost is not excessive, even if one prefers a regular ice-cellar, since the two-storied arrangement of the carboys does not require any great amount of space. I want to touch upon one more point: Cones which are picked late, delivered dry, and collected from old stands have the follow- ing advantages: 1. They open quicker; all expense, wages, interest, and the final charging-off of the cost of the seed extracting establishment amount to less with such cones. 2. It seems that such cones afford greater germination energy and consequently greater real value. 3. The quantity of seed yielded varies frequently between one and one-quarter and one and three-quarters pounds per two and three-quarters bushels of cones (.55 to .80 kg. per 1 hl). It is my idea (and it must be carried out in practice) to offer advanced prices to cone collectors for cones which afford the greatest yield of seed, the highest real value and the cheapest production of seed; perhaps at first in the form of a suitable bonus which would be paid after the results from the cones had been ascertained. Correct and honest calculation and payment of this bonus will teach the cone collectors to supply such seed-extract- 44 Forestry Quarterly. ing establishments with cones which are collected and handled in the best manner. Because of the eminent importance of the cone supply it is more than necessary to pay especially well for late picked, well handled cones that open quickly, contain abundant seed and show in their seed the highest germination,—in fact, to put a premium on them. SOME FACTS ON FORESTRY CONDITIONS IN SWEDEN.* By Max H. Foerster. The Kingdom of Sweden comprises 172,876 square miles, 8 per cent. of which is water. As to size it is the sixth in rank of the European countries. Longitudinally it extends about 900 miles south and north with a breadth of only 180-240 miles. Stockholm, the capital and center of the wood industry, is situated one-third of the longi- tudinal distance from the southern end, Sundsvall and Hernoe- sand not quite two-thirds of the distance. The distance of this point from Berlin in airline is 700 miles, which is as far north as Rome is south. Ages ago the kingdom was divided into three large provinces, Goetarike, Svearike and Norrland. The first one comprises the southern part of Sweden about as far as Norrkdping. Svearike comprises central Sweden and extends along the coast to the lati- tude of Gefle, but along the Norwegian boundary it continues much farther north. Norrland includes the northern and largest part of the country. At the present time it is the most important part of Sweden as far as the wood industry is concerned. This land division is, however, only of historical importance, but continues to exist in the minds of the people. For purposes of administration, Sweden is divided into 24 administrative districts. The population of Sweden is recorded as 5,300,000 inhabitants. Of these 24,000 are Finns, residing in the northern part of Norr- land, and about 7,000 are Lapps, living in Lappland, largely on the proceeds from their reindeer herds. The residence of these Mongolian people, especially the Finns, used to extend much farther south in the interior part of the county. Hence the name “Finnenwald” for the forest along the boundary between Swedish Wermland and Norway, which still contains many reminiscences of the Finnish inhabitants. The density of the population varies considerably. Disregarding the cities, of which only two have *Translated from Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, April, 1910; ar- ticle by Dr. C. Metzger. 46 Forestry Quarterly. over 100,000 inhabitants, (Stockholm and Gotenburg) the people live scattered in the country, densest along the coast in the agri- cultural districts, and sparsest in the heavily timbered districts and the large plains of Lappland which lie above timber line. The most thickly settled regions are Malm6 (225) and Gotenburg (198), while Norbotten, the most northern province, has an aver- age of only three inhabitants per square mile. Large areas of the latter country which compare favorably in size with Bavaria, Saxony and Wurttemberg are totally deserted. Of the total area of the country 12 per cent. is used for agriculture, and 51 per cent. is timbered. In accordance with this, a large per cent. of the Swedish population obtains its subsistence from the industries which result from the use of these 70,000 square miles of timber- land. About 47 per cent. of the population is said to practice agriculture; but at the same time, the forest and the work going on in it are an equally, if not more important source of income for the agricultural inhabitants of the forested districts, especially in the northern ones. ‘The wood industry alone employs 67,000 workmen. Of further importance as sources of income are the mining industry (iron, copper, zinc), the textile industry, and fishing. Hunting, especially for wild fowl, must also be regarded as such. The topography of Sweden is largely hilly. Level stretches are only found in the south (Malmo) and along the coast where they are broken up by hills. The topography becomes more rugged as one advances towards the Norwegian boundary, which coincides for long distances with the crest of the Scandinavian watershed. Hence the streams, arising on the eastern slope of the mountain chain, traverse only Swedish ground. Only the Klarelf River, traversing Wermland, originates in Norway, where it rises from the Faemund Lake under the name of Trysil. The rivers are rarely over 300 miles in length, flowing in a southeasterly direc- tion. Their gradient is steep and their courses frequently inter- rupted by natural dams, above which they form long narrow lakes and through which they break as cataracts and rapids; there- fore they are only navigable for short distances. On the other hand, these streams are of the utmost importance for driving timber, their numerous falls and rapids are an almost inexhaus- tible source of power for industries and traffic. Most of the streams flow into deeply incised fjords, the open- Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 47 ings of which are strewn with small rocky islands. Thus protected the fjords offer excellent harbors and are therefore the natural stations of commerce and industry, i. e. of the wood industry, the centers of which are found along the rugged coast of Sweden. These streams bring the rough logs to the saw mills and pulp manufacturing plants, and from their yards the products are loaded directly on to the ships. Geologically, Sweden differs widely from Denmark and the North German plain. The bedrock underlying the forest soils belongs almost exclusively to the fundamental formation of the Archean rocks, granites, gneisses, and quartzites. Only small areas inside the timbered belt contain paleozoic formations. The bedrock crops out quite frequently in the level and hilly areas, generally in the form of rounded knobs or ridges, but the crevices, ravines and troughs of the same are always filled with diluvium, which conceals the bedrock over long distances. Only on steep slopes is the soil a product of erosion of the bedrock, but even here it is frequently mixed with diluvial depositions. ‘The forest soils must therefore be classed as diluvial. The soils of the glacial moraines have, however, gone through a series of displacements in postglacial times, due to upheaval and depression of the land- surface, and hence inundation by the waters of the sea and the action of streams. The more or less dry, level stretches of sand, usually covered with scrubby pine growth, should be distinguished from the hilly gravel of the moraines on which grow mixed stands of pine and spruce, or spruce pure, and also from the gravelly ridges of coarse or fine but smooth material, which belongs to the poorer soils and as a rule can only grow pine. In contrast to these glacial soils those formed by disintegration of the fundamental rock formations, are found in the mountains and show a greater or smaller degree of fertility according to their origin. Due to the large extension of the kingdom from north to south, the climate of Sweden shows great variations in the dif- ferent provinces. Southern Sweden (Schdnen) possesses a cli- mate similar to the insular climate of Denmark. On the west coast the influence of the gulf stream and ocean is quite notice- able. The harbor of Gotenburg is free of ice. The farther one advances to the north, however, the more raw and continental 48 Forestry Quarterly. the climate grows, especially in winter, when the large lakes of Finnland and Sweden, as well as a large number of the harbors of the Baltic Sea, are frozen over and the moderating influence of these waters on the climate is eliminated. ‘The warm season of the year, therefore, shows a mild sea climate, similar to the German climate, The mountain group in the western part precipitates a large per cent. of the precipitation coming ‘from the ocean. Only the west coast as far north as Gotenburg is open and receives a rela- tively high precipitation (70-75 cm) similar to the Norwegian coast. The greater part of Sweden, however, lies in the shadow of the Scandinavian Divide, so that most of the recorded precipi- tations in the interior and coast land fall below 50 cm. ‘This is especially true of the timbered Norrland, which only gets 40-45 cm. annually. The mountain ridge also protects Sweden against western storms. Winds are quite limited, especially in summer; and the number of calm days is large. This is of great significance in the straight symmetrical development of the pine. The sources of warmth during the summer months differ very little from those in Germany. As far as the amount of heat, which favors vegetation is concerned, the longer hours of the day equalize the lower degree of intensity of the sun’s rays, so that our cereals and even species of turnips ripen in the central Norrland. The greatest change in climatic respect is brought about by the cold season. In central and northern Sweden, the timbered sections, the lakes freeze over during November, beginning with those farthest north. In Wermland the lakes are usually frozen by November 2oth, in Dalekarlien by November roth to 15th. Actual thawing does not start in till the latter part of April. The lakes of Dalekarlien are free from ice about May roth but farther north the ice does not break up before June. In central Sweden snow covers the ground from go to 130 days, in northern Sweden for 200 days on an average of a number of years. The harbors of the Baltic Sea are closed several months during winter, unless they are artificially kept open as the harbor of Stockholm and several others south of it are. Navigation usually closes down in December, beginning again in May. For trade and traffic, therefore, the harbors of Norrland are handicapped. . —— Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 49 Snow and ice play an important role in forestry in Sweden, first in connection. with the growth of the forest, and second, with forest utilization. The covering of snow, which for months protects the little plants, is doubless of the greatest importance. In late spring they emerge from the cover of snow almost immediately into the most vigorous vegetation. On the other hand damage by snow is a rare occurrence, as there is a low degree of atmospheric moisture in the winter and the snow falls dry. The snow also offers cheap transportation of wood. By freez- ing over lakes and swamps the winter opens up the most inaccess- ible and distant forest regions. When a cutting is to take place, shacks are constructed for the crew and horses. Skidding trails are staked out, following the streams, swamps and lakes, avoid- ing the loss of timber. The snow on these roads is iced and steep grades covered with brush or grass. The logs are loaded on sleds and skidded to the nearest driveable stream by the small but strong woods horses. The ends of the logs are stamped with the mark of the owner and left on the ice or the bank of the stream until thawing sets in. The drive begins with the breaking up of the ice on the small streams and continues until midsummer, the streams and rivers being gradually cleared towards their mouths. At the sorting booms above the industrial districts they are caught and rafted from there on downstream. The numerous rapids and falls are avoided by improvements of all sorts. At watersheds or divides raising apparatus and means of trans- portation are constructed at advantageous points in order to make possible the transfer of logs from small river systems into larger ones. The necessary dams, booms, etc., for rendering the streams of Norrland and Dalekarlien driveable represent a capital of 8,000,000 to 11,000,000 dollars. Driving and rafting are usually conducted by special boom companies, of which the timber owners, sawmill owners, pulp manufacturers, etc., are members. ‘The cost of transportation is thus reduced to a mini- mum. On a well managed driveable stream the cost is hardly more than one-half a cent per mile per saw log, to which must be added the cost of sorting, which amounts to from 1} to 1 cent according to the size and equipment of the sorting gap. As skidding on sleds in winter is also cheap, provided the distances 4 50 Forestry Quarterly. are not too great, the wood material is delivered to the indus- tries at a very small expense, even though it often has to come a distance of 200 miles. Permanent logging roads or road sys- tems are not known in the Swedish forests. On the other hand, there are over 15,000 miles of driveable streams and about 40,- 000,000 logs are transported by them annually. | The entire forested area of Sweden is estimated at around 70,000 square miles. Of this total 75 per cent. is in private and 25 per cent. in government ownership. To every farm-house belongs a greater or smaller forest area, depending upon the amount and productive capacity of the cleared land. ‘The unit for this is up to the present day so-called “Mantal,” i. e., the num- ber of scldiers to be sent by each farmhouse, a remnant of the old military government. A part of these forests, mainly the so- called Aussenwaelder which were located farthest from the farms were later on sold to large concerns. Oftentimes these forests were aggregated to form community forests. Considering the distribution of forests it must be remembered that the south is scarcely forested at all. As a result of its fa- vorable climatic conditions and the fertility of the soil, it has become the grain center of the country. The first large bodies of forests are encountered on the mountainous boundary between Gota and Svealand, north of Norkoping. Sixty-two per cent. of Oestergotland and Oerebro are forested. The real forests of Sweden, however, are found in Wermland, Dalekarlien, and Norrland. ‘The most heavily forested parts of the latter country are Gefleberg with 82 per cent. and Westernorrland with 73 per cent. forest. Higher up in the mountains, especially going north, the forest cover diminishes rapidly. The mountainous Jamtland represents the average of the entire country, Norrland the most northerly province showing only 30 per cent. forested. The most import- ant export point for Wermland is Gotenburg with which it is connected by the Klara and Gota river systems. Some 18 million cubic feet of wood material is exported from this place. For Dalekarlien and Norrland, which, combined, represent about 80 per cent. of the total Swedish export of planks and boards, the principal export points are in their order beginning at the south:—Gefle, Soderham, Hundiksvall, Sundsvall, Hernoesand, Umea, Skelleftea, Pitea, Lulea and Haparanda. Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 51 ‘The most important of these are Sundsvall and Hernoesand, with about 30,000,000 cubic feet of lumber exports each in boards and planks alone. In addition to this a considerable amount of min- ing timbers and material manufactured from waste is exported. These towns are situated at the mouth of Ljungman, Indals and Angerman rivers. The national forests are also chiefly located in Norrland in the northern parts. In the most northerly part, in Norbotten, 51 per cent. of the total area is in government possession, in Vasterbotten, 36 per cent. Going south, these figures decrease rapidly. National control is doubtless of great value for the preservation of the forests in the northern regions. A consid- erable portion of the private forest land has changed hands in the course of time, the peasants selling out to large corporations which exploit these forests with their sawmills. Of course this exploitation often consisted in a shameless destruction of the forest, resulting in a strong sentiment against the purchase of forest land by corporations. On the other hand it must be ac- knowledged that many of them manage their forests in a praise- worthy manner. The corporation forests have thus become a typical feature of Sweden. The total area of these forests in Dalekarlien and Norrland is over 6,500,000 acres. That means about 19 per cent. of the for- ested area of these districts, which is estimated at 34,000,000 acres, two-thirds of the total forest area of Sweden, The farm- ers here own about twice as much as the corporations, 43 per cent. being in possession of the government and communities. Of these community forests the “Spar” (savings) forests ex- isting for a long time in Dalekarlien must be mentioned sepa- rately. These were formed in the following way: After dividing up the common forest lands, the peasants agreed to give up a large part of their private share and unite them again into com- munity forests. The returns from these forests are used for the payment of taxes, schools, hospitals and other public purposes. Some of the communities possessing “Spar” forests have be- come famous for their prosperity, but not only that, they form examples for the present forest protection movement, which aside from other aims, advocates the formation of compact com- muity forests. The only species to be considered for the lumber export are 52 Forestry Quarterly. pine and spruce. The southern part of Sweden contains also beech forests which, however, are only of local importance. Still less important is the occurrence of oak, though it does not reach its northern extension before 61°, i. e. slightly north of Stock- holm. In the coniferous forests, however, birch, bird-cherry and aspen occur quite frequently. Even where they are being heavily exploited the forests still show the natural types from which they have been derived. Until lately it has been, and still continues to be in a large part of the country the forest policy of Sweden to utilize such natural grown forests, forest preservation and regeneration has been aimed at with more or less good faith and success. As private forests in the greater part of Sweden were abso- lutely free from restriction up to a few wears ago, examples of the worst kind of devastation are to be found all over the country. One must consider, however, that the forests of this northern country, which seems to be specially created for forest growth, can stand an incredible amount of abuse and reckless cutting. Only this can explain the fact that the prophecies by foreign foresters of a total denudation of the entire country in the near future, which has been spoken of in the past century, have not come true. On the contrary the export trade has increased steadily and by far not all of the forested regions have as yet been attacked. The most important species for the lumber export trade is pine, which covers the sandy bottoms, the glacial soils, and the dry, extensive sandhills in pure stands or mixed with spruce. The less poor and dry the soil, the greater per cent. of spruce in the mixture. Dry pine barrens often contain only a few straggling spruce as an understory. Otherwise the ground cover consists of the reindeer moss— especially in the north—Erica and Empetrum nigrum. Farther south and in the moister localities of the north, mosses and species of Vaccinium also appear. But there, too, the spruce begins to come in, forming an understory of increasing density and, on the richer soils, competing successfully with the main species of the stand. Thus all phases of mixture of these two species are found. When the pine is cut out of these mixed stands—a method which was commonly practiced until recently—the spruce stand Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 53 left is often unable to continue its good growth. The soil dries up, parasites increase, growth in height decreases, diameter growth decreases rapidly and as a result of the diminished growth and activity of the stand the balance between the water supply of the soil and its absorption is destroyed. The deteriorating spruce stand is not capable of sufficiently draining the soil. The soil grows wet and swampy, which results not infrequently in the death of the forest vegetation and a formation of a high moor. This process is of common occurrence in the Swedish forests, the more frequently the farther north one progresses. ‘The reclamation of these “‘watersick” soils, especially for pine, is often very difficult and expensive. In the life history of the northern forests forest fires have always played an important role. They have always successfully driven back the thrifty spruce from the pine soils, as the spruce and not the pine falls a victim to fires. The soil laid bare by the fire is easily seeded with pine, resulting in an independent new generation of pine, which after some time gradually becomes mixed with spruce. After especially severe fires which have robbed the soil of its entire humus and litter, the pine genera- tion tends to come in under a preceding birch stand, which is the only species at first able to take root. Under this protective cover, first the pine and later the spruce stands develop. The example of nature is imitated successfully in many of the northern districts by using fire to establish the natural reproduc- tion of pine. On the swampy stretches of forest land drainage is provided for by constructing ditches. Deteriorated and drowned forests are cut over, the soil burned over after draining and then sowed to pine. On fresh moraine soils, spruce forms thrifty pure stands from which pine has been completely crowded out. Some of the soils formed by disintegration of the fundamental rock, i. e. the lime and Silurian soils, grow pure spruce stands of high quality. Until very recently spruce timber had very little if any eco- nomic value ai all, as the sawmills cut pine chiefly. But since the growth of the wood-working industry spruce timber has found quite a good market value. Since then it has also been possible to so utilize the mixed spruce and pine stands as to aid the pine in retaining its dominant position in the stand. As long as the 54 Forestry Quarterly. pine only was cut out this was impossible and the old method usually destroyed the balance between the two species, to the great disadvantage of the pine as well as to the productive ca- pacity of these soils which were not rich enough to produce pure spruce stands. Whenever possible, nowadays, in mixed stands the spruce is cut first and the stand reproduced for pine with the aid of pine seed trees. More advantageous conditions for the maintenance of pine as the dominant species were in former times only present in those forests, which were at the disposal of the iron works for the production of charcoal. For the charcoal industry both species were of equal value, so that the utilization tended towards ex- tensive clear cuttings, which were quite well reproduced by natural seeding. In many of these forests mixed stands of a high degree of perfection were and can still be found, which can no longer be classed as the virgin forest covering the country, but are more or less the result of human activity. On the charcoal cuttings the resulting stands showed quite an even development over large areas, in contrast to the original irregular selection forest. Considering forest utilization, all methods of cutting are rep- resented from the one-sided and worthless selection cutting for merely the largest pine logs, down to a clear cutting, taking ev- erything, even the smallest timber. According to the good will and knowledge of the owner the actual cutting conforms more or less to silvicultural needs, and it must be remarked that in most of the Swedish forests even a slight consideration of the silvicultural needs is rewarded in a surprising manner. In central and southern Sweden especially there are forests which are alto- gether managed according to the European examples of arti- ficial forest production. And on the other hand there are still immense forests in the North which are just beginning to be ex- ploited, and in which a silvicultural treatment is out of the ques- tion. The first attacks on virgin timber, excepting the charcoal cuttings perhaps, have always been selection cuttings, taking at first only the largest and most valuable pine saw timber. These first cuttings were followed by others in which the demands for size and quality of the timber steadily decreased, especially since Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 55 the forests were more and more opened up by the improvement of rivers and streams for rafting and driving. The demands of the sawmills were at first the determining factor for the system of cutting. Forestry ideas as a rule did not gain consideration until in later stages of exploitation, if it was then still possible to consider them. This was not accomplished generally, until the spruce found a strong consumer in the wood-working industry, and since ra- tional charcoal manufacturing methods and the decrease in the expense of rafting have made it possible to utilize inferior species. The latter find their consumers in the meilers as well as in retort charcoal plants, since the smelters of Sweden still consume enor- mous amounts of charcoal—furthermore in the rapidly develop- ing export of mining timbers, in the manufacture of paper pulp, chiefly by the mechanical and sulphite process for spruce, and the sulphate process for pine. Sweden affords a conspicuous example of how the possibility of utilizing inferior species limits forest destruction and advances scientific forestry. In considerable portions of south and central Sweden, the forests have already been through all the stages of forest utiliza- tion. "The formerly high returns have decreased and, if some capital had not been used for care and management of the forests they would have deteriorated much more in their productive ca- pacity. The extensive form of forest destruction has thus gradually given way to the intensive form of forest management, as can be seen in many of the forests in central and south Sweden, where it almost approaches the German method of management. The farther north one proceeds the more extensive methods are employed, consisting largely in a mere harvest of the virgin forest. The degree of misuse of the forest has always varied as greatly as the character of utilization. The more the forests were opened up and the more accessible they were rendered for the places of consumption, the sooner the period was reached which might be termed that of misuse. On the whole, the forest of southern and central Sweden have been so misused, though in varying degrees. Norrland, however, which contains more than half of the forest area of Sweden, still contains large bodies of timberland 56 Forestry Quarterly. which have not yet attained the permissible maximum degree of utilization, The development of Sweden has advanced from south to north and the wood-industry has simultaneously advanced north with the exhaustion of the supply in the south. But in spite of the sins and errors on the subject of silviculture and forest protection, and in spite of the enormous growth of the wood industries, growth and use still seem to balance, considering the forests of the entire country. Statistics of this sort have been gathered time and again, of course with various results. According to the statistics of a committee which reported on the forest conditions in Sweden 14 years ago, the total annual wood consumption amounted to around 1,000,000,000 cubic feet, thus distributed: For domestic use of population, ...... 560,000,000 cubic feet Fot ‘wood “exon? os pow tas eee 216,000,000“ “ For wood-working industries, ........ 54,000,000 “ ss Pot’ autine industiyy sh Aces 190,000,000“ " fcc! PR OMe mate feed Seem rest) 1,020,000,000 “ " To this must be added the amount of timber left in the woods to rot, windfalls, tops, defective logs, etc., amounting, conserva- tively estimated, to 182,000,000 cubic feet. The total annual cut then amounts to 1,200,000,000 cubic feet, while the total annual growth is estimated at a little more, namely 1,218 million feet. These figures have since been contested and proven un- satisfactory. According to recent investigations the total amount of export material is estimated at almost 250,000,000 feet, that of the wood-working industry has increased to 168,000,000 and the mining industry uses over 14,000,000 feet more than origin- ally. The most indefinite figure is the largest one, that for do- mestic use. Since the great value of the forest has been recog- nized and the population has become more economical in its use of wood, at least of wood of economic value, and much of the defective material which was formerly left to rot, is now being utilized for domestic purposes as well as by the industries, the Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 57 figure mentioned for 14 years previous has probably hardly changed. Contested in the same measure as the amount of material for domestic use were the figures given on the annual yield of the Swedish forests. There are many pessimists who claim that 1,218 million cubic feet is much too high a figure for the annual growth and there is much to be said in favor of their opinion. After thorough inspection and investigation, however, I should count myself with those Swedish foresters who claim that the annual yield should be estimated still higher. According to the figures mentioned the annual use per acre of forest land is on an average not more than 22.5 cubic feet.* It should be possible to produce this result by a moderate degree of cultivation with- out disregarding the unfavorable climatic conditions on the pro- ductive capacity of the northern regions. The bulk of the Swedish forest is situated in regions which can be conservatively estimated at 35 to 40 cubic feet average annual increment. In a few years these questions, both important for the country itself as well as its consumers and rivals, will be definitely settled. Jaegmastare Wedholm has submitted to the Swedish Reichstag a bill, proposing an estimate of the total forest area of Sweden with reference to the amount of standing timber, increment, and total cut, the work to be completed in the next three or four years at a cost of about $50,000. This large task, which is similar to taking a businesslike in- ventory, will be carried out, and the undertaking proves suf- ficiently the serious attitude and interest with which the forest preservation question is regarded in Sweden. Taking part in forest utilization are, the sawmills; the wood- working plants; the charcoal industry; the mining timber and pulp export trade; the population itself for domestic uses, such as buildings and fuel. As a side issue grazing, especially of cattle and sheep, and of a few horses, must be considered as a forest use. The wood export figures up to about 200,000,000 cubic feet lumber and about 400,000 tons of wood products, with a value of about $42,000,000 and $12,000,000 respectively. Besides this about $14,000,000 must be considered as the value of wood *From the preceding figures the cut seems to figure out 30 cubic feet.—Ep. 58 Forestry Quarterly. material used in export manufactures, such as cabinet making and other industries working for export trade. About 1,400 sawmills and 150 wood working plants furnish the export material. ‘The largest item is supplied by the sawmills in the form of pine and spruce lumber, boards, planks, and deals, altogether about 158,000,000 cubic feet annually. About 12 per cent. of this is planed, chiefly spruce. The national forests of Sweden are divided into 10 inspection districts and 90 “Revir.” The government officers in charge of the latter are called ‘“Jaegmiastare”’, the inspection officers “Overjaegmastare”. The central office is the royal domain administration department with a general director, at present a forester, at its head; General Direktor Fredenberg. Four chiefs of bureau work on the forestry affair. The private forests, especially the corporation forests are managed by technical men. Some of these have previously held offices in the Government Forest Service and still retain their title ‘“Jagmastare,”’ or else they have received their training in a special course in the Government Forestry Institute at Stock- holm which does not make them eligible for government work but gives them the title of ‘Forstmeister”. The institute at Stockholm turns out the higher forestry officials of Sweden. The students previously attend either the forestry school at Omberg or at Kloten. A considerable part of the training is given along practical lines in the forest under the supervision of an instructor, during the summer months usually on some suitable National Forest. The Government Forest Experiment Station, located at Stock- holm consists of a forestry branch and a botanical-biological branch. Jagmastare Schotte is in charge of the forestry branch, and Dr. Hesselman of the botanical branch. The experimental areas are distributed all over the country and are located in government and non-government forests as well.* *For further interesting details the reader is referred to an account of an excursion of German foresters to Sweden in 1909, published in Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen, Sept., 1910, and ff. A —- THE SWEDISH FOREST CONSERVATION LAW. By B. E. Fernow. One of the most interesting institutions in Sweden in connec- tion with the new policy of influencing private forest manage- ment is that of the organization of County Conservation Boards. This institution is the result of a law enacted after an exhaus- tive investigation and report in the year 1903. It became opera- tive only in 1905, but has already in the five years of its operation accomplished much in improving conditions. Under this law, in each province or county of the Kingdom —with the exception of the two northern, mostly settled, ones of Vasterbotten and Norrbotten—a board of three or more persons is constituted to supervise the work of privately owned forests, the State forests being under a separate, efficient administra- tion. This Board consists of one member appointed by the Govern- ment, one elected by the County Council, and one member elected by the County Agricultural Society. Upon demand of the people additional members may be elected by the people. This Board chooses a technical advisor from the State forest service, whose salary is paid by the Government, and with whose assistance and a number of rangers or inspectors the Board applies the law. The remarkable and eminently wise and democratic feature of the law is, that it does not undertake to prescribe in detail what is to be done, but leaves this to the discretion of the Boards, with the mere injunction that a conservative treatment of the woods must be enforced and that regeneration or reforestation must be attended to. How this is to be accomplished is left entirely to the Board to decide. The Board, however, working under the County Council, has the power to enforce its rulings in the courts by injunctions, money fines, confiscation of logs, etc. Naturally, at first, different Boards construed the law differ- ently and applied the funds in different ways, which was undoubtedly intended by the law to give scope according to varying conditions. 60 Forestry Quarterly. There are, however, three directions in which eventually all have come to work, namely, education, assistance, and police regulations. I may cite more in detail conditions as they are developed in the province of Varmland through the efforts of the efficient expert, Lansjagmastare A. Nilsson. In this province, the State owns only 4% of the forest area, 30 per cent. is owned by large corporations, and 66 per cent. by small holders, who own at most tracts of 600 to 700 acres. The forestry expert gives three separate technical courses of instruction to woodland owners, each lasting about two weeks, namely, two in the fall on silviculture and mensuration, and one in the spring on draining, the utilization of the many peat bogs being an important problem. ‘Two lectures a day and 6 to 8 hours demonstration in the field is the time given to these courses, some four or five forest rangers assisting at the demonstrations. While attending these courses the Board pays the living expenses of those attending. The number admitted out of the 80 to go applications is 50; in five years some 200 or more men attended these courses. In addition, literature of a popularly written but technical character is distributed. Sometimes this instruction is given in combination with high schools or country schools. To those who ask for it, special advice is given in the manage- ment of their properties by sending an expert on the ground. To those who desire to plant waste lands or old clearings seed is furnished up to 50 lbs., at one-tenth of its cost, and other plant material may under circumstances be supplied free of charge. The owner has a right to cut as he pleases, but if natural regeneration fails to appear he is obliged to plant, the Board determining when the necessity for such planting has arrived. If the owner objects to the decision of the Board a special inspection is ordered, the expense of which he must pay, and at the same time he loses all claim to assistance. Although the power of the Board is great, the policy is to secure cooperation rather than to use force. By this time, owners have learned to see the advantages of these arrangements, and only speculators make trouble. Protection against forest fires may also be among the func- tions of the various Boards. In the better settled districts the fire trouble is almost passed, the population being largely owners Swedish Forest Conservation Law. 61 of woodlands have learned to use care, so that in Varmland no large fire has been. experienced in five years. Brush burning is therefore here not practised, the tops being used for charcoal and fuel generally. In other parts, more endangered, brush is burned at an expense of about 28 cents per acre. The watch tower idea was introduced 15 or 20 years ago in Jamtland, such towers being distributed about 6 miles apart, and as a result since 1go1 no large fires have occurred. Incidentally, to show how the forest fires have been reduced, it may be of interest to state that in 1888 the area burned over in the State forests was estimated at 30,000 acres, and of private forest in four provinces at over 130,000 acres. In 1908 less than 500 acres were burned over in the State forests of about 12 million acres extent. Although fires have not entirely been stopped, they have become very much rarer and less extensive. Indeed, one is struck along the railways with the absence of recently burned areas. The funds to carry out the policy of conservation boards come largely from a small duty on wood exports, namely 14 cents and 8 cents per ton respectively on dry chemical and mechanical pulp, and half these amounts on wet pulp; 7 cents per 100 cubic feet of sawed material and half that amount on saw lags and fuel wood. This is to be changed to a direct tax on all wood cut, except for home consumption. The export duty yields altogether from $160,000 to $190,000, or around 5 cents per 100 cubic feet of export material. In addition, the State pays the salaries of the experts, some $16,000, and contributions in proportion to what the county gives. This contribution by the counties now amounts to about $27,000, the State duplicating this, so that around $230,000 are devoted to this policy of maintaining or securing conservative management of privately owned forests which have an extent of around 35 million acres, i. e. about 2/3 of a cent per acre. The funds at the disposal of the various Boards vary, of course. In Varmland and Jamtland, for example, the receipts aggregate about $30,000, but by careful financial management and by not using the whole appropriation the latter province reported for 1909 funds at its disposal of over $60,000. FIXATION OF THE DUNES ON THE COAST OF JUTLAND.* By W. J. Morritt. Shifting sands are causing trouble along the Columbia River in Oregon, as well as in other parts of the United States. Hence information on the methods in Demark employed to stop the shifting of sands will be of some interest to American foresters. Along the west coast of Jutland, there were formerly forests of pine and sprucet. These forests were eventually recklessly exploited and eventually, the coast became naked, and the interior forests became sadly depleted. The west winds now swept across the peninsula unobstructed, the soil was dried out and lost its humus, exposing the sandy mineral soil and immense areas which had successfully grown forests were impoverished. Heather gradually succeeded in occupying much ground which had been forest clad, and the heather produced an acid humus, which caused an impervious hardpan to form. ‘The worst conse- quences, however, appeared near the coast; sand was carried by the wind far back from the beach, as far, oftentimes as three or four miles. In places where the sand could find lodgement in the shelter of such obstacles as large rocks or even pieces of wood, a small mound of sand would form, just as drifts of snow form in similar circumstances. Sand grasses grew on these small mounds and served to hold them in place; as the mounds slowly grew, the grass grew with them always keeping above the layers of sand which slowly form new coverings for the ambitious mound. The nearer the beach the more rapid is the growth of the mound. Eventually the small mounds grow into veritable banks and even into hills which do not even then cease growing. If the hills would arrange themselves in a single row to form a huge wall for the protection of the inner country, matters would not be so bad; but these hills are migratory. Like the true frontiersmen, they no sooner become well ater and ie scr when they break up * Adapted doe m an geo by John Cieneoe of Cptaie saa Denil +This is questionable !—Ep. Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 63 and move on further into the interior. The grass roots which have served to hold the growing dune for a long time will not serve forever to keep the sand hill from breaking; the wind may tear a hole in the west side of the hill and over the crest to the eastward goes the dune, grain by grain. In this way the wind can keep the dunes moving eastward quite rapidly. The dunes are abrupt on the west side and slope gradually on the east side. Seen from the west side they appear to be rugged mountains in miniature. This invasion of the constantly encroaching sand dunes has covered large areas of fertile land and even churches and farm buildings have been buried. In 1792 the first experiments to curb the evil were undertaken by the government. As will be seen, many mistakes were made before correct methods were adopted to control the situation. At first, the government tried to fix the dunes by sowing and planting broom, black crowberry and other herbaceous plants. Seaweed was plowed under, or “pricked out” in the sand. Some proposed to cut down the steep west side of the dunes and others opposed this method. From 1838 to 1851 no sowing or planting was done; the lack of success of previous experiments having baffled those engaged in them. ‘The first experiments at planting trees to fix the dunes were made from 1810 to 1815 but not until 1857 did the government enact a law requiring this method of procedure. In 1867 the tree planting of dunes was organized under the Dune Department with a dune inspector in charge. Previous to 1852 it was the duty of the population living in the vicinity of the dunes to contribute work intended to hold the dunes in check. The work was often badly done and, besides, was a burden fo the people. Often the people planted grasses on the tops of the dunes and the result was a higher, larger dune, much to their disappointement. In 1852 the government took the work in hand, but not until 1867 was it governed by an inspector, By 1870 the Dune Department had gained enough experience to assure them of successful methods. It had by this time determined what species of trees were able to withstand the strong, salt winds, rigorous climate and the light soil. With experience has come a material saving in the cost of methods. For example in 1853 the cost per acre for formation of a plan- tation was 262 Krone Danish, ($70.21) in 1878 it was 112 Krone Danish ($30.01). 64 Forestry Quarterly. Although the species successful in Denmark in the fixation of dunes might not succeed in America, the methods successful in Denmark, after many and costly experiments, may prove of value to the American foresters when they shall be called upon to attack the problem. Coast protection is closely connected with the fixation of sand but I shall confine myself to a description of Danish methods of fixation of sand dunes, The methods are modified in detail according to surrounding vegetation which can be used to cover the sand to prevent shifting. If heather grows in the vicinity, it is cut and spread on the sand in the holes and low places. If there is an abrupt hill it becomes necessary to level it in order that planting can be accomplished and that sweeping winds around the corners may be avoided. The heather is used to hold the sand until beach grass can be sown and take root. Ordinarily the east slopes of the hillsides are sown to this grass from above and downward in parallel rows running at right angles to the prevailing west wind. The east hillside is covered in this way only as far up as the point where the slope does not exceed 30° to 35°. The wind gradually cuts off the summit of the hill or that portion of it with more than a 30° to 35° slope and sifts the sand over the grassy east aspect, where the grass, in response to its tendencies, grows sufficiently fast to keep above the accretions of sand. After the steep summit has blown away there remains in its place a 30° to 35° slope which is sown to beach grass, as were the lower slopes previously. Cut heather can be used in place of beach grass but has to be renewed as it becomes covered. Smooth hills and plains are generally covered with cut heather and not sown to grass if there is plenty of heather at hand. Heather not only serves to fix the sand but arrests seeds of many different plants which germinate and grow, forming a permanent cover. If this cover becomes dense enough, the sand is held in place ; however, heather is preferred since it is strongest. More often the beach grass is planted instead of its seed being sown. The plants are removed by a spade which cuts the rhizome at a depth sufficient to permit new growth to start from it. Three or four pieces are planted in holes 8 to 10 inches deep made with a special spade. The distance between the holes is 6 to 9 inches, and the rows are 12 inches apart. Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 65 Limbs of pine, spruce and fir could be used as cover but would not obviate the necessity of sowing seeds of grasses, mosses or other herbs. Before trees can be planted the sands must be fixed, The limbs of conifers would serve to fix the sand until the grasses can continue and supplement the work of sand fixation, and even the grasses are more precarious than a tree cover and serve to hold the sand until the tree plantation is established. Hedges as used in coast protection might be used to advantage to control the shifting of sand along the Columbia River. A new method observed in 1908 at Blaavand, Jutland, although used for coast protection, might succeed in the Columbia River and is described as follows: Pine limbs are put down in a row, like a hedge, on the sand beach at right angles to the coast line, the distance between rows being about 220 yards. For inserting the limbs in the sand a steam pump is used, a hose with an iron pipe 8 feet long on its end being attached to the pump. The iron pipe is pointed downward on the sand and when the water is pumped through it the sand is excavated by hydraulic force. In this way a trench is made about 8 feet deep in which the branches of conifers are placed upright in three rows protuding several feet above the surface. When the sand blows up from the sea these hedges hold it and gradually there is formed a long embankment; later, on these embankments beach grass is planted and finally, after the sand is fixed, fir and pine will be planted. These hedges are made to extend as far as possible into the water in order to divert the currents from the shore. To further guard against the erosion of the banks of the shore, another system of hedges, similar in construction to that described above, is constructed to run parallel to the beach at right angles to the first described hedges. These hedges are placed about 7 yards apart and the depth is only 44 feet and 1 foot wide. The limbs are placed very close in these trenches, which here were dug with spades because the distance from the forcing and lifting pump was too great. This system of hedges not only holds much sand from shifting inland but acts as a buffer to the action of the waves. The cost of the hedges where the pump is used for excavation was $0.30 per running yard, which includes all items of expense, cutting limbs, freight, excavation of trench and placing the limbs in position. The excavation costs $0.088 per running yard. The 5 66 Forestry Quarterly. cost of the trenches excavated with spades is somewhat more, amounting to $0.40 per running yard, including all items of expense. If some of these coast protection methods should be applied on the Columbia River, a series of hedges should be built at right angles to the prevailing wind, and these connected, perhaps, with hedges running in the direction of the wind because more shelter would result from this arrangement and thereby sand grasses can be planted or sown with more rapid results. In a short time the hedges would become walls of sand on which the beach grasses would be planted and these walls would grow for many years but would be able to hold the sand from shifting inland. Eventually these dunes should be planted with trees and when these have gained a foothold the forester’s work would be finished and permanent protection from further inroads of the sand would be achieved. In Denmark, the tree species best adapted for dune planting are Pinus montana and Picea alba, of which 3 or 4 year old transplants are used. Picea alba thrives well close to the beach where the salt cold air is harmful to most species. Abies pectinata thrives well on the north slopes of the dunes and in deep depres- sions. The greater part of the dune is planted with Pinus montana especially on the west slopes. Formerly the transplants were set about 3 feet apart and the rows about 34 feet apart, but expense of thinning at a time when the products of the thinning had no value has caused the adoption of broader spacing, so that now the transplants are placed 6 feet apart, with 12 feet between TOWS. The plains between the dunes are first sown to heather and only after the dunes are fixed are the plains planted to trees, because the heather grown on the plains may be required to be cut to furnish heather to be used on the dunes as described above. When the time arrives for planting the plains with trees, furrows are plowed and a year or two after, holes are dug in the furrows with a spade and the earth loosened for receiving the transplants. Usually a mixture of spruce and pine is planted, every second plant being a spruce. Occasionally other species are used such as Picea excelsa, Abies balsamea, Picea sitchensis, Pinus banksiana and, if well sheltered, Pseudotsuga taxifolia. It is doubtful if the last two mentioned here have a future. Japanese Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 67 larch has been used in some plantations and does better than European larch. Experiments with every evidence of success are being made with Quercus pedunculata and sessiliflora, Fraxinus excelsior, Betula alba and Alnus glutinosa upon moist ground. Fagus silvatica has been used on high places. In one case it was observed that in a mixed plantation formed in 1855 on fine sand the oak had accumulated four inches of rich soil under it while a neighboring pine had made but half that amount of soil. The southwestern part of Jiitland gradually will become forested once more after a belt of forest has been formed along its west coast. The evil caused by previous generations will be eventually corrected. SUPERVISORS’ MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO. From December 13 to 16, 1910, at San Francisco, was held a Supervisors’ Meeting for the consideration of National Forest problems with particular reference to District 5. At this meeting were present the Supervisors, Deputy Supervisors, and Forest Assistants from the various National Forests in the District as well as members of the District Office. In his opening address District Forester F. EF. Olmsted empha- sized the fact that the Forest Service is charged with the protec- tion and management of property valued at many hundred of millions of dollars. Just now the guardianship is so feeble that occasionally it is quite impossible to prevent a considerable amount of the property from going up in smoke. That, of course, will be remedied. It should be considered too that utilization at the present time is very small in comparison to what it should be and what it will be in years to some. From the National Forests in California will be sold somewhat over a billion feet of timber every year and the Forest Service will be so organized and equipped as to make sure that future crops of even greater volume and better quality will follow the cutting. Every forest will be netted with roads, trails, and telephone lines and closely settled with ranger homes. Through study and scientific practice we shall increase the supporting capacity of range lands to double what they are at present and this no doubt in spite of the fact that many of the most valuable forest areas will be closed to grazing. The supervisor will be the forester and will run his forest without restriction except that necessary to keep his own policy uniform with that of his brother foresters throughout the west. Instead of supervising the work of a million or more acres he will find his hands more than full attending to the business of his forest of 200,000 acres. ‘The size of the ranger districts and patrol districts will be very greatly reduced and barring hurricanes and cyclones, fires will only occur where there is an inefficient ranger. The income from the National Forests will then undoubtedly be more than double the cost of administration. T. D. Woodbury, Assistant District Forester, in charge of the Office of Silviculture, discussed the subject of “Silviculture’s ' Supervisors’ Meeting. 69 Future Work.” In California there are about 28,000,000 acres of National Forest land containing a stand of timber estimated at approximately 90,000,000,000 ft. b. m. This is to be improved and its use regulated in such a way that the flow of streams may not be interefered with and that a continuous supply of timber may be available after private forest lands which are being cut without any thought of the future, have been exhausted. With the cutting over of the large private holdings the demand for National Forest timber will greatly increase, market prices will advance, and the Forest Service will be in a position to impose conditions upon purchasers which tend toward good forestry, the enforcement of which to-day is impracticable. This will include the removal of insect infested and diseased trees, the cutting of undesirable species to lower diameters in order to eliminate them from the stand, building of fire breaks where necessary, and the closer use or utilization of lumber now left in the tops, stumps and limbs. The intelligent management of the Forest implies the preparation long in advance of carefully worked out plans. Our so-called reconnaissance work, which is nothing more nor less than stock taking, is the first systematic step toward regu- lation. In the National Forests of California are about 2,000,000 acres of land once forested, which is not producting timber today. Of this it is estimated that only 400,000 acres will reforest itself naturally from seed trees, leaving 600,000 acres to be dealt with artificially. Great activity in the prosecution of this important work is essential. During the past year 6,000 pounds of seed have been collected for use on the National Forests in District 5, and next year the amount will be greatly increased. During the past season the seed-spot method of sowing was used entirely. The question of reforestation is still largely in an experimental stage. Areas where forests can not be started by seeding will be planted. No planting work to speak of has yet been done in northern California. However, steps have been taken to prepare for this work, and within a few years it is expected that large quantities of seedlings will be available for planting in the northern position of the State. Swift Berry of the District Office introduced the subject “Planting.” Planting for watershed purposes on land which is not capable of producing a commercial forest is desirable only in case the cover to be produced will be more valuable than the 70 Forestry Quarterly. existing brush cover. Planting problems in California, especially in the southern portion of the State, are exceedingly difficult owing to the long dry season, unfavorable locations, and enemies such as rabbits, squirrels, etc. The greater portion of the planting work in central and northern California will undoubtedly consist of direct seeding. Dr. EK. P. Meinecke discussed the matter of requiring pur- chasers to cut dead and diseased trees in timber sales in consider- ation of reduced stumpage rates. Disease and death of trees are caused not only by fungi or insects. Lightning, storm and fire are highly destructive, and man is entirely helpless as far as lightning and storm are concerned. Lightning does far more harm than it is commonly credited with, through injury to the trees, which permits the entrance of the germinating spores of injurious fungi. Aside from fire the most dangerous enemies of the forests are insects, mistletoes, and fungi. White fir suffers more from mistletoe than other species. Needle diseases are far more important in California than either in the east or in Europe. The diseases best known are caused by wood destroying fungi. Under present condi- tions the only means of getting rid of trees infected with these diseases are timber sales, administrative use, and free use. At the present time the only important help can come from timber sales. Effort is now for the first time being made to have every marked tree, whether merchantable or not, felled by the pur- chaser. The felling of unmerchantable timber requires that some form of compensation be made the purchaser. The most practi- cal way under present conditions appears to be a reduction of the stumpage rate. Ordinarily the reduction will be very small in comparison to the great benefit that will result to the forest from the decrease in the danger from fire and from insect and fungus infestation, and the benefit to the composition of the forest. On a specified sale area would be marked about 500,000 feet out of a total of 7,000,000 feet more than would be marked under old regulations. Two million feet of sound timber would have to be left standing after cutting, or 10,000 feet to the acre. Out of the extra 500,000 feet cut, which includes snags and unmerchantable, doubtful, and undesirable trees, quite a number will contain some merchantable timber to be paid for which would otherwise go to waste. The great advantage will be that on the tract will be left Supervisors Meeting. 71 only thrifty and sound seed trees. The practice of leaving diseased or over-mature seed trees is strictly comparable with raising cattle and sheep from diseased stock. The subject of insect infestation was discussed by John M. Miller, Forest Ranger. ‘The amount of damage caused by insects on the National Forests of California has never been carefully estimated. However, on some of the National Forests the pres- ence of dead and dying timber is presenting a problem so acute,‘as to force itself upon the attention of the forest officers and timber owners. ‘The presence of insect damage is less striking on account of the mixed stands, since many of the insect enemies are peculiar to only one species of tree or are capable of doing their most ser- ious damage on one host. The knowledge of a specialist is needed for the positive identification of species and the scientific super- vision of remedial work. But for the primary location of insect damage we will undoubtedly have to depend upon that all around man, the Forest Ranger. To assist rangers in helping to carry out this work there is needed a publication which will contain the more elementary portions of information relating to fungus and insect enemies of the forest. Collections of forest insects are also needed in the district and supervisors offices. The work of combating damage by insects and fungus in the west is still largely in an experimental stage, since the methods now known are largely theoretical or are based on work that has been done in the middle west under conditions which are materially different from those existing on the coast. It will take at least another year of experimentation before it can be determined what are the best methods to pursue. Mr. O. C. Merrill, Chief Engineer of the Forest Service, out- lined briefly the development of water power in California and methods of encouraging its use. Within the National Forests are approximately 15,000,000 undeveloped horse power, of which practically one-third is within the forests of California. The capi- talized value of this total undeveloped horse power is, on the basis of $100 per horse power, $1,500,000,000. In California the control of water power will eventually mean the control of all industries, especially after the present fuel supply becomes more nearly exhausted. Water is slowly displacing all other sources of power. This is evidenced by the fact that one hydro-electric company in central California is to-day practically furnishing all the power 72 Forestry Quarterly. used in 67 cities and towns. ‘The situation in southern California is largely controlled by two companies, in central California by one company, and in northern and eastern California by several small concerns. This situation is, however, not considered as necessarily detrimental to the public interest, since through consolidation and the resulting economy in the cost of power production it is possible to furnish electric energy to the consumer at cheaper rates. Federal and State regulation, each in its own sphere, are, however, essential. The subject of stream gauging was briefly discussed by W. L. Huber, District Engineer. In order to determine the availability of the stream as a source of water supply for municipal and industrial purposes, for the development of power, or for irri- gation, definite information is necessary relating to the ordinary stream flow, range of flow, and the total yield of water in fixed time periods. A plan of cooperation has been adopted between the Forest Service and the Geological Survey for supplementing existing information regarding stream flow so far as it relates to a number of the more important streams in the National Forests. This information will be of great value in supplementing data independently collected by the State and by the Geological Survey. Mr. Coert DuBois, Associate District Forester, discussed the question of forest fires. Unless fires can be kept out of the forests it is impossible to practice forestry on them. To actually protect against fire is thus the first duty of the forester. The careful working out of a complete fire protection plan is of prime importance in this work. ‘The experience of the past season has demonstrated conclusively that while preparations for fire fighting work may be satisfactory under ordinary conditions they are by no means as complete as they must be in order to provide adequate protection. The subject of “Grazing” was discussed by J. H. Hatton, Assistant District Forester. The annual forage yield of all the National Forests now supplies in round numbers 8,000,000 sheep and goats and 1,750,000 cattle, horses, and hogs, and is utilized by more than 27,000 individuals and concerns besides. furnishing free grazing to settlers, prospectors, and travelers. The manage- ment of the grazing business in California extends to about 3,000 permittees and involves 175,000 cattle, horses, and hogs, and Supervisors’ Meeting. 73 400,000 sheep and goats under paid permit. The private land business within the. National Forests in District 5 increases these numbers nearly 100 per cent. Our national Forests contro! from one-third to one-half of the public range and much of the summer sheep grazing. A conservative use of the range under Forest Ser- vice supervision had made better growth and better weights. It is the business of the Government’s foresters to make the cattle and sheep silvicultural tools if possible, instead of crowding them out altogether or allowing them to become forest enemies. Grazing must, of course, be considered secondary to silviculture, but the two interests must be as fully safeguarded as possible. The rigid grazing policy of Europe can not be generally practiced in this country on account of the great economic importance of the stock business, which must be given full and fair consideration. Grazing contributes toward the protection against fire by keeping down grass and other combustible material, and the stockmen render valuable assistance in fighting such fires as occur. There are many different opinions as to the relation between grazing and forest reproduction. The conditions differ so greatly that no general statement can be made, at least not until after careful studies have been made on many of the National Forests. Assistant District Forester C. Stowell Smith, discussed the subject of ‘Forest Products.” Besides firewood and lumber, the principal classes of forest products may roughly be enumerated as follows: Export timber, pulp wood, cooperage stock, turpen- tine and rosin, shingles and lath, cross ties, mining timbers, posts, poles, and similar products. The total value of these products amounts to about $1,075,000,000 annually. To obtain them no less than 20,000,000 cubic feet of wood must be cut. Since 1880 Over 70,000,000,000 board feet have been cut. In spite of the substitutes for wood in the shape of metal, stone, and other materials, the consumption of wood in civilized countries has never decreased. On the contrary, demands in new directions have rather increased the use beyond the saving brought about by the substitutes. One of the first steps toward bringing about a more conservative utilization of the forest products of the country must be an attempt to prevent waste in the woods and in the materials. Far more wood is wasted than is used. The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, established in cooperation with the State University, is unquestionably the best 74 Forestry Quarterly. equipped institution of the kind in the world. The lines of work conducted in the laboratory are indicated by the names of the sections into which the organization is divided, as follows: Timber Tests, Pulp and Paper, Chemistry, Timber Physics, Wood Preservation, Wood Distillation, and Pathology. The Office of Wood Utilization at Chicago carries on such investi- gations not of a scientific or experimental character as may be advisable to promote the greatest economy in the utilization of forest products. One of the important projects which is being worked out in California is with regard to eucalyptus and involves the study of the effect of season of cutting, season and method of girdling, soaking in fresh and salt water, and method of piling and climatic conditions upon subsequent seasoning. ‘The effects of bark peeling, and “S” irons are also being investigated as affecting loss of moisture, checking, and shrinking. In connec- tion with this project, and to further amplify it, arrangements have been made with the state for the erection of an experimental dry kiln near Los Angeles. This will be constructed within a year, and will be of such design that the factors affecting season- ing, such as humidity, temperature, flow of air, etc., can be accurately controlled. Studies are also being made with regard to the manufacture of paper from woods found in California. Very little has yet been done along this line, but the opportunities are very great. Redwood pulp can undoubtedly be advan- tageously utilized for the manufacture of wrapping paper and paper to pack fruit and lime boxes, since for these purposes the dark color of the paper will be no disadvantage. ‘The possibility of this utilization will undoubtedly have a strong tendency favor- able to the conservative handling of redwood tracts, since waste can be utilized at a profit instead of remaining on the ground to form a fire menace. Experiments are also in progress to deter- mine the practicability of wood distillation for the production of gas for generating power, light, and heat, as well as to determine the commercial possibilities with regard to turpentining opera- tions in western species, particularly white pine, lodgepole pine, sugar and digger pines. a CURRENT LITERATURE. Final Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Timber and Forestry, British Columbia, rto09-1910. Victoria, B. C. TOr0.)) Pp: 116. This most painstaking and comprehensive report is the finding of the three commissioners appointed in July, 1909, to make inquiry into the timber resources of the province, the preservation of forests, the utilization of timber areas, and all related matters. The first half of the report deals in detail with historical and statistical facts having a direct bearing upon the problems of forest policy that were studied. A brief history of the successive legislative enactments regard- ing grants, leases and licenses is first given. Prior to 1896 timber lands could be acquired by purchase and Crown grant in the same way and at the same rates as any other land, except that after 1888 a royalty of fifty cents per thousand feet was exacted on all timber cut. In 1896, however, lands carrying 8,000 feet to the acre, west of the Cascades, and 5,000 feet, east of the Cascades, were defined as timber lands and reserved from sale. The issuance of leases at a nominal rental per acre was begun early, in order to encourage sawmill erection. Various changes in the terms of lease and renewal were made from time to time, till in 1905 the provision for granting leases was abolished, ‘The special license system was authorized in 1888. ‘The first licenses were non-transferable and were limited, one to one person for a year and for 1,000 acres; the fee was $50 and fifty cents per thou- sand feet royalty. In 1go1, the berth was reduced to 640 acres and the fee raised to $100. In 1903, the fees were increased to $140 and $115, respectively west and east of the Cascades, the license to be taken out for any period not exceeding five years upon payment of rental for the number of years desired as a lump sum in advance. In 1905, the license system was radically changed, in that thereafter licenses would be transferable and renewable yearly for twenty-one successive years; the existing licenses likewise for sixteen years. In 1g1o, as a result of the Commission’s interim report, it was provided that licenses would 76 Forestry Quarterly. be renewed as long as there was merchantable timber on the land, at such rates and under such regulations as the government saw fit to impose. In 1907, the license system as far as unlicensed lands remained was withdrawn until further notice. Dealing next with the question of resources the report says: “It is plain that we do not as yet possess the means of making a sound estimate of the resources of Canada, and this lack of reliable statistics has a serious bearing on forestry problems.”’ As far as could be learned, there are in British Columbia some 9,000,000 acres under license, 1,000,000 acres under lease, and in private hands 1,245,000 acres together with the yet unsold portion of 5,300,000 acres granted to railways, the amount of which could not be learned. As regards the unalienated timber lands the commissoners say, to complete any estimate of our forest resources we are obliged to adopt arbitrary figures and act on the popular belief that about one-quarter of the timber land under provincial control, or 3,750,000 acres, still belong to the province —a pure conjecture” (!). The above figures, with the railway belt ceded to the federal government, would give British Columbia a total merchantable forest area of 26 million acres. ‘In the absence of statistics based upon cruise and survey we are obliged to depend very largely upon guesswork in estimating the amount of merchantable timber standing on this area.” The guess is 240 billion feet, (slightly less than Dr. Fernow’s estimate) less than half the probable stand of Canada. The report next passes to a discussion of timber supply and demand, with its resultant bearing on British Columbia condi- tions. In the opinion of the commissioners “the value of stand- ing timber in British Columbia is destined to rise to heights that general opinion would consider incredible to-day; and under careful management heavy taxation need never fall upon the population of the province—the profits from a permanent Crown timber business should make British Columbia a country of semi- independent means.”’ After some twenty pages of statistics concerning method of tenure, forest revenue, lumber cut, rise in prices, stumpage values, and cost of fire patrol and cruising, the commissioners proceed to deal with their recommendations. These are classified as con- cerning tenure, regulations and administration. It is evident that the suggestions concerning tenure would aim Current Literature. 77 at the removal of existing anomalies. To this end they recom- mend a cruise of.all Crown grant timber lands to arrive at a proper valuation for tax assessment purposes; an adjustment, on renewal, of rentals, royalties, and regulations, as between lessees and licensees to equalize payment; that rates of rental and royalty upon licenses should not be fixed more than one year in advance; -and that holders of tanbark and pulp leases should be granted the right to cut mill timber. Between 1901 and 1903, pulp leases were granted to the extent of 554 square miles. ‘These were for 21 years at a rental of two cents an acre and a royalty of 25 cents per cord of pulpwood, and carried an obligation to erect a pulp mill of specified capacity. This condition was seldom carried out, the operation becoming a sawmill business with timber procured at $12.80, instead of $140, a mile. ‘To remove this unjust compe- tition with licensees it is recommended that a cruise be made to determine the amount of pulpwood and of saw timber on the leasehold, and that the lessees be required to take out a special license to cover their lumbering rights, the rental for this to bear the same proportion to that paid by other licensees as the average stand of mill timber on the lease bears to the average stand under license in that district, less two cents an acre. The continu- ance of the present reservation of all Crown timberland is urged, with fire-damaged areas and fractional areas adjoining existing leaseholds or timber limits to be licensed first. In future sales, the berth should be surveyed and timber cruised, an upset price fixed, and license sold at auction, the timber to be removed in five years. The discontinuance of handloggers’ licenses is recom- mended on the ground that the timber is cut under conditions difficult of control. The recommendations concerning regulations and administra- tion have to do with a forest policy, in which the future of the province is kept strongly in mind. In brief, these embrace cut- ting regulations requiring the taking of all trees down to 14 inches diameter breast high and tops to 10 inches, cutting of low stumps, and use of the saw. In addition, royalties should be collected upon all merchantable timber left in the woods and operators required to dispose of debris. The organization of fire patrol system is urged, the cost to be shared equally between the govern- ment and the licensees. Later, when survey has delimited the boundaries of unalienated timber lands in any district it is 78 Forestry Quarterly. proposed that the government bear the full expense of protecting its own land and half that of the licensed land. The survey of limits by licensees should be enforced in order to clear up the confusion in titles, maps, and unalienated fractional areas. The administration machinery for all the above is recommended to take the form of a Department of Forests under the Commis- sioner of Lands, consisting of a forester with a field and office staff, the organization being discussed with some detail. It is hoped that the new university will make arrangements for the training of the technical men. The financial aspect of the forest policy is met by the recom- mendation that the royalty of the present year (some $265,000) be set apart as a sinking fund for the department, and that royal- ties of succeeding years be passed to the same account, on the ground that such receipts should be regarded as differing from any other form of provincial revenue—in fact, as capital, not current revenue. ‘This appears to us a most wise and correct attitude in recognizing that it is not increment but capital which in most cases is removed by logging operations. As time goes on and both cut and rate of royalty increases the contribution to the sinking fund could be graded. The report closes with an appendix of some 40 pages contain- ing, among other things, the interim report, regulations relating to forests, the Idaho fire law, and various data of the British Columbia Department of Lands. J. Eas Report of the Superintendent of Forestry and Irrigation fori 7909-10. Being Part VII of the Annual Report of the Depart- ment of Interior. By R. H. Campbell. Ottawa, Canada. Igto. Pp: 77. The account of the work of the year ending March 31, 1910 as reported by the various officers of the department is given in most satisfying fullness of detail, and shows that good, steady progress is being made. Especially is this the case as regards the administration of the forest reserves. ‘These, it may be stated, are situated entirely in the four western provinces. An additional three million acres have been reserved on the east slope of the Rockies, bringing the total there up to nine million acres. Work has been in progress Current Literature. 79 marking the eastern boundary. ‘To other reserves, temporary reservations aggregating 486 square miles have been added. Forest nurseries have been established on three reserves, but with indifferent success owing to the work being delegated to untrained men. ‘Two more reserves have been put in charge of permanent forest rangers. Some of the reserves have also been made game reserves and the running of dogs at large in federal parks has been prohibited—measures that have the hearty support of the people. Over 700 head of buffalo now graze within the parks. All other work on the reserves has wisely been held subservient to that of fire protection. To this end 91 miles of boundary lines of prairie reserves were burned before the snow was out of the woods. In addition, guards were ploughed 8 feet wide (in some places a double guard 4 feet wide with a rod strip between) for a total of 37 miles; railway companies did likewise to the extent of 21 miles; the average cost was $7 per mile. Roads were made along 200 miles of boundary, these averaging 9 feet in width (ultimately to be 16 feet), at an average cost of $13. These serve for transportation to fires, for back firing and for the getting out of timber by settlers. Old roads within some of the reserves were also cleaned up and 11 miles of new road, 16 feet wide, were built at a cost of $21 per mile. Besides this protective work the patrol system was extended, employing 96 men. Special attention was given to patrol along railways and construction lines, with good results. There were taken off the reserves during the year some 27 million feet of lumber. Of this, 4 million feet, besides poles, rails, posts and cordwood, were cut under settlers’ permits, giving returns of some $6,300. The balance was cut under old timber licenses. Timber seizures to the value of $3,000 attest to the activity of the forest rangers in stopping trespass. As a further preventive 408 miles of boundary were plainly marked with iron posts. The removal of hay from the reserves is encouraged. ‘There were issued 84 permits netting $197, under which 1,500 tons were cut. So far, grazing has in no way been regulated on the reserves, but already certain districts are calling for such regula- tion. Throughout, the forestry branch evidently believes that the reserves are for the judicious use of the people. The work of the Division of Tree Planting on the prairies, now 80 Forestry Quarterly. ten years in existence, has steadily grown. In the spring of 1909, some 2,570,000 trees were distributed to 2,010 applicants, and the capacity of the nursery, some 85 acres, will soon be reached. The experiment with conifers during the last three years has been very satisfactory. Seedlings of maple and ash from seed collected from regions farther south with a corresponding longer growing season were a failure. A new departure was made in the demon- stration plantations and exhibits of simple nursery methods for farmers at the Brandon and Calgary summer fairs. The division also carries on a general educational propaganda by preparing articles for agricultural and horticultural publications, distribut- ing literature, and lecturing before Farmers’ Institutes. The settler should soon reasonably be expected to grow his own nur- sery stock for his plantations and shelter belts. Owing to the rapid development of irrigation the work of inspection and survey of all projects in Alberta and Saskatchewan has greatly increased. Especially urgent is the matter of stream measurements. Of the large projects, the Canadian Pacific Rail- way Company now have 1,300 miles of canal and ditches built irrigating 250,000 acres, the Alberta Railway and Irrigation Company 238 miles covering 70,000 acres, and the Southern Alberta Land Company 47 miles of main canal. In addition there are 364 minor projects with an irrigable area of some 117,000 acres. The report closes with some twenty illustrations, new and interesting. J. Ewe Forest Fires in Canada, 1909. By H. R. MacMillan and G. A. Gutches. Bulletin 9, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 40. This bulletin is a review of the present situation and is evidently issued to help in the movement, universal throughout North America, towards a realization by the nation of the urgent neces- sity of stopping forest fires. A rough guess is made as to how much has been burned in the past 3200 years. Allowing 600,000 square miles for tundra, 700,000 for the semi-treeless subarctic region, 200,000 for prairie, and 200,000 for inland lakes and area above timber line, leaves some 1,900,000 square miles originally forested. Deduct from Current Literature. 81 this 92,000 square miles of cultivated land and 100,000 square miles of cut-over lands and there remain 1,700,000 square miles of forest, which at an estimate of 3,000 feet per acre would mean over 3,000 billion feet. But the most optimistic guess yet given for Canada’s present timber supply is the equivalent of 1,000 billion feet. Thus the conclusion is reached that two-thirds of the original forest has been burned—the equivalent of a solid forest twice the size of Ontario and Quebec combined; or, to express it otherwise, for every foot of lumber that has been pro- duced in Canada’s lifetime seven feet have been burned. Still further to accentuate the destruction that has gone on, quotations are given from the reports of exploration and survey parties. These cover every province and show how widespread has been the damage. The effects of fires on soil, future growth and waterflow, besides the timber destroyed, are discussed in detail. As regards the causes of forest fires, there is universal agree- ment among the provinces that, in order of their importance they are (1) railway engines; (2) settlers clearing land; (3) campers and travellers. Patrol is the best means of preventing fires from railway construction. Legislation requiring the companies to pay half the expense of such patrol exists only with reference to federal lands. In Ontario, however, the Transcontinental Rail- way Commission have agreed to pay one-third. Patrol along lines operating through timbered land is also in existence in the case of a few railways. In Ontario these bear all the expense so incurred by the government. The system should be extended throughout Canada. Power to examine engines should be given to officials of the fire service, as the law regarding spark arrest- ers and proper ash pans remains a dead letter. (We understand this power has lately been given to federal forest fire officials.) As regards the setting out of fires by settlers, there is legislation in the majority of the provinces requiring the procuring of a per- mit. Only in Nova Scotia and British Columbia is this rigidly enforced. The causes of fires can be guarded against only by an increase of efficiency and extension of the patrol system covering the trav- eled routes into timberland. A substitution of oil for wood in the logging engines used in British Columbia would reduce the fires there. The disposal of slash is undoubtedly the greatest prob- 6 82 Forestry Quarterly. lem in forest protection to-day. That it can be solved is evi- denced on the lands under management by the United States Forest Service. For the prevention of forest fires, what is needed more than anything else is the whole-hearted support of the public. We are only just beginning to realize the value of fire protection from the standpoint of standing timber; from the standpoint of the future growth that realization is still farther off. The de- struction will go on till lumber prices reach the cost of production. The remainder of the bulletin is given up to a synopsis of the official information regarding the season’s fires in the different provinces, and extracts from the provincial fire laws. A total of 1,134 fires was reported, burning over 435,000 acres, destroying timber nominally valued at $210,400. The returns are admittedly much below the reality, and in some provinces, notably Ontario and Quebec, no records are available. J. HWS Forest Products of Canada: 1909: Lumber, Lath, Square Tim- ber and Shingles. By H. R. MacMillan. Bulletin 11, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 30. The statistics presented are based upon schedule reports made directly to the Forestry Branch by 2,085 mills as compared with 1,409 mills in 1908. They are the first highly accurate detailed statistics issued in Canada, and of the many interesting facts we give the following. The total lumber cut reported was 3,814,942 M bd. ft. (one- tenth the annual cut in the United States) valued at about 63 million dollars. Ontario is easily the first province in lumber production, contributing 40 per cent. of the total. In British Columbia the cut of fir and cedar was greatly increased over that in 1908 so that now the province stands second, producing 21 per cent. of the whole. Quebec stands third with 17 per cent., a decrease of 7.5 per cent. from that of 1908, despite the fact that reports were received from 451 mills as compared with 277 mills the previous year. New Brunswick furnished 10 per cent. and Nova Scotia 7 per cent. Of the species lumbered, spruce formed 29.5 per cent., white pine 27.4, Douglas fir 12.3, hemlock 7.9, cedar 5.0, and red pine 4.4 per cent. Current Literature. 83 Tables are given for twenty species, showing for each the quantity and value of the cut in each province. In spruce lumber production Quebec lead with 31.7 per cent., New Brunswick next with 23.7 per cent. and Nova Scotia fur- nishing 15 per cent. While the average price in Canada was $14.55 per thousand, in United States it was $16.25 (partly the difference of the duty?), the average prices in adjacent Quebec and Maine being $14.28 and $16.56, respectively, at the mill. The total cut of white pine in Canada was about one-third that of United States. Of this Ontario furnished 85 per cent., Quebec 6, and Nova Scotia 3.4 per cent. Only the State of Minnesota cuts more white pine than Ontario. While the average price for 1908 in Minnesota was $18.19, in Ontario it was $21.08. In 1909 the average price in Ontario rose to $22.33, and for all Canada from $20.08 in 1908 to $21.55. Ontario produced 53.6 per cent. of the hemlock, Quebec 18.2 and Nova Scotia 15.7 per cent. Of the red pine cut Ontario fur- nished over nine-tenths. Among the other species, balsam is noteworthy as being the only wood of which Canada cut a larger amount of lumber in 1909 than United States. The cut totalled some 91 million ft. B. M., worth an average price of $12.85. Quebec supplied three-quarters of the cut, and now balsam stands second in the list of important woods in that province. Evidently other woods are growing scarcer in the East. The remaining softwoods are supplied mainly by British Col- umbia. The cut of Douglas fir showed an increase of 25 per cent. over that of 1908, the average price being $14.58. Cedar, next in importance, formed three-quarters of the total Canadian output of that species. The cut in British Columbia was exceptionally heavy in 1909—some 140 million feet as compared with 115 mil- lion feet in Washington State, the nearest approach. The price dropped to $13.43 from an average of $17.22 the year before. Tamarac stands fourth (after spruce) among the woods of this province, which supplied two-thirds of the total tamarac cut in Canada. The remainder was produced in Ontario (18 per cent.) and Quebec (11 per cent.). Hardwoods made up only 5.7 per cent. of the total lumber cut. Of these, birch formed 24 per cent., maple 20, basswood 19, elm 16, ash 8, and beech 7 per cent. The birch is produced in On- 84 Forestry Quarterly. tario, New Bruswick and Quebec; maple and elm practically all in Ontario; basswood in Ontario (two-thirds) and Quebec; ash in Ontario and Quebec, equally ; beech in Ontario (over one-half) and Nova Scotia (one-quarter). Thus, besides leading in the pro- cuction of white pine, hemlock and red pine, Ontario supplied two-thirds of the total hardwood cut in Canada. Canada is de- pendent upon the United States for hardwood supplies, the value of such imports in Ig09 exceeding by one million dollars the value of the home cut. The imports are mainly oak, cherry, chestnut, gum, hickory and tulip. The average price for the different species at the mill ranged, ior spruce, from $11.98 to $16.21; for white pine, from $14.42 to $22.33; for hemlock, $10.15 to $13.69; for cedar, $12.29 to $15.41; for red pine, $9.96 to $17.03 ; for balsam, $9.37 to $15.39; for larch, $11.50 to $15.50; for birch, $11.59 to $21.76; for maple, $10.27 to $18.38. Statistics of the export of hewn square timber (which is prac- tically equivalent to the production) show a total of only 41,442 tons (1 ton = 40 cubic feet). This was chiefly white pine and Lirch, valued at $31.92 and $10.63 per ton respectively. The equare timber export reached its maximum in 1877, and has since steadily declined till now it is about one-tenth the amount. In the decade 1871-80 the average white pine export was 15 times and oak 200 times that of 1909. This reflects the increasing scarcity of large sizes of first quality logs, as does also the price increase, viz., trom 12 to 38 cents for pine, from 30 to 54 cents for oak and from 15 to 22 cents for birch per cubic foot. The lath production amounted to 822,124 thousand pieces of an average value of $2.46, chiefly from Ontario, New Brunswick and Quebec. The lath cut in Ontario are white pine, in British Columbia Douglas fir, and in the other provinces spruce. The shingle cut was 1,499,396 thousand, averaging $1.86. The total value was greater than that of the lumber value of any species except spruce, white pine and Douglas fir. British Columbia produced two-fifths of the total cut. Cedar is the species mostly used, to the extent of 75 per cent., with spruce next. Most of the white pine shingles were of western white pine cut in British Columbia. J. Hao Current Literature. 85 Forest Products of Canada, 1909: Pulp Wood. By H. R. MacMillan. Bulletin 12, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 9. From this compactly written bulletin we quote the following figures which refer to domestic wood manufactured into pulp in Canada. Reports were received from 25 mills in Quebec, ten in On- tario, seven in New Brunswick, six in Nova Scotia and two in British Columbia. The latter are new mills not yet running on full time. Some ten other Canadian mills failed to report. These fifty mills used 622,129 cords of wood and produced approxi- mately 445,408 tons of pulp. The average value of the wood per cord was $4.07 in Nova Scotia, $4.69 in New Brunswick, $5.72 in Ontario, and $5.83 in Quebec. In Ontario and Quebec, where most of the wood was consumed, the price varied very little from that of 1908. Of this pulpwood, Quebec manufactured 51.4 per cent., On- tario 30.1 per cent., New Brunswick 14.2 per cent., and Nova Scotia 4.1 per cent. The consumption by species was: spruce 82.9 per cent., balsam 16.1 per cent. (a much higher percentage than in 1908), and negligible quantities of poplar and hemlock. The average prices per cord were: balsam $6.26, poplar $5.81, spruce $5.41, hemlock $4.51. These prices, however, do not rep- resent the relative value of the different species for pulp manu- facture, as they are not the purchase price in all cases; in cases where the manufacturing companies own timber limits they indi- cate only the cost of logging and transportation to the mill. Only one pulpmill in Canada manufactures sawmill waste. Three reduction processes are used in Canada. Three-fifths (60.8 per cent.) of the pulpwood was reduced mechanically, over one-third (37.2 per cent.) by the sulphite process, and the re- mainder by the soda process. In Quebec and Nova Scotia the mechanical process is largely used; New Brunswick uses the sul- phite process mostly, while Ontario manufactures about an equal amount of pulpwood by both processes. ‘The soda process is little used in Canada on account of the cost, though it can be suc- cessfully used with a greater variety of woods than the other pro- cesses. Of the wood used for mechanical pulp, spruce formed nearly four-fifths (79.3 per cent.), the remainder being balsam; 86 Forestry Quarterly. of the wood used in the sulphite process spruce formed 90.6 per cent., balsam 8.1 per cent. and poplar 1.3 per cent.; and of the wood used in the soda process spruce formed 71.2 per cent., pop- lar 20.7 and hemlock 7 per cent. (In United States hemlock is manufactured by the sulphite process entirely.) The average production of pulp per cord of wood used in the mechanical process was 1,651 pounds; by the sulphite process 914 pounds, and by the soda process 961 pounds. The average yearly consumption of pulpwood per mill in On- tario was 18,735 cords, in Quebec 12,797 cords, in New Bruns- wick 12,636 cords and in Nova Scotia 4,179 cords, Of the 445,408 tons of pulp manufactured in Canadian mills, 280,744 tons (63 per cent.) were exported, an increase of 41,000 tons over the preceding year’s export. Of this export United States took 68.2 per cent. and the United Kingdom 28.3 per cent. The prices per ton paid to the Canadian exporters were: for chemical pulp, United Kingdom $40.04, United States $39.09; for mechanical pulp, United Kingdom $10.26, United States $16.09. It is noticeable that more pulpwood is exported from Canada than is manufactured at home. Annually Canada supplies about 20 per cent. of the pulpwood manufactured in United States. Besides the wood domestically manufactured 915,633 cords were exported in the raw state in 1909. This export, representing three-fifths of the pulpwood cut in Canada, went to the United States. The consideration received for it averaged $6.28 per cord, an average value at the point of shipment of 71 cents per cord more than was paid by Canadian mills. Nearly all this export went from Quebec, the average price paid by Quebec mills being 45 cents per cord less than the export price. As the United States imports much more pulp than it ex- ports, it would necessarily have imported this pulp from Canada had it not imported the wood. Exporting the wood to the United States brought in $5,752,659. Exporting the pulp which that wood made would have brought, at the average prices paid by the United States importers in 1909, $16,719,418. If the manufacture were completed and the pulp made into paper in its final form before exporting the difference would be still greater. The pulpwood shipped from Canada in 1909 furnished 46.4 per cent. of the raw material used by the go pulp mills of New Current Literature. 87 York State, 10.3 per cent. of the raw material manufactured in the 62 pulp mills of the New England States (Maine, Massachu- setts, New Hampshire and Vermont) and 6.1 per cent. of the raw material used by the 16 pulp mills of Pennsylvania. A larger quantity of pulpwood was exported in 1909 than in 1908. The manufacture of the 915,633 cords of wood exported in 1909 kept running at full capacity for the year 69 of the 251 pulp mills in the United States. If this pulpwood had been re- duced to pulp in Canada, it would have supplied for the year 73 pulp mills of the average size of those already in Canada. The greater part of the pulpwood exported was cut in Quebec; if it had been manufactured in Quebec it would have kept run- ning 71 mills of the same size as those now existing in Quebec. te EW [All publications issued by the Forestry Branch are free on application.] Report of the State Forester of Wisconsin for 1909 and I91I0. By E. M. Griffith. Madison, Wisconsin. 1910. Pp. 136. This report is a vigorous presentation of reasons why the state legislature should carry out the recommendations of the special Legislative Committee on Waterpowers, Forestry and Drainage. This committee, after studying conditions for two years, has joined with the State Conservation Commission and State Board of Forestry in recommending that a general state tax of 2-10 of a mill be levied and collected annually for twenty years; and that the proceeds be granted to the Board of Forestry to inaugurate a fire patrol system and to purchase lands to consolidate the pres- ent reserves. The above tax will yield $600,000 yearly, and it is estimated that the cost of the patrol system will amount to $250,000 per year (13 million acres). The balance is to be used to purchase more reserve land till the present reserves of 340,000 acres are increased to two million acres, and also for their management. That the present system of fire protection is useless is shown by the fact that in 1908 one million acres were burned over with a loss of $9,000,000, and in 1910 nearly 900,000 acres with a loss of $5,000,000. The season of 1909 was very wet and the damage was small. As the writer well says: “The American people as a whole are uncivilized in their apparently stoical in- 88 Forestry Quarterly. difference to the appalling annual losses from forest fires.” At present Wisconsin has the old town fire warden system based upon the plan of putting out fires after they occur, whereas the patrol system is one intended to prevent fires starting. The system of patrol proposed is along the usual lines of organiza- tion, with speedy and adequate pay for fire fighting. Ultimately telephone lines and watch towers are to be built. In addition, the proposed legislation requires permits for setting out fires, and gives the State Board of Forestry power to order the burn- ing of dangerous slash, If anything more than the tremendous fire losses is needed to induce the legislature to take prompt action towards a definite future policy, it is supplied by the fact that in the last ten years Wisconsin has dropped from first place to eighth in lumber pro- duction. ‘The production has decreased 4o per cent. ‘The wood- using industries so valuable to the state can now obtain from Wisconsin only one-half the lumber they use. The importance to the water power resource of the State of the maintenance of forest cover is fully shown. The theory of the relation of this cover to stream flow is given, with concrete ex- amples. The report urges a continuance of the soil surveys in order to have a land classification of the state as soon as possible. ‘The establishment of a ranger school is also recommended. Besides various other matters there is included a brief ac- count of the work to be carried on in the new Forest Products Laboratory, and an outline of two special reports on “Wisconsin Wood-using Industries” and “Taxation of Forest Lands in Wis- consin.” The complete reports can be secured from the State Board of Forestry. j.. iy Wy Third Annual Report of the Oregon Conservation Commission to the Governor. Portland, Oregon. 1910. Pp. 55. This report is submitted in accordance with the law which calls for “a full account of the year’s work setting forth the condition of the natural resources of the State, together with such recom- mendations for legislation as may be deemed advisable.” It recommends, as requiring immediate legislative action, (1) the passage of a bill to create an efficient State forestry service; (2) Current Literature. 89 liberal and hearty co-operation between the State and those fed- eral agencies engaged in gathering physical data on the State’s natural resources and in the dissemination of the information so gathered. The subjects dealt with are: forests, land and stream surveys, good roads, water transportation and water laws. We can touch only on the first of these. Oregon is supposed to have one-fifth of the merchantable tim- ber in the United States. Of this, one-third is in the National Forests, the other two-thirds mostly in private hands, the State owning little. But as the Commissioners point out: “The interest of the average citizen in forest protection and use is affected very little by the passage of title to forest land; the owner gets only the stumpage, which is a small part of the value; the people get everything else. Forest wealth is community wealth.” Yet, as a result of Oregon’s apathy toward forest preservation, one and three-quarters billion feet of timber were burned in IgIo. This, if saved for manufacture, would have brought 23 million dollars into the State. The reason for such tremendous destruc- tion is that there is no machinery for actual protection. The only protection given, outside of the Federal protection of the National Forests, is the more or less co-operative patrol by pri- vate timber owners. ‘There is a State Board of Forestry which works with an appropriation of $250 a year and which has no machinery for active work (!). The forest laws, in the opinion of the Commissioners, “amount to giving in legal language the State’s gracious permission to its forests to take care of them- selves.” Hence, the immediate appointment of a State Forester with wide powers is urged, and a liberal appropriation for patrol service. The building up of a large state fire organization is not favored, but rather the encouraging and aiding of local action by those whose own interest insures the maximum efficiency with the least state machinery, the State taking charge of the situation only where this form of relief cannot be obtained. Otherwise the State has no forest service and “the forester’s entire time is occupied by fire work which he can do no better than others and he has no opportunity to do the things which he alone can do.” It is encouraging to come across a commission which so thor- oughly lives up to the limit of its duties and presents the actual conditions so plainly and forcibly. Jo FAW. go Forestry Quarterly. Protection of Forests from Fire. By Henry S. Graves. Bulle- tin 82, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1910. Pp. 48. In view of the extensive damage from fires during the past summer, the appearance of this bulletin is most timely. The entire subject of forest fires and fire fighting is briefly reviewed and summarized. A discussion of the character of forest fires, as surface fires, crown fires, and ground fires and the influence of topography, soil, and vegetation on their behavior is followed by an exposition of the damages caused by fire. Emphasis is here placed on the injurious effects of repeated burning upon the repro- duction and future condition of the forest, which is important in view of the recent popular advocacy in some quarters of the fallacious doctrine that the way to prevent fires is to burn annually. Under prevention of fires such measures as disposal of slash, lopping tops, and prevention of setting of accidental fires, receive attention, as well as the important subject of construction and use of fire lines, and the organization of a patrol, lookout stations, and telephone lines. The bulletin closes with a discus- sion of methods of fighting fire, laying stress on the importance of organization and equipment. No attempt has been made to exhaustively discuss the question of efficient fire protection for any one locality, but a complete survey of the general problem is given which cannot fail to be of great value educationally. H: Report of the Forester for 1910. By Henry S. Graves. (From Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture.) Washing- foes D.C. i910.’ FP p.07 The report shows a total area in the National Forests on July I, 1910, of 192,931,197 acres, including Alaska and Porto Rico. The changes in area made during 1909 and 1910 consisted of ad- ditions of 453,517 acres and eliminations of 2,037,645 acres due to field investigations which had been in progress during the pre- ceding year. No new forests were created. The cost of administration and protection was $0.01894 per acre and for permanent improvements $0.0031 per acre, a slight in- crease over the previous fiscal year. ‘The total receipts were Current Literature. gi $2,090,148.08. The yield from timber was $0.00541, grazing $0.00512 and special uses $0.00031 per acre, a total of $0.01084 per acre. ‘That is to say, the expenditures are still about two and a quarter million dollars above receipts. A new form of permit for the utilization of water power on National Forests has been prepared which will simplify the issu- ance of permits for this purpose and safeguard the interests of the Federal Government. The rate charged under the new form of permit “will be based primarily on the value of the land occu- pied for power purposes as measured by its capacity for the de- velopment of power, with a deduction for distance from market and for portions of the land to be occupied which do not belong to the Government. A fixed rate of $1.00 per net electrical horse- power per year is the full charge. This rate is equivalent to one sixty-sixth of a cent per kilowatt-hour.” This does not represent more than one half of I per cent. of the investment in fixed charges. The charge is made from the time the permit is issued, but at a reduced rate until a ten-year period has passed, and amounts paid during the unproductive period are credited against the rentals which will be due during the period of partial pro- duction. The aim of this scheme of payment is to discourage the holding of power sites for purposes of speculation. The executive force of the Forest Service during the year 1909-10 consisted of 2,536 persons, as follows :— SELJEES: StS 0 Re aE en DI Ra pe 140 Pe au BHIET VISOUS, ih as ops otha yal salon 106 ESS GS ite Calas, Sardines, .04 .10 “ box can Corn Beef, ae .25 te Crackers, .10 age ede |i}: Syrup, ~ .35 85 “ half gal. Lard, 16 .20 cae Matches .04 10 package Candles, .02 .05 each Soap, .04 .10 per bar Salt, o1r4 05 mall. Tea (English Breakfast), . 30 .70 ae Ve Coffee (Arbuckle’s), 16 .25 Sai ive Quaker Oats, .18 35 “ package Canned corn and peas, .09 .20 “ can Rice, .06 14 “ ib Tobacco, At standard prices Overalls, .80 1.25 “pair Cotton undershirts and drawers, .40 1.00 SSE Cotton Socks, 05 IS’ or 2: pr. Sen 2's Handkerchiefs, .04 .15. each Overshirts, .40 1.00 ‘ Towels, .10 -25 " News and Notes. 177 Dried Fruits, 15 .25 per Ib. Oil, 33 .60 “gallon Fresh Beef, .07 Ahi: a Axe handles, .27% .50 each Axes, 90 1.75 each Saws, 4.00 OBOE ry Files, que .20 } Shoes, 2.15 4.50 per pair Gloves, .9o a ae Starch, .08 15 Ss Sp: Olive Oil, .07 5 “ bottle Vinegar, .05 .25 heath Wagon Grease, .071%4 .15 can RCATI Spices, .07 kh ii. ean Tents, 10x12, 19.00 25.00 each Bedquilts, 1.50 2.50 Oranges, 2.00abox .60 per doz. (200 in a box) Galvanized Pails (12 qt.), 55 1.00 each Sugar, .06% 12% per Ib. Fry pans, 20 -35 each Canteens, .70 1.25 per gallon Half Soles, .22 .40 each Watermelons, 1.85 5.00 pet cwt Cigarette papers, .02 .05 “book Vermicelli, .07 .20 =) ib: Onions (dry), .03 -I0 each Onions (green), .40 .60 a dozen bunches Radishes, .40 ions 4 x Eggs, 25 .50 Tr doz Dried Beef, .25 SON a lbs Few simple medicines, At standard prices Garlic, .50 1.60 per Ib. Specifications for ties filed by fifty-one of the largest railroads in the United States and four in Canada show 78 species that will be accepted for ties. ‘Twenty-one of these species are soft woods and fifty-seven are hardwoods. ‘This list includes most of the important woods of the country in which those marked with an asterisk are listed for preservative treatment by most of the larger railroad systems: Softwoods. Cypress*, Douglas fir*, Hemlock*, Jack pine*, Loblolly pine™, Redwood, Shortleaf pine*, Red pine*, Sitka spruce*, Lodgepole pine*, Longleaf pine*, Pinon pine, Southern white cedar, Spruce pine*, Western hemlock*, Red Cedar, Tamarack, Red Spruce (Douglas fir), Red fir (Douglas fir), Northern white cedar, Western yellow pine, Yellow cedar. 12 178 Forestry Quarterly. Hardwoods. Beech*, Black gum*, Black oak*, Bur oak, Butternut*, Black jack oak*, Black Walnut*, Catalpa*, Cherry*, Chestnut, Chestnut oak, Chinquapin, Cork elm*, Cottonwood*, Cow oak, Coffee tree, Hackberry*, Honey locust*, Laurel oak*, Live oak, Locust, Mockernut hickory*, Osage orange, Overcup oak, Pignut hick- ory*, Pin oak*, Post oak, Red elm*, Red gum*, Red maple*, Red mulberry, Red oak*, River birch*, Rock elm*, Sassafras, Scarlet oak*, Shellbark hickory*, Shingle oak*, Soft maple*, Spanish oak*, Sugar maple*, Sweet birch*, Sycamore*, Sugar berry*, Slippery elm*, Swamp maple*, Swamp white oak, Tupelo*, Turkey oak*, Water oak*, Water hickory*, Western red cedar, White ash*, White elm*, White oak, White pine*, Willow oak*, Yellow birch*. It is assumed that a tie contains 42 board feet and has an average value of 50 cents. Wages for Woods Labor. The Secretary of the Western Pine Manufacturers’ Association recently sent out a letter to the members of the association asking what wages they were paying in the woods this winter. Replies were received from 16 of the members and below are given the lowest, the highest and the average of wages being paid: Yarding hook tenders, $2.75, $5.00, $4.00; Rigging slingers, $2.75, $3.50, $3.00; Yarding firemen, $2.25, $3.00, $2.60; Wood- buckers, $2.00, $2.75, $2.50; Chasers, $2.25, $3.00, $2.60; Oilers, $2.00; Headloaders, $2.75, $3.25, $3.00; Second loaders, $2.50, $3.00, $2.66; Spooltenders, $2.50; Choker men, $2.25, $2.50, $2.37; Signal men, $2.00, $2.75, $2.37; Knotters, $2.25, $2.50, $2.37; Snipers, $2.50; Swampers, $2,00, $2.75, $2.40; Buckers, $2.75; Headfallers, $2.50, $3.00, $2.75; Second fallers, $2.50, $2.75, $2.56; Undercutters, $2.50; Road engineers, $2.75, $100 per month; Brakemen, $2.00, $3.00, $2.75 ; Locomotive engineers, $100 to $125 per month; Locomotive firemen, $2.75 per day to $65 and board per month; Boom men, $2.50, $2.75, $2.62; Skid- road men, $2.75; Railroad graders, $2.00, $2.75, $2.35; Section men, $2.00, $2.40, $2.20; Landing builders, $2.60; Flunkies, $2.50, $40 and board per month; Pump men, $2.50; Cooks (18 to 40 men), $50.00, $75.00, $66.66; Cooks (40 to 75 men), $60.00, $100.00, $77.00; Cooks (100 to 125 men), $120.00; Bull cooks, News and Notes. 179 $2.00, $2.50, $2.25; Blacksmiths, $65.00, $100.00, $82.00; Black- smith’s helpers, $2.20, $3.00, $2.40; Night watchmen, $2.00, $2.50, $2.16. West Coast Lumberman, November, 1910. A very remarkable development in the wood alcohol manu- facture has taken place during the years from 1907 to 1909. In 1907 the so-called de-natured alcohol law took effect, and as was to be expected the price of wood alcohol dropped in 1907 to 15 cents from 34 cents in 1906. Indeed, it was supposed that wood alcohol would be entirely crowded out of the market. Instead, the industry of wood distillation, according to official figures of the Bureau of the Census, has, if not increased, yet held its own, and prices for wood alcohol at the same time have improved to 17 cents in 1908, and 24 cents in 1909. ‘The total value of products in 1909 was still $8,330,000 representing a consumption of 1,265,- ooo cords. The average cost per cord, $3.21, represents a rise over the price of 1908 by 8 per cent. and by 2 per cent, over that of 1907. A new method of clearing logged-off lands is by the charpit. This was worked out on the clay lands of the Pacific coast but has also proved a success on sandy lands. The new process was devised by Prof. H. W. Sparks and will clear the western lands of stumps in 2 to 3 weeks at a cost of $20 per acre. An excava- tion is made around the stump which is filled with cinders, covered with gravel or cracked rock on which was smeared fuel oil or coal tar. This is covered with kindling and lighted after which it is covered with clay in order to retain the fire and heat. It is estimated that the forest fires of 1910 in Montana and Idaho damaged 1,871,000,000 feet of timber, most of which was privately owned timber in Idaho. In Oregon there was less organized co-operative fire fighting with a loss of 1,250,000,000 feet. It is also estimated that the timber owners in these three states spent $667,000 and saved resources easily worth $4,000,- 000,000. Adequate fire protection can be given at two to ten cents per acre if the proper co-operation is secured. An important announcement has been made by the Ontario 180 Forestry Quarterly. Crownlands department that a series of experiments will be con- ducted during the winter of 1910-11 in burning brush in the Rainy River district. The result of this work will be watched with interest in the United States where the northern pine forests are so badly in need of adequate protection. A $4,000,000 paper mill has just been established at Toma- kamai, Japan, in which all the heavy machinery was manufac- tured in the United States. The daily output of this mill is about 70 tons each 24 hours which is over one-half of the amount con- sumed for news and book paper in the entire empire. ‘The avail- able supply of native timber is estimated to last 50 to 100 years. It is believed that Japan will now become an exporter of wood paper. A shipment of 70,000 railway ties of “stringy bark” (Eucalyp- tus obliqua) left Hobart, Australia, in October for the United States and two shipments of the same size will be made in March and June, 1911. ‘The species lasts 15 years or more as a tie where the precipitation is 20 to 60 inches; the wood is not easily in- flammable, holds spikes well and is comparatively immune from the attack of white ants and other land insects. Formerly shuttlewood was secured from Turkish boxwood which was imported from countries near the Black Sea. About 25 years ago the makers of roller skates commenced using this wood and increased the prices so that native dogwood and per- simmon were substituted, the former being preferred. The limited supply of these species has led to present experiments with Pacific dogwood, California valley mahogany, cascara buckthorn, madrona, goldenleaf chinquapin, Pacific yew, and red gum. Cork oak is being experimented with at Brownsville, Texas. It is said that a barrel of acorns is planted each year and that wherever live oaks are found growing on the shifting sands in this vicinity that cork oak will also thrive. The trees of cork oak already planted are making a good growth. Japanese oak is being used to a considerable extent along the Pacific coast owing to the high freight rates on the better grades News and Notes. 181 of our own eastern oaks. This foreign oak can be supplied at $8 to $10 per thousand cheaper than our eastern oak. Wagon hubs made from cemented sections are being manu- factured at Batavia, Illinois, and are said to be greatly superior in strength to solid wood. It is proposed to use inch material which shall be built up on edge 5 inches wide on a standard 3} axle. In place of using solid hickory at $65 to $70 per M, cheaper inch stock is used which may have greater defects but still be stronger than the solid hickory. It is claimed that the compound axle will be sold for about the same as the price for the green one-piece stock of solid hickory. A pronounced development of recent years is the use of fibre material in building operations. This has already caused a higher use for jack pine in the form of sulphite fiber. A single order for ten million feet has recently been made by the Great Northern Railroad company for one of these patented fiber ma- terials to use in lining refrigerator cars. It is reported that a new concrete railroad tie has been patented by a resident of Stockton, California. The tie is made in two sections, being disjointed in the middle to give elasticity. A cross section extends out on each side, slightly leveled from center bearing to each end of the section to allow the rail the necessary spring. A steel bar, countersunk, is placed on top of the tie section, which joins the rail, extending under and clamping on the outside of the rail, while a steel clamp on the inside of the rail resting against a boss on the steel bar and inside of the rail, is secured to the tie by a bolt. This arrangement it is claimed, makes it impossible for the rails to spread or turn over. The U. S. Government has recently issued new grading rules for all southern yellow pine sold to any department. These rules are published in Southwest for October, 1910. A remarkably well written, illustrated article on the “Early Progress Made in the Manufacture of Woodworking Machinery” is published in Wood Craft for January, 1911. The article com- 182 Forestry Quarterly. prises 26 pages and includes the most noteworthy advances that have been made since 1776. The fifth annual convention of the Michigan Forestry Associa- tion was held at Kalamazoo, November 16. The following offi- cers were elected: President, Charles W. Garfield, Grand Rapids; vice-president, John H. Bissell, Detroit; Secretary, Filibert Roth, Ann Arbor; treasurer, W. B. Mershon, Saginaw. A new department of woods and forestry has been established at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City with Miss Mary C. Dickerson in charge. A bill to create a Bureau of National Parks is before Congress, for the purpose of concentrating the “supervision, management and control of the several national parks and national monuments, etc.” Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, has been offered ten thousand acres of wild land for forestry demonstration pur- poses by Joseph Battell. Last autumn the Province of Quebec opened its new School of Forestry which is affiliated with Laval University. Students are admitted only after one year of training in the woods under the direction of the Department of Lands and Forests. At a meeting in Washington on January 13 an Association of Eastern Foresters was formed for the furtherance of forest work in that section. Alfred Gaskill, State Forester of New Jersey, was chosen Secretary, the only officer, and a constitution was adopted, limiting the membership to forest officials and forest (?) instructors attached to universities or State schools of for- estry in the New England and North Atlantic States, including Maryland. Other professional foresters may also be elected. A conservation association has been organized in Georgia with Judge John C. Hart as president. The policy will be to protect forests at the headwaters of streams and useless destruction of News and Notes. 183 reproduction. There will be a strong effort to reclaim swamp lands. The semi-annual session of the Western Forestry and Conser- vation Association was held December 5 and 6 in Spokane, Wash- ington. The papers and addresses presented at the meeting are given in the American Lumberman for December 17, 1910. The forestry world of Canada was once more stirred up by the Prime Minister, Sir Wilfred Laurier, who called a forestry convention at Quebec in January of this year, the arrangements to be made through the Canadian Forestry Association. The meeting was well attended by many prominent men from all parts of the Dominion, and a number of men, mostly professional for- esters, from the States, the Forest Service being represented by Mr. Peters. The Canadian Commission of Conservation was holding its annual meeting at the same place and week, lending additional prestige to the occasion. The educative value of the convention—and that is all that can be expected of such gather- ings—was undoubtedly considerable, not the least on the many lumbermen present. The fire question naturally came in for the lion’s share in the discussion, and it appeared that the down- ing of tops at least, if not the burning of brush, was admitted to be not an altogether impractical proposition. The Commission of Conservation of Canada held its annual meeting in Quebec on January 17. It was a short business session, at which the chairman, Hon. Clifford Sifton, reported on the work done by the permanent force at Ottawa, which will form the subject matter of a forthcoming report. Amendments to be recommended for legislation in the law defining the responsi- bility of railroads with regard to forest fires were discussed and adopted. A bill to regulate the use of water powers was en- dorsed. Silva for July 1, 1910, gives Dr. Fernow’s “History of For- estry” a highly appreciative review, lamenting only its publica- tion in the English instead of the German laguage. The reviewer, Dr. Jentsch, of Miinden points out that this is the first attempt to give a careful survey of the rise of practical forestry in the various parts of the world. 184 Forestry Quarterly. The forty-fifth edition of Gurley’s Manual of surveying and engineering instruments is an enlargement and improvement in make-up of this excellent publication by the well-known, leading firm of W. & L. E. Gurley, at Troy, N. Y. The illustrations of transits in colors add much to the ease with which the details of the instruments can be seen. Mr. C. S. Chapman has resigned his position as District For- ester in the Forest Service in charge of District 6 with headquar- ters at Portland, in order to accept the position of Secretary of the Oregon Forest Fire Association. The position of District Forester has been filled by the appointment of Mr. George H. Cecil, who formerly held the position of Associate District For- ester, in the Portland office. Mr. Chapman entered the forest service as a student in March, 1900, and as a forest assistant on July 1, 1902. He secured his technical training in forestry at the Yale Forest School. Mr. Cecil entered the forest service as a student assistant in the summer of 1903 and as a forest assistant on July 1, 1905. His technical training was secured at the Bilt- more Forest School. Mr. W. R. Fisher, Assistant Professor of Forestry at Oxford, known to American foresters by the volumes on Forest Protection and on Forest Utilization of Schlech’s Manual of Forestry, died on November 13, 1910. Mr. Fisher was in the Indian Forest Service from 1872 to 1889, during that period becoming Director of the School of Forestry at Dehra Dun and Conservator of For- ests of the School Circle. In 1890, on account of ill-health, he left India and joined the School of Forestry at Casper’s Hall, coming, in 1905, with that school, to Oxford. In connection with his teaching every year he conducted educational tours through the European forests. He was closely identified with the progress of the Royal English Arboricultural Society and the place of the Society’s Quarterly Journal of Forestry in forest literature is due entirely to Mr. Fisher’s labors. COMMENT. After a long and persistent struggle through several years the measure to establish forest reservations in the eastern states under federal authority and at federal expense has become a fact. What a change of heart and of principles in government policy has been wrought in the last two decades! In 1890, we were still strug- gling to convert the land policy of the United States to a saner attitude with reference to the timberlands. We were then told that it was entirely contrary to the spirit of American institutions for the federal government to own lands, except for disposal, that it would be entirely incompetent and improper for it to man- age any of its own lands for continuity. At that time any one who would have suggested that the government might buy lands for the purpose of management would surely have been desig- nated as fit for the lunatic asylum. At that time—it was during President Cleveland’s first administration—even co-operation on experimental lines with a state institution was frowned upon as undemocratic. These were, indeed, “road breaking” times! Those of a later generation who have reaped the results of these early struggles have little idea of the discouragements which beset the forest reformer of those days. It should never be forgotten that to John W. Noble, Secretary of Interior, under President Harrison, (and to those who edu- cated him up to it), belongs the credit of having first recognized the need and having taken the first practical step towards a change of the land policy of the United States, when he insisted in con- ference committee at the last hour of Congress upon the insertion into the law of the clause empowering the president to set aside forest reservations. That these reservations must be specially managed was then still a matter, which needed years of educational effort to make clear. Meanwhile, through the inconsiderate action of President Cleveland upon the representations of the Academy of Science, in doubling with cne stroke the area of the reservations without any provision for their use, the whole reservation policy was very nearly abolished and the hard-earned beginnings lost. President 186 Forestry Quarterly. Cleveland came near impeachment through his action, and only the ending of Congress saved the situation. Undoubtedly, the propriety of the purchase of these lands may be questioned in principle, but expediency, which in American government counts often for more than principle, justified the action as long as the individual States are remiss or financially incapable of doing their duty. It is to be hoped that both the purchase and the final manage- ment of the Appalachian and White Mountain reservations will be wisely done and recommend themselves to the people at large, so as to invite an extension of this policy. If the object of Canada is what it once avowedly was, namely “to get rid of her timber,” the proposed reciprocity arrangements with the United States will undoubtedly help it along. The opening of a wider market cannot help but induce increased effort to supply it. That is, of course, what the United States—some of her people—want. As long as the individual Provinces who control the commercial timber area of Canada keep the restriction, which makes the manufacture of the raw materials in Canada a condition of their timber licenses, only the private lands will be more rapidly stripped. Of such there are hardly more than ten roillion acres in existence. But the pressure which will be brought upon the governments to open the door may be too strong for them to resist long. If, before that time, the organization of strong forestry bureaus could be brought about and the cutting be done under reason- able forestry regulations, the reciprocity arrangements might be a blessing for Canada—otherwise not. Whether the United States will be the gainers is open to question. Here is one point that is not generally recognized in the discus- sions and which makes the timber trade a business to be considered by itself: In the exploitation of virgin forest the percentage of high grades that can be secured is small, rarely more than 20 per cent. The low grades which inevitably fall at the same time from the saw are a drag if not a drug in the market. These will also be increased from Canadian sources as far as cost of trans- portation does not prevent; wasteful use must be the result. Another point that has truck us, as strange, is that these questions are always discussed merely with reference to the Comment. 187 present and with little or no consideration of the future. Here again exhaustible natural resources are on a different plane from manufactures, and conservative policy much more required. More attention has been paid to the forest fires of the past year than ever before and this is especially true of lumber jour- nals, general magazines and newspapers. ‘The total damage during the past year was greater than at any time in our history notwithstanding the fact that the efforts to prevent and control forest fires by lumbermen, states and the national government are much greater than was true when the previous disastrous fires occurred. The year’s experience again emphasizes the fact that our fore- most forestry problem is adequate fire protection. The efficient work done by the private Forest Fire Protective Association in the northwest has greatly impressed all private owners of large holdings and will have a salutary effect in the formation of new associations as well as a better appreciation of state and national work. Some of the most authentic lumber journals state that these private organizations did better work than the ranger force on National Forests but this may perhaps be largely accounted for by a difference in natural conditions. Nearly every journal unites in the demand for better appropriations for the National Forest Service while some authors justly condemn the congressmen and senators from the northwest who have done all they could to limit Forest Service appropriations. The House of Representa- tives having on February 11 passed.a bill making a contingent appropriation of $1,000,000 for fire fighting, the possibility of more effective protection is probably given. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year course is offered, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma, provided they have taken certain pre- scribed undergraduate courses. The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Penn. The session in 1911 will open July 5 and continue ten weeks. For further information, address JAMES W. TOUMEY, Acting Director, New Haven, Connecticut The University of Toronto and University College Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry. The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. For informatien, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties, HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on application to W.C.SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, Mass. UNIVERSITY OF MAINE ORONO, MAINE Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTY. The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to Students of Forestry are excellent. For detailed information, address JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE. ERIC FOREST SCHOOL Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213 Preparatory course in FORESTRY leading to the Biltmore and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of leadership. SUMMER CLASS; also TUTORING. F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director Back Numbers FORESTRY QUARTERLY For Sale at 50 cents per Number Address Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard St., Cambridge, Mass. JOHN WILEY & SONS’ SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS GRAVES—The Principles of Handling Woodlands. By Henry Soion Graves, Chief Forester, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Large 12mo, 335 pages, profusely illustrated with line and half-tone cuts. Cloth, $1.50 net. SOLOTAROFF—Shade-Trees in Towns and Cities. Their selection, planting, and care as applied to the art of street decoration; their diseases and remedies; their municipal control and supervision. By Wit11Am Sororarorf, B. §., Secretary and Superintendent of the Shade-Tree Commission of East Orange, N. J. 8vo., xviii+287 pages. Cloth, $3.00 net. Beautifully illustrated with original photographs by the author consisting of 46 full page plates and 35 figures in the text, comprising 229 half tones and 22 line illustrations. Field Book for Street-Tree Mapping. Blank Field Books for enumerating street trees when taking a tree census, may be obtained from the publishers. Field Books 44 x 72 inches, 160 pages. Price, 75 cents net each, and $8.00 net in lots of one dozen. NEW EDITION REWRITTEN KEMP—WAUGH—Landscape Gardening. How to Lay Out a Garden. By Epwarp Kemp, Landscape Gardener. Edited, Revised and Adapted to North America by F. A. Waucu, Professor of Landscape Gardening, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fourth Edition. 12mo, xxii-+-292 pages, 30 full-page half-tone plates and 70 figures. Cloth, $1.50 net. 43 and 45 East 19th Street, NEW YORK CITY London: Montreal: CHAPMAN & HALL Limited. RENOUF PUBLISHING CO. The Care of Trees in Tawa, Street and Park B. E. Fernow American Nature Series. Working with Nature. Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910 392 pp. 8.° Illustrated. For Sale by Price, $2.00 Net Henry Holt & Co., New York ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Pro- fessional and Lay Student . By B. E. FERNOW 12mo., $1.50 net. By mail $1.65. “It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with American conditions.’’ EDWARD M. SHEPARD, New York. ‘I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for.’’ PROF. F. ROTH, University of Michigan. “*T have read few books on for- estry with as much enjoy- ment.’”’ PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH Eberswalde, Germany. For sale by T. Y. CROWELL & CO., New York. 50,000 MORE WORDS Than any Previous Webster Webster’s Universal Dictionary ate Myst Nt ai con Sale a capone MAS | Cute VEAPPENDIE The King of Dictionaries CAUTION—This Dictionary is not pub- lished by the original publishers of Web- ster's Dictionary, or by their successors. It’s the Latest Webster New from A to Z 1911 Edition Send Postal for sample pages and particulars regarding Free Atlas Introductory Offer The Saalfield Publishing Co. Akron, Ohio. EVERGREEN AND FOREST TREE SEEDLINGS AND TRANSPLANTS ALSO Seeds for Forest Planting Immense quantities of following hardy valuable sorts. White Pine, Scotch Pine, Ponderosa Pine, Jack Pine, Austrian Pine, Douglas Fir, Balsam Fir, Norway Spruce, White Spruce, Red Spruce, Hemlock, etc., etc. Deciduous Trees Larch, Beech, Birch, Maple, Ash, Walnut, Locust, Elm, Oaks, Catalpa, Speciose, Wild Cherry, Linden, etc., etc. Tree Seeds—Guaranteed New Crop A complete assortment of all valuable species, both Native and Foreign. High Germination Quality. WRITE FOR PRICES Mention this Magazine D. HILL Largest Grower in America Evergreen Specialist Dundee, Il. FPounded—is855 On the Market i i Ys, Since 1876. SOOO = ror ‘*Carbolineum is a very effective wood preservative, which has the advan- tage that it is readily absorbed by the wood and hence cheaply applied.’’ (Statement by a forester of acknowledged reputation.) “Tt is a tree wash of great value in preventing the various diseases and affectations of the trunk and branches.’’ JOHN B. SMITH New Jersey State Entomologist. Circulars and Bulletins upon request. CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO. 185, Franklin Oty New York, N. Y. STETSON & ALPAUGH Foresters aa Surveyors 180 Exchange St., Bangor, Me. Examinations, Reports, Maps, Woods Surveying, etc. Send for pamphiet. MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN By AUSTIN CARY. Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge, 1910; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00. A newly revised and improved edition of the above publica- tion, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can be had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass. FOREST TREES Seedlings and transplanted; Millions in stock. All very fine stock, hardy, well rooted and free from disease. Catalogues and Forest Planters’ Guide free on application. Shipments of 160 Millions of Plants Annually. Largest Nurseries in the World. HEINS’ SONS Halstenbek 153 Nr. Hamburg, (Germany) The completion of our new DRYING AND CURING PLANT at WILLSBORO, N. Y., indicates the introduction into this country of more scientific methods in the cleaning and curing of Forest Tree Seeds. As the new crop of white and red pine seed is ready for shipment, may we not hear from you soon, asking quotations? We have also other species of native and foreign seeds. The North-Eastern Forestry Co., Box 1131 New Haven, Conn. FOREST TREES! FOREST SEEDS! F.0.B. ROTTERDAM Seedlings and Transplanted. By the Million PETER SCHOTT, KNITTELSHEIM Rheinpfalz (Palatinate), GERMANY Wholesale Seeds and Nurseryman ESTABLISHMENT FOR DRYING CONIFEROUS SEEDS ESTABLISHED 1784 The oldest established Seed and Nursery Business in Germany DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES POST FREE ON APPLICATION = - Prof. Dr. H. Mayr, Munchen FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vor. IX.] JUNE, IQII. [ No. 2. FORESTRY AND THE LUMBER BUSINESS. By J. E. RuopeEs.* Forestry in its larger sense means the preservation of the forests for use. Using the forests involves lumbering; there- fore forestry and lumbering must eventually become one con- sideration. Forestry which does not contemplate the use of the forest is not practical forestry and will not appeal to practical men. It is, therefore, necessary that the forester should know something of the conditions and necessities of the lumber business. Up to the present time the United States Forest Service has taken the majority of the graduates of the forestry schools, but the time is not far distant when the Government will have a staff sufficient to handle its own work, when trained-foresters must look to other fields for the exercise of their professional abilities. Consequently, the attitude of the lumbermen and timber owners toward your chosen profession must be of direct interest to you. While I do not speak with authority, I am more or less familiar with the views which are held by many of the progressive men of the lumber industry upon the subject of forestry. It is not strange that the generation of lumbermen now passing had but little patience with the theoretical forester. The evolution of economic conditions is only just now beginning to make possible the consideration of the application of scientific forestry prin- ciples to lumbering operations with any hope of financial gain. While it is true that forestry methods are adaptable to lumbering in a small way in certain localities and in certain species of tim- ber, it is impossible to apply them to the large lumbering opera- *Secretary, Weyerhauser Lumber Company. 196 Forestry Quarterly. tions in the Lake States, in the Southern States and in the States of the Pacific Coast. The lumber business has gone through several stages of de- velopment. Like everything else, it has proceeded along the easiest and most natural lines. Up to 1897 it was not considered more profitable than the majority of manufacturing industries ; indeed, not as profitable as the average. Up to that time the views of our fathers still prevailed to the effect that the forests should be cut as rapidly as possible in order that the land might be opened for settlement. With the prosperity and expansion of the nation, which began in 1898, the consumption of lumber increased beyond all precedent, and continued in a large way up to the close of 1907, when it was checked by the panic. During the ten years from 1898 to 1907 the abnormal demand for lumber was at times beyond the ability of the mills to supply. This re- sulted in the development of new fields of timber in the South and West, gave a value to many kinds of timber which had been previously considered almost worthless, and stimulated the build- ing of many new mills. This exploitation and development of the lumber industry did not cease until the producing capacity far exceeded all reasonably possible demands for lumber. With the increased wealth of the people the demand for lumber increased per capita. From 1900 to 1908 the increase in population was estimated at 22 per cent., while the increase in the consumption of lumber was 65 per cent. The consumption of lumber per capita has been figured as 360 feet in 1890; in 1900 it was 460 feet, and on the basis of the census of I910, it was practically 500 feet. Answering to the laws of supply and demand, the price of lumber advanced considerably during the period between 1898 and 1907. It was during these years that the public generally first came to realize that the timber resources of this nation are not inex- haustible. This realization marked the second stage in the de- velopment of the lumber industry in this country. It, together with the extraordinary demand for lumber, caused the value of standing timber to advance sharply. In 1890, Northern pine stumpage, the estimates of which included only the very best white pine, was sold for from 75 cents to $4.00 per thousand feet, depending upon its location and character. To-day it sells from $6.00 to $14.00 per thousand feet, and the estimates cover everything on the land, including white and Norway pine, tama- Forestry and the Lumber Business. 197 rack, spruce, balsam, jack-pine and anything that will make a saw-log. Yellow pine timber in the Southern States was con- sidered of very little value and twenty-five years ago sold for 50 cents to $1.00 per thousand feet. To-day the production of yellow pine constitutes nearly one-half the total lumber output of the United States, including the hardwoods. Yellow pine stumpage has risen from practically nothing to from $3.00 to $5.00 per thousand feet. In 1890, the total production of lumber in the Lake States was over nine billion feet, while in 1910 it was only about two billion. More than five hundred mills which were at one time or another sawing Northern pine in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, are no longer operated, because there are no more logs to saw. While the output has declined in the Lake States, it has rapidly increased, because of the building of new mills, in the South and West, so that the aggregate production of the country has been growing. The census reports show the following lumber pro- duction of the United States in recent years: MENS Ge erate asd ae. fe ers 34,135,139,000 feet. MOM TM Es ia) 2's tha he Sevtratee& 37,550,730,000 “ MER FEMS aN okey Si kh toa a tats vinta 40,256,154,000 “ MRR TRM NG Sik 2isF 2 2 50e sale 03 ba 33,224,369,000 “ 2 ae! DAA ee pees 44,585,000,000 “ The decline in the production during 1908 was due to the finan- cial depression following the money stringency of the last quarter of 1907. ‘The entire lumber industry has been marking time since that panic. It is one of the very few businesses which has not fully recovered from the effects of the decline in prices suf- fered at that time. But it is significant that while the prices of lumber declined, the prices of standing timber did not. Due in part to the completion of new mills under way, the total produc- tion of lumber in 1909 was the largest in the history of the nation. There is every reason to believe that the lumber production of the country has about reached its maximum. If generally favorable business conditions are to continue for a few years, it is evident that with the decline in the output, the lumber business will soon enter upon the third stage of its development; namely, the adop- tion of conservative methods of handling timber. It is therefore 198 Forestry Quarterly. easy to see why lumbermen are coming to realize that something must be done if their business is to be prolonged indefinitely. As long as the prices of lumber have barely covered cost of produc- tion, as has been the case with the great majority of manufac- turers since 1907, no thought, whatever, can be given to forestry methods. Lumbermen know that timber products are indispen- sable to our civilization and that they can continue to be manu- factured and consumed in the present volume but a few years at best. When in the course of natural events prices of stumpage have risen to the proper basis, other conditions being favorable, scientific forestry will surely be adopted by lumbermen. They are too intelligent business men not to undertake those methods which will perpetuate their supplies of raw material and prolong their business. If forestry cannot be undertaken with profitable results it cannot be considered at all by private individuals, as they cannot be expected to conduct a work of this kind at a loss to themselves, no matter how much they may be prompted by sentiment or regard for future generations. The price of lumber must reach a point where it will pay to grow trees or forestry cannot be thought of. The time when forestry can be seriously considered as a business proposition, therefore, depends entirely upon the development of economic conditions. It is to help them hasten these conditions that lumbermen will appeal to the for- esters. Hence, the interests of the lumbermen and the foresters in working to this end are mutual. Aside from the present inadequate value of stumpage, the two great obstacles to forestry are, as you know, fire and taxation. When these problems are solved, the field for forestry will be open in America. If the professional forester is looking toward a vocation in economic forestry, outside of the Government ser- vice, he must first address himself to the task of subduing forest fires. A field which promises some opportunities for trained foresters in the immediate future is in the service of the States. A num- ber of the State Legislatures are at this time considering the establishment of State forestry work which will require the ser- vices of technically trained men. This work will be confined very largely at first to fire prevention, particularly in the Lake and far Western States. These States themselves own vast areas of timber, for which improved protection from fires will be de- Forestry and the Lumber Business. 199 manded as it increases in value. The first concern of the State foresters will be the organization of efficient patrol systems, with all that that involves; namely, securing the co-operation of pri- vate timber owners; educating the public by word and pen of its interest in the forest, the fact that forest wealth is community wealth; impressing every citizen with the fact that every tree which burns is a direct loss to him. ‘The work of creating a healthy public sentiment in favor of larger State legislative ap- propriations for the protection and management of forests will devolve upon the foresters. The enormous losses by forest fires the past year have put the public mind in a more favorable attitude for advanced work along this line than it has ever been before. It has become recognized that the State should not only insure its own property from loss, but that it owes its citizens the protection of their lives and property as well. No one can do more to impress this fact upon people than the foresters, be- cause when the timber owner announces any such propaganda his motives are immediately questioned. The people will recognize the forester as a man qualified to speak and speak unselfishly. After they have reduced forest fire losses to the minimum, the next stage of the State foresters will be the inauguration of con- servative methods in the handling of State timber, just as the Federal Forest Service has done. ‘This will also include refor- estation, which the State and Nation alone can afford to under- take. State foresters will also be called upon to assist in the classification of lands suitable for the growing of trees as distin- guished from agricultural lands. People are beginning to realize that it is a crime to put deluded settlers upon lands from which they reap misery and starvation instead of wealth and happiness. Hence, there will be a field for the professional forester in State work before there is an opening for him in private undertakings. Some timber owners are beginning to ask if it is not possible to put the forest upon a permanently paying basis by utilizing its productive power. In endeavoring to figure out what must be done in order that timber may be handled upon scientific forestry principles, lumbermen are confronted with the fact that the present system of taxation is an absolute barrier against the adoption of any forestry methods, whatever. And here I will make a distinction between reforestation and conservative lum- bering. Lumbermen believe that cut-over lands and lands not 200 Forestry Quarterly. suitable for agriculture must be planted, if at all, by the State and National Governments. It is a work which cannot be con- sidered by the present generation of business men as a profitable enterprise or investment, simply because in most species of timber the returns to be expected are inadequate and wholly problem- atical. The length of time required to plant and mature a crop of trees is too great to interest Americans. The State lives on while individuals perish. The State can borrow money at 2 per cent., while the individual must pay 5 or 6 per cent., and while the individual must pay taxes in some form or other, the State is exempt. The actual planting of trees, therefore, is for the benefit of future generations, and must be done by the State. Conservative logging, as lumbermen understand it, means the cutting of virgin timber so that the forest may perpetuate itself. This may involve the cutting of trees of certain species by diameter limit, the leaving of seed trees, leaving stands of young trees where under certain conditions their increase in size will be an element worth reckoning; also the protection of water- sheds, the cutting of timber for the creation of fire lines, ascer- taining the rate of growth of different species in different locali- ties, knowledge of the exact relation between the forest growth and timber consumption, etc., all of which will have to be worked out by the technical forester. These conditions vary in every locality and with every kind of timber and with the changing con- ditions of the lumber market. In consulting the forester about conservation methods of log- ging, lumbermen find that the cost will be very greatly enhanced over present costs, and they are confronted with the question of what kind of a tax they can pay and still leave a reasonable margin for the investment and risk. Scientific forestry must present some inducement as a business investment or it never will be undertaken. It is useless to expect men to look at it in any other light. It is evident that there will have to be a radical change in the present methods of taxation, and here again the public must be educated by the forester. He alone can show the people that there can be no real progress toward conserva- tion so long as the present system of taxation remains in vogue. It is the most important question before the lumbermen to-day and will some day be one of the most important before the nation. While many thinking people recognize the truth of this Forestry and the Lumber Business. 201 statement, it is to be regretted that up to this time the public gen- erally has opposed any change in present methods of taxing tim- ber lands. If the enthusiastic conservationists expect lumbermen to preserve their trees they must meet them on their own ground and show more of a spirit of harmonious co-operation than has so far been manifested. It is plainly to the interest of the for- esters to show the people that so long as the forests continue to be taxed on the basis of an annual crop, holding young trees until they reach maturity means financial loss to anyone who attempts it. Such methods of taxation are in the end ruinous to the community also, for they encourage devastation and aban- donment to the State of lands that thereafter yield no revenue either in the form of products or taxes. At the present time the important matter of the taxes to be levied against timber lands rests entirely in the hands of the local assessors, whose only ambition seems to be to get the largest amount of money they can collect from the owners of timber in their counties. They hold that the more taxes lumbermen are required to pay the faster they will cut their timber, hence, the larger operations they will conduct, the more men they will em- ploy, and the more quickly will the country be opened for settle- ment. Timber is now taxed under the general property tax system, the same as most other forms of wealth. Assessments are usually made by men having no special qualification for the work. In some localities efforts are made to cruise or estimate the timber, but knowledge as to the amount and value of timber on certain pieces of land is generally gained from second-hand evidence or by very superficial examination of the property. The increase in the values of forest lands for the purpose of taxation has been from four to five hundred per cent. in many sections within the past few years. The rate of taxation varies according to the township or county in which the timber is situated, and widely different assessments are made by different tax assessors residing in the same towns so that there is no uniformity in either the rate or valuation. There is nowhere in the United States any uniformity for levying assessments on timber or cut-over lands. The results of such haphazard methods are frequently surpris- ing. It is utterly impossible to make anything like a definite statement in regard to these matters because of the great varia- tion in assessments and rates upon the timber in the same locali- 202 Forestry Quarterly. ties and of apparently the same value. ‘The system of taxing timber as other property is taxed was long ago abandoned by every other progresive nation. To ascertain what the actual burden of taxation on timber lands in this country is to-day, will require an exhaustive study covering a long period of time. I do not know that excessive taxation has as yet prevented the adoption of forestry methods by lumbermen for the reason that other conditions have not been propitious. The price of stump- age has not yet reached that point where such methods can be applied even if there were no taxes. It is significant that in the localities and species where timber prices are the highest taxes have correspondingly risen. This is true in the white pine of the Northern States where the taxes are much higher than upon timber in other sections. Conservative methods might be under- taken in logging white pine if there was no annual taxes were it not for the fact that physical and climatic conditions are far more ‘favorable for securing natural reproduction in yellow pine of the Southern States, and in the fir of the Pacific Coast States. This is, of course, due to the more rapid growth of the two latter species. I believe that the pine forests of the North will have to be sacrificed before Southern and Western timber has reached a value which will make it possible to log it in a way to secure successive crops. All but a remnant of the Northern forests will be gone under present conditions inside of fifteen years. I do not believe that the Northern States will present a field for the activities of the forester, except in State and Federal service, to be compared with the opportunities in the Southern and Western States. Private forestry will offer very little inducement to the owners of Southern and Western timber inside of ten to fifteen years, and it never will be much of an inducement until the tax is made to follow the saw. A tax upon the timber crop when it is cut would make it un- necessary for the owner to put up additional capital to sustain his property as is necessary under the increasing annual tax. A tax on the yield would make it an object for the timber owner to hold his property for future speculative values as it would entirely eliminate the principal element now entering into the carrying charge when considering what the final cost may be of holding a tract of timber. The problem of how best to tax timber wealth in such a way as to encourage forestry while at the same time Forestry and the Lumber Business. 203 making it bear its just burden of the expense of government, is one in which the foresters can very properly interest themselves. The question now arises in your minds as to what there is for the forester to do until that time when conditions are favorable for the adoption of private forestry upon a large scale. The foresters who are looking to the immediate future need not despair, although I am free to confess that the opportunities out- side of State and National work are not as promising as many have doubtless been led to believe. The foresters will find a limited field with the operators who take contracts to cut timber off Government land which require more or less forestry regula- tions. Ina short time, the States will demand the same require- ments of those who log timber upon State lands. If the young foresters desire to spend a few years in living in the woods, a limited number of men can even now find employ- ment as timber cruisers. As stumpage increases in value, the old-fashioned haphazard methods of estimating timber are found to be unsatisfactory. Lumbermen, especially those operating in white pine, have found that trained foresters can estimate the amount of timber on a given tract of land much more closely than can the old-fashioned cruiser. A trained forester con- sumes considerably more time in estimating timber than does the old time woodsman because he calipers trees, but his increased accuracy is worth far more than the difference in cost. The forester who seeks employment with lumber companies must be skilled in work of this kind, and the time is not far away when those dealing in timber lands will require that the estimates of standing timber be made in a careful and scientific manner, to include accurate map work and detailed reports of topography, species, and the general physical conditions of the country covered. This work requires men of good physique who are willing to live in the woods for months ata time. It is about the only branch of the lumber industry, as it is at present conducted, in which the scientific knowledge of the forester can be especially serviceable. There are other departments of the business in which the forester can engage, but they will only make a partial demand for his knowledge of forestry. There are but a very few lumbering operations of any size in this country to-day, out- side of New England, where trees are logged with an idea of obtaining a second crop. In some regions a greater precaution 204 Forestry Quarterly. is taken to prevent fires than in others, which, of course, gives natural reproduction a chance. The history of European forestry is repeating itself in the United States. We are progressing along exactly similar lines. The price of standing timber abroad averages about as much as the price of manufactured lumber in this country at the point of production, and long before stumpage here has reached a valua- tion equal to that in Europe, our forests will be protected, con- served and most carefully managed. As soon as there is a sane system of taxation of timber lands, and adequate protection from fire, we shall begin to practice forestry more extensively. It will accompany and be in proportion to the increase in the value of timber. For this reason there will be no timber famine in America. In seeking to solve the question of fire risks and taxation, the foresters will not only hasten the day when their own services will be in demand but they will be at the same time performing a service of benefit to mankind. NEW VIEW POINTS IN SILVICULTURE. By RAPHAEL ZON. In a sense Professor Mayr’s last book on Silviculture*, which has drawn considerable attention from the forester world abroad, does not contain anything new to those who are familiar with his earlier writings, such as “Waldungen von Nord America,” “Fremdlandische Wald and Parkbéiume fiir Europa,’ and his ar- ticles in the periodical literature. In this new book, however, are brought together all the facts and his conclusions, and, there- fore, a better opportunity is afforded to grasp fully the point of view of the author. The greatest service rendered by Prof. Mayr to silviculture lies not in facts and conclusions advanced by him, but in the entirely new point of view, and in the new method of dealing with silvicultural problems. Silviculture, until a comparatively recent time, consisted chiefly of pure empiricism, of rules and regulations based on the experience of practitioners. There was very little attempt to study silvicultural results in the light of the physical factors which produced them. While one finds in the old handbooks on silviculture hints as to the influence of climate upon forest vegetation, they do not go very far and the books deal as a rule chiefly with statements of silvicultural facts which take place in the forest, without taking into account at all the medium, the soil, and the atmosphere which condition the biological peculiarities of the forest. Silviculture based only on experience, no matter how valuable the experience, could not become a science in the true sense. Prof. Mayr was one of the few foresters who helped to estab- lish silviculture on a scientific foundation. All his works are marked with an attempt to understand and interpret silvicultural problems as a result of the climatic factor. Climate is at the bot- tom of all his explanations of biological differences in stands which grow in different places, as well as of the application of different silvicultural methods. One must be careful not to ac- Waldbau auf naturgesetzlicher Grundlage. Ein Lehr-und Handbuch, bearbeitet von Heinrich Mayr. Berlin, Paul Parey, 1909. 206 Forestry Quarterly. cept without critical revision all of Prof. Mayr’s statements and conclusions as undisputed laws. They are not laws yet, but merely presentiments of such laws, merely the first outlines of the future structure of scientific silviculture, which is bound to grow up on the basis of a scientific study of the forest. Some of his statements may not be based on a sufficiently solid founda- tion, future work may and doubtless will bring in many correc- tions and show the faultiness of some of his conclusions, yet the idea itself which points such a fruitful path to silviculture will never die. His investigations are those of a geographer, with all the good and bad sides of the geographic method of investi- gation. He studied the forests in Europe, in Asia, and in America. In his travels he compared the climates and forests of different countries and his conclusions are the result of these comparative geographical studies. Such geographical studies, while they are extremely valuable, yet are not devoid of some subjective ele- ment. These defects of personal observations over large fields can be corrected only by means of intensive experimental meth- ods of investigation over small areas. The book consists of three large parts, each subdivided into a number of chapters: (1) Fundamental, Natural Laws of Silvi- culture; (2) The Reproduction of the Forest; (3) The Growing and Care of the Forest. Of these three parts the first one if of the greatest importance to us, since the conclusions drawn there are based on many facts observed by him in North America, and for this reason is helpful in understanding our own forest conditions as well as those of the entire world; the other two parts are more specific and their application is narrowed down chiefly to European conditions. Mayr established both for the old and the new world a series of forest regions. The basis for this division into forest regions is the climate, which determines, not only the distribution of the forest but its very existence. Of the climatic factors tempera- ture and humidity of the air play the most important part. The author considers the average temperature for the four vegetative months as the one which determines the distribution of the different species and the limit of forest extension. For the northern hemisphere, the vegetative period occurs during the “tetrahore,” the months of May, June, July and August. For the New View Points in Silviculture. 207 southern hemisphere, it includes the months of November, De- cember, January and February. Wherever the average temper- ature during the vegetative period is below 50 degrees Fahren- heit no forest can exist. The line connecting the points which have during the four vegetative months an average temperature of 50° is the limit of forest extension or the “‘isohyle.” Another climatic factor which determines the existence of the forest is the humidity of the air. The basis of his repeated studies in the prairies of North America and Eastern Asia during the years 1885-87 led him to consider the following figures as the minimum amount of moisture in the air and in the ground (precipitation) which are necessary for the existence of the forest: If less than 1.95 inches of rain falls in one region during the months of May, June, July and August on the northern hemi- sphere, and on the southern hemisphere during the months of November, December, January and February, the natural estab- lishment of a forest is impossible, even though the moisture of the air may be ever so great. Such an unforested coast line upon which the precipitation is not sufficient—even though the moisture in the air is sufficient and, in fact, in some places quite high—extends in North America from the fortieth degree north latitude southward through Central and South America to Pata- gonia. Such a coast line lies also on the west side of Africa south of the equator. It lacks forest because the necessary water is lacking in the soil; if this water is supplied artificially, these prairies can be transformed into luxuriant grain fields, orchards, and forests. Regions which during the four months receive more than 1.95 and less than 3.9 inches of rain, also do not support a forest when the humidity in the air during the same time sinks lower than 50 per cent. The great prairies between the Rocky Mountains and the immense stretch of forest near the Atlantic Ocean in North America receive less than 3.9 inches of precipitation with an average relative humidity of less than 50 per cent. To this may be added the extensive steppe region of southern Russia and western Asia; the steppes of the interior Mongolia of east- ern Asia; the steppes of Uraguay, Paraguay, southeastern Africa, and Australia. At any time such tracts of country in which the 208 Forestry Quarterly. forest is not able to penetrate by the help of nature can be trans- formed into forests by artificial means. If the precipitation exceeds 3.9 inches, dryness of the air can not prevent the existence of the forest. If the land is watered by artificial means or otherwise supplied with water by natural means (irrigation, ground water) a forest will spring up even though the air may be ever so dry during the period of growth. On the basis of the average temperature, air humidity, and precipitation during the vegetative period as well as on the basis of the annual temperature, the dates of occurrence of the first and last frosts, and the absolute minimum temperature, Mayr established several forest regions or zones for Europe, America, and Asia. Each zone is characterized by tree species, which have about the same climatic requirements. The different zones are arranged below in tabular form for ready comparison. ZONES OF SIMILAR CLIMATE, ELEVATION AND WOODY SPECIES OF THE FORESTS OF NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE AND ASIA [Note: The climatic data are given in the following sequence, a? denot- ing absence of information: average temperature during growing season, May 1 to Aug. 31; Humidity; Precipitation during growing season; Mean annual temperature; First, fall frost; Last, spring frost; Lowest recorded temperature. ] I. Cool Region of the Stunted and Dwarfed Trees, Limits of the Forest,— The Alpine Region—The Polar Region NORTH AMERICA. Atlantic Region Central Region Pacific Region (Northern Canada) (Rocky Mountains) (Sierra Nevada, Alaska) 45°-48°; 80+; ?; 32°; 11,500 feet ?; ?; —49° Ps Ps Ps Ps Ps 23 23 9,000 feet—r,650-3,960. Betula, Alnus, Salix, Pinus flexilis, Pinus 46°; 90%; 6 in.; 28°; Juniperus, Abies bal- albicaulis, Pinus aris- PsPs—4° samea, Pinus banksi- tata, Picea pungens Salix, Populus, Alnus, ana, Larix laricina. and engelmanni Pinus _ balfourinana, Larix lyalii. Larix lyalti, Tsuga mertensiana. New View Points in Silviculture. Himalaya Mountains Up to 13,200 feet. Paneer 3s) Ps T4° Sorbus, Abies pindrau, Larix griffithii. Southern (Appenines, 8,250 ft.; Balkans, 6,600 ft.) 46°—50° ; ASIA Japan Urupp north- and from sea (From east, up. ) Middle, at 8250 ft— over 3,300.—Kwilen, Over 9go. ops Bee caer Salix, Betula, Sorbus, Alnus, Populus, Pinus pumila, Picea hondoéensis, Picea ajanensis, Larix kur- ilensis, Larix leptole- pis. EUROPE Middle (Northern Alps) 600 ft. 80%; 16in.; 34°—37°; June; Aug.; 31° 209 25 P3—49° Scrubby specimens of the preceding zone, especially the birches (Taiga), Picea obo- vata, Larix sibirica, L. dahurica, cajan- deri. Northern Above 1,980 ft. to 49°. In the north, birch shrubs, alders, willows, Picea excelsa, Pinus septen- trionalis; in middle Europe, Pinus pumila, Picea excelsa, Pinus cembra, Larix europaea. II. MoperateELy Coot REGION OF THE SpRUCES, Firs AND LARCHES.—THE Spruce, Fir or LarcH REGION. Atlantic Region (Middle States, from 5,940 ft.; Northern States from 3,300 ft.; Canada, from _ 1,650 ft., northward to sea coast. ) 50°; 757o—807 ; hh 23 in. ; 4373 ay; Sept.; —40° (5° in South). Pyrus, Betula, Populus, Salix, Abies balsam- ea, fraseri, Tsuga canandensis, Picea alba, nigra, rubra, Thuja, occidentalis, Pinus strobus, resin- osa, banksiana, Larix laricina. NORTH AMERICA Central Region (Rocky Mountains, Over 1 3}300). ft, in north; over 1,650 ft. in South.) Ds. Ds Ds Pe Pe P Ci er eur 5 Gr Sar Br prs Pyrus, Betula, Picea pungens, engelmanni, Pinus contorta, aris- tata scopulorum, Pseudo-tsuga, taxt- falia var. glauca, Abies lasiocarpa, con- color, Juniperus pachyphloea, Larix lyalli, occidentalis. Pacific Region (Sierra Nevada, 6,600 ft. to 9,240 ft.; Cas- cade Mts., 4,950 ft. to 8,910 ft.; Alaska, to 1,650 ft., up to 550.) 50°; 80%; 20 in.; 43°; Baa: Pyrus, Betula, Alnus, Abies grandis, con- color, nobilis, ama- bilts, magnifica, Pinus contorta, mon- ticola, balfouriana, flexilis, albicaulis, ponderosa, Picea sit- kaensis, breweriana, Pseudo-tsuga taxi- folia, Tsuga hetero- phylla, mertensiana, Larix occidentalis. 210 Himalaya Mountains Eastern, 9,570 to 14,190 ft. Western, 8,250 to 13,200 ft. De pe De Pe Pe De P Per ere pach sate Sorbus, Betula, Alnus, Salix, Abies webbi- ana, pindrau, Tsuga dumosa, Picea mo- rinda, Larix _grif- fithti, Abies cilicica. Southern 4,290 to 7,590 ft. Forestry Quarterly. ASIA Japan South, 4,950 to 8,910 ft.; north, 3,300 to 4,950 ft.; Eso, 1,650 to 3,300 ft.; Kuri- len, over 300 ft. 54° to 59°; 80 to 90%; 12 to 380 ini: 307 No 45°; ?3;?;—22° Sorbus, Betula, Alnus, Salix, Abies, veit- chit, mariesti, sacha- linensis, Pinus kor- aensis parviflora, densiflora, Picea bi- color hondéensis, ajanensis, glehnii, Larix leptolepis, kurilensis. EUROPE Middle South, 2,970 to 6,930 ft. North, 1,980 to 3,300 ft. China ek ea Pr Pee Mh aeeete Sorbus, Alnus, Petula, Salix, Populus, Picea schrenkiana, wilsoni, neoveitchii, mastersii, brachityla, likiangen- sis bicolor, ajanen- sis, Abies delavayi, Fargesii, veitchii, Pinus bungeana, hen- ryt, sinensis, Larix principis, rupprechtit and dahurica, sibiri- ca, (?) thibetica, grifithu, chinensis. Northern Over 1,650 ft. ° 50° to 57°; 75%; 23 to 31 in.; 37° to 45°; May; Sept.; —31 Sorbus, Alnus, Betula, Salix, Populus, Abies pectinata, pinsapo, cepha- lonica, Picea excelsa; omorica, Pinus silvestris, uncimnata, cembra, peuke, Larix europea. Ural: Abies sibirica, Pinus sibirica, Picea obvata, Larix sibirica. casus:Abies nordmanniana, Picea orientalis. Cau- d III. Temperate Forest ZONE oF THE DeEctDUOUS TREES, THE CooLER HALF, —THE BEECH ZONE. NORTH AMERICA Pacific Region Atlantic Region Central Region (Southern States, 660 (Arizona, New Mex- (Sierra Nevada, Cas- ft. to 2,640 ft.; Mid- ico, 3,960 ft. to 6,600 cade Mts. Coast dle States, 1,320 ft. ft.; Rocky Moun- Ranges) to 2,970 ft.; North tains, up to 3,300 ft.) & South Canada, 1,- 320 ft. to 2,970 ft.) 66°: 659%; 8 mm: 45° Pf: Ps Pe Pe 4,950 ft. to 6,600 ft. to 54°; May; Sept.; 50°; 80%; 5 in.; 45° to —13° to —3I1°. 50°; March; Nov.; a”. New View Points in Silviculture. 211 Fagus ferruginea, Quercus alba, macro- carpa, coccinea, pal- ustris, tinctoria, Carya alba, porcina, amara, tomentosa, Acer rubrum, sac- charum, Fraxinus, Salix, Betula, Jug- lans, Liriodendron, Prunus, Ulmus, Pop- ulus, Tilia, Sorbus, Pinus strobus, res- inosa, rigida, banksi- ana, Thuja occident- alis, Chamaecyparts spharoidea, Abies balsamea, Picea, alba, nigra, Larix larcina. Himalaya Mountains, Eastern, 8,250 to 9,- 570 fit.; Western, 6,- 600 ft to 8,250 ft. ss Bare Ps. 3 not under 50°. ee Acer, Pyrus, Tsuga du- mosa, Abies pindrau, webbiana, Pinus ex- celsa, khasiana, ger- ardiana, Picea mor- inda, Larix griffithit. 14 Fraxinus, Middle, Fagus Populus, Prosopis, Salix, Pin- us chihuahua, pon- derosa, scopulorum, murrayana, _ strobi- formis, Abies ari- zonica, mayriana, Pseutodsuga taxifo- lia var. glauca, Picea engelmannii, pun- gens. ASIA Japan 2,640 ft. to 4,950 ft.; north, 1,320 ft. to 3,300 ft.; Eso, 660 ft. to 1,650 ft. 63°; 80%; 16 in.; 45° —48°; May; Oct.; —13°. japonica, sie- boldii, Quercus den- tata, crispula, Fraxi- nus mandshurica, longicuspis, Phelleo- dendron, Magnolia hypoleuca, Cladrastis, amureuse, Acer, Cer- cidiphyllum Acan- thropanax, Ostrya, Betula, Salix, Car- pinus, Prunus, Po- pulus, Tilia, Ulmus, C hamaecy paris, Thuja, Cryptomeria Thujopsis, Sciadopi- tys, species of pine, Pseudotsuga ja- ponica, Tsuga diver- sifora, Taxus, Abies homolepis, — sachali- nensis, Picea polita, bicolor, ajanensis, L. leptolepis. Quercus garryana, cali- fornica, Acer ma- croph., Fraxinus ore- gona, Populus tricho- carp, Alnus, Salix, Pseudotsuga_ taxifo- lia, Abies grandis, venusta, concolor, Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Cham- aecyparis lawsoniana, nootkatensis, Liboce- drus, decurrens, Se- quota washingtoniana, Pinus monticola, lambertiana, ponder- osa, jeffreyi, contor- ta, Picea sitkaensis, Larix occidentalis. China Powe hal herve A Rte rN ye ori ic Fagus sinensis, engler- iana, Quercus den- tata, mongolica and others, ilia, Acer, Prunus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Betula, Car- pinus, Populus, Salix, Biota orientalis, Tax- us baccata (?), Pinus sinensis, armandi, bungeana, henryi, mandshurica, Pinus koraensis, Abies, Tsuga, Pseudolarix fortunei, Larix. 212 forestry Quarterly. EUROPE Southern Middle Northern (Appenines, 2,970 ft. South, up to 2,970 ft. Southermost regions of to 4,620 ft.; Balkans, North, up to 1,980 Scotland, Denmark, 2,640 ft. to 3,960 ft.; ft. Kurland, Livonia, Pyrenees, 2,640 ft. to Estland. 4,290 ft.. Ural, 3,300 ft. to 4,620 ft. 61° to 64°; 70%; 10 in.; 45° to 54°; May; Sept.; —13° to —22°. Fagus silvatica, Quercus pedunculata, sessiliflora, pubescens, hungrarica, Acer, ulmus, Betula, Carpinus, Prunus, Alnus, Populus, Fraxinus, Salix, Tilia, Pinus peuke, silvestris, austriaca, leukodermis, Picea elcelsa, Abies pectinata, pinsapo, cephalonica. Ural: Pinus sibirica, Abies sibirica, Picea Obovata, Larix sibirica (first appearance). Caucasus: First appearance of Abies Nordmanniana, Picea orientalis. IV. Temperate Forest ZoNE OF HE DeEctpuous ‘TREES, THE WARMER HALF,—THE CHESTNUT ZONE. NORTH AMERICA Atlantic Region Central Region Pacific Region (Southern States, up to (Arizona, New Mexi- (California, 1650 ft. 3.300 "ft; Middle co, 2,640 ft. to 3,960 to 4,950 ft.; Oregon, States, up to 1,320 ft.; Middle States.) Washington, British ft.; Northern States, up to 660 ft.) 73° to 75°; 70%; 16 My Poke Pre 50°; 85%; 4 in; 50° ; he pars to.) 50°% Feb.; Nov.; 21° Aprils, Och? 77) #0 eye up to 990 4°. Castena dentata, Quer- Quercus? Platanus Quercus garryana, cali- cus lyrata, imbricaria, wighttit, Juglans, fornica, densiflora, alba macrocarpa, fal- Fraxinus Populus, Platanus racemosa, cata, etc., Carya alba, Pinus chihuahuaana Arbutus menziesit, porcina, amara, sul- arizomica, mayriana, Aesculus, Cercis, cata, olivaeformis, ponderosa, scopulo- Acer, Libocedrus de- Nyssa silvatica, rum. currens, Pinus pon- Fraxinus quadrangu- derosa, sabiniana, lata, Ulmus _ alata, jeffreyi, coulteri, at- Robinia pseudacacia, tenuata, radiata, Gleditsia, Acer, Car- pinus, Cetlis, Aescu- lus, Ostrya, Juglans, Liriodendron, Gym- nocladus, S assafras, Prunus serotina, Ca- talpa, Deciduous magnolia, Platanus occidentalis, Liquid- ambar, Pinus glabra, haeda, palustris, clause, inops, pun- gens, mitis, rigida, Tsuga caroliniana, Taxodium distichum, Juniperus virgiana, Thuja occidentalis, Chamaecyparis, Sphaerotrea. Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, lawson- tana, — Pseudotsuga taxifoila, macrocar- pa. sae New Himalaya Mountains 7,260 ft. to ? Oe Se OSS Ai Ree De- magnolia, Pinus ex- Minor (Leban- 3,300 ft. to 8,- Cedrus deodara, ciduous Prunus, celsa Asia on): 580 ft. 2:2: 2; 232:?; Cedrus libani, gen regia Southern (Italy, 1,650 to 3,300 ft.; Italy, up to 1,320 ft.; France, 1,980 ft.; 68° to Ea 50 to 60%; 55° to 63°; March; Nov.; 12° Castanea vesca, Quercus peduncu- lata, sessilifora, pubescens, cerris, hungarica, Ostrya, Celtis, Platan- Fraxinus, us, Aesculus, Carpinus, a Portugal, S. Tyrol, up to 990 ft.) C1 upressus View Points in Silviculture. 213 ASIA Japan China (S. Japan, 1,650 ft. to 4,950 ft.; Middle Hondo, up to 2,640 ft.; N. Hondo, S. ait Eso, up to 660 t ; 80% ; 20 in.; 54° retiree PORTE gray Fie pas: ; esi ; —4° Castanea crenata, Zel- Castenea crenata, Zel- kowa keaki, Mag- kowa keaki, Quer- nolia hypoleuca, ko- cus serrata, Bun- bushi, Juglans, Quer- geana, glandulifera, cus serrata, varia- Pauliownia, Phello- bilis, glandulifera, dendron, Catalpa, etc., Paulownia, Aes- Liriodendron, Rhus, culus, Rhus, Hovenia, Gleditsia, Gymno- Albizzsia, Phelloden- cladus, Hovenia, Aes- dron, Celtis, Gledit- culus, Sterculia, Al- sia, Cercidiphyllum, bizsia, Juglans, Cel- Fraxinus, Carpinus, tis, Fraxinus, Car- Sophora, Acantho- pinus, Acer, Ulmus, panax, Acer, Ulmus, Ailanthus, Prunus, Prunus, Pinus, Cercidiphyllum, So- thunbergii, densi- phora, Liquidambar, flora, Cryptomeria ja- Cunninghamia, Libo- ponica, Chamaecy- dedrus macrolepis, paris, Thuja, Thujop- Biota orientalis, juni- sis, Sciadopitys, Tor- perus, chinensis, ri- reya, Abies firma gida, recurva, Cu- Tsuga sieboldii, pressus funebris, Juniperus rigida, Cephalotaxus, Tor- chinensis, | Cephalo- reya, Pinus sinensis, taxus. henryi, Tsuga_ sie- boldti, chinensis, yun- nanensis, Pseudolar- ix fortunet. EUROPE Middle North (S. England, S. Ireland, N. W. Greece. S. France.) up to 4 to 8 in.; etc. Ulmus, fasti giata, Pinus maritima, -aleppensis, pinea, austriaca, corsicana, silvestris. NORTH AFRICA (Atlas) 3,300 ft. to 6,600 ft. Et See N ee is’ Din Wat 225s 2 SD 29) ~ 'S Cedrus atlantica, Quercus, pubescens. Juglans rs rip regia, ? 59°; 80%; 8 in.; 50°; April; Nov.; ke Castanea vesca, cultivated, Quercus pedunculata, sessilifora, Carpinus, CAUCASUS 660 ft. to 3,300 ft. Me De Wa Wa Ba 2 oe oe aes a Large proportion of the European species, Pterocarya, Zelkowa. 214 Forestry Quarterly. V. Sus-Troprca, Forest ZoNE oF THE EvERGREEN OAKS AND LAURELS,— Atlantic Region (Florida, coast region of the Southern States. ) 77° to 82°; 75%; 23 We AKO... FON NOS Janis: Feb: <0"; Quercus virens, Per- sea, Sabal palms, Pinus cubensis, pa- lustris, Taxiodium distichum, Juniperus virginiana, Chamae- cyparis ,thyoides Magnolia grandiflora. Himalaya Mountains 4,300 ft. to 7,250 ft. (Climate of the cooler situations. ) 50° — 66°; 72 — 937% 5 2I—47 in. ; 23 52 °—55° ; Pe; vba), (ace Quercus incana, fenes- trata, etc., Cupressus torulosa, Buxus, Ce- drus deodar, Pinus excelsa, Rhododen- dron Evergreen Magnolia. Tue LAUREL ZONE. NORTH AMERICA Central Region (Lowest parts of Ari- zona, New Mexico, and northern Mexi- co.) 75.3 40% ; 5 to II in.; 63° Ps Pe23° toe Quercus grisea, Arbut- us zalapensis, Proso- pis juliflora, Cereus giganteus, Cupressus arizonica, Agave, Yucca. ASIA Japan (Formosa, Riukiu Is., Shikoku, S. Hondo, a to about 1,650 ) 1,650 ft to 6,600 ft. 73°; 80%; 30 in.; 63°; March; Nov., 19°. Quercus acuta, glabra, etc., Machilus, Lit- zaea, Cinnamonum camphora, Buxus, Ilex, Olea, Pasania, Trachycarpus-Palms, Camellia, Podocar- pus, Cryptomeria ja- ponica, Luchuensis, thunbergu, Juniperus rigida, chinensis, Torreya, Evergreen magnolia. Pacific Region (California, up to 1,650 ft.) ° 23° —14°. OL se 7egas, 1 Magee oe Pine Uasoee oe . Pd, Quercus agrifolia, Cas- tanopsis, Umbellu- laria californica, Ar- butus menziesii, Washingtonia (Palm), Cupressus macrocarpa, Sequoia sempervirens, Pinus insignis, muricata, at- tenuata, sabiana, Pseudotsuga macro- carpa, Tumion cali- fornicum. China So. China up to Kuen- lun. ee i ere. Ps Poors rape eee Quercus gualca, seme- carpifolia, etc., Ma- chilus, Litzaea, Cin- namonum camphora, Buxus, Ilex, Olea, Pasania, Dwart palm, Camellia, Po- docarpus, Cryptome- ria japonica, Pinus sinensis, Cunning- hamia sinensis, Kete- leeria, Glyptostrobus heterophylla Juni- perus rigida, chinen- sis, recurvea, Biota orientalis, Evergreen magnolia. New View Points in Silviculture. 215 EUROPE (South coast, islands of west coast of middle Europe) 68°—72°; 50—60%; 2—4 in.; 61°—66°; Dec.; Feb.; 23°. Quercus suber, etc., Q. Ilex, Larus nobilis, Arbutus Unedo, Buxus, Cera- tonia, Olea, Cupressus fastigiata, Pinus canariensis, pinea, maritima, aleppensis, Chamaerops-palms. That distribution of the forest depends in a most remarkable degree upon humidity is clearly seen from the fact that all large forest regions of the old and new world are confined to the oceans and seas. Thus the European forest region owes its existence to the Atlantic ocean; the eastern Asiatic forest region to the Pacific ocean; the Indian to the Indian ocean; and the Eastern and Pacific forests of North America to the Atlantic and to the Pacific oceans. There is no doubt that temperature and especially air hu- midity play a most important part in distribution of these for- ests, yet it is not always possible with the aid of the climatic fac- tor alone to explain in every case the natural treeless condition of certain regions. The soil conditions must also be taken into account. Asan example may be cited our prairies or the Russian steppes. Thus a large part of our prairies and of the Russian steppes as far as the climate is concerned could support ‘forest growth, yet no forest grows there or if it does it is only on definite situations. Under identical climatic conditions in one place the forest artificially established perishes in spite of all human care, while in another place it thrives. That the presence of large quantities of soluble salts in the soil may be the cause of the treeless condition of a large portion of our prairies, may be inferred from Hilgard’s studies. In California, according to Hilgard, at a precipitation of 500 millimeters, salts of sodium are washed out by the ground waters, while at a precipitation of less than 500 millimeters these sodium salts accumulate to a dif- ferent depth of the soil and become injurious to tree growth. Mayr himself admits that the area of prairies goes outside of the region of deficient precipitation (1.95 inches) and low air humidity (below so per cent). He, however, ascribes this to the prairie fires, which pushed the forest backward. This very often repeated argument for the treeless condition of our prairies and the Russian steppes was really never based on accurate obser- vations, while the presence of soluble salts in the soil as the 2106 Forestry Quarterly. cause of the treeless condition has been proven in many instances in a most convincing manner. Furthermore, the minimum amount of precipitation which is necessary for the existence of the forest must vary with the conditions of the soil, especially its moisture holding capacity. It makes a great difference whether the moisture holding capacity of the soil is 2 to 3 per cent. or 12 per cent. In case of sandy soil with a very low moisture holding capacity (2 to 3 per cent.), precipitation will penetrate deep into the ground and will become available for forest growth, while in case of heavy, clayey soil whose moisture holding capacity may be 12 per cent., with the same amount of precipitation, water will remain in the upper layer of the soil, from which it will rapidly evaporate without becoming useful to vegetation. Unfortunately, Mayr did not state all the facts which lead him to decide on his minimum amount of moisture necessary for the existence of the forest. It seems doubtful that the amount of precipitation during the four vegetative months is really the only deciding factor in limiting forest growth. Tree distribution often depends not so much on the amount of precipitation that falls during the vegetative season as upon the amount of water ac- cumulated in the soil during the winter and fall. Mayr’s views on the mooted and complicated question of ac- climatization, which is of such importance to the practitioner, as well as to the theoretical man, are of interest, Mayr radically differs from the majority of foresters on the question of acclimatization, on the ability of transmitting certain characteristics acquired by trees grown under new climatic soil conditions, and on the importance of the source of seed for for- estation purposes. Mayr denies the possibility of acclimatizing or adapting a species to new climatic conditions. He claims that each species can exist only under certain climatic conditions. If it is intro- duced into new environment in which it meets conditions to which it was not accustomed in its native land it perishes. He further claims that acclimatization of forest trees—if such exist at all— requires such a long time that it has no practical value for man. He also denies the possibility of hereditary transmission of va- rious deviations from the mother type. He thinks that only the typical characteristics are transmitted, but not the various de- New View Points in Silviculture. 217 viations from the type caused by changes in environment. The deviations from the type are of accidental nature and therefore are not permanent. For this reason, the question of the source of seed, in his opinion, has no significance whatever for the for- ester. No matter where or from what trees the seed is collected the progeny resulting from the seed, irrespective of its origin, will possess only the characteristics which are typical for the species as a whole. Mayr is doubtless right when he denies the possibility of trans- mitting qualities which are the result of soil conditions or silvi- cultural treatment, but this is about as far as one can go with him. ‘There are characteristics which are the result of climatic conditions and yet are retained and transmitted through inherit- ance. For instance, the Scotch Pine in the Baltic provinces in- variably has straighter trunks and yields wood of higher quality than the Scotch Pine of central Germany. Vilmorin in the twenties and thirties of the last century experi- mented with growing Scotch Pine from German, French and Russian seed. The pine of the Baltic provinces differed from the rest in that it had a straight, cylindrica!, well developed trunk; and the seed from the plantations of the Riga variety produced a progeny possessing the same good qualities as the first gener- ation. Von Sievers in the fifties of the last century made similar ex- periments in some of the Baltic provinces. The pines grown from seed collected in Darmstadt did not possess such straight trunks as the pines from the native seed. The same experiments were repeated by several investigators and with the same results. Cieslar in Austria and Engler in Switzerland have both dem- onstrated the importance of the source of seed upon the character of the plantation. Seed was collected from trees of different species grown in the valleys and in the mountains and were sown under identical climatic and soil conditions, in order to determine whether the characteristics of the mother trees will be retained in the plantations made under exactly the same conditions. It was found that the spruce of the mountains, which grows slower than the spruce of the valleys, retains this characteristic when planted in the valleys and vice versa; other characteristics such as the length of the vegetative activity were found to be also re- tained. Engler, on the basis of his experiments, came to the 218 Forestry Quarterly. conclusion diametrically different from that made by Mayr, namely, that for planting native or naturalized species the seed must be collected in the region in which they are to be planted or at least from localities which climatically are very similar to those in which they are to be planted. Mayr, on the other hand, without really disproving Vilmorin’s, Engler’s, and Cieslar’s ex- periments, cites his own experiments which tend to show that only typical characteristics are transmitted and not deviations from the type due to changed climatic conditions. This diver- gence of opinion as to what characteristics are transmitted through inheritance shows that the question does not allow of general sweeping conclusions. Engler further points out that the acquisition by forest trees of new characteristics and their transmission to future genera- tions does not require such an infinitely long time as is claimed by Mayr. He mentions interesting facts with regard to the spruce. After the retreat of the glacier into the mountains, spruce was one of the first species which reappeared in the Swiss valley, the climate of which at that time resembled closely the climate of the higher altitudes. Later, when the climate of the valley became warmer and the conditions became favorable for the growth of hardwoods, the latter crowded out the spruce into the moun- tains. In the historic epoch, when the forests in the valleys were badly cut and abused, spruce descended again from the moun- tains into the valley. With the aid of material which was found in excavations, it was possible to determine that spruce was not present in the valley in the neolithic time, and that it appeared only in the helvetic period, that is, early in the middle ages. This, according to Engler shows that it did not take such a long time for the spruce to acquire biological characteristics which enabled it to grow in the valley. The climatic factor is laid also at the foundation of all cultural operations in the forest—thinnings, planting, etc. This, how- ever, would take us into the other parts of Dr. Mayr’s most in- teresting book, the review of which must be left for some other i THE WHITE PINES OF MONTANA AND IDAHO— THEIR DISTRIBUTION, QUALITY AND USES. By F. I. RocKwELu. LimBer PineE—Pinus flexilis James. Range: Eastern slope of Rocky Mountains from Alberta and Montana to western Texas, and westward on high divides and mountain ranges through Utah, Nevada, New Mexico and Ari- zona into southeastern California on the western slopes of Sierra Nevada Mountains. Altitudinal range from 4,000 to 11,000 feet. Occurrence: “On dry, rocky, east slopes, summits, tops of ridges and foothills, and sometimes on sides of moister canyons and banks of mountain streams. Adapted to a great variety of soils and not exacting as regards depth or moisture, but grows best in moist, well-drained soils. Usually in dry, rocky, very shallow soil, appearing to prefer dry, loose, gravelly loam, with little or no humus. Reaches higher elevation on clay soils than on sandy ones. Usually occurs singly or in small groves among other coni- fers, where it is of largest size; occasionally in pure, open stands, commonly stunted, on exposed slopes and ridges. Apparently less frequent in Pacific than in Rocky Mountain range. In Pa- cific region associated mainly with Lodgepole Pine and Black Hemlock at higher elevations, and sparingly with White Fir and stunted Sugar Pine at lower altitudes.” (Sudworth.) In the Rockies, at the lowest range of tree growth and from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, it forms open scattered stands of round topped, stunted trees of no commercial value, usually in company with Rocky Mountain red cedar or Western yellow pine. At timber line, from 8,500 to 10,000 feet, it assumes similar or even more stunted form, associating with Lyall Larch or other alpine species. At intermediate elevations, it occasionally pro- duces merchantable timber in company with Douglas Fir, and possibly also with Whitebark Pine, Lodgpole Pine, Engelmann Spruce and Alpine Fir. This is a point which should be the sub- ject of further investigation. 220 Forestry Quarterly. Commercial Distribution in District I: Probably only on the eastern side of the Continental Divide in Montana does this species occur, and then only occasionally is it found of merchantable size. When merchantable it usually forms but a small per cent in mixture with other species. The trees are apt to be best de- veloped when occurring in fairly dense stands of Douglas Fir, Lodgepole Pine, or White-bark Pine, with which latter species it is often confused. In a few places, Limber Pine has been noted to form a considerable proportion of the merchantable timber. On the west side of the Bridger Mountains, Gallatin National Forest, Forest Assistant A. A. Saunders reports a mixed forest which yields 8,000 feet to the acre, the Limber Pine forming 10 to 15 per cent. of the stand,—the remaining species being Douglas Fir. Supervisor Bunker reports considerable bodies of Limber Pine on the Lewis & Clark National Forest, particularly on the North Fork of the Teton River and on Dupuyer and Birch Creeks, extending eastward over the foothills and plains as much as 10 or 20 miles from the mountains. One body on Birch Creek about 10 miles from the mountains comprises about 1,000 acres Of the merchantable timber in the foothills and canyons of that region, the Limber Pine forms 1 per cent. Farther from the mountains in the vicinity of the same streams and their tributaries it forms the major portion of the tree growth, and often exists in pure stands. It is not certain whether this species exists in commercial amounts in places other than those mentioned. In most localities, however, the trees are commonly scattered or in small groups among other species, as stated above, and it is comparatively seldom that the trees will yield merchantable logs. Whether or not Limber Pine grows west of the Conti- nental Divide in Montana or Idaho is not yet definitely known, but it is probable that the trees which have there been called Limber Pine are in reality White-bark Pine (Pinus albicaulist) These two white pines are very similar in occurrence, habits, and in qualities and uses of the wood, and consequently there is a great deal of confusion among Forest officers concerning them. This is especially true in the Rocky Mountain Forests of Mon- tana, where the two species are apt to mingle between the eleva- tions of 5,000 and 8,000 feet. Generally speaking, however, White- bark Pine appears to be the tree of the higher altitudes. Considerable stands of merchantable Limber Pine, so called, White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 221 exist on the Madison Forest also, but whether the species is Pinus flexilis or Pinus albicaulis, the Forest officers are uncertain. Prob- ably both species are represented. When grouped together as one species they are estimated to form about 5 per cent. of the total tree growth of the Forest. Below 6,000 feet and above 10,000 feet, as well as on exposed situations, the species are very scrubby and of no value. Between those limits, and attaining their best development at about 8,000 feet, the trees usually pro- duce one, sometimes two, and occasionally three logs. Manner of Growth: Commonly a low, stout, much-branched tree, usually between 25 and 50 feet high, with a trunk from 5 inches to three feet in diameter. In its usual habitat the tree is so stunted and the trunk so short as to yield no merchantable logs. In better locations, however, it is possible to cut 10 foot or even longer logs. When found growing mixed with other species in sheltered canyons, it often forms a tall straight tree, in shape somewhat similar to that of the Lodgepole Pine. As compared with White-bark Pine, when grown in the same situa- tions, the Limber Pine has the longer straighter trunk of the two. The bark of large trees is comparatively thick, being dis- tinctly furrowed and ridged. The branches are large and thick, developing apparently at the expense of the trunk. The characteristics which easily distinguish Limber Pine from White-bark Pine are confined chiefly to the cones. The cones of Pinus flexilis are commonly considered larger and thicker than those of Pinus albicaulis. ‘The tips of the cone-scales of both species are very thick, but those of the Limber Pine are rounded, while those of the White-bark are markedly pointed. Further- more, the Limber Pine cones liberate their seeds and fall to the ground soon after they are ripe, so that it is most always possible to find entire cones beneath the tree, old and weathered perhaps, but still intact. This is in contrast to the cones of Pinus albi- caulis, which are very persistent on the trees, and remain closed for some time, so that by the time they reach the ground they are apt to be torn to pieces by birds and squirrels, or else fall to pieces from decay. Characteristics of Wood: The wood of Limber Pine is pale lemon-yellow in color, soft, and close-grained on account of its exceedingly slow growth. When green the wood is extremely heavy, and if left in water any length of time will sink. After 222 Forestry Quarterly. being seasoned, however, it becomes extremely light. At a saw- mill which formerly operated on Dupuyer Creek on the Lewis & Clark National Forest, it was found that Limber Pine could be manufactured into a good grade of lumber and shingles. ‘The stem of the tree was generally free from defects and knots, and could be used for the better grades of finishing lumber. ‘This Limber Pine had grown mixed with a heavy stand of Douglas Fir in a sheltered canyon, and the trees had grown tall and straight. It is seldom, of course, that the quality of the wood can be found as good as that on Dupuyer Creek. In its most common habitat its scrubby growth makes it useful only for fence posts and for fuel. Only occasionally is it fit for saw- timber, and then a good proportion of the lumber produced would be apt to be very knotty. A very unique method of securing a preservative treatment of Limber and White-bark Pine timber for fence posts as practiced by ranchers in the vicinity of the Madison Forest is related by Supervisor Bunker. A sapling growth the size of the posts de- sired is selected, and in the spring as soon as the sap runs freely so that the bark will slip easily, the rancher peels the bark from the standing trees for the length to be used, and then leaves the tree to Nature. The tree immediately oozes out a sufficient quan- tity of pitch to cover the wound and dies. Six or eight months later the rancher cuts the tree, now thoroughly seasoned, smears the cut ends with tar, and has a post impervious to water, insects or fungus. Posts so treated are said to last indefinitely. Mr. Bunker personally examined one lot which the rancher said had been set for 20 years, and the posts seemed as sound as ever. The Limber and White-bark pines are apparently the only species which are treated in this way, the ranchers going to considerable trouble and expense to secure these particular kinds. Presumably the original reason for this was because the bark of the young white pines peels so easily, although possibly in the case of these species the outside layers of wood become more thoroughly im- pregnated with pitch than other species would. It is quite prob- able, however, that the treatment would succeed with Lodgepole Pine and other species as well. Probably this method of treat- ment might prove quite economical and practicable to bring into common use where it is desired to thin young stands and utilize the thinnings for posts. White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 223 Below are given the uses to which the wood of Limber Pine is now being put, according to the observations of the Forest officers without, however, distinguishing it from White-bark Pine, Past and Present Uses. Resuli—good. Result—fair. Result—poor. 1. Common lumber. 8. Mine props. 11. Shakes. 2. Finishing lumber. 9. Fence posts. 12. Carroll fences. 3. Building timbers. 10. Bridges on roads 13. Water wheels. 4. Shingles. and trails. 14. Telephone poles. 5. Flumes. 15. Cross arms, 6. Sluice-boxes. Parts of. 7. Fuel. 16. Ranch vehicles. 17. Ranch implements. Authority—Page S. Bunker, Supervisor Flathead Forest. Others add its use for posts, railroad ties, telephone poles. Silviculturally, Limber Pine is valuable as a protective cover at high elevations where the snowfall in winter is very heavy and where the ground dries very thoroughly in summer. Forest As- sistant Saunders mentions the fact that Limber Pine has proved to be the most resistant of any species to the sulphurous fumes from copper smelters, since on the Deerlodge Forest it has con- tinued to make a healthy growth in localities where all other species have died from the fumes. WHITE-BARK PinE—Pinus albicaulis ENCELMANN. Range.—Highest altitudes at which timber grows, from the Rocky Mountain and Pacific ranges in Alberta and British Columbia at latitude 53 degrees, southward through Montana and Idaho along the Rockies at Northwest Wyoming and the Targee National Forest, Idaho; also along the Cascade through Wash- ington and Oregon and through the Sierras of California to Kaweah Peaks. At elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 feet in Idaho and Montana, and from 4,500 to 8,000 in Washington, increasing to limits of 7,000 to 11,000 feet in California. Occurrence.—Confined to narrow altitudinal limits on alpine slopes and exposed ridges to timber line throughout its range. Grows among broken, bare rocks, in disintegrated granite, and in shallow rocky soils with little superficial moisture; best in deep, well-drained, moist soil. “At north, sometimes in pure, open stands on grassy areas, but 224 Forestry Quarterly. usually in open, park-like stands, preferably on north slopes with Alpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Lyall Larch, Limber Pine and Lodgepole Pine. On summits of Cascades, commonly pure at timber line, and often in clusters of from 3 to 7 trees, as if grow- ing from same root. In southern Washington, with Alpine Fir, Black Hemlock, and Yellow Cedar; in Oregon with Black Hem- lock, Alpine, Lowland, and Noble Firs, Lodgepole and Western White Pine, and Engelmann Spruce. In the Sierras, forming pure groups at timberline, on east, south, and west slopes, with patches of Black Hemlock and Western White Pine, and at lower altitudes with Lodgepole Pine.” (Sudworth.) In Montana and Idaho, the species occurs sometimes in pure, open stands on grassy areas, but usually in open park-like stands, preferably on north slopes, in mixture with Alpine Fir, Engel- mann Spruce, Lyall Larch, Lodgepole Pine, and in the Rocky Mountains proper, with Limber Pine. In moist localities, it is also found on southern and western exposures. In the dense forests of northern Idaho and western Montana, competition is so strong that the intolerant White-bark Pine is usually crowded onto the highest pinnacles and most unfavorable situations, and even there its occurrence may be limited to occasional specimens. In the somewhat drier forests of central Idaho and central and southern Montana, the struggle is not so severe, and the species is apt to occur in considerable stands in favorable situations. White-bark Pine is always found in situations which undergo great seasonal and daily ranges of temperature, and which are subject to fierce winds, very heavy snows, and a short growing season. Commercial Distribution in District I—This species does not approach a size and quality which would suit it for commercial purposes, except when growing in the most favorable situations, such as on deep rich fairly moist soils in protected spots. Super- visor J. E. Barton mentions only one locality on the Pend Oreille Forest where it exists of merchantable size over considerable areas. In the vicinity of Lake Darling, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, it occurs in rather dense groves of considerable extent, forming a fringe on the alpine meadows surrounding the lake. This basin is protected by ridges running up to 1800 feet above the lake. No groves of importance are recorded on the Kaniksu or the Coeur d’Alene, but on the Clearwater and Nezperce White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 225 Forests Mr. Barton found the species in merchantable size cover- ing rather large areas, at altitudes varying from 5,000 to 6,800 feet. This district appears to be about the middle range of the species for Idaho, the trees being about 4o feet high, from 6 inches to 20 inches in diameter, and with an average merchantable length of about 24 feet. Such stands also occur on the Forests of Western Montana, but they are almost wholly on elevations which will be inacces- sible for a long time to come. Mr. Woodward mentions an excellent mixed stand of White-bark Pine and Lodge-pole Pine in the Missoula Forest, on the divide between the east fork of Rattlesnake Creek and the west fork of Gold Creek. ‘The species here had a long clear bole with a short and narrow crown, a form quite similar to that of the Lodgepole Pine with which it grows. Along the main Continental Divide in Montana, from Glacier Park southward, merchantable stands are quite common on the broad ridge tops, gentle slopes, and in the basins at the heads of streams, where the soil is deep and fairly moist and the winds not too severe. Here, as elsewhere,.the very moist soils along the creeks are occupied by Engelmann Spruce and Alpine Fir. The drier soils farther up the slopes are given over to mixed stands of White-bark Pine and Lodgepole Pine, or above the range of Lodgepole, to White-bark in pure stands. It is quite possible that in many localities of this region, White-bark and Limber Pine are associated, particularly between 5,000 and 8,000 feet, the merchantable groves of White-bark Pine being found between 6,500 and 8,000 feet elevation. This point should be determined by further investigation. Certain it is that much of the timber which is called Limber Pine is in reality Pinus albicaulis. It is only in this region east of the Continental Divide that White-bark Pine is sufficiently accessible to be of present commercial value. It is now, however, being cut for commercial purposes on the Deerlodge Forest and on others further south, and probably on the Lewis and Clark also along with Limber Pine. Manner of Growth—White-bark Pine usually has a low, long- branched, twisted or crooked trunk, ranging from 15 to 50 feet high and from Io to 24 inches in diameter. In the high wind- swept home of this tree it is often merely a sprawling shrub with enormous branches spreading over the ground. As an example of the other extreme, an exceptionally perfect specimen of Pinus 226 Forestry Quarterly. albicaulis was noticed growing with spruce in a creek bottom on the Lewis & Clark National Forest that measured 18 inches d. b. h. and had a tall straight trunk that would yield four good 16 foot saw-logs. ‘The average merchantable stand of this species, however, usually runs quite uniform, with a merchantable length varying from 10 to 30 feet, depending upon the situation. White-bark Pine is usually not very straight, even at its best. It has considerable taper and crook which is usually markedly contrasted with the straightness of the Lodgepole Pine and spruce growing with it. Very characteristic also is the tendency it has to fork a foot or so above the ground. In general, this species is very similar to Limber Pine and the two species are commonly confused. However, the trunk of Pinus albicaulis is generally much shorter and more crooked than that of Pinus flexilis, and the bark of the former is usually much thinner, and more or less scaly-smooth, rather than ridged and furrowed. The purple cones of White-bark Pine are shorter and stubbier, and the cone- scales very pointed. Moreover, the cones are longer persistent on the trees than are those of the Limber Pine, and open very slowly after they are ripe. Since the seeds are a favorite food of the jays, magpies and squirrels which inhabit the high alti- tudes, the cones are usually cut or torn to pieces before they are ready to fall, and for months afterwards one may see the bare central shaft and a few of the basal scales still remaining in place on the tree, but no entire cones anywhere. Should the birds or rodents not get the seeds, the cones may remain closed after fall- ing until the scales, rotted at the bases, break away in bunches, liberating the seeds. The fact, therefore, that under the Limber Pine the old cones may be found entire, while under the White- bark they are rarely or never so, affords one of the simplest and safest ways of distinguishing between the two species. Characteristics of Wood.—The wood of White-bark Pine is light-brown in color, soft, close-grained, light in weight when seasoned, and in other ways quite similar to ordinary White Pine. It may prove to be more brittle, however. In contrast to the brittleness of the wood of the trunk, that of the branches is extremely tough. The grain is nearly always twisted, which makes the wood unsuitable for matches and for some other uses to which ordinary White Pine is put. For the commoner uses liv7hite Pines of Montana and Idaho. 227 of contruction, however, requiring ease of working rather than strength, this species should answer fairly well. The wood of White-bark is so similar to Limber Pine as to be scarcely distinguishable, except under the microscope, and the statements made concerning Limber Pine can be applied to White-bark as well. Uses of the Wood——Common construction; Building timbers ; Flumes; Sluice-boxes; Shingles; Building logs; Mine props; Mining stulls; Bridge timbers; Fence posts, Cordwood (for fuel). WESTERN WHITE PINE—Pinus monticola DouGcLAs. The Idaho White Pine of the lumberman, and occasionally called Silver Pine by foresters and botanists. Range.—The type tree of the North Idaho forests. Scattered through mountain forests from the west slopes of the Rockies in Montana and southern British Columbia westward through nort- ern Idaho and Washington to the Pacific coast, at elevations up to 6,000 feet. From the Columbia-Kootenai Valley of British Columbia, and from the mountains and southwest coast of Van- couver Island its range extends southward along the Cascade and Coast Ranges from sea level to 6,000 feet in Washington, at 1,500 to 8,500 feet in Oregon in the cross ranges of northern California at 4,500 to 7,200 feet, and in the Sierras at numerous points between 5,500 and 11,000 feet elevation. Occurrence.—In general not confined to any definite type of locality. At the north it is most abundant and largest in the deep porous soils of most valleys, but is also occasionally found growing in dry exposed subalpine regions. “Greater development in northern Idaho, on gentle north slopes and flats. Less frequent west of Continental Divides in Montana and of Cascades in Oregon. In northern California, on north slopes, and on south and west slopes in protected coves, broad valleys, and mountain benches; in southern California rather abundant on high, west slope of Sierras.” In regions other than Idaho occurs commonly as scattered trees or small groups with other species; very rarely in pure stands and only on exposed high slopes. In Cascades and Sierras occasionally forming 50 to 70% of stand on small areas, but through-out its range not ex- ceeding 3 or 4 per cent. In western Washington associated with 15 228 Forestry Quarterly. Western Hemlock, Amabilis Fir, Lowland Fir, and Douglas Fir; in Oregon, with Douglas Fir, Lowland Fir, and Amabilis Fir; in California, with Douglas Fir, Lodgepole Pine, Red Fir, and Shasta Fir.” (Sudworth.) In the humid climate of northern Idaho, Western White Pine forms the determining feature of the forest type as a whole, although the percentage of the species varies very widely in different localities. It is the predominant tree in the white pine flats between 2,200 feet and 4,500 feet elevation, and to a con- siderable extent at somewhat higher corresponding elevation on the moist southerly slopes. It frequently exists in almost pure stands, but more often other species form 10 to 50% of the merchantable volume. On northerly exposures its codominant associates are Western Larch and, to a less extent, Douglas Fir, Engelmann Spruce, and White Fir, (Abies grandis) ; while under the main stand, Western Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and White Fir usually form a lower story, or an undergrowth. On southerly exposures, including those sloping to the southeast and southwest, Douglas Fir is the usual associate, while in some localities White Fir, Lodgepole Pine, Western Larch, and oc- casionally Yellow Pine, are found. Here as a rule there is no understory of cedar and hemlock. The detailed range of Western White Pine in Idaho and Mon- tana is given below. Commercial Distribution in District I—Western White Pine is of the highest commercial value of any species wherever found. Throughout the entire panhandle of Idaho, from the Middle Fork of the Clearwater River to beyond the Canadian boundary, it makes the best growth of any species and produces the bulk of the merchantable timber. The per acreage yield is far greater than that of any other species grown in the region. In the Priest River Valley on the Kaniksu Forest, where the species reaches its maximum development, the white pine type occupies about 80% of the entire area. Approximately 42% of the merchan- table timber of this type, or 34% of the entire stand of the region, is Western White Pine, according to J. E. Lieberg’s estimate. In places the stand is found to be 90% pure, although in the majority of typical well developed stands the White Pine forms only 60 to 70% of the merchantable volume. Western Red Cedar frequently forms 5 to 10%, while the remainder is principally White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 229 Western Larch. In investigating the yield of White Pine in this region during the summer of IQI0, entire sections were examined which were covered with a mixed stand such as described, and which would yield no less than 70,000 feet B. M. per acre. Fully stocked acres of nearly pure White Pine were found which con- tained over 130,000 feet B. M. merchantable volume per acre. This timber was all 140 years old, with an average height of about 130 feet, yielding 6 merchantable logs to the tree; and with an average diameter breast high varying from 14 to 24 inches, depending on situation and density of stand. Larger trees, which have diameters ranging up to 36 inches, height up to 175 feet, and yielding as high as 9 logs to the tree were quite common, however, in the same age classes. This is practically the age at which the yield is the greatest. The trees continue to grow rapidly for 60 or 70 years more, increasing in height and di- ameter, but this growth is usually more than offset by a thinning of the dominant stand, the subdominant cedar and hemlock finally filling up the interspaces. Upon the Coeur d’Alene the development is practically as good. The Percentage of White Pine here is greater than that on the Kaniksu, since the species forms a greater proportion of the type. Supervisor Weigle estimates that 40% of the merchantable stand is White Pine. Upon the Pend Oreille the winter type appears to dominate at a somewhat less degree while the species usually forms only from 25 to 50% of the type, the larch again becoming more plentiful. South of the Coeur d’Alene, upon the North Fork of the Clearwater River in the Clearwater National Forest, the species grows in immense bodies, but as one proceeds south it becomes more and more restricted to moist protected basins and stream bottoms of about its middle range in altitude, until on the Nez Perce it becomes reduced to single scattered specimens or patches and finally disappears altogether. On the eastern side of the Bitterroot Range in Montana the same condition prevails. Although scattered over a considerable part of the Kootenai River, the white pine type is said by Deputy Supervisor Parker to cover scarcely more than 5% of the total area, while the species only occasionally makes up 25% of the forest type. On the Blackfeet and Flathead National Forests extensive stands of this type are found in Swan River Valley, and the various forks of the Flathead River (particularly the 230 Forestry Quarterly. South Fork) but here the species does not appear to form over 10% of the merchantable timber. Reproduction is abundant however, and seems to indicate that in these localities the species is to become predominant. On the Cabinet Forest, White Pine is found in small groups or as isolated specimens, in the small basins at the heads of tributary streams, on gentle northerly slopes. On the Lolo, where topo- graphic conditions perhaps cause greater humidity, the species occurs in heavy stand, in mixture with Engelmann Spruce, Larch, and other species. The type is confined, however, to the western end of the Forest—the upper drainage of the St. Regis River, the head of Trout Creek and the West Fork of Fish Creek, which territory corresponds in general with that of the heaviest snow- fall in the Forest. Upon the Missoula Forest, Western White Pine is found only as isolated specimens in the Clearwater Valley, probably the South- eastern limit of the range. Manner of Growth—‘In dense forests, in which its most characteristic form is found, this pine has a tall, slender shaft, with a peculiarly short-branches, narrow, symmetrical crown; the branches are usually slender and drooping and in early life extend over one-half or two-thirds the length of the trunk.” In Idaho, the regions of its best development, on its best site, its height ranges from 90 to 170 for 140 year old trees and when fully mature, usually from 150 to 200 feet or over. It then is usually from 24 to 34 feet in diameter. A white pine somewhat excep- tionally large was cut in the Priest River Valley in 1910. This tree was 60 inches in diameter breast-high, was cut into twelve 16-foot logs, and scaled 7,000 feet B. M. Outside of this region of best development, and also within the region on poor situations, such as south slopes, ridges, and thinner soils, “its height ranges from 90 to 100 feet. In open forests, where the conditions are less favorable to its better development, it is a short-bodied tree, 50 or 60 feet in height, with one or several very long, stout horizontal branches extending from 10 to 15 feet or more beyond the other slender branches. This striking char- acter distinguishes the tree as far as it can be seen. The bark of trees a foot or more in diameter is distinctly broken into peculiar small, square blocks. No other tree associated with it has this White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 231 bark character. The bark of mature trees is rarely over I} inches thick.” (Quotations from Sudworth. ) In general, the appearance of this species is very similar to that of the eastern Pinus strobus, which it also closely resembles in other characteristics. The chief difference in appearance are the very narrow crown and thin bark of the Western White Pine as contrasted with the broader head and the comparatively thick deeply rifted bark of its eastern relative. Characteristics of Wood.—Practically the equal of the eastern White Pine commercially, and largely taking its place in markets east of the Rocky Mountains. The wood is of a light brown color, very soft and light, straight and close grained, easily worked, but very strong. Heartwood fairly durable in contact with the soil. Some lumbermen claim that this species yields somewhat less clear lumber than does the eastern species. Others contend that the quality is fully as good. Match manufacturers assert “that for their purposes the eastern species is preferable, since the Western White Pine contains more hard streaks and more bird’s eyes,’ defects for match manufacturers but not for general pur- poses. The uses of the wood are the same as those of its eastern con- geuer. SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE FOOD RESERVES OF TREES.* By JoHN F. Preston and Franx J. PHILLIPs. INTRODUCTION. One of the earliest records of the reduction of starch in the cortex and phloem of the stems of woody plants in winter is con- tained in a report by Mer! in 1879. This author examined but few trees at this time, but noted in them the winter decrease of starch and the increase of oil globules. A much greater contribution to the knowledge of the seasonal condition of the stored food of woody plants was made by Russow? who published his results in 1882. He examined at various seasons the cell-contents of phloem and xylem of stem and root of 92 species, of which 51 species grew in the open at Dorpat in western Russia. The xylem of these trees was not examined in all cases, but, as far as examined, showed starch present in both stem and root in both summer and winter. In the phloem, the variation of starch content was marked, this substance being at a maximum in late autumn, and disappearing from the most of the trees in winter. Examinations were made in two consecutive years, one with a mild winter and one with a severely cold winter. In the mild winter, 10 trees kept considerable starch in the phloem of the stem, but this was reduced to none, or but a trace, in the cold winter. Also, of the 42 species of trees and shrubs kept in a plant house over winter, about a half showed more or less starch remaining in the phloem of the stem. But since nearly a half of *(Contribution 126 from the Botanical Department of the University of Michigan. This paper is the result of the work of two of my former students under whose names it is published. These two students left me good re- ports of their work, and these reports I have edited and prepared for publication. I should add that a third student, Mr. Nelson F. Macduff, also furnished some of the data—F. C. NEwcomBe.) *De la Repartition de 1’ Amidon dans les Rameaux des Plantes ligneuses. Bull. Soc. de France. XXVI, 1879, p. XLIV. *Ueber den Inhalt der parenchym. Elemente der Rinde. Sitzber. Na- turforsch. Gesellsch. Universitat Dorpat. VI, 1882, 369. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt. XIV, 1883, 271. —- Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 233 them lost all, or nearly all, their starch, notwithstanding the warmer temperature of the house, Russow concluded that the solution of the starch is independent of immediate climatic con- ditions. Russow’s view was that the starch was transformed into fat. In a report to the Versammlung russicher Naturforscher und Aerzte, Odessa, Grebnitzky and Baranetzky’ stated that their examination showed that the autumn starch disappeared wholly from the phloem of the stems of trees in winter, and disappeared wholly from the xylem of the stems of soft-wood trees, while the xylem of hard woods showed merely a reduction in the amount of starch. They, too, supposed that the starch was transformed into fatty oil. In the year 1891, following a shorter paper on the same subject, Fischer! published a very extensive and detailed account of his studies of the reserves of trees. He confirmed the reports of former observers as to the disappearance or reduction of starch in the stems of trees as the season advanced from autumn to winter, and summed up the whole annual transformation of the non-nitrogenous stored material as follows: At the time of the fall of the leaves in autumn, the stems of trees show a starch maximum; in winter there is a starch minimum, and in early spring a regeneration of starch, producing a second starch maxi- mum, followed later in spring by a second starch minimum. The soft-wood trees in general dissolve all their starch in winter, re- placing it in whole or in part with fat, while the hard-wood trees in general retain a large amount of starch especially in the xylem in winter, and show but little fat. This high percentage in winter of starch on the one hand, or of fat on the other, allows trees to be divided into two groups, starch-trees( composed mostly of the hard-woods), and fat-trees (composed mostly of the soft-wood and conifers). The starch minimum of spring is followed by a glucose maximum at the time of the unfolding of buds; but this maximum soon diminishes as the sugar is consumed in the for- mation of new tissue. Glucose may appear in some trees as a product of starch solution in winter, but not to the extent that fat *Bot. Centrblt. XVIII, 1884, 157. ee zur Physiologie der Holzgewachse. Jahrb. wiss. Botan. XXII, ISgI, 73. 234 Forestry Quarterly. does. Yet the total of sugar and fat is not enough to account for all the starch dissolved. Mer,' writing in the same year as Fischer and in a subsequent paper in 1808, differed from Fischer by denying that glucose was one of the transformed products of starch. D’Arbaumont? examined the stems of nearly 100 species of trees and shrubs, and came to the conclusion that the disappear- ance of starch in winter, though influenced by the temperature environment, is a fixed habit in woody plants, inasmuch as several trees, kept in a warm plant house over winter, nevertheless lost all their starch from the stem. D’Arbaumont’s observations do not seem to coincide with Fischer’s as to the greater diminution of starch in soft-wood trees compared with hard-woods, inas- much as both hard-woods and soft-woods are found in his list the members of which lost all their stem starch in winter, and both hard-woods and soft-woods are found in his list the mem- bers of which retain some starch in the stem in winter. To the questions under discussion, Sablon* made the next im- portant contribution. His methods are mostly microscopical, by chemical analysis. Fischer had suggested that the starch, on dissolving in early winter, passed in part into an unknown sub- stance. This substance Sablon claimed to have discovered in reserve cellulose. Moreover, according to his analyses, reserve cellulose constitutes by far the largest part of the non-nitrogenous reserves, starch, sugar and fat being wholly subordinate. In the stem of the chestnut, for instance, in proportion to the dry weight of the stem, the maximum content of starch was, accord- ing to Sablon, 4.6%, minimum 2.4%; the maximum of sugar was 4.3%, minimum 2.1% ; the maximum of fat 1.1%, minimum 0.6%; while the maximum of reserve cellulose was 20.2%, minimum 14.4%. The presence of reserve cellulose was deter- mined not only by extracting the finely ground powder with boiling 10% hydrochloric acid, and subsequent chemical analysis, but by the use of the microscope, the xylem cells showing in winter a layer of cellulose which disappeared in spring. Some ‘Des Variations qu’ éprouve la Réserve amylacée des Arbres aux di- verses Epoques de |’ Année. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XLV, 1808, 299. *Sur Il’ Evolution de la Chlorophylle et de I’ Amidon dans le Tige. Ann. Sci. Nat. 8 ser. T. 13, 1901, 319; T. 14, 125. *Recherches physiologiques sur les Matiéres de Réserves des Arbres. Rev. gen. Bot. XVI, 1904, 4o1. Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 235 species, Sablon believed, deposit their reserve cellulose within rather than upon the wall of permanent cellulose. In 1895, Schellenberg’ strengthened the position of Sablon re- garding the annual formation of reserve cellulose in trees. In the xylem parenchyma of Aesculus hippocastanum, Betula ver- rucosa, the Beech Oak, Ash and Alder, though there was an un- lignified inner lamella, this was never dissolved, because the cells died at the end of the season of their formation. But in Vitis vinifera and Robinia pseud-acacia, these xylem parenchyma cells do not die so early, and their inner lamellae are partially dissolved the following spring. The primary cortex of young twigs may be used for deposit of reserve cellulose, as in the case of the Birch, Alder, Hazel and Horsechestnut, and most probably in Salix capraea, Quercus penduculata, Populus and Fagus silvatica The parenchyma of the phloem was seen to dissolve partially its cellulose in Alnus, Aesculus hippocastanum, Betula, Pinus montana, Larix europaea, and Picea excelsa. The deposit of the reserve cellulose takes place from August till October, or even to the end of November in some species, the walls being seen to thicken. In the spring, the solution of the cellulose is determined by an actual thinning of wall in some cases, and by a partial solution without much thinning in others, the loss of density in the wall being shown by polarizing appa- ratus. Niklewski’s! study concerned chiefly the fat content of Tilia, Betula, Prunus and Syringa. Unlike Vandevelde,? who found fat not changed in amount when the starch of autumn is dis- solved, Niklewski found fat increasing from summer into Janu- ary, and, after that, a decrease till summer. But Vandevelde and Niklewski agree that the amount of fat present is not directly related to the transformations of starch. Starch can be changed to sugar and sugar to starch by varying the temperature; but the formation of fat is a seasonal function, largely independent of temperature. ‘Ueber Hemicellulosen als Reservestoffe bei unseren Walbaumen. Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch. XXIII, 1905, 36. ‘Untersuchungen iiber die Umwandlung einiger stickstofffreier Re- servestoffe wahrend der Winterperiode der Baume. Beih. Bot. Centrblt. XIX, 1906, 68. *Bijdrage tot de scheikundige physiologie van den stam der Boomen. Ghent, 1905. (This paper was inaccessible to the present authors.) 236 Forestry Quarterly. Fabricius’ investigated the varying starch and fat contents of all parts of the Norway Spruce. The numerous transformations as told by Fisher, Fabricius claims,, hold good for young stems only. In older stems, he finds starch remaining in large quan- tities in winter in both phloem and xylem. Only once in the year is starch wholly transformed into fat, and that is in summer, after the buds begin to unfold. Fat remains in the wood through summer, and is converted back to sugar from September to November. A solution of starch in April takes place only in young twigs; and a new deposit of starch in summer takes place only in the phloem. In the xylem, the starch in summer is con- verted over into fat, which persists all summer. Roots elongate in June, July and again in October, and while they are elongating, fat is always present in the cortex of the root. More recently Sablon? has published a second paper on the reserves of trees, in which he maintains his position that sugar and fat are of but minor importance as reserve material, reserve cellulose being far greater in quantity than both combined. The maximum of carbohydrate reserves falls at different times for trees with deciduous leaves and those with persistent leaves; for the former, the maximum is at the fall of the leaf in autumn; for the latter, at the beginning of activity in spring. For both kinds of trees, the minimum is later in spring. In all of the foregoing work there was little attention paid to the condition of the carbohydrates in roots, except that Russow and Sablon extended their observations to these members. Petersen’, however, in two papers gave the results of his exami- Nogle Undersogelser over Traeernes Rodliv (with French Resume) Ibid. 1808, 1. nation of the roots of eight species of trees, according to which the starch in general was not dissolved in the roots in winter, though it did disappear from both phloem and xylem of the root of Betula verrucoca and from the phloem of the root of Acer pseudoplatanus in December. Petersen’s studies extended to the stem of a larger number of trees, but, as his results generally agree with Fischer’s, we need not dwell longer on the details. *Untersuchungen iiber den Starke—und Fettgehalt der Fichte auf der oberbayerischen Hochebene, 1905. Abstract Bot. Centrblt. 102, 1906, 20. "Recherches physiologiques sur les Matéres des Réserves des Arbres II. Rev. gen. Bot. XVIII, 1906, 5. *Stivelsen hos vore Lovtraeer under Vinterhvilen. Oversight kong. Danske Vidensk. Selskab Forh. 1896, 50. Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 237 The conclusions of the foregoing contributions may be sum- marized briefly in the following sentences : StTarcH.—(1) There is common agreement that in the cortex and phloem of young branches reserve starch accumulates from early summer till autumn, then gradually diminishes in amount to a minimum, or to nothing through the winter; then in early spring reappears in large quantity, to diminish to a second mini- mum as the buds are unfolding. (2)) In the xylem of young branches and trunks, it is agreed that there is, in winter, a reduction in some trees, in some, a total disappearance of starch. (3) In the relatively few statements regarding the presence of starch in roots, there is agreement that there is much less seasonal variation than in stems. Starch remains in both phloem and xylem of the root through the winter, and reaches a minimum there in early summer. (4) In the older trunks and older branches of the Norway Spruce, according to Fabricius, there is not so great a seasonal variation as in the younger stems. In the older stems, the starch in both phloem and xylem remains the year through, though with some reduction in late autumn. Sucar.—According to the extensive work of Fischer, sugar shows a maximum in December, and a lesser maximum in early spring, its maximum coinciding with the minimum of starch. Most authors agree with Fischer, and believe that these sub- stances have a reciprocal action in changing the one into the other. Mer, however, as the result of several analyses, concluded that there is no more sugar present in winter than in summer. Sablon also found only a small increase of sugar in winter. Fat.—Although Fischer and one or two other authors believed, on rather insufficient evidence, that starch was transformed into fat in early winter, the most of the writers agree that the amount of fat present has no relation to the transformations of starch. The most that can be said is that fat is at a minimum in early summer, and that it increases from this time till January, and then begins a decline lasting till May or June. CELLULOSE.—Only two authors have written on cellulose as a food reserve—Sablon and Schellenberg. If Sablon’s conclusions are correct, then the amount of reserve cellulose is considerably greater than the combined amounts of starch, sugar and fat. 238 Forestry Quarterly. This reserve cellulose is claimed to be deposited in different tissues in different species—in the primary cortex and phloem of twigs, in the phloem and xylem of older stems and roots. The increase in thickness and density of membranes is said to take place in the latter part of summer and in autumn, and the thin- ning to take place when growth starts in the spring. OBSERVATIONS. An examination of nine of our representative forest trees was made at intervals of one to two weeks from the first of October, 1905, to the middle of June, 1906. This study was undertaken with a view to gaining further information on two questions: (1) How closely do our trees conform to the behavior of their near relatives in Europe? (2) There having been heretofore relatively but few trees examined for the determination of the sea- sonal variation of the carbohydrates in the roots, what is the con- dition of these reserves through the seasons ? The methods employed were simple, being merely a microscop- ical examination of sections treated with iodine, Fehling’s solution, osmic acid, alkannin, or cyanin. These reagents, of course, identified only the starch, reducing sugar, and fats’ Un- fortunately time did not allow the determination of the reserve cellulose, nor any more accurate measurements of the starch, sugar, and fat than could be judged by simple observation of sections. : In making the observations here recorded, 9 trees were ex- amined: Populus deltoides Marsh., Tilia americana L., Salix alba L., Juniperus virginiana L., Ulmus americana L., Acer saccharum Marsh., Quercus rubra L,., Juglans nigra L. and Carya glabra Mill. All of these trees grow wild in this region, and all except Salix are native. A glance suffices to show that of the 9 trees, the first 3 in the list are soft-woods, and the 4th a gymnosperm, and hence the four belong to the group whose relatives in Europe are said to dissolve all or the most of their starch above ground in winter, while the last 5 belong to the group whose European relatives have been found by most observers to dissolve the starch above ground in the cortex and phloem but to retain more or less starch in the xylem throughout the winter. \ Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 239 STARCH IN TWIGS AND STEMS. Populus deltoides—lIn cortex, phloem and xylem of the parts above grounds; the starch passes through the phases observed in Denmark by Petersen for Populus tremula and in northeastern France by Mer for Populus sp. ‘That is, in both cortex and stele the starch is at a maximum in autumn, disappears wholly in winter, is regenerated in the early spring, and again disappears in May. Russow, however, found starch abundant in winter in the phliem of P. tremula. Tilia americana,—The behavior of starch in the stem of this tree is nearly like that of Populus deltoides, except that in Tilia a small amount of starch may be found in the outer part of the phloem, in the medullary rays of the xylem zone, in the xylem, and in the pith probably at all times in winter. It was not seen in the cortex or phloem in the first half of January, and not in the xylem in the last half of January, but examination each week before and after showed its presence in the respective tissues, and \its reported absence was probably due to hasty examination. This result agrees more nearly with the observations of Mer on Tilia sp., and of Russow on Tilia europaea, but differs from those of Fischer, who found no starch in winter in any part of the stem of Tilia parvifolia. Salix alba.—The twigs and 1o-year old trunk of this tree lost all their starch in January in this region (Ann Arbor, Mich.). Fischer reports Salix babylonica, and Mer and D’Arbaumont report Salix capraea as retaining some starch all winter. Juniperus virginiana.—By the middle of November the twigs and trunk of this tree up to 12 years of age had lost the most of their starch. By the middle of January the last traces had dis- appeared, the medullary rays retaining theirs the latest. Compared with this, the behavior of Juniperus communis is described by Fischer as showing no starch in any part of the stem in winter, except for a trace retained in the xylem. Ulmus americana.—In the twigs of this tree, the starch disap- peared from the cortex at the middle of December, but did not wholly vanish at any time from either phloem or xylem of twigs or older trunks, though it was much reduced in both phloem and xylem of these members. 240 Forestry Quarterly. This same species presents a similar behavior when grown in eastern France, as recorded by d’Arbaumont. Ulmus campestris is reported by Fischer as retaining starch in the xylem only, while both Mer and d’Arbaumont found the same species retaining starch in both phloem and xylem. Acer saccharum.—This tree retains considerable starch through- out the winter in xylem and medullary rays of both twigs and older stems. ‘This behavior exactly coincides with that of A. dasycarpum as mentioned by Fischer, and with that of A. pseu- doplatanus and A. saccharinum as mentioned by d’Arbaumont. Juglans nigra.—In both twigs and trunk of this tree, the starch wholly disappears from the cortex and phloem, but is retained in the wood parenchyma and medullary rays to the extent of about 25% to 33% of the maximum content of September. Juglans regia, in northeastern France, according to Mer, be- haves exactly as does J. nigra, as concerns the starch in winter. Carya glabra Mill.—This hickory loses all its starch in cortex, phloem and xylem in smaller stems, but retains about one-fourth the maximum amount in winter in the medullary rays of the xylem zone, and in the wood parenchyma of larger stems. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report as to the winter content of starch of any of the hickories. The species here treated ranges itself with its relatives, the walnuts, in America and Europe. Quercus rubra.—Both twigs and the older trunk show starch present throughout the winter in cortex, phloem, xylem, pith and medullary rays. In cortex and phloem, there is in winter but a small quantity compared with the maximum of autumn; but the amount in the xylem and pith does not appear to diminish greatly. It is worth noting that none of the oaks reported by the various investigators of Europe show starch in the phloem of the stem in winter, though all show more or less winter starch in pith, xylem and medullary rays of the xylem ring. Such reports are made for Quercus robur at Leipzig by Fischer; for Quercus pedun- culata, O. pubescens, Q. alba and Q. tinctoria in eastern France (Cote d’Or) by d’Arbaumont. STARCH {IN Roots. It has already been stated in this paper that the roots of trees as far as examined have generally shown but little diminution of Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 241 starch in the winter. However, Petersen found the roots of Betula verrucosa losing the starch in all their tissues in December, while the roots of Acer pseudoplatanus lost at the same time the starch from the phloem. The nine trees reported in this paper were examined at weekly intervals from October to June for the amount of starch in the roots. The phloem of the root of Carya glabra showed some re- duction of starch in December, but the roots of the 8 other trees retained their starch in both phloem and xylem undiminished throughout the winter as far as the microscopical method could determine. All of the species showed a reduction, but not a com- plete loss of starch in their roots in April or May. The material taken for examination in winter was not allowed in warm temperature before examination. Conceiving the possibility that the retention of starch by the roots in winter might be, at least in part, due to the protection af- forded by their buried condition, roots of the 3 species, Tilia americana, Ulmus americana, and Quercus rubra, were uncovered in midwinter, and exposed to the air, while still connected with the trees. Although these roots were frequently exposed to tem- peratures of —10° to —20°, and for 6 weeks almost continuously to a temperature below 0°, there was no perceptible effect on the content of starch. The exposed roots and the unexposed roots presented the same appearance under the microscope. SuGAR RESERVES. Since the analytical chemical work of Sablon, sugar can hardly be given the place of importance assigned to it by Fischer, namely, as a large reserve in trees. The examination of the 9 species of trees included in this report demonstrated the presence of a large amount of sugar in the spring only, at the time of the un- folding of the buds. There was an increase of sugar in the late autumn in all species; but only Juniperus virginiana and Salix alba showed much sugar in any part of the tree at any time except in Apriland May. ‘The roots of all 9 species showed only traces of sugar at any of the examinations except in April and May. Fat RESERVES. The variations in the amount of fat reported by most of - the investigators have been found to hold true for 8 of the 9 242 Forestry Quarterly. trees here reported. (Acer saccharum was not examined for fat.) That is to say, fat was at a minimum at the time of un- folding of buds, increased slowly through the summer to attain a maximum in late autumn or early winter, to decline again to the minimum of spring. ‘The trees showing considerable quantities of fat were Populus deltoides, Juglans nigra, Tilia americana, and Ulmus americana; while those showing but little fat were Salix alba and Carya glabra. The fat was in largest amounts in the phloem and rays of the twigs; the roots of none of the trees showed more than traces of fat in any of the tissues. SUMMARY. The work reported in the present paper, and that of the European investigators, may be summarized in the following statements : 1. There is in the stems of all trees in temperate climates a re- duction in November and December of the amount of starch present in autumn, the reduction being so great in some trees as to lead to the complete disappearance of the starch throughout the stem, while in most trees the xylem retains more or less starch, and in still others both xylem and phloem retain some starch through the winter. 2. A few trees have shown a considerable increase of fat in the phloem and xylem in late autumn or early winter; but there is insufficient evidence for the belief that starch is transformed into fat. In most trees the increase of fat is not marked. 3. The trees that contain considerable fat in winter are some of them hard-woods and some of them soft-woods, as Populus del- toides, Tilia americana, and Juglans nigra in the present paper, the first two being soft-woods and the last a hard-wood. The soft-wooded Salix alba contains but little fat, but considerable starch in its stem in winter. From these results and those of European authors, it would hardly seem justified to name broad- leaf hard-woods generally as starch trees, and the soft-woods and gymnosperms generally at fat trees, as proposed by Fischer. 4. As claimed by Sablon, so the work reported in this paper seems to indicate no great increase in the content of sugar in stems and roots, except in the spring as the buds unfold. 5. In the root, the transformations do not keep pace with those in the stem, and starch remains the year round, the greatest reduc- Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 243 tion occurring in spring. ‘The roots of all nine trees studied in the present work showed much starch in both phloem and xylem all through the winter. 6. The transformations of the carbohydrates are largely de- pendent on the season, though the immediate conditions of tem- perature have some effect. Thus, Russow and d’Arbaumont found that several species kept in a warm glass-house over winter lost their starch at the usual time; and in the work reported in this paper, roots of trees exposed to the severity of winter by removing their covering of earth did not appreciably reduce their starch. On the other hand, it is known that a stem, without starch in winter, will form starch in a few days after placing in a warm temperature; and Russow reports several species of trees that retained considerable starch in the stem through a mild winter, but lost much or all of their starch in the next winter, which was severe. 7. Fabricius reports that the older stem of Picea excelsa does not transform its starch to so great an extent as the younger stems. Several of the trees examined in the present work have shown the same thing; and hence it is quite likely that it is a general phenomenon. 8. Sablon has pointed out that the maximum for total carbo- hydrate reserves for deciduous leaved trees is at the fall of the leaf in autumn, whereas the maximum is at the opening of buds in the spring for persistent leaved trees. g. Finally, the work of Sablon and Schellenberg indicates that the principal carbohydrate reserve of trees in winter is cellulose. One might wish that the methods employed by these two investi- gators were a little more convincing. Sablon obtained favorable results by chemical analyses, and both he and Schellenberg report seeing the walls thinned down in spring; in other cases the walls showed a loss of refractive properties in cases in which reduction in thickness could not be seen. ‘There need be nothing suspicious in the claim of a loss of substance where loss of thickness could not be seen; for enzyme action produces exactly this effect at the first solution of walls in some seeds’. *Newcombe. Cellulose Enzymes. Ann. Bot. XIII, 1899, 49. 16 PITH FLECKS OR MEDULLARY SPOTS IN WOOD. By SAMUEL J. Recorp. Pith flecks or medullary spots are small, brown, half-moon shaped patches appearing so commonly on the cross sections of many of our woods, especially those of the four families Sali- caceae, Betulaceae, Rosaceae and Aceraceae. All close observers of wood are familiar with their appearance and several writers, notably R. Hartig’, Kienitz?, Nordlinger*, Stone*, and Boulger®, have made use of them as one of the specific characters in wood identification. The purpose of this article is to summarize in- vestigations of the origin and nature of pith flecks, with special reference to the taxonomic value of such occurrences. It appears that attention was first called to these spots by Th. Hartig® in 1840, terming them “cellular channels” (Zellgange). He noted and described their occurrence in birch, red alder and hazel. He made no attempt, however, to explain their cause. Rossmassler? proposed the name “medullary recurrences” (Markwiederholungen), believing the flecks to be of the same formation as the rays. Nordlinger®, in preparing his wood sections, remarked the oc- currence of the spots in several species of wood and gave them the name “pith flecks” (Markflecke), which has been generally accepted. Cordes® and Mohl*® confirmed the statements of Th. Hartig and Rossmassler regarding the species of woods in which the flecks occurred. Ratzeburg't made some investigations of the flecks which he termed ‘“‘brown chains” (Braunketten) on account of their color and horizontal distribution. He considered it pos- sible but scarcely probable that they were due to the mining of the cambium by the larvae of an insect which he provisionally called Tipula suspecta. Kraus" made a more detailed study of the pith flecks with the intention of using them diagnostically as a means of identifying different kinds of woods but came to the conclusion that at least in the case of the conifers they were inconstant and could not safely be used in diagnosis. Medullary Spots in Wood. 245 Later, R. Hartig' made use of the pith flecks in describing woods, and Kienitz? utilized them in a wood key which he made up for lecture purposes. Kienitz early came to the conclusion that the spots were not normal developments and during the years 1881-1882 made some investigations of the cause of the for- mations. ‘The results were published*® in 1883. He discovered that the pith flecks in species of Salix, Sorbus and Betula were tunnels—filled by new cells—of an insect larva which obtained its nourishment from the cells of the cambium and new growth at the time of the formation of the growth rings. This verified the hypothesis advanced at an earlier date and referred to above. Kienitz observed the development of the larvae in small stems of mountain ash and willow (Salix rubra Huds., S. viminalis L,, and S. caprea L.) Unfortunately, he was unable to grow the insect to maturity or obtain the imago. He submitted some of the larvae to Dr. Gerstacker, who identified them as dipterous insects. Kienitz concluded that the insect winters in the pupal state in the ground and that the mature insect lays its eggs singly on or in the young sprouts or any tender stem of the woody plant. In May or June the eggs hatch and young larva (Fig. 2) eats a path or tunnel into the cambial zone. In the beginning the tunnel is very narrow corresponding to the relative size of the larval body. The larva grows little in thickness but considerably in length, finally becoming 2-3 cm. long. The tunnel which remains very narrow radially widens in a peripheral direction, since the larva eats to its right and left. Only the cells of the cambium and of the very latest formed wood are eaten, even by the full grown larvae. In all cases observed, the tunnels were directed downward at first. When the larva has penetrated to a certain depth, it turns about without building a loop, making the tunnel only a little wider at this turning point. The location of this turning point varies, often being at the root collar or perchance, in a lateral root. After turning back it follows the old tunnel for a short distance, usually about the length of its body, and then starts off in an oblique direction so that the two tunnels make an acute angle with each other. (Fig. 4.) The larva, as a rule, does not go very far upwards but reverses itself and eats with its head 246 Forestry Quarterly. Medullary Spots in Wood. 247 Explanation of Figures Fig. 1. Lateral and dorsal views of a larva of Opostega nonstrigella Ch., taken from a twig of Ribes vulgare. (After GrossENBACHER). Fig. 2. Young scarcely half-grown dipterous (?) larva taken from a shoot of Salix rubra Huds. (After Krenitz). Fig. 3. Much enlarged lateral view of the head of a larva similar to that in Fig. 2. (After KreniTz). Fig. 4. Lower portion of a peeled mountain ash stem (Sorbus aucuparia L.) showing the lower ends and turning points of three tunnels of which one reaches down into a root. On the cross-section a few pith flecks are visible. (After KrenrvTz). Fig. 5. Cross section of a stem of birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) show- ing numerous pith flecks. Natural size. (After Kienrrz.) Fig. 6. Cross section of a willow shoot (Salix rubra Huds.) showing a portion of a tunnel deserted by the larva for a long time. (a) New cambium which has been formed to replace that destroyed. (b) Cells which originally belonged to the bark but later became wood cells. (c) Margin or border of the wound formed by the walls of the destroyed cells and excrement of the larva. (d)The layer (c) has been broken through in sev- eral places ‘by the outgrowth of the bark cells and the division of the bubble-like ‘filling cells’ (tyloses?) has begun. From the woody portion only one ‘filling cell’ (e) has emerged; it is from a ray. (After KiEn- ITZ.) Fig. 7. Cross section of one-half a pith fleck from a stem of Betula papyrifera Marsh. (a), (a’), (a”), rays. (b) Margin or border almost obliterated. (c) The ‘filling cells’ are thick walled, densely pitted, and filled with starch. (Original.) 248 Forestry Quarterly. downward again, occasionally turns once more, and finally after it has taken on a shorter and stouter form, bores through the bark, forces itself slowly out through the narrow opening and falls to the ground. The length of the tunnels varies considerably and seems to be determined by the amount of available food which the larva finds. In slow-growing mountain ash stems the greatest observed dis- tance up and down was I meter, while in a succulent willow sprout the distance was from 20-30cm. In the latter space, how- ever, were found three turning points. Frequently, several larvae were found in the same slender shoot. For example, in a small stem of mountain ash less than I cm. in diameter were found four larvae at the same time. Their paths frequently crossed. Kienitz observed that in a cross section of a stem, the large pith flecks were always found near the outer edge of the growth ring, the smaller ones in the early wood. (Fig. 5.) From this he concluded that there is only one generation a season, since if there were two generations of the insects, more than one layer or region of broad spots would be found in the same growth ring. He also concluded that the larvae in mountain ash, various species of willows, and Betula verrucosa were of the same species. In the tunneling process the larva does not completely devour the cells but seems only to tear them open, presumably using for the purposes the hooks on the end of its mouth (Fig. 3), after which it appears to suck up the cell contents. The torn cell walls, which are still soft, are compressed by the advancing larva and in this way a narrow passage is formed. These tunnels, as well as the larva which is of the same color as the cambium cells, are at first hard to see since the decomposition of the destroyed cells has not begun and the radial diameter of the passages is very small. Since cambial activity continues undisturbed on both sides of a mine, while at the same time cell formation in the mine itself ceases, the radial diameter of the tunnel increases after the larva has passed. Consequently, pith flecks are larger in rapid-grow- ing sprouts than in slow-growing shoots. In time, the cambium layer (Fig. 6, a) bridges over the mine and afterward produces normal xylem and phloem. In the meantime, some of the uninjured cells on the cortical side of the channel become rounded and increase in size in cross- Medullary Spots in Wood. 249 section, until finally they break through the layer of cell frag- ments (Fig. 6, c) and press like bubbles into the hollow space (Fig. 6, d) where they grow very rapidly, divide in all directions and soon fill the cavity. The ray cells of the bark were found to be the most important and almost the exclusive regeneration centers, though rarely other parenchymatous cells of the cortex and very seldom ray cells of the xylem (Fig. 6, e) were observed also to take part in the process. The dissolved cell fragments and larvae excrement are com- pressed into a narrow border (Fig. 7, b) by the rapid growth and division of the “filling cells.’ ‘The pressure tends to keep back other cells which otherwise would soon have proliferated into the cavity. The “filling cells” assume very irregular shapes, the walls thicken and grow darker (probably from tannin) and are densely pitted with simple pits. Starch gradually makes its way into these cells and often all the cells are found filled with starch grains which contribute toward making the pith flecks resemble the rays. (Fig. 7, c.) The cells which lie between the newly formed cambium and the channel (Fig. 6, b), originally belonging to the bark but now surrounded by the newly formed ring of wood, do not remain unchanged, either; they thicken their walls appreciably, become wood-like and in cross-section appear as wood cells though usually more rounded. In longitudinal section they can be readily recognized by their very short length in contrast with the normal structure of the wood cells formed by the new cambium. Kienitz found pith flecks in the following woods: Alnus glu- tinosa Gartn., A. incana D. C., Betula pubescens Ehrh., B. ver- rucosa Ehrb., Corylus avellana 1,., almost all species of Salix, several species of Sorbus, Crataegus oxrycantha L., C. monogyna L., a few species of Prunus, probably also in some species of Pyrus. He believed the somewhat similar spots in conifers, of which Kraus!? speaks, to be of different origin than those in broadleaf species. A recent contribution to this subject has been made by Grossen- bacher 14. He made a careful study of the insect causing pith flecks in current stems, and found that the mining was done by the larvae of a tineid moth, Opostega nonstrigella Ch. (Fig 1). The larva is in many ways different from that described by Kienitz, as may be seen by comparing Figs. 1 and 3, while the 250 Forestry Quarterly. turning points of the tunnels are semi-circular instead of pointed. The histological modifications which result from the mining of the Opostega larva are fundamentally the same as those described above. Grossenbacher reports the presence of cambium miners in the following trees: Prunus mahaleb, seedlings of P. avium, P. serotina, P. virgimana, Crataegus oxyacantha, and other species of Crataegus when among infested P. avium or P. mahaleb. ‘They were also found in P. cerasus and P. domestica of some nurseries. The mines and larvae were present in various sized stems, branches and shoots of the above hosts from the surface of the ground (even underground) up to nearly 3 meters above. Various writers have referred to pith flecks in describing wood. Laslett’? notes their occurrence in “many Birches, Alders, Haw- thorns, Poplars, etc.” and considers them “points of structure that help the expert to determine the nature of a piece of wood.” Boulger® (page 33): “Another character of some value in dis- crimination is the occurrence of pith flecks, or medullary spots, dark rust-like patches, which occur in Alder, Hazel, Hawthorn and some species of Willow, Poplar, and Pyrus. They are sup- posed by some authorities to originate in passages bored by the larvae of a species of Tipula (wire worm) which live in the cambium, these passages becoming filled up immediately with cellular tissue; but their origin requires further investigation.” In his classification of woods Boulger makes the presence or absence of pith-flecks the basis for separating certain species of Acer, of Populus and of Pyrus. Acer barbatum Mich. (A. saccharum March), for example, is said to be without pith-flecks, thereby distinguishing it from A. campestre L. and A. pennsyl- vanicum L, The present writer, however, has observed pith- flecks in the wood of A. saccharum Marsh, and it is probable that their use in the other instances referred to is equally unreliable. Stone* recognizes the pathological origin of pith flecks but states (pages XVI-XVII) that they “are as characteristic of the species as any other feature because the grub is faithful to its special tree and prefers it to all others, therefore as a series of years can hardly pass without the presence of the grub, no log of wood of a susceptible species of tree will be found without these traces.” Opposed to this statement are the observations of Kienitz’ Medullary Spots in Wood. 251 He found, for example, that some mountain ash and willow stems have many pith flecks while other individuals of the same species in the vicinity, often from the same root stock, did not show them. Furthermore, he looked in vain for pith flecks in a large number of birch and alder stems in a certain locality, though ordinarily the wood of the Betulaceae contains them in abundance. Again, in stems with pith flecks certain growth rings may be free of them while others are thickly dotted. The present writer has observed pith flecks in the following woods: Salix laevigata Bebb., S. fluviatilis Nutt., Betula populi- folia Marsh., B. papyrifera Marsh., B. nigra L., Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch., Pyrus rivularis Dougl., P. sambucifolia C. & S., Ainelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic., Crataegus crus-galli L., C. punctata Jacq., Prunus americana Marsh., P. pennsylvanicum L. F., P. ilicifolia (Nutt.) Walp., P. Mollis Walp., Acer pennsyl- vanicum L., A. saccharum Marsh., A. saccharinum L., A. rubrum L., Ceanothus velutinus arboreus Sarg., and Adelia acuminata Michx. It is interesting to note that while pith flecks have been reported in the woods of some fifty species and fifteen genera, no large pored or ring porous woods are in the list. The oaks, ashes, hickories, elms and similar woods are absent. The writer can assign no adequate reason why this should be true, though the character of the bark may possibly account for it. In view of all of the foregoing, the writer has come to the same conclusion as Gayer,'® viz: that as pith flecks “have a pathological origin, and may be absent they should not be used in the identifi- cation of woods.” References Cited. 1. Hartig, R. Die Unterscheidungsmerkmale der wichtigeren in Deutsch- land wachsenden Holzer. Miinchen. 1870. 2. Kienitz, M. Schliissel zum Bestimmen der wichtigsten in Deutsch- land cultivierten Holzer. Miinchen. 1870. 3. Nordlinger, H. Anatomische Merkmale der wichtigsten deuschen Wald- und Gartenholzarten. Stuttgart. 1881. 4. Stone, H. The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification. Lon- don. 1904. 5. Boulger, G. S. Wood. (Rev. ed.) London. 1908. 6. Hartig, Th. Forstliche Culturpflanzen. 1840. Vollstandige Natur- geschichte der forstlichen Culturpflanzen Deutschlands. Berlin. 1851. 7 Uaesncesler, E. A. Versuch einer anatomischen Characteristik des Holzkérpers der wichtigeren Baume and Straucher. Dresden and Leipzig. 1847. 8. N6rdlinger, H. Querschnitte von 100 Holzarten. Vol. II, p. 10. 252 Forestry Quarterly. 9. 10. Il. 12. 13. 14. Cordes. Het Zamenstel der voornaamste Europesche Houtsoorten. Haarlem. 1857. Mohl. Botanisches Zeitung. 1862. rial T. C. Die Waldverderbniss. Vol. II, pp. 228-229. Ber- In. Id06d. Kraus. Bau der Nadelhédlzer. (Wurzburger naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift. Vol. V.) Kienitz, M. Die Entstehung der “Markflecke.” Botanisches Central- blatt, Vol. XIV, pp. 21-26; 56-61. 1883. Grossenbacher, J. G. Medullary Spots: A Contribution to the Life History of Cambium Miners. ‘Technical Bul. No..15, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Geneva, N. Y. 1gI0. . Laslett, T. Timber and Timber Trees. New York. 1894. . Gayer, K. Schlich’s Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. London. 1908. Other References. De Bary, A. Vergleichende Anatomie der Vegetationsorgane der Phaner- ogamen und Farne, pp. 507-8. Leipzig. 1877. Haberlandt, G. Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie (4te Aufl), p. 606. Leipzig. 1900. Sorauer, P. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten (3te Aufl.) 1:611. Ber- lin. 1909. SILVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF ABANDONED PAS- TURES IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND. By Purrie T. CooLripce. The lands used by early generations in New England for field crops, orchards, hay, and especially for pasture, began to be abandoned fully eighty years ago. Abandonment of lands so used became common fifty or sixty years ago when the emigration westward reached large proportions. The settlement of the fertile lands from Western New York to Illinois put both agri- culture and grazing on the worn New England soils at an economic disadvantage. The necessity for winter feeding im- posed by the heavy snows, also, has made New England less suit- able than the West for the live-stock industry. As the herds and flocks were withdrawn, the forest slowly reclaimed the land long before won from it. Where grass land is used for pasturage without cultivation, only severe grazing can prevent slow refores- tation in a region like New England, naturally forest clad—a con- dition to which the scattered Cedar and Juniper in most pastures still in use bear testimony. The natural regeneration of the forest was considered a deterioration of the land until the growing scarcity of timber reversed this sentiment. It may be now assumed that land on which forest growth has been allowed to return is more valuable for the production of timber than for any other purpose. There is at present in New England a rapidly growing demand for the practice of intensive methods of forestry on lands not suited for other uses. Unfortunately, where land has been abandoned for agriculture or grazing, the returning forest consists for many years of Red Cedar, Juniper, Gray Birch, Alder and other species of little or no value. These species not only produce little timber of value themselves, but choke better species, whether of natural or of artificial origin. On all open lands—except swamps and soilless rocks—the in- vestigations of the State Foresters of several New England States—notably Connecticut and Massachusetts—prove beyond doubt that plantations of White Pine, Chestnut and certain other 254 Forestry Quarterly. rapidly growing species will yield profits as well as ordinary in- terest. Questions as to the practicability of artificial plantations on open lands are answered by the publication of these State Foresters. The question which the present article discusses is whether—granting the feasibility of planting on open lands— is it feasible to make plantations where species of little value now growing would choke the planted trees? Does the added expense of clearing away reproduction of inferior species make the plan- tation impractical? On the other hand, this article does not dis- cuss the treatment of pastures very long abandoned on which valuable species, like Oak, Hickory, Chestnut, White Pine, are well represented and have supplanted the earlier growth. Such pastures have passed into the category of the established forest, although extreme need of improvement and reproduction thin- nings may veil the fact that simply the usual silvicultural methods of treatment of wood-lots in Southern New England should be followed. ; White Pine is most commonly used for plantations in New England. However, in the northern portion of the region especially, Norway Spruce is more suited by its requirements to certain situations—as loamy soils, on which White Pine, with its predilection for sand, is sometimes not vigorous; and Norway Spruce is probably of as rapid growth as White Pine. In Con- necticut, Chestnut is a thrifty, rapid growing species. It is easily reproduced by coppice, and a fire, which would cause total loss in a plantation of White Pine, would leave chestnut stools capable of reproduction. Its stumpage value is, however, not yet as high as that of White Pine, and the occurrence of the Chestnut disease also makes its use temporarily undesirable. A study of the publications of the State Foresters leads to the following general conclusions: ‘That at the end of a forty or fifty year rotation, a plantation of White Pine in Southern New England, should yield from 25 to 50 M. feet, B. M., per acre; worth from $6.00 to $12.00 per thousand at present stumpage prices, and that such a plantation should yield, after the cost of planting, protection and taxes is subtracted, compound interest at 4%, and also net profits up to about $300.00, and averaging about $150.00, depending upon the quality of the locality and the near- ness to market. ‘The estimated amount of the net profits on the better situations should be noted. It will be referred to later, Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 255 since it indicates that on such situations there is abundant leeway for expenses necessitated for removal of inferior species. It should also be noted that the estimates of financial yields are based on present stumpage prices; the stumpage value of New England timber will undoubtedly continue to rise, especially with the exhaustion of the Southern timber, now a question of perhaps a score of years only. ‘The estimates of financial yields also allow liberally enough for protection from fire to eliminate the danger of loss to investments from that source. The profits so figured are therefore most conservative. Furthermore, on all abandoned pastures, valuable species such as Chestnut, Oak, Ash, Hickory and White Pine are slowly reseed- ing the ground under the species of temporary type, such as Cedar and Birch, and forcing their way through the crowns of these earlier trees, ultimately to suppress them. Each of the ruling species of forest trees in time regains its former type of locality. The presence of reproduction of these valuable species may re- duce considerably the cost of planting. The conditions on various pastures differ extremely, but from fifty to a hundred years may be given as a rough average of the length of time required for a fairly complete re-stocking with valuable species—a period long enough for one or two rotations of White Pine. The species which restock cleared lands promptly and abun- dantly (in numbers) are Red Cedar, Juniper, Gray and Black Birch, Poplar, Cherry, Scrub Oak, and Pitch Pine. Cedar and Juniper have a stiff, prickly foliage on which stock will not browse, and these species are the first to gain possession of the land. Birch and Poplar, with delicate shoots, are much more liable to injury by stock, and appear after a pasture has been partly or completely abandoned. Where seed trees of these species occur, Birch and its allies may rapidly suppress any Cedar and occupy the land almost exclusively, and where seed trees of the species mentioned above are absent nearly pure Cedar may result. All gradations from pure Cedar to pure Birch occur, however, in the less recently abandoned pastures. Black Birch also, is an important species in early reforestation, and although it may be considered an inferior species in Chestnut and Oak woods, its wood is of fair value for both fuel and lumber. It grows rapidly to considerable size, and is long lived, and, therefore, cannot be classed as undesirable on old pastures. 256 Forestry Quarterly. The types of brush on old pastures characteristically vary on very small areas. Frequently several kinds of brush grow to- gether on the same quarter acre, or perhaps one quarter acre is covered with Juniper, the next with Cedar and Birch, and the next is mainly open. An average per acre of the cost of removal of inferior species would, therefore, be of little value in making a practical estimate of the cost of the work on a given pasture. A general discussion of the conditions would be of more value. Hence the field work on which this article is based consists mainly of ocular observations and the conclusions have been guided by measurements on a small number only, of sample plots. To simplify discussion, the various sorts of brush are treated as if they occurred separately: Ground Juniper —This shrub occurs abundantly on every aban- doned pasture. It reaches a height of three or four feet and its beds are sometimes thirty-five feet across. The cost of clearing away, piling and burning this material—the chopping is best done with a bush hook—so that plants can be set out 6x6 feet apart—is at the maximum $4.00 per acre. ‘This expense was determined by chopping out “wells” 6x6 feet apart in Juniper patches, in which to insert the planted stock, until one-sixteenth acre was prepared. Fortunately it would never, in practice, be necessary to spend $4.00 an acre on Juniper, because it never covers a pasture in full density and even where comparatively dense, plants may be in- serted largely between its clumps. Planted White Pine is ordi- narily spaced 6x6 feet to insure rapid height growth and early pruning. A large number of the trees are removed in thinnings. Where small clumps of Juniper, not more than ten feet wide, occur it will not pay to chop out holes in them for planting. Ten foot spacing should, however, be the exception, not the rule, since it would cause a growth of crooked limby trees. Wholesale cutting away of Juniper is unnecessary, but the chop- ping out of “wells” before inserting the plant facilitates planting and eliminates danger of the Juniper choking out the planted trees. The occurrence of Juniper on a pasture should never discourage putting the land on a paying basis by planting. Juniper is seldom dense enough to cause an extra expense of more than $1.00 or $1.50. This amount would compound at 4 per cent. to only $8.00 or $10.00 in fifty years—an insignificant expense, compared to the profits estimated for plantations. , f clearing st of 0 C s to the acre. $4.00. 400 sprout five years old, 1, Birch ibout < icut. + t White Pine plantation, 22 years old, in Connec ; Red Cedar, .6 Density. Cutting trees large enough for posts (marked) will open stand sufficiently for planting. Typical Pasture, with Cedar, Juniper, Birch and scattering Oak and Chestnut. 1,400 sprouts to the acre. Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 257 Red Cedar.—This species, on account of its abundance, is the most important of those occurring on old pastures. Its density, depending largely on the former treatment of the pasture, varies very widely. A lightly grazed pasture may have an excellent stand of Cedar and yet be on the poorest soil, and an over-grazed pasture may have only a scattering of worthless bushy trees. Cedar posts, 6 feet long and 4 inches in diameter at the small end, are worth about 20 cents apiece; they cost from 5 cents to 7 cents to cut and haul, and the stumpage value is therefore about 14 cents. Owing to the use of Chestnut tops for posts, the use and value of Cedar for posts is decreasing. A fully stocked stand (the exception on old pastures) about forty years old will yield a maximum of 400 or 500 posts and 10 cords of firewood. The rate of growth of Red Cedar was esti- mated from Prof. Graves’ figures in an article in Forestry Quar- TERLY, Volume 3, page 350. Four hundred and fifty posts, worth about 14 cents stumpage each, and 10 cords of wood, worth $2.00 a cord stumpage, give a gross return of about $70.00. If taxes and interest for forty years on the value of the land are sub- tracted from this amount, the net profits compare most unfavor- ably with those of White Pine plantations. Further, it should be carefully noted that Cedar occurs generally in irregular open stands, and that the fully stocked stand, which will produce 400 or 500 posts in forty years, is very exceptional. Plainly, Cedar does not commend itself as an investment. Cedar will not interfere with the growth of the trees of a plan- tation, except where it occurs in stands of more than .5 density. The rapidly growing trees of the plantation soon push past the Cedars in the more open stands. Stands less than fifteen years old on recently abandoned pastures are seldom of more than .5 density, and stands forty years old generally contain a large enough proportion of post trees to permit profitable thinning to that density. The only problem, therefore, offered by Red Cedar, is the treatment of stands of more than .5 density, between the ages of about fifteen and forty years—or from the time the trees are from one to two inches in diameter until they are of post: size. Dense Cedar, one or two inches in diameter, can be cut, piled and burned with about 23 days of labor per acre—or at a cost of about $4.50 per acre. The trees can be cut with a brush hook or axe by a single blow. The expense was determined by clearing one-six- 258 Forestry Quarterly. teenth acre sample plat. Reduction of density below .5 is suffi- cient, but in dense stands it is generally easier to cut nearly all the trees and let them fall in windrows. ‘They can then be burned readily. Chopping away Red Cedar, one or two inches in diameter, will therefore pay on all, except, perhaps, those poor soils, like sandy and rocky hills, where it occurs naturally and not because the land has been cleared. On such lands, it might be questionable whether the growth of the plantation would be rapid enough to pay the added expense of clearing away the Cedar. If, however, the Cedar on such lands is of less than .5 density, so that no clear- ing is necessary, it is probably safe to make the expenditure neces- sary for ordinary planting in the open. After Cedar becomes two or three inches in diameter, the ex- pense of clearing increases considerably. The trees are very bushy and are difficult to chop. Even although a small amount of sale- able cordwood can be produced, the net cost of clearing trees averaging three inches in diameter, will be from $8.00 to $11.00 per acre, a sum that will compound at 4 per cent. interest in fifty years to $60.00 or $80.00. This figure was determined by a one- sixteenth acre sample plot. Where there is a combination of good soil and good market, it may sometimes pay to clear large Cedar, but as a rule, it will prob- ably not pay to chop any Cedar after it is about two inches in diameter. Furthermore, Cedar two or three inches in diameter will probably yield posts in twenty years and it would be poor business policy to undergo considerable expense to sacrifice a half- matured although inferior crop. A practical rule is that it does not pay to chop away Cedar after it is so large that the cutting of a tree requires more than one stroke of the axe. It should be noted that it is only the dense Cedar—the “Cedar Woods” that makes clearing necessary. Such stands are not common and the unusual, half open pastures can very easily be converted into profitable plantations. Gray Birch—Gray Birch covers not only large areas of aban- doned pastures, but also burns and other clearings. It occupies open land quickly, and for this reason has an undeserved reputa- tion for rapid growth. It tends to form more regular, dense stands than Red Cedar. The age of three Birch sprouts, cut on a large area of abandoned pasture at Mt. Carmel, Connecticut, Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 259 was thirty-eight. Measurements of six of these sprouts showed an average height of 28 feet and an average diameter of 4 inches. The average crown space was 40 square feet, so that 1,100 sprouts per acre would be possible. The yield was estimated to be nine cords per acre for full density. ‘This was in a dense stand and on good soil. ‘These few measurements are, of course, scarcely con- clusive evidence of the average rate of growth of Gray Birch, but they corroborate the ocular estimates that the short, quickly taper- ing, early maturing trees do not make rapid volume growth. Birch cord-wood is worth $5.00 a cord, and an allowance of $2.00 a cord for cutting and hauling leaves $3.00 a cord, or say $30.00 for ten cords per acre as the net yield of forty years. In- terest at 4 per cent. and taxes on land worth $4.00 (fairly cheap for the region) per acre would compound in forty years to about $27.00. In other words, natural reforestation by Birch is financially a flat failure. Nearly the same treatment is suggested for Birch as for Red Cedar. Birch one or two inches in diameter can be cut and piled for $4.00 an acre, or by two days’ labor. As with Red Cedar, after Birch becomes about two inches in diameter, it is better not to cut it until it is large enough for cordwood, not only on ac- count of the expense of chopping these larger trees, but also be- cause the crop of Birch cordwood, small as it is, is only twenty years distant and its sacrifice would not be counterbalanced by the profits from a plantation. An advantage of planting on land stocked with inferior species, like Birch and Cedar, is that these forest weeds serve as nurse trees. Planting of forest trees in the open necessitates use of well developed transplants at least three years old, if the plantation is to survive the climatic adversities of the first few seasons. The cost of such planting is generally estimated to be about $7.00 per acre. The shelter afforded by nurse trees permits the use of one year old seedling stock. This can be raised in seed beds at a cost of from 35 cents to 50 cents per thousand. As allowance should be made for the death of one-third of these delicate plants, the plantation should be spaced 5x5 feet (or 1,700 plants per acre), instead of 6x6 (or 1,200 plants per acre) as usual. A man can plant out two or three thousand seedlings per day with a dibble, so that at $2.00 a day the cost of planting, the total cost per acre—1I,700 plants—for stock and planting, should not be more 17 260 Forestry Quarterly. than $2.50. This stock is not ordinarily furnished by commercial nurserymen, but the seed-beds require so little room—for White Pine, a square yard sown with two ounces of seed will furnish enough seedlings to plant an acre—and so little care that it should be a simple matter to raise it, especially for farm wood lots. This type of stock should, however, be used only where there is a density of stand of .7 or .8. The old stand should be removed two years after planting, as the seedlings require protection only during the first two years, and after that time will not make straight or rapid growth without open sunshine. ‘The old stand can be removed without much danger of injury to the plantation so long as the planted trees are small. With Birch, if two or three years are allowed to elapse before cutting, the planted trees will be given opportunity to keep ahead of the sprouts which will come from the Birch stumps. Cutting the Birch in July or August would of course prevent its sprouting. Two dollars and fifty cents per acre is $4.50 less than $7.00, the usual cost of planting per acre. Four dollars and fifty cents compounds at 4 per cent. interest to $31.98 in fifty years, and would, therefore, add appre- ciably to profits. The tables in Forest Service Bulletin 22, “The White Pine,” show that suppression retards trees about ten or twelve years. In other words, if a stand of Birch or Cedar were large enough to cut in ten or twelve years, the most practicable method would be to postpone the plantation until two or three years before cutting. Scrub Oak.—In many parts of Northern New England there are large areas covered with entirely worthless Scrub Oak ( Quer- cus nana.) ‘These barrens are the result of repeated fires on dry, sandy lands. Little forestry can be practiced where the fire question has not been solved. Where it has been solved, however, there is no reason why these lands should not produce their share of timber. Probably the best species for such areas are Norway Pine, Scotch Pine, White Pine, or Pitch Pine. Yields probably as good as on the poorest White Pine lands should be obtained. In many cases fire protection alone would produce a good crop of Oak, for a large proportion of what apparently are Scrub Oaks are Black Oaks and other valuable species of Oaks dwarfed by the fires. Where planting is desired—and Pine should yield a better revenue than Oak—no thinning is necessary. The fires generally have so reduced the Scrub Oak stools that sufficient Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 261 openings occur throughout them to make room for a complete plantation. Immediately after a fire is, of course, a very desir- able time to plant, because the available room is almost unlimited and the new sprouts grow slowly. Other Deciduous Brush.—Dogwood, Poplar and Alder are, also, common species of brush. Dogwood and Poplar grow very much like Birch and may be treated similarly that is, either cut when young or reserved until of cordwood size. Alder may be cut like young Birch. Sumac and Briers cast so slight a shade that their removal is unnecessary. Where unusually dense, the planter can hack them away with his mattock with little trouble from the im- mediate neighborhood of each plant. Use of Fire—The favorable condition for planting, both on Scrub Oak and Birch lands immediately after fire, suggests that carefully conducted burning might be the simplest way to rid brush from land to be planted. For several reasons, however, fire would probably not be the cheapest way to accomplish this pur- pose. In the first place—almost every brush stand has a scatter- ing of valuable species init. The use of fire prevents the alterna- tive of expense to protect this valuable reproduction, or sacrifice of it. Secondly—the use of fire requires planting after, rather than before, the removal of the objectionable cover. If the fire does not kill the stools, the new sprouts will easily overtop the planted stock, which would have much better chance if planted before the clearing; and thirdly—on account of the lack of shelter, large stock—three-year old transplants—must be used in place of the cheap one-year old seedlings. MULTIPLE VOLUME TABLE. By LincoLN CROWELL. In cruising, where the trees on a block or strip are tallied by diameters and height classes, and the volume of the trees obtained - later from a table, a Multiple Volume Table, compiled in the man- ner of the accompanying form, is very convenient as an aid in computing the total volume of the area in question. The total volume of the number of trees of a certain diameter and height class may be read directly from such a table without having to figure it out. The Multiple Table is compiled from a volume table of the species estimated. After it has been compiled it may be traced and blue printed and be of service indefinitely. MULTIPLE VOLUME TABLE NUMBER OF TREES DIAMETER CLASS HEIGHT CLASS OR LOG LENGTH NCHES | LOGS i 22 {jf} ft SUPERVISORS’ MEETINGS AT BOISE, IDAHO, AND OGDEN, UTAH. At Boise, Idaho, January 2 to 4, 1911, was held a meeting of the Supervisors of the National Forests in District 4, situated in Idaho and Wyoming. ‘The object of the meeting was the discus- sion of National Forest problems. The discussion of grazing questions bearing upon National Forest administration occupied the first part of the meeting. ‘The National Forests in District 4 in Idaho and Wyoming are for the most part heavily stocked, particularly with sheep, and the ques- tion of so administering the grazing business as to interfere as little as possible with the principal objects for which the National Forests were created is exceedingly difficult and complicated in view of the large amounts of money invested in the stock business and the general importance of the industry to the country as a whole. The general tendency is toward a reduction in the num- ber of stock allowed to graze on the National Forests and toward closer restrictions with regard to the grazing of stock, particularly sheep, on areas which are in process of reproduction. Great as- sistance in the settlement of range controversies has been rendered by co-operation between the Forest Service officials, on the one hand and advisory boards representing associations of stock own- ers using the National Forests, on the other. A discussion of the points to be considered in marking different commercial species for cutting brought out the fact that the sys- tem of cutting theoretically preferable can not always be followed in practice on account of market conditions which make it im- possible for dealers to dispose of all classes of material which would result from such operations. In pure lodgepole pine stands which are sufficiently even aged and where markets are sufficiently intensive, clean cutting in strips is recommended. The strips cut and those left intact should be of equal width, generally 100 feet. Where the danger from windfall is not great the over-mature and defective trees may be removed from the uncut strips. The strips should run in the direction of the prevailing winds where danger from windfall is great. On steep slopes where there is danger of erosion and snow slides the strips should run across the slopes rather than up and down. In pure lodgepole stands 204 Forestry Quarterly. where it is impossible to use the strip system the selection system must be adopted. The aim should be either to thin the stand very lightly with the object of making the remaining trees more wind firm and allow a second cutting at an early date or to remove all the mature and undesirable trees and thus leave only enough trees to form the basis of a future cut. Between these two extremes there are many graduations and the method to be used depends upon local conditions entirely. The main point to be considered is wind-firmness, seed production being a secondary consideration. On the Targhee Forest Douglas fir is the best timber tree and should be favored against other species on sites favorable to its growth. Where lodgepole and Douglas fir grow in mixture it is recommended that all merchantable lodgepole be marked for cut- ting and only such fir trees as are defective and over-mature. In marking fir on its own sites we should approach as near im- provement cutting as local conditions will permit. Engleman spruce should be encouraged wherever it grows better than other species in mixture. The aim should be to remove over- mature, suppressed and defective trees with a view to improving the stand. The soil should be protected from drying out and the trees left so spaced as to reduce windfall to a minimum. In marking yellow pine, forest conditions should not be dis- turbed more than is necessary, and only the mature and defective trees should be removed. Openings should be avoided and suffi- cient seed trees should be left to insure reproduction. On account of fire danger the method to be followed in dispos- ing of brush resulting from logging operations is of great im- portance. There are three different methods of brush disposal: (1) Piling and burning. (2) Piling and not burning. (3) Lopping and scattering. The first method seems advisable where fire danger is great. However, to burn brush means that about four or five per cent. of the area will be burned over with the possibility that some of the stand will be injured, besides the certainty of destroying all the seedlings on the burned spot. The second method obviates these disadvantages, while the third is particularly applicable where the fire danger is small. Brush cover is of decided value in preserv- ing soil moisture and in lessening damage from early frosts. Re- production is generally good around the edges of brush piles. Supervisors’ Meetings. 265 Lopping and scattering is generally considered to favor reproduc- tion in open stands, particularly of yellow pine. A discussion of direct seeding and planting brought out the fact that on the Cache Forest direct seeding thus far has not been successful, owing principally to drouth and destruction of the seed by rodents and birds. ‘This applies directly to broadcasting of seed on the ground and on the snow as well as to seeding in pre- pared seed spots under cover. Planting operations have been more successful and plants set out in the spring have made better progress than those planted in the fall. In connection with the discussion on methods of fighting forest fires, the plan in use on the Clearwater Forest in Idaho during the summer of 1910 is of particular interest. This Forest is very heavily timbered and has an area of about 34 million acres. There is one telephone line into the Forest to a Ranger Station about 20 miles from the Supervisor’s office. There it branches, one line going east 65 miles, and one north 50 miles. There are no roads and only a few trails. Probably 15 to 20 per cent. of the Forest was burned over and one-third of the timber on the burned area was destroyed. In handling the fire fighting crews the first thing sent out was supplies and equipment. The Super- visor had carefully prepared a standard list of supplies designed to last a 10-man crew for two weeks, and another list designed to last a 20-man crew for the same length of time. This list of supplies was left with the local storekeeper who forwarded the necessary articles upon request from the Supervisor, thus avoiding delay and making sure that all necessary articles should be in- cluded. The supplies were forwarded by a pack train which was owned and operated by the Forest Service, thus insuring prompt and certain delivery. On the Forest were employed 90 Forest officers and the existence of the pack train rendered it practi- cable for them to remain continuously on duty in their districts, the most of them not needing to come to town for any purpose. The packer who was with the fire fighting crew acted as messen- ger and every day made a trip to the telephone to report to the Supervisor regarding the progress of the work in the field. This procedure kept the Supervisor in touch with the situation and en- abled him to issue promptly whatever orders were necessary. The construction of trails and telephones is of primary importance in connection with fire fighting work on most of the National Forests at the present time. 266 Forestry Quarterly. At Ogden, Utah, from January 23 to 25, 1911, was held a meet- ing of the Supervisors of the National Forests in the States of Utah and Nevada. The discussion on “working plans” brought out the fact that wherever practicable the purchaser should be required to distribute his cutting so as to remove a portion of the less desirable timber in connection with the removal of that more favorably situated, in order that the possibility of a future sale might not be de- stroyed in case the purchaser should become bankrupt or the sale be discontinued for any reason. In connection with timber sale work a progress map is very desirable showing the location of cutting areas, amount of timber marked, progress of brush burn- ing, and all other silvicultural operations on the forest. Under “Points to be considered in marking different com- mercial species of marketable timber for cutting,” it was empha- sized that the character of marking of a given body of timber depends on many conditions, some of the more important of which will probably be made upon the forest. It is no longer the policy of the Forest Service to adhere rigidly to certain diameter limits or even to any given rules, the intention being to adapt the requirements in each particular sale to the local conditions. The most desirable species should be favored, and the other species marked down to the lowest merchantable size. If possible, cut the more desirable species directly after a seed year and the inferior species just before seeding takes place. The more accessible the timber and the better the market conditions the more conservative should be the marking. In marking for cutting it is of the first importance to insure sufficient reproduction and if possible to plan for a stand better than the original. If pos- sible, openings in the forest cover should be made gradually in order to facilitate reproduction. In marking for cutting in stands of juniper it has been found advantageous, in cases where there are several boles or large branches from the same root, to cut out some of the larger for posts or other material, leaving the balance to continue growth. With this system of cutting sprout- ing will also occur and make good posts. ‘This system has been found to work satisfactorily in young trees, but in old trees the vitality is lower and the removal of any considerable portion of a tree is likely to kill the balance. In the discussion of “Conduct of timber sales,’ ’ it was made Supervisors’ Meetings. 267 clear that from an administrative point of view it is best to dis- courage the making of very small sales, or of sales to ranchers or others who are not familiar with the best methods of con- * ducting such work. In Utah and Nevada, in the heavier stands, brush should be lopped close and piled in moderate sized piles as near the center of the openings as possible. The heavy limbs and tops of trees should not be placed in the brush piles, but should be trimmed up and left to one side. In more open stands the question as to whether brush will be lopped and piled in small piles or scattered is to some extent one of expense, since scatter- ing costs more than piling in small piles. Both systems favor reproduction, particularly piling in small piles. Unless necessary as a fire protective measure, the burning of brush should be dis- couraged. The amount of forest planting done has increased very greatly within the last one or two years. On the Wasatch Forest the planting of a nursery stock has been a success, while direct seed- ing has not. However, on account of the great expense of the former it is imperative that a successful method of handling direct seeding work be discovered. To this end a great deal of experi- mental work is being done. On account of the immense areas of burnt-over land, reforestation should be undertaken in every case rather than the afforestation of areas which have not previously produced timber crops. In general, planting should be done where the trees will have the best chance to succeed. Planting under aspen has been quite successful, but sagebrush has proven very unfavorable as a planting site. Forest fires cannot be eliminated entirely, because of the vast amount of highly inflammable material at present in the National Forests. However, much can be done by patrol, co-operation with the settlers, and the construction of telephones, roads, trails and bridges, fire lines, lookout stations, etc. In mountainous regions telephones and trails are of prime importance. Roads and trails frequently serve also as fire lines. In initial construc- tion as well as in maintenance, fire lines as such are very ex- pensive. Emergency tool boxes should be available at convenient points. Carefully prepared maps showing the location of roads, trails and fire lines, as well as streams and other points from which a fire can be attacked, aid materially in planning an attack on the fire. AN APPRECIATION OF DR. HEINRICH MAYR, ORDI- NARY PROFESSOR OF SILVICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH. On the twenty-fifth day of January last, as Dr. Mayr was closing a lecture in Silviculture in the University at Munich, he fell from an attack of acute heart trouble and never spoke again. It was indeed in keeping with Dr. Mayr’s tremendous energy and constant application to his work as a forester that he should die in harness. Dr. Mayr was born near Munich on October 29th, 1854, his father being a Forstmeister under the Bavarian Government. He received his Doctor’s degree in Economics in 1884 and after a short period of practice became Privatdozent in the Faculty of Economics in the University. In July, 1885, he came to America under Commission from the Bavarian Government to study our forests and report upon the trees that might be adapted for use in Bavaria. From that time on he was a constant traveler, having circled the globe a number of times and only a few months before his death spent some little time in Scotland. From his first American trip he returned through Japan, China, Java and India, paying special attention to forest distribution and to studying the important trees to determine if possible their value for planting in Europe. In 1887 he returned to Japan as Professor of Forestry in the University of Tokio. There he brought together the re- sults of his trip to America in a book entitled ‘““Die Waldungen von Nordamerika.” This book was published in 1890 and up to that time was one of the best studies of American forests written either in English or German. After about four years in Japan Dr. Mayr returned to Germany, studying en route forest distri- bution in China and Ceylon. For nearly twenty-five years Dr. Mayr assisted Professor Dr. Robert Hartig in Botany and Investi- gative work and during this period experimented constantly with foreign tree species in Bavaria. From this long series of experi- ments and from results of work in the Forest Experiment Station at Grafrath, established by Dr. Mayr in 1894, and after a second An Appreciation of Dr. Heinrich Mayr. 269 trip around the world with Prince Ruprecht of Bavaria, he pro- duced a master work in the book entitled ‘““Fremdlandische Wald und Parkbaume ftir Europa.” Nothing so extensive in either describing distribution of species or discussing their adaptability for European conditions had ever been prepared before. The book is illustrated with an unusual number of photographs and drawings, many of them by Dr. Mayr himself, and many loaned by the United States Forest Service. In connection with the teaching of Silviculture proper in the University of Munich, Dr. Mayr taught Forest Utilization and Forest Protection also. ‘The classic work on Forest Utilization by Dr. Karl Gayer was revised several times by Dr. Mayr, the last edition being entitled “Die Forstbenutzung,” Tenth Edition, by Gayer and Mayr. At time of his death Dr. Mayr was at work upon a book describing at length the results of his years of work at the Bavarian Forest Experiment Station at Grafrath. It is a great loss to forestry that he was not able to complete this work. The books mentioned above were not the only products of Dr. Mayr’s great energy. He assisted in editorship of several forestry publications and produced many pamphlets upon various questions which have and are agitating the forestry world in Germany, such for instance as the influence of source of seed upon future crop. Few men have had and used as effectively the wonderful gift of teaching in the way in which Dr. Mayr did. His great earnestness and power to present matters in a clear, logical way coupled with his ever pleasing personality, gave him always a full class room and attracted men to him from all over the world. During the last year of Dr. Mayr’s life he was ailing constantly and yet was ever cordial and sympathetic and ever ready to help the student and especially the stranger. In being a silviculturist Dr. Mayr was also an ecologist and a botanist, if the first two lines of work can be separated at all. His memory was wonderful and he carried apparently clearly outlined in his mind the nomenclature of the entire forest flora of the world. His extensive travels, while making possible the excellent books he produced, in a way caused him to over- generalize, especially in lectures, more than a man of less wide experience would have done. He was also at times rather em- pirical and radical, and impatient with the opinions of other 270 Forestry Quarterly. scientific men, and yet he will go down in forestry history as the greatest master of silviculture of this country, because for the first time he brought together in one book and in a definite way the foundation principles of silviculture and that upon the only true basis, that of natural relationships. It is safe to predict that his book upon silviculture will continue to be an authority wher- ever the foundation principles of the subject are studied or taught. Dr. Mayr’s death is an irreparable loss to silviculture, not only in Germany, but throughout the world and the many foreign students who have been enthused with the man’s tremendous energy and ability, feel his loss almost as personally as the wife, sons and daughters who formed with him an unusually attractive and sympathetic home. May the son who is following him in forestry carry on the work continued so ably over so long a period, and perfect and apply the results of the splendid Forest Experiment Station at Grafrath, which should be given Dr. Mayr’s name. Hucw Porrer BAKER. CONSUMPTION OF BASKET WILLOWS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 1908. By C. D. MELL. The data was gathered almost entirely by correspondence with 203 willow-ware makers, and although no claim is made that the figures are absolutely correct they are very close approximations. They show the gradual increase or decrease in the production and consumption as compared with former years. There are few basket makers who have failed to reply to the inquiries, and there are also a small number of minor establishments throughout the country which were not reached, but the influence of their com- bined consumption upon the total is relatively small. Making a fair allowance for incomplete figures it is safe to state that the amount of basket willow consumed during 1908 in the United States was approximately 3,650,000 pounds, and that the total value of the material ready for the basket makers’ use was not less than $225,000. CENTERS OF THE INDUSTRY. . Basket willows are grown chiefly around cities having a large percentage of German population to whom the advancement of the industry in this country must be principally credited. The chief centers in the Eastern States are New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Syracuse, Liverpool, Rochester, Buffalo, Holland, Michigan, Milwaukee, Chicago, Burlington (lowa), St. Louis and Cincinnati. This industry has not been so well estab- lished in the States west of the Mississippi River. Basket makers, as a rule, are Germans who learned the trade in Germany, locating here in the large cities. They began business a number of years ago when there was a splendid market for custom-made baskets. A strong demand for rods soon induced a number of farmers near these cities to grow basket willows. It gradually spread, however, to regions farther away from the manufacturing centers, and at present basket willows are grown from Maine to Nebraska and from North Dakota to Tennessee 272 Forestry Quarterly. and Georgia. The growing industry is also being developed on the Pacific coast. Basket Willow is now most extensively culti- vated in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky. VARIETIES OF WILLOWS USED. Only a few varieties of willows are distinguished by willow- ware makers. The purple willow (Salix purpurea Linn.), called French osier in New York State, is the one most extensively cultivated in this country. In Michigan and Wisconsin it is called Welsh willow and is almost the only variety grown. It yields very satisfactory crops, especially in moist, fertile upland, where it is comparatively free from injurious insects. In Ohio, Indiana and Illinois this variety was the principal one planted about ten years ago, but large patches have been completely destroyed by insects, and has since been largely replaced by the American Green (Salix amygdalina Linn.) and Lemley willows (Salix pruinosa var.). American Green willow is the principal one grown in the Ohio River valley, and it is also extensively cultivated in Pennsylvania and Maryland, where it is highly esteemed. Fully 75% of the basket willows grown in these two States are American Green, while in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois fully 50% is of this variety. Outside of western New York it is used almost entirely for making willow furniture. Lemley willow, known among growers in the eastern central States as Gold Skin, produces excellent crops of rods that are regarded among the best by basket makers. The wood is hard though light in weight, and the rods peel very easily, remaining almost snowy white when peeled and thoroughly dried. T his willow is also extensively grown in Maryland, but unless it re- ceives proper attention in the holt the butts of the rods become thick and curved, which are objectionable features. Black German willow (Salix dasyclados Wimmer) is raised locally in western New York and in Michigan. It possesses some of the characteristics of the American Green willow, though it may be readily distinguished from it by its pronounced bloom which covers the upper half of the shoot; also by its large thick leaves and leaf-like appendages at the base of the leaf stalk. The rods grow eight to ten feet high in a single season, but they have Consumption of Basket Willows. 273 a large pith and the wood is rather soft. It is better suited for making large hampers and willow furniture than it is for making small basket-ware. The following table shows the amount of basket willow rods of each variety above named grown and consumed in 1908: American Green willow, ....... 674,000 pounds. POTOIC: WILLOW, ..'c <0 «ashe acatin wh 1,942,000 OIDs. ie! <6 5 wscduh Winiaeee ReGen 160,000 ¥ Black German. )? — (])* = (25)*425D = 25 (54D), (11) AB*=V25 (25+D) Substituting this value for AB* in equation (1) 25D BC= — V25 (25+D) Since BC is the scale for 4 of the diameter of the circle, the formula for the scale for the whole circle is Scale= Boks $0) V25 (25xD) If it is more convenient to use a different arm length than 25 inches, this formula may be adapted by substituting the length desired for the 25 wherever that number occurs in the formula. Using this formula for diameters of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 inches, scale lengths for these respective diameters were obtained. Points representing these lengths were plotted on cross section paper. where the abscissae represented inches in » diameter and the ordinates represented inches on the scale. Through these points a smooth curve was drawn. From this curve the scale was read for each even diameter from ten inches to one hundred inches. ‘This scale was then laid off and carefully drawn on tracing linen. Strips an inch wide were cut length- wise of this tracing thus producing the scale in a convenient form for carrying or mailing. If it is desirable to indicate diameters smaller than ten inches or larger than one hundred inches they may be derived directly from the formula and marked on the scale. A check was made on the accuracy of the formula by construct- See - The Biltmore Stick. 409 ing diagrams for several «iameters and applying the scale for these diameters. For actual use a straight stick four and one-half feet long, an inch wide and three-fourths of an inch thick with a slight bevel on one side should be selected and the scale marked or burned upon it so that the graduations occur on the bevel edge. The stick should be capped or shod at each end with a light metal ferule to prevent wear. The stick length, four and a half feet, may be used to check the breast height point on the trees meas- ured. The twenty-five inch point should be marked on the back of the stick so the user may check up his arm length occasionally. To use this stick the observer holds it horizontally against the tree four and a half feet from the ground and twenty-five inches from his eye which should be at the same level as the stick itself. The zero end of the stick should lie in the line from his eye to one outer edge of the tree. Then, turning his eye, the observer should note where the line of sight between his eye and the other edge of the tree crosses the scale. ‘The reading on the scale at this point gives the diameter of the tree. When the diameters of only a few trees are to be taken, the tracing scale may be attached to a suitable stick with thumb tacks and the readings made without taking the trouble to mark the scale on the stick itself. The writer made a Biltmore stick out of white oak according to these specifications except that the ends were not shod and the stick itself was only four feet long. The gradations and figures were burned on the stick with a pyrographic needle after which the instrument was coated with shellac. To test the accuracy of this stick the writer with two assistants, one equipped with the Biltmore stick and the other with sixty inch calipers, examined 975 trees of four different species in the cedar-fir-hemlock forest near Berlin, Wash. ‘The diameter of each tree was taken at the same point with the stick and with the calipers, the stick man calling his reading first. These diameters ranged from ten to sixty inches. The average diameter for the 975 trees was 28.56 inches measured with the calipers, and 28.66 inches measured with the Biltmore stick thus giving an average difference of only one-tenth of an inch. Both regular and irregular trees were measured just as they occurred in the stand. Fifty-nine of these measurements were 410 Forestry Quarterly, taken on windfalls and other down timber. Qn these the stick readings checked as closely with the caliper reading as on the standing trees. The following table gives the number of trees and total diame- ter inches of each species, and shows the very slight discrepancy between the two instruments by species and for all four species. TABLE SHOWING COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF 975 TREES WITH BILTMORE STICK AND CALIPERS, Number of Trees Total Diam. In. Total Average Down. Standing. Total. Bilt. Cali- Differ- Diff er- Species Reg. Irreg. Stick pers ence ence Douglas Fir (Pseu- dotsuga _ taxifolia) 26 210 24 260 9481 9520 —39 —.15 Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata) ... 22 t12 21 155 2474 2510 —36 —.23 Western Hemlock (Tsuga hetero- 7) 507 2 see ee II 298 49 358 T0555 10452 +103 +.28 Amabilis Fir (Abies amabilis) ......... 194 8 202 5443 5360 +74 +.31 Total four species .. 59 814 102 975 27953 27851 +102 +.1 In 1910 the Forest Service had a small quantity of Biltmore sticks made bearing this scale. During the field season of that year these sticks were used on the Crater, Olympic, Snoqualmie and Umpqua National Forests in intensive reconnaissance work and met with great favor as convenient and practical instruments. Tests of the Biltmore stick made on the Crater, Olympic and Umpqua Forests gave the following results: Crater National Forest; data furnished by Mr. H. D. Foster. One hundred trees ranging from ten to sixty-four inches in di- ameter were measured with Biltmore stick, calipers and diameter tape. Olympic National Forest; data furnished by Mr. W. H. Gib- bons. One hundred and eighty trees ranging from ten to fifty inches in diameter were measured with Biltmore stick and cal- ipers. The following table shows the results of these tests, which, to be sure, are not very conclusive owing to the small number of trees measured in each case, but at least indicate the Biltmore stick’s practical value as a field instrument. The data secured on the Snoqualmie National Forest is repeated for the purpose of comparison. ———— The Biltmore Stick. 4II TABLE OF COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS WITH BILTMORE STICK, CALIPERS AND DIAMETER TAPE. Total Ave. Total Ave. Dif. Dif. Dif. Dif. Stick Stick Stick Stick No.of Total Diam. Inches & & G&G & Forest Trees Stick Cal. Tape Cal. Cal. Tape Tape (Clete 100 2015 2820 2881 905 .95 34 34 Olympic ..... 180 5300 5276 24 213 Snoqualmie .. 975 27953 27851 102 oF On the Umpqua Forest no test was made in which a large num- ber of trees were measured with both the calipers and Biltmore stick. However, a number of tests made to check the accuracy of the work showed that measurements made with the Biltmore stick of diameters up to about 42 inches fall within the same inch class as those made with calipers. Above this diameter, measure- ments would fall within the same two-inch class. This data was furnished by Mr. E. H. MacDaniels who also says, speaking of the Biltmore stick: “This instrument is thoroughly practicable. An average man can work with a degree of precision in keeping with the object of an ordinary timber estimate, and its con- venience makes it a very desirable substitute for calipers.” Errors in using the Biltmore stick are due to irregularly shaped trees. The more nearly the bole in cross section approaches a circle the more accurate will be the Biltmore stick readings. This is also true when calipers are used. A varying arm length causes erroneous readings. Errors may be caused by the stick not being straight or by the observer holding it against the tree in some position other than horizontal. ‘Turning the head instead of the eye while making the reading, or having the eye too high or too low are other sources of error. However with care these errors may be practically eliminated and the stick will prove an extremely convenient instrument which will give very satisfactory results. Its convenience and accuracy should bring it into general use wherever careful cruising is being done. A METHOD OF ASSESSING FIRE DAMAGES IN THE SOUTHWEST. By Ropert RocERS AND BARRINGTON Moore. The methods of assessing forest fire damage which have so far been employed in the West have, from a technical standpoint, been far from satisfactory. It is not the intention here to go into a discussion of past methods or the principles of this important subject, but rather to present a detailed statement of a suggested method for finding the value of forest products destroyed by fire in the Southwest. This method has been devised by the writers in connection with their work in District III of the U. S. Forest Service, and is published here purely as a personal article, not with the claim that it is an entirely satisfactory method, but rather in the hope that it may constitute a progressive step which will not only serve in practical application, but also in securing recog- nition in the courts of the inherent forestry principles involved, in the valuation of the forest as a growing crop. It will have served a purpose if it starts at least discussion of this important subject. We are badly hampered to-day, of course, on account of the lack of silvical data, and this fact has influenced the shaping of the plan herewith presented. The aim has been to take the data available, and secure a method embodying forest principles cap- able of application. ‘The interest rate used, it is felt, should con- form as nearly as possible to the interest rate of the locality. However, if the principles are accepted the adjustment of the interest rate is a minor consideration. It will be noted that an estimate of an increase of 100% in the stumpage rates at the end of a twenty year period has been used. It will be agreed, we believe, that in valuations of this character it is only right that a certain increase should be considered. Just what this increase should be in each case should be determined by a careful study of the particular region concerned. The whole subject of estimated future increase in stumpage cannot be properly considered in the space at command here. Suffice it to say that considering an average valuation of $3.00 per M. ft. 2 ee Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 413 B. M. for the timber of the region for which this method of valuation has been devised an estimated increase of 100% at the end of 20 years is considered thoroughly conservative.* ‘That this increase will occur uniformly throughout the period is not to be expected. Granted, however, that the increase of 100% does occur at the end of 20 years it can be reasonably assumed for the purpose of valuation that the increase will amount to 25% for each 5-year division of the period. The following figures have accordingly been used. EstiMATED INCREASE IN STUMPAGE. Period. Per cent. increase in stumpage of rate charged m IgII. IQI2-17 25 1917-22 50 1922-27 75 1927-32 100 The Classification of Products Destroyed by the fire will fall naturally under four headings: 1. Merchantable timber (all trees above 12” D. B. H.). 2. Pole stand (all trees between 6” and 12” D. B. H.). These will form the basis of future cuts for the next Io years. 3. Reproduction (both seedlings and saplings, i. e. everything np. topo DB, H.). 4. Forage; the actual amount of grass on the area. The Method of Estimating must, to a certain extent, vary with the topographic conditions; but the following points should be strictly adhered to: 1. All four classes of damage can be estimated at once, but a separate tally must be kept for each. 2. Estimating should be done by strips rather than by sample acres, either circular or square. Single acres may be taken if in strip form not more than two chains wide; one chain wide is preferable. 3. The strips should be run through the burn in such a way that their result will give as near the average conditions of the burn as possible. *The value of stumpage at the end of 20 years in District III, U. S. F. S. has been estimated at $6 per M. ft. B. M. by T. S. Woolsey, Jr. 414 Forestry Quarterly. 4. Obtain the area of the burn as accurately as possible. A suggestion would be to find the average length and average width by means of strips run at right angles through the length and breadth, respectively, of the burn. Find the proportion of the total area represented by the strips and multiply this proportion by the total area: e. g. with an area of 120 acres, strips aggregating 15 acres represent 1/8 or 12.5% of the total; therefore, multiply the totals obtained from the strips by 8. The estimate of damage to the merchantable timber, poles, and reproduction, should not be made until at least four months after the fire, since then the trees which will live or die can be dis- tinguished with a greater degree of accuracy. The area for estimating the amount of damage to the forage should be determined at the time the fire is extinguished. In cases which may be brought into court, great care should be taken in making the estimate so that the amount of damage will be the actual loss suffered. For the sake of clearness and simplicity, a single, specific case of 500 acres, yellow pine forest on which everything, mature timber, poles, reproduction, and forage, have been destroyed by fire, will be taken as an example. The are contained before the fire: 1,500,000 feet of merchant- able timber, 10,000 poles, 250 acres of good reproduction, and 250 acres of scattered reproduction, or a total of 300 acres* fully stocked with reproduction; and sufficient forage for 50 head of cattle for one year. 1. Value of Merchantable Timber: The area contained before the fire 3 M. ft. B. M. of merchantable timber per acre, or 1,- 500,000 feet. All this has been destroyed. The practice in this country has heretofore been to consider the present stumpage value of the timber destroyed as the loss incurred. This ignores two factors: First, that the timber is generally inaccessible at present; and, second, when it does become accessible stumpage rates will have risen. Ignoring these two factors generally re- sults in giving too high a value to the timber lost. Taking these two facts into consideration, a more correct present value will be found, as follows: *See page 416. Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 415 (a) Determine as near as possible the length of time within which the timber upon the burned area could have been sold. In deciding upon this figure it will be necessary to depend upon the reconnaissance maps of the Forest and upon the judgment of the Supervisor. A minimum figure within the nearest five years should be used. For example: If the timber is at present in- accessible but there is some possibility that the country will open up in the future, it would be justifiable to say that the timber will not be sold for 15 years at least, perhaps not that soon, and use I5 years as the basis. (b) Find the rise in stumpage value, from the accompanying table,* for the period above decided upon, and add this to the present stumpage value. Then multiply the volume destroyed by the increased stumpage price to find the value of the timber at the time when it would have been sold. The present stumpage price will vary on each part of each Forest, according to quality of timber and logging conditions. This basis can generally be determined from reconnaissance maps. (c) Discount the value thus obtained for the period decided upon under (b) to the present by multiplying by the proper factor from a discount table. This will give the true future value, discounted to the present at 5%, compound interest, a conservative rate of interest. Since this result takes into con- sideration a minimum rate of stumpage, and a reasonable time within which it could be sold, it represents more nearly the actual present value of the timber. Example: 1,500 M. of merchantable timber destroyed; 15 years is minimum time before a sale is possible; 75% is rise of stumpage in 15 years; $2.00 per M. is present value of stumpage on that part of Forest burned over; hence $2.001,500 M.= $3,000, present stumpage value of timber destroyed ; $3.50 per M. =value of stumpage in I5 years; to discount $5,250, 15 years to the present at 5% we multiply by .481; $5,250 .481=$2,525.25 is the present (or expectation) value of the timber destroyed. From the above it will be seen that, even though we allow for a rise in stumpage of 75%, the present value of timber which can- not be cut for 15 years, found by the above method, is consider- ably below the present stumpage value. *See page 413. 416 Forestry Quarterly. 2. Value of Poles Destroyed: 'The value of the poles is the value of the merchantable timber which they will make dis- counted for a period equal to the difference between 75 years (the average age of a 12” tree)* and the average age of the poles at the time of the fire. This does not allow for the death of suppressed poles because the openness of a yellow pine stand is such that but few poles die of suppression. Where the stand is dense the suppressed pole can be counted out in the estimate. The average of these poles can be found by getting an average diameter and looking up this diameter in the growth table. The stumpage value should be the stumpage value of that part of the forest on which the burn is located, increased by the per cent. given for the number of years between the average age of the stand and 75. (See page 413.) These poles form the basis of future cuts for the next 100 years, and, if the data were available we should figure the expec- tancy value of the pole stand for each felling period e. g., 30, 60, 90, 120, years, etc.} . But since such data are not available, the above method, of which the following example is given, is used for simplicity: Example: 10,000 poles destroyed ; volume of a 12” tree equals 70 board feet (Woolsey’s tables) ; volume of 10,000 poles equals 700 M. Board feet; average diameter of poles equals 9” ; average age of poles equals 55; 20 years is time required for poles to become merchantable; $2.00 increased 100% equals $4.00 the stumpage price in 20 years; 700X$4.00 equals $2,800, the value of the poles in 20 years; to discount $2,800 for 20 years to the present at 5% multiply by .377; $2,800X.377 equals $1,055.60 the present value of the poles destroyed. 3. Value of Reproduction Destroyed: Determine the actual area of forest fully stocked with reproduction which has been burned over. Add to this the area of scattered reproduction reduced to acres fully stocked. The result will be the actual number of acres fully stocked with reproduction which have been burned over. Multiply the number of acres of fully stocked reproduction by 4,300 feet, the average volume on a fully stocked acre 75 years *From an average of growth tables collected by Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr. +This presupposes the group selection system, the one adapted to Western Yellow Pine. > = Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 417 old, the age at which the stand becomes merchantable.* The fully stocked instead of the average acre must be taken because the reproduction destroyed has been reduced to terms of fully stocked acres. The result will be the volume which the repro- duction destroyed would have produced at 75 years. Increase the present stumpage price for the region of the burn by the per cent. given for 20 years ;** multiply this price by the total value found above; find the average age of the reproduc- tion destroyed, and deduct from 75; discount the total value of the stumpage found above for the difference between 75 and the age of the reproduction at the time of the fire, to get the expec- tation value of the reproduction when burned. Example: 250 acres of forest fully stocked with reproduc- tion burned; 250 acres of forest with scattering reproduction equivalent to 50 acres of fully stocked reproduction burned ; 300 acres is actual number of acres fully stocked with reproduction that have been burned; 4,300 feet per acre is the average mer- chantable volume on a fully stocked acre 75 years old. 4,300 X 300=1,290,000=total volume which the reproduction destroyed would have produced at 75 years; $2.00=—the present stumpage of the region; $4.00=—the present stumpage price in- creased by 100%, the per cent. given for 20 years. $4.00 1,290 M.=$5,160.00 total value of reproduction at 75 years; 15 years—average age of reproduction; 75—15—60 is the period for which to discount the value of the reproduction ; .0535=the factor for 60 years at 5% compound interest; $5,- 160.00 X .0535==$276.06, the present value of the reproduction destroyed. 4. Value of Forage Destroyed: (1) Determine as nearly as practicable the total number of acres of range burned over and the number of months during which time forage on this area is lost. Ordinarily in the Southwest grass may be considered to replace itself within one month after the start of the summer rains. (2). Determine from standards which are based upon adopted *From Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr.’s tables on fully stocked Black Jack stand based on two 5-acre plots on the Datil National Forest on soils of moder- ate fertility. **Though the period will be greater than 20 years it is considered unsafe to predict even a minimum rise of stumpage for periods longer than 20 years. 418 Forestry Quarterly. standards of the locality the average carrying capacity before the fire of the range burned over. Express this in terms of the number of acres which it will take to support one animal for one year. (3). Divide the total number of acres of range burned by the carrying capacity factor determined under (2). This gives the total number of head which the range area previous to the burn would have carried for one year or its fully carrying capacity. If the period for which the forage is lost is less than one year determine the carrying capacity of the area for the period for which the forage is lost. This is obtained by multiplying the total number of head which the area would ordinarily carry for one year by~2where x equals the number of months for which x the forage is lost. (4). Based upon the prices paid by stockmen for the use of pri- vate lands and for permits on the Indian Reservations, $1.50 per head per annum for cattle and horses, and 30 cents per head per annum for sheep and goats, is a fair estimate of the actual value of the forage. Where the forage is lost for a period of less than a year, as will generally be the case, it is suggested that the monthly rate be determined under the general rule for fixing the rate for short grazing periods, adopted by the U. S. Forest Ser- vice, which means that where the forage is lost for a period of more than four months and less than one year, the charge will be at the rate of 15 cents per month on cattle and horses or 3 cents per month on sheep and goats, with an addition of 20 per cent. for periods of from one to four months. All periods of less than a year should be expressed in terms of whole months. (5). Multiply the total number of head which could have grazed on the area during the period for which the forage was lost by the monthly rate per head as determined in accordance with the provision of (4). This gives the total value of the for- age destroyed. Example of Valuation of Damage to Cattle Ranges: Area of range burned equals 500 acres; carrying capacity of area at the rate of Io acres to 1 head equals 50 head; forage is lost for a period of 3 months; carrying capacity of range for period for ; ! | 12 ; which forage is lost is equivalent to 50x—equals 200 head, i. e., feed for 200 head 3 months has been destroyed. Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 419 The rate charged for periods of 3 months for cattle is 3 15¢c. equals 45c. which is further increased 20% since the period is less than 4 months to 54 cents. The valuation of the forage lost is then 200X$.54 equals $108. The total valuation of the damage to the forest products on the 500 acre burn is thus: 1. Damage to merchantable stand, $2,525 25 2. Damage to pole stand, 1,055 60 3. Damage to reproduction, 276 06 4. Damage to forage, 108 00 $3,964 QI RESULTS OF “LIGHT BURNING” NEAR NEVADA CITY, CALIFORNIA. By M. B. Prart. It is a common practice for ranchers living in the vicinity of Nevada City to burn over their wood lands in the spring, gen- erally in early April. They contend that the burning does not damage the timber to any extent and affords protection against fires in the dry season. The land burned over is stocked with second growth yellow pine of very rapid growth, with here and there a large tree of the original virgin stand. On the afternoon of April 4, 1911, a rancher living about two miles from Nevada City was burning brush along the creek in front of his house. There was a brisk wind blowing and the fire spread in the dry needles of the wooded slope bordering the creek. According to the rancher’s statement, it would have been a very easy matter to put out the fire, but as long as it was started, he thought he might as well let it run and burn off the litter and underbrush. With the assistance of the man helping him burn brush he spread the fire along the lower edge of the slope. The wind carried it at a rapid rate through the ground cover and litter which was drier than usual at this time of the year on account of the unusual warm weather of the preceding two weeks. The fire burned up the slope to the top, where it burned fiercely in manzanita brush and a thick clump of yellow pine. Since there was some wood cut a short distance beyond, the rancher and his man stopped the fire at night-fall when it had died down considerably, by scraping away the needles from a nar- row trail along the upper part of the slope. He stated that it probably would have gone out of its own accord. This burn came to my attention as I was passing along the road on account of the number of burned young trees. The condition of the stand seemed to denote that the fire was accidental rather than by design since it hardly seemed possible that the owner would deliberately let fire burn up so much young growth. Upon being questioned, however, this gentleman stated that he con- Results of “Light Burning.” 421 sidered conditions after the fire very satisfactory and that the young timber killed did not amount to much as it was too thick anyway. His contention was that the timber left will now grow better and that he will have more in the long run than before the fire. He stated that the area had not been burned over for 20 years at least. To show the results of this so-called beneficent light-burning, a sample + acre plot was taken in a clump of young trees averag- ing 50 feet in height and 40 years of age which fairly represents conditions on the 15 acres burned over. Results of burning on } acre plot of yellow pine: (a) The ground litter of pine needles was partially consumed. (b) There was no chapparal on the ground. (c) Effect on tree re- production by age classes: Alive Dead Class I—1 to 5 years : on Class II—s to I0 years I 23 Class I1I—10 to 20 years 28 46 Class IV—z2o to 40 years 59 24 Class V—over 40 years This count on this plot shows that all of the growth up to Io years of age, three-fifths of the growth from Io to 20 years of age, and two-sevenths of the growth from 20 to 40 years of age was killed. Seedlings younger than five years of age were absent on this plot owing to the density of the stand. Observations on other parts of the burned area, however, showed that all of this age class had been killed. The average diameter of the class from 20 to 40 years of age was about 10 inches. Many of the poles killed in Class III were over-topped and would eventually have died out. The fire burned the hardest where there was manzanita brush. In one place a yellow pine tree 40 inches in diameter and 115 feet high, which was surrounded by this brush, was killed. The flames had run up the bark which was pitchy to the very top of the tree. The stand of poles and old trees before the burning averaged about 8,000 board feet per acre. Practically one-third of this amount was killed as well as the majority of the young growth 422 Forestry Quarterly. up to 20 years of age. A few sugar pines 30 to 40 feet in height were killed, the trees burning like torches. If the young growth had not been killed, it would have devel- oped into a merchantable pole and cordwood stand in about 20 years. Cordwood is being cut from timber up to 20 inches in diameter on an adjoining tract. After the second crop had been removed, it would have taken fifty years for the third crop to develop since the nucleus for that crop was badly lacking. The second crop would yield about 10 cords or 5,000 board feet to the acre in 20 years and the third crop that amount after fifty years. This burn has affected the second crop of timber by destroy- ing trees that would have been ready for the ax in a few years after the largest trees had been cut out. The third crop is about totally ruined, and it will take at least five years to get any kind of a beginning of the fourth crop. The burning has not furnished the older trees a protection against fire since the brush will soon sprout again and come in denser than ever as a result of the fire. The dead needles resulting from this fire will fall and the foundation laid for a hotter fire than ever. Last year a piece of light burning near this tract came to my attention. It was an ideal fire from the light burner’s standpoint, burning slowly along in the pine needles and tar-weed. Of course it burned up the tender seedlings since the tar-weed makes a hot, pitchy fire, but it did very little damage to the clumps of young growth from Io to 12 feet high or the older trees. This spring I looked over this piece and found it covered with a thick layer of pine needles. The tar-weed was all coming back and the conditions for figures were just as dangerous, if not worse, than last year. This piece will doubtless be burned over again and again and the condition reached such as is found in the vicinity of Camptonville where there are stands of large yellow pine trees under which there is very little reproduction on account of the dense carpet of tar-weed which has developed as a result of re- peated burnings. This light burning was done in the vicinity of the Rock Creek fire last summer which burned about 250 acres of second growth timber and brush land. The land it burned over had been repeatedly light-burned but the results attained interposed no barrier to the progress of the crown fire of last summer. NOMENCLATURE OF DIVISIONS OF AREA IN WORK- ING PLANS. By BARRINGTON Moore. There has been little time for the consideration of working plans in America. Not only educating men for the profession, so new in this country, and bringing the public to an apprecia- tion of the aims of the profession, but also the gathering of fundamental data on which to build the practice of the profes- sion have absorbed the efforts of foresters. Progress has, how- ever, been astonishingly rapid, and we are now in a position to begin to apply this education and accumulated data to the man- agement of our forests. An article dealing very generally with working plans was con- tributed by the author to the last number of the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters (Vol. VI, No. 2). Much space was spent discussing the necessity of dividing the area into working circles and of making separate working plans for separate forests and parts of forests; it was therefore impos- sible, in necessarily narrowed limits, to give as much space as desired to a clear cut definition of the basis of each division of the area required in working plans. The first point to settle is the scientific designation of the divisions to be made; the second and most important, to deter- mine the fundamental principles on which the divisions shall be based. In the following definitions the term ‘working circle” will be used to designate any area from which it is possible to obtain a sustained yield. Although there has been some discussion as to the advisability of the term, it has been commonly accepted and is generally used by the English, the only people speaking our language and practising forestry; for it conveys the proper meaning clearly and concisely, the word “working” implying a utilization and development of the forest, and the word “circle” conveying the idea that the working is done according to a “ro- tation” or “cycle of years” which will bring you back to the same starting point and thereby insure an indefinite use of the forest 27 424 Forestry Quarterly. resources. Some foresters have, however, expressed a dislike for the term and have attempted to substitute the term “working unit.” Some of these, however, admit that they do not know a reason for their dislike: “perhaps it is because of the foreign origin of the term,” one suggested, but this is manifestly not an argument at all. Others fear that the word “circle” may give the idea of a circular area. But certainly those who advocate the term “working unit” can not claim that it conveys the idea any better if as well as does “working circle.” The word unit expresses so many divisions both of land and material inside and outside of the profession that its use here must be carefully defined and restricted: and also it must be universally accepted before we dare hope to escape confusion. Are we then going to beat about the proverbial bush merely to avoid a really excel- lent term used by people whose language is ours, and who for many years have practised a very effective and highly developed kind of forestry? The word “block” for the subdivisions of the working circle, and “‘compartment” for the subdivisions of the “block” are so clear and expressive that there should be but little question of their general acceptance. The principles on which divisions of the area in working plans should be based are the following: Division into working circles. 'The basis for this division is: geographic situation, markets, and ability to produce sustained yield; the boundaries will generally, but not always (e. g. not in flat country), be topographic. ‘That is, two distinct parts of a forest, capable of producing a sustained yield, tributary to dif- ferent markets, and possibly separated by distinct topographic boundaries, will form different working circles. A working circle thus formed should be called a “Division” and given a suit- able local name, e. g. “the Bear River Division of the Olympic National Forest” or “the Crystal Lake Division of the New York Forest.” As the management become sufficiently intensive, forest types, silvicultural systems and product may also form a basis for working circles; thus in. a coniferous working circle. managed under the shelterwood compartment system for a sustained yield of saw-timber, there may be certain areas of hardwoods or of inferior coniferous species which, under a different silvicultural Nomenclature of Divisions of Area. 425 system, would give a sustained yield of cordwood or mining timbers. In this case, as soon as the management prescribes a separate silvicultural system and separate regulation of the cut for part of the already existing working circle, a new working circle is formed. The new working circle should, however, not be called a Division, but be named after its product, e. g. “the mining timber working circle of the Bear River Division” or the cordwood working circle of the Crystal Lake Division. Where two distinct working circles are tributary to markets which do not require sustained yield—as, for example, export markets,—the working plan may be simplified by combining the two Divisions, at least in so far as the regulation of the cut is concerned. When, however, one or both begin to need sustained yield, a separate regulation must be made for each. Division of the Working Circles into Blocks. This division is made to assist in regulating the cut, and should be on the basis of logging units or groups of logging units, the boundaries de- pending entirely upon topography. The Block should receive a suitable local name, generally taken from the watershed of the stream which it covers. Division into Compartments. ‘The basis will be a single log- ging unit or year’s cut. The designation should generally be by means of numbers. This division need be made only in the more intensive working plans. There can not be too much emphasis laid on the importance of deciding upon these divisions of the area, both during the progress of the field work and in drawing up the working plan. There should be a complete knowledge of such matters as pres- ent market conditions, lines of transportation, outlets for the timber and the probable changes and developments in all three. Changes of divisions once decided upon, except in the inaces- sible parts of a forest may involve a complete overhauling of the working plan and cause much confusion. Because of this, if changes in market conditions, transportation systems, or out- lets are liable to occur and can be foreseen, it is well to provide for them in the working plan. This may sometimes require a separate regulation of the cut with a different annual yield for two possible contingencies. For example, given an area at present tributary to a certain market; this area now forms a working circle. But there is a possibility of a railroad being 420 Forestry Quarterly. built in such a way as to pass by this area on the side furthest from its present market. Manifestly, certain logging units of this present working circle will then become tributary to the railroad. In this supposed case it should be possible now to foresee with greater or less exactitude those larger logging units which will become tributary to the future railroad. Hence the regulations of cut should be drawn up now for the entire working circle tributary to the present market, and also for the working circle minus the logging units which will be cut off by the possible railroad. Inaccessible areas will frequently cause difficulty in making working plans. For it will be possible on many forests to cover only the accessible portions with a reconnaissance sufficiently thorough to obtain detailed data; while the only information with regard to the inaccessible areas will be very rough esti- mates and crude, often inaccurate maps. But in drawing up the working plan resulting from this reconnaissance the inaccessible areas should also be included. Each inaccessible part of the forest should be placed in its proper working circle according to its geographical situation and the market to which it is tribu- tary; inaccessible areas should not be allotted haphazard to various working circles. The plan can, therefore, provide for the accessible part of the working circle in detail, and outline a rough policy from the best available estimates, maps and silvi- cultural information, for the inaccessible part. For example, if the inaccessible portion of the working circle is 80 per cent. of the total working circle i. e. (contains 80 per cent. of the timber), and the rotation is one hundred years, and further if it is probable that the inaccessible timber will commence to be opened up within at most twenty years, the present working plan could provide in detail for the cut during the next twenty years and give a rough outline of policy for the remaining eighty years. Within ten or twenty years it will undoubtedly be neces- sary to revise the plan (revisions are generally made every ten years in Germany ), and it will then be possible to secure detailed data on at least a part of what is now inaccessible. In making his divisions of the forest for purposes of regulat- ing the cut the working plans officer should always consider administrative divisions (ranger districts), fire protective units, and grazing units, and should make a very strong effort to co- Nomenclature of Divions of Area. 427 ordinate as far as conditions will allow these divisions with his working circles, blocks and compartments. But he should by no means sacrifice working circles and blocks too much for the sake of administrative units because, as forests are developed, and as more men become available, these uits are liable to un- dergo changes. The ideas herein expressed are more or less in the nature of suggestions and are open to crticism. Criticism in fact is ear- nestly desired, for it is obvious that only through an interchange of mature thought and the most free discussion can progress be made. We are glad to see discussion on these formal and yet techni- cally important matters of nomenclature taken up anew which have been left untouched since the appearance of the Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 61, six years ago, and the review of it in the Forestry Quarterty, Volume III, which we think will bear re-reading by would-be terminologists. We hope Mr. Moore’s call for criticism may be heeded for it is useful early to establish an acceptable terminology as it is difficult to eradicate poor terms once in the world. ‘To con- tribute towards this end we would refer to what we said in that review regarding terms in general and accentuate especially the desirability of term quality in the words selected. While the existence and use of a term in the literature of another nation, especially of the same language, is strong argument for its reten- tion, it is still open to question whether a change is not desirable. In the end, we must admit also the use of synonyms, for, after all, language is partly a matter of taste and only partly of rule. As stated in the review referred to, the English of the Britons appears to us often unfortunate and cumbersome from the stand- point of term quality. We side with those who object to the use of ‘working circle,’ not, of course, because it is English, but because it is not very expressive. The explanation of the word circle as referring to rotation seems to us fanciful, probably a mere area managed from one center suggesting the term. We do not know, but suspect, that it is a translation by the first Indian adminstrators from the German “Kreis,”’ which is a subdivision of Bezirke. Mr. 428 Forestry Quarterly. Moore, on p. 43, vol. VIII, of the QuarTERLy has given the defi- nitions of area division in India, and on the following page sug- gested the substitution of “block” for circle. A “working block” i. e. an aggregation of stands to be managed under one system, that is a managerial unit or management class, seems to us neat and more explanatory and we have used it for a long time. It is unfortunate, however, that Mr. Moore, in his definition as it appears to us, somewhat mixes up two classes of area divi- sion, which should be for obvious practical reasons, kept separate, namely, the administrative divisions, which are geographical loca- tions, and the managerial divisions, which are based primarily on ideas of management. If this is done, the problem of ranging hitherto unused parts into working plans, will solve itself more easily, although it will always remain a problem requiring revision of original plans.— THE Eprror. REPORT ON SUPERVISORS’ MEETING AT DENVER, COLORADO. The meeting of the Supervisors of District 2 was called to order at 9 a. m. on January 23, 1911, by District Forester Riley, acting as Chairman. The first day’s proceedings consisted of a brief discussion of the important work which had been carried on on each Forest since the last meeting with special reference to special problems and improved methods. Mr. Riley opened the meeting with an address, quoted in part as follows: “We have made great progress since our last meeting and still greater progress must be made to get the forestry work of this region to the proper standard in the near future. You are guardians and business managers for 20,000,000 acres of public lands upon which are natural resources with an actual cash value of over $200,000,000. The value of property directly and indirectly dependent upon a wise conservation of these resources is several hundred millions of dollars more. All of this wealth is under your immediate charge and you are responsible for its protection and development. The timber, range and waters of the West should be developed. They are all meant for use, profit and enjoyment. It is pos- sible to use them in two ways: We may turn them over to pri- vate or corporate owners without restriction, or we may keep them in Government ownership with provision for their restricted or conservative use. In the first case, development would pro- ceed with the object of financial gain to their owners. This would result in a kind of development making little or no provision for sustained productiveness. It would tend toward a monopoliza- tion by a few powerful hands to the probable detriment of the ordinary citizen. It would bring about the use of a resource without regard to its effect upon the others, or upon the closely related interests. In the second case, permanent ownership being with the people, development could proceed with provision for both financial gain to private enterprise and sustained productive- 430 Forestry Quarterly. ness. ‘The Government could well afford to sacrifice a part of its immediate revenue for the sake of getting continous future returns. ‘That sort of monopoly which hurts the ordinary citi- zen could be prevented. We can not use the timber and range in a thoughtless or prodigal manner without working a serious injury to the water supply. If the water supply suffers, loss will come to the interests dependent upon irrigation and navi- gation. Regardless as to whether the present profits of lumber- ing are large or small, the essential point is that we should keep the land producing timber without cessation. The future man of weight in the Forest Service will be the Supervisor. Within twenty years the Supervisor will be the Forester with an administrative unit of from 50,000 to 350,000 acres yielding from $3 to $12 per acre per year. The Ranger will have his hands full with a district of from 5,000 to 10,000 acres. Through study and scientific practice; we shall increase the supporting capacity of the Forests to double what they are at present. The land troubles will be over, because forest, agri- cultural and mineral lands will have permanently settled them- selves into their proper classes and uses. The Supervisor will make 100,000,000-foot sales with no more concern than he now makes a $50 sale of fence posts. This will be made possible by the complete working scheme that will be in effect for all timber tracts. It is the object of this meeting to count big in a step forward. Here are a few of the questions before us: Why has so much lumber been destroyed by fire? Can we get and hold an even more effective Ranger force? Why are we not selling more timber? Why are we still in doubt whether we shall get a satisfactory crop of trees on the cut-over land? Are we permitting sheep and cattle to graze on forest land to the detriment of forest growth? Do we practice what we preach in regard to preservatives? Why not? Do we use and distribute our annual appropriation to the best advantage from an ordinary business standpoint, considering the actual value of conservation of each poet Forest? How can we determine this question? This meeting is your meeting. If you return to your Forests Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 431 with a broader, clearer, happier view of the work before you, its object will be accomplished. SILVICULTURE January 24, 1911. Chairman, Mr. Moore. Supervisor W. J. Morrill, of the Rio Grande, read a paper on Silvicultural Systems on the National Forests, which is sum- marized as follows: As a general rule, protective forests call for the selection system of silvicultural treatment. The first requirement of our Forests is that they shall serve for protective forests, and only secondarily, as a source of supply for lumber, hence the selec- tion system promises always to be the system most commonly used on our forests. THE SELECTION SySTEM UNDER SHELTERWOODS. The disadvantages of this system are: 1. The cost of logging is high, because a large area must be covered for the crop. 2. It is claimed that growth is Io per cent. slower than in other systems of silviculture. The advantages are: I. Less skill is required to carry out the system, and therefore, less liability to make silvicultural mistakes. 2. The timber is usually of large size, and, therefore, is mar- ketable in places where small timber is not. SHELTERWOOD GROUP SYSTEM. Advantages : 1. This method can be used to best advantage only where a market exists for small lumber and cordwood. 2. It is claimed that it protects young growth satisfactorily from frost and snow and against drought. 3. No data is available to show how it compares with ather systems in the relative production of wood. Disadvantages : I. It opens up the soil to drying influences more or less accord- 432 Forestry Quarterly. ing to the size of the clearing, whereas the selection system by single trees disturbs the forest conditions the least of any system; hence for protection, the group method is not as desirable as the single tree method. 2. Since the group method aims at disposing of the old stand within a comparatively limited time, many years must elapse after the young crop is formed before a supply of saw timber is again available. ‘This would be a disadvantage if the stand is expected to supply a steady demand always present, or is not of an area large enough to be divided into compartments which are treated successively, and enough compartments to round out the cycle of rotation. Under present economic conditions, it seems that the selection system by single trees is generally preferable to the group sys- tem. Since it is not profitable to cut over a selection forest annually, a period of years must elapse between cuttings. This should be obtained by the Van Mantel formula expressed as follows: b= ; in which ‘‘b” represents the amount of timber in board 4a feet or cord which should be cut annually; “S” represents the actual amount of timber per acre in board feet or cords in the stand ; “a” represents the most profitable age at which the timber is ready for the ax. To illustrate: Suppose an Engelmann spruce stand averages 10,000 feet per acre, the total stand per acre. Suppose that we assume the trees average 200 years when it appears most profitable to cut them. 10,000 then 6 |= =. =| soe ree Oe 4 of 200 Since no purchaser would be willing to cut over the area annually for only 100 ft. B. M., we must determine the smallest amount which would justify a cutting. Suppose this amount is 2,500 feet B. M. Then 2,500 divided by 100 equals 25, the number of years which should intervene between cuttings. These figures only hold good for a normal forest, but in the above illustration, if 1,000 feet is a greater wood capital than is normal, 100 feet is more than grows annually, and we would reduce the wood capital or if less, we would add to the wood capital. The advantage of — Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 433 this formula is that in the course of time normal conditions are at least approximated in regard to wood capital. The seed tree system of cutting is a poor system on account of the windfall. Clear cutting by the compartment plan is not feasible on our Western National Forests on account of cost of artificial regeneration. The true compartment system under shelterwood may be preferable. Several preliminary thinnings and one seeding thinning should take place. The advantages are: 1. The production of wood and quality are unsurpassed. 2. The shelter trees may be grown into larger timber than the bulk of the crop and the annual increment laid on the shelter trees is large. 3. The soil, humus and moisture conditions are not as much affected as in clear cuttings. Disadvantages : 1. Danger to the seedlings from frost, insect, weeds and grass is larger than in the selection system. 2. The shelter trees may be windthrown. 3. Great care is required to successfully manage this plan. 4. Moisture and soil conditions are more disturbed than in the selection system. Clear cutting in lodgepole may be advisable. In conclusion the value of the selection sytem should be em- phasized and to urge that our shelter forests be regulated to a sustained yield basis and that we aim toward attaining normal forests. A general discussion of this paper followed. Mr. Shaw and Mr. Morrill were of the opinion that under good management the rotation of Engelmann spruce could be reduced at least 20 per cent. MARKING SAMPLE AREAS During the past year, the trees on a sample area on a proposed green timber sale have been carefully marked for cutting prior to the singing of the sale contract. Supervisor John McLaren, of the Sopris National Forest read a paper which endorsed this pro- cedure and mentioned the following advantages of it: “The first good that results from this plan is that the pur- 434 Forestry Quarterly. chaser must visit the area, and since he certifies that the marking is done satisfactorily, he goes into the matter more thoroughly and gets a definite knowledge of the restrictions which will gov- ern the sale by a full discussion. It has been hard to get the pur- chaser, in many cases, to take sufficient interest in a timber sale transaction, and he is inclined, in general, to sign up a contract without giving it material thought and noting its contents. The second important factor in connection with this requirement is that it developes more care on the part of the examining officer as he is inclined to give a proposed sale more thought and time, and will arrive at a better understanding of the existing condi- tions on the sale area than when working under pressure and cov- ering the field work hurriedly with the feeling that the timber to be cut may more closely be considered after the sale is made and when the final marking is done.” Supervisor Bushnell feared that he would not be willing to’ abide by his sample marking, after he had occasion to see how some of the area looked after being thinned. Supervisor McLaren replied: “We must get away from the idea of going back and changing our marking. We should go into it more carefully in the first place, study timber that has already been marked, and then the probabilities are very small that we will have to make any change after a sale has started.” Supervisor Cook said: ‘““We have tried out sample marking on two sales on the Arapaho of about 20 acres. The chief value we found was to ourselves. It helped the marking board to get together and discuss things when the purchaser was not present, and we wrangled it out among ourselves.” Deputy Supervisor Miller said that it was difficult to get the purchaser to look over the sample area; that they were always satisfied with the marking and that little good resulted from it. Supervisor Bushnell objected to marking the whole sale prior to cutting for fear of mistakes, but, on the whole, the sentiment of the meeting was strongly in favor of the practice. MARKING BOARDS This subject was introduced by Supervisor Philips, who said: “A marking board was organized on the Montezuma Forest soon after the instructions came out last spring. ‘The board is com- Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 435 posed of the Supervisor, Deputy Supervisor and Forest Assistant. These three members always go out together to do the marking. If possible, rangers from adjoining districts where conditions are practically the same are called in to go out with the marking board. ‘The scheme has worked well and we feel that a great deal of good has come from it. A more uniform policy is estab- lished on the forest, and mistakes are avoided.” Assistant District Forester Moore closed the lengthy discussion with a summary of the points brought out, as follows: “Mr. Lovejoy has laid stress upon the fact that the purchaser wants to know how much timber he is going to be allowed to cut rather than the kind and number of trees. I think that these two points are very closely related and that by means of marking sample areas under the direction of the forest marking board, we are going to be able to tell the purchaser more accurately how much timber he will get. We have had some pretty wild esti- mates on sales made in the past, which is evidence that sufficient attention was not given in advance to the manner in which these timber sales were to be marked. It is very clear that we should give more consideration to the marking at the beginning of a sale and determine as accurately as we can the number of trees that will be marked and the kind; then we are going to be closer in our estimates. There are a great many reasons why we should get the purchaser on a timber sale in advance of operations and it seems to me absolutely essential that this be done. The pur- chaser should certainly know the boundaries of his sale area on the ground. All the points likely to come into controversy should be settled before the sale, particularly with a new purchaser.” BrusH DIsPosAt Supervisor Lovejoy opened the discussion and the following is a condensation of his paper: “The principal benefit of any form of brush disposal is the fire protection which it is presumed to give. In addition to the fire protection, there may be a secondary benefit in the increase of reproduction. The undesirable factors are principally the loss to the soil of the material which should go into it, the danger to standing trees left after the cutting from the injury by fire and the cost. Any brush disposal or brush piling is good disposal or 430 Forestry Quarterly. piling if it allows of the complete destruction of the brush without injury to the standing trees, and cheaply. With reference to the camparative advantages of scattering or piling brush, this would probably depend on local conditions; that is, the preference of scattering over piling would depend principally upon the fire risk involved, the silvicultural condtion of the stand, the species, and the locality, particularly with reference to slope and possible ero- sion. In brush piling, all sorts and shapes of methods have been tried, and the kind of brush piling which will prove best for any given stand must finally be worked out for each locality or stand. For instance, in clean cutting where cordwood is utilized and nothing but the top branches go into brush, or where the stand is nearly clean cut and cordwood taken, I believe that the wind-row method is much preferable to brush piles. One thing I think is necessary to be considered in deciding on the type of brush dis- posal, and that is, the period intervening between the piling and the time when the brush will be burned. If there is any chance of the brush having to go through a snow before it is burned, you can not pile it low nor spread it out. You must protect it by the heavy pieces around the outside. If this is done properly, and the pile is symmetrical, such a pile will go through two or three heavy snows without losing its shape. It may settle a little, and the brush fall away from it, but it stands up, and can be burned under almost any conditions. If deemed desirable, care may be taken to make the pile symmetrical, or to place sticks around the outside in such a way that the pile will shed snow. Where properly built, such a pile can be burned in snow four or five feet deep with good results. The injury to trees left depends on a lot of factors, primarily, of course, on the number of trees left to the acre and the number of brush piles to the acre, the size of the piles, the condtion of the brush at the time it is burned and the depth of the snow. With fairly deep piles, and the brush in prime condition, cutting from a stand of lodgepole of about 12,000 to 15,000 to the acre from which is removed from 2,000 to 5,000 feet to the acre, you will run perhaps 25 piles to the acre. Under other conditions you may get as high as 100 of these piles. The number of piles lighted and the number of piles not burned will, of course, vary. Mr. Gregg conceived the scheme of plastering the trees nearest the piles with snow at the time of burning. By adopting this plan we found it Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 437 possible to burn piles which were within a few feet of good seed trees without any injury to the trees except a little scorching of the lower branches. ‘The action of the heat melts the snow, the water runs off, and the tree is not scorched. When your large piles get going you can not get close enough to the trees to throw enough snow to hold it back, whereas, on a small fire a few shovelfuls of snow will do the work. Where such burning is going on, a man can not attend to more than 20 piles at once, and he can not set off a lot and leave them. Of course, all the time he spends on a given brush fire increases the cost per acre; but it is pretty easy to determine for any given job of burning how many trees you can afford to lose and whether it is cheaper to burn the trees up than to save them from fire. I do not think it pays, as a rule, to burn trees to save them from fire. In the past, the time of burning brush on large sales appears to have been determined by the time you found most convenient to burn. I think that any of us who have had to fight fire during the summer on a timber sale where the brush had been left unpiled or piled and not burned would never lose another chance of burning brush which was in a pile, or of having brush piled rather than scattered. 1 do not know of any area where it has seemed to me safe to leave brush on the ground. I might state that lodgepole brush does not go to pieces so as to reduce the fire danger abso- lutely inside of fifteen years. Our fire risks are so tremendous, and our preparation for the suppression of fires so inadequate, that taking into account the damage to the soil and all the other resulting disadvantages, I am afraid that we have not yet reached a point where we dare leave brush on the ground. While the cost of burning is a factor, I do not think that it is a very im- portant one, as we can not afford the fire risk which comes from leaving unburned brush on the ground, and the additional pro- tection resulting from the burning of the brush fully offsets the additional cost of burning. In wind-row burning, practically clean cutting, the cost is approximately 10 cents per 1,000 feet or $1 per acre under the worst conditions. Where approximately one- tenth of a stand of trees had been cut, and the brush on that stand piled, the piles averaged from I5 to 25 to the acre, and the cost runs up approximately to $2.50 per acre. I do not believe that I could permanently insure the area from destruction by fire any cheaper than that. The display of brush burning torches on 438 Forestry Quarterly. the table brings up a considerable number of questions. A good torch is one which does its work as cheaply as possible; it should also be light, durable and convenient to handle, and should not leak. It should burn as little oil as possible, and still throw a flame of the size desired. Further, it should be able to reach to a greater or less degree to the inside of the pile, and the cost of the torch itself should be taken into consideration. I have found that temporary laborers are sometimes inclined to put the torch in the pile and leave it.” Mr. Moore: We heard from the Forester some time ago that there was a standard torch on requisition at Ogden, but the Property Clerk informs me that this was not a standard torch and that it had been decided to purchase torches locally. (Committee appointed to report on the selection of a proper torch at the end of meeting.) There is one point in connection with the brush burning business that we have not gone into very much; that is the question as to whether the brush burning on the forest should be handled by the regular ranger force or whether we must con- sider the employment of temporary men. Mr. Lovejoy replied: I believe that matter is entirely dependent on local conditions, and that in many cases it is impossible for the local force to make any showing with the amount of brush there is on the ground, and it is evidently necessary in such cases to hire outside help. In cases where the sales are small, and the local rangers can handle the work, they should do it. Mr. Imes said: I think it would cost but little more to have the Forest officers burn the brush. I can get guards at $75 a month who will do better work than the average laborer, and who also have a certain interest in their work. The only objection that I find to this plan is that I do not have sufficient salary allotment for brush burning. Supervisor Morrill said that he believed in lopping and scatter- ing the brush in the majority of sales on the Rio Grande Forest. The danger from fires was remote there, judging from the record in the past five years, and it is thought that the benefit to be derived from soil improvement due to decaying leaves and twigs outweighed, locally, the danger from fire incurred by leaving the slash on the ground. Engelmann spruce is the principal timber cut on the Rio Grande Forest, and the moisture conditions miti- gate against forest fires. However, as a precautionary measure, Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 439 a zone two or three hundred feet wide, on which the brush is piled and later burned surrounds a considerable area of cutting where the slash is scattered. It was determined by expression of all the Supervisors that brush scattering was practiced to some extent on all of the Forests in the District. FREE USE. It appears that free use for green timber was not granted on a majority of the Forests in the district, and that the policy is to restrict the free use of green timber as rapidly and as far as possible. Free use must be handled on each Forest according to its local conditions. The question was asked whether any fire lines had been built through granting free use of timber, either living or dead, along roads. Supervisor Imes of the Black Hills (S) Forest said: ‘“‘We had a fire in the Black Hills last summer that jumped a plowed field 300 yards wide. I decided that if we are going to have fire lines that will be any advantage, they must be pretty wide. We have numerous roads through the Forest, but think it will be necessary to widen them, if they are to be of any great advantage in case of fire. So I have told the ranger that when an applicant was entitled to a free use permit, he should confine the cutting to within 100 feet of the road, and I have endeavored to confine all free use permits to such places.” RECONNAISSANCE. The practice of employing forest school students for recon- naissance, as has been the practice for the past five years, was favored by a large majority of the Supervisors. Some were of the opinion that the rangers could do the work better, but they could not be spared from other work during the summer; others believed that the inexperience of the forest school men was out- weighed by the interest they took in forest work. MetuHop oF CoLLECTING CONES. Supervisor Wheeler of the Colorado Forest said that Western Yellow Pine cones were gathered on that Forest by picking by 28 440 Forestry Quarterly, hand, since squirrels did not gather and hoard the cones. Some of the pickers became very expert, averaging two bushels an hour each ; however, the average individual would gather only three or four bushels a day. Hooks and pruners were used to some extent, but the majority preferred to pick by hand. Picking by hand was encouraged because less injury was done to the trees. Wherever the squirrels hoard cones, robbing the hoards was the most satisfactory method of getting the cones. Supervisor Sweitzer said that without the assistance of the squirrels, gather- ing Douglas fir cones would be impracticable. ‘The same may be said of Engelmann spruce. It was the consensus of opinion that purchasing cones by measure was preferable to buying by weight. Mr. Sweitzer paid 75 cents per bushel for Douglas Fir cones purchased from ranch- men and delivered at his headquarters. He thought the price was fair, since cones gathered by laborers working for him by the day cost him 80 cents per bushel. It appears that Engelmann spruce cones cost about the same, and Western Yellow Pine cones should be obtained for about 50 cents per bushel. On the San Juan (EF) Forest about ? pound of clean seed per bushel was obtained. The same amount of Engelmann spruce seed per bushel of cones should be obtained. The clean Douglas Fir seed cost Mr. Sweitzer about $1.10 per pound. Mr. Wheeler said he expected to reduce the cost of clean Western Yellow Pine seed to 60 cents per pound or less, in the future. Seventy-five cents per bushel of cones was paid for 2400 bushels in the Black Hills (N). Supervisor French said, by using ranger labor, the cost of lodgepole pine cones was reduced to 60 cents per bushel. Supervisor Langworthy was fortunate in having a large crop of Western Yellow Pine cones and paid 50 cents per sack. He failed to state the size of the sacks but presumably they were the bushel sacks. Conditions being different on the San Isabel Forest than on Forests where the cones were delivered at central points, he maintained field camps, five or six in number, to which the cones were brought and the seed extracted. He says: “A great many of the cones opened in the sacks. The last cones we picked opened up within four days after they were placed on the sheets. Cones picked before that took about eight days. We began at that camp gathering cones on September 15. We waited Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 441 until we thought the cones were ripe. We finished our extrac- tion of seed on October 12, being less than a month at that camp. There were three of us, and we cleaned up 1,272 pounds of seed. This seed was floated for a few minutes in cold spring water. The amount of chaff and refuse we skimmed off after floating the seed was 22 per cent. in weight. We float the seed twice; after floating them the first time, we skimmed off the chaff and then floated it over again. After that we had 22 per cent. chaff; this includes the siftings which fell on the sheet when we screened the cones to get rid of the dirt. In all of the cases I have mentioned the seed was gathered from thrifty young trees about eight or ten inches in diameter, and 25 or 30 feet high. We also gathered seed from old matured trees, such as spike tops, etc. The cones from these trees were found to be a little different in shape, being longer and more pointed. These trees are termed by the lumbermen yellow pine, while the others are called jack pine. The cones gathered from the old trees yielded four pounds of clean seed per bushel. When we had the seed extracted we put a bushel of the winged seed in a seamless sack, laid them on a wagon sheet on the ground and tramped the sack under foot for about ten minutes with a sort of rotary motion. We then winnowed the seed in the wind, and allowed them to drop into a box with a wire screen bottom. We would then shake the box, and get rid of the little particles of chaff attached to the seed. The seed was fairly clean after that operation, except for the shoulders or clips. The floating oper- ations were done in cold spring water, and the seed were not al- lowed to remain in the water over eight minutes. When we put them in the water, and stirred them up briskly, it removed all the wings and clips, and it was absolutely clean. Our cleaned seed cost us 58.9 cents per pound which includes everything.” While discussing seed extraction, Mr. Imes said: “I am still endeavoring to find out just what is the best method of extract- ing seed by artificial heat. We have worked at it since Septem- ber, and I think I have found out a few things that should not be done, and a few things that should be done. I can best explain by describing our operations from the time they started. I had never seen a pine cone treated by artificial heat, and knew noth- ing about it. I thought it was simply a matter of applying the heat, but soon found it was quite a different proposition. 442 Forestry Quarterly, We rented a two-story building at Custer with a good base- ment. ‘This building was 50x25 feet. My original plan was to store the cones upstairs, making a drying room on the ground floor, and have the furnace in the basement. The drying room which was on one side of the ground floor was very tight, and after I got it arranged, I filled it with green cones. I expected to take them out in 36 hours. I had them in there seven days, and they were closed as tight when I took them out as when I put them in. The reason was there was too much moisture by evaporation from the cones which filled the room with steam, and I found the cones never would open in that way. By that time I saw I was going to get such a quantity of cones, I would have to enlarge my drying room. I tore down the first drying room and made a new one 30 feet long by 20 feet wide. ‘The arrangement of this drying room was about as follows: I first made what I called a false floor, constructed of 2-inch slats laid on joists. ‘The spaces between the slats were about ? of an inch. The trays first constructed were seven feet long and four feet wide. ‘They were constructed by simply taking wire meshing and nailing on each side two strips Ix2 inches. ‘There were no shelves made to place them on, but to strengthen the trays we nailed cross pieces across the corners. ‘That gave us a 4-inch space between each tray, and the trays were stacked one on top of the other. These trays held about two bushels of cones. After I had con- structed this new drying room, and got it finished, it worked in pretty good shape. I found by leaving the cones in three nights and two days, they were ready to come out, that is, they were sufficiently opened on these trays that practically all of the seed would rattle out. After the cones had opened, I built what we called a “flying machine.”’ It was nothing more than a cylindrical box which was rotated by a gasoline engine. It was constructed by using a piece of gas pipe 16 feet long with four cross pieces set on the pipe, and covered with wire meshing. This was rotated at just the right speed to allow the cones to work out at the lower end, and the seed to fall on the floor. It was set on a slope so that the cones were put in at one end and rolled out at the other end of their own accord. After the seeds shaken out of the cones are gathered up we run the winged seed out through a fanning mill. The fanning mill sits in the basement of the building. The seeds pass over the —- Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 443 screen, and the very fine dirt, dust, etc., passes through the screen, and the winged seeds remain in the fanning mill. They are, you might say, cleaned winged seed, that is, seed with the wings on. In running a fanning mill, I find the light seeds are blown out of the mill. The heavy seeds stay in it, which to a certain extent reduces the necessity of water floating to get the light seed out. The light seeds are not fertile. They are small seeds with a wing, and a very small kernel of no value at all. After the seeds are first fanned that way, they are put in what is called the wet box. Water is poured over them, then the seeds are stirred up until thoroughly moist; after that they are placed on a second screen, which is sufficiently large to allow all seed to go through by rubbing. The second screen is horizontal. A quantity of moist seed is placed on there and rubbed; that loosens all the wings from the seed. I might state here that we are experimenting with the view of possibly doing away with the rubbing or second handling. I found from one of our experi- ments that it is not necessary to rub these seeds over the screen. I think it is sufficient to moisten them and dry them. You might not get as clean seed, but it will be clean enough for all practi- cal purposes. By wetting them and getting them dry, you can get the wings from the seed by simply running them through the fanning mill. After the seeds have been wet, they are dried by placing them on sheets in the sun, which requires from two to four hours. Now we dry them in our cylinder, which is covered with window screen set before the furnace. We put about 100 pounds in the cylinder and set it up before the furnace, and rotate it a few minutes. We dry in one night 400 pounds of seed. ‘This makes four different dryings, but they are not wet any great length of time and not very wet at all. a The first furnace we used was simply a big boxwood stove that had a cement floor underneath it, and outside of the stove we _ built a wall of fire-brick, put a lot of cement over this, and allowed an opening in the top to go through into the bottom of the drying room on the same principle as any hot air furnace. From the bottom of the floor, we had cold air pipes which lead into. this air chamber around the boxwood stove. I found the boxwood stove would not stand the heat for the length of time required, and I have since built a furnace of fire-brick on exactly the same princi- ple as I used in the boxwood stove. We have a great many 444 Forestry Quarterly, problems to work out yet, and I think the most important one is the effect of moisture on the opening of the cones. To overcome that we installed a blower which was intended to force the hot air through the furnace into the drying room, and it was so arranged that we could draw the moist air out of the drying room. Our blower was a little too small, and we have never successfully worked it yet, but I am satisfied that in any modern cone extrac- tion plant we have got to arrange some contrivance so that we can get rid of the moist air in the room. My intention now is to run pipes along the roof of the room, where the steam and moist air is, letting them run through the floor to a blower and draw all the air out of the top of the room, which would take out the moisture, and I believe I can reduce the length of time required to open the cones almost one-half.” The question was asked whether a threshing machine could be used for extracting seed from cones, and Mr. Imes, who had tried it, said it was not practicable; too many of the seed were broken, and the results were in every way unsatisfactory. Referring to the amount of clean seed obtained on the Black Hills (N) last season, he said that about 27,000 pounds of Western Yellow Pine was obtained. Supervisor Pierce discussed Methods and Seasons for Planting. He gave the history of the Halsey Nursery. Experiments proved that commercial fertilizers for seed beds were of little value, but animal manures should be used. The seed is sown in the spring at a rate unit to produce 100 seedlings per square foot. Great loss resulting from damping-off, fungi and blight. Blight could be lessened first, by increased use of water, second, by preventing too rapid evaporation and withdrawal of moisture from the ground, by cultivation of the soil, by shading, by increasing the spacing of the trees; third, by preventing too rapid transpiration, obtained through shading and by spraying; fourth, by increasing the fertility of the soil; fifth, by increasing the vigor of the trees, by using seed of high germinative ability, and thin stands from 75 to 100 per square foot; sixth, by the transplanting of thrifty seedlings. The transplant stock gave better results than seed- lings planted in their permanent site. Supervisor d’Allemand had better success upon the Kansas Forest with conifers than he did with hardwoods. Yellow pine seedlings were less liable to damping-off. Mr. Riley stated that in New York Pettis had Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 445 practically eliminated damping-off from his seed beds. No seed beds are planted without surfacing them. He first puts on the amount of moisture he wants and then puts in the seed, the soil used being brought from a distance and free from the spores of fungi. Supervisor Kelleter stated that he had had success in direct sowing and has covered 3,000 acres. The rodents bothered him, but this was overcome by poisoning the seed areas with wheat containing strychnine. Supervisor Allen stated that he used the Cyclone seeder in broadcasting the seed and found it very useful. They cost $2.50 each. SILVICS. Mr. Bates asked for results of experiments in planting. Mr. Reinsch stated that he had better success in using a drill built on the principle of a garden hoe than of any other method of seeding. The seeds were dropped one inch apart in the drills and covered with a garden rake. This cost about $8 per acre. Mr. Bates emphasized the fact that a complete record should be kept in detail of the experiments. He also spoke at length upon the need of growth studies, and advocated an empirical stand table to be compiled by as big a representation of ages and rates of growth from the different Forests for each species as could possibly be obtained. PRODUCTS. January 25, 1911. Chairman, Mr. H. S. Betts. Mr. Betts requested that the discussion take the form of ques- tions. The following points were brought out: The treating tanks weighed 480 pounds, and held from 10 to 15 posts. In a very rough country, cost of treatment was about 25 cents per post, including transportation. Care should be taken that the tank does not catch fire. The brush method of treating is not especially good, but better than no treatment. That a treating plant brought into demand a large amount of dry timber. Crude oil has value as a preservative, but does not compare with creosote. 446 Forestry Quarterly, Mr. Betts stated that he intended to carry on some experi- ments in regard to obtaining turpentine from Western Yellow Pine and Pinion pine. ‘That the supply of turpentine was becom- ing limited and that it might become a commercial proposition in the West. GRAZING. January 25, 1911, 4 p.m. Mr. Nelson, Chairman. Supervisor Kavanagh read a paper on the results accom- plished on the National Forests in District 2 through grazing administration, summarized as follows: The administration of the grazing lands within the National Forests by the Forest Service is rapidly growing in favor with the people. Successful grazing administration has brought the subject of forestry to the attention of thousands of people who under other circumstances would have given it only passing at- tention. Grazing promotes reproduction by working up the soil. Many improvements to the National Forests in the way of roads, trails, telephone lines, etc. are brought about by grazing. ‘The stockmen put out thousands of fires. The consumption of the grass greatly lessens the danger from fire. The existence and welfare of the small cattlemen in the West depends to a large extent upon the National Forest range. Here followed a general discussion of range problems. A plan of experiments was advocated that would determine the effect of grazing on reproduction. January 26. Supervisor Blackhall stated that sheep on his Forest were trailed over fire guards thus increasing the efficiency of the fire lines. Supervisor Ratliff read a paper on Advisory Boards. The following points were brought out. Stock associations are formed (1) in order to compete with monopolistic large owners; (2) by the need of range adjust- ment among themselves; (3) by realizing the necessity of some form of legal regulation of the use and conservation of the range. Advisory boards have proven a great help in settling range difficulties. It is much easier to come to an understanding with an advisory board than a whole community and considerable time Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 447 is saved. The advisory usually consists of level-headed men with whom the Service can readily adjust matters pertaining to grazing. To sum up, advisory boards mean a better enforcement of the regulations, increased benefits to the users, the adjustment of misunderstandings, and a means by which information concern- ing present and future difficulties may reach us. Here followed a general discussion on advisory boards. Range improvements were then taken up and discussed. Some of the Supervisors had marked success in sowing timothy upon the range. It was the sense of the meeting that separate dates should be advertised by which grazing applications should be received for the different classes of stock. It developed that a large amount of work had been done on grazing reconnaissance upon the different Forests, also a large number of forage plants had been collected. The game question was taken up and discussed. Supervisor Kavanagh stated that a plan of restocking the range with wild game had been carried out on the Big Horn as a car- load of elk were shipped in from the Jackson Hole country. It was the opinion of the meeting that a law should be passed, com- pelling people to screen their headgates, and a greater effort should be made to protect game. OPERATION. January 26, 1911, 3 P. M. A lengthy discussion took place in regard to systematizing the field work, and what was needed in the way of trails, telephone lines, and fire lines for patrol purposes. A majority of the Supervisors were in favor of some sort of a written plan for future work for every officer on the Forest. Supervisor Gregg stated that the best tool for fighting fire, in his opinion, was a hoe having a blade 6”x6", catalogued as a “hazel hoe.” A lengthy discussion of fire prevention followed and a com- mittee was appointed who made the following recommendations for the suppression of Forest fires: Increased field force. Increased funds for: 448 - Forestry Quarterly, Properly equipped lookout stations. The purchase and distribution of fire tools. An adequate system of roads and trails located with respect to their use as fire lines. Fire lines to be kept clear by using as stock driveways and located with respect to their use as roads and trails. Intensive and systematic patrol, with adequate telephone systems. The reduction of inflammable material by the removal of dead and down timber and the disposal of brush on timber sales by piling and burning. Smaller administrative units for Rangers and Supervisors. Definite and intimate cdoperation between Supervisors of neighboring Forests, and Rangers of neighboring districts. The following measures are recommended for immediate adoption: Increased field force. Increased funds. The complete equipment of the more commanding lookout sta- tions. The systematic extension of roads, trails, and telephone lines. Intensive and systematic patrol. The heavy grazing of areas where it would reduce fire danger. Smaller administrative units. The proper equipment of all railroads operating through the Forests. Definite and detailed cdoperation between neighboring Forest officers. After a lengthy discussion on examinations for rangers a motion was carried to request the Civil Service Commission to extend the probationary period for Assistant Rangers to one year. January 27, I9QII. A lengthy discussion on claims took place. Many individual cases were discussed and Mr. MclInery, Chief of the Fifth Field Division, stated his opinion in numerous land cases. He also stated that the Department of the Interior wished to cdoperate with the Forest Service in every particular. Superintendent Ainsworth, of the Bureau of Fisheries of Colo- rado, took up the fish question with the Supervisors. He sug- Report of Supervisors’ Meeting. 449 gested that each Supervisor make up a list of the number of fry needed and send them in as soon as possible. The subject of Uses and Settlement was discussed. It was the opinion of many of the Supervisors that legislation should be passed whereby a permit could be made to operate for five or ten years. Supervisor Lowell opened the discussion on Settlement. He thought that it would be better to have the lines run out with a transit although good results had been obtained with the compass. Meeting called to order at 9 a. m., January 28. The discussion of Settlement was continued. Supervisor Bushnell stated that oftentimes one man made sev- eral applications, and several different tracts of land were listed. He believed this to be undesirable, and thought a regulation or law should be made to prevent it. In Supervisor Imes’ opinion, it did not make any difference as he thought that the quicker the agricultural land was listed, the better it would be. Mr. Riley stated that the present policy was not to concern our- selves in any way with the intention of the applicant, and that the Service should not hesitate to examine a second application for a man who is not satisfied with the first. Arrangements were made whereby several men would be detailed to the various Land Offices to obtain the status for all the Forests, After a discussion of Law and Accounts, the meeting was closed by an address by Mr. Riley. He complimented the Supervisors on the work they had ac- complished and emphasized the fact that the further progress of the work depended to a larger extent upon their initiative. The — man of the future is the Forest Supervisor. The District Office is an organization for} the purpose of assisting Supervisors with their problems. Mr. Wheeler moved that the Supervisors express their appre- ciation of the help given by the District Office, not only in the meeting, but also during the past year. The motion was seconded and carried. FRANK J. PHILLIPS. An APPRECIATION.* When American forestry lost Frank Jay Phillips it lost one of its rising beacon lights. Alas for the futility of our hopes! For one brief moment, like a brilliant falling star under the desert sky, his life flashed across the heavens of our science, and was gone. But the afterglow is with us still. It will be with us for years to come. It can never be entirely effaced, but will live on and on, though mayhap receiving new auroral coloring from other minds and souls, to generations yet unborn. Born and reared in the forests of Michigan, thoroughly grounded in the problems of the farm and the woodlot at the Michigan Agricultural College, his training was carried to a high standard of completion in the forestry courses of the University of Michigan. Ever striving for a higher mark, however, he pur- sued work for a doctor’s degree, and had intended to go abroad this present summer to carry on his forestry studies. He was also a leader in other lines, holding some excellent track records, and winning a high place in inter-collegiate oratory. After a period of hard and effective work in the United States service, covering many states, he was called to the head of the forestry department in the University of Nebraska, which position he held on the date of his untimely end, February 12, 1911. At this time he had been offered a position on the forestry faculty at Ann Ar- bor. At a previous time, his powers of observation were recog- nized by the offer of the position of traveling dendrologist in the forest service. Again, his capacity for organization and leader- ship won high recognition by the tender of the position of chief of the Indian forest service under the national government. In addition to his arduous and successful labors as head of a growing department in a great univerisity, Professor Phillips set himself with a vim to the task of turning out original research work, and it was his intention to publish at least two articles *Although we have printed on p. 168 a brief reference to Mr. Phillip’s decease, we gladly give additional space to the above appreciation of a worthy member of our profession—EDIToR. Frank J. Phillips. 451 each year. His papers on “Bird Dissemination of Juniper Seed,” and “Hail Injury to Forest Trees” are unique and excel- lent pieces of observational work. His “Study of Pinyon Pine,” published in the Botanical Gazette,” is a fine type of dendorlogical study. He was associated with Dr. Fernow as one of the contrib- uting editors of the “Forestry Quarterly,” and had in mind the establishment of a “Planting Magazine.” At the time of his -demise he had in preparation several articles, including one on the trees of the Mexican boundary. A very interesting note on branchless conifers has appeared posthumously in the “Plant World.” During the summer of 1910, the writer had the pleas- ure and inspiration of being associated with him for six weeks | in the field in southern Arizona. One day his sharp eyes detected mistletoe growing upon whiteleaf oak, a fact for) which the writer had been looking in vain for some three years. He had a remarkable capacity for assimilating the facts of nature in gen- eral, and those bearing upon his specialty in particular. His en- thusiasm was inspiring, his avidity to look and learn boundless, his keen eye perspicuous and probing for the best of things. One of his finest characteristics as a forester was his breadth of view. While ever loyal and strenuous to the last degree to attain the immediately practical results that in the minds of some are the only measure of success, he had boundless admiration for related branches of scientific inquiry, whose practical application does not always lie on the surface, but which in the course of time are often fraught with unforeseen and incalculable value. As Professor Peirce has recently well said: “From the beginning, the study of plants in this country has been strongly influenced by the requirements of its inhabitants.” He might have added, and by the ultra-materialistic American habit of mind. “Pure science has found scant support and still less understanding sympathy. We may deplore the fact, but we must recognize its adequate and persisting cause.” While this is only too true, future progress in forest work in this country must lie along the lines of greater breadth and deeper foundations, a necessity that is gradually coming to be recognized, and is already taking concrete form in the establishment of thorough research work and permanent experiment stations. Professor Phillips was a live and enthusiastic exponent of this movement. 452 Forestry Quarterly, Phillips was deeply interested not only in dendrology and forestry proper, but in mycology, and was rapidly forging to the front as a teratologist. For years he had studied eccentricity and abnormality of growth. This was perhaps the natural outcome of much forest service practice in the counting of annual rings and the measurement of tree growth. He was a master of stem analyses. His quick and incisive definiteness, never satisfied with a haphazard or approximate result, no matter what the personal hardship incurred, won for him a measure of proficiency in this line that has perhaps never been excelled among American for- esters. His rapid fire figures could be recorded with the greatest ease, for they rung out always clear, definite, and in order. His data had the only too rare quality of being high scientific value. His life was sacrificed at white heat on the altar of high duty. He was a live wire, and his restless ambition drained his reserve energy faster than it could be supplied. When dread la grippe visited him it found him an easy prey. His was a noble ambition, unswervingly devoted to the main chance, the task of advancing, at the sacrifice of personal comfort and under other difficulties, his chosen life work and the interest of his science. He threw himself, heart and soul, into even the smallest task. With bril- liant ability, and the most strenuous conscientiousness, his every energy and resource were bent to his work. Thus he achieved in a brief space of time some remarkable results, thereby giving the greatest promise for the future. But the possibilities of life are of infinite variety, and our best prognostications are but groping in the dark. He cultivated intimate and painstaking personal touch with his students. He was a devoted husband and father, and the truest of friends. On one occasion, while on a long march in the moun- tains, the writer’s feet became sore, and he had to stay behind. Nothing would do but Frank would exchange boots and send horses. And he did. It is now some little time since he left us, but these few inade- quate words in tribute to his memory may not come amiss, for such a memory deserves abundantly to be kept alive. His was a personality that can never be replaced in kind. We cannot but mourn deeply long after the world has forgotten. But by his life, though so brief, our life has been enriched, and quickened. To Frank J. Phillips. 453 have lost him is a sorrow, never to have known him would have been a misfortune. We are profoundly thankful that Tennyson’s words are true once more: ’Tis better to have loved and lost, Than never to have loved at all. J. C. BLuMEr. Tucson, Arizona, May 23, 1911. CURRENT LITERATURE. The Principles of Handling Woodlands. By Henry Solon Graves. New York. IgII. Mr. Graves’ volume is one of those semi-popular technical books, which are needed not so much by the professional man, as by that most important class of woodland owners in whose hands finally the future fate of the forest lies. It is the first attempt in print to discuss systematically silvicul- ture with special reference to American conditions, In simple and direct language the reader is briefly informed in some 40 pages of the undesirable conditions of American forests, the objects of silviculture, and its methods in general. It is interesting to note that the author places the extra cost of operating in the hardwoods under forestry methods as from 25 cents to $1 per thousand feet, the cost of reproducing at from $2 to $10 per acre, and the annual cost of protection, supervision and administration as from 2 to 10 cents per acre. It would be interesting to know how these figures are arrived at. He admits that forestry cannot be profitable to all private owners, but for some under favorable conditions it might, as for instance the plantings in New England have produced over 6 per cent. on the investment, and investments in second growth are also certain to pay well. In the classification of silvicultural systems it appears to us a curious mix-up of conceptions to place under clear-cutting system the various methods which reserve seed trees, scattered or in groups or in blocks or patches, and which we would class sepa- rately as seed-tree methods. The details in the operation of the four different systems or as we would prefer to say methods of silviculture are clearly described, namely, selection, clearcutting, shelterwood method and coppice, and examples are given from localities in the states to show under what conditions they are applicable. We are glad to find that the selection forest is not any more the only ap- plicable one. We are informed that the cost of marking in selection forest Current Literature. 455 has in the United States (presumably in National Forests) varied from, 2.5 to 10 cents per M feet. The diameter limit is broadly discussed. The strip system with marginal seeding described under alter- nate cleared strips, is perhaps more widely applicable than is intimated, namely, wherever uniform stands of light-needing species, e. g., Southern pineries, are to be operated and systematic transportation can be cheaply provided. It seems to us a misconception of terms to place the proposed treatment of Longleaf pine in two cuttings separated by a period of from 10 to 20 years under shelterwood method. As the name implies, this is a method of providing shade or shelter for the young crop and certainly the Longleaf pine wouid resent such shelter even more than the Scotch pine. The description of the procedure answers rather more a seed-tree method, or according to the author, a clear-cutting, reserving seed trees, While for|a layman’s easiest comprehension it might have been better to classify these operations more subordinately by genus, species and variety of procedure, the reader will by the more co- ordinate classification be more impressed with the fact that there are many ways of doing, dependent in their applicability on natural and economic conditions. The chapter on improvement cuttings (thinnings) brings all that is essential. Over 80 pages, one-quarter of the volume, is taken up by a discussion on protection against fire; and 12 pages. on protection from other injurious agencies. One is left with the impression that a number of the silvicul- tural methods described are in actual operation in this country. It would be a useful piece of work, of more than historical value, for the Forest Service to collate with sufficient detail all the cases, where actually and consciously silvicultural methods have been applied. We can only hope that this volume will come into the hands of many woodland owners who can make use of it. It will be first class reading for all underforesters, and even the students of higher degree can only benefit from its perusal. B. Ea. Be Light in Relation to Tree Growth. By Raphael Zon and Henry 29 456 Forestry Quarterly, S. Graves. Bulletin 92. U. S. Forest Service. June 1911. Pp: 50- As stated by the authors, the aim of the Bulletin whose title is given above, is to bring together the principal facts with regard to the part which light plays in the life of the forest, and the different methods of measuring it. To this end the principal sub- jects discussed are: Light Intensities and Tree Growth, Tolerance and Intolerance of Trees, Factors Influencing Tolerance and Methods of Determining Tolerance. That tolerance and intolerance have a physiological basis is shown by the experiments of Lubimenko who found that the chloroplasts of different species are sensitive to light in different degrees, the chloroplasts of shade enduring species being more sensitive than those of light needing species; that species with the more sensitive chloroplasts begin to decompose carbon dioxide and reach a maximum of assimilative energy in light of much lower intensity than species of less sensitive chloroplasts. The same fact was demonstrated by Grafe who found that when ex- posed to a light intensity of 1-50 full sunlight, birch leaves showed no presence of starch while beech leaves still continued vigorously to form it. A physiological basis for tolerance and intolerance of trees is also indicated by the experiments of Zederbauer who found that the crowns of various species exercise a selective power of absorption of light rays. The species generally recog- nized as most light demanding absorb, in addition to the red, only small portions of the blue and violet rays, while the shade enduring species absorb, besides the red, some orange and a large amount of the blue, indigo and violet rays. It may be that, as it were, the shade endurers make use of the crumbs which fall from the tables of their more fortunate neighbors. The authors discuss the methods of determining the relative tolerance of the various species under three heads, namely: Obser- vational, anatomical and instrumental methods. Under obser- vational methods, one notes the density of the crown, self-pruning, number of branch orders, natural thinning of the stand, conditions of reproduction, relative height and the results of artificial shad- ing. The anatomical method consists in comparing leaf struc- tures, it being assumed that a high development of palisade tissue is due to exposure to strong light. The Bulletin closes with de- Current Literature. 457 scriptions of various photometers, notably those of Clements, Wiesner and Zederbauer with some results of their use in America and Europe. A plant physiologist might question the statement of the au- thors that the measurement of the chemical light intensity by photographic paper remains for the present the nearest approach to the ideal in determining light values in a forest, for it is experi- mentally known to him that the greatest activity in starch manu- facture takes place under the influence of the red rays whose in- tensity, if measured at all, is measured but feebly by photographic paper. And, moreover, according to investigations quoted in the Bulletin, the rays of high refrangibility, whose intensity is meas- ured by photographic paper, are absorbed by the superficial layers of the leaf, but in the ordinary leaf most of the starch manufac- ture takes place in the mesophyll which absorbs the rays of low refrangibility screened out for it by the superficial tissue. Pho- tometers, really actinometers, may be nearest the ideal but they have a long way to travel before they overtake it. American silviculturists and plant ecologists are greatly in- debted to the authors for bringing together so much valuable data concerning the fundamental but elusive problem of the light rela- tions of trees. The Bulletin shows incidentally the position of Americans as investigators in the subject for it quotes two of them and no less than twenty-five Europeans. CeBet This bulletin does not bring anything essentially new (except record of a few measurements) and contains mainly what a good course in biological dendrology or silvics should (yet perhaps does not often) contain, but it is a very useful compilation of the knowledge on a subject which is of great importance to the for- ester. All the important data is assiduously brought together in a clear and simple language and concisely and critically presented on less than 60 pages. Half the space is occupied with an account of the attempts to remove the determination of relative tolerance of species from the realm of personal judgment or empirical methods to that of actual measurements, physiological or physical. The authors seem to be inclined to consider the photometric methods, such as developed by Wiesner, Clements, Zederbauer and others, as most 458 Forestry Quarterly, promising, without realizing that by the addition of one sentence, they have destroyed the hope of ever arriving at a mathematical, practically useful, statement of light requirements, namely: In interpreting the results of the light readings, account must be taken also of other factors of tree growth, such as moisture con- tent of the soil, age and vigor of the specimen, quality of the soil and relative humidity.” While, then, physical measurements should by all means be con- tinued and may be expected to make us clearer as to the-role which light plays in the economy of the tree and the forest, for practical purposes it would appear that the development of physio- logical methods, such as Medevev’s, will bring us much sooner to a rational check on our personal judgment, which after all can never be dispensed with in silviculture and, indeed,, in all opera- tions which have to do with nature’s creative forces, To the very valuable literature reference we may only add Dr. McDougall’s work which has been overlooked, and Dr. Engler’s . contribution briefed in this issue. B, EF: Chaparral Studies in the Dwarf Forest or Elfin-wood of Southern California. By Fred G, Plummer. Bulletin 85. U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 48. The area within the United States covered by the true chaparral amounts to about 54 million acres. It protects about three-fourths of the upper water-sheds of the streams along the coast in Califor- nia for a distance, along the axes of the Sierras, of 450 miles. The forests are on the high elevations. Below is the chaparral. Still farther down is the sagebrush country, the growth becoming thin- ner and thinner toward the bare, arid or semi-arid, sandy belt bordering the ocean. Along the coast the average rainfall is thirteen inches, insufficient to support a forest, and only in a few places is it enough for a scattering woodland of oaks. The point where the rainfall, increasing with the altitude, is sufficient to support a forest averages about 2,000 feet. The topography is exceedingly diversified and it is said that between the ocean and the mountain summits, five distinct climates may be defined. The author lists 16 species which dominate the chaparral and 55 species holding a secondary place. Besides these 46 species are listed as important. Greasewood or chamisal (Adenostoma Current Literature. 459 fasciculatum) is the most abundant and widespread, on the aver- age composing 33 per cent. of the stand. It is exceedingly in- flammable, is a poor soil binder and does not protect the ground from dry winds. The next most common species is the Califor- nia scrub oak (Quercus dumosa) and in the region as a whole it makes up 13 per cent. of the chaparral. It is a very desirable member of the formation, since it is evergreen and grows on all kinds of soils and sites. If not too severely burned, it will pro- duce a fair coppice within three years, a much shorter time than the average for chaparral species. Other leading species are deer brush (Ceanothus divaricatus), spasm herb (Adenostoma sparsi- folium) and the big berried manzanita (Arctostaphylos glauca). Only the latter is considered a desirable species from the stand- point of soil cover. Water is the most valuable mineral in Southern California. The supply for Los Angeles is brought 200 miles. Certain land without water or the prospect of it is not worth 50 cents an acre, but with water upon it would be worth $3,000 per acre. Those | who are skeptical of the beneficial role of forest cover, even chaparral, upon the run-off and water supply in a semi-arid region should read this bulletin, For the most part, the commercial species which occur in scat- tered patches over the chaparral and at the upper limits of the formation, are unable to extend themselves on areas dominated by the smaller growth. The Forest Service has made several un- successful attempts by sowing and planting to establish native commercial species on the exposed slopes. The author suggests the trial of Eucalyptus. CoD it. The Aspens: Their Growth and Management. By W. G. Weigle and E. H. Frothingham. Bulletin 93. U.S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D. C. i911. Pp. 35. The aspens discussed in the bulletin are Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata. ‘They stand third as contributors to the pulpwood supply in the United States, but that is only 6 per cent. of the total used. Aspen pulp is the most important source of supply for the manufacture of books and magazines. Aspen pro- duces a high grade of excelsior and it furnishes a large part of that commodity on the market. In Europe aspen wood is used 460 Forestry Quarterly, extensively in the manufacture of matches and for the charcoal employed in making gunpowder. Because aspens mature early, and so require a short rotation as compared with other forest trees ; because small sizes suffice for present uses so there is little waste in utilization; because the pulpwood logging has already badly depleted the merchantable stands in Northeastern United States the Forest Service has been led to make a study of their growth and management. ‘The principal sources of supply of commercial aspen in the East are in Maine and New Brunswick and the stands arose after the fires of 1825 which burned over no less than five million acres. It is estimated that this area contained 10 million cords and that not one half of it has yet been cut or burned. ‘Tables showing the development and decadence of aspen stands in Maine are given. The average age of dominant trees probably falls between 70 and 8o years. The stands origin- ating from Miramichi and other fires of 1825 are so rapidly de- teriorating from white rot (Fomes igniarius) that the pulpwood bolts are now culled from 5 per cent. to 20 per cent. Ten years ago culling for this cause in the same region was unknown. The authors suggest a rotation varying between 50 and 80 years according to the condition of the stand. Owing to the vigor of reproduction both by seeds and root suckers, clean cutting and burning the litter to facilitate seeding are advised. CoD Ae Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir. By McGarvy Cline and J. B. Knapp. Bulletin 88, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, DY CL IODES! apenas “Douglas fir may, perhaps, be considered as the most important of American woods. Though in point of production it ranks sec- ond to southern Yellow Pine, its rapid growth in the Pacific coast forests, its comparatively wide distribution, and the great variety of uses to which its wood can be put place it first. Estimates of the available supply range from 300 billion to 350 billion feet board measure. It is very extensively used in the building trades ; by the railroads in the form of ties, piling, car, and bridge ma- terial; and by many of the manufacturing industries of the coun- try. As a structural timber it is not surpassed, and probably it is most widely used and known in this capacity.” Current Literature. 401 Lumbermen commonly recognize two varieties of the timber— red fir and yellow. Experiments show that they have practically the same strength; the yellow variety, however, contains fewer defects and is of more even grain. The average weight per cubic foot of Douglas Fir is, oven dry, 28.8 pounds; thoroughly air seasoned, 33.1 pounds; green, 38.4 pounds. Within limits, strength varies directly as the dry weight of the wood. The greatest strength in small specimens is most frequently associated with an average rate of growth of twelve to sixteen rings per inch of radius. In grading structural timbers, however, average rate of growth has little significance. The bulletin is replete with tables, figures and diagrams, show- ing the relation of the physical characteristics of Douglas Fir to its mechanical properties. Of special interest is the comparison of different grading rules and specifications for Douglas Fir, based on data secured from tests on green material, with pertinent sug- gestions for their modification in order to secure the best results. S.J: R. Preservative Treatment of Poles. By William H. Kempfer. Bulletin 84, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C., 1911. Pp. 55: This bulletin embodies in convenient form the results of the investigations by the Forest Service of methods for prolonging the life of poles. Though most of the data has been previously published in separate circulars, there is included additional infor- mation gained by more recent experiments. In treating poles it is seldom considered practicable to impreg- nate the wood throughout, an outer protective envelope around the untreated interior wood proving sufficient. The antiseptic should penetrate deeply enough to prevent exposure of the un- treated wood by abrasion, checking or other action. It has been the aim of the Forest Service to perfect cheap and simple methods for applying such creosote treatments locally and without expen- sive plants, thereby overcoming the chief hindrances to general adoption of the practice. The more important conclusions from the investigations dis- cussed in the bulletin are summarized as follows: “Seasoning poles reduces their weight, commonly from 16 to 462 Forestry Quarterly, 30 per cent., and even more for some species, with a correspond- ing decrease in the cost of transportation. Thorough seasoning is essential if the poles are to be treated with preservatives. “In general, poles cut during the spring and summer lose weight most rapidly. Poles cut during autumn and winter lose weight less rapidly but more regularly. Too rapid seasoning may be detrimental to the timber by causing excessive checking. “Shrinkage of poles during seasoning is very slight and does not exceed one per cent, on the circumference. “A simple and inexpensive way of using a preservative con- sists in applying it to the surface of the pole with a brush. Treatments made in this manner with a good preservative may be expected to add two to three year's to the life of the poles and more than repay their cost, but are not as effective as impregnat- ing the wood with the preservative. “Impregnation of many pole timbers, especially the sapwood of round timbers, may be successfully accomplished in open tanks, without the use of artificial pressure, by immersion in hot and cold preservative, the cold following the hot. “The open-tank process for the treatment of poles has the ad- vantage that it is possible to apply the preservative to the butts only, with a great saving in the amount used. Plants for butt treatments may be constructed in a simple and inexpensive man- ner. “Preservative treatment is profitable financially, the increased durability of the timber decreasing the annual service charge. Relatively greater benefits are derived from the treatment of non- durable woods than from the treatment of those which possess great natural durability. “Preservative treatment makes possible the use of poles of smaller butt circumference, since allowance usually made for de- terioration need not be considered, when it is certain that the full size and strength of the poles will be retained through a long period of years. “By the application of preservative treatment, many species of timber not naturally durable and formerly not considered suitable for poles may be used for this purpose, thus opening up new sources of supply, and greatly relieving the pole situation from the threatened exhaustion of those woods now most commonly used.” S$. JR Current Literature. 463 Sixteenth Annual Report of the Forestry Commussion of Minne- sota, for the year 1910. 184 pp. With this report closes the long and valuable service of the forestry commissioner, formerly chief fire warden, General C. C. Andrews, whose interest in forestry began some forty years ago, when Minister to Sweden. On April 12, 1911, the office was legislated out and a state forester with scientific training under a Forestry Board, similar to the Wisconsin arrangement was sub- stituted. Thus closes the first mainly educational stage of estab- lishing forest policy in Minnesota, which General Andrews effic- iently and fearlessly pursued, and it is to be hoped that the states- manlike, cheese-paring attitude of the legislature which hampered the chief fire warden’s work may have also come to an end. With reference to the unprecedented dry season of 1910, cul- minating in the tornado-swept fatal Baudette forest fire of Octo- ber 7th, in which 29 people perished and a million dollars worth of property was destroyed, he thinks that if the legislature of 1909 had apropriated the $39,000 he asked, instead of only $21,000, he could have continued ranger service after September first and that probably the calamity would not have occurred. For pay and expense of patrols and rangers and necessary fire lines, lookouts and telephones and for suppressing fires, he rec- ommends an annual appropriation of $200,000, and $30,000 in addition for prosecutions. ‘The forest fire laws” he says, “will not be respected unless enforced. The state cannot keep a watch- man over every heedless person in the forest regions. Examples must be made of those who violate the law, so that others will be restrained from negligence in the use of fire.” Of special interest are the references to the practicability of burning slash, quoting especially Mr. F. E. Weyerhaeuser, who having had experience with this practice in the Leech Lake Indian Reservation logging, believes such legislation as was defeated in 1908 would now be supported by lumbermen and the proposition is supported by a majority of the fire wardens as practicable. Yet the bill of the Forestry Commissioner providing ‘for such slash- burning was not pressed in the legislature for 1911, but the law instituting the State Forester places properly in his discretion the ordering of such burning. Altogether this bill, which provides for an annual appropriation 404 Forestry Quarterly, of $75,000, of which $4,000 salary for the State Forester, which was drawn by the Forestry Board, seems judiciously constructed in leaving discretion with the State Forester in almost all points. Nearly two-thirds of the report is taken up with descriptions of the forestry practice in twenty countries of Europe secured by correspondence. Bae: Forest Products of Canada, 1909: Poles Purchased. By H.R. MacMillan. Bulletin 13, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. IOLIs) epee The total number of poles reported as purchased in Canada during 1909 was 358,225, an increase of 172,448 poles over 1908, due ‘to an increase in the purchase of short cedar poles by tele- phone and telegraph companies. For the same reason the aver- age price of all poles fell from $1.53 in 1908 to $1.39 in 1909. Of the poles purchased, 94.5 per cent. was cedar, 4.5 per cent. larch, and the remainder spruce, Douglas fir, and unspecified species. Telegraph and telephone companies bought 83 per cent. of the poles used in 1909, nearly one and one-half times as many as in 1908; steam roads used 12 per cent; with the electric roads, power and lighting companies the least important users. The average prices, by five-foot classes from 20 feet up, were: Cedar, $1.02, $1.90, $3.15, $3.99, $5.77; larch, $1.23, $2.50, $3.50; spruce, $0.79, $1.82, $2.51, $4.00, $5.00. The preservative treatment of poles in Canada is recommended, resulting in economy of money and forest resources. Although cedar poles are cheaper in the United States than in Canada many American companies give them preservative treatment. Thus the steam railroad companies of the United States treated 31 per cent. of the poles they purchased in 1908, the electric companies 14.7 per cent, and the telephone and telegraph companies 8.5 per cent. Assuming labor $1.75 per day, creosote 8 cents per gallon, and fuel $15 per cord, poles can be thoroughly creosoted for $1.40 each. The annual charge on untreated cedar poles, cost- ing $9 set in the line, and lasting 12 years (the average given by Canadian users), is $1.07 (money 6 per cent.). Treated cedar poles will cost $10.39 set in the line, but will last 20 years or tle ee, eee Current Literature. 405 more, and will then cost only gi cents for each year of service. This is an annual saving of $6.40 on each mile of line. PEW. Forest Products of Canada, 1909: Tight and Slack Cooperage, Boxes and Box Shooks. By H.R. MacMillan. Bulletin 19, For- estry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 12. Tight Cooperage—Canada possessing practically no oak, the tight cooperage manufactured is not high grade. The industry is chiefly concerned with supplying barrels for the shipment of fish, packing house products, syrups, molasses and glucose. For the handling of these, barrels of elm, spruce, Douglas fir, basswood, and ash, are used. The shippers of alcohols and oils import from the United States either their barrels, or their staves and headings, or the logs. Nearly four-fifths of the tight staves used in Canada are imported in the manufactured state. On account of the species used, the great bulk of the tight staves manufactured in Canada are sawed; bucked and split staves formed only 6 per cent. and ale and beer stock 1.5 per cent. of the total. The relative qualities of these are reflected in the average prices: $16.94 for sawed staves, $73.14 for ale and beer staves, and $86.88 for bucked and split staves, per thousand. The manufactures totalled 9,071 thousand staves, valued at $199,204, and 425,014 sets of heading, valued at $47,912, a total of $247,116. The tight cooperage import was valued at $292,013. Slack Cooperage.—The Canadian woods are better adapted for slack cooperage, and in 1909 there were manufactured 103,982 thousand slack staves, valued at $809,649; 8,310 thousand sets of slack heading, valued at $432,343; and 35,771 thousand hoops, valued at $353,127; a total of $1,595,119 for the slack cooperage industry. As regards the species used in the manufacture of slack staves, elm furnished 64 per cent, spruce 16.5 per cent., and poplar 6.1 per cent, of the staves. Basswood, elm, and poplar staves at $10.83, $8.46, and $7.28, per thousand, were the most valuable, these being largely used for flour and sugar barrels. Spruce and balsam being used for the roughest class of cooperage, were the cheapest, at $5.80. Of the heading manufactured 31 per cent. was of poplar, which 4606 Forestry Quarterly, is rapidly replacing basswood, 27.7 per cent. elm, 21.2 per cent. basswood, and 19.1 per cent. spruce. The average prices of these, per thousand sets, were, respectively, $70.00, $42.65, $57.43, and $30.68. Of the hoops, 82 per cent, of the entire output was of elm, the remaining 18 per cent. being of basswood, birch and beech, maple and spruce, about equally. All species sold for about $10 per thousand, except spruce which brought $5.94. Most of the slack barrels used in Canada are of domestic manu- facture. The chief imports are of hoops together with small quantities of gum and sycamore for flour barrel staves. Slack cooperage brings higher prices in Canada; the United States prices per thousand were, for 1908: staves, $5.72; heading, $45.71; hoops, $6.91; as contrasted with $7.78, $52.03, and $9.87 in Canada for 1909. Boxes and Box Shooks.—The figures of boxes and box shooks are incomplete, representing about 60 per cent. of the quantity of lumber used during 1909 by the box manufacturers of Canada, and do not include the lumber used by shippers who manufacture their own special crates and packages, The reported consumption was 82,972 thousand feet of lumber valued at $1,264,376. Of this amount spruce furnished 52.7 per cent, and pine 30.3 per cent., with an average value of $15.15 and $15.09 per M, respectively. “Allowing for the amount used by factories not reporting, it is probable that about 140 million feet of lumber, worth about $2,100,000, is used annually for the manu- facture of boxes. About 50 per cent, of this is used in Ontario, 30 per cent. in Quebec, and the remaining 20 per cent. in British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. A comparison of the mill run price of the chief lumber used for boxes in a province with the price paid for the same species of lumber by the box manufacturers of that province brings out the fact that in Quebec and British Columbia the latter price is higher and in Nova Scotia almost equal. This means that cull lumber and mill waste are not used for boxes. This is because of lack of competition from other woods, and because good spruce can be bought as cheaply as cull pine. The utilization of lower grades and of species not now desired for other purposes has no place in Canada as yet. J. H. W. Current Literature. 407 Forest Products of Canada, 1909: Tan Bark and Tanning Ex- tract Used. By H.R. MacMillan. Bulletin 20, Forestry Branch, Ottawa, Canada. rg11. Pp. 6. ' The total value of the vegetable tanning materials used by Canadian tanneries in 1909 was $1,126,004, consisting of 76,792 cords of bark, valued at $646,679; 17,313,500 pounds of liquid extract, valued at $428,283 ; and 1,372,470 pounds of raw tannins, valued at $51,042. This represents about go per cent. of the real consumption. The tanning industry is confined chiefly to the eastern prov- inces. Ontario with 36 tanneries used materials to the extent of - 66.7 per cent. of the total value of all materials used in Canada; Quebec with 26 tanneries, 23.6 per cent.; Nova Scotia with 2 tan- neries, 6.5 per cent.; and New Brunswick with 3 tanneries, the remainder, The supply of easily accessible hemlock has been used up and the importation of tanning materials has become common. Thus, in 1909, bark represented only 57.4 per cent. of the value of the total tannins used. The use of hemlock bark was most general in New Brunswick where it constituted 73.4 per cent. of the value of the materials used in that province; in Quebec it constituted 64.5 per cent., in Ontario 54.5 per cent., and in Nova Scotia 44.1 per cent. The average cost per cord at the tannery was $8.42. Liquid extracts represented by value 38 per cent. of the ma- terials used in 1909. The average value was 2.5 cents per pound. The most largely used were quebracho, oak, hemlock, and chest- nut, all being imported except the hemlock extract. A few tan- neries import their materials in the raw, chiefly quebracho. The two chief tanning agents used in Canada are hemlock and quebracho. The former is the only home produced tannin, con- stituting 61.1 per cent. of the value of the total tannins used. The other 38.9 per cent., over half of it quebracho, is imported chiefly from the United States and South and Central America. Besides the above materials used at home, Canada exports hem- lock bark and its extract, the former going all to United States, and the latter, to the extent of 90 per cent. to the United King- dom. In 1909 there were exported 19,659 cords of bark valued at $122,118, and 3,299,500 pounds of extract valued at $79,437. Both exports are steadily falling off. The total value of tanning 468 Forestry Quarterly, materials produced by the forests of Canada in 1909 was thus $889,894. A comparison with the hemlock lumber cut shows that western hemlock bark is not utilized at all, and eastern hemlock bark only to the extent of two-thirds. foes Prats fe Report on Timber Conditions Along the Proposed Route of the Hudson Bay Railway. By J, R. Dickson. Bulletin 17, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 27. This report covers the territory from The Pas to Split Lake, a distance of some 235 miles. The object of the inspection was the estimation and location of areas of commercially valuable timber that could be made use of in the construction of the rail- way. Any such timber within eight miles of the line was classed as available, and beyond that distance wherever waterways give access; timber under eight inches breast-high was conisdered not merchantable. ‘The method followed was to run lines back into the country adjoining the route at three to six mile intervals ; field glasses were carried and tall trees climbed at advantageous points. The report summarizes thus: “In the region we traversed, only five species—spruce, poplar, tamarack, birch, and jackpine—have any possible commercial value, and of these, speaking generally, only the spruce is large enough for sawmill purposes or tie ma- terial. “The poplar, birch and jackpine are invariably too short, spindly, limby and crooked for any use save fuel or pulpwood, and what mature tamarack there was is now standing dead from insect attack. We did not find over 200 green tamarack above 10 inches in diameter all summer. Black spruce is easily the pre- dominant species in all that region; except on very occasional well drained tracts where it reaches 10 to 14 inches breast high it is a small spindly tree, only 4 to 8 inches diameter breast high at maturity, useless even for second class ties. This is the condition in which the jackpine also occurs. “The white spruce therefore is the only species large enough to furnish construction timber, sawlogs or even railway ties, and the supply is very limited. In the first place this species occurs only on the best drained spots, and in the second, the fires of the past 100 years have destroyed nearly all the old stand. Current Literature. 469 “To sum up, then, only a mere fraction of one per cent. of the area we surveyed now carries merchantable timber. There is probably enough timber available to build the rough construc- tion work of the Hudson Bay Railway.” The territory inspected was some 8,000 square miles. The total timber found was 361,300 ties and 9,424,000 feet of lumber, and one-half of this is believed to be commercially inaccessible to the railway. $e W Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States: I. Cedars, Cypresses and Sequoias. By W. L. Hall and Hu Maxwell. Bul- letin 95, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. IgII. Pp. 62. This is the first of a series of bulletins in which it is planned to bring together the available information on the uses of the different commercial woods. Fach species is considered separately. The physical properties are first given, namely, weight, specific gravity, ash, fuel value, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and character and qualities of the wood. ‘This is followed by a discussion of the commercial range and supply, uses, manufacture and products, by-products, etc. Each topic is elaborated in great detail, the treatment resulting in what one might term the historical tech- nology. The bulletin is accordingly replete with information gathered from very many and widely scattered sources, covering the period from the earliest settlement of the country to the present. It forms most interesting reading. The present issue deals with the species of Thuja, Chamae- cyparis, Juniperus, Libocedrus, Taxodium and Sequoia. J. H.W. Economie Forestiére. Par G. Huffel. Vol. 1, 2nd ed. Paris. 1910. 342 pp., fr. I0, This second edition of the first volume of Huffel’s great work, the first edition of which we reviewed on its appearance in 1904, has been largely rewritten and is considerably enlarged, com- prising, as it does, only the first two studies of the original vol- 470 Forestry Quarterly, ume, with 342 pages as against 422 pages, a second part to bring the other two studies. Especially the study on the utility of forests is very much im- proved and enlarged, while the history of the development of forest legislation and property conditions has experienced ex- tensive additions. The author does not hesitate to ascribe to a forest cover a con- siderable influence on rainfall. In a review of the historical part by Schwappach, the learned reviewer takes issue with the conclusion of the author as to the non-existence of the mark communities in France, and adduces good arguments that at least in the part occupied by Alemanni and Franks this institution was developed. That this is a standard work was recognized in our previous review, and with this enlargement it is even more so. B. Boks OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Wooden and Fiber Boxes. By Hu Maxwell and H. S. Sackett. Circular 177, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. | 9 The Growth and Management of Douglas Fir in the Pacific Northwest. By T. T. Munger. Circular 175, U. S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D. C.-\ roi: ) Pp. 27. Fustic Wood, Its Substitutes and Adulterants. By G, B. Sud- worth and C. D. Mell. Circular 184, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 14. Gives the distinguishing physical and anatomical characteris- tics of genuine fustic wood and of its common substitutes. The Olympic National Forest: Its Resources and their Man- agement. By F. Burns. Bulletin 89, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 20. Forest Products of the United States: 1909. Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 178. Other Current Literature. 471 Studies in the Sawfly Genus Hoplocampa. By S$. A. Rohwer. Technical Series, No. 20, Part IV, Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 139-148. A Revision of the Powder-post Beetles of the Family Lyctidae of United States and Europe. By E. J. Kraus. Technical Series, No, 20, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, Piece 1911. Pp. 111-138. Progress of Game Protection in 1910. By 'T. S. Palmer and H. Oldys. Circular 80, Bureau of Biological Survey, Depart- ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Pp. 36. Seed-Eating Mammals in Relation to Reforestation. By N. Dearborn. Circular 78, Bureau of Biological Survey, Depart- ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 5. Contains the results so far obtained in devising methods of protecting forest seeds from destructive rodents. Instructions are given for the preparation and application of poisoned baits. Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. By F. E. L. Beal. Bulletin 37, Biological Survey. Washington, D.C. 1g11. Pp. 64. The Use of Soils East of the Great Plains Region. By M. Whitney. Bulletin 78, Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C. Ors.) 1p. 202. Crown-gall and Sarcoma. By E. F. Smith. Circular 85, Bu- reau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. tIgi1. Pp. 4. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. VI, No. 1. Washington, D. C., 1911. Contains: In Memoriam—Frank J. Phillips; Working Plans for National Forests of the Pacific Northwest; Strip Thinnings ; Hardy Catalpa—A Study of Conditions in Kansas Plantations ; Forests and Stream Flow—An Experimental Study; The Philip- pines as a Source of General Construction Timbers; Economic Possibilities of Pinus sabiniana; History of the Investigations of Vessels in Wood; Experiments in the Preservation of Forest 30 472 Forestry Quarterly, Seeds; Eucalyptus Possibilities of the Coronade National Forest ; Notes on the Management of Redwood Lands; Efficacy of Goats in Clearing Brushland in the Northwest. Instructions to Forest Fire Wardens and Woodland Owners Regarding Forest Fires. By A. F. Hawes.. Forest Service Publication No. 7, Vermont. i911. Pp. Io. A Summer School of Forestry and Horticulture. Forest Ser- vice Publication No, 8, Vermont. IgII. Landscape Gardening, How to Lay Out a Garden. By Ed- ward Kemp. Edited, Revised and Adapted to North America by F. A. Waugh. New York. 1911. Pp. 292. Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club, Volume I. Cambridge, Mass. 1911. Pp. 45. Contains: An Account of Operations in the Harvard Forest, 1908-9, by R. T. Fisher; Trees and Other Woody Plants found in the Harvard Forest, by J. G. Jack; Growth of Western Yel- low Pine in the Black Hills, by G. W. Parker; Lumber Flumes, by F. R. Steel; Land Surveying in Forestry, by U. S. Howard; A Forest Fire Wagon, by H. O. Cook; Investigations Concern- ing the Ratio between D B H and DI B at Stump for White Pine in Massachusetts, by H. F. Gould. The Wilt Disease, or Flacherie, of the Gypsy Moth: How to Aid the Spread of This Disease. By W. Reiff, under the direc- tion of F. W. Rane. Boston, Mass. 1911. Pp. 60. Fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry Made to the General Assembly at its January Session, 1911. Provi- dence, Rhode Island. 1911. Pp. 46. Biennial Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909-10. Part XI: Report of the State Forester. New Haven, Connecticut. 1911. Pp. 775-804. The Treatment of Telephone and Telegraph Poles for Pre- venting Decay as Practised in Europe During the Year 1910. Other Current Literature. 473 By H. von Schrenk. Read before National Electric Light Asso- ciation Convention at New York, May, 1911. Pp. 20. Trees, Forestry and Lumbering: A List of Books and Refer- ences in the Brooklyn Public Library. Brooklyn, N. Y. 1911. Pp. 40. Penn State Farmer: Volume 4, Number v, Forestry Annual. Pennsylvania State College. Ig11. Pp. 50. Report of the West Virginia State Board of Agriculture for the Quarter Ending December 20, 1910: Forestry. Charleston, Mewar tort.) Pp. 14. Biltmore Timber Tables. By H. R. Krinbill. Biltmore For- est School, Biltmore, N. C. 1911. Pp. 12. A Sesquiterpene and an Olefine Camphor occurring in Southern Cypress. By Allan F. Odell. Reprint Journal of the American Chemical Society. Vol, XXXIII, No. 5. May, 1911. Pp. 755- 758. The fractional distillation of saw dust of Southern Cypress (Taxodium distichum) yielded the writer two new compounds which he terms Cypressum and Cypral. ‘The former is a yellow- ish-green, viscous and almost odorless oil, while Cypral is a light yellow, mobile and very fragrant oil. Preliminary Study of Forest Conditions in Tennessee. By R. Clifford Hall. Extract (A) from Bulletin No. 10, Forest Stu- dies in Tennessee. State Geological Survey in Cooperation with U. S. Forest Service, Nashville, Tenn. tIg10. Pp. 56. Preliminary Report on Storage Reservoirs at the Headwaters of the Wisconsin River and Their Relation to Stream Flow. By C. B. Stewart. Wisconsin State Board of Forestry, Madison, Wis. 1911. Pp. 60. Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest. By E. T. Allen. Western Forestry and Conservation Association, Portland, Ore- gon. I9II. Pp. 130. 474 Forestry Quarterly, Second Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation, Canada. Ottawa, Canada. iIg1I. Pp. 230. Contains the following papers of forestry interest: Conserv- ing the Forests, by J. Hendry; The Swedish Forest Conserva- tion Law, by B. E. Fernow; The Forestry Problems of British Columbia, by A. C. Flumerfelt. Commission of Conservation: Report on Lands, Fisheries and Game, and Minerals, for 1911. Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 5109. Forty-first Annual Report of the Entomological Society of Ontaria, 1910. The Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Canada. IOTH,) WPpEea, Contains several articles on insects injurious to forest trees. Report of Boundary Survey of Rocky Mountains Forest Re- serve. By G. H. Edgecombe and P. Z. Caverhill. Bulletin 18, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. i911. Pp. 27. Successful Tree Planters, Letters of Testimony from the Prairie Provinces. Unnumbered Bulletin, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. iIg11. Pp. 37. Afforestation in Scotland: Forest Survey of Glen Mor and a Consideration of Certain Problems Arising Therefrom. By Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling, of Keir. (Issued as Volume XXV of the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Edinburgh). 1911. Pp. 91. Note on the Relative Strength of Natural and Plantation Grown Teak in Burma. By R. S. Pearson, Government Forest Bulletin, No. 3, (new series). Calcutta, India. 1911. Pp. 9. The conclusions derived from a number of tests is that it “may provisionally be assumed that as regards the strength of natural and plantation grown teak from the Zigon Division, there is little difference” while in any event “the strength of the latter is so high that little apprehension need be felt as to its excellent quality.” ~ Memorandum on Teak Plantations in Burma. By F, A. Liete. Other Current Literature. 475 Government Forest Bulletin No. 2 (new series). Calcutta, India. I9II. Pp. 21. Review of Forest Administration in British India for the year 1908-09 with a Quinquennial Summary. By F. Beadon Bryant. Calcutta, India. 1910. Pp. 58. Die Priérien in Zentralnordamerika und ihr Wert fiir Forst- kultur. By H. P. Baker. Dissertation. Miinchen, Germany. I91I. Pp. 94. PERIODICAL LITERATURE FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. This part of Russia is forestally useless, Forests only in the very valley of the Kamtschat- of ka river is found coniferous forest Kamtschatka. Picea obovata and Pinus cembra, as yet inaccessible, so that Petropawlowsk is short of building timber. The growth on the mountain slopes is Betula ermani, 40 to 50 feet high and 12 to 14 inches diameter: Betula albo var. japonica with a dense thicket of Pinus puwila, Alnus alnobetula and Sorbus sambuci- folia. Along watercourses Salix and Alnus hirsuta are found, Betula nana and Vaccinium species with Lonicera edulis, Grossu- laria and Ribes are common. Fire is rare, the nations being careful. Labor is scarce and is imported from Japan as well as wood. From Lesnoj Journal, 1910. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April, TOT: ee as3i BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. Based upon phenological observations con- Shade tinued for 12 years at the Swiss Experi- and ment Station, Dr. Engler has come to Light interesting data regarding the phenome- Plants. non of budding in beech and other species, but especially on the difference in behavior of plants grown in shade or in light. Young beech, maple, ash and oak under cover of old stands open their buds earlier and are in full foliage earlier than young plants without cover or medium and old trees. In the decidu- ous forest, generally speaking, the foliage develops from the base to the top, first the regeneration under cover, then the lower branches and twigs of the old stand, the most shaded parts of the crown become green from 3 to 7 days later, then the tops, and last the uncovered regeneration, for beech from 11 to 15 Periodical Literature. 477 days later; the other species showing different differences. Again, on north slopes, the buds in beech start 6 days earlier and complete their foliage 9 days earlier in the average than on south slopes. Calling the buds formed and plants grown in the open “light buds” and “light plants,” and those grown under cover “shade buds” and “shade plants,” the investigator found by transplant- ing experiments with young trees that this progress of budding is due to the characteristic of buds formed in the shade to bud earlier than those formed in stronger light; in other words, the tendency of earlier or later budding is not merely due to eco- logic conditions, but it is inherited in the bud, and only gradu- ally, after several years, does an adaptation to new light condi- tions take place: the shade plants for several years bud earlier than the light plants and vice versa. Also leaf and twig posi- tion and the specific anatomical structure of the leaves of shade and light plants persist: the effect of a certain light intensity outlasts the cause. On the other hand, seedlings of beech grown in the shade while budding earlier than unshaded ones, did not show in 1 to 3 year olds, much of this influence: the shade and light plants can be without danger, transferred to opposite con- ditions, although a small advantage of light plants was observed. Light buds are larger, heavier, stouter and more closely cov- ered with more numerous scales and have the anlage for a longer shoot with denser foliage and of the structure of light leaves, as the shade leaves are also recognizable in the struc- ture of the bud. Some practical conclusions for silvicultural treatment are de- duced and some of the practices receive new explanation from these observations, as, for instance, the damage resulting from too rapid removal of nurse trees above a young regeneration, creating light conditions to which the young plants are not adapted. Too slow removal on the other hand, produces de- cided shade forms, which, when freed, only slowly or not at all recuperate. The spreading habit, which Hauch lately made the basis for determining the spacing in plantations, the author finds variable according to climatic differences and consequently dif- ference in light intensity. In planting fail places with material secured from natural regeneration, no shade plants should be used and for under- 478 Forestry Quarterly, planting light plants of some age are to be avoided, although 1 to 3 year olds from seedbeds, as stated before, may be used in any condition, while transplants that are to be used after several years should be grown under conditions similar to those in re- gard to light as they are to be used in. Untersuchungen tiber den Blattausbruch und das sonstige Verhalten von Schatten- und Lichtpfanzen der Buche und einiger andrer Laubhélzer. Mitteilungen der schweizerischen Centralanstalt fiir das forstliche Ver- suchswesen, 1911. Banx, pp. 107-175. Professor von Schermbeek publishes a con- Water tribution to the explanation of water move- Movement ment in trees, based in part on older theo- in ries, in part on manometric measurements Trees. of his own on live and dead wood. He concludes : 1. The cause of the ascent of water in the living tree is caused by a difference in pressures (deficit) which is provoked in a higher part of the tree trunk relatively poorer in water as long as a lower part can still enrich the cell walls of its tissues with water by imbibition. 2. The degree of volume increase of the imbibing tissue is determined by the ion contents (i. e. amount of soluble salts) of the imbibed water. 3. Transpiration and assimilation maintain the necessary dif- ference in the relative water contents of the neighboring higher and lower parts. 4. Conducting vessels can be supplied with water from their cell walls. When these organs come under the influence of this pressure difference, an accelerated movement of water sets in, provided, that the eventually present gaseous substances are absorbd by the imbibed water. 5. The imbibition proceeds fully only as long as the colloidal cell wall substance is still capable of swelling. 6. If this is not the case, then a part of the trunk can secure its water only by conduction, equal volumes of gas and water being exchanged. 7. The conduction is the slower, the greater the resistance which is opposed to the movement of gases. Hence the water absorption in a slowly dying part is smaller in a given time than in a killed part by destruction of tissues, Periodical Literature. 479 8. The gradual dying is a kind of preservation of wood, the artificial killing causes an accelerated decomposition. Ueber die Kriafte welche das Emporsteigen des Wassers in unsren Nadel- hélzern und Laubhélzern verursachen. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. June, ror1. P. 204. The removal of the litter from the forest Insects floor reduces, according to Dolles, the va- and riety and number of insects in the forest. Forest Floor. This is a detriment, since the reduction is least among those insects which are injuri- ous to the forest because their food supply remains undisturbed. It is greatest among those neutral species which live in the leaves and grass on the ground. These species are called neutral be- cause they neither attack trees nor prey upon other insects which are injurious. But they have an important function in that dur- ing the absence of noxious species they serve as hosts upon which beneficial parasitic insetc are propagated and as prey for predatory species keeping these alive in sufficient numbers to render effective service in combating a sudden outbreak of injurious insects. Parasites do not confine their attacks to weakened individuals, but once parasitized, the insect is weakened to a degree which prevents it from pushing deeply into the soil to pupate. Most parasites accordingly develop in the ground cover or on the surface of the soil and are either removed with the litter or are eaten by birds after the litter is removed. The healthy individuals of the injurious species are undisturbed because they pupate deep in the soil. The preservation of the ground cover further checks the de- velopment of insect pests by affording nesting-places for many insectivorous birds and ants and by harboring entomogenous fungi. Einfluss der Streunutzung auf die Vermehrung unserer Waldschadlinge. Silva IV. Feb., 1911. Pp. 49-50; 59-61. 480 Forestry Quarterly, Forstrat Seitner gives a lengthy account, New with illustrations, of the bark beetle, which Genus has Pinus cembra for host plant. While of this beetle had formerly been supposed to Bark Beetles. be Polygraphus poligraphus L., specific on spruce, Seitner adduces features to show that this is not only a different species, but should be made into a new genus which he calls Pseudopolygraphus. ‘The character of the galleries and breeding chambers is curious and entirely different from those of any other European species; the beetles have distinctive features. A full description is given. Inci- dentally, the occurrence of Polygraphus grandiclava on Pinus strobus as well as on cembra and on cherry is mentioned, and an interbreeding of various bark beetle species suggested. Bemerkungen zur Gattung Polygraphus und Aufstellung der Gattung Pseudopolygraphus n. gen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, IQII, pp. 99-109. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. A further interesting contribution regard- Relative ing influence of litter on water conditions Soil of the soil comes from the long continued Humidity experiments carried on by the Austrian and Experiment Station. The first contribution Moss cover. was briefed in F. Q. Vol. IV, p. 161. Now Dr. Wallenbéck reports additional data corroborative of former results and discusses also methods of procedure. He develops the idea of the “relative soil humi- dity,’ a conception similar to relative air humidity, namely the percentic relation of the actual water contents to the absolute water capacity of the soil, with which the loose terms based on individual notions and judgment, wet, moist, fresh, dry, arid, might find a more precise expression and conveying more clear- ly than weight or volume per cent. of soil humidity the fact whether a wet or dry soil is under consideration. Without going into the interesting details of method and results, we may summarize the experiences. In dry years, the area covered with moss dries out more slowly than the one that is yearly deprived of its cover by raking, but light sum- mer rains do not become available because the moss Periodical Literature. 481 and surface layers of soil of higher water capacity prevent pene- tration. On the other hand, the naked soil can derive use of the lightest precipitation and thus in the very most dangerous sea- son supplies moisture to the roots. On this area the drying out, but also the watering is most intensive, hence in very dry years, the moss cover is a disadvantage, the interception being more dangerous than the prevention of evaporation effective. Hence, as briefed before, the raked area had in the dry year 1904 shown less loss in increment than the unraked. Yet the damage of moss cover in dry years appears much greater than its advantage in wet years. Vergleichende Bodenfeuchtigkeitsbestimmungen, etc. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1911, pp. 187-260. The large and growing area of bog land Cause in northern Sweden seriously lowers the of productivity of the forests in that region. Bog Formation. It is according to Hésselmann, not the water which prevents vigorous forest growth on these bogs, but the fact that the bog-water carries very little or no oxygen in solution. What oxygen is absorbed from the air is fixed by the humus the water contains. It has been shown that humus, especially when wet, absorbs oxygen very rapidly; also that trees grow well in those bogs where con- ditions permit a normal amount of oxygen in the water. Re- moval of the water by drainage is being undertaken to remedy this condition. Ueber den Sauerstoffgehalt des Bodenwassers und dessen Einwirkung auf die Versumpfung des Bodens und das Wachstum des Waldes. Silva IV. Pp. 65-6. (March, rogrt.) SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. As a result of an inspection visit of a Selection number of prominent forest managers to Strip Gaildorf, the district in which Wagner de- Method. veloped his now well known method of regeneration a somewhat detailed report of their findings is given by Miiller. The main object of Wagner’s method is to obviate large felling areas and progress as far as possible by use of natural regener- 482 Forestry Quarterly. ation slowly in strips, with conifers from north to south, with broad-leaf species from northwest to southeast, treating each strip in selection method with regard to the need of the young growth, removing the old growth when the regeneration is knee high; and planting up fail places or to secure a mixture. The method is mainly applied to spruce and pine. The resumé is that in the locality referred to the method has been successful, although “the condition of the strips is very variable according to soil, age and exposure,” the regeneration was found very ample and on north sides on better soils ideal, but also good on other soils and exposures. Of course, the method is not applicable everywhere. Where climatic and soil conditions are favorable and appropriately mixed stands exist, and a well considered road system and market for small material permitting the many small felling areas, and small districts under competent managers are involyed—there it is a first class method. Der Wagner’sche Plentersaumbetrieb, etc. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagd- zeitung. April, 1911, pp. 113-118. Further experience in the use of Splett- Perfection stdsser’s new planting tool described in F. in ©. vol. VII, p. 467, and also referred to in Planting. vol. VIII, p. 504, sustains the enthusiastic dictum of Dr. Moeller, director of the Forest Academy at Eberswalde, that it is unquestionably techni- cally perfect and approaches as near as possible the ideal of pine planting. Its most significant advantage is the cheapness of its work, Kranold records in tabular detail the experience in 74 plan- tations made in 1910 in West Prussia, comprising about 1,900 acres on old forest soil, and over 2,000 acres on waste lands. The cost of these plantations, including plants and every outlay varied between $2.20 and $8.50 per acre, most of them having been spaced 1.3x.5 to .8 meter i. e. 4,000 to 6,000 plants per acre. The making of holes and setting of plants varied between 21 cents and $1.23 per M plants, wages being for men 43 cents, for women 28 cents, for boys 24 cents. (Considering the higher wages but the greater efficiency of American male labor this cost Periodical Literature. 483 should be multiplied by between 3 and 4, for American con- ditions, say from $1.00 to $3.50, average $2.50). In most cases man labor is not required, except on stony and rooty soil, and the boring of the plant holes if the tool is properly used not hard work. The manipulation of the three tools which complete the outfit, namely the borer, the plant holder and the presser (to be had from Bach and Mahlow, Berlin, Sophienstr. 32, for $5 to $6 ac- cording to size, diameters 8 to 15 cm, Io cm being the most usually applicable), is given in minute detail. In boring the holes the smallest amount of force is to be used; how many turns are to be made and how often the borer is to be emptied depends on soil conditions and length of root; the hole should be made as deep but not deeper than the roots. If boring in loose sand which has a tendency to flow out, the boring must be made into the more solid ground, which will cork the bottom. The plant holder can be widened for stouter plants ad libitum. Its manipulation is the finesse of the operation; it permits the placing of the plant in the middle of the hole at the appropriate depth, while the planting is done by hand comminuting the soil with the fingers. After a third of the hole is filled the presser is used by carefully firming without pounding, close to the wall of the hole, so that the soil in the center remains somewhat loose; a second pressing is done after two-thirds of the hole is filled, and after the final filling the soil is firmed with the hands, and the holder is carefully withdrawn. Precision in every part of the manipulation is needful also keeping the borer sharp. * The little troubles that first occur with green hands are explained. It is important that the planting proceed as fast as the boring 1. e. it is undesirable to let the boring get much ahead. How many planters one borer can keep busy depends upon the soil con- ditions. In easy conditions four planters, in difficult one to two can be kept going by one planter (one man and two women can plant 180 plants per hour). The applicability of this tool is very general, although not unlimited ; heavy loam and very stony soil are excluded, because of the expense. On sandy soils, even when rooty, it is most use- ful, with or without previous soil preparation (furrows or plats) to remove the surface cover. It is difficult to judge when such preparation is necessary and how much. The writer considers 484 Forestry Quarterly, that the inclination is to do too much in this respect. Often a slight burning of the cover is sufficient. When proper judgment in this direction has matured by experience he expects the plant- ing to become still cheaper. We repeat the illustration from Vol. VII on p. 513, and recom- mend to our readers trials with this new tool so highly recom- mended, accentuating that all new tools must first be carefully studied in their operation before they appear practical. Die Kiefernzangenbohrer-pfhanzung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst u. Jagdwesen. April, 1911, pp. 358-367. A heavy, wedge-shaped steel planting iron A has been designed by Dr. Raess, of Darm- New stadt, to replace the dibble used in forest Dibble. planting. It consists of a solid steel blade seven inches long, six inches wide and two inches thick, with a shank about three feet long, at the top of which then is a cross handle like that of a ship’s auger. The tool weighs fourteen pounds. It is used in much the same way as the dibble, and the advantages it possesses over the lighter instrument are not given. ‘Two persons work together in setting out trees with this planting iron, one handling the tool while a helper holds the plant made by the first stroke of the instrument until a second stroke closes the earth firmly about its roots. Der Stahlkeilspaten. Silva, IV. April, 1911. Pp. 105-6. In a very readable article Dr. Kienitz pre- Races sents observations and thoughts of thirty of years on the great variability in form of Pine Scotch pine and points out the important and silvicultural deductions from this fact. Silviculture. The article is illustrated by 20 figures drawn from photographs, which exhibit this form variety of the most important European forest species. Considering that the field of distribution of this species extends from the North Cape in Norway to the southern slope of the Alps and to Spain, and from Cape Finisterre to the Amur, a field of the most varied climate, this highly developed variability of form is to be expected, and, since to a certain degree these forms are hereditary, the importance of securing seed from given localities Periodical Literature. 485 is accentuated, since one race may in a given locality be quite worthless which elsewhere would have good value. The forms differentiate by morphological characteristics of needles, buds, cones, ramification, growth, probably of root- system, as well as different response to soil and climate. The author confines himself mainly to a discussion of crown and shaft form. The pictures gathered from many points of the botanical field and different situations exhibit the variety. They show that the old pines from southern and middle Scandinavia, from Livland, hut also from the Black Forest, those from the Bavarian Alps and the mountains of southern France are alike in the straight erect bole which holds out to the very tip like a spruce, with thin, relatively short branches and short stout, vigorous needles—so much like spruce in form that in a picture they are apt to be con- founded. Quite different is the short stout tree of the Mark Brandenburg with an immense, rounded off, paraboloid or hemis- pherical form, with stout, gnarly, often bent and broken branches and bushy long needles. While in each locality one or the other form is prevalent, the most varied forms can and do occur in the same locality. The greatest variety of form is to be found in the lowlands with mild climate, where only rarely here and there the desirable spruce-like form occurs. The severer the climate, the farther north and northeast, the higher in altitude the more slender, spruce-like becomes the form. Since, however, every- where different forms are found together, these cannot be varie- ties or races specially adapted to the site, but for each site a form developes from the variable species, which is specially favorable; hence where all ecological conditions are favorable, the greatest variety of form is found; where broad crowns are an advantage, these will prevail, and where this broad form is disadvantageous as in the snowy mountains and northern latitudes, this form will be scarce. The influence of snow pressure in causing form is argued at length; on the other hand Mayr’s dictum, that the higher air humidity on good soils causes trees to grow not only higher but more slender, is combated as regards the latter propo- sition. The spreading habit, to be sure, can to some extent be corrected by education—dense planting and by mixing with spruce, pro- vided the latter is as well fitted to the locality as the pine. On 486 Forestry Quarterly, sites on which naturally the pine developes the slender form, it will do so in pure plantations. In localities where the tendency is to develop spreading form and pine and spruce in mixture is to be grown, the former must be planted so close as to form a dense stand, when later the spruce, first undergrowth, may force its way through, otherwise spreading valueless pine will develop. Soil has an influence on crown only as far as it accelerates or retards growth. On the poorest soils the straight growing form with a bole holding out to the tip will develop although remaining low, but on fertile moist soil the coarse and spreading form will only become more so. Even in open position the two forms will follow to a degree their inherited character. Unfortunately it has not yet been possible to recognize cones of the various forms. A little better success is promised in mor- phological and physiological character of branchlets, buds and needles, by which Schott tentatively recognizes nine forms in West and Middle Europe alone. A peculiarity of the East European pines is mentioned, namely the assuming of a pro- tective color by one year seedlings in September, later and later when going westward until'finally the habit is lost. Results of trial sowings with seed of varied derivation insti- tuted through the International Association of Experiment Sta- tions, are recited. Race differences were evident in the seedlings during the first summer, namely in the size of plants, color and length of needles, and time of cessation of development in the fall, and winter color of plant. Very considerable differences in size and weight of the plants were found, namely up to 40% in length, and nearly 400% in weight. In the transplants, after a years growth the general relation of the different races in length remained practically the same, although the amounts varied, the greatest difference being 100%. Scotch, Russian and French plants remaining smallest, }elgian and Rhenish plants the largest. The color variation also persisted through the second winter while in the third season the relative position as regards length remained practically the same, the rapidity of development during the season, however, was essentially different, the Scotch and Russians having made by May 8 about double the length of shoot of the Belgian and Rhenish. The fourth year shoot being longer in all races, accentuated Periodical Literature. 487 still further the difference in total height the rapid growing races making nearly twice the length of the slow growing , but a ten- dency to broaden is already noticeable in the Rhenish race. Altogether the rapid growers make a stouter appearance due to stouter needles. The winter coloration of the eastern race is striking, while the western remain practically green. Deductions for silvicultural practice follow. First we must break with the usual assumption that the pine makes the straight- est branches where in mild climate it finds the most favorable con- ditions of growth and is the dominant species. Just where in a harder climate it has to battle for centuries against storm and snow, the form most suitable with short branches, a race of slender form is developed which with considerable assurance propagates itself in the progeny, no matter whether grown in the open, in loose or dense position, and which persists if transplanted into soil and climate not too different. To be sure, they take with them other characteristics which may not be desirable, like slow growth of northern and alpine races. The races with spreading habit can only in dense stand produce straight boles. In mixture with other species when more rapid growing than these they grow into broad crowns, if not in advance they are shaded out. The seed of a perfectly formed tree in the locality of mixed forms may have been fertilized by an inferior form, hence may not propagate the better form of its one parent. Here is a dilemma as to what locality to choose seed from. Broad crowned trees, to be sure, have other advantages, they have a very much larger increment, as measurements on properly selected specimens of slender and broad crowned forms, both dominant show. In a 58 year old stand the large crowned averaged nearly 40% larger diameter than the small crowned trees; in older stands even more. and the contents were nearly double. The value per acre of a fully stocked acre of the broad- crowned the author estimates, would be one-third more. Hence there is no reason why in a pine region other than the home form . should be used for pure pine forest. But then it is necessary to be circumspect in growing them densely, and especially attending to the timely removal of the worst forms. Where, however, the pine is not at home it would be proper to secure the seeds of the best form from a region similar in climate to the locality where they are to be used. ‘The character of the progeny shows itself A 31 488 Forestry Quarterly, quite early, and of plants which lag in the first few years not much is to be expected, while those that start out properly have the promise of success in them. Formen und Abarten der germeinen Kiefer. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. Jan., IQII, pp. 1-32. The question of the influence of the Seed derivation of seed is being carefully looked Supply. into by the Swedish Forest Experiment Station. Gunnar Schotte reports on ex- periments started in 1903 with pine seed from different localities in Sweden. ‘The results are not yet definite in all respects, but it is evident that the far northern form of Pinus silvestris (lap- ponica) furnishes smaller plants than the seed from more south- ern localities. Whether the age of trees from which seed is secured is of influence on the resulting plants could not be fully decided, except that the oldest seed trees with a few exceptions furnished the poorest plants. The stoutest plants were secured sometimes from middle aged, sometimes from the youngest mother trees. Nevertheless the author thinks that the prejudice against seed from young trees is justified. In the form of plants a strong variation is visible, the Norrland pines having very much shorter branches and generally narrower form with shorter but broader leaves. Om betydelsen af froets hemort och modertréadets alder vid tallkultur. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsfors6ksanstalt. H. 7, 1910. In the annual report of the Swedish Forest Coloring Experiment Station for 1910 appears an of article by Gunnar Schotte which should be Imported of interest to American foresters in view of Forest Seed. the fact that we are inclined to ignore the influence of the source of seed in artificial afforestation. ‘The article is devoted largely to a description of the methods employed by the Government for limiting the impor- tation of southern seed, rather than to a demonstration of its in- feriority for Swedish culture, the latter point apparently having been already established. It is the latter phase of the subject, however, which is of special interest to us. It has been found in Sweden that pine forests (Pinus sil- vestris) established from seed imported from southern coun- Periodical Literature. 489 tries, especially Germany, although appearing very thrifty in the early stages, usually die at an age of from twenty to thirty years. Large quantities of pine seed were imported from German seed firms during the decade 1860 to 1870, and considerable quantities were imported in the years following this period. So universally disastrous were the results from this seed that in 1886 steps were taken by members of the Riksdag to place a prohibitive tariff upon imported pine seeds. In 1888 the Riksdag decided upon a moderate tariff of 50 Ore (about 13 cents) per kg. for pine and spruce as well as all other forest seeds. In the discussion preceding the adoption of this tariff, in- stances are cited where extensive pine plantations from twenty to twenty-five years old present a very unpromising appearance while adjoining stands from native seed are healthy and vigorous. No conclusive facts are advanced against the use of foreign spruce seed, but spruce is included in the tariff as a measure of precau- tion. Despite the tariff, the importation of pine and spruce seed in- creased at a rapid rate during the following decade, with the result that in 1898 the tariff on pine was raised 3 kr. (about 80 cents) per kg. while the tariff on spruce was raised to 1.5 kr. (about 40 cents) per kg. In the discussion over the adoption of this increased tariff, reference is made to the occurrence of large areas of pine plantations grown from German seed in different parts of the country which died at an age of twenty to thirty years, and which, upon investigation, proved to be infested by a fungus disease heretofore unknown in Sweden, and evidently in- troduced with the German seed. As a result of this experience, the Government prescribed that in all state forests, only Swedish seed should be used. In practice the tariff was extended to all seeds in the names of which the words “pine” or “spruce” entered, thus covering a great many species of Pinus, Picea and Abies. Vigorous protests were entered by forest men, on the ground that there was no reason for imposing the tax upon anything but the ordinary pine and spruce (Pinus silvestris and Picea abies), but that on the con- trary the introduction of many of these trees should be en- couraged. The Riksdag, however, finally decided to retain the tax, on the ground that new foreign seeds whose adaptability was 490 Forestry Quarterly, not known might be imported in large quantities with disastrous results. In recent years, owing to the high price of Swedish pine seed, it has been the practice among some dealers in spite of the high tariff to import German pine seed and sell it as the Swedish article. In order to protect the public against such frauds the Government has adopted a system of coloring all imported con- iferous seed. .This coloring is accomplished by injecting an alcoholic solution of eosin into the seed sacks, at sufficient close intervals to color approximately 15% of the contents. It has been found that the eosin solution, through the action of the alcohol, reduces the germination per cent. in various degrees. Fresh seed is less affected than old seed. Considering the fact that only 15% of the seeds in a sack are actually colored, the actual loss through the treatment was found to be only from .6 to 3.6 per cent. for four different species of coniferous seed tested. On April 4, 1910, a proclamation was issued by the King, re- quiring that all foreign seeds of the genus Pinus, excepting P. cembra and P. siberica, and all species of the genus Picea, may be imported only in sacks marked plainly on the outside with the words ‘Foreign Seed”; and further, that all such seed must be treated with the eosin solution in accordance with a prescribed method. G. Al Om firgning af skogsfré i syfte att utmarka utlindsk vara. Meddel- anden fran Statens Skogsf6rsdksanstalt, Haftet 7, 1910. Dr. Walther reports on the success of American planting exotics in Hesse during the last Species 25 years or more. Most of the species in used are American. Among broadleaf Germany. trees, the Red Oak is specially praised on account of its adaptability to less favorable sites and more rapid growth than the native oak, both in rate of growth and quality excelling on such sites. The older plantation, on run-out oak-coppice soil, now 47 years old, showed in 1907, when 42 years old an average height of 57 feet and diameter of 5 inches with 4,000 cubic feet to the acre. Thinnings in 1905 brought over 10 cents per cubic foot. In spite of frost, the species outgrows the native oak. Periodical Literature. 491 Of nut trees, Juglans nigra, cinerea and Carya alba are said to be useful only in protected situations on account of frost danger. Hickory 20 years old is 16 feet, Walnut 10 years old, 7 feet No special advantages are attached to the American maples, except perhaps the Sugar Maple. The American Ash is said to recover from overflow more readily and resist late frosts better than the German. Curiously enough our Black Cherry is supposed to be outranked in value by the native cherries, evidently a misconception. Of conifers, next to Pinus Strobus, which is considered almost a native, the palm is given to the Douglas Fir. Much distinction is made between the green (from the Pacific Coast), the slow gray glauca from the dry (Rockies) and the rapid gray variety caesia (from the transition zone). ‘The species is found not adapted to dry and to heavy clay soils, indeed, makes consider- able demand on both soil and air humidity. It recovers remark- ably from attacks of Schiitte, a 10-year Douglas Fir, entirely de- foliated by the disease recovering entirely. Picea pungens, the species of our driest mountain slopes, is found successful in boggy situations where P. sitchensis had failed, and is generally hardy, but requires patience as it grows slowly (3 feet in 8 years). Its seed comes often mixed with P. engelmannt. Picea alba is outgrown by the native spruce. With 18 years the latter is 16 feet against 13 feet for the former; besides it suffers from late frost, and is no better on moor soils than the native. Pinus Banksiana is greatly preferred to rigida, especially on poorest sands and on wet cold, higher elevations, where it does better than the native silvestris. Of firs, Abies concolor is declared the most desirable introduc- tion, growing more rapidly than the native pectinata both in plain and mountains. It does not stand wet feet, especially not wet- cold clay soils. Seven year old plantations average 4 feet in height, with leaders of Io inches. Abies Nordmanniana, while jess liable to frost than the native fir, is much slower (20 inches in 6 years, 13 feet in 21 years, etc.). Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana adapted to sand soils and loess, but not to frost holes and wet-cold clay, at first slow, soon ac- 492 Forestry Quarterly, celerates and makes 15 feet in 17 years, and has the useful quality of being shunned by game. Juniperus virginiana is very liable to be injured by game and needs warm situation or protection. Sequoia gigantea does very poorly on dry soil and is not quite frost. hardy. Anbau fremdlandischer Holzarten. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. May, IOII, pp. 154-167. Dr. Laspeyres brings evidence from a very Combating extended trial of insect lime against the the nun on some 30,000 acres in East Prussia, “Nun.” of its ineffectiveness, and combats the posi- tion taken regarding this theme by Putscher in the November number of the same magazine. Two other contributions on the theme from Saxony from which state Putscher secured data to prove effectiveness of the insect lime also negate the evidence and agree with Dr. Laspeyres Other more favorable experiences were recorded at a meeting of the Saxon Foresters’ Association. Zum Kampf gegen die Nonne. Zur Nonnenbekimpfung in Sachsen. Zum Nonnenkrieg in Sachsen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. May, 1911, pp. 424-435. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1911, p. 235. As a contribution from the mycological “Schiitte’ | laboratory of the forest academy at Ebers- Fungus. walde, the result of three years’ work, Oberforster Haack publishes an extensive article of over 75 pages on the biology of the fungus which causes the dreaded damping off or “Schiitte” and which in Germany at- tacks plantations as well as nurseries, with practical deductions. When in 1852 Goppert suggested a fungus as cause of the phenomenon practitioners refused to accept the explanation, and even until 1884 this position was maintained. Nevertheless it remained for practitioners to suggest the remedy, copper sul- phate spray, in 1898 and 1goo. It is now absolutely certain that the disease is occasioned by Lophodermium pinastri, which attacks the healthy needles of 1-7 year old pines and causes their death, the first signs being found Periodical Literature. 493 the end of September. The reddening increases through the fall and winter, until in April-May not a green needle may be seen; a large number of plants, however, recover themselves with green shoots. When the needles fall, as yet no fruit bodies are to be seen, which form later. The principal time of infection takes place the end of July until middle of September, when alone spraying is of use. A number of questions remain to be solved. The fungus occurs also on old trees but is then comparatively harmless, seemingly saprophytic. Is this a different form or species, or is there danger of its propagation to be transferred to seedbeds in their neighborhood and become parasitic, or are the needles of old trees immune. Authorities differ, and it appears that the biology of the fungus is but little known. By careful cultures under investigation, explained in great detail, the author has been enabled to show up various fallacies of Tubeuf and Mayr and develop very fully the biology of the fungus, which shows it to be a parasite, to be sure, but little adapted to parasitic life—just emerging from the saprophytic stage; but in its ability to penetrate into healthy needles and to exist there untroubled by competitors lies its strength. We can from the very interesting detail select only a few points. The fungus on old trees is the same as that which attacks the young, but here, probably due to different physiological character- istics, it does not do damage. Practically it is therefore desirable to locate nurseries out of reach of old infested pine. Immunity is gradually attained in the 7th to 1oth year, but needles which by girdling are weakened succumb even in older trees to the fungus. The needles which drop in the spring are the ones that spread the disease in late summer. The infection takes place within a short time. Only on young plants are the healthy needles at- tacked,—it is an infantile disease. By spraying only those spores may be rendered innocuous, which have located a few days before or those which locate while the liquid hangs on. Spraying is of use only on older seedlings. The needles of yearlings are covered by a fine waxy cover which prevents the spray from sticking. An attempt, successful, to first dissolve this waxy film by soap or other solvents, which per- mitted the spraying mixture to hang on well, led to a drying up 494 Forestry Quarterly, of the seedlings; the cover is a necessary protection against excessive transpiration. The author combats the idea that the use of heat in securing the seed from the cones predisposes them to the disease. As re- gards influence of the locality from which the seed is derived on the susceptibility of the plants to the disease the author comes to somewhat different conclusions from Prof. Mayr (see p. 301 of this volume), especially, he denies that there are immune races; simply more or less predisposition to the disease can be claimed. The practical results of the careful work are summarized as follows: 1. For choice of plant material, the best homegrown seed of high germination per cent. should be relied upon. 2. Infection takes place mainly from middle of July to end of September. 3. The spores develop on old as well as young needles, but the heaviest infection is found in young plantations, the least in vigorous mixed growth. 4. The infection may be either at a distance (by flying spores uniformly over large areas) or in proximity (by contact in close plantations ). 5. To avoid infection, seedbeds should be located away from infected places. 6. To avoid infection by contact, sowing and _ transplants should not be placed side by side; only the healthiest most vigorous material should be transplanted; the poor material should not be left lying, but be burned or buried. In the forest dense sowings are to be avoided, or planting substituted for sowing. 7. It is desirable to make plantations so that they will rapidly grow out of the danger period and close up, avoiding the necessity of planting up fail places, such plantings being especially liable to infection and propagating it. Hence good soil preparation, the use of the best seed or plants from good soil help to secure immunity. 8. Spraying when the first apothecia open may be necessary every year, especially when plantations are still quite young and on the most endangered places, if thorough work cannot be done on all. Der Schiittepile der Kiefer. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. April, May, June, 1911, pp. 320-357, 402-423, 481-505. Periodical Literature. 495 MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. According to Forstamtsassessor Wild, of New Lindenhardt (Ober Franken) the existing Self-recording _ self-recording calipers have not found Caliper. entrance into general use because they are too complicated and hence get easily out of order. The reason for their complication he finds in the fact that they have counting register, which re- quire not only a large number of wheels but as many springs, so that for a caliper with 30 diameter graduations 90 wheels and go springs are required, if constructed for one species only, and three times as many for three species. The inventor overcomes the difficulty by substituting for the counting apparatus an ar- rangement in which small steel balls, for different species of different size, register the number of trees of different diameter and can be sorted afterwards by size (species) and counted. To do this the moveable arm at its base has attached receptacles for the balls, as many as species to be measured, each recep- tacle being provided with a press button to release balls and let them fall into another receptacle which is divided into as many compartments as their diameter graduations, the proper com- partment being automatically presented for the ball to fall into. To sort the balls sieves of different size are used, and to count them they are measured by 25s in cartridge-like boxes, which operations require a few minutes only. The ball supply recep- tacles must, of course, be marked for the species they represent; the smallest caliber for the most frequent species, and, of course, for use with a single species only one supply receptacle is needed. The weight when loaded is less than four pounds; the construc- tion is simple, and the instrument works in any kind of weather. So far the instrument is not yet manufactured generally, in- deed, not yet patented. The inventor invites correspondence as regards furnishing instruments. Eine Selbstregistrirekluppe fiir mehrere Holzarten. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt. June, 1911, pp. 305-308. 496 Forestry Quarterly, In a most enthusiastic and, with 20 pages, New most complete article does Oberforster Dr. Increment Heck introduce the reader to a perfected Borer. increment borer and to the incalculable value of self-instruction by the persistent use of such borer, reviving Pfeil’s noted advice, “Ask the trees!” As is well known Pressler was the originator of the brilliant idea of the increment borer, but the instrument left much to be wished for. An improvement was made by Bretschneider, especially in the handle, but the perfect borer is made in Sweden by Mattson, and the most perfect type of this only since August, 1910, as a result of Heck’s suggestions. The superiority of the Mattson over the Bretschneider was shown by trial as follows: Species. Number of Time Length of half turns. Minutes. Cylinder mm, B. M. B. M. B. M. Elm, go 22 7 3 89 137 Walnut, go 21 54 24 82 137 Spruce, 15 21 4 14 gI 130 Originally, different borers for hard and for soft woods were necessary and especially the former got often into trouble; the new type, Mattson’s No. 3 works perfectly in both soft and hard woods, a faultless tool, and the only improvement the writer can think of is some electric power to do the boring. Yet, with this instrument the writer could extract 25 cylinders from 40 year old spruce 4 to 5 inch long in 57 minutes; in hardwoods, to be sure, the effort is much greater, three to four minutes being required for the hardest. The instrument is extremely practically arranged, works rapidly and surely, makes beautiful cylinders, much better than Bret- schneider’s, and long, and so smooth that only in few cases a magnifying glass is required. There are four types made by And. Mattson, Mora, Sweden, varying merely in length of bore by two inches from 4 to Io inch, and for use in hardwoods (as well as soft woods) being of harder steel the prices run from $3.50 to $8.50. Merely to show what interesting data as regards increment and Periodical Literature. 497 the influences upon it, the author tabulates the results of some 80 borings. He points out that in Sweden over 1,000 borers are in use—the reviewer can attest that every forester he met there had his borer handy and was on the qui vive to use it—and enlarges upon the value of its uses for self education. “It belongs to a forester’s outfit as the plane to the carpenters,” and whoever has once begun to use it will, like the author, find such fascination in it as to make its use a mania! A few remarks on the increment per cent. according to Sch- neider’s formula explains the relative reliability of the latter. A table gives comparison of the detail of the various makes. A few hints regarding the use of the instrument are given. Oiling (with fat pork) is not at all necessary in soft woods and not absolutely necessary in hard woods but makes the work easier. It is easiest to bore at the height of the elbow; first bore horizontal and to the center, with force but slowly as far as the thread goes, then, when the instrument is solidly in, turn rapidly until towards the end when the turning becomes slower; then after a short back turn introduce the needle, which is very easy in soft woods, in hard woods requires some coaxing or rather trying for a place where it goes readily. In 700 borings the author did not break a needle. Close the bore hole with a twig end tightly. No un- favorable results of the boring having been observed in 10 years. Recording the cylinders and keeping them best in a flat pencil case, and cleaning the instrument like a gun and careful protec- tion of the cutting edge are also necessary. Neues und Altes vom Zuwachsborer. Forstwissenschaftliches Central- blatt. May, ro11, pp. 247-268. The Russian Medwiedew, the originator of Measure. the idea of relative height which he used to of determine relative tolerance of species, has Crown developed an interesting new method of Density. determining density classes by a careful in- vestigation. After a discussion of gener- alities regarding height growth and influence of light and density on development of stands, he comes to the conclusion that the diameter increment in open position exceeds that in dense position 498 Forestry Quarterly, by one and one-half, even on best sites, while the height growth corresponds here to that of the poorest sites. Calling the relation of height to diameter the relative height, he finds this relation to be dependent on the light enjoyment, and it is largest in dense cover. In the average of a large number of stems, if grown under persistent thinning practice this relative height was found for pine 24.9, spruce 39.8, beech 38.4; if grown in densest cover for pine 126, spruce 130, beech 157.6. ‘The rela- tive height sinks with age and rises with decrease in soil quality. To classify densities, the author proposes to use the relative height and the sum of the cross-section areas on a given area unit. The higher the former the smaller the crown and the denser the cover; also the older the stand the lower the relative height and the larger the total of cross-section areas. Multiplying the latter per acre with the relative height for a given age and soil class, a tolerably constant result is found for each species, which may be used as density factor. The author constructs a table for pine under given conditions from 60 to 140 years old, and by using this multiplication of rela~ tive height and cross section area, he finds at all ages the density factor to be 343 for I site class, 326 for II site, 304 for III site. Hence the procedure: Determine on sample areas (average trees) age n, diameter d, absolute height /, cubic contents per acre, hXc n the density factor (supposedly to be compared relative height and sum of cross section areas c, then xc gives h the site class, with normal figures for these). From Lesnoj Journal, 1910. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April, IQII, pp. 135-136. Hufnagl makes a very interesting contri- Value bution to forest valuation. He points out, of that it is necessary to distinguish between Increment value of increment and quality or value in- and crement. While in a sustained yield man- Quality agement it is usual to assume correctly that Increment. in a normal management class the sum of the current increment on all age classes is equal to the volume of the oldest age class, this is not true for the Periodical Literature. 499 values. The volume increment which takes place as the annual ring can have only the unit value which pertains to the age class or dimension class on which it occurs; if the increment occurs on wood worth 5 cents a cubic foot it can not be worth more than 5 cents, except as with the increase in diameter an increase in use value and in money value comes about. Multiplying the volume increment in each age class with the value pertaining to that age class and adding up, one secures the value of the increment of the management class. This value can be influenced by influenc- ing, through thinnings, etc., the volume increment. Regretting the unfortunate mixing up of the terms “value in- crement” and “price increment,” the latter dependent on market fluctuations, without any change in the sale object itself, he points out that in the forester’s value increment or quality increment, the volume increment is involved: by the mere year’s increment suddenly without any effort of the manager the whole tree re- ceives a higher value per cubic foot—a value increment. It is not 100 year old wood, which comes to sale when a 100 year old stand is cut: only the first year’s smallest growth is 100 years old, each annual layer, however, has experienced a value increment, which in a way exhibits the progess of value increment in all 1 to 100 year old stands of a management class, and the amount of this increment is expressed by the difference of the value of the oldest age class and the value of the current incre- ment. In a tabulated example referring to given market and price conditions, in a pine forest on III site the value of the 80 year stand is figured as 12,500 cubic feet 4.5 cents=$562; the values of the increment of each 10 year age class, calculated with the price per unit of the age class, added up, give $356, hence the value (quality) increment of the whole management class is 562 —356=$206. Similarly, the value of a spruce management class in its oldest member at 80 years is $1,336, the value of the age class increment adds up to $706, hence the value (quality) incre- ment of the management class (normal stock) is $630. In both cases this value is much less than half the stock value of the oldest age class. In these examples, there are of this total annual value increment of the normal stock, in case of the pine, 63% repre- sented by increment value, 37% by value increment, in case of the spruce, 53% by increment value, 47% by value increment. 500 Forestry Quarterly, The significance of this distinction is shown in an example of the soil rent theory and another in taxation of forests. Der Wert des Zuwachses und der Wertszuwachs. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, March, Ig1I, pp. 109-112. Schickhardt makes an elaborate calculation Valuation to determine the value of the 450,000 acres of of productive areas of State forests. An Wiirttemberg official calculation had made the value Forests. around $97,000,000 with a 3% return, while Dr. Wagner believing the used interest rate too high makes the capital value over $110,000,000. The author in determining the forest capital makes volume calculation for 20 year age classes, reducing the yield table data by estimated actual average degree of full stands. For the two youngest age classes, stand cost values are used, for the others sale values determined by a special index method. ‘The data is tabulated. ‘They show the youngest two age classes to occupy each 22 per cent. of the area, the subsequent age classes represent- ing 16, 15, 13, and the one over 100 years, 12 per cent., Site classes by species show spruce and fir as representing 60%, pine 10%, beech 30%, mostly in II and III site class, the average pro- duction for each of these three types 105, 57, and 55 cubic feet per acre respectively. Both main and intermediate stand are de- termined in volume., the latter ranging from 4 to 5% of the main stand. The total stock including intermediate stand, without deduc- tions for quality of stands figures out from yield tables 1,588 mil- lion cubic feet. ‘The main stand therefore, 3,350 cubic feet per acre average, while the normal stock would be 3,575 cubic feet. This makes the actual average rotation 95 years and not the calcu- lated 103 years. Various considerations lead to a reduction figure of .75 on the average for incomplete stands making the actual stock on hand 1,190 million cubic feet or say 2,600 cubic feet per acre. Authorities differ as to how to evaluate large forest areas like the one involved. According to Judeich the cost value of stands should be the basis ; according to Martin, stands up to 40 years should be figured at cost value, the older according to sale value with interpolation Periodical Literature. 501 for the middle age classes, and he advocates estimating since ab- solute certainty is unattainable. Wimmenauer calls for expect- ancy values for the younger stands. Other methods are cited. The author choses a method like Martin’s, using cost value for the age classes I to 40 years, constructing a sale value curve for the rest and correcting this curve by a tax value curve, which connects the space from 40 to 60 years. Prices were secured by average of actual sales for 8 years. The total capital value of the stock is then figured to be $130 million. The cost of production is then set in with 35% of the gross wood value and the final stock value of the Wiirttemberg forests is set down as around $93 million, to which is to be added the soil value with $19 million, making the entire forest value $112 million. As regards interest earnings, either the material stock may be compared with the annual felling budget or the forest value with the annual income. While the normal volume increment per cent. is figured at 3.1%, taking the cut for 1908 with 86 cubic feet per acre the relation to actual stock was 3.3%, that is to say higher than that corres- ponding to the rotation of 103 years—an over cutting of .2%. The annual net money returns represent the interest not only of the stock capital but of all other investments involved. For 1908 the total income was $3.2 million; this related to the forest value of $112 million gives the interest rate of a little over 2.7%. But if note is taken of the over cutting, this rate is reduced to 2.5%. Der Kapitalwert der wiirttembergischen Staatsforsten. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April, 1911, pp. 118-126. The income of small forest owners in the High Forest Schwarzwald depends upon which of the Versus two sharply contrasted forms of forest they Coppice. possess. ‘The owners of the higher slopes which are clothed with conifers, have a de- pendable income large enough to well repay this labor. Their forests are well stocked and well managed. The owners of the lower forests adjoining the meadows and farm lands in the nar- row valleys are less fortunate. Here coppice management obtains with crops of grain interspersed. Now the income from coppice stands has declined markedly in the last quarter-century and there is no prospect of a rise. The growth of transportation 502 Forestry Quarterly. facilities has broadened market conditions and removed depend- ence on local supplies of material. The importation of tanning materials has made the production of tanbark in managed forests unprofitable. To secure a reasonable income from these areas which are under coppice a change to high forest is necessary. Such a change will preclude the use of the ground for grain every fifteen or twenty years—a fact which complicates and retards the change. This complication has been removed by making the change to high forest on but half of the area, continuing and improving the present practice of coppice growth on the other half. Bauerliche Privatwaldwirtschaft im Wolf- und Kinzigtal des badischen Schwarzwaldes. Silva IV. April, 1911. Pp. 113-4. The history of a communal forest of about Production 250 acres, located in the Black Forest, of of Wirttemberg, near Rippoldsau, exhibits Selection conditions such as may be repeated in our Forest. country. In the forties, the whole forest was thor- oughly logged, so that only polewood and smaller trees with a few trees of advance growth had been left—such condition as our loggers would leave the woods. In the fifties a wealthy man bought the forest and treated it conservatively; yet, during the 25 years while in his possession he cut annually at the rate of 75 cubic feet per acre in the average. After his death the forest was offered for sale, and various valuations were made which showed stock varying between 3,000 and 3,575 cubic feet per acre. In 1879 the sale was effected for $36,000 or $144 per acre, of which $30 may be figured for soil value, and $114 for wood value. In 1899 the whole stand was calipered and showed 7736 cubic feet per acre, while during the period 1072 feet per acre had been cut; hence the total production during the 21 years had been at the rate of 250 cubic feet. Since according to prices prevailing in 1900 (when this caleu- lation was made), the value of the stand was close to $700, its value increment per cent. for the 21 years was 8.8! From Fiihrer zur Excursion in Waldungen von Rippoldsau, 1900. ee Periodical Literature. 503 UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. Dr. v. Almburg developes with great mathe- Dynamics matical apparatus the dynamics which are of of interest in the operation of the logslides Logslides. such as are in common use in mountain country, especially the influence of the grade on the velocity of the movement of logs; the effect of brakes to slow down the movement, in which he shows the low efficiency of the so-called “wolf,” a brake consisting of a sus- pended log which must be lifted by the sliding log; the influence of curves and the form of the slide on the velocity; the minimal radius of such curves. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der dynamischen Vorgange beim Abriesen des Holzes in Holzriesen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. April, 1911, pp. 161-179. An experience of 30 years in the use of Wire Rope wire rope ways for the purpose of trans- Ways porting logs from steep mountains to val- in leys, has, according to Schmid, developed Switzerland, their usefulness, not only for temporary exploitation of two or three years’ duration, but for permanent use in forest work. While the author holds that the ideal way is still to build roads, there are conditions where this is too difficult and too expensive, and here the rope way is in place. The community of Roveredo owning a 5,000 acre tract with an annual cut of 70,000 cubic feet installed in 1908, one per- manent rope way of about 2 miles length, with an impermanent portable rope feeder of 1 mile in length, and several simple wire ways for conveyance of cordwood. A road would have cost $20,000; the rope way cost $5,500 for the permanent and $2,400 for the movable one. The cost of transportation, including amortization at 4.5% in Io years and repairs have cost $2.44 per 100 cubic feet, while on a road which with 10% grade would have had to be about 6 miles long it all would have been at least $354 for teaming alone. Another ropeway of 14 mile length, now Io years in use, cost- ing $3,600, intended to transport 35,000 cubic feet for 10 years, made the cost of transportation $2.46, 32 504 Forestry Quarterly. A few illustrations show the construction of these very simple ropeways. If constructed of good grade material and carefully supervised, the structure may last 20 years. The steel ropes which are required to carry heavy loads with 3,200 feet spans, are made of six strands of seven wires, the main carrying rope 1 inch in diameter and a tensile strength of 60,000 lbs., the return carrier 3-5 inch and 30,000 lbs., the return haul rope 4 inch and 16,000 Ibs. strength. The legs are carried in a cradle. Usually only the upper station has a brake which works accord- ing to the grade with one or two 3.5 foot disks moving in the same plane, moved by a double lever, Die Dratseilriesen im Forstkreis Misox. Schweizerische Zeitschrift, April, I9II, pp. 105-113. Schullerman reports on a series of trials Kiton with the new road material Kiton, which Roads. makes a dustless road, with a view to deter- mine its wear and cost. Kiton is a mix- ture of 60% tar, 30% water and 10% clay, which mixture has the property of not taking up water after once having been dried. The price at the factory in Ludwigshafen is about $15 per ton. It requires from 7 lbs. per square yard up to make a good road, the maximum being for every inch thickness of cover 55 Ibs of Kiton, an emulsion of 40 to 60% Kiton being used. Broken stone as in macadam, rolled, is the basis and a sand cover tops it off; in a remarkably short time the cover becomes solid and in a few weeks it is ready. For country roads the broken stone is not necessary, any gravel or even coarse sand being sufficient. The experience with the eight trial sections, differently con- structed in 1910, are summarized as follows: 1. With a soft sandstone the result was unsatisfactory, especi- ally on high grades. 2. Mending poorly kept roads with a thin layer of coarse sand and Kiton makes first a good appearance, but does not promise well for long. 3. Roads unfavorably located as regards drainage can be satis- factorily changed into dry, hard roads. 4. If gravel is somewhat expensive the use of Kiton cheapens the road, because a smaller amount of gravel will do, and the rolling is by 25% cheaper with Kiton. Periodical Literature. 505 Interesting data regarding labor require- Labor ments in forestry work are furnished by in the forest department of Bavaria, referring Forestry. to the average results of 358 forest districts into which the two million acres of Bavarian State forests are divided. While altogether 74,656 people had been occupied with forest work in 1908, only 22% of the man workers or 12.7% of all workers made forest work their main occupation; only 6% of the laborers are occupied for 2-3 of the year, 12% for at least half a year, and the bulk, or 9-10 of all workers are occupied less than half a year. Only 58% of these workers are men, 23% are women and 19% children. Only 89 work days per laborer is the average. For each 100 acres of the productive forest area, 22.4 days of labor are required. Of the 4.5 million total day’s work, 59% were taken up by logging, 11% by road building, 24% on cultures and 6% on miscellaneous work. A ten-hour day prevails from April to October, 9 hours for spring and fall and 8 hours in winter. The average pay for men was 58 cents (up to 72 cents), for women only 40 cents (up to 52 cents), and this is mostly higher pay than for other rural labor. In piecework, however, the earn- ings are better, for summer felling 92 cents, in winter felling 70 cents, in thinnings 64 cents on the average. Mitteilungen aus der Forstverwaltung Bayerns, 1910, 157 pp. The following calculation of the distribu- Labor tion of effective work by hours and days Distribution for one month, from April 15 to May 15 in inc., Ig11, refers to performance of the National Forests. crew in the Deerlodge National Forest, U.S, Labor Class. Hours. Days. Per Day. and Expense. Planting 1-0, 118 14 5/8 63.67 Planting 2-0, 417.5 2 3/16 225.29 Cornplanter, 306 49 4/8 213.68 Seed Spots, 86 10 6/8 46.41 Broadcast plain, I 1/8 54 Broadcast brushed, 5 5/8 2.70 Broadcast disked and brushed, 9 1 1/8 4.86 Surveying (all areas), I51 18 7/8 81.48 Poisoning (all areas), 38 4 1/8 17.80 Fencing( all areas), 120 15 64.75 Planting totals, 1336.5 167 1/16 4.3168 721.18 506 Forestry Quarterly. Reconnaissance survey, 40 5 21.58 Reconnaissance estimating, 108 13 4/8 58.28 Office work, 100 12 4/8 53.96 Total other effective work, 248 31 133.82 Total all effective work, 1584.5 198 1/16 855.00 Items of Cost. Salaries (nine men), $615 00 Food, 165 00 Salary (cook), 75 00 Total for period, $855 00 Total cost per effective day of all classes of work was therefore $855.00--198.0625—=4.3168. DETAILS OF PLANTING COSTS AT BERNICE ARE REPORTED AS FOLLOWS: % > XS > ae 3 iS S ws | 68s 8 3 Se ge Class Sh = © . 32 23) see aS oS SBA 23 ss st sis Js Ol ebay). eta i ese SA, 8S. SoG ae 1@) RK YH iS) sa) isa) isa) NN Acres 3.96 12.47 5.00)" 66120 I 2 I 92.39 Labor and ex- Z pense days 14.66 52.18 10.66 49.50 lg % 1% Labor and ex- pense 63.67 225.29 46.41 213.68 .54 2.70 4.86 557.15 Survey marking 3.31 11.00 5.21 58.44 .88 1.76 88 81. Fencing 2.63 8.74 4.14 46.44 .70 1.40 -70 64.75 Poisoning GL} (20.28. 430 61 £30. 23.30 Cost of Seedlings 9.55 33.00 42.55 Cost of Seed 9.00 102.00 6.00 10.00 5.00 137.00 Cost of Equipment 1.35 .90 Totals 76.16 278.05 66.57 442.19 8.42 16.47 11.74 907.13 Cost per Acre 21.05 22.29 II.II 6.67 8.42 8.23 11.74 9.81 From The Deerlodge Ranger. STATISTICS AND HISTORY. A most interesting compilation of statisti- German cal data are contained in Forstassessor Forest Sempor’s review of conditions in Germany Conditions. for 1909, similar to the one for 1908, briefed in F. Q. vol. VIII,, p. 549, the latter a year of depression, the latter year improving towards the end. Some of the data are outside of direct forestry interests, such as the monthly statements of the status of the national bank, of the Periodical Literature. 507 labor market, of the railroad earnings, of the prices of grain and various others adduced for discussion of the general economic condition of the empire. Of forestry statistics we may abstract the following of inter- est in the distribution of private forest properties, according to size. Dividing the private forest area of 16.5 million acres into five size classes, namely below 25 acres, between 25 and 500 acres, 500 to 2,500, 2,500 to 12,500 acres, and those above 12,500, it appears, that over 50 per cent. falls into the two smallest classes with nearly one million owners, and only 59 owners hold over 12,500 acres, namely altogether a little less than 1.2 million acres. The bulk of the government forests falls, of course, into the last two classes, yet there are over 700 districts in small par- cels. The corporation forests are found mostly in the third size class. Taking all forests together, nearly 52 per cent. are held in parcels of less than 2,500 acres, and over one-third of the area is managed in aggregates of between 2,500 and 12,500 acres. A complete table of property distribution is given for Prussia by provinces. Generally speaking, State forests and large private holdings prevail in the Eastern provinces of Prussia and in Hanover and Hesse, communal forests in the middle provinces and small _private ownership in the western provinces. In this State 13 per cent. are found in large properties, mostly in fidei-Kommiss, i. e. under State surveillance by contract. The increase of State forest property during the last 40 years is striking, namely, nearly one million acres, and the end of purchases is not yet. These purchases took place mostly in the eastern provinces; unfortunately in the west, this policy of eradi- cating the undesirably mismanaged, because too small, private forest properties is not applicable policy, hence attempts at con- solidated or associated management and other persuasive meas- ures through the provincial forestry bureaus (see F. Q. vol. V, p. 438). A table exhibits the activities of these bureaux in the way of acting as temporary or permanent advisors, making working plans, furnishing or negotiating plant material, giving assistance in reforestation, etc. Some $200,000 were spent in Prussia in combating obnoxious insects, especially the pine geometra and the nun, which latter in East Prussia alone necessitated an extraordinary cut of 124 mil- 508 Forestry Quarterly. lion cubic feet of spruce. “Extensive” forest fires are reported,’ 34 of them having destroyed 2,200 acres entirely or partially! The annual cut in the Prussian State Forests has increased since 1870, almost regularly, from year to year, so that now it is almost double what it was 40 years ago, with now 58.3 cubic feet timberwood and about 12 cubic feet other inferior wood, and the timberwood per cent. increased from 30 to 63 (75% in conifers), showing most strikingly the improvement of the forests. But the income has more than doubled, the gross income having risen from, $1.66 to $4.35, the net yield, however, only from 87 cents to $1.94. Indeed, 1907, the net yield was higher, namely $2.42; this decrease is largely due to the generous improvement of the salaries. ‘The rise in wood prices has been since 1895 when they were at a lower level than the two previous years from 7 cents per cubic foot for workwood to g cents in 1909, and for fuel- wood from 23 to 3% cents per cubic foot. But these are also decreases from conditions in 1907, when the corresponding prices were 10.6 and 3% cents. This loss is due to general depres- sion and increased importations from Russia, in some districts also to the increased cut occasioned by the ravages of the nun. A further depressing influence is found in the increased use of metal ties, so that now 35% of the railroads are on metal, the purchase of wooden ties having fallen from 7.6 millions in 1906 to 3.3 millions in 1910, and this mostly (over 70%) imported, at fuelwood prices. In the direction of mine timber as well as build- ing timber, the competition of iron is also felt. The movement of wood of all kinds on the German railways amounts now to around 19 million tons, mostly (except 2 mil- lion tons) home product, as imports are mainly carried by water. The imports have increased until in 1907 they amounted to over 7.5 million tons, then sinking to 7 million in 1909, which is still between 40 and 50% more than the first quinquennium of the century. This import translated into cubic feet represents around 380 million cubic feet of round material. Over 50 per cent. of the import of sizeable material comes in logs to be manufactured in the country. The imports are discussed in some detail, showing that Russia increasingly ships to Germany, now furnishing over one-half of the workwood, and Austria sending over one-quarter, Periodical Literature. 509 Sweden only 6% and the United States without much change for the last 10 years less than four per cent. Forstwirtschaftliche Riickblicke auf das Jahr 1909. Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen. June, July, 1911, pp. 459-481, 545-563. As is well known, the Confederation as such Swiss does not own forests, hence its entire ac- Forest tivity in forestry matters is directed towards Administration. encouragement and restriction of the forest use of cantons, municipalities, or private owners. The character of this activity may be seen from the budget for 1g1I which reads as follows: 1 Salaries Francs 54,900 12 Do. for roads, etc. 2 Traveling expenses Francs 90,000 Francs 14,000 13 Amalgamation of small 3 Office expenses Francs 3,000 holdings for common 4 Printing Francs 2,000 management Francs 3,000 5 Photography Francs 1,000 14 Subvention to forestry 6 Contributions to salar- association Francs 5,000 ies of cantonal and 15 Do. to underforesters’ municipal foresters association Francs 1,000 Francs 380,000 16 Do. for alpine gar- 7 Contribution to acci- dens Francs 4,000 dent insurance of 17 Do. for seed establish- these Francs —_ 10,000 ments Francs 3,000 8 Examination of higher 18 Do. alpine museum grade foresters Francs 500 Francs 4,000 19 Do. Swiss forest sta- 9 Instruction of lower tistics Francs 6,500 grade foresters —_—_- Francs 9,000 Total Francs 1,065,900 10 Surveys Francs 25,000 =$21 3,000 It Subventions for re- boisement Francs 450,000 Assisting in the payment of salaries for competent foresters and subventions for reboisement represent four-fifths of the total outlay. There were employed in 1910, foresters of the higher grade to the number of 193; of the lower grade, 1904; the fed- eral government contributing somewhat over one-quarter of the salaries of the higher grade and one-seventh of that of the lower grade. In order to secure employment in the higher grades (by elec- tion) certain requirements are made by the government, a spe- cial commission being appointed to hold examinations. There are a number of ranger courses carried on by the federal govern- 510 Forestry Quarterly. ment, lasting 8 weeks in two sessions, also fire ranger courses of one to two weeks duration. A triangulation is still in progress under federal authority, but forest surveys are also at least checked by it, and especially the segregation of protective forests, which are made by the cantons. The subvention for reboisement work represented in 1910 over one-half the actual outlay of nearly $150,000. An interesting educational feature is an excursion of forest officials through the Confederation to which the government contributes. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. Jan., Feb., May, 1011, pp. 21-29, 55, 57-64, 157-160. A very comprehensive account largely in Statistics tabular form of the results of management of through the 20-year period of 1885-1905 Bern of the cantonal forests of Bern is of inter- State Forests. est in showing how management of a small property pays. ‘The area involved is only 34,300 acres, having increased through purchase by 2,000 acres in that period, its value for taxation purposes being $3.2 million. The growing stock is placed at 2,860 cubic feet per acre and the yield at 57 cubic feet. These low figures are accounted for by the large area of newly forested (purchased) lands. The aver- age rotation in 1885 was 100 years, but in 1905 had been in- creased to 114 years, due to the need of the protective alpine forest. Of the 60 cubic feet of average cut, 43 per cent. was taken in thinnings. While in the first decade the workwood per cent, was 29, in the second decade it had increased to 38. The price movement is interesting. A sudden jump of prices in 1876 was followed by depression with lowest level in 1884, then fol- lowed a steady rise for the 20 years from 6.6 cents per cubic foot to 10.3 cents in 1905, a rise of 3} per cent. in gross receipts. meanwhile the logging cost also rose from 1.5 to 2.4 cents. Alto- gether expenses rose from $64,000 in the average in the first decade to $81,000 in the second, but the net yield from $111,400 to $144,200; in either case 64 per cent. of the gross income. Great differences in cost and returns are shown in different dis- tricts. In Bern itself, for instance, the net yield is 71 per cent. of the gross or $6.90 per acre and year, while in a mountain dis- trict the net yield represents only 43 per cent. and $1.44. Periodical Literature. 511 Taking the capitalization estimated for tax purposes as above the management has paid 4% per cent. interest. Staatswaldungen des Kanton Bern. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. April, 1911, pp. 124-126. MISCELLANEOUS. From a review of a volume by Dr. Erler Value discussing in a most exhaustive manner of the economic significance of the hunt in Hunting Germany we abstract the following inter- m esting data: Germany. The meat value of the annual kill of game in Prussia, which in 1886 was about 3-7 million dollars has risen in 1910 to 5 million dollars, 46% of which is furnished by hares, 16% by roebuck, 18% by par- tridge, only 5% by stags (elk) and 2% by wild boar. The value of skins adds about $250,000. The attempt to figure what the production of these values costs, stands naturally on very slender basis. The author disclaims damage from the hare, only wild boar is considered very damaging and next to it, elk. In the main he considers the low game as alone economically valuable. Higher values than in this meat production are now-a-days secured from renting the hunt. These leases amounted in 1907 to around 4 million dollars or 7 cents per acre, while hunting permits in 1906-7 brought in Prussia over $600,000, and in the other states of the federation nearly $900,000. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. May, 1911, pp. 453-455. The first general association of professional Forestry foresters in France was formed in 1910 Association under the name Association des Agents des in Eaux et Foréts, the first meeting being held France. in Paris on July 16, with over 500 members It appears that at least two-thirds of the members are officials of the forest service and that the associa- tion will be largely used to advance the interests of these. Revue des Eaux et Foréts. 512 Forestry Quarterly. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. Canadian Forestry Journal, VII, 1911,— Forest Statistics of Canada for r909. Pp. 73-75. Synopsis of statistics of lumber, square timber, laths, shingles, pulpwood, ties, poles, cooperage, boxes and shooks, tan bark and tan extracts. Forest Fires in May and June, ro1r. Pp. 75-77. Detailed facts of all known fires in Canada and United States. The Botanical Gazette, LI, 1911,— Two Sprouting Conifers of the Southwest. Pp. 385-390. Describes the sprouting habit of alligator juniper (J. pachyphloea) and Chihuahua pine (P. chihuahuana). The Terminology of Soil Bacteria. Pp. 454-460. Suggested changes in classification in accordance with physiological functions. Science, XXXIV, 1911,— Blue Stain on Lumber. Pp. 94-96. Shows that the uncertainty of the soda dipping process is related to the varying acidity of the boards. One at least of the fungi concerned is sensitive to alkalies. Experiments on a large scale showed that freshly cut red gum and yellow pine sap boards required 8 per cent. sodium carbonate or Io per cent. of the bicarbonate to prevent stain by this fungus. The Ohio Naturalist, XI, ,1911,— The Evaporation Gradient in a Woodlot. Pp. 347-349. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science, X, No.1, 191 , The Twisting of Pines. P. 9. The author attempts to explain the occurrence of spiral grain of trees thus: “The branches on the south side or sunny side of the tree aie usually markedly better developed, Other Periodical Literature. 513 with denser foliage. The trade winds blowing steadily and strongly from the west all summer bear greatest pressure on the larger and denser limbs so that the natural grain of the wood becomes twisted towards that side on which the wind produces the greatest pressure. When a number of trees grow closely in a group only those on the outside show unilateral development and those twist left or right accord- ing to the position of their heavier branches. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1911,— The Use of Manures in Forestry. Pp. 139-140. Planting, Cleaning, and Cutting Willows. Pp. 207-214. Increasing the Durability of Timber. Pp. 281-288. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911,— The Sweet Chestnut as a Timber Tree. Pp. 205-220. Planting Distance. Pp. 226-231. Mountain Pines with Split Branches. Pp, 263-265. Bulletin de la Societe Dendrologique de France, No. 20, 1911,— Les Cédres du Liban dans Cur Pays d'origine. Pp. 125- 134. Graines et Plantules des Coniféres. Pp. 134-205. Keys for identification. Splettstésser Planting Tools. From Vol. VII, p. 483. NEWS AND NOTES. Senator Smith, of Maryland, a lumberman of many years’ ex- perience and a member of the National Forest Reservation Com- mission, has introduced in Congress a bill providing for the appropriation of $500,000 annually to acquire lands along the Potomac River adjacent to Washington, for a national park and forestry purposes. The provisions of the bill in regard to the acquirement of the land and other legal phases are similar to those of the Weeks’ bill. Five per cent. of the receipts from timber sales are to be paid to the States in which the forest may be located. Press reports indicate that serious insect devastations are occur- ring in the spruce forests of Maine, the damage being caused by the sawfly, which destroyed most of the tamarack in Maine in the early 80’s. It is reported that the present outbreak is con- fined to spruce and for this reason it was not believed that the insect could be the sawfly. The State Department of Agricul- ture, however, has identified the insect as the sawfly, claiming that the damage is due to slits made in the smaller twigs by the female insect in preparing a place to deposit her eggs. New York has added another nursery to its list of State forest activities. It has put under cultivation at Geysers, about two miles from Saratoga Springs, about six acres in charge of F. A. Gaylord, with M. D. Steele as local superintendent. Of the 1,400,000 seedlings transplanted, 1,100,000 were white pine, 250,- 000 Scotch pine, and 50,000 tamarack. The New York State Superintendent of Weights has notified his scalers that 16-inch sticks piled 4x8 feet do not make a cord. A full cord is 8x4x4 feet. Since the sticks in a ship cord are 52 inches long, it is likely that the woodsmen will be legally sus- tained in a demand for the extra value of their cords over and above the 4-foot lengths. The New York State Conservation Commission, created by a News and Notes. 515 recent act signed by the Governor on July 12, will carry on the work formerly handled by the Forest, Fish and Game Commis- sion, the State Forest Land Purchasing Board, the State Water Supply Commission, and the Black River Water Power Commis- sion. ‘The three members of the Commission are each to receive a salary of $10,000 per year, under appointment from the Gov- ernor for a term of six years. The Commission is to appoint three deputies and a secretary, each at $3,500 per year, and a chief engineer and a counsel each at a salary of $7,500 per annum. The members appointed are: Hon. George E. Van Kennen, Chairman, ex-Mayor of Ogdensburg, New York; James W. Fleming, of Troy, a successful business man; and John D. Moore, of New York City, a hydraulic engineer. The law provides for the establishment of divisions under the Conservation Commission to cover Lands and Forestry, Fish and Game, and Inland Waters. The first division wll not only have the care and administration of the State Forest Preserves, but also of other lands owned by the State. The forestry work is to be developed to the fullest extent and an effort made to estab- lish the principles of forestry in the handling of woodlands on both State and private property. The work of the second divi- sion will include the propagation of fish, the protection of game, and the enforcement of all fish and game laws. The third divi- sion, Inland Waters, comprises not only the maintenance of proper water supplies, but the development of water power and the drainage of woodlands. At the meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Forestry Association at Bretton Woods, N. H., August 2-3, Hon. Robert P, Bass, Governor of New Hampshire, was elected Presi- dent of the Association to succeed Hon. Curtis Guild, whose resignation followed his appointment as Ambassador to Russia. A very interesting forest conference was held at Bretton Woods, N. H., on August 3, under the auspices of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. The program, however, was not limited to the New England Society, but in- cluded several members of the U. S. Forest Service, the U. S. Conservation Commission, the New Hampshire Timberland Owners’ Association, Directors of the American Forestry Asso- 516 Forestry Quarterly. ciation, several State Foresters, and railroad representatives. Hon. F. W. Rollins presided at the general conferences and among the speakers were Hon. Robert P. Bass, Governor of New Hampshire; Mr. Thomas Nelson Page; Congressman Haw- ley, of the National Conservation Commission; Messrs. Henry S. Graves and William L. Hall, of the U. S. Forest Service; Messrs. W. P. Brown and F. H. Billard, of the New Hampshire Timberland Owners’ Association; and Messrs. E. C. Hirst, A. F. Hawes and $. N. Spring, State Foresters of New Hampshire, Vermont and Connecticut, respectively. Mr. Philip W. Ayres, Forester of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, presented his annual report and spoke on the forests in the White Mountains. Announcement is made that “American Conservation,” the official magazine of the National Conservation Association, will be discontinued after the August issue and ‘““American Forestry,” the organ of the American Forestry Association, will be sent to all subscribers to “American Conservation.” This will bring about a desirable consolidation of the current conservation liter- ature, and it is quite in keeping that “American Forestry,” since forestry was the basis of the conservation movement, should represent all of the conservation interests. The law relating to forest fires passed at the last session of the Washington legislature provides that where wood-waste material is destroyed in incinerators, they shall be equipped with effective spark arresters, and the same applies to smokestacks, chimneys, or any other outlet for sparks. Where forest products are being manufactured within one-quarter of a mile of forest material, the destruction of slabs and refuse must be provided for in a manner which will not endanger surrounding property. Locomotives, donkey engines, etc., must be provided not only with an effective spark arrester, but with devices which will suc- cessfully prevent the escape of live coals from fire boxes and ash pans. The felling of trees so that tops lie in adjoining timber is prohibited, unless the permission of the owner of such timber is procured. Whenever rights of way are cleared, the slashings must be piled and the burning done at such time as the fire warden considers safe. Watchmen must be kept at donkey en- News and Notes. 517 gines for two hours after operation ceases, and all snags over 25 feet in height within 50 feet of each donkey engine must be felled. At a discussion of spark arresters by members of the Oregon Forest Fire Association and others interested, it was brought out that the railroads are inclined to burn coal rather than oil because they find it cheaper and less damaging to their fire boxes. It was reported that on logging railroads oil was used because it was found to be as cheap as, if not cheaper than, wood. ‘The desire on the part of all railroad operators to maintain efficient spark arresters and to do everything possible to prevent forest fires was evident. At the committee hearings on Wisconsin forestry legislation, the lumbermen made it clear that the expense for fire patrol should be met by a direct appropriation from the State Treasury out of the funds raised by the State, since it is so generally con- ceded that the stoppage of forest fires is a matter of public con- cern. The proposal in the bill under discussion was to levy a special tax of 2} cents an acre upon all wild and unoccupied land in the northern twenty-two counties of the State. China’s first trained forester, Ngan Han, who spent four years at Cornell and two years at Michigan, is preparing a book on elementary forestry in the Chinese language. In the press in- terviews, Han says: ‘The forests of my country are badly cut and wasted. We've been as reckless as the Americans in the waste of our trees. Our forests are practically all cut over ex- cepting in the northern part of Manchuria, where there are some left, and in the mountains in the west and north where it is diffi- cult to go. I have studied American forestry, and now I must work on the forestry problem in China. It is an unknown prop- osition. We do not know what trees we have in China. I must first find what does grow, or has grown there. I must experi- ment with foreign trees to find what is best to introduce into the country. It is to be all experimental for the next thirty years. Thirty years is a long time to wait for Americans, but we are a race schooled to wait; we are not impatient for results.” 518 Forestry Quarterly. Dr. Hopkins has located a forest insect field station at Spar- tanburg, S. C., for the purpose of more effectively co-operating with timber owners in eradicating the southern pine beetle, about which he says: “It has been known for more than forty years that this particular beetle has existed in the Southern States, and our extensive studies of it within recent years indicate that it has occupied the region since time immemorial. It appears, however, that only at long intervals does it increase to such num- bers as to cause widespread depredations, such as, for example, the great invasion of 1890-1893 in the Virginias. Under the normal conditions of its life and habits, a few scattering trees are killed by it each year in nearly every county throughout the Southern States where the pine is common. If, however, there are from any cause favorable conditions for the multiplication of the insect, it is thus able to kill groups of trees, and if these groups increase in number and size the following year, they constitute the danger signal of an outbreak with resulting wide- spread depredations. These are just the conditions found in the localities observed, and, from the reports received from differ- ent sections of the South ranging from Texas to Virginia, it is evident that they prevail throughout the greater part of at least the shortleaf pine belt. Therefore there is every reason to be- lieve that unless prompt and properly directed action is taken by owners of pine timber throughout the region during the coming winter, a large percentage of the best old as well as middle aged and young pine will be killed within the next two or three years.” At the last session of the Pennsylvania Legislature, a bill was passed providing for the appointment of a commission to investi- gate and combat the chestnut blight. The sum of $25,000 was appropriated for the expenses of the commission, whose members shall serve without pay, and there is a further appropriation of $250,000 available on the approval of the Governor for the performance of the duties required, as for quarantine, removal of diseased or other trees, etc. ‘The commission, which is to be called “The Commission for the Investigation and Control of the Chestnut-tree Blight Disease in Pennsylvania,” is composed of Mr, Winthrop Sargent, Chairman; Mr. Harold Pierce, Secre- tary; and Messrs. T. N. Ely, Samuel T. Bodine and George F. Craig. Mr. S. P. Detwiler, Assistant Professor of Forestry at —— — News and Notes. 519 the University of Minnesota has been engaged by the Commission as its forester. Offices have been secured in the Morris Build- ing, Philadelphia, and the work will be pushed vigorously. The rapid westward spread of the chestnut blight in Pennsyl- vania is indicated by the report to the department of forestry of its existence in Adams, Centre and Snyder counties. This dis- covery may cause a revision of the plans of the commission, as the disease was unknown west of the Susquehanna river except in York county, where the commission is now combating it. The National Irrigation Congress will hold its nineteenth ses- sion in Chicago December 5 to 9, when it will have formally brought to its attention by the Western Forestry and Conserva- tion Association the need for its assistance in spreading the gospel of fire prevention. On this subject E, T. Allen says: “One of the worthy objects of the Congress is to ‘save the forests,’ and next to food itself, no product is so necessary to the human race as wood. People must have it for fuel, for their houses, barns, and fences, to build ships, railroads, and irrigation flumes, and for almost every article used by civilized man. Hav- ing plenty of it, we not only get all these things cheaper our- selves, but can sell it to those states and countries that have no forests. “Lumbering is an important industry in the Pacific Northwest. It brings about $125,000,000 a year, or more than $332,000 a day, into the five states of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana, and nearly all of this money is paid out for labor and supplies so that every family shares it. It contributes to every line of industry as well as to the farmer, the merchant, the mechanic, and the professional man. No other product of these states furnished employment for so many people or brings in so much money. Lumber makes up 75 per cent. of all the freight we ship out of these states by rail or boat. “Our forests are useful and necessary, as they keep the flow of our streams even, preventing floods in the wet season and furnishing water for irrigation and power during the dry season; they pay taxes to support our roads, our schools, and our gov- ernment; they shelter our wild game and fish, and in many other ways make our country healthier and pleasanter to live in. In 33 520 Forestry Quarterly. most of our western states, the public schools are supported largely by the sale of timber from state forest lands. “Although not always as serious as they were last year, forest fires in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, and California annually destroy timber which, if saved for manufacture, would bring in $40,000,000. We not only lose this income, but we have to pay higher taxes on the rest of our property and higher prices for the forest material which escapes. These fires kill the young trees, so new forests cannot follow the old ones, and, by leaving the ground bare, also hasten the rapid run-off of snow and rain and make our streams low in summer. Other losses are human lives and the destruction of buildings and stock. “Primarily, our chief work is to encourage legislation to pro- tect our forests and secure the appropriation of state funds to carry out the laws, also to provide for fire patrols, and to teach men, women and children the value of knowing what to do, not so much in the way of fighting fires as in preventing them. We need the support of the National Irrigation Congress to assist us in spreading the gospel of fire prevention, and with that end in view hope to bring the matter to the attention of the Congress in a formal way at the Chicago convention. “Forests are necessary to successful irrigation, as the trees retain the rain and snowfall and thus assure sufficient moisture for crop purposes during the dry season. Irrigation, which makes intensive farming possible, is largely responsible for the well developed country districts in the Northwest, where the rural communities are so thickly populated they resemble suburbs of cities.” Consul General Thackara has reported from Berlin another tree felling machine, in part as follows: “A machine for felling trees has been invented by Hugo Gantke, of Berlin. The principle of the invention is that by pull- ing an ordinary steel wire rapidly back and forth around the tree to be felled, sufficient heat is developed by the friction to burn a smooth groove through the stem of the tree. The ma- chine has been patented in Germany, Great Britain, Austria, and a number of other countries, and a patent has been applied for in the United States. “The inventor illustrates his invention by means of an ordi- News and Notes. 521 nary steel wire about a yard in length, which is provided with a single handgrip at each end, which he pulls rapidly back and forth around a chair or table leg, the wire thus burning a groove into the wood. “A small wire is used on trees, to the end of it being attached cables run by an engine or motor. “In cutting down trees the cable is chosen long enough to make it possible to place the machine out of reach of the falling tree. The machine may also be used in cutting logs or timber already felled, in which case a shorter cable may be used. The power required for European varieties of wood range from 1.5 to 7 horsepower, depending upon the hardness and dimensions of the timber. A 4-horsepower machine is said to cut down a pine 2 feet in diameter in about 5 minutes. The machine requires less than one-half of the time required for sawing down a tree by hand and about two-thirds of the time required for sawing logs or timbers that are lying on the ground. In the case of larger stems the machine requires only about one-fourth the time for sawing by hand. “The wires are cheap and the whole machine with motor costs $650.” A manufacturer of wood block paving machinery has sug- gested that “the most economical way to get out blocks is for several miles in one city or, say, within a radius of ten to twenty miles, to put in small block machines right near the edger where the regular crew can do the cutting. Then, by shipping their blocks to a central creosoting plant, all the mills so doing can save a great deal in fixed charges, fuel, and many other ex- penses which otherwise would be incurred.” A. O. Vorse, Yale ’10, has left the Delaware & Hudson Rail- road to develop the forest management work of Peters, Byrne & Co., entomologists and landscape architects, of Ardmore, Pa. F. E. Olmsted has resigned his position as District Forester in District 5 of the U. S. Forest Service to join the consulting firm of Fisher & Bryant at Boston, Mass., which will now become Fisher, Bryant & Olmsted. 522 Forestry Quarterly. A forward step in the conservation of Missouri’s resources has been taken by the University of Missouri in the appointment of Professor J. A. Ferguson, of State College, Pennsylvania, to the position of Professor of Forestry in the College of Agriculture. Professor Ferguson is a graduate of Yale Forestry School, and has for nearly two years been acting head of the Department of Forestry at State College, Pennsylvania. The College of Agriculture owns fifty thousand acres of for- est lands in the southern part of Missouri. It is planned to utilize these lands as an out-door laboratory for the instruction in practical forestry. It is probable that a portion of the forestry instruction will be given on these forest lands. Additions have been made to the teaching staff in the Depart- ment of Forestry at Pennsylvania State College by the appoint- ment of J. B. Berry, of the University of Minnesota, and R. R. Chaffee, of Harvard. Both of these men are graduates of the forest schools of their respective universities, and each has been engaged in field work for the Forest Service. These changes are the result of the resignation of Prof. J. A. Ferguson to take charge of the forestry department of the University of Missouri and of the necessity for enlarging the teaching staff because of the increased number of students. Two changes have been made in the faculty of the Forestry Department of the University of Nebraska. The vacancy left by the death of Professor Frank J. Phillips was filled by the pro- motion of O. L. Sponsler from Adjunct Professor and W. J. Duppert was appointed Adjunct Professor. Mr. Duppert re- ceived both his Bachelor’s and his Master’s degrees in Forestry from the University of Michigan. His experience along forestry lines extends over several years in New York, Ohio, and as Forest Assistant on the Coconino Forest, Arizona. After a lapse of eight years, there is again a forestry depart- ment at Cornell University. The new work is a department of the New York State College of Agriculture at the university. The following lines of work are to be conducted by this depart- ment during the year IgII-19I2: (1). Help for the farmers and other forest owners of the state News and Notes. 523 in the care of their woodlands. This will include instruction in farm forestry and in general silviculture at the University; ex- tension work to reach the people of the state; and field studies of woodlot conditions and needs. (2) Experimental work re- lating to the woodlot and general forest problems of the state. The courses in forestry to be given the present year (silvicul- ture, farm forestry) are not planned for students intending to make forestry a profession and do not lead to forestry degree. The woodlands of the university farms and some open land have been put under the management of this department, and will be used as experimental and demonstration areas. Mr. Walter Mulford is Professor of Forestry, in charge of the work. An assistant professor of forestry is also authorized, and is soon to be appointed. The Commission of Conservation of Canada issues the fol- lowing Bulletin: Considerable uneasiness and even alarm has been felt by lum- bermen and others interested in forest products, over the dep- redations in different parts of Canada, of the spruce bud-worm (Tortrix fumiferana). It was feared that the spruce might suffer a fate similar to that of the tamarack which was killed by the larch sawfly about twenty-five years ago. As a result, how- ever, of careful investigations begun by the Division of Ento- mology of the Dominion Department of Agriculture during 1909 and still in progress, the situation appears to be much more sat- isfactory and reassuring than was first considered possible. The destructive work of the budworm was first reported two years ago from Vancouver Island, where the Douglas fir was attacked; and from Quebec, where the spruce and the balsam suffered chiefly. In the case of Quebec, the pests were at first confined to the west-central portion of the Province, but during I910O areas on the east of the St. Lawrence were also attacked. It was this latter circumstance that roused timber owners to a sense of the possible extent of the danger. While in the caterpillar stage these insects destroy the buds of the spruce and balsam, especially at the tops of the trees. They also bite off the leaves, which, together with the excrement of the caterpillars, cause the tops of the trees to assume a reddish brown 524 Forestry Quarterly. appearance. When a large area is attacked it appears as if it had been swept by fire. As such plagues of air insects can only be controlled by natural means, the Dominion Entomologist visited a number of the in- fected districts for the purpose of discovering a natural remedy that would meet the situation. Various enemies or parasites were found, that prey upon the budworm, and these are being used to destroy the pest. As the percentage of important parasites, especially of the minute species which attack the eggs of the budworm, is unusually large, there is abundant reason for hoping for the extermination of the latter. Judging by previous expe- riences in studies of this nature, it is not improbable that the insect will be controlled by its natural parasites in the course of a year or two, that is, before it has inflicted any serious damage to the spruce and balsam by repeated defoliation, In May the federal Parliament of Canada passed a new Forest Reserves and Parks Act repealing the Act of 1906. The pro- visions relating to the withdrawal of lands from sale and occu- pancy for the purpose of creating reserves, to the constitution of these and provision for control, are left unaltered. The Gover- nor-in-Council is given power to expropriate private land within a reserve, this method replacing the former one of exchange. Denuded timberlands may be withdrawn from leased or licensed areas within reserves upon notice being given. Railway com- panies must pay one-half the cost of fire patrol along their lines under construction. The powers of rangers are greatly in- creased. They are given summary power to arrest; to seize timber, minerals and game taken from the reserve; and the right of search of buildings, etc., in the reserve and ten miles beyond. Various changes in the boundaries of the reserves and parks leave the aggregate area now 25,1864 square miles (of which the Rocky Mountain Reserve comprises 18,213 square miles) as compared with 16,312} square miles formerly. The chief officer is henceforth to be known as Director of Forestry. During the same session two important amendments have been made to the Dominion Railway Act. By one amendment the Board of Railway Commissioners are given power to require any railway company “to establish and News and Notes. 525 maintain an efficient and competent staff of fire-rangers, equip- ped with such appliances for fighting, or preventing fires from spreading, as the Board may deem proper, and to provide such rangers with proper and suitable equipment to enable them to move from place to place along the line of railway with all due speed.” The Board may also require the company “to maintain an efficient patrol of the line of railway and other lands in the vicinity thereof to which fires may spread, and generally define the duties of the company, and the said fire-rangers, in respect thereof.” “The Board may require the company,” the clause continues, “to make returns of the names of fire-rangers in its employ in the performance of the above-named duties and of the places or areas in which they are from time to time engaged. For the purpose of fighting and extinguishing fires, the said fire- rangers may follow the fires which spread from the railway to, over and upon the lands to which they may spread.” Another amendment of much importance is the rendering of the railway company liable for damage to “any property,” in- stead of merely for “crops, lands, fences, plantations or build- ings and their contents,’ by which amendment timber lands are clearly brought among those things for damage to which the company is liable. An idea of the active forestry life in Germany may be gained from a table of details in the Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagd- wesen in which we find enumerated 15 forester’s associations with 5,483 members. These are all higher grade professional foresters or large timberland owners. The oldest, the Badische Forstverein, dates from 1839, the two youngest are the Harz-Solling Verein (1910) and the Deutscher Forstverein (1899) which is a general association with 2,065 members, while the others are more or less local. Each of them publishes an annual report, among which that of the Schlesische Forstverein (since 1841) at least takes high rank, An association of private forest officials in Germany was or- ganized in 1903, which, besides maintaining a school for under- foresters (at Templin) provides occasional courses in special branches for its members. 526 Forestry Quarterly. The question of proper seed supply has become so important in Germany that the Forestry Council has instituted a standing commission to work out and supervise regulations for this pur- pose. Such have been formulated and approved. Seven firms and all the seed establishments of the Mark Brandenburg and others have obligated themselves to furnish only German pine seed. The necessary precautions to insure this by way of inspec- tion of books, establishments, freight receipts, etc., have been organized. A fine up to $1,200 and loss of membership to this association of seed dealers formed and maintained through the Forestry Council is provided for breach of conditions. nail EE COMMENT. The desire and need for exchange of thought and opinion and thereby co-operation is growing apace with the increase in pro- fessional work that comes to the practicing foresters. This nec- essarily concerns often more local interests which only indirectly may have a bearing on problems in other localities or districts. Nevertheless we believe that a few minutes spent in reading the reports of transactions of Supervisors meetings will often throw light on our own problems unlooked for and repay the effort. The QuartEerty has, therefore, gladly undertaken to publish these proceedings and wishes to extend its thanks to those who kindly have undertaken the labor of preparing the reports. This exemplifies the spirit of co-operation which our budding—almost flowering—profession needs. In this connection we should also make reference to another expression of the desire for inter-communication, namely, the publication of strictly local journals. There comes to our desk from time to time, apparently as near as possible monthly, The Deerlodge Ranger, which is a means of keeping the force of the Deerlodge National Forest, some 38 persons, informed of local happenings, social as well as official, also technical notes, fostering thereby the feeling of community. The contents are typewritten, some 6 to 8 pages, multiplied, in a simple brown printed cover. From a statement in the head- ing we find that this journal was originated by Mr. C. C. Hall in 1909, it is, therefore, in its third year. Mainly to give an idea of how useful the occasional notes can be, we print on page 505 an extract from the Ranger of May, IgIt. This reference to a monthly publication makes us think of the time when the QUARTERLY must become a monthly journal. It will be observed that, without any attempt on the part of the editor—and indeed to the financial loss of the publisher—the quarterly issues are growing in size (and we hope in quality) until now two issues contain as many pages as the whole volume 528 Forestry Quarterly. five years ago. Is there any standard to the size of a quarterly publication and is there any virtue to a monthly magazine above the quarterly? The reading capacity of the average subscriber and the variety of interest represented and the activity of pro- fessional development would appear factors which must play part in answering the first question, as well as the character of the contents. The average practicing forester can probably not devote much more than 3 hours of professional reading, if that much, per week, and if he wants to digest and think over what he has read, he will be satisfied with say 200 pages a year. Whether this be presented in four instalments or in twelve, does it matter from the standpoint of the reader, and from the stand- point of editor and publisher? We would like to hear from readers whether they would prefer 100 pages every month, or 300 pages every quarter. To us, it would seem to be somewhat as the difference between a book and a magazine, a more serious attitude towards the bulkier, a less intent consideration of the smaller issue. And this difference of attitude would also likely develop in the con- tents a more ephemeral, less solid supply of matter; for the editor a more strenuous time to get copy ready. Indeed, what can now be done by a few devoted unpaid devotees would have to be done by paid employees with financial backing. Yet, as the profession grows not only in numbers but in diversity of occu- pation and interests, literary as well as practical, and especially in lively activity, we expect to see our quarterly superseded by a monthly in the natural development of events. Forester Wanted General Superintendent, Canadian preferred. Wanted to take charge of development of large Canadian holdings acquired by old established concern. Good Salary. Must have thorough woods experience, first class organizer, compe- tent to undertake heavy responsibility. Appli- cants warned to submit some proof in support of statements; otherwise applications not replied to. Only first grade men with education need apply. Send photo. G. FINCH Box A. V. 242 Oregonian, Portland Back Numbers FORESTRY QUARTERLY For Sale at 50 cents per Number Address Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard St., Cambridge, Mass. MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN By AUSTIN CARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge, 1910; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00. A newly revised and improved edition of the above publica- tion, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can be had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly, 396 Havard Street, Cambridge, Mass. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year course is offered, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma, provided they have taken certain pre- scribed undergraduate courses. The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Penn. The session in 1911 will open July 5 and continue ten weeks. For further information, address JAMES W. TOUMEY, Acting Director, New Haven, Connecticut The University of ‘Toronto and University College Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry. The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. For informatien, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on application to W.C.SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, UNIVERSITY OF MAINE ORONO, MAINE Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY. The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to Students of Forestry are excellent. For detailed information, address JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE. ERIC FOREST SCHOOL Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213 Preparatory course in FORESTRY leading to the Biltmore and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of leadership. SUMMER CLASS; also TUTORING. F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director FOREST TREES Seedlings and transplanted; Millions in stock. All very fine stock, hardy, well rooted and free from disease. Catalogues and Forest Planters’ Guide free on application. Shipments of 160 Millions of Plants Annually. Largest Nurseries in the World. J. HEINS’ SONS Halstenbek 153 Nr. Hamburg, (Germany) JOHN WILEY & SONS’ SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS GRAVES—The Principles of Handling Woodlands. By Henry Soion Graves, Chief Forester, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Large 12 mo, 335 pages, pro- fusely illustrated with line and half-tone cuts. Cloth, $1.50 net. SOLOTAROFF—Shade-Trees in Towns and Cities. Their selection, planting, and care as applied to the art of street decoration; their diseases and remedies; their municipal control and supervision. By Wii1L1AmM Sororarorf, B. S., Secretary and Superintendent of the Shade-Tree Commission of East Orange, N. J. 8vo., xviiit+287 pages. Cloth, $3.00 net. Beautifully illustrated with original photographs by the author consisting of 46 full page plates and 35 figures in the text, comprising 229 half tones and 22 line illustrations. Field Book for Street-Tree Mapping. Blank Field Books for enumerating street trees when taking a tree census, may be obtained from the publishers. Field Books 44 x 73 inches, 160 pages. Price, 75 cents net each, and $8.00 net in lots of one dozen. NEW EDITION REWRITTEN KEMP—WAUGH—Landscape Gardening. How to Lay Out a Garden. By Epwarp Kemp, Landscape Gardener. Edited, Revised and Adapted to North America by F. A. Waucu, Professor of Landscape Gardening, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fourth Edition. 1I2mo, xxii+-292 pages, 30 full-page half-tone plates and 70 figures. Cloth, $1.50 net. 43 and 45 East 19th Street, NEW YORK CITY London: Montreal: CHAPMAN & HALL Limited. RENOUF PUBLISHING CO. The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park B. E. Fernow American Nature Series. Working with Nature. Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910 392 pp. 8.° Illustrated. Price, $2.00 Net For Sale by Henry Holt & Co., New York ~ ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy and Pro- fessional and Lay Student By B. E. FERNOW 12mo., $1.50 net. By mail $1.65. 50,000 MORE WORDS Than any Previous Webster Webster’s Universal Dictionary “It is by far the best and most i important work on forestry zs 6 & : Wades sees 8 = x S) Sia Se). see x N S oy os POW ae £5 dar MP ERIS RE II atthe co ey 3 - iS 3 io 35 Sue SQ S ee i Ss, & 8 Sr ie OR eo eee if S = iS 3 m9 S = a = AS Se ses 1962 50 225,000 14,000 77 5 50 3150 17325 1972 60 187,500 20,500 123 6 00 3742 23062 1982 70 160,700 25,800 167 6 50 4160 26837 1992 80 140,000 30,500 213 7 00 4200 29820 2002 90 125,000 35,000 262 7 50 4375 32750 2012 100 112,500 40,000 320 8 00 4450 3 2022 110 102,000 45,000 382 8 50 4590 38064 2032 120 94,000 50,500 454 900 4747 42676 A CONFUSION OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN THE STUDY OF WOOD STRUCTURE. By (Gt via, The anatomical structure of wood is essentially a technical sub- ject. The pivotal point in this study is the correct knowledge of the elements composing wood, and inseparable from this knowl- edge are the names of these elements. In other words, as the student is acquiring a definite notion of wood elements he ought to have a name that will be definite, approximate and above all constant. At the same time there should be a clear limitation or line of demarkation between certain elements that are sometimes difficult to distinguish, as, for instance, between wood fiber and | tracheids, or between tracheids and vessels. There are at present no text books dealing especially with this subject, though numerous authors have written extensively along lines relating to it. No two writers agree absolutely in termin- ology. The majority of investigators differ so widely that it con- stitutes a very serious hindrance to students. In the days of the early plant anatomists, Grew and Malpighi, who worked with very defective microscopes, there was an excuse for this widely differing nomenclature, for the reason that no two observers saw the same thing exactly alike. At present, however, the mi- croscopes have reached such a degree of perfection that there should be no difficulty for all investigators to see the structure of elements exactly alike. Now is the time to remove the bar- riers that perplex the student, for the condition of nomenclature is such that it will greatly depreciate or even preclude effective work of beginners. A number of terms now used are obsolete, unscientific, and unnecessary. The student is obliged to devote much time learning what certain names mean. Of course, all names are more or less arbitrary, but any particular name should be associated with only one kind of wood elements. At present the student does not find, for example, that the term tracheae is constantly associated with elements having their abutting ends per- forated, but also with elements known as tracheids having both ends closed. This confusion of names is true especially in the Study of Wood Structure. 575 writings of earlier authors, as above mentioned. When the stu- dent takes up another author he is obliged to spend a good deal of his time in learning the different names the author uses. Un- fortunately writers on wood structure do not hold themselves bound to employ a recognized set of terms, but they feel them- selves privileged to invent terms unfamiliar to a large body of readers. One unfamiliar with the results of investigations published be- tween the years 1800 and 1860 can not appreciate the hopeless confusion met with, and it is very difficult for a student to master all the terms used during that time. Any student, and particu- larly the young student, considers the name of an element he once learned to be a part of that element, and it is not until his mind is mature when he sees a certain structure exactly alike under three or more different names. Give a student the name trachea for a tracheid, which is what some writers are doing, he will naturally change his notion of one or both of these elements. This chaotic condition of nomenclature was thought to be prac- tically settled when Sanio in 1863 published his work entitled “Vergleichende Untersuchungen tiber die Elementarorgane des Holzkorpers.” Although he had his opponents, the majority of writers and investigators followed him, and even to-day there are a number of investigators who do not propose to accept any other nomenclature and classification. Since 1863 a great many discoveries were made, and Sanio’s terminology of necessity suf- fered changes to a certain extent, especially in as far as the gen- eral grouping of the elements is concerned. For example, the elements of the pith rays can not be classed with the wood- parenchyma fibers. The pith-ray cells are a slight modification of primary tissue, while wood-parenchyma fibers are elements that may be classed more appropriately with wood fibers and tracheids (wood prosenchyma). The following are lists of names used for the same elements: Vessels——Other names in use: tracheae, ducts, tubes, pores, fistulae, vasa, and wood-vessels. Tracheids—Other names in use: tracheae, fibrous elements, wood fibers, and vascular fibers. Wood fibers—Other names in use: libriform fibers or cells, fibrous cells, fibrous elements, xylem elements, woody fibers, pro- senchyma fibers, and wood prosenchyma. 576 Forestry Quarterly, W ood-parenchyma fibers —Other names in use: fiber cells, cell fibers, parenchymatous-wood cells, starch-containing cells, and parenchyma cells. The above list of synonyms gives in part the various names of elements used at present in works dealing with wood structure, and from among these an investigator could select standard terms to be used in future publications on this subject. ‘To work out and adopt such a terminology would probably wound the feelings of some few recent authors who have pet names for certain struc- tures, but the aim should be to select terms most familiar to the majority of students of wood structure. It is important to avoid all useless technicalities, in order to render the subject matter as clear as possible. A number of authors would be willing to make a sacrifice of their favorite names when the general good of the subject requires it. There are numerous laymen interested in wood structure, and the less technical the terms are the more attention will be directed to the subject and a great many difficul- ties will disappear if a uniform terminology can be determined upon. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FOREST FIRES, CANA- DIAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. Your Committee on Forest Fire Laws, having collected with the aid of the Secretary all the existing forest fire legislation in Canada and most of the United States, as well as literature on the same, and having received expressions from competent per- sons as to the working of these laws and suggestions as to their improvements, begs to report as follows— A. Existinc LEGISLATION. We find that while every province and the Dominion has legis- lation to protect forests from fire, the laws vary greatly in detail and their efficiency probably varies as much. Briefly reviewing and comparing these laws we may make the following statements : Nova Scotia. The law is designed primarily to protect private forest property which comprises the bulk of the forest area. It provides efficient machinery with appointed wardens in each county of the province to which it applies. It is based on the municipal organization, and secures the expense of the service in part by a pro rata assessment on the properties, except the salaries of chief rangers and of the provincial chief ranger, which are paid from the provincial treasury. This is probably the most efficient fire protection so far designed in Canada, fitting the con- ditions of the province, and needing only to be applied generally throughout the province and further to be elaborated. New Brunswick. 'This law seems to make no distinction be- tween private and public forest, although the latter comprises the larger part of the forest area. The machinery is indefinitely left to be provided by the Surveyor General, the law authorizing the employment of special officers, but limiting the expense to be paid for such service from the provincial treasury to $2,000. Quebec. ‘The law is primarily designed to protect the Crown domain. The declaration of certain territory as “fire district’’ and the organization of a service is left to the discretion of the Minister of Lands and Forests, except that the law provides the appointment in each established fire district of an inspector paid by the province, and for the purpose of the law all agents for the sale of Crown lands, all employees of the Department, all sworn land surveyors and all fire and wood rangers employed by the Department are ex-officio justices of the peace, authorized to impose penalties for the contravention of the law. In practice, the wardens are nominated and paid (in lieu of a fire tax for- merly collected) by the limit holders, the government clothing 578 Forestry Quarterly, them with authority; and half of all labor in extinguishing fires on timber limits up to $2 per diem is paid by the province. In case railroads are involved each of the three parties pays one- third. A superintendent to direct the service and assistant super- intendent are also instituted and paid by the province. Some useful amendments to the law are suggested by the Su- perintendent, a member of this committee, providing for con- tinuous patrol by fire rangers; for determining the number of rangers to be employed by the limit holders, and for the substi- tution of government rangers in case of failure to employ the proper number; for arrest of offenders, and for forcing assist- ance in extinguishing fires; for screening smoking cars and mill chimneys; for fixing responsibility of escaped fires on owner of land; for railway patrols; and for various minor objects. Ontario. ‘This law is primarily designed for the protection of Crown lands. This province was perhaps the first to recognize the necessity of machinery to carry out the law and of making limit holders in part responsible. As in Quebec, the declaration of fire districts, within which the law applies and the organization of a service of fire rangers not only licensed but also unlicensed territory, is in the discretion of the Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, but the law differs from Quebec law in that it con- tains sections defining duties of fire rangers. The appointment of rangers on licensed lands is primarily made at the request and upon the nomination of candidates by the limit holders, unless the Minister determines without such request the necessity for their employment. The appointment of these and other officers as justices of the peace is also forseen. In Ontario, not only are half the wages of fire rangers paid by the limit holders, but also half the salaries of supervisors and in- spectors. ‘The same arrangements holds with railway construc- tion enterprises, the railway paying half the expense of fire pro- tection. ‘There are also fire rangers appointed and fully paid by the province to range on forest reservations and unlicensed lands. In the Manitoba law, the principle of municipal interest is defin- itely carried out, every rural municipal council being authorized to appoint fire guardians, and these may co-operate with the fire guardians of adjoining municipalities in carrying out the law; municipal councils make rules and regulations under the law and pay the bills. Here also the salutary provisions of penalties for neglect of duty on the part of fire guardians is met for the first time, and the liability of the municipality for damage, if not otherwise recoverable. Moreover, the provincial fire commis- sioner may under circumstances work into the organization. In Alberta and Saskatchewan the provinces themselves, through the Commissioner of Agriculture, appoint and pay fire guardians or wardens with sheriff’s power, and all members of Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 579 the North-West Mounted Police are e.r-officio fire guardians. The details of the organization are, however, left obscure as well as the question of liability for damage or cost of fire fighting. British Columbia. The law makes the declaration of fire dis- tricts a matter for an order in council. It makes it the duty of various officials to prosecute contraventions, besides that of a special officer or chief fire warden under the Chief Commissioner of Lands. Such an officer may be appointed and rules and regu- lations made by the Lieutenant Governor in Council. Divisional and district or assistant fire wardens, and the cost of fire fighting are also paid by the Province, although not mentioned in the Act. For the Dominion, with the exception of the Railway Act, which prescribes requirements for preventive measures to be adopted, the protection of forest reserves and other timber lands is a matter of executive administration purely, and otherwise the laws of the province prevail. All the laws have more or less specific regulations for preven- tion of fire from locomotives, but as it is doubtful how far such provincial laws apply to transcontinental or interprovincial rail- ways, their effects cannot reach far. In almost all the provinces the setting of fires is permitted under the futile injunction of caution; only in Nova Scotia, Man- itoba, and British Columbia does the requirements exist of a permit from proper authority, at least for clearing fires. In the five provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan) the fire guardians can call out any able-bodied citizen for assistance. The principle of placing the burden of disproof as to responsi- bility for a fire upon the accused is adopted, at least in part, in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan. B. GENERALITIES. 1. It is evident from the experience of the past that legislation is ineffective unless a thorough organization for the carrying out of the law exists. Moreover, it should be realized that no half- hearted or partial measures but only a supreme effort which in- cludes a change of attitude on the part of the people at large will ever stop the fire evil. Hence, besides legislation and enforcement of law, special means for popular education are needed. 2. It must be realized that the same methods which are efficient in one section are not necessarily applicable and efficient in other sections with different conditions. Hence, a general forest fire law with details cannot be formulated. The excellent results of the forest fire service of Nova Scotia are possible only because the country is settled in all parts and the woodlands mostly in possession of small resident owners, who have a personal inter- est in their protection. In unsettled parts of the country, in the 580 Forestry Quarterly, backwoods of Quebec and Ontario, this system would not work. 3. It is, therefore, apparent that different laws and organiza- tions even for different parts of the same province may be desir- able, or else a law which divides the province into fire districts and leaves latitude to executive officers to devise methods applic- able in the different districts. Altogether, it is wisdom to make laws as little as possible specific in prescriptions, but place author- ity in competent hands to frame rules for the execution of the law, which may be changed as circumstances suggest. 4. Preventive measures, including the rapid discovery and ex- tinction of incipient fires, are the most needful; legislation and organization to prevent or reduce the chances of fires are of more moment than the threat of punishment and attempts at extinguish- ing fires after they have spread. All provinces have laws de- signed to deter incendiarism, but in the majority of cases the legislation is negative rather than positive, permissive rather than mandatory. In view of the gravity of the situation and of the careless attitude of the public more restrictive and special edu- cative measures are needed. 5. Three different agencies are mainly responsible for forest fires, and must be provided for separately, railroads, settlers, and other persons coming into the woods for various purposes. The first two are readily found out and made responsible; special means are necessary to find out and make responsible the casual visitors. 2 C. RarLroap LEGISLATION. An exhaustive report by the Public Service Commission of the state of New York made in 1909, discussing in great detail, sup- ported by expert testimony, the possibilities of preventing fires from locomotives, which seem to be responsible for somewhat less than 40% of forest fires in the Adirondacks forms an excel- lent basis for discussion of this problem. The report declares: “The remedies proposed by the railroad companies which include improvements in coal burning locomotives, cleaning right of way, patroling, telephone system, fire trains, are inadequate, because: “First, the improvements in coal burning locomotives are not sufficiently radical to meet the conditions ; “Second, the remedies proposed are complex, involving con- tinuous and effective supervision, and past experience has shown that such supervision may not be efficiently exercised when most needed ; “Third, the legal restriction mentioned (in cleaning right of way, peculiar to New York) handicaps the railroads in the effec- tive application of their remedies.” The Commission orders the installation of oil-burning locomo- tives during the day time, while the dangerous season lasts, it having been shown that no fires start at night. Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 581 While your Committee recommends the study of this report in detail for its careful analysis of the causes of fires originating from locomotives and for its valuable suggestions, it does not go so far as to suggest the necessity of such radical change in fuel, especially as it was declared by experts that safe coal-burning locomotives can be constructed, although difficult to keep in safe condition. Possibly, however, the use of oil-burning engines might in the end prove as cheap, or cheaper, than other modes of preventing fires from locomotives. No legal restriction in burn- ing of right of way existing in Canada, it would appear that the methods suggested by the railroads themselves, if properly carried out, would answer. The improvement of locomotives to prevent sparks from stack and ashpan escaping is fully discussed in the report by two loco- motive experts, and it is stated that, without loss of draft, screens can be used if properly constructed and placed, but that no abso- lute safety may be expected except by unusual care in fitting and keeping in order on the part of the round-house crew. It would appear from discussion that the stereotyped prescription of several Canadian laws as to the use of a certain mesh screen is not justified, since other matters like the character of coal, the position of exhaust nozzles, etc., must be related to the screen. The necessity of frequent inspection of locomotives by an expert, or at least a thoroughly instructed fire ranger not only as to screens, but also as to ash boxes and other conditions was ac- centuated by locomotive experts. The proper construction of ash boxes is as important as the screens since it is declared that 50 per cent. of locomotive fires are due to the faulty construction and use of these. Finally firemen and engineers must be willing to use their tools properly and keep them effective. As to clearing the right of way, the evidence brought out that fully 90 per cent. of fires start within fifty feet on each side of the right of way; hence, hardly any greater width need be cleared. It is, in the opinion of your Committee, a mistake to clear a broad fire strip along the right of way. Such a strip, even if cleared as well as is practicable, is dangerous in two directions besides being unnecessarily expensive; it dries out under the influence of the sun and wind and if between tall timber creates a draft which will fan any incipient fire rapidly into action. Instead, a strip of fifty feet outside the right of way and under forest shade from which the easily inflammable material is removed would serve a better purpose. This proposition advanced some years ago by the Chairman of this Committee was generally accepted by the experts as a most efficacious measure. The cost, it was estimated, would be in the neighborhood of $250 per mile for the first clean- ing. In Pennsylvania it has been done for $180 per mile. It is open to question whether the cleaning of this part should not be 582 Forestry Quarterly, made the duty of the forest owner rather than of the railroad company. ‘The location of drain ditches on the outer side of the right of way instead of as is usual near the track would in many cases help to prevent the spread of fires. The only effective way in cleaning right of way is by burning it over, which is dangerous and should be done as soon as the snow leaves, but most probably be repeated when the chances of the fire spreading are greater. To make this operation easier, the cleared strip should be sodded, when the grass could readily be cut and burnt. That the local fire warden, if any, should have supervision of this burning goes without saying. The most important precaution is the fire patrol, when properly organized. Since only during the hours of 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. is there danger of fires spreading, and since rainy days reduce the time, the hours would be short, and by proper organization the cost of such patrol can be reduced to a minimum, the patrolman to be also employed otherwise. If all the other precautions are taken two men with a gasoline car equipped with a fire ex- tinguisher, following every train, say, within 15 minutes, could ordinarily probably protect five miles of right of way and attend to other track work besides. This patrol as to time of the year during which it is to be maintained should be made under orders of the officer in charge of the fire service. In the absence of such patrol by the company the Forest Fire Service should have the right to do the patroling at the expense of the company. It should also be a requirement that the railroads are to transport, free of charge, men needed in extinguishing fires along the line. The requirements of the New Brunswick law that the railway company shall keep section men to watch and extinguish all fires, and that these men shall pass over the road at least once a day is one of the loose requirements which is insufficient in time of actual danger and needless in rainy days and seasons. Other minor precautions might be suggested like the screening of smoking cars or compartments, the placing of barrels of water on steep grades, where sparks are apt to be emitted under forced draft, etc. A valuable suggestion is that specially dangerous places along the road be so marked by signs, and that special at- tention be bestowed on them by the men in charge. The legal prescriptions regarding the placing of responsibility upon the companies and their agents are well taken care of in the legislation proposed by the Commission of Conservation. It should also be compulsory for all train crews to report fires at the’ first stop at a telegraph station and the operator to report same to the proper officer. The provision advanced by the Commission of Conservation to make railways liable to a fine of one thousand dollars for every fire set and placing the burden of disproof on the railway com- See CO Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 583 pany is endorsed by this committee. It should, however, be pointed out that the existing legislation which limits liability for damage on the part of the railway company to $5,000, unless neg- lect is proved by the damaged party, may work hardship. Your Committee would suggest that besides penalties provided against neglect by the employees the co-operation of these men could undoubtedly be secured by proper education and premiums for immunity from fire damage. In justice to the railway companies it should be stated that of late they have waked up to their responsibility and are attempt- ing to improve fire protection, as may appear from the following extracts of the instructions issued last summer by one of them to their employees, which will at the same time show some of the practical needs of preventive measures. “Ash pans must be equipped with nettings. Nettings and plates in front end must be examined throughout the entire year at intervals not exceeding one week. Engines must not be allowed to leave terminal unless nettings and plates are in proper condi- tion. Ash pans and dampers must be examined throughout the entire year on every engine entering their home....or on branch lines or work train service on every trip. Men appointed to make inspection of nettings and dampers must sign for each engine inspected. This form to be initiated by locomotive foremen to prove that they have supervised the work.” D: LEGISLATION REGARDING SETTLERS. The case with the settler is comparatively simple, since he is definitely located, although carelessness in handling fires when burning brush and clearing has been the cause of many most destructive fires. Here, an educational campaign ought to do much. The province of Quebec is to be congratulated in having the assistance of the clergy in this campaign of education, the bishops authorizing the reading of letters of caution from the pulpits. All laws contain sections prescribing a closed season when fires may not be set. Such close seasons are at present given in the laws by definite dates. This is not good practice as the danger ceases or commences within the same province at different dates and in the different years also, which can be however, more or less predetermined. Discretion on the part of the Forest Fire Service in fixing these dates variably is desirable. Some (Nova Scotia, Manitoba and British Columbia) but not all require that a per- mit to set fires at other times be obtained from an officer in charge, and some require that notice of the intention to burn brush be given to neighbors to keep them on the alert or posted at the nearest schoolhouse seven days beforehand. Both these latter requirements seem desirable. The only objection appears to be 584 Forestry Quarterly, that communication with the officials is not always easy for the distant colonists. This could be overcome by having special pa- trols at the proper season make a circuit of the district to afford the opportunity of making the necessary arrangements for per- mits. This requirement, to be sure, is mainly of educational value accentuating the feeling of responsibility. E. LEcISLATION REGARDING OTHER PERSONS. The most difficult, and at the same time the most dangerous class of persons responsible for forest fires are the many different people who visit the woods for business or pleasure, or who are merely passing through. The laws make distinction of railways and settlers, but this third class remains, as a rule undifferentiated. It would appear that at least three classes may be made, namely those who are in the woods for business connected with the woods, loggers and the like; those who are engaged in business other than connected with the woods, such as prospectors and miners; and lastly visitors of various descriptions, hunters, campers, etc. It would appear that the first two classes should and could be dealt with separately, for they are, as a rule, defi- nitely located, although for a shorter time than railroads and settlers. Is there any reason why the lumber company should stand on a different footing towards the community at large as regards responsibility for forest fires, than the railroad company? Is the logger or the miner or prospector in any different condition than the settler excepting perhaps permanency of location? The con- ditions and needs of these two classes are known and, therefore, definite prescription is as possible as for the railroad company and the settler. It is our opinion that the lumberman have been in the past, and are still, indirectly at least, the greatest cause for destructive conflagrations, simply because of the debris which has been left after their operations. It is tolerably certain that without the debries and the opening up to the sun and wind of large areas the virgin woods would usually be without extensive fires. Just as the railway company is to be forced to reduce the danger from fire, since fire is one of its tools, so for the opposite reason the logger should be forced to reduce the danger from fire, because he creates the condition for its most destructive force. It is needful to accentuate that the worst damage to the coun- try at large does not come from the burning of the timber—which can usually be utilized—, but from the burning of slash which consumes not only the young growth and seed trees, but often the soil itself, leaving it barren and useless forever. There are two methods of reducing the danger from slash in logging operations, namely, systematically burning it while the logging is going on, and ‘downing’ tops and branches so that they Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 585 may lie close to the ground and rapidly decay. Both methods have been tried and found practicable and not too expensive. Brush burning has been applied in Minnesota with success in the pineries. Lopping of tops has been employed in spruce forests, under law, in the Adirondacks with entire satisfaction. The cost of brush burning can under favorable conditions be kept within 25 cents per M. feet; the cost of downing tops is from 10 to t5 cents per cord of pulpwood in ordinary conditions, and often the cost is balanced by the easier skidding and gain in wood. In some places the one, in other places the other method is pre- ferable, and there may be places where neither can be entirely, or only partially applied. Hence, any legislation requiring the re- duction of debries must not be specific but leave discretion to the officials as to how the object is to be obtained in each case. When these precautions are taken the government can well afford to furnish fire protection even without charge to the limit holder. It must not be forgotten that the timber limit holder is not the owner of the forest property, and cannot therefore be expected to take much interest in the future, and fire protection in these slashes is a provision for the future. Heavy penalties for fires set by employees of lumber companies should be levied on the employers. At least a limited liability should be established for such fires. In order to hold miners, prospectors and, indeed, all others in proper check, it should be required that everybody who sets a fire in the woods be provided with a permit from a proper officer, such permits to be for stated periods and renewable only to those who have not offended, even though refusal to others might appear harsh. In fact it may be justifiable to demand such a permit for the mere entering of any woods. There is no reason why at least, prospectors should not be placed under obligation of obtaining a permit for entering the woods for this purpose whereby a check on their presence is established. They may also properly be required to take under the direction of the Forest Fire Service precautions to prevent any fires from originating on their claims. The throwing or drop- ping of burning matches, ashes from a pipe, lighted cigar, or any other burning substances, or discharge of firearms with wads during the close season without extinguishing any such burning material should be forbidden. FEF... Leecat, Ports. On the legal side some new principles should be established by statute regarding prosecutions, fines, penalties, and damages. 1. The burden of disproof of responsibility for the origin of a forest fire should be placed upon the defendant, be it corporation or individual. 586 Forestry Quarterly, 2. Forest Fire Service officers should have not only power to arrest without warrant, but to prosecute and secure convictions in a summary manner before any justice of the peace. This not only when a person has actually committed, but when there is a reason- able suspicion that he has committed or is about to commit an offense against the fire laws. 3. Fire rangers should have authority to trespass in case of necessity, to build back fires, and place guards to prevent the breaking out again of fires that have been extinguished. 4. Fire rangers should have power to command witnesses with a view of finding out cause, origin and nature of fire and the damages. 5. In the estimation of damages the cost of reforestation should be included. G. ORGANIZATION. There is no hope of any adequate result of legislation unless sufficient and efficient machinery and organization exists to apply it. With the attitude of the people as it is, a supreme effort in the beginning will be necessary to change that attitude; then, when better habits have been inculcated the machinery may be considerably reduced. Such organization must be of a central, permanent and fixed character, as only the government can institute, but it may act very well in co-operation with municipalities, local boards, timber limit holders, private woodland owners, or associations with similar interests. Where the government is the largest owner and has therefore the largest interest, it should naturally take the lead; but even where this is not the case, the broad scope of governmental interest, and the economy which comes from patrolling, irrespective of ownership, makes a provincial organi- zation preferable. Yet that even private owners or timberlimit hoders alone could cheaply and efficiently protect their own hold- ings is shown by the Forest Fire Associations in the United States, of which there are ten in the West. The Washington State Forest Fire Association is one in which owners of from twenty acres up to hundreds of thousands of acres are clubbing together and assessing themselves by acreage for co-operative fire patrol. A chief fire warden is at the head of the organization. The territory is divided into districts, each having its local patrolmen. Eight to twelve districts are formed into a group, with an inspector for each, whose duty it is to travel through the districts in his group, supervise the patrolmen, em- ploy additional ones where necessary, and in general keep the machinery moving. ‘The state merely clothes the officials of the association with authority and places, as in Idaho, its own hold- ings under the system. With such an organization, in 1909, the driest season in Washington State for 41 years (except perhaps Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 587 last year), the owners of three million acres lost only 1,600 acres or 1-20 of one per cent. Of over 1,100 fires extinguished only 200 were of sufficient size to permit of description, all others being put out in their incipiency. In the Idaho Association there is spent for patrol alone only 13 cents per acre, but as this association extensively builds trails and installs telephones the assessment reaches up to 2 to 5 cents per acre. The Coeur d’Alene Timber Protective Association with 1,200,000 acres, at 2 cents an acre lost only $40,000. The Potlach Association spent 44 cents per acre for patrol, purchase of tools and making trails. The United States Forest Service in District I, the Northern Rockies, which lost so heavily in 1910 spent less than 4 cent on thirty million acres, losing $40,000 worth of timber. All these lands are located in difficult territory, and for several years this system has given satisfaction, except during the unusual drought of last summer. In the disastrous season of 1910 the association staved off serious trouble for two months by special effort, but in August, due to indifference and lack of protection of intervening proper- ties,—accentuating the need of state-wide co-operation—the system broke down. Yet the report of the secretary of the united associations is, first, that the ‘losses were few and insig- nificant when the area involved is considered; second, that had it not been for the timber owners’ effort the contrary would have been true. The really bad fires can be counted on the fingers, while those extinguished number by thousands.’ The essentials of a proper organization are :— 1. A proper head, an officer with experience and with well de- fined powers and duties, but with large discretionary powers, who shall devote himself to this interest alone. 2. A proper personnel carefully chosen—not necessarily nomi- nated by limit holders—of permanent, paid rangers with con- stables’ power and the right to arrest without warrant any one suspected of having contravened the law, who during the off season can work in preparing for the dangerous season. The suc- cess of the organization depends on the character of these men. 3. Additional paid patrolmen during the dangerous season, a variable number according to needs, and obligation on every ae to aid under penalty when called upon, in extinguishing res; 4. Responsibility properly divided, enforced by penalties, and inspectors, active in looking after the rangers, and concerned in educating the people and improving the service; 5. Districting the country with a view of collocating similar conditions in such units as a patrolman can readily oversee, or an inspector inspect, and making these officers responsible for the safety of their unit; 6. Early discovery of an incipient fire is essential ; hence there 588 Forestry Quarterly. should be watch towers or lookout stations, properly distributed. Such watch towers fully equipped cost, with shelter house, be- tween $300 and $500; one every 20 miles even would save its cost the first year by reducing the number of wardens necessary. 7. Rapidity of getting to a fire is essential, hence building of trails to make districts accessible and connecting watch towers by telephone lines, which can be built and equipped for $25 to $50 per mile. 8. Ample funds by special taxes to organize, equip and keep up the service and enforce the law. The main requirement is the head man who, if a capable organizer, would work out the detail fit for each condition, and, if left to act with authority and considerable latitude, would soon have the whole community assisting his efforts. Your committee believes that the country is ready for this supreme effort to get rid of the fire evil and thereby to make the beginnings of forestry, a rational management of forest lands, possible. The Committee: B. E. Fernow, Chairman, THOMAS SOUTHWORTH, Jupson F. CrLark, G. C, PicHe, W.S. J.. Hans, FRANK DavIsoN, ELLwoop WILSON. CANADIAN VOLUME TABLES. By ELtLiwoop WILSON. Forestry Division, Laurentide Paper Company. The measurements on which the following volume tables were based were made thruout the Valley of the St. Maurice River in the Province of Quebec between latitude 46° 30’ and 48°, and west longitude 74° 30’ and 76°, during the winter of I910-II. The sawyers were followed and as soon as a tree was felled and sawed up into logs it was measured as follows :—height of stump, diameter inside and outside the bark on the stump, at each thirteen and one-half feet cut, and total length of top. Diameters were measured to nearest millimeter, heights of stumps to nearest centimeter and lengths of tops to nearest decimeter. Metric measures were used as being easier to make and as facilitating calculations. Diameter breast high, outside bark was also measured and the trees arranged in inch classes according to breast height diameter, # inch to # inch representing whole inch class, i. e. trees having diameters between 6} and 7} inches were put into the seven inch class. For the board feet tables, the number of board feet corres- ponding to the diameter inside the bark at the small end of each log was taken from the official Quebec table and volumes of logs added to get volume of tree. The volume in cubic metres was calculated for each tree by the following formula: vol.=1(a+2b+2c+d)4$ in which a=basal area on stump, b=basal area at first cut, c= basal area at second cut, and d=basal area at third cut, and l= length of log. To facilitate calculations, which were all done by machine, a table was prepared giving the basal area corresponding to each millimeter in diameter, multiplied by half the log length. Cubic metres corresponding to the diameters could thus be taken direct from the field sheets and added on the machine. All the values for each inch class were then added together 590 Forestry Quarterly, and divided by the total number of trees in that class. ‘These average volumes were then plotted and curves drawn from which the values given in the tables were taken. ‘Total heights were averaged and plotted in the same way and final values taken from the curves. These tables give merchantable lengths according to local practice, merchantable volumes and total heights corresponding ; average volumes and average heights corresponding to diameters breast high. I am indebted to Mr. E. H. Roberts for field measurements and help in the calculations and to Mr, R. H. Stephenson for some of the computations. “Height of Trees in feet’ means that no tree whose volume is given under the figures had a total height from ground to tip of over the larger or under the smaller figure in the heading. “Merchantable Length (feet.)’’ means that no tree had a merchantable length more or less than number of feet in heading. The Quebec log rule for small sizes as here involved is almost iden- tical with the Scribner rule; if anything a little more favorable. WHITE SPRUCE, Picea Canadensis. St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Cubic Feet, Merchantable, without Bark. Average Stump Height 25”; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4”. %4" to 344”=1" class. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 51-61 60-66 71-80 82-91 95-100 97 Merchantable Length (Feet) DS BYE 32755 40.5 54 67.5 81 94.5 Aver. Aver. Basis Inches Cu. Ft. Height Trees 7 5:65 9.89 6.00 53.3 6 8 7.42 10.59 9.08 62.5 18 94. 9:53) 12/54. 15.18 12.54 65.8 25 10 15.18 18.72 16.39 67.5 47 II 17.52. 22.25") 23.66 20.48 69.5 72 12 19.60 25.96 29.84 24.65 7.3 ne 13 22.53 28.78 34.96 28. 46 73:05 ).Ag 14 237.) 31.85. 39;55 33.20 75.8 43 15 31.43 36.44 43.82 39.02 70:5) ae 16 39.02 40.86 49.44 44.85 76.6 25 17 48.38 44.85 53.96 50.96 77.5 19 18 49.09 50.61 69.75 57.21 78.5 18 19 54-74 66.92 77.55 63.92 °79/500m 20 73.28 85.46 73.28 90.6 4 21 03.41 89.52 96.0 2 22 101.10 102.7 100.0 2 23 108.94 111.77. 100.0 I 24 116.54 119.01 115.05 99.0 I 25 124.69 117.84 97.0 2 See Canadian Volume Tables. 591 WHITE SPRUCE, Picea Canadensis. St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule. Average Stump Height 25”; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 51-61 60-66 71-80 82-91 95-100 97 Merchantable Length (Feet) D. BH. 27 40.5 54 67.5 81 94.5 Aver. Aver. Basis Inches Bd. Ft. Height Trees Ze 1Q 38 & 21 53-3 6 8 24 38 32 62:5. 30 9 32 44 53 45 65.8 25 10 55 69 60 67.5 47 II 65 86 97 78 69.5 72 12 76 105 131 99 713i go 13 90 120 154 120 7300) As 14 III 136 I7I 142 75.8 43 15 132 153 IQI 170 FOE) as0 16 173 221 200 2G, Gi cae 17 195 245 230 77 ay AG 18 208 270 258 78.5 18 19 217 309 287 7955 Ca 20 353 325 90.6 4 21 470 414 96.0 2 22 SII 495 100.0 2 23 506 610 100.0 I 24 643 643 9.071 25 666 97.0 2 BLACK SPRUCE, Picea Mariana. St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Cube Feet. Average Stump Height 26”; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 46-47 55-60 64-68 76-78 81-89 Merchantable Length (Feet) DeBo rH: 13.5 27 40.5 54 67.5 Aver. Aver. Basis Inches Cu. Ft. Height Trees 7 3-53 5-58 8.23 5.76 57 46 8 4.84 6.96 9.64 8.23 60 61 9 8.26 11.26 10.81 63 71 10 9.22 13.42 18.05 13.60 66 52 II 16.07 20.31 roy 69 40 I2 18.89 23.45 21.36 72 14 13 21.26 26.66 25.36 75 16 14 29.77 29.13 77 10 15 33.80 33.55.0178 4 16 39.16 40.36 37.79 81 2 17 41.92 41.14 81 18 43.51 43.51 8I I 19 45-77 20 48.10 592 D. B. D.B. Forestry Quarterly, BLACK SPRUCE, Picea Mariana. St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule. Average Stump Height 26”; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) H. 46-47 be eT) 15 19 24 29 34 36 SPRUCE—Picea Canadensis & Mariana. Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule. 40.5 54 55-60 64-68 76-78 81-89 Merchantable Length (Feet) 67.5 8&1 171 St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Average Stump Height 26”; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 44-47, 52-56, 59-65, 68-78, 83-88, 96-100, 112 Merchantable Length (Feet) Inches 6 15 335. 270) 4055 9 19 27 ES 4) 280 8.88 28 42 34 55 40 68 80 92 110 130 67.5 81 IOI 132 154 172 197 227 251 204 278 =. 331 309 = 372 349 413 470 SII 506 643 94.5 Aver. Aver. Basis Bd. Ft. Height Trees 14 54 Z 20 57 46 29 60 61 39 63 71 51 66 52 65 69 40 83 72 14 102 75 16 121 77 10 145 78 4 I7I 81 2 192 81 I 208 81 I 225 242 Bd. Ft. Height Trees 11 54 9 94.5 Aver. Aver. Basis 21 55 82 30 57 161 39 59 208 55 63 187 7 67 189 04 70 161 112 72 138 75 99 164 79 gI 190 83 47 225 87 47 256 86 36 280 85 16 324 90 10 414 96 2 495 100 2 610 100 I 643 99 I 666 666 97 2 ~~ S Canadian Volume Tables. BALSAM—Abies balsamea St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Cubic Feet. 593 Average Stump Height, 23”; Diameter of Top Inside Bark, 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 5 -63, Merchantable Ley D. B. H. 27 Inches Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule. 63-67, 74-83, wgth (Feet) 40.5 54 8.47 10.24 13.42 12.36 15.89 14.12 18.72 16.60 21.54 18. 36 24.72 20.83 27 .gO 22.60 31.08 24.72 34.96 37.08 40.06 44.14 89-91 67.5 28.96 41.32 48.30 50.50 52.62 Aver. Aver. Cu. Ft. Height 6.71 58 9.53 60 12.01 63 14.48 66 18.01 68 21.54 70 25.7 73 31.08 76 64:60) 4 70 $0:907, 1-53 44.50 48.38 BALSAM—Abies balsamea St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Basis Trees Average Stump Height, 23”; Diameter of Top Inside Bark, 4”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 39-52 56-63 63-67 73-83 80-91 Merchantable Length (Feet) 5: H. 13.5 Inches Be MG BAY Gy. Aver. Bd. Ft. 12 12 20 29 23 Bee! a7.) LEO 33 29 46 62 44 34 57 75 57 51 67.90 73 8 75 106 gl Sat T2370 tA7 112 95 137 175 133 107) 154 203 159 172 233 189 189 ©6262 211 206 222 232 244 255 266 Aver. Height 49 60 63 Basis Trees 594 Forestry Quarterly, WHITE PINE—Pinus Strobus St. Maurice Valley, Quebec. Volume in Board Feet, Quebec Rule. Average Stump Height, 32”; Diameter of Top Inside Bark, 8”. Total Height of Trees (Feet) 60 62-86 71-100 96-100 Merchantable Length (Feet) ie ue o 27 40.5 54 67.5 Aver. Aver. Basis Inches Bd. Ft. Height ‘Trees 10 54 II 69 12 56 99 84 76.5 3 13 104 100 70.7 4 14 112 163 130 69.2 3 15 eH 193 160 Tia 2 16 159 221 192 69.7 2 17 204 242 224 770 6 18 276 252 250 81.8 I 19 353 272 203 284 90.7 3 20 433 330 336 342 gI.I 8 21 381 388 384 fo) 22 4Il 444 4II 95-3 3 23 438 438 93-4 2 24 479 479 ) 25 520 520 ) 26 562 562 99.4 I 5 ere SX CURRENT LITERATURE. Phytogeographic Survey of North America. By John W. Harshberger. Leipzig and New York. i911. Pp. 790, plates 18, figures 32, map I. The book with the above title is Volume 13 of Die Vegetation der Erde series of Engler and Drude. The contents of the volume are divided into four parts. Part first: History and Literature of the Botanic Work and Explorations of the North American Continent. Part second: Geographic, Climatic and Floristic Survey. Part third: Geologic Evolution, Theoretic Considerations and Statistics of the Distribution of North Ameri- can Plants. Part fourth: North American Phytogeographic Regions, Formations, Associations. The geographical, historical and theoretical considerations, ex- clusive of the very complete index, occupy approximately one-half of the volume. From these one might select some interesting speculations. For example, there were three great waves of vegetation after the retreat of the ice sheet, being in order of progress, the peat bog, the tundra and the coniferous forest. The northern extension of the conifers in the West was much slower in point of time than in the East, because of the longer continu- ance of local glaciation. That is to say, the boreal climate per- sisted so much longer in the West that the coniferous forest had time thoroughly to establish itself over the whole region before the present climatic conditions obtained. Once established it held the ground by mere pre-emption. The author describes the probable advance of the members of the Atlantic Forest from their post-glacial centre of distribution in the Southern Alleghanies. His order of northern extension, however, does not correspond with the northern limits of the same species as given in Sargent’s “Manual,” or in the publi- cations of Canadian botanists. He believes that the Bald Cypress, Longleaf Pine and the Loblolly Pine came down from the hills to the westward and occupied the Costal Plain. The treelessness of the prairies is due, according to the author, to the previous pre-emption of the soil by the matted grasses, and 596 Forestry Quarterly, to the natural compactness of the prevailing loess. It would seem that Schimper, and other foreign botanists, had a clearer conception of the conditions in the treeless region for they per- ceived the floristic and ecological differentiation of the great plains and the prairies which the present author has failed to do, since he uses the two terms interchangeably. It is, however, by the phytogeographical discussions that the value of the present volume will be judged. The author states that the classification of the North American continent into zones and sections is to demark geographical locations, while the regions, districts, areas and formations differentiate natural phytogeo- graphical entities. With this statement clearly in mind, let us proceed to analyse Harshberger’s conception of such distributional groups of vegetation. The subarctic forest region of North Canada and Alaska is sub- divided into the Labrador District, the Hudson Bay-Keewatin District, the McKenzie District and the Alaska District. With the exception of the last, where Pinus murrayana is substituted for P. banksiana, and Abies lasiocarpa for A. balsamea, these divisions seem to be merely geographical, at least so far as the forest trees are concerned, and the differences in the other vege- tation are not made clear in the text. The Atlantic section of the north temperate zone is divided into three regions, namely: the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region; the Atlantic-Gulf Coast Region and the Piedmont-Appalachian-Ozark Plateau-Mountain Region. The St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region is further sub- divided into the Maritime District and the Lake District. Practi- cally the whole of New England and that portion of Canada south of the subarctic forest and east of the Ottawa River are included under the “Maritime District,’ while the region west to the prairies is comprehended in the Lake District. By this arrangement the forests of the Adirondacks and of the Green Mountains, practi- cally identical in their composition, are placed in different phyto- geographical entities. Surely this must be merely a geographic division. The New Brunswick Area, a subdivision of the Maritime Dis- trict, is made to include: ‘The northern portions of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont (including their mountain ranges), its southern boundary being determined by the southern limit of Pinus banksiana, Picea alba, as well as the northern limit of the Current Literature. 597 tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera”’ (p. 361). The southern limit of Pinus banksiana in Maine is Penobscot Bay and that of Picea alba, Casco Bay, points that can be located in “The northern portion of Maine” only by one woefully careless in his statements. If the sentence quoted above be taken literally, the northern limits of Liriodendron should be found in the northern portions of the three states mentioned. According to Sargent’s, and other tree manuals, the northern limits of the Tulip, in England, may be ap- proximately determined by drawing a line from the northeast corner of Rhode Island to the southwest corner of Vermont. If this were the southern limit of the New Brunswick Area, then the forests of White Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut and the hickories of southeastern Vermont and eastern Massachusetts would be placed in the same phytogeographical entity with those of New Brunswick where none of these species occur! If the southern limit of the Banksian Pine were the boundary, then the greater portion of the Green Mountains and the White Mountains would be excluded from the New Brunswick Area, a thing which the author did not do, as shown by the parenthesis, “including their mountain ranges” in the first sentence of this paragraph. If, as Harshberger states, the forests of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are identical, he may give an erroneous impression of both, but he surely does for those of Nova Scotia (p. 362). The mixed forest is the prevailing type, but Sugar Maple and Paper Birch are not the dominant members. Taking the Province as a whole, the Beech is more prevalent than the Sugar Maple and the Yellow Birch is more abundant than the Paper Birch. And, more- over, the conifers (Red Spruce, Balsam and Hemlock) and not the hardwoods are the dominant members of the mixed type. The author must have been only looking at the peat bogs and their low separating sandy ridges when he got the idea that Black Spruce, White Pine and Larch were the controlling members of the forest in Minas Basin (p. 364). The only place specifically mentioned in Minas Basin is Grand Pré, and this is unfortunate from the standpoint of forest description for, as the name sug- gests, the place is a prairie. The forests in sight, however, on the tops of the adjacent mountain ranges, are of the mixed type with Red Spruce and Balsam predominating. The description of other places mentioned in Nova Scotia are nearly as far from 598 Forestry Quarterly, the mark. In order to get a correct impression of the Nova Scotia forests, one must get away from the main routes of travel. In discussing the formation of Mt. Washington, the author makes this statement: “South of the northern forest mentioned, the flora belongs to the New England Area, but it may be stated here that some of the southern species like the White Oak, Quercus alba, and the Red Oak, Quercus rubra, here reached their northern limits and mingled with those more characteristic of the north” (p. 374). It is to be hoped that he had in mind only the state of New Hampshire for then the statement will not be in such glaring contradiction to the well-known facts that the White Oak extends as far north as the city of Quebec, and that the Red Oak reaches the Hudson Bay watershed in Ontario and Lake St. John in Quebec. The statement in regard to the White Oak, however, is repeated further along in the text. (See the next paragraph. ) The phytogeographic conception of the New England Area, the second subdivision of the Maritime District, is as confused as that of the New Brunswick Area for the author says: “The flora of this area is characterized by the absence of Picea alba, etc.” In the very next paragraph, however, he gives the White Spruce as one of the characteristic species of his first subdivision of the Area, namely, Sea Island (coast of Maine). To quote further: “But its (New England Area) chief characterization depends on the presence of such trees as Quercus alba, Q. prin- oides, Q. coccinea, Juniperus virginiana and Castanea dentata, which here reached their northern limit,” etc. (p. 378.) For the northern limit of Quercus alba, see the paragraph above. Q. prinoides never becomes a tree in New England and is unknown in Maine. Quercus coccinea and Castanea dentata are found only in the southeastern part of Maine, yet according to the author’s delimitation of the New Brunswick Area (p. 361), nearly the whole of the state is included in the New England Area. The Lake District of the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region is subdivided into the Lacustrine Area and the Adirondack Area. As stated above, the Maritime District is defined as extending westward to Lake Champlain and the Ottawa River. One would expect, since the Ottawa River is its western boundary, that Quebec province belonged to the Maritime District, but its flora is discussed under the head of the Lake District! Current Literature. 599 The reviewer has pointed out the author’s inaccuracies only for those regions with which he is familiar. It is to be hoped that they are not so frequent in other portions of the book. While appreciating the difficulties of the task, the careful reader of the volume can hardly refrain from wishing that the author had more thoroughly digested his data and more critically read his manu- script before publication. The work under review may be an example of the present unfortunate tendency to rush into print without proper preparation, owing to the existing standards of valuation in academic life which make publication rather than the quality of teaching the criterion of success. C.. Da Windbreaks: Their Influence and Value. By Charles. G. Bates. Bulletin 86, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. Foz%../ Pp. 100. The Forest Service has conducted experiments to obtain data on the influence of windbreaks upon the atmospheric and soil conditions which affect the growth of plants. The object of the author’s investigations was to find out whether the combined protective and timber value of windbreaks were equal to the value of field crops which might be grown on the area occupied by the trees. The Bulletin is divided into four parts whose headings are: A synopsis of Conditions; Measurement of Physical Fac- tors; Direct Results of Windbreak Planting—Timber Yields; Summary. : In the second part, we find that the amount of light used by trees in the north-south row is considerably greater than that taken up by trees arranged in east-west lines and the shading is not only greater in volume but greater in extent. This is due to the fact that north-south windbreaks receive sunlight from one side or the other during about two-thirds of the day, while in the east-west row, especially in midsummer, the shadows fall outside of the area covered by the branches. Crops adjacent to a north- south row will, therefore, suffer more from shading than those adjacent to an east-west windbreak. The author recommends the east-west arrangement in the middle West where most of the winds are northerly or southerly and in the northern prairies and Lake States, the north-south rows. Goo Forestry Quarterly The probable competition for water between the roots of trees and the roots of crops was only approximated by determining the average root extent of the various species used for wind- breaks. Contrary to the general opinion, it was found that the cottonwood has the least extensive roots of any of the broadleaf species and hence has the least power to damage crops in dry seasons. In regard to the efficiency of windbreaks in checking evaporation, the author states that the area protected is pro- portional to the height and density of the windbreak and the distance to which protection is felt increases with the velocity of the wind. The protection is appreciable to a distance equal to five times the height in the windward direction and to fifteen or twenty times the height to the leeward. The windbreak in extreme cases, may save 70% of the moisture ordinarily lost by evaporation. Portions of certain wheat fields in the protection of windbreaks showed a gain in yield of 60% over the general aver- age of the entire field. In respect to temperature, the author makes this statement: “Other conditions being equal, both the highest maximum temper- ture at midday and the lowest minimum temperature at night are found at the same point relative to the windbreak and exceed about equally (in this case about 44° F.) the maximum and minimum temperatures in the open.” (p. 58.) A windbreak, ac- cording to the author, produces a hot house conditionona large scale, and once it reduces evaporation at the same time, its total in- fluence is clearly favorable to vegetation. A cornfield in Nebraska on the north side of a dense windbreak 38 feet high, made a yield in the 18 rows nearest the windbreak at the rate of 18 bushels per acre greater than the general average of the unprotected portions. Similar results are shown in the case of orchards. In a season which had been preceded by three frosts in May, twenty-eight out of thirty unprotected orchards gave a yield ranging from less than one to three pecks per tree. Partially protected orchards gave an average yield per tree of one-half bushel to three bushels, while well protected orchards in the same locality gave an average yield of 4.9 bushels. The value of the windbreak in this case is given as four-fifths the value of the orchard per acre over a belt ten times as wide as the height of the windbreak. Practically all of the author’s investigations point to the con- clusion that windbreaks pay for themselves, without considering Current Literature. 601 their fuel or timber value, by the increased yield of crops due to their protection. The Bulletin closes with recommendations for the proper species in different soils in the various regions of the United States. C.D. Forest Conditions of Illinois. By R. Clifford Hall and O. D. Ingall. Bulletin, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Volume 9, Article 4. Urbana, Illinois. 1911. Pp. 175-253. The survey leading to the present report was made by the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History in co-operation with the Forest Service, and is based upon investigations conducted in the winter and spring of 1910. For purposes of description and authors divide the State into the Northern District and the South- ern District, the dividing line being approximately the southern limit of the middle Illinoisan and early Wisconsin glacial drift, being roughly located by a line running from St. Louis to Shelby- ville and thence east to the northeastern corner of Clark County. South of this drift margin, the State was originally chiefly forest with little prairie, while north of it the region was chiefly prairie with little forest. The Southern District is divided into the Bottomland type, the Upland Hill type and the Upland Plain type, while the Northern District contains only two types, namely, the Bottomland type and the Upland type. The composition of each type with its vari- ations in different localities is given in detail, including tables giving the composition percentage for each county studied. From these tables it is shown that the Bottomland type of the southern counties is controlled by Pin Oak, Sweet Gum, Elm and Hickory, while that type in the northern counties is dominated by Elm, Soft Maple, Cottonwood and Willow. The Upland Hill type is an extension of the Ozark Plateau of Missouri and is dominated by Black, Spanish, Red, White, Post and Chinquapin oaks, which form 60% of the stand. In many places, the drier slopes and upper south slopes are controlled by the Post Creek, mixed with Black-jack Oak, Black Oak and Pignut Hickory. The Upland Plain type is characterized by oak-hickory associations on well- drained undulating country having a yellow-gray or a yellow silt 602 Forestry Quarterly, loam soil and by the post-oak association on poorly drained shallow light gray silt loam having a light clay subsoil. The forests of the northern Upland type are similar to the oak-hickory type of the southern region but are characterized by an increase in proportion of Basswood, Black Walnut and Sugar Maple. As the extreme North is reached, the presence of Aspen, Black Birch, Paper Birch and the sporadic occurrence of White Pine mark the overlapping of the more northern tree associations. The present forest area of Illinois is estimated at two million acres, or 54% of the total land area. The considerations outlined above occupy approximately one- half of the bulletin, the remaining half being concerned with such subjects as ownership and taxation, timber industries and forest management. We find that 115 million feet, exclusive of fuel, post and ties, were cut in the State in 1900. It is unfortunate that a deficiency of funds did not allow the publication of the map of forest types which was submitted by the authors but not published. C. Dre The Blister Rust of White Pine. By Perley Spaulding. Bulle- tin 206, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Washington, D.C. iIg11. Pp. 88. The issuing at this time of an exhaustive bulletin on the “blister rust of the white pine’ seems to be timely, for legislation aided by the intelligent co-operation of importers of pine seedlings, promises to prevent this pest, which has made such serious ravages in Europe, from getting a foothold in America. The fungus itself, is probably native to Eurasia, where it has been long known. It passes its life history on two hosts, the aecidial stage on some few species of pines (possibly originally on Pinus cembra only) and the uredo—and teleuto—stages or various species of currents and gooseberries (26 species of Ribes in all, and none is known to be immune). The attention of Europeans was first seriously directed to this disease by the damage wrought to white pine, which has been so great in many places as to actually interfere with its successful culture. The blister rust fungus is essentially a bark disease of seedling pines and young branches of older trees. It reveals its presence by swellings of Current Literature. 603 infected portions of the stem, and by the appearance on these regions first of blister-like patches of bark, which soon crack, per- mitting the escape of small drops of a sweet, sticky, colorless fluid, and later of yellowish-white pustules, aecidial fructifications. Diseased seedlings and young trees are usually killed by the fungus. Once a seedling or tree is infected there is no known way of eradicating the disease without destroying the host. ‘The five-leaved pines are peculiarly susceptible. In order to guard against the establishment of the disease in America, it is recommended that importation of European stock be stopped or permitted only by special license, that Ribes stock be inspected, and, if suspected, planted at least 500 feet from the nearest white pines, and finally that diseased plants, whether of Ribes or Pinus, be rooted out and burned. It is of interest to note that the Canadian government have already adopted pre- cautionary regulations relative to imported European nursery stock. The bulletin closes with a complete bibliography on the subject. J... &; The Timber Rot Caused by Lenzites sepiaria. By Perley Spaulding. Bulletin 214, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. t1g11. Pp. 46. Lengites sepiaria (Wulf.) Fr. is cosmopolitan, having been re- ported from every continent in the world. In the United States alone, it is estimated that about one-quarter of the structural timber brought into use annually is attacked by this fungus. Its attacks are all but restricted to coniferous woods, and of these few, if any, are immune. Lenzites is a saprophyte; there is no clear record of its occurrence at any time on living wood. The disease is mainly disseminated by means of spores, which are pro- duced in vast numbers by the fruiting bodies. These infect the wood mainly through season cracks or checks. Interesting details are given in the article relative to the development of the fruiting body, germination of the spores, methods of culture of the fungus, inoculations of sound timber, and the gross and microscopic ap- pearance of the affected wood. There is also a review of the factors favorable to the growth of wood-rotting fungi, with which everyone having anything to do with the handling of timber 604 Forestry Quarterly, should be acquainted, and on which methods of preservation are based. In order to prevent decay caused by Lenzites the follow- ing advice is given: (1) cutting during late summer, fall and winter; (2) floating of timber; (3) good drainage of ground on which the wood is used; (4) rapid seasoning followed by painting with preservative substances; (5) the use of composite timbers instead of single large ones. But the most effective way is by treatment with solution of chemicals of which creosote is the best. The collection and burning of the decayed wood is also advisable. An exhaustive bibliography is appended. J. Ese A Biologic and Taxonomic Study of the Genus Gymnospor- angium. By F. D. Kern. Bulletin 26, New York Botanical Garden, Volume VII, r911. Pp. 392-494. Part I deals briefly with problems of distribution, culture methods, life histories and pathological phenomena. The attacks of these fungi on apple, pear, and quince trees are sometimes so severe as to cause considerable damage. Orchardists have tried spraying, but with very indifferent results. The conifers affected belong exclusively to the genera Juniperus, Chamaecyparis, Libocedrus and Cupressus. Part II is an important contribution to the taxonomy of the genus, successfully attempting as it does “to present a systematic treatment of all the species known to occur in any part of the world.’ Forty species in all are de- scribed. Complete analytic keys and an extensive bibliography constitute a valuable part of the paper. J. HF. V olatilization of Various Fractions of Creosote after thew Injection into Wood. By C. H. Teesdale. Circular 188, U. S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory Series. Washington, 19: 0.) TOEE, LP aa as In this experiment, forty-eight specimens of sap loblolly pine were treated with five fractions of creosote obtained by redistil- ling a good commercial grade of coal-tar creosote. Weekly weighings determined the volatilization, other experiments show- ing that the loss in weight was not related to the moisture con- Current Literature. 605 tent of the pieces. One set of specimens was treated with creo- sote similar in composition (as shown by fractional distillation) to the creosote from which the fractions were obtained. The results indicated that ‘the lighter fractions of creo- sote, when separated by distillation and separately injected into sap loblolly pine, will volatilize much more rapidly than the frac- tions combined in the original creosote. This might be explained by the supposition that when creosote containing both low-boil- ing and high-boiling oils is injected into wood, the light oils volatilize chiefly in the outer portions of the wood and leave oil that is much less volatile. The outer cells thus become more or less sealed and tend to prevent the volatilization of the lighter oils in the interior of the wood. “Tt is possible that with a light treatment, where the ducts and cells are not filled with creosote, but the cell walls are simply coated with oil, the tendency here noted would be very much less apparent. Nevertheless, it may be inferred that a creosote, to be of most value, at least for treating loblolly pine, should con- tain considerable quantities of high-boiling fractions, which ap- pear to plug up the outer cells, and so insure the retention of the lighter oils in the interior of the wood.” Biennial Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, r909-1910. Part XI: Report of the State Forester. New Haven, Connecticut. 1911. Pp. 775-804. This report deals entirely with forest fires and is a resume of the progress made during 1909-1910. The present number of town and district fire wardens is given as 605, with an average district of 2,480 acres. A marked increase in efficiency of wardens from year to year is noted, especially in the matter of organizing to pre- vent and quickly suppress fires. The use of simple fire fighting ap- paratus, especially bucket pumps for one or for two men, is advo- cated, and is made possible by the absence of mountain topography and abundance of running water. A cut is shown of the two- man bucket pump. This has been of use both in extinguishing light fires and in controlling back fires in a heavier blaze. The report discusses the question of railroad fires and methods of control, and the operation of the brush burning permit law. HH. & 606 Forestry Quarterly, Sixth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commis- sion of New Jersey, for the Year Ending October 31, 1910. Patterson, N. J. 1910. Pp. 74. The subject of forest fires is given full discussion. The con- clusion is reached that the State should supplement her present system of town wardens by employing state patrolmen to devote their whole time to the work of fire prevention. An exceptional record is shown of convictions secured for violation of fire laws, but it is held that without the above modifications, the present system will not successfully prevent fires. The state forest re- serves aggregate 13,720 acres, and will not be increased until better fire protection has been made possible. Co-operative work with individuals, and shade tree work is touched upon. ‘The sug- gestions regarding extra state wardens were acted upon by the legislature, and six division fire wardens were created, thus giving New Jersey an organization resembling that of such states as Minnesota, Maine and New York, where great efficiency has been reached in fire prevention. fic as Be 4 Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval Stores. By Charles H. Herty. Bulletin 90, U. S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 36. This bulletin contains an account of recent experiments made by the U. S. Government to conserve the naval stores industry of the South. Experiments begun in 1902 demonstrated so con- clusively the superiority of the cup and gutter system over the old and destructive box method that the commercial introduction of the system resulted. The next important feature of turpentining presenting itself for investigation was in regard to the proper depth, width and height of the wound made on a tree in chipping. Some of the results of the comparative experiments conducted on a commercial scale under normal conditions demonstrate that combined shallow and narrow chipping increase the yield; that the number of trees killed is decreased ; and that the damage to the lumber in the butt cut of chipped trees is reduced. Light cupping, that is, restrict- ing the operation to timber over twelve inches in diameter, and Current Literature. 607 closely limiting the number of cups per tree, has proved to be highly advantageous since it prolongs the period during which a crop can be worked and by exempting the young trees prevents the exhaustion of the timber available for turpentining in future, thus assuring stability and perpetuity to the naval store industry. The author refers to the so-called “secondary resin ducts which pour out crude turpentine over the wounded surface as a healing balsam.” In this connection the investigations of Dr. Simon Kirsch* are interesting. They appear to show conclusively that the vertical strands of cells containing the resin ducts are the same in character as the rays and perform the same primary functions, viz: the conduction of elaborated foodstuffs to the growing wood cells and the storage of food; that the duct is merely an intercellular space of schizogenous origin and owes its existence to the different tensions present in the various elements of the tissues ; and that resin is excreted (not secreted) during the vital processes of both the ray cells and their counterparts—the vertical parenchyma cells, and is not a substance manufactured especially for antiseptic purposes, or in traumatic phenomena for healing wounds. The wounding due to chipping stimulates the vital processes at the seat of injury and greatly increases the by- product—resin; and in consequence there is an increase in the number of ducts or passages necessary to contain it. The phe- nomena which the author of this bulletin cites as confirmation of the other theory are in entire harmony with the view just cited and which to the reviewer seems the more likely. 4 fe Bes Proceedings of the Third Annual Session of the Pacific Log- ging Congress. Compiled and issued by the Timberman, Port- land, Oregon. Pp. 68. Illustrations 121. A valuable publication containing many papers of great in- terest to both loggers and foresters. One of these deals with the Regulations Governing the Removal of Timber from the U. S. National Forests ; another with British Columbia’s Forest Policy; *The Origin and Development of Resin Canals in the Coniferae, with Special Reference to the Development of Thyloses and their Correlation with the Thylosal Strands of the Pteridophytes. Paper presented before the Royal Society of Canada at Ottawa, May, IQII. 608 Forestry Quarterly, and there are two papers dealing with logging conditions in British Columbia. Other subjects dealt with are the Construction of Logging Engine Fire Boxes; Increased Life and Efficiency of Donkey Boilers which are kept covered; The Use of Three-Drum Don- keys in Redwood Logging; The Part Played by Wire Rope Makers in the Development of the Logging Industry; Causes of Inefficient Service Charged to Wire Rope; Gasoline Logging Engines; The Adaptation of Electric Energy to Logging and How to Obtain the Best Results. There are also papers dealing with the probability of the loggers becoming large users of electric energy and the use of electric lighting in the camps. Overhead Cable-Way Systems are dealt with at considerable length in no less than four admirable papers. The necessity of railroads for the future development of the logging industry in Montana is dealt with, and there are two good papers dealing with the subject of Topographic Maps for the Laying Out or Logging Railways. On the subject of Cable Locomotives on Steep Grades there are two papers, and there is one dealing with Objections to Compressed Air. The subject of keeping systematic logging camp records is dealt with in an admirable fashion and shorter papers deal with methods of increasing camp efficiency by the creation of better sanitary conditions, etc. The subject of Personal Liability Legislation created consid- erable discussion, as did also that of Forest Fire Legislation. Timberland Taxation did not come in for its usual share of at- tention. Other papers dealt with such subjects as the Need for Uniform Methods of Grading Logs: The Charpitting of Stumps; The Profitable Utilization of By-Products of Camp and Mill; and the Development of Logged-Off Land. A. Ho. Dak Timber Bonds. By T.S. McGrath. Chicago, Ill. 1911. Pp. 504. This volume deals with a subject comparatively new in the United States. ‘Timber bonds were first issued in the country in 1902 by Southern lumbermen to provide funds for the develop- ment of their property, which would not be callable at short notice and which could be repaid as fast as the product offered as Current Literature. 609 security, was marketed. Since 1902 many bond issues have been floated, some of them sound, some unsound. The author aims in the present book to bring out the different phases of timber bonds and to provide sufficient information to guide prospective purchasers past unsafe investments. A large part of the book is taken up with two sample trust deeds and copies of bond circulars. The author appears to have furnished but little original material for the work, but it is of interest to those desirous of learning something of timber bond issues. The volume closes with a chapter on “Words and Phrases” taken from Bulletin No. 61 of the Bureau of Forestry. This contains the terms used in forestry and logging arranged in alpha- betical order and is for the purpose of supplementing the vocabu- lary of bond agents when selling their wares. The author would have better met the needs of such men by eliminating the technical forest terms from his list, since very few lumbermen or bond purchasers are conversant with them. Ry Cab. The Bradley Bibliography. A Guide to the Literature of the Woody Plants of the World, published before the beginning of the Twentieth Century. Volume I, Dendrology. Part I. Com- piled at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent. By Alfred Rehder. Cambridge, Mass. IgII. This bibliography is intended to contain the titles of all publi- cations relating wholly or in part to woody plants, including books, pamphlets and articles in periodicals and other serials in all languages published up to the end of 1900. The work will be published in five parts, of which the first, on dendrology, is now available. The second volume will contain references to literature on woody plants restricted to a particular family, genus or species. Volume III will deal with the economic products and uses of woody plants, and with arboriculture. The fourth volume will be devoted to forestry, and the fifth will con- tain an alphabetical index to all titles enumerated in these four volumes. The author has spent more than ten years in the exploration of 610 Forestry Quarterly, the principal libraries in the United States and Europe, and has brought together a most valuable reference list. Volume I on Dendrology is classified by subjects and is the most comprehensive work of its character yet published. The coming volumes will be awaited with great interest. Ri Cie Output and Consumption of Forest Products in the United States for the year 1909. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. This is an interesting compilation showing at a glance on small maps the distribution in quantity of the single items of forest pro- ducts; in the various states, 14 maps being combined into one Less THAN 100,000 M FEET (24 LESO THAN 25,000 CORDS 100 ,000 M to 500,000 M FEET EE 28 000 To 50,000 coRDS 500,000 M To 1,000,000 M FEET YZ, 80,000 To 100,000 corde Z4 1,000,000 M To 2,000,000 M reer KRG 100,000 to 500,000 corns 2,000,000 M ro 3,000,000 M Feet PRR oven 500,000 ocnos OVER 3,500,000 M Freer sheet. A similar sheet showing distribution of lumber production by species has also lately been prepared. We reproduce the two maps showing the production of lumber and consumption of pulp- wood, the two most important items. Die Rotbuche. Wirtschaftliche und statische Untersuchungen der forstlichen Abteilung der Hauptstation des forstlichen Ver- suchswesens in Eberswalde. Von Dr. Adam Schwappach, 1911. Pp. 231. This very important contribution not only to the silvicultural management of the beech and silviculture in general, but to the Current Literature. 611 methods of investigation discusses the influence of the method of treatment on increment and profitableness of the species, all based on extensive tabulations of measurement. The most valuable basis is furnished by an area for 36 years— from the 48th to the 84th year—under systematic management by thinnings in three different degrees of severity. During this period of 36 years the total volume production with light, medium and severe thinning was 7,823, 8,483, and 8,420 cubic feet respec- tively, showing the moderate thinning most effective. In another case, the performance with the severe thinning was the same as that with moderate thinning. Generally speaking, Schwappach finds that between the limits of a cross section area of 225 and 265 cubic inches lies the optimum of the increment of beech. Schiffel in reviewing the work and combining the data differently, namely making allowance for dif- ference of conditions of stands at the beginning of the investi- gations, finds that this statement in its generality is not always borne out. Schiffel’s tabulation seems to prove that, as with other species, the open position, if the opening does not exceed the limit of the ability of the stand to close up again without regard to age or cross section, does not produce more volume than the close position. The opening produces merely an improvement in quality and value increment. Other deductions are, that the current volume increment under proper treatment can be maintained for decades at about the same amount (see same for pine, F. Q., Vol. VI, p. 432), and that it is even in older age higher than has been usually believed; that larger intermediary returns from thinnings without damage to the stand can be secured than has usually been assumed. Based on these experiences yield tables for open and usual density are constructed. Schiffel throws some doubt on these tables also, and thinks that the intermediary harvests are stated too high. By Bor Au Pays Landais. Par J. H. Ricard. 1911. Pp. 250. This is a full history of the remarkable reclamation work of the Landes in south-western France, their past and present condition, and proposals for their proper management. 612 Forestry Quarterly. It appears that Brémontier, who is usually recognized as the father of this reclamation work, was preceded by Baron Charle- voix de Villiers and by M. Desbiey. ‘The last mentioned had as early as the year 1776 first proposed the use of the Maritime Pine and had planted it in various places. De Villiers, an engineer, was the first to claim the fixation of the sand dunes as necessary for the protection of the pine plan- tations which he recommended for the reclamation of the Landes. He never had a chance to put his propositions into action. Nor did Bremontier quite solve the problem of the dunes. It was Peychan who invented the idea of the front dune and of the mechanical covering of the shifting sands. The largest amount of the work of establishing the pineries was, however, called forth when the war of the rebellion stopped the naval store supplies from the United States, and prices for these rose to four times their present average. Some one and three- quarter million acres were planted with Maritime Pine. These pineries, as far as managed by the State, only 130,000 acres, are under a rotation of 75 to 80 years, which will probably be reduced to 60 years, in 5-year periods. In the periodic age classes I to IV (1-20 years) weedings go on; in the areas V to IX (20-45 years) all trees which interfere with the development of the main stand are bled to death (gemmage a mort), and, of course, removed in thinnings. In the older age classes X to XIII (45-65 years) only the smaller trees are bled to death, the others are carefully bled. The last age class (70-75 years) is bled to death in five years, and a clearing is then made, natural regener- ation having been secured in the last years. Private owners who control the bulk of the area, and corpor- ations work under no such well planned management, their inter- est centers in the largest rosin production. The conservative method of bleeding with the use of pots was devised by Hughes de Tarnos in 1844, but did not find general ap- plication until much later. The bleeding begins when trees are only 6 inches in diameter; 1,000 pines furnishing 6 to 10 casks (chalosse) of 340 liter, worth usually 70 francs, in 1907 over I12 francs. Mine props furnish the most important return freight for English trading vessels from Bordeaux, over 50 per cent. of the Current Literature. 613 export trade from that harbor being the products of these pineries. Beer, Indian Forester, July, rort. An unsigned article on “Pensions” reviews and criticises the present scale and system of Indian Forest Service pensions. The writer believes that after retirement a European pension of £500 is too small and advocates pensions after a definite age limit rather than after a period of years service. Assuming the average forest officer to enter at twenty-three years, it is recommended that the retiring age be placed at forty-eight with a possibility of continuing service in meritorious cases provided that additional pension funds can be secured. The new plan advocates con- tinuing an officer’s service say to the age of 55 with the maximum pension for Conservators at £750, for Chief Conservators at £800 and for Inspector Generals at £850. A reprint from the “Pioneer” entitled “Provincial Forest Ser- vice” gives the new regulations in regard to the pay of the Pro- vincial Forest Service. “Influence of Forests on Atmospheric and Soil Moisture” indi- cates that the Government of India is considering experiments to determine: “The local differences in the rainfall, temperature and humidity inside and outside forest areas.” “The local differences in the level of the underground water table in areas near to, and far from, forest lands, respectively.” “The local differences in the height and duration of floods after similar amounts and durations of rainfall in channels fed from forest and non-forest areas, respectively.”’ The article is concluded by a note by Dr. G. T. Walker on the effect of forests on climate and rainfall. “Want of a Definite Forest Policy in Burma” makes a plea for the establishment of a definite forest policy and particularly emphasizes present abuses. The writer urges the establishment of experimental forest gardens, closer regulation of the annual cut, provincial schemes for roads, closer forest preservation, restric- tion of cultivation, better regulation of improvement work on forests not under working plans and in addition the creation of 614 Forestry Quarterly. a staff to assist in forest engineering, marking of timber and col- lection of revenue. “Review of Forest Administration in British India for the year 1908-1909” (with a quinquennial summary) is an appreciation of the work initiated and carried out by Inspector General Eardley- Wilmot during five years of his service as inspector general. It appears that progress has been made in securing better salaries, more permanent improvement work, better fire protection, larger grazing facilities, increased value of minor forest products and an increase in the annual net revenue. Under the title ‘Fire Protection of Chir Forests” is a note by M. R. K. Jerram calling attention to the fire damage and a letter from V. A. Stowell advocating regulated burning. The issue, in addition, contains the usual correspondence, and notes on shooting. TS) Wiles OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. California Tanbark Oak: Part I. Tanbark Oak and the Tan- ning Industry, by W. L. Jepson; Pa.t II. Utilization of the Wood of Tanbark Oak, by H. S. Betts; Part III. Distribution of Tannin in Tanbark Oak, by C. D. Mell. Bulletin 75, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 34. Shows how the complete product—wood as well as bark—may be utilized, with a view to discourage the present waste. Grazing and Floods: A Study of Conditions in the Manti National Forest, Utah. By R. V. R. Reynolds. Bulletin 91, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 16. Leads to the conclusion that the floods in this region have been due to overgrazing in the Forest. Scrub Pine, (P. virginiana). By W. D. Sterrett. Bulletin 94, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 27. A monograph dealing with the silvical character, characteristics of the wood, silvicultural management, etc. Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States: II. Pines. Other Current Literature. 615 By W. L. Hall and Hu Maxwell. Bulletin 99, U. S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D.C. i911. Pp. 96. This issue is a treatment along the same lines as the first of the series, reviewed in F. Q. vol. IX, p. 469. All the species are con- sidered. ; “Colombian Mahogany:’ Its Characteristics and its Use as a Substitute for True Mahogany, by G. B. Sudworth and C. D. Mell; With a Description of its Botanical Characters, by H. Pittiér. Circular 185, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1Grr. Pp. 16. Gives the distinguishing characteristics in detail. Consumption of Wood Preservatives and Quantity of Wood Treated in the United States in r910. By H. S. Sackett. Circu- lar 186, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 4. The statistics show a great increase in the amount of material treated and a growing tendency toward the treatment of certain classes of material heretofore seldom treated, with creosote gain- ing steadily in favor. Only 29 per cent. of the creosote used was of domestic source. National Forest Fire-Protection Plans. By Coert Du Bois. Unnumbered Circular, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. ZO1t. | Pp. 8. Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber (PerM. Ft. B. M.) based on actual sales made f. o. b. each market for, April, May and June, 1911. List A., U. S. Forest Service. Washington, Pe. Regulations and Instructions for Officers in Charge of Forests on Indian Reservations. Office of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 64. Fire Prevention and Control on the National Forests. By. F. A. Silcox. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for I9I0, pp. 413-324. 1911. Washington, D. C. Progress in Saving Forest Waste. By Wm. L. Hall. Reprint 616 Forestry Quarterly. from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 255- 264. 1911. Washington, D. C. The Management of Second Growth Sprout Forests. By Henry S. Graves. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 157-168. 1911. Washington, D. C. The Agricultural Duty of Water. By W. J. McGee, Soil Water Expert, Bureau of Soils. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 169-176. 1911. Washington, D. C. The Forests of the Philippines. By H. N. Whitford, Part I, Forest Types and Products. 94 pp. Part II, The Principal Forest Trees. 113 pp. Bulletin 10. Bureau of Forestry, Manila, 1gtt. The Game Markets of To-day. By Henry Oldys, Assistant Biologist, Biological Survey. Reprint from Yearbook of Depart- ment of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 243-254. 1911. Washington, De The Utilization of Logged-Off Land for Pasture in Western Oregon and Western Washington. By Byron Hunter and Harry Thompson. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 462, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. igri. Pp. 19. A discussion of the preparation of logged-off land for pasture ; pasture plants ; pasture mixtures ; when to sow the seed ; manage- ment of the pasture; winter feed and stock to pasture. Letters from the Secretary of War transmitting, with a letter from the Chief of Engineers, Report on Preliminary Examination of Merrimac River, Mass., from Haverhill to Lowell, together with a Report on an Investigation on the Influence of Forests on the Run-off in the Merrimac River Basin. House of Represen- tatives. Document No. 9, 62nd Congress, Ist session. Pp. 123, plates 25. Washington, D.C. April 11, 1911. The Movement of Soil Material by the Wind by E. E. Free, With a Bibliography of Eolian Geology, by S. C. Stuntz and E. E. Free. Bulletin No. 68, Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 272. Other Current Literature. 617 Crop Plants for Paper Making. By Chas. J. Brand. Circular No. 82, Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. rorr. Pp. 19. A brief review of the experimental manufacture of paper from cellulose producing plants. The author has made paper from various plants, but he is not yet prepared to state that paper can be profitably manufactured from any of them. In any case, it will be possible to find only a partial substitute for wood. ‘The circular is printed on five different kinds of paper: namely shredded corn stalks (80 per cent.) and cotton hull fibre (20 per cent.) ; shredded broom corn stalks; rice straw soda pulp (77 per cent.) and sulphite spruce pulp (23 per cent.) ; broom corn soda pulp (50 per cent.) and poplar soda pulp (50 per cent.) ; pure long fibre pulp of corn stalks. Birds of Arkansas. By A. H. Howell. Bulletin 38, Biological Survey. Washington, D. C. trg11. Pp. too. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol VI, No. 2. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. 117-270. Contains: The Essentials in Working Plans for National Forests, by Barrington Moore; Conservation and Chemical Pulp, by Dr. B. Herstein; Seed Production and How to Study it, by Raphael Zon; Better Methods of Fire Control, by W. B. Greeley ; Fire Problem on the Florida National Forest, by I. F. Eldredge; In Memoriam—William Russel Dudley: Bibliography of South- ern Appalachians, by Helen Stockbridge; Amended Constitution ; List of Members. Four Insect Pests. By O. A. Johnson. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. Pp. 24. The Typhoid Fly and its Allies, one of the subjects treated, is of interest to foresters concerned in the care of men in logging camps. Seventh Annual Report of Newark Shade Tree Commission. Newark, New Jersey. 1910. Pp. 66. 618 Forestry Quarterly. Report of Committee on Preservative Treatment of Poles and Crossarms. Read before the National Electric Light Association Convention at New York, May, I911. Pp. 122. The report discusses at length the specifications covering coal- tar creosote oil, and method of analysis ; methods of treatment and standard appliances; damage to poles by wood-boring insects; and statistics of poles, crossarms, brackets and insulator pins, 1909. Lumber Freight Rates from Minneapolis to points having lumber yards in the following State: Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota. 1911. Pp. 122. Prepared by the Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association, Minneapolis, Minn. A Bud and Twig Key. By O. L. Sponsler. Reprint from Forest Club Annual, University of Nebraska, Volume III. 1911. Lincoln, Neb. Pp. 61-79. Windbreaks and Hedges. By C. B. Waldron. Bulletin No. 88, Government Agricultural Experiment Station. Fargo, North Dakota. 1910. Pp. Io. Oregon Forest Fire Law, enacted by the Twenty-sixth Legis- lative Assembly, 1911. Salem, Oregon. Pp. 16. Proceedings of the Third Annual Session of the Pactfie Logging Congress Held at Vancouver, B. C., June, 191t. The Timber- man, Portland, Oregon. 1911. Pp. 68. Eucalyptus Culture in Hawaii. By L. Margolin. Bulletin 1, Division of Forestry, Board of Agriculture and Forestry. Hono- lulu, Hawaii. 1911. Pp. 80. A Brief History of Forestry. By B. E. Fernow. Second, re- vised and enlarged edition. Toronto, Canada, and Cambridge, Mass. 1911. Pp. 506. The inaccuracies of the hastily prepared first edition are cor- rected, and the chapter on France entirely rewritten. A very full index has also been added. Other Current Literature. 619 Treatment of Artificial Tree Plantations. By E. Secrist. Cir- cular 110. Ohio Agrucultural Experiment Station, Wooster. Pp. 21, figs. 16. The Elm Leaf Beetle. By G. W. Herrick. Circular No. 8, Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. Pp. 6, figs. 9. Forests of New York. By G. M. Wiley. Arbor Day Annual New York State Educational Department, Albany, N. Y. 1911. Pp53, pl. 5, Gos. 31. Outlines are given on the teaching of forestry along with geo- graphy, agriculture, civic and physical geography. A list of forest schools and a reference list of books on forestry are in- cluded. Memorandum on Teak Plantations in Burma. By F. A. Leete. Bulletin No. 27, Indian Forest. 1911. Pp. 21, dia. 4. Notes on the relative Strength of Natural and Plantation— Grown Teak in Burma. By R.S. Pearson. Bulletin No. 3 (new series), Indian Forest. 1911. Pp. 9. Seasoning Wood by Electricity. No. 149, Daily Consular and Trade Reports. U.S. 14, 1911. P. 1373. A brief description of a new process of seasoning wood by electricity in France. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. An interesting, although not yet completed, Self series of experiments in self-fertilization of Fertilization. pine and spruce is reported by Nils Sylvén. The method pursued is the usual one of isolating fruitbuds by means of paper bags. On the pines, the cones were poorly developed (perhaps on account of improper tieing with iron wire); the cones did not open, and the seeds were all imperfect and non-germinative. In spruce, the isolated branches having been twice shaken to assist pollinization, four out of five trees developed good cones and contained good germinative seeds so far as not destroyed by the gall wasp; but with the exception the germinating per cent. was lower than that from open branches. Of one of the trees, however, 72 plants were grown from self-pollinized seed, 36 or 33 1/3% having died during the summer, while only 9.9% of plants from other seed were lost; the surviving plants of either derivation being equally vigorous. It is pointed out, that while self-fertilization depresses the germinating per cent., the growing of special favorable races, e. g. the green-coned, late-budding spruce, will only be accom- plished by this means. This consideration lends practical value to this kind of inquiry. Ueber Bestiubungsversuche mit Kiefer und Fichte. Mitteilungen aus der forstlichen Versuchsanstalt Schwedens. Heft 7, 1911. Interesting observations, continued for 15 Phenology years on the influences which determine the of flowering of plants in the neighborhood of Flowering. Brussels are reported by Vanderlinden. The greatest variation in the date of flowering is observed in the very early and the very late flower- ing plants, while the amplitude of those flowering in May is very small. The reason is, that with all early flowering plants Periodical Literature. 621 the buds are perfected in the summer and their volume increased at the expense of reserve materials. Small temperature rises (light is not an element of influence) above freezing point induce their opening, especially if the higher temperature continues for some time. The later bloomers rely upon the food materials prepared in the flowering year and hence upon the foliage of that year. Here light plays a great role as it is needed for assimilation. The later the blooming the more dependence on the presence of foliage to prepare food ma- terials. In all cases temperature and humidity are the main factors. Plants flower preferably on given dates fixed by heredity. The climatic conditions of fall or winter are without recognizable in- fluence on the flowering in the following spring and summer. The second flowering in summer or fall is said not to be depend- ent on the climatic conditions of the preceding season. - Sun- spots have no influence on flowering. To permit a plant to flower it must have passed a rest period to make it responsive to outer stimuli. While such plants can be brought to premature flowering by immersion into warm water of 28° to 30° C., those that have had no such rest period will not respond to that treatment. Die periodischen V egetationserscheinungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Klimatischen Variationen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. August, September, 1911. Pp. 420-422. At the University of Chicago, Fuller is Evaporation studying the rate of evaporation within var- Experiments. ious plant associations on the Lake Mich- igan sand dunes and adjacent areas. From a preliminary report of his investigations, we find that the pioneer tree association on the dunes is dominated by the Cottonwood; older dunes by conifers, Jack Pine in the case of the one studied. In time the conifers are displaced by Black Oak and White Oak. The amount of evaporation beneath these three kinds of stands, as measured by the porus-cup atmometer was compared with that beneath the climax beech-maple forest. Upon a percentage basis, the average rate per day through- out the season in the beech-maple forest taken as a unit, the comparative evaporation rate in the oak dune is 127%, in the 622 Forestry Quarterly. pine dune 140%, and in the cottonwood dune 260%. ‘The aver- age amount of water evaporated per day beneath the beech-maple forest was 8.1 cc. ‘The evaporation in the various associations varies directly with the order of their occurrence in the succes- sion, being greatest in the youngest and least in the oldest asso- ciation. ‘Thus it may be said that the atmospheric conditions in the lower stratum of the cottonwood dune association during the growing season are 2.6 times as severe for plant life as those in the same stratum of the beech- maple association during the same period. Evaporation and Plant Succession. The Botanical Gazette, September, 1911. Pp. 193-208. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Of more and more intense interest are the Results experiences with exotic species in Germany, with which are now for 30 years continued, and Exotic permit now the establishment of sample Trees. areas to secure data for an estimate of for- est production. Dr. Schwappach brings together these experiences from all the trial planting in Prussia, discussing species by species with estimate of the value of each and giving a tabulation of all the trial plantings with measurements—a very full report, worth studying. Out of 1,600 acres of exotic plantations in 1900, 1,040 re- mained in 1910; the Douglas spruce leading with 325 acres. Of the six Abies species tried, amabilis, concolor, firma, grandis, nobilis and Nordmanniana, Abies concolor has proved the best, being the most rapid grower, rivaling even the Norway spruce on fresh, humose loam soils. It differs from the other firs by being less tolerant, especially of overhead shade; it is almost light-needing. Its resistance to frost and heat and to damage by mice and game is also praised. It is the only Abies of special value. Of Picea five species, ajanensis, alcockiana, engelmanni, pun- gens, sitchensis, have been tried; only the last is found forestally of value, and especially near the seashore in the northern lati- tudes, where on account of its freedom from Schiitte, as well as Periodical Literature. 623 of resistance to seawinds, it is destined to supplant the native spruce. It also is fit for peaty, moist soils. It produces larger amounts than the native spruce; a sample area showing the enormous increment of 380 cubic feet timberwood in five years. It thrives on sites to which the native spruce is not adapted, and is altogether highly recommended. Of the five pines, banksiana, jeffreyi, ponderosa, laricio, rigida (strobus is considered fully established) the first is only fit to cover the poorest soils and perhaps to serve as nurse crop and filler. It bears seed from the 8th year on. It suffers from the game, fortrix and “nun” very much. The two Rocky mountain species have not developed any points of distinctive value for North Germany; nor is Jaricio of special value except where silvestris is not at home. Pinus rigida has behaved very badly, most of the trees died, broken down by snow and killed by fungi. Only scientific inter- est is attached to it. Its value as an admixture to silvestris on poor sites on account of its more plentiful leaffall is, however, recognized. Juniperus virginiana has not proved of value in North Ger- many. Of larches, Larix leptolepis from Japan continues to be favor- ably reported on. It grows more rapidly than the native larch for the first 25 years, but its height growth culminates early (50 to 55 feet and 7 inch diameter at 23 years recorded). Its resist- ance to the larch moth and to fungus disease is an additional recommendation. Of Cypresses, three Chamaecyparis were tried, namely obtusa and pisifera from Japan, and lawsoniana from United States. The former two are found most subject to damage by mice, yet on account of its superior wood quality obtusa is useful as an admixture on better sites in mild climate. Lawsoniana thrives most excellently in most varied situations; average fresh loamy soil is best; on dry soil forking seems more frequent. It is an intolerant species, but requires side protection, and is entirely unfit to be used on large cleared areas, but is recommended for filling out openings. Branches remain alive a long time, since it has no spreading habit. Fungus diseases and damage by mice are not infrequent, but on account of its excellent wood it should be used more freely. “Pseudotsuga douglasit has fulfilled in full 624 Forestry Quarterly. measure the high expectations which were placed on it, if seeds are secured from proper localities. It is the most valuable of the introduced exotic species, and has paid completely for all the expense incurred in finding it out. This refers to the green variety from Oregon and Washington, not to the gray one from Colorado. It is found best on fresh sand to mild loam, except near the seashore. Some records of its being frost killed when 20 years old were found to be due to the sudden removal of a protective stand, when drouth from exposure to winds re- sulted, Only in seedbeds and transplant beds does frost affect es- pecially the habitual second shoots which do not find time to ripen their wood; but the damage is readily repaired. The question of seed supply is discussed in favor of the green rapidly growing variety from the Fraser River. Growth data are given showing remarkable production. The stand, to secure both height and diameter growth, must be kept open. In planta- tion no closer spacing than 4.5 to 5 or even 6 feet is desirable, and four-year old transplants are best used. Smaller stock may be used and closer planting (3.5-4.5 feet) for mixture with pine and spruce, saving expense; the Douglas spruce from the eighth year on shooting ahead and finding good growing space. Thin- nings should be made early and at once severe. Certain experi- mental plats showed that the second thinning in the 28th year should remove as much as 50% of the stem number, the stand at 30 years retaining 360 to 400 trees. A few figures of production are given below. Thuya gigantea, if grown on suitable, i. e. better soils, loamy sand or fresh mild loam, and with side protection, has been found better than expected a decade ago; it is somewhat liable to succumb to drouth, and being very tolerant, it clears itself with difficulty. Early, severe thinnings, however, are necessary after the clearing. Of hemlocks, Tsuge heterophylla (Mertensiana) loses its last shoots readily by frost but as readily recuperates, and on ac- count of its silvicultural characteristics (shade endurance?) and good quality of wood (?) is considered worthy of use. Beauty is all that can be claimed for 7. canadensis. Of broadleaf species as unquestionably commendable with due consideration of the requirements on the site are cited Carya alba Periodical Literature. 625 and porcina, Juglans nigra, Quercus rubra, and Magnolia hypo- leuca. Of only limited value are Betula lutea, Fraxinus ameri- cana, and Prunus serotina, and for their esthetic value only our maples, although Acer saccharum is considered excellent in cop- pice with standards and selection forest. Tables showing in detail forest conditions and measurements of some 26 areas from 20 to 30 years old are given, in which some I1 different species or combinations are shown. Of these perhaps of most interest is the large volume increment for the third decade in Pseudotsuga, namely from 320 to 388 cubic feet of workwood (over 3 inch) per acre. The figures for the best stand show in the 27th year 499 trees with an average diameter of 7 inch and height of 53 feet, a vol- ume of workwood of 753 cubic feet, the thinnings having re- moved 454 trees with 345 cubic feet, the average increment dur- ing the last 5 years being 382 cubic feet of workwood. (See experiences in Hesse, p. 490 of this volume!) Die weitere Entwicklung der Versuche mit fremdlandischen Holzarten in Preussen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen. August, September, I9ll. Pp. 501-617; 757-782. Burkhardt breaks a lance for this rare and Plantations usually unconsidered species. Citing the of literature of the species he gives a brief Taxus life history of its development. It reaches baccata. a height of over 60 feet, and diameters of over 4 feet are on record. An account of various trial plantations is given, and on account of its excellent wood for special uses its occasional employment is recommended. Anbauversuche mit der Eibe. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt August, September, 1911. Pp. 457-468. In a long article continued through sev- Management eral numbers of the journal Forstmeister of Wiebecke gives an account of the methods Pine pursued in Eastern Germany in the culti- Forest. vation of the Scotch Pine. Hardly any- thing short of a translation will do justice to the account which covers every detail. We can, therefore, only refer to it as a useful reference article. Ostdeutscher Kiefernwald, seine Erneuerung und Erhaltung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst—und Jagdwesen. September, 1911. Pp. 686-708 626 Forestry Quarterly. Dr. v. Lorenz reports on an experiment of Fertilizer 7 years duration on 10 areas to find out im whether the substitution of a commercial Forest fertilizer (Thomas slag, Chili saltpetre and Production. potash salts), as much as could be pur- chased for the amount which was secured from the sale of litter in a rather dry pine forest (Vienna Forest), 70 years old, namely $6.00, would compensate for the loss of the litter by increased wood production. There was an actual increase of from 175 to 250 cubic feet on the area involved, but the money returns were such as to leave an annual deficit of about 20 cents per acre per year. The deduction is that, at least on dry soils, fertilizers do not pay. Ein Dingungs versuch in Schwarzfihren-Stangenholz. Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreichs. Heft XVI, rort. Experiments reported by Gunnar Schotte Seed show that the age of seed trees of pine do Supply. not appear to influence the progeny appre- ciably. From the extensive tabulated results with seeds of different derivation it is again proved that seeds from northern localities furnish generally smaller plants than from southern. Their annual shoots are shorter, as well as their branches, hence the habitus is a more slender, narrow one. ‘The needles of the north- ern stock are generally shorter, but a little broader, and more yel- low in winter ; the bark somewhat lighter than those of the plants from southern Sweden. Ueber die Provenienzfrage und das Alter des Mutterbaumes bei Kiefern Kultur. Mitteilungen aus der forstlichen Versuchsanstalt Schwedens. Heft \7, 1911. An anonymous G. Z. pointing out that in Selection Switzerland private forests, mostly in small Method holdings, are not managed as they should for be, and that increase in production is highly Private desirable, advocates for this purpose the Forest. selection forest method. His arguments consider the soil, the stand, the conditions of the owner and requirements of political economy. Periodical Literature. 627 For the maintenance of favorable soil conditions the selection forest has many advantages and no disadvantage. Size of property is a requisite for a compartment system of silviculture, while the selection forest is adapted to any size of property; the soil is not only protected but is improved and, as the author claims, made ready for natural regeneration. The selection forest is the treatment most independent of a neigh- bor’s doing, and increases the interest of the owner by requiring him to select and pay attention to the young growth, while a compartment system is apt to lead to neglect of the felling area. In furnishing the requirements of the farm and occupation in winter for men and animals the selection forest furnishes the best opportunity and permits to satisfy the variety of wants for different kinds and sizes. The author thinks that the selection forest, because of the dis- tribution of sizes and kinds provokes less to speculation than the concentrated even-aged forest, and less to overcutting because the speculator cannot as readily determine quantities, as in the simple compartment. Hence in Switzerland the worst condi- tions of private forest is found where a clearing system has been introduced, and the best in the selection forest. The author agrees that to carry on a rational selection system more knowledge and skill is required than in simpler clearing systems, but does not place much weight on this objection. There- fore, gross mistakes will be rarely made. The protective value of the selection forest is then accentuated, which in the mountainous country of Switzerland is of great im- portance. Privatwald und Plenterbetrieb. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forst- wesen. September, October, 1911. Pp. 247-255. = caxzevenere Thy RSE Tee Sr iy Soe es Ae Gap Seco pd | The literature on this dangerous enemy of Combating the spruce and pine is still growing. A the long article on the polyeder disease of the Nun. Nun (Lymantria monacha L.) by Dr. Wahl runs through various numbers of the Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen; an article by Klock also en- larges from the practical side on the use of this disease, in the Forstwissenschaftliche Centralblatt. Dr. Sedlaszek reports on experiments through four years in 628 Forestry Quarterly. Bohemia with the use of insect lime. The results of this series of experiments show that the use of insect lime is only a partial protection and not reliable. ‘The shorter the duration. of the invasion, the sooner the disease appears and other enemies deci- mate the caterpillars, the more effective the lime rings. In the same Mitteilungen, Dr. Zederbauer discusses the influ- ence of climatic conditions on the propagation of this insect and a few others. It appears that there is a relation between rainfall and cater- pillar multiplication. In rain-poor regions and rain-poor, dry and warm periods the mass multiplication of these insects is fa- vored. Such enormous multiplication is limited toward the north and vertically by the July isotherm + 16° and the rainfall of 60 to 100 cm. The most endangered regions are those having less than 60 cm. rainfall. Regions with rainfall above 100 cm. do not know the pests, while those having rainfall of 70 to 100 cm. show large development only in dry years. Ueber dic Polyeder Krankheit der Nonne. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst- wesen. June, 1911. Pp. 247-268, and earlier numbers (1909.) Neue Anregungen aus der forstlichen Praxis zur Bekimpfung der Nonne. Forstwissenchaftliches Centralblatt. July, 1911. Pp. 377-393. Versuche sur Bekimpfung der Nonne mittelst Leimringen; and Klima und Massenvermehrung der Nonne und einiger andrer Forstschadlinge. Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreiches. Heft XXVI, I9QII. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. Schiffel discusses at great length and with Effect much mathematical detail the influence of of faulty measuring of the factors on the re- Errors sulting volume of round wood. in Price, i. e. value, depends in the first Measuring. place on volume, and with the increase of price per unit the question of correct meas- urements is becoming more and more important. While at pres- ent the middle diameter and length of a log is supposed to suf- fice for a determination of volume, the author expects eventually the use of several diameters and formulas, as developed by him. (See F. Q., vol. IT.) Periodical Literature. 629 I. Errors in Diameter Measure. I. Errors in diameter measurements with calipers come most frequently from the fact that one, or both of the arms are not at right angles to the scale. This error, if the scale is pushed close to the stem or log, is proportional to the angle by which the arm or arms are not at right angles, and are in direct relation to the true diameter, i. e. the diameters of large and small logs are read off faultily in the same proportion. The following table gives the errors in per cent. of the true diameter for different angles of error: MMEDUOTLOE c's ccc cos de cet ans: 0°30") 8 BT gs), 4c iolae) (Seiahin Cohen 6) aM eee .40 .87 1.74 2.57 3.49 4.37 5.26 If, therefore, the angle of error on one, or both caliper legs is 3°, the diameter will be measured 24% short. With this table it is possible to correct caliper results obtained by a faulty caliper. The error is different when, as most frequently with small logs, the scale cannot be pushed close to the log. Here the error is uncertain, depending on the vertical distance of the scale from the log. Hence, for practical work the caliper should be so con- structed (short arms) as to permit close contact of scale to log. If this is not done, the same faulty caliper measures the smaller logs with absolutely and still more relatively greater error, than the larger; and the error can be quite considerable. For in- stance, for an error of angle of only 24 and a true diameter of 4 inches with a distance of the scale from the log of Io inches the error would be 8.7%, while if the scale could have been pushed close to the log it would have been only 1.44%. 2. Another frequent error arises from applying the caliper so that it will not be at right angles to the plane in which the true diameter lies, when the measured diameter is necessarily larger. The amount of error depends, of course, upon the angle at which the caliper deviates from the right angle. From the fol- lowing table it appears that the error is not great until about 7° deviation is attained. Smeenerrinr 1° 2° 37 a BO Be! BP Oe. Ot. Iss per cent. of error: .02 .06 .14 .24 .38 .55 .75 .08 1.25 1.54 2.23 4.03 This error works in opposite direction to the first one dis- 630 Forestry Quarterly. cussed, hence these errors may compensate. But this is not to be relied upon, since an error of 4% due to a loose caliper arm, would not be compensated by a less than 15% shifting of the caliper from the diameter plane. 3. The error resulting from omitting fractions of inches (cen- timeter) and rounding off downward, is, of course, percentically less for stout, than for small diameters; it is a function of the diameter, and assuming that the average neglect is.45 cm.,the per- : 45 : centage of error is p Tee Translating 5 centimeters into 2 inches the following relations appear: diameter Cras i ccc: sepa Shien etal 4 6 8 10 12 per cent OF error: Bon ees i. v0 4.5 3 2.25 1.8 1.5 The error is decreasing with the diameter, but at 18 inches it is still 1%, if only 1/5 of an inch is dropped. When measuring two diameters of the same cross section the dropping should be applied not to each but to the arithmetic mean, when the error is minimized. This double measuring also checks errors in mere reading of the scale. II. Errors in Determining Cross Sections. If measuring two diameters and the result is nearly the same the cross section may be assumed to be a circle; but if the dif- ference is great, the question may arise how to determine the area. Three ways are practicable: namely, to determine the area for each diameter and take the mean; calculating the area from the mean of the two diameters; or taking the diameters as the axes of an ellipse and calculating its area. Usually the second method is used. G. Heyer proved long ago that the calculation as ellipse gives always the smallest areas. That is to say, the usual practice of calculating the cross section area from the mean of two very unlike diameters as circle gives too high results. An investigation shows that, as a rule, the error is so small that it does not call for correction. Only with small diameters and great difference of the two does the error appear significant: e. g., 18 d'= 4,02: 6, then.p = 4.17 a III. Errors in Measuring Log Lengths. These are too simple to require discussion. . Perwodical Literature. 631 IV. Influence of Dimension Errors on Volume. Errors of diameter measurement. These depend on whether only one or several cross section areas are used. If the cubing is done by the use of the middle cross section, as is usual with logs in Germany, the volume errors are in direct proportion to the diameter errors and the volume error per cent. is double the diameter error per cent. If, e. g. in measuring a diameter of 12 inches, an error of 4 inch or 4% has been made the error in volume will be 8%. It can also be shown that the volume error per cent. grows with the same diameter error as the diameters, or with equal diameter error per cent. the volume error per cent. grows with the diameter. Practically this means that the dropping of frac- tions, the rounding off, should be gauged according to diameters, if a certain volume error per cent. is not to be exceeded. If, for instance, a volume error of 5% is to be the limit, then the following must be the maximum diameter errors: PUTA Re eB ore eee 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 permissible error, .......... B8750.5 6525)" 7.80) $575.10 11.25 The error increases in arithmetic progression. The errors resulting in the use of different formulae for cubic contents are similarly traced. It appears that by cubing logs on the basis of two cross sec- tions errors of measurement are largely compensated, at least as far as the faulty choice of place for measurement and the measuring of diameters in an oblique plane to the diameter is concerned. Errors in length measurement produce the same error in vol- ume, that is to say, if a log has been measured 2% short it will be calculated 2% short in volume if only one cross section area has been used in the computation, and the same if several areas are used. In the latter case, the error in length measurement may also shift the position of the area whose diameter is to be measured and complicates matters. In summarizing, the need of properly constructed calipers, the close contact of scale stick of the caliper to the stem or log, are accentuated. An example shows the importance of looking after little things. 632 Forestry Quarterly. By the faulty caliper arms the small error of 1% may be ex- perienced, by oblique application an error of 2%, by rounding off the diameter an average error of 2%, altogether 5%, which results in an error in volume of 10%. Add 1% in length meas- urement and over 10% on price is lost. Ueber den Einfluss fehlerhafter Bestimmungen der Dimensionen auf den Inhalt von Rundholz. Centralblatt f. ‘d. g. Forstwesen. August, Septem- ber, 191i. Pp. 371-390. While we are accustomed, estimating by V olume board feet, to find as a rule the mill cut Tables overrun considerably even the closest esti- and mate or the best log scale, Gayer states the Felling interesting fact that in Germany, notably Results. Baden, the felling results almost invariably remain below the measurement of the stands made by use of general volume tables, the reason being that the latter are made as accurate as possible, while in working up the stand there are practically various losses, of which the volume table does not or cannot take cognizance. Determining the volume of logs by middle diameter gives from 2-4% lower results than the sectioning usual in constructing volume tables; the usage of dropping fractions in the diameter measurement may amount to 5-11% loss; the full length of the log is not always measured; a bark per cent. allowance of 10% does not in all species tell the story; the stump which for volume tables is allowed to be one-third of the stump diameter is frequently too low for logging practice; while volume tables are made on green stands, the logscale and cordwood are measured half dry, entail- ing a loss of four or more per cent.; brushwood below 3 inches is always many per cent. below the xylometric measurements ; and loss by chips, etc., does not appear in the volume tables. In the literature all these losses are stated at from 6 to 15 and even 20 per cent. The author has made careful comparisons on 13 sample areas of pine from 61 to 100 years old, in which the difference between the stock by volume tables, checked by Schiffel’s form quotient measurements, and the logging results varied between 2.4 and 14.7%, in the average about 8%, and including the cordwood up to 15%. In another investigation on selection forest material Periodical Literature. 633 of spruce and fir the difference was 12.5 to 16% of the meas- ured stand. In order to obviate these discrepancies between tables and actual result the forest administration of Baden last year ordered for all conditions a reduction of 10% in the use of volume tables for working plans. In Bavaria on the other hand, the new regulation for working plans, of 1910, calls for the opposite method, namely addition to the actual felling results. The author points out that by these arbitrary methods the pos- sibility of comparison of results is vitiated. Especially if deduc- tions are to be made as to changes in stock and increment, con- clusions become dangerous,\since a 10-year increment per cent. may be entirely lost in these allowances. Such inquiries, there- fore, must be separately conducted and not be based on this kind of booking. Ueber Bestandesmassenberechnung nach Massentafeln und Schlager- gebnisse der Praxis. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. August, Sep- tember, 1911. Pp. 430-441. An article by Japing with elaborate tabula- Relative tions and diagrams as a result of measure- Increment ments continued for 18 years in a spruce of stand, at the time of beginning 47 years Tree Classes. old, brings data to show the participation of different tree classes, differentiated either according to Kraft (see F. K., vol. III, p. 41), or simple diam- eter classes arranged by equal numbers, in the progressive vol- ume production, and the changes in position of the different tree classes. The five diameter classes—the same number of stems in each class—beginning with the stoutest, participated, varying at seven different measurements, to the following extent in the total incre- ment percentically: Class I, 35 to 41%; class II, 24 to 30%; class III, 16 to 23%; class IV, 10 to 14%; class V, 4 to 9%. It was found again, as previously by Weise on the same sample area that ‘‘the stoutest stem classes participate in the total incre- ment with the same per cent., that they have in the total volume; 634 Forestry Quarterly. the lower classes, however, not even with the small per cent. which they form of the total volume.” The remarkable fact is that in a 10-year increment period more than half the stems changed their position in class. If a stem in one period of five years did not keep its place in relation to the increment increase of all other stems, i. e. lapsed, it would still further lapse in the next period. The same tendency in the opposite direction was observed for stems which got ahead. The middle stem classes showed the greatest variation in growth energy, while the stoutest and the slimmest trees showed the least or altogether no change in position in these five- and ten-year growth periods. The change in relative growth energy of the single trees of a stand appears much greater than has been usually assumed. As regards the stem classes according to Kraft’s prescription they show more sharply these changes and contrasts. The author points out that in the practice of thinnings the Kraft tree class differentiation is the best one by which to determine the laggards to be removed and the vigorous growers to be fa- vored. Ueber das Wachstum der Kraftschen Stammklassen im Verlauf einer zehnjahrigen Zuwachsperiode. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. September, 1911. Pp. 663-686. In a very thoughtful article, Eberbach Relations proves mathematically that the money rate between per cent. at which a management class under Volume sustained yield works is always less than the and volume increment per cent. The latter, Value however, gives an approximate idea of the Production. money interest (p) attainable, which as a rule, remains 20 to 30% under the volume interest (q). Therefore, to improve p, one must improve q, which can only be done by either raising the felling budget or reducing the stock capital, and as the latter alternative rarely recom- mends itself, all effort must be made to increase the increment, which can be mainly done by a proper thinning practice, generally speaking by taking out the trees which do not grow at a profitable rate and leaving those which do, no matter how old or stout they Periodical Literature. 635 are—a change from compartment clearing to a form resembling the selection forest. If gq, i. e. the volume increment, is not any more capable of being increased, then the growing stock (capital) must be reduced to secure a higher p. The objection usually made to this, that this means a reduction of rotation and, therefore, of older valuable age classes, is refuted by the author by means of two diagrams, triangles as usually used to represent growing stock, and showing that the reduction can be done in two ways, namely by cutting off the end of the triangle, i. e. reducing the last age classes, shortening the rota- tion, or else curtailing the area of the older age classes from the 4oth year on, but preserving all the age classes of the original rotation (shaving off a part of the triangle so as to make an un- equal quadrangle). The diminution of the stock in this way can be accomplished even with a lengthening of rotation. In this way p may be in- creased not only due to the reduction of capital, but by the very probable increase of increment of felling budget. The only other way to raise p is to secure better prices or better financial results by more careful utilization, reduction of ex- penses, generally economic administration. Soil values exercise a compensating influence on g. High soil values depreciate, (low values favor), p. until it may reach zero; the soil is too expensive to practice forestry on. The author then develops the relation between volume and money interest in the crown forests of Baden for the year 1907. The budget was 577,950 fm, the stock capital 25,820,990 fm, hence the increment per cent. (budget per cent.) 2.24. Having established an average net value per fm of 8 Mk (5.4 cents per cubic foot, of which 41.4% is workwood) for the net yield of the felling budget (21.2 million cubic feet), against which all ex- penses of management have been charged and 10.4 Mk (7 cents per cubic foot) for the standing stock of wood (stumpage value without cost of administration) over 40 years old (89% of the total stock), and figuring the soil value at 58% per acre, for the round 220,000 acres, the value per cent. which has been attained is only 1.44, or 36% less than the volume per cent.—a poor show- ing! 636 Forestry Quarterly. The argument that the forest value has been figured too high because it could not be secured by a forced sale the author de- molishes very cleverly by pointing out that the condition of forced sale is not likely to occur, and that his values have been secured from actual sales of parcels, and he nails the method of calculating the forest value by capitalizing the present net yield of about 1.3 million dollars with an arbitrarily chosen 3% interest rate to about forty-two million dollars instead of the eighty million dol- lars as above. The author then deplores the lack of sufficient data regarding increment on which to base closer calculations as to whether the best relation between stock and increment is attained. He advo- cates the establishment of a reserve fund to eke out uneven felling budgets, and to this end a reduction of stock capital by withdraw- ing double the present felling budget for a number of years (amounting to 46, million cubic feet) and placing the 3.6 million dollars ‘thus derived from the forest on interest, thereby easing the silvicultural management and booking the interest to the forest credit. In the further discussion the subdivision of costs is of interest. The total cost of producing 100 cubic feet is $4.17, of which $1.31 goes for personnel of the administration; $1.50 for wood chop- pers; 24.6 cents for cultures ; 64 cents for roads, new construction and maintenance; other general expenses, including labor, in- surance, etc., 47.4 cents. In these items the author thinks that really only the cost for roads (new construction, not maintenance) can be reduced; he is doubtful as to whether expense for cultures.can in the end be profitably reduced by fostering natural regeneration; he suggests keeping the personnel costs from growing by applying the prin- ciple of not letting an expensive man do what a less expensive man could do as well, i. e. the mechanical work of the forest. The whole article is worth pondering over; the article itself speaks in simple mathematical formulae developing this forest value theory, which we have translated into common language. In a short note in the same journal Wimmenauer takes ex- ception to the idea that to the material of the felling budget should be given a lower value than to that of the standing timber. He has come to the conclusion that the cost of administration is Periodical Literature. 637 covered by intermediary incomes, so that forest net yield and felling budget net yield exceeds mostly from 1 to 10% the net stumpage value of the felling budget. With this assumption the stumpage value of the stock capital comes in the large average to .6 per unit of the ripe wood, and the interest rate varies between .6 and 2.5, so that it can be higher than the volume per cent. Ueber die Bezichungen der Massen-und Geldverzinsung in Hochwald- betriebsklassen mit besondrer Beriicksichtigung der badischen Doménen- waldungen. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. July, 1911. Pp. 357- 377; also October, 1911. Pp. 541-542. In a rather convincing, and short argument Forest Oberforstrat Frey points out that exchange Valuation. values, i. e. present market prices de- termined by present offerings and demands are the only tenable ones in forest valuation ; that both, stand cost values dealing with the uncertain past, and expectancy values dealing with the still more uncertain future, are mere theoretical valuations without any practical value, unsafe and dubious, all factors entering the calculation being unsubstantiated estimates, and hence leading to wide differences. The question is how to secure acceptable exchange values, which are the true present values. Incidentally, the author accentuates the fact that all values are estimates of buyer and seller, approximations to a true value, one bidding up, the other down, until, when an agreement is reached, the exchange value is determined. For forest valuations he proposes the construction of local wood-money-yield tables, which for stands of different age near the age of ripeness approximate their actual stumpage sale value. It ‘s evident that the exchange value of a forest cannot be less than the exchange value of the stands composing it ; hence the ex- change value of each stand may be ascertained from the table and the soi! value added. For the older stands near ripe age, the present felling results may furnish the basis for the calculation. For the younger stands he proposes to take the average value increment at the age of ripeness and multiply it by the age and acreage of the stand. Since they can only be cut at that later age the increment corresponding to that age and not their present 638 Forestry Quarterly. average increment is to be taken. (This after the precedent of K. Heyer.) The sum of the stand values (or stock value) thus determined, which gives the owner the possibility with a given rotation to continuously reap the annual wood value increment upon which the calculation is based would then form the Jowest price at which to buy or sell. To this may then be added the soil value, also as present exchange value, either based on actual present market value of farm soils of lowest valuation, or by capitalizing the net yield of the forest determined in the above calculation with varying interest until buyer and seller agree. The seller will ask perhaps 50 to 100 times the net yield as capital value (1. e. figure with 1-2%), the buyer probably will offer 25 to 50 times the net yield (figuring at 2 to 4%). By using the proposed wood- money tables the soil value is indirectly found by subtracting the sum of the stock values as determined above from the capital value of the net yield that can be secured, which difference gives the soil value. The idea of introducing values for by-products is dismissed as irrelevant. Ueber den Gegensatz zwischen Tauschwert, Kostenwert und Erwar- tungswert. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. August, 1911. Pp. 637-643. According to a canvass of loan banks in Loans Germany made some g years ago, the basis on for the loans varies with different banks: Forest only two base the “loan value” yield of Property. forests under sustained yield management upon the wood yield; others base their loans upon the value which has been ascertained for taxation purposes ; some take into consideration the actual stumpage value, if a syste- matic sustained yield management is possible; some do not give any loans for forest properties, and others again loan on the soil value only. Small woodlots or stands, and woods not in connec- tion with farm property are not objects for loan by any bank. Forestry Associations have discussed and recommended a more uniform practice for negotiating loans on forest property without coming to very definite conclusions as to the method of ascertain- ing the loanable value. Periodical Literature. 639 A circular inquiry from 60 German credit institutions sent out this year elicited further information which Tafel summarizes. The same variety of attitude still prevails. It is interesting to note the figures which are communicated in some cases. In West Prussia the soil credit bank loans according to tax assessments from $1.20 to $9.30 per acre (farm soil assessment ranging from $4 to $60). In Saxony 8 tax classes are made for farm soils assessed at from $20 to $200, but the tax is about half the above. In Westphalia, banks also usually loan on tax assessments, but in two cases where a property was mostly forest, the bank loaned on the capitalized annual yield technically determined and capitalized at 4%; in the one case the yield value figured about $185, in the other $82 per acre. In Pomerania, Posen and East Prussia only the oldest age class (20-year period), or as much of it as can be cut during the next 20 years is considered loanable property, the loan being based on the yield. From the money value of the felling budget in coniferous woods 10% is deducted to reduce the risk, also all costs of administration and culture according to a settled schedule, and the rest is capitalized with 3 1/3 to 5%, according to the length of the rotation, to ascertain the loanable value. The newest method is devised by the soil credit institute of Silesia, where the yield of the two oldest age classes or periods, say the oldest 40-year stands are considered loanable, even if the felling budget consists only of thinnings, but the latter must not exceed 20 cubic feet per acre in the unripe stands under a thinning plan devised for five years. Selection forest is nowhere an object of loans according to yield; and to be loanable at all, the property must contain at least 125 acres in some, and 250 acres in other provinces. Coppice must be at least 125 acres to be loanable. Only in East Prussia are forests from 124 acres upward loanable ; in these small areas the soil value is determined in four quality classes with maximum in values of $8 to $50, which may be in- creased up to 50% in consideration of the determined stock value. This increase in value may in forests up to 250 acres and stands up to 50 years old be not more than 60% of the cost of cultures; for stands over 50 years and selection forest not more than 15% of the wood value; for forests over 250 acres with stands up to 50 years not more than 45% of the cost of cultures, and with stands 640 Forestry Quarterly, over 50 years and selection forest not more than 9% of the stock value. The original cost of cultures is set for pine at $10 per acre, for spruce at $8, for the better class of broad leaf species at $15 and for other broadleaf species at $7; and the figuring is done at 3% interest rate. The stumpage value is ascertained by using the official yield tables reduced by 15% and multiplying with local prices. Of the 60 banks canvassed, 26 make no loans on forest prop- erty, 13 base loans on soil values; 14 base loans for regularly managed forests on the yield, with a working plan as basis, and some making conditions as to the personnel of the administration, fire insurance, etc.; two banks have special prescriptions how the yield is to be ascertained and capitalize it'at 5% interest rate. It is of interest to note that the credit institutions which are mutual, i. e. not organized for money-making, loan only on stumpage at pre- sent exploitable. Altogether in bank circles only present values appear loanable. Future values do not appeal to practical finan- ciers. The reason why most of the banks do not loan except on forest property in connection with farms is explained by the fact that the latter are more readily saleable and they can be rented. Especially forests in intermittent management do not offer satis- factory security for loans and only their soil value may form a basis for them. In the valuation of 21 forests containing 23,000 acres the soil value figured out $17.70 per acre, while the yield value was $61.70. The author then declares and defends the position that a forest which does not contain any usable stock furnishes no solid basis for a valuation which would be acceptable to bankers, the soil rent theory not furnishing such a basis. This theory is based ~ upon one equation with two unknown quantities, the forest value itself and the interest rate. With the usual interest rates too low or even negative values result, and the use of a lower rate on the ground of the increase in wood prices is looked at doubtfully by financiers. He sees this rise in prices partly in a lowering of money value, partly in de- velopment of means of transportation which cannot go on for a much longer time. He even foresees the possibility of a lower- Periodical Literature. 641 ing of prices due to hereto unopened sources of supply in export countries becoming accessible (!). Die Beleihung von Waldungen. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. October, November, 191r. Pp. 523-535. An excellent article by Mathey, describing Yields a typical composite forest or coppice with of standards gives a clear insight into this Coppice form of management which is most highly with developed in France. Since we believe that Standards. this same form will serve in this country as a transition to timber forest in many Eastern woodlots, it is worth while to pay attention to the same as practiced elsewhere. In France the production of oak workwood is perhaps the principal aim of this management. The main problem is the determination of the overwood amounts. Formerly, a large number of stems was supposed to be the desirable aim, and the three age classes were distributed in num- bers as I :2:3, etc., when 150 to 160 trees per acre were a maxi- mum. Later, volumes were substituted for numbers; but, as in that case one stand of branchy overwood might produce a large amount of mere fuelwood, another with the same volume a larger amount of workwood, it became necessary to introduce a quality consideration, if the description was to furnish a true picture, so that Broillard introduced the distinction of stands rich in volume (balivages riches) and those rich in numbers (balivages serrés). Experience showed that the maximum of workwood production could be attained when the three overwood classes were distri- buted as follows: 5-10% of the youngest ; 25-30% of the middle- aged ; 60-70% of the oldest of 17 inch diameter and over; alto- gether averaging around 50 trees. In this composition the oak standards produce 30 to 40 cubic feet of workwood per acre and year, or in value say $8 to $12. In the alluvial soils, south of Dijon the total wood production varies between 72 and 115 cubic feet, or 93 cubic feet per acre, and experience shows a workwood per cent. of 66, i. e. 62 cubic feet. With the lengthening of the rotation in the coppice the workwood per cent. increases; e. g. 642 Forestry Quarterly, if in a rotation of 20 years the product is 34 cubic feet in a 30- year rotation it will be, say 60, and in a 40-year rotation, 65 cubic feet per year; and the shaft length will also be improved. To attain such remarkable production (in the balmy climate and first-class soil of France. Ed.), i. e. the maximum of work- wood in shortest time and with the least working capital, the following rules should be followed: 1. Avoid leaving too many trees for overwood in the younger age classes. 2. Leave the largest number in the oldest age class, the élite or batallion sacré. 3. Avoid the leaving of the less valuable and shady beech, which smothers underwood and oak. 4. In the underwood favor the rapid growers, elm, ash, birch, which furnish good enough fuelwood and do not impede the oak. Mathey himself agrees that this form (as a permanency!) be- longs to the fertile soils and can by no means be substituted for the timber forest everywhere. The average results which are being attained in these, as yet imperfect, forests near Dijon are stated as $2.50 to $5.00 per acre, which the author thinks can be doubled. Schweizerische-Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. September and October, 1911. Bulletin Société forestiére de Franche-Comté et Belfort, 1909. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. Laris very briefly discusses critically the Riiping Ruping process of impregnation, introduced Process in 1903, which has in view the cheapening of of treatment with tar oils. Impregnation. After pointing out that of the many anti- septics proposed, only zink chloride, carbolic tar oils and chloride of mercury remain practicable and that zink chloride by itself is unsuitable because readily washed out and being injurious by its free acid to the rails, while tar oil impreg- nation is expensive (60 cents per tie) and the combination of tar oil with zink chloride costs only 15 cents—he formulates the re- quirements of a faultless method of impregnation as follows: 1. The liquor used, besides its antiseptic qualities, must have the Periodical Literature. 643 property of entering such an intimate chemical compound with the cell walls and any remaining protein contents, that all cells or vessels are permanently, mechanically closed on the outside to prevent effectively the entrance of atmospherilia and their con- comitants ; 2. That the metal parts coming in contact with the wood are not attacked by acids becoming free, since then the antiseptic effect is offset by mechanical wear. The Riiping method (see F. Q. vol. III, p. 321) intended to cheapen the process and introduced on the Prussian and Imperial railroads, consists in fully impregnating the tie with tar oils and then partially evacuating them again, so that a normal beech tie contains only 45 Ibs. of oil instead as formerly, 80 lbs. The re- moval of the surplus leaves the lumina of cells and vessels empty, and hence there is nothing left to seal these openings by the sub- sequent thickening of the oils; only the walls profit by the absorption of the phenyl acid. That the full amount of tar oil is needed may also be deduced from the fact that the amount of a mixture of tar oil and zink chloride which a tie will take up amounts to 76 Ibs. The author doubts whether the impregnation of the cell walls alone suffices. Kritische Beleuchlung des neuen Riipingschen Schwellen-Trankungs- verfahren. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. September, Octo- ber, 1911. Pp. 255-259. STATISTICS AND HISTORY. Students of the early forest history of Forest Germany will welcome the verbatim repro- Ordinance duction of the forest ordinance of Bishop of Julius for the cloister forests of Wurzburg Wiireburg. from the year 1574, the property compris- ing at some time over 150,000 acres. This ordinance laid down the principles under which the property and other broadleaf forests were managed for centuries. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. August, September, 1911. Pp. 476-496. 644 Forestry Quarterly. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. An article by Kruk on this subject is in- Correction teresting in showing by figures the influence of of forest cover on waterflow, and in con- Torrents tributing to the evergrowing problem of im waste land reclamation. Galicia. The Austrian government has begun in a small way to regulate the flow of Galician streams, but has not yet done much to correct the forest conditions which are claimed to be the cause of the irregularity of the river flow. The writer claims that the forest per cent. of the watershed of the Dnjester and of the Vistula has in the last three decades been reduced from 37% and 25.8% to 25% and 18% respectively. At the same time destructive floods have appeared more frequently. While in the first 80 years of last century only four such floods were experienced (in 1813, 1843, 1867 and 1875), in the last 30 years 10 such floods have occurred (1882, 1884, 1889, 1895, 1899, IQO0I, 1903, 1906, 1907 and 1908), not counting minor annual floods occasioning small damage. He estimates the damage in the last 30 years as exceeding one hundred million dollars. Details are given of the 1884 flood, which inundated over 560,000 acres affecting some 400,000 people. Official data record 3,541 industrial concerns, damaged . Kr. 462,240 7,000 acres entirely washed away, .. 1,224,716 12,500 acres covered with gravel and en figgs a ea. hide Pale tee Gen 1,359,780 Damage to riparian works, ........ 24,492,340 Damavpe to Toads, 545405 vate 439,386 Damage tovrailroads) i. 50:33 55 an 1,994,522 Kr. 29,972,984 or around $5,500,000, a loss occasioned within a few days. ‘This, for a generally poor country, enormous loss has been several times repeated within these 30 years. While in well-forested water- sheds the experience is that 30 to 35% of the precipitation reaches the rivers, on naked slopes some 25% more is shed over the sur- face. Other Periodical Literature. 645 In the Vistula watershed there are some 25,000 acres of abso- lute wastelands and nearly 330,000 acres of poor pastures bring- ing not over 20 cents taxes per acre. In the Dnjester watershed the area of wasteland is 17,000 and of poor pastures 280,000 acres. If the pastures were reforested the forest per cent. would rise to 46 and 32 respectively, and the regulation of waterflow would be increased to double its efficiency. _ The character of the torrents and watersheds is described at length. The government has so far spent fifteen million dollars to merely regulate the flow in the rivers without taking recourse to reforestation. Die volkswirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Wildbachverbauung in Galizien., Centralblatt. f. d. g. Forstwesen. August, September, 1911. Pp. 361-370. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, XVII, 1911,— The Forest Ranger. Pp. 445-455. An account of his work. Forestry and the Utilization of Land. Pp. 456-462. A Forest School in the Philippines. Pp. 517-521. Description of the training given in the new school opened in June, I9I0. Public Aspects of Forestry. Pp. 525-530. Forest Schools in the United States. Pp. 479, 522, 537; 542, 549. ; Description of the courses and training in different schools. Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXIV, 1911,— The State and Private Woodlands. Pp. 121-131. The State in Relation to Afforestation. Pp. 150-153. 646 Forestry Quarterly. Larch Seed. Pp. 179-185. Continental Notes—Germany. Pp. 194-208. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911,— Experiments with Scots Pine Seed from Various Sources. Pp. 303-312. How Big Timber is Felled and Manipulated in British Columbia. Pp. 317-335. The Gardeners’ Chronicle, L, 1911,— Indian Loranthuses and Their Hosts. Pp. 104-105. The Germination of Juniper Seeds. Pp. 127. Recommends plunging into boiling water. Graft Hybrids. Pp. 161-163; 185-186. Juglans cathayensis. Pp. 189. Description. European Elms. Pp. 202-203; 221. The Indian Forester, XXXVII, 1911,— Recruitment of the Imperial Forest Service. Pp. 403-413. The writer claims the new rules to be framed rather to encourage British universities to found chairs of forestry than for the benefit of the Indian Service. A Method of Measuring the Height of Standing Trees. Pp. 454-458. A modification of the Christen method. Progress Reports of Forest Administration in the Central Provinces; in the Lower Provinces; in the United Provinces; in Jammu and Kashmir State; in Burma; in Mysore; in Bombay and Sind, for 1909-1910. Pp. 458-469; 500-507; 575-579. Other Periodical Literature. 647 Indian Forester, XXXVII, 1911,— Influence of Forests on Drought. Pp. 477-480. One more reply to Mr. Moore’s assertions. Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1911,— Forestry in Norway. Pp. 385-394. An historical account of the progress of scientific forestry. School of Working Foresters, Forest of Dean. Pp. 498- 500. Statement of the course of training. Willows and Their Cultivation. Pp. 557-562. Conclusion of the series on this subject. * The Philippine Journal of Science: Botany, VI, 1911,— Philippine Gymnosperms. Pp. 149-177. Minute description of twenty-six species, with keys, dis- tribution, bibliography, synonymy, and eight plates. Two Important Borneo Timber Trees. Pp. 179-180. Philippine Dipterocarpaceae. Pp. 231-287. A treatment of this group along the same lines as the same author’s account of the Gymnosperms (above). Forest Leaves, XIII, 1911,— The Saxon State Forest Academy of Tharandt. Pp. 72- 74- Description of the method of instruction. Rhodora, XIII, 1911,— Populus virginiana. Pp. 195-199. Taxonomic. Range of Betula lenta. Pp. 206-207. 648 Forestry Quarterly, Canadian Forestry Journal, VII, 1911,— Ontario Shade Tree Legislation. Pp. 91-93. Given in detail. Notes on Some Bavarian Forests. Pp. 101-107. Log Scaling in British Columbia. Pp. 111-112. NEWS AND NOTES. The Forestry Branch of the Dominion of Canada has lately began to follow the methods of the U. S. Forest Service in send- ing out press bulletins. From these we cull the following facts of interest : The survey work of the Riding Mountain Reserve has been completed by the Dominion Forestry Branch but there is still necessary a program of improvement work which will cover four or five years. To protect the timber from fire the trails must be extended so that every part of the Reserve may be reached quickly by the rangers and fire fighters; fire guards must be kept cleared every year, the rangers must be located permanently on the Reserves at suitable ranger stations where cabins, stables and cor- rals will be built by the Forestry Branch, and every ranger station must be connected with headquarters by telephone, so that news of a fire and a call for assistance may be sent quickly. In outlining a policy calling for the protection and improvement of the Forest Reserves, the Canadian Forestry Branch is follow- ing the example of the most progressive countries in the world. Fortunately it is not necessary for Canada to depend upon experi- ments for experience in forest administration. "The United States Forest Service, employing over 2,000 trained men and spending about $5,000,000 yearly, has during the past few years developed in the National Forests of the United States an almost perfect (?) system of fire protection, reforestation and timber administration. It is the intention of the Forestry Branch to benefit largely by the experience of the United States; a proof of this is that one of the officers of the headquarter’s staff together with Mr. Albert Mc- Leod, Chief Forest Ranger in charge of the Riding Mountains Reserve, will spend a portion of October studying the methods of administration and protection developed in the Superior National Forest in Minnesota. Sixty per cent. of the hardwood used in Canada was imported from the United States in 1910. The United States, although with a much larger supply of hardwood on hand, is also seeing 650 Forestry Quarterly. that the annual consumption far exceeds the annual growth and that the virgin supply is being rapidly reduced. To stimulate at- tention to the growing of hardwoods, the Forestry Branch of the Dominion is taking a practical interest in the farmer’s woodlots of Ontario, in an effort to make otherwise useless land supply hardwood lumber to an eager market, with profitable returns to the woodlot owner. Foresters will be supplied by the Depart- ment to look over tracts of timbered land, estimate the quantity of timber, advise as to what species to encourage or plant according to the locality and general conditions, and suggests a general working plan, The exportation of pulpwood in a raw form from Canada into the United States is increasing yearly, and by just so much as this is so does Canada lose the benefits to be derived from manufacture and the ificreased value of raw products. Over a million and a half cords of pulpwood were cut in Canada during 1910, worth nearly nine million, eight hundred thousand dollars. Over sixty per cent of this amount was sent out of Canada without further labor being expended on it. The value of this pulp, derived from this wood, for which Canada received six million, two hundred and ten thousand dollars as pulpwood, is figured by the Forestry Branch at over thirteen and a half million dollars at the average prices paid in 1910 by United States importers of pulpwood. Thus Canada did not get one-half the amount she would have received if all pulpwood were converted into pulp on Canadian soil. Within two years, the number of the kinds of wood used for laths in Canada has been doubled, statistics collected by the Dominion Forestry Branch for 1910 showing that twelve species of wood were used in the production of the 852,000,000 pieces of lath produced worth $1,943,000. The first six species in import- ance were spruce, white pine, cedar, Douglas Fir, hemlock and balsam which also are the woods used for some time in the manu- facture of laths. The remaining six; jack-pine, red pine, yellow pine, poplar, basswood and larch are the new species increasing in importance. Spruce and white pine laths, the two most impor- tant species, show a decrease in 1910 from the year previous, but together form nearly seventy per cent. of the annual output. —— eye an _ News and Notes. 651 Some million and a half more pieces of cedar were cut in Ig10 than in 1909, and the amount for this species of seventy million pieces made up one-twelfth of the total. Prices ranged from $1.25 for yellow pine to $3.18 per thousand for poplar. Over nine-tenths of the two billion shingles produced in Canada during 1910 were of cedar and over one-half of these were western cedar cut in British Columbia. The consumption of spruce and White Pine, for shingles has decreased suddenly in 1910, eighty-two per cent. less of the former being made than in 1909, and scarcely one-fifth the usual amount of white pine being produced. Nova Scotia and Quebec cut most of the spruce shingles. The White Pine shingles are mostly of the species Pinus, monticola and are cut in British Columbia. Nearly three million more of hemlock shingles were produced in 1910 than during the year previous and of the total of fifteen million pieces, over nine- tenths was produced in Ontario and Quebec. The above four species furnished over ninety-eight per cent. of the wood used in shingles. Balsam, Dougles Fir and Jack Pine, although of less importance, were used during 1910 in increasing quantities and for the first time ; tamarack and red pine were reported as shingle wood. There was less fluctuation in the value of the species than formerly. Balsam shingles were the cheapest at $1.48 per thou- sand and tamarack the most expensive at $2.49. The Commission for the Investigation and Control of the Chest- nut Blight in Pennsylvania has issued very rigid instructions to all nurserymen and common carriers in regard to the inspection of all chestnut nursery stock. The instructions provide that no shipments shall be made until the stock has been examined by the Commission, and no trees can be forwarded which do not con- tain a certificate of inspection. Uninfected stock will be per- mitted to go out after it has been dipped in an approved fungi- cide, preferably Bordeaux mixture; while diseased trees will be burned. The question of scientific management is at present receiving a great deal of attention from engineers and the administrative heads of industrial concerns, and its principles will no doubt even- tually be given consideration in connection with forest manage- 652 Forestry Quarterly. ment. In October, the Amos Tuck School of Finance and Ad- ministration of Dartmouth College held a conference on scien- tific management at Hanover, N. H., which was attended by the _ leading exponents of scientific management in America and by. some two hundred prominent manufacturers in New England. Among the various subjects discussed was one on the management of timber properties and lumbering by W. R. Brown, of the Ber- lin Mills Co. Informal addresses were also made by visiting foresters and lumbermen. A reunion of the alumni of the Yale Forest School is to be held in New Haven on December 20 and 21, 1911. A brief pro- gram, class smokers and a banquet will comprise the chief fea- tures of the entertainment. Although the number of forest school alumni is comparatively small and they are scattered throughout the United States, the attendance, from present indications, prom- ises to be surprisingly large. Mr. Nelson C. Brown, Deputy Supervisor on the Kaniksu National Forest in Idaho has accepted the position of Assistant Professor of Forestry at the Iowa State College, at Ames. Mr. Brown received his collegiate training at Yale, graduating in 1906. He immediately took up graduate work in the Yale Forest School and in 1908 received the degree of Master of Forestry. It is reported that Jas. O. Hazard, Yale Forest School ’10, has been appointed assistant to Alfred Gaskill, State Forester of New Jersey, to have charge of shade tree work. An interesting publication by the Department of Commerce shows the progrees of the United States—changes of conditions during the century—‘“in its material resources” from 1800-191I. It does so, however, only as far as financial changes express it. The population has grown from 5 1-3 million to 93} million (at the rate of 23 per cent. annually) ; the public debt advanced from $83 million through $2,675 million in 1865, to $1,015 million in IgiI, a gratifying reduction per capita from $15.63 to $10.83. Money in circulation advanced from $4.99 to $34.35 (less than 2% annually.) Bank depositors have increased since 1820 from 9,000 to over 9 million; deposits from 2 billion dollars in 1875 to 15 billion in 1910 (Government receipts, from $2.04 per capita News and Notes. 653 to $7.45, one-half of what they were in 1866 (about 1% per an- num.) Exports rose from $32 million to $2 billion—about 3% per cent.; while imports rose from $91 million to $1.5 billion— little over 2.5%. It is in these last two items that the story is mainly told, but an analysis of the make-up of exports and im- ports is necessary to make out whether this denotes progress or diminution of natural resources. We hope to return to this vol- ume again. A circular of the Department of Commerce and Labor shows the extraordinary increase in prices of many imported articles, like coffee, tea, rubber, wool, flax, hemp, tin, many of them having increased in price 80 to go per cent. in the last decade, showing change in conditions of supply in the countries from which shipped. The Commission for the publication of an international forestry bibliography (see F. Q., vol. VIII, p. 270) announces, that it has at its disposal Mk 19,566, an amount just barely sufficient to ven- ture on the work of compiling the bibliography of former years. The payment of subscriptions is being called for. The Forestry Experiment Station of Switzerland will do the editing at the expense of the Federal Government. For the card catalogue of the new bibliography only 109 sub- scriptions are so far received which makes the cost on white cards $10 per 3,000 cards per year, beginning with the year IgII. Professor Dr. Bithler Tiibingen is the chairman of the Com- mission, ; COMMENTS. In a speech at Yellowstone Park, Walter A. Fisher, Secretary of the Interior, rather clearly stated that it was his conviction that the Forest Service should be in the Department of the Interior. This, coming from a man who is supposed to be friendly to the interest of the Forest Service, leads to rather serious doubts as to whether the position of the Forest Service is as stable in the Government administration as could be wished. If the question of the transfer of the Service is raised at the coming session of Con- gress, it will at least give an opportunity for the opponents of Government forestry to attempt a change, in the hone that it will be detrimental; while the friends of the Service may have difficulty in proving that the present organization is a correct one. To all who are familiar with the situation, it is:evident that the remarkable development in National Forest work has followed— in part, at least—from its being carried under the Department of Agriculture. On the other hand, this department is fundamen- tally a scientific one whose function is mainly advisory, with little administrative authority outside of its own departmental func- tions. Yet, under it has developed the Forest Service, which has administrative jurisdiction over large areas of public land. In the Department of Interior, on the other hand, is vested the con- trol of most of our public lands, and, theoretically, the Forest Service would logically fall under its jurisdiction. If all our government departments were the smooth-running, well-man- aged organizations they should be, it would make very little dif- ference in our forest policy whether the Forest Service was trans- ferred to the Interior Department. But, unfortunately, the tradi- tions of the Department of the Interior, and particularly the Land Office, are against an able business administration of our public lands such as the Forest Service has inaugurated, and the trans- fer to this department would probably retard the development of a national forest policy to a very great extent. The very thoughtful and readable article of Dr. Jentsch, one of the sanest foresters of Germany, made accessible by Mr. Dunlap in this issue, brings home to us the enormous advantage under Comment. 655 which the young generation of American foresters are starting their work, when compared with what the conditions were when Hartig and Cotta began their labors of reclaiming mismanaged forests. We have the entire theory and experience with an ap- paratus of knowledge, which was unknown to the early workers. For, whatever may be said against Mayr’s ambitious attempt to write a volume of silviculture for the whole world, he is right in his contention that silviculture as far as it is based on natural laws, is universal; the fundamental principles involved are the same anywhere. But, to be sure, judgment as to their practical application under given conditions cannot be dispensed with any more than in any other business. We have the advantage that we have nothing to unlearn or to undo. There is a German proverb, “the good is the enemy of the better.” Having in silvicultural lines nothing good we have a chance to apply the better, provided we have an open mind and do not fall into the error of the early empiricists, of generalizing and limiting ourselves to the belief that one medicine can be the remedy for all evils. The strenuous work of American foresters and pathologists in arresting and trying to prevent the introduction of so destruc- tive an enemy as the White Pine rust could readily become de- serves our highest commendation. At the same time, it is only just to point out that the danger is to a large extent minimized, if not entirely removed, by the ac- tion of the German nurseries from which the disease was im- ported. In Dr. Spaulding’s bulletin, reviewed in this issue, the one nur- sery which probably has the largest trade of nursery stock for forest planting, Heins & Sons at Halstenbeck, is repeatedly quot- ed as the source of the evil. It is, perhaps, if not the only nursery which ships material of this description, yet the one which does so in the largest amounts. From a representative of the firm we learn that to obviate any further propagation of the evil not only was the entire remaining stock of infected White Pine seedlings destroyed, but the nursery for growing this material removed six miles from the original location, and a German official of the pathological bureau em- ployed to inspect the new plantation and make sure that no traces 656 Forestry Quarterly, of the fungus or its needed host-plant, Ribes, were to be found in or near it. Knowing that the firm is a thoroughly honest and efficient one—as everybody who may have had dealings with them will attest—these statements may be relied upon. Self-preservation and the desire to keep its world-fame for reliability must be suffi- cient motives for such a concern not to remain under a cloud. A man who has been sick, is not necessarily a sickly man. The above comment was communicated to Dr. Spaulding, and he takes issue with it. It is fair that we should advise our readers of his strictures, which are that he is not satisfied with the representations of the representative of Heins Sons, and that, as late as IQII, fruiting bodies of the fungus were found in shipments from this nursery, and he considers this nursery a chronic case. We are, of course, quite unable to decide whether or not the claims of the firm are now truthful, and agree with the writer that positive proof of the health of their stock must be forthcoming to remove all suspicion. ERRATA By inadvertence of printer and proof reader on page 408 of this volume in the last formula for the Biltmore stick the + sign has become a X sign, which readers will, please, correct. 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