ate Agee Hit 1 ‘ ‘ ip git iN | i ¥ ' . \ | 4 hs ae Ce Mh Bi i H i PO Ht ih i iy i + Wed yd eel ; ‘>. “ A} ey hey Hany A FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME X PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A BOARD OF EDITORS With Seven Plates, Five Cuts and Three Diagrams ITHACA, N. Y. 1912 BOARD OF EDITORS. B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editoran-Chief. Henry S. Graves, M.A., Forester, U. S. Forest Service. R. C. Bryant, F.E., Yale University. RicHarp T. FisHer, A.B., Harvard University. WALTER MuLForp, F.E., Cornell University. Ernest A. STERLING, F-.E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK DUNLAP, F.E.., U. S. Forest Service. FirisErt Roru, B.S., University of Michsgan. SAMUEL J. Recorp, M.F., Yale University. C. D. Howe, Ph.D., University of Toronto. Hucu P. Baxer, D.Oec. Syracuse University. RaLPHAEL ZON, F.E., U. S. Forest Serviee. CrypE Leavitt, M.S.F., Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, Can. J. H. Wuire, M.A.,B. Sc.F., University of Toronto. Asa S. WiuiiaMs, F.E. THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE: To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, Ithaca, N. Y. ‘ { ' ite Ls le aa 9 1 4 ’ | 4 i a Meat carn | « i rere ‘ 4 i) A, é ', ’ ~ / inh Maa) ie f é ’ . , . af ; meh bere’ f ‘ . ’ p ‘ i J i x her ere i wth) ihe P 7 . ’ { ) * ' ' J pd y a " < f TS f 5 nf Fol ae) roar aay) ‘ anys j - hy ‘ . +) / we ' I ‘ f ‘ : \y a , i” ; 4 ; f * e : 7 , t ‘ 4 VA a ( « \ A ae / t % th a ‘ ° 1 f Dy \ ST ' ' A > i - Boe . A ‘ ; y : ty } ob a i i J ‘ ( Y ‘ 4 4 iy 5 ‘ fe w , w A i ates ‘ , ‘ t ba | 7 > X ‘ re od a 4 i 4 shy ated 4 .. paste $e} & pl Le SAP ; hie | § ‘ “ VAD Res . » ‘ f ' Pee & i f nae | : r ee eeTiy , tas ie oly if * ' ' { i +x we hee bat ‘ 1 P ~ i i SpA %) 1 ; ; nh ‘ fan? ee ' ;, wy, ‘ : 2 > i 7 rh r ‘ J F ; ‘ owe py 4 ie ‘ : { P HERO: ‘ wa ad 7 . * a , ‘ / } , 5 i as LEY, i & 7 ; Ls ' » ' , Eh ee he ‘ ; ’ - ‘ CONTENTS. Method of Taking Impressions of Year-rings in Conifers, ......... By L. S. Higgs. New ‘boole: tor Drausplanting Conifers, ©... 2.6 cea cdewe caries bee By W. H. Mast. Scientific Management and the Lumber Business. A Possible Field i MRMEMERER UL UL) COR Lt NPS ce WW aLCadty sgh koe mao Sol en4 later mele Mipw wa By Edward A. Braniff. EIDE NS og ee as Oe w= thio ea piesa gmat By Augustus M. Carter, Surveyor for Berlin Mills Company, Wika Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine in Relation to its Management, ... By Nelson C. Brown. Progress in Sales of Fire-killed Timber in Idaho and Montana, .... By W. B. Greeley. Results of Direct Seeding in the Black Hills, ..................... By John Murdock, Jr. Permanent Sample Plots) .........5,..-: YSU BL ea NOSE Eg AS ON By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Some. Needs in Forestry Education, 3.502. 0k cece ces bie ee ceetea nes By Hugh P. Baker, Ph.D. NPN NUS U Lia cge kL NC. yak Mtge orate UNS gunn OE Met aie guala ee wie miele ree a By A. B. Recknagel. Management of Western Yellow Pine in the Southwest, ........... By Barrington Moore. National Forest Timber Sale Contract Clauses, .....,............. By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Light Burning vs. Forest Management in Northern California, ..... By Richard H. Boerker. The Effect of Forest Fires on Trees and Reproduction in Southern TRUSTE NOE UN aioli u RNC SE aN aL ee og ue tag By P. L. Buttrick. How the Insect Control Problem compares with the Fire Problem RN MRO RESES Its TIESETICE By u.0.- secs chee wale w a lete Vale wee ecelaa ae By John M. Miller. A New Method of Constructing Volume Tables, .................. By Donald Bruce. Painted actor: of Tree incrementy) (oo Soe, eeu ue _ By Chandler Davis. Equipment and Operation of a Prussian Seed-extracting Estab- LL: hae RMR DARE Aa De MQ MRL Eo SCOR OSYR POMBE ON UTS SSC NCA DRO By A. B. Recknagel. Nori American Species in Prungaty,) oi. Foo icc cc ccs By Karl Petrascheck. eer e eS 1000S 2) enema mo nN uae ace he od oh By W. B. Barrows. mmaniiiner Wood Industries, s.22,colce ce ok ols ese beccccevccege’ By C. S. Judd Standardization of Instruction in Forestry, .............eecececece 17 24 Ranger Sctidolls, 0... 00s eae sos fa niee dee siohls ee 305 By Henry S. Graves. Forest Assistants in the Forest Service,s«)..../ 0.02. 04-0; eee 309 By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Teaching Students How to Conserve Energy, ............seueeeees 402 By S. B. Detwiler. The Application of Scientific Management to Forestry, ........:... 407 By Karl W. Woodward. - Bdropean’Study for) Horestetsy losis afew asktewak vision of olan ei cele 417 By A. B. Recknagel and Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Forest ; Types (of Baenenns) osuan as evens aaleh ak Gone w na outa 440 By EB. Gy Ve /Gthman. A Method of Investigating Yields Per Acre in Many Aged Stands, 458 By Herman H. Chapman. Convenient Holder for Stem Analysis Blanks, ................008: 470 By S. B. Detwiler. Forestry, on. “Indian: Reservations, 2). eA sid oc alee Gels ea 471 By J. P. Kinney. Utilization at the Menominee Indian Mills, Neopit, Wisconsin, .... 478 By Nelson C. Brown. A Working Plan for Western Yellow Pine Lands in Central MSOMOT AMO OS bv cigs os eed mee Ld by ie ee eee 484 By P. T. Coolidge. The Forests of the Philippines, ? 0/5). oil e eee e 571 By M. L. Merritt. The Philippine Bureau of Forestry, Its Organization and Work,.... 602 By W. D. Sterrett. Lombeting in: the..Philippines) 4-0). 235 Jiyca oe on phe ede ee 610 By Donald M. Matthews, Forester, Bureau of Forestry. Museum of Philippine, Forest Products; ... .<..).c. dacs oecneenemeee 616 By E. E. Schneider, Wood Expert, Bureau of Forestry. The Northern! Negros Forest). 15 120 ees bed ede eee 619 By Heber G. Stout, Forester, Bureau of Forestry. The Usefulness of Non-Christian Tribes for Forest Work, ........ 623 By Domingo L. Diaz, Head Ranger, Bureau of Forestry. Impressions of Forest Administration in British India, ............ 626 By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. A Phase of Fire Protection, oi sie) 2) oe a ce 630 By Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr. Forests and Forestry in the German Colonies, ...........2.-eeeees 632 By B. E. Fernow. Forests and Timber Trade of the Chinese Bimpire, oo. deere adore 647 By R. Rosenbluth, M.F., Director of Forest Investigations, New York State Conservation Commission. The Tropical or Antillean Region of Florida, .........-.-eeeeeeee 673 By Nelson C. Brown. The Distribution of Costs and Values in a Logging Operation, .... 679 By R. Clifford Halli and Dean W. Martin. CURRENT 2. P EA Reem so uc... a ou ki nee earn 57; 243, 495, 690 Other’ ‘Current: “Kteraiires a2... Teh ba oes 75, 270, 508, 708 Vii PRSOODICATL, LPERRO TU Rn oaks cree. canedeuemepere 81, 277, 514, 723 Other Periodical Gateratares dic 6 stock. coc c ew blideeledde c- 109, 314, 763 Botarrt mn alae i alas s diocese o-mcacanas 83, 281, 514, 720 Forest Geography and Description, .................. 81, 277, 715 Mensuration, Finance and Management, ......... 97, 207, 540, 744 Silviculture, Protection and Extension, .......... 89, 288, 520, 731 Ger erer ATI CLIMATE | o/sisie sacs cc acccckeedvalse’s 86, 286, 518 MERIC R GTI LISLOLY, a oh a 'eid ce etc so 0 t's cemdde’s 107, 309, 547, 760 Politics, Education and Legislation, .....:.....sccene00s-- 107, 553 Utilization, Market and Technology, ................ 100, 304, 746 RETIN OME UOW S| «a eral bres sk oe A ese PMRDENE ANGER Rat tL a UL ohne esl S, v.0's cn wots We wkie ae Bae 3II, 557 EY TU) es i oe a i 112, 316, 558, 768 MST E Whi ir taal coord o/ auabhoeia Saitaoa Wicks seh bad + bike 124, 328, 567, 786 Vili INDEX. Acclimatization, see exotics, .. 290 British Columbia, forest branch, Administration, U. S. forest News, 42... 112 manitial, TEV+)) ...)..0e0eb epee 65 ef “ lumbering, Africa, report, 1910, ref., ..... 275 ref.; \guaes TIO Alder for matches, .........-- 106 ne ! pulp, ref., 314 Ashelanchier)ret., .. Uiiccceim. 765 Broadleaf maple, ref., ......... 711 Anatomy, influence by. site). 720) “Brown, iN Cart...) :0 478, 673 Annual rings, impressions, hh 9 RO BORAT boo 8 teh DL 5 Ce 215 Appalachian, reservation, art, 33 BuckHout, Dr, W. A., obitu- Approximations, compound in- ALY CHEWS SL isis 0s) La 784 LOPESES \! 1. hice hMgaknersimcme tae ene 209: | Burreiens (Pot art.;) 6 sce weer 195 Arboretum, Letchworth, ref., . 109 California, light burning art. . 184 Argentine, forestry, auel elena sve faliaire 720 ae wood- -using atiges Arkansas, industries and re- “ tries, ref., ....... 713 BOUTCES, BEWS: Orin eeu sls sare 502 Canada, Commission of Canes Aspen in Russia, .........+... 527 vation, news, ........ Associations, American fores- 1% cooperage stock, rev., 707 try, meeting, a Dominion reserves FIEWIS ii euetintavens) e 327 TIC WIS) (so Sievers) sustemaetous 777 4 friends of natural Hy Lesser Slave Lake regeneration , timber, fevigieae. 706 TE WS OY le Sa 558 Ontario forest service, vi meeting in White THEW Se ais trea eset eee 777 Mountains, “1 pulpwood Tete eee 766 TOW ee es 563 , railway commission- Ki for testing ma- ers, fire control, terials, news, . 779 4 OWS, 5): «clea a+ =) 508 Australia, Torests,8) ho.) Je e2 717 statistics, mine tim- pines; TeV, v.44. e.0% 695 bers, poles, _ ties, report, 1910-11, ref., 275 pulpwood, ref., ..79, 508 « HN OS SOU eR 713 Canada, Turtle Mt. reserve, Australian trees, ref., 80 ‘ POV > 0) 9 ee 708 Austria, budget, eA Uke BUN 762 | WALErDOWerS, 0 ‘A lanches, ref, 9s Canadian conservation commis- hes sewer ge Areca sion report, third an- in Switzerland, dual tee 714 { Bishan hain 243 “ forestry association, AVETAQING Shy nd tah aconedohale alts 97 report, 1912, ref., .. 512 si forestry association Baden, forest types, art., ..... 440 report, thirteenth statistics, administra- annual, ‘ref., ..ysmee 714 5 Co} | Ree 3090... Catglpa, ref... ... 3.5 oaeere 274 Bark ‘structure; Teh. ean ceva sro. Catalpa rot,.'....5.2, 0 533 Bavaria, forest area, \...3..!2,2% 553 Cenangium abtetis, ........... 532 . Ofeanization, aol. . vee s40 CHAPMAN, H.. H., art... og 458 Belgium, forest conditions..... 8: Charcoal, data. ....... dae 106 Biltmore, timber sales, news, .. 778 Chestnut, ref, .....-.ssacnese 78 Biology, causes of leaf fall, See bark disease, ref., 77, 205 PORESE, (2. iit. elon 281 ‘ blight,' )_5 7c. epee Mf life processes, period- x blight | commission, TCItY,.) ak (era ode 515 NeWS, .......- 122, 323 Birds, migration, rev., ........ 497 “) blight conference, Black oaks, classification, ref., . 508 Tef., .........0005- 713 Bleeding, new method, ........ 757 i poles, experiments, Boerker, R. Hi, art-cmeweeee: PER. 5 sce sinter 710 Bog soils. influence on growth, "88 Chicago drainage canal, ref., .. 512 Bohemia, virgin forest, ...... 277. Chile, conditions, news, ....... 768 Boom area, “art. vcs ont weeeens 15 OO ORESERY, shee 6 oh a ee 724 ——_ ee aS ae China, forests and timber trade, -) | Pe nS 47 Classification, forestry, art., ... 403 Clay, history, rev., ...-++-++++: 497 Colorado, school, news, ...--- 322 Combating damping-off, eae 531 Commission of Conservation, Canada, MeWS, «;-++++++: Commission of Conservation, Canada, report, third annual, ref., Conifers, determination, ref., . 765 Coniophora cerebella, ......... 517 Connecticut hardwoods, ref., 510 _ Conservation Commission, New PPO NOW? |. Lin's 0:0 ene oa hes 114 Conservation congress, news, .. 779 Conservation laws, N. x RE u's Wnts fe Uae sme 508, 712 Conventions, chestnut TIE WIS5) epics a's’ 122, 713 Harrisburg, news, I21 Ottawa, news, .. I2I tk Portland, news, I21 ig Victoria, ref., .. 766 0 ORE Se DA: 484 Cooperage, Canada, Rees 4 slsweie 707 calt barrels, Baka 105 x statistics, "Canada, ee ref, 79 Cooperage, ebiistics, Ue Soret se71 WeIEHIS, oie sien 103 Coppice, are erect, (arty. ways 203 PGR REL OUI Wate oiva Disa oe 765 Cornell, forestry building and school, THEW nL in ainicweauas 781 Costs, distribution in logging, ROY Hola D SN icine tah ete vases 679 miwweae Indian mills, art. .. 478 Sh Ce Eee 105 “steam and electric log- PRUNE es be atv ka ks 100 Wah WMI NG Ct eet va Coyote-proof inclosures, ref., 76 Crater National Forest, ref., 76 Creosote absorption, Hee. 710 Tebts, PEI sa wes 75, SII Cross-arms, tests, rev., ....... 503 Damage calculation, . .... 2.22. 98 ~ insect, Douglas fir, VOL. 6 Gua a ake 712 hi by lightning, ........ 537 “cc to mine timbers, ref., 510 Davis, eating att. Etim trees, rev.,' samo map of distribu- tion, news, ... 317 “cc > vs tree limits, ..... 514 Detwiter, S. B., art., .402, 470 raz; Di pa iv coe ccs ave 623 Discoloration of wood, ....... 756 Diseases, CHARIIIs. 9Ae waste <3 709 imported, FEE od 10 3% 271 in national forests, sn. 208 vaccination of trees, TURMER Ut eis tan Sa sie ea tat 564 7 wood -_ destroying TOC City ait ah ia S elaidee 517 Distillation. ref. Gal@iawsenens 708 a statistics, U. S&., FEE. Lie cae an 76 Dogwood for shuitle blocks, .. 106 Douglas fir, fire-killed, ref., 710 insect damage, "ref, 712 Drought, effects in Germany, . 535 mfluences; . 0... cae 283 Dunes, N. Zealand, ref., ...... 275 Durability, railroad ties, aN as 752 Earth worms, rev., .......... 497 Education, COM i sia 3 aes ale 569 in Bavaria, Bh gees 107 .) Cornell university, NEWS, ©. 4... Se $22: 429 sf Edinburgh univers- HY. MEWS eas 325 ys German forest SERMIGR., hbiies ahd 8 764 Education, in Germany, ...... 311 . how conserve ener- be Ug GES oe 402 sy Idaho university, MONS eect svc 115 3 Missouri forest school, news, .... 325 needs in, art. . . New York — State college, news, ... 322 ranger schools, art., 395 Scotland, news, ... 325 standardization re- POT ASh Se eee 341 ie studies in Europe, rg dh a ARE Oa 417 nN University Syra- cuse, news, ..... 123 Film, disease, rev.,°............ 709 Emory ee) PM a er’ 710 Erosion model, ref., SUR pHa a 71 Eucalyptus, ref., 80, 274, 509 cco ARIES IRR DN Tie 714 3 collapse, news, .... 768 i MAIO oe ede Bice ak 732 Europe, study for foresters, PAE ate yoke eee hi hee oc ce w ueteiam 417 Exotics, American in Germany, 526 y American in Hungary, BIE id be wasn, $gaiiatbias “ experiments with, ref., ig Sweden, ) ...0..eemeel Experiment house, ........... Experimental farms report Canada’ tort, 'ref.,.' 2 sous Experimentation, sample plots, art.,.\. 2a x U. §S. Forest Service, news, Exports, Roumania, .......... % RUSSIA, 0. Mae eeweere Re A statistics, U. S., news, : “ee Sweden iia oa aes Factors of site, classification, Farm forestry, in sand dunes, Farming and forests, Fence posts, preservation, ref., Frernow, B. E., art., Fertilizer, Finance, communal property. .. 43 compound interest ap- proximations, damage calculation, distribution of costs, art., forest capital, use .... forest loans, small forests, statistical formulae, Finance, valuation, Finland, statistics, Fire. Canadian Railway com- mission, news, conference, Oregon, I9QII, ref., control, appropriation, U. Forest ser- vice, news, Canada, news, .. Oregon, damage calculation, effect in New England, oeeeeeneewerereweer eee eee io; be 8 eb eb ow Yeeeah ate eee ee eee eoereeeeeeee ce eee eee eee eee ewe ee “ec 73 (zs rh ol reggae Ae SRV RS REY K Great Northern Rail- way, instructions, EWS ao oun Le et x insurance, Sweden, = killed timber, _ sales, EG g Nika pega mann poets k light burning, effects, 1g A a eae Ley ay! 5 lighting cause of, ref., line law, N. Y., news, < lintes Se eae eee * patrol, Coeur d’Alene, 4 protection, ref., 100, 272, 508, “cc “ associations, 184 Fg 769 740 292 270, 512 news, 290, 292, “ “ eo a i ‘ India, art., 630 tied ephone wires, ee tropics, . 740 reports from National | forest, news, Viviu. 113 i resistance of species, eee Se % statistics, U.. Sw ret. II Floods, influence of sivarigae BOR awh cB enelcan as am 69 i TAY A Uh su Ay SiMe Pg ier 4 ord 741 Florida, tro: ical region, art., .. 673 i turpentining, ref., 767 Plume; logy ev wc line setae 304 Foliage, surface area and WEIPTE, | dickies Lick ewer Cem 83 Forest conditions, Louisiana, Pet. kc es). 33 eee 711 A influences, TEL a ree 75 i in ” Appala- chians, art., 34 i} loans, Us cia ee , 744 pe planting, Pennsylvania railroad, news, gaa ft products, Canada, sta- tistics, Tel.,| . 2. gees 713 Forest, reservation, Appalach- ians _ proceedings, NEWS,» s)en\o 5 ae 772 rc schools committee se- port, .art., |). 0... ee 341 i schools, see schools. i Service, fire patrol ap- propriation, news, .. 317 < types, changes on hcath lands.) 1)02 uae 89 ‘i “Great Britain TOV, ik 5 became 59 ‘4 “Russia, rev., 62 ¢ Verse; NEWS, |. ..maeeue 505 Forestry, Formosa, ref., FO a . France, ref., pee ne hi 765 it New England, rev.,.. 250 1 Quarterly, com., Forests, national, timber. sales, contm@cts,:. arf.,° -.. 3 Og. 139 Formosa, forestry, ref., 765, 766 France, forestry, ref., .......-- 765 forestry notes, ref., 110 a, study’ 411,), arto goeeraae 436 Freer, P. C., obituary, news, .. 783 German colonies, forests, art., 632 Germany, basket willow in- dustry, mews, ...... 118 vy forest association, MEWS, (6's Cees g58 " imports, §..+sabavees 107 1 markets, ) sa bniuas 306 ‘a study for foresters, AIt, .seeeeee 417, 441 ie virgin forests, 277 ‘ wood industries and SESE Mile tetene es 307 Germination, light and heat in- fluence, .cseccecerecsceeecee 730 Comamee © V., att, .. 05. 440 Girdling, effect on trees, art., .. 237 Geavearett. ., art. >......... 305 Grazing and floods, rev., ..... 69 Great Britain, timber produc- FIOM FOL.5 <5: 2 7 “ce ¢é vege t a tion types, rev., . 59 Greece, forests, 726 Ground wood, EME SOL gehts etait da a gente Growth, relation to light, ref., 756 me tables, western yellow oer eee eer eee eee pine, = 9 oS SRE 485 ff. Guana, forests, ref., .......... 276 Hat, R. C., and Martin, D. SEE y ee ee 679 OS CEES 2 Heath lands, reforestation, .... 89 Hemlock pulp, 1 ARE 509 western, ‘ref, Raa anes 711 FRCGae o Rigermee ss sec hs ee ele 548 Hickory utilization, Felis sel ein: 75 Holland, forest conditions, .... 81 LOVESUE MS Malic sdinine 83 increment and "moss cover, and soil preparation, 521 Humus, 6c Identification of gue nef:,..:;, 76 Gaks. ref; .. 76 ir “ walnut, ref., 271 Illinois wood industries, rev., .. 258 Imports, Germany, sso... 107 Impregnation, status, ......... 746 Increment and rainfall, art., 222 India, financial review, ........ 745 ..' forest administration, Sy RSMO RRMA PUR aes yey (KC 626 “ forest SEFVICE, . i. olan ee 760 min forestry, central prov- PACES, Vie. See 760 a research int, ref. beens 110 Indian reservations, forestry, art., 471 ny $ mills, i art. 48 Indiana State board, report MUON aaa ce eine scat 501 Indo-China, forestry, ......... 719 “ Malayan territory, rev., .. 691 x os woods, rev., .... 61 Influences, grazing on floods, rev., Insects, combating May beetle, 534 control problem, art., i mr 8 of control, FER ilea ss ceaes ae 767 Investigation, U. §. Forest Service Committee, news, 115 italy,; forest law. eGo lite sews 555 Jack Pine. pulp, LOR ene sacs se 509 “ seed, price. com., 126 Japan, conditions, y atoha atest 278 Sawa trees: Of, ref... ..icidtiie vans 80 PRT EIES Acres oth GR Lip.) wig be chaen tetas 238 Funiner,sWtah., ref (.. 138 511 Kamerun forests, ref., ........ 80 APSE. Trane.) ee). ou tie eee 94 Kentucky Bas policy, news, . 777 PRINNEY lone haba | Va see 471 Bat. bei) i tae ees wens Rie 275 Layering in conifers, ref., III Lent fall icriges, 4) genase. 517 Leaves, surface areas and Wen hits se bch sn palate. ode 83 Lesser Slave Lake, timber, rev., 706 Light measurements, tef,, OE 8 & in spruce, 92 relation to growth, ref., 766 Lightning, cause of fire, ref., .. 711 “cc ee “ce CP SCESY hie tc ace cates ais Lime, soils and vegetation, Bitters THARENEES | sta eists eo cb oh ade Locomotive, hill climbing, ..... Lodgepole Pine, management, Eat Lalit hearer eed arant © Liebe ees 17 Logging, boom area, art., business, scientific management, art., 9 climbing locomotives, costs, “cc ce steam vs. tric, Sesh ane git A te See @ Ode St 66. %@ Lopping of peed N. Y., news, Louisiana, forest Sneitiens: OA ET GPR CUR eae iia ie aia ee Louisiana, timber land values, prices, wood BGreg ahaa sd ae tte 263 Lumber industry, census, news, 117 elec- @ im wie bre &< “ec if3 “ US; etc., statistics, ref., trust, com., Lumbermen vs. forestry, ref., 271 329 . 765 66 é © 28d) ee ip Bye Mahogany, Colombian, rev., Management, ay killing timber, 24 Pls ‘light ‘burning, art. Awl enn 184 new organiza- tion, Germany, 540 scientific, art-., 9, 470 western Yellow Pine, art., 51, 484 yield formula, selection for- est, Mangrove, economics, rev., ... Manitoba, reforestation, ref., Maps, distribution of species, news, forest, Germany, Maple, broadleaf, ref., “syrup, ref., Markets, south Germany, Maryland, report Ig10-I1, rev., 269 Massachusetts, state forester, report, eighth, rev., ......... Matches from alder, Matruews, D. M., art. Medullary rays, origin, ref., Mensuration, annual rings, me- chanical record, atts Mensuration, averaging, new line meas- TEE) nn wees new method, se- lection forest 21h ws SRS By stem analysis, holder, art., volume tables, EE ea ceeds Merrirt, M. L., art., Merulius lacrymans, Mexico, forestry, Mildew, oak, “ce eeoeeveveeee ioe 10 bya bee ee) @ ae 8 @)e'e c seer ee oe eee eee eee eee wee ee eeeeeeeee oeeererereeeee 458 571 -»752, 753, 754 eee eee reese ee identity, Miuier, J. M., art., Mine’ timbers, preservation, ref., ce oeoeer eee «eee eeeeeve eevee ‘e Minnesota, forestry report, ref., 713 Mississippi wood industries, PO n cis vi npaemareeer OR aes xii Missouri, forest school, news, . 782 . report, horticulture, ref.) ota 78 Mole plow, Geists’, AE St ONE Aaa 521 Monterey Pine, ref., rN” th RO 10 Morphology, internal (various), PO sy se Rp akin wee MI; ae 315 Moss, effect on increment, » 521 Naval store, new method, ..... 757 western pine. source of, ref., Nebraska forest club, rev., .. New England forestry, TEV. ee TLRES, CLEVE, New Hampshire forestry con- ference, news, reforestation, ret,” ea New Jersey, forest laws, ref., New Mexico, plant associa- tions, New York, conservation mission, news, conservation . oe . 500 eeseee ce ‘é com- “c its PRED eT gre forest experiment station, news, ... 781 forestry report, ref., 712 forestry school, ref., 509 4 “reforestation pol- icy, news: cae 114 i “report, game, I9QII, ref... ss. eee 273 se Se etabe college of for- estry, news, .... 780 New Zealand, dunes, tt,, Jones 275 rea ff orestation, ret.) cee 766 Nomenclature, article, art., 50 com:, aces 126 Nursery. fungus in Sweden, ... 530 inspection service, NEWS, *. +. .2k ee 772 4 practice, packing seed- lings: 06). Yaa 526 is transplanting tools, art., 3.\.). chee ee 3 Oak, emory, ref., ..-2.00 eee 710 * .mildew,: tices 533 id +f identity, ovine 285 “ Oreg@ inet S30. ae 711 Obituary, BuckHout, Dr. W. SEWS. iam es, 3 784 o) FREER, P. C., news, 783 3 Storrzen, De) aa AS, « Nektin gin tes 123 Oldenburg, aon forest; sack 277 Xili Ontario agricultural report, ref., 3 forestry; TeViiieee pene 7. game report, 1909- IOIL, Yefawaewenee.« 314 . provincial forester, NEWS e see es ss 777 Oregon oak, ref., .......--+++- 711 ¥ forests, tef., eye water o 274 state forester, report first, TeV., .......... 267 Organization in Bavaria, ...... 540 Outline, logging, ref., ........ 272 Osage Orange, use, rev., SE Rare 71 Ozark, forest conditions, rev., . 256 Beet “DUIDG, TCV... cccscc scene 266 Pathology, Saemipa “TO. ss sis ae 533 chestnut blight, « el GAS 49 damping off, com- (OP tie 531 “NK effect of tarring MOAI 6 os aizipig arse 538 is nursery fungus, 530 " oak mildew, ....... 533 vaccination of trees, news, 3 western species, ... Paving blocks, treatment, Pennsylvania, planting, State, annual, ref., college, news, sé “ec PETRASCHEK, Kart, art., Philippines, Bureau of estry, art., forest products, museum, art., . 616 forests, art., 571; : rev., lumberine arty s% Negros forest, RN ee aa 619 non- Christian tribes, art., ... 623 photographs, " ref., 508 report, IgII, ref., 78 woods, uses, ref., 78 Physiography, U. S., rev., Physiological notes, ref., ...... III, 511, 512 Physiology, wilting co-efficient, “ec ‘ce ala os cscs cae COMES 254 Bome borer, refi... Oe 509 weevil, ref, RA Bettie. 315 2 White, on lowlands, ABP 288 ‘ : market, news, 320 Western, size, TIGRE! eis ca ® . 320 16 Pinus virginiana, management, rev., ee Pipe. from lgejatt... 2.5... 241 Plant associations, New Mex- BOOS sg es teanas ws: Planting, ROG ae ai athe ecieic 270 and ROENGAs 7» 5 ocd 521 = OO Se 766 sg on raised beds, bouts 289 7 Scotland, ref... ...... 110 e soil preparation, 521 Pole statistics, Canada, ref., .. 79 $a: BGR... 271 Populus, wood structure, ..... 282 Porcupine, damage, news, ..... 116 Posts, durability, rev., ........ Preservation, Pet, ia .511, 512 ee new method, Se 4. Preservatives, Hew, |; oda 754 creosote in long service, rev-, . 504 iy new (Kulba), . 297 + Status, ster a. ee te on telegraph DORSS G.voind sans 752 i treatment and strength, news, .775 Preserving industry, growth, WHEE es alas ea 31 Ke processes, salt pen- etration, rev., . 67 Prices, Christmas trees, ...... 546 Jack Pine seed, com., 126 % various manufacturers, BE Pistoia ies ba cet 483 be wood, Baden, news, 120 Ks wood in Germany, 758 . wood, Switzerland, 306 Proc. Soc. Am. For., ref., BE Profession of forestry, ref., . 710 Propaganda methods, ref., ..... 765 Protection, combating May beetles.’ Soc onees 534 4 fire, India, art., 630 . y lines, use, 740 4 yee RPOPICR,- 27 se ey 740 fungous _ diseases, 293 . insect control, art., 208 x against insects, ek fe ee RO RR 122 2 lopping tops, news, 768 Porcupine, news, . 116 . of shade trees, . 534 Protective associations, ref., .. Nha forests, ref., ee ee we ee 5 aire ry ot beak eae 3 \ TIO, III, 314, 766 XIV Pulpwood, eer Canada, 9, 508 a statictics, Uy Su cee’ 76 Quarter-sawing, history, ...... 308 Quebec, planting, ref., .\..0...008 766 report, IQII, ref., 274 Quebracho, ref., » cb Sak ee 270 wood, PeVi, Wagvaven 504 Railroad ties, durability, ....... 752 Rainfall, causes ir Germany, .. 313 and tree increment, Arti, | wiergnmiewerekees 222 Rainmaking, COm.) Veen 4k 570 Ranger publications, news, .... 564 &é school, Syracuse, news, 780 schools, art., 6é ere eeeeee COL LEG PE Mae 766 RECKNAGEL, ‘A. Be Grt;... 220, 417 RECKNAGEL, A. B. and WooL- sty, Ta. SS, Jx.; art., Weems 417 Red alder, ref., Baie oes aeare ete a yAe' Redwood, properties, rere Baechule 710 Reforestation, Alta., refi lacs. 314 Karst, aihrd Naot 94 oF heath lands, ... 89 a Man., ref., 109 <9 New Hamp- shire, ref., 508 i on Pike Na- tional Forest, Tet ees ee 109 Reservations, Appalachians, art., 33 Reserve funds, use, Revenue, Indian forester, ref., . I10 REVIEWS: Bacon and Gana, mangrove SWAMPS)» s/o de een Baker and Smith, Australian pines, 2. ALARA eee €95 Bateman, creosote in piles, ...504 sf ‘salts in treated WOOK): Davee Ae rena 67 Beddard, earth worms, .... 497 ‘Besley, fence posts, durabil- 0 Oe eS MORSE ie ne pe 266 Blakeslee and Jarvis, trees in MMITECT, (sod ieaahseites ce cen 64 Bowman, physiography, .... 57 Briggs and Chantz, wilting coemicient, | 40 1\.).sa than 254 Cameron, Slave Lake Tim- BEE. sone’ s agen, sors pains 706 Campbell, Turtle Mt. reserve, Canada, © 5 +.0:cs ae een 708 Caoz, avalanches, he Ce ees hh a 243 Chapman, ‘forestry, .....0%: 507 Collins and Preston, key to trees, Coward, birds’ migration, .. 4 Deam, Indiana board of for- estry, report, 19nr Dennis and White, Canada, waterpowers, Dunlap, heat of wood, ...... Foxworthy, Indo-Malayan WOGUS si) diciectolea bs sie » aie 'Frothingham, second growth, 505 Giles, logged-off lands, ..... 507 Gould and Maxwell, wood in- dustrres: > Massif oa Harris, Maxwell and Kiefer, Arkansas, wood industries, Hawley atid Hawes, forestry in New England, Illinois, Ag. exp. sta., elms, Katschenko, Russian forests, 61 Lewis and Boyce, Cooperage products ‘Canada, “cei sete Maryland, report, t910 and LOU, ios 5 cil ele oe eee Maxwell, Osage Orange, .... 71 705 Maxwell, wood industries, .. 263 Mell*and Brush, quepracho, . 504 Nebraska forest CHUID, eee 500 Oakleaf, wood industries, Wash., MASA Pine 259 Oregon, state forester, report, APSE, 8. clio ois 267 Rane, state forester, Mass., report, é¢ighth, .....2o0ee 257 Record, économic woods, 495 i Ozark forest con- Aitioins) 9.4.5. bie 4 256 ‘Reynolds, grazing and floods, 69 Schenck, utilization, ........ 408 Searle, clay history, ........ 407 Simmons, wood industries, AS Pic Ped a sic ahce of ee 258 Sterrett, scrub pine, ........ 68 Sudworth and others, ma- OF Rewatyy Ais Tk. or 66 Surface, paper pulps, ....... 266 Tansey, (types, 1: cS 590 Timber. bonds; «; ....+). ae 99 U. S. Forest Service, forest manual.) |... joes) tees 65 Waener, ‘Grundlagen, Whitford, Philippine forests, 607 Wilson, cross-arms, ......... 503 Yale forest school alumni, ... 408 Zavitz, report, cooperative fOTEStiy.) tcvek ss wre ocean 73 Rhode Island, report, I9II Tek ak SOUCe eS Rare py a Rhodesia, forestry in, ref., .... 80 Rope HMCasSre, fice we wee es ae 297 BRosenprura, R., art, 2.) a «be 647 Rot, dry, in buildings, ........ 206 RT TIO, |. 0 v:n"s"a maliel 752, 754, = Roumania, exports, Mi wise aes © forester iischnceees> "Bo Russia, CXPGLismumesee hss 107 ‘ {9pegteeee, wweeu nas 6 268 (6. Gi pt Ble 6Cjiu, \ 9.4 > 549 SPS ES Se 275 Sates, fire-killed timber, art., 24 Salix, wood structure, ....... | 282 Sand dunes, farm forestry, vas, 6 OS Meemarwood, ef.) iiew ee ew 275 Santo Domingo, forests, ...... 726 BN Staife Teh occ shake eds 75 Sapindales, anatomy, ref., .... III SER ge get a a oR 106 Saw, endless chain for felling,. 102 Sawdust used for paving REMMMIAES , Sutras edrece’ ala Seats tere 106 Saxony, SOTestEyen | sb. enieewee ey 763 methods;-ref:, .. sve: 766 « REAPTSTICG Gs os als sire 547 SCHEDULE, experiments on a aeatmme plots! /art.; . os... .. es 38 rites.) Adalbert,.... 6... 00 557 Schools, forest, OMOEA MCh) TEWS) ) i. okies S08 322 Cornell University, news, ... 323 Edinburgh University, news, 324 Missouri University, news, . 325 New York State College, RP mace) Wen ah hae 322 Pennsylvania State College, TRUSS omens (i oy Magu tng Set byt 322 Syracuse University, ref., ... 765 United States, ref., .....05.. 109 Scientific lumbering, ref., ..... 109 : management, art,, 407 in ‘log- ging att, 9 SCHNEIER, BLP arty soc. ak 616 Scotland, state forests, news, .. 324 Scrub pine, management, rev.,. 68 Seasoning, PEN Narn elanigate? 705 SOT MRAE uso a tL 103 Seeds collection: refs (cue yeas 76 CLOp TEPOFE,- »./siewaemieween 734 “ determination, PObsr eve 767 “extracting, establish- Maen. art... decane 229 1 extraction, GOR sic hncrain 710 “germination, light and BPE igs sy tea 730 “cc b ; production, ref., .....d 76 ‘ BG aie lays vies + + on 290, 525 testing influences, pine, . 522 Seeds, tree selection, Seedlings, packing, Selection forests, yield formula, 744 n e Ww m ethod, 4 ey i seed, tees A: bo <> 733 : vs. uniform system, 731 Shade trees, care of, ref., Ab 3 5 Protection, 6s Vs) ss). 534 Shelter belts, r@fg 25 0.64/08 ose 275 Shingle mill, ants. vieres cee 238 Shoes, : wooden, :.. << uid. sikieeae abe 308 Siberta, forests, 2.04 2 se eulove. 277 Site influence on anatomy. .... 729 Siblwatd, ' biology,® .i..5.. 234. 281 Silviculture, hardwoods in Con- necticut, rev., .. 505 ‘f on heath lands, .. 8&9 Lodgepole Pine, ee rls 2 claghn ital 17 * seed trees selec- Li's WN PR peb aes SSA Ys 733 - sowing in Black Bids; aati oc), . sowing board, aaa cd sowing in moun- Raters, io eae 526 “ planting tools, 521 “ thinnings Borg- AWW aa eich. 520 Site classification, ............ 286 Smoke investigation, ref., 713 Society, testing materials, year hooksrtost rek 440. lee nes 78 Soils changes, history, ........ 279 improvement by species,. 8&8 “ lime and vegetation, .... 518 Venera pipe i eee eens 287 \ Velaye history, rews: aa 497 “ physiography, rev., ....... 57 South African, forestry, ref.,721, 722 Sowing hoded. iors or ce aienae as 525 COST ATG cL av ake, ola 27 “t new method in moun- TPA GR TT Boe: 526 rs pesuliss arte oct ae P: 27 Sprout forest, see coppice, art., 203 Staghead, cause of, .......... 285 Standardization of instruc- Do TARE g Sey CIN ag RE 341 wiaeiee: fonmiaide. 2. loc. c..ao 543 Statistics, Baden administra- OES CAS ERG RR ee eR RR # 300 Canada, forest pro- ducts, ref., mW &. Canada, mine tim- bers, poles, ties, pulpwood, ref.79, 508 Xvi Statistics, communal property, 546 Finland condi HONS, Valea 553 fe Hesse administra- HOM, {eee 548 . pulp wood, news, . 559 id Russia, ») sc Vee eee 549 sl Saxony) iu. cckeuunene 547 yi Sweden,: \\a/ecwidieae 309 2 Switzerland,.))<.)./; 4s 552 timber products, 1909, news, .... 559 cy Ui So RS eis ee 701 4 pulpwood, veneers, d istillation, PELs ple gute. Geiss ~6, 271 Staves, costs erent’. Wie arce a 105 Stem analysis. method, art., I Srerrert, W. D., art., .....-.-- 602 SEOREZER, \ODILILAT We) se cbs) + wrecete 123 Sous, Pic Atle el se cmkiees 619 Street tree planting, ref. J Tit, 272 Strength and preservative treat- ment, TIE WG yas is ele sued alle se lee 775 of timber, ee MATE La 75 Structural timbers, ref., ...... 75 Stump, removal, ref., 278, 510, 5II Sulphonation: test, ref., ......'. 75 Supplies, wood, ref., Ay Niel III Survey instructions, "ref. Brea 272 Sweden, CxOtics,...k (coe se 290 uy BEDOLES, |p btaiviemar yes 107 nd PATIOS AT kas wtosa 530 is seed crop report, 734 . SUALIBTICE, vis: c) seni ieietate 300 Switzerland, avalanches, rev., . 243 property con- GATIONS, ss PRO. 554 * statistics, Geena Sareae 552 Syracuse forestry college, ref., 905; MEWS, ) ikem ee 780 Taniim on’ Merulitis, 4.022408 754 : from tropics, eck. ee 758 Tar ‘fumes, -efects,\.. asacadnsay 538 Tasmanian trees, ref., ..... 80, 509 AAPOR TOE vas 01d see 765 in Austrian courts, 301 a propositions, 6.6554 302 eale: Wom pang FMS stasis cle eee Dig 2 “ selection and uniform SECM ee any ih aie fe shake ie eae 731 Telegraph poles impregnation, 752 Telephone: Wires) 3.0. dee he's 06 Thinnings, influence on di- AMECTCR vy oie Seatarecs 95 ‘a results, Borggreve and others, 529 Tie statistics, Canada, ref., 70 ref., 271 Timber borids, ‘reva) Vatiip en ce | 99 land values, Louisiana, 99 products, statistics, Ig0o0, NEWS) iia 559 i sales, ancient, oad pane 313 A * contracts, ae tional, art., 139 As “in Germany, 312 4 tests, ref., .v...... 2m ae Transplanting tools, art., 2m Transportation, log flume, .... Be Tree books and keys, ref., 77, 273, 314, 513 ‘Tunis, forestty, 0a 723 Turkey) forests,: 0. i sie see 725 Turpentine, nehys ee Se 77 Turpentining, Florida, ref., 767 Type classification, ee 520 United States, census, lumber, 3 ‘ “ sa pha Mac w ood distilling news, 118 re be eastern _—reser- vations, aft... 33 vy a physiography , TEVs,.\ cee 57 Utilization, TOV. ld ci eee 408 charcoal data, . at Indian mills, art., 478 waste for cooper- “cc ce age, |. «+0. 105 Valuation, interest rate, ...... 546 Veneer, Cost,’ . /<.. fs. see 104 ie statistics, U. S. ref., 76 Vermont, forester’s report, IQII, Tek, wae sues Roe 77 7 forestry association, TOT, “Fehr... 5090 a summer school, ref.,. 500 Virgin forest, Bohemia, ...... 277 Volume tables, new method, 1 Oe MOREE MI MERA 215 Wagner, Gundlagen, rev., ..... 699 Walnut, circassian,: ref: eee 270 Washington, wood industries, TEV. sb Cele le wislints lalate 259 Waste for cooperage, .....-+- 105 és for paving blocks, 106 ne lands, planting, ...-... 04 * ie in Prussia, . 310 Water absorption, intluences by SPECIES Mae atic aele Weve aha eileen s Waterflow, influences on cir- cilatiGMny st: Gee eee oe ee ee 86 Wreelcs: tan eig ns 218s eae 270 Weights, cooperage stock, 103 Western Hemlock, ref., ....... 711 . Pine, naval stores, ‘3 ref. .. vaste ete 711 Yellow Pine, ref., 76 White ant damage, ref., ....... . 31 5 “ — Mountains, reservation, art MiP apt ad das 50 o's 33 * Pine blister rust, com., . 125 culls, market, news, 774 on lowlands, . 288 “3 “ market, news, 320 “ “« new disease, ea maian 532 i “ western, size, news, 320 i. opruce for ‘oars, ....... 105 Willows, baskets, PET 5 Sacie:edead 315 Germa ny, HeEWR Ri a 118 GUTEUFE TET. evs c eee ats 766 Wilting co- -efficient, LEW ees 254 Wisconsin, report, I9II, ref, wars Wood’ determination, ref., 713 PISCOLOTAUONE viet aes 756 “ distilling census, United States, MewSy iscsi 118 < industries, minor, art, . 238 preservers’ association, BAD MOTO aes ciwiacae 273 “prices, Baden, news, ... 120 “specific heat, rev., ...... 705 “structure, populus and ho a 282 Woods economic, rev., ........ 495 Fr Indo-Malayan, rev., ... 601 mVooden, shies ii. ok ek. 308 Woodlot from seed, ref., ...... 274 Wood-paving, Minneapolis, ref., 75 “using industries, Canada, ref., 79 1g GS ny Sg) OR oy iy “cc 6“ ‘ec 6é “ec Woopwarp, K. W., art., WOOLSEY, 7 S.; jr., r. “ec ‘cc ‘é art., 139, 417, , 630 news in Europe, 120 WorkINc plan, Western Yel- low Pine, ‘art... 5:4 .dbawiaees 484 Yale alumni, ref., 272 rev., .... 498 t literature classification SEP ee OR AMER, Sie y 272 Yellow pie western, growth ta - bles, art, 485 “ec ‘ce “cc m a n- a ge- ment, art, st 6“ ¢é “c Ww ork- ing plan, art. 484 Yield formula, selection forest, 744 new method, art. ...... 458 “tables, western yellow PMS arte eae 485 ff Yosemite park, refi; . ooo OSes 712 LVTG FOSINAE oie se ova a 756 XVili JOURNAL BRIEFED. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales.— Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd- Zei- tung.— L’Alpe.— American i Forestry.—— American Lumberman.— Barrel and Box.— Botanical Gazette.— Bulletin of American Geographical Society.— Bulletin American Mining Engineers.— Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden.— Institute of Bulletin de la Société Dendrologi- que de France.— Bulletin Société forestiére de Franche-Comté et Belfort— Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science.— Canada Lumberman and Wood- worker.— Canadian Forestry Journal.— Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen.— Comptes Rendues Academie Science (Paris) .— Cultura.— English News.— Experiment Station Record.— { Forest Leaves.— Forstwissenschaftliches Central- blatt.— Chronicle.— Hardwood Record.— Gardiners’ Indian Forester.— Jahresbericht. Botanik.— Journal of the Board of Agricul- ture.— Vereinigung angew. Lumber Review.— Lumber Trade Journal.— Minnesota Forester.— Mississippi Valley Lumberman.— Municipal Journal and Engineer. Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Landwirtschaft.— N Sask York Lumber Trade Jour- nal.— Ohio Naturalist.— Philippine Botany.— Pomona College Journal of Econ- omic Botany.— Praktische Blatter fiir Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz.— Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences.— Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters.— Journal of Science: Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada.— Phytopathology.— Quarterly Bulletin of the Cana- dian Mining Institute. — Quarterly Journal of Forestry.— Revue des Eaux et Foréts.— Rhodora.— Rod and Gun.— Science.— Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen.— Sierra Club Bulletin.— Silva.— Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift— Southern Industrial and Lumber Review.— Southern Lumberman.— Southwest.— St. Louis Lumberman.— Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch— Timberman.— eae Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. — West Coast Lumberman.— Woodcraft.— Wood Worker.— Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagd- wesen.— ae irtng > mig: Re cathe 8 vey ng # SRI Se = ri eS 4 - . . bg i Process. Studie JS mn Definition by Higgs 4 } > FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vout. X] MarcH, 1912. [ No. I. METHOD OF TAKING IMPRESSIONS OF YEAR-RINGS IN CONIFERS. By. boos. Hiccs. This method, developed by the writer, is easy, quick, and effi- cient in field-work. The articles required are a little soft graphite, a stencil-brush, and some strips of heavy white blotting-paper with a fine grain, and a hammering tool. The writer ordinarily uses Rising Sun Stove Polish and the Nestor brand of paper. The pole of the cruising-axe, if kept smooth, may be used as a hammer. A rule is laid upon the mean radius of the section, and a line is scratched lightly along it with the point of a knife. This line will show on the back of the paper as a guide to the direction of the hammering. Graphite is now rubbed lightly along the line to the required width, and brushed in. It is useful as a lubricant to prevent the paper sticking to pitch or sap, and to give definc- tion to the records by daylight. If neatness of execution be de- sired, all superfluous graphite must be carefully blown or brushed away. A strip of paper is laid upon the line, held firmly in place, and tapped with the hammer, preferably from the centre towards the circumference. Care must be taken to proceed and finish in one direction, and not to return upon finished work, because the paper stretches a trifle with the tapping, and among rings of fifty or sixty to the inch, a second blow is apt to blur the definition. The scratched line will appear under the hammer as the tapping pro- ceeds, and will give the desired direction. Two minutes work will give an excellent impression of a thirty-inch section. The records are most easily read by artificial light, incident at 2 Forestry Quarterly. as oblique an angle as possible, and with the centre of the tree nearest to the source of light. In Douglas Fir the writer has obtained in this manner an excel- lent definition of rings as close together as eighteen to five milli- meters, or nearly one hundred to the inch. And records quite good enough for ordinary work may, if necessary, be taken with blotting-paper and a smooth stone. With artificial and correctly oblique illumination, graphite, as an aid to definition, may be dispensed with, there being nothing to better the effect of the contrast of light and shade upon the white paper. If it should be desired to make the records permanent they may be dipped in diluted shellac and dried, when they become as hard as the wood of the original, and from them any number of carbon copies may be taken. The shellac destroys a higher definition than from sixty to seventy rings to the inch, and it is to be supposed that a finer varnish, such as copal or mastic, would be preferable. These the writer has not had an opportunity of trying. Thus all the data necessary to enable one to compute the growths of diameter, height, and volume, may be taken from an ordinary tree, (say 24 inches by 100 feet) in 10-foot sections, in fifteen or twenty minutes; and the curves may be blotted in the office directly from the impressions. The records of each tree, or group of trees, may be filed away in an envelope; and the impressions of the ideal or average tree of his age, height, and diameter, may be made permanent and filed for reference. Impressions of full sections may be made, if needful or desir- able, in an ordinary copying press. | If the method should come into general use, a paper with an in- clastic, and perhaps water-proof backing rolling on to it would seem to be indicated. NEW TOOLS FOR TRANSPLANTING CONIFERS. By Wo. H. Mast. Owing to the increasing interest in forest planting with the con- sequent demand for great numbers of trees for planting on private and National Forest land there comes a pressing need for im- proved tools and methods for producing and planting trees. For several years the writer was in charge of the Halsey Nur- sery on the Nebraska National Forest where hundreds of thous- ands of coniferous seedlings and transplants were handled an- nually. To insure the most rapid and effective handling of these trees he was on the constant lookout for ways of improving the tools and methods used. In the summer of 1907 he visited several of the largest com- mercial nurseries in the middle west for the purpose of collect- ing information in regard to methods of growing and handling coniferous nursery stock. It was found that in some nurseries large numbers of one and two year old conifers were pricked out of the seedbeds and set in transplant beds with the dibble. At some places trenches were dug with one side vertical, the seedlings placed against the vertical side and the dirt shoveled in against them, the proper spacing being effected either by the laborer placing the trees with his fingers, or by setting them in notches in a board on the surface of the ground at the vertical side of the trench. Sometimes the trees were threaded into a notched board two or three feet long and a narrow slat or lath held against the front of the board to prevent them from falling out while it was carried and placed on the edge of the trench. Large trees were lined out into nursery rows by the slit method. At this time there was in use in the Halsey’s Nursery a plant- ing board of the German pattern. This board consisted of two notched slats hinged together in such a manner as to allow one slat to be drawn a couple of inches away from the other with a sliding motion giving the operator space to thread the trees into the notches after which he closed the slats together again to hold the trees in position while the board was placed on the edge of 4 Forestry Quarterly. — the trench. The digging of a trench by hand was slow and labor- ious ; so a sled-like implement consisting of one deep runner nosed with iron to make a trench and one shallow runner to serve as a marker, was made and drawn by a horse. This reduced the labor of digging the trench, but necessitated the planting of long nur- sery rows, and precluded the possibility of placing these in neat compact beds. In connection with the sled-trencher planting boards about 5 feet long and made similar to that described be- low were used. In the spring of 1908, there was an unusually large number of trees to be transplanted and the advisability of putting these into a small area that could be easily watered made the use of the im- plements and methods formerly employed wholly unsatisfactory. The attempt to devise better tools resulted in those described below. The Trencher——The trencher is commonly spoken of at the Halsey Nursery as the “hand trencher” to distinguish it from a trencher drawn by horses and devised for field planting. The hand trencher consists of two plates of steel seven inches wide and 26 inches long welded together along one edge and drawn out to a thin cutting blade. The opposite edges of these plates are separated about 1 inch allowing space into which three pieces of three-fourth inch pipe slightly flattened are inserted and rivetted. One piece of pipe is inserted in the center and the other two at two and one-half inches from the ends of the plates. All are brought together in a cross or 4-way pipe-connection, 8 inches above the plates. Into the upper opening of the cross, a piece of pipe 20 inches long is fitted supporting a tee into which 6 inch pieces of pipe are screwed forming a complete T-handle. To obviate a second bending of the pieces which extend from the ends of the blade to the handle, nipples and angle connections may be used as shown in the drawing and photograph. ‘The trencher weighs from 18 to 24 pounds depending on the thickness of steel used in the blade and should be made by any blacksmith at a cost of from $3.00 to 5.00. To make a trench the trencher is put in proper position and weight put on it by placing the foot on the top of the blade. The operator then works the handle to and from his body as the blade sinks into the soil making a trench about two and one-half inches: Transpléntin b pone Shove! Method y ro) re with Spade a sh&¥el? The : anak Trees are Aeld in position m the notches by a String drawn De Tavt in front of them. pe a, ay 6 = -, os A eee 8 Use of Transplanting board for ely: plan ting one & Two year o/d seedings. Fig af a Method of filling Mitch and famping diet ' against roots of /rees : Mm. | Use of Transplanting board for 7rans planing one & Two wear of seedlings. oe Frencher m Jrans lan tin be ‘cher method Fig Ir. Trees Jowered with backward re) di e 2) od fehorh wise td IA iy Sip too7S wil/ no¥ catch on The Sides hut | : : Toward the hottorh french. = mp. extended nature ly yee DONMAORINDI TON \ eg eth 8 y | ot ae rd filled with Aas sae fe ree ig . ee / 4 Us i: spl Oe Board for Jrans- Hipeg tone ea pear o/d eedlings. eR Re Sa Att ae Fig Ie S eS er CGI 3f aM De hm Fig ZZ eae He slat 1s ye , the’ boteeh €raTor &.! turned over Toward the o = olirt ee be- ER eg t Ae row. ———$— aS ee = ee Board 1s /owsred 7o proper i depth. Then the Side of Trench pushed in against the roots with the Tamper. R Oe ee “Use. of Transp an7ing Boats for Trans- Planting one & Two year old seedlings _ Tools for Transplanting Comfers. 5 wide at the top and any desired dépth depending upon the length of the roots of the seedlings to be transplanted. For a planting board 6 feet, or 6 feet 3 inches long the trencher must be set into the bed three times in the same line. A 36 inch trencher has been used, but it requires two men to handle it while one man can handle a 26 inch implement all day long. This implement leaves a trench with smooth sides, and can be used very satisfactorily in almost any nursery soil. Planting Board—The planting board used in connection with the trencher consists of a 5 inch board 6 feet 3 inches long with handle attached in the middle. On the lower edge a piece 14 inches wide is nailed flush with the back of the first board, the front edge of this piece should. be beveled to about $ inch in thickness. Into this edge 50 notches are sawed 14 inches apart, one notch falling # inch from either end of the board. These notches are slightly wider at the bottom than double the saw kerf, or about 4 inch, and should be made smooth with emery cloth or a sharp knife and rounded at the outer edge to admit of threading the trees into them easily. The parts between the notches should be strengthened by driving one or two 14 inch brads through them. ‘The inner parts of the notches are flush with the face of the vertical board, so that when the trees are threaded into the notches they lie flat against the face of this 5 inch board; a slat placed over them and fastened by two buttons holds the seedlings in place while the board is being carried from the threading table to the trench. A loop or binding of tin over one end of the board forms a pocket into which the end of the slat is placed before being buttoned down. This helps hold it and prevents it from being slipped past the end of the board when placed on the trees. The slat fits loosely enough so that it does not crush the stems of the seedlings when it is buttoned down. The buttons are made with a slight bevel so that when turned only partially over the slat they do not hold it so closely as when turned at right angles to it. This allows for handling both large and small stemmed seedlings with the same degree of efficiency. When planting, the operator keeps the notches toward him and lowers the board into the trench with a back and forward move- ment lengthwise of the trench so that the roots will not catch on the sides, but will be extended naturally toward the bottom 6 Forestry Quarterly. of the trench. An advantage of this board over one which must be laid on the surface of the ground comes from the fact that the planter is able to partially overcome mistakes made in threading trees too high or too low in the notches by simply lowering the board into the trench until the crowns of the trees are at the prop- er height. The Tamper.—For closing the trench a tamper made of 14 inch board 12 inches long and 5 inches wide with hand-hold cut in one side is used. By giving the proper amount of pressure on the ground with the tamper at an angle and about 3 inches away from the trench the whole side of the trench is broken in against the roots of the trees. After the soil is firmly tamped on the side nearest the operator the slat is loosened, moved away, the board turned over toward the operator and the soil firmly tamped at the back. The board holds the trees out of the way while this is being done and when the tamping is completed, is lifted, and the trees allowed to straighten up. Laying Out Transplanting Beds——When transplanting is done by this method, 4 to 7 parallel beds should be layed out and all carried forward together. With a squad of 5 or 6 men this allows one man to be kept busy with the trencher. As soon as the first trench is made in bed No. 1, the trencher man passes to the second, then to the third and so on, the planters following him. By the time he has made the trench in the last bed the planters are away from the first and he returns to it to make the second trench, con- tinuing as before. ‘The trenches are made 6 inches apart. While a trench is being made the 6-inch block of soil between the trench- er and the last row planted is often entirely moved so that in vase the planters have not completely closed the soil against the roots the trencher forces it over. When the beds are laid out, a string stretched across the block insures all beds being started on the same line. A board marker with cross lines 6 inches apart is laid in each path between the beds, with the first line in each case beneath the string. These lines guide the trencher without further use of the string. A chalk line or small wire, preferably the latter, stretched at the left side of each bed serves as a guide for the planting board so that the edges of the bed may be kept even. If it is desired to place transplants in long rows for convenient cultivation with wheel eae 5 =n mp ANT T rr) Py eeransee” THe Mast TRANSPLANTING TOOLS. Consisting of trencher, planting board and tamper. ‘The trencher is inches long with a blade 1 inch thick at top. ‘The planting board holds 50 trees. Patent Applied For 26 TRANSPLANTING CrEw ConststING or SEVEN MEN. One man makes trenches, two men put trees in the trenches and tamp the dirt against them, four men thread the trees into the boards and carry them to the planters. Six beds are carried forward together. Marks on the boards in the paths guide the trencher across the beds in parallel lines. Wire stretched at the left edges of the beds enable the planters to make the borders of the paths even. A crew of this number can plant 30 to 40 thousand trees per day of 8 hours. Area raked and flooded at close af re iP Ae a Tools for Transplanting Contfers. 7 hoe instead of in compact beds the trencher and planting board may be used with equal advantage and efficiency. Threading Tables—The planting boards are filled with trees at threading tables. ‘These threading tables should have wind shields and preferably sun shields. A small tent on a frame that can be easily moved by two or three men makes a very desirable shelter for the threading tables. In nurseries where the soil is likely to be too much packed by the men walking over it when carrying the planting board to and from the planting tables, 12-inch boards may be laid down for them to walk upon. As soon as a small block is finished it should be raked over with a long-toothed rake in order that the surface of the ground be made as smooth as possible before water is applied. The rake teeth should be 6 to g inches long and may be made of No. Io steel wire. Teeth of this size are sufficiently strong and being round and somewhat flexible do not injure the trees or pull them out. At the end of each day’s work the beds should be flooded or sprinkled until they are thoroughly soaked. ‘This insures the closing of any openings that may have remained unclosed during the process of planting, and brings the soil in close contact with the roots. A six-man squad can work to best advantage with one man trenching, two men planting, and three men threading. Until the men become accustomed to the work the planters and sometimes the trencher man exchange places with the threaders at the end of every hour. Such a squad when transplanting seedlings of a convenient size for handling, preferably 2 years old, can transplant from 25 to 35 thousand trees per day of 8 hours. The use of the above tools reduced the cost of transplanting at the Halsey Nursery approximately 50 per cent. A small trial in 1910 by W. H. Schrader of the Monument Nursery, Monu- ment, Colorado, resulted in a saving of 30 per cent over other methods and he states that this year by the use of these tools he expects to reduce the cost of transplanting to one half that of former years. Other Implements and Methods —tTransplanting has been done 8 Forestry Quarterly. extensively in the Government nurseries at Monument, Colorado and Ft. Bayard, New Mexico, by the methods described below. A 6 inch board is laid on the transplant bed just in front of the last row planted. This board is used as a guide for the next trench which is dug with a vertical side, the dirt being thrown out with a spade or shovel. The planting board consists of a 6 inch board, 6 feet long, one edge of which is beveled to about 4 inch in thickness and has notches sawed in it approximately 1 inch deep and 14 inches apart. This board is hung on hooks with the notched edge up, on one side of a threading table, the notches ex- tending above the surface of the table. Trees with roots extend- ing toward the center and tops toward the edges of the table are drawn from beneath a wet burlap cover and threaded into the notches. A heavy string is then drawn taut on top or in front of them to hold them in place while the board is carried to the trench. The board is then put down in place of the one which guided the spade when the trench was dug, and the roots of the trees hang against the vertical wall of the trench. Dirt is shoveled or scraped in against the roots and tamped, the ground smoothed, and the next trench dug. Usually two men work together digging the trench and planting the trees while a third threads the boards and brings them to the planters. Additional help is required for the third man occasionally. Sometimes instead of digging a trench by throwing the dirt out, a trench is simply pried open with a spade. This method, however, does not make a trench with sides sufficiently smooth to let the roots of the trees in easily and usually is not as satis- factory as digging the dirt out. It has been suggested that perhaps by the use of the above method a better developed root system will be obtained than when the trencher is used, but experiments have not proven this and it appears that the development is about the same in one case as in the other. Since the very decided advantage in speed gained through the use of the trencher means a considerable reduction in the cost of transplants especially where labor is high, it is be- lieved that the trencher should commend itself for extensive use. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND THE LUMBER BUSI- NESS. A POSSIBLE FIELD FOR FORESTERS. By Epwarp A. BRANIFF. What constitutes a fair day’s work for a man, or pair of men, performing a specific task in a logging camp? ‘Take, for example, a saw crew engaged in felling timber and cutting it into lengths. How many trees of specified diameters and species should such a saw crew handle? Nobody knows, precisely, the answer to this question. Some foremen may be able to answer it in a vague, general sort of way, but nobody knows how to answer it precisely, and that is the . only answer that is worth while for our purpose. It was the custom in the Long-leaf Pine district in East Texas a few years ago to pay the saw crews 40 cents per thousand feet for felling and sawing into lengths. This piece-rate system re- sulted in a wide variance of wages earned, and some men earned as much as $5 to $6 per day, others not more than $3. This piece- rate system was very crude, because it was not adapted to chang- ing conditions. In a good stand of larger timber where conditions were favorable some extra good crews might average 25,000 to 30,000 feet per day, but they were obliged to work at the same piece-rate when compelled to saw in small, scattered timber where the best they could do was 15,000 to 18,000 feet per day. The piece-rate plan resulted in speeding up the men, and induced them to increase the amount of work they did, but when that result had been accomplished the rate was cut to 35 cents, and again to 30 cents. At present, [ am inclined to believe the men are working at regular wages by the day. In no logging camp with whose methods I am familiar have there ever been collected any data sufficiently detailed to answer the question: What constitutes a day’s work in the woods? Where men work by the day the foreman is expected to keep them from soldiering, but the foreman has so many responsibilities, and his presence is needed at so many points at the same time that it is an impossibility for him to keep his men at their highest efficiency. IO Forestry Quarterly. The percentage of time-killing, or soldiering, indulged in by woods workmen is surprisingly great. I hasten to admit, of course, that many of their tasks are so heavy as to require fre- quent rest periods. Nevertheless, it is a fact that there are few occupations in which the opportunity for soldiering is so great as it is in logging. ‘There are many jobs in which the principal part of the men’s time is occupied in “resting” and “waiting for something to do.” ‘The foreman cannot be ubiquitous, and must content himself in keeping things moving as best he can. The workmen are scattered, too often they are irresponsible, and the chances for soldiering are most attractive. Within the past few months great interest in Scientific Manage- ment as developed in the remarkable work of Mr. Frederick W. Taylor, has been displayed among manufacturers. The possibili- ties of the Taylor system in its application to the various manu- facturing industries has been given considerable study. Very little has been said or done, however, with reference to trying out the system in the woods. In a recent address the assis- tant treasurer of the Berlin Mills Company endorsed his doubt as to whether scientific management could accomplish much in a logging camp, mainly for these reasons: 1. The generally unreliable character of the men employed, dut to the fact that they are not men with families, but men with the “floating”’ habit. 2. The fact that in woods work the men are scattered about a great deal, so that it is impossible to maintain a very close su- pervision over them. It is admitted, however, that if Scientific Management were established in logging operations the results would be no less astounding than in other industries where it has been tried. It does not seem to me that the two difficulties above cited are in- superable. I purpose to outline some ideas as to methods of pro- cedure in taking up the problem in a logging camp. Before doing so it may be well to point out that such work requires a different kind of training and intelligence than the ordinary woods foreman possesses, and seems peculiarly within the province of the trained forester. Therefore, graduates of forest schools, who should always be alert for chances to show the usefulness of their train- ing to lumber companies, would do well to inform themselves von- Scientific Management. II cerning the Taylor System and the results of Scientific Manage- ment in a great conservation of human energy. The forester, as well as the lumberman, can meet on this common ground with mu- tual interest in, and no prejudices concerning the problems to be solved. The forester who can demonstrate the efficiency of this system will have won the confidence and enthusiastic backing of his employer, and will then be in a much better position to advo- — cate measures dealing with the conservation of the forest. There- fore, it seems extremely desirable that forest schools should en- courage original investigations in the application of the Taylor System of Scientific Management in the woods. The first step to be taken is that of determining what constitutes a fair day’s work for each man employed, that is, a standard task is determined after an exhaustive time study of its various com- ponent parts. Let us take for illustration the task referred to in the beginning of this article, namely, that of determining the amount of work which a saw crew should do in a day. We will assume that a camp is selected in the southern pine woods where sawyers are employed at $3 per day each, to fell Long-leaf Pine and saw into lengths. The observer will equip himself with a stop watch, paper and pencil, and first analyze the operations performed. The work may, it is suggested, be divided as follows: 1. Time required to make the undercut (give depth of under- cut) ; 2. Time required to fell the tree (give species and diameter) ; 3. Time required to trim the tree of limbs; 4. Time required to saw off each length (give diameters). Each of the above processes may, if desirable, be subdivided still further, as: 1. Number of strokes of saw required to cut through a certain diameter ; 2. Length of stroke; 3. Number of strokes per minute; 4. Time spent in wedging, and in oiling saw, etc. One of the best of the saw crews is selected for observation, and 12 Forestry Quarterly. what is being done should be thoroughly explained. With a little study and experiment a satisfactory form may be ruled for mak- ing stop-watch observations. The form for observation in wheel- barrow work (see Taylor p. 151, “Shop Management’’) will af- ford valuable suggestions. The difficulties of working stop-watch observations that are really useful are admitted, but it seems that the above skeleton outline of an analysis of a saw crew’s work should not be too difficult to follow. A large number of observations of several saw crews, carried on for two or three months, should enable the observer to formu- late a standard “task” for this kind of work. This information should be very detailed in its nature, and should show what a good crew of sawyers can accomplish in a day of ten hours, al- lowing a definite percentage for rest and necessary delays, as determined by the study. It should enable the management to know in a precise way the time required to perform any one of the processes required in the saw crew’s work, per day, diameter and species. With this information, the management is able to assign its tasks to the saw crews. Mr. Taylor advocates that when the point has been reached where the system is to be applied, the greatest caution should be exercisd not to force it too rapidly on the men. In this instance, we will assume the saw crews are earn- ing $6 per day ($3 per man), and are averaging 18,000 feet per day of timber felled and sawed into lengths. The time study has determined that in the character of timber handled these saw crews should fell and saw into lengths not 18,000 feet, but from 30,000 to 40,000 feet. The management singles out a pair of extra good sawyers, and makes the proposition to them that, if they will follow its instructions implicitly and perform within the schedule time each of the operations assigned, it will increase their wages from $3 per day per man to, say, $4. It will be ex- plained that the task assigned is quite possible of attainment with- out extraordinary exertion and that the pace may be maintained indefinitely. The efforts of the management are concentrated on this saw crew in order to demonstrate the possibilities of the system. The management knows in a precise way how much time is re- Scientific Management. 13 quired to perform each of the operations of its saw crew. ‘The observer lays out the work. A bunch of timber being selected, a number of trees are carefully measured. ‘The diameter at the butt where the first cut is to be made is measured, then the diameter of the first, second and third logs estimated. The tree is given a stump blaze and numbered with a crayon. When the time units for the trees marked aggregate a certain figure, and this added to a certain percentage allowed for rest and necessary de- lays, makes a day’s work,—the observer makes out his “task” card. This card indicates that the saw crew must fell Tree No. 27 in, say, 10 minutes; the butt log must be cut in 5 minutes; the second log in 5 minutes; the third log in 4 minutes; time for trimming limbs 10 minutes; total time 34 minutes. The foreman accompanies this crew for the first few days, times each operation, indicates the rest periods, and thoroughly demonstrates to this crew the possibilities of the system. The advantage of separately timing each tree is that the observer and the men then know whether or not they are keeping up to their schedule. It is not possible to discuss in this brief article the further steps required in introducing the system generally among the workmen. All this is thoroughly discussed in Mr. Taylor’s book on “Shop Management,’ to which the reader is referred. It is sufficient here to say that once it has been demonstrated that a saw crew, by making little additional effort, can increase its wages from $3 per man to about $4, sentiment in favor of the system should grow rapidly. It is not, of course, possible to time each saw crew and inform it during the day whether it is keeping up to its schedule, nor is such close inspection probably necessary. The main thing necessary, it seems to me, is that definite cards of instructions be given the crews each morning when they go to work, informing them what trees they must cut and the time allowed for each tree. It should be insisted that the work be done exactly in the order indicated and in the time given. Rests may be taken whenever the crew is ahead of its schedule, such rests being allowed for. The crews should be informed each day by means of card re- ports whether or not they have performed their task of the second day previous in a satisfactory manner, and are entitled to their bonus, or whether they must be content with regular wages. 14 Forestry Quarterly. The success of the experiment having been determined with the saw crews, it may be inaugurated in other operations, such as the work of the steam skidding crews, loading crews, swampers, ete: The above remarks are only suggestions for an outline of pro- cedure that must be made by any one who is so fortunate as to have an opportunity to take up this exceedingly interesting and profitable work. The amazing results accomplished in many in- dustries where the Taylor system has been established give us high hopes that its benefits will soon be felt in the lumber industry. Unfortunately, I know of no precedents that will aid in the slight- est degree in assisting the man who attempts to establish the Tay- lor system in logging operations. This is a virgin field for inves- tigation. That its possibilities are very great will be readily ad- mitted. BOOM AREAS. By Aucustus M. CartTEr. Surveyor for the Berlin Mills Company, N. H. A number of tables were made on the basis of actual trials for the purpose of ascertaining the number of pieces of timber of various lengths and diameters, and the amount of board feet contained in them, which can be floated within a given area of still water, under the premise that they are forced together by the current of a river, or by the tension of towing upon a lake, into a compact body, but not hard enough to submerge any individual stick. The tables also show the number of lineal feet of boom sticks necessary to surround a certain number of thousands of board feet. In the case of chain booms a distance of one foot for play is allowed between sticks, and should be added to the length of each stick to arrive at the theoretical circumference. The logs in these tables were measured by the Blodgett Caliper rule, and show the number of feet which this rule gives. The conclusions arrived at, which have been figured out into board feet, are on the basis of 115 cubic feet of the Blodgett Caliper Rule equaling 1,000 board feet. A general table containing logs of all sizes, from 5 inch to 20 inch middle diameter and 6 to 44 feet in lengths gives the area which each of the logs occupies in cubic feet and in Blodgett feet. From this, by selection, other tables containing given sizes can be constructed, giving reasonably accurately the water area covered by the logs. The following is a resumé of the General Table, and is suffi- cient to show the method of procedure and results: Number of pieces, III Total length, 2,519 _ feet. Average length, 227 feet. Total middle diameter, 1,046 inches Average diameter, 9.4 inches Area of space occupied, 3,210 sq. ft. Area of total logs, BITE. sq. f€. Area of void, 1,099 sq. ft. Per cent. of voids, 34.2 Average per piece, IQ sq. ft. Scale, board feet, total, 9,611 feet. Average per piece, board feet, 86.6 feet. Area of 1 thousand board feet, 220. feet. Area occupied by 1 thousand board feet, 334 = feet. I acre will hold, 130,420 feet. 1,000,000 board feet will occupy, 7 2/3 acres 16 Forestry Quarterly. Circumference and Number of 30-foot boom sticks for Feet, B. 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 2,500.000 3,000,000 3,500,000 4,000,000 M. 1,451 2,048 2,484 2,806 3,232 3,546 3,832 4,096 Feet, circumference Number, sticks. By selecting different sets of logs and Silie hte them, different relations are found as follows: Number of pieces, Total length, feet, Average length, feet, Total middle diameter, inches, Average diameter, inches, Total area of logs, square feet, Average area per log, square feet, Scale, board feet, Scale, per piece, feet, Area, actual, of 1 thousand board feet, square feet, Area occupied by 1 thousand board feet, square feet., Area of void, per cent., I acre will hold, feet, 1,000,000 board feet will occupy, acres, 584 35 74,589 13.41 520 30 83,770 11.94 Circumference and Number of 30-foot boom Feet A B B. M. Feet No. Feet No. 500,000 1913. 64 1806 60 1,000,000 2707. 90 2532 84 1,500,000 3301 I10 313I 104 2,000,000 3832 128 3612 120 2,500,000 4206 143 4042 135 3,000,000 4689 156 4425 147 3,500,000 5066 169 4770 159 4,000,000 5405 180 5IIO 170 C D 44 16 1,083 480 24.6 30 457 249 10.4 15.6 940.8 613.7 20.9 38.4 3,993 3,908 9 249.8 236 153.5 359 233 34 35 121,337 186,906 8.15 5.34. sticks for { D No. Feet No. 50 1209 40 70 170957 89 2092 70 100 2415 81 III 2701 90 122 2958 98 130 3198 107 I4I 3417 114 REPRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN RELATION TO ITS MANAGEMENT. By Netson C. Brown. The region from which the data for this paper have been drawn, is southwestern Montana where Lodgepole Pine is probably the most valuable and important tree as well as the most common one. This is one of the most rapidly developing and potentially pro- ductive regions from both a mineral and agricultural standpoint, in the Northwest. It is therefore an important question which timber will grow best and most rapidly to supply the great coming needs of the industries in this region. ‘The data secured in this study were taken chiefly from the Gallatin, Absaroka, and Madi- son National Forests, but the field of observation also includes the Helena, Deerlodge, Beaverhead, and Jefferson National Forests. This is in the heart of the so-called northern Lodgepole Pine region and the characteristics of the types in regard to growth, density and associated species will vary somewhat from those in the southern part of the Lodgepole Pine region. . The elevation of the National Forests covered in this study, ranges from about 4,500 up to 11,000. A distinct gradation of types seems to occur, closely related to elevation: On the lower elevations, along lower slopes, and streams, occurs the Douglas Fir, (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) in a somewhat narrow belt. Above this comes a broad belt of Lodgepole Pine growing principally pure. Above this type and growing along streams or along see- page lines where sufficient moisture is afforded, occurs the Engel- mann Spruce. Still above this species and growing up to the timber line, at 9,000 to 9,500 feet, occurs the Alpine Fir (Abtes lastocarpa) and Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis). Between the Doug- las Fir and the Lodgepole Pine types, there is a distinct tran- sitional meeting ground where the two grow in admixture and where there seems to be a strong competition as to which will occupy the soil. It is here that the mixed Douglas Fir type occurs. For the purpose of estimating and taking silvicultural obser- vations five types were differentiated, namely, pure Lodgepole 2 18 Forestry Quarterly. Pine, pure Douglas Fir, mixed Douglas Fir, mixed Spruce, Alpine Fir. These types are based purely on composition of species. Wherever at least 80 per cent. of the merchantable trees on a sam- ple acre were of one species, the type was considered pure. Methods of Taking Observations. In estimating the method of strips, one chain in width was used, calipering the trees Io inches and above in diameter. At the end of each acre or at the end of every 1oth chain, observations were taken of the density on the scale of 10, and of the condition of re- production, in square rod plots at mechanical intervals ; notes were also taken of the ground cover, aspect, degree of slope, and con- dition of the timber. Much better results were obtained by mak- ing the intervals mechanically than if they had been taken by some irregular method, since the presence or absence of repro- duction is always liable to prejudice one in the choice of the plot and prevent arriving at a fair general average. The survey strips were run at right angles to the contours in each main stream valley or principal canyon at one half mile intervals and were run across every class of land and forest type up to the alpine growth. Any seedling up to three feet in height was considered reproduction. Reproduction in Open. It is well known and generally conceded that Lodgepole Pine is perhaps of all important trees in the country, the most prolific seeder, and reproduces especially abundantly on burned areas. Whether Lodgepole Pine grows upon this particular class of soil as a result of the peculiar physical composition of the soil or because of its chemical constituents as a result of the fire is not known, but the important fact is that on burned areas a dense reproduction of from 45,000 to 150,000 per acre is commonly se- cured. On a few plots of reproduction taken in the open, young growth up to 20 feet in height was found to contain about 60,000 trees to the acre. Under such conditions competition for light is too keen, and as a result both height and diameter growth suffer. So much has been written about Lodgepole Pine reproduction in the open that it does not seem necessary to supplement the in- formation (See Forest Service Bulletin 79, 1910, etc.) by further reference to this class of reproduction. Suffice it to say that re- oe me + Oe Kee * SS te ¥e ws . Se a RAR. Latidd SO RL TE TLR EA > art Mae VS6 ye Pole Pine Reproduction, od¢ E Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine. 19 production in the open whenever the ground is burned over, is sufficiently abundant to restock the ground, and is only too com- monly more abundant than necessary for normal stocking. Reproduction under cover. In the pure Lodgepole Pine type the average of about 100 calip- ered sample areas gave approximately 9,000 board feet per acre and the per cent of volume composition was Lodgepole Pine 88 per cent, Douglas Fir and Engelmann Spruce, 12 per cent. The average number of trees per acre was 93, of which Lodgepole Pine 86, and of incidental species 7. The average height was 76 feet; the maximum height was 110 feet. The average diameter at breast height of the merchantable trees was 12 inches; the maximum diameter was 26 inches. The observations on aspect show this type to occupy chiefly northern slopes, the next in numerical frequency being the north- east and east slope. The aspect least occupied by this type was the south slopes. The result of measurement of sample plots of reproduction show the following per acre enumeration: No. per acre Per cent. Douglas Fir, 79 6.30 Lodgepole Pine, 188 15.00 Engelmann Spruce, 95 7.57 Limber Pine, 278 22.17 Alpine Fir, 614 Total per acre, 1254 100.00 The average density was 6.95 on a scale of 10. This seems to indicate that the reproduction of Lodgepole Pine under its own cover is very poor and that the majority of it is of other species. Limber Pine and Alpine Fir reproduction seems to be most fre- quent at the higher elevations, and both re-seed the ground at con- siderable distance from the parent tree. An average of nearly 1,000 calipered acres in the mixed Doug- las Fir type showed about 7,000 board feet per acre. The volume composition by species is as follows, expressed in per cent.: Douglas Fir, 52% Lodgepole Pine, 36% Engelmann Spruce, Alpine Fir & 12% Limber Pine, Total, 100% 20 Forestry Quarterly. The total number of trees per acre was 71 of which ‘Douglas Fir 33, Lodgepole Pine 29, and the others 9. The average height of merchantable trees in this type was 60 feet and the maximum height 110 feet. The average diameter of all the trees was 1 5 inches, but the maximum diameter of Douglas Fir was 7 feet; which is very uncommon in this region, while that of Lodgepole Pine was only 27 inches. Reproduction under cover in this type was found from several hundred sample plots to be as follows: No. per acre ‘Per cent. Douglas Fir, 376 44.18 Lodgepole Pine, 67 7.87 Engelmann Spruce, 143 16.80 Limber Pine, 61 7.16 Alpine Fir, 204 23.990 Total per acre, 851 100.00 This seems to indicate that wherever given any chance Douglas Fir will dominate in the reproduction and will advance under a fairly dense cover. The average density of this type was found to be 6.68. The principal aspects occupied by this type were found to be on the north, northeast and east slopes, in order of their importance; while the southern slopes are most rarely so oc- cupied in this respect the type behaving identically as the Pure Lodgepole Pine type. A close observation of local conditions, such as soil, moisture, slope, aspect, etc., develops that the Pure Lodgepole Pine and mixed Douglas Fir types grow on practically the same kinds of soils and other site conditions. These statistics seem to indicate that as is commonly supposed, Lodgepole Pine soil is adapted to either pure Douglas Fir or the Fir in mixture with Lodgepole Pine and Engelmann Spruce. Other Silvicultural Characteristics. Lodgepole Pine grows uniformly in even-aged stands and reaches its highest development in the pure type. It does best on northerly and protected, moist, yet well drained fertile slopes. While here it attains its greatest development, it grows on a wide range of soil and site conditions and will withstand considerable drought, although refusing to grow on warm southern slopes in association with Western Yellow Pine. If atmospheric moisture Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine. 21 is present in sufficient quantities, it will stand considerable drought in the soil. It is rather susceptible to windfall on account of its shallow root systems. It is particularly subject to windfall east of the continental divide and on exposed sites where severe wind- storms are prevalent. In tolerance, it varies between intermediate and the intolerant class, depending upon the local conditions such as altitude, soil moisture and fertility, and vigor of the trees. In youth it is most tolerant, while at maturity it will not endure any shade. ‘This accounts for the rapid thinning out of the older stands. In resistance to fire, it is probably the poorest of any of the more important trees of the west, not excluding Western White Pine. Even a light ground fire will frequently kill the trees, particularly the younger poles with their thin flaky bark. The resinous character of the bark is in a large degree responsible for this condition. The strong reproductive power of this tree, however, is in a large measure the secret of its success in occuping the soil and this alone insures it an important place among the trees for future management of western National Forests. It produces a large crop of seeds nearly every year and through the agency of wind and gravitation on steep slopes, the seed is commonly carried to considerable distances, up to one-half mile. Perhaps the most wonderful feature of Lodgepole Pine reproduction is the fact that seeds will retain their germinative power as long as fifty years or more. (?) As soon as a fire prepares the mineral seed bed it proceeds to spring up and occupy the soil. Management. In the past, Lodgepole Pine has been managed on the selection system using a minimum diameter limit on most of the small timber sales on the Forests mentioned above. ‘This has been necessary because of the fact that the smaller material could not be utilized in the markets. Another reason was that it was thought that Lodgepole Pine could be successfully managed on this system. But in many cases the remaining trees blew down and it was found that reproduction would not come up sufficiently on the humus and vegetable seed bed of the forest floor. Both, this fact as shown in the above data, together with its compara- tive intolerance and shallow root system indicate that this system 22 Forestry Quarterly. can not be successfully applied with this species. However, stands are frequently found in even-aged groups and a modification of the selection system by clear cutting in small groups when the age classes reach maturity can be used. This is now being adopted on the Deerlodge Forest, where clear cutting and leaving solid bodies in wide strips is being used with pronounced success. Brush has fomerly been disposed of by lopping and scattering the tops on some of the forests and by piling and burning. during the fall and winter on others. Winter burning in piles is now successfully used on the Deerlodge Forest. Burning in numerous piles scattered evenly over the clear cut areas should give the best results since reproduction will be encouraged in them and not so much on the areas between. This will preclude somewhat the danger from overcrowding of seedlings with a resultant loss both in height and diameter growth. Yield table investigations have shown that under advantageous conditions, it is possible to have a normally stocked stand of pure Lodgepole Pine of from 25,000 to 40,000 board feet per acre. Conclusions. 1. Under an established forest cover, Lodgepole Pine does not reproduce satisfactorily owing to its intolerance of shade and to its requirement of a mineral seed bed for germination. 2. Lodgepole Pine is a transitional type and its general presence is due to widespread and frequent fires. 3. Under ordinary conditions Lodgepole Pine should be favored even as against Douglas Fir on account of its quick reproductive possibilities, comparatively rapid growth, high yield per acre in normally stocked stands, and ease of handling in the forest. 4. In a region requiring all kinds of timber for mining and smelter, as well as fencing material and saw timber, Lodgepole Pine will give more satisfactory results than a mixture of it with its common associates Douglas Fir and Engelmann Spruce, in spite of the fact that these latter trees yield a wood of a higher technical value. 5. Clear cutting in groups and strips should be used rather than the selection system with a diameter limit. An adaptation of the selection system could be used when numerous age classes are re- Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine. 23 presented, but this should assume the form of clear cutting in groups. 6. Burning of brush after logging should be done in evenly scattered piles rather than by the broadcast method. In no case should lopping and scattering be used on account of the fire risk. PROGRESS IN SALES OF FIRE-KILLED TIMBER IN IDAHO AND MONTANA. By W. B. GREELEY. The fires of 1910 left on the hands of District No. 1 of the Forest Service approximately 6,000,000,000 feet of timber on burned areas, the greater part of which was dead and in danger of rapid deterioration. Much of this timber is so inaccessible as to be beyond the possibility of salvage. From one to two billion feet, however, are so located as to be within the range of prac- ticable logging operations. The sale of this material within the duration of its merchantability immediately became the most urgent administrative question of the District. Hardly had the smoke cleared when reconnaissance parties be- gan estimating the burned timber by logging units and compiling data on logging conditions required for the preparation of con- tracts and the information of purchasers. A systematized cam- paign of advertisement was conducted in order to place the op- portunities for the purchase of this material before the lumber trade. In spite of depreciation in the lumber markets which has seri- ously affected the demand in this locality, substantial results in the disposal of this timber have been already accomplished. Near- ly 300 million feet has been contracted for sale. Advertisements and personal canvas have stimulated a large number of inquiries and applications are pending for several additional blocks. It is probable that within two or three months the total amount sold will reach the half billion mark. The preparation of contracts for such sales and their adminis- tration present a number of new and important questions. Many of the stands contain mixtures of Western White Pine with other species relatively inferior under present market conditions. Chief among these are Western Larch, Douglas Fir, and White Fir. In the administration of ordinary sales of green timber the removal of all of the inferior species is required both in the interests of close utilization and the restocking of the ground with the most valuable timber. Sales of Fire-Killed Timber. 25 In the sales of fire-killed material other factors have controlling weight. White Pine, by far the most valuable species, is much more generally killed outright than its associates, and deteriorates at a far more rapid rate. It is to the interests of both the Govern- ment and the purchasers to remove as large a proportion of the White Pine as practicable before it becomes unmerchantable through decay. The less valuable Larch and Douglas Fir will probably exceed White Pine by four or five years of merchant- able life. It will be possible in many cases to secure the removal of these species in subsequent or secondary operations particularly as many of the larch and fir stands contain tie material and are within easy reach of railroads. In the large sawlog operations now progressing, therefore, the cutting of White Pine mainly is permitted, leaving the mixed timbers for subsequent utilization. Other modifications of the usual practice have been found ad- visable, particularly in the handling of debris. Since all young and middle-aged stuff was killed by the fires, the piling and burn- ing of slash will be handled, as a rule, by clearing strips along all routes of fire danger and around the cuttings of the sale areas. Wherever practicable the slash within these cleared strips will be burned clean without piling. A recent decision rendered by the Attorney-General will greatly facilitate the removal and use of the fire-killed timber in these States. The burned areas contain a large acreage of railroad grant lands, scrip locations, and homestead entries to which the grantees or entrymen have not perfected title. These lands of clouded status are in effect “no man’s land.” The Government has no jurisdiction over them and the private claimant not having perfected title has no authority to dispose of their timber. Since many such holdings are interspersed with National Forest lands and should be included with the Forest areas in systematic logging operations, this situation has been a serious drawback in the dis- posal of some tracts. By his recent decision the Attorney-General permits lumber operators to remove timber upon lands in this condition by filing a bond to indemnify the Government for the value of the stumpage taken in the event that such areas revert to the United States. It also will be necessary for such operators to take similar action to protect the inchoate interests of the claim- ants. This decision expands and amplifies an arrangement al- 26 Forestry Quarterly. ready reached with the Milwaukee Lumber Company at St. Marys, Idaho, approved by the District Federal Court, under which timber is being removed from unperfected railroad lands under bond, the railroad company having accepted this arrange- ment. ‘The decision is an extremely broad and far-sighted one of the sort which makes practical conservation under such tangled conditions of ownership possible. RESULTS OF DIRECT SEEDING IN THE BLACK HILLS. By JoHN Murpock, Jr. The first work in direct seeding in the Black Hills of which there is any record was done in 1905, on the Custer Peak Experi- ment Area, near Roubaix. Approximately 28 acres were broad- casted, and 12 sown with corn planters, with seed from the Pecos National Forest, New Mexico, of the crop of 1903. The season was an exceptionally wet one, and although the work was done late in May, the results were very good by both methods. Even here the results were uneven, adjacent plots, sown with equal amounts of seed and with apparently exactly similar conditions of ground cover showing great differences in the resulting stand. One remarkable feature is, that in many instances the best stands are in the heaviest sod. Work was continued at Roubaix in 1906, 1907 and 1908 with Black Hills seed of the crop of 1905. ‘The results in 1906 were quite poor. In 1907 they were again good, almost equalling those in 1905. In 1908 the results were again poor. Additional sowing in 1908 with some old seed collected at Glenn, Nebraska, gave very poor results, as did the experiments that same year with Douglas Fir. One acre was broadcasted after harrowing, half with pine and half with fir. The germination here was much better than on the rest, but only a few of the resulting seedlings survived the winter. In 1909, approximately 650 acres were broadcasted with Yellow Pine from the Black Hills, of the crop of 1908. ‘The bulk of the work was done in four plantations, at Redfern, Dumont, the Fair Grounds, and Savoy. The results at Redfern were extremely poor, giving a stand of not over 100 or 200 seedlings per acre on most of the area. At Dumont, the results were much better, but by no means satis- factory. At the Fair Grounds and at Savoy, the results were also unsatisfactory. In view of the discoveries of 1910, it seems prob- able that rodents were largely responsible for the poor results, since the weather conditions appeared perfect. . 28 Forestry Quarterly. Five experimental areas were sown in 1909, but with the excep- tion of a portion of the Base Line area, included in the Redfern plantation, they were complete failures. On the Base Line area, three strips were sown with seed from the Coconino, Boise and Medicine Bow Forests respectively. The greater portion of each of these strips is in the bottom of a grassy draw, and here the germination was more than satisfactory. It is probable that the rodents did not work among the grass to any great extent. In the spring of 1910 some 844 acres were sown at Redfern, in the Bald Hills, and at Savoy. The extraordinary drought of the season caused a total failure. Comparatively few seeds ger- minated at Redfern, and these were practically all in the draws, where the ground was comparatively moist in the early spring. At the Bald Hills, no seedlings have yet been found. At Savoy, a few germinated, but none of these at the usual time, in June or July, but about the first of September, following a fall of two or three inches of snow on August 24. In the fall of 1910, approximately 330 acres were sown near Roubaix, in the vicinity of the previous experiments there. This work was done by various different methods, and it is hoped that the results will give some indication as to the best methods to be followed in future work. No conclusions can be drawn from the work in the Black Hills as to the technical advantages of the different methods. From the point of cost, they rank as given below (the figures given are all for Austrian Pine seed, at 35 cents per pound). The most expensive method yet tried is that of “careful seed- spots,” in which the sod is removed from an area about a foot square, and the earth stirred up to a depth of four or five inches. Five acres which were planted in this manner cost $31.66 per acre, $25.60 of which went to the preparing of the spots. Next in cost are the “modified seed-spots”, prepared with a considerable degree of care, but with much less than the “careful’. The cost of these is about $12 per acre, varying according to the degree of care. One small block sown in the fall of Ig10 cost $11.32 per acre. These first two methods obviously introduce too great an initial expense to be employed if any of the others can be made to give satisfactory results. Direct Seeding in Black Hiils. 29 The third method is sowing in furrows. The cost is from $5.50 to $5.60 in fairly favorable ground. On one unfavorable block in the Bald Hills it went up to $8.35, $4.50 of which was for plow- ing as against $2.90 on the other two. ‘This method should give good results in a good season, since it removes all danger of com- petition for several years. The fourth—omitting the corn planter work of 1905, in which the hills were spaced only two feet by two—is the method of “simple seed-spots,’ in which the seeds are sown in a hole pre- pared with one or two strokes of the mattock. The cost of this method is generally from $3.65 to $4.00 per acre, though at Savoy the cost ran to about $9.00. ‘““Raked seed-spots,” in which the spots are prepared with a potato hook or other stout rake, cost about the same. The figure of $2.28 per acre which was obtained in the fall of 1910 was due to the spots being wider spaced than were those prepared with mattocks. Broadcasting, with four pounds of seed to the acre, costs from $2.05 to $2,65 per acre. Harrowing, either before or after sowing, cost 50 cents per acre for reasonably good ground. Sowing with the corn planter costs from $1.49 to $3.80 in the three blocks thus sown in 1910. ‘The first block at Redfern cost $3.80, making allowance for the higher cost of the seed used, and the second block $3.49. These figures include charges of ap- proximately $1.50 for supervision and camp expenses. The work on the first block was at the rate of 13 acres per man per day. In the fall, 26 acres were sown at an average cost of $1.49, in- cluding a charge for supervision of 14 cents. The camp expenses, which were nearly 80 cents per acre at Redfern, were eliminated at Roubaix, the total charge for supervision was less, and was shared by the other classes of work. ‘The work was done at the rate of 2 9/10 acres per man per day, although an entirely new crew had to be broken in. It is clearly evident that, given an efficient crew and no camp expenses, the corn planter is much the cheapest method of sowing, even with seed as cheap as 35 cents per pound. With higher priced seed, the difference increases at the rate of four for the broadcasting to one for the corn planter. Where a camp must be maintained, the difference is much less, and may even be in favor of the broadcasting. The camp expenses at Redfern 30 Forestry Quarterly. amounted to approximately $1.33 per man per day. This comes to from 50 cents to 75 cents per acre for the corn planter, and less than 10 cents per acre for the broadcasting. Extremely poor results with the corn planter are reported from an experiment station in Colorado. These contrast strongly with the good results obtained at Roubaix in 1905. The total failure caused by drought prevents any conclusion being drawn from the 1910 work. It seems reasonable, however, to suppose that any method which places the seed in direct contact with the mineral soil, and secures a slight covering, will be better than haphazard scattering which leaves all the seed uncovered and many of them in unfavorable situations with regard to the ground cover. No conclusion can be drawn from the work on the Black Hills as to the relative advantages of spring and fall sowing, since it has all been done in the spring, with the exception of that in 1910, the results of which are of course unknown. Experiments in District I seem to indicate that a heavy precentage of the seed sown in the fall fails to survive the winter. Although fall sow- ing is the natural method, yet nature is commonly much more wasteful of her material than we can afford to be. It is certain that seed will retain a higher degree of vitality if carefully stored than it can when it is exposed to the elements all winter. SUMMARY BY SEASONS. Igo9g. Area Pounds Cost Block Species Method acres per acre per acre 2A Yellow Pine. broadcast, 127 6.30 $4.43 2B Yellow Pine. broadcast, 35 7.30 5.91 3 A Yellow Pine. broadcast, 185 7.80 5.01 4 A Yellow Pine. broadcast, 50 8.50 5-91 5 A Yellow. Pine. broadcast, 120 7.60 5.12 5 B Yellow Pine. broadcast, 12.5 8.00 5-37 Total, 629.5 SPRING OF IQIO. 2 C Yellow Pine. simple spots, 72 1.33 corn planter, 6 0.90 6.80 2D Austrian Pine. corn planter, 317 1.00 simple spots, 25, 0.64 3.49 5 C Douglas Fir. simple spots, 28 1.00 10.84 5 D Lodgepole Pine. simple spots, 15 0.33 10.00 Direct Seeding in Black Hills. Block Species s E Austrian Pine. 5 F Yellow Pine. 6 A Austrian Pine. 6 B Austrian Pine. 6 C Austrian Pine. 6 D Yellow Pine. 6 E Yellow Pine. 6 F Austrian Pine. Austrian Pine. “ “e 6s 6c td be py A B Cc D E F “ec it7 G H I J Yellow Pine. Method broadcast, broadcast, simple spots, careful spots, furrows, simple spots, furrows, furrows, Total, FALL OF IQIO. simple spots, harrowed, raked spots, corn planter, broadcast, modified spots, simple spots, simple spots, simple spots, simple spots, simple spots, broadcast, Total, Area Pounds acres per acre 50 4.00 30 4.00 158 1.25 5 2.25 1.25 76 2.24 15 2.00 30 1.25 844 30 1.00 30 5.00 29.5 I.50 26 1.00 306 4.46 3 2.00 4 1.00 15.5 I.00 35.5 I.00 18 I.00 5 1.50 69 7.07 631.5 CustER PEAK EXPERIMENTAL AREA No. I. 1 Yellow Pine P 2 “ “ ‘6 “c 79 6c y ee ee e 5 “ “ “ 6 “ “ “ ‘“ “c ‘c , ‘“c “ ‘6 “ ‘“c “ a ‘“c “ ‘“ Il ‘“c “c T3 I2 “ “ ‘“ the shorter the period the lighter will be the cut, and vice versa. Hence the length of the period must depend almost entirely on market conditions and the accessibility of the area. Obviously, the more remote the area the heavier must be the cut, and con- sequently the longer the felling period. The maximum length will be governed by the maximum cut which can be made without injuring the chances of reproduction. In the Southwest a fell- ing period of about 30 years will be about right where the area is readily accessible, and 50 years where it is of difficult accessi- bility. The number of felling periods in the rotation will eventually determine the number of broad age classes into which the groups will be divided; e. g. with a rotation of 200 years and a felling period of 40 years the stand will eventually be composed of groups each representing one of five age classes. 56 Forestry Quarterly. Methods of Regulation. Regulation should generally be by volume with an area check; regulation by area with a volume check is, just now, at least, unnecessarily intensive for most conditions in the Southwest. The two methods recommended for the present are therefore Von Mantel’s formula and the Austrian formula; the former to be used with rough data before a detailed reconnaissance has been made, and the latter when sufficient data have been secured. In any case a preliminary reconnaissance is essential, for it will show the method of regulation required, and from this method the data needed will become known; then, according to the data required some method of field work which will secure that data can be devised. CURRENT LITERATURE. Forest Physiography: Physiography of the United States and Principles of Soils in Relation to Forestry. By Isaiah Bowman, Ph. D. New York, 1911. John Wiley & Sons. Pp. I-XXII— 579; plates 5, figures 292. Price $5.00. As stated in the preface, the title “Forest Physiography” does not imply a book on forestry but rather a book on physiography for students of forestry. And again, on page 108 we find the statement that the single object of the book is to acquaint the forester with the geographic basis of his work with such refer- ences to the forests as point the direction of his special studies. No attempt is made to discuss regional ecology or the principles of ecology, the ecology of the forest being regarded as a subject possessing a body of facts and laws of its own. The book, how- ever, is full of data useful to the student of forest ecology. The contents of the book are divided into two parts. Part One—The soil; Part Two—Physiography of the United States. The point of view of the discussion of soil relations may be ex- pressed by such statements as: * * * “the physiographic features and related soil types are of more local development than the broad forest type which they support. The finer distinctions between soil types are of little value in understanding the range of a given forest type, however directly they may affect the wel- fare of the individual by modifying its habitat. In short, it may be said that the conditions which limit either the growth or the distribution of most forest species are so extreme that they embrace or overlap a large number of physical sub-divisions. The forester requires a scientific knowledge of soils and climates, but in the final application of his knowledge to the distribution and growth of forests, it is often necessary for him to employ somewhat broader generalizations than those employed by the geographer and the botanist for the special purposes of their sciences,” In the table on page 25, we find that the North American con- tinent may be divided as follows: Alluvial regions; (1) loam 58 Forestry Quarterly. predominating, 17%, (2) laterite, 9%. Equality of destruction and transportation, 4%. Denudation predominating; (1) eolian denudation, 2%, (2) glacial denudation, 25%. Accumulation predominating; (1) glacial accumulation, 23%, (2) stream and lake accumulations, 1%, (3) fine eolian accumulations 13%, (4) volcanic accumulations 1%. Dissected loess deposits 5%. One- fifth to one-sixth of the total area of the United States is now undergoing alluviation; all the rest is being eroded. Shaler is quoted in his statement that the soils of about 4,000 square miles have been impoverished through wasteful agricultural methods, representing a loss of food resources sufficient to support a mil- lion people. ‘The author adds that this figure seems gratifyingly small besides the figure that would express the deplorable ruin of the past quarter of a century of reckless timber cutting. Unless the idea is included in the statement, he might better have added the deplorable ruin of forest fires. In the ground covered, in the emphasis of the essential facts, not to mention the clearness and crispness of statement, the chapters (106 pages) on the soil constitute an excellent soil text- book in themselves. The discussion of physiography is introduced by a chapter on the physiographic, climatic and forest regions of the United States as a whole, accompanied by numerous charts showing the mean annual precipitation, percentage of rainfall in the growing months, summer and winter temperatures, dates of killing frosts in autumn and spring, the annual humidity of the air and the forest regions. The necessity of the study of physiography for a forester is emphasized by such expressions as these: “Phy- siography is indispensable to the environmental study of organ- isms of every kind, whether trees, men or bacteria. Soil, topo- graphy and climate are positive forces in the development of forests and the harvesting of forest products. They underlie the main possibilities as well as the main limitations of nature.” The author describes the topography, drainage, soils, rainfall and forests of twenty-five physiographic regions, including some broad subdivisions. Twelve of these are west of the Great Plains. ‘The lowlands of central and eastern United States con- stitute six, and the highlands of the same region seven physio- graphic types. The greater space is given to topographic de- Current Literature. 59 scription, with special reference to the geological history and the position of each topographic form in the erosion cycle. Each chapter is accompanied by charts, maps and half-tones to repre- sent relief, drainage, geological structures, and so forth. In fact, every third page, on the average, has an illustration of some kind. It is seldom that a book on an auxiliary science appears which will be more useful to a forester in the United States than this one. It is also seldom that facts are presented more clearly and concisely than in this book. C. EESER Types of British Vegetation. By Members of the Central Com- mittee for the survey and study of British vegetation. Edited by A. G. Tansley. University Press, Cambridge, England; G. P. Putnams’ Sons, New York. tIg11I. Pp. 366, plates 16, figures 25) Price 6/. We find from the book with the above title that in England 5.3%, Wales 3.9%, Scotland 4.6%, and in Ireland 1.5% of the total area is covered with woodlands and forest plantations. The percentages of the area under natural or semi-natural plant communities, including pastures not manured, is, however, much larger, as the following figures show: England 15-20%, Wales 40%, Scotland 70-75%, Ireland 70-80%. The authors believe that the most widespread and rapid de- struction of the forests of the British Isles was incidental to military operations beginning with the Roman invasion and con- tinuing through the Middle Ages. The mild winters which permit grazing throughout the year also contribute to the general failure of forest reproduction. The cool and wet climate in the western and northern portions leads to the formation of bogs on areas originally occupied by forest. On the steeper and drier slopes, grassland developes on the better, and heath on the poorer soils. In the drier and warmer east and southeast portions, the better soils were used for tillage and pasturage, while the poorer soils from which the trees were removed, became heaths which in time were partially or completely re-invaded by the forest. The best forested portion of England is in the southeast corner 60 Forestry Quarterly. where there are approximately 450,000 acres of woodland equal to 11.5% of the area and constituting more than one-quarter of the whole area of English woodlands. With a few exceptions, this is not under management, but the system of cutting has led to the coppice under standard type. These woodlands are main- tained chiefly for the preservation of pheasants. The woods of the west and north are mostly in a less artificial condition, but practically no virgin forest remains. As a whole, the woodlands of the country, at any rate of England, may be regarded as semi- natural woods, retaining the essential characters and the flora of the primitive forests from which they are derived. The classification of the plant formations of the British Isles is based upon the character of the soil. The fifteen formations thus segregated are described through 207 of the 366 pages of the book. In England the clays and loams are very extensive, particularly in the Midland and in the southeastern portion, and they are now very largely under permanent pastures. ‘These soils are supposed to have been originally covered with the Pedunculate Oak association. Where now existent the association is reduced almost entirely to coppice. The soils of the coarser sands and sandstones occur almost exclusively in the southern, eastern and Midland portion of England. The characteristic vegetation of these soils is indicated by the Calluna heath and by the Grass heath (heath pasture). When trees occur on the Calluna heath, the dominant species are the Pedunculate Oak, the Sessile Oak and the Beech. Birches often associate with these and sometimes they alone dominate considerable areas. In England the Scotch Pine has escaped from plantations and_established itself on the heath, while in Scotland it is a natural inhabitant of the for- mation. It is not definitely known that the heath was originally forested, but in some cases it is certain that it represents the climax vegetation. The siliceous soils derived from the older, metamorphic, non- calcareous rock are separated from the sands of more recent geological periods, such as those on which the Calluna heath is the most extensive. The older siliceous soils contain less silica, are frequently of finer texture and, when well aerated, form mild humus in contrast to the acid humus of the Calluna heath. They are particularly well developed in the north of England, and are Current Literature. 61 characterized by the Sessile Oak association in which Betula tomentosa is the most common associate. ‘The Ashwood asso- ciation is characteristic of the calcareous soils of north and west England. It merges off into the limestone scrub from which in turn every transition may be traced to limestone grassland. The later chalk uplands, the “downs” of the south and the “wolds” of the north, support the same associations as the older limestones indicated above, but they have in addition the pure Beech asso- ciation on the steep slopes of the escarpments and valleys. The soil is very thin and the roots of the trees are largely embedded in the chalk itself. ‘The summits of the downs when free from superficial deposits are chiefly covered with pasture. The Yew is apparently confined to the chalk. The discussion of the moors of various kinds occupies about eighty pages. This first attempt at a scientific description of the British vege- tation is very successful since the authors give one a remarkably clear survey of the vegetation of the British Isles, and of England in particular. The book is in the manual form and may be easily carried in the pocket. The text is illustrated by numerous excel- lent photographic reproductions and by charts and maps. Gabor, The Forests of Northern Russia. By M. 'T. Katschenko, Im- perial Russian Forest Supervisor. St. Petersburg. 1911. Pp. 104. This interesting work is the result of a reconnaissance in the primeval woods of the Archangel District of Northern Russia. The stands are described as either pure Scotch Pine or mixed pine, spruce, larch and birch in various percentages. The follow- ing sample acres show clearly the character of the stands. aa Forestry Quarterly. 62 002 ‘Yo1Ig pete}zesg ‘Ol vsonidg ‘Hole aug oh09 ypser] “mnS gf) “A 61S £06‘0g ol Zit BIO'I gSI ‘YDIIG, pe19}}e9¢ ‘Ol auld ‘Hoe ‘sonids 609 yore] ‘41049 “AI Sgr LoL‘ty cI zZ 109‘I Sez ‘YI po1eqeog "YdIe’T poieqeog Woz ‘son1dg ‘Bog surg ‘f019 Tt " vez biztv II QZ ZOI ‘YDIIG pese}jesg ‘Hol vonidg ‘Lol yoe’y ‘ov aurg ‘moo'T Kpuvs = col 60ZL‘oz OI ‘uinuue sod ‘Wl ‘q yoy Uo -d10UI SUINO A “uy q JaoF ‘OWINJOA [e}0 J, ‘soyoul ‘Yysiy yseoaigq ‘JOJWILIP IBeIOAY oZ eS LLI ‘%HOoOl surg Pung [denitd i! q4sIeY yooy IBCIOAY ‘s90J} ‘ON [210], ‘938 IBeIIAY Hos. Current Literature. 63 The pine and the larch are of the same age, or belong to two or three generations of the same age. But in the age of the spruce there is much variety. This is due to the origin of the stand. Most of the present stands started on fire-swept areas. Thus in this region one frequently finds stands now (1908) 165 to 170 years old—i. e. originating between 1738 and 1743. ‘These dates agree with those of the great drought-period of the seventeenth century; the Russian historical documents show that in this period extensive forest fires devastated much of middle and northern Russia. The rivers, brooks, swamps, etc., caused brakes in the spread of these fires; nevertheless many stands can be traced in their origin to this fire-period. On one Oberforsterei (National forest) 33 per cent. of the area, in another 50 per cent., is covered with stands of practically the same age. Since, after the forest fires, pine, larch, and birch were left alive singly or in groups, whereas the spruce was usually killed, the natural reproduction is generally made up of pine, larch, and birch of the same age, according to the condition of the remain- ing seed trees and the length of time elapsing before the next seed year. But the spruce can only be seeded in from such parts of the original stand as were untouched by the fire. Therefore spruce enters into the mixture of pine and larch some ten to fifty years after the establishment of these species, depending on the distance from the original unburned stand. Later seedlings of pine and larch are rare, but the spruce con- tinues to spread gradually, sometimes achieving 97 per cent. of the stand with pine, larch, birch and aspen constituting the re- maining 3 per cent. In the selection cutting of the pine and larch these species are still further reduced in numbers, sometimes none remain, whereas the spruce being younger and hence of smaller diameter, secures entire control of the stand. It is characteristic in stands from 150 to 200 years of age to find spruce seedlings on decayed tree trunks; about 95 per cent. of the spruce seedlings grow there and only 5 per cent. on the forest floor proper. Pine and larch are not able to do this, hence only 3 per cent. of all the seedlings are of these species. Com- plete decay of a log requires well into the second century after the tree’s death. On the remains of an old spruce log an 81 64 Forestry Quarterly. year old spruce was found, part of the old tree was still sound. Nevertheless the current opinion that so rich a humus is favor- able for reproduction, is not substantiated when the suppressed growth of the seedlings in virgin forest is contrasted with the growth of the same species on similar soils whose cover, be it trees or grass or both, has been removed, exposing the mineral soil and allowing the seedling full light. Since it is practically impossible for pine and larch to reproduce themselves within the | virgin forest, the natural regeneration of mixed stands is only possible by means of larger openings which let in sufficient light and expose the mineral soil. Pure stands of pine on diluvial sand soils reproduce themselves naturally after forest fires as well as without their agency. An ee New England Trees in Winter. By A. F. Blakeslee and C. D. Jarvis. Bulletin 69, Agricultural Experiment Station. Storrs, Connecticut. 1911. Pp. 307-576. This bulletin has been issued to meet the special need of a general work upon American trees dealing with their identifi- cation in the winter condition. It opens with a general explanatory discussion of the descrip- tive headings used in the text, followed by keys to the genera and to the species. The succeeding text is in the form of a page of description to each species with a page of illustrations opposite. Fach description covers the habit, bark, twigs, buds, fruit, wood and distribution, together with comparisons with similar species. The illustrations are excellent, particularly the bark studies, on excellent paper, and easily the best of their kind we have seen. They are photographic entirely and original, those of the twigs and fruit mostly to the one scale throughout; in addition there is given the habit and bark, and, in the case of conifers, the foliage. Despite the authors’ explanation one wishes the foliage had been included. The publication would have been no less useful in the winter and would have been more acceptable to teachers and students generally. One would have preferred, too, the illustrations of foliage and fruit of the conifers on a somewhat larger scale, even at the sacrifice of uniformity. Current Literature. 65 The bulletin is a valuable and useful one, and it is to be hoped that the authors will issue it in book form. A similar work on shrubs is a desideratum. Jaan. W. The National Forest Manual. U. S. Forest Service. Wash- ington, D. C. Much of the time of Forest Service administrative officers during the past few years has been spent in perfecting routine methods and in solving new problems of policy that are con- tinually arising in every day work. As instructions were issued in the Field Program, in Service orders, or in circular letters it proved increasingly difficult for new men entering the Forest Service to find out what the latest policy and procedure was with- out hunting through a mass of material. In order to correlate all instructions for the use of the National Forest resources, a National Forest Manual is now being issued. The sections now in print are as follows: Ist. Water Power. Pages 86. Issued to take effect Decem- ber 28, IQIO. and. Grazing. Pages too. Issued to take effect May I, I91I. 3rd. Especial Uses. Pages 35. Issued to take effect May 1, IQgII. . 4th. Trespass. Pages 23. Issued to take effect September 1, IQII. 5th. Forest Plans, Forest Extension, Forest Investigation, Libraries, Co-operation, Dendrology. Pages 45. Issued to take effect November I, 191T. 6th. Timber Sales, Administrative Use, Timber Settlement, Free Use. Pages go. Issued to take effect December 1, 1911. It is understood that the Claims and Forest Settlement (Act of June 11) section is now in proof. The first four sections enumerated above are confined chiefly to administrative routine and policy. Possibly the trespass sec- tion is too brief and it certainly can be vastly improved before it is re-issued. _ : The Forest Plans section contains a great deal of valuable technical information based on the results of actual experience ; 5 66 Forestry Quarterly. a good example is “Protection against rodents”, which recites in detail methods of poisoning rodents, formulae to use under vary- ing conditions and a note of warning against the use of red lead and coal tar because of its ineffectiveness as a protection. The modified sale regulations in the Timber Sales section are due in part to a different legal interpretation of some of the organic acts affecting the Service. For example, it is now neces- sary that timber be formally appraised “Upon the character of the timber, the cost of logging, transportation, and manufacture, and the sale value of the manufactured products at practicable markets.” ‘The Secretary now prescribes the maximum cut on each Forest, the maximum and minimum stumpage prices, a maximum limit for the approval of sales by supervisors (2,000 M. ft. board measure) and district foresters (20,000 M. ft. board measure), and the authority for approving the cutting in emer- gency cases in advance of advertisement is now vested solely in the Secretary. Provision is made in Regulation S-13 for con- tracts in excess of five-year periods. This will facilitate the sale in large quantities of over-mature timber far from the ordinary market where heavy initial investments are required. The procedure for appeals from a decision of the supervisor, district forester, or a forester, is prescribed in Regulation S-15. This also is an innovation in timber sale routine. _ The data on marking, brush disposal and scaling will be par- ticularly interesting to lumbermen and professional foresters. The instructions allowances for rot, or defects are very complete. The completion of the National Forest Manual has resulted in systematizing much of the routine. For example, it was formerly the custom to have permits for grazing issued subject to the ap- proval of the Office of Grazing, saw-mill permits under Silvicul- ture, and other uses under Lands; now all uses are combined under the latter office. T. SAW “Columbian Mahogany” (Cariniana pyriformis): Its Charac- teristics and Its Use as a Substitute for True Mahogany (Swie- tenia mahagoni). By George B. Sudworth, Clayton D. Mell and Henry Pittier. Circular 185, U. S. Forest Service. Washing- ton, D; Cs OTR) 2s ae. Current Literature. 67 The great demand for true mahogany has so depleted the supply that full twenty other woods of varying resemblance are being substituted for it. “Colombian mahogany” affords one of the best imitations for true mahogany now on the market, though botanically the trees are widely separated. The “Colombian mahogany” is an- excellent cabinet wood. When properly seasoned it does not warp, check or shrink ; much of the lumber is handsomely figured and of good color. The wood is hard, heavy, strong, tough, susceptible of high polish and takes a filler readily. It works well but dulls the saws and other tools very quickly. Much of this publication is devoted to the botanical charac- ters of the tree and to the minute anatomy of the wood. The important features distinguishing this wood from that of true mahogany are emphasized in the text and illustrated by draw- ings. S.J.R. A Visual Method for Determining the Penetration of Inorganic Salts in Treated Wood. By E. Bateman. Circular 190, Forest Products Laboratory Series, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, een agit... Pp. 5. This method has been devised to enable a determination of the depth of penetration without the tedium and expense of a wood analysis. Where zinc chloride is used in the preservative treatment the freshly cut surface of a disk of the treated wood is dipped for not longer than ten seconds in a one per cent. solution of potassium ferrocyanide. After the excess is removed by blotting paper the disk is dipped into a one per cent. solution of uranium acetate and allowed to dry. Since zinc chloride will decolorize the dark red uranium ferrocyanide (which is formed as a result of the two dippings) the disk face will be dark red where the treating fluid has not penetrated, and elsewhere slightly whiter than the natural wood. This visual method of detection can be used except with woods whose natural color masks that of the uranium ferrocyanide. In the case of metals whose salts are characteristically colored 68 Forestry Quarterly. the detection is simple. Thus, in the case of copper or iron the disk may be tested by merely dipping in potassium ferrocyanide, and for mercury by dipping in hydrogen sulphide solution, the compounds formed being respectively dark red, blue and black in color. J. H.W. Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana). By W. D. Sterrett. Bulletin 94, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. tI911. Pp. 27. Scrub Pine has a natural range from Staten Island in New York to Blount and Winston Counties in northern Alabama and from the Atlantic coast to southern Indiana. It is not adapted to a very sandy soil but thrives best on clay or loam or a sandy loam. It will make fair growth on sterile soils where other species can barely exist. Within its optimum range Scrub Pine is very abundant, reproduces readily and prolifically, and in several eastern States, especially in Maryland and Virginia it has taken possession of many thousands of acres of idle fields. It grows fairly rapidly in youth but the tree is short-lived and does not reach large dimensions. It is seldom possible to cut clear lumber, or lumber fit for plan- ing from Scrub Pine, since the wood is usually knotty and will make only common and box grades of rough lumber. The prin- cipal uses of the wood are fuel, pulp and charcoal. It can also be employed for railroad ties if properly creosoted. Scrub Pine may be considered desirable for forest management on lands of little value for agriculture and not adapted to tree growth of more valuable kinds. | Wherever associated with Shortleaf or with White Pine it tends to replace them in the second growth after lumbering. In such cases it is advisable to eradicate the Scrub Pine by cutting out all of the trees of the species which are bearing or are likely soon to bear seed, and by leaving seed trees of the more desirable kinds to restock the cut- over area. To obtain a sustained annual yield in pure Scrub Pine forests is comparatively easy. A short rotation of 30 to 40 years is silviculturally and financially preferable to a long one. ‘The trees should be grown in dense stands since Scrub Pine is inferior to Current Literature. 69 most other yellow pines in self-pruning ability. Improvement thinnings are advisable where they can be made to pay for them- selves. BR Grazing and Floods: A Study of Conditions in the Manti National Forest, Utah. By Robert V. R. Reynolds. Bulletin g1, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. tIg11. Pp. 16. This bulletin is the result of a careful survey of the conditions on the Manti National Forest in central Utah and deals primarily with the effect of forest grazing on the frequency and severity of floods. ‘This history of the settlement of the region, of grazing and of floods is described in sufficient detail to throw light on the relation of excessive and injudicious grazing to the destructiveness and increasing frequency of the more recent floods. _ Perhaps nowhere in the inter-mountain region of the west are conditions so clearly illustrated as in the portion of the Wasatch Mountain region embraced by the present Manti Forest. Grazing is at the maximum and the usual range war between cattle and sheep interest was fought to a finish on this narrow plateau which is the chief field of interest in the bulletin. The demand for water and consequently watershed protection is equally keen but only recently realized. The populous San Pete Valley at the western foot of the range is but one-third utilized, directly as the result of an insufficient and unregulated water supply. The Forest is not a timber forest, its chief value lying in the grazing and watershed protection which the forest vegetation affords. The need of water from the surface streams is still further in- creased by the fact that on the east side the formation is of such a character that neither wells nor cisterns can be constructed. It is stated that this region was first settled in 1850 and that cattle grazing reached its climax in 1880 when sheep grazing began. From 1888 to 1905 occurred the most severe sheep graz- ing, since the war between this industry and the cattle was then at its height. The usual tactics in such range wars were employed, such as rapid travelling, close herding and bedding long in one place, with numerous fires set each year to improve the range and remove brush areas to facilitate the handling of sheep. 70 Forestry Quarterly. In treating of the past floods the writer emphasizes the fact that no serious floods occurred prior to 1888 and draws attention to the point that sheep grazing had been under way for about six or seven years at that time. The following are the dates of the serious floods: 1888, 1889, 1893, 1896, I901, 1906, 1908, 1909, and I9QIo. In August, 1909, it is worthy of note that a severe flood occurred in Ephraim and Six Mile Canyons, while Manti Canyon, which has been protected from grazing since 1903, was not flooded, although its previous record before exclusion of grazing was a bad one. Some space is given to the explanations offered for the absence of flood in this particular canyon and the author concludes that it can be ascribed alone to the improved condition of the forest cover, as a direct result of a period of protection. Rain guages have since been set up at the heads of these three canyons which are.expected to show in the future whether the rainfall is distributed equally throughout the three watersheds and that the figures obtained will show to what extent the con- dition of the forest cover reduces the severity or eliminates en- tirely floods in the canyons. It is surprising to note the amount and variety of damage and the large area over which it is distributed. The total loss caused by the floods during the last twenty years from this region is estimated at $225,000. It is stated that the town of Manti alone has suffered damage variously estimated at from $75,000 to $125,- ooo. Other towns in the San Pete Valley and a number on the east side have also had heavy losses. In 1909, Emery County found it necessary to make a bond issue of $35,000 to be used for the sole purpose of reconstructing and repairing damages done to roads and bridges. The damage to irrigation ditches and reservoirs has been equally great, though not so readily apparent. On account of the heavy expenses for repairing irrigation ditches entailed by the floods, many ranches in Castle Valley have been abandoned. It is also stated that these streams were formerly stocked with trout but since the floods have caused the flow to be so muddy the fish have disappeared. The conditions affecting the floods are described in considerable detail, such as topography, soil, ground cover, rainfall, and tor- rential run-off. The influence of limestone and sandstone for- Current Literature. 71 mations in shaping the topography is pointed out. The mathe- matical laws governing the transporting and eroding powers of water are set forth and their application shown very clearly under the existing conditions. Based on the conditions as found the writer recommends that in future regulations of grazing a reduction of 2,000 head of cattle and 27,000 head of sheep should be made in the number allotted to graze on the Forest at the time the examination was made. The reasons for this reduction seem to be well stated and the whole description indicates that their foundation is no less secure. The bulletin is provided with an admirable summary which states the case in a nutshell. Another feature is the photographs which picture typical portions of the Forest and range clearly. One, in particular, is a most forceful illustration of the relation of the vegetation cover to erosion. Altogether this bulletin is a good write-up of the observed facts, the conditions, and the statements of various Forest users in regard to the influence of forest cover as it affects water con- servation and floods. The only thing regretted is the absence of measurements and figures showing the rainfall in various parts of the watershed and the resultant flood discharge through a period of years. This, of course, was obviously impossible be- cause of the short time and the condition under which the report was prepared. Future detailed measurements will doubtlessly be made and it would seem could only reinforce the conclusions drawn in this publication. EO ROE: Utilization of Osage Orange. By Hu Maxwell of the U. S. Forest Service. Published by the Farm Wagon Department, National Implement and Vehicle Association of United States of America. IQrK: Pp: 14. The natural range of Osage Orange (Toxylon pomiferum Raf.) embraced little more than ten thousand square miles in north- eastern Texas and southern Oklahoma, and probably half of that area produced no trees of commercial size. From this restricted © region it has been artificially propagated over most of the United States, chiefly for hedges and ornamental planting. 72 Forestry Quarterly, The wood is very heavy, hard, strong and externally durable in contact with the ground. Its many virtues are offset by so many disadvantages such as small size, crooked growth, knottiness, de- fective heart, difficulty of working, liability to split, as well as meagre supply, that for only a few uses is it well adapted. The principal use is for fence posts which consumes about 4,000,000 annually. Its only virtue for this purpose is its durability, since most of the posts are undersized and so crooked that it is difficult to adjust them to a fence. ‘Their use is confined almost exclu- sively to wire fences. ‘The demand for them exceeds the supply and a region of 30,000 to 40,000 square miles in northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma has few posts of any other wood. About 10,000 to 12,000 wagons with Osage Orange felloes are manufactured annually. ‘The demand for such wagons is largest in dry, warm localities with roads comparatively free from stones. The wood swells and shrinks but little under climatic changes and long, hot seasons and dry sandy roads constitute conditions where the Osage Orange rim gives best service and where it is reputed to be superior to all other that have been tried. Tires do not work loose, but will sometimes wear out without need of resetting. The wocd is hard to shape, dulls the tools very quickly, is usually available only in short pieces and is unsuited for use on rough roads where the shock of jolting will split felloes made of it. There appears to be little future for the felloes business in this timber for it is estimated that the present rate of cutting will exhaust the wagon material in three or four years. Other products of the timber are bridge piling, house blocks, telephone poles, insulator pins, policemen’s clubs, canes, rollers, parquetry, tobacco pipes, and wagon spokes. The total annual consumption for all purposes is estimated to be 26,000,000 feet B. M. A drain much smaller than this will soon deforest the remaining areas of standing timber which if grouped in one body, would probably not exceed 400 square miles in area. Even if every tree of the species in Texas and Oklahoma were cut, it is doubtful whether there is enough to hold out ten years at the present rate. Sofa Current Literature. 73 Report on Cooperative Forestry. By E. J. Zavitz, in Thirty- Second Annual Report of the Ontario Agricultural and Experi- mental Union, 1910. Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Ontario. 191i. Pp. 46-48. Of the 400,000 trees distributed or planted during 1910 by the Forestry Department of the provincial Department of Agricul- ture, about one-half went to private planters, the remainder being planted at the Norfolk Forest Station. The private planting embraces waste lands and depleted woodlots. The aim of the Department is the introduction of the more valuable hardwoods, with an eye to the coming scarcity. During the last five years some two million forest trees have been sent out to cooperative planters or planted on Government land, with a high percentage of success. Already plantations have been started in forty counties. ‘The more important work of the department, however, is the conducting of a forest station in Norfolk county, compris- ing some 1,300 acres. The work at the station consists largely of experiments in the reclamation of waste land by forest planting, and nursery work to produce planting material. At present (1910) the nursery contains some 800,000 transplants and double that number of seedlings. The importance of the work under the Department can be appreciated only by a realization of the considerable percentage of waste land included in agricultural southwestern Ontario. Bas Sah Waterpowers of Canada. By Leo G. Denis and Arthur V. White. Commission of Conservation, Canada. Ottawa. IgIlI. Pp. 396. The Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, has issued this valuable report on Canada’s Waterpower Resources. It repre- sents the first inventory ever taken of the waterpowers of the Dominion. The investigation shows that there are 1,016,521 horsepower developed from waterpower in Canada. Every phase of the subject from the laws governing the disposition of water- powers in the various provinces, to the actual physical data re- garding each individual waterpower concerning which infor- mation was obtainable, is treated. In addition, there is a very 74 Forestry Quarterly. full bibliography of 30 pages, and appendices giving, among other things, the text of the laws concerning the export of power and also of the treaty recently concluded with the United States re- garding the establishment of an International Joint Commission. The volume opens with two chapters of an introductory nature that are concerned mainly with the general economic bearing of waterpowers on national development. The relation of water to agriculture, mining, navigation, domestic supply and so forth, is dealt with, and the principles to be used in the interpretation of waterpowers data are stated and discussed critically. The broad and optimistic statements very often made on the platform and in the press regarding our vast waterpower resources are de- precated. A chapter is devoted to the waterpowers of each province in which the general features of the province as regards waterpower development are discussed, and an outline given of the law where- by powers are granted or leased to private individuals or cor- porations. ‘The larger developments are also described. ‘The statistical data given in tabular form includes the height of the fall, the horsepower that may be developed, the present develop- ment and the main uses to which the power is applied, such as lighting, pulp and paper making, etc. Reference is also made to the possibility of increasing the amount of power developed by storage reservoirs and dams where such are feasible. The power situation in Ontario is treated very fully, special at- tention being given to the power possibilities at Niagara and the conditions affecting development there. ‘The report states that the low-water flow of the Niagara River would yield at the Falls, about 2,250,000 horsepower, of which Canada’s share (one-half), would be 1,125,000 horsepower. Franchises have already been granted and plants partially completed, for the development on the Canadian side of the river, of about 450,000 horsepower. In other words, instead of “millions” of horsepower being available, as has been sometimes stated, it appears that about half, and by all odds the better half of Canada’s usable share of Niagara Falls power has already been placed under private control. The volume embodies all the useful information regarding the waterpowers of Canada that has heretofore been collected, and this has been supplemented and, in many cases, verified, by Other Current Literature. 75 field surveys, conducted by the engineers of the Commission. In fact, all the information regarding the Maritime Province powers was obtained in this way last year by the experts of the Commission. A valuable supplement to the work is a series of maps showing the waterpowers in the various provinces and the irrigation canals in Alberta—From Pulp and Paper Magazine | of Canada. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Avalanches and Forest Cover in the Northern Cascades. By TT. T. Munger. Circular 173, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, mes IOLE. Pp: r2. A discussion of the character of the region, character of ava- lanches, relation of forest cover to the formation of slope slides, effect of forest in checking avalanches, protection of forests in the Alps, and preventive measures in the Northern Cascades. Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory, 191t. By C. F. Hatch. Circular 187, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. POLES po 1G. Strength Values for Structural Timbers. By McGarvey Cline. Circular 189, Forest Products Laboratory Series, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 8. Modification of the Sulphonation Test for Creosote. By E. Bateman. Circular 191, Forest Products Laboratory Series, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 7. The Prevention of Sap Stain in Lumber. By H. F. Weiss and C. T. Barnum. Circular 192, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, pore, .IQIL: AP pA TO. Progress Report on Wood-Paving Experiments in Minneapo- lis. By F. M. Bond. Circular 194, Forest Products Laboratory Series, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 19. 76 Forestry Quarterly. The Influence of Age and Condition of the Tree upow Seed Production in Western Yellow Pine. By G. A. Pearson. Circular 196, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1912. Pp. 11. Coyote-Proof Inclosures in Connection with Range Lambing Grounds. By J. T. Jardine. Bulletin 97, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.- 1911. Pp. 32. Reforestation on the National Forests: Part I—Collection of ‘Seed; Part II—Direct Seeding. By W. T. Cox. Bulletin 98, U.. 5. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.. 1911. Pp. 57. The Crater National Forest: Its Resources and Thewr Con- © servation. By F. Burns. Bulletin 100, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1911. Pp. 20. Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico. By T. 5S. Woolsey, Jr. Bulletin 101, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, Dito ford.) Pp. pA: The Identification of Important North American Oak Woods. By G. B Sudworth and C. D. Mell. Bulletin 102, U. $. Forest service. Washington, D.C.) 1911, . Pay 56. Distinguishing Characteristics of North American Gum Woods. By G. B. Sudworth and C. D. Mell. Bulletin 103, U. S. Forest Service. Washington D. C. 1911. Pp. 20. Pulpwood C onsumption, 7910. Forest Products, No. 1, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1911. Pp. Io. Veneers, 1910. Forest Products, No. 5, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service. Wash- inston, D.C. tor PpaG. Wood Distillation, 1910. Forest Products, No. 7, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. r1o11. Pp. 5. Other Current Literature. 77 Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber. Based on actual sales made F. O. B. mill for July, August, and September, 1911. U.S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. Washington's Secondary Wood-Using Industries. By H. B. Oakleaf (U. S. Forest Service). Reprint from The Pacific Lumber T'rade Journal. Seattle, Washington. 1911. Pp. 8. The Wood-Using Industries of Lousiana. By Hu Maxwell, under the direction of H. S. Sackett. Reprint from The Lumber Trade Journal. New Orleans, La. Ig12. Pp. 15. The Wood-Using Industries of Illinois. By R. E. Simmons, under the direction of J. C. Blair and H. S. Sackett. 1912. Pp. 164. | The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease. By H. Metcalf and J. F. Collins. Farmers’ Bulletin 467, Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. i911. Pp. 24. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, t910. Wash- ington, D.C.) rOo1T. Among the many interesting papers contains one on Forest Preservation by Henry S. Graves, (pp. 433-445). Report of the Secretary of alent r91z. Washington, Dy... Pp. 150. Wood Turpentine: Its Production, Refining, Properties and Uses. By F. P. Veitch and M. G. Donk. Bulletin 144, Bureau of Chemistry. Washington, D. C. i1g11. Pp. 76. Third Annual Report of the State Forester of Vermont, rg1t. By A. F. Hawes. Burlington, Vt. 1912. Pp. 44. A Leaf Key to the Genera of the Common Wild and Cultivated Deciduous Trees of New Jersey. By Mary F. Barrett. Upper Montclair, New Jersey. 1911. Pp. 7. 78 Forestry Quarterly. Practical Botany. By J. Y. Bergen and O. W. Caldwell. Bos- ton, Mass. 1911. Pp. 545. Trees and Forestry—An Elementary Treatment of the Subject Based on the Jesup Collection of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural History. By Mary C. Dickerson. American Museum of Natural History, New York. 1910. Pp. 104. American Society for Testing Materials: Yearbook, 1911, con- taining the Standard Specifications. Philadelphia, Pa. 1911. Pp. 385. Contains standard classification of structural timber (pp. 166- 169) ; standard specifications for yellow pine bridge and trestle timbers (pp. 170-172). Fourth Annual Report of the Missouri State Board of Horti- culture, 1910. Jefferson, Missouri. 1911. Pp. 394. Chestnut in Tennessee. By W. W. Ashe. Extract (B) from Bulletin 10, Forest Studies in Tennessee. State Geological Sur- vey, in co-operation with the U. S.. Forest Service. Nashville, Tenn. GT2.) p35. Proceedings of the Forest Fire Conference of the Western Forestry and Conservation Association at Portland, Oregon, De- cember, 1911. Compiled and issued by The Timberman, Port- land, Oregon. The Uses of Philippine Woods. Bulletin 11, Bureau of For- estry. Manila, P.I. 1911. Pp. 50. Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands for Year Ending June 30, t911t. By Major G. P. Ahern. Manila, P. I. 1915. Pp aa Customs Tariff of Cuba. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures. ‘Tariff Series No. 27. Revised to November, 1911. Pp. 80. The laws relating to wood and other vegetable materials em- ployed in paper and other manufacturing are of special interest. Other Current Literature. 79 Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Poles Purchased. By H. R. MacMillan and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 21, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 8. Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Cross-Ties Purchased. By H. R. MacMillan and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 22, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 7. Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Timber Used in Mining Operations. By H. R. MacMillan, B. Robertson and G. Boyce. Bulletin 23. Forestry Branch, Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 12. Wood-Using Industries of Canada, 1910: Agricultural Imple- ments and Vehicles, Furniture and Cars, Veneers. By H. R. MacMillan, B. Robertson and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 24, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. Igi1. Pp. 42. Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Lumber, Square Timber, Lath and Shingles. By H. R. MacMillan, B. Robertson and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 25, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1gEr.. Pp: 39. Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Pulpwood. By H. R. Mac- Millan, B. Robertson and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 26, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 14. Forest Products of Canada, 1910: Tight and Slack Cooperage. By H. R. MacMillan, B. Roberston and W. G. H. Boyce. Bulletin 27, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. It. A Study of Maple Syrup. Bulletin 228, Laboratory of the In- land Revenue Department. Ottawa, Canada. 1911. Pp. 41. Experimental Farms: Appendix to the Report of the Minister of Agriculture for year ending March 31, 1911. Ottawa, Canada. 1912. Pp. 548. Among the contents of the reports of the various officials at the several experimental farms and stations are to be found the conclusions drawn from the forest belt plantations begun in 80 Forestry Quarterly. 1887, data regarding the Spruce Budworm and Larch Sawfly and the projected work of controlling them by parasites, and an account of some plant diseases of trees. The Arboretum and Botanic Garden which in the past has been mainly a trial ground for ornamental trees and shrubs is to be developed along broader lines. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus: Part 13 (Volume 2, part 3). By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, New South Wales. 1911. Pp. 101-133, plates 57-60. Austrahan Plants Suitable for Gardens, Parks, Timber Re- serves, etc. By W.R. Guilfoyle. Melbourne, Australia. Pp. 478. Trees of the Tasmanian Forests of the Order Myrtaceae: the Genus Eucalyptus. By L. Rodway. Bulletin 17, Agriculture and Stock Department, Tasmania. 1911. Pp. 15. Extracts from a Report on Forestry in Southern Rhodesia. By James Sim. Bulletin 71, Rhodesia Department of Agriculture. Salisbury. 1911. Pp. 44. The Virgin Forests of Kamerun. By Jentsch. 'Tropenpflanzer, Beihette v2, No; 1-2." 1011, ‘Pp: 199: This report embodies the results of investigations made relative to the composition and character of the areas examined in Kame- run and Togo and gives the author’s conclusions relative to the utilization and conservative exploitation of the forests, together with considerable information of value in the establishment of private wood-working industries. The Tree Species of Java: Contribution No. 12. By §S. H. Koorders and T. Valeton. No. 10. Meded. Dept. Laudb. Dutch East Indies. 1910. Pp. 782. This is the twelfth of a series of reports on the tree species of Java which have been published from time to time, and the first of which appeared in 1894. The present report gives the contents of the previous volumes and deals specifically with the species and genera of Buxaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Ulmaceae, and Urti- caceae. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. Belgium has a total area of 11,324 square Forest Conditions miles, of which 18 per cent is forest. Of in Belgium this the State owns 76,000 acres; munici- and Holland. palities a little over 411,000 acres; other public institutions 15,800 acres ; or altogether 503,000 acres under State supervision, leaving in private owner- ship without State control 818,350 acres. Belgium having a pop- ulation of over 600 per square mile, it requires a large importation of wood materials, which in 1909 amounted to nearly 40,000,000 dollars. Lately the derivation of this import has considerably changed for while in 1896 the importation from Russia was one- half of what came from Sweden and Norway, in 1909 four times as much was imported from Russia as from the other countries. Russia evidently has become the main exporter among the Euro- pean countries. The composition of the forest under State control shows 13 per cent broadleaf high forest, 23 per cent coniferous, 22 per cent coppice, 39 per cent coppice with standards, and 3 per cent young plantations. Until 1884 the policy of selling State lands had prevailed. Since then the State began a policy of purchasing waste lands for reforestation, of which the large amount of 350,- Ooo acres exists. The net yield from the State forests for 1905 was only $1.72 per acre on account of the large area of waste lands included. The communal forests yielded $1.81, the other public forests $3.45. Holland has a forest of 628,516 acres, or 7.9 per cent of its total area; of this 328,628 acres is coniferous, which, however, furnishes only small sizes, mainly mine timber. Of the broad- leaf forest about 55,000 is high forest and 260,000 acres coppice, mostly tanbark oak. ‘The State forests comprise a little less than 200,000 acres. Neither municipal nor private forest is under state control. Only three educated foresters with 20 guards form the administrative personnel of the state administration. In spite 6 82 Forestry Quarterly. of the absence of state control the forest area of this ownership grows continuously, especially through reforestation of heaths, of which there are 22 per cent of the total area in existence. ‘This is largely due to the “heidematschappy”’ association. The State gives subventions, if the plantation is placed under State su- pervision. In the Colonies Holland possesses very valuable forest proper- ties, especially some million and a half of steep forest in Java, which have been mapped and divided into eleven districts, a direc- tor and three inspectors forming the administration. A forest school is to be found at Wageningen. The course is three years for those remaining at home, four years for the colon- ial service, in order to secure knowledge of the colonial dendro- logy, colonial politics and the native languages. The importation here, too, is very considerable, and especially that from Russia, which has quintupled since 1899. Der Holzmarkt von Belgien und Holland. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. December, 1911. Pp. 262-265. The forest area of Roumania contains 6,- Forests 817,027 acres (2I per cent of total area), of of which 3,687,315 are under private own- Roumamia. ership, 2,642,166 are state forests, and the small balance communal or crown forests. The most valuable part is in State ownership. It is claimed that due to devastation and reforestation the water conditions of the country have been considerably changed, destructive droughts being not infrequent. The first thorough reorganization was legis- lated in 1881, when State control began to be exercised. Planta- tions on sand dunes, distribution of plant material for reforesta- tion formed part of this legislation. The distribution of the forest area in the different districts is given. The composition of the forest is almost entirely of broad- leafed trees, oak, elm, ash, beech, with poplar, basswood, alder. The coniferous forest (spruce, pine, larch) in the state property comprises only 370,000 acres. ‘The method of exploitation is mainly by selection. The yearly net income per acre per tree, etc., are given. A table of exports and imports through the years from 1882 to 1907 shows that there is a considerable excess of ex- ports. In 1907 the exports, however, were five million dollars, Periodical Literature. 83 while the imports reached hardly 1,800,000 dollars. Most of the exports go to Austria and Holland. Der Waldreichtum Rumdaniens. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen. November, 1911. Pp. 858-862. The forest area of Holland has been in- Forestry creased by 30 per cent in the last twenty mn years in spite of the fact that the country is Holland. level, and the protective functions of forests which so clearly reveal themselves in a mountainous region are here less readily recognized. Of course none but waste lands are forested and wood production has been the leading motive; protection from high winds and from shifting sands have nevertheless been recognized as secondary advantages. The region along the west coast and the sterile country south and southeast of the Zuider Zee has been the scene of the mose active planting. Plantations dating back to 1870 may be seen in Gelder- land and Utrecht. The largest forest nursery is at Zundert near Breda. A mutual betterment association of owners of heath land, the Heath Society, was the only organization interested in forestry during the nineteenth century. It carried on a campaign of edu- cation and encouraged forest planting until in 1898 a state forest service was organized. Now both work hand in hand. There is danger that before their work stops the last picturesque Dutch heath will be reclaimed. | Waldwirtschaftliche Notizen tiber Holland. Silva. August, torr. Pp. 252-4. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. In a study on the nutrition of different stem- W eight classes of forest trees, Dr. Ramann had oc- and casion to ascertain the foliage conditions of Surface Area the different stemclasses, as well as the of weight of different parts of the wood. The Beech Foliage. leaves were gathered from felled trees on September 18 before any leaf-fall had taken place, the size being ascertained by cutting out sizes on paper and weighing them, then referring to unit measure. 84 Forestry Quarterly. Since such data are rarely collected we reprint the full series: I. Polewood. 1. Codominant stem. Height, 14.45 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 63,016g 35,426 73-9 Brushwood, 19,970g 11,309g 23.6 Foliage, 2,323g I,I51g 2.4 47,886 The leaves consisted to the amount of around two-thirds of “light” leaves, and one-third of “shade” leaves. A light leaf weighs .1385 g, and measures 19.78 gem; a shade leaf weighs .O717 g, and measures 21.27 gem. ‘The number of light leaves was 5,590; leaf surface 11.06 gm; number of shade leaves 5,360, leaf surface 11.39 qm. ‘Total number of leaves 10,950; total leaf surface 22.45 qm. 2. Subdominant stem. Height, 13.51 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 24,300¢ 15,880¢ 89.8 Brushwood, é' 2,600g — 1,507¢ 8.5 Foliage, 604g 3082 1.7 17,6058 One leaf weighs .ogo g. and measures 17.92 gcm. Number of leaves 6,710; surface 12.08 gm. 3. Oppressed stem. Height, 13 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 27,110¢ 16,2342 QI.9 Branches, 2,120g 1,200g 6.7 Foliage, 5652 261g 1.4 17,6058 Number of leaves 3,145; leaf surface 8.62 qm. This tree had numerous water sprouts and nearly reached the crown height of the stand; evidently overgrown only in the last few years. The stem classes are characterized by the decrease of the brush- wood and foliage per cent, and especially of number of leaves and surface. Periodical Literature. 85 II. Closed Stand, 25 years old. 1. Predominant stem. Height, 9.1 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 40,4389 22,2409 74.7 Branches, 10,420g 6,200g 20.8 Foliage, 2,4582 1,327g 4.4 20,767 g One light leaf weighs .175 g, measuring 25.45 gcm; one shade leaf weighs .0635 g, measuring 19.56 gcm. Number of light leaves 9,090, weighing 2,591 g; shade leaves 13,650, weighing 867 g (fresh). Surface of light leaves 23.1 gm, of shade leaves 16.9 qm. 2. Slightly codominant stem. Height 8.1 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 9,150g 5,250g 87.0 Branches, I,012g 612g 10.1 Foliage, 340g 172g 2.8 6,034 One leaf weighs .192 g, measuring 30.9 gem. Number of leaves 896; leaf surface 2.77 qcm. 3. Subdominant stem. Height 7.29 m. Fresh, Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 7,300g 3,826¢ 85.9 Branches, 8302 464g 10.4 Foliage, 3552 168g 3-7 4,458g One leaf weighs .074 g, measuring 13.93 gem. Number of leaves 2,270; leaf surface 2.96. 4. Oppressed tree. Height 6.3 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 1,405g 796g 83.9 Branches, 260g 127¢ 13.8 Foliage, 4472 246g 2.6 1,169g One leaf weighs .042 g, measuring 14.9 gem. Number of leaves 586; leaf surface .87 qm. 86 Foresiry Quarterly. III. Beech Thicket. 1. Predominant stem. Height 4.95 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 3,920¢ 2,212g 64.4 Branches, 1,535 880g 27.7 Foliage, 615g 330g 9.6 34228 Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 1,950g 1,083g9 73.2 Branches, 328¢ 2952 19.9 Foliage, 2159 102g 6.9 1,480g 3. Slightly codominant stem. Height 3.4 m. Fresh. Dry. % of Tree. Bodywood, 590g 350g 65.3 Branches, 2352 136g 25.3 Foliage, 105g 582g 9.3 5448 The close relation between the organs of assimilation and the stem classes is apparent; not only the absolute number of leaves but their relative amounts show this relation. Weight and sur- face of the single leaves as well as of the totality, show unmis- takably their relation to light. ‘These observations as well as others by the author, lead to the conclusion (long ago assumed) that the light conditions at least with tolerable species affect main- ly the suppression of the lower stem classes. Blattergewicht und Blatterfachen einiger Buchen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, December, 1911. Pp. 916-919. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. In connection with the discussions on forest Water influence on waterflow, the following gen- Movement. eral data of water distribution on the earth, furnished by Meinardus, with reference to various authorities, is of interest. Periodical Literature. 87 The amount of water evaporated annually from the oceans is 384,000 km*, equal to a depth of 106 cm. ‘The precipitation over the land area is calculated at 112,000 km’*, equivalent to 75 cm rainfall. The amount of water carried to sea by rivers is figured at 30,640 km® (the flow of groundwater into oceans being neg- lected). This is the surplus of precipitation over evaporation. Adding the first two figures and deducting the last, 465,000 km’, equivalent to 91 cm in height, is the amount of water which during the year makes the circuit from earth and sea into the air and back. There is a certain unmeasured addition of water vapor which evaporated on land, contributes to the sea outside the river- flow. ‘This must be compensated for by a corresponding water vapor inflow from the sea. The time which during this circulation a water particle in the average ocupies in sea, air and land is speculated on. For the maritime stage, the relation of the annually evaporated quantity to the total water contents of the ocean can be used to figure. The volume of ocean waters has been calculated at 1330 mill km’. Of this evaporates the 3460th part; hence 3460 years in the aver- age pass before any given water particle in the ocean passes into the air. This is, of course, an average value; while some particles remain only a short time in the ocean, others may remain over 3,000 years before they come to be evaporated. To determine the time of suspension in the air, the air humidi- ity values may be used, with the use of Hann’s formula of the vertical distribution of humidity. The water contents of the total atmosphere are then found to be 12,300 km, equivalent to a precipitation of 24.2 mm. ‘This, compared with the actual pre- cipitation, (465,00 : 12,300) brings us to the conclusion that dur- ing the year the atmosphere must discharge all the water it con- tains 38 times during the year to furnish this precipitation, i. e., a particle would have to return in the average in 9 to 10 days to the earth; those in the lower strata in a very much shorter time, those in the upper strata in so much longer time. For the terrestial stage of the circulation, which interests us the most, unfortunately the data are lacking. It would require knowledge of the amount of water maintained in the soil, in ad- dition to the amounts of snow and ice, which in that form retard the water movement. 88 Forestry Quarterly. All we know is that these water masses are returned to the sea in a very much longer time than is often believed, while the sur- face waters remain only a short time in this stage of the cir- culation. Ueber den Kreislauf des Wassers. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. November, 1911. Pp. 534-536. Since trees make very little demand upon the Water Absorption chemical constituents of the soil, improve- and ment from the forester’s standpoint is main- Tree Species. ly betterment of the physical conditions. Among these latter the capacity for absorbing water is the most important in a forest soil. Increases in this capacity are followed in almost every case by better tree growth. Moreover, a soil with great capacity for retaining moisture is of advantage not only to the individual growing trees, but also to the whole community, since it exercises a steadying influence upon the local climate and stream flow. In order to determine the degree of improvement in water absorbing capacity resulting from growing different tree species sample plots were taken in stands of beech, fir, spruce, oak, larch, and White Pine. Using the stands of beech as the basis of com- parison the soil in pure stands of the other species was found to bear the following relations, expressed as percentages of the water capacity of soil in stands of beech: Fir, 95% Spruce, 95% Oak, 84% Larch, 81% White Pine, 79 %o From these figures it is readily seen that the shade enduring species exert the greatest influence upon the water capacity of the soil. On the average this capacity is one-sixth greater on sites covered with shade enduring species. Studien iiber das Bodenbesserungsvermdgen unserer wichtigsten Holz- arten. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. October, 1911. Pp. 447-458. Periodical Literature. | 89 Recently completed research by Hesselmann Bog at the Swedish forest experiment station in- Soils. dicate that a boggy soil is inimical to tree growth on account of the lack of oxygen in the soil rather than because of an excess of moisture. Stands growing near springs, streams, or ponds where the water is in motion enough to become thoroughly aerated grow thriftily. On the other hand boggy soils are saturated with water which is practically free from oxygen, and tree growth is retarded. Mitteilungen aus der forstlichen Versuchsanstalt Schwedens.. 7. Heft. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. October, 1911. Pp. 485-486. t SILVICULTURE PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Whoever has to deal with waste lands, Silviculture where heather and raw humus afford diff- on culties will read with interest: the chronicles Heath by Froémbling, written in most readable Lands. style, of a district in the Luneburg Heath, under management of the author’s ancestors since 18oI. Originally covered with a rich hardwood forest of beech and oak, which, as long as the humus cover and full shade was pre- served, thrived on the loamy sand in spite of the total absence of lime, mismanagement (clearing) turned the country into a waste. First come in raspberry and rose, using up the humus, then Aira flexuosa, and finally Calluna vulgaris remains the sole pro- prietor of the soil; even good farmland which with proper treat- ment would produce any crop, left to itself soon falls a victim to this small plant. Pine and Spruce have been used to recover the ground, and by the middle of last century the district in question had been mostly planted up, generally by sowing cones on plats, 2 feet square, 4 feet spaced, pine being used in the open heath, spruce in the open coppice stands, where the presence of huckleberry augured still better soil conditions. Later, for spruce, transplants were used. Such large quantities of seed were used (10 lbs. per acre) that the stands were overcrowded, but, the author states, out of such stands of pine on raw humus were produced the excellent re- go Forestry Quarterly. sults here recorded. “Dry turf is a most improper designation for this raw humus.” The leaf-fall of the dense sowings fertilized the soil bountiful- ly, and the heather vanished. After 15 years the first thinning for bean poles, etc., took place in the pine stands, large quantities of dead material being downed at the same time. Later, insects and fungi, especially the latter, did the thinning, but the remark- able improvement in soil conditions by the pine needles exhibited itself in the appearance of such a soil flora, as Stellaria, Oxalis, Anemone, Fragaria, where formerly all was Calluna, and oak and beech began to return, planted by birds, and throve in spite of the “dry turf.” In some parts this return has given rise to ex- cellent hardwood stands and at the same time has produced im- provements in the health of the pine. Underplanting has be- come the practice. Where this was done too late and the return to heather threatened, spruce was resorted to. In the old dense spruce sowings the battle with the heather con- tinued longer than in the pine sowings. With the removal of the coppice, the heather had thrived and made matters difficult for the slow spruce, which in Io years had not yet overtopped the heather. ‘Then, when the supervisor had almost given up hope, gradually some few trees on each seed plot developed dominancy and, gradually increasing in rate, in a short time the spruce had caught up, and far outgrew the pine; excellent longbodied clear sound stands are the result; not a trace of the needy years of ‘early life are visible. In comparison, the author cites a plantation with four-year old transplants, an innovation at the time which from the very start left the sowings behind and despised, growing at a most rapid rate. After 60 years, however, the difference is quite the other way. In vain do you look for an advantage of the plantation. The sowings, left entirely to themselves, exceed the planted stands in height, the value of the smooth boles is greater, the soil is in better condition and volume production is visibly larger. After further derogatory remarks on the results of planting at 4-foot spacing with 4-year transplants, the success of planting with ball is extolled. This planting is done by using the hollow spade, setting in couples, 6 inches apart on one-foot square plots, which is done cheaply with plants from the sowings, and in spite Periodical Literature. gI of the apparently poor plant material excels the more expensive plantation and comes near in results to the sowings. Indications are that natural regeneration of the spruce may on these recovered soils be the proper method in future. In another part of the district, broadleaf forest, oak and beech, was to be, and was continued. Interesting is the author’s explanation that lack of distinction of the two species of oak, petiolata and pedunculata, which were then still supposed to be one species. The original growth had been mainly pedunculata, but the ease with which seeds of petio- lata could be secured from the planted trees around farm yards led to the use of the latter, especially as it is a much more abun- dant seeder. But it so happens that it is also more choice of soils and was not adapted to the run-down soil of the heath. However, when the unpromising development had apparently doomed a 100- year old stand as a failure, under Burkhardt’s direction 5/6 of the trees were cut out and the rest underplanted with beech with a view of changing to that species. The result has been marvel- ous. ‘The oaks lost their lichen cover, their boles became smooth, the influence of the beech cover stimulated the old trees to vig- orous height growth and promising first-class material production —an indication how this oak must be treated. Larch and White Pine also were tried, the first with greatest promise at the start, eradicating the heather, but later falling vic- tim to its enemies. White Pine planted widely in the sixties as a stop gap, begins to fail on account of the woolly aphis, which threatens to exterminate it. The very interesting account accentuates that in silviculture the short time experiences may be very misleading and that it is dangerous to run off readily into new theories, and condemn too early apparently faulty practices, which may secure ultimate success. Bestandesgeschichtliches aus der Oberforsterei Harburg. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. November, December, 1911. Pp. 813-831; 899- 907. Q2 Forestry Quarterly. Prof. Ramann has constructed a photometer Light in which the fact is utilized that the electric Measurements conductivity of the metal selenium is increas- m ed by increase of light intensity. The author Spruce admits that for the higher and lower light intensities the apparatus may not be reliable, but for low and medium intensities, which are those mostly con- cerned in practical work, he has found it to all intents and pur- poses satisfactory. The description of the instrument and of a series of test measurements is promised for a later date. The light intensity for a given area is called Juz, i. e., the amount of light which one square centimeter area receives from a normal candle at one meter distance; a lamp of 15-40 candle power at Im distance furnishes 15 to 40 Jux. As very low degrees of light are ranged those of 150 to 200 Jur; as low, 250-300 luv; as medium, 450-550 /Ju.x; higher degrees could not be measured with the apparatus. In the forest the influence of low degrees is very noticeable. much less so the higher degrees. The illumination in the forest changes continually, light and shade vary with the position of the sun and give rise to the fascinating play of “sunspots.” Measure- ments of the light degrees of these sunspots of various size developed that there was more difference than had hitherto been believed, and that the idea that their intensity did not deviate much from that of the general light intensity and had no meaning for the forest floor is a mistaken one. A number of measurements are given, e. g., 60-80 year oak stand, showed a light intensity in the shade of the stand, measured in different places of 140-150-168 lux; in sunspots 168-179-225-245 lux. After pointing out that the light rays are always accompanied by heat and admitting that, on account of the constant change of sunspots, locally the influence is only small, the author suggests that the total effect must nevertheless be considerable and im- parts to the forest soil characteristics with reference to plant life different from the open. The measurements were made from May to August on days of even cloudiness, when light intensities between 9 A. M. and 4 to 5 P. M. do not vary very much. . ; “ ‘ Periodical Literature. 93 A series of measurements in planted dense spruce stands gave on an average lower intensities than 60 to 70 Ju. A stand of natural regeneration mixed with fir gave in the aver- age 74 lux; a go to 100-year-old stand of same description with soil cover of needles and occasional Hypnum and without any re- production, gave 84 /ux; a 75-year-old spruce stand with a soil cover of Oxalis, Hypnum and occasional Carex, gave 56-88 or 72 lux in the average. A series of measurements in stands with natural regeneration developed the difference in relative shade-endurance of spruce and fir. Fir reproduction was found to come in with 95 lux and could persist with 95 to 105 /u.r, while spruce for permanent success re- quired at least 120-140 lux. That other than light influences play a part, the author well re- cognizes, and cites various examples. Most interesting are the measurements of light intensities found under various degrees of thinnings. Here, average figures would be misleading, hence the detail of a long series of measure- ments and their ranges are needed to give an insight. The ex- perimental areas at Grafrath were used, the measurements made in medium strong daylight. In the severely thinned stands the minimum was 88 lux, the maximum 235, and the higher intensities were more frequent than the lower, half the number of measurements lying above 112 lux. The medium grade shows a range of 76 to 168, half the mea- surements lying between 84 and 102. The light thinning grade shows a range of 68-108, and more uniform conditions, over 80 per cent lying between 68 and 80 Juw.v, and rarely any over 120 Jur. From three different series of measurements the author averages the relative intensities for the three degrees of thinnings as 80.4, 96.4, 125 lux respectively. The series given permit the recogni- tion of a regular lawful progress of light intensity from the clos- ed, planted stand to the severely thinned and open stand. ‘Highly interesting are the reflections which the author makes on the practice of thinnings. He points out that natural regenera- tion and artificial reproduction differ in their continued effects on the stand. In the natural regeneration, the plants differ con- siderably in age, standing room and inherent growth capacity, hence an early differentiation of the favored individuals, the 04 Forestry Quarterly. élite, but also of undesirable “money bags” or “wolves” results. In the plantation, the individuals are more nearly of equal devel- opment, and since they do not know from early youth the need of room they remain for a time under equal growth conditions, hence the struggle for room when it comes, lasts longer, the trees need assistance from outside, if they are not to suffer in the struggle. Here then is needed a kind of thinning which the stand originat- ing from natural regeneration can dispense with until middle life. Man must by his labor compensate for the interference with Na- ture. The thinning of planted spruce stands then has for its object to restore to some extent growth conditions of the natural forest, which is best done by a severe thinning. The old rule “early, moderate, often” is a measure of educa- tion; its object is to aid the work of nature and direct it into orderly channels; it requires more intelligence and more labor than the severer thinnings. Although light is not the only factor influencing development, there are many reasons for seeing in the degree of light a measure for most of the other favorable or unfavorable factors. (This coming from a soil chemist and soil physicist is a notable utter- ance!) Lichtmessungen in Fichtenbesténden. Allegemeine Forst- und Jagd- zeitung. December, I91I. Pp. 401-406. From the report of the Commission for the W aste reforestation of the “Karst” lands—lime- Land stone wastes—in Krain, one of the pro- Planting. vinces of Austria, we extract a few statis- years. The area to be recovered comprised about 9,000 acres. By the end of 1910, 6,300 acres had been planted or 252 acres per year in the average. There were expended altogether $160,000 or nearly $24 per acre, of which, however, only $111,000 are charge- able to actual reboisement work, making the planting cost about $17.50 per acre. The funds for this work were to the largest extent furnished by the General Government, the Province contributing $20,000. and other incomes, fines, contributions, interest, etc., amounting to nearly $20,000. cr. Periodical Lrterature. 9 Protection against pasturing and fire is afforded by walling in plantations with loose stone walls and ditches, as well as having guards. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. November, 1911. Pp. 526- 533- Heavy thinning late in the life of stands for Growing the production of large diameters has been Stout studied by Dr. Wimmenauer in Hesse for W ood. the three species there grown, oak, pine, and beech. These studies reveal a favorable response to such treatment by each of these species, the increment per cent rising with the diameter. For oak the very largest trees should be left excepting only those of markedly inferior form. No attempt to preserve a sup- pressed growth should be made. An understory of beech or bass- wood introduced at the proper time is a better practice. The best rotation for growing oak for saw timber is 150 to 160 years, and such rotations yield about 24 per cent on the investment. Pine forests should be thinned with less regard for diameter than for form of boles. A rotation of 120 years gives best results in saw timber. Beech is to be handled in much the same way as oak, but great- er attention must be paid to the form of the bole. The heavy thinning should not be deferred beyond the hundredth year in beech stands. Erfahrungen im Lichtwuchsbetrieb sum Zwecke der Starkholzzucht Silva. June, 1911. Pp. 190-1. As a general rule the intermittent use of Forestry forest soils for farm crops (Waldfeldbau ) and is now-a-days seldom met with in Germany. Farming. Under certain conditions it still flourishes being employed to advantage for instance in the sandy plain south of Darmstadt. The forests of the Eberstadt revier cover some five thousand acres in the heart of this region. The annual cut comprises about forty acres. The wood is removed in winter and the ground lies fallow until the following November when it is thoroughly grub- bed over. One-year pine seedlings are set out in the early spring 96 Forestry Quarterly. in rows one meter apart. In May potatoes are planted between these rows and about half of a full crop grown. They are sold in the ground the purchaser removing the crop from a definite area. The following year a little cultivation is given and the grass cut out where necessary. Cropping more than a single season does not yield enough to pay for the seed potatoes. Yet the crop does not impoverish the soil nearly so much as the current practice of raking up the litter for removal and use. The proceeds from the potato crop reduces the cost of restocking the cut over areas by one-third. Beech seedlings are set out in the fall or spring follow- ing the potato harvest. The plants are best set in the same rows. with the pine because here they are less subject to browsing by deer. Usually the plantations are fenced for protection against rabbits and deer, the cost of such protection being paid by a part of the income from hunting licenses. Pine seedlings from Halstenbek grown on heavily fertilized soils gave much better results than those grown in the poor soil near by. Excellent plant material was, however, produced in the rich mountain valleys a little farther to the eastward. Rabbits, blight and the white-spotted weevil (Pissodes notatus) are the chief enemies in plantations. Carbon disulphide, grubbing, trapping, ferreting and shooting are used to keep rabbits in check. Spraying is used for the blight. The weevil is hardest to reach, the only effective method of combatting it is to pull up and burn trees infested with egg masses. These can be readily distinguished. Waldfeldbau im Flugsandgebiet. Silva. August, 1911. Pp. 258-61. The lightest type of wire practicable is a Telephone Wires three strand, one copper and two steel, in- for Use in sulated with cotton rubber. It weighs 20 Fire Protection. pounds per mile and costs $10.40 per mile. in half-mile reels at the factory. The lead- ing electrical companies manufacture it. The wire will stand 67 pounds tensile strain and will transmit telephone messages with 16 ohm instruments 12 to 15 miles. Recommended for tempor- ary lines to be connected with main lines merely laid on the ground for the season and reeled up for the winter. A No. 18 insulated copper wire had been used enough to demon- strate its feasibility for field lines laid on the ground. This is ee? a ee Periodical Literature. 97 worth about $13.00 per mile and weighs 58 pounds per mile. If reeled up in the fall it has a life of 6 to 7 years while if left over winter it will last about 4 or 5 years. These wires are recommended for temporary patrol or look- out points and for connection with two or three day camps in fire season. Timberman, I9QII. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. The forester is continually dealing with Averaging. average figures; he should therefore know the principles of averaging, for this is not always as simple as it appears, the volume per cent formula 400 a a applied to stands being a case in point. Dr. v. Lorenz develops with considerable mathematical ap- paratus the proper methods of averaging diameters, cross-section areas, comparisons of diameter and area averages, and of stand volumes after Hartig’s sample tree method. In the last case he shows that not less than five more or less rational formule can be developed to average the sample trees, giving, of course, five different results. We cannot afford to reprint the 71 formule and their develop- ment, which are given to show which averages are correct or the conditions under which different averages are correct. But those who are in the position of teaching forest mensuration should con- sult the original source. Zur Bildung von Mittlezahlen. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forst- wesen. December, 1911. Pp. 541-558. In the continuation of Tafel’s discussion of Forest the principles of loaning on forest property, Loans. (briefed in F. Q. vol. IX, p. 638) a few of the incidental data are of interest. For instance, the statement that in spruce the value increment per cent (which includes volume and price per unit measure) on site I has already sunk to 3.8% in the soth year, on site II to 3.9% in the 60th year, on site III to the same rate in the 7oth year; on site IV, it is 3.2% in the 80th year, on site V only 2.1% in the 7 ; 98 Forestry Quarterly. goth year, so that if 4.25 to 4.5 per cent is the rate at which loans are given, it pays better at those ages to cut, than to bor- row. According to Lorey when the average d. b. h. is 7 inches the value increment per cent is below the loan rate. He concludes that therefore, forests in intermittent management (stands) are not fit for credit loans, except on their soil value. Discussing the position of forests under sustained yield mana- gement, when a yearly income can be derived, he quotes Bernhardt to the effect that the lowest limits for the possibility of such management lies for coppice with 20 year rotation at 3 acres, for timber forest with 60 year rotation at 15 to 20 acres, with 120 year rotation at 35 to 40 acres. The Prussian soil credit banks make, however, 125 to 250 acres the lowest limit. In Prussia, 66% of the total forest area out- side of state and crown forests is held in parcels over 250 acres in extent, and in Bavaria only 32 per cent. Other banks are satisfied with a limit of 40 acres; others again require a proper organization of executive and protective service which premises an extent of probably 5,000 acres. If the yield is properly determined it furnishes undoubtedly the best basis for loans. The valuation is based on local average prices, and 10 to 15% is deducted to insure against fluctuation of prices, damage from insects or fire, etc.; with broadleaf forest the deduction is only 4 to 8%, and in both cases less if good pro- tection against fire is assured. The capitalization is usually figured at 5%. Die Beleihung von Waldungen. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. November, t911. Pp. 565-576. In a case of damage for the destruction by Damage fire of a small parcel of a larger stand, Heun Calculation. points out that, in addition to the cost of producing the 10-year old stand and the capital value of the annual soil rent and administration costs, there is also due the damage which comes from the necessity of even- tually having to cut the parcel ten years younger than the rest of the stand, which from managerial reasons would be required, i. e., if the rotation was placed at 60 years, the whole stand would be cut at that age and the parcel would be cut with the rest when Periodical Literature. 99 only 50 years old, with a loss which is expressed by the difference of the sale value and the expectancy value of the 50-year old stand. Berechnung von Waldbrandschaden. Forstwissenschaftliches Central- blatt. December, 1o1I. Pp. 632-634. The acceptance of the rent theories of forest Use management by German foresters has ac- of cording to Stoetzer quite generally resulted Reserves. in a lowering of rotation and a reduction of the stock of wood in hand. The removal of this excessive wood has given rise to a period of abnormally high incomes from the forest—higher incomes than can be permanently maintained. A strong argument against accepting these theories has been put forward by conservative practitioners who point out that the present generation by merely adopting a new theory of management has acquired no moral right to use this capital ac- cumulated in the past. The point is well taken but the solution lies not in adhering to past practices but in removing the excess capital tied up in the forest and using it not as current income, but as capital to be reinvested. Proper ways of using it are in the purchase of forest lands, permanent improvements in the existing forest such as roads, tramways, canals, houses for the personnel, etc. This procedure is not new but is shown to have been practiced at least as early as the forties of the last century. How far it ob- tains in Germany to-day is not really known but notices of its use in the most widely scattered localities have appeared from time to time. The setting aside of a part of the income from prosperous years to eke out the deficit of poor years is not exactly the same thing. Reservefonds in des Waldwirtschaft. Silva June, 1911, IV. Pp. 187-190. The Louisiana Board of Equalization has Timberland given the following classifications and Values. values for assessment of timber lands: 100 Forestry Quarterly. Stumpage Assessed value Pine Lands. feet B. M. per acre. Class A, 14,000 and more, $25.00 Class B, 10,000 and under 14,000, 20.00 Chass: Xo. 6,000 and under 10,000, 13.20 Class D, 1,000 and under 6,000, 6.00 Denuded, under 1,000. Cypress Lands. Class A, 15,000 and more, $26.00 Class B, 10,000 and under 15,000, 18.00 Class C, 6,000 and under 10,000, 10.00 Class D, 1,000 and under 6,000, 5.00 Denuded, under 1,000. Hardwood Lands. Class A 6,000 and more. Class B, 4,000 and under 6,000. Class C, 2,000 and under 4,000. Denuded, under 2,000. Lumber Trade Journal. The following table presents statistics read Costs from a series of diagrams which were pre- of ) pared for the Hearing in the Missouri ous- Yellow Pine. ter cases in Kansas City, relative to the Yel- low Pine industry. Price Production Increase in Costs. per acre billion feet 1897 IQII 1897 $3.00 9.0 Steel Rails $17.75 $30.50 71. 1808 4.50 Q.I Mules 140.00 275.00 90.6 1809 6.00 9.3 Hay 8.25 22.00 167. 1900 II .00 9.8 Realization 7i7e 13.70 78. I9QOI 18.00 10.00 Manufacturing cost 5.50 9.90 88. 1902 23.00 10.30 Price per Acre 3.00 85.00 1903 26.00 10.80 Labor 1.40 2.05 46. 1904 28.00 £14 Corn Chops 65, 1.40 1905 35.00 11.6 Stumpage (20 5.00 2500. 1906 50.00 11.7 Carrying Charges .10 2.50 1907 52.00 1245 Taxes .06 .40 . 666. 1908 58.00 11.6 Lumber No. 2 & 3 19. 1909 64.00 14.2 Lumber No. 1 and ‘23. 1910 70.00 17.0 better IQII 85.00 St. Louis Lumberman. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. Following a more or less detailed descrip- Electric tion of an outfit for logging by electricity, Compared a tabulated statement of the cost compared to to that of a steam method where the skidd- Steam Logging. ing is done by donkey engines, is given in The Timberman of October, I911: Periodical Literature. IOL Power Plant. SS (ONG. CATE PA ass orale tietaeieidesls ck nck Ulouh aed mean as $50.00 Pipe line, 18 inch wood stave (continuous), laid, ................ 640.00 Water wheel, installed (200 h. p. capacity), ........-... eee ee eeee 300.00 Beaver NOUS; SHEC:*COMBIPUCHION, s)ioc sinc canes cncccdunesn Bee te 150.00 Electric generator and station instruments (D. C.), ............ 950.00 merce Cats eS Po rare via's a e's en ple so cr eeiee tele’ 400.00 Ota COGEs) COME CEO NODERANE Re ee fixe ads dis oe oe awe Sebrued $2,490.00 Electric donkey, complete, with 50 h. p. motor geared 8 to 1, with same drums and equal to 9 x 10 inch steam outfit and guaran- Seente eh KM COLE SEINE CLASS CMO Od die ooo vce onic v vee ae dane ale 950.00 Electric falling and bucking saw, takes one man to run it; will Mere ORRIN, GL) SAMNET, CFDA Was ol bieiale ve cue sas pence cas 150.00 Complete equipment up to roader point in logging operation, ....$3,590.00 To this amount should be added for 65 h. p. “roader” donkey, .. 1,150.00 Merten line constriction for samc)! Gc) 2... cies. 6 ieee Sea eae oe 250.00 Making the total outlay for a complete electric outfit to skid logs, ee kL rc ON Gilias ia Hale Ried SRR CRD DAIS a aya che Seance. ea aie’ $4,990.00 To operate this outfit will require the following fixed costs, to get an output of 80,000 feet of logs per day: Interest on investment, at 10%, to cover contingent extras, $490.00 per year, or per day of 300 working days in year, .............. $1.66 EI TAMRAC RESID es WAGE. 6) ie! os og wll cael bv cad wleoOM bee ala ewe eae tbe .84 Mennnenneiatival HOwer HOUSE, 6) ise jolce cps so voc deenteigens gees 4.00 2 Electricians at donkeys ($4.00 cacy oh: PH» MORE BEM en Se Rea 8.00 mere INET (9.00) GACIN) os ive bal ciks cas Ge comcsed ous manecawces 6.00 - ST EG 1 DS dea ES PP ICD ORR a 3.00 IN arate ERC aE aS cea: os yo, a avainhmantaiialaldew wis ou neldl ete 2.50 IM MIUIPCER A BLGIN CACH fo. 5. seis uieis Pda esi vio a Galet dine s/oin's 10.50 MIMO IRERITN Melia bisects tls ci aew led eeg Gea cgeaaeawcane é MORIN, 3.00 ; Faller and bucker to operate electric saw, ..............-0000: 3.50 $39.00 To this add another $2.00 for repairs especially chargeable to Bt Pr PCMAINE NE a aos ay hs vals o ia be ticle Feed oad ec ales oa 8inae 2.00 _ And we have as the total daily cost of operating, ................ $41.00 Or a cost of 51% cents per thousand from the tree to the water, on 3,000 foot delivery. ' Opposed to this is the average cost of logging by steam given by a Portland engineer : PEE OTB atk AOR Poa OY BOSSY Wea MAGES vd eR te $12.00 EMCMOT SO) D0) MARE Oil on oat oper Oh ach ten Mieke sy a oiy* 9.00 Yarder crew—1 driver, 1 fireman, 1 bucker, I chaser, 1 hook- tender, 2 rigging slingers, I swamper and sniper, ............. 26.00 Roader crew—I engineer, 1 fireman, 1 bucker, 1 chaser, 1 grab EN USS Ls UC Ney deve: os BA oS ES PO Ne ha he bee 16.00 102 Forestry Quarterly. Yarder upkeep (34 estimate), dcl.c) he ee eee 5.00 Roader upkeep (34 estimate), Wi .c. Soe ee 8.25 Total daily cost, 3,000 foot haul for 50,000 to 75,000 feet B. M., $76.25 Per one thousand feet of logs: PGCErIC, ahs 2 Cea Ii eo on chk Ra HERS we $0.51 SEC am, TR AUER eI CANON DORIA Nees Gow Cia pba crea ks age en an $1.00 to $1.50 At a meeting of Southern Logging Superin- Logging tendents Association the following maxi- Costs. mum and minimum costs of logging was given: Cost per Thousand Log Scale. Arkansas. Texas. Louisiana. Mississippi. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. 1. Cutting right of way, breaking ground, grading and _ build- ing bridges, 146 .10)) 230) ' 47.) -29-22, 50 eee 2. Taking up, laying steel and_ repairs to track, SBD 055 282) 2900 ar ge ee 3. Cutting logs, £330 .20237 BZ! ABR OO 80 ee 4. Hauling or skidding to tracks, £353.63 ..45° 1.61... 49 2,00’ aoe 5. Cost of loading logs on cars, 219 :22.. 176) .50.. 17 + 458 ee 6. Feed, 16° 22. 126.374. .12) 136) Fee Total stump to pond, $2.53 $4.00 $1.43 $4.57 $2.10 $4.75 $2.30 $2.70 Lumber Trade Journal. A saw blade with a sprocket wheel at each Endless end and a sprocket chain with teeth on the Chain outside constitutes the endless chain saw. Saw. Any sort of power may be used to run the chain. A three and one-half foot saw re- quires about seven horse-power ; a two foot saw, about four horse- power. ‘The saws may be turned at any angle so that trees may be felled or logs cut to shorter lengths either on land or in the pond. A 20-inch tree can be felled in 20 seconds. The portable felling outfit weighs 500 pounds.—St. Louis Lumberman, September, IQII. a Periodical Literature. 103 A locomotive has been developed in Oregon Fill to haul a loaded train on a grade as great Climbing as 25 per cent. Propelling power is by Locomotive. cable giving a speed of 4 to 20 miles per hour. This engine does away with expen- sive road construction, saving cuts, fills and bridges. The en- gineer has control of his engine through three sets of brakes and the reverse. The boiler is of a marine type hung in a cradle to allow for adjustment on grades.—West Coast Lumberman, July, IQII. Shrinkage The following percentages were determined mm by actual tests and reported to the Hard- Seasoning. wood Manufacturers’ Association: Wood 2 months 4 months 6 months dry dry dry per cent per cent per cent Ash, 3% 6 6 Basswood, 3% 5 7 Beech, 3 3% 7 Butternut, 4 6 6% Cherry, 2% 4% 614 Chestnut, 6 6% aif, Cottonwood, 6 84 10 Cypress, 8 10 10 Elm, 5 7 9 Gum (Sweet), 4 7, 9% Hickory, 2% 4 5% Maple, 4 7V2 8 White Oak (plain), 3% 5 6% Red Oak (plain), 4 6 8 White Oak (quartered) 2% 5 7 Red Oak (quartered), 3% 6 7 Poplar (Tulip), 4 6% 8% Sycamore, 3 5 6 Tupelo, 4 4 6% Walnut, 3 5% 6 Canada Lumberman. Tight The following weights are submitted by the Cooperage “Barrel and Box,” as being of value al- W eights. though not exact: Beer and Ale Staves. Full Dressed. Equalized and Listed. Half-barrel, 4% Ibs. 514 Ibs. Barrel, 6 % 6%4—7 Ibs. Hogshead, 15 , Eighth-barrel, ests 24 “ Quarter-barrel, 1 Vet PSV gs 104 Forestry Quarterly. Beer and Ale Headings. ee 25 lbs. per set Barre 5 40 &< EY Quarter-barrel, ne ees he Wate Whiskey and Oil Stock, etc. Pipe staves, 30 to 35 lbs. each Clarets 36 inch (French), 8 to. 10 5a Clarets 42 inch (French), 10 to) 15), ee Tank staves, 60 ‘to’. 125)\) vee Hewn staves, 5% feet, 35 lbs. Hewn staves, 10 feet, 105, lbs. Per 1000 staves. Air dried and listed White Oak Oils, 34 x 344 x 4%, 3500 Kiln dried and jointed, 2700 Air dried oil barrel staves, 3300 Air dried tierce staves, 3000 Air dried pork barrel staves, 2250 Air dried pork half-barrel staves, 1700 From a paper read at the annual meeting Cost of the Veneer Association, the cost of 4 of inch Birch Veneer was figured from a 2 V eneer. months run as follows: First Cost. 1000 board feet in logs, $20.00 Direct labor for all processes including crating, II .00 $31.00 | Burden. Indirect labor, $3.00 Taxes, Bi. Insurance, .85 Interest, .88 Upkeep, -95 Depreciation, 1.25 Office (includes selling cost), 2.25 9.50 Total cost—1000 board feet logs, $40.50 1000 feet of logs cuts 5000 feet of merchantable 4 inch veneer. Total cost per 1000 feet 4 inch veneer $8.10. This factory cuts 20,000 feet of veneering per day. For 1-20 inch veneer a cost of $3.40 per 1000 feet of merchantable veneer is given.—Barrel and Box. : f Periodical Literature. 105 Cost In the South in a mill running about 40,000 of staves per day, the cost is as follows: Staves. Labor (to produce and pile in yard), $1.20 per M. Office, supervision, repairs, etc., OR Packing, hauling, loading, .78 Timber (1 cd. per 1000 staves) at $2.50, 7s ih A Total, $5.05 lin 6 On account of “moulding” during the very humid atmosphere in summer only 40 per cent of the staves can be classed as No. I, while 50 per cent is given as an average for the 6 months of sum- mer. In the winter 75 per cent may be classed as No. 1.—Barrel and Box. The manufacture of cooperage for salt is Cooperage especially interesting to saw mill men be- of cause pine staves may be used and because Salt barrels. they may be made from scrap material around the mill. Almost any kind of stave can be used, the narrow one is the favorite because it will not “buckle in’? when swollen on the inside from the moisture drawn by the salt. This gives the opportunity to use stock 2 inches wide. Another interesting relation between the salt industry and its cooperage is in the geographical distribution of the sources of supply. The six leading states in production of salt are Michigan, New York, Ohio, Kansas, Louisiana, and California. Each is in or near the center of a lumber region. The fact that the salt in- dustry is a regular and stable industry that fluctuates very little is again a point of interest—St. Louis Lumberman. The British Admiralty has placed an order Utilization for 200,000 feet of Canadian white spruce Notes. to be manufactured into oars for the row- boats of warships. The white spruce grown on Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia, was long ago discovered by the naval officers to be of superior quality and ideally adapted for making oars. This wood is now exclu- sively used for that purpose on British war vessels.—Canada Lumberman & Woodworker, Nov., 1g1T. 106 Forestry Quarterly. Dogwood for shuttle blocks is contracted for by the cord in 4, 6, and 8-foot lengths—5 inches at small end; weight about 4,000 pounds per cord. Shuttle blocks are cut into sizes from 124 x 1} x Ig up to 23 x 23 x 3}. Thirty-five thousand blocks from 12} to 16 inches long in these sizes weight about 50,000 pounds. Timber is wanted free from knots and other defects.— Southern Lumberman. Matches manufactured from Alder worth perhaps $7.00 per thousand instead of from high priced pine is an innovation in Washington. The logs are sawed to 16 inch lengths and cut on a veneer machine instead of being stamped out with delicate dies. which are considerably damaged when knots are encountered. The loss in waste is reduced by the lower cost of the material._— West Coast Lumberman, Nov., I19grt. A new paving block has been invented by A. D. Wilson of Beaumont, Texas. By treating sawdust with refuse of oil refiner- ies, then pressing, a brick is formed which is claimed to be prac- tically indestructible. It is being tested for paving value in that city—Lumber Trade Journal. In the Southern mountain country where Sassafras grows to merchantable size it has an independent market at a price above that of chestnut. It is used for wardrobes, closet linings, and re- frigerators. The odor it is claimed keeps out moths—Hardwood Record. The burning of charcoal in pits in Germany Charcoal gives 500 to 550 pounds of charcoal per Data. cord of beech wood or 215 to 250 pounds per cord of pine wood. The wood burned is small material 4 to 7 cm. (14” to 23”) diameter at the small end. In case larger material 7 to 14 cm. in diameter is burned the pro- duction rises to 650 to 680 pounds per cord for beech and to 280 to 325 pounds per cord for pine wood. Einiges von der Kéhlerei. Silva, April, 1911. IV Pp. 122.-3. Periodical Literature. 107 STATISTICS AND HISTORY. The volume of wood exported from Sweden Export reached its climax in 1900. Since 1906 the Data. decline has been especially rapid until 1910 showed an increase of 16% over the exports of the preceding year. Great Britain is the largest consumer of Sweden’s exports and determines export prices. France, Ger- many, Denmark and Holland follow in order of the amount re- ceived. The wood exported from Roumania goes largely to Germany and to the nearer Orient especially Bulgaria, Turkey and Greece. Germany imports mill run material and her lead among European countries is largely due to her readiness to accept mixed ship- ments. Roumanian wood competes in the German markets with that from the neighboring Austrian province of Bukowine and at a decided disadvantage, because it does not enjoy the special rates and through shipping facilities accorded the home product by the Austrian State railways. Cars are very scarce and much wood checks, stains and rots at the stations. Galatz is the principal market and shipping point for wood. Russia’s chief export consists of cereals, and wood follows in importance with 34% of the whole value. In 1902 the wood exported was valued at $42,700,000. By 1908 its value had doubled and by 1910 had further grown to $106,000,000, Ger- many took 42% of the amount exported, while 29% went to Great Britain, Holland, France and Belgium took most of the remainder. In 1909 7,620,000 tons were exported; this amount fell to 7,470,- ooo tons in 1910 but the price rose so that there was an increase in the value of 9% in spite of this drop in amount of 2%. Silva, IV. April, May, 1911. POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION. In these days of standardizing teaching in Forestry the United States it may be of interest to Education state the newly announced curriculum at m the University of Munich, which is sug- Bavaria. gested to students as fully satisfying the needs and following in proper sequence. Semester 1. Introductory course, with excursions. Inorganic 108 Forestry Quarterly. Experimental Chemistry. Anatomy and Physiology of Plants. Forest Zoology (natural history of the more important forest animals). Botany, microscopical practicum. Semester 2. Organic Experimental Chemistry. Botany (sys- tematic and morphology of phanerograms), with excursions; also Dendrology. Mineralogy and Petrography (Laboratory). Forest Entomology. Semester 3. Factors of Site. General Zoology. Elements of Higher Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry. General Meteo- rology and Climatology. Semester 4. Agricultural Chemistry. | Forestal Chemistry, especially chemical part of Forest Technology. Pathology of Plants and Protection, including demonstrations and excursions. Geodesy, with special reference to needs of foresters, field work. Geology, with excursions. Semester 5. General National Economy. Law with special reference to Forestry. Silviculture, with excursions. Forest Mensuration, with practicum. Semester 6. Finance. Utilization and Technology. Forest Protection. Forest Engineering (Building, Surveying, Drawing, etc.). Semester 7. Special Economics. Forest Organization and Management. Forest Valuation and Statics. Forest Politics. Semester 8. Bavarian Administrative Law. Statistics, theo- retical and otherwise. Forest Administration. History of Forestry. Problems of Forest profit calculations. Dr. Fiirst, the former director at Aschaffenburg, where the first two years had been located, makes critical comparisons with the former curriculum, and finds that the number of lectures on fundamental and accessory subjects, as well as the extent to which they are to be heard, have been very essentially reduced. Studienplan fiir die Studierenden der Forstwissenschaft an der Kegl. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Miinchen. Forstwissenschaftliches Cen- tralblatt. November, 1911. Pp. 590-594. Higher education in Finnland was reorganized in 1908 by transferring the same from Evois to the University at Helsingfors. The course is divided into two sections, namely preliminary studies given in the physico-mathematical section of the phil- } : 4 y Other Periodical Literature. 109 osophical faculty, including botany, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, meteorology, mathematics, all in one year; and the main studies, located in the agricultural-economic section of the same faculty, lasting two to three years. Three professors and two assistants give the technical forestry courses. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, XVII, 1911,— _ Fire Protection in the National Forests. Pp. 573-586; 652-657. Describes conditions and methods. Reforestation on the Pike National Forest. Pp. 646-651. An account of the accomplishment during the past few years. Cooperation in Forest Protection. Pp. 665-667. Timberland Protective Associations. Pp. 667-670. A summary of their work to date. Forest Schools in the United States. Pp. 673, 679, 719, 735- Scientific Management and the Lumber Industry. Pp. 724-730. Forest Leaves, XIII, 1911,— The Present Situation in Forestry. Pp. 91-94. A review of the year’s progress in the United States. The Letchworth Park Arboretum. Pp. 109-110. Canadian Forestry Journal, VII, 1911,— Reforestation in Manitoba. Pp. 143-145. An outline of the proposed work on the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve. 110 Forestry Quarterly. Ontario Should Reforest. Pp. 146-151. The Future of British Columbia Lumbering. Pp. 157-159. The writer predicts a greater production than Washington within ten years. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, VI, 1912,— The Monterey Pine in Britain. Pp. 13-20. Prussian Experiments with Exotic Trees. Pp. 58-64. Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXVI, 1912,— Early Tree Planting in Scotland. Pp. 12-31. Historical. The Best Method of Planting at High Altitudes. Pp. 37- 45. Continental Notes—France. Pp. 48-58. The Indian Forester, XXXVII, 1911,— Forest Research in India. Pp. 595-605 ; 641-646. An outline of the main duties of the officers of the Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, a consideration of the work done since the constitution of the institute in 1906, and a discussion of the share which officers throughout the service should take in research work. [XXXVIII, 1912,—] Expenditures on Forests in India and its Relation to the Revenue. Pp, 1-17. The Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, IX, 1911,— Pulp and Paper Notes in West Central Canada. Pp. 391- 392. | Discusses the possibilities for mills in the central west to utilize spruce, jack pine and aspen. Other Periodical Literature. III The Wood Supply of Europe. Pp. 349-397. Alberta's Pulpwood Resources. Pp. 435-436. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1911,— Theories of Plant Nutrition. Pp. 653-655. The Botanical Gazette, LII, 1911,— Reproduction by Laying among Conifers. Pp. 369-379. Describes method of layering in Abies balsamea as ob- served on Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Light Intensity and Transpiration. Pp. 417-438. A comparison of results furnished by different instruments for estimating solar intensity. [LIII, 1912,—] Some Features in the Anatomy of the Sapindales. Pp. 50- 58. Annals of Botany, XXV, 1911,— On the Origin of the Multiseriate Ray of the Dicotyledons. Pp. 1005-1014. Evolution of the Annual Ring and Medullary Rays of Quercus. Ay r a) o S 6 ' a € Ue 0 € © Ce a)A' Oe Ee Se (I or we deliver herewith a bond in the £9 SE Ea Re and do further agree that all moneys paid upon this agreement shall; upon failure on .............-. part to fulfill all and (my or our) singular the conditions and requirements herein set forth, or made a part hereof, be retained by the United States to be applied as far as may be to the A SERA ST VERS ae RN obligations assumed here- (my or our) under. Paragraph (a) is an added security; (b) puts the decision of disputes and the interpretation of the contract in the hands of the government; it is rarely that work is (d) suspended, in fact, during the writer’s experience only one case has arisen; clause (d) is required by law; refunds are ordinarily on a liberal basis if the company has made an honest effort to comply with the contract. If a sale were made and a company, through no fault of the government, cut no timber, the cost of examining the timber and marking the cutting might be first deducted from 160 Forestry Quarterly. deposits before a refund was allowed. No assignments (f) are allowed since this would introduce a speculative feature; in the past purchasers have often claimed they had verbal as- surances from officers and (g) naturally this caused embarass- ment, because contracts should certainly not be subject to verbal modifications; a reasonable (h) bond is required. The exact amount varies with the needs in each sale, but it is usually small as compared with the bonds ordinarily required in public contracts. For example, in a sale of 90 million feet at $3.50 a thousand, the bond was only $10,000. The Manual gives the usual size of bonds for sales of varying amounts, but these are not rigidly followed. SPECIAL CLAUSES. The contracts drawn up in each district vary considerably, even for the same type, and where the conditions are similar. Therefore an officer accepting a transfer or starting on his career in the Forest Service should not only study local contracts, but also try to improve the standard by introducing features from other districts. The clauses enumerated are chosen from some twenty selected contracts. After each special clause, is given the main species in order of importance, name of For- est, number of district, year contract was approved or when it will be approved. The following abbreviations have been used: Species: w. y. p.=western yellow pine; D. f.=Douglas fir; l. p.=lodgepole pine; w. r. c.=western red cedar; c.—cedar; w. h.=western hemlock; E. s.=Englemann spruce; b. f.=balsam fir; w. f.=white fir; s. p.=sugar pine; w. w. p.—=western white pine; w. l.=western larch. District: D=district and number. Manual=M;; this applies to general clauses applicable to all districts and presumably to all types where clauses are practicable. District 3, “brain book”’ containing sample clauses, compiled by Mr. A. B. Recknagel in so09g— B."B, 19. (a) Cutting will begin at a point designated by the Forest officer, and will be confined to the least possible area which will yield the amount specified in this agreement. (n) (b) The Company shall employ a competent surveyor to survey the Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 161 lines between the private timber lands owned by them and that. of the Government. (w. y. p., San Juan, D2, 1911). (c) Boundaries of cutting area shall be plainly marked by the forest officers before cutting begins; all timber market by the forest officers within such boundaries shall be cut, no timber outside such boundaries shall be cut, and no tops, brush or debris shall be left on adjoining lands. (w. y. p., D. f. Bitterroot D. 2, 1908.) Clause (a) is self explanatory and is evidently designed to prevent indiscriminating cutting “in all sales made for a2 definite amount ;’ where a company has been reckless in overcutting on to lands not included in the sale; (b) may be sometimes neces- sary; (c) frequently inspections have shown debris thrown onto land not included in the cutting area and therefore special precaution is advisable. mica). Not to: exceed)... . ss: per cent of the merchantable timber (separate percentages to be designated for each species if advisable) will be reserved in marking. (M) (b) No living healthy trees within 100 feet of the Verde or Tonto Basin vy roads shall be cut under this contract. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, IQIO. (c) No “blackjack” unless defective shall be marked except in thin- nings. (w. y. p., Coconino, D3, 1910.) (d) Cutting and marking similar to that done on the D. M. Wilt sale of September 14, 1910, will be satisfactory. (l. p., E. s., b. f., Medicine Bow, D2, 1911.) (e) We have examined the marking done by the Forest officer upon the area for which we have applied, and we agree to purchase the timber as marked. (s. p., w. y. p., w. f., Sierra, Ds, 1911.) (f) White pine trees not to exceed 200 M. feet B. M. in total amount, in plots not exceeding 10 in number, may be designated by the Forest officer, and will be left uncut by the company. About these such cleaning will be done as may be deemed necessary by the Forest officer for their sea from fire at the time of brush burning. (w. w. p.,c. Kaniksu, I, IQII. (g) The marking will be such as to meet the silvicultural requirements of the stand. Ordinarily, “black jack” will be left; Merchantable “yel- low pine” trees if necessary for seed and protection in the judgment of the Forest officer will not be marked. Not more than approximately one- third of the stand of merchantable timber will be left; this does not include the estimated amount of 600,000,000 ft. B. M. (w. y.p., Sitgreaves, —Apache, D3, 1912.) (h) All green timber on the strips to be cut clean that will make a log 16 feet long 8 inches top diameter, regardless of whether it is. mer- chantable or unmerchantable, shall be cut. (w. w. p., D. fir., w. h., w. 1. Coeur d’Alene, Dr, 1910.) (i) We have examined a sample of the marking showing the system which will be followed in designating this timber for cutting and we understand that this sale includes all of the merchantable dead timber standing or down upon the area designated, and approximately 66 2-3 per cent. of the merchantable live timber to be designated and marked for aby by the Forest officer in charge. (w. y. p., w. f., s. p., c. Tahoe, Ds, 1912. 162 Forestry Quarterly. (a) According to the Manual this clause is “desirable in the larger sales to indicate definitely to the purchaser the pro- portion of the stand which he will be permitted to log.” In western yellow pine stands in District 3 this is usually 33 per cent.; in the same species in District 6 the per cent. would be 20 to 25— less rather than more on account of the ease of reproduction. (b) is used when marking scenic reserves ; all dead trees and unhealthy living trees within such a reserved strip should be felled. One hundred feet on each side of a road is perhaps too narrow a reservation for an open stand like western yellow pine; 200 to 300 feet would be better if such a width could be amicably agreed upon with the purchaser. (c) was designed to correct a common error in marking; in the case in point the local officers had marked too large a proportion of “black jack” in previous sales. (d) Here the method of marking and cutting was evidently demonstrated to the purchaser to prevent any misunderstanding. In the early days there were no written marking rules; the second step in the development of marking was to draw up elabo- rate marking rules; then came the establishment of a marking board (started in D 3) to mark representative stands in large and important sales; finally the plan is on foot to mark sample areas on each type or variation of type in each forest. Such an area was marked on the Apache Forest (D 3) 1910. (e) illustrates the demonstration of marking methods to a prospective purchaser. (f) to (1) illustrate the development of marking methods. UTILIZATION OF TOPS. 21 (a) Green timber which will cut a log not less than ......... inches in diameter at the top and not less than ......... feet long, and for diameters over ....... inches containing not less than ........ per cent. of merchantable lumber of any grade, and for smaller diameters not less tinea aio per cent. of merchantable lumber of any grade will be con- sidered merchantable. Dead timber which will cut a log not less than Sree nage inches in diameter at the top and not less than ........., per cent. of merchantable. (The diameters and per cents depending upon character of material and local market conditions. (m) (b) Tops will be used for mining timbers, cross-ties, posts and cord- wood whenever possible. (m) (c) Dead timber, whether in tops or small trees, less than five inches in diameter at the big end, suitable for ties, shall be so utilized. Green aspen, whether in tops of trees cut for props or in standing trees six inches or less in diameter will be taken for ties when designated for cut ting by the Forest officers. (aspen, a. f., Manti, D4, 1909). _ (d) All trees will, if possible, be utilized to the diameter of six inches in the tops. Trees between 11 inches and 15 inches in diameter, breast a | Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 163 high, when cut for hewn ties shall be so utilized to a ten inch diameter at the top. Nothing in this contract shall be construed to prohibit the purchaser from cutting more mine props than those resulting from the logging operations incidental to hewing and sawing ties, provided that such additional prop trees, when green, are properly marked for cutting by the Forest officer. In case the purchaser finds it possible to utilize fence posts of less than six inches in diameter at the small end, and seven feet in length the same may be cut and will be charged for at the rate of two cents per post. (1. p., Uinta, D4, 1911.) (e) All trees cut will be utilized to a diameter of 2%4 inches in the tops for any of the classes of material herein specified. Merchantable dead timber will be utilized to a minimum diameter of 8 inches in the top for stulls and the remaining portion will be put to such other uses as will permit of the maximum utilization to the minimum diameter limit of 2% inches. Unless utilized for telephone poles, green timber will be cut to such a diameter in the tops that after the shrinkage due to season- ing has occurred, stulls with a minimum top diameter of 6 inches inside of bark will be obtained and the remaining portion will be put to such other uses as will permit of the maximum utilization to the minimum diameter limit of 2% inches. (1. p., Deerlodge, D1, 1911.) (f) All trees cut will be utilized to the smallest diameter possible in the tops in making poles and piling of the classes named in this con- tract and to a mimimum of 6 inches in the tops when utilized for posts. (c., Pend. Oreille, D1, 1911.) (g) Any material cut and removed for sale below the minimum size specified for saw logs in Clause ......... shall be scaled, measured or counted, as the Forester shall prescribe; converted into board measure, log scale, in accordance with a ratio determined by the Forester which shall conform with the current practice of the Forest Service; and paid for in accordance with the established rate for such species, unless or until a special rate upon such material is established by the Forester upon application of the purchaser. Where there is chance for a misunderstanding, it is well to clearly define the top utilization by clauses (a) to (f). (g) is a recent clause for long term contracts. . STUMP HEIGHTS. 22. (a) If necessary, in the judgment of the Forest officer, exceptions in the height to which stumps are to be cut may be made in the case of swell butted, fire scarred or otherwise defective trees; the stumps, how- ever, will be cut low enough to include their whole merchantable con- tents. (m.) (b) Stumps will be cut not higher than the diameter of the tree at the bias of caiiabe: and in no case higher than 18 inches. (lI. p., Deerlodge, SUIOTT. (c) Stumps will be cut as low as possible; for trees up to two feet in diameter at the stump not higher than 18 inches; for trees from two to three feet, not higher than 24 inches; for trees more than three feet in diameter, not higher than 30 inches; the height to be measured on the uphill side of the stump. In case of defective logs, they will be scaled and deductions made for defects. (w. y. p., D. fir, Bitter Root, 1908.) Clause (a) is seldom necessary since in the ordinary interpre- tation of a contract practical exceptions would be made by the 164 Forestry Quarterly. officer in charge of the sale; as a matter of fact if stumps are “cut low enough to include their whole merchantable contents” few ex- ceptions would actually be made—practically none in D 3. (b) may be used where there are very small poles to be cut as well as large trees. The last sentence in (c) is really superfluous. SPECIAL FORMS OF BRUSH AND DEBRIS DISPOSAL. 23. (a) The purchaser will burn the slash at such times and under such conditions as the Forest officer in charge may prescribe. (To be inserted in sales where it is safe and practicable for the purchaser to burn slashings, particularly where the season permits burning slash as it. is ‘eut.) (CMA) (a1) We will furnish a sufficient number of men yearly free of charge for a sufficient period, as determined by the Forest officer in charge, to burn all brush and debris resulting from this sale; such brush and debris to be burned at such times and in such manner as the Forest officer in charge shall prescribe. (b) Tops will be lopped and all brush and other debris made in the logging operation shall be piled in high compact piles, occupying the least possible space within a strip of at least 100 yards wide adjacent to the exterior boundaries of any body of green timber within sale area, pro- vided that the width of this strip may be varied but in no case shall exceed 100 yards wide, if in the judgment of the Forest officer a narrower strip will be sufficient safeguard to prevent damage or destruction of green timber in disposing of the brush from the cut over area, and shall be burned if piling and burning is considered advisable by the Forest officer in charge. All tops will be lopped clear of brush on the area included in this sale other than the 100 yard strip above described. (w. w. p., Coeur d’Alene, D1, 1911.) (c) If required by the Forest officers, we agree in lieu of piling brush, to lop the limbs and scatter all the brush as designated by the Forest officers in charge. (w. y. p., Coconino, D3, 1910.) (d) All brush and other debris made in the logging operations shall be piled in compact piles or in windrows and occupy the least possible space. The piles shall be placed at least 25 feet from the edge of the alternate strips left and shall be burned by me at such times as directed by the Forest officer in charge. (w. w. p., D. f., w. h, w. 1., Coeur d’Alene, D1, D1, 1910.) (e) Tops will be lopped and all brush piled compactly at a safe distance from the living trees, or otherwise disposed of, as directed by the Forest officers. On an area of 100 acres, to be prescribed by the Forest officer, the brush is to be burned in compact piles as logging proceeds, or if this, in the judgment of the Forest officer, proves impracticable or likely to cost more than a sum equal to a levy of 10c per M. on all the saw logs cut under this contract, there is to be piled in compact piles, as directed by the Forest officer, so much of the brush as may be so handled at a cost of exceeding that sum. The company agrees to burn the brush on areas outside of the 100 acres referred to above, at such times and in such man- ner as directed by the Forest officer in charge. (w. w. p., Kaniksu, D1, IQII.) . aes So far as is reasonable, all parts of the logging operations shall keep pace with one another, and in no instance shall the brush disposal be allowed to fall behind the cutting, except with the written consent of the Forest Supervisor which may be given when the depth of snow or other adequate reasons make brush disposal impossible. When the operation on any particular portion of the sale area is com- - al ae Dn ell Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 165 pleted, the area will be examined by the Forest officer, and if satisfactory to him, he will give the company a written statement, releasing it from further responsibility for the utilization of the timber on such area, and the clearing and burning of the brush; provided that this clause shall not be interpreted to relieve the company of responsibility for damage thereafter caused to areas for which such written release has been given in case the company later needs to construct roads, tramways or to con- duct od other part of the operation on such area. (1. p., Deerlodge, Dr, IQITI. (zg) Should the snow become so deep at any time during the winter that the tops and lops resulting from timber cutting, under this sale, can not be disposed of to the satisfaction of the Forest officer in charge, then the Forest officer may authorize the postponement of the disposal of said tops and lops until the weather conditions are more favorable, but in all cases the area in question must be cleaned up to the satisfaction of the Forest officer in charge, not later than the 30th day of June, following such postponement. (w. y. p., D. f., w. f., San Juan, D2, 1911.) For example in Minnesota, it is usually possible to burn the brush when it is lopped; in such clauses (a) (a’=recent re- vision) would be used. Clause (c) was necessary owing to a change in policy from piling to scattering. The other special clauses illustrate (b) (d) (e) (f) (g) the details, necessary in contracts when departing from the usual methods. BRUSH BURNING. 24. (a) We agree, when called upon by the Forest officer in charge, to furnish a number of men, sufficient in the judgment of the Forest super- visor, up to the number of our entire logging crew, to burn the brush and _ debris resulting from the cutting, under the supervision of the Forest officer. (m.) Under a recent ruling of the Solicitor of the Department of Agriculture, it is entirely proper for the Forest Service to re- ‘quire (see (a) ) the purchaser to burn slash ; from the administra- tive viewpoint it is only fair to see to it that purchasers be put to the same relative indirect expense In D 3 no compulsory brush burning has as yet been required since the district was established; other districts have required burning in one form (fire lines) or other. DETAILS OF WOODS MANAGEMENT. 25. (a) Logs shall be decked or piled for scaling at places agreed upon with the Forest officer, with ends even on one side of the skidway or pile, and the length shall be marked on the small or scaling end of each log by the purchaser. Logs of different species or value shall, if required by the Forest officer, be decked or piled im separate piles. (M.) (b) The location of the tie makers strips will be subject to the ap- proval of the Forest officer in charge and will not be blazed. Not more than one strip road shall be cut in every 140 feet and all strip roads shall 166 Forestry Quarterly. be cut out in such a way as to require as little fellj i . marked trees as is possible. (1. p., E. s., b. f£., Medicine Boy te on i (c) We agree to cut all trees marked upon the cutting area, whether figaorn or apparently unmerchantable. (s. p., w. y. p., w. f., Sierra, (d) Logs will not be allowed to accumulate at the foot of the chute in such a manner as to injure the reproduction of the remaining live stand. (b. b. 1909. ) _ (e) It is agreed that as much of the timber at the time of cutting as is merchantable according to this contract and reasonably accessible in the judgment of the Forest officer in charge, will be cut from the area designated. (w. w. p., Coeur d’Alene, D 1, 1911.) ({) Wherever possible, aspen will be used in road construction and for bridges. If aspen is not accessible, dead or defective pine or spruce will be used. (b. b., 1909.) (g) After decision by the Forest officer in charge, that the purchaser has compiled satisfactorily with the cutting regulations as to specific areas, the purchaser shall not be required to move back upon or do additional work upon such areas. (w. y. p., w. f., s. p.,c; Tahoe, D 5, 1912.) (gt) The plan of logging operations on the respective portions of the sale area shall be approved by the Forest officer in charge when opera- tions are begun on any natural logging area, the cutting on that area shall be fully completed to the satisfaction of the Forest officer in charge before cutting may begin on other areas, unless written permission is given by the Forest officer in charge to begin cutting on a different area, with the understanding that as soon as conditions warrant it cutting will be resumed on the area left incomplete. After decision in writing by the Forest officer in charge that the purchaser has complied satisfactorily with the cutting regulations as to specified areas, the purchaser shall not be required to move back upon or do additional work on such areas (h) In order to check the spread of forest tree diseases and to elimin- ate from the forest old snags, which are a menace in the time of fire, we agree to cut all trees or snags marked upon the cutting area, whether merchantable or apparently unmerchantable. (w. y. p., w. f., s. Dp. ¢. Tahoe, D 5, 1912.) (ht) In order to check the spread of forest tree diseases and to eliminate snags which constitute a fire menace, we agree to cut all trees or snags marked upon the sale area, whether merchantable or apparently unmerchantable. Such trees or snags after felling shall be opened up sufficiently to satisfy the Forest officer in charge of their condition, and any portions thereof which are merchantable in the judgment of the Forest officer in charge shal be removed, scaled and paid for. (i) The removal of all species included in this sale shall take place simultaneously. (w. r.c., w. h., Snoqualmie, D 6, 1910.) (j) As soon as logging on the whole of any such portion of the area under this agreement as may be tributary to a single landing is com- pleted, and before the logging equipment is removed from such area, final decision as to the compliance with the terms of this contract so far as they apply to such portion of the area, shall immediately be given the purchaser by the officer in charge of the sale. Such decision having been ren- dered, no further utilization of timber on such portion of the area shall be required or further penalties imposed. (w. r. c, w. h., Snoqualmie, D 6, 1910.) Clause (a) is to facilitate scaling when logs must be decked; (b) (d) (e) (f) (g) (g’=recent revision) (i) (j) are self ex- planatory ; (c) is merely to insure very close utilization. It is well 4 ; . 4 Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 167 recognized that (h) (h’=recent revision) snags are a fire menace and undoubtedly if half alive are a menace in spreading forest tree diseases. RESTRICTIONS IN LOGGING BY DONKEY ENGINES. 26. (a) All donkey or other steam-power engines not burning oil for fuel shall be equipped with a spark arrester satisfactory to the Forest officer, a steam pump, 200 feet of serviceable 1 inch hose, 6 buckets, and a constant supply of the equivalent of 6 barrels of water; all such equip- ment to be suitable and available for fire-fighting purposes. (m.) (b) If donkey engines are used, the rigging shall be slung, as far as practicable upon stumps, or marked trees, and when possible the grab hook shall be used in all cases rather than the wire choker. (m) (c) This contract is intended to provide for logging in the woods by EAN AIR SLID Od d's Sdral dla wt pate nie ee ay reais Were onic e aad sais dee o 0 Gta goles (Indicate whether by horses, donkey engines, etc.) REO SoS ihe. ies \s cakes dia e's odin ginal ewe kainate Any other method of logging may be employed only with the consent of the Forest officer approving this contract and under such conditions and restrictions as may be agreed upon with him. (To be inserted especially where there is a probability of substituting steam logging for other methods. (m). (c) This agreement contemplates the use of the ordinary methods of logging followed in the territory in which the sale area is located, known as steam donkey logging. Should the purchaser elect to use an overhead cable system or other methods different from those ordinarily employed in the territory at the time of execution of this agreement, the use of any such system or methods shall be subject to such modi- fications as are deemed necessary by the Forester for the adequate protec- tion of reproduction and unmarked trees. (d) Donkey engines or steam skidders will be used only with the writ- ten approval of the Forest Supervisor and will be allowed only under restrictions which will prevent fires, and only in areas in which the damage done to the remaining timber and reproduction will be negligible. (w. y. p., Sitgreaves, Apache, D 3, 1912). (e) The use of donkey engines or steam skidders may be forbidden by the Forest officer in charge upon any portion of the cutting area in this sale. If allowed, the points at which they shall be set up shall be subject to the approval of the Forest officer in charge; the ground around each shall be cleared of all brush and inflammable material; and each donkey leader or skidder shall use coal for fuel and shall be equipped with efficient spark arrester, subject to the approval of the Forest officer in charge. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3 IgI0). (f) If steam logging appliances are used in this operation they must be operated so as not to injure the timber left standing on the sale area. (w. w. p., D. F., w. h., w. 1, Coeur d’Alene, D 1, rgro0). (gz) Efficient spark arresters shall be maintained on all donkey engines and other wood-burning boilers operating on and near National For- est land. (s. p., w. y., w. f., Sierra, D 5, 1911.) (h) At each setting of a donkey engine or other steam logging con- trivance the ground shall be cleared of all inflammable material for a distance of 50 feet in all directions. A watchman will be provided by the company during the noon hour for each donkey. (s. p., w. y. p., w. f., Sierra, D. s, 1911). Gi) At each setting of cath donkey engine or other steam logging con- trivance, the ground shall be cleared of all inflammable material for a distance of 50 feet in all directions. During the period of June rst to October rst of each year, no donkey engine or other steam logging con- 168 _ Forestry Quarterly. trivance in actual use shall be left during the noon hour without a watchman, and during the same period of each year the purchaser may be required at the discretion of the Forest officer to employ a night watchman to guard against the escape of fire from the logging engines. Cw. 'y. pi; w. £5 ss py Se ahoe, D 51912). The most satisfactory fire protection measure (a) is to use oil for fuel; any wood or coal-burning steam engine is dangerous. Even oil if forced unproperly in feeding by a green fireman may, with some machines, set fires. There is always some damage from rigging (b); consequently if steam logging can be avoided it is preferable from the lessee’s standpoint to (c) (c’=recent revision) prohibit the use of donkey engines or steam skidders (d) Ce) (2) 4h) G) Cj) -are clear... The officersoinapie have, it is understood, hit upon a satisfactory spark arrester al- though it must be admitted that without repeated and careful inspection, spark arresters are dangerous (g). PROGRESS OF CUTTING. 27. (a) No timber will be cut, except from the areas specified by the orest officer. Cutting and other phases of the operation will only be allowed, and shall be completed successively, on such portions of the sale area as may be designated by the Forest officer. No live timber will be cut except that marked or otherwise designated by the Forest officer. If for any reason the Forest officer orders the cutting to cease on the whole or any portion of the sale area, no further cutting will be done until the Forest officer gives him permission. (b) Cutting shall progress in such a manner as in the opinion of the Forest officer in charge, will not cause depreciation of the stumpage value of the uncut timber remaining on the sale area. (1. p., E. s., Db. f., Medicine Bow, D 2, 1911). See also 25. ANNUAL AMOUNT TO BE CUT AND REMOVED. 28. (a) Second, unless extension of time is granted, all the timber except the 15,000,000 feet of white pine timber will be paid for, cut and removed on or before January Ist, 1914, and 20,000,000 feet of the white pine timber will be paid for, cut and removed on or before January Ist, 1915, and the remaining merchantable portion of the timber on the area first described in this instrument will be paid for, cut and removed on or before and not later than January Ist, 1916, provided that if the actual scale of the timber overruns the estimate of the entire area by I5 per cent., the Company at its cption upon application to the Dis- trict Foresters, will be granted an extension of time to cut and remove the remainder of the timber uncut on January Ist, 1916, from the area first described in this instrument, or be relieved from the obligation to cut and remove any timber in excess of the fifteen per cent. overrun of the estimated amount of 75,000,0000 ft. B. M. on the area herein first de- scribed (w. w. p., Coeur d’Alene, D 1, 1911.) (b) A period of twenty (20) years will be allowed for the cutting of the timber involved in this sale exclusive of the cutting of railroad ties and other timbers required in the construction of the logging rail- road and other preliminary improvements in connection with the opera- Beegensce 7) ti gs ee ‘ Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 169 tion; provided, that all such improvements shall be constructed prior to January Ist, 1915. The contract period will extend for a term of twenty years beginning January Ist, 1915, unless such construction is completed or the cutting of timber for sale begins prior to that date. In that event, the date of commencement of the 20-year period shall be the date on which cutting for sale is initiated but in no case to be later than January I, IgI5. Unless such amounts are reduced by the Forester, at least one hundred million (100,000,000) feet board measure will be cut prior to Janu- ary I, 1920; two hundred and fifty million (250,000,000) feet board meas- ure prior to January 1, 1925; and four hundred and fifty million (450,- 000,000) feet board measure prior to January 1, 1930. (w.y.p.,c. d., d. f£, w. f., Sierra, D 5, 1911). (c) Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be cut and removed on or before and none late than September I, 1915. The purchaser agrees to cut in each year ending September 1 at least 55,000 stulls 8” and over in diameter at the small end, and not more than go,- ooo stulls 8” and over in diameter at the small end, together with such other material as has been specified as may occur in the logging opera- tions with such stulls. The District Forester, however, may at his dis- cretion extend the total number of stulls to be cut in any one year, said extension to be in writing. (1. p., Deerlodge, D 1, 1911). It is sometimes wise to specify in great detail the amount (by classes of material) to be cut and removed each year, especially where overrun in the estimates is anticipated. (a) (b) (c). TRIMMING ALLOWANCES. 29. (a) The maximum scaling length of all logs will be 16 feet; ‘greater lengths will be scaled as two or more logs. Upon all logs 3 inches additional length will be allowed for trimming; logs overrunning the specified length will be scaled as 2 feet longer. (Insert in all scales including saw timber, except where other specific terms are agreed upon.) A greater overrun may be allowed when necessary in sales of large timber (m). (b) On all poles and piling, for every 5 feet of merchantable length 1 inch additional length will be allowed for cutting and trimming. (c, Pend oreille, D 1, 1911.) (c) The maximum scaling lengths of all logs shall be 32 feet; greater lengths shall be scaled as two or more logs, and upon logs 24 inches or less in diameter 3 inches additional length, and upon logs over 24 inches in diameter 5 inches additional length shall be allowed for trim- ming. Logs overrunning more than the specific allowance for trimming sa scaled as if 2 feet longer. (D. f., w. r. c., w. h., Snoqualmie, D i TOLT ). Ordinarily logs over 16 feet in length are scaled as two logs, as fully explained under “scaling” in the Manual. (a) (b) and (c) give examples of allowance for trimming; this is a point which merits a frequent check by all scalers. There are few sales where there is not a tendency to overrun trimming lengths; this is due often to the natural mistakes in measuring logs by 170 Forestry Quarterly. the sawyers since they use measuring poles instead of accurate tapes. ALLOWANCE FOR DEFECTS IN SCALING, 30. (a) Where logs are sap-stained scaling shall be inside of the sap. (w. w. p., Kanikan, D 1, 1911). Specific directions (a) governing the allowance for defects are rarely necessary. “MERCHANTABLE” DEFINED. 31. (a) All marked or dead trees which contain one or more merchant- able logs shall be cut. All logs that will saw out ........ .per cent. of merchantable lumber shall be considered merchantable under the terms of this contract. (The per cent. depending upon character of material and local market conditions). (m). (b) Any log or long butt containing 30 per cent. or more merchant- able Laas will scaled. (w. w. p., D. f., w. h. w. c, Coeur d’Alene, D 1) TORE: (c) In scaling, logs of all lengths down to and including 10 feet shall be considered merchantable. This clause simply defines merchantable logs as based upon length and does not take into account defects or crooks, which, of course, may exclude a log of any length from the merchantable class. (s. p., w. y. p., w. f., Sierra, D 5, 1911). (d) The smallest stick of dead timber which shall be considered as merchantabe under the terms of this contract shall be 8%%4 inches top diameter and 1o feet long. (Special clause, not applicable to sales in general.) (1. p., E. s., b. f., Medicine Bow, D 2, 1o11). (e) Trees felled shall be opened up sufficiently to satisfy the Forest of- ficer in charge of their conditions, and any logs in such trees which, in the judgment of the Forest officer, are merchantable, shall be removed from the woods scaled and paid for. (s. p, w. y. p. w. f., Sierra, D 5, IQII). (f) Cedar trees that will furnish poles at least 30 feet long and 7 inches in diameter at small end will be cut and paid for as provided in the contract. (w. w. p., c., Kaniksu, D 1, I9II). (g) Timber used for skid-roads and other improvements shall be ob- tained free of charge when the timber so used is designated by the Forest officer, and such timber will be unmerchantable under the terms of this agreement. (w. w. p., c., Kaniksu D 1, I9QI1). (h) Wood taken from the tops from unmerchantable saw timber neces- sary for fuel in connection with the logging operations only shall be al- lowed free of charge. (w. r. c., w. h., Snoqualmie, D. 6, 1910). These definitions (a) to (h) as to “merchantable” material are instructive. FREQUENCY OF SCALING. 32. (a) Scaling will be done as often as practicable in the judgment of the Forest officer while cutting is in progress, and copies or abstracts of the scale reports will be furnished to the purchaser after they have been approved by the supervisor. (m). (b) Scaling will, if practicable in the judgment of the Forest officer, Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 171 be done twice each week or oftener provided there be not less than 20,000 feet B. M. on the skidway at the time of scaling. (D. f., 1. p., Targhee, D 4, 1911.) One of the chief sources of avoidable expense in small sales is too frequent scaling. The average hand-to-mouth operator often expects the ranger to ride ten or fifteen miles to scale a few thousand feet. If this class of sale is to be handled at a profit, scaling should be distinctly periodic, and only when there is an accumulation of unscaled logs. ‘This is sometimes complicated by the danger of logs bluing if left in the woods, and by the danger of theft by illegal sawing before scaling, if held skidded at the mill. SCALING OR COUNTING TIES. 33. (a) All hewn ties whose widest diameter inside the bark at the small end exceeds.............. inches and all with visible defect will be scaled as saw logs. The scaling diameter will be the widest meas- urement at the small end of the tie. Small hewn ties which are sound will be counted as........... to the M. feet b. m. (m). (b) The length of all timbers shall be plainly marked on the top end by the purchaser, except standard railroad ties, which will be piled oat tops flush one way. (1. p, E. s, b. £., Medicine Bow D 2, IQII. (c) Hewn cross ties used in the logging operation not over 61-3 feet in length with not less than a 7 inch top, shall be paid for at the rate of two cents (2) each. Ties cut from material with less than a 7 inch top and used in the logging operations, shall not be paid for. Yellow pine merchantable for saw timber which is used for ties shall be scaled and paid for at the price herein specified for saw timber. (w. y. p.. w. L., D. f., w. f., Whitman, D 6, 1911.) (d) All hewn ties not exceeding 8 feet in length and those hewn from logs less than 14 inches in diameter will be counted and paid for at the rate of 10 cents each. All logs or ties exceeding 8 feet in length or 14 inches in diameter at the small end will be scaled by the Scribner rule, Decimal C, and paid for at the rate of $3.00 per thousand feet B. M. Mining props will be measured by the linear foot and paid for at the rate of 34c per linear foot. Fence posts if taken, will be counted and pail for at the rate of 2 cents per post. (1. p. Uinta, D 4, rgrr.) (e) If ties are hewn, so much of the stem of each tree as will make a log 16 feet long and 16 inches or more in diameter outside the bark at the small end shall be cut into saw logs to be scaled. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, Ig10). (f) Standard railroad ties shall be counted as 35 to the thousand feet b. m. or individually scaled by the specified rule, or measured in both ways, according to the judgment of the Forest officer in charge (1. p., E. s., b. f., Medicine Bow, D 2, 1911.) (g) All 7-inch by 9-inch 8-foot hewn ties will be counted as 25 to the thousand feet, B. M.; all 8-inch by 6-inch 8-foot hewn ties, 30 to the thousand feet, B. M.; all 8-inch by 6-inch 3-foot hewn ties, 40 to the thousand feet, B. M.; all 6-inch by 6-inch 8-foot hewn ties, 50 to the thousand feet, B. M. Ties with seen defect will be scaled as saw logs. A proper allowance will be made for defect. by the scaler; the scaling diameter will be the widest measurement at the small end of the tie. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, IgI0). — 11 172 Forestry Quarterly. The dividing point between tie timber and saw timber can always be figured out; occasional losses have occurred because saw logs (worth more per M if scaled by the foot b. m.) have been hewn into ties; clauses (a) (e) would prevent this. The second sentence in clause (c) might cause criticism; in an early sale the operator was allowed to take out culls free, since without paying stumpage prices he could just come out even, yet although the culls were a fire menace in the woods there were charges of graft against forest officers when these culls were given away. The tie converting factors (g) (f) are in- teresting. SPECIAL UTILIZATION OF GREEN AND DEAD TIMBER. 34. (a) Both marked and dead trees which are considered a fire menace by the Forest officer in charge will be felled, but only such gortions of them as are merchantable under the terms of this contract will be logged and paid for; this does not include trees or stubs too short or small to be merchantable under the contract. (m). (b) The Company shall not be required to pay for, make, or take any cedar poles more than 4o feet in length, and trees that will make longer poles may be converted into logs after the maximum length pole re- quired by this contract is made. (w. w. p., c, Kaniksu, D 1, Ig11). Clause (a) has been in every contract in D 3 for the past three -years and is not seriously objected to; it is mainly a fire protec- tive measure in having the dangerous dead stubs felled, but also insures very close utilization of dead timber. MISCELLANEOUS SCALING INSTRUCTIONS. 35. (a) Shingle bolt material will be counted a certain number of pieces to the cord, as may be determined by the Forest officer after the piling, measuring and counting of a certain number of cords; there- after shingle bolt material will be stacked on end or piled at the option of the purchaser for counting or measuring by the Forest officer. (c., Peud Oreille, D 1,1911). (b) All material between 8% and 6 inches in top diameter cut under this contract shall be piled and scaled in the woods, and may remain where piled and scaled, for a period not exceeding two years after the expiration of this contract, if the purchaser, after all reasonable at- tempts, is unable to find a market for it sooner. At the end of two years after the expiration of this contract, if the purchaser has been unable to find a market for this material, and consequently has not moved it from the woods, the material shall become the sole property of the Forest Service without further process of law and the purchaser shall then be relieved of all responsibility for the material under the terms of this contract. (Special clause, not applicable to sales in general). (1. p., E. s., b. £., Medicine: Bow, D 2, ro1r). (c) A sufficient number of fence posts, having a perimeter or more than 15 inches at the small end and more than 7 feet long, and tele- phone poles will be scaled by the Scribner Rule, Decimal C. to determine Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 173 the average contents thereof, after which they will be counted using the average so obtained to determine their board measure volume. In the case of material less than 6 inches in diameter at the small end, the board measured volume will be determined as agreed with the For- est officer. (1. p., Deerlodge, D 1, 1911.) (d) The class of products which shall be manufactured from the tim- ber involved in this contract shall be optional in the judgment of the purchaser. (c., Pend oreille, D 1, 1911). (e) The standard sizes for cedar posts will be considered as a length of 8 feet and a maximum perimeter or circumference of 24 inches at the small end. Posts of greater size may be made, but shall be paid for at following prices: Split posts, 9 to 12 feet long and up to 24 inches in circumference, %c each. Poles below six inches in diameter at the small end and 26 feet in length or shorter may be made at the option of the purchaser, but will be scaled as round posts and paid for at the rate of 1c for every 8 linear feet. (c., Pend oreille, D 1, IQII). (f) When desired, western red cedar may be cut into shingle bolts and when it cannot be otherwise utilized, must be so removed. ‘Timber so cut shall be paid for at the contract price for western red cedar logs, and in so doing, one cord of standard shingle bolts 52 inches long shall be counted as equivalent to 600 board feet. Bolts cut longer than 52 inches shall be rated at an increase in the number of board feet per cord proportionate to the increase in length. (d. f., w. r. c, w. h., Snoqualmie, IgII). (g) Shingle bolts shall be counted as many to the cord as the judg- ment of the Forest officer in charge may determine upon as a fair count. In case of a disagreement as to what constitutes a fair count, the purchaser may be required to pile shingle bolts for measurement. (w. r. c., w. h., Snoqualmie, D 6, 1910). (h) The scaling of logs and the counting of shingle bolts shall be done at the landing or wherever the Forest officers find most practicable without interfering unnecessarily with logging operations. (w. r. c, w. h., Snoqualmie, D 6, 1910). (i) The timber will be scaled by the Scribner rule, Decimal C., by competent scalers employed by the Forest Service, and the sale will be so handled by us as to make scaling economical. The maximum scaling lengths of all logs will be 16 feet; greater lengths will be scaled as two or more logs. Upon all logs 36 inches in diameter and under 4 inches, and upon all logs above 36 inches in diameter, 6 inches additional length will be allowed for trimming. Logs overrunning more than the specified length shall be scaled as if 2 feet longer. (w. y. p., w. fs. p., c, ahoe, D 5, 1912). (j) Cordwood will be compactly piled in the woods for scaling and will not be scaled until a sufficient amount (not less than ............... cords) has been cut and piled. (b. b., 1919). (k) The length of all logs shall be marked on the small end with érayon and all logs shall be skidded and piled in skidways with the small ends easily accessible for scaling. (a. f., E. s., Battlement, D 2, 191t). (1) Four inch and five inch stulls, sixteen feet long, will be counted as 10 feet B. M., and larger dimensions will be scaled by the Decimal C log rule. (b. b., 1909). (m) Consisting of one hundred million feet, board measure, of scale timber, or its equivalent in volume in other material counted as follows per thousand feet board measure; converter poles, 40; logging poles, 125; telephone poles, 25; posts, 100 and cords 2. (l. c., Deerlodge, D 1, ror). (n) All protests as to the accuracy of the scale or conduct of the sale, will be made in writing to the Supervisor, within 30 days after the al- 174 Forestry Quarterly. leged unsatisfactory work, and protest after the said 30 days shall not — lie. (1. p. E. s., b. £., Medicine Bow, D 2, 1911). Clauses (a) to (n) are self explanatory. QUADRUPLE PENALTIES. 36. (a) In case of a breach of clauses and of this contract, the company shall pay four times the stumpage price fixed by this agreement for the timber involved. (1. p., Deerlodge, D, 1, 1911). This clause is seldom necessary. CORDWOOD RESTRICTIONS. 37. (a) All cordwood material will be piled in compact even stacks for measurement, as directed by the Forest officer. (m). (b) If the material suitable for saw timber in the judgment of the Forest officer is cut into cordwood, it shall be scaled and paid for at the same rate as if used for saw timber. (To be inserted in sales which includes both cordwood and saw timber). (m). (c) No timber fit for sawing, mining, or tie timber or posts, in the judgment of the Forest officer, will be cut into cordwood. (m). At mining camps saw timber used for (b) (c) cordwood, unless it is expected the trees would be decayed or lost before they could reasonably be expected to be sold for saw timber, must be charged for at saw timber rates. Careful inspection is necessary in order to prevent the occasional use of post timber for cordwood. USE OF TIMBER FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ,jOTHER PURPOSES. 38. (a) Unmerchantable timber may be used free of charge for con- struction purposes in connection with the sale. (m). (b) Timber unmerchantable under the terms of this contract may be used in the camp for fuel without charge. (w. w. p., D. f., w. h, L, Coeur d’Alene, D 1, I910). These clauses (a) (b) are seldom required. See clause 5. SPECIAL USES. 39. (a) Camps, flumes, roads, dams, bridges, chutes, and other improve- ments required in logging will be located as agreed with the Forest officer, and in accordance with such conditions as he may prescribe. (m.) (b) Camps, chutes, and other improvements will be removed from the sale area within six months from the termination of the contract, and if not so removed will become the property of the United States. (m.) (c) Sawmills, flumes or other special privileges not provided for in this agreement will be constructed and operated only under special use permit issued by the proper Forest officer. (w. p. p., Coconino, D 3, IQTO. (a) (b). See also clause 17. (c) is rarely used. Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 175 TELEPHONE LINES. 40. (a) All telephone lines shall be constructed under free special use permit issued by the Forest Supervisor which will provide that free use of such lines shall be allowed to Forest officers for official business; that no stumpage will be charged for poles on lines which in the judgment of the Forest Supervisor are of sufficient value to the Forest Service. All other telephone lines, trails, and main traveled roads traversing the cut- ting area shall be kept open and free at all times from obstruction by logs, brush, and debris caused by logging operations; and all telephone lines, trails and roads damaged or destroyed by logging operations shall be repaired or rebuilt as required by the Forest officer in charge. (w. y. p., Sitgreaves, Apache, D 3 1912.) Detailed directions (a) such as this may obviate the ordinary special use permit. FIRE LINES. 41. (a) A fire line having a width of not less than ...... feet shall be cleared by the purchaser of all inflammable material, except stumps, whenever required by the Forest officer, along the boundaries of the cut- ting area and around groups of seed trees; such fire lines shall be con- structed in a manner that will be satisfactory to the Forest officer, (m.) (b) On the borders of the cutting area, except next to Section 29, a strip 60 feet wide is to be cleared of brush and all inflammable material before burning. (w. w. p., c., Kaniksu, D 1, 1911.) (c) All stubs of unmerchantable dead Douglass fir trees over 15 feet high within 100 feet of the fire line shall be cut, and all dead Douglas fir stubs or dead trees over 30 feet in height, shall be cut whenever they occur on the cutting area except when in the judgment of the Forest officer any such cutting is not necessary. (D. f. w. r. c, w. h. Sno- qualmie, D 6, 1911.) (d) Not to exceed four miles of fire line of a maximum width of 35 feet, along the south and east boundaries of the cutting area, or where- ever on the cutting area the Forest officer in charge may prescribe, shall be cleared by the purchaser. All brush, logs and debris, both that already on the ground and that resulting from the logging, shall be removed from this fire line. (D. f., w. r. c., w. h., Snoqualmie, D 6, IgrI.) (e) All snags, stubs, or unmerchantable dead trees over 15 feet high on the cut-over area shall be felled, and all tops and inflammable material piled for burning, unless, in the judgment of the Forest officer in charge, such cutting is not necessary. If any snags, stubs, or unmerchantable trees are felled so that they lie closer than four feet from unmarked trees, a section of at least six feet on either side of such unmarked trees shall-be removed. (w. y. p., D. f. larch.; Whitman, D 6, 1911.) ; In Washington where there is clear cutting and burning, fire lines take the place of the ordinary methods of brush disposal, but care is taken not to destroy seed trees. LOCATION OF IMPROVEMENTS. 42. (a) All construction work, including railroad, mill, etc., necessary for initial logging operations shall be completed as soon as possible and not later than two years from date of final contract is prepared. (W. y. p. Sitgreaves—Apache, D 3, 1812.) (b) The character and location of all roads, and the means, methods 176 Forestry Quarterly. and facilities to be used in the transportation of all products, may be such as are best adapted to the purpose in the judgment of the purchaser, pro- vided that no undue injury is done National Forests interests, in which case the Forest officer may require such modifications as he may deem necessary for the protection of the Forest. (C., Pend oreille, D 1, 1911.) (c) Dead timber will be granted free for the construction of camps, bridges, cabins, roads and chutes, but such improvements will become the property of the United States at the completion of this sale. All green timber used for the above purposes will be charged for at the contract prices, and the improvements so constructed, or not removed from the Forest area within thirty days after completion of the sale will become the property of the United States. (L. p., E. s., Uinta, D 4, 1911.) (a) prevents speculation; (b) and (c) are rarely required. LOGGING RAILROAD RESTRICTIONS. 43. (a) All engines and locomotives not burning oil for fuel used in logging on the National Forest shall be equipped with spark arresters that are satisfactory to the Forest officer in charge. (b) All locomotives operated on National Forest lands under this con- tract shall use oil for fuel.. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, 1910.) (c) This contract. shall be void if the Railway Company fails’ to con- struct a satisfactory and usable spur or side track at or near the location of the abandoned “Monroe Spur” before June 30, 1911. In the event that this contract becomes void because of failure to construct the spur, all deposits made in this case will be refunded to the purchaser. (c. Pend oreille, D I, IQII.) (d) During the months of May, June, July, August and September, our logging locomotives shall burn oil or be equipped with spark arresters ac- ceptable to the Forest officer in charge with a connected steam force pump and at least 100 feet of serviceable 1-inch hose, with five 12-quart pails, and with a constant supply of not less than the equivalent of 12 barrels of water kept exclusively for fire fighting purposes. (w. r. c, D. f w. h. Snoqualmie, D 6, 1911.) (e) It is further agreed, as part of the consideration of this agreement, that all main railroad lines shall be made common carriers in accordance with the laws of the State of California; provided, that, in any question as to what portions of the railroad lines constructed shall be made com- mon carriers under this clause, the decision of the Forester shall be final. Cw. Ye p.,pCqADi ob. ow sty) DD: 15) tore) (f{) Railroads for which easements are obtained shall be common. car-. riers. Logging or other railroads for which easements are not obtained will be constructed under free special use permit to be issued by the. Forest Supervisor. This permit will provide that when advisable in his judgment such roads shall be common carriers, and that wherever con- sidered necessary by him, the rights of way of such roads shall be cleared and kept free from combustible material for a distance of 50 feet on each side of the center line of the track and when merchantable the timber cut in connection with such clearing shall be removed, scaled and paid for at the rates mentioned in the agreement that unless such roads are electri- fied, oil will be used exclusively for fuel; that Forest officers when trav- eling on official business, and fire fighters shall be transported free of charge on all trains of the main line south of Snowflake, Arizona, or any branch line of the railway constructed in connection with this sale and when. necessary, in order to prevent great destruction, special train service will be rendered such Forest officers and fire fighters free of charge, except as provided for in clause 15. (w. y. p., Sitgreaves-Apache, D'.2; tore.) Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 177 (g) We do hereby agree as a part of the consideration of this agree- ment to grant to the Forest Service, may designate the privilege of using the main lines of railroad, both on and off National Forest land, which will be constructed, owned or controlled for the purpose of logging the timber of the area specified in this contract, for the purpose of or in con- nection with the logging of any National Forest timber naturally tributary to the said main lines of railroad, at such rates and under such regula- tions as may be specified by the District Forester; And further provided, that any such arrangement for the use of said roailroad lines may be terminated at the date of the expiration of this contract at the option of the undersigned; provided, however, that in the event the arrangement for the use of said railroad lines is terminated at the date of the expi- ration of this contract by the undersigned, the United States shall have the right as a part of the consideration of this agreement, to purchase the said railroad lines or to designate a person or persons who shall also have the right to purchase the said railroad lines, at such terms as may be mutually agreed upon between the United States or the person or per- sons it may designate and the owners of the said railroad lines; Pro- vided, further, that in the event it is impossible for the parties aforesaid to agree upon a purchase price a board of appraisers consisting of three persons, one to be named by the undersigned, one to be named by the District Forester, and one to be named by the holder of any timber-sale agreement which would be affected by the use of the said railroad lines, and whose name shall be designated by the District Forester, shall fix the price at which the said railroad lines shall be purchased. This said option to purchase must be exercised within one (1) month from the date of the expiration of this agreement. The board of appraisers shall meet upon the call of the District Forester and the majority vote shall be binding on the board. It is hereby specifically understood and agreed that any purchaser of said railroad lines shall be an actual bona fide purchaser of timber which is tributary to such lines. (w. y. p., w. 1., D. f., w. f., Whit- man, D 6, IorI.) (h) Whenever necessary in the judgment of the Forest officer, the pur- chaser shall clear, and keep clear, the railroad rights of way of all in- flammable material including snags, and dead trees, for a distance of 100 feet on either side of the center of the main track and spur tracks, in such manner and at such times as may be designated by the Forest. officer in charge. No refuse shall be burned during the months of June, July, Au- gust and September of each year without the written consent of the Supervisor; also during these months the purchaser may be required in the discretion of the Forest Supervisor, to patrol all railroad tracks after the NS of each locomotive. (w. y. p., D. f., larch, Whitman, D 6, IQII. As already explained, the use of oil (b) (d) is preferable to any spark arrestor (a) yet devised; (c) merely protects the purchaser from his obligation ; lumber companies often object (d) (e) (f£) to their logging railroads being made common carriers because of their liabilities in case of accident. Even with oil burning engines, cleared rights of way are a necessary precaution and form admirable fire lines, (h). USE OF RAILWAY SPEEDERS. 44. (a) The use of railway speeders by Forest officers for official duty shall be allowed upon all lines of railway south of Snowflake, Arizona, 178 Forestry Quarterly. constructed in connection with this sale with the understanding that no responsibility for accidents which may occur in connection with their use is assumed by the railroad and further that they shall not be entitled to right of way over any trains. (w. y. p., Sitgreaves,—Apache, D 3, 1912.) “The use of railway speeders” is a covering for forest officers, and are often used to follow up trains during a danger sea- son. DAMAGE TO LOCAL INTERESTS. 45. (a) All damage sustained to telephone lines in connection with the logging operations shall be immediately repaired by the purchaser to the satisfaction of the Forest officer. (w. y. p., D. f., W. 1, w. £., Whitman, D6, 79010) (b) Any damage done to the irrigating ditch belonging to the East Fork Ditch Company during the process of logging shall be repaired by the operators, at the request of the Forest officer. (w. y. p., D. f., Weiser, D 4, I9II.) ; (c) All roads and trails traversing the cutting area will be kept open and free at all times from obstruction by logs, brush and debris caused by logging operations; and all roads and trails destroyed by the logging operations will be: rebuilt as required by the Forest officer in charge. CW. Diy Bs D4 iwi, oterray D's, 191%.) (d) All wagon roads and trails shall be kept sufficiently open to al- low reasonable usage at all times, and suitable crossings shall be main- tained wherever railroads cross such roads or trails. (w. y. p., D. f., larch; Whitman, D 6, Iorr). (6) All roads and trails traversing the cutting area will be kept open and free at all times from obstruction by logs, brush and debris caused by logging operations; and all roads and trails destroyed by the logging operation will be rebuilt as required by the Forest officer in charge. (w. y. p., w. £,.S. p., c. Tahoe, D 5, 1912). Lumbering operations often damage local trails, roads, tele- phone lines, ditches; if this is anticipated one of the (a) to (e) above clauses should be used. ADJUSTMENT OF THE STUMPAGE RATES IN LONG TERM CONTRACTS. 46. (a) We agree to pay for all timber cut prior to April Ist, 1919, at the rate of $3 per M feet board measure for sugar pine, $2.50 per M feet board measure for yellow pine, and $1 per M feet board measure for cedar, white fir, and red fir; for all timber cut subsequent to April 1, 1919, and prior to April I, 1924, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester on April 1, 1919; for all timber cut subsequent to April I, 1924, and prior to April 1, 1929, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester on April 1st, 1924; for all timber cut subsequent to April Ist, 1929 and prior to April 1, 1934, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester on April Ist, 1929; and for all timber cut subsequent to April 1st, 1934, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester on that date; provided, that the rates to be designated upon each of the respective dates shall be determined as follows: (a’) For the purpose of this contract it is agreed that the average mill run lumber prices per M feet board measure prevailing at the date of execution hereof, f. o. b. cars, at the mills operating on the west slope — of the Sierra Nevada Mountains tributary to the San Joaquin Valley are Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 179 $19 for yellow pine, $20 for sugar pine, $15 for red and white fir, and $15 for incense cedar. (b’) The Forester shall ascertain the average mill run lumber prices prevailing for the various species above specified, f. o. b. cars, at the mills operating in the territory above defined during the years ending December 3Ist, 1918, 1923, 1928, and 1933, respectively. (c’) If the average price of any species, prevailing during any one of said years specified in (b) shows an increase over the price of the same species agreed upon as prevailing at the date of execution hereof, of $2 per M feet board measure, or less, no increase shall be made in the stumpage rate for such species as fixed on the following April 1st. If the increase in the average price of any species is greater than $2 per M feet board measure, not more than 75 per cent. of the amount of such increase in excess of $2 may, in the discretion of the Forester, be added to the stumpage rate for such species as fixed on the following April Ist. (d’) If in the territory above defined during the life of this agreement certain of the material cut from any of the species included in this sale is manufactured into or sold for other products than lumber, the market value of such products and the proportion of the total cut of the species so used; in the territory above defined during the calendar year pre- ceding the next readjustment date, shall be considered by the Forester, upon an equitable basis comparable to the thousand board feet of manu- factured lumber, in determining the average mill run price of the species as above specified; Provided, that the Forester may at any time, upon application from the purchaser establish a special rate for material other than saw timber which the purchaser elects to remove for sale, which rate shall be equitable in accordance with the current market value of such material. It is further agreed that the Forester will, upon written application from the purchaser setting forth good and sufficient reasons therefor, and showing the existence of a serious emergency arising from changes in Eee conditions since the last re-adjustment of stumpage rates, either: (1) Redetermine and establish the stumpage rates and designate a date when the rates as redetermined shall be effective, which date shall be within six months of the date of application, or (2) grant an exten- sion of time within which the respective amounts of timber specified here- after in clause shall be removed, at his option, when action of either character is necessary in his judgment to relieve the purchaser from hardship; provided, that in all cases the stumpage rates as readjusted upon application to the Forester shall be determined in accordance with the methods and under the terms above set forth; and provided further, that the stumpage rates so determined upon application of the purchaser shall apply only during the remainder of the five year period, terminating upon one of the respective dates above specified when the stumpage rates shall be regularly redetermined and established. It is further agreed that in no event will the stumpage rates as es- tablished upon any of the respective dates above named or upon the application of the purchaser be less than those specified herein to be paid for timber cut prior to April Ist, 1919. It is further agreed that in making any readjustment of stumpage prices the Forester may require such modification in the clauses numbered in this agreement as are necessary in his judgment to protect the interests of the United States; provided, that such modification shall be limited to requirements contained in current timber sale contracts executed by purchasers and approved by officers of the Forest Service prior to the date of such readjustment; and provided also, that any additional operat- ing costs entailed by such modifications, as ascertained by the Forester, shall be deducted from the readjustment stumpage price. 180 Forestry Quarterly. Payments will be made in advance in installments of twenty-five thou- sand dollars ($25,000) each one called for by the Forest officer in charge, credit being given for the sums, if any, heretofore deposited with the said United States depository or officer in connection with this sale. (See (a), Sierra, D 5, 1912). Long term contracts are now sometimes allowed by the Secre- tary of Agriculture in order to put on the market overmature timber a long distance from the market, and consequently requir- ing a large outlay. ‘There are two more methods of stumpage price adjustment (1). To definitely fix the price for certain periods; (2) to adjust the price as given in (a). In this case it is likely that complications will arise, but it is an exceedingly interesting experiment. More exact methods of stumpage price appraisal are necessary, and one of the stumbling blocks is what percentage of th final sale price should go to the purchaser as profit. It is interesting to note in France it is roughly 10 per cent. of the sale price. a EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. According to law, the export of certain timber from the “Black Hills” is not allowed unless “insect infested ;’ in one contract on the Datil Forest, D 3, the export outside of Socorro County, of only the higher grades was allowed, because the bulk of the low grade produce was required for local development. RESERVATION OF TURPENTINE RIGHTS. 48. (a) This contract does not include the right to turpentine any of the timber included in this sale. Turpentine rights may be leased by the United States provided the turpentine operations will not interfere in any way with the logging operations and that any lease given by the United States will prohibit the boxing of timber. (w. y. p., Sitgreaves- Apache, D. 3, 1912). Since recent experiments indicate that western yellow pine may be successfully tapped this (a) clause is being put in all im- portant contracts. LIMITED SALES. 49. (a) It is agreed that, except in the case of small sales for strictly local consumption by the purchaser for his own use, no further sales will be made from thé portion of French Gulch south and east of the Anaconda—Big Hole Road before January 1, 1915, unless this contract is cancelled, or modified before that date. (1. p., Deerlodge, D 1, 1911). (b) Provided the company desires on or before March 20, 1912, under the conditions and provisions herein set forth, to purchase, cut and re- Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 181 move the remaining portion of the timber from the area first described, estimated to be 60,000,000 feet of white pine timber, B. M., more or less, which area will be reserved from disposal to any other application or applicants up to, but not later than March 2oth, 1912, the Company agrees to have the following conditions become effective upon the approval of the District Forester, for the remaining portion of the white pine timber on the 5 first described in this instrument. (W. w. p., Coeur d’Alene Pt, TOIT). } Before the policy of marking large sales for periods beyond five years was approved, it was often necessary to assure com- panies of their future stumpage before they could afford to make large investments on only a five year cut. Clauses (a) and (b) insure operating companies a chance at future advertised stumpage. INSPECTION OF RECORDS. 50. (a) All the scale books pertaining to our logging operations and mill business will be open to inspection at any time by a Forest officer authorized by the Forester to make such inspection. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, 1910). (b) All the books pertaining to our logging operation and milling busi- ness will be open to inspection at any time by a Forest officer authorized by the District Forester to make such inspection, with the understanding that the information obtained shall be regarded as confidential. (w. y. p., w. f.; S: p., Tahoe, D 5, 1012). Clauses (a) and (b) are rarely used. LIQUIDATED DAMAGES FOR FIRE LOSS. 51. (a) The purchaser agrees to pay to the United States Depository aforesaid ten dollars ($10.00) for every acre burned over by fires origi- nating during the life of this contract within the area covered by this sale or within 200 yards of the exterior boundaries thereof, as liquidated damages, in full satisfaction for all merchantable timber, young growth and forest reproduction injured or destroyed, whenever such fires are started by the fault or neglect of the company, its agents, employees, aye oe or employees of sub-contractors. (L. p., Deerlodge, D 1, IQII). Clause (a) is designed to insure unusual precaution against setting fire and fixes before hand a basis for the assessment of dangers in case of fire. CONTRACT SAWING. 52. (a) If required, we agree at the time requested, to do logging and sawing for and to supply lumber to the Forest Service at the lowest price given to any customer. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, 1910). In a few cases the government has been “held-up” by ex- tortionate charges for contract sawing; hence clause (a). 182 Forestry Quarterly. CAMP RUBBISH OR DEBRIS. 53. (a) All camp buildings and structures on the National Forest shall be located in a manner satisfactory to the Forest officers at a sufficient distance from any stream to prevent pollution of any city water supply. (m.) (b) The ground in the vicinity of all logging camps shall be kept neat and clean, and all rubbish shall be removed and buried or burned. When the camps are moved from one location to another, all debris shall be burned or otherwise disposed of as directed by the Forest officers. (w. y. p., Coconino, D 3, IgI0). (c) All camps used in connection with this sale will be kept in a sanitary condition to the satisfaction of the Forest officers in charge. (1. p., E. s., b. f., Medicine Bow, D 2, IgII). (d) Camps, buildings, railroads, logging roads, skid roads, log chutes, flumes, and all other improvements and structures necessary for the successful carrying on of logging operations shall be located and operated as agreed upon with the Forest officer in charge. All improvements shall be removed from National Forest lands within six months after the termination of this agreement, unless permits or easements are secured from the officer of the United States having jurisdiction and in accord- ance with the Federal laws for their further occupancy and use. If not removed within such time or further occupancy and use under such per- mits or easements authorized, they shall become the property of the United States. Logging camps should be kept from polluting (a) streams; modern (c) sanitation is therefore a necessary precaution. The mass of rubbish (b) is not only an eye sore, but a fire danger. A recent combination of (a) and (b) is given under (d). INSECT DAMAGE. 54. (a) All trees which are or which become insect-infested during the period of this contract, if merchantable in the judgment of the Forest officer, shall be cut and removed in accordance with the terms of this contract and at the time required by the Forest officer, which shall not be Later thetic enice t hee , and if unmerchantable, will be disposed of in accordance with Clause....... (B. B.) . (b) All trees, regardless of size, which are or which become insect-in- fested during the period of this contract, and which are unmerchantable in accordance with the terms of this contract, will, if required by the Forest officer, be felled, lopped, piled compactly and burned, or otherwise dis- posed of, at the time required by the Be. officer in charge, which shall ing from logging, including large chips made in hewing ties, and slabs, shall be piled and burned, or otherwise disposed of, under the directions of the Forest officer, at the time required by the Forest officer, and not B not been sawed shall be peeled on or before.................0080 (B. B.) (f) All insect-infested timber upon valid claims or patented lands marked or otherwise designated by the Forest officer will be cut and dis- posed of in accordance with Clauses 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. No timber shall be Ri ¢, i -——_— Timber Sale Contract Clauses. 183 removed from such valid claims or patented lands unless the purchaser shall, within 30 days notice that the timber has been scaled, file with the Forest officer in charge of the sale, a receipt signed by the claimant or owner showing that the full contract price has been paid to him or a National Bank certificate showing that the purchaser has deposited the full amount in a National Bank convenient to the claimant or owner, and in his name. All operations under this sale will be suspended by the Forest officer in charge if the purchaser neglects or refuses to file such receipt of certificate. (B. B.) These clauses were used in early contracts for the sale of insect-infester timber in the “Black Hills;’ they are based upon a knowledge of the life habit of the bark beetle “dendroctonus”’ which has damaged western yellow pine. Many of the foregoing clauses will be modified and the word- ing changed as Forest Service contracts are improved; at pres- ent, however, this compilation may be of interest to officers on National Forests and also show other foresters and lumbermen exactly what the Forest Service requires in its conservative log- ging. They will be of considerable historical interest years hence; in the meantime they will undoubtedly be gradually standardized for all districts. LIGHT BURNING VERSUS FOREST MANAGEMENT IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. By RicHarp H. BoERKER. At the present time there is much being said and written in California about “light-burning” as a means of protecting for- ests from fire. This theory aims to use fire as a servant to pre- vent fire, and its advocates are criticizing timber holders severely for not putting this theory into practice. It is an interesting controversy between old methods under a new name and For- estry, between short-sighted sacrifice of the future to the pres- ent on the one hand and true conservation on the other. ‘This paper will attempt to treat of the use of fire as a servant in Forestry and its results, good and bad, on Forest Management. That fire as “master” has done enormous damage is almost axiomatic—it needs no proof. It has been estimated that one billion dollars would not cover the forest fire losses in the United States during the last 30 years. Canada claims that in her Eastern provinces seven times more timber has been destroyed by fire than has been cut. The State of Michigan, which has pro- duced more lumber than any other area of the same size in the world, is said to have lost through forest fires three times as much as has been cut. ‘Towns have been destroyed, millions of acres of land made non-productive, and many lives have been lost. In view of such history it has been claimed by some that forest fires cannot be stopped, that fire must be fought with fire, and that big timber holders should abandon their “theoretical whims” and attack the problem from the practical side and burn up systematically the refuse in the forests which forest fires feed on. Of all the methods of using fire as a servant, the “light-burn- ing” theory is the oldest, the most important, and at the same time the most undesirable and the most mischievous, from the standpoint of Forestry. The term “light-burning” has been used to denote many different kinds of burning. “Light-burning” must be distinguished from all other uses of fire, in that it aims, by means of a light, rapid burn to rid the forest of needles, small Light Burning vs. Forest Management. 185 dry branches, brush, weeds, and reproduction, in order to im- prove the pasture; or sometimes to make travel through the woods easier, or to drive out the game. This is the so-called Indian method of “light-burning ;” this object was not forest pro- tection, it was far from that, it was forest devastation pure and simple. Like all pioneers, his object was to destroy the forests so that he could make the soil serve his purposes. There is ample evi- dence all over California that the Indian succeeded in accomplish- ing his purpose. These “light-burns” often developed into disas- trous conflagrations, and 2,000,000 acres of useless brush in this State alone bear witness to this fact. The fire was set for reasons mentioned above, and as a re- sult traveling was much easier. Unfortunately this did not remain so, for the next spring the brush sprouted more vigorously than ever; it had not been killed, it had not only been killed back. In three or four years the Indians set another fire, which since it had the dry stems and dry leaves of the last fire to feed on, was hotter than the one before. So the process continued, each fire was hotter than the one before. Each fire killed the seed- lings, and each fire caused the unsuppressable chaparral to come up more vigorously than before. Each fire found its way into one or two of the larger trees, through a lightning scar, a frost crack, or through the roots. This scar was not serious at first but each successive fire enlarged it, until the tree was under- mined and fell. Even though only occasionally a tree fell, there was no young growth to take its place, so that the extinction of the forest was only a matter of years. All stages of this destruction can be seen in California, and the result told in figures is surprising to say the least. ‘The direct economic loss to the state of California may be summed up briefly as follows: I. 2,000,000 acres of brush, the larger part of which can be traced back to the old Indian fires. These areas instead of growing timber worth from $50 to $100 per acre, are occupied by useless brush, of very little value as browse. 2. The remaining forests are greatly thinned out as a result of these fires. It has been estimated that these fires have reduced the merchantable stand of timber by about 1-3. The 30,000 square miles of forest lands in California have an actual cash value of $700,000,000. How much more these 186 Forestry Quarterly. forests would be worth to-day if it had not been for these fires, can only be conjectured. At any rate the loss runs up into the millions of dollars. 3. From 30% to 50% of the merchantable trees left stand- ing in the forest have been injured by these fires at the butt. The work of fire is followed closely by that of insects and fungi. The great waste in lumbering can in many instances be traced back to the injuries received from these old Indian fires. High stumps, pitchy butts, and logs with a large percentage of heart rot are left in the woods. The silvicultural losses due to loss in the fertility of the soil, fol- lowed by loss in the rate of growth; together with the loss that is occasioned by a change of the forest types from the valuable pines to the less valuable firs, have been enormous and are hard to over-estimate. Although this paper deals more specifically with conditions in Northern California, the practice of light burning both past and present, is by no means a local one. This practice antedates the coming of the white man to America. The Indians have prac- ticed it for centuries in all the Western and Southern States, and the stockmen have continued the practice where the Indian left off. In spite of the fact that forest conditions in California can hardly be compared to those of other regions where this practice has been going on, there can be no doubt that the economic and the silvicultural results of “light-burning’” are the same whether it be California, Arizona, or Mississippi. Like the Indian the stockman also “light-burned.” His purpose was mainly to improve the range. During the last 50 years an enormous amount of this “light-burning” has been done by him. The creation of the National Forests put a stop to practically all of this, but to-day the private timber holder is continuing where the stockman left off. Strange to say, to-day, many of the large timber holders in California are practicing this very method to protect their ma- ture timber from the ravages of forest fires. ‘This is not the worst part of it. They are criticizing other timber holders for not adopting these methods, and are influencing public sentiment in the wrong direction. It shows a woeful lack of knowledge of the ——— = eee The fire scar gets larger with each The result of a few Indian fires. fire. The result of many vor. ihe Indian “Jight-burns.” : niin, daa —— The final result of too many Indian fires. WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Light Burning vs. Forest Management. 187 fundamental principles underlying Forestry. To quote one of the foremost timber holders in California: “If the old Indian custom of burning off the forests is adopted by the white man there will be no repetition of the appalling losses by forest fires as was the case in Idaho and Montana last fall.” Then to quote this holder’s foreman, who has charge of about 10,000 acres of “light-burning” every fall, “It is far better to destroy part of the young timber as we are doing and save some and all of mature timber, than to allow the brush and reproduction to grow and get so thick that, in a few years when a fire does start, it will consume everything in the forest, mature timber and all.” “Light-burning’” methods vary a great deal. Sometimes the ground is prepared and more often it is not. In the case of the timber owner quoted above, the ground is usually prepared in the spring and summer by raking the leaf litter and other refuse away from the mature trees and piling dirt and rocks around their bases, in order to protect these from fire. Thickets of reproduc- tion are cut down and cleared away so that the fire will not spread from the reproduction into the mature trees. Then after the first rains in the fall the fire is set out. Results show that wherever the litter burns at all well, practically all the young trees up to I5 years are killed absolutely, and of the trees from 15 to 40 years, one third to one-half are destroyed depending upon the nature of the distribution. Trees older than 40 years are not damaged very much. ‘The old trees which will be har- vested in the near future usually escape injury. This process is repeated every 2 to 4 years. , The whole operation it is thought, results in cleaning up the woods and affording the mature timber protection. This how- ever lasts but a few years, for as has been said before, the brush sprouts up more vigorously than before. What has really been accomplished is that the light, fast burning litter has been consumed, but the larger and heavier refuse, which makes the hot, dangerous fires, is still on the ground. The young trees up to 15 years of age, have been killed and the charred stems and branches are still standing in the majority of cases. They were fresh and green before, now they are dead, charred and dry. Those young trees from 15 to 40 years that have been killed, in most cases were killed because the trees were girdled by fire. 12 188 Forestry Quarterly. Next year these trees will be dead and thoroughly dry, and many of the dead leaves will still be clinging to the branches, and the fire problem, will be, as before, unsolved. In other words it leaves everything in fine shape for the next fire, which will be hotter and fiercer than the one before; it makes the matter of fire protection worse, in the long run, not better. That this is fact and not theory, has been proven over and over again, in that fires burn on these areas, with greater damage than on the “unprotected ones.’”’ A lumber company in the Northern Sierras, every year resorts to a method of “light-burning” on its cut-over areas. This method is simply to start a fire in last year’s slashings and not bother about it until it threatens valuable prop- erty. This is done to render the cut-over areas fire-proof, so to speak, and thus protect their logging camps, mills, and timber- lands from fire. .A good illustration as to how efficient this method is to protect valuable property is the following: this company moved its logging camp on the area that has been _ “light-burned” the year before, and proceeded to burn off the ad- jacent area, declaring that all danger had been removed by “light- burning’ and that the camp was safe. Accordingly the ad- jacent area was fired and left to its own salvation, and before anyone knew about it the fire had reached the “safe’’ area where it fed on the dry and charred slashings of the last fire, became a conflagration and carried everything before it, camp, timber, and all. From figures now available from actual experiments in “light- burning” it appear that this is a costly process. The cost of this method of protection varies from 50c and $1.00 per acre, depending entirely upon conditions, and how thoroughly the cleaning-up work is done. The preparation of the ground costs from 4oc to 75c per acre, and the burning from 10c to 25c. As a matter of fact in this case, only the valuable pines and firs are treated in this way, and these constitute only about two-thirds of the merchantable stand. For the big timber holders of the West to adopt this plan would mean an enormous expense. At a cost of from 50 cents to $1.50 per acre it would mean an expenditure of from $10,000,000 to $30,C00,000 every three years in the case of the 20,000,000 acres of forest lands in the State of California alone. This would mean Light Burning vs. Forest Management. 189 an annual expenditure of from $3,000,000 to $10,000,000, which, of course, is prohibitive. Moreover for but a very small part of this sum these big timber holders could form protective associa- tions and protect their lands by employing fire-guards, so that forest fires could all be extinguished in their incipiency with the minimum amount of loss, and all this without the loss of millions of acres of fine reproduction. Even if “light-burning” were feasible from the standpoints of results obtained and the cost, it would still be absolutely incom- patible with Forest Management, or the growing of timber for profit. Here in the Northern Sierras it would limit the systems of reproduction we might use to either the “seed trees’ method, or the “seeding from the side” method, the “clear cut and plant’ method being excluded on account of lack of nursery stock and transportation facilities. The larger part of our forests are com- posed of uneven-aged, mixed stands of Yellow Pine, Sugar Pine, Douglas Fir, Incense Cedar, White Fir and Red Fir. In a stand with all these species represented, when “light-burning”’ has been practised, the lumberman would cut only the valuable pines and Douglas Fir, thus leaving the inferior species to take possession of the ground. This cut would not only eliminate the valuable species but it would also leave the forest extremely open, and give the unsuppressible brush a good chance to take possession. In the mature stands of pure Yellow Pine where this theory has been practised, the lumberman would make a clear cut, and take practi- cally all trees. In this case lumbering on a large scale would exterminate the forest, or if seed did happen to come in from the neighboring stands the result would be large continuous stands of young growth, which are a worse fire-trap than before. At first the reproduction is burned off at a great cost to protect the forests from fire, and then these “light-burners” turn around and cause large reproduction areas to be formed which make the matter of fire protection infinitely worse than before. In other words the “light-burning” theory is directly opposed to the selection system of management. Conditions in these mountains demand that the selection system be used, to assure the proper proportion of species and to eliminate large young growth areas, which are undesirable on account of heavy snow- fall, and insects, but principally on account of fire. This region is 190 Forestry Quarterly. in the dangerous zone on account of the long dry seasons and the many lightning storms without rain. Moreover the selection system is necessary to protect the soil from its three worst enemies, drouth, erosion, and brush. While it is true that the conservative lumberman would employ a more conservative method of cutting than the lumberman men- tioned above, in the case of cutting on “light-burned” lands, still we would face another flat contradiction. Even if the man that “light-burned” cut conservatively and left the proper proportion of seed trees of each species, he would leave just so much idle capital in the woods to insure reproduction which his light-burn- ing would destroy. Every time an acre of reproduction is burned over there is a financial loss which can be computed. On an average “light- burn” all the reproduction under 15 years is killed and from one- third to one-half of that between the ages of from 15 to 40 years. Very often much more damage is done. For the sake of comput- ing an average case and to obtain round numbers, it is assumed that all the reproduction up to 25 years is killed. To get the value of such a stand it will be necessary to find the value that this stand would have at maturity, and discount it back to the age at which it was killed. In other words it involves the expectation value of the growing stock at the age of 25 years. Although there may be considerable difference of opinion as to whether the cost or the expectation value should be used, in this case it might be well to figure the problem both ways. ‘The writer is of the opinion that damage to natural reproduction should be figured on the basis of expectation value, while that to artificial should be figured at cost value. The following case is therefore figured on the basis of expectation value. ‘The case takes the conditions as those existing to-day on the private holdings of one of the largest timber holders in the Pacific Coast States, who, as has been said before, “light- burns” thousands of acres of timberland every fall. The final Yr is based on growth in virgin stands of pure Yellow Pine. Stumps have been counted, which show that under fair conditions Yellow Pine will attain an average diameter breast high of 26” in 100 years. An acre usually contains about 20 such trees, with a contents of about 1,200 board feet per tree. At the prevailing stumpage rate of $2.50 per M., the final yield at the end of 100 _— Sa” oe A “light-burn” in progress in a Western Yellow Pine forest. The valuable nitrogen of the soil goes off in smoke. A beautiful stand of Yellow Pine reproduction about 10 years old which was destroyed by the “light-burning” method. Slowly the forest is reclaiming the ground lost by the old Indian fires. AT . . . - ~ a . . . White Fir, Sugar Pine and Incense Cedar reproduction in the picture, Light Burning vs. Forest Management. IQi years would be $60 per acre. There would be no thinnings up to the age of 25 years. The value of the soil has been taken as the sum paid for cut-over lands in the vicinity. The protection expenses are figured at 2 cents per acre, being the figure at which the Western Forestry and Conservation Association protects timberlands, and a figure which could be duplicated if the timber holders of the Northern Sierras would organize themselves into a protective association. ‘The taxes are based on the assessed value of timberlands in Tehama County, Cal., which is $10 per acre, the tax rate being .0245. ‘This makes a tax of 24 cents per acre per year. Since a well managed forest contains all age gradations from the cut-over stage to mature timber, it would not be right to assess all the land at the full assessed value of $10 per acre, but to strike an average for cut-over lands and timbered lands at about $5. Cut-over lands in this county are assessed at $1 per acre. This allowance would make the taxes 12 cents per acre. The interest rate in this problem is assumed to be 3%, being that used by the Forest Service. In the following formula: Yr is the yield at the end of r years. Tq is the thinning at q years. 5 is the value of the soil. FE. is the capitalized value of the annual expenses. m is the age of the stand when destroyed. ris the rotation, 100 years. .Op is the interest rate. __Y¥r+Tq (1.0p) 7—4—(S+E) (1. op 7~™—1) pa I .op ™—m _ 60—5.17 (8.18) __ . Ai 9.18 ae mGe In the case of the cost value the loss would be, assuming $15 per acre as the cost of planting, as follows: mGe=C (1 .op) ™+ (E+S) (1 .p™—zr1 —Tq (1 .op) ™—4 =15 (2.094)+-5.17 (1.094) The writer is well aware that there are faults to be found in these figures. Probably the chief fault that will be found with 192 Forestry Quarterly. them will be that they assume the loss for fully stocked stands of reproduction and that this is not the case in these forests. It must be remembered that the stands in the woods to-day would be fully stocked if it were not for the fires of the past. Parts of the woods which fires have reached but seldom have on them stands of young growth so dense, that they are well nigh im- passible. In the case assumed the damage was done in probably half an hour, while actually the damage was distributed over scores of years. There is no need of.going into discussion of the accuracy of these figures here; one thing is certain, and that is that they are very conservative, and if these figures were based on what these forests could do under conservative management the loss would be nearer $50 per acre. These figures are offered principally as an argument against “‘light-burning’ and not as indisputable computations in Forest Valuation. They show that reproduction has a value that is based on sound mathematical principles, and that its destruction means financial loss. I conclude then, that “light-burning,” from the standpoint of Forest Management is a failure. It cuts off absolutely all pros- pects of raising timber in the future, after the timber has been logged off. It is financial suicide. From the standpoint of present day lumbering, it has been said, “light-burning” has no serious drawbacks (except that it costs from 8 to 20 times as much as other more efficient means of forest protection). But lumbering will not be the reckless slashing that it has been, very many years longer. Private timber lands are beginning to be pro- tected efficiently by means of protective associations, and tax reform will come, not by waiting for it, but by aggressive work on the part of those who own timberlands and are growing timber, and have concrete cases to bring before the Board of Supervisors and the county tax assessor. The “laissez faire” policy of the past which allowed cut-over lands to revert to the state for unpaid taxes, must give way sooner or later to a more constructive policy of applying forestry principles and trying out new forest taxation theories on concrete cases. While in the long run timber holders will never sanction “light- burning’ as a means of protecting forests from fire, they will heartily endorse and practice any inexpensive and efficient method Light Burnmg vs. Forest Management. 193 that will clean up the debris in the forests and thus lessen the fire danger without the loss of valuable reproduction. ‘To systemati- cally clean up the woods as many propose, by piling and burning the debris, would mean an enormous expense, and would in most cases be out of the question. And why this expense, especially when there are other efficient means of protection? The Forest Service is protecting public timber lands for about one-half per cent. per acre, the Western Forestry and Conservation Associa- tion from one cent to three cents per acre, but the “light-burners” are paying at least ten cents and in some cases as high as twenty- five cents per acre. Private timber holders have had very little use for fire as a servant, except the cases mentioned above. With the coming of Forest Management the “improper” uses of fire will very quickly give way to the more rational uses. The Forest Service, to-day, uses fire in several ways. Probably the most important is the burning of tops and branches after logging, in regions where there is great danger from fire. As a matter of fact the Service is the only holder of timber lands in California that does this. The cost of this piling and burning varies from $1.50 to $2.00 per acre. The Service uses fire to aid reproduction in the Douglas Fir types of the Northwest. Here by means of a systematic burning a mineral soil seed-bed is prepared for the Douglas Fir and the less valuable hemlock reproduction is gotten rid of. Fire is also used occasionally to fight fire, that is, in cases that demand it, back- firing is resorted to to save valuable property. In all the above uses of fire it is never allowed to run at random; it is systemati- cally set out, and controlled absolutely. The results of forest fires depend a great deal upon their in- tensity, but the following results are to be noted in the case of “light-burning” : 1. Fire removes the nitrogen from the soil and makes it sterile. 2. Fire removes the protective soil cover and promotes evapo- ration. 3. Fire injuries are closely followed by those of insects and fungi. 4. Fire causes pitchy butts and hence inferior lumber. 5. Fire encourages weeds and brush. 6. It changes valuable into inferior forest types. 194 Forestry Quarterly. 7. Fire kills valuable reproduction. 8. It greatly affects the physical condition of the soil since fire destroys the humus, which is a great factor in keeping the soil loose and flocculated. In conclusion it may be said that fire should be used only after careful consideration of both the advantages and the disadvan- tages which its use carries with it. In short it should be used only where the fire danger is great; where there is no young growth; where the fire can be controlled; with fire-resistant species; and where the injury to the soil is justified by advantages of protec- tion. THE EFFECT OF FOREST FIRES ON TREES AND RE- PRODUCTION IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND By P. L. Burrrick. Nearly all that has been written on forest fires in America has been of general nature, not applying to any particular forest region. This paper is an attempt to outline some of the effects for a single region. It discusses only the effect of fire on trees and reproduction not considering the effects on the forest floor, soil, etc. The region chosen is the so-called Sprout Hardwoods Region of New England, located in Connecticut, Rhode Island and southern New York. ‘The characteristic species are Chestnut, White, Red and Black Oaks, Hickories, Birches and the like. They all depend more or less upon sprouting for reproduction; some, notably Chestnut, rely almost entirely upon it. This gives the region many peculiarities. Surface fires are the rule. There is never enough humus for severe ground fires, or coniferous growth for crown fires. Even the surface fires are light as compared with those further south, being seldom severe enough to destroy timber of any size, and so are not usually considered very harmful, so long as they do not endanger other property, are too often neglected. The profound effect of these light fires is not seen till long afterwards and then only by search. It is hoped that a larger appreciation of their damage will result in better protection of the woodlands of the region. The discussion follows these headings : 1. Factors influencing the resistance of trees to fire. 2. The after-effects of a single fire. . The effect of recurring fires. . Fire in relation to sprouting. . The effect of fires on reproduction. . The effect of age on resistance. nm BW r. FACTORS INFLUENCING RESISTANCE. The effects of fire fall into two classes: (1) The direct effect of the fire on the trees. (2) The indirect effect produced by de- 196 Forestry Quarterly. terioration of the site. The indirect effect is long continued and difficult to estimate. The several factors of varying importance influencing the re- sistance of sound trees of given age to fire are: . Thickness of bark. . Water content of tissues. . Season at which the fire takes place. . Character of the root system. Origin, seedling or sprout. Vigor, Size, . Character of wood. ON An hw Wb Ho Thickness of Bark: This is the most important of all fac- tors influencing resistance of a tree or species to fire. Trees with a thick, heavy or non-combustible bark have their living tissue protected, which enables them to withstand severe fires, while others having a thin bark, have their living tissue killed by the same fire. Thick bark protects a tree in two ways: it keeps the fire itself from the living tissue and being a poor heat conduc- tor prevents dessication that follows high temperature, which is as likely to cause death as direct burning. Since bark thickness increases with age, fire resistance increases likewise. A hard, non-combustible bark acts as a thick one although not as efficiently. Water Content of Tissues: Certain species normally have more water in their tissues than others and the amount varies with the seasons, being highest in the spring. The bark of a tree with much moisture in its living tissue is easily scalded and blistered by fire, but moist wood burns with difficulty. Thus in swamps where the moisture content of vegetation is high, fires are often fatal, but destroy little of the timber killed. Season at Which the Fire Takes Place: Since the wa- ter content of trees varies with the seasons, fires of equal intensity are more harmful at some seasons than at others. In spring when the cambium is rapidly dividing. the newly formed tissue is tender and easily succumbs. Later when hardened it withstands much greater heat. A mid or late summer fire does not allow time for sprouts or healing tissue to become hard enough to resist frost. ‘The season of a fire is more important to young trees where injury is to the living portions. Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. 197 Character of Root System: The nearness of the roots to the surface is often important, especially with swamp trees whose roots are close to the surface enclosed in a moist humus. In late summer or early fall when this is dry enough to burn, a fire will scorch the roots, thus increasing its destructive- ness. A fire in the hardwood region is seldom severe enough to consume living roots, but it may kill them, thus cutting off part of the source of the tree’s food supply. On ordinary uplands the roots of most species go deep enough to be out of danger of burning, but the depth of the root system is determined to some degree by the site, so we might class this factor of resistance partly a function of site. Origin: ‘Tree from seed and those from sprouts have not the same power of resistance at the same age. Seedlings are usually slower growers than sprouts of the same species, hence it takes them longer to develop thick bark. Also sprouts are gen- erally thinner barked than seedlings and are attached to an old stump which may be dry enough to burn, forming, moreover, a convenient accumulating place for litter. When this burns it generates more heat than a fire running over unobstructed ground ; consequently sprouts suffer more injury. Small stumps cut level with the ground are soon grown over by sprouts which are almost as resistant as seedlings. Vigor: The vigor and general health of a tree may determine whether or not it withstands a given fire. Of two trees of given size, age, bark thickness, etc., one dominant and fast growing, the other suppressed and dying, the first will be more resistant and may survive a fire that kills its weaker neighbor. Size: The mere fact of large size irrespective of other con- siderations, is an advantage to a tree in its struggles with fire. The wood of living, uninjured hardwoods seldom burns of itself, but only when surrounded by burning litter. It takes more burn- ing material to harm a large tree than a small one. Seldom is there enough litter under hardwood stands in southern New Eng- land to burn down trees more than three or four inches through at the base. Character of the Wood: Some woods burn easier than others. A species with wood that burns readily suffers more than one with wood that does not. Chestnut seems to suffer more 198 Forestry Quarterly. in this respect than most of the oaks. Character of the wood is one of the lesser considerations of initial resistance but of great importance in subsequent and continued resistance. The sum of these factors of resistance for a species or indi- vidual comprise what we may call its Initial Resistance; that is, the resistance which a sound tree offers to the first fire which attacks it, at the time of the attack. No species surpasses all others in all resisting qualities, but some average more resistance than others. ‘Thickness of bark, character of wood and of root system are more especially specific characters and vary more with the species, the others with individuals and seasons. Il. THE AFTER EFFECTS OF A SINGLE FIRE. The effects of a fire do not cease as soon as the ashes cool, but are felt through many years. ‘The damage may be increased by other agencies, or be wholly or partly repaired by growth. In the after history there are two distinct factors to be con- sidered: (1) The resistance of the tree to subsequent agencies, (2) Its recovery power exhibited by the healing of its wounds. Resistance to Subsequent Agencies: It is known that nearly all decay of woody tissue is due to the action of fungi. Fungi to at- tack a tree must generally find some opening in its bark, and they seem to grow better on trees weakened in some way. Consequent- ly fire by exposing the wood and reducing the vitality of the tree, sets up a condition favoring their growth. Fungous attacks following injury by fire are of various kinds, dependant upon the character of the fungus. Infection may be by one attacking only dead wood as Polystictus pergamenus so frequently found on fire injured Red Oak and other deciduous trees. According to Von Schrenk,* this fungus can destroy only as much wood as has already been killed. Other fungi which fol- low fire can grow from the dead into the living wood or attack it directly. They are consequently more to be dreaded. Those fungi which attack only heartwood follow a fire only when it has been severe enough to expose this. Another group is the bark fungi which attack the bark and the cambium beneath. These may be more deadly than those operating in the wood although they do not destroy the wood of the trees they kill. Dzaporthe *“Tjiseases of Deciduous Trees,” Bulletin 149, Bureau of Plant Industry. ~~ — Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. {99 parasitica, the Chestnut Bark Fungus, seems to be more numerous and severe on fire injured trees. Perhaps the worst effect of fungi is the decay of heartwood. A fire scar may completely heal over, yet if decay has started it is likely to continue till the entire interior of the tree is riddled. Woods resist decay to varying degrees. White Oak and Chest- nut probably have the most decay resistant wood of any southern New England hardwood; aspen, the most perishable, fire injured specimens seldom lasting more than a decade or two, while White Oak will resist decay even though badly injured at the base for several times that long. The subsequent resistance of the aspen is low; of the oak high. Next to fungi insects play the largest part in the after effects of fire. Weak or injured trees are generally more subject to insect attacks than sound ones. ‘The exposing of the wood by the burn- ing of the bark is not a consideration since insects enter in other ways. Like fungi they cause damage in two ways: (1) By at- tacking the living portions of the tree, reducing its vitality, per- haps killing it, (2) By boring in the wood, reducing its strength, thus inducing wind break and lowering its value. Insect channels in timber facilitate the entrance of certain fungi. Under the first class of injuries come those by bark beetles. These mostly belong to the Family Scolytidae. The Hickory Bark Beetle (Scolytus quadrispinosus) is active in destroying the life of fire injured hickories and it is rarely that they escape its attacks. Concerning wood boring insects Hopkins says, “The principal damages to dying and dead hardwood trees is caused by certain round-headed borers,—by timber worms,—and by Ambrosia beetles. All hardwoods suffer more or less, but the greatest damage is done to the wood of hickory, ash, oak, and chestnut, which is often reduced in value ten to fifteen per cent. or more during a period in which it would otherwise remain sound and available for commercial purposes.” Elsewhere he mentions fire as an agent inducing insect attacks. It is not uncommon for insect and fungus attack to both follow in the wake of a fire which has opened the way for the entrance of the fungus and weakened the tree for insect resistance. Windbreak is another after effect of fire. Scarred trees are 200 Forestry Quarterly. often unable to withstand the force of the wind and are over- thrown while still living. A tree may stand for several years after a fire and then be wind thrown. ‘The ease with which this takes place varies with the strength and resistance of the wood. A tree with strong, tough and elastic wood will stand long after one with weak and perishable wood has been blown down. Hickory saplings are often found burned to beyond the center, yet still standing because the wood is tough. Hickories are thin- barked and easily injured by light fires, yet their tough wood makes them rather resistant. Their subsequent is higher than than their initial resistance. Gray birch has a rather hard, non-combustible bark. It often escapes fires that scar Chestnut and Red Maple, but its wood is very perishable and quickly rots after the bark has been pierced so that fungus spores may enter; hence it easily becomes a prey to windbreak, succumbing long before its neighbors which were more seriously injured in the first place. Its imitia is higher than its subsequent resistance. Swamp fires that have burned down to the roots are often fol- lowed by the overthrow of nearly all the dead trees, which may still be sound, but whose roots have decayed. | Recovery Power: While this destructive process, a com- bination of fungi, insects, and wind, is at work, the tree is not only passively resisting their attacks, but is striving to heal its injuries by covering them with new growth. If a tree is young and vigorous the wound may soon be covered, but the damage is not thereby entirely repaired, since the energy the tree has put forth to repair it, has been subtracted from normal growth. ‘The extent of the checking of growth depends upon the degree of injury. A stump analysis does not always show it, the rings being actually wider, since immediately after a fire the tree has to use most of its energy to heal its basal wound. Higher up the narrowing effect is observed. The ability of a species to heal over its wounds has much to do with its holding its place in a burned stand. One which rapidly heals an injury, keeps out decay effectually, strengthens its base sooner, and is less liable to windthrow. White oak is especially active in this respect and soon heals an ordinary scar. It probably has a higher recovery power than any other species of the region. ~diats — SS Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. 201 The healing of a scar which takes four or five years, can rarely be accomplished before decay starts. During the period following a fire two opposing forces are acting ; one, growth, trying to repair the damage and close the wound; the other, insects and fungi together, trying to destroy the remaining tissue. Healing must take place from the outside, each growth ring closing over more of the injured area, till at last the layers meet from the opposite sides. Sometimes they unite and the cambium ring again be- comes complete. More often they merely remain in contact. Before the wound has closed the wood has usually commenced to decay at the surface. If this is not too rapid and healing is fast enough the growth rings meet across the opening and a closed cavity is formed. Otherwise the forward growing edges are rolled further and further inward in a vain attempt to coat the in- side of the cavity which always remains open. If the decay be in the inside in the heartwood, the surface scar may heal, but in time a rotten butted tree results. While decay at the point of attack is going on, it is also creep- ing up the heartwood and down into the larger roots. The tree has no means of repairing this damage. Its ability to resist decay is the sole consideration. A species with a decay-resistant wood remains sound above the point of injury for long periods. It is often a consideration what fungus attacks a tree. Some are more virulent than others. III]. EFFECT OF RECURRING FIRES. If but one fire ever burned a stand, the effects of fire would not be nearly as great as they are. Many tracts are subject to recur- ring fires at frequent intervals, often annually. Although fires in a repeated burned stand are never as intense as in one previously unburned, the culminative effects are much greater. There are two causes for this: (1) Indirect effect of fires by changing the site conditions, (2) Direct effect of the fires on the trees. The resistance which trees put forth against recurring fires and the agencies associated with them we may call continued resistance. Indirect Effects of Recurring Fires: The loss of the forest floor, destruction of reproduction, drying out of soil, perhaps followed by erosion, are among the indirect effects of recurring fires. 202 Forestry Quarterly. The loss of the forest floor, the drying out and loss of fertility of the site, have a marked effect on the growth of the remaining trees. The dry, semi-arid conditions prevailing in many con- stantly burned stands prevent the life of some species which might withstand the fires themselves. Pin Oak (Q. palustris), for a bottom land tree is rather fire resistant, yet it dies on sites re- peatedly burned and consequently dry. Other species have their growth seriously curtailed. Often a stand stagnates and scarcely grows at all. “Stag-headedness” is a common result of recurring fires which destroy the soil leaving the trees without proper nourishment. Stands losing many of their members in early life, by the direct or indirect effects of fire, suffer later from incom- plete stocking. It is sometimes argued that fires by killing the smaller and weaker trees, do the forest a service by effecting what is practically a thinning. ‘This may be true to a certain extent for some forest regions, but certainly not for southern New England. The in- jury to the remaining trees more than counter-balances the good effect of the thinning. Direct Effect of Recurring Fires: There are two kinds of re- ‘curring fires—annual and periodic. After annual fires have swept a tract a few times, there is noth- ing left to burn but the accumulation of a single season. ‘There- fore fires are progressively less intense till they reach a point of uniform minimum intensity. One season’s accumulation of litter is seldom sufficient to generate enough heat to injure the cambium of trees out of the sapling stage; hence if a mature stand begins to suffer annual burning without having been previously injured, little direct damage results. If it has been previously injured so that the wood at the base of the trees is exposed, fire becomes a fourth agent, with insects, fungi and wind, in the destruction of the injured trees. While the charring of the wood produces an unfavorable condition for the entrance of insects and fungi, it usually merely drives their attacks higher up where the wood is uncharred. Annual fires often at length reach the roots. In time they will destroy even a mature hardwood stand, killing the large trees one by one and preventing all reproduction. The effect of periodic differs somewhat from that of annual fires. ‘Time enough elapses for sufficient litter to form for a kill- Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. 203 ing fire. Thus each successive fire may kill enough to counter- balance the growth since the last, or even more. Like annual fires they work in any existing cavities in the butts and enlarge them. IV. FIRE IN RELATION TO SPROUTING. No discussion of the fire problem in southern New England can fail to deal with it in relation to sprouting. The relative sprouting ability of trees from stumps is fairly well known. Whether this same relation holds after fire, cannot at present be answered. Probably it does. All the well-known laws of sprouting hold as well for fire-killing boles as for cut stumps. When a fire burns down a tree it kills it, but sometimes only the bole is killed. Sprouting may then be possible. If the root system has been injured it will be feeble. The presence of a dead trunk may impede the growth of the sprouts and injure them when it falls. Ten to fifteen years usually effects the de- struction of a trunk killed by surface fires, so that their subse- quent development is not seriously interfered with. The presence of a destructive fungus in the rotting stub may be more serious. However not all fungi living on dead wood can infect living. The season of a fire has much to do with the vigor of sprouting, which is better after one in spring than in late summer or fall. Late sprouts are apt to be frost killed. A sprout from the base of a fire-killed trunk is to all intents and purposes a new tree, and the whole subject of sprouting might be considered under Reproduction were it not that injured trees also sprout. If they are tolerant and not of large size, some of their sprouts may come through and exist as equals with them. This is not uncommon with Ironwood (Carpinus Caroliniana). More often the sprouts live for a few years only to die for lack of space or light. Sprouting is of value when a bole is killed, but not when it is injured. The sprout growth dissipates the energy of the parent, preventing it from putting forth all effort to repair its wounds and increase its growth. The effect of periodic fires in young and middle-aged sprout stands is interesting to observe. A fire kills or injures the trunks so that they sprout from the base. The next fire kills or injures the survivors of the first crop. Another crop takes their place, is 13 204 Forestry Quarterly. killed, and so on. Sometimes all are produced from the original tree; sometimes from older sprouts, or both. Each crop is less vigorous than the one before. How many crops can be produced is not certain. ‘The writer has counted as many as four, produced at from three to eight year intervals, all surrounding a single still- standing Chestnut bole. Nearly twenty years had elapsed since the first fire. Such sprouts seldom amount to much even if fires are at length stopped. The power of sprouting after fire gives a species an advantage in maintaining itself under conditions of annual, periodic or casual burning, but it does not help the resistance of a single trunk. Chestnut and Red Maple often maintain themselves in stands long after their original trunks have vanished. ‘The sprouts keep com- pany with the scarred trunks of oak and others which do not sprout as readily, but are otherwise more resistant. Other than Sprouting Power it is difficult to isolate the factors of Continued Resistance. Resistance of wood to combustion and decay do not seem to be all. Some species have the power of hanging on to life under all sorts of unfavorable conditions. For lack of a better term, we call them hardy. If asked why they are so, we can only answer “the inherent quality of the protoplasm.” With few exceptions species characteristic of dry, barren, rocky, and exposed sites are also fire resistant. Species character- istic of moist, fertile sites are generally non-resistant. In the group of barren land and resistant species come; Black and Chest- nut Oaks, Pitch Pine, and to a lesser degree, Hickory and Red Oak. On the other hand, not considering sprouting power, which seems to bear no relation to site, are such species as Beech, Black and Yellow Birch, Red, Silver and Hard Maple, Ash, Tulip, Bass- wood and Black Cherry, which are characteristic of good sites, and are non-resistant. There are exceptions to this law. ‘Trees with perishable wood are non-resistant even if characteristic of poor sites. Examples are Gray Birch and Scarlet Oak. Other species with very re- sistant wood or a high recovery power are classed as resistant even though characteristic of good soils. White Oak is an example. Chestnut which is non-resistant in youth, develops a thick bark at maturity and is then quite resistant. Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. 205 V. EFFECT OF FOREST FIRES ON REPRODUCTION. One of the worst things about fires is that they generally kill more than one tree generation. After a severe fire has killed everything, all reproduction must come from seed produced off the burned area. If this is very large it may take several tree generations to completely restock it. It is doubtful if this form of reforestation has ever been necessary in southern New Eng- land. Effect of Seeding: For light surface fires the amount of injury varies with the season of the fire. One in spring kills all seedlings from seed of the previous fall as well as all un- germinated seed. Fires at the close of a good seed year for a species may prevent its reproduction till the next seed year. In Connecticut, the fall of 1910 produced a large crop of Red Oak acorns. ‘The spring of 1911 was very dry and fires were frequent. On the many tracks burned there are no seedlings from this crop. Fall fires coming before the seed falls, but after it is ripe, may have no effect on seeding; may help it, hinder it, or prevent it altogether, all depending upon how the fire leaves the forest floor. Although no studies have been made on this point it is likely that continued fires, by causing deterioration of the site, affect seed production and fertility adversely, even though, as has been recently claimed for Western Yellow Pine, fire scars stimulate seed production.* Resistance of Seedlings: It is doubtful if an oak seedling can survive a fire of the lightest kind unless it be at least three years old. Certainly other species are not more resistant. Above that size, till they reach a diameter of three inches, they are killed back by most fires, although two inch specimens sometimes survive light fall fires. Severe fires burning up hill may in spring kill oaks up to six, and chestnuts up to ten inches in diameter. A six-inch oak averages from fifteen to twenty-five years old. There is then a period from germination to the age of three years during which oak seedlings are sure to be killed back; a period from three to ten years, liable to be killed back; one from ten to fifteen years when saplings run a good chance of being killed back; and a final period from fifteen to twenty-five years during which poles stand a possibility of being killed back. Seedling Sprouts: Seedlings killed back often sprout again. *Circular 196, U. S. F. S. “Influence of Age and Condition of the Tree on Seed Production in Western Yellow Pine.” 206 Forestry Quarterly. They are then called seedling sprouts, and it is often difficult to tell them from seedlings. The extent to which fire delays the growth of hardwood seed- lings is scarcely realized even by foresters. It is the writer’s observation that fully half the seedling reproduction in parts of Connecticut is so delayed from three to ten years. A crop of seedlings is killed back by fire. The roots send up sprouts, usually several weak rather than one strong one. A few SEEDLING SPROUTS. - (a) Red Maple (Root 20 years old, top 3 years old). (b) Black Cherry (Root 16 years old, top 3 years old). (c) Black Oak (Root 12 years old, top 3 years old). years later another fire necessitates the repeating of the process, and so on till even the most vigorous have succumbed. For seed- ling sprouts apparently follow the same laws as sprouts from older trees although we do not know that the relative sprouting abilities of seedlings and mature trees is the same for the same species. Seedlings sprouts do seem to differ from those produced by older trees in not forming an independent root system. Each generation “of them appropriates that used by all before. Thus large roots may have almost no tops. We might suppose that these tops would grow sufficiently fast to offset the killing back. Field observations seem noi to confirm this. The slightly accelerated growth is over in two or three years and thereafter development is that of a seedling rather than a sprout. Also among the many (MT oe y he ee ; ee ay Effect of Forest Fires on Trees. 207 sprouts produced a few must attain supremacy before rapid de- velopment of any is possible. VI. EFFECT OF AGE ON FIRE RESISTANCE. As age increases so does size and thickness of bark. More heartwood is formed. ‘The roots go deeper. All this gives the tree added powers of resistance; initial, subsequent, and to a degree, continued. It might be argued that the life energy of a tree past middle life is falling off, consequently its resisting powers would likewise decrease, but the increased size, thickness of bark, etc., far outweighs this. It is true, however, that old trees do not recover from injury as rapidly as younger, more vigorous ones. We may say that while resistance increases with age, recovery power varies with life energy. Old trees are more or less unable to withstand changes in the character of their site. They are thus more susceptible to the indirect effect of fires, more especially continued fires, and so lose some of the power of continued resistance. SUMMARY. The fire problem in southern New England has many phases peculiar to itself. It is here discussed only in reference to the effect of fire on the trees themselves and on reproduction. Trees exhibit three kinds of resistance to fire; (1) Jnitial Resistance, the resistance which sound trees put forth at the time they are first burned. It depends upon several factors, chiefly thickness of bark, (2) Subsequent Resistance, that which trees once killed by fire, exhibit to insects, fungi and wind following the fire, (3) Continued Resistance, that which trees oppose to re- curring fires. It depends upon the character of the wood, and the tree’s ability to withstand adverse conditions. It is the final test of a resistant species. : Hardwoods frequently sprout after a fire. This is an advan- tage when they are killed to the ground, but not when they are merely injured. Fire generally kills all reproduction and may delay it indefini- tely; when not holding back its development by making seedling sprouts of the seedlings escaping. Fire resistance in general increases with age, but Recovery Power varies with life energy. Continued Resistance declines after a tree passes its prime. HOW THE INSECT CONTROL PROBLEM COMPARES WITH THE FIRE PROBLEM ON NATIONAL FORESTS IN DISTRICT «. By Joun M. Miter, Forest Ranger. Upon the vigilance of the Forest Ranger depends the fire pro- tective system of our National Forests. Great annual fire loss is prevented by the watchfulness of these men who ride the trails, by their resourcefulness and effectiveness on the fire lines. Every year the Forest Service is getting a better hold of the problem. By studying the local needs of each Forest, by better organization of the administrative force, by telephone improvements it is possible to meet fires sooner and check them with only a small burned over area. But under the best system of fire patrol there is another destructive agency, forest insects, that is constantly making inroads upon the timber supply. In protection against insects the part of the Forest Ranger will undoubtedly be an important one as it is now in fire protection, but as yet very little has been done by Forest officers on the whole to keep their terri- tory free from insect attack. The need of better fire patrol has been driven home by expen- sive and undesirable experience. Few men have fought forest fires who do fully appreciate the necessity of locating them promptly and getting them under control before large fires have time to develop. It is hardly necessary to emphasize the advan- tages of giving insect attacks the same prompt attention but quite often the presence of insect damage in a Ranger district is dis- regarded until it begins to reach the extent of a dangerous, de- structive invasion. Of course, if the loss caused by insects is unavoidable, or if it is not extensive enough to seriously interfere with the growing and marketing of a crop of timber, then there is very little reason for bringing this subject to the attention of the field men, the routine of whose daily work is already too well filled. They have already enough subjects on the list for systematic work and study. But if it is shown that the forest resources of California are being a Insect Control Problem. 209 seriously impaired by insect damage, and that much of this can be prevented if greater interest is only manifested and the proper precautions taken by the men who are directly responsible for the administration of these forests, then the question of insect pro- tection becomes vital. Before any National Forest can be brought to its maximum pro- ducing capacity, we will have to know how to deal with those insects which attack and kill living trees. As yet there has been very little time to study or determine the damage caused by forest insects. ‘To bring the organization of the Forest Service to a point where fire and trespass can be effectively handled has been an enormous undertaking, but as we gain control of these two essential features the need of protection against insects becomes more and more prominent. There are a number of easily recognized differences between forest fires and attacks by forest insects. Fires are always con- spicuous. ‘The smoke of even an incipient fire is visible from a distance and is in itself a signal that help is needed. There is no such evidence to announce the beginning of an attack by insects. The red needles of the dead and dying trees are the first sign by which the Ranger knows that a destructive agent is at work in the timber. Forest fires start rapidly, burn fiercely and are ex- tinguished in one season either by direct control or the advent of the rainy season. Insect invasions start slowly, increase from year to year, and, if allowed to continue unchecked, they are brought under control by natural agencies only after a period of years, usually not until a vast amount of timber has been killed. Fire damage is easily mapped and estimated. The annual burned-over areas are computed with comparative exactness. However, as much of the insect infestation is broken in distri- bution and scattered over enormous areas, it cannot be easily mapped and the amount of loss cannot be estimated without even greater difficulty. Insect infestations, especially those caused by the more de- structive species of bark beetles, can be classified into various types or classes, just as fires are now grouped into different classes according to their seriousness and the amount of damage. A large local invasion of insects which kills thirty-five per cent. or more of the trees on the infested area in one or two seasons 210 Forestry Quarterly. is more or less conspicuous and becomes apparent even to the lay- men as soon as it is well under way. These large invasions rep- resent one class of infestation. There is another source of di- rect insect loss which is caused by a different class of infesta- tion. Annually throughout the forest, trees will die, either singly or in small groups. When these scattered dying trees are no- ticed, they are seldom considered an important item of damage. Quite often they are considered as only the necessary annual deadening of overmature trees. The total amount of loss in this type of infestation is much underestimated. ‘The damage is very easily overlooked in the mixed stands which we find on many of our California forests. Where one species of tree alone is suffering from insect attack, the dead and dying individuals are sometimes hidden by the surrounding green foliage or resis- tant species. A careful reconnaissance and estimate of insect loss is needed on all our National Forests. The results of such a reconnais- sance will undoubtedly show that the greatest loss that our West- ern forests are now suffering does not arise from the few con- spicuous local outbreaks, such as are now in progress in the lodge- pole pine on the Lassen National Forest, but in the sustained an- nual loss of scattered merchantable trees. Although only a few trees may die in a season on the same section, still the dead timber which accumulates in a period of years amounts to a rather startling total. Much of this dead material however is burned up by periodical fires which destroy all evidence of in- sect attack. The annual rate of dying timber may vary greatly in different situations and in some localities this scattered infestation be- comes so serious as to approach the character of an invasion. A- study to determine just how serious may be the loss from this type of infestation was recently made upon the Klamath Na- tional Forest by the Forest Service under the advice of Dr. Hopkins of the Bureau of Entomology. An area consisting of about four thousand acres was selected near the Klamath River in Township 46 North, Range 8 West, Mount Diablo Meridian, which contained representative sections. In places the dying of groups of trees has been so persistent that noticeable open- ings have appeared in the stand. The elevation of the area varies Insect Control Problem. 211 from 2,000 to 4,500 feet. Conditions seem to be worst in the lower yellow pine belt but the infestation extends well up into the sugar pine and white fir types. One cannot give a better idea of the condition of the stand on this area than by quoting from Forest Assistant Hodgson’s reconnaissance report of May 18, I9gII. “Upon going into the area one is immediately struck by the broken condition of the forest. Throughout the stand there are down and standing snags in various stages of decay, while stand- ing trees that have been recently killed are numerous. Upon large areas practically all the mature trees have been killed and where was at one time a good stand of saw timber there is now only a thick stand of brush broken only by standing and down snags. ‘There is very little evidence of fire and one of the oldest residents of the country who settled there in 1863 stated that so far as he knew there had been no fires on the north side of Little Humbug creek since that time, but that about 15 years ago a fire burned over the area on the south of Little Humbug.” The work of estimating this tract was conducted along the lines of a regular forest reconnaissance. Each forty was mapped and estimated by means of a ten per cent. strip. At the same time a careful study was made of the dead trees which furnished a pretty good history of the insect loss as it has progressed from year to year. All dead trees of merchantable diameter (18 inches or over) which still showed evidence of primary in- sect attack were tallied regardless of their present merchantable condition. The figures obtained give in board foot measure what this dead timber would be worth if it were still standing green. From records and data collected in the field it was estimated that this loss represents a period of about thirty years. By compar- ing these figures for the dead timber with those obtained for ‘the green timber which was estimated at the same time on the same basis, the percentage of insect loss can be very fairly de- termined. The final results of the reconnaissance show that the amount of loss varies from twenty to fifty per cent. of the total stand. This is on an area where the insect infestation was not at all conspicuous and where it has been only rarely noticed and re- ported by residents and Forest officers. 212 Forestry Quarterly. At the same time there is plenty of evidence to show that this area is capable of producing a good yellow pine forest. The surviving trees are of a merchantable type and the reproduction now springing up in the openings is thrifty and of rapid growth. The land is unfitted for agriculture and without the forest cover it produces only a worthless cover of brush. The present stand of pine is not disappearing from over-maturity, as very nearly all of the dead trees are not of mature ages or diameters. Neither can this condition be accounted for by fires. The loss can only be satisfactorily attributed to the direct agency of insects. The result of this reconnaissance may be considered rep- resentative of conditions not only on similar sections of the Klamath National Forest but elsewhere in District 5. To make such land as this productive is one of the biggest problems of progressive forestry. But the saving of the merchantable tim- ber now on the ground is’a more immediate necessity. Were it not for the attack of insects the older trees, even though in an unthrifty condition, would probably have held their own until market conditions made them available. Under present conditions, they are a direct loss as the wood destroying fungi and secondary insects render them unmerchantable very soon after death. What is still worse these dead trees become veri- table fire traps and are a constant menace as long as they stand. There are many other sources of insect loss besides that caused by the girdling of living trees by barkbeetles. Insects mine the tree seeds and retard reproduction. ‘They may strip the foliage from growing trees, and the finished lumber pro- duct is sometimes badly damaged. Much of the injury of this class is inconspicuous and is understood only by the specialist. But the feature which concerns most the field men on the Na- tional Forests is the loss of merchantable trees, and our first ef- forts should be directed toward checking the inroads of insects in the growing stands. There is reason to believe that our forests will continue to suf- fer unless measures of relief are undertaken. To bring about better condition attacks will have to be met as they appear and checked before large invasions develop. ‘These results can only be reached as they have been reached in fire protection—by the watchfulness of an organized force in the field. The duty of Insect Control Problem. 213 saving timber from insects will have to depend, as the fire problem now depends, upon Forest Rangers and field officers. Destructive insects cannot be exterminated any more than we can hope to completely eradicate the cause of forest fires. It is shown, however, that heavy loss can be prevented by the methods of control demonstrated by the Bureau of Entomology. The scientific study of forest insects and the work of determining and demonstrating the best methods of controlling them is being rapidly advanced by the branch of Forest Insect Investigations, under Dr. Hopkins. It would be a waste of funds for this Bureau to maintain a constant patrol for the location of insect infestation. The For- est Rangers are probably the only men who see most of the square miles of a National Forest during a season and upon them must depend the work of locating and reporting evidences of insect depredations, an essential part of good forest protec- tion. Of course we cannot expect the Ranger to become a trained entomologist any more than we expect him to be an expert land surveyor or an authority on the Federal land laws. If a know- ledge of technical entomology is required the average forest of- ficer will probably fail to qualify. It does not require a specialist to notice unhealthy or dying groups of trees, but it does require some observation with a knowledge of the characteristic work of the most important insect pests of forest trees. The scientific nomenclature of the forest insect group will have to be handled by the specialist. The timberman is attracted by the injury that appears on the tree. He is not much interested in insects and is not collecting them. If he is sufficiently interested to ascertain the cause of the damage, he will soon learn to identify its cause by the nature of the injury. The character of insect work is usually a pretty good clue to the species that is causing the damage. There is also need of more educational work by representatives of the Bureau of Entomology on National Forests. A demon- stration in the field is worth far more than a publication describ- ing insects or insect work and is far more effective in arousing the interest of the layman. As the use of National Forests develops, the problem of their 214 Forestry Quarterly. protection against insects will become more important. At the same time the opportunity for practical control will improve. Through free use and ranger sales the small local infestations can be disposed of as they appear. There is reason to believe that eventually satisfactory insect control can be established, not at prohibitive expense but even at an actual profit to National For- ests. A NEW METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING VOLUME TABLES. By DoNnaLpD BRUCE. To the average forester of technical training a volume table is an essential to timber estimating. Upon its accuracy depends, to a large degree the accuracy of his work, and in its absence he is often nearly helpless. Fortunately, there are now published, chiefly by the U. S. Forest Service, quite usable tables of this sort for practically every species of tree of commercial import- ance. It is well recognized, however, that even the most carefully compiled table is of assured accuracy only when applied to timber similar to that from which the measurements used in the con- struction of that table were taken. A slight variation in site, climate, or age or form of stand, may induce a considerable de- viation from the tabulated figures. Yet in practical work it is exceptional to be able to find a table that does apply exactly to the stand which must be estimated. Furthermore, the construc- tion of one to suit the occasion is almost of prohibitive expense on account of the large number of tree measurements neces- sary for really satisfactory results. Under such conditions the would-be estimator of technical train- ing has been forced to choose between two evils. He had either to use a table constructed carefully for other conditions, but of dubious accuracy in the case before him, or to roughly construct for himself a local table based on entirely inadequate data. In the former case he has, perhaps, checked his table by taking a few local measurements, but a completely satisfactory check would demand measurements almost sufficient in number for the compilation of a new table. Yet this has been probably the least objectionable method available. A third method has recently occurred to the writer which has several advantages over either of the alternatives mentioned above. It involves the use of what may be termed, for lack of a bet- ter term, the frustrum form factor. This may be defined as the 216 Forestry \ arterly. ratio between the merchantable frustrum of a cone having the sim of a tree and that of the and lower bases. For the presem height, and the same upper figured in board feet, and the assunigs the volumes may be the D. B. H. outside the bark and the tLmay be made that are equal. This is of course fallacious, butB. at the stump be described in this article will be seen to intn used as will The frustrum form factor expresses, to put it in oth.no error. relation between a given tree and a tree whose tapers, the its top cut and a point four and a half feet from the grouifk™ absolutely regular. It is evident that the frustrum form factor will differ markedly from the usual form factor based upon the cylinder in two ways. While the values of a table of ordinary form factors will range in the neighborhood of .5, the frustrum form factors will be quite close to unity. Further, the range of variation of the latter will be considerably less. This is because one of the fac- tors of variation of the ordinary merchantable form factor is eliminated. A full-boled tree, for example, has a larger volume in board feet and a consequently larger form factor than a more rapidly tapering tree of the same diameter and total height, due to the fact that there are more (or longer) logs composing its stem as well as that the top diameters of the logs are larger. This variation of merchantable length is obviously eliminated from the frustrum form factors. But little use has been made of the form factor of any sort by the American forester. He has almost seemed to treat it as a sort of scientific curiosity, scarcely realizing, apparently, that every volume table is but a table of form factors in disguised form, and that the one can be readily converted into the other. A volume table based on diameter and total heights is equivalent to a table of ordinary form factors, while one based on diame- ters and merchantable heights can be converted directly into frus- trum form factors. The utility of the frustrum form factors can be most easily demonstrated by this conversion process. A volume table, to be available for this purpose, must satisfy the following condi- tions; it must be based on diameters and merchantable heights, and it should have the D. I. B. of the tops given by inch classes. . oj ee ee Constructing Volume Tables. 217 Two tables which serve admirably, and which offer an inter- esting contrast, are that for Western Larch in Flathead County, Montana, and that for Douglas Fir in Freemont County, Idaho, both published by the U. S. Forest Service (Form 874 d and 874 j). ‘The former is based on measurements of 1,394 trees, and shows every evidence of careful workmanship, while the latter, though undoubtedly constructed with equal care, is based on but 486 trees. The following tables of frustrum form factors have been de- rived from these. Every fifth inch class only was computed, as this was quite sufficient to show the trend of the values. The figures were obtained as follows: ‘The volumes in board feet of the frustrum were computed by calculating the top diameters of each of their 16 foot sections, and applying the same log rule as that used in the volume table under consideration; (inter- polations to the nearest tenth of an inch were, however, applied) ; these frustrum values were then divided into the corresponding values in the volume tables, the quotients being the values of the frustrum form factors. Table of Frustrum Form Factors. Western Larch, Flathead County, Montana. Number of 16 foot logs. D. B. H. 3 4 5 6 7 8 Average for all heights. II 85 .gI .88 15 OI .84 .86 .87 20 .o7 .B7 .82. .82 - .&2. .86 25 Bey ee ae. RR .83 30 81 .82 .82 .& .82 35 .79 are .82 81 4 Z : . 4 Average for all di- heme - ie ameters 108 eer ued, 1eO)-/. 80, .Ox .84 Douglas Fir, Freemont Couniy, Idaho. Number of 16 foot logs. D. B. H. 2 3 4 5 6 Average for all heights. “52 .41 .66 .89 .65 15 -07 .94 .96 .96 20 1.54 1.04 .95 .O1 1.17 25 I.I5 .96 .QI .98 30 a e4 oes 6 te. ot 1.02 Average for all diameters, .97 1.01 .96 .93 .OI .96 218 Forestry Quarterly. A number of points of interest are brought out by a study of these tables. First, the irregularity of the values, suggesting, since it is a reasonable assumption that the frustrum form factors follow some law, that even the 1,394 trees used in the construc- tion of the larch table were an insufficient basis. Secondly, the far greater irregularity of the values in the second table, em- phasizing the decided decrease in accuracy resulting from the employment of the less complete data. ‘Thirdly, the compara- tively small range of the values in the more accurate table, a point which would be much emphasized if one or two more doubtful figures at the extremes of the table were eliminated. Fourthly, that the variation throughout each diameter class and average of all diameter classes is far less in degree or regularity than through the height classes; in fact, if we take into con- sideration the uncertainty of the figures on the edges of the table, we have forcibly suggested to us that a single value for each diameter class might prove essentially accurate. This is in line with the opinion of many European authorities that stem form factors may be based on diameters only; and it must be born in mind in this connection that such a conclusion is much less radical when applied to the frustrum form factor than to the ordinary form factor with the cylinder as a basis. Before proceeding to the practical utility of the frustrum form factor, let us consider for a moment the causes of error in the usual volume table. Assuming that the values from which such a table is computed are averaged by means of a set of harmonized curves, we see that errors may lie in: a. minor irregularities of shape of the curves; b. improper general shape or direction of the curves; c. wrong position or location of the curves. The first error is of minor importance, and can be made neg- ligible by careful workmanship. Of the other two the first is by far the more dangerous. This is for two reasons. If the general shape and direction of any curve were known, all values along that curve would have their just influence in determining its location, while with the direction unfixed, an abnormally high value at one end of the curve and an abnormally low value at the other end, instead of properly averaging against each other, have a tendency to tilt the curve. The ends of the curves are, more- pel ert hat ae Constructing Volume Tables. 219 over, exceptionally susceptible to distortion, since the extreme values are not only unsteadied by other values except from one side, but are almost certainly the average of fewer measurements. Thirdly, the error in shape of the ends of one set of curves will often result in error of location of the second set drawn. It is this danger of improper shape or direction of the curves that may be minimized by the use of the frustrum form factor. What it can do for us is to set a standard curve form with which we can compare our average tree measurements. It is a simple matter, for example, to draw a set of curves showing the volume in board feet of frustrums of cones having the same upper and lower bases as the average of the trees on which our table is to be based. Each of these curves and the corresponding curve of the volume table will be similar in shape and position. From our conclusion above that variation of frustrum form factors is least within the individual diameter classes, it is obvious that this similarity will be most marked in the corresponding set of curves, amounting, indeed, to an essential parallelism. How best we may use the frustrum form factor constructively depends chiefly upon the number of tree measurements which we have at our disposal. In the case under consideration at the be- ginning of this article it is obvious that the field data required must be kept to a minimum. In such a case the following pro- cedure is suggested. a. Determine the top diameter (average) to which trees of different D. B. H. classes will be cut, if possible by actual measure- ments after a logging crew. Such measurements are very quickly taken, and sufficient to construct a good curve may be obtained in a short time. | b. As many full volume measurements of trees as is practicable should be taken. elie c. For each tree thus measured the frustrum form factor should be calculated. d. These figures should be grouped together by diameter classes, and the average frustrum form factor for each diameter class obtained. e. These values should then be evened off by means of a curve. f. A table should then be constructed showing the volumes in board feet of frustrums of cones having basal diameters and 15 220 Forestry Quarterly. heights which correspond to the D. B. H. and merchantable height classes of the required volume table, using for the upper base the values obtained under a, and assuming the diameter of the lower base equal to the D. B. H. Since this last assumption is also used in calculating the factors for each tree measured, no error is in- troduced in the final results. g. The values in this table for each diameter class may then be multiplied by the frustrum form factor obtained under c for that class in order to obtain the final values of the volume table. This procedure involves the assumption mentioned above that a table of frustrum form factors can properly be based on diameters alone. This is an assumption which the writer confidently be- lieves can be proved essentially correct by more extensive investi- gation. It is, at any rate, fully justified in a case such as has been discussed above. Until the point has been more thoroughly in- vestigated, however, it may be wiser to abandon the assumption wherever there is sufficient data at hand to render it less essen- tial. In such a case the following modifications of the procedure outlined above are advisable. Instead of calculating the frustrum form factor of each tree measured, considerable time can be saved by averaging together the volumes, upper bases, total merchantable lengths, and D. B. H’s of all trees of a given diameter and height class, and then calculating the frustrum form factor for the whole class. Further, instead of finding the average factor for the whole diameter class a complete set of curves should be drawn for the factors just as would be done for the volumes in the usual pro- cedure in constructing volume tables. The transformation of the form factors resulting from the harmonized curves to volume values is then simple. Other methods of applying the frustrum form factor will readily ‘suggest themselves. One in particular may be mentioned which ‘should, however, be used in extreme cases. Suppose a situation in which even the first line of attack taken up above is considered too expensive, yet where absolutely no volume tables exist that seem of reasonable accuracy. In this case a very few measure- ments could be taken, the frustrum form factors calculated, and a general average factor for all diameters and heights obtained. This, applied to a table of frustrum volumes such as has been described under the other methods outlined, will give an approxi- mate volume table on a minimum of field measurements. Constructing Volume Tables. 221 In the latter case the assumption is involved that the curves represented by the table of frustrum volumes are exactly of the same shape, whether based on diameters or heights, as those of the volume table we are trying to obtain. While this assumption is rather extreme, yet it involves less serious errors even in indi- vidual figures than might be expected,—(examine the percentage variation in the table given above for larch of the individual figures composing it from the general average)—and these errors would be largely compensating in a stand estimate. It has the great ad- vantage of allowing all the measurements obtained to be averaged together directly. In the second case discussed the advantage of the frustrum form factor method over that usually employed is less obvious. It is not, here, a labor-saving device, but it tends to make the resulting table slightly more accurate. We have seen that in the case of the larch table mentioned in the earlier part of this article its use brought to light irregularities in the values which were imperceptible by ordinary means. Any errors which it can detect it can, of course, prevent. In such a case, however, its greatest value will be in strengthening the extremes of the table. What seems, in a volume curve, to be a normal continu- ation of curvature may be shown by the frustrum form factor to be a rather sharp bend. But it is in the first case outlined that the method is at its maximum efficiency. The assumption involved therein is reasonable, has considerable evidence to support it, and at worst is a very close approximation to the truth, and its effect in aggregating the available measurements for purposes of averag- ing makes a very decided reduction in the number of measure- ments necessary for an accurate table. In conclusion, then, the following advantages are claimed for the use of the frustrum form factor in the construction of volume tables ; a. A table of fair accuracy can be constructed on a very few measurements ; b. The number of measurements needed for a really satisfac- tory table is much reduced ; c. The table constructed from a given number of measurements is particularly strengthened at its weakest point, namely, its extreme values; d. As a result of all these points, the cost of constructing a volume table of any given accuracy is materially lessened. RAINFALL A FACTOR OF TREE INCREMENT. CONDENSED FROM AN ARTICLE BY Francis Davis, C. E. The investigations of Bohmerle, Cieslar, and those of other European students of the subject, appear to show a correlation between tree increment and the amount of annual rainfall. (See Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V, 1907). In order to determine whether similar responses obtained in the United States, specimens were obtained from Michigan, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Long Island, N. Y. These were studied, the rings were measured and plotted, the monthly rainfall was tabulated. The results given in the following pages were found to exist between the meterological conditions and the wood increment.* Samples were obtained from Shoreham, Long Island, located on the north shore of the Island about thirteen miles east of Port Jefferson and lies immediately on the Sound. The land at Shore- ham is high and the underlying watertable is about 100 feet below the surface of the ground. The soil is the usual sandy soil to be found everywhere on Long Island, but in this case the top-soil and sub-soil is far from being rich. The specimens are all taken from the land of the Suffolk County Land Company’s property, and the trees were growing under natural forest conditions, about one-half mile from the Sound on the highland. They were good healthy trees, cut during the winter of 1908-1909. | X. S. White Oak. Y. $. Red Oak. Rainfall Lape Yue Year. + Average. Average. Diameter. Inches. 12 radii. Large. Small. 1908 “9.27 3-21 3-25 2.0_ 1907 5-52 3-75 4.55 3-5 1906 0.41 5.00 6.00 3.5 1905 -6.89 4.75 6.75 3-5 1904 4.91 5-33 6.75 4.0 1903 8.43 5.46 8.00 5.0 1902 8.17 4.54 6.00 3.0 IQOI 6.21 3.73 5.50 2.0 IgO0O -1.24 5.00 7.00 4.0 1899 -0.12 4.08 7.00 3.0 1898 7.51 4.92 6.00 4.0 *The original article was accompanied by 15 diagrams showing graphi- cally the relationships. We have space only for reproduction of one sample. Rainfall a Factor of Tree Increment. 223 Both of these trees responded to the rainfall as indicated by the underlined figures which show low increments in the drought years. A number of other specimens were obtained at Shoreham, they were taken from a natural forest growing under normal con- ditions, with the watertable 100 feet below the ground. I.S. Chestnut 7.8. White Oak A.S. Wild Cherry 8.S. Chestnut 4.8. White Oak 9.S. Hickory 5.8. Hickory 10.5. Chestnut 6.S. Wild Cherry Z.S. Hickory Nine Rainfall Aver- Year. -+ Average aged. Pichese ht 1. ALS. dos So. 6S. 7.8.) 8S. oS 10S: Zs 1908 9.27 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.73 1.0 2.0 1.0 1907 5.52 Ree Be el TRIN e eee eas lO ee ae 1906 0.41 BiG 5G BAR ee ae Re VED) (A a ee) ae 1905 6.89 1.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 15 15 3-47 2.5 3.0 2-5 1904 4.91 PAG Oee) Bib’? Give THE) QIO\ STA BRD Slay ays 1903 8.43 ZO SiS)" 'AeS i sea ayy as (5.50 Al Gis ak 1902 8.27 Bi 2:0) 2.0.) UR BLO. Beg B25. ‘Aloe (GON SO IgoI 6.21 AO MPO 2G caret 2.8) Te. Sa A One SO 200 1900 -1.24 2.0 1.25 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.5 6.08 3.0 5.0 1.25 1899 -O.12 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5 1.0 2.5 5-08 3.0 4.5 1.0 1898 yah Cui Ei Eat, Zug Ae SG Rae oe Ae eae The Shoreham sections are unusually interesting and show vari- ous kinds of trees reacting to the meteorological changes. The great drought year 1908 invariably shows a reaction with the exception of 8 S., which taking an average of nine diameter measurements shows a slight increase over the year 1907, the amount being less than 1/16 of an inch. ‘The measurements taken for this tree for the years 1907 and 1908 are as follows: 1908, SE UA SE oR bic A BR RS BRN 2 1907, NU ANE OR Ne ae Aa dae i PA showing that the tree practically held its own, probably due to its sheltered position in the woods, and the fact that it was protected from the north wind and open to receive the warmth of the sun’s rays. Exceptions are naturally expected. On the whole, the samples prove that at least on Long Island rain exerts a certain influence over tree increment. Samples were obtained from the N. Y. Botanical Gardens and here again it is noticeable how the rain influenced the formation of the annual rings, how the location of the tree, its exposure to the sun’s heat, the light, its protection from cold winds, all affect 224 Forestry Quarterly. the tree in its growth. These specimens are most interesting as they have received the best of care and all disease prevented by constant attention. Samples taken in 1909. Samples taken in 1910. B. G. r. Tulip Tree. B. G. 3a. Maple. B. G. 2. Carolina Poplar. B. G. 5a. Catalpa. B. G. 3. Maple. B. G. 6a. Ailanthus. B. G. 4. Linden. B. G. 5. Catalpa. B. G. 6. Ailanthus. B..G. 8 Elm: 1 B.G. Tulip Tree standing free, drowned out by the con- struction of a dam and cut in June, 1909. Part of the summer wood was formed, it was located about eight feet above running water. 2B.G. Carolina Poplar. It was transplanted in 1896 placed on the edge of a grove where it continued to grow under natural forest conditions. ‘There were no trees situated within seventy feet of it on its free side and it was growing about twenty-five feet above the lake. 3 B. G. Maple. Taken from the center of the border screen along the Harlem tracks, where it was transplanted in 1896 about ten feet above the lake, and left to grow under natural forest conditions with nothing within ten feet of it. 4 B.G. Linden. Natural growth and growing under natural conditions fifteen feet above the Bronx River and surrounded on all sides by trees. 5 B. G. Catalpa. Transplanted tree growing in the center of a grove twenty-five feet above the Bronx River. 6 B. G. Ailanthus. Standing free in a very warm sunny position, natural growth, twenty-five feet above the Bronx River. 8 B. G. Elm. Natural growth, thirty feet above the Bronx River, growing on the upland, clear on one side but nothing grow- ing very near it on the other. Rainfall + Average1B.G. 2B.G.3B.G. 4B.G. 5B.G. 6B.G. 8B.G. Year. -ofzyrs. Av.of Av.of Av.of Av.of Av.of Av.of Av. of Inches. .. 6:dia,, “3 dia.’ 2:dia.- 1 dia. 3 diac (amen ee 1908 -9.70 3.12 8.16 6.25 2.00 5.50 9.66 8.00 ao 0.15, ch 5-50 8.16 5.25 2.75 $50 || | GR 1906 -5-56 7.88 11.16 8.50 2.50 8.30 12.83 14.25 1005 -418 1584. 12.00'* 825 _ 250 1020 © gape ances 1904. -0.39 14.41 14.33 1075 4.50 I1.00 1023 20.25 1903 8.90 14.00 20.33 13.00 5.00 15.58 12.33 22.00 1902 10.42 13.93) 16.16 (7 Tae 4.75. 14.75 i400000e7e8 Rainfall a Factor of Tree Increment. 225 The above sections which were obtained through the courtesy of Dr. Britton, Director-in-Chief of the New York Botanical Gardens, show very clearly the retarding influence which the lack of water has on tree growth. Sections B. G. 1, 2, 4, 5 follow the decrease in rainfall and lack of water very closely and the thick- ness of the annual rings gradually gets less and less as the years go by, a deficiency of rain being recorded since 1904, using the seven complete records obtained since this station was established. The deficiency indicated is obtained by comparing with the average at adjacent stations. Section B. G. 3, 6 and 8 which do not react to the deficiency of rain in 1908 do show a reaction during certain years of low rain- fall; 3 B. G. reacts until the last year, while 8 B. G. does not react in 1906 and 1908. ‘This tree, however, stood free in a very sunny spot more or less protected from the northerly and westerly winds. Measurements taken along one diameter show a decrease of 3/80 inch over 1907, while another shows an increase of only 1/40 inch, and the third diameter gave an increase of 7/80 over 1907 and the total average only shows an increase of 5/80. As this tree stood free and clear on the southerly side, the heat of the sun was able to affect it and as the spring was fairly warm and there was a gradual increase in temperature as summer ap- proached in those years, it is to be expected that this would have considerable effect upon the tree increment. Although the above results prove without doubt that the annual growth of a tree is affected by the meteorological phenomena, further samples were obtained in New Hampshire and Vermont. The latter were four Norway Spruce growing on the Billing Farm at Woodstock, Vermont. ‘They were splendid healthy specimens and were all cut in December, 1908. 1 Vt. a thirty-two year old Norway Spruce growing alone on a hill side (southerly exposure), exposed on all sides, fairly good soil. 2 Vt. a thirty-two year old Norway Spruce growing in a grove planted twelve feet apart in a sandy soil with a gravelly sub-soil located on a hill with a northerly exposure and taken from the center of the grove. 226 _ Forestry Quarterly. 3 Vt. Norway Spruce growing under forest conditions in a sandy soil on a hill with northern exposure. 4 Vt. growing on a hill with a northern exposure in sandy soil, trees in grove planted eight feet apart. Rainfall + Average. Year. Inches. TiN t. 2 VL ee A 4 Vt. 1908 -4.70 3.0 7.0 4.5 4-0 1907 1.19 5.0 7.0 5.0 6.0 1906 -0.06 3.0 14.0 5.0 6.0 1905 2.05 9.0 15.0 13.5 5.0 1904 -2.47 8.0 14.0 13.0 8.0 1903 0.60 II.0 14.0 7.5 10.5 1902 7.91 8.0 13.0 13.0 8.5 1901 -0.58 15.0 16.0 11.5 9-0 1900 0.80 9.0 18.0 16.5 9.5 1899 =5.25 23.0 16.5 fee A 11.5 1898 0.00 20.0 16.0 15.00 14.0 All of the above reacted to the drought of 1908, which year showed a precipitation 4.70 inches less than the mean rainfall. The specimens obtained from New Hampshire were cut in May, 1909, and came from a farm which was abandoned in February, 1889. In the summer of 1888 the pasture was planted with buck- wheat but has not been cultivated since and the trees came from self-sown seed. The land is located fifty-six feet above the Sugar River and slopes abruptly towards it. There are two flowing springs on the land which form rills combining to make a fair sized brook which empties into the Sugar River. The sections were taken from trees growing from ten to four thousand feet from the springs and all were situated on higher land than the springs, which were located 1,768.3 feet from the river, so that all the trees were located on very high ground and none were very close to the river. 1 N. H. Maple. 4 N. H. Locust. 2 N. H. Poplar. 5 N. H. Chestnut. 3 N. Hi Pie 6 N. H. Birch. All samples came from the neighborhood of Claremont, New Hampshire. 227 Rainfall a Factor of Tree Increment. PHP BUTTE es TAT NTT REA P. Precipita sort Trtprthss April fo Och Ber) % IOF, Shdewn thus Tr 7, Wats fona NT and comity be Sl ise wh feete AUS mabe. Oo Sa} 0 228 Forestry Quarterly. Rainfall Average + Average 10 dia. Year. Inches. 1.N. H, 2N.H.' 3 NOH: 4 N. AD 5 NON, 1908 -4.37 0.5 1.0 3.75 5.0 2.0 3.5 1907 4.33 1.25 2.0 3.75 7.0 aa 4.0 1906 1.30 1.50 2.0 3.50 1-0 5.0 4.0 1905 -1.15 1.75 Ls 3.75 2.0 6.5 4.25 1904 -5.78 2.25 15 3-75. 2.5 7.0 5.25 1903 4.35 1.75 2.75 3-75 4.5 9.5 4.75 1902 4.89 0.75 2.5 4.00 4.5 7.0 2.75, 1QOI -2.02 1.50 4.0 3.50 4.0 7.0 6.50 1900 0.67 1.50 2.75 3.50 8.0 6.0 6.25 1899 -6.08 2.25 4.25 3.25 7.0 6.0 5.50 1808 3.12 2.25 3.00 3.75 9.0 8.0 3.25 1897 5.34 2.00 3.75 4.50 5.0 7.5 2.00 Here again we see the trees react to the deficiency in precipi- tation, and the drought year 1908 shows a decrease in the wood increment. Even the ten measurements taken on section 3 N. H. which show the same increment for both 1907 and 1908 when con- sidered separately prove that the tree is affected by the drought. 1908, BB 00) iS-28 | AiR Ae ae 1907, a ei AST: tO Mae mi Meee Ae Be) A clearer and more graphic manner of showing che relation which exists between tree growth and the rainfall is to plot the growth curve as percentages of some one year taken as 100%, usually a year of maximum rainfall and comparing same with the rainfall curve, referred to the same year as 100%. The deduction to be made from the above observations and tables is that rainfall is a great factor in tree increment, the location of the tree, however, must be taken into consideration as an exposed and isolated tree is more easily affected than one sur- rounded and protected by other trees, or shielded in some manner from the cold winds. An early warm spring and a continuous rise in the summer temperature with a fair and average amount of precipitation, will cause the tree to flourish and to form a broad annual ring. It is necessary, however, to have at least an average rainfall and this combined with the above meteorological con- ditions will produce healthy and sound wood. Generally the wood increment of the year following the drought year is small and readily observable in the cross section. This is frequently the case although the spring and summer conditions may be the most favorable for tree development. de ee —— ~~. THE EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF A PRUSSIAN SEED EXTRACTING ESTABLISHMENT. By A. B. RECKNAGEL. The following additions to the article on page 26, Volume IX, ForESTRY QUARTERLY, the original of which appeared in the “Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen,’ June, 1910, and was briefed in “Forestry Quarterly, Volume VIII, page 515, are based on personal inspection. The proposition of Wiebecke was conceived after seeing a large brick kiln in operation. In a brick kiln the baking must proceed gradually—+z. ¢. the bricks must not be exposed to the maximum heat immediately, otherwise they are merely case-hardened and not baked through. No such necessity exists in handling seeds. Exhaustive researches* prove that the best results are obtained by subjecting the cones to a uniform temperature. This temperature must be gaged most carefully, for only a few degrees lie between a non-injurious and an injurious temperature. Furthermore, the danger of burning the seed is greatest in the cone, because of the well known fact that organic substances are much more sensitive to moist heat than to dry heat. The permissible limit is therefore 50° C. (122° F.) for cones that are still green, and up to 55° C. (131° F.) for cones that are dry. Forstmeister Wiebecke’s proposed system with its difficult range of temperatures and its requirement of much hand-labor has not met with commendation in Germany. In constructing the huge new Darre (Coning House) in Konitz, West Prussia, it was re- jected by the Prussian government and the system in successful use for nine years in the Darre at Annaburg (Province of Saxony ) adopted instead. Through the courtesy of Forstmeister Hesse in charge at Anna- burg, it was my good fortune to be able to visit the Darre* there. *“Die Beschaffung des Kiefern-und Fichtensamens” by Oberfdéster Haack, 1909. +The word “Darre” doubtless is derived from “durren” meaning “to ry. . 230 Forestry Quarterly. Before describing the system used, a few general words as to the Prussian Seed Collecting policy may not be amiss. Until recently, the Prussian foresters bought almost all their seed from wholesale seed houses. Especially at Darmstadt did this trade assume huge proportions. The universal system of clear cutting and artificial regeneration increased the demand for seed to such a point that dealers, in order not to lose their cus- tomers, resorted to the importation of foreign seed of the same species. Especially was this done in the case of the common pine (Pinus sylvestric) where during fail years in Germany, huge quantities were imported from France, Belgium and Hungary. While of the same species, there were seeds of distinct varieties (Pinus sylvestris aquitana; P. s. batava and P. s. pannontca, respectively) and, true to their ancestry, gave wretched results in Germany, being slower of growth, poorer of form, and more sub- ject to the diseases common to their new environment. So un- satisfactory were the results and so uncertain the source from which the seed dealers derived their seed, that the Prussian government resolved to secure its own seed from home grown cones. This experience in heredity is one from which we can well profit. Other things being equal, the native seed of native trees is by far the best for native environment. Were this not so, the law of natural selection would not be true.* The earlier Prussian “Darren” were rather crude affairs—com- parable to a chest of perforated drawers through which the hot air from a furnace below circulated. Of this type is the Ebers- walde Darre mentioned in Forstmeister Wiebecke’s article. It is not a satisfactory system because of the unequal temperature throughout the room and hence the more rapid drying of certain drawers as against others. All this necessitates sorting and changing—hand labor. In the Darre at Annaburg an entirely different system is used. Here the cones are dried in two huge revolving cylinders, the liberated seeds fall down a chute into bags. The system is shown in the two accompanying sketches: Fig. 1. A complete cross sec- *The interested reader is referred to the masterly exposition of these facts in C. Wagner’s, “Die Grundlagen der raumlichen Ordnung im Walde,” 1910, Part I. Prussian Seed Extracting Establishment. 231 tion of the Darre, and Fig. 2, showing a cylinder in cross section. The process in detail with reference to Fig. 1, is as follows: Side tracks (a, a’) lead to the buildings. At (a) the cars filled with cones are emptied and the cones immediately conveyed by a grain elevator (b) either to the storage house (c) or the filling Figure 1. Complete Cross Oection 3 Oide Jracxs 2 b- £L/evaror CG <-Storage House a "Filling Lot c Cylinders : Grave G * LAGE A- 82g J: Ofule H-+-Biee loft (d). If to the former, they are spread out not over 18 inches thick on the floor and occasionally shoveled about to facilitate drying. If to the latter, they are shoveled into 6 wooden measures which hold just the proper quantity to fill the cylinders. They are then shot down (like oats from a feed loft) into the cylinders (e, e’) which after closing the 6 doors revolve slowly clock-wise in a masonry chamber heated to an average of 48° C. (118° F.). The construction of the cylinder is shown in detail in Fig. 2. It is made of cast iron, perforated so as to allow the seeds to drop out but forcing the cones to remain. Each is divided into 3 compartments, containing 5 hectoliters (133 bushels) for the entire six compartments. The most important device is the conveyors (x, x’) which prevent the cones from clogging and keep the entire mass in perpetual motion. The heat is furnished from the grate (f£) where coal and cones are burned—chiefly the former because of the excellent price re- ceived for dry cones as fuel where a hot, quick fire is needed or as kindling for household purposes. In order that the heat in the cylinders may be absolutely uniform, a thermohydrograph* ~ *Manufactured by R. Fuess, Steglitz bei Berlin, Diinther Strasse & 232 Forestry Quarterly. automatically records the fluctuations in heat and moisture con- tent, just as a barograph records barometric variations. These sheets are kept as a permanent record of each day’s operations. It requires from 20 to 24 hours to “dry” green cones, from 7 to 9 hours for ripe cones. The seed released from the cones, sifts through the perforations of the cylinder and falls down the chute (see Fig. 1) into the bag suspended at (h). When all the seeds FIG 2. Cylinder 4 Cross Secrior X = Corveyor are out, the engine (a 12 H. P. alcohol-gas engine (g) costing 7$ cents an hour to operate) is stopped and the door of each com- partment opened. ‘Then the engine is started again and the empty cones automatically drop down the adjustable chute (j) into the bins (k) whence they are loaded directly by elevators into cars on sidetracks (a) or (a’). Operations are usually suspended at night but during rush times the Darre can work all night. | Kerosene lamps are used for illumination ; of course electric light would be far preferable, but Annaburg is a small town. The bags of seed from (h) are taken to the Winging Machine. This is a smaller fine wire mesh cylinder with revolving stiff brushes inside. ‘These brushes remove the wings without harm to the seed. From the cylinder the good seeds drop to the final Prussian Seed Extracting Establishment. 233 cleaning screens while the wings, dust, and lighter blind seeds are blown off by means of forced draught. The wings are beginning to find a market as packing for ice houses, etc. After the wings are removed, the seed is screened twice and then placed in large glass carboys. No attempt is made to secure every last particle of foreign matter—such as broken cone scales and the like—but the seed is very clean. The glass carboys each containing from 30 to 35 kilograms (66 to 77 lbs. avoirdupois), have been adapted as more satisfactory than any metal device. They are packed in willow baskets with straw padding; each basket has two handles. Basket, carboy and all, cost about 50 cents apiece. They are preferably made of dark glass—so as to exclude light, that prerequisite of germination. When the carboy is filled it is corked, (with rubber cloth around the cork as a washer) and sealed with pitch. Then the carboys are stored on shelves in a dry dark cellar which (like an ice house) is kept as near 0° C. (32° F.) as possible. In the one at Annaburg the actual temperature was 7° C. (444° F.) and after several years storage the germination per cent. was practically unchanged. Sample from each carboy are germinated and the results, together with data as to source, date, condition, etc., entered on each consignment. The shipment to destination is made in regu- lation sacks and is timed so that the seed reaches its destination just before it is to be used—not sooner. The Darre at Annaburg needs 5 men: 1 Forster (Ranger) as Darren-verwalter (Superintendent), 1 Machinist, 3 Workmen. It was built 9 years ago (1902) by a Berlin firm* at a total cost of $23,300. Only one major repair has been necessary since that time. This Darre turns out annually some 22,000 pounds} of pine seed at an average cost of 54 cents per pound.t This seed has an average germination of 85%, whereas the usual seed from seed dealers has a germination of only 75%. The saving in seed which this higher germination per cent. means is well set forth in Oberforster Haack’s article referred to above. Haack proves that it is entirely wrong to figure that 70% *Moller und Pfeiffer, Friedrich Wilhelm Strasse 19 Berlin W. tro. : ea requires 27,500 bushels of cones costing 35 to 70 cents per ushel. | tIncluding cost of cones, the average total is 71 cents per Ib. 234 Forestry Quarterly. seed results in seven-ninths as many plants as seed with a germi- nation of 90%; but actually results in only about one half the number—it therefore is not worth seven-ninths as much but only one-half as much. According to exhaustive experiments by Oberforster Haack the plant per cent. (Pflanzenprozent) always lags behind the germination per cent. (Keimprozent). The real worth of a seed is determined by the plant per cent.—. e. the actual number of plants resulting, under normal conditions, from a hundred average seeds. Assuming 85% as the normal germination, the factors to be used in determining the amount of seed actually to be sown for the different germinations per cents. is as follows: Germ per cent., 65% 75% 85% 957 Plant per cent., 14% 22% 31% 4476 Factor, 2.2 ae 1.0 Br 4 If therefore, the directions call for sowing 5 lbs. of 85% (normal) seed per acre, 11 Ibs. should be used if the seed has 65% germination, 7 lbs. if 75% and only 34 Ibs. if the germination is 95%. Prussia is now producing all the seed which its government forests need. It does not sell its seeds since this would interfere with the private seed industry. The various Darren are placed centrally and to them are sent the cones collected on the various forests. It is a rational, economical procedure based on natural laws which we in America would do well to bear in mind, as we approach the problem of supplying the seed for our increasing operations in artificial regeneration. Ee _ = se ee ee ee a eT oe fm ste aie NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES IN HUNGARY.* By Kari PETRASCHEK. In reference to the success of the American trees cultivated in Hungary last spring, reports have not yet come in. But in regard to a certain quantity of seed of the Pinus ponderosa, var. scopu- lorum, and Pinus lambertiana, which was planted in the nursery at Grehenz in the shifting sand desert of Doliblat in southeastern Hungary, I was able in the latter part of September to personally establish the success of this experiment. Although Europe, as is well known, has been subject the past year to extreme heat and drought, and damages were naturally more frequent in the Hun- garian steppes, all the seed of the Pinus ponderosa, var. scopu- lorum, sprouted, and the greater part of the Pinus lambertiana, while the young plants, especially of the first-named species, showed, at the time I alluded to, a strong and healthy develop- ment. It might be of interest to you to learn that in the afforestation of the desert of the shifting sands of Doliblat, and also in the sandy plains of Hungary, the principal part was accomplished not by the aboriginal species, but by a North American species, namely, the Robinia pseudacacia. But the Robinia only flourished on the sandy portions rich in nourishment. On very fine flour like sand and alkali soil the Robinia is a failure. On sandy tracts which constantly, or at least for a long time, have a high water table, the Robinia ceases to develop as soon as its roots reach the water. Besides Robinia, the Canadian and Silver Poplar have been naturalized on these sandy tracts of Hungary. The American Ash also flourishes better on damp soil than the native species. In Doliblat, experiments have been made with other North American broadleaf species and conifers, but of all the different species, only Juniperus virginiana can be noted as worthy of cullti- vation, for the reason that like Pinus austriaca, this juniper develops well on the firmer portions of these shifting sands (the hollows). The seed of Juniperus virginiana underwent the fol- *Extract from letter to Mr. Zon, Chief of Silvics, U. S. Forest Service. 14 230 Forestry Quarterly. lowing treatment before sowing: The berries were rubbed apart and laid in wet ashes, so that three times as much ashes as berries were mixed with them, leaving them in the ashes three weeks. The ashes were then washed out, and the berries laid in boxes of wet sand, one layer of berries to four or five thicknesses of sand. These were then dampened and buried in the ground from the spring until the next autumn when the seed including the sand, was sown broadcast. They sprouted the following spring. Vienna, December 31, IQII. A later letter refers to the decline of the Slavonic oak forests. GIRDLED TREES. That girdled pines can live for years has been more than once demonstrated. (See U. S. Forestry Division, Bulletin 22, White Pine.) Mr. W. B. Barrows furnishes an example of a Loblolly Pine found in Worcester county, Md., girdled in April, 1906, and photo- graphed in June, 1910. Note increase in diameter above the cut: at the lower white dot the diameter is 10 inches, and at the upper it is 11 inches. ‘This tree was still living in 1910 but had a thin crown bearing many cones, several hundred at least. The tree at the left had a much denser crown but bore only 4 cones. ‘The soil is a loamy sand. The water table is about 6 or 8 feet below the surface. TWO MINOR WOOD INDUSTRIES. By C. S. Jupp. 1. A Cut Shingle Mill in Washington. Back of Boyd’s, Washington, in the clearing of a dense forest of western red cedar, Douglas fir, and grand fir stands a unique mill where shingles are not sawn but are cut from western red cedar bolts. Here shingles are sliced from the softened blocks and fall away from the knife in a manner that reminds one of the days of the French Revolution when that cruel instrument of death, the guillotine, was in active use. Standing on a raised platform in the center of his establish- ment the proprietor, for it is he alone that is able to manipulate successfully the machine of his own invention, presses the blocks against the swift-moving knife and slices off on an average almost 100 shingles to the minute. From his elevated station he can direct all of the various operations and see that none of his assistants falls behind in his work. The inventor of this machine gathered his ideas for it from a stave cutter that he used to operate back in Arkansas. His first shingle slicer was operated by hand, then by horse power, and finally by a 10 H. P. engine with steam furnished by a 15 H. P. upright boiler. The whole establishment cost him in the neigh- borhood of $1,250 and eight men are required to operate it as follows: one engineer, one cross-cut sawyer and peeler, one bolt splitter, one vat man, one knife operator, two trimmers, and one packer. In this mill the butts of cedar trees that are discarded in the process of pole and pile cutting, either on account of their size or on account of center rot are used and $4.00 per thousand board feet log scale is paid for them delivered on the main skidroads near the mill. It is found preferable to cut and split the bolts from the logs just before they are wanted at the mill because when split in the woods they check so badly in the process of seasoning that they can not be used in this unusual mill where only quarter-cut shingles are produced. Two Minor Wood Industries. 239 The logs are first peeled and then rolled on to a small saw carriage which takes them to a slow-moving drag-saw operated by belting from the engine. Here they are cut into bolts exactly 16 inches long. The bolt splitter with the aid of a steel rule then carefully measures off on one end of a bolt two lines which cross each other at right angles exactly at the pith. The bolt is then split apart into quarters with a froe and mallet. This work is most carefully performed since the shingles have to be cut on the machine almost exactly along the radius of the bolt. The bolts then go for the softening bath into two steam boxes each 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 5 feet deep and lined with tin sheeting. A heavy flat hinged top, similarly lined, closes on the boxes like the top of a tool box. Into these boxes the live steam from the boiler is conducted through pipes. The bolts are kept in this bath for about three hours when they become a greenish- gray color and so soft that one can press his thumb nail quite deep into the yielding wood. All knots are thus sufficiently softened so that the knife cuts through them as through cheese. The steaming bolts are lifted from the vats by means of a spike-shodded stick and placed in a trough conveniently located to the hand of the knife operator. The knife itself is made of fine thin steel 18 inches long and about 6 inches wide and is spanned in a sash frame which moves up and down severing one shingle from the block at each stroke. The frame is moved up and down in stationary hardwood grooves by a piston-like shaft the upper end of which is attached by a hinged joint to the lower end of the frame and the lower end to a point on the circumference of a wooden wheel which is revolved by a belt from the main flywheel of the engine. Directly below the spanned knife on the frame itself is the gauge which consists of three round iron rods each } inch in diameter set vertically in the woodwork of the frame. The center rod, directly below the middle of the knife, is set in a plane 3/16 inch (the thickness of the middle of a shingle) back and away from the plane of the knife. The other two rods on either side are similarly placed but in planes 5/16 inch (the thickness of the butt end of a shingle) back from the plane of the knife. The 240 Forestry Quarterly. sash frame in its vertical movements just clears a metal-faced shelf set about 3 feet above the floor of the platform. A softened bolt is placed horizontally on this shelf and during the upward movement of the frame is pressed against it so that the middle of the bolt touches the middle gauge rod. The bevel of the shingle is secured by pressing one end of the bolt against one of the side gauge rods and then the other end against the other gauge rod alternately with each stroke of the frame, the center gauge rod always acting as the axis or turning point for this alternating horizontal movement. The bolt, while being sliced, is so held that each stroke of the knife cuts off a shingle along its radius. The shingles are thus sliced off alternately from each of the flat sides of the bolt which is constantly turned so that the bolt becomes smaller and smaller and finally is too small for the operator to hold with safety. Asa rule, the narrowest shingle cut in this machine is 4 inches wide. The shingles fall from the knife down a chute to the trimmers. These stand before two small circular saws and trim off all knots and uneven edges. ‘The finished shingles are then flung into a bin where the packer bundles them in a packing frame, about 250 shingles in a bundle. The shingles dry out in ten days after manufacture. They are all 16 inches long and from 4 to Io inches wide. The first grade designated *A* comprises about 87 per cent. of the mill run of shingles and the second grade or “seconds” comprises the remaining 13 per cent. The average daily capacity of this shingle mill is 32,000 shingles but when in good running order it can produce 40,000 in a day. A sawn shingle mill of the same size could put out only about from 22,000 to 25,000 shingles a day . The cut shingles are sold on board the cars at Boyd’s, a four mile wagon haul from the mill, at $2.50 per M. for the first grade and at $1.75 per M. for “seconds.”’ ‘The proprietor and operator of this mill and his partner each earns a net profit of from $16 to $22 per day while the mill is running at its full capacity. The main drawback to a cut shingle mill lies in the difficulty of keeping the knife in proper condition. The finely tempered steel is hard to sharpen and the proper setting of it in the sash is a still more difficult and delicate task. A great deal of knack is Two Minor Wood Industries. 241 also required in manipulating the bolts so that they will be pro- perly presented to the keen edge of the quick falling knife. The advantages of this kind of mill are many. It can be readily moved from one part of the forest to another so that thereby a great deal of “junk” can be utilized which would other- wise be discarded and left to rot in the woods. This advantage is especially true in regard to the short butt ends of telephone poles and piling, affected with center rot, which at present can be used for no other purpose. This type of mill even makes pos- sible the use of the shell of decayed butts down to 5 inches in thickness. There is no waste in kerf or sawdust or in trimmed ends and, therefore, from the same amount of timber a greater number of shingles can be produced by this type of mill than by a sawn shingle mill. The shingle produced is of high grade, has a smooth surface, and is always a quarter-cut shingle. 2. A Log Pipe Plant in Washington. At Curlew, Washington, not far from the Canadian boundary, there is a most interesting establishment turning out solid wooden pipes from ten foot logs. While making the customary wait there recently for the down train, I strolled up the dusty main street of the village and was attracted by the chug chug of a gasoline engine to a spacious shed, not unlike a blacksmith shop in appearance. On closer approach, I found outside the shed a pile of small Douglas fir and western larch peeled logs, each 10 feet long and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter. From their very slight taper and the absence _of knots they seemed to have been cut from trees which had been naturally well pruned in a close growing stand. At the back of the shed two men were loading the logs, now converted into neat looking’ wooden pipes, onto a wagon. Within the shed I found that a 5 H. P. gasoline engine fur- nished all the power for the simple plant, which at that time was being operated by only one man. First, a peeled log was placed in a trough-like receptacle where it was held firmly during the pro- cess of boring. This operation removed a core, 4 inches in diameter, from the center of the log and was performed by a special boring instrument slightly more than 5 feet long. The 242 Forestry Quarterly. cutting end of this instrument resembled a half cylinder, the very end of which sloped up to a spoon-shaped point. First, one end of the log was bored for a distance of 5 feet. ‘Then the log was reversed and the process repeated at the other end. So true is the alignment of this apparatus that the bore runs almost absolutely straight through the log. The next and final step is to shape the ends of the log. This was performed on a different machine which bevelled one end and reamed the other while the log was held firmly in place as in a vise. This completed the simple manufacture of these solid, wood pipes. The bevelled end of one log fits so perfectly into the reamed end of the next that no cement of any kind is needed to make the joining complete. Each finished log pipe weighs about 100 pounds so that it is easily handled by one man. The green, peeled logs are bought at the plant for 15 cents apiece or 1$ cents per linear foot. After being manufactured into pipes, in the manner described above, they are sold for 9 cents per linear foot. The whole plant does not cost more than $500 and the daily capacity is from 700 to 800 linear feet. One four horse team can haul 450 linear feet of the manufactured pipes and 1,500 linear feet of them constitutes a carload. The use of wooden pipes of this type is most economical near the source of the timber supply. They are a good substitute, under many conditions, for iron pipe especially where transpor- tation costs are excessive and the suitable kind of timber is abun- dant. As compared with iron pipe in this particular region where I found them being manufactured, the wooden pipe described above costs only one-half as much as 2-inch iron pipe and less than one-third as much as 4-inch iron pipe. This class of wooden pipe is, naturally, best suited for use where no great pressure is encountered, as in leading water down from a natural spring on a gently sloping hillside. ‘The pipe must be laid in a straight line and it is usually buried completely under ground. Untreated pipe used in this way is said to last for at least ten years and when treated with creosote and kept full of water is reported to have lasted for thirty years. CURRENT LITERATURE. Statistik und Verbau der Lawinen in den Schweizeralpen. By Dr. J. Coaz. Bern, 1910. Pp. 126, pls. 28. Our observations of avalanches in this country have so far been recorded only where one of fatal character has occurred, and little, or nothing is known of the many thousands which slide down every year, leaving their tracks for decades to be seen prob- ably by a lone prospector or sheep herder, and nobody knows when, how, and under what conditions they occurred. The localities where avalanches occur are practically within National Forests and it will, therefore, be left almost exclusively to Forest officers to obtain data of future practical value. The fatal catastrophe during the winter of 1910 along the Great Northern Railroad in the Cascade Mountains offered an oppor- tunity for the Forset Service to make the first study of avalanches which will become more and more disastrous with the develop- ment of mountainous regions. In order to spread information in regard to the character, origin and prevention of avalanches to forest officers and others inter- ested on that subject we have to seek foreign literature. For this purpose there is no other land on the globe which furnishes more information and statistics than Switzerland. Switzerland, with one-fourth of the size of the State of Washington, and with twelve times denser population, has records which are singular in character. The federal Forest Service of that country has kept a record of about 10,000 avalanches which have occurred since 1872, and it has spent about 2,000,000 francs for their prevention. The book reviewed contains beautiful pictures, avalanche maps, and records, the author of which will remain an authority on the subject for many years yet to come. The statistical observation of avalanches encounters very many difficulties. In the first place a sharp line between a snow slide and an avalanche does not exist. Besides the extent, we must consider the locality and the danger connected with it. An avalanche in higher altitude above the timber line may be called 244 Forestry Quarterly. a snow slide, and what is merely a snow slide when occurring in a developed country may be called an avalanche. In order to illustrate the main points to be considered in recording statistical data in tabular form as used in Switzerland the following head- ings may serve. | The cause of the origin of the avalanche determines its charac- ter. There are four kinds distinguished: Dust, Top, Ground and Glacier avalanches. (r) Dust Avalanches. They originate usually during cold and stormy weather in high altitudes. The loose snow begins to roll like sand from steep barren slopes, constantly increasing in volume as its descends. The fine snow is carried by the wind, the heavier rolls on the ground, the whole mass becomes compressed and is preceded by a hurricane, the effect of which is usually stronger than that of the avalanche itself. Such avalanches often break loose during the time it snows, or are started afterwards by wind. ‘The ve- locity of such snow slides is very great, and cases are known in which they travel four miles per minute and sprinkle snow- like powder over large areas. (2) Slope or Ground Avalanches. If a great amount of snow falls during warm weather it re- mains more compact and may start to slide at the same time over a wide area, somewhat like a mass of wet snow sliding in a body off the roof of a building during a sudden thaw. The speed is greatly reduced through friction by sliding over the ground. ‘These avalanches are as a rule not accompanied by a hurricane. If such a slide becomes wedged into a canyon it may then also be a “‘canyon slide.” Although dust and slope avalanches differ in character and origin, they vary in such a manner as to ex- hibit a number of intermediate stages between the typical forms. A dust avalanche may develop into a ground avalanche by taking with it hard snow, debris and rocks. On the other hand, @ ground avalanche may end in a dust avalanche as a waterfall disperses into small particles by falling over rocks, or through the resistance of the air. —=_- ee Current Literature. 245 (3) Top Avalanches. If snow commences to slide over a previously formed snow crust it is called a top avalanche. If such slides break through this crust they may develop into one of the first two mentioned forms. Such slides originate on south slopes where snow melts and freezes frequently. (4) Glacier Avalanches. They consist, as the name suggests, of bodies of ice that break loose from glaciers. They occur mostly during the month of September when warm weather lasting for a period has thawed the ground, and the pulling force becomes greater than the ad- hesion. At the terminal the accumulated ice remains frequently several seasons. These avalanches are always attended by a thunder-like noise. This noise may be the origin of many names given to rivers, as Thunder Creek, in the Cascade Mountains in the State of Washington. Hurricanes which precede these avalanches are of the worst kind and damage the forests by breaking and uprooting trees, splitting the bark on the upper hill sides, stripping the limbs and branches from the tree. Small bodies of snow or avalanches with a short course are called simply snow slides. Regarding the period of occurrence, whether occurring once or several times in a year, periodically, or rarely, depends on many factors, such as topography, prevailing winds, snow drifts, amount and quality of snow, the forms of snow fields, new burns, or wind breaks, etc. In some places in the Alps, avalanches oc- cur only in many decades, so that only the oldest people can remember them, whereas in other places new ones occur fre- quently and in places where no one expected them, especially during stormy weather. To the subheading “Season” we may add that according to statistics of 1878-88, out of 1,200 ava- lanches, 45% occurred during the month of February, and 24% during the month of March. The breaking loose of avalanches depends mainly on the wind and temperature and may occur during any time of the day. Cold and stormy days cause dust avalanches especially during the winter, or on cold spring days after a heavy snowfall, whereas ground avalanches mostly oc- 246 Forestry Quarterly. cur in warmer weather, caused either by wind or sun. If caused by a chinook a ground avalanche may occur by night in any lo- cality, because of the warm wind blowing. If caused by the sun it is likely to occur on a south slope during the early evening. The Italian language expresses this very correctly by calling a dust avalanche a “cold avalanche’ (avalanga fredda) and a ground avalanche a warm avalanche (avalanga colda). The statistics show that 60% of the avalanches start on rocky ground, and only 6% in timber or from brushy places. It appears, therefore, that the soil cover has a great influence on the origin of avalanches. The taller the trees and the less they are swayed by the wind near the ground, the closer does the snow hug the ground. In a closed stand of timber the formation of an avalanche is impossible. The higher the altitude, the closer do the shrubby species grow to the heat-reflecting soil. The alder is usually the first species which covers the slideways of avalanches. These alder brakes can be seen for a long distance on places where slides occur frequently. The geological forma- tion of the rocks has also an influence on the origin of ava- lanches. Stratified rocks, like slate, increase the number, particu- larly if the strata are more or less parallel to surface of the slope; similarly smooth rocks without soil cover or brush protection, and especially if water from many small springs seeps through the soil. The safest are igneous rocks, as basalt or granite. Other causes which start avalanches are: (1) Movements of loose snow, or steep slopes; (2) Game or men: (3) Earthquakes, blasting, trains, shots, or even the ringing of church bells, echoes ; (4) Wind, breaking off of rocks, of over-hanging snow drifts, of icicles and limbs; (5)Heat from sun, reflection of heat from rock walls; (6)Extreme changes from warm and wet to cold weather, or vice versa. The range of latitude in the Swiss Alps, compared with that of our mountain regions, is very small, and the data under the sub-heading “Absolute Elevation of the Starting Point” relate only to that confined region. During glacial times there seem to have been practically no avalanches, but they increased during the post-glacial period, and reached their climax before vegetation was established on these old glacial fields. It is interesting from the ecological point of view that in the Aips a Rhododendron and a Boxelder have ee 247 Current Literature. b » ee > | b-% | ST} ST | O€ | OF} 2 | €€| bz | O19 | b€/ 09 OL | O€ | Lb | OW! ET] Z | ST} SS | €z ojos | | gjg/elgis| 2 |r lzleiele elelzlz/zlelzlalele glglp $/O)zZiz Opole lz a S| BlEICIS (2 SIEIB IBIS if8ialsigia a |S | = aliel el B isis tess moot ie ates ee ae Se hee ee eee eek ee ee a ee 5 | 4 | @ 1oj8| me a eked BS 3 3 - ia te ee eee er ee ee) wl} oe ee P. id baer B. 5 |8/8/8/2 pF le ale] | § aE a] > — Qa me g eee ere = e % e ® | © 3 ni Sa o 33 B | & ee oe . % n > be te ae eae creme) (emer reese) re ee eee Peis e e Ajjensn WIO SUTIIEIS Limes! polsguepud| ygnoiyy spuay WUIOg Fur "3 aE uoseag 2 a, jenuuy) sayoureay poys iat atin 3 = 7 — eyourjeay | -xq oyouejeay |-718}¢ yo aoujing uO = 3 3° Pury ATE aoe oe a0ua1 UIZLIO -INIIO JO pousg a a ee ee ee ee ee "SOYUETBAR (‘DT noge FO Siseq 94} UO OT6I—CL8T Wor suoneaissqo jo ofejuaoied Ul 3][Nsa1 9Yy} MOYS PosojUO soinZy oy], mh) 248 Forestry Quarterly. survived through the claimed four glacial periods and that other species returned again only in a different mixture from that in which they used to occupy the valleys, during other glacial periods. It is also believed that valleys have changed considerably in the last period, after the pressure of the ice that caused falling of mountains had ceased, and that the lateral moraines have been carried down the hillsides, and the re-establishment of forests has crowded the avalanches into their present localities. As the population increased and men were depending on the cattle ranges in higher altitudes they soon commenced to get wise and learn to build their homes on other places, as below the forests, on hills, etc. But the forests can give protection only as they remain in closed stands which is best secured if interference by man is prevented. This led to the creation of “Ban For- ests” or protection forests as early as in the year 1342. Since that time protection forests have been made wherever the ne- cessity for them existed, and no less than 322 copies of proclama- tions of Ban Forests are in the possession of the Protective Service of Switzerland comprising the periods from 1535 to 1777. ‘These forest reservations were created, but nothing was done for their future. Grazing of sheep and cattle continued, litter was taken, reproduction commenced to fail, old stands de- teriorated and became too open to afford sufficient protection. After a hard fight with the cattle and sheep owners, ban for- ests were brought under a systematic forest management ‘These forests are managed under the selection system in horizontal strips. The construction works of early ages were merely of a defen- sive nature, restricted closely to the object to be protected, and consisted of walls erected in front of churches and houses with the object of dividing or breaking the avalanches. At the be- ginning of the ninteenth century more radical methods were employed against the attack of avalanches in their “status nas- cendi.” ‘The construction works for the prevention of avalanches are divided into works which are confined to the starting point and those which are for the purpose of deflecting the slides from objects of special protection. To the first, the most im- portant group, belong all those which increase the friction be- Current Literature. 249 tween snow and the ground, or prevent the breaking loose of snow. It is then extremely important to know the starting point. Local reports are not always reliable, neither can one make positive conclusion from the starting of one avalanche, as the conditions of the origin of the avalanches, such as other kinds of winds, different snow, new burns, etc., may vary the condi- tions. If the starting point should be difficult to locate it is always safe to build rather too high than too low so that in case the avalanches should re-occur the work would not be swept away. ‘The starting point of an avalanche on slopes is very frequently found on the change of grade, and to such points attention should be specially directed, also on places where over- hanging snowdrifts are amassed, and these cases should be care- fully observed. The constructions vary with the topography and local material at hand, and consist mostly of posts, wood or iron, high stone walls, terraces and banquettes, snow catchers and ditches. If these constructions are within the timber line (timber line is here understood not the present line but the line which can be reached by artificial planting), the main purpose is to establish a forest between these constructions in order to make the pro- tection as permanent as possible. ‘This has been the general practice in most of the constructions of the past to establish a forest. The second group, which treats of constructions to deflect avalanches, consists mostly of high stone walls in order to direct the snow into places where less or no damage can be done. Under the revised federal law of Switzerland expropriations for the creation of new ban forests can be made. ‘The most extensive works of this kind are conducted by railroads. Up to the present out of 268 larger constructions in Switzer- land, 200 are completed at a total cost of two million francs, 54% of this being paid by the federal Swiss government. What is done in the Alps is, however, with us entirely out of the question from practical points of view. The value of the property endangered would not warrant any great expense in protecting it, and the territory over which construction work would have to be done in order to protect even one valley is large. 250 Forestry Quarterly. It may be that sooner or later the rapid development of the West may require that at least statistics of avalanches be kept. Max ROTHKUGEL. F orestry in New England. By Ralph C. Hawley and Austin F. Hawes, New York; John Wiley & Sons. 1912. Pp. 749. Illus- trated. It is fitting that the first general treatise on practical forestry to be published in this country should apply specifically to New England, for it was there that the art found its strongest sup- porters when it was new in this country as it is there that the opportunity for the practice of forestry is matched by that in no other section. With this important working field and a volume of information not available for any other region it is yet un- fortunate that the authors have made so bulky a book. If it were half the size it would be proportionately more valuable, for in these days everybody wants his technical treatise, as well as his lighter reading, condensed to the last degree, and it is evi- dent that this work could have been greatly abbreviated with- out loss of substance. As the authors say in their preface, the book “aims to be for the woodland owner what many others are for the agriculturist.”’ In this it clearly fulfills its purpose; technical foresters know, or should know, how to supply any deficiency from their point of view. Part 1, General Forestry, gives an admirable review of accepted principles. Even a layman would have no difficulty in applying them to a much wider territory than New England. The work avoids the fault of so many German books in that, avowedly dealing with a section in which conditions are practically uniform, it makes no effort to deduce general laws or rules of practice from local observations. New England is distinctly a forest region, and one may safely prophesy that through forestry the land will ultimately be brought to its highest productiveness. And this expectation loses no force when other parts of the country with more favorable climate are named in comparison, for nearby markets and manifold resort interests will neutra- lize any disadvantage of that kind. eo ee ee ee eee ee Current Literature. 251 In the chapter on silvics the composition of a forest and the recognized forest types are discussed. Under silvicultural sys- tems the various methods of forest utilization and reproduction are considered, not always as clearly as is desirable however, for both in the text and in the illustrations there is sometimes a doubt. For one thing the terms “system” and “method” are used indiscriminately or indefinitely. One need not be a stickler for form or for authority when one insists that in the development of a new profession every term and expression must have a definite meaning. All this is well shown on page 26 where figure 8 rather ineffectively illustrates the “system” of clear cutting in strips, because the succession of fellings, or cuttings, is not made plain. Diagrams of this sort when carefully pre- pared are a most valuable means of illustrating work of this character. Fortunately most of those employed are entirely satisfactory. In chapter III the most important New England trees are con- sidered specifically. The presentation is direct, and perhaps as brief as possible, though in view of the many times that matter of this kind has been printed one questions whether it was neces- sary to repeat it. The detailed directions for planting and making improvement cuttings, form in many ways the most important part of the book, for here those who are attempting to handle woodlands will find most of their immediate problems considered. In dis- cussing available species for planting the authors especially recom- mend red pine, although the work in general lays stress upon the availability and value of white pine. It may be questioned whether there is not danger in placing so much dependence upon a single species. ‘The recommendation of red pine there- fore needs emphasis. Another point of value made is that clear cutting followed by planting is a recognized practice worthy to be followed in many situations. Overemphasis has undoubtedly been placed upon the selection method, especially in spruce for- ests subject to wind-fall and in mixed forests from which most of the valuable species have been removed. Very wisely the list of insects and fungi is limited to the forms that are commonest or most to be feared. The chapter on forest fires is rather general. Something more 16 252 Forestry Quarterly. specific regarding preventive measures would be valuable while from the evidence submitted regarding the limited fire season in New England some more encouragement about the comparative ease of controlling fires might be presented. There is little doubt that except in the infrequent years when the normal rainfall is lacking the forest fire hazard is not so serious as it is in other parts of the Country. To the statement made on page 57 that “beech is a good fire resister” an emphatic dissent must be re- corded. The chapter on timber estimating and valuation is another of great practical utility, as is also that on the growth of trees and forests. ‘Readers of the Quarterly will find much in the first part of this book of value for occasional reference. It may be suggested that this value would have been heightened by more frequent paragraphs, headings, or marginal indexes. The good general index is not enough. Part II deals specifically with New England forests and their management. Unfortunately this part even more than Part I is written in the narrative form rather than in a way to serve for readiest reference. It also frequently repeats the substance of what has already been presented. Accepting these features as minor faults the section contains much definite information regarding the original condition of the forests, the extent to which they have degenerated, and a detailed discusssion of the various regions by forest types. Especially to be commended are the facts given relative to the present prices of stumpage, of milling, and of lumber, the cost of planting and the expected returns from plantations. This is the kind of information that is wanted. In this connection it may be observed that the cost of planting in New England is approxi- mately the same as in European countries, and that recorded yields of New England forests when fairly managed compare favorably with those in Europe to which reference is so often made. On the other hand the authors appear to have accepted without question the oft repeated claims that solely as a result of intensive management the State forests of Europe have greatly increased their yield. (pp. 412, 413). No doubt a large part of the increase is due to management. It remains however that SS es ath Current Literature. 253 no small share represents simple maturity or greater age, for it is known that many such forests were planted within a century and are only beginning to yield timber. And let a protest be made against the use of such expressions as “work-wood per cent.” Percentage is a legitimate term and if “timber” and “top- wood” are not fair equivalents for the German Nutzholz and Reisholz surely the language can afford something satisfactory. The statistics of New England’s lumber interests (p. 243-247) indicate the importance of the subject, especially in connection with the evidence that there is no need ever to suffer any ma- terial reduction in the output. It would have satisfied many people to know that whereas the pulp wood production of New England is 60 per cent. of the whole output, the pulp wood pro- duction of the whole country is less than 2 per cent. of the total lumber cut. The argument of the authors that the ability to use smaller wood for pulp than for saw logs is a positive advantage in practical forestry is of course sound. By way of caution regarding some of the statements made may be noted that on page 316, “there seems to be no reason why red or scotch pine would not thrive on the pitch pine soils * * * and produce a much better grade of lumber and give a higher yield.” It is doubtful if the two former species are ever satisfied with the poor soil on which pitch pine often makes a fairly good growth. And one wonders where is the necessity for piling the brush to be burned on a clear cut area as is in- dicated under Figure 123. In the chapter “The Progress of Forestry in New England” very satisfactory references are made to the organizations that have been created in each State for the improvement of the forests. ‘The one weakness in all is the lack of effective pro- vision for controlling fires. On the subject of forest taxation the authors are wisely con- servative. It may be entirely true that the general property tax is inapplicable to growing forests; and it may be that the levying of a tax on that basis works hardship or injustice. Never- theless we must admit that to modify anything so firmly estab- lished will require a better argument than can be made on be- half of a single class of property or a single interest. The last chapter, and the appendix, deal with the possible 254 Forestry Quarterly. yield of New England forests. The tables published furnish a means of answering the definite critical question, how much? that in the last analysis must always determine whether or not forestry is practical. The fact that a few of them do not clearly show the basis on which they are constructed, or how they are used, does not materially affect the value of the whole. For instance, it is not especially important to determine the rela- tive values of Tables XXXV and XXXVI, both giving the yield of white pine in board feet. It would have been possible to review this book and find only praise for the efforts of its authors, for apart from the fact that it is thus early in the field it possesses merits far outweighing the slight inaccuracies or deficiencies to which reference has been made. Its lack of condensation is a positive disadvantage, but with that let serious objection end. The assumption of the au- thors that forestry has come to New England to stay may be accepted. Surely there is no need of special pleadings in a work like this. And it is not needful that one agree with all the conclusions or recommendations. The authors themselves would be the last to insist that the facts they publish are the only facts, or their word the final word. If a suggestion may be made it is that the two parts be republished separately. There is room for a popular manual of forestry like Part I, and also for one giving the special information about the forests of New Eng- land contained in Part II. Fan, ee The Wilting Coefficient for Different Plants and Its Indirect — Determination. By Lyman J. Briggs and H. S. Shantz. Bulletin 230, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. February, 1912. The wilting coefficient is defined by the authors as the moisture content of the soil (expressed as a percentage of the dry weight) at the time when the leaves of the plant growing in that soil first undergo a permanent reduction of their moisture content as a result of a deficiency in the soil-moisture supply. It is the point at which the forces opposing the further removal of soil moisture exceed the osmotic force exerted by the cell contents of the plant; Current Literature. 255 the point at which a part of the water transpired will be supplied from that stored in the leaf tissues and a loss of turgor will result. The wilted condition of the leaves is regarded as permanent when they cannot recover in an approximately saturated atmosphere without the addition of water to the soil. In case of plants having aerial water storage tissues or thick, heavy leaves this procedure cannot be followed, since they have no well defined wilting point. The investigators, however, were able to de- termine the wilting point by an ingenious device delicately balanc- ing a potted plant in a horizontal position. As the plant loses water through transpiration, water will move from the soil to replace the water lost from the plant and the soil end of the balanced structure will become lighter and rise in consequence. When the soil is no longer able to supply the water to the plant at a rate sufficient to meet the transpiration requirements, the plant itself will begin to lose water from its storage tissues, will become lighter, and hence the plant and the balanced structure will begin to move upward. The moisture content of the soil at this point is the wilting coefficient. The oscillations of the apparatus may be recorded by a pointer and scale. The usual view presented by text books on plant physiology and plant ecology is that some plants are capable of reducing the moisture content of a given soil to a lower point than others, in other words that the non-available moisture varies according to the kind of plant used as an indicator. As the result of over 400 experiments on this point the authors conclude that the differences exhibited on the wilting coefficient by different species of plants in the same kind of soil is very small, the maximum values being only about Io per cent. greater than the minimum values. On the other hand when the same species is grown in different kinds of soil, the values of the wilting coefficients may vary by 3,000 per cent. in the case of extreme soil types. The results of the ex- periments indicate that to a very great extent the variations in the wilting coefficients for different plants are dependent upon the degree to which the roots of the plants penetrate every portion of the soil mass. The wilting point according to the authors, does not mark the minimum limit of moisture that is available to the plant, for it is shown that water is steadily removed from the soil by dying and 256 Forestry Quarterly. dead plants and that the limit is reached only when the soil mois- ture comes into approximate equilibrium with the moisture con- tent of the air. While from a physical standpoint such water may be considered available to the plant, yet from the physio- logical standpoint it is non-available, since no vital process, no growth at least, takes place when the leaves are permanently wilted. ‘The authors also found that the wilting coefficient is not materially influenced by the dryness of the air, by moderate changes in solar intensity or by differences in the amount of soil moisture available during the period of growth. ‘The latter means that when plants constantly supplied with varying amounts of moisture during the growing period were allowed to dry out, the amount of moisture in the soil at the wilting point was practi- cally the same in each case. Certain points. made by the authors do not seem clear to the reviewer. For example, on page 21 one reads that the soil mois- ture content at the wilting point is not dependent to any material degree on the age of the plant. Yet on page 56 the authors state that the differences observed in the wilting coefficient for different plants are largely due to the more perfect root distribution of one variety as compared with another. Certainly the root distribution of a plant varies from the seedling stage to maturity. If such variation in mature plants of different species brings about a variation in the wilting coefficient, it would seem that a variation in the root distribution of a single plant at various stages of its development would produce similar results. Under the discussion of indirect methods of determining the wilting coefficient, the authors give formulae to determine such coefficient when such things as the moisture equivalent, the hygroscopic coefficient, the saturation coefficient and the soil tex- ture are known. The experiments described in the bulletin were made with a great variety of cultivated plants. Similar experiments with tree seedlings are very much to be desired. C: Doe The Forest Conditions of the Ozark Region of Missourt. By Samuel J. Record. Bulletin 89, Missouri Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Columbia, Mo. IgIt. ee eee eee eee Current Literature. 257 The bulletin is a result of the codperation of the State and the U. S. Forest Service. The forest conditions are described by counties and then in general by forest types. The White Oak- Black Oak type makes up the bulk of the timberlands of the region. In an average stand the leading species occur about as follows: White Oak 60%, Black Oak 23%, Hickory 10%. The Black Oak, however, predominates on the drier, more stony situ- ations, especially in the less deeply dissected portions of the Ozarks. The scrub oak type, consisting chiefly of Black Jack Oak and Post Oak prevails over the barren plateaus and ridges. The shortleaf pine—hardwood type occurs in a large block in the southeastern corner of the region. Black Jack and Post Oak be- come dominant after the cutting of the pine, and on about 80% of the area most of the pine has been removed. Only the defec- tive trees are left from the lumbering operations, and as their progeny is very generally killed by periodic fires or crowded out by the more aggressive hardwoods the regeneration of commercial pine, with a few exceptions, is at a standstill. The silvical characters of the principal species are given in detail and the author makes the usual recommendations in regard to forest protection and management. As a whole 60% of Missouri is covered by woodland, but only a small per cent. of it consists of merchantable saw logs. The character of the forest, however, is particularly adapted for the products of the cooperage industry and the value of such pro- ducts in 1905 amounted to 11.6 million dollars, somewhat greater than the value of the saw timber. CD Eighth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts. By F. W. Rane. Boston, Mass. Pp. 154. This report is similar in character to those of the last few years. One advantage of this similarity is that the reader readily recog- nizes the great and steady growth that is taking place in the work of this office. The list of employees given on pages I0 to 21 inclusive, indicates the extent to which the organization has been developed and the lines along which it is working. “General Forestry” and “Moth Work” still form the two main 258 Forestry Quarterly. divisions and each is reported on separately. An improved forest fire policy is considered the most important forward step in general forestry. Under this newly established system the state is di- vided into five forest fire districts each in charge of a district forest warden, all reporting to the state fire warden. For dis- covery of fires fifteen main lookout stations strategically distri- buted to cover the entire state, have been located. Through tele- phone connections with over 1,500 town forest wardens notice of fires can be quickly given. Very few states, even those using the same general method of protection, have such a well equipped organization and as the different individuals become trained in their duties, mastery of the forest fire problem is to be expected— and this in spite of the fact that the forest fire hazard is unusually great in Massachusetts. Under “Moth Work” the most interesting portion is that deal- ing with “The Future of the Moth Work.” While the conclusions under this heading are not as definite nor as favorable as could be wished, the impression is given that in Massachusetts the moths can finally be brought under control, although their spread westward, while being retarded, has not been stopped. It is shown that the situation in New Hampshire and Maine is already serious, and the advance of the moths into other states is hinted at. .As the problem is evidently becoming of national or at least of sectional rather than of state importance, great financial support by the Federal Government is advocated. New methods of fighting the moths, especially spraying with the aid of more powerful apparatus, have been advised, greatly reducing the cost. ROG The Wood-Using Industries of Illinois. By Roger EF. Simmons. U. S. Forest Service in Codperation with Department of Agricul- ture, University of Illinois, Urbana. 1912. Pp. 164. There are 1,216 wood-using industries in Illinois, consuming annually more than one and three-quarter billion feet, board measure, of wood costing over 51 million dollars. Over 84 per cent. of the wood used was grown outside of the state while the source of the remainder was not specified. Black oak is the only species demanded by the wood-users which the forests of Illinois =" ee Current Literature. 259 entirely supply. Chief among the native grown woods are, cucumber, 35 per cent.; tupelo, 15 per cent.; sycamore, 14 per cent.; cherry, 13 per cent.; black walnut, 11 per cent. Of the six leading species only 2 per cent. of the white oak, 5.5 per cent. of the red gum, and little more than I per cent. of the sugar maple were grown within the state. Chicago is the greatest point of lumber distribution in the world. Compilations of the lumber shipment in 1909 show an aggregate of 2,600 million feet of which 43 per cent. was consumed locally. The latter figure does not take into account the rough lumber entering into buildings or other construction work. The report calls attention to the importance of reforesting such parts of the state as will grow timber more profitably than farm crops. “One million acres of timber, cared for as woodland should be, may be expected to yield from 300 to 500 million feet of lumber a year for all time. A constant supply like that right at home would be of immense importance to the wood-consuming factories of the state, and it would likewise assure a large income to the growers of timber.” UR Washington's Secondary Wood-Using Industries. By Howard B. Oakleaf. U.S. Forest Service. Published by Pacific Lumber Trade Journal, November, 1911. Pp. 22-30. ‘ It is estimated that the present stand of timber in Washington is between 300 and 350 billion feet, or about one-eighth of the total amount in the entire United States. The area covered is approximately 25 million acres; the stumpage value is estimated at 400 million dollars. Since 1905 Washington has held first rank as a lumber-producing state. There are now within the state about 1,000 mills, the total cut of which in I910 was 4,100 million feet worth 75 million dollars. About one-fourth of this material was shipped out of the state by water and one-half by rail. Of the remaining one-fourth which was consumed locally, about 40 per cent. was further manufactured into wooden products by 25 different industries. In 1909 the wood-using industries consumed 337,555,125 board feet of raw material. Over two-thirds of this amount went to 260 Forestry Quarterly. the plants in. the form of lumber, the remainder as logs and billets. The cost of this material was approximately $6,500,000. Ninety- nine per cent. of the material used was locally grown and three- fourths of that brought in was domestic wood. ‘The percentage of material other states import to supply their wood-using indus- tries are: Oregon, less than 1; Mississippi, 1 ; Louisiana, less than 2; North Carolina, 4; Kentucky, 47; Wisconsin, 50; Missouri, 64; Massachusetts, 70; Maryland, 80; Illinois, 84. The box manufacturers of Washington consume more material than any other industry in the state and over one-fourth of the total amount annually used by all of the industries. The species used for this purpose are in order of importance, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock, Western Yellow Pine, Black Cottonwood, Douglas Fir, Western White Pine, Western Larch and a small amount of Red Gum. The waste in box manufacture amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. and occasionally more. ‘The boxes are nearly all used in Washington and the Northwest, with the exception of those sent to California, and a few to Alaska, Hawaii, and the Orient. The manufacture of sash and doors mostly of the so-called “low grade,” is second in importance, consuming 55,482,000 feet of material, of which Douglas Fir comprises nearly 93 per cent. Waste frequently amounts to 15 to 20 per cent., but by the use of all small pieces for sash stock has, in some instances, been reduced to 5 per cent. While the market for this product is mostly local it is believed that the opening of the Panama Canal will eventually develop a large eastern demand. The cooperage industry uses 40,498,000 feet of timber, mostly Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce. In this industry are included not only tanks, barrels and woodenware, but also wood stave pipes which are coming into wide use in the west in the development of water power, irrigation, and municipal water supply. Douglas Fir cannot be used for the manufacture of barrels or tubs to con- tain articles of food or alcoholic liquors, unless first lined with paraffine, since the large amount of resin in the wood imparts a taste to the encased materials. In making cases for food stuffs Sitka Spruce, Black Cottonwood, and Western Hemlock are pre- ferably used. The manufacture of crossarms has developed very rapidly in Current Literature. 261 Washington during the last few years. A large percentage of the crossarms are manufactured at sawmills and the only material used is Douglas Fir. Because of the particular size and grade re- quired, the stock is usually bought under special specifications, but is about equal in character to the commercial grade “select common.” ‘The amount used annually is 35 million feet. There are two pulp mills in the state consuming annually nearly 20,000 cords of wood. The principal species used for this pur- pose is black cottonwood followed by Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce, and small amount of Western Hemlock and White Fir. The spruce and Douglas Fir are mixed with the Cottonwood in small amounts even in the better grades of paper. The hemlock and White Fir are used entirely for the production of “news.” Another use for Black Cottonwood is in the manufacture of excelsior. About 8,000 cords or 6,400,000 feet are required for this purpose. One advantage of this industry is that it can em- ploy the cores of veneer logs, which otherwise would probably be wasted. Most of the veneer cut is used in the manufacture of baskets, principally fruit and berry baskets. Of the various woods used, Douglas Fir, the most abundant and diversely adapted wood in the state, furnishes more than one-half of the material. Sitka Spruce ranks next because of its wide use in box manufacture. Black Cottonwood is highly esteemed for boxes and pulp but its limited occurrence prevents a larger con- sumption. Western Hemlock is still lagging behind because its real value is not yet fully recognized. White Fir and Western Larch are not now widely employed, but it is believed that eventu- ally they will form a larger proportion of the state’s consumption as the cost of the more desirable woods become greater. Of the broadleaf species, Oregon Maple, Western Birch, Oregon Oak, Oregon Ash, Vine Maple, and Western Willow, have excellent qualities fitting them for use in the manufacture of many of the products for which eastern woods are brought in, and their use is restricted entirely by their limited occurrence. OTR. The Wood-Using Industries of Mississippi. By C: Gould and Hu Maxwell, U..S. Forest Service. Published by The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La. March 15, 1912. Pp. 19-20. 262 Forestry Quarterly. In production of lumber, Mississippi ranks third, being sur- passed by Washington and Louisiana. The total stand of timber in the state has been estimated by the Commissioner of the Bureau of Corporations to be more than 95 billion board feet. At the present rate of cutting this will last about thirty years. The total area under forest is about 32,000 square miles, or 70 per cent. of the whole state. Upwards of ninety commercial woods grow in the forests of Mississippi, though only about half that number are now used to any considerable extent, while the principal production is limited to comparatively few species. Of the coniferous woods, Longleaf, Shortleaf, Loblolly, and Cuban Pine, and Cypress in the order named are the important species. In fact, Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine furnish over 85 per cent. of the material for the state’s wood- using industries. The principal species of broadleaf woods are: Cottonwood, Red Gum, Hickory, White Oak, Yellow Poplar, Red Oak, White Ash, Tupelo, Water Oak, Evergreen Magnolia, Pin Oak, Sycamore, Black Gum, Post Oak, Yellow Oak and Black Walnut, in the order named. ‘The last eight species, however, contribute less than a quarter-million feet to the wood-using in- dustries of the state. For the most part the Shortleaf Pine is in the north, the Long- leaf and Cuban Pine in the south, and Loblolly in nearly all parts of the state, except in the swamps, and the minor species of pines in a few restricted localities. The broadleaf species are scattered in nearly all regions. Red Gum and Cypress are most abundant in the delta region. In the southern part, particularly in the vicinity of the Gulf coast much of the pine has been cut. From that region, however, considerable amounts of cordwood and charcoal are shipped to New Orleans. Manufacturers in Mississippi consume yearly about 618 million feet of wood, which is less than 30 per cent. of the total cut. Twenty-five different species are reported as being used, having an average value of $12.22. Less than one per cent. of the wood is brought in from other states while no foreign woods whatever are reported. Outside of planing mill products, the manufacture of boxes and crates is the largest industry. The principal wood used for this purpose is cottonwood which supplies about 16 million feet or Current Literature. 263 over 40 per cent. of the total. Red Gum follows as a rather poor second with slightly over 10 million feet. One-fourth of all the Yellow Poplar reported in the state went into boxes and crates. It was used for the best grade of boxes, on which stenciling, paint- ing and printing were to be done. The manufacture of furniture ranks next, requiring 10,278,000 feet of material of which red gum furnished 41.45 per cent. ‘The average cost of Red Gum was $12.80 per M feet. By means of special finishes Red Gum can be made up into furniture which passes on the market for Circassian Walnut, Mahogany, Cherry, Birch, Maple and Oak. Some of these imitations are produced almost wholly by the application of stains to give proper color; others grow more slowly, like Red Gum, Tupelo and Cypress. So the usual method of imitating oak. The other important wood-using industries in the state are: vehicle and vehicle parts, for which White Oak, Hickory and Yellow Poplar supply most of material; sash, doors, blinds and general millwork, for which Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine, Tupelo and Cypress are mostly required; handles, mostly hickory but including White Oak, Red Gum, Yellow Poplar and White Ash; agricultural implements, for which Longleaf Pine supplies nearly 72 per cent. of the wood used; fixtures ; and miscellaneous, includ- ing pumps, patterns, coffins, excelsior, woodenware, etc. In speaking of the future supply of material the report says: “There are many kinds of trees which grow rapidly in wet ground, such as Cottonwood, Carolina Poplar and Black Willow; and others grow more slowly, like Red Gum, Tupelo and Cypress. So much swamp land is found in Mississippi that tree culture on _ such land may be expected to assume large proportions in future years. Enormous cuttings of cottonwood and willow will be made at intervals of thirty to fifty years, while Cypress, Tupelo and Red Gum will take longer to reach desirable size; but many tracts will doubtless be kept growing such species long after forests planted and cared for in nature’s way cease to be looked upon as a profitable resource in that region.” SR. The Wood-Using Industries of Louisiana. By Hu Maxwell, U. S. Forest Service. Published in The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La. January I, 1912. Pp. 19-34. 204 Forestry Quarterly. “Touisiana has 18,000,000 acres of forest land, the hardwoods being principally in the northern half, the softwoods in all parts. More than 100 kinds of trees make up the forest, about one-half of the species possessing commercial value, the others being too small or too scarce to count for much. $ix or seven softwoods— the pines and cypresses—supply fourteen-fifteenths of the annual lumber output of the state. At this time the softwood forests are given much more attention than those of hardwoods; but it may be expected that a change will come in time, diversified manufac- turing will increase, and the large sawmills will lessen in number as the primeval stands of pine and cypress are cut out. Plants which manufacture lumber into other commodities will take the place of mills which now sell their output in the rough, or sell it planed or surfaced. Diversified manufacture of wood pro- ducts has not progressed nearly as far in Louisiana as in the northern and eastern states. Many southern industries of that kind are still in their infancy, and there is room for many others which have not yet had a beginning. Development will come in time, for the raw material is abundant. ‘The least encouraging phase in the outlook for Louisiana is found in the fact that it is selling immense quantities of its logs and lumber in the rough, to feed factories in other regions, and when the development of home wood-working industries shall be undertaken in the future, it may be found that the forests will be much depleted. It may thus happen that its forest resources will never reach their best development.” “One of the constant purposes of the field work was to note any new or little-used woods which were beginning to make their appearances in the mills and shops, and to observe any properties in them which seemed to command them for wider use. One of the earliest discoveries made was that a number of woods were going into the sawmills as one species and coming out as another. This was not due to any purpose to palm off an inferior wood for a better, but was owing to the fact that Louisiana has more than a hundred species of forest trees, while the lumber yards recognize scarcely a score of species of lumber. For instance, three maples are cut as sawlogs, but all appear in the lumber yard as ‘soft maple.’ Two species of ash are cut in the woods, and Sugar- berry and Hackberry are loaded on the truck with them; but in | . Current Literature. 205 the lumber yard the whole four are often simply ‘ash.’ Turkey Oak, Post Oak, Overcup Oak, Cow Oak, and White Oak all come from the mill as ‘white oak.’ Texan Oak, Yellow Oak, Willow Oak, and Water Oak blend in the yard as ‘red oak’, and not one of them is the true Red Oak (Querbus rubra) which is a more northern tree. Three elms go to the saw mill; one comes out. The same method holds to some extent in the softwoods. ‘The two cypresses are never distinguished apart, and in many lumber yards where three or four pines are stacked side by side, one or two may be recognized. Black Gum and Tupelo are never mis- taken for each other in the woods; but Black Gum almost in- variably becomes Tupelo if sawed into lumber.” “The cut of lumber in Louisiana in 1909 was 3,551,918,000 feet board measure. About 2,196,000,000 feet was disposed of in the rough, and the rest was further manufactured. The extent of further manufacture was not the same in all cases. Some of the lumber was simply planed or surfaced, and in that form was sent to market; other was made into boxes, furniture, finish, vehicles, boats, and other commodities, and thus went, ready for use, to the consumer of those commodities. The total quantity thus manufactured was 1,354,954,101 feet, according to the statistics collected during this investigation, costing when it reached the factories $15,765,458, or $11.64 per thousand feet. “This total is made up of a large number of species; yet of the total quantity of wood manufactured three species contributed 94 per cent. and 69 species only 6 per cent. Longleaf Pine supplies 50 per cent. of it, Shortleaf 28 per cent. and Cypress 16 per cent. The manufacturers of Louisiana brought in very little wood from other states and countries, only 15,014,102 feet, or a little over one per cent., and it cost $270,304, or less than two per cent. of the total cost.” Several little-used woods were reported on. Holly is cut occasionally and goes to the brush makers, or is converted into small articles, such as surveying instruments, or small boxes for handkerchiefs and collars. Black Jack Oak serves as repair material for heavy wagons, and sometimes goes into new vehicles. Some of it is made into chairs and other furniture. Chittim-wood and Southern Buckthorn are used for crosscut saw handles, small cabinet work, sometimes for box lumber and fence posts. Honey 266 Forestry Quarterly. Locust and Water Locust are poorly thought of but are used for crating and for floors which are to be covered with better wood. Live Oak is used to a very limited extent for furniture and vehicles, and somewhat more commonly for fuel. Sassafras is used for flooring, wardrobes, clothes chests, and dugout canoes. Sweet Magnolia is used to some extent for boxes and excelsior. SN Fae Paper Pulps from Various Forest Woods. By H. E. Surface. Forest Products Laboratory Series, U. S. Forest Service. Wash- ington, kl) COL e2 vp. eO. This bulletin embodies the data of experiments in chemical pulp production from twenty-two species, seven of them broad- leaved trees. The list includes a few which have already been used commercially to a slight extent. For each species are given the cooking conditions used, together with the resultant yields, and qualities and general characters of the pulps. A unique feature of the bulletin is the inclusion of fifty-five specimens of the pulps obtained, both natural color and bleached. Bes Ot Increasing the Durability of Fence Posts. By F. W. Besley. Maryland State Board of Forestry, Baltimore, Md. 1912. Pp. 22. This bulletin deals with a number of experiments begun at the Maryland Experiment Station to determine the efficiency of various methods of preserving posts from decay. ‘The first ex- periments were made in 1888 and while the results are not con- clusive they indicate (1) that applying a preservative with brush is not very effective; (2) that creosote oil is more efficient as a preservative than either coal tar or crude petroleum; (3) that charring the portion of a post set in the ground affords little pro- tection against decay; and (4) that filling in around a post with stones or brickbats does not increase the durability of the post. A new series of experiments in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service was begun in the spring of 1909. Nearly 1,000 native grown posts of various sizes and species were used. Part of these were treated with creosote, the others set untreated as a — ~ Current Literature. 267 control. The treating apparatus, costing about $50, consisted of two tanks, which are described as follows: “The heating tank was cylindrical, three feet in diameter and four feet high. The bottom of the tank was covered with a coil of one-inch galvanized iron pipe. This coil was connected with a steam boiler to produce the proper degree of heat (about 220° F). A framework of boards on top of the coil, protected the. pipe from injury, when the posts were dropped in. ‘The posts were submerged in the liquid for a depth of two and one-half feet. Ina tank of this size about twenty-five posts can be treated at one time. The tank should be sunk in the ground about eigh- teen inches for ease in placing and removing the posts. “The cold bath tank was rectangular, eight feet long, three feet wide and three feet deep, reinforced by a framework of two by four inch material. The posts are transferred from the hot bath and laid horizontally. They are held under the liquid by means of a frame cover held down with a lever.” Tables are included, showing for the several species treated the duration in the bath, the penetration secured, the amount of oil absorbed, and the cost of oil per post. The last item varied from two to fifteen cents. The average cost of treatment was a little over eight cents per post. Notes concerning the treatability of the various species are given. The writer emphasizes the important role seasoning plays in increasing durability, stating that “it is a well established fact that well-seasoned posts of any kind of wood will last longer than those only partially seasoned.” The observations of J. J. Crum- ley of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station (Bul. 219) do not confirm this statement. He says (p. 639) “From data col- lected so far, seasoning does not seem to have any marked effect on durability. The best catalpa fence examined was set green. In the best oak fence examined, the posts were cut and put into the ground the same day. Likewise some of the best fences are those in which the posts were well seasoned.” S.J.R. First Annual Report of the State Forester of orteer. Salem. Oregon. IGIT:. Pp: 24: “Prior to 1907 the statutes made it the duty of the State Game 17 268 Forestry Quarterly. and Forest Warden ‘to enforce the laws of the State of Oregon for the protection of forests.’ However, the State Game and Forest Wardens were appointed solely because of their knowl- edge and interest in fish and game matters, and naturally they devoted little, if any, of their time in enforcing the forest laws then on the statutes. In 1907, the legislature passed a law providing for a State Board of Forestry, thus for the first time giving the State an organization charged exclusively with the administration of the forestry laws. The two biennial reports of the Board, covering the years 1907-1910, show that notwith- standing the meager appropriation of $250 per annum, a great amount of good was accomplished. The activities of the Board resulted in the appointment of hundreds of fire wardens annually, in acquainting citizens with the provisions of the forestry laws, and in advocating in every way possible the protection of forests from fire. “The importance of the forest resources in connection with the industrial development of the State was recognized, when early in 1911 the present forestry law was enacted by the Twenty- sixth Legislative Assembly. It provides for the appointment of a State Forester, and carries an appropriation of $60,000 for fire protection and investigative work for the present biennial period.” This quotation taken from the opening page explains the pres- ent situation in State forestry. A statement that proposed changes to the present law will be considered in the 1912 report indicates that further advance may be expected. The greater part of the report is devoted to fire protection. Statistics are presented by counties, for both private and national forests, showing the number and causes of forest fires, number of burning permits issued, the area of merchantable timber, second growth and cutover lands burned over, and the amount and value of the timber destroyed. The expenditures for patrol fire fighting and the number and names of the fire wardens are given. A total of $202,607.98 was spent by all parties, including the United States Forest Service, the State, counties, timber owners and the federal government under the Weeks’ Law. This expenditure was divided as follows: $88,669.61 for patrol and $113,938.37 for fire fighting. Current Literature. 269 In connection with this expenditure it is interesting to note the amount and value of the timber destroyed in IQII, 545,000,000 board feet, valued at $680,000,000; and namely 84,622,000 board feet, valued at $79,684. Attention to other problems besides fire protection is urged, especially taxation and methods of securing reproduction. The report closes with a brief statement of facts regarding Oregon’s forests. R. CoE Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1910 and mgir. Baltimore, Md. 1912. Pp. 42. Illustrated. The activities of the Maryland State Board of Forestry are shown by this report to cover a number of different lines. They are carrying on educational work, making forest investigations, examining private woodlands, protecting the forests from fire, and managing small forest reserves. Three courses of lectures on forestry are given at the State Agricultural College, information is furnished at Farmers’ In- stitutes, and many addresses are delivered before various organ- izations. Publications and public exhibits assist in the educational work. Forest surveys have now been completed for 22 out of the 23 counties in the State. Planting experiments with Loblolly Pine indicate that wild stock of this species can be successfully and cheaply used and that the pine can be introduced into certain sandy lands where not now indigenous. An investigation to determine the extent of, and methods for controlling the Chestnut bark disease was made in 1911. The conclusion reached was that the northern and eastern sections were the worst affected and elsewhere either less seriously or not at all; and that by adopting vigorous quarantine measures outside of the area of general infection much could be done to check the spread of the disease. ‘The value of the Chestnut in the area now infected is put at $500,000. In order that the Chestnut, if killed, may not be a total loss, efforts are being made to find uses for the dead wood. Brush burning and railroad engines were the chief causes of 270 ; Forestry Quarterly. fires in 1910 and 1911. ‘The forest-warden system of fire pro- tection is now strengthened by a number of Federal patrolmen working under the Weeks Law, and by several lookout stations. Four forest reserves, consisting mainly of cutover lands, and ageregating 1,960 acres are now owned by the State. During 1910 and i911, there were 13,472 acres of private woodlands examined by the State Forester, and it is thought that hundreds of owners whose lands have not been examined are applying the principles of forestry. In order to provide numerous object lessons and to interest a greater number of people, Demonstration Forests are being started. ‘These forests are small areas privately owned on which the owner agrees to carry out detailed treatment advised by the State Forester. As yet, the plan has not been given a thorough trial. Among the recommendations for the future are: Establish- ment of a State Forest Nursery, and of a quarantine zone against the Chestnut blight, purchase of cutover mountain lands, and larger appropriations for various branches of work. Tables showing the wooded area by counties, amount and yalue of standing timber and the production of the forests are included. R.A OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Forest Planting in the Northeastern and Lake States. Circular 195, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 15. Quebracho and its Substitutes. By Clayton D. Mell and W. D. Brush. Circular 202, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1912. Forest Fire Protection under the Weeks Law in Codperation with States. By J. G. Peters. Circular 205, U. S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 15. Circassian Walnut and Its Substitutes. By George B. Sud- worth and Clayton D. Mell. Circular 210, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1912. Other Current Literature. 271 Identification of North American Walnut Woods. By George D. Sudworth and Clayton D. Mell. Bulletin 120, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Lumber, Lath, and Shingles, 1910. Forest Products, No. 2, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. iI912. Pp. 45. Slack Cooperage Stock, 1910. Forest Products, No. 3, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. i912. Pp. 8. Tight Cooperage Stock, 1910. Forest Products No. 6, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 12. Cross Ties Purchased, 1910. Forest Products, No. 8, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S, Forest Service. Washington,D.C. tI912. Pp. 8. Poles Purchased, 1910. Forest Products, No. 9, Bureau of the Census. Compiled in codperation with the U. S. Forest Ser- vice. Washington, D.C. t1g12. Pp. 7. Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber. Based on actual sales made f. o. b. mill for each quarter of the calendar year 1911. U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 29. Two Dangerous Imported Plant Diseases. By P. Spaulding and EF. C. Field. Farmers’ Bulletin 489, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1912. Pp. 29. The white pine blister rust and the wart disease of the potato. Pulp and News-Print Paper Industry. President’s Message. Senate Document No. 31, 62d Congress, 1st Session. Washing- ton, LG PORT. Pp, Bad. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Volume VII, No. tr. Washington, D.C. 1912. Pp. 130. 272 Forestry Quarterly. Contains: Methods for Regulating the Cut on National Forests, by B. Moore; Parasitism of Phoradendron Juniperinum Libocedri Engelm, by E. P. Meinecke; National Forest Sales on the Pacific Coast, by W. B. Greeley; The Relation of Soil Acidity to Plant Societies, by A. W. Sampson; Timber Bonds, by E. A. Braniff ; The Catalpa Septum; A. Factor in Distinguishing Hardy Catalpa, by W. H. Lamb; Chaparral Areas on the Siskiyou National Forest, by H. E. Haefner; Use of Soil Fungicides to Prevent Damping-Off of Coniferous Seedlings, by C. Hartley; Results of Cuttings on the Minnesota National Forest Under the Morris Act of 1902, by R. Zon; Silvicultural Systems of Manage- ment for Central Rocky Mountain Forests, by C. G. Bates; Seed Production and How to Study It; Discussion, by S. T. Dana, B. Adams, C. R. Tillotson and R. Zon. Instructions for Making Forest Maps and Surveys. Prepared in the Office of Geography, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. Ce KIO 22 PR Ss. Planting and Care of Street and Highway Trees. By George A. Cromie and W. O. Filley. Document No. 8, Civic Federation of New Haven, Conn. 1912. Pp. 20. Forest Fire Manual: Part I, Prevention and Control of Forest Fires. Part II, Connecticut Laws Relating to Forests. By Samuel N. Spring. New Haven, Conn. 1912. Pp. 54. A Classification for Forestry Literature. Prepared by the faculty of the Yale Forest School. Bulletin, Yale Forest School. New Haven, Conn. i912. Pp. 6. Proceedings of Alumni Reunion, Vale Forest School, New Haven, Conn., Dec. 20-21, 1911. Published by Yale Forest school, New Haven. 1912. Pp. 107. An Outline for a Field Study of a Lumber Operation. By R. C. Bryant. Published by Yale Forest School, New Haven, Conn. TOI 26. p. 2A; Detail Surveying and Exploration in Relation to the Manage- Other Current Laterature. 273 ment of Eastern Timberlands. By F. C. Hinckley. Bangor, Me. fata. | .Pp. 7. A Practical Handbook of Trees, Shrubs, Vines, and Herbaceous Perennials. By John Kirkgaard. Boston, Mass. 1912. The Important Timber Trees of the Umted States: A Manual of Practical Forestry. By S. B. Elliott. Boston, Mass. 1912. Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1910 and torr. Baltimore, Md. 1912. Pp. 42. The Forests of Allegheny County. By F. W. Besley. Mary- land State Board of Forestry. Baltimore, Md. 1912. Pp. 31. The Forests of Kent County. By F. W. Besley. Maryland State Board of Forestry. Baltimore, Md. 1912. Pp. 27. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Wood Preservers’ Association, Chicago, January, 1912. Balti- more, Md. 1912. Pp. 302. Sixth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry, State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. By J. B. Mowry. Providence, R. I, ° 1912... Pp. 35. The Forester’s Manual: or The Forest Trees of Eastern North America. By Ernest Thompson Seton. New York, N. Y. 1912. British Trees: Including the Finer Shrubs for Garden and Woodland. By C. A. Johns. New York, N. Y. 1g12. Forestry in New England. By Ralph C. Hawley and Austin F. Hawes. New York, N. Y. 1912. Pp. 479. State of New York: Sixteenth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission, torr. Albany, N. Y. Pp. 224. Report of the State Conservation Commission of Wisconsin. Madison, Wis. I911I. Pp. 75. 274 Forestry Quarterly. Blowing up Stumps with Dynamite. By George Roberts. Bulle- tin 154, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. Lexington, Ky. 1918,., Ppit7-30, The Catalpas and their Allies. By H. Garman. Bulletin No. 164, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. Lexington, Ky. Pp. 201-223. The Wood-Using Industries of Missouri. By Charles F. Hatch and Hu Maxwell, U. S. Forest Service. Re-print from The St. Louis Lumberman. Vol. 49, No.6, March 15, 1912. Pp. 68-82. How to Prolong the Life of Fence Posts. By J. A. Ferguson. Circular No. 51, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Columbia, Mo. trg911. Pp. 135-138. Growing a Woodlot from Seed. By J. A. Ferguson. Circular No. 52, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Columbia, Mo. 1912. Pp. 139-145. Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station, I9r0 and ror1r. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. Stillwater, Okla. 1912. Pp. 230. Contains Tree Culture, by O. M. Morris, pp. 61-89; The Twig Girdler, by C. E. Sanborn, pp. 163-171. The Eucalyptus in Texas. By J. H. Arbenz. Bulletin (N. S$.) No. 8, Texas Department of Agriculture. Austin, Texas. 1911. The Forests of Oregon: Their Importance to the State. By George W. Peavy. Bulletin No. 1, Oregon State Board of Forestry. Salem,/Ore! “4011. Pp.i2% First Annual Report of the State Forester of Oregon to the Governor, 191r. By F. A. Elliott, Salem, Ore. 1912. Pp. 24. Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the Province of Quebec, torr. Quebec, Que. 1912. Pp. 134. Other Current Literature. 275 The Study of Timber and Forest Products in America. A report presented to the Forestry Committee of the University of Cambridge. By E. R. Burdon. Cambridge. University Press. ot2. Pp. 24. Memorandum on the Oil Value of Some Sandal Woods from Madras. By Puran Singh. Forest Bulletin No. 6. Calcutta, Podsa,:) TOLD. Pp. TY. Note on Chemistry and Trade Forms of Lac. By Puran Singh. Forest Bulletin No. 7. Calcutta, India. 1Ig11. Pp. 20. A note on Some Germination Tests with Sal Seed (Shorea robusta). By R. S. Troup. Forest Bulletin No. 8. Calcutta, Pda.) 1912) Pp. 13. Note on the Resin-Value of Podophyllum Emodi and the Best Season for Collecting it. By Puran Singh. Forest Bulletin No. g. Calcutta, India. 1911. Pp. 5. Host Plants of the Sandal Tree. By M. Rama Rao. The In- dian Forest Records, Vol. II], Part IV. Calcutta, India. 1911. Pp. 159-257. Colored plates, 8. Shelter-Planting: With Special Reference to the Acacia and Eucalyptus Families and their Raising. By J. E. Barrett. Bul- letin No. 1, New Zealand Department of Agriculture. Wellington, Nv Ze) O08. Pp. 0: Report on the Dune Areas of New Zealand, Their Geology, Botany and Reclamation. By L. Cockayne. Government Report, Wellington N. Z. 1911. Pp. 76. Annual Progress Report upon State Forest Administration in South Australia for roro-r91r. By W. Gill. Adelaide, S. Aus- tralia. 1911. Pp. 12. Report of the Chief Conservator of Forests for the Year rg10. By J. S. Lister. Cape Town, South Africa. 1911. Pp. 30. 276 Forestry Quarterly. Logging and Lumbering or Forest Utilization. A Textbook for Forest Schools. By C. A. Schenk. Darmstadt, Germany. 1912. Pp. 189. (Reviewed later.) In the Guiana Forest. By James Rodway. A. C. McClurg & Co. 1912. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. In F. Q., vol. II, p. 274, we briefed an ac- Virgin count of a piece of a virgin forest, about I0o Forest acres, maintained in its natural condition by m Count Schwarzenberg in the mountain Germany region of Bohemia. Another virgin woods of about 120 acres is described by Guse as found in the plains of Oldenburg, otherwise poorly wooded. This very accessible part of Oberfdrsterei Varel is mainly composed of hard-woods, oak, beech, bluebeech, basswood, elm, birch, aspen, with Ilex aquifolium, the most frequent underbrush. Here, with- out the interference of wind and snow, old oaks of 8 foot diameter, even when dead and entirely hollow remain standing, and when they do break down, the remnants are soon overgrown by shrubs and weeds. Ivy of 8 inch diameter twines around these old giants. The author unfortunately leaves off further description of this interesting tract, devoting the rest of his article to experiences with larch plantations in the same revier. Aus dem Grossherzogium Oldenburg. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagd- wesen. January, 1912. Pp. 10-15. An official report, from which Guse ab- Forests stracts, gives insight into the development of of forest management in the Pacificcoast region Siberia of Russia, Kamtschatka, Sachalin and the Amur district. The first attempt at a man- agement dates to 1898. In IgIo, 21 districts had been organized. With 57 officials looking after about 200 million desjatinen {500 million acres), there is, of course, little administration or even protection ; the natives use the woods as before. Export is hardly developed. The income is, however, about $400,000. Only the forests of the Amur and coast region are of value, some 130 million desjatinen (325 million acres). The vegetation is most varied ; on small areas far nothern and southern forms are found together. The ocean with its continuous mists 278 Forestry Quarterly. and raw winds has a deteriorating effect, so that the nearer the ocean the poorer the development. Walnut and Grapevine grow under 51.5° latitude, while the more southern shores of Possjet bay is covered with northern conifers. On the shores of the Amur, Black Birch and Oak often show a stunted growth, while 20 miles away they develop excellently. The great humidity of the climate is unfavorable; rainfall and snow masses cause devastating floods. “An intelligent destruction of the vegetation is undoubtedly required; forest fires are beneficial in settling the country.’ But the Russians go too far in their use; the Mongolians are more careful. The most important timber trees are Larix dahurica, most widely distributed and most useful; Abies sibirica, Picea obovata and Ajanensis; Pinus silvestris, superior in quality to the Russian pine; Pinus mandschurica, of inferior quality. Of broadleafed species besides the walnut, an oak, a maple, a basswood, elm, poplar, birch. Phellodendron Amurense, the corktree, Maakia amurensis, a small acacia-like tree. Schudra in 1895, before the country was well-known, distinguishes seven regions: (1) the farthest northern district with poor beech and birch growth; (2) from Albasin to the mouth of the Seja, oak and birch, the growth improving southward; (3) to the Bureja mountains, marsh lands with poor underbrush; (4) from these mountains down stream, good broad leaf forest with pine interspersed; (5) from the mouth of the Amur along the coast to Imperatorski bay, close larch-spruce-fir forest, mostly stagheaded and rotten with fallen timber; better, where protected from sea winds; (6) the middle coast district, mixed forest of inferior value, larch, birch and aspen prevalent; (7) South to Chinese boundary characterized by luxuriant growth of fruit trees and grapes, Hard broadleaf trees, and conifers of northern type of large dimensions in moun- tains. Uebersicht iiber das Forstwesen tm Amurischen Generalgouvernement, i910. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen. January, 1912. Pp. 51-53. From an extensive abstract of the report Conditions of the Imperial Finance Minister for 1911 in on the economic conditions of Japan, we Japan brief the references to forest conditions. While only 18.5 million acres appear on the tax lists, the total area of forest is 51.9 million acres or Periodical Literature. 279 70% of the land area; just about half of this is State prop- erty, besides 5 million acres of crown forest. Although from the exhibits at Expositions one would be inclined to credit Japan with a high development of forestry, the report admits that the forest is as yet little esteemed as an object for management, because there is an excess of it and much of it, as yet, inac- cessible. ‘This is only lately being changed by the government, the yield from State forests in the first decade of the century having increased from a little over one million dollars to five million. Under the law of 1907 the government has the right to pre- vent devastation and order reforestation, restrict and even prevent utilization. The forest area of Korea is estimated at around 12 million acres, the most important State forests lying at the headwaters of streams, several species of pine, larch and oak being import- ant. The rich mountain forests of Formosa are still unopened. Abies Tsuga, Pinus and Chamaecyparis are found in the higher eleva- tions, Quercus, Cinnamomum, Machilus and Bamboo species occupy middle and lower slopes. Another untouched forest wealth is found on the island of Sachalin, some 8.5 million acres, mainly coniferous, Abies sacha- linensis and Picea ajanensis, besides Larch. These forests are easily exploited and a beginning is to be made presently. The development of forest and wood industries is still in its infancy, paper and matches, with an annual output of 7 million dollars each seem to be most important, while among the exports, besides 5 million dollars worth of matches, 1.3 million dollars of railroad ties figure. Die wirtschaftlichen Verhdltnisse Japans. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. January, 1912. Pp. 45-50. The original forest cover of Rhenish- History Hesse was according to Walther largely of removed in the early years of the Roman Soil occupation. Since that time the forest Changes history has been part of the industrial his- tory of the country. While wars ravished, the land industry languished and the forest area increased. 280 Forestry Quarterly. Periods of peace have permitted industrial activity and forests have made way for farms. The fear of a fuel famine led to the planting of waste land with rapid growers as early as 1716, but recurring wars had so impoverished the State that these early attempts accomplished little in the way of increasing the wood production. Willows, poplars, alders and black locust were favorites with these early planters. The rising price of fuel wood was artificially held in check by ordinances fixing a legal price for wood, prohibiting export and establishing public warehouses to control the mar- ket. The practice of alternating farm crops with forests (Wald- feldbau) was initiated about the middle of the 18th century to stave off the wood famine without entirely withdrawing the land from food production. The famine years, 1816-17 led to the extension of this practice to lands formerly kept in forest. The practice has persisted to the present day in many places, although analysis frequently shows that it no longer pays. About the same time grazing and litter gathering grew in im- portance to the detriment of the forests and the subdivision of forests, previously held in common, further reduced their pro- ductivity. Such treatment was given the accessible forests while the adjacent hill forests remained untouched due to lack of roads. Charcoal was the only product which could be brought to market. The exchange of fertile forest land for the more sterile farm lands was inaugurated in 1820, and has continued ever since. At times it has made heavy inroads on the forest and still heavier inroads have been prevented only by the most vigor- ous protests of foresters. On the whole the cleared areas have been largely replanted and agricultural production has been in- creased by more intensive cultivation rather than by larger areas. A number of early ordinances setting forth forest policy are reprinted in this paper. Das Schicksal des Waldbodens in Hessen. Silva. Aug. I91I. 265-7; 276-8; 283-4. Periodical Literature. 281 BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. In an exceedingly interesting short com- Forest munication, the well-known Forstmeister Biology Meister, who for 50 years has managed the celebrated Sihlwald near Zurich, points out that the biology of a species and the biology of the forest composed of that species are two different things. While for the species within its climatic range soil and situation are the prominent influential factors, for the forest the climatic fac- tors are more important. Frost and snowfall and the changes in light, etc., incident to fellings change the composition and the development of the forest as a whole. The author accentuates that the attempt to secure a normal forest condition is constantly interfered with by our inability to insure normal development without interference by snow- breakages, windfalls and frosts. The Sihlwald furnishes excellent data for the study of such changes. This forest was under some kind of management as long as the 15th century when a definite budget was determined. This was increased in the 16th century until in 1851 a technical commission declared the forest overcut and ordered a rest. Meister tries to refer this condition to snowbreakages, as records show unusual snowfalls. At present the Sihwald is pronounced beech forest, but it has not been always so, as the record of felling results from 1630 on show. It is worth while to reprint the whole series. Period. Broadleaf. Conifer Period. Broadleaf. Conifer. To Jo Jo Jo 1631-1640 45 55 1761-1770 72 28 1641-1650 39 61 1771-1780 75 25 1651-1660 40 60 1781-1790 84 16 1661-1670 43 57 1791-1800 86 14 1671-1680 46 54 1801-1810 QI 9 1681-1690 49 51 1811-1820 93 7 1691-1700 51 49 1821-1830 88 12 1701-1710 58 42 1831-1840 88 12 _ I7II-1720 57 43 1841-1850 82 18 1721-1730 56 44 1851-1869 83 17 1731-1740 60 40 1861-1870 84 16 1741-1750 68 32 1871-1800 86 14 1751-1760 70 30 1881-1900 71 29 In the last 30 to 50 years there has been a tendency to increase 282 Forestry Quarterly. the conifers, spruce and fir, the latter forming a much larger part of the natural regeneration, besides being planted in fail places. To make the forest resistent to the attacks of an organic na- ture must be the aim of the forester. This according to Meister, where snowbreakage is to be feared, can be done by the mixed forest which shows a greater variation in the form of the crown- cover, by longer regeneration periods, and especially by the se- lection forest which assures the existence of the single species as well as of the forest formation. Aphorismen zur Biologie des Waldes. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen. March, 1912. Pp. 77-87. It is well-known that the wood of these W ood two genera is difficult to distinguish. - Structure Prof. Burgerstein uses for diagnosis the of structure of the pith rays, which in Populus both woods consist of two kinds of cells, and namely one set, radially longest without Salix pits, the other set vertically longest and on their radial wall towards adjoining ves- sels beset with large round pits. In Populus the relation between the average height of the pitted pith ray cells (H) and the average height of the unpitted cells (h), 1. e. H: h lies between 1.2 and 1.55, while in Salix this relation lies between 1.85 and 2.1, that is to say the height of the unpitted cells is relatively smaller than those in Populus. Moreover, the pits on the radial cell walls occur in Populus in 2 to 3 (in root-wood occasionally 4) rows, while in Salix in 2 to 10, mostly 4 to 6 rows. Diagnostische Merkmale der Markstrahlen von Populus und Salix. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1912. Pp. 150, I51- Fankhauser reports on a phenomenon, Heat observed in a number of localities of Splits Switzerland and Belgium during the un- usually dry summer of 1910, which in its results resembles frost splits. So far as known spruce only has suffered. In a 15-25 year plantation of very rapidly growing trees longitudinal (not spiral) splits of considerable length and Pe Periodical Literature. 283 depth were observed, in the middle of the plantation where di- rect sunlight did not or only slightly reach them. Another plan- tation in Belgium, 30 years of age, luxuriously developed, had in the middle of August such splits developed from top to bot- tom and through and through, vertical and without loss of bark. Other cases are cited. ‘The splits occur on any aspect and on northern aspects more frequently than on others. As to the exact cause of this phenomenon, the drought alone cannot be accepted, otherwise it would be more general. Ina plantation of 90,000 plants, 80,000 were killed by drought, but no heat splits occurred, and the affected trees exhibit a perfectly sound dark green foliage, so that physiologically they did not suffer any more than from frost splits. A relatively open stand and vigorous branch system seems to favor the trouble. This suggests that it is due to the formation of loose wood which with a decreased water supply shrinks excessively, individual differ- ences and differences of soil explain the variation in behavior. eee Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. January, 1912. p. 21-26. The summer of 1911 was notable in Ger- Records many for uninterrupted hot, dry weather, of lasting from the late June into mid-Sep- Drought tember. The fire danger was enormous Influences and the whole personnel was kept on ten- ter-hooks for more than two months. Sun- days and holidays only necessitated doubling the usual precau- tions. These drought conditions were excessive in the sand plains of lower Hesse. No serious losses from fire occurred there, but many small fires were extinguished. The flatness of the country made the location of fires difficult even after the smell of smoke was evident. Lookout towers were erected and watch kept from them with good results. Game suffered from thirst, and birds, too, whose work in checking insect pests is of great advantage, had to be supplied with water. Trees from more southern regions throve remarkably well, but those more important commercial species which are native here or to the northward suffered correspondingly from the same cause. The Scotch Pine is the principal tree in the sand plain forest of lower Hesse and were there frequent seasons like 18 284 Forestry Quarterly. the last it would soon be the only tree. The drought and heat killed very few trees except in the youngest plantations where the losses were unusually heavy. The only plantations more than three or four years old, which suffered greatly, were those just recovering from blight. Grass appeared to protect young plantations for a while, but finally all succumbed alike. Spruce is of course somewhat out of its element in the sand plain, but the need of replanting fail places laid bare by white grubs has led to the introduction of quite an admixture of spruce and white pine in the region. Both have suffered severely, trees 10 and 12 feet high turning red and dying. The rarity of such dry summers as IQII cannot control silvicultural practice and these species will continue in use to fill fail spots and to mini- mize insect and fire dangers. Picea pungens, the Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce have endured the drought better, the Colorado Douglas Fir especially. The larch and the broadleaf trees shed their foliage, and the terminal shoots withered. The Red Oak held its leaves better than either of the native varieties, but all alike are dry now. Beech occurring as a second story was little injured except that the upper crowns had lost their leaves. Birch and Black Locust are bare, but apparently alive. ‘ Nurseries were saved by screens and sprinkling though it is doubtful if the results will justify the expenditures. One observer reports that spruce plantations of the year suffered less from the drought than those a few years older and attributed this to the looser condition of the soil, which had not become compacted since it was opened to set the plants. This observa- tion is not general. The northern edge of mature stands has revealed itself most favorable for the growth of seedlings during such a dry season —a point in favor of Wagner’s new method of cutting narrow reproduction strips from the north side. Dr. Walther gives detailed meteorological records and many interesting points on the behavior of various species. von Schmitburg: Die Hitze und ihre Wirkungen in dem Diluvialsandgebiet der Mainspitz. Silva, I91I. 381-3. . Vogt, Emil: Einwirkung der Hitzeperiode auf Fichtenkulturen. Silva, TOLI. © 305. Rau: Die grosse Diirre und der Wagnersche Blendersaumschlag. Silva, I9II. 306. Walther: Die Hitze und Diirre im Sommer rorr. Silva, 1911. 337-0. Periodical Literature. 285 Lightning frequently strikes in the most Effects unexpected places and, according to Baltz, Oran no precautions can be depended upon for Lightning. immunity. Danger is greatest in the open fields because here a man is the most elevated object on the landscape. Trees standing alone in the open coun- try are only correspondingly more liable to be struck and are to be avoided altogether. Lying flat on the ground is undoubtedly the safest thing to do when overiaken by a thunderstorm. In the woods some kinds of trees are more frequently struck than others and popular notion that an oak is more liable to be struck than a beech tree seems to be justified, but even beech trees are struck at times. There is no evidence indicating that the danger is greater when carrying a gun. Der Blitz und seine Wirkung. Silva, Sept., 1911. 306-7. The dying back of the upper branches Cause characteristic of stagheadedness has always of been attributed to a change in the tran- Staghead. spiration current. Light admitted to the bole and lower crown stimulates leaf activity there; this foliage evaporates water and so reduces the supply of water available at the top of the crown that whole branches die back for lack of it. Dr. Minch, Forstamtsassessor in Stiftswald, near Kaiserslautern in the Bavarian Palatinate has made the re- markable discovery that stagheadedness in the oak is caused by a parasitic ascomycete which attacks the bark, destroys a small area and then enters the outermost annual ring of the wood. Through _ this it extends up or down the tree and may pass back to the bark again. Apparently sound trees of all ages and in stands of all densities are alike subject to attack, but a season of drought ap- pears to favor infection. Dr. Miinch was formerly at Munich; he is best known for his work on the blue stain of pine wood. Leitsdtze zu den Mitteilungen iiber die Gipfeldiirre der Eichen. Silva, Dec. 1911. 415-416. The “oak-mildew” so abundant on the con- Identity tinent of Europe during the past few years of the is shown by Arnaud and Foéx to be the Oak-mildew. oidial stages of the cosmopolitan fungus, Microsphaera alnt (Wallr.) Salm., or, as the authors prefer to call it, Microsphaera quercina (Schw.) Bur- 286 Forestry Quarterly. rill. ‘The perithecia were found December 30, 1911 on diseased and undersized oak leaves on an unthrifty trunk of Quercus sesstl- iflora in southern France. Harlot and Mangin had earlier pre- dicted this connection, but had no direct evidence. Several authors have attempted to show a difference in form between the conidia of the “‘oak-mildew” and those of M. alm, and Griffon and Maublanc finally ventured to describe the fungus as Oidium alphitoides. The present authors compared their material with specimens of M. alnit on leaves of several North American oaks supplied by Professor Farlow of Harvard University, and were unable to establish specific differences which would warrant a separation. A description of the French collection is given. The conidia are shown to be quite variable, and this has, in the opinion of the authors, led several investigators to make distinctions which are not justifiable. The authors believe that the fungus is indigenous, and not in- troduced from America, and express the view that, at first, it was localized, or rare, and has developed rapidly under the influence of slight modifications in the host which were favorable to its evolution. ‘The present appearance of the perithecia is attributed to the dry summer of 1911, followed by a wet mild autumn which gave a long growing period. Sur la forme de lOidium du chéne en France. Comptes Rendues Academie Science (Paris), January, 1912. 154:124-127, 15. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. Dr. Leininger of Tharandt points out that Site the description of sites and their classifi- Classification. cations by estimate, as usually practised, especially for experimental work, is en- tirely inadequate, because the estimate is made without any mea- sured basis. He quotes the best authorities, referring to the absolute ignorance mostly exhibited in this direction, and cites the work of Braza who examined the site description based on opinion in the yield tables of Weise for pine in detail of mineral constitu- ents, humus contents, soil moisture and compactness, and found no proportional relations between those factors and the site classification. Periodical Literature. 287 Precise investigations, by which to learn to estimate site classes, are required. Such are conducted by Leininger in the soil labora- tory of Tharandt. He gives examples of his investigations. The first investigation concerned itself with the question whether the average height can be used as index of site classes. This index had already been pointed out by Oettelt in 1765. Again Baur in 1870 called attention to this relation, pointing out that in stands of approximately the same age the volumes were proportionate to the average heights. And ever since this factor has been utilized for site classification in yield tables. The justification for relying on this factor is established by careful ascertainment of the heights after the Draudt-Urich method, and relating them to Kunz’s yield tables. The relation of the average height to certain soil qualities on the same rock formation is then investigated, namely the hygro- scopicity at 15.6° C and 91% relative humidity of the soil and the ability for nitrogen, known as Knop’s absorption coefficient. All investigations so far have shown that on same rock and at same elevation great parallelism between average height of stands, hygroscopicity of the fine earth and Knop’s coefficient exists. The author points out that one of the most difficult tasks of the soil investigations is the taking of samples and complains that so often no data are furnished by investigators how the sampling was done. The necessity of a large number of samples evenly distributed and taken to the same depth is accentuated and the method used described in detail. The necessity of investigating the soil in layers is explained; a table showing the variation of lime contents and exhibiting the great changes with depths. The different layers must be measured. For the shallow-rooted spruce a depth of 12 inches seems sufficient; for pine, a greater depth would appear necessary to investigate. In determining the volume of pores, which is of great impor- tance, if, as is done at Tharandt, the nutritive elements are related to the space and not to weight of the soil, great variety of pro- cedure seems to exist. Since the pore volume cannot be determined from the usual sample after it is taken, special samples for the purpose are secured by Schermbeek’s sampler, specially fitted for the purpose. The contents are measured, not weighed to .1 mm. 288 Forestry Quarterly. As regards number of samples, for the upper layer of 4 inches, where the greatest variation is found, 12 samples are taken; for the next 4 inches only 8; and for the third 4 inches, 4 samples suffice. Special ways are used in coarse soil. The contents of the sampler are divided into coarse and fine soil, dried at 105° C and weighed. The specific weight of the coarse soil is determined directly; but the fine soil has supposedly been changed by drying, hence an additional sample is taken, al- lowed to become air dry and used to determine the weight; then by drying to 105° C the hygroscopic water is determined, which permits determining by calculation the weight for the same degree of dryness. The calculations are given. Investigations to simplify the procedure for forest soils are under way. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Hatt gives a description of White Pine White Pine plantations in the neighborhood of Epinal on in Southern France, now 45 to 60 years old, Lowlands. which were made on marshy ground be- tween coppice of oak, birch and alder and on brushland. Spruce planted with the pine has developed poorly or disappeared. One area, about 8 acres, had been clear-cut in 1865. In 1873 it was a poor, open coppice, when the plantation was made. In 1911 it is a polewood of White Pine, ready for regeneration. The soil is covered with a thick mat of needles, only occasionally with mosses and herbs. ‘The trees bear seed annually, but the seedlings cannot live under the shade of their mother trees. These are liable to fungus disease and windfall on account of shallow root system in the shallow soil. Hence they should be reproduced so early. _ The volume and value calculation is particularly interesting. The volume of the 150 trees per acre, running from 8 to 20 inches diameter (and one tree of 24 inches, at 46 years) with an average below 12 inches, was 3,300 cubic feet or an increment of nearly 72 cubic feet per year per acre. The cubic foot on the stump is vaiued at 10 cents, hence the value per acre is $330. The original ’ soil was worth hardly $16, the cost of planting including drainage ae, ; ‘ 5 ; ‘ ‘ , q Periodical Laterature. 289 about $20. Assuming the cost of administration to be covered from thinnings, etc., the investment has paid 5 per cent., leaving the soil in a condition four times as valuable. Plantations de Pin Weymouth dans les terrains marécageux. Revue des Eaux et Foréts. No. 7, 1912. Pp. 193-195. Stolz reports on the success of plantations Planting carried on poor heath soil with bog iron ore on by planting on raised beds of 12 feet width, Raised throwing the soil from ditches, 4 to 5 feet Beds. wide and 2 feet deep, over the bed and heightening the ground thereby 7 inches. Although expensive, nearly $15 per acre, the astonishing success of the plantation seems to justify the expense. After 32 years, in comparison with other plantations, both in height and diameter, and in volume the plantation on raised beds is considerably favored. A number of experiences from other localities support this method as effective on poor soils. The same method of ditching was applied to a 20-year old pine and spruce stand on washed, poor, gravelly soil in exposed north- west aspect. The spruces hardly 3 feet high, the pines almost shrubs, maltreated by Tortrix, oak sprouts almost creepers. Ditches were thrown up every 12 feet, the soil carefully distri- buted not to bury the plants, then additional pine, spruce and larch planted. This proved an unnecessary expense for in two years an unexpected revival in the original growth took place, spruces making 18 inch shoots, and oaks astonishing by the richness of their foliage, while a small area left in original condition re- mained poor. Pine and larch, however, were crowded out by the spruce. Similarly a 30-year pine stand of “umbrella” trees was revived, by cutting out all but the best stem, distributing the brush and covering it with the soil from the ditches, 14 foot wide. After the soil was settled, it was planted with 4-year old spruce. After 20 years the stand had become a 6 to 10 foot spruce thicket, with 10 to 12 inch leaders, from which the last pine was being cut out. . Rabatten Kultur und deren Erfolge. Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagd- wesen. January, 1912. Pp. 26-33. 290 Forestry Quarterly. The expositions of Kienitz, briefed in F. Q., Seed vol. IX, p. 484, and in other volumes on rac- Supply. ial variations and hence on the importance of seed supply for planting receive confirm- ation by Orlowsky in Livland, especially with regard to the Scotch Pine, and he recites the various regions which produce undesira- ble growth forms. He refers to the resolution of the German Forestry Council in 1910, henceforth to use only warranted pure German pine seed, . excluding all foreign importations, so that the crooked growing French, the poorly lignifying Hungarian, the northern slow grow- ing races be excluded. He points out that some of the German sections do not produce desirable races, and that on the contrary the optimum of development is found in Russian Poland, hence the exclusion of this seed is undesirable. Einige Bemerkungen zur Proveniens-frage. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. January, I912. Pp. 20-26. A fully illustrated article by Kempe gives Exotics the results of the planting of exotic conifers in under forest conditions in Angermanland, Sweden. Sweden, for (in some cases) the last 30 to 35 years. Among the species used are naturally found many Americans. Illustrations and account are given of Tsuga pattoniana, Pseu- dotsuga douglasu, Abies concolor, nobilis, engelmanni, pungens, sttchensis, Pinus strobus and ponderosa; all of which seem to thrive. Forsok med utlindska barstrad. Skogsvardsforeningens ‘Tidskrift. February-March, 1912. Pp. 57-80. At the last conference of the Western Practical Forestry and Conservation Association held Forest Fire in Portland, Oregon, many points of interest Control. in forest fire prevention and fighting were brought out. The value of the information may be judged from the fact that the men who made the state- ‘ ments have been directly interested in the fires for the past five or six years, and these men represented various organizations patrol- ling from 800,000 to several million acres each. Periodical Literature. 291 The number of acres allotted to each patrolman and the aver- age cost per acre for protection during the season were shown as follows: Cost per acre State. Acres per man. for Season. Washington, 40,000 $0.0125 Oregon, 14,000 013 RRR ET ERATION BAG ALOR) Dent coc ES Rar ee ee 04 BSc) ea MT MAIN TON Da naar oe 1. aay | beh OI No. Idaho, 40,000 .OII : FROOO TL a Uiiea iced woes Saab AE \AmING STE AUT ROEM Waa WM ue Arn Lr org OI + (Dry season, LOGO! (8 !.\) 0. Aue densemang Causes of Fires. Origin. Oregon, Idaho. Lightning, 6.6% 4th 6% 10% Campers, hunters, incendiary, etc., 25.6 3rd 22 60 Slashings, 21.0 2nd 14 90% Unknown, 38.0 Ist 20 Engines, Mills, etc., $.8 : 5th 38 40 Each column is a report of one association. Consensus of opinions show that slashings should be burned, but time of burning varies with region and varies with conditions in the same region so there was general opposition to laws which compel burning during certain months. Suggestions were made to hold woods foremen responsible for carelessness of men by charging up all damaged timber against cost of logging. Also to burn strip 50 to 100 feet wide between standing live timber and tract being cut. In California in the Redwoods the down trees are barked and the debris burned with the tops before the cross-cutting is done. This is a feature of economy in logging rather than a measure for protection against fire. The slashings which accompany tie- making are a fire menace but the remaining Redwoods are so resistant to fire that a carelessness has grown up which is en- dangering the tanbark oaks on the highlands, for even a light fire will kill them. Concerning patrol and fire fighting the following suggestions were made: Examinations for wardens, as to tactfulness, executive ability, woodsmanship, knowledge of fire laws, and so on. Chief warden 292 Forestry Quarterly. should be centrally located while assistants have charge of out- lying districts. System is absolutely necessary, no time to organize after a fire is started. Tools kept in locked boxes dis- tributed to points of vantage and several keys left with people nearest to boxes. On railroad “speeder” patrol is very efficient. Where oil is used for fuel no fires were recorded and cost of oil is about the same as for coal operation. A satisfactory spark arrester was not reported. Reported as high as 25 to 30 fires started from one electric storm within a few hours. The hunter is considered a more serious menace than either settler or camper, because he is hard to find; suggested that he ought not be allowed in woods during dry season. Where pack animals are brought into use the cayuse is better than any other horse and the mule is better than the cayuse. The mule is a longer lived animal, requires less feed, does not eat poisonous weeds, is not bothered by flies, is built for pack saddle so does not get sore back, can carry 100% more than cayuse, is more careful and is tougher. Concerning means of communication, No. 9 wire is recom- mended for telephone and wires to be attached to poles not trees. Cost of telephone ranges from $28 to $50 per mile. The Helio- graph has proven unsatisfactory. West Coast Lumberman, Dec. IgIf. Conclusions drawn by F. J. Davis, chair- Fire man of fire committee of Coeur d’Alene Patrol. Timber Protective Association, after six years experience in that office, are interest- ing. Patrolmen are assigned districts varying from 20,000 acres to 60,000 according to topography, fire danger and ease of travel. Equipment of each,—light, ax, short-handled shovel with round point, and small sized water bag. In settled country patrolmen work singly ; in unsettled, two camp together and work in opposite directions. Telephones are best for getting early information. Class of labor employed should be best woodsmen and rivermen for they are familiar with fire fighting tools and are less liable to become excited or nervous. It is impossible to get too many Periodical Literature. 293 men on a fire line. Care of a fire after putting it under control is constant vigilance, burying smouldering roots, falling old stubs, and searching and falling defective trees in heavy timber. The best methods of working men is by the hour rather than by the day ; no night work except watchmen, and not more than 10 hours a day. Night work is unsatisfactory and ineffective; the ideal time to fight fire is from daylight to the middle of forenoon, be- ginning again at about 4 o'clock and working until dark. Wages should be a little higher than local wages but not high enough to suggest setting fire in order to prolong the job. In Idaho the legal rate per day for fire fighters is $2.50 and subsistence. Pay- ing men at once in money is conducive of better help. Canadian Lumberman and Woodworker, January, 1912. Dr. Hedgcock of the Bureau of Plant In- Tree Diseases dustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in has given us a second paper on this subject, National Forests. in which he briefly discusses the prevalence in the western forests of a number of trunk and root fungi, largely belonging to the Polyporaceae. None of the species are new to science, but the complete records of the hosts of both hardwood and coniferous trees which the various fungi are known to inhabit throw much further light on the dis- tribution of the wood-rotting forms. ‘The work is based on data and specimens available in the Laboratory of Forest Pathology, Washington, D. C., and on the writer’s personal experience for several years past in the western forests. The following fungi are reported as causing diseases of de- ciduous trees: Polyporus dryophilus Berk., causing a piped heart — rot of oaks, and particularly abundant and destructive in the southwest; Fomes everhartii (Ell. & Gall.) Schr. & Spauld., pro- ducing a brown to white heart rot of both red and white oaks, walnut and mesquite; Fomes igniarius (L,.) Gill. on many species of trees in fifteen genera, causing the well-known white heart rot with black or brown margin; Polyporus texanus (Murr) on mesquite, where it is often associated with Fomes everhartii; Fomes nigricans Fr. which as it occurs on Betula in Minnesota, is apparently only an abortive form of F. everhartit; Fomes ap- planatus (Pers) Wallr., rarely found on living trees, but readily 294 Forestry Quarterly. decaying dead portions of trunks and roots of at least forty species, including several conifers; Fomes fasciatus (Sw.) on mature pecan trees and a few other species in the southern states ; Polyporus sulphureus Fr., causing a reddish-brown rot in twenty- eight host species, about one-third of which are conifers; Fomes fraxinophilus Pk. on various species of ash; and Fomes robiniae Murr. on two of the three American black locusts. Coniferous species comprise the greater part of the natural forests of the western United States and it is estimated that two to ten per cent. of the mature trees are attacked by fungi and rendered worthless. In some localities such species as Pinus monticola, Tsuga heterophylla, Abies grandis, A. lasiocarpa, and Pseudotsuga taxifolia suffer to the extent of fifty to seventy-five per cent. The most destructive decay of the heartwood of conifers is the common “pocket rot” due to Trametes pini (Brot.) Fr. This fungus probably occurs on nearly all species of conifers, except junipers. The disease is said to communicate from tree to tree through the roots. Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. stands next in im- portance, producing in many conifers a root and basal trunk rot which is of a red-brown color and breaks up into coarse cubes. Fomes laricis (Jacq.) Murr. is a common heart rot in several conifers, but particularly on the larch in the northwest and pines in the southwest. Polyporus amarus Hedgc., which causes the “peckiness’’ of Incense Cedar in Oregon and California, is found affecting fifty to ninety per cent. of the old trees. Of the Hydnaceae two species are mentioned, Echinodontium tinctorium EK. & E. being abundant in the west on firs, spruce, Douglas fir, and western hemlock, causing a separation of the annual rings. Among the Agaricaceae a form identical with, or closely related to, Lentinus lepideus Fr. occurs on living and dead conifers. The heart rotting fungi of conifers enter largely through wounds, and. in the arid southwest the production of sporophores seems very limited. Notes on Some Diseases of Trees in our National Forests. II. Phyto- pathology, April 1912. 2:73-80. Periodical Literature. 295 In a paper before the Chestnut Tree Bark Chestnut Disease Conference at Harrisburg, Pa., on Bark February 20, 1912, attention is called by C. Disease. lL, Spear to promising methods of treating ornamental and orchard chestnut trees suf- fering from this much-discussed epidemic. It is unfortunate that State and Federal workers have had to devote so much time to locating and destroying infected trees and so little to research on the life history of the fungus concerned. When it was learned during the past year that the mycelium invaded the outer zone of the sapwood the difficulty of treatment was increased, but Collins shows by experiments that completely cutting out the diseased areas of bark and wood with a sharp gouge and treating the wound with tar or lead paint results in rapid healing over the excised area. If shellac or creosote is used . as a first dressing it should soon be followed by the thicker com- pounds. The wounds largely heal from the sides, the newly- formed fibers sometimes bending 80° from their normal longi- tudinal direction. or this reason the incisions should be pointed above and below. The destruction of the infected chips is a very necessary sanitary measure, as the fungus will persist in them even through hot summer droughts. The possibility of developing immune varieties of the American chestnut is doubtful. Importations from northern Asia and Japan have given good results, but the trees are small and the fruit inferior in quality. Perhaps, in time, a satisfactory hybrid can be secured. The systematic position of the fungus, named by Murrill Dia- porihe parasitica, has been discussed by various authors. A few years ago Rehm placed it in the genus Valsonectria, but American mycologists, such as Farlow, Clinton and Shear, think it more closely related to Endothia, although distinct from E. Gyrosa (Schw.). The exact relation of the European Endothia radicalis (Schw.) to Diaporthe parasitica Murr. is still in doubt, although some American writers consider these two species of Endothia as synonymous. Further studies are being conducted along this line in order to clear up the nomenclatorial difficulties, and as Dr. 296 Forestry Quarterly. Shear is at present in Europe it is hoped that he will be able to throw more light on the question on his return. Collins, J. F. Treatment of Orchard and Ornamental Trees. Am. Lumberman 1912. 34-.2 Mr. 1912. __ a The Chestnut Bark Fungus, Diaporthea parasitica. Phytopathology. April, 1912. I1:88-809. Smith and Hoxie, Special Inspectors for “Dry Rot? the Associated Mutual Fire Insurance Com- im panies of Boston bring vividly to the atten- Buildings. tion of engineers and builders in this day of increasingly inferior lumber products the need of more careful selection and preparation of structural tim- bers for factories. ‘They call to mind the report of Prof. Woolson regarding the sudden failure, during a fire in 1909, of the heavy white oak posts supporting the floors of the Gledhill Wall Paper Factory of New York City. ‘This was due to decay at the upper ends of the timbers: where encased by the metal caps which joined the posts and girders. Even more striking is the recent experience of the Canadian Spool Cotton Co. in their factory at Maisonneuve, Quebec, in which decay had so far progressed in the southern pine frame timbers that these had to be replaced with steel after four years service. ‘The first defect was noticed two years after the mill was begun, when the floors began to settle, due to the crushing in of the three-inch block fillers between the posts of each story. The history of the structure and the method of construction and operation explain the cause of failure, and these obvious defects should be remedied by future builders. The timbers consisted to a large extent of inferior wide-ringed southern-pine, instead of the heavier close-ringed longleaf which the specifications called for, and the material was piled out all winter exposed to the snows and outside infection. The floor beams were placed in pairs with a seven-eighths inch space between, and on top of these was laid a heavy floor. To further improve the conditions for decay, the space between the floor beams was battened and the floor above was kept moist by the fine spray developed in the operation of the machinery. Hardly more favorable conditions for the develop- ment of fungi could be imagined! The writers suggest that the decay was produced by Merulius tad Periodical Literature. 297 lachrymans, but the evidence is very doubtful. After a discus- sion of the need for close-grained, properly seasoned, resinous pine, or, in case of inferior timbers, of a suitable preservative treatment, in important structures, the writers conclude with the statement that the increasing prevalence of “dry rot” in England, Germany and America is probably due to the increasing use of poorer lumber. Rapid Destruction of Timber Beams from Dry Rot. Eng. News, IgII. 66 :727-729, figs. 1-4. 21 D Dry Rot the Cause of Collapse of a Factory Building during a Fire. Eng. News, 1909. 62:620-621, figs. 1-3. 2 D. Under the name ‘Kulba’ a new patented New preservative material is being introduced in Preservative. Germany. It is a solution of sodium zincate. Hitherto alkaline solutions were tabooed as destroying the wood fiber, but this material contains besides the zinc, an excess of free alkali. It reacts neutral and does not at- tack the wood fiber. Apparently the albuminoids of the wood cells act as protective colloid which prevents the sedimentation of the zinc-oxide, while the alkaline zinc solution kills the living cells of the fungus. The material is colorless, non-poisonous and non-odorous, and, moreover, is very much cheaper than any of the other preserva- tives and claimed to be more effective, the cost of Kulba com- paring with zinc chlorate as 1.14:18. It may also be used as an insecticide, and reduces inflammability of wood. It is manufactured by Hartman and Schwerdtner at Gross- schonau, Saxony. Ein neues Holzschutzmittel. Wolzkaufer. April, 1911. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. Dr. Dock points out that in accurate sur- New veys the use of short measures like chain Line and steel tape gives rise to various errors Measure. on account of the necessity of applying them frequently on long lines, on account of kink- ing, Baines of length due to temperature difficulty of straighten- ing and other accidents due to topography. ‘To overcome this a 298 Forestry Quarterly. wire rope appears serviceable of a diameter of 2.5 mm. (.0984 inch) consisting of 42 fine wires, 6 strands, 7 wires to the strand, with a hemp core, 300 feet long weighing about 44 lbs. The sub- divisions are noted by a small brass bullet soldered on, on which the reading is impressed on a flattened part of the bullet. The ends are treated like those of a steel tape with stout ring through which a stretcher stick can be passed. The ring is connected with the rope by a swivel. To the other end is attached a dyna- mometer (apparently constructed on the principle of a spring balance) provided also with a ring through which the stretcher stick is passed. ‘This dynamometer permits a constant stretch for every measurement, the most satisfactory having been found to be 20 Kg. The author has subjected this measure to careful tests and with considerable mathematical apparatus determined its errors, and has found that in regard to accuracy it lies between steel tape and lath measurements. Due to its length the errors of laying the measure on out of line and of frequency of laying on are reduced; due to its lightness and the considerable and uniform stretch to which it can be subjected (20 Kg) no kinking is experienced; temperature influences are no more unfavorable than on other measures ; topographic inequalities do not influence it, especially when used with a clinometer. A long series of trial measure- ments is given to show its accuracy. Die Lingenmessung mit dem Drahtseil. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1912. Pp. 116-128. A map to be used in the management of a Forest Maps forest property should according to Dr. in Glaser possess the following qualifications: Germany. 1. Delineation of the topography; 2. The stand and type relations: 3. Clearness and comprehensiveness ; 6. Ease of reproduction and durability. The contour interval in‘German forest maps varies from five to twenty meters. Contours are considered necessary on account of their value in delineating the forest types and in planning road systems and cutting operations. The scale most commonly em- ployed is 1:10,000. The kinds of roads and trails, the character of ownership, and the location of villages, cultivated fields, and points of aesthetic interest are shown in great detail. : sive , . : a 4 - — t ee ee ee Se ee 1 Ce Periodical Literature. 299 As a basis for management the logging units, the species, the age of the stands, the site quality, and the density are all set forth on the best forest maps. Three methods of representing this data may be employed namely: Color for species and tones for age; color for species and hatching for age; symbols for species and colors for age. The latter method is considered best by the author. An elabo- rate set of symbols are given for differentiating the different ecies. Non-productive soil is indicated by an absence of color- ing. Age is shown by varying the tones of the basic color. Site quality is indicated by roman numerals and density by arabic numerals. The cutting areas are shown by hatching and the working sections are bounded by a special form of border. In order to make sure that maps will last for ten or twenty years they should be mounted on linen or prepared on a special form of paper into which linen threads are compressed. For ease of re- production the base map of which an indefinite number of copies can be readily made should contain all permanent features such as topography, roads, and ownership lines. Then it is only neces- sary to add by hand work the coloring and symbols which indicate the more ephemeral characters. Die Herstellung forstlicher Bestandsiibersichts-und Wirtschaftskarten. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1912, pp. 10-27. Oberforster Fischer develops in a very neat Approximating and easy manner the possibility of solving Compound compound interest calculations without in- Interest. terest tables or logarithms, quickly and suf- ficiently approximately for the purpose of gaining an insight into financial relations. He starts by showing that capital doubles, i. e. 1.0p"=2. if np (or 100 log 2)=70 approximately. E. g. with 2 per cent. capital doubles in 70 : 2=35 years with 2.5 per cent capital doubles in 70 : 2.528 years with 3 per cent. capital doubles in 70 : 3=23.5 years Again to treble, quadruple, etc.; the capital, i. e. 19 300 Forestry Quarterly. 1.op"= 3. the constant np (or 100 log 3)=110 appr. Diff. I.op"= 4, the constant np ==140 30 I.op"= 5, the constant np a2 1Go 20 I.op"=— 6, the constant np =180 20 I.op"= 7, the constant np =195 15 1.op"= 8, the constant np =210 15 I.op"= 9, the constant mp =220 10 1.op"=10, the constant np ==230 10 This is an easily memorized logarithmic table. If np doesMOee” coincide with any of these values, a simple interpolation between two values is possible: e. g. 1.02580=7.3. since np=200, and 200 >195=100 log 7 - <210=100 log 8 Various logarithmic relations can then be used to secure solutions lying outside of these given numbers. E. g. when in the funda- mental equation 1.op"=C. C is the unknown, say 1.041°=x since p—40—110—70=—100 log (3) , hence X=1.5 app. (1.48 exactly). Similarly. 1.031°°—= x .:; since np=300=230+70=100 log (10x2), hence x=20 (19.2). If in the equation m is unknown e. ; 70X4 £. LOgs*==.. 16068 |: since G neatly, 162-34, eta 80 (pre- cisely) ; or again 1.03*=1.8.: since C =~ hence xe =20 (precisely). The shortcuts for the various rent formulae are worked out and examples in application given. We give one of the latter: The celebrated Spessart oak brought for I class logs in 1836, 23 Mk; in 1907, 185 Mk; what is the price increment rate in the 71 years 185 1.OP = waceneeg 100 log 8.0 210 ue a appr.—2.96 (2.98 actually) / The author believes that for a clearer understanding of forest- valuation and statics at least this short cut procedure may be help- ful. Zur Zinseszinsrechnung. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. January, IgI2. Pp. 11-109. Periodical Literature. 301 The question of proper forest taxation has Forest lately agitated the forestry world of Ger- Taxation. many and Austria, as that of the United States, although from different points of view. Some fundamental principles have lately been decided by the Austrian courts which may eventually become objects of ad- judication with us. Hence we brief a long article by Dr. v. Bauer the subject. The main question is what constitutes the taxable property. Where income tax is levied as in Austria and most German States, the income of the preceding year or the average for the last three years serves as basis. The next question arises, what is the tax- able forestal income. Should it be the actual or that which under proper management may be secured, or the net annual value increment? ‘The first position is that taken by the Austrian law. This raises the question whether or not the sale of stock capital beyond the annual increment or proper budget is not merely a sale of property, hence the amount received not taxable because not income. Originally the courts recognized that “the soil with the stock of timber necessary for an orderly management is the source of the income, the property.” But in 1906 court decisions have entirely reversed the attitude and declared that the soil alone is the pro- ductive source and that the so-called wood capital can in no way be counted as anything but product, which, to be sure, the owner can harvest earlier or later: the soil rent is the basis or object of forestry. For purposes of taxation, therefore, the fact that in ' civil law grass, trees, fruit and other useful products of the earth, as long as they are not separated from the soil, are considered immoveable property, has no bearing upon the question whether these are, when separated, sources of income, or form income themselves. Any income resulting from fellings, whether eco- nomically sound or not is subject to tax; the question of ripeness has nothing to do in the case. ‘The distinction between mature and not mature stands, since it only expresses what portion of the forest may be exploited with due regard to annual increment and to maintenance of a given wood volume, has significance only as regards equality or inequality of the annual yield, but is no cri- 302 Forestry Quarterly. terion for the question whether the harvested wood is an income or a consumption of capital.” It is only an anticipation of a harvest according to the preference of the owner. But as long as the increment is either voluntarily or through force of cir- cumstances left to accumulate, and is not turned into an income it is also not taxable. A number of cited cases give opportunity for discussing argu- ments pro and con. ‘The theory of the stock capital is in every case demolished, a surprising fact from the standpoint of forest > management. (And this in the country where the normal forest idea had its birth in the tax collector‘s office. Ed.) The author then cites authorities, legal and forestal, who recog- nize that soil alone is not the producer of forest crops, the wood stock being a necessary concomitant; he also cites decisions of Prussia courts, which recognize the wood stock as productive capital, but admits that nothing but a definite declaration in the law can alter the adjudication. Das forstliche Jahreseinkommen, etc. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. January, I912. Pp. 3-23. The Timberman offers a suggestion for the Forest creation of a system of timber taxation Taxation. which might be an improvement over the present inequitable methods. ‘ Briefly the plan contemplates simply an addition to the present method of taxation. The election of the system would be optional with the timber owner. Its salient features are: I. Creation of non-operative timber zones which could include timber lands not required for immediate operation. 2. Assess the timber and the land in the non-operative zones separately. 3. The land tax to be imposed and collected by the county annually. 4. The timber tax to be imposed annually and deferred timber tax certificates bearing six per cent. interest, issued against the timber. 5. Interest on deferred timber tax certificates to be collected Periodical Literature. 303 annually in the same manner and at the same time that the land taxes are collected. 6. The deferred timber tax certificates would be a lien against the property. 7. In case of fire destroying the timber upon which deferred timber tax certificates were issued the county would have the right to lien on any other property, to insure payment of principal and interest. 8. When the owner desires to cut the timber he must first notify the county tax collector, 60 days prior thereto, and pay all accrued principal and interest due on said lands before commencing oper- rations. ‘The county shall release such units as desired. 9. The timber shall be re-assessed every five years. 10. The present provisions in the law regarding delinquent taxes would apply under this system. 11. When the timber is cut the state may elect to purchase the land by the payment of the assessed valuation plus the taxes and the interest. The apparent advantages of this system are: The county receives the annual tax on the land, and through the sale of the deferred timber tax certificates, also the principal of the tax on the timber. The timber owner is not compelled to cut his timber regardless of physical or market conditions to prevent practical confiscation. The state is assured the acquisition of the land for reforestation or agricultural purposes, at a fair price and pre-determined price. The lands best adapted for cultivation could be sold for homes _and the rough, broken, mountainous land utilized for reforestation purposes. Mineral rights should be reserved to the state. The method of timber taxation in British Columbia embodies the above ideas and has produced excellent results. Taxation of timber should be as nearly uniform as possible throughout the state, taking location, yield and quality into con- sideration. The Timberman, January, 1912. 304 Forestry Quarterly. The first Mutual Forest Fire Insurance & Forest Company, as far as we know, has been Fire organized last year or is organizing in Insurance. Sweden under the title Svenska Omsesidiga Forsakringsbolaget Skogseld. Its charter is so drawn, that if by May, 5, 1912, it has not secured at least 500 members and 50,000 Kr ($13,500) insurance, its charter is forfeited. By making the company a mutual association, many difficulties are overcome which have prevented regular insurance companies from taking such risks readily. The premium can be low until experience has shown its proper amount. ‘The valuation of prop- erties can be secured without much expense; cooperation and mutual watchfulness is secured. The premium for the first year has been made one per mille of insurance value. If a railway pass within 50 yards the premium is increased by 40 %; if a charcoal meiler or kiln within that dis- tance the premium is increased 10%. On the other hand, the neighborhood of field, meadow or pasture secures a reduction by 20%. ‘The minimum premium is 2 Kr. (54 cents). The highest risk taken is 3 of the forest value. The valuation is based upon the owner’s own estimate or under some circumstances on that of an expert employed by the asso- ciation at the expense of the insurer. ‘The damage is appraised by a committee of two, chosen, one by the insured, one by the asso- ciation, who, if they cannot agree, choose a third member from outside of the locality, who, however, may not award a higher nor a lower damage than the two original appraisers. Finally, there may be an appeal to the courts. Skogsbrandforsakningsfragan. Skogsvardsforeningens ‘Tidskrift. De- cember, 1911. Pp. 462-464. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. At St. Joe, Idaho, a flume was constructed Five-mile for floating down saw-logs, piling 80 feet Log Flume long, and boom sticks 40 feet long. The in Idaho. flume is about 5 miles long built through a rough rocky canyon, with an average grade of 11% and with curves so great as 20 degrees. The grade line Penodical Literature. 305 varies from 2% at the lower end to 15% at the upper. A wagon road was first built up the gulch to transport a small saw-mill which was to cut the lumber for construction of the flume. All the lumber used was cut by this mill and floated down in the new flume to the lower end as the construction work progressed. The flume is built V-shaped with bents of 4 x 8 timber every 16 feet carrying 5 x Io stringers, on which brackets having 4 x 6 sills and arms, and 3 x 6 braces are placed. ‘These brackets form the frame work of the V-shape box which is made of 2 inch plank and battoned on the outside with 14 x 4 inch stuff. The upper 14 miles has sides 48 inches high and brackets placed mostly 2 feet apart because logs were to be loaded into the flume from both sides all along this distance. For this reason too the grade line was kept close to the ground. For the rest of the distance, 34 miles, the sides were 54 inches high. Considerable grading, rock-work, bridging, and cribbing was required on ac- count of crookedness of the gulch and the danger from high water. Round pole supports were placed between each 16-foot bent on all low bents, while on high bents the distance was shortened up to 12 feet. The latter were built with three and four posts to the bent, and 2 x 6 lateral bracing was used. The same size sway bracing was used on all bents. On the curves brackets were placed 2 feet apart, and the boxes shortened to ease the curve; on 10 degree curves the boxes were jointed every 12 feet ; between ro and 15 degree curves, jointed every 8 feet; and where over 15 degrees, every 6 feet. Feeders, flat-bottomed, were taken from the creek and its branches every half to three-fourths miles where grades were ~ ‘steep. Total cost of the flume including feeders and necessary dams averaged about $7,500 per mile. This includes cost of engineer- ing, right of way, clearing, bridging, cribbing, rock-work, grading and lumber. About 300,000 feet, all low grade, timber was used in construction. The Timberman, January, 1912. 306 Forestry Quarterly. The Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forst- Wood wesen brings from time to time reports of Prices the actual sales of standing timber, with in prices that have been obtained. These Switzerland. sales are made in the small communal forests and refer to standing trees, differ-, entiated by species and size class, the buyer to fell and work up, the measurements being made after felling; remarks as to cost or at least chances of transportation, etc., are added. Also prices for logs and worked up wood are given. For spruce and fir the prices for standing trees move between 14 and 28 cents per cubic foot; for felled trees only about 2 cents ‘more; for logs (measured within bark) between 18 and 31.5 cents. The cost of transportation to nearest station seems to lie between 2 and 5 cents per cubic foot. Hardwoods are very much higher in price. Ash trees bring over 40 cents; oak logs up to over 60 cents. Fuelwood ranges from $7-$9 per cord. ~YIm December, ror1r, January, 1912 erzielte Preise. | Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forstwesen. Pp. 32-36. A report on the movement of the wood Market trade records that in spite of war scare, im crises in stock markets, dear money, and South high prices, increases in industrial develop- Germany. ment are noticeable in I9QIT. The volume of trade on the whole showed by end of October an increase of 6%, and in wood alone of 3 per cent. In the labor market after May the demand continued to exceed the supply. Wood prices for logs, long timber, and pulp wood rose; drouth, with its consequent low water conditions aid- ing in depression of the latter article. But lumber prices are ruled by the world market and did not show the same advance. Zur Lage des Holzmarktes in Siiddeutschland. Schweizerische Zeit- schrift fiir Forstwesen. January, I912. Pp. 30-32. Periodical Literature. 307 Whoever wants to become acquainted with German the remarkable development not only of the Wood wood industries but the means of trans- Industries portation of the wood trade in Germany, and should read the report of the journey of Trade. Austrian foresters as part of a commercial course instituted for the government for- esters. This course lasts three months, of which two to three weeks are devoted to a longer trip under competent guidance. The German waterways are developed to the highest efficiency facilitating cheap transportation for bulky wood goods. Electric machinery everywhere for rapid loading and unloading; specially organized operators ; canals connecting all the rivers; shipbuilding establishments for river traffic of astonishing capacity; large river harbors and boom rooms (the small river Brahe, an affluent of the Vistula carries $10,000,000 worth of goods annually, in which are 35 million cubic feet of wood); cooperation of municipal and State governments; fixation of sand dunes; factories in which machine work displaces almost entirely hand labor, etc., all the complex commerce of the northeastern part of the Prussian monarchy was the object of the study trip. Der Kommerzielle Kurs fiir Staatsforstbeamten, ro1r. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. February, 1912. Pp. 82-92. At the risk of repetition the following brief Paving summary of the paving-block is submitted. Blocks. The wooden block pavement is laid with the end grain up, otherwise exactly like brick upon concrete foundation costing $1 to $1.10 per square yard. ‘The blocks are 3, 34 and 4 inches thick, cut from 4 x 6, 4 x 8 or 4 x 10 sound timber; are treated at creosoting plants with either the 16-pound or 20-pound treatment. In hot weather blocks with 20-pound treatment are likely to “bleed.” When they average 174 lbs. the following prices per sq. yard are quoted: 16-Pound Treatment. 3 inch blocks, $1.51 per sq. yard 34 inch blocks, $1.74 per sq. yard 308 Forestry Quarterly. 20-Pound Treatment. 3 inch blocks, $1.62 per sq. yard 34 inch blocks, $1.87 per sq. yard Block pavements costs about 12 cents more than brick. It is claimed they are smooth, wear smooth, never chip, do not store heat, never slippery, reduce noise of traffic, easy on hoofs and tires, no cost of maintenance. Southern Industrial and Lumber Review, February, 1912. Formerly willow was used almost exclu- Wooden Shoe _ sively for manufacturing wooden shoes but mn the scarcity of this wood brought Poplar Europe. into use. It requires about 1 cubic meter for 100 pairs of shoes of ordinary sizes. A cubic meter equals 35.32 cubic feet and costs about $6.00. The wholesale price of the shoes is 12 cents. One workman can make 12 to 15 pairs per day. Relatively few wooden shoes are made by machinery ; it requires hand work to give them the satisfactory finish. Woodcraft, February, 1912. The custom of quarter sawing oak is of Quarter-Sawed only recent origin. In 1871 an Englishman Oak named Thayer, in designing the city hall of History. Providence, R. I. suggested that oak sawed on the quarter be used for the interior finish, He had heard of a similar finish recently used in England. The contractors secured the material from Jacob L. Rumbarger, Monroe County, Indiana. The best white oak logs were used and great pains exercised in sawing the lumber accurately. It was years afterwards that quarter-sawed oak was used in furniture manufacture. Hardwood Record, January, 1912. Periodical Literature. 309 STATISTICS AND HISTORY. The official statistics of the forest adminis- Baden tration of Baden for 1909 have appeared Statistics. and show an advance in all directions over : those reported for 1904 (see F. Q. vol. VI, p. 199). The total forest area of the State has increased to 1,445,600 acres, of which 248,000 are State property, but nearly 600,000 acres more of municipal and corporation forests are under direct State control, leaving only 674,000 acres, or 40%, in private hands. The cut in the State forests has increased to 108.7 cubic feet per acre, with a work wood per cent. of 40.7%. ‘The net money return for wood alone has increased per acre to $7.40 from $3 in 1881, although prices have in the last two years gone back. ‘The best cuts of spruce and fir during the last 10 years averaged 17.5 cents per cubic foot, for pine, larch and beech 24 cents, for oak Over 50 cents, the smallest logs selling at 5.6, 10.5, and for oak even 47 cents respectively less. While in 1878 the forest capital figured at 2.5% was $21 million, in 1909 it was nearly $50 million, an increase in 32 years of 135 per cent. Statistishe Nachweisungen aus der Forstverwaltung des Grossherzog- tums Baden ftir 1909. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. March, 1912. Pp. 99-101. At an exposition by the mine districts at Swedish Orebro, Sweden, statistical tables of interest Statistics. were exhibited, from which the following data are reproduced. Of the 101.5 million acres of total land area about 12 million is in farms, and nearly 16 million mountain waste, leaving 72.8 million acres in forest. Of this 78.2% is private, 21.8% State forest (in 1905). A table comparing forest areas of the European countries makes out Sweden, with 47.6% of land area and 9.76 acres per capita, by far the best wooded. ‘The mine forests with around 7.2 million acres are, to the extent of 93.8%, privately owned, 570,000 acres of which only are under State supervision. The increase in State forest area by purchase during the last 40 years is striking, the growth from quinquennium to quinquen- 310 Forestry Quarterly. nium being given. It increased steadily from 425,794 hectar in 1870 to 4,588,588 hectar in 1910 (over 11,000,000 acres), the largest purchases having been made around the year 1900. The cost per acre varied from $3.33 to $11.55 per acre in the quin- quennial averages. A comparison of expenditures and annual cut reveals remark- able disproportions. In Saxony, with a cut of 284,000 cubic feet per revier the expense for personnel alone is $1.33 per acre; in Wurtemberg with a cut of 695,000, the personnel expense is 82 cents ; in Prussia with a cut of 575,000 the expense is 76 cents per acre; while in Sweden with a cut of 1,775,000 cubic feet per dis- trict, the personnel expense is only 3.4 cents per acre. Even the mine forests incur a greater expense for service than the State with II cents on a cut of somewhat over one million feet per dis- trict. Curves showing the incomes, expenditures and net results in five to five year periods show as steady growth of net income as the growth in area, the small income of 1870-74 with $115,000, had in 1905-9 grown to over $1,200,000. A very interesting profit calculation for two characteristic single districts (Kronopark) shows the great difference when dealing with a district which at once furnishes a budget to be offset against the purchase money and interest (at 3.6%) as compared with a district of waste and young growth. The former had in 12 years almost paid for itself, while the latter, of course, had only ac- cumulated expense and interest. Bergslagsdistriktets Kolleklivutstallning, etc. Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift. December, I911. Pp. 441-459. The extent of the waste lands in the hands Waste of the government on October 1, 1908, was Land 69,585 acres, to which in 1909 were added in 2,121 acres by purchase and exchange, and Prussia. 16,030 acres were planted up, leaving still 55,076 acres to be reclaimed. In 1910, a further acquisition of 9,750 acres is recorded but the planting reduces the area by 18,342 acres, leaving a balance of 47,084 acres to reclaim. 2 fal ES Bs) Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. January, 1912. Pp. 63, 64. —K—Le Periodical Literature. 311 MISCELLANEOUS. At the annual meeting of the German Forestry Foresters Association at Konigsberg the Education question of forestry education in continu- mn ation courses was discussed at length and Germany. led to the appointment of a special com- mittee to which all propositions for exten- sion of educational means are to be referred for report in 1913. Wappes, the chairman of the committee which was to act as referees at the present meeting, had in a number of articles in the Allgemeine Forst und Jagdzeitung discussed the principles of a good educational system. ‘The main question is the manner in which the education after the academic courses is to be continued, practically as well as theoretically. The lack of knowledge in many directions, which in spite of a good school education, remains is pointed out. “It is a mistake to call the forester’s activity a practical profession—as in all other technical professions, basing every piece of work on scientific principles becomes more and more necessary.” Extension work, as in other professions de- veloped is needed. A high grade school education is useless, if the work is not continued in the same high grade spirit. The speaker also desires to develop the faculty of appearing in public —character and professional knowledge for best executive work. The continuation work should be merely an opportunity furnished by the government, not obligatory. One of the co-referees points out the lack of interest of the practitioner in the literature, books as well as magazines, except for the government’s subscribing for the latter ; the book market is described as very bad, also the lack of interest of old officials in the improvement of their younger colleagues is censured. The overburdening with routine work is acknowledged. Improvement in this direction, and libraries for every district are advocated. For Prussia an expenditure of $215,000 is advocated, against which a saving of twice that amount may be effected by reduction of unnecessary clerical work, etc. Increased activity of the Foresters Association is also advocated. Traveling under guidance, or traveling scholarships are dis- cussed. 312 Forestry Quarterly. Other matters discussed show that the “insurgent spirit’? has taken possession of the German forestry world, and that not all things are as they ought to be in the fatherland of forestry. Much is to be learned by us from these discussions. Die XII Hauptversammlung des Deutschen Forstvereins. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1912. Pp. 27-47. As a result of the above cited discussions the forest academy Eberswalde instituted a trial continuation course of six days duration, namely from the 1oth to 15th July, 1911. It consisted of only five set three-quarter-hour lectures and the rest of the time was devoted to excursions under proper guidance, provo- cative of discussions. ‘The gist of the lectures has been briefed and printed in separates. It was found that to be successful the maximum number of forty hearers must not be exceeded, and that those attending should be advised beforehand, at least a week before, and in detail of the questions that will be discussed, by means of a printed guide; also that too much was crowded into the six days. Otherwise, the undertaking was a great success, and attendance being non-compulsory, the interest did not flag. Theory and practice were bridged, as Dr. Moeller put it in his welcome, by having practitioners meet with the professors. The lectures were, each by an expert: Rainfall distribution in North Germany and its causes; Wood import and its relation to general economic conditions; Old and new methods of securing mixed stands; New methods in soil investigation; Influence of time on plant growth. At the excursions the aim was to have definite problems brought to view and to discussion after a short statement of the surrounding conditions. From the printed abstracts we may brief elsewhere only a few points of interest under their appropriate headings. Der Fortbildungskursus der Forstakademie Eberswalde. Zeitschrift fir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. February, March, 1912. Pp. 77-105; 161-170. Experience in German forest administra- Forester tions, according to Schilling, has shown that a auctioning woodsales does not produce Merchant. proper market prices on account of “rings”’ among bidders: the forester must make the price! Hence he must know general trade condtions—the market a ee ae Periodical Literature. 313 —and he must be able to judge beforehand the trend of the market. In Germany the import trade is a good measure of the trend of the market. The causes for ups and downs in the market are discussed and the relation of various industrial phases to the wood trade shown in curves. There is a striking coincidence in the curves of rises and depressions, especially between wood im- port and wood prices. The necessity for the managing forester to keep himself in touch with the changes in trade conditions is accentuated. Unsere Holzeinfuhr und ihr Zusammenhang mit der allgemeinen wirt- schaftlichen Lage. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. February, 1912. Pp. 85-95. The detailed rain maps of Germany show, Distribution according to Schubert, that not only the and mountains but even small elevations receive Causes increased rainfall and that the eastern slopes of are in the rainshadow (drier). Forest Precipitation. areas receive a slightly larger rainfall than open areas, the forest having an effect like an elevation of double the tree height. In the North German plain summer rains prevail, frequently ac- companied by thunder storms and hail storms, with a maximum in July. Nearer the coast of the North Sea both rain maximum and temperature is displaced towards the fall, August being the rainiest month. Die Niederschlagsverbreitung in Norddeutschland und ihre Ursachen. Zeitschrift fir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. February, 1912. Pp. 82-85. Professor Bezold has deciphered a letter Ancient written probably about the year 650 in Wood Assyrian cuneiform writing, which advises Contract. the King of Assyria of the shipment accord- ing to order of “living beams: 372 stout beams, 808 of two generations, 2,313 of three generations, 11,807 of four generations, total 15,200 (should be 15,300) sound, and in addition 13,157 old eaten ones.” Species and place of derivation are not mentioned, probably from the composition of the shipment a virgin stand. Living beams are probably those cut from green timber, while eaten ones 314 Forestry Quarterly. probably from dead trees; generations probably refer to age classes or at least diameter classes. Eine Holzlieferung im assyrischen Reich. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. January, 1912. Pp. 63, 64. OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. Canadian Forestry Journal, VIII, 1912,— Tree Planting in Southern Alberta. Pp. 42-47. Canadian Pulp Woods. Pp. 48-50. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, VI, 1912,— Experiments on Trees at Colesborne. Pp. 83-111. The Structure of the Timbers of Some Common Genera of Coniferous Trees. Pp. 112-134. The Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, X, 1912,— The Degradation of Mechanical Wood Pulp During Stor- age. Pp. 80-84. Pulp and Paper Industry in British Columbia. Pp. 97-98. The Need for a Canadian Experimental Pulp and Paper Plant. Pp. 115-1109. Rod and Gun in Canada, XIII, 1912,— Final Report of the Ontario Game and Fisheries Commis- sion, I909-I9II. Pp. 1413-1508. The Ohio Naturalist, XII, 1912,— Key to the Fruits of the Genera of Trees of the Northerw United States. Pp. 506-512. The Botanical Gazette, LIII, 1912,— The Morphology of Leitneria Floridana. Pp. 189-203. ee Other Periodical Literature. 315 Ray Tracheids in Abies. Pp. 331-338. Do the Abietineae Extend to the Carboniferous? Pp. 339- 344. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1912,— Varieties of Willows. Pp. 906-915. Descriptions of best varieties for basket-making purposes. The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, XXIII, 1912,— A Weevil Destructive to Pine Trees. Pp. 55-56. White Ants Attacking Australian Sleepers. Pp. 237. The Gardeners’ Chronicle, LI, 1912,— British Elms. Pp. 199; 216-217. 20 NEWS AND NOTES. An “Act to Amend the Conservation Law and in Relation to Lands and Forests’ has recently become a law in New York State, the Bill being prepared by the Conservation Commission. The more important provisions are: Section 88, giving the Conservation Commission power to examine any private forest or woodland with the view to the ap- plication of forestry methods, “to the end that the water power of the State may be conserved, forests protected, and the public interests safeguarded ;” Section 89, providing for taxation relief when waste land is reforested by private owners; Section 102 and 103, providing for a State-wide inspection of railroad locomotives and fire patrol in forest sections ; Section 105, permitting inspectors to remove from service engines without adequate fire protection devices ; Section 106, providing for suitable spark arresting devices on all portable and stationary engines used in forest sections. Other distinct features of the new law cover provisions for the setting of fires at any time for the clearing of land after proper permits have been obtained, and changes in the title of Fire Super- intendent to District Forest Ranger, and from Fire Patrolman to Forest Ranger, this being a step towards the standardization of terms suggested by Mr. Pinchot. A new feature is found in sec- tion 62, which authorizes the Commission to employ convict labor in the growing and field planting of forest trees, and provides for the transportation by common carriers of nursery stock for re- forestation at less than the established rates. The provisions in the old law for top lopping in lumbering operations have been re- tained, but the application of this provision has been restricted to the so-called fire towns. The position of State Forest Pathologist has been created in New York under the new forestry laws. This innovation is probably the result of the chestnut bark disease, which is very severe in southeastern New York, and has led to a realization of the danger to the State forests which may follow a serious forest tree disease of any species. News and Notes. 317 The Agricultural Appropriation Bill, in the form in which it passed the House, did not include the appropriation of $1,000,000 asked for by the Forest Service for emergency fire fighting. The Forest Service expended about $900,000 in fighting the big fires of 1910, this being in excess of their appropriation and was covered by Congressional Act. It is of course the hope that the fire season of 1910 will never be duplicated, but even under the improved conditions and with the effective aid rendered by the lumbermen’s fire association, it is unsafe to anticipate that emer- gency funds will not be required. The roads, trails, and telephone lines which are being built by the Forest Service will help very materially in preventing or reducing fire damage; but in the same Bill the current appropriation of $500,000 for this purpose was reduced to $275,000, so that the preparations for preventing and controlling fires cannot go forward as rapidly as is desirable. In view of the loss of $12,000,000 worth of timber in I910 and of 79 fire fighters and 25 settlers, the full appropriation asked for by the Service would be none too large; but it must be remembered that certain members of Congress are still not heartily in sympathy with National Forest work, and we should perhaps be grateful that Congress has granted an appropriation sufficient to maintain an efficient, although inadequate organization. If the half million dollars requested for preventive measures was granted, it would amount to only one-fourth of one per cent. of the value of the timber standing to-day on the National Forests, and certainly no one should begrudge such a nominal expenditure for the protec- tion of resources whose money value approximates over half a billion dollars and whose indirect benefits are incalculable. Bary * 4 SCRE The Forest Service is preparing to issue a folio to contain separate maps of North America, upon each of which will be shown the geographic distribution of a single tree species. This will be the most accurate and exhaustive representation of this subject which has yet been attempted. Such a set, based upon all accessible printed data, is already in existence in the Facutly of Forestry of the University of Toronto, in constant use by the students. 318 Forestry Quarterly. The following item is from the New York Times of April 12, IQI2: Considerable interest is evinced in the New York paper market in the report from Pascagoula, Miss., that the Southern Paper Company has awarded contracts covering the erection of a large paper mill at that place. The plant is on the Escawtapa River, near Moss Point, and when completed will be the largest of its kind in the South. Waste from the mills of the J. L. Dantzler Lumber Company of Moss Point will be utilized as raw material. The Southern Paper Company is capitalized at $750,000, a good part of which represents English investments. The Office of Wood Utilization of the United States Forest Service is making an exhaustive study of the wood-using in- dustries in all the states. The investigation has been concluded already in a number of states and the reports have been published. In others the work is going on, and it is planned to conclude it in every state in the Union as quickly as possible. As a result of all this fundamental work the Forest Service will issue two sets of publications, one dealing with the uses of the principal commercial woods, the other showing the kinds of wood used in the principal wood-consuming industries, such as furniture, agricultural imple- ments, etc. The list so far published includes Washington, Oregon, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Wisconsin, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina and Kentucky. From the Bulletin of the Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture we learn that the export of forest products for I910 amounted to $85,030,230, an increase of $12,587,776 over 1900, although not quite one-tenth of the very much lessened export of farm products. But this export is offset by an import of $178,871,797, an increase of nearly 55 million dollars over 1909 and 81 million dollars over 1908. This includes, to be sure, India rubber and many other articles which we do not produce. Even though the wood preserving industry in the United States has developed at a remarkable rate, or from 11 plants in 1900 to IoI plants in 1911, conditions arise from time to time which News and Notes. 319 threaten to curtail the work under way and the development of new plants. At the present time three conditions, two of them actual and one threatened, are confronting the wood preserving people. ‘The two actual conditions are an increase in the price of British creosote, amounting to about one cent a gallon, and a very marked advance in ocean freight rates, the price on tank steamer charters to American ports having increased as much as six-fold in the last year. The inevitable result is that the American con- sumers, since their oil requirements cannot be met by the domestic producers, must pay materially more for creosote, which leads either to a curtailment in the amount of material treated, a lessen- ing of the amount of oil injected, or, in a few cases, the shutting down of plants. On top of this comes a provision in the Chemical Bill before the Senate imposing a duty of five per cent. on creosote, which would still further increase the price. The question of duty was up some two years ago, when an attempt was made to impose the twenty per cent. called for in existing schedules on manufactured creosote. A muck-raking magazine came out with a scare article on how the Government was being defrauded by the corporations and urging the collection of 20% duty on all imported creosote. This was all very well, but the writer failed to distinguish between the manufactured creosote used for tooth- ache and the by-product creosote imported for wood preserving purposes. The presence of a fraction of a per cent. of chlorine in a cargo or two of oil was made the basis for a claim that creo- sote is a manufactured product, since chlorine is not present in coal gas tar. The amount of chlorine revealed on analysis was so slight as to be insignificant, and its presence was easily ex- ' plained by the washing down of the tanks by sea water and by chemical conditions arising in the by-products distillation. Since the domestic by-product ovens are able to produce less than 30%, or only about 18 million out of the 63 million gallons of creosote used annually in the United States, and as the domestic producers are able to market all of their products at remunerative prices, to impose a duty would not only hamper an important industry, but would curtail a work which perhaps more than any other tends to lessen our timber consumption and conserve our forest resources. 320 Forestry Quarterly. It is but natural that the lumbermen should turn to wood preser- vation as a means of marketing grades and species which are not in active demand untreated. ==2e Prolleanch | ee ick a ie eg Sg ooo Ee ee tae nee 1 Gulden = 40 Faby on Se Seeders erste ig bic ab hig ee Chale te Bec eee re ene 1 Lire * ) }=eee Sweden: amid iNorweaye: ef vee hn a ole ee a ile ee 1 Kroner “= 25 BRIG SIG, | ed i hn fe a 1 Rubel = All Cook’s offices have exchange bureaus attached and give the most favorable rates. It is hardly necessary to warn the tyro to scrutinize his change closely in order to avoid getting bad money. Thanks to the persistency of our British cousins one can travel anywhere in Europe with the English language. It is, or course, eminently desirable to acquire the vernacular, but in hotels, restaurants and representative shops there is almost sure to be someone who maltreats English. This fact helps the American over many rough places in dealing with hotels and restaurants, but a few general facts should go as commentaries to the room and meal prices given in the table. Most hotels require that one eats at least breakfast there. In France and Austria, it is cus- tomary to have breakfast brought to one’s room, but not al- ways without extra charge ; in Germany this is optional and usually costs a trifle more. Except at Pensions, light and heat are usually included in the room price; baths are always extra (374 to 75 cents) and are, sad to say, considered a luxury, (except in the public baths). At restaurants an extra charge is made if nothing to drink is taken—wine and beer is so cheap that one saves by ordering a glass even though it is left untouched. Most restaur- ants have both table d’hote and a la Carte. Avoid carefully ae ee ey European Study for Foresters. 423 restaurants which give no prices on their menu, unless one be- longs in the “Generous” Class; avoid, also, ordering anything which is not on the menu, for the chances are that one will pay dearly for his fancy. For a longer stay, try and secure Pension rates from the hotel (“Arrangement,” the French call it) or else go to a regular Pension which is generally cheaper than a hotel. If traveling with reasonable comfort (II or I*) Cook’s hotel coupons are often a saving especially for the green traveler. Yoy pay cash at any Cook’s office for first-class accommodation, $2.50 per day or $2.00 without luncheon. You receive in return hotel coupons for lodging, light and attendance; for breakfast ; for luncheon; and for dinner. The advantages are manifold. Not only does one save money but one is relieved of all worry regarding overcharges. Often if the room is marked $1.40 one receives it for the room coupon which is nominally worth only $1.00. As a comparison one of the writers compared the cost in Vienna, (a very expensive town by the way), between the (a) hotel prices and (b) the cost of the coupons. The room (a) $1.47 (b) $1.00; breakfast (a) $.30 (b) $.20; luncheon (a) $.60 (b) $.50; dinner (a) $1.00 (b) $80. A total saving of $.97 with the coupons. The hotel must pay 10% to Cooks on all coupons but in return they secure the trade of a great many Eng- lish and American tourists. A favorite method of overcharging is to say that all the reasonable rooms are taken and that only a $2.00 room remains. One disadvantage these coupons are said to have is that one usually gets the poorest rooms during the rush season. On the whole, Austria is more expensive than France or Ger- many. Living in a German town like Dresden costs at least one- third less than in Vienna. One always has to be on the lookout for extras. If one happens to pine for a drink of Scotch and the waiter brings one small “Club’’ decanter, don’t rejoice at its reasonably generous proportions (for one drink) but pour a taste into the diminutive measure, (which looks like a thimble) and pay for one drink instead of five! Etiquette. The etiquette in professional circles in Europe is Gabe Germany, the saying is that only foreigners and actors travel I class. 424 Forestry Quarterly. rather stringent, and hence it is well for the visitor to post him- self in this regard. He will be received with the utmost courtesy and even hospitality 7f he has the proper entree. Hence, before leaving home it is well to supply oneself with letters of introduc- tion both specific and general. It is also well to have regular cre- dentials so that one may at any time “legitimize” oneself. A government commission or a Consular letter serves this purpose. In almost every country of Europe one must, on entering a hotel, fill out a police blank stating name, age and residence, profession and rank. This is not for purposes of espionage but merely “to keep track” of the coming and going of strangers. No register, in the ordinary sense of the word, is kept at any of the hotels. In France and French Switzerland, the general prefix “‘Mon- sieur’ suffices, but in Germany, German Switzerland and in Aus- tria it is distinctly de rigueur to address every man by his proper title. This applies even in hotels and restaurants. e. g. one calls an\' waiter “Herr Ober’”—which is short for Oberkellner (head waiter), just as it is usual to address an ordinary policeman as “sergeant”. Incidentally, it should be remembered that in ad- dressing European policemen—they are always safe and courteous guides—it is customary to touch one’s hat first, whereupon they will salute, and then give the information requested. In the Forest Services of Europe, a sharp line is drawn between Rangers and the Administrative officers. In this respect it is like the difference between our army officers and enlisted men. In France, at least, it is customary to tip Rangers for any service performed, such as carrying coats, cameras, guns, etc. Even in France, if aware of a man’s exact title, it is customary to give it to him—e. g.: “Monsieur le Conservateur”’, “M. I’ In- specteur”’, etc., but, if only the gentleman’s name is known, it quite suffices to merely call him “Monsieur X”. Not so in Ger- many and Austria. There family names are seldom used. The proper form of address is the man’s title with “Herr” before it, thus: “Herr Oberforster.” As a guide to this the ranking titles in Germany and Austria with the approximate American equiva- lents follow: European Study for Foresters. 425 German. Austrian. American. Oberlandforstmeister, Sectionschef, Forester. Landforstmeister, Hofrat, Assistant Forester. Oberforstmeister, Hofrat, District Forester. Forstrat, Oberforstrat, Assistant District Fores- Forstrat, ter. Forstmeister, Forstmeister, Forest Supervisor, (Senior). Oberforster, Forst u. Domanen, Forest Supervisor, Verwalter (Oberf.), (Junior). Forstassessor, Deputy Forest Sup. or Forest Examiner. Forst Referendar, Forest Assistant. Revierforster, District Ranger. Forster, Hegemeister, Forster, Heger, etc., Ranger. Forstaufseher, Forstlehrling, Forest Guard. Gehilfe, etc., Ladies of the household are addressed at “Gnadige Frau” (Gracious lady) or “Gnadiges Fraulein” (Gracious Miss); if in doubt whether married or unmarried, the address simply is “Gnadigste.”’ In France, “Madame” and ‘‘Mademoiselle’” are used. The older generation in Germany still address married ladies by their husband’s titl—e. g.: “Frau Oberforstmeister’, but “Gnadige Frau” answers equally well and is always used in Aus- tria, where however an equally strange custom persists among the older generation—namely the address in the third person. Not, e. g.: “Werden Sie mitgehen, Herr Hofrat?’ (Will you go along, Mr. Assistant Forester?) but “Werden Herr Hofrat mit- gehen?” (Will the Mr. Forester go along?) This also persists in letter writing, the common superscription being Euer (ab- breviated “Ew.” ) Hochwohlgeboren”—(Your highly well born). Among servants the address in the third person is everywhere common. In France: “Quest-ce que Monsieur veut?” (“What does Monsieur wish?) In German: “Was wiinscht der Herr?” (What does the gentleman wish?”’) etc. Special Objects of Trip. European Forestry is too broad a field to be covered thoroughly in a short trip. A general trip is of great value and interest but the most good will result if the visitor specializes along one or more lines in which he is particu- larly interested. These particular lines may be roughly divided into: Education, Forest Experiments, Administration, Silviculture (including Planting), Forest Management (working plans), Forest Protec- 426 Forestry Quarterly. tion, and Technology, (especially Wood Chemistry). Of course these subjects grade into each other and it is not possible—nor desirable—to confine oneself to a single subject to the exclusion of all others. For the teacher of forestry a trip to Europe is almost a neces- sity. As Mr. Graves once said: “In my trips abroad I have found that it was a great benefit to me to see things about which I had read. It gave me confidence in my own knowledge to have verified information first hand.” Unquestionably it broadens the educator’s point of view and puts him in touch with all that has been and is being accomplished in Europe. For the specialist in Forest Experiments a trip to Europe is also of great value. European foresters have, for decades, been conducting systematic experiments along lines which our experi- menters have also adopted. The man engaged in active administration should of course study similar work in Europe and find much of value. In com- mon with all other foresters he should see as much as possible of the work along lines of Silviculture, Forest Management and Forest Protection. For the specialist in any of these three sub- jects there are superb opportunities for detailed study. Similarly the specialist in the uses of wood—particularly from the chemical standpoint—will find the progress of European for- esters along these lines immensely stimulating. Unless one has a very long time—several years—to spend in Europe and a thorough mastery of the language concerned, it does not pay to enroll at a University with the end in view of ob- taining a doctor’s degree there. If the stay is confined to the time necessary to get the degree, (a year at least) it involves re- maining in one place most of the time and hence only a compara- tively narrow grasp of European forestry in general is obtained. Even for the educational specialist this fact should offset the lure of the Dr. title, unless, as stated, he has ample time and means to combine travels with his studies. Incidentally, it is unfortu- nately true that the leading forest schools at present, are not con- nected with any university but are separate “Academies” which do not confer the Dr. or any other degree. Similarly, it is not advisable to enroll as a “special” at one of the Academies, unless the stay abroad is to be for a twelve-month at least, or the pur- European Study for Foresters. 427 pose is merely to freshen up the mind on technical matters and to get in touch with the current and past forestry literature. A semester or even half that time is ample for the purpose and thereafter the studies can be carried on quite independent of any curriculum, and really to better advantage. The lectures, in them- selves, are seldom very stimulating but the acquaintance with the instructors—who are the leaders in European forestry—is most stimulating and an invaluable initiation into the study of forestry abroad. Places to Visit. The places of particular interest to the visi- tor, will, of course, vary with his specialty. Under the subjects given above, they may, however, be grouped somewhat as fol- lows: Education: Forest schools both separate and in connection with Universities. The more important of these are, in France, the “Ecole Nationale des Faux et Forets” at Nancy; in Germany, the Saxon Academy at Tharandt—the oldest in Europe, which celebrates its centenary in 1916—the Prussian Academies at Ebers- walde and Munden, and for Bavaria, the University at Munich; in Austria, the highest ranking school is at the Hochschule fur Bodenkultur in Vienna, but, of special interest are the “inter- mediate schools” at Bruck an der Mur in Steiermark, and at Weisskirchen in Mahren (or ae). Of great interest, also, is the excellent Ranger School at Templin near Berlin. Forest Experiments. This work is organized on an interna- tional co-operative basis, and annual meetings are held at desig- nated places. The leading Experiment Stations are at Zurich in Switzerland, at Eberswalde in Prussia (headquarters of Dr. Schwappach, that veteran leader among experimenters), at Mun- ich, at Mariabrunn near Vienna, and at Nancy in France (possibly to be removed to Paris and its scope greatly extended). Admunistration: ‘The visit of the various executive bureaus— Paris, Munchen, Dresden, Berlin, Vienna, etc. and especially the visiting of headquarters and Ranger stations on representative forests in each country. Needless to say this involves the most complete credentials. For those interested in matters of Forest 428 Forestry Quarterly. Policy, a visit to the distinguished authority, Professor Endres at the University of Munich is very advisable. Silviculture must be studied in the field, and every forest offers something of interest in this line. In the next sub-heading (Special Points of Countries) an attempt is made to give the most characteristic silvicultural and other achievements of each country. It is important, however, that the visitor does not con- fine his studies to Nationally-owned forests, but include those owned privately and communally. Commercial nurseries and seed-extracting plants should not be omitted by the silviculturists. Perhaps the finest seed-extracting plant is that at Annaburg, be- tween Berlin and Dresden, though what is claimed will be an even better one, is being built at Konitz in West Prussia. Both these “Darren” are government-owned, but permission to visit them is readily granted upon presentation of proper credentials. Forest Management—that is Forest Regulation and Working Plans—can best be studied, as far as the theory is concerned, in conjunction with one of the principal forest schools. The lead- ing authority on this subject is undoubtedly Professor Dr. Martin at Tharandt near Dresden. For the actual application, any exe- cutive bureau through its Section of Working Plans will gladly furnish examples of typical working plans and these can then be studied on the ground. In order to obtain a broad grasp of the manifold variations of this fascinating subject, the specialist should aim to pursue his studies in France, Germany and Austria, and should single out typical instances of their characteristic methods of regulating the yield. For a study of the engineering features of Forest Management, the Engineering Section of any of the District offices of the Austrian Forest Service will prove particularly profitable. A mastery of German and French is almost an essential to the Specialist in Management; in the former, German script must also be learned since almost all the working plans are written in that peculiar chirography. Forest Protection is usually to be studied as a concomitant of Silviculture and Administration but to the Specialist in this sub- ject are especially recommended: Protection from Erosion—the European Study for Foresters. 429 Pyrenees and French Alps and the Austrian Alps; Protection from Drifting Sands—the seacoast Dunes of Western France, Northern Germany (also Holland and Belgium); the interior Dunes and shifting sands of Prussia (vicinity of Eberswalde) and of Austria (Adriatic, and Ungarisch Hradisch on the Austro- Hungarian border north of Vienna) ; Pathology—a visit to Prof. Tubeuf at the University of Munich, the greatest vegetable path- ologist since Hartig’s death; Protection from Fire—the pineries of South-Central France. Perhaps the most extensive fire pro- tective system is the Forest of l’Esterel which can be visited from Frejus near Cannes. Algeria has a distinct fire problem; the law governing Algerian forests will be translated into Eng- lish within a year and published in America; Forest Entomology —the combatting of the gypsy moth in Silesia, Saxony and in North Central Bavaria. The insect damage at Nurnberg is in- teresting ; Protection against smoke and gases—this can be studied to excellent advantage in the vicinity of Dresden, Freiberg and other industrial towns of Saxony. Prof. Wislicenus of Tharandt is a recognized authority on the subject. Forest Technology has advanced farthest along the lines of wood chemistry. Perhaps the best laboratory to study this speci- alty is at Tharandt Forst Academie (near Dresden) under the guidance of Prof. Wislicenus. The turpentining in Southern France and near Vienna is a well-developed industry. SprEcIAL Pornts By COUNTRIES. France. In general, French forestry is distinguished for its originality, its naturalness and its comparative freedom from red tape. The Frenchmen seems always to feel what the forests need. In Silviculture, France is the best exponent of the Coppice sys- tems and their conversion into high forest (Nancy). Thinnings from above * are also a French specialty which can best be studied at any of the beech-oak forests given in the appended list. The thinnings in France are usually marked in part under technical supervision, while in Austria, for example, they are *Eclaircie par le haut. 430 Forestry Quarterly. marked by the rangers and sometimes by the woodsmen! One finds more natural regeneration in France than elsewhere, partly because the species and soil (and especially the climate!) is better adapted to it. In Forest Protection, France is probably the best exponent of methods of correcting disastrous floods. The Pyrenees and the Alps are the places to study this. In the control of dunes, France offers an excellent field for study along its western coast. Officers interested in an intensive fire control should not fail to visit the Forest of L’Esterel which is reached from Frejus near Cannes on the French Riviera. ‘The pine and corkoak forests have been difficult to protect during the dry and windy fire season from May to September. Perhaps the most instruc- tive point about the system is the object lesson on the high ex- pense of cleared fire lines. In Forest Management, France shows much that is original and its ““Methode de Masson” and “Methode de 1883” well repay careful study of both theory and practice. In Forest Technology, the turpentine industry of Southern France (vicinity of Bordeaux) stands pre-eminent. Corsica and Algeria present special problems; probably the study of the Eucalyptus planting in these lands would be worth a trip. In Algeria the fire problem was legislated against in 1893; this legislation is instructive and of course can be best understood after a trip in the field. Germany. In general it must be conceded that Germany has advanced further along the lines of theoretical technical forestry than any other country, and has reached a stage of intensive development which no other can rival. From the standpoint of Administration the superb organization of the Prussian Forest Service or that of Alsace-Lorraine is probably unsurpassed. In matters of Forest Management, Germany is in the throes of a conflict between Soil Rent and Forest Rent—radical against conservative—which is of deep economic importance. Prussia is typical of the conservative side, accentuating material production, Saxony of the radicals Se or es ts European Study for Foresters. 431 who judge the success of forestry by its return in dollars and cents. In Silviculture some of the special points of interest are: Management of Scotch Pine in Eberswalde (Prussia) ; manage- ment of Norway Spruce in Saxony (Tharandt) ; management of Oak in Bavaria (Spessart) ; Management of Beech in Bavaria (Spessart ) ; management of mixed stands; spruce and fir domi- nating in low mountains—the Black Forest, in high mountains— Bavarian Alps. Natural regeneration: by selection system and shelter wood selection system—spruce and fir—Black Forest, (Baden); by shelterwood system—spruce and fir—Black Forest (Wiuirtem- berg); by shelterwood strips and by groups—spruce and fir— Bavarian Alps; by border cutting—spruce—especially near Tryp- stadt in Wurttemberg (Wagner’s Blendersaumschlag). Artificial Regeneration: clear cutting and restocking: Pine in Prussia (Eberswalde)—Spruce in Saxony (Tharandt). Improvement Cuttings: thinnings from below—everywhere ;. for pine—Prussia (Eberswalde); for spruce—Saxony (Thar- andt). Seed extracting and storing: Prussia (the “Darren” at Anna- burg and Konitz). Nursery practice—commercial nurseries of J. Heins Sons, (Halstenbek near Hamburg). Underplanting—beech and other hardwood under pine— Prussia (Eberswalde) ; under spruce—Saxony (Tharandt). In Forest Protection some of the most noteworthy achievements in Germany are: against game—Black Forest; against insects— Gypsy Moth in Silesia, Saxony, Bavaria, etc.; against fungi— Prussia, cutting of infected trees; against shifting sands—dunes on the coast of the Baltic Sea; interior sands in Prussia, near Eberswalde ; against smoke and gas—Saxony (Dresden, Freiberg,. Tharandt, etc.). In Forest Management, Saxony is probably the most advanced in modern methods of yield regulation and its method by stands (Judeich’s “Bestandswirtschaft’?) is worth particular study (Tharandt, Prof. Dr. Martin). Prussia is typical of the hide- bound volume and area method (‘‘Fachwerk’’), but here Prof. Dr. Schwappach, Eberswalde, has done some splendid work in 432 Forestry Quarterly. Forest Mensuration—Yield Tables, etc—,; Baden, and recently Bavaria also, are exponents of Heyer’s formula. In Forest Technology, Germany offers little aside from the great strides made in wood chemistry (Prof. Dr. Wislicenus, Tharandt near Dresden). Austria. In general, Austria is of especial interest because of the great variety of conditions it presents, grading from mere exploitation of virgin stands to the most intensive management. In Silviculture, Austria offers many examples of skillful adap- tation to varying conditions. ‘Thus, under more intensive methods the natural regeneration in fir, spruce and beech by shelterwood cuttings is noteworthy (Austrian Alps, Lower Carpathians) and the clear cutting and planting (chiefly spruce) on large areas where conditions are extensive, these areas becoming constantly smaller as economic conditions improve (Alps and Carpathians). The leaving of larch as scattered seed trees on clear cut areas (Alps, especially Steiermark) is particularly successful in secur- ing admixture of larch into the otherwise artificial restocking. In planting and seeding and nursery practice, Austria has a specialist of international fame—Oberforstrat Reuss in Mahrisch Weisskirchen, 34 hours North of Vienna. Reuss’ natural method of planting is particularly valuable; his pamphlet on root damage because of poor technique in planting is well worth reading. Instances of successful planting on adverse sites are numerous in Austria. Perhaps the reforesting of the Karst near Triest is the most remarkable, though of course too intensive to be appli- cable in America. . In Forest Protection, Austria offers excellent examples of flood control in the Austrian Alps, Tirol and in Galicia (Carpathians). The control of drifting sands on the shores of the Adriatic and at Hungarian Hradisch one hour North of Vienna, is also worthy of note. In Lumbering, Austria alone of the European countries has something to show in the exploitation of remote stands in the Alps and Carpathians (and Bosnia). The government policy of timber sales in the latter (Bukowina) is also of especial value to the American federal forester engaged in similar problems of European Study for Foresters. 433 making remote stands accessible and profitable without undue in- vestment on the part of the government. In Forest Management, Austria shows a splendid development along original lines and a wide variety of adaptations to varying conditions. Its Working Plan Organization is among the best in Europe and the gigantic task of making a plan for each forest has been pushed to completion. In its engineering features, Austrian management probably stands pre-eminent in Europe. In Forest Technology, Austria offers little except the declining industry of turpentining in the pineries South of Vienna. Perhaps Austria deserves a visit most of all because of the large area privately owned most of which is under the best possible technical control consistent with reasonable financial returns. It is believed the management of these private forests is financially more profitable than that of the State forests and therefore all the more interesting to Americans. India. A trip across the Indian Ocean is expensive (about $225) and to really see the best of the forestry in British India would mean at least five months to and from the time one left Marseilles. To make the trip comfortably would cost from $200 to $300 a month unless a man put up with some hardship, a difficult thing to do in India where the caste lines are drawn so strictly; there are only certain forms of manual labor that a white man may perform. For a month’s tour in the mountains (“hills”) one must have four or five servants; a man to bring wood, another to carry water, a grass cutter, a cook, and, if one travels like an Englishman, a -personal “bearer” or valet. In addition, the necessary number of packers figuring 80 tbs. to the man. While the pay is small ($4 to $5 a month for a cook who boards himself on this pay) yet when one realizes that it takes a man for each kind of work the trip, all in all, becomes expensive. There is a great deal to learn in the way of intensive fire protection, working plans and general administration but it is believed the same amount of time spent in a tour of the United States would be more profitable. For further information the reader is referred to the forthcoming, tropical number of “Forestry Quarterly”.* TES RR ESE EY SSUES Lots SET EE CORIO ee re A Ye eek SO ‘tees next issue is expected to be mainly devoted to tropical forestry’ subjects. 434 Forestry Quarterly. Other Countries. Japan would be interesting (as for example if taken during a convalescence) but here, as in India, the low labor cost enables methods which would be far too costly in the United States. If a student decided to see the best of all that there is in each country his tour must certainly include Switzerland; the intensive management of the Sihlwald near Zurich, the Experimental work at Zurich and the treatment of high mountain forests near tourist centers where avalanches are to be feared. Russia; Extensive management, sowing and natural reproduc- tion. Yet there is a great deal of doubt whether Russian forestry is up to the supposed standard. It has been alleged that the field practices do not correspond to the description on paper, much. of which has been borrowed from Germany. Denmark is noted for its intensive management; here the in- termediate yield from thinnings, etc., bears a higher proportion to the final yield than in any other European country. The. thin- nings in beech are especially intensive. | The conditions in Holland are analogous to those in Denmark. In Sweden and Norway one sees the very extensive manage- ment of coniferous species and large scale logging operations. Unfortunately in the past, the Swedish forests have been mis- managed under private control so perhaps the chief lesson to learn would be what to guard against. Italy, Spain, Greece (like Dalmatia) are object lessons because of past mismanagement and overcutting due in part to the dis- turbed internal conditions through which these countries have passed. Some writers state that the decadence of these nations is due to the destruction of their forest wealth—but is it not rather just the opposite that is true? Those visiting Italy en route to or from America should cer- tainly visit the school at Vallambrosa. To see and describe some of the once splendid forests of Spain and Greece, now ruined, would be an object lesson which would stamp itself indelibly upon the mind of American readers. Both the writers are planning to return abroad during their next “sabbatical” year to explore more of the regions but little known. — European Study for Foresters. 435 Lists of Forests. The best way to decide what forests one wishes to visit is to first visit the State Forest Academy and get from the director the names of the most instructive forests rather than trust altogether to the State officials. The forest students are continually making tours and consequently know where the interesting work is being carried on. In France, it is doubtful if a list could be obtained at Nancy except through the central administration at Paris owing to official étiquette. The partial list of interesting forests that follows may be of some assistance in the planning of a tour: Germany. Nearest Town. Prussian pine region: Oberforsterei oe ee near Berlin. fs Biesenthal—Eberswalde. Ly Freienwalde—Eberswalde. Chorin—Chorinchen near Eberswalde. Saxon spruce region: Forstrevier Grillenburg—Tharandt near Dresden. : Tharandt—Tharandt. Black Forest—Baden............. Forstamt Buihl—Bwthl near Baden- Baden. Herrenwies—Forbach near Baden-Baden. 1 Forbach I—Forbach. ‘t Forbach II—Forbach. City Forest of Baden—Baden-Baden. Black Forest—Wuirttemberg—Forstamt Schon- miinzach—Forbach near Baden-Baden. Spruce foothillsk—Wiuirttemberg—Forstamt Gail- dorf—Gaildorf near “ec Karlsruhe. Northern: Bavaria. oo/c0)0%5.5 2. Forstamt Spessart—Lindenfurt near Darmstadt. BavartanvAipsan) aati tei Forstamt Tegernsee—Tegernsee near Munich, Austria. Austrian Alps—Fiirst Liechtenstein possessions—Semmering. (Steiermark)—Revier Frauenwald, Rettenegg via Steinhaus—Semmering. BEhOOl POTEN Ls es eel Bruck an der Mur—Graz. Burgerwald........ Communal Forest. in Leoben—Graz. Vicinity of Vienna-Wienerwald-( Vienna Forest)—Just W. of Vienna. Pineries near Wiener Neustadt—Just South of Vienna. Bohemia....... Fiirst Schwarzenberg possessions—Wittingau. ps ¢ : ER re Fiirst Liechtenstein possessions—Olmiitz. Bukowina...... Possessions of the Greek Church—Czernowitz. 28 436 Forestry Quarterly. France. The forests of France proper may be divided into (1) plain and (2) mountain forests. Under (1) may be included the Parisienne zone, the Gironde, the Provencale; under (2) the Vosges, Jura, Alpes, Plateau Central and the Pyrenees. The subdivision of these zones (as given in Les Foréts) follows: Parisienne zone ..... 1. West (1. Perche, Bretagne). 2. Center (2. Sologne). 3. East (3. Argonne, Langres, Lorraine, Franche Comté, Bourgogne). Gironde zone ....... 1. Oaks of Adour. 2. Maritime pine (Sands) Landes, Gascogne. Provencale zone .... (Nice to Port-Vendres). VOSBES ZONE eden Lorraine Plaine. Basses- Vosges. Hautes Vosges. IVa) ZONE ae tos w/t Plateaat. 2. (500-600 M.) Mountains. 3. (800-900 M.) Mountains. 4. High Mountains. Alpes / ZONE wijaiee Voss North (to Pelvoux). South (Pelvoux a medit). Plateau central zone. (Mts. of Morvau; Cevennes). Pyrénées zone ...... 1. Montaigne Noire (department Aude) dividing line basin of l’Aude et Ariége). 2. (Luchon, Baréges, Couterets). Algeria and Corsica should be considered as special studies. As a personal favour to one of the writers a French forest officer compiled the list of interesting national forests given below. It includes Corsica (Corse) but does not include the Landes near Bordeaux nor Algeria. ‘The abbreviations used under “Methods of Treatment” are : F—High forest; C—Conversion from Cop- pice to High forest; T. S. F.—Coppice under standards; T— simple coppice; F. J.—Selection high forest. 437 ‘suind Z% (8) 028 | (q) OLFE ‘syed %) | European Study for Foresters. ‘syizd 2% S}UGUIIUUOWUBO Z “‘syIVUlay > xv ‘syed Za ‘“S “LF “a youtq “yoveq “380 86‘8909 austasiag “a yoooq “yvo O8‘9F FS aol0g “a aurd ‘qoveq ‘xBO 68‘68FS swe [[9d ‘La 'Ss ee yf ‘a ‘a [Yoveq “Ay ‘vonids LL‘89L9 apuBly ey ‘a iy Z8°SSL3 1OAa'T ” ” 36FLF JOWpIe1ax : ; ayn ‘fd Bq [4oe0q ‘sonids “ye iL6‘S88T ayney eT ‘a yoooq ‘vonids ‘urd “1y/¢9‘gg6T dureyo “a auld ‘yoveq “ay 6S‘0FSS S19] [TAIOQUIBY “a ‘S ‘L [WIE “Yyoooq “yo LE‘StSF XNBAITBIO Oo F ‘q je ‘Yoveq ‘HBO LU‘8Z08T Z19Y L ay 0 ‘ ‘ ‘ “a °S ‘L |“1e ‘yov0q ‘yBC TL GEE9 oARy ‘0 we “x80 89°STFL nousdury9 ‘9 |WIe ‘qoveq ‘yRBo 09‘TEZs uoTifeyo Oo RP ‘a auld ‘wa ‘Yyoveq ‘yeVo |L8‘F90F areuUINnoy “a wy “yoveq ‘yBo GL‘9T9OT suoAy] ‘I ‘S ‘L [eutd ‘x80 LT‘80L9 pTTMoqurey ‘O FP ‘A'S “L/Warq “ynuysayo ‘yvo | L0°9LTS ATV xe) up? ‘x80 99°IT6LF UIBUIED “4S ” wy ‘ynujsayo ‘yvo [9F°S8ES yAVuas ‘a ‘f£ ‘L jWorq ‘eutd ‘yo 48°L189T Nva[qourezwUo yg “a ua ‘yov0q £9°SL,9T }UOUI PTOI J-Z1OH we) yourq eurd ‘yvo £6°6966 aT [AuouswIg ze) ” 69°SSSF 0998 (8H xe) ” 92‘G98S ousty .T “a ,|upa ‘qyoveq ‘y8o O6‘FIFFL susordwo0g 3.18.09 quo} VILY, 4So10} jo poy ey ‘satoads joo “"BaIy —8y} Jo suleN ‘QOURIL] WP Soyeuewop s}2104 j | | ay }Bg aulO a108] sqnoq sadsoA aqny ousTy Taso 32 ayine yy 10 ,p-2}09 ‘JU 9UTag ‘JUL OUTIg 4a ozng ISIO 49 auleg aule yy ya oureg ast “‘qiedaq uooue[y “ST aqqouery “FT uoouvseg ‘ZT [eurdgy “6 ‘sah0ly, *8 susTuYy *y, AduBn ‘F uenoy °*% Steg “T INdyeA1esuo0s np vouepisar qa o12WNN wor} -BAISUOD Forestry Quarterly. 438 ‘sy1eWley Be fe & 2B B O. quoulyeaty, jo pou sonids “ig ‘yo90q £0'6868 yore, §=|9T‘6FE ‘guid yojyoog ‘aonids “1g yeo |00°068F aatT ‘Yeo yaoo ‘ourd oddety ‘autd oulrpLieyy yeo aaty ‘ourd awit} |FE*980T -lwep, ‘aurd o1oliery aurd awry ¥S‘180Z -eyy ‘ourd Ofolre’y yooveq ‘autd o1uey [F9‘TSéT yooaq ‘ay ‘outd ofoliey|16°L89F yoooq ‘autd oforey |98°L0LT yore, sonids ‘guid yoyoog ‘Yyooeq [69°29 yooeq ¥6°89% autd oddety ‘ye0 6E‘F9TE ES 00°0081 77 866£08 autd = ,,4OoH,, 00°009T aug Yo}09g .2Uld 4OOH,, 68 066 auid yojoog ‘Yoveq ‘IY SLiOstt a BL'6GF a 81% nasa’ “2 0'92% sna’ nd 86‘FSFOL ulja ‘yoeeq ‘yxRO bE'FPTS eurd yoiiq OL‘STLF ‘qoveq ‘mje ‘“yBo : yooeq ‘ay OF SETI ‘sotoeds jalyp *ea1y 910018 NN uopoos0g [9194841 9P Aadjey oT e[[aieg OURULIG WY BUOIeZZIN, aT[oTUOpleN auoyy 9.110019 W [ouosty 1 so1aqn'T s]1equog ap sumnop aulied [ep 23809 apowrey ulWeYyO salleg sosueq Jessneotg eploijawi0g Suol[ezO sTeoUoLy, xnoimeayeyo SId1e}UOW t uoury) uoyony] ap soleuseg “480103 94} JO VWeN euloig sodly dey soyney ZEA a0IN as10y ovoely a19ZO'T SOUIIN asnpone, XIV 4USTIO (a4}ins ) soouathkg DUUOSSPBIIBY) aphny e2uossBoIeH JOTTV surjnoyl aipuy sasinog p9IlO'T aIlo'T sino J, 42 aipuy auuolex) asno[noy, ayney uot} “41edeq -BAIOSU0D ‘OT 83 ‘02 European Study for Foresters. 439 Conclusion. Notwithstanding the desirability of European study how few men are taking the time even for a short trip! Certainly the United States cannot afford to make the technical mistakes which other nations have made during their early development. Eng- land has sent her forest students to France and Germany; Japan has sent men for periods as long as three years. The Forest Ser- vice is of course the largest employer of foresters in America and can do-—a great deal to encourage European study by advocating, at the proper time, salaried furloughs to enable say a three months’ “study trip’ on full pay. It seems that this would be profitable and would do a great deal of good in the West in pre- venting supervisors (especially those at isolated posts) from becoming stale through long continued routine unbroken by the stimulus of study. American foresters will not be content merely to follow European teachers, and it seems reasonably certain that within one or two decades the American profession will be making a name for itself by its progressiveness. But to do this, our technical leaders at experiment stations and elsewhere must be thoroughly familiar with the latest results in Europe; and can a man really understand and apply results without having first seen conditions ? ; Conversion Table. Festmeter per hectare —Cords per acre. 1,000 B. M. per acre =Festmeters per hectare. Festmeters per hectare X II, —Raummeters. 1,000 B .M. per acre X 6, —Festmeters per hectare. Cords X 3.62, —Festmeters. Cords per acre X 9.1, =600 Kilograms=1.320 ls. Cubic feet X .03, —Festmeters. Cubic Yards X .76, Dollars per acre X 9.9, Dollars per cord X 1.1, Dollars per cubic feet * 140, I ton, Festmeters per hectare X 0.17, Festmeters per hectare X 14.3, =Marks per hectare. =Marks per festmeter. =Marks per festmeter. =I 2/3 cubic meters. =1,000 B. M. per acre. =Cubic feet per acre. Festmeters X 35.31, =Cubic feet.. Festmeters X 31, =Cubic yards. Hectoliters « 2.84, =Bushels. Raummeters X 2.47, =Cubic feet. Square kilometers X 24.7, =Acres. Marks per Festmeter X .007, Marks per Festmeter X .9, Marks per hectare x .1I, Raummeters xX .28 (.276), Hectares X 2.471143. Acres X .40467, =Dollars per cubic feet. =Dollars per cord. =Dollars per acre. —Cords. =Acres. —=Hectares. FOREST TYPES OF BADEN. By E. C. V. Giuman, Assistant Conversator of Forests, South Nigeria. Baden possesses a great variety of forest types. Almost every type to be found in Germany is represented here. Now, it is often the custom of students of European forestry to travel over the whole of Germany and a large part of Europe in order to study these types. In the present article the writer has endeavored to show that it is not necessary to make extensive tours throughout Europe, as they can all be seen within quite a small range. It will not be possible within the limits of this article to give a detailed description of every type, but the principal ones will be dealt with in turn and a few silvicultural remarks will be added as to their treatment, past, present and future. The forests in Baden may be divided into the following 10 different types: 1. Fascine Forests (Coppice) ; 2. Middle Forests (Coppice with standards) ; 3. Pine Forests; 4. Bauland Forests; 5. Oak Forests; 6, Foothills of Black Forest; 7. Silver Fir of Black Forest; 8. Spruce of Black Forest; 9. Selection Forests ; 10. Grinden Forests. 1. Fascine Forests (Coppice). These forests are situated on alluvial deposits in the valley of the Rhine, and the soil in most places consists of little more than gravel. In former times, before the channel of the Rhine was controlled, the water level was much higher and every year inundations took place, and the river used to cut out new channels for itself year after year. In order to avoid this the banks were built up and protected by fascines of Willows and Poplars which were cut from the coppice growth found in the neighborhoood, and hence the name Fascine Forests was adopted for this growth. Nowadays, these forests are no longer used for this purpose as the engineers have constructed stone embankments, and the river which once took long winding curves and flowed slowly and gradually out towards the sea is now forced to take a straighter course. ‘The effect of this was to turn the river into a raging Forest Types of Baden. 441 torrent which year by year cuts itself out a deeper bed, and year by year brings down the water level to a lower depth. By nature, on this poor soil, a growth of Birch, White Alder, Black and White Thorn and Sallows is original. In the moister parts we get in addition a growth of Willows and Poplars. In former times there was a considerable industry carried on for the manufacture of baskets out of the better class of Willows, whilst the others were used for fascines. Now, however, the soil has deteriorated too much to produce Willows of this quality. These forests are treated as coppice with a rotation of only 5-10 years, but a few overholders of Birch, and here and there an Aspen or Poplar, are always left. It is quite impossible to at- tempt any planting on this soil as the ground is too dry, but now and then natural seed regeneration of Birch and White Alder takes place and wherever it is found it is saved. Owing to the drying up of the soil, however, it becomes rarer year by year. During quite recent years a goldenrod, Solidago virga-aurea, has appeared in this coppice growth. It spreads enormously and grows so quickly that it crowds out all other plant growth. It can, however, be cut and used for bedding material. This is in fact now made use of, and quite a considerable revenue is derived from this source. The future outlook for these forests is not a very hopeful one, as without irrigation the country will be converted into a desert by the continual sinking of the water level. 2. The Middle Forests on the Rhine (Coppice with standards). This type occupies the low grounds in the vicinity of the Rhine, but the soil here differs from that of the Fascine Forests in con- taining more sand and loam. This deposit therefore is a mixture of loam, sand and gravel. As before mentioned, the Rhine used to continually cut out new channels for itself and consequently left many lagoons repre- senting the old bed. Now these lagoons became gradually filled up by deposits from inundations of the Rhine and of small feeders from the Black Forest, and brought about the present formation. On this soil, which is generally much moister and more fertile than the last type, the coppice with standards is at home. The standards are :—Oak of various ages up to 120 years; Ash to 80 years; Elm to 80 years; Black Alder to 60 years; Poplar to 442 Forestry Quarterly. sages 45 years; Linden to 70 years; Birch to 50 years; Acacia to 50 years ; Hornbeam to 50 years; Scotch Pine to 60 years. The coppice consists mainly of stump sprouts of all the above species, except, of course, Scotch Pine, and in addition Hazel and White Alder, but nearly every European species is to be found. This coppice is treated generally under a rotation of 20 years and at the end of that period has a volume of about 60 cubic meters per hectare (858 cubic feet per acre) and the standards have then a volume of about double that amount, a total volume of about 180 cubic meters per hectare (2,575 cubic feet per acre). When fellings are made the whole of the coppice is first cut over, and then 67 to 70 cubic meters (one-half the volume) of the stand- ards are removed in the following manner: First, unsound trees are selected; secondly, groups are broken up when the trees are too close together ; and lastly, trees which are ripe for the axe, ac- cording to the ages mentioned above for the different species, are felled. Now, the ground in these forests appears to be perfectly level, but this is not really the case. The ground level although alter- ing but slightly here plays an extremely important part. The water is in nearly every case quite near the surface, but a rise of a few meters entirely changes the character of the soil, and hence the great variety of species to be found growing in such close proximity. ) We may divide these forests into 6 site classes varying from a quite wet to an extremely dry soil as follows: 1. Quite wet soil (producing Black Alder and Willow) ; 2. Moist soil (producing Poplar and Ash); 3. Fresh soil (producing Oak, Elm, Ash, Linden and Poplar); 4. Rather dry soil (producing Acacia and Hornbeam) ; 5. Dry soil (producing Aspen and Hornbeam) ; 6, Very dry soil (producing Birch and Scotch Pine). As is not uncommon in forestry our ideas as to the treatment of these forests have changed considerably from those formerly ac- cepted. At one time planting in Middle Forests was not even at- tempted, and it was said that we got quite enough young growth by natural regeneration. ‘Then from this extreme, foresters flew to the other till the planting was greatly exaggerated. The system now generally adopted is the most rational one, based on the ideas of Forstmeister Hamm, formerly Oberférster at Kippenheim. Forest Types of Baden. 443 He prescribes planting, but only moderately, namely 150 plants per hectare (60 per acre). This may perhaps be rather too little, but 300 per hectare would be in any case enough. He says further, that only strong plants, about 5 feet high, should be used, as the young trees have in their early life to struggle for their existence against the rank growth of grass always to be found in a Middle Forest. The minimum distance at which plants should be set out from overholders must not be less than 2 meters, and from a stump sprout 1.5 meters. As long as this rule is conformed to the planting may be done either singly or in small groups. Cleanings must be made in favor of this young growth for the first few years, and the grass should not then be cut but the entire sod removed and turned over. Lastly. whenever it pays (i. e..when the forest is in the neighborhood of a town), light thinnings should be made. Two such thinnings may be made during a rotation of 20 years. In these forests, Beech is never planted as it shades out too much, and Oak is now nearly given up. Oak has a long tap root and therefore cannot be transplanted, and as has already been said sowing is excluded. In addition to this we get much better returns on this moist soil from Ash, which is a workwood from the beginning, than from Oak. Ash and Canadian Poplar are the best species to plant and those now generally chosen for this pur- pose. The great disadvantage of a Middle Forest is that it produces a larger percentage of brushwood, at least 40% of the total out- put, whilst the workwood percent is very low and never more than 25%. On account of this the Middle Forest system has in many places been given up and the High Forest system with a lower story adopted. It is the custom in these forests to cut the grass yearly for bed- ding material. Now, where yearly inundations take place, there is nothing to be said against this usage as the revenue obtained is considerable and the soil is always moist and kept in good con- dition by the deposits of silt from these inundations. Where, however, these inundations do not take place, and they are far less frequent than formerly, this practice is deterimental and will eventually utterly ruin these forests. 444 Forestry Quarterly. Finally, we may note that the Middle Forest system will pay only on very moist soils, and to these it is nowadays confined. 3. The Pine Forests on the Rhine. Of this type are the forests in the first uplands in the valley of the Rhine. The soil here con- sists of a somewhat older formation than that occupied by the previous two types, and is diluvial sand and gravel. These forests are now almost entirely composed of Scotch Pine, but this was not always the case. Years ago they were beautiful broadleafed forests of Oak, Beech and Hornbeam, with Linden and Elm in addition. However, owing to the drying up of the soil caused by the regulation of the river and consequent soil changes of which we have already spoken, Scotch Pine is the only workwood tree which it now pays to grow here. This change has been so complete that the present generation has no idea that anything but Scotch Pine ever grew in this dis- trict. Nevertheless, about 20 years ago the last of the old broad- leafed trees were cut and there were then to be found beautiful Oaks as much as 30 meters (100 feet) high, but already stag- headed and showing signs of decay, and Beech as much as 42 meters high (138 feet). Such trees were only to be found on the moister soil and as the ground gradually rose so did the height growth fall off. The soil higher up the Rhine is loam and coarse gravel, whilst lower down towards Mannheim it is a very sandy loam, in some cases almost pure sand, and consequently unless the water level is rather near the surface will not support any good forest growth. The present Pine forests extend from Rastadt to Mannheim and are treated under a rotation of 100 years, but owing to the amount of snow breakage many stands are cut over much sooner whilst others in good condition are left for a longer period to acquire a heartwood. The immediate effect of substituting coniferous trees for the broadleafed ones was to lower the revenue, as the old Oaks fetched very high prices. In order to bring the revenue up to its former figure heavier thinnings were made and it was found that these thinnings so far from deteriorating the stands, on the con- trary, improved them. Natural regeneration is excluded here, and clear cutting and planting is everywhere practiced. The system adopted in most r 5 = Forest Types of Baden. 445 cases is as follows: Strips of the best soil are marked out on the area to be regenerated and the litter is then removed and put up at auction. After the stand has been cut over and the stumps re- moved, the purchaser of this litter has then to dig over and pre- pare the soil, any roots that he may extract becoming his property. The price obtained for the litter under such conditions is naturally small. This area is then sown with Pine seeds broadcast. The yearling Pines are afterwards transplanted in the neighborhood on plats from which the litter has also been removed but without any subsequent preparation of the soil. Some years ago attempts were made to form a number of mixed stands in this district by planting alternate rows of Scotch Pine, Austrian Pine, Hornbeam and Oak, but the effect was merely to produce rather roomy and knotty Sctoch Pine stands which species has overtopped and crowded out the others. We find in the older Scotch Pine stands a lower story of broad- leafed species from natural regeneration of the old broadleafed stands, but this is quite absent in the younger stands. The latter should now be underplanted with Hornbeam, as the soil is too dry and sandy for Beech. It has been found that in pure coniferous stands the needles will not easily disintegrate and unless mixed with broadleaf foliage will sometimes produce a raw humus and cause a for- mation known as “hard pan,” three feet or so below the surface of the soil. In addition, unless there is an admixture of broad- leafed species, the soil becomes so dry that all insects find good winter quarters there, especially Gastropacha pint, the Pine Moth. As to the financial results of these forests, we find that they produce a net revenue per year and hectare of 70 marks ($6.75 per acre). -The forest capital may be estimated at 3,000 marks and the soil valued at 500 marks per hectare, a total capital of 3,500 marks ($289-+48=$337 per acre), which, therefore, pays only 2%. ‘The sales from litter are not here included as they exhaust the soil and should be given up. The average return from minor produce is about 12 marks per hectare ($1.15 per acre). 4. The Forests of the Bauland. ‘The Bauland or farmland, the undulating upland country to the north of the Black Forest varies in height from 100-300 meters and consists of a deep layer 446 Forestry Quarterly. of loess, from 3-15 meters overlying a Triassic formation of red sandstone, shell limestone and keuper. In the middle ages these forests were pure broadleafed forests of Beech, Oak, Hornbeam, Linden, Aspen and Birch, but no coni- fers, and were treated in an irregular way as selection forests. Oak and Beech were the species most favored, the former for building purposes and also on account of the acorns produced for the pigs, and Beech because it produced the best fuelwood and litter. There was always pasture land in these forests, and the litter has been raked from time immemorial. Two hundred years ago these forests were divided up into fell- ing areas and treated under the middle forest system or coppice under standards. The annual cut was confined to one felling area every year, the whole of the forest being cut over in about 30 years. As standards in a middle forest, only light needing species with light crowns are suitable. Beech is not good for this purpose and, therefore, Beech was largely cut out. Linden was also cut away in favor of other species, as it had no value at that time, and at the present time it is hardly found here at all. After the Linden and so many of the Beech had been cut away the Aspen and Birch increased enormously and the soil became covered with weeds and grass. From decade to decade a larger percentage of the area became occupied by these light needing species and the soil lost a good deal of its yield capacity so that the standard Oaks became stag-headed. The soil in these forests is, however, so well adapted to the production of Beech that there was always a good deal of natural regeneration of it and it could not be crowded out like the Linden. The condition of these forests finally deteriorated so much that it was found necessary to adopt another system and to convert them into high forests. Previous to this system being finally adopted, more and more overholders were annually left so that the final conversion was greatly simplified. Since the last 20 years these forests have been treated entirely as high forests. Consequently, we now find an upper story of Beech and Oak, with a few Hornbeam and Birch, from 70-150 years old, and a lower story of stump sprouts of Beech and Hornbeam with a few Oak, Aspen and Birch. Forest Types of Baden. 447 The form of the overholders here is in the shape of a middle forest tree, reaching in a short period rather large dimensions. Beech may attain a diameter of 50-70 centimeters (20 to 28 inches) in 100 years in many parts of these forests, as the soil is extremely fertile. The heights, however, are seldom more than 23-29 meters (30 feet). The crowns in most cases extend to about 40-50% of the total height. In a somewhat longer period, the Oaks also will attain similar dimensions to the Beech if they are seedling trees, but the majority of them are only stump sprouts, and this fact becomes evident after they are felled. The shafts of the Oaks are seldom clean on account of being too much exposed during the middle forest cut- tings when they become covered with water sprouts. Most of these sprouts were afterwards pruned, but with no good effect, because when an Oak is pruned so late in life it always produces knotty timber. The former coppice has been much reduced and plays now the role of a soil cover and nurse. Beech is everywhere the prevailing species, though there is quite a large percentage of Oak in the older stands. In the younger stands we find admixtures of Spruce, Silver Fir, Larch, Scotch - Pine, White Pine and here and there Douglas Fir, and amongst broadleafed species Oak, Ash, Maple, with a little Walnut and Poplar. ‘These species are generally mixed after the ideals of Gayer. Although the number of trees per hectare are too few in the older stands and the crowns are too large, the forms are neverthe- less to be preferred in most cases to those of the high forests where thinnings have been neglected for years and where the diameters are extremely small. Heyer says, that no species is so well suited to heavy thinning as Beech and that over-cutting in Beech stands is to be very much preferred to neglected thin- nings. One of the chief difficulties that the foresters have to contend with in this district is the rapid formation of a grass cover which on this limestone formation, in the neighborhood of so much agricultural ground, is at once produced whenever sufficient light is let in. A good many mistakes have been made here in latter times by planting pure cultures of light needing species, such as 448 Forestry Quarterly. Larch, Ash, etc. This is always a mistake and particularly so in this soil as such a quantity of grass is produced that the cultures become infested with mice during winter which destroy the young plants. In addition, under such circumstances the danger from frost is increased. Owing to the configuration of the ground many frost holes are to be found in these forests due to the fact that the air in winter is almost wind still. The Oaks therefore have in such places often suffered from frost cracks, and hence also owing to natural selection we find frost hardy species such as Hornbeam prevail- ing. Another mistake which has been very frequent during the last few years is the leaving of young or middle-aged Oaks as over- holders over the naturally regenerated Beech stands with the idea of keeping them for the end of the next rotation. This is a very great mistake as such Oaks become almost immediately covered with watersprouts and produce bud and knotty timber. In ad- dition such trees have been found to attract the May beetle (Melo- lontha vulgaris), become stagheaded and lose nearly all their in- crement. The market conditions should be good in these forests as they are very favorably situated with regard to the large towns, never- theless nearly all the Beech is converted into firewood. Only an absurdly small percentage of workwood is at present produced, but on the other hand the firewood prices are extremely: high. In conclusion, we may add that the most suitable way to treat these forests would be to recognize three different quality classes, or rather three different sub-types. The best site class should be reserved for Oak, as this species requires a better soil, more light and a longer rotation than Beech or most of the Conifers. The next site class should be retained for Beech, where natural re- generation of that species is possible, the fail places being planted up with conifers. Lastly the poorest soils, those where natural regeneration of Beech has failed or is impossible, and frost holes, should be planted up with conifers. Not only the soil, but the present condition of the stands, will force the bringing in of conifers; for instance, on site classes not quite good enough for Oak but where that species and Hornbeam Forest Types of Baden. 449 are prevailing with only a few Beech. In such a case of course it would be absurd to attempt natural regeneration of Beech. 5. The Pure Oak Forests. In the neighborhood of Baden- weiler, in the foothills of the Black Forest, we find a few pure Oak forests on a limestone formation. This pure Oak type could be extended considerably as the best quality classes of the Bauland are quite suitable for the production of pure Oak stands. At the present time, however, this type is confined to quite a small area in the Southern Black Forest, and plays only a small part compared with the main forest types of Baden. These stands have nearly everywhere a soil cover of Beech. In some cases there is a slight admixture of Beech in the upper story, and these mother trees have now naturally regeneratd the area under the Oaks so that we may find in fact three stories. This is a good arrangement, as the intermediate story forms a stem pro- tecting wood which is very necessary with Oak, the species being liable to produce epicormic branches (watersprouts) if allowed too much lateral light. The silvicultural system adopted is most suitable for Oak. Moderate thinnings are made in very short intervals and, when the stands are about 4o years old, they are underplanted with Beech according to the French system, which is very inexpensive, using about 4,000 plants per hectare ($6.00 to the acre). The rotation under which these forests are treated is generally about 150 years. About 30 years ago some of these stands were underplanted _with Silver Fir, but this was given up on account of the expense, which was great, first, owing to the original cost of the plants, which is always rather high, secondly, owing to the more careful system of planting which was necessary, and lastly, owing to the cultures being browsed by deer so that the ultimate cost of the cultures was four or five times that of Beech. However, in some of these stands in the neighborhood of the Silver Fir forests, perfect natural regeneration of that species under the Oaks is secured from the adjoining woods. This pro- tects the soil quite well, but it is probable that when the Oaks are cut the Silver Firs will be left and then the Oaks will be ousted from the area. This is a pity as the area under Oak cultivation 450 Forestry Quarterly. is decreasing and soils suitable for its production are not too fre- quent. 6. The Foothills of the Black Forest. A broad leaf forest type occupies the foothills of the Black Forest from Ettengen to Rastadt in the North and from Lahr to Emmendingen in the South. The intermediate area is occupied by coniferous species and will be included in the Silver Fir forests of the Black Forest. The underlying soil is red sandstone and a little limestone. The prevailing species is Beech with a little Oak and a few conifers. The type differs, however, distinctly from that of the Bauland by having always been High Forest. A comparison of this type with the forests of the Bauland is very interesting. The silvicultural system adopted has been till lately that of the old High Forest system in which scarcely any thinnings at all were made and with only one story. It will be found on comparison that the forms in this type compare very un- favorably with those of the Bauland. The diameters are very small and though having a slightly better height growth the trees are not so cylindrical, since the bad forms were never cut out. It may here be noted, however, that the sandstone formation of these hills is not quite so suitable for the production of Beech as the limestone formation of the Bauland, but this has only a minor influence on the stands when compared to the silvicultural system adopted. This fact is clearly demonstrated by one or two high Beech forests (such as Heidlesheim near Bretten) to be found in the Bauland. The rotation in these forests is 100 years and in a few cases up to 120. Up to 40 years ago the forests were treated as pure Beech forests for the production of firewood, but after 1870 the price of coniferous timber increased so much that a good coniferous species was widely planted, and in 1880 the mixtures of Gayer were favored. The great drawback to most of these mixtures is that often species were planted together whose silvicultural requirements as to condition of moisture, light, rotation, etc., were quite different. Some Spruce has been planted on these hills, but does not appear to be doing well especially when planted on a Southern aspect. The temperature in summer is too hot, and the soil too Forest Types of Baden. 451 dry on these low sandstone hills for this species, and Silver Fir is undoubtedly the most suitable coniferous species to plant here. We have natural regeneration of Beech under the shelterwood system and the fail places are filled up with conifers whilst a few species are brought in by natural regeneration. The natural regeneration of Beech is too prolific and more conifers should be planted, but the money available for this pur- pose is not always forthcoming and cultures of Silver Fir are expensive. Thinnings, which have been sadly neglected up till now, should be made regularly and the present stands underplanted with Beech. In fact the rules which apply to the Bauland when con- verted into High Forest are equally applicable to this type, except that these hills should produce chiefly Silver Fir and Beech. Spruce and Oak are generally not suitable whilst the elevation is still too low to exclude snow breakage from Scotch Pine stands, which but for this disadvantage would do well here especially when admixed with Beech. 7. The Silver Fir Forests of the Black Forest. Silver Fir is the most characteristic species of the Black Forest though Spruce is the prevailing species in the higher altitudes and to the East. The formation in the Northern part of this territory is granite with standstone at the higher elevations, and in the Southern part Graywacke above and Gneiss in the lower part. The elevation runs from 320 to 1499 meters or right up to and beyond timber limit. This limit is considerably lower in the Northern Black Forest (1,200 meters) than in the Southern where the limit is as high as 1,400 meters (4,670 feet). We will here speak only of those forests in which Silver Fir prevails. The optimum for this species is found at an altitude of 300-700 meters. Above that line it is seldom found in pure stands but in the Northern territory is mixed with Beech and Spruce, and in the Southern with Beech but no Spruce. It prefers the southern and western aspects of the mountains, and on the eastern slopes and at high altitudes we find the pure Spruce forests of which we will speak later. On the southern aspects at low alti- tudes we find the Silver Fir mixed with Oak especially in the southern territory. The Silver Fir is a very valuable timber tree, producing nearly 29 45 2 F orest ry QO 1 arterl y. mn as much workwood as Spruce, but when regarded from a silvi- cultural standpoint is in every way superior to that species although it is unable to withstand quite such low temperatures as the latter. It is able to withstand a considerable amount of mal- treatment when young, and will recover after being suppressed for many years. Now, in mountainous districts it is always necessary to have a somewhat long regeneration period, since it is difficult otherwise to extract the timber quickly enough on account of the lack of roads. Fortunately, Silver Fir is able to stand a very long re- generation period on account of the two qualities mentioned above and also owing to its extremely slow growth in youth. Too much advantage has, however, been taken of these qualities and the stands have suffered in consequence. The official rotation adopted for these forests is 120 years with a regeneration period of 40 years so that when regeneration fell- ings are commenced we should find all age classes from 80-120 years and after complete regeneration all age classes from 1-40 years old on the same area. This period is in any case too long as too much damage is done to the young growth when the fellings are spread over so long a period, but in nearly all the stands there is at present a surplus of growing stock and owing to the low fixation of the cut and the lack of proper roads in some of the higher altitudes both the rotation and the regeneration period are often much longer. Though we find in many parts of the Black Forest some of the best forest roads in existence, the lack of sufficient roads is still the chief obstacle which the foresters have to contend with when endeavoring to treat these forests under a good silvicultural system. The bad effects of an overlong rotation and regeneration period . may be seen in those places where the roads are still bad or in- sufficient. Here we find a very large percentage of cancerous and half-rotten trees, and very often under these a young stand of Silver Firs several meters high. Silver Fir is unable to stand a long rotation, for after 100 years the per cent. of rotten timber increases greatly. At that age under modern treatment it can attain the dimensions of a first-class coniferous tree (1. e. in Baden a diameter of 30 centimeters at a length of 18 meters—12 inch at Forest Types of Baden. 453 58 feet). Again after the trees have reached an age of 100 years the reproductive power begins to fall off and in a few of the old stands natural regeneration is no longer possible. Unless allowed to become too old, Silver Fir reproduces abun- dantly and owing to its shade enduring qualities no preparatory fellings are made, because whenever a little light is let in, by wind- falls or the cutting of cancerous trees, advance growth follows almost immediately. Fellings are afterwards made in favor of these groups and the stands regenerated under a system which is a combination of the group and the shelter wood compartment systems. Accidental fellings, which are always rather high in coniferous forest, are especially plentiful here owing to the number of trees which become attacked by cancer or are blown down by wind during such a long rotation. No preparatory fellings are therefore necessary, and at least 25% of the area is usually occupied by advance growth before regular regeneration fellings are commenced. It is only in the least accessible districts, where the old cancerous trees have been left and have escaped the effects of wind, that advance growth is not found and natural regeneration is excluded. There are many drawbacks to this system of regeneration, the chief being that the timber must be extracted through so much young growth; however, the timber can be and generally is let down by slides. Another drawback is that it is necessary to prune the big trees before felling to prevent them damaging the young growth. This is both expensive and dangerous. In fact if the cost of pruning were added, as it should be, to the cultural costs, it would be found that natural regeneration under this system cost more than artificial cultures under the clear cutting system. It is said in favor of this system that the trees acquire light increment during this long regeneration period. But this is not exactly true, as the trees have not been prepared for it; it is only when a tree has a large spreading crown that it is possible for it to take full advantage of an increase of light. The following are a few suggestions as to the best method of treating these stands under the present system of regeneration, the period of which should, however, be shortened: 1. Too much should not be cut at once or it will not be possible to stack it for transport. | 454 Forestry Quarterly. 2. All unsound and malformed trees should be cut. 3. As many first-class trees as possible should be cut as they no longer have any quality increment. 4. Advance growth should be favored. The presence of just a little grass favors natural regeneration, but there must not be too much. 5. In mixed stands Beech should be cut out first, or else owing to its rapid growth in youth it will crowd out the young Firs. One or two trees per hectare (3 to 5 per acre) are quite sufficient to produce a desirable admixture of Beech by natural seed re- generation. 6. Fellings should be repeated at regular intervals to avoid stepped growth. 7. Repair plantings of Spruce should follow immediately after regeneration has failed. Silver Fir is not so suitable for planting, owing to the slowness of its early growth and hence the amount of grass produced, the higher cost of the young plants, and the danger of being browsed by deer. Under these conditions a period of 20 years would be sufficient for regeneration. In Wurttemberg the silvicultural system is different. Here, the stands are regenerated in strips, and fellings are not made in favor of young growth unless it is within a distance of 30 meters of the strip to be regenerated. The period of regeneration is about 20 years. There is no doubt that this system is superior to the Baden system* for stands in good condition, but care must be taken that rotten trees are cut out of the stands not under regeneration, and this has been neglected in some of the Wiirttemberg stands in the Black Forest. In fact in many places the percentage of rotten trees is so high that no other system than the Baden system is possible. 8. The Pure Spruce Forests of the Black Forests. 'This type extends over a very large area of the Black Forest but is more generally found to the East or on the high undulating country on the top of the Northern Black Forest mountains. “The two slopes of the Black Forest, like that of any other mountains lying across the moisture bearing currents are climatically different: what Sp be done in Baden is not suitable in Wiirttemberg and vice versa.— ditor. Forest Types of Baden. 455 Spruce is perhaps the most important workwood tree of Europe and is able to withstand much lower temperatures than Silver Fir, but is a somewhat more exacting species and demands especially a good deal of moisture. On these high mountains the rainfall is very much heavier than on the plains or in the lower altitudes, but it falls off again on the Eastern slopes. The seed production of this species is very good but it is a difficult species to regenerate naturally owing to the amount of moisture required by the young seedlings and their inability to survive a dry summer, and on the other hand the necessity of a considerably greater amount of light than is required for Silver Fir. In addition, as this species is shallow rooted, the stands can- not be opened much, unless the trees have been educated for this purpose by a system of heavy thinnings and have become wind- firm. Consequently the silvicultural method almost universally adopted is that of clear cutting and planting. This is the simplest of all methods, but its chief disadvantage is that with this species, which has a wide spreading root system near the surface of the soil, the young rootlets are apt to become cramped or damaged during the process of planting. The bad effects of this maltreatment are not immediately visible, but it has been shown that such rootlets rot and give an opportunity for fungi to obtain an entrance. The growth of these fungi is very slow, and it is not until the first thinnings are made when the trees have reached an age of 30-40 years, that the damage becomes visible on the tree itself, and before the stands are ripe for the axe it will be found that such trees are completely rotten. When, however, careful methods of planting are resorted to, there is not much danger from this cause especially as at this high altitude Spruce is able to shake off the attacks of most diseases more readily. The young transplants used are 4 years old, and nowadays about 6-7,000 plants per hectare (2,600 per acre) are planted. The rotation varies between I00 and 120 years, and might be reduced everywhere to 100 years. The thinning in these stands are not heavy enough and should be increased and the stands underplanted with Beech, as the ad- mixture of a broadleafed species keeps the soil in good condition and prevents the formation of moss and raw humus. The fell- ings are made in summer and in the beginning of winter, and the 456 Forestry Quarterly. stems left long are then transported over the frozen snow to special forest depots and these sold by sealed tender. The quality of this Spruce grown high up in the mountains is excellent, as it has the narrow annual rings so much prized by the timber merchant. 9. The Selection Forests of the Black Forest. 'The Selection Forests of the Black Forest occupy only about 2% of the total area and the most famous of these is the forest of Wolfach which was treated by Schatzle under the selection system. A great deal has been written in modern times in favor of the selection system but its disadvantages are almost innumerable, ° and it ts difficult to understand how in these more or less enligh- tened days anyone can be found to speak seriously in favor of it. It has all the disadvantages of the long regeneration period in the Silver Fir stands of the Black Forest, only very much more exaggerated, for here we may consider the regeneration period as equal to the rotation. Control under this system is almost im- possible. In fact an equally good name for this system would be the Neglecting System as in many cases in the Black Forest these forests are nothing more or less than neglected forests. For instance we find such selection forests on steep slopes where there are no roads and where the timber is difficult to get at. In fact anywhere where fellings are made in an irregular way. As we have before said, the most famous of these forests is the forest of Wolfach. Now Schatzle treated this forest in an excellent way and improved it considerably, but it was already a neglected forest when he first took charge of it and no other system but the selection system was open to him. He found here when he first took it over a forest of very old stands containing a large number of rotten Spruce (caused by resin tapping) and cancerous Silver Firs. The first necessity was to cut out the old-and rotten trees, and after these were re- moved young growth of Silver Fir sprang up in the gaps. This system has been continued since Schatzle died, and we now find young growth from 1-60 years old and old growth from 110-160 years old. Under this system, big trees, malformed trees, thinnings and in fact all the fellings in silviculture, are made at the same time, and in a period of 10 years the whole forest should be cut through ee Forest Types of Baden. 457 and the process repeated. This forest should now be gradually converted into a regular High Forest. Perhaps the only instance where the selection system is ex- cusable in the Black Forest is in the forests near timber-line. Here the increment is only about 1 to 4 cubic meters per hectare (15 to 60 cubic feet per acre) and the stands consist of Spruce and Scotch Pine with here and there a Silver Fir. These stands are open, or the trees stand in small groups and allow no heavy fell- ings, nor is it possible to make cultures, hence irregular fellings are made here and there of trees of the best class. 10. The Grinde Forest. 'This type consists of great moors covered with open stands of Mountain Pine, and Scotch Pine, with a few Spruce, Moutain Ash, Sorbus aria, Birch and Alder. They are considered as hunting grounds, but 30-40 years ago attempts were made on a somewhat large scale to drain these peat bogs and sow Spruce on artificial banks. This was a failure and a mistake. To begin with the increment in these high altitudes is so small that the financial results from the cultures would be absolutely nil, and secondly the existence of peat moors in this locality is of much greater economic value than the presence of a few half crippled Spruce stands, as the former act as water reservoirs from which the forests on the whole mountain sides derive an enormous benefit during the dry weather. It may be noted that these attempts at cultures have been given up many years ago, as it was found they would not grow, and the forest has been left to assume its original character which is that of a natural park and an excellent hunting ground. This completes the general description of the forest types in Baden, but, of course, there are many modifications of these types, and in many cases they merge into one another so that the boundary line between two different types is not clearly defined. Nor does the writer intend to infer that such methods of silvi- culture as he may have criticized are the methods everywhere practised in Baden without exception, but he has only written his impressions of the forests he has seen, and has criticized the methods usually in force. A METHOD OF INVESTIGATING YIELDS PER ACRE IN MANY-AGED STANDS. By HERMAN H. CHAPMAN. A crop of timber is the total quantity of material which can be grown on a definite area in a given period of time. The three factors involved are volume, area and age. When stands of timber are even-aged and fully stocked, yields can be determined quite simply by laying off plots, measuring the contents of the timber, and cutting a tree or two to get the age of the stand. Such figures or yield tables give the only scientific basis for de- termining the productiveness of forest land, for fixing the length of the rotation and solving important problems in forest valuation. Unfortunately, a large proportion of our native forest areas do not permit of the use of this method. Age classes are inter- minged in such an irregular manner, that it is difficult to lay out even small plots with any assurance that the timber so included will be of the same age. Under these circumstances the method has been to fall back on a study of current growth, based on diameter, and by determining the growth for 5 to IO years in board feet, or even by growth per cent., draw conclusions as to the probable yield per acre. That this method is unreliable and a misleading makeshift must be evident from the well-known rela- tion between current growth and mean annual growth, namely that the former diminishes for some time before the latter has culminated. Nor will the mere study of growth of trees as individuals, suffice to prove the yields that can be expected on an acre. The number of trees which can grow on an acre differs too much with age and has too great an influence on yields to be ignored in this manner. In studying the relation of production to age it is worth bearing in mind that growth is the result not of mathematical laws but of natural forces. The determination of the amount of space in square feet which a tree is actually occupying at various ages is the fact upon which the yield per acre hinges. If we could get at this one fact for average trees of different ages it would go far towards solving the whole problem. Investigating Yield Per Acre. 459 In humid regions this depends largely on the spread of crowns and crown space occupied. But in dry regions, and on dry soils in regions that may suffer from droughts during the growing sea- son, the determining factor is not crown but root spread. This is true of Longleaf and to a lesser extent of Shortleaf Pine in the South, and of Western Yellow Pine, of the junipers and other western species. The principal danger in the sample area method even in even- aged stands lies in the probability that, trying to secure fully stocked stands, in reality the plots so selected may be abnormally well stocked. And when this method is attempted in dry regions, the impossibility of determining the degree of stocking that con- stitutes normality causes the method of small plots to break down. Large plots would have an advantage over small ones in any study, the results of which are intended to apply to natural stands and not artificial plantations, for it is impossible under natural processes to secure stands which at maturity are free from small blanks and which will not fall slightly below the best yields obtainable. On a 4o-acre plot, to be sure, average yields could be obtained. The only difficulty with large plots is the age ques- tion. Evenaged stands of 40 acres may be found for certain species but not for those mentioned, nor for many others. To retain the advantages of the large plot and at the same time de- termine the area occupied by each age class in a managed forest, is the purpose of the plan here suggested. The principles made use of are: 1. Average age may be found for trees which form a rough age class by determining the age of trees which have the average volume for the class. 2. The area of these rough age classes may be mapped on a large plot, in considerable detail, and the total area for each age class in the plot may be thus determined. 3. Where it is impossible to do this, the relative crown space occupied by trees of different age classes furnishes a means of get- ting at the per cent. of the total area which the age class occupies. Applied to Shortleaf Pine in Arkansas, in stands where the age classes were mixed in a very irregular manner, the following de- tailed plan was used. The age classes decided on were four in number; veteran timber, 460 Forestry Quarterly. which was past its prime and decadent; mature timber, of large size but sound and growing; young merchantable timber, above the diameter limit of 12” at breast high but not large enough to be classed in the mature group; immature timber, all below 12”, in- cluding seedlings and saplings. This group could be further sub- divided if necessary. The veteran timber was distinguished wholly by the appearance of the crown and bark, size being an aid. All trees were tallied as veterans, even if not of the largest diameters, if they appeared to belong to this age class. On the other hand, no attempt was made to distinguish the mature trees from those younger, by appearance. ‘This distinction was based solely on diameter, by deciding certain limits which were to con- stitute the young merchantable group, while those above this size but not classed as. veterans formed the mature group. The justi- fication for this method of distinguishing age classes lies in the fact that diameter as an indication of age is more reliable with young trees than with old trees, since the latter have had time to differentiate more widely in diameter. On the other hand, ap- pearance is a distinguishing character of old trees, but would not serve with younger classes to the same extent; and finally, while the age of any single tree does not depend on diameter, and can- not even for an even-aged stand be so determined, the average age of a stand which contains several age classes can be found on a diameter basis with a fair approximation of accuracy, since it will contain both younger fast growing trees ane older more stunted trees in the same average. Plots of 20 acres were laid off. Crews of two men covered the area. One, with a staff compass, ran strips lengthwise of the plot, which measured 40 by 80 rods. Each strip was made 10 rods wide, taking four to complete the area. ‘The compassman paced his lines, and mapped the outlines of areas occupied by all groups of veteran timber, and even by single trees. The scale of the map, I inch to 20 rods, made this easily possible. Great care was exercised to get these areas large enough to coincide with the spread of the roots of these old trees. The tallyman recorded the D. B. H. of trees as veterans which were indicated by the compass- man, so that the map and tally agreed. All other trees of mer- chantable size were tallied by D. B. H., but in a separate column. At the same time, the areas occupied by immature timber were Investigating Yield Per Acre. 461 mapped out. Some care was necessary here not to give too much or too little area to small timber, but with a little practice it was not difficult to decide on the proper amount of space which was actually claimed by young trees and was not being utilized by older timber. The most difficult problem was presented by groups just maturing, or having a large sprinkling of merchantable trees among a majority of immature trees. Here an arbitrary de- cision was needed, and the area was divided between the age classes according to the best judgment of the investigator. The separation of these extreme age classes left the two middle groups occupying the remaining area of the plot. Since the divid- ing line between these was an arbitary diameter limit, it would have been quite difficult to try to sketch in accurately the areas for each of these two “age” classes. So the separation of areas was based on the second consideration, that of relative crown space. ‘The diameters of the crown of a large number of trees of each age class were measured by pacing, one man directing the work from a distance while the other paced across under the crown. The exact area occupied by the crown was not sought, but the average relative area. So, each crown diameter was squared to give it its proper weight on an area basis. The average crown area was then obtained for trees of each age class. This average area must then be multiplied by the number of trees of the class in the plot, and the resultant total represents the areas for each of the two age classes. These results give what is wanted, the proportion or per cent. of the acreage, which must be assigned to each age class. The value of this simple method lies in the fact that no attempt is made to measure or assume the actual number of square feet of growing space taken by either the crowns or roots of the average tree of aclass. It is merely assumed that the growing space will be proportional to the square of the crown diameters. In multi- plying the diameters squared by the number of trees for both classes, the total area so obtained does not and need not equal the area mapped as being occupied by the sand. But if the one fact holds good, that the proportion existing between the total crown cover for each class can be so determined, all that remains is to multiply the actual total area by the per cent. for the class, to get its acreage. In this way, the blank area is properly distri- 462 | Forestry Quarterly. buted proportionally to the age classes, or in case of overlapping crowns the excess is properly reduced. It seems as though this principle might be applied in many cases, and it might ultimately serve as the key to the determination of such difficult problems as for instance growth per acre based on age in many-aged stands of Engelmann Spruce. The proportion occupied by average crowns can be obtained from the results of the average trees before multiplying by the number of trees in the stand. An illustration of this method is given below. Crown space for average mature trees, 1925 sq. ft. Crown space for average young tree, 762 sq. ft. Proportion of crown space, 2.5 to I. Number of mature trees, 66. Number of young trees, 262. Proportional space for mature stand, 66x2.5—165 Proportional space for young stand, 262x1—=262 427 square feet. Resultant proportion of total space: F h 165 or mature ee or 39%. F 262 6 r — ; or young ee or 61% By these means, a very fair map and division of area between these rough groups may be obtained. The field work proceeds rapidly and will prove to be practical and economical in applica- tion. A still further modification of the method of mapping is pos- sible. In mapping areas of veterans it frequently happens that scattered trees belonging to younger age classes stand on blocks that would otherwise be mapped as solid veteran areas. It seems unadvisable to map out the crowns of these small trees. In fact, one of the points in the method is to simplify the map of age classes as much as possible. So the areas are mapped as being occupied by veterans, but the stragglers which do not be- long there are kept in a separate tally. When the areas and number of trees of each age class are determined, it is possible to a Investigating Yield Per Acre. 463 correct the mapped areas by eliminating a proper amount of space from the veteran area for younger trees, and adding it to the classes below. ‘To find how much space to eliminate, di- vide the total known area mapped as “mature” trees by the num- ber of “mature” trees occupying it, and the result gives the space taken by an average mature tree. This space multiplied by num- ber of mature trees on the veteran areas indicates the correction in area. There is no doubt that this correction enables one to greatly simplify the field work of mapping, which is the funda- mental point in the whole plan. Its application is merely a mat- ter of a little computing. The second essential is now secured, the area occupied by each age class. To get the third, the age, two plans are possible. The first is to determine the volume of the average tree for an age class, get its diameter, and fell one or more trees of this diameter to determine the age. This age is taken to be the age of the class. This plan should be used whenever there is no logging operation going on in timber growing in the vicinity on the same type and quality of soil. Its drawback is the danger that the tree or trees cut will show faster or slower growth than the average for the stand. The second plan is to determine the diameter of the average tree, but instead of felling trees to get the age, this is taken from a curve of growth in diameter based on age, prepared from 100 to 200 stumps measured in the vicinity, and corrected to D. B. H. and for the age of the seedling. If the timber is of the same type throughout, this plan is best, as it produces tolerably surely average growth figures and gives average age. In either case, the method of finding the diameter of the average tree can be the same. Averaging diameters directly is admittedly a wrong method. Determining the average basal area and from it determining the diameter is theoretically sound, but this method is used only to determine cubic contents. For board feet, this determination should be made with the aid of a volume table based on diameter and height. To get the volume of the stand originally, the volumes of all trees in the stand have been com- puted from such a table by first preparing the curve of average height to diameter. Volumes from this volume table can now be written in on this height curve, since with height determined, 464 Foresiry Quarterly, a tree of a given diameter can have but one volume in the table. The point on this curve of height and volume, which coincides with the volume in board feet, of the average tree for the class, indicates the average diameter, and this diameter in turn gives the age by either of the two methods described, namely either from felled sample trees or by using an age curve. With age determined, the yield per acre of each of three age classes is determined for the forty—or twenty-acre plot studied. Twenty acres is a large enough plot except in very open, old or irregular stands. ‘These data give three points in a yield table. Since the sizes, average volume, and age of these rough age classes will differ on each forty, there is no difficulty in getting enough points for a curve of yield based on age. This system was first tried at Doucette, Texas, in 1909, in Long- leaf Pine, and was described in the ForEstTRyY QUARTERLY (vol. VII, 385ff.) in that year. It has since been tested on Longleaf Pine at Clarks, La., in 1910, on Shortleaf Pine at Trinity, Texas, in I9II, and, in the present year, on Shortleaf Pine at Crossett, Arkansas. Each year, the method has shown the same flaws and the same strong points, and each year it has been possible to get, by its use, a yield table which in its general results, bears a striking similarity to those of the other seasons. In other words, the method works, whatever its faults. The flaws lie in the apparent fact that at several stages the re- sults obtained may be greatly altered on the same plot by differ- ences in judgment of different crews. Wide latitude is allowed as to what shall constitute a veteran tree, and what range of diameters shall be included in young timber. Then in mapping, crews may differ radically in their judgment of areas to assign to veterans, or to immature timber, so much so that the resulting yields may bear very little resemblance to each other. But the strong points of the method lie in the fact that errors are re- vealed by the method itself. The most serious error is in mapping the areas; ail other parts of the problem take care of themselves, if only reasonable care is used. But it is possible, especially the first time the method is tried, to be greatly deceived as to the actual facts, and to note too much or too little area on the map for a given age class. If this is done on a twenty acre plot, when the whole area is distributed between the different age ee ine <= Investigating Yield Per Acre. ; 465 classes, too large an area given to one class is sure to mean that too much is taken from one or more of the other classes. ‘The abnormality is indicated almost without exception as soon as the results are worked up. A second trip to the field, and a new map fo the same plot, with the previous error in mind will result in a much closer approximation of the facts and will go far towards giving the needed experience. Differences in the work of two crews, which are caused by dif- ferent standards or limits for age classes are immaterial. If one crew includes twice as many trees in the veteran class as another, their average volume will be smaller, as smaller trees will be taken. This gives a lower age, and a different yield per acre. The area mapped will naturally be larger, to include the extra trees. The result is simply that a different point in the yield table is obtained. This method seems to open up many possibilities in the study of growth, provided investigators will not allow themselves to be frightened off by its apparent flaws. Owing to the importance of the results attained, one illustration is appended, of a twenty-acre lot studied by three crews. The difference in results obtained may serve to illustrate the elasticity of the method and bring out its good and weak points. | AcE CLAss DISTRIBUTION. Diameter Limits for Number of Trees Tallied Crew. Young Merchantable im Age Classes. Timber. Veterans. Mature. Young Merchantable. I 12” to 16” 48 93 218 2 12’ to: 38” 32 66 262 3 Bae OSES" 20 103 237 Crew No. 3 put only the largest timber into the veteran class. Crew No. 2 included probably too great a proportion of the stand in the young class. AREAS MAppeD IN FIELD, AS FINALLY CORRECTED, IN ACRES. Crew. Veterans. Mature and Young. Immature. I 2.26 13.28 4.46 a 3.73 7.81 8.45 3 3-33 9.67 7.00 466 Forestry Quarterly. CROWN SPACE COMPUTATION. Proportional Crown Space Crew. of Average Mature and Relative Total Space. Young Trees. . I 2) to. 218 1: /s=278 5 . 53% 93X2 = 186 {4 + ee 2 2.5 to I 2602 1 ==262 61% bia plies fs 7 \. 39% 3 2.9 AG 23971 46% =237 roqha age [Oke { 54% APPORTIONMENT OF AREAS BETWEEN YOUNG AND MATURE TIMBER. Mature. Young. Crew. Area, total. Percent. Acres. Percent. Acres. Acres. I 13.28 47 6.24 53 7.04 2 7.81 39 3.05 61 4.77 3 9.67 54 5.22 40 4.45 RESULTING DISTRIBUTION OF AREAS. Young Crew. Veteran. Mature. Merchant- Immature. Total. able. I 2.26 6.24 7.04 4.46 20.00 2 3.73 3.05 4.77 8.45 20.00 3 3:36 5/22 4.45 7.00 20.00: It appears that Crew No. 1 has mapped a much smaller area to veterans, and also to immature timber, than Crews 2 and 3. When the yields were computed, it was seen clearly that this crew had been mistaken in their judgment on both points. Investigating Yield Per Acre. 467 VOLUME PER ACRE, IN Boarp FEET. Crew. V eteran. Mature. Young Merchantable. I 13,273 5,771 4,061 “ 14,603 14,673 8,073 3 10,847 12,559 72505 VoLUME OF AVERAGE TREE. Board Feet. I 7 1,442 426 III 1,671 678 148 3 1,790 625 141 DIAMETER OF AVERAGE TREE. [From Volume Table and Height Curve. | Inches. . I 30.5 20.3 13.7 2 a2.5 5 14.7 3 at oF 22.8 14.6 AGE OF AVERAGE TREE. [From Curve of Diameter to Age.]} Years. I 215 97 62 2 230 125 65 3 210 210 65 MEAN ANNUAL GROWTH. 7 Board Feet. 2 145 59 65 2 62 125 124 3 51 105 115 30 468 Forestry Quarterly. The results of the error made by Crew No. I are at once ap- parent. The mean annual growth of veterans is seen to be too large compared with the U0 Immature (C2: Mature and younger classes, while that of 3 Veterans Youn Men. the mature and young is cor- 5 ms respondingly too small, due to the incorrect balancing of areas. One error has pro- duced another and each tends to show up the other. Com- pared with this the results of Crews 2 and 3 show good judgment and figures which differ from each other only by the margin that may be expected between any two men in solving such a problem. The maps showing the areas assigned to each age class, for the same 20 acres, by each of the three crews, are shown below. The vari- ation in the areas assigned to each age class is due first, to the difference in the number of trees included in these age classes, and second, to differ- ences in judgment as to the | proper space to assign to the class. Most of these differences in mapped area are offset or compensated for by differences in the tally. But in case of map No. 1, the area mapped to veterans and immature, is seen to be much smaller than the same areas in maps 2 and 3. This method as described, is recommended for Western Yellow Pine. With modifications, it may be possible to use it in many- aged stands of spruce, or in mixed stands containing several species. As of interest in this connection the following tables are appended. ee : ’ Investigating Yield Per Acre. 469 SHORTLEAF AND LOBLOLLY PINE MIXED. Ashley County, Arkansas. [200 Trees]. DIAMETER INCREMENT. Age. DB. He. Po 1 | Pee ae = PB Inches. Inches. 10 2.0 120 22.9 20 4.7 130 23.9 30 yee 140 24.8 40 9.5 150 25.5 50 11.6 160 26.1 60 13.6 170 27:3 70 15.6 180 28.0 80 17.5 190 28.8 go 19.2 200 29.5 100 20.6 210 30.0 110 21.8 YIELD OF SHORTLEAF PINE. Ashley County, Arkansas. Yield,B.F. Mean Yield, B. F. Mean (Doyle rule) Annual Age. (Doyle rule) Annual Increment. Increment. 5,000 100 FeO). 37,200), "Bas 6,600 110 160 17,600 II0 8,100 116 170 §©6=617,600 + 104 9,600 120 180 ~=17,400 97 11,000 122 190 ~—- 16,900 89 12,400 124 200 16,200 81 13,600 124 210 15,200 75 14,800 123 220 ~=13,800 63 15,800 I2I 230 12,200 53 16,600 118 CONVENIENT HOLDER FOR STEM ANALYSIS BLANKS. By S. B. DETWILER. The illustration shows a means whereby a light tally board may be attached firmly to the arm, leaving the hand free, to overcome the difficulty of holding a tally board while taking stem analysis measurements. ‘Two ordinary steel-spring bicycle trouser guards are riveted to the back of the tally board. When the springs are slipped over the coat sleeve just above the wrist, they hold the tally board firmly in place and permit the free use of the hands. For a stem analysis blank, the writer uses a 4 x 6 filing card similar to the one shown in the accompanying cut. This is con- venient for filing purposes and has proved satisfactory for stump analyses as ordinarily made by following after the saw crews. The title headings are self-explanatory, except that in the column headed “Sec.” the stump measurements are entered in the line opposite “Stp.’’ In the line below, the length and top diameter measurements of the first log are entered opposite “Tr.” Other logs of the trunk are entered in the lines below this, and a diagram of the tree drawn under “Form.” If logs are cut from branches, “Br. 1’, “Br. 2”, etc., is entered in the column headed ‘‘Sec.” For use with the 4 x 6 stem analysis cards the tally holder shown in the accompanying cut is best. This is made from a piece of heavy sole leather fitted with four triangular tin corner clips, which hold the card firmly. On the back of the piece of sole leather, two strong spring clips are riveted in such a way that the trouser guards are held firmly when slid between the leather and the clip. In this way the trouser guards may be re- moved and the tally board carried in the pocket. NO. DATE SPECIES PLACE ft. on. Stp. Ht. diameter, inche s Stem FORESTRY ON INDIAN RESERVATIONS. By J. P. KINNEY Three centuries have passed since the adventurous Cavaliers at Jamestown and the conscience-pressed Puritans at Plymouth boldly began the work of making America a white man’s country. At that time the forests of the United States formed a practically unbroken cover along the Atlantic coast from the St. Croix River to the river St. Johns, and westward to an irregular line far beyond the mighty Father of Waters, spread a verdant blanket over both slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and along the Pacific coast attained a magnificence unequalled in the whole world. These forests, extending over an area of more than one-half bil- lion acres, all belonged by right of possession to the red man. What has the Indian to-day? | The latest statistics gathered by the Indian Service show that there are in the United States approximately 300,000 Indians holding about 72,000,000 acres of land, more than three-fourths of which was never forest land within historic times. Of these 72,000,000 acres Over 40,000,000 have been allotted ; the remainder is held in common by the various tribes. Nearly 170,000 allotments have been made varying from 40 acres to 320 acres each, or even more, according to the character of the land and the special legislation passed for the allotment of particular tribes. Somewhat less than one-half of these allotted lands is held under trust patents, with the fee in the United States. The work of assigning individual allotments of land to Indians has been in progress for more than twenty years. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, nearly 14,000 allotments, embracing over 2,000,000 acres, were made in the field. There are 120,000 Indians who have not yet received allotments. By implication the General Allotment Act of 1887, known as the Dawes Act, did not include timberland. However, upon reservations where there was an insufficiency of agricultural land to supply all members of the tribe with allotments, where the better agricultural land was covered with timber, where practi- cally all the lands were forested or where the allotment was made 472 Forestry Quarterly. under special acts, timberlands have been allotted. There can be no question but that because of the cupidity of the Indians and mistaken ideas on the part of allotting agents, timbered allotments have in many instances been assigned where lands better adapted to agriculture were available. There are no satisfactory statistics in regard to the extent and value of Indian timberlands. From such information as the writer has been able to acquire, the conclusion is reached that the amount of allotted timberlands is about 1,500,000 acres, and the amount of unallotted approximately 6,500,000 acres. The amount of timber on allotted lands may be given at 5,000,000,000 board feet, with a value of $12,000,000, and that upon unallotted lands as 36,000,000,000 board feet with a value of $72,000,000, Comparatively small amounts of timber have been cut from reservations in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States, but lum- bering on reservations in the Lake States has been in progress for thirty years. From the Bad River Reservation in northern Wis- consin alone nearly 1,000,000,000 board feet have been cut since 1893. The question which will naturally arise in the mind of the reader will be “Is the lumbering on Indian lands conservative or destructive?’ The question should be fairly met. The greater part of the lumbering which has been done on Indian reservations in the Lake States has not been conservative in the sense in which this term is generally used in forestry literature. | However, during the last eight or ten years it has been conservative in the sense that very little has been wasted. Everything merchantable has been cut and paid for. This method has, of course, not been conducive to a reproduction of forest crops. The criticism which has been passed upon this system has arisen, undoubtedly, from an entire misunderstanding of conditions. Practically all of the land within Indian reservations in Wis- consin and Minnesota, except on the Menominee and the Red Lake reservations, has been allotted. The majority of these allotments are still held under trust patents or patents with re- strictions on alienation. Nevertheless, these allotments are in- dividual property. The area of these allotments varies from 40 to 160 acres. An individual Indian cannot be expected to practice forestry upon its allotment. To any one having the slightest ac- Forestry on Indian Reservations. 473 quaintance with the character and mental make-up of the Indian, it should be at once apparent that co-operative management of allotments as forest lands is impracticable. Many of these allot- ments are held by old men and women who have never adapted themselves to the habits of the white. Hundreds of them live face to face with destitution. The only means that the Indian Service has through which to keep these unfortunate people from starvation is to derive as large a revenue as possible from their timber. Another class consists of young men and women who desire money for educational purposes, for the building of houses, or for the purchase of farming equipment. The Government would not be justified in insisting upon the practice of a highly intensified forest policy under such circumstances. As many of the allotments will be alienated within a few years to whites and be turned into agricultural uses, the State as well as the Indian might suffer a loss through the additional expense involved in a conservative logging and a retardation of clearing and agricultural development. Within the Lac du Flambeau Reservation in Wis- consin there are about 20,000 acres of lands claimed by the State under the swamp lands grant which has not been alloted. This land is quite generally massed in the northern half of the reser- vation. Unfortunately scattered allotments have been made throughout this area. The writer is of the opinion that arrange- ments could and should be made under which the State of Wiscon- sin might be given control of these swamp lands and might pur- chase most of the scattered allotments within the area mentioned. The individual Indians and the tribe should receive a just com- pensation for these lands, which lie at the very headwaters of two of Wisconsin’s important rivers and are adjacent to the State for- est reserves. Under the Act of March 28, 1908 (35 Stat. L. 51), and the amendment of March 3, 1911 (36 Stat. L. 1076), the Indian Service is conducting logging operations on a large scale on the Menominee Reservation in Wisconsin. A sawmill having a capacity of 40,000,000 feet per annum was built in 1908-09 where the Wisconsin and Northern Railroad crosses the West Branch of the Wolf River. About this mill has grown up the little village called Neopit, in honor of a former Menominee Chief. The Menominee Reservation, perhaps, contains the largest body 474 Forestry Quarterly. of virgin timber in the State of Wisconsin. White Pine of the quality found on this reservation is now exceptionally rare and the Norway Pine, basswood, birch and oak are equal to any timber in the State. There is also a very heavy stand of good quality hemlock. ‘The total amount of all species is over 1,500,000,000 board feet. In addition to the thoroughly modern sawmill, plan- ing mill and all ordinary accessories, the lumbering equipment in- cludes about seven miles of railroad track, two locomotives, forty Russell cars, and two log loaders. Although the operation is conducted under the supervision and control of the Department of the Interior, the mill and all equipment is the property of the Menominee tribe of Indians, and the business is conducted under the name “Menominee Indian Mills.” Prior to 1910 the Indian Service had devoted comparatively little attention to the forests in the Rocky Mountain and Coast States. The Indian reservations in those States were rather in- accessible and the economic development had not reached the point where there was any strong demand for the exploitation of the timber resources of the Indians. It has been often and openly said that fires were very frequent in Indian reservations, were allowed to burn unmolested, and yearly did immense damage. It is undoubtedly true that altogether too many fires have been per- mitted to burn themselves out on Indian reservations. On the Crow, Blackfeet, Warm Springs, and Klamath reservations the writer has observed the destructive work of fires that could doubtless have been controlled in their incipient stages. How- ever, observation of the evidences of former fires on Indian reser- vations as compared with those on public lands and National Forests, a careful consideration of the records of the Indian Office, and a knowledge of the character and habits of Indians, leads the writer to the conclusion that the white man has in this matter as in many other matters, heaped upon the Indian a reck- less and unjustified criticism. I have no hesitation in saying that, considering his limitations as to intelligence and education, the Indian is far less addicted to the evil of forest burning than the white man. | On January 22, 1908, the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of the Interior entered into a co-operative agreement under which the Forest Service was to undertake the adminis- Forestry on Indian Reservations. 475 tration of Indian timberlands. On July 17, 1909, this agreement was rendered ineffective through a determination by the new ad- ministration in the Department of the Interior that the arrange- ment was illegal. During the eighteen months that this agree- ment has been in effect an attempt had been made by the Forest Service to extend its administration so as to cover the work of fire protection and timber utilization on Indian reservations. Little had been accomplished when the action of the Interior De- partment brought these efforts to an end. After the abrogation of the co-operative agreement the Indian Office began to take steps toward increasing the efficiency of the forestry work on Indian reservations through its own official force. In February, 1910, the writer entered the Indian Service as Assistant Forester, and undertook the work of organizing the forestry work both in the Office and in the field. It was under- stood at the time that the writer would have charge of the Office administration while the field work would be under the direct - supervision of a Forester in the Indian Service. There was con- siderable delay in the execution of plans, but with some changes the organization then outlined has been gradually put into ope- ration during the past two years. This plan contemplates a forester, assistant forester and super- intendent of logging, whose duties are those of general inspection and supervision; three men having similar duties within three assigned portions of the United States which may be described as comprising the Southwestern, the Northwestern and the Central States; about a dozen or fifteen forest assistants and lumbermen in charge of the forestry work on the more important timbered reservations under the jurisdiction of the superintendents of the reservations, and a force of about 112 forest guards and rangers under the jurisdiction of the superintendents on about forty reser- vations having large forest interests. In addition to this force there is available on each reservation a protective and executive force consisting of white farmers, stockmen and others, employed in the Indian Service, and the local Indian police and line riders. It is believed that the efficiency of this force for fire fighting is very satisfactory. During the spring of 1910 the writer started the work of build- ing telephone lines for forest protection purposes on Indian reser- 476 Forestry Quarterly. vations. More than 1,500 miles of telephone line, about 50 cabins, and many miles of fences and trails were constructed during the succeeding 12 months. ‘These means of protection proved of great value during the fire season of 1910 and Iog1I. Prior to 1910 no general policy as to dealing with Indian tim- berlands had ever been formulated. It had been the custom to act upon each individual question as it was presented. So long as nearly all timber questions related to large sales on tribal lands or to group sales from allotments this system could be used with- out serious difficulty ; but it was apparent that as the segregation of individual holdings multiplied the detail connected with sales of timber from allotments and as the settlement of the western States increased the demand for small sales from tribal lands the work connected with the handling of all detail at Washington would be insurmountable. It was for this reason that the writer prepared the general regulations and instructions for officers in charge of forests on Indian reservations, which were approved by the Department of the Interior on June 29, 1911, and issued in a small booklet for general distribution to special forest officers, superintendents, forest guards, farmers and others in the Service. One of the important innovations of these regulations was the establishment of the rule that individual Indians who are per- mitted to cut timber from tribal lands for sale must pay a stump- age charge for the benefit of the tribe. Under the conditions obtained in the past the practice of allowing the more progressive Indians a rather free hand in cutting tribal timber for sale may. have been excusable as a means of enabling and encouraging Indians to procure a living. The rapid rise of stumpage values and the need of protecting the interests of all the Indians against the desire for gain which civilization is sure to arouse in the more aggressive required that the exploitation of tribal timber be placed upon a business basis as far as practicable. The regulations require that all cutting shall be done under a permit or a regular contract. A considerable discretion as to small sales is left with the local officials. General instructions as to advertising, making of contracts, marking and scaling, were incorporated in the regulations. ‘The sawmill feature of forestry work in the Indian Service has no counterpart in the forestry work of the United States Department of Agriculture. The Forestry on Indian Reservations. 477 government has need of large quantities of timber at various agencies and schools, for building construction, fencing, irrigation flumes, etc. Lumber is also needed for the construction of houses and barns for Indians. Upon Indian reservations about 30 Government sawmills were operated during the fiscal year I9QII. These are all small mills cutting from 2,000 to 20,000 board feet per day of eight or ten hours. They are operated largely by Indian labor and afford a means of industrial training for the Indians in addition to acting as an incentive to the improvement of housing conditions on the reservations. As Indian labor is usually 20 to 40% less efficient than white labor and as these mills must almost of necessity be operated for short day periods, the successful commercial operation of the mills is difficult. In most instances their maintenance must be justified on educational and social grounds rather than economic. And, now when every Indian shall have received an allotment, what is to be done with the surplus timberland? This question can be answered only by the Congress of the United States. On about a score of reservations in the western States there are large areas of timberland which will not be needed for allotment and which are not adapted to agriculture. These timberlands include high mountain slopes, as on the Flathead and Warm Springs Reservations, volcanic ash land which is not subject to irrigation and is wholly unfit for agriculture, as upon the Klamath Reser- vation, or natural forest soil, as on the Quinaielt. These areas should unquestionably be maintained as forest lands. The regu- lations approved June 29, 1911 and the general forms of contract adopted earlier in the same year, make provision for the conserva- tive cutting of timber from all areas of this character. Although the ultimate status of these lands is yet undetermined, the writer is confident that the forest cover will be maintained whether the lands shall continue to be held as Indian tribal property or be ac- quired by the United States for National Forest purposes. UTILIZATION AT THE MENOMINEE INDIAN MILLS, NEOPIT, WISCONSIN. By NEtson C. Brown. In these days of extensive forestry and until the problems of forest taxation and fires are solved, and the market conditions improve, we can practice just as good forestry by making careful use and taking care of what we already have as in growing new timber. It has been estimated that in the United States only 37 per cent. of all the wood that is grown is actually used whereas in some countries of Europe about 96 per cent. is used. ‘This is the best explanation of both the amount of damage done by fires and the prodigal waste of our timber supply. The burden of this discrepancy however, lies with the enormous waste both in the woods and at the saw mills rather than with fires and insect damage. Careful utilization, moreover,, to be successful must be profit- able and throughout the country the big saw mill operators par- ticularly are coming to realize the benefits from developing special markets for their by-products, not only of the mill itself but of the species in the woods which formerly have been considered of little or of no value. Profitable utilization of by-products is usually dependent upon the following factors: 1. Markets or demand. 2. Transportation facilities or cost of placing the product on the market. 3. The labor question or cost of handling which is closely re- lated to the second factor. Perhaps one of the best examples of utilization in this country is found at Neopit, in east central Wisconsin where the United States Indian Service during the fall of 1908 constructed a large band saw mill and planing mill to cut the timber belonging to the Menominee Indians. For this enterprise the funds of the Menominee Indians were used and they are therefore the real owners of the operation. The area of the Menominee Indian Reservation is approximately 10 townships or 230,400 acres and contains a total stand of nearly two billion feet board measure or wi oy Utilization at Menominee Indian Mills. 479 about 8,000 board feet per acre. The approximate composition is as follows: 40 per cent. Hemlock, 15 per cent. Basswood, 15 per cent. Hard Maple, 10 per cent. White Pine, 6 per cent. White elm, 5 per cent. Yellow Birch, 3 per cent. Soft Elm, 2 per cent. Norway Pine, and the remaining 4 per cent. is composed of White and Red Oak, White Cedar, White Ash, White Spruce, Balsam Fir, T'amarack, Beech, Butternut, Hickory, and Popple. An idea of the size of this timber is best gained from the log run which averages about 10 logs per thousand board feet. ‘The conifers are much larger than the hardwoods and the log run varies from 6 to 33 per thousand. Only the mature timber or that which has been fire damaged is logged. All cutting is done under approved methods of forestry practice which insure the reproduction of the forest and up to the present date a rough adaptation of the selec- tion system has been used. Although no careful measurements have been made of the annual growth on the Reservation, yet, care is taken, based upon conservative estimates, that the annual cut does not exceed the annual growth so that the mill which has a daily capacity of 120,000 board feet in a single shift will not exhaust the available timber supply. Besides all of the ordinary grades of lumber which are sold by competitive bids, a great number of different lines of utilization of wood products have been developed at this operation. Only the utilization of the minor products will be discussed in this article, including the following: hemlock bark, cordwood, lath, shingles, crating material, basswood and popple bolts for excelsior, pine bolts for pail stock, ties, cedar poles and posts, and picket stock. | Hemlock Bark. This is peeled during the spring and early summer when the bark slips most easily, and is done in one ope- ration, that is, the peelers fell the tree, saw it up into logs, and then peel the bark. The bark is sold by the cord and after drying brings $7.50 per cord f. 0. b. at Neopit. It costs $2.96 to peel and pile into cords and $2.40 to haul and load, including overhead charges which amount to 70 cents. These charges embrace de- preciation on tools, machinery, equipment, horses, camps, and general expenses. Thus the profit on this operation is $2.14 per cord. Last year 12,118 cords were sold. The market price how- ~ever on Hemlock bark fluctuates between $6.00 and $8.00 per cord. 480 Forestry Quarterly. Cordwood. ‘The operation pays 80 cents a cord for cutting to the Indian contractors. Everything from 16 inches to 48 inches in length is taken and all cordwood over Io inches in diameter is split. The contractor cuts up only the tops and dead and down material left in the woods after logging, and no stumpage is charged for this material. “A face cord’ in this region equals a stack of wood 4 feet high, 16 inches wide and 8 feet long. Both this short sized wood and the regulation 4 foot cord lengths are commonly sawed. It costs on an average 60 cents per cord to haul to the tracks and load on the cars. The operator receives from $2.00 to $3.00 per cord f. 0. b. at Neopit depending upon the character of the wood. $3.00 per cord is received for maple and birch sound body wood, that is, clear material free from knots or defects. All other hardwoods bring $2.00 per cord. The more valuable cordwood is used for special kiln and charcoal work. The profit on this class of product is therefore very high. About 2,000 cords were sold during the past year yielding a profit of from 60 cents to $1.60 per cord. This market is just being developed and as the quantity consumed by the market is almost unlimited, the cutting of this product can be increased in very much larger quantities. Tath. As the slabs, trimmings, etc., come from the slasher they are picked first for lath, then for picket stock and last for crating and box material. All species go both into lath and board material, but only pine and basswood are used for picket stock. The average cost of lath per thousand is $1.34. Average sales are $2.34 giving a profit of $1.00 per thousand. The average cost includes manufacturing, yarding, shipping, sales, insurance, etc., but no stumpage, inasmuch as that is taken care of by the lumber product. The annual output is about 10,000,000 lath. Shingles. Only White Cedar is used for shingles. The cost per thousand pieces including $3.35 per thousand board feet for stumpage is $1.66. This embraces cutting, hauling, booming, manufacturing, yarding, shipping, sales expense, insurance, etc. The average price received per thousand is $2.19 giving a net profit of 53 cents per thousand. The usual three grades of shingles are made, and the majority is of the first grade. The annual output of the mill is about 10,000,000 shingles. Box Board and Crating Stock. All species are used for crating Utilization at Menominee Indian Mills. 48i stock. Slabs, edgings, and any defective logs which when sawed will hold a nail are used after first being picked over for lath and picket material. The average cost of manufacturing, yarding, shipping, etc, etc., including sale expenses, depreciation on ma- chinery, etc., is $1.65. The average price received is $2.00 per thousand pieces giving a net profit of 35 cents per thousand. No charge is placed against stumpage since that is taken care of by the lumber obtained from the logs. The annual output of the mill is about 4,000,000 pieces of box board material, which vary in size according to order. Basswood and Popple Bolts for Excelsior. Basswood bolts cost $3.00 per cord to cut, make, peel, and pile in the woods. ae 3. tive a Mey =f bs © 5 4 rT) $ eo. oO Z 9 Le # & A 3) roms) =v o vu - Le Oo od 3 = @ —_ o 3 3} © S ) ga =e = 5 Vv coe By B < 0 6 Oo 6Q = Dipterocarp, 75 30,000 19,200,000 7,770,000 10,000 100 192,000 Cate Molave, 10 4,000 2,560,000 1,036,000 3,000 30 7,680 Snare Pine, 5 2,000 1,280,000 518,000 2,000 20 2,560 10,360 Mangrove, 2 800 512,000 207,200 2,000 20 1,024 41144 Mountain, 8 3,200 2,048,000 SEAS ROG iicins wae sa4cdedae matgewen Total, 100 40,000 25,600,000 10,360,000 ...... «+++ 203,264 822,584 DIPTrEROCARP TYPES. General character—Covering 75 per cent. of the virgin forest area or 30,000 square miles, and containing approximately 95 per cent. of the total amount of standing timber in the Island, the dipterocarp types are pre-eminently the most important. They are found on nearly all types of topography, from immediately behind the frontal zone of the beach to an altitude of approxi- mately 800 meters (2,624 feet) on the slopes of largest mountain masses. From the standpoint of the botanist, the composition of these forests is complex; but from the standpoint of lumbermen it is comparatively simple. As the name implies, the members of the dipterocarp family constitute the prevailing class of timber. Taking it as a whole, it is estimated that 75 per cent. of the 192 billion board feet, or 144 billion board feet, are dipterocarps. The remaining 48 million board feet in the dipterocarp forests are divided among a large number of species, representing many families. Practically all the species of the dipterocarps are large trees, reaching heights of 40 to 50 meters (131 to 164 feet) and di- ameters of 100 to 150 centimeters (39 to 59 inches) or more, and it is not rare to find even these dimensions exceeded. They have straight, regular boles, resembling in size and shape the Lirioden- dron tulipifera (yellow poplar or tulip tree) of the United States. Some species of other families have a size and form similar to and codominant with the dipterocarps, but by far a greater majority are subdominant species, many of which have *Purely protective. 578 Forestry Quarterly. ill-formed boles, much smaller in diameter and length. Under- neath the dominant and sub-dominant species are a large number of undergrowth tree species which do not attain more than to centimeters in diameter when mature, and a height of 10 meters or less. From a botanical point of view, these add greatly to the complexity of the forests, but for commercial considerations they should be called undergrowth trees. Within the forests there are comparatively few shrubs, or bushes, and herbs. All the types of dipterocarp forests contain climbing palms (rattans), but the number and size of other large vines (lianas) seem to diminish with the prominence of the dipterocarps. Arti- ficial and natural openings in the forests are often covered with a jungle of climbing bamboos and other large lianas, and the edges of the forests, especially along the streams, present breastworks of twisted vines which are very difficult to penetrate ; but as soon as the interior is reached it is easy to pass through the forest with only the occasional use of a bolo (machete). Practically all the dipterocarps are evergreens, for the new leaves are formed before the old ones drop. In some of the types discussed below, a few of the dipterocarps and many of the other tree species are partially deciduous, dropping a portion of their leaves during the dry season; some species, including one diptero- carp, may become entirely defoliated for a period varying from one day to two months. These dipterocarp forests show more or less distinct types which are here given the common names of the most numerous species found within them. These, in turn, might be divided into subtypes but, except in limited regions where intensive work has been done, little attempt has been made to distinguish them. The following division of the dipterocarp types is provisional only, but it is believed that the classification will in general hold good, and that future changes will be mainly in the nature of a division into subtypes. Lauan type-—To this type is given the name “lauan” because several species producing similar woods having the trade name of ‘auan predominate. It represents the most successful commercial forests in the Philippines, and is confined to regions with a short or no dry season. It reaches its best development on the more The Forests of the Philip pines. 579 gentle slopes near the base of the moutain masses, usually ex- tending to altitudes of 300 to 400 meters (984 to 1312 feet) at which height it merges gradually into the tanguile-oak type. In regions of rougher topography it does not produce such heavy stands. In favorable soils it may occupy the low coastal hills, al- though usually near the sea it merges into the vacallauan type or the molave forest. The relative proportion of the dipterocarps is usually heavier in this than in any other type, and the total volume of timber is greater. An indication of the composition and stand of the forest can be illustrated by the following table, which is based on the results of valuation surveys. VoLUME OF TREES 40 CENTIMETERS AND OvER IN DIAMETER IN NORTHERN NEGROS. (Average of 54.65 hectares [135 acres] ). Volume Stand per per acre Scientific name Common name hectare (board (cubic feet) meters ) | Shorea sp. Red lauan 185.18 18,518 Shorea furfuracea Almon-lauan 92.02 9,202 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus _Apitong 66.63 6,663 Shorea polysperma Tanguile 50.93 5,093 Pentacme contorta White lauan 25.23 2,523 Parashorea plicata Bagtican-lauan 25.23 2,523 Total Dipterocarpaceae 428.99 42,80, All others (estimated) 22.58 2,258 Total 451.57 45,157 This type of dipterocarp forest is comparatively free from jun- gle undergrowth. It contains a very complex small tree flora and a great many climbing palms. Erect palms, some of them reaching the height of subdominant trees, are everywhere present. Con- trasted with other types, it presents a more closed canopy and con- 580 Forestry Quarterly. sequently a regular profile. On its borders and in natural or arti- ficial openings, lianas grow in great profusion, but while lianas oc- cur within the forest itself, they are reduced to a minimum in numbers, and especially in size, because of the dense prevalent shade. ‘The forest floor contains a very scanty growth of herb- aceous vegetation. The undergrowth of the forest is not an im- penetrable jungle. One can pass through it in all directions, en- countering difficulties in the way of obstructive vegetation only in artificial or natural openings where light permits the jungle growth. In short, the dominant trees, nearly all dipterocarps, form and maintain a successful forest of trees, which produce a shade so dense as to crowd out many light-demanding species. These are either forced to the edge of the forest, or else exist in the interior in a sickly condition, awaiting as it were the chance entrance of light to permit them luxuriously to fill up the opened space. Stripped of its ornaments of palms, lianas, epiphytic or- chids, and ferns, whose importance is exaggerated in the eyes of the inhabitants of the temperate regions, the lauan type bears striking resemblance to the commercial forests of the temperate zone. In simplicity of composition of the dominant trees, and in volume of wood produced, it approaches in value the famous coniferous forests of the more northern latitudes. It is not possible to estimate the area that this type of forest occupies. It covers a very large part of the entire forests, and probably formerly occupied extensive areas which are now in cogon or second-growth forests, or under cultivation. | Lauan-hagachac type—This type, like the preceding, is con- fined to regions where the dry season is short or wanting. It is restricted to areas where the water level is near the surface of the ground, reaching its best development in river bottoms, especially on slightly raised deltas, and often extending in narrow strips along the smaller streams through the lauan type, in which latter situations it is often difficult to distinguish. In composition it differs from the previous type mainly in the presence of hagachac (Dipterocarpus affinis) and a much larger number of co-dominant species of other families. The volume of timber is seldom equal to that of the lauan type. The follow- ing table is an estimation of the volume of a forest of this kind. 581 } The Forests of the Philippines. VoLUME oF TREES 40 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER On a Deyra PLAIN IN EASTERN MINDORO. (Average of 42.4 hectares [105 acres] ) Volume Stand per per acre Scientific name Common name hectare (board (cubic feet) Dipterocarpaceae: meters ) Pentacme contorta White lauan 55.83 5,583 Shorea guiso Guijo 14.5 1,450 Dipterocarpus sp. Apitong 7.42 742 Dipterocarpus affinis Hagachac 16.03 1,603 Total Dipterocarpaceae 93.78 9,378 Leguminosae : Pterocarpus indicus Narra 8.76 876 Anacardiaceae : Koordersiodendron pinnatum Amuguis 10.69 1,609 Combretaceae : Terminalia edulis Dalinsi Terminalia nitens Sacat 3.13 313 Terminalia pellucida Calumpit All other (estimated) 46.67 4,667 Total 163.03 16,303 As one would naturally suppose, this forest is more open than the lauan type, consequently the jungle growth consists of tan- gles of rattan and other large vines. However, mature subtypes are comparatively free from jungle growth. Erect palms are constantly present. The Mondoro portion of it, above described, shows 66.5 palms to the hectare* (not in- cluding young ones without stems), composed of six different species. The lowlands near the mouths of rivers at the head of Davao Gulf (Mindanao) will show even a larger stand. As the lauan-hagachac type occurs on land sought for agricul- tural purposes, especially for the cultivation of rice, the area oc- * 1 hectare equals 2.47 acres. 582 Forestry Quarterly. cupied by it is very limited in extent. In thickly settled agricul- tural regions it has been entirely destroyed. Yacal-lauan type-——This type finds its best development in regions where the dry season is short, on low coastal hills whose basal rock is volcanic in structure. It occurs on headlands pro- jecting into the sea, especially those at the heads of embayments. These headlands usually have drier soils, lower relative humidity, and less rainfall than the region back of them. It also occurs on the hills bordering large river valleys that have approximately the same physical conditions. This type, in contrast to the two dipterocarp types above men- tioned, has a slight deciduous appearance during the driest por- tion of the year. As it has a large number of codominant species, it more nearly resembles the lauan-hegachac than the lauan type. Erect palms are scattered throughout the forest, although they are not nearly so numerous as in the previous mentioned dipterocarp type. Climbing palms and other lianas are present, but are not es- pecially abundant except in open places. The following is an illustration of the volume of a fair sample of this type of forest in Mindanao. VOLUME OF TREES 40 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER In THE Port Banca ReEcion, MINDANAO (Average of 51.17 hectares [126 acres] ). Volume Stand per per acre Scientific name Common name hectare (board (cubic feet) Dipterocarpaceae: meters ) Hopea plagata Yacal tego eile White lauan \ 59-37 59037 Parashorea plicata Bagtican-lauan 26.02 2,602 Dipterocarpus sp. Apitong 12.05 1,205 Shorea guiso Guijo 16.80 1,680 Vatica sp. Kalunti-lauan 12.34 1,234 Shorea squamata Mayapis-lauan Shorea furfuracea Almon-lauan } o-40 946 Vatica sp. Narig 6.14 614 Hopea sp. Malayacal 2.83 283 Total Dipterocarpaceae 136.01 13,601 The Forests of the Philippines. 583 Sterculiaceae : Kingiodendron alternifolium Lumbayao 21.35 2,135 Leguminosae: Tarrietia javanica Batete 7.29 729 All others 124.35 12,435 Total 289.00 28,900 Forests of the same type in Leyte and in various parts of Luzon, especially in the Provinces of Tayabas and Ambos Camar- ines, show so similar a composition that they may fairly be classed under this type. The actual area that this type occupies is not known at present, but it is not large, as it occurs in narrow belts along the coast, and in many cases has been cleared by caingin makers. Lauan-apitong type—So far as altitude and topography are concerned, this corresponds to the lauan type, but differs from it in having a longer dry season,.the effect of which is sufficient to justify its separation into a distinct type. During the dry season, this type shows a decided deciduous element. Except in places of favorable soil conditions, the forest cover is quite open, allow- ing the entrance of jungle undergrowth, lianas, erect bamboos, and the like. The composition of the dominant species is more complex than the lauan type, and resembles markedly in this re- spect the lauan-hagachac and yacal-lauan types. Here also the dipterocarps furnish the greatest bulk of timber. Many of the species found in the previous mentioned types are here not pres- ent, although all the species occurring in the lauan-apitong type are also found in the other dipterocarp types. This indicates that the distinction is a climatic one. While the dipterocarps show a decidedly less leaf surface during the dry season, only one of them, palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera), is wholly deciduous, but only fora day ortwo. This is true of a great majority of the trees belonging to other families, which contain only a few that become bare, even for a short time. On the clearing edge of this forest, there are good stands of almost pure erect bamboo; these extend into the virgin forests where the dipterocarps are mixed with cupang (Parkia timoriana) and other species. The bamboo undergrowth in such places, with the rather scattered trees, gives the forest the appearance of a park. A typical stand of this forest is as follows: 584 Forestry Quarterly. VOLUME OF TREES 40 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER In Batan Province, Luzon Average of 50 hectares [124 acres] ). Volume Stand per per acre Scientific name Common name hectare (board (cubic feet) Dipterocarpaceae : meters ) Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Apitong Dipterocarpus vernicifluus Panao 81.6 8,160 Pentacme contorta White lauan 66.5 6,650 Anisoptera thurifera Palosapis 28 2,800 Shorea polysperma Tanguile 16 1,600 Shorea guiso Guijo 4.1 410 Total Dipterocarpaceae 196.2 19,620 All others 98 8,900 Total 285.2 28,520 Tanguile-oak type.—The forests of this type cover the area ex- tending from the upper limits of the lauan and lauan-apitong types to the lower limits of the mossy-forest type in the higher portion of the mountains. ‘They have not been studied in great detail, and more extended investigations are necessary to determine whether more than one type exists or not. When such studies have been made in many parts of the Islands, it may be found that there are a number of distinctive types instead of the one here considered. In the meantime, the provisional name of tanguile- oak type has been adopted. Its lower limits are from 400 to 500 meters (1312 to 1640 feet) above sea level, and extends upward to a height of between 800 and 900 meters (2624 to 2952 feet). The topography is such as is usually found on mountain sides, gentle to steep ridges and slopes alternating with deep ravines and gorges. The evergreen character of the forests and actual meas- urements show that rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year, and the relative humidity is constantly higher than in the adjacent forests of the lower altitudes. The Forests of the Philippines. 585 As its name implies, the principal species represented in this type are tanguile (Shorea polysperma) and oak; of these, the former also occurs frequently in dipterocarp types of the lower altitudes. It is found nearer sea level in regions where the dry season is short than in those where the dry season is longer, but in both its numbers increase with the altitude until the mossy-for- est type is reached. In the higher portions of the tanguile-oak type, it is the only dipterocarp of numerical importance. In the lower limits of the type occur, of course, scattered specimens of the dipterocarps of the bordering types below. This is especially true of the lauans and the apitongs, although the latter are not nearly so abundant as the former. Some species that usually are found along streams in the types of lower altitudes occur in deeper soils of the tanguile-oak away from the streams. Certain species of oak, which occur as scattered trees in the lower types, here become more abundant, and in some places give a decided tone to the vegetation. Many of the species occurring in this type also occur much dwarfed in the mossy forests higher up. Indeed, the type is the meeting ground of a number of the species which are found in the types both above and below. So far as is known, there are no species of trees that reach large size that are peculiar to this zone, with the exception, perhaps, of certain species of oaks. A number of species, however, reach more successful de- velopment, both as regards numbers and size, than in the other types in which they are found. Open places occur in this as in other types, giving rise to many subtypes. ‘The undergrowth trees are numerous, but the composition is not so complex as the types below. The closed portions of the type are comparatively free from large lianas other than rattans, so that the only difficulty in penetrating the forest in any direction is encountered in the tangled growth of the open places. In the high plateau regions, between 500 and 800 meters (1640 to 2624 feet) of altitude, this type attains heavy stands, but usual- ly the topography is so rough that tall forests, covering large areas without a break, are wanting. Large epiphytic plants, like birds’- nest ferns, are more abundant here than lower down. In the up- per limits, the trees gradually become more dwarfed, and the trunks are covered with mosses and liverworts, until the type gradually merges into the mossy forests above. 586 Forestry Quarterly, Mo,avE Type. Throughout this type, molave (Vitex parviflora) is fairly well distributed. The type occupies a topography similar to that on which the yacal-lauan type is found, except that in a great major- ity of cases the underlying rock is usually limestone rather than volcanic in nature. ‘The low limestone hills, either coastal or bord- ering large uplifted river valleys, are usually composed of crystal- line coral limestone with a honeycombed structure. ‘These rocks are generally covered by shallow or very scanty soil, and this, together with their honeycombed nature, makes the habitat a very dry one. It is roughly estimated that the area covered by this type comprises some 4,000 square miles (1,036,000 hectares—2,- 558,920 acres). The trees are the most valuable in the Philip- pines, and are easily accessible for exploitation. This has brought about the more or less complete destruction of the original forest, and so it is very difficult to analyze the true nature of the vegeta- tion. From the study of virgin and nearly virgin areas, however, the following characteristics seem to be most general. The for- est is open. Its large trees are few and far apart, with the inter- vening spaces filled with small trees, or by a jungle growth usually of sprawling, climbing, or small erect bamboos. With a few ex- ceptions, the dominant trees are short boled, irregular to very irregular in form, and with wide-spreading crowns. ‘The forest has a decidedly deciduous foliage, almost entirely so on rough topography in regions where the dry season is pronounced. The composition of the type varies in different parts of the Islands. In some expressions of the type, the following are among the dominant trees present: molave, dungon, tindalo, supa, batete, ipil, acle, banuyo, alupag, bansalaguin, calantas, lanete, mancono, bat- itinan, spiny narra, narra, and liusin. Of the smaller species, the following may occur: ebony, camagon, kuyus-kuyus and cana- fistula. It must not be supposed, however, that all these species occur in any one locality. Indeed, the reverse is the case. Man- cono, for instance, in merchantable quantities, is restricted to northeastern Mindanao and adjacent islands. Supa, likewise, is found in Tayabas and Ambos Camarines; narra, calantas, and acle are usually scatiered along the hill streams. Distinct forms of this type are sometimes present on dry hills of hard volcanic rock—hills too dry to support any forest but members of this The Forests of the Philippines. 587 type. Often, such species as molave, batete, ebony, liusin, batit- inan, and others, are found scattered throughout the open places of the yacal-lauan type. This is especially true of batete. So far as observations go, with the single exception of supa, all the trees mentioned above are found growing scattered in the various types of dipterocarps, and occupy positions either along the streams or in the drier portions. Some of them reach better individual de- velopment in such situations than when growing on limestone hills. It will thus be seen that many of these species occupy lime- stone soils, not because they prefer them to any other, but because they are shaded out of the moister soils by the more successful development of the shade-enduring dipterocarps. The diptero- carps, on the other hand, have soil-moisture requirements that will not permit them to exist in the drier soils of the limestone regions. In a word, the limestone habitat is one that contains a mixture of certain species of the various types of dipterocarp forest. As one would suppose, the volume of the molave type is much lower than that of any of the dipterocarp types. ‘This is due both to the thin sand and to the short boles of the trees. It is estimated that the type will average not more than 30 cubic meters per hectare of timber of merchantable size (3,000 board feet to the acre). However, the type is a valuable one, because it contains hard, durable timbers, many of which are very valuable. cabinet and furniture woods. MANGROVE ‘TYPE. The mangrove type is in many respects the most peculiar one in existence. It is literally a forest of the sea. Where condi- tions are favorable, it occupies the beach washed by the tides. It is especially well developed on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers entering the sea at the heads of protected bays. Wherever wave action allows a fairly stable shore line, trees of the type are present. They occur on the quieter portions of the coral reefs, and are thinly scattered on many wave-made terraces that are exposed at low tide. A majority of the stand is composed of the members of one family, the Rhizophoracez, or bacauan family, comprising the following principal species: Bacauan (Rhizophora mucronata), bacauan-lalaki (Rhizophora conjugata), busain ‘ rs) 588 Forestry Quarterly. (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), pototan (Bruguiera eriopetala), po- totan-lalaki (Bruguiera caryophylloides), langarai (Bruguiera parviflora), and tangal (Ceriops tagal). The following principal species of other families are pagatpat (Sonneratia pagatpat), pe- doda pedada (Sonneratia sp.), api-api (Avicennia officinalis), tabao (Lumnitzera littorea), tabigi (Xylocarpus obovatus), piagao (Xylocarpus granatum), Excoecaria agallocha, and dun- gon-late (Heritiera littoralis). On the muddy flats at the mouths of large rivers in protected bays, the pioneer plant is bacauan. Back of this come the ba- cauans mixed with pototan and other species of Bruguiera, and then, usually covering large areas, is langarai, mixed in varying proportions with bacauan, pototan, busain, tangal, and pedada. In more open bays, where the soil is mixed with considerable sand or coral limestone, occurs a distinct frontal zone of pagatpat, with more or less api-api. Wave-cut coral terraces often contain nearly pure stands of pagatat. The inner margins of the swamps usually have scattered specimens of dungon-late, tangal, piagao, tabigi, and tabao. In many instances, a distinct zone of the nipa palm (Nipa fruticans) is present near the upper limits of this type. This palm also forms thickets along the streams where the water is less brackish. Where the type is less distinct, all sorts of mixtures of the above species are present. The capacity of this type to produce firewood and timber varies according to the degree in which it has been exploited. In thickly populated districts, the forest has been reduced to such an extent as to render it valueless for anything except firewood. Virgin areas show surprisingly large stands of poles and trees, some of which are sufficiently large to produce lumber. In Mindanao, valuation surveys made on a very good stand show 149 trees per hectare of more than 25 centimeters (10 inches) in diameter, yielding 130 cubic meters of timber per hectare, or 13,000 board feet per acre. Pagatpat has been measured with a height of 31 meters (101 feet), a diameter, breasthigh, of 137 centimeters (54 inches), and a merchantable length of 17.5 meters (57 feet) ; ba- cauan, a height of 28 meters (92 feet), a diameter above the stilt roots of 70 centimeters (28 inches), and a merchantable length of 16.5 meters (54 feet); pototan, a height of 28.8 meters (94 feet), a diameter, breast-high, of 80 centimeters (32 inches), and The Forests of the Philippines. 589 a merchantable length of 18.3 meters (60 feet). It is estimated that the swamps of the Islands will show an average volume of 20 cubic meters per hectare (2000 board feet per acre) of trees over 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter, and if, as is usually the case, the branches and large twigs are used, this amount will be exceeded. The forest itself has rather an even top profile. The canopy is fairly well closed, and the forest is practically clear of under- growth, except at its inner edge. The presence of a complex sys- tem of stilt roots, as high as 3 meters (10 feet) and wide spread- ing, of the two species of Riizophora presents a tangle through which one can make his way with difficulty. A number of the species, such as pagatpat and api-api, show characteristic aerial roots. The leaves of all are hard and leathery in texture. The seeds of the Rhizophoracee begin to germinate on the trees, finally drop, and are distributed by the tides until they find a favorable lodging place, where they continue their development. BEACH TYPE. Sandy beaches above high-tide limits are found throughout the Philippines. They are favorite places for settlements and so the original vegetation has been greatly modified. In those places where it has kept its original form, it presents a distinct type. Usually the frontal zone has a tangle of vegetation in which pan- dans (species of Pandanus) form a conspicuous part. The princi- pal trees are as follows: Talisay (Terminalia catappa), dapdap, -(Erythrina indica), botong (Barringtonia speciosa), mulbago (Hibiscus tiliaceus), bani (Pongamia glabra), banalo (Thespesia populnea), dongon-late, palo maria (Calophyllum inophyllum), agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia), tawalis (Osbornia octodonta), and Dantigi (Pemphis aidula). In some places ipil, narra, bansa- laguin, and other valuable trees are encountered. Tialisay often occurs in patches of pure stands in rich river bottoms. On sandy flood plains of large rivers, in various parts of the Islands, agoho often forms small pure forests. Behind the frontal line, the vegetation partakes more of the nature of other types. Series of old beaches sometimes cover quite extensive areas, on which the lauan-hagachac type usually is 590 Forestry Quarterly. found. ‘This type is especially well developed on old beaches where the dry season is wanting. In the Davao Gulf, for in- stance, are encountered heavy stands of very large trees of haga- chac, guijo, and bagtican lauan that will scale as high as 100,000 board feet to the acre. It must be remembered that in such places the ground water level is not far below the surface, and the atmospheric moisture conditions are constantly humid. ‘The humus accumulations of previous generations of vegetation enriches the well-drained soil. Altogether, these conditions make the habitat an exceedingly favorable one. PINE Type. This type reaches its best development in the high plateau re- gion of northern and central Luzon. The greater part of it, al- though at an altitude ranging from 900 to 1,500 meters (2950 to 3280 feet), is in a region with a distinct dry season. The rain- bearing winds of the dry season deposit most of their moisture before they reach this rough plateau region. ‘The pines are scat- tered as single individuals, or in open to nearly closed patches throughout a large grass area. In many ravines and along water courses are stands of broad-leaved trees. There is much evidence to show that formerly this area was covered with forest growth consisting principally of broad-leaved trees, and although pines were undoubtedly present, they were of little relative importance, being confined to the steeper and drier situations where the broad- leaved trees could not grow. ‘Through the activities of man, however, in the centuries of occupation, the broad-leaved trees have been cleared off, and repeated fires have prevented their re- production. The pine, however, is less sensitive to fires, and con- sequently at present there are broad areas of grass lands with many groves of pines. There is little doubt that if fires were kept off, the pine, in the absence of broad-leaved competition, would quickly seed up the entire area, for its reproduction is abundant and rapid; and gradually the pines themselves would be replaced by the original broad-leaved vegetation. ‘This strug- gle between the pines and the groad-leaved trees is often shown in caingins bordering situations where both types occur. ‘The ~~ The Forests of the Philippines. 591 pines, because of their numerous winged seeds, will make their appearance first; the other vegetation comes more slowly, but will gradually prevent the starting of a new generation of the light-demanding pines. This last movement of vegetation is a much slower one. Not only are the pines found in regions where the dry season is pronounced, but at higher altitudes in the mossy- forest belt, where the humidity is greater and more evenly dis- tributed throughout the year. Thus, pines occur in abandoned caingins at an altitude above 1,500 meters (4920 feet), and even as high as 2,500 meters (8200 feet). Here they alternate with patches of grass or mossy forest. The rainfall of this region, as in many other portions of the Islands, is exceedingly heavy from June to October. Especially in the deforested regions, landslides occur frequently on the mountain slopes, making the natural reforestation of such places difficult. In the more level places, where fire lines have been established, grass patches become quickly covered with pine seedlings. Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) is the only species in the high- lands of central and northern Luzon. In some places, scattered pines are found in the grass lands, as low as 500 meters (1640 feet) altitude, bordering on the upper limits of the lauan-apitong type. Pines are also found in Zambales and Mindoro. In Zam- bales, two species occur: Pinus insularis and Pinus merkusii Their altitudinal range is usually from 500 to 1,500 meters (1640 to 4920 feet, although scattered trees of Pinus merkusi are found at as low an altitude as 60 meters (200 feet). In Mondoro, Pinus merkusw occurs in pure stands and in open groves scattered throughout the grass lands, southwest of a high mountain mass. It is found as low as 60 meters (200 feet) above sea level in one situation, although usually it is not found below goo meters (2950 feet). Measured groves of Benguet pine show a volume of 74 cubic meters per hectare (7,400 board feet per acre) of trees 25 centi- meters (10 inches) and over in diameter. The trees reach a height of 40 meters (131 feet) and a diameter of from go to 100 centimeters (36 to 40 inches). In general appearance forests of Benguet pine are not unlike some of the poorer stands of Western yellow pine in the Pacific northwest. 592 Forestry Quarterly. THE Mossy-Forest Type. Some 3,200 square miles (828,800 hectares), or 8 per cent. of the land area of the Philippines, is the estimated amount of the high and very rough mountain region covered by virgin forests. They are essentially protective forests. Many such mountainous regions have already been cleared of their forests by caingin makers and are now covered with grass. These regions show such a complex set of conditions, both as regards habitat and vegetation that as yet our knowledge is too incomplete to care- fully distinguish the types. Perhaps, in a broad sense only, one type exists, with certain variations or subtypes. Because of the presence of moss and liverworts in great abundance, it has been designated as the mossy-forest type. The topography is rough and constantly changing. It con- sists of steep main ridges, rising to exposed peaks, and whose sides are in turn cut into smaller ridges by the deep canons. Land slips are frequent, and these in all stages of being reclothed with vegetation add to the difficulty of analysis. The soil is shallow or nearly absent. Rock exposures occur, often covering large areas ; but except on very steep slopes or on fresh slides they are covered with vegetation. Some mountains have more rounded dome-shaped tops, and on these the topography is much more stable. As a rule, the climatic conditions are exceedingly moist, both as regards rainfall and relative humidity. Opposed to this favor- able climate is the very great exposure to winds. The former is the cause of the mossy condition; the latter, of the dwarfed habit of the trees. The temperature conditions are much lower than those of the coastal region. The tree vegetation is complex, yet not so much so as the for- ests lower down. Especially on the highest mountains, owing to these very unstable conditions, or where volcanic action has not been long extinct, trees are absent or nearly so. On mountains . above 1,200 meters (3930 feet), the mossy-forest appears at its best. Dacrydium and Podocarpus spp., Eugenia spp., Tristania decorticata, Leptospermum amboinense, Decaspermum spp., Quercus spp., Myrica spp., Englehardtia spicata, Acronychia The Forests of the Philippines. 593 laurifolia, Symplocos sp., Ternstroemia toquain, are some of the principal trees, only a few of which are found lower down. All of these trees are usually dwarfed in appearance, seldom reach- ing a height of more than 20 meters (65 feet), and usually not over 5 meters (15 feet). The trunks and branches are generally covered with mosses, liverworts, filmy ferns, and epiphytic or- chids. The open places are usually occupied with ferns, and some- times with grass. Tree ferns occur on the slopes within the forests, and on some steep slopes give a decided character to the vegetation. Rattans and other climbers, especially Pandanacez, are common, as are also small erect palms. Few mountains in the Philippine Islands attain a height of more than 2,000 meters (6560 feet). In general, the vegetation at such altitudes is much more dwarfed; in some cases, good-sized trees are found, even at high elevations; on others, no tree vegetation occurs at all. 594 SUMMARY Forestry Quarterly. The following tabular summary will serve to picture relative conditions of the different forest types as regards habitat and character of vegetation. Types. Rainfall Lauan. ogc geen Pasty CWeELl tributed through out year; short or no dry season. Relative humidity. High and fairly well distribut- ed throughout the year. Altitudinal From near sea range. level to 300 or 400 meters.* Soil and under- Medium shallow lying rock. to fairly deep; rock volcanic; moist; some- times fairly dry. - Topography ....- slopes. Lauan-hagachac. tft bout ed t hroughout year; short or no dry season, Medium during short dry sea- son; high dur- ing rainy sea- son. Near sea level Usually alluvial; deep; alter- natingly very moist and quite dry; u ndergroun d water level near surface. evel. Yacal-lauan. Lauan-apitong. dis- Fairly well dis- Fairly well dis- P ronounced t ributed t hr oughout year; short or no dry season. dry season. Fairly low for Fairly low short dr y t hr oughout season; hig long dry sea- during rainy son, season. - Near sea level. From near sea level to 300 or 400 me- ters. Shallow and Shallow to fair- fairly dry or ly deep; part very dry; of year very volcanic. dry; volcanic rock. rock. Slight to steep Level or nearly Slight to steep Slight to steep slopes. slopes. | 7 7 i Merchantableso to 450 cubic 25 to 200 cubic 50 to 300 cubic 50 to 300 cubic timber per hec- meters.** tare. Composition of Nearly pure dominant spe-. stands of dip- cies. terocarps to complex. meters. Complex eeeeeee meters. meters. Complex ()iiea. Complex Canopy of domi- Closed or nearly Open to closed; Medium open; Medium open; nant species. closed; ever- green. Profile of forest Fairly regular to regular Erect palms .... Abundant ...... Erect bamboo . Large lianas .... Not abundant ... Composition of Very complex ... smaller trees. nearly ever- green. Very irregular .. eeeeee Abundant oeeeee Very complex .. slightly decid- uous. decidedly de- ciduous. Irregular ..... Irregular Fairly abundant Almost absent. .. None or very few None or very few None or very Usually abund- PEW hans eters ant. Fairly abundant Fairly abundant Tr my Very complex.. Very complex.. 7 Tanguile-oak. Fairly distribut ed throughou t the year; short or no dry season. well Fairly The Forests of the Philippines. Molave. distribut ed throughout the year to a distinct dry season. Pine. distinct dry season. Hige to very Fairly low Low to eae during dry Usua high, ex- cept in dry season. season; higd dur- ing rainy season. From 400 to icp eag near ev goo meters. Very shallow Usually Ro tairiy deep; some times fairly dry; vol- canic rock. sea el to 150 meters. on limestone rock; _shal- low soil; dry. On above 90 4 meters. soil above li m estone, or in deep soils not limesto n e; dry to moist Mangrove. no dry sea- son, tide. Beech. no dry sea- son. shallow U s ually Sandy or peb- amudda@dy, Dly soils deep, delta very dry soil; also during dry coral lime- season. stone and sandy soil; wet. Wena it 7 Usually Steep slope Gently shelv- Gently shelv- rough; _ steepslopes; some gentle some gen- slopes. tle, 20 to 150 cu- 50 cubic me- to level ground. ing. ing. 100 cubic me- 130 cubic me- Under 25 cu- 595 Mossy forest. well Usually a Long,short,or Long,short,or Usually well distribut ed throughou t the year. Fairly high, Usually low Daily range or low dur- during dry reat, but ing dry sea- season. igh at son. night. Between low Near sea level Above 900 and high meters. Rock ex pPo- sure near surface; soil shallow; volcanic tock. Very rough. No estimate. bic meters. ters an ters an tersand bic meters. under. under. under. Medium Fairly com- 1 or 2 species About ro spe- Simple ..... Simple to me- complex. plex. of pines. cies. dium com- plex. Open to Open; decid- Open; ever-O pen to Open; decid- Open to closed ; edly decid- green. closed; _ edly decid- closed; evergreen. uous. — evergreen. uous. evergreen. Very irregu- Very irregu- Regular to Fairly regu- Irregular . Irregular. lar. lar. irregular. lar. Fairly abun- None ....... None .,..... Almost stem- Very few ... Many small dant but less nipa ones. small. palm. None ....... Abundant or....do ..... . None ....... Very few, if Pract ically none. any. none. Fairly abun- Abundant....do .......... ee ei Very few ... Fairly abun ant. climbing dant. bamboo. Complex .... Complex .... Very few ... Very few .... Complex .... Complex. 596 Forestry Quarterly. UsEs oF PHILIPPINE Woops Although it is estimated that the Philippine Islands contain more than 2,500 tree species, it is probable that not over 300 different kinds find their way into Manila or other Philippine markets, and that, of these, less than 100 are commonly en- countered.* Dipterocarps. As stated previously, the dipterocarp family fur- nishes the main bulk of standing timber. These woods can be roughly divided into three groups, viz., the lauans, the apitongs, and the yacals. Lauans. Among the lauan group are white lauan, kalunti-lauan, almon-lauan, bagtican-lauan, malaanonang-lauan, mangasinoro- lauan, tiaong-lauan, mayapi-lauan, red lauan, and tanguile. Many shades of brown and red are comprised in the different species. White lauan and mangasinono-lauan are a light creamy brown color; bagtican-lauan and almon-lauan show shades of pink, which becomes a clear red in the case of mayapis-lauan, tiong- lauan and some grades of tanguile, and even a dark red color in the case of red lauan. In hardness they grade from soft to moderately hard in the approximate order outlined above. Their weight is light to moderately heavy. They are all coarse but straight-grained, free from knots, easily worked, and in general mechanical properties are not greatly dissimilar to the pines. When quartere-sawn or slash-sawn with a figure, they show a beautiful grain. The lauans, without exception, come from tall trees, 100 to I 50 or more feet in height, 6 feet or less in diameter, and with straight, regular trunk up to 100 feet to the first limb. The lauans are readily attacked by fungi and white ants, but not more so than Oregon pine, (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) their chief competitor. They can be divided into three groups, the white lauans, the red lauans and tanguile, which are the usual trade names. *A few of the commoner species are: Molave, Vitex, pubescens Vahl and V. littoralis. Decne Ipil, Intsea acuminata Merr, I. bijuga O Kuntz. Yacal, Hopea plagata Vid. Acle, Pithecolobium acle Vid. Narra, Ptero- carpus indicus Willd. P. echinatus Pers. Tindalo, Pahudia rhomboidea Prain. Ebano (Ebony). Maba buxifolia Pers. Mancono, Xanthostemon verdugonionus Nares. Lanete, Wrightia laniti (Blco.) Merr. Camagon, Diospyros discolor Willd. Apitong, Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Bl. D. vernicifiuus Bl. D. affinis Brandis. D. spp. The Forests of the Philippines. 597 Locally, they are used for a great variety of purposes. They are especially adapted for light and medium construction work, in which they will find their greatest usefulness. In this respect they are to the ‘Tropics what the lighter grades of pines and their allies are to the temperate regions. Nevertheless, for many classes of construction, because of their color and beautiful grain, they are superior to the pines. This is especially true for interior finish of all classes. The better grades of lauan and tanguile are now being shipped to the United States under the trade name of “Philippine mahogany.” Apitongs. The trees that furnish timbers of this group are api- tong, hagachac, panao, and guigo. They grade in color from a dirty brownish red to red. In hardness they are moderately hard to hard ; in weight they are moderately heavy. The first three appear in the market under the trade name of apitong, the last as guijo. The former are coarse but generally straight-grained ; the latter has a somewhat finer grain. They are used for many purposes, but are especially adapted for heavier construction where contact with the ground is not necessary. Guijo is considered more valuable than apitong. They are not durable timbers, being susceptible to the attacks of white ants and fungi. Of the two, guijo is somewhat the more resist- ant. The apitongs have general construction qualities comparable to the hard pines of the temperate regions. In abundance, they are next in importance to the lauans. Yacals. The trees that produce timber of this group are yacal, guisoc, guisoc-guisoc, malayacal, narig, karig, mangachapuy, and dalingdinganisac. The woods as a whole are yellowish brown, be- coming darker with old age. They are all considered very durable timbers. This is especially true of yacal, guisoc, and malayacal, which invariably appear under the market name of yacal. Narig is often mixed with and sold as yacal. Mangachapuy and daling- dingan-isac are sold as mangachapuy.? The yacals are usually hard and heavy. They are as free from the attacks of white ants and fungi as any so-called durable wood what softer and less durable, are also found under the name of man- gachapuy. 598 Forestry Quarterly. used for construction purpose. Yacal is a general all-round con- struction timber where contact with the ground is necessary, and because of this is much sought for railroad ties, paving blocks, and house posts. It is also used as bridge timber, in various parts of ships, and for construction of houses. It is estimated that there is more standing timber of the yacals in the Islands than all the other so-called standard durable timbers put together. Substitutes for Mahogany The term “mahogany” is here used in its broadest sense. ‘The true mahogany, the product of Swietenia mahagoni, does not oc- cur in the Philippines. However, the narra family contains a group of woods.of more or less brilliant color and beautiful grain which are capable of taking a high polish, and which cannot be excelled as substitutes for mahogany. These are narra, tindalo, ipil, acle, and banuyo. Narra varies in color from a light yellow to a brilliant red. It is moderately heavy, moderately hard to hard, has a rather coarse more or less twisted grain, and is very durable. It is practically the same as the padouk of India, and is sometimes sold as Philippine mahogany. It is used principally for fine furniture, interior finish, doors, flooring, and windows. Large one-piece table tops come from the buttressed roots. ‘Tin- dalo has a saffron red color, which becomes darker with age. It has a fine, more or less straight grain, and is heavy, hard and durable. It is used in fine furniture and cabinetmaking, and is one of the best timbers for hardwood floors, stairways, and in- terior finishings, where beautiful expensive woods are required. Ipil, while used principally in the Philippines for construction work in contact with the ground, is nevertheless a wood of the mahogany grade. It is very durable, heavy and very hard, has a fine, sometimes twisted, grain, and is one of the most satisfactory woods for fine furniture and cabinetmaking. Banuyo is moder- ately heavy and moderately hard, is golden brown in color, with a fine grain. It is used for fine furniture, cabinetmaking, carriage bodies, and carving. While none of the above are found in large quantities, there is a sufficient supply to meet a small steady de- mand. All could probably be worked into veneers. Besides the above, there are a number of other woods that are good substitutes for mahogany. Palo maria, sometimes called ~ The Forests of the Philippines. 599 Borneo mahogany, is hard and moderately heavy, reddish brown wood, with a fine twisted grain, that is capable of taking a good polish. Calantas is the only one of the true mahogany family that is sometimes sold under the name of Philippine mahogany. It is light and soft, reddish in color, and has a distinct odor resembling that of cedar. It is closely related to the West Indian cedar, and while making admirable furniture, piano cases, etc., it is much sought after for cigar boxes. It, however, like other fine woods, is not plentiful. Because of their abundance, and therefore their ability to supply the demands for a steady product, the finer grades of red lauan and tanguile will no doubt be known to the outside world as Philippine mahogany. These woods have a beautiful grain and color, and are susceptible of a good polish. They have already found a place in the United States as a substitute for mahogany. Such a market can be steadily supplied with large quantities of these woods. Durable Timbers Next to fine furniture and cabinetmaking woods, the Tropics are noted for their hard durable timbers. Because of the warm climate and continuous moisture conditions, fungous growths and white ants rapidly destroy those timbers that are not able to with- stand their attacks. No timber is able to do so indefinitely, but some are much more durable than others. Teak is perhaps the best known of this class of woods. ‘This timber, while not in- digenous to the Philippines, occurs in plantations in Mindanao and . the Sulu Islands, and it has been demonstrated that the tree can be grown here successfully. It will no doubt become one of the planted tree crops of the Philippines, and the Islands will thus be enabled to furnish their share of the world’s supply of this timber. Because of their excellent qualities and comparative abundance, three Philippine timbers may be classed with teak, or at least may be regarded as substitutes for it. These are molave, ipil, and yacal. Molave is perhaps the best known hardwood in the Philippines, and more of it is extracted than of any other one kind of wood in proportion to the amount of standing timber. It is a member of the teak family. The wood is hard and heavy, pale yellow 600 Forestry Quarterly. in color, and has a fine but usually twisted grain. It is especially valuable for house posts, hardwood floors, window sills, rail- way ties, bridge timbers, paving blocks, salt-water piling, carvings, and many parts of shipbuilding. Trees of molave occur scattered usually on the limestone coastal hills throughout the Philippines. They generally have short, irregular boles, and this renders the timber less valuable than it would otherwise be. It is in such demand locally that little is now exported. Attention has already been called to ipil as a valuable wood of the mahogany grade. Nevertheless, the demand for hard dur- able timbers is so great that it is usually considered as one of the best construction timbers, exposed to soil and weather. Like molave, its principal uses are for house posts hardwood floors, railway ties, paving blocks, and telegraph poles. Yacal has also been discussed elsewhere. Because of its abun- dance, it is probably the only one of the hard durable timbers that will find much of a place in the markets outside of the Philip- pines. Prominence is given to the above-mentioned woods, not because they are the only hard durable timbers the Islands contain, but for the reason that they are the only ones in anything like sufficient quantity to supply the demands of the trade. Other principal timbers that resist well the attacks of fungi and white ants are narra, tindalo, alce, banuyo, calantas, polo maria, man- cono, dungon, aranga, banaba, anubing, bansalaguin, batitinan, betis, the macaasims, pagatpat, supa, and agoho. Salt-water Piling There is a strong demand for woods that will resist even fairly well the attacks of the shipworm (teredo), and few species are able to meet the necessary requirements. The woods most com- monly sought for such purposes are molave, dungon, aranga, betis, liusin, and piagao. Molave is one of the best woods for this purpose. The chief objection to it, however, is its irregular form, and the fact that it is difficult to find piles of sufficient length to meet the demands. Dungon has long been considered a valuable pile for salt water. The wood is very hard and heavy, tough, chocolate-brown in color, fine and cross grained, and difficult to saw. Besides piling, it is used for a large number of purposes, the principal ones being The Forests of the Philippines. 601 various kinds of naval construction, railway ties, and paving blocks. ‘The amount that can be obtained is very limited. Aranga, formerly more plentiful but now very scarce, has long had the reputation of being one of the best woods for salt-water piling. It is very hard and heavy, ranging in color from yellow to choco- late brown. Betis, like the others, is a very hard and heavy wood, dark reddish brown in color. Liusin is one of the woods which has only recently come into use for this purpose. It is very hard and heavy, and pale red to red in color. Lwuisin piles, placed be- side dungon, seem to last better than the latter. The part above water is more readily subject to fungous attacks. Piagao is said to resist the teredo well, but there is as yet no direct evidence to confirm this statement. None of the above woods are plentiful, especially in sizes suitable for piling. THE PHILIPPINE BUREAU OF FORESTRY,—ITS ORGANIZATION AND WORK. By W. D. STERRETT. The total area of the archipelago is about 75,000,000 acres. Of this area at least 60,000,000 is public land covered with grass, brush, second-growth, and merchantable forest, and an inconsider- able portion under cultivation of a shifting character. A conservative estimate places the area of merchantable forest at 20,000,000 acres, with an average of 10,000 feet of timber per acre, or a total of 200,000,000,000 feet of standing saw timber in the Islands. All of this timber is included in the area of public land. Much of it occurs on land suitable for agriculture, while there is much waste mountainous land, unsuitable for agriculture which is covered with grass or brush. Over one-fourth of the area of the Philippines is so steep and mountainous that it should be permanently held as public forest for timber and water purpos- és. ContTro, OF INSULAR ForREsTS Practically all of the timber in the Philippines is on public land. The Philippine Public Land Laws place the control of all public forests, and public land most suitable for forest and water con- servation purposes, in the hands of the Bureau of Forestry. These laws provide that no public land can be acquired by private parties without the approval of the Bureau of Forestry, certify- ing that such land is more valuable for agriculture, or for pur- poses other than growing timber and conserving water. The Bureau of Forestry thus has the decision as to what public land shall be retained for forest and water purposes. The laws provide that no timber or other forest products can be collected and sold from public lands without a license from the Bureau of Forestry. In 1905 a law was passed allowing people for a term of five years to take what timber and forest products they needed for their personal use without license. Previous to this a license was required to collect and remove any forest product for any purpose The Philippine Bureau of Forestry. 603 from public lands. The public land laws also provide that any- body before making a “caingin,” or temporary cultivation on pub- lic land, must first procure a permit from the Bureau of Forestry. The land laws further provide for the regulation and management of public forests by the Bureau of Forestry, including sale of forest products, and the reproduction and protection of the forest to secure a continuous timber supply and for water conservation. There are fixed forest charges for products collected for sale from public forests established by law. On forest products for personal use of the collector there are no forest charges. The Government stumpage charges on saw timber amount to about as follows: First group of timber—$5 per 1000 board feet. sé “< ‘és ‘sé ‘cc io Second “ 3 Third 6c “cc 6é 2 6c“ 6c ia) sé Fourth é 66 ‘é I “ec 66 ia) ‘é Considerably more than half the timber produced is of the third and fourth group. It can readily be seen that these laws secure to the Bureau of Forestry the absolute control of the forest and water situation in the Philippines. Work OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY From its organization in 1900 until December, 1905, the chief work of the Bureau of Forestry was in connection with the col- lection of revenue on forest products, and very little was done in the way of silviculture and investigation. Although an elaborate set of forest regulations and restrictions for licensees cutting timber was prepared and adopted, yet practically nothing was done in the way of inspection of cutting areas to enforce such regulations. By an act dated October 26, 1905, reorganizing the Bureaus of the Philippine Government this revenue work was transferred entirely to the Bureau of Internal Revenue. It was at this time that the Commission came very nearly abolishing the Bureau of Forestry entirely or making it a section in the Bureaa of Agriculture. The day was saved by Major Ahern’s securing the aid of Mr. Pinchot. The appropriation, however, for the work of the Bureau was cut down from $1 50,000 to $50,000 per annum ; the field force was reduced from 138 to 43; and the office 3 604. Forestry Quarterly. personnel from 33 to 12. The American foresters were retained but at reduced salaries, so that several of them resigned. Real forest work commenced with the dropping of the revenue work in November, 1905. ‘The archipelago was now divided into ten forest districts with a forester sent out in charge of each dis- trict. This enabled the Bureau, for the first time, to supervise the work of important licensees to see whether they were violating forest regulations and conditions on which their licenses were granted. ‘There was a force of about 25 native rangers located at forest stations throughout the Islands and under the district foresters. Each forester was given a set of instructions which provided for the inauguration of the following work: location and inspection of cutting areas and fines for violations of forest regulations ; inspection and recommendations on applications for license to cut and remove forest products; inspection of agri- cultural character of land desired to be taken as homesteads, and for purchase or lease; and permits for making caingins, or clear- ings with temporary cultivation, on public land; forest map of the district, and study of forest resources and future fields for new lumber concerns, including data on cost of producing forest products. It was soon discovered that most of the time of the district foresters was occupied in purely administrative work, especially in the inspection of cutting areas, inspection of areas applied for by prospective licensees and in homestead examinations; that little time was found for systematic investigation work; and that the mapping went very slowly. For this reason in July, 1906, the Division of Products was created, later called Investigation, to investigate the amount, character, value, and uses of the Philip- pine forest products, and to bring this information to the notice of Philippine and foreign markets. ‘The work of the Division consisted in: classification and cataloging of data on hand, and preparation of reports for the printer; collections for the museum and timber tests; and forest investigation and mapping. The special examinations of tracts suitable for exploitation by large lumber companies, with reports and working plans for the same, were to be made by the Division of Investigation in cooperation with the forester in whose district the particular area examined was located. ss The Philippine Bureau of Forestry. 605 At the close of 1908 there were only four foresters in charge of the ten districts—now reduced to three, with two foresters in one of the three. ‘The administrative work in control of public forests was found to be unsatisfactory, due to insufficient force, and to the privilege of free use of timber granted October, 1905, for a period of five years. It was impossible with the limited administrative force to control the abuse of the free use privilege, and trespass of all kinds, especially the making of caingins or clearings in public forests without permit. The need for more intensive management and protection of public forests became very evident. In the meantime the Division of Investigation, with a force of three American foresters and some native rangers, had completed, by the close of 1908, a land classification map, so essential as a basis for properly organizing the public forests for administra- tion, of nearly half the archipelago. These maps showed the location and distribution of the following four broad vegetative types: commercial forest; non-commercial and second growth; grass lands; agricultural lands. By this time there had also been collected an immense amount of botanical material and wood specimens, and a knowledge obtained of the relative amount and commercial value of the different species of timber. Several working plans had also been made, and special examinations of tracts for concessions to large lumber companies. The possi- bilities for lumbering were more extensively advertised. The work of the Division of Investigation, especially in the way of mapping, formed a basis for more intensive organization and administration of Philippine forests, and in 1909 this work was commenced. Two provinces (Bataan and Negros) were taken in hand that year for the organization of more intensive forest control, with an American forester in charge of each. In the future several provinces are to be taken in hand each year and organized along similar intensive lines. The area in charge of a single forester is about 500,000 acres in one province and 300,000 acres in the other. Under the forester are five to ten rangers and ten to twenty guards. The work of organizing the different forests is under the Division of Investigation and each forest to be subsequently transferred to the Division of Ad- 606 Forestry Quarterly. ministration after having been thoroughly organized and put in good running shape. The work on the newly organized forests includes all of the general administrative work formerly carried on, when part of a larger district, and some additional lines of work. The program includes: 1. Inspection of cutting areas and fines for violations of regu- lations. 2. Inspection of land for homesteads, sale, and lease, and action thereon. 3. Granting of caingin permits on public land. 4. Action on applications for licenses to collect and remove forest products. 5. Patrol against trespass and fire. 6. Control of free use privilege, and the establishment of com- munal forests. 7. Silviculture—regulations of logging operations and tree planting. 8. Co-operation with the Bureau of Internal Revenue in the collection of revenue on forest products. g. Investigations tending towards the building up of forest industries. to. Land status work such as will aid people with valid claims in establishing title to public land; and investigation of public agricultural land unjustly held or claimed to the exclusion of bona fide homesteaders, and throwing the same open for settlement. The Bureau will encourage and aid the natives in taking out - permanent homesteads and in acquiring title to the same rather than to practice the shifting caingin method of agriculture by which so much valuable public forest has been destroyed. 11. Establishing and maintaining patrol trails to guard against fire and trespass, and to facilitate caingin, homestead, and status work, is perhaps the chief feature in the organization of the different forests. Forest officers will be provided with horses, and with the patrol trails they-can quickly and with ease pass to any part of their district. In general, the main patrol trail will form the boundary between land suitable for settlement and public forest to be retained as such. 12. Each forest, in charge of a forester, is divided into ranger ey = . = =<. The Philippine Bureau of Forestry. 607 districts with 100,000 to 200,000 acres in each. The ranger has an assistant ranger and several guards under him. NEEDS OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY. The chief need of the Bureau of Forestry is to complete as soon as possible the organization of intensive administration for all Philippine forests along the lines inaugurated in 1909 for the Bataan and Negros forests. To do this will require a greatly in- creased force of trained foresters and trained native rangers. The foresters for a number of years will be almost exclusively American, but it is planned to educate and train Filipinos of the better class, in the course of time, to be foresters capable of taking charge of forest districts. ‘To properly administer the forests of the islands will require at least 50 trained foresters, 500 or more trained rangers, and 2,000 or more guards. The present force is ten American foresters and about 40 native rangers and student assistants. In order to increase the present inadequate force to what it should be it will be necessary to in- crease the appropriations from $70,000 per annum, the present amount, to about $500,000 per annum. ‘The increase in force and appropriations will take place gradually. | There is being established, in connection with the Philippine College of Agriculture, a school of forestry for the education and training of native rangers and foresters. Up to the present the native rangers were trained in the field by the different American foresters while engaged in field work. ‘There are three Filipino assistant foresters, two graduates of Nebraska and one of the Michigan Agricultural College, who have had some forest train- ing in the United States. But as a rule it will be much better to give the native all his forest education and training in the Philip- pines, as sending him to the States is very expensive and is liable to give him too much of a swell head, and he is then not of as much use for actual field work as rangers with only a rough and ready training in the field. The education and training of a large corps of native rangers and foresters is the most important work which the Bureau of Forestry has at present. It is part of the policy of the United States to educate the Filipinos to take care of themselves, and most of the higher as well as lower offices in the Government will 608 Forestry Quarterly. eventually be held by Filipinos when they have had sufficient education and training and show themselves sufficiently capable and trustworthy to fill them. And so it will be in the future Philippine Forest Service. The cost of well-educated native employees will naturally be a great deal less than for Americans, so it is advisable to use them, wherever satisfactory in more responsible positions, to cut down expenses. The course in forestry at the Agricultural College will be six years for Filipinos who have completed the eighth grade and are ready for the high school, and four years for those who have completed two years’ high school work. ‘There is to be a forest reserve of some 10,000 to I5,000 acres in connection with the school for forest demonstration and field work. Tue PHILIPPINES AS A FIELD FOR AMERICAN FORESTERS. The following are advantages the American forester, much pre- ferably single, can reap by two or more years’ work in the Philip- pine Bureau of Forestry: Invaluable broadening experience in living in the tropics and the Orient for a period of years, ex- tremely interesting forest work, knowledge obtained of tropics, especially of the forests. It is predicted by some that the tropics will in time become the world’s principal source of timber and food supply. ‘The tropics are the future “Go west, young man” country—the least developed part of the globe in proportion to their almost limitless natural resources. All that is needed is to solve the problem of healthy living in the tropics and they will become the richest part of the globe. Better pay at the outset than in the U. S. Forest Service, and at the end of two years’ service seventy days leave with pay is given, which more than pays the expenses of coming home. Outlook is good for future big developments in the Bureau of Forestry and increases in pay to American foresters who remain any length of time. Chances to tour foreign countries enroute to and from the Islands is alone worth, to some persons, two years’ service in the Philippines. The principal objections to work in the Philippines are: Too far away from the United States and social connections here. Climate. Reputed to be very unhealthy. However, with a little extra care of oneself and the taking of a few precautions the se The Philippine Bureau of Forestry. 609 forester can easily maintain his health in the Philippines, while the living practically outdoors (houses so open) all the year round makes it healthier, in many respects, than in the States. It is no white man’s country. ‘To my mind this is the greatest objection to work in the Philippines,—that the population 1s almost entirely Malaysian and white people are few. Under the American principle of “the Philippines for the Filipinos,’ all work is done for the benefit of the little brown brother, which up to the present seems to have had the effect of making him a spoilt “pampered pup,’ with much less respect for the American than the Spaniard and an exaggerated idea of his own importance and superiority. The work of the American forester in the Philippines will con- sist usually in the administration of an insular forest or district comprising probably a million acres, over half forested and seventy-five per cent. public land. He will have a force of about ten rangers and thirty guards under him. He will be even more independent in carrying on his work than the Supervisor in the U. S. Forest Service. He will be responsible for all work done in his district. His most important work will be in training native rangers to take charge of the different ranger districts into which his forest is divided, as it is through his rangers that the forester administers his forest and carries on all his work. Every forester has more or less work in the training of native student assistants in forest work in the field and in the office, and it is a source of satisfaction to him when he leaves the Islands to look back on the number of successful rangers who have received their training under him, whom he leaves, perhaps, to carry on his pet schemes and ideas. LUMBERING IN THE PHILIPPINES. By Donatp M. Marruews, Forester, Bureau of Forestry. The lumber industry in the Philippines from the American standpoint is still in its infancy, although actually it stands next to agriculture in point of age and importance. Up to the time of the American occupation the most primitive methods of both logging and milling obtained everywhere throughout the Islands, and even to-day, 90% of the people engaged in the industry are following the time honored methods of two centuries ago. The average Filipino in any part of the Islands who desires to go into the lumber business does not spend a year or two land-looking, interesting capital and studying the state of the market. He has a market that is all that can be desired in the nearest town; the timber, from his point of view, is to be found in abundance right at his back door and a few axes, a carabao or two and a few laborers constitute his capital. He applies for, and obtains a license from the Government to cut 100 (sometimes less) to 5,000 cubic meters (25,000 to 1,250,000 bd. ft.) of timber. Then, with his outfit, which normally consists of 20 to 30 axmen, I0 to 12 carabaos and the same number of laborers, he proceeds to the area for which he has obtained a license. The labor is generally employed on the piece work system and after the employer has given his men general instructions as to what timber to cut and how to cut it, so as to conform to governmental regulations, he returns to his home and calmly goes about such other business as he may have on hand. After a month or two the logs begin to come down to the seacoast, either being hauled the whole distance on crude sleds or floated down the streams. ‘The licensee then takes a few days off to arrange for the whip-sawing of the logs into lumber for local sale or has the logs rafted for sea trans- portation to the nearest large town, where they are usually dis- posed of to Chinamen or others who make a business of whip- sawing the logs into lumber. The whole operation is usually characterized by the greatest deliberation. The licensee is usually so fixed that he can hold his Lumbering in the Philippmes. 611 logs. for sale under the most advantageous conditions. He will often take a contract to deliver logs at a certain place and time, but as he does not concern himself with the rate at which the logging is carried on in the woods he rarely finds himself in a position to complete his contract. The loggers themselves take time to select the most desirable trees and never make an attempt at clear cutting. Using animal power entirely for hauling, and that unassisted by any mechanical device other than the logging sled, they cannot cut the largest trees and usually limit themselves to straight sound timber under 36” in diameter. Naturally the effect of this system of logging on the forest is to remove the most active part of the forest capital leaving the old timber, which is the natural crop, to go back and become a drag on the productive capacity. However, it has one advantage, as the old trees counteract the effect of the highly selective cutting and insure natural reproduction of the desirable species. In general it may be said that the native method of logging, while not an economical one, is not one to endanger the existence of the forest or even of the most desirable species. In the more in- accessible regions of the Islands and where the timber does not occur in large uninterrupted tracts it is practically the only pos- sible method and the one naturally suited to conditions. However, as American capital became interested in logging, there developed an abrupt change wherever it took hold, from the primitive methods which heretofore obtained, to the most up-to- date western methods. This change took place with hardly any _transition stage other than that necessary to the establishment of an industry among a people acquainted with only the rudiments of the new method. Considering the difficulties which the first American logging enterprise encountered in the Islands, steam milling and logging has been astonishingly successful and has even greater success in store for it. There are at present some 60 or more steam sawmills operating in the Islands, the equipment of which varies from the single crude circular saw to full equipped band mills cutting 50,000 or more feet a day. At least four of these mills do their logging by steam, following the system in vogue in the northwestern part of the United States, namely the “slack rope” with yarding and hauling donkeys. Native labor under high grade American super- 612 Forestry Quarterly. vision is used throughout and while employers complain of the grade of labor attainable it is probably more effective dollar for dollar than the labor used for the same purpose in the United States. ‘The first companies to install steam logging methods in the Islands naturally worked under great disadvantages while training their woods crew. ‘This was in part due to the ignorance and habits of the Filipinos they were compelled to employ, but also equally due to the incompetent and inadequate American super- vision. Furthermore many of the American loggers placed in direct supervision of Filipino labor either failed or refused to understand the Filipino and did not work in harmony with their crews. This was to be expected considering the type of men often employed as logging bosses. However, the employers soon realized that competent Americans in charge of the logging were indispensable and offered salaries that attracted the high grade men. ‘These men being anxious to make good, studied the pro- blem from both the logger’s standpoint and that of the laborer and by patient work have developed extremely efficient Filipino crews. As the average Filipino is not nearly as strong as the average American “lumber jack” it was found necessary to employ more men for each operation, such as skidding, swamping, yarding, train hall, etc., than would be employed in the States. Also each of these operations should be supervised by a competent American if the best results are desired and if the general operation is large enough to admit of the expense. ‘This will become less and less true as higher grade Filipinos enter the field, as they are bound to do, and the employer has already found that a good Filipino is many times better than a poor American. ‘The school system of the Islands is rapidly turning out men of all grades who speak English and if some of these who like outdoor work can be picked up by the lumbermen to fill minor supervisory positions they would be invaluable, not only in the capacity of crew bosses, but as interpreters for the American employees. These men would understand both the American and the Filipino, and would do much to smooth out difficulties arising from imperfectly under- stood orders and would aid the American to hold his crew together. The millman in the Islands has met with practically the same difficulties as the logger and they are traceable to the same causes. Lumbering in the Philippines. 613 Too many Americans have attempted to run a lumbering enter- prise without knowing more than the rudiments of the business themselves and have attempted to log cheaply with the minimum of American supervision, a practice in every instance disastrous. In bandmill practice the minimum amount of high grade American labor to insure success may be obtained at an annual cost of about $9,600.00. ‘This should employ a saw filer, sawyer, mill foreman and millwright at $2,440.00 for each man. The right man cannot be obtained for less, and with Filipino labor a mill cannot be run as it should be unless thoroughly competent Americans are in charge of the most important operations. Furthermore, experi- ence shows that in the larger mills it pays to put in an American as edgerman, as careless or unskilled edging, especially in de- fective timber, reduces the output of the better grades of lumber as much as 50%. ‘The writer has seen Filipino edgermen fail to shift saws after cutting out a defect in an 18” flitch and allow a sound flitch 18” or more go through and be sawn into 4” strips. Of course this is exceptional and in mill practice as well as in logging, as the better grades of Filipinos enter the trade, higher and higher grades of work can be entrusted to them. At present Filipino engineers and setters receive from $1.50 to $2.00 per day, these wages attracting the highest grade of men that are willing to go into the work. Trimmer men, edgermen and setters receive from $1.00 to $1.50 per day and the rest of the mill and yard crew, being classed for the most part as common laborers, receive from $0.25 to $0.75 per day. As higher grades _of labor enter the field and as the present crews become more skilled they will of course demand higher wages. Nevertheless, the cost of each operation should lessen, for it is probable that the capacity of the workmen both as to quantity and quality of work will increase at a much more rapid rate than will wages. No good figures can be given as yet for cost of logging and milling for the Islands as a whole because each mill is operating under its own particular conditions which differ from those in any other mill to as great an extent as would the conditions in New England differ from those in Oregon: In most large operations, however, the logs can be delivered at the mill over a five mile railway and at a cost of less than $3.50. The transportation charge is a large item in getting the lumber to the market, but will be largely over- 614 Forestry Quarterly. come as the lumbermen get far enough ahead to own their own lumber fleet. As has been indicated we can expect a considerable decrease in the cost of production all along the line, but it is not certain that a corresponding increase in profits will follow. The market to-day is practically at the mercy of the lumbermen, the demand being far greater than the supply of native lumber and the only com- petition being that of Oregon Pine. As more lumbermen enter the field competition will lower prices somewhat, but with the immense China market awaiting development and the market for higher grades of lumber for interior finish in the United States, it is reasonably certain that there will be a margin of profit far exceeding that in the United States for 30 or 40 years to come. In speaking of logging as carried on in the Philippines it has been said that the “slack rope system” is the only steam method in use. This does not mean that it is the only practicable method but simply that the men who have entered the field so far are from the northwest portion of the United States and they naturally installed the method with which they were familiar. As lumbermen of wider experience and backed by more capital enter the field, we may expect to see many of the specialized systems of logging which have proved successful in the United States put in operation here. Steep slopes, heavily forested to the water line, if not too exposed to heavy surf, can be cheaply logged by a modification of the pull boat system of the cypress swamps. A large, strongly built scow with one or two donkey engines mounted on it should be very successful in such a situation and will also probably find a place in logging mangrove swamps for both piling and timber. Steep slopes everywhere can probably be handled by cableways of one kind or another, such as are pro- duced by the Lidgerwood Co. ‘Timber slides of various kinds would be very effective in many parts of the Islands, although none are in use as yet; and driving by water, which is practised to-day on only a very small scale, will probably become an im- portant means of transportation where drivable streams exist. The development of the timber business as a whole is well started, although as said above it is still in its infancy from the American standpoint. ‘The next few years should be marked by a rapid advance leading to the exclusion of all foreign timber from Lumbering in the Philippines. 615 the Philippine market. Exportation, now only just beginning, will form an important part of the trade and as Philippine lumber gains its place in foreign markets the advertisement it will get, will bring more and more capital into the business in the Islands. The day of the small operator in the Islands is passing just as it has passed in the United States and although he will never be crowded out, as he has been in the United States, the larger operator will in the future be the more prominent of the two. MUSEUM OF PHILIPPINE FOREST PRODUCTS By E. E. SCHNEWER, Wood Expert, Bureau of Forestry. Early in 1909 the Bureau of Forestry established a museum of forest products, located on the ground floor of a large building not far from the Bureau offices. Comparatively small as were the beginnings, the museum now contains collections that will com- pare favorably in some respects with those of any similar museum in the world. ‘The chief motive of establishing the museum was to acquaint the public with the fact that the Philippines contain not only an immense variety of strong, durable and beautiful hard- woods, but also enormous quantities of construction timbers that take the place of the pine family of the temperate zone. During the Spanish regime, and even in the early days of the American occupation, it was scarcely suspected that the chief wealth of the Philippine forests consists, not of the fancy hardwoods, but of the cheaper woods which, on account of their abundance, can be extracted by modern methods in great quantities and therefore yield a much greater profit than the scattered trees of the high priced species. A nucleus for the museum was already present. Years before, collections had been made of logs of the well known species for the purpose of identifying by means of botanical material the commoner commercial species. Also, many of the common tim- bers were already represented by planks either acquired by pur- chase or donated by lumbermen, not to mention a great number of miscellaneous specimens of manufactures of wood and of minor products. As soon as thé museum was opened, accessions of all kinds came rapidly. During the latter part of 1909 a special fund was obtained with which a collection of logs was made that added some fifty or sixty species to the number already represented, besides replacing with large specimens, containing typical heartwood, many of the old ones that had been cut from immature trees. Similarly, to the few planks of the well known commercial species have been added many that were formerly little or not at all known. Occasional logs are constantly being Museum of Philippine Forest Products. 617 added from collections made incidentally, as in investigating tracts for proposed concessions, donations from licensees, etc. Of the planks a large proportion have been presented. To acquire a specially fine plank the Bureau of Forestry is occasionally obliged to buy a whole log, have it sawn to order and after selecting the choicest planks dispose of the remainder to private purchasers. The logs shown in the museum are sections three feet high sawn down midway to half their height and having a four inch bevel on the upper edge, so that each one shows bark, sapwood and heartwood, and tranverse, longitudinal and diagonal sections. With perhaps half a dozen exceptions they have all been collected with botanical material, which is deposited in the herbarium of the Bureau of Science, each species being thus positively de- termined. ‘There are now over four hundred logs in the museum, representing about 225 species. ‘The planks, the standard length of which is ten feet, are arranged so as completely to cover the walls. They range from six or eight inches to nearly four feet in width, the average being between two and three feet. They are all polished so as to preserve their natural color as nearly as possible, except that an unpolished plank is sometimes shown beside a polished one of the same species, the pair being generally cut from the same log. The planks now number nearly a hundred, representing about 65 species. Besides these, there are twenty pillars, each sheathed in a different wood, among which are several species not represented among the planks. Both the planks and the pillars have labels which contain, besides the -common and scientific names, a series of notes on the durability, mechanical properties, distribution and supply, sizes and prices of the various species. Further information regarding the forest area of the Islands, the bulk and value of the standing timber, etc., is furnished by a series of colored maps and by framed signs conspicuously displayed on the walls, so that even the casual visitor can obtain a great deal of information without the neces- sity of a guide. Of the entire space occupied by the log speci- mens about one-fifth is filled with logs belonging to the Diptero- carp or Lauan family and the same is true of the wall space covered by the planks. This family is the only one in the Islands that furnishes timber in great bulk. There is no species belong- ing to any other tree family that can be classified as abundant in 618 Forestry Quarterly. comparison with the 15 or 20 most important species of the Lauan family. Some idea of the size of the trees of this family may be obtained when it is noted that the planks in this section average nearly three feet in width, the widest one being 46 inches wide. To attempt a description of the immense number of manufac- tured articles, both of wood and of the minor products, to say nothing of the specimens of minor products in the crude state, would be to convert this article into a catalogue. Most notable among the manufactured articles are a round one-piece table top of Lauan, 9 ft. 7 in. in diameter, and a rectangular one of Ipil 4 ft. by 9 ft. Of the minor products, there is an endless variety of resins, gutta-percha, rattans, bamboos, dye-barks, etc., the most conspicuous exhibit being probably a stand of almaciga or copal resin. Here are shown a variety of grades ranging from small specimens as clear as the purest amber to great brown masses excavated from the ground and weighing nearly a hundred pounds. Not less interesting, though not so conspicuous, are many of the manufactured articles, which, besides showing the forest wealth of the Islands, throw many side lights on native industries and methods. THE NORTHERN NEGROS FOREST. By Heser G. Strout, Forester, Philippine Bureau of Forestry. The district known as the Northern Negros Forest was put under intensive administration in July, 1909. It includes the northern third of the Island of Negros, one of the central islands of the Philippine Archipelago. The total area of the district is about one million acres, about one-half of which is in forest con- taining approximately one billion board feet of standing timber. In dividing off the Northern Negros Forest as a separate adminis- trative unit, two objects were kept in view. First, to test the advisability of creating similar intensive administrative units in various parts of the Archipelago, and second, to serve as a training ground for Filipino rangers. The first object has been well ful- filled, and the establishment of a forest school for rangers has since rendered it unnecessary to use the Northern Negros Forest for purposes of education other than as providing a place for the students to do field work. An unusual importance also attaches to the Northern Negros Forest, as it supplies the timber for the mills for two of the largest lumber companies in the islands. The Insular Lumber Company was established in 1904 at Fabrica, Negros Occidental ; and the Negros-Philippine Lumber Company, with mills at Cadiz, has only recently begun operations. _ The Insular Lumber Company was the first in the Islands to install modern methods of lumbering. The plant is situated up the Himugaan River about seven miles from its mouth, and is equipped with a 9-foot band saw, large edger, trimmer, surfacer, and tongue and groove machine, and is easily capable of handling the large logs which are brought in from the forest. The com- pany has constructed several miles of logging railroad, and pos- sesses two Shay-geared locomotives and five donkey engines for yarding and loading. They are operating under a twenty-year license agreement with the Government, which gives them the exclusive right to cut from a tract of forest of sixty-nine square miles, the greater portion of which is fairly level country. The _ forest itself is of the Dipterocarp type which furnishes the com- 4 620 Forestry Quarterly. mercial species known as the red and white lauans, tanguile, and apitong ; and in non-commercial quantities, scattered through the forest are molave, camagon, narra, and a few others of the more valuable hard woods. The annual cut is between seven and eight million feet, board measure, but the company is planning to in- crease its output materially by the installation of additional ma- chinery. A recent advice from the mill states that the maximum cut for one day amounted to 72,000 board feet. The mill of the Negros-Philippine Company is located on the coast of Cadiz, and is somewhat similar. It has a circular mill with a top and bottom saw, an edger, trimmer and sizer. The log- ging methods used are about the same as those of the Insular Com- pany, but with a smaller equipment. There is a railroad haul of about five miles from the woods to the mill. The company owns one Shay-geared locomotive, and two donkey engines. Their con- cession adjoins that of the Insular Lumber Company to the west, and comprises about 50 square miles of the same type of forest. They have been operating only since May, and are cutting about 20,000 board feet of lumber daily. Before discussing the plan of administration which was put in practice, it may be well to describe briefly the physical character- istics of the district. All around the coast, varying from half a mile to fifteen miles inland, is a fertile plain. This is partly culti- vated and partly cogon land. Large sugar cane haciendas occupy the greater part of the cultivated area; small holdings on which are grown tobacco, cocoanuts, corn and rice, cover the remainder. The cogon area lies between the cultivated land and the forest, and derives its name from the high, coarse grass with which it is covered. This area was originally covered with timber, which was cut and burned in order that the land might be cultivated for a few years, and afterwards abandoned. Back of this coastal plain rise the steep, volcanic mountains, covered with forests of the Dipterocarp type similar to those in which the lumber com- panies are working. Until August I, 1911, an American forester was stationed in the Northern Negros Forest, with headquarters at the mill of one of the lumber companies. It has since been found possible to entrust the details of local work to a Filipino head ranger of long experience, as an assistant to the American in charge. He re- The Northern Negros Forest. 621 ports to the forester in charge of the district of the Visayan Islands and Palawan at his headquarters in Iloilo, who is easily available should any emergency arise which the head ranger is unable to meet. Under the head ranger are rangers and assistant rangers, who are stationed at various points along the coast. They are young Filipinos of ordinary school education, who have passed the required Civil Service examination. Their duties are to map all trails and rivers in their district, inspect the cutting areas of timber licensees, inspect homesteads, and to see that the products taken from the forests are properly invoiced and paid for. They are also to be on the watch for caifgin-makers, who, if left un- disturbed, would destroy vast quantities of timber. Each ranger has under him a limited number of forest guards, uneducated men of the native laboring class, who patrol all trails leading into the forest and along its edge, on the lookout for caifigin-makers and for forest products taken without license. They also serve as cargadores for the forest officers. The chief and the most important work to be done on such a forest and with such an organization is that of conservation, and this problem in the Philippines is entirely different from what it is in America. Fire does practically no damage in the dense, ever-moist forests of the Philippines, and destructive lumbering methods are of relatively less importance than in the States. The caifigin-maker, however, is a destructive factor unknown to the American forester, and if unchecked, would destroy more good timber than is cut for commercial purposes. Of the lowest class, sometimes working for himself, but more often for some influential person residing in a neighboring town, and in some cases even for municipal officials, he makes a clearing in the heavy forest which is afterwards burnt over, thus preparing the rich forest floor for the planting of crops. No plowing is neces- sary. Holes are made in the ground with a pointed stock, the seed dropped in and covered up, and all labor is completed until the crop is ready to be harvested, for in most cases no attempt is made to keep out the weeds. Two crops, or at the most three, are obtained from such a caifigin, and then the weeds and cogon become too thick and the caifigineros move to another place and repeat the operation. 622 Forestry Quarterly. As a result of careful inspection and activity on the part of the forest officers, caifigin-making has been checked in the Northern Negros Forest, and there is now but little loss from this cause. All forest officers are empowered to arrest without warrant for violations of the forest law, and it is now the policy to use this power more freely than in the past. The stopping of this form of forest destruction is one of the best arguments for the more intensive management of other forests throughout the Islands. Some trail building has been carried on for patrol purposes, and it is planned to lay out a trail completely around the forest that will separate the agricultural from the forest land, and will make possible greater vigilance in protection work. Attempts are being made to induce the Filipinos who wish to have their caifigins in the woods to take up homesteads in the cogon areas, and to turn non-producing land into farms that will furnish a good living to their owners. This object is somewhat difficult of attainment, however, because of the indolence of the average Filipino of that class, the lack of work animals, and because most of the cogon areas are claimed as private land by the more influential men of the region. Although the claim is usually illegal, the ignorant Filipino has too great a fear of the rich man to contest the matter. Land titles are very indefinite, and the boundaries are hard to determine. As an experiment the organization of the Northern Negros Forest has given sufficiently good results to justify its establish- ment and the time and money expended during the two years and more that have elapsed since the project was started. If money can be secured for similar reserves on other islands which contain valuable forests, there is little doubt that the present abuses and the destruction of public property can be successfully combated. THE USEFULNESS OF THE NON-CHRISTIAN TRIBES FOR FOREST WORK. By Dominco L. Diaz, Head Ranger, Philippine Bureau of Forestry. In our mountains and wild lands are found not only heavy forests and luxuriant vegetation, but their intricate labyrinths and steep hillsides provide a shelter for a strange race of beings, utterly lacking in all that we prize, but very happy and contented in the face of all the vicissitudes and accidents of an unfortunate existence. These are the Negritos, members of one of the so- called non-Christian tribes of the Philippine Islands and commonly known among the Filipinos as “aetas,” “itas” or “balugas.”’ It is the popular belief that these Negritos were the first in- habitants of the Philippine Archipelago and the theory is sup- ported by modern historians, who argue that as the Negritos have doubtless always lived much as they do at present they were forced to retreat to the more inaccessible portions of the Islands before the advance of the stronger and relatively more civilized inhabitants of the plains who also greatly exceed the Negritos in numbers. The Negritos must have been here before the Malay invasions, for, say the historians, it is not logical to suppose that a weaker race could have invaded the territory already held by a stronger people. ' The pressure of other work and the limited space which the Editor of the Forest Quarterly has so kindly allotted do not permit a detailed discussion of other important ethnological data on these tribes, and I will confine myself to their usefulness and im- portance in forest work in one part of the territory they occupy, the forests of the Province of Bataan. According to a census taken by the writer with the assistance of the “Comisarios de Aetas,’”’ there are scattered throughout the forests of Bataan Province, situated some thirty miles north-west of Manila, about 1,200 Negritos of both sexes and of all ages. For the most part they live apart in groups or families on the edge of their caifgins or forest clearings and remain in a fixed abode 624 Forestry Quarterly. during the cultivation and harvesting of the crops on a few little parcels of badly cleared land. ! The inhabitants of a pueblo generally hold an election once in two years to nominate and elect a captain, a Justice of the Peace, a senior lieutenant, and one councilman and ‘“‘teniente” for each district within the jurisdiction of the pueblo. In addition there are police and a “Comisario Mayor” as well as a “Comisario Segundo,” the two latter of whom are Christians in most cases. As the Negritos have been born and have spent their entire life in the forests their practical knowledge and the experience they have gained are of incalculable value, for nowhere else can we find rational beings so intimately allied to the plant world and its reproduction and so thoroughly conversant with the geographical features of the mountains and the names of trees and places. To the Negritos the name of every spot, of every tree and forest not only has some distinctive meaning but also brings up the memory of some notable incident in his life. Even the younger gene- ration know most of the different kinds of trees, their character- istics and their practical uses, and when the name of this or that tree is mentioned it is common to hear such remarks as, “The fruit of this tree is edible,” or “The bark of such and such a plant has certain medicinal properties’—and they can guide you to a spot with the exactness of a magnetic compass. As each Negrito has a certain patch of forest which he considers peculiarly his own, it is easy to understand his great familiarity with the moun- tains and the vegetation which they support. The most distinguishing characteristics of the Negritos as a tribe have always been obedience and docility. As they are a simple people in one sense and of a nervous, excitable tempera- ment they have always shown a fidelity which borders upon timidity. Imagine for a moment a machine in action, and com- pare it to a group of Negritos working under the direction of a foreman in whom they have confidence because they feel sure of receiving fair treatment at his hands, and the comparison will be marvelously exact. A primitive people of few wants and basing all their pride in being able to please their friends or fulfill the wishes of their rulers, they are well adapted to employment in any sort of forest work. We should not consider laziness the cause of the poverty of a a Usefuiness of Non-Christian Tribes. 625 class of men who spend night and day in search of food to sat- isfy the veriest necessities of life for themselves and their families, men who in all kinds of weather clear and cultivate parcels of land far away from their own dwellings—men, in fact, who sell what they have produced at a third or a fourth of the customary prices —it would be ridiculous to characterize such men as lazy. The Negritos are hard workers, workers from necessity and from habit, and their faults are due to lack of method, of ambition, of proper initiative, of insufficient food ; and so with a little effort it would be possible not only to better their own condition, but that of the entire community and of the forests which shelter them. ‘Thoroughly inured to the climate, always seeking the verdure of the forest and its cool breezes and feeling agile and happy where all is solitude, it would be difficult to find a substi- tute for the Negrito for forest work. . Like all other humanity, the Negritos have their shortcomings. Proud of the official authority with which some of them are in- vested, they wish proper respect to be shown to their rank and they generally seek an employment which is on a friendly basis rather than paternal. They wish to smoke cigars and chew betel nuts while they are working and prefer to go a whole day with- out food rather than be deprived of them. They are very fond of music and dancing and on a day of “undas,” or the solemnities attendant upon a funeral, most of them will lavish all the pro- ducts of the chase and of their work for an entire year. Such disagreements as arise among themselves are generally the result of amorous intrigues or jealousy, for questions of the ownership of property, much less of thefts, are unknown: their property is owned in common and robbery is considered the most de- grading of crimes. By making a superficial study of their customs, tastes and vices, learning how to avoid the difficulties and to work in har- mony with them, one can be assured of finding in these tribes a body of men that are intelligent, docile, faithful, agile and in- dustrious for any class of unskilled forest work which they may be called upon to perform. IMPRESSIONS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH INDIA. By TuHroporE S. WootseEy, JR. In the fall of 1904, the writer made a three months’ trip to study the methods of forest management in British India. The trip included a visit to the sal forests around Dehra Dun; to.the spruce, fir, chir pine and oak forests of the Himalaya Mountains at ele- vations of from 5,000 to 10,000 feet; also a visit to the planta- tions around Lahore. During this trip the writer had the oppor- tunity of discussing administrative problems with a number of of- ficers. This much is given by way of introduction to point out why the writer has used the title “Impressions of Forest Ad- ministration in British India.” On the other hand, the Indian Forester has been studiously read in the last five years and per- haps a correct idea of some of the main points in Indian forest administration has been gained. The climatic conditions in India make forest administration very difficult for a white man. He must live in out-of-the-way places; he must wage a continual warfare with the climate, and in less favorable localities—as in certain parts of Burmah—forest officers are in danger of fever or other tropical diseases. Conse- quently, the success of the administration is all the more remark- able. Starting as it did in a small way, under the leadership of the late Sir Dietrich Brandis, it has reached its present efficiency in a period of less than 50 years. The success is largely due to the per- sonnel. The pay is excellent, ranging roughly from $1400 for the green Assistant Conservator of Forests to $6400 for the experi- enced Conservator (District Forester), and at the end of 25 years’ service, an average pension of $2500 per annum may be expected. In the early days the officers were ordinarily trained in France or Germany, but now there is a well-established school at Oxford where officers receive the major part of their train- ing, supplemented by tours and assignments in Continental For- ests. Of course the subordinate force is paid far less than the average laborer in this country—a fire watcher receiving perhaps $2.50 a month, without expenses—but one must make allowances a Forest Administration in British India. 627 for the unreliability of the native laborer and the necessity for close supervision in considering the net cost of labor. The ranger force is well trained at Dehra Dun, and allowing for the native temperament, they may be said to be an excellent body of men. A practical business administration stands forth as the foremost achievement. A substantial net revenue can always be assured. In the business success of the forest administration, economy, as well as the development and exploitation of the natural re- sources, have played important parts. Possibly in some parts of India there has been serious over-cutting due to the keen de- sire to secure financial results. For instance, it has been stated that the sandalwood forests have been depleted in order to enrich the exchequer. Perhaps the most delicate problem which the forest administra- tion has had to face is how to deal with the natives. An amicable settlement of the grazing and forage problems has often re- quired great diplomacy. Even in fire protection the native must be carefully handled, since in case of a large fire the untrained coolie must often be relied upon. Even the effect of the restric- tion of wanton timber cutting on local sentiment must be weighed ; in almost every forest there is the so called “village forest” which apparently is mutilated and grazed at will. Fire protection in British India it seems to me has been suc- cessful. In the “protected forest” there are carefully planned fire lines, supplemented by a corps of fire watchers and fire fighters. _ Especially dangerous meadows are periodically burned over and natural water courses are often improved to make broad fire breaks. In the chir pine forests in the mountains the fire lines usually run along ridges and there are many arguments presented locally in favor of not entirely clearing the line, but maintaining a scattered pine forest upon it in order to reduce the cost of clearance. The lines are burned periodically; first guide lines (their width equals height of grass plus or minus) are cut on each border of the main fire break, then when the grass is suf- ficiently dry, the whole break is burned under close control. There are numerous instances, however, where fires have es- caped while these lines are burned, owing to the blaze unex- pectedly getting out of control. 628 Forestry Quarterly. The grazing problem is logically handled. It is felt that the stock must be provided for, and that properly regulated it can be made to assist reproduction. For instance, before a reproduction cutting, heavy grazing may be allowed. Afterwards it may be totally excluded until the second crop is sufficiently established. Natural reproduction has been and is being carefully studied, but there is room for the application of scientific experimental station methods and if these had been applied years ago, many of the perplexing problems would now be solved instead of being a matter of controversy. For example, does burning in a teak for- est improve reproduction? If so, is this improvement sufficient to warrant burning the humus? What is the total net gain or loss? What methods of cutting promote the reproduction of deodar, chir pine, or sal? These are some of the problems which have been solved but in regard to which there is still some doubt. Reviews of the annual administrative reports bring out the lack of artificial reforestation. It is believed that a larger area should be annually artifically reforested than is now being done. At present there is practically but little planting or sowing done in India, considering the total acreage under forests. Working plans have been prepared for a comparatively small area. The main objection to these plans has been that they have not been made by the men most capable of making them, and they have not always been entirely practicable and workable. In regulating the yield the natural loss through suppression or other causes has never been studied with sufficient care; this is an uncertain factor which I believe some day may lead to local over- cutting. Judging by our standards the growth figures upon which many of the cutting plans are based have been insufficient to warrant the inferences drawn. Nor have the volume tables been sufficiently accurate, although the yield has ordinarily been based on area and number of trees rather than the cubic foot—a detail which has made the working plans more practicable. While the education of the ranger force at Dehra Dun, for example, has been greatly perfected, yet there is need for an increase in the number of forest schools in order to secure a locally educated ranger force familiar with the problems with which it must deal. As compared with the United States the publicity movement which is, of course, of great educational ee Forest Administration in British India. 629 value, has not been pushed with the same vigor. Exceedingly interesting and valuable reports are often limited to small issues, so that the general public cannot be supplied. Possibly this has been necessitated by the spirit of economy, and yet this seems te me to be a short-coming. Prior to 1906 the experimental work was carried on by a few enthusiasts who were subject to transfer at any time ; consequent- ly, much of the value of these experiments was lost. In 1906 a Research Bureau was established which is now turning out ex- cellent scientific work. Possibly this Bureau will be strengthen- ed if it tackles the more practical every-day management prob- lems that the officers in charge must meet, instead of conducting its work along such purely scientific lines. It is well to emphasize, in conclusion, that the fore-going notes are merely impressions and are not based upon a complete study of Indian forest literature, such as is available; nor upon an ex- tensive tour in India. Yet one can say with a fair degree of ac- curacy that the Indian administration is to be praised for its net receipts, for its splended supervisory personnel, for its efficient fire protection, and for its understanding of the native problem. On: the other hand, it is equally true that in future years there is room for more aggressive artificial reforestation, for working plans over a larger percentage of the area under merchantable forests, for accumulating a more extensive Indian forest literature of a high technical value, and for wider scientific research along practical administrative lines. *Since reading an account of the proposed change from the selection to the shelter- - wood system in the ‘Teak forests of Burma on the recommendation of a member of the Research Staff it appears to me the investigative officers are already tackling practical problems of management.—T. S. W., Jr. A PHASE OF FIRE PROTECTION. By THroporE S. WooLsEy, JR. The chir pine (Pinus longifolia) at the head waters of the Ganges in northeastern India is managed under the shelterwood system, with a reproduction period of some ten to twelve years. The results of the application of this system seemed satisfactory when the Jaunsar forest was visited in 1904. ‘There was but one objection. As it happened, quite a considerable area of regener- ated stands had been practically burnt clear prior to my visit. There were no seed trees scattered over the burnt area and the trees in the higher regions could only restock the area after a seri- ous delay. It was thought at that time too expensive to plant or sow. A rather difficult and undesirable situation! As a result of this object lesson, all the more striking because of the progress of fire protection in India on so called “protected forests,’ it has always been my practice to leave at least a few seed trees—say one or two per acre—even if pine reproduction is already complete on the area to be logged. Perhaps the first direct application of this principle in America may be found in section 22 T23 N. R. 4E. G. & I. R. M. Tusayam Forest, Ari- zona, a Western yellow pine stand. So much by way of intro- duction. When the Republic of Genoa ceded the island of Corsica to France, it was the engineer branch and not the forest branch which first took control. But when they did assume the responsi- bility, they found that fires and excessive grazing had reduced most of the forest to mere brush, (locally known as “maquis’”’). But high up in the mountains, usually above three thousand feet altitude, there were still fine forests of Corsican pine (“pin laricio”’) ‘They found large areas of fully stocked, even aged stands, and consequently decided that the shelterwood system should be applied. After the seed fellings, the regeneration was fairly successful, although it is judged that where the grazing of goats was especially severe, the young growth did not come in as uniformly as was desired. During the early administration, the severity of the control incited the local grazers to armed op- —— A Phase of Fire Protection. 631 position and to reprisal by incendiarism. ‘To-day one sees goats and hogs in federal forests where they are formally forbidden entry under the existing forest code. But, as an old ranger put it—“If one must take poison, it’s better, if you have the choice to take the poison, which, altho it does make you sick, does not ac- tually kill you.” In other words, they have found that if graz- ing is strictly prohibited, the local herders, whose very exist- ence is at stake would set fire and burn the forest. With grazing winked at, there are still fires, but many less than when incen- diarism was rife. But to continue—after the final fellings—a series of disastrous fires during especially dry seasons swept over many of the im- portant pine forests, as for example—Vizzanova, Marmano, Ba- vella and Marghére. These fires destroyed not only the young growth but also even aged saplings and pole stands since many of the more open stands have a heavy understory of bruyiere. For the most part, veterans escaped destruction. ‘To-day the shelterwood system has been abandoned and both with Corsican and Maritime pine (which grows in mixture with Corsican pine up to three thousand feet elevation!) they have adopted the se- lective system with what is probably the longest official rotation for a coniferous species to be found any where in the world— namely three hundred and sixty years and, in my opinion, at least a century or a century and a half too long. With the selec- tion system, they felt that after fires the standards would remain to seed up the burnt areas—Perhaps the German would call the system in all a grange system, because in theory at least, small changes of trees are cut so as to admit plenty of light for an intolerant species. In the working inspected, however, mostly single mature trees had been cut and only 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. (roughly estimated) of the total stand was removed. When the openings are stocked, the working plans call for thinning, al- though it must be admitted they have been sadly neglected be- cause there was no demand for small size wood. While it cannot be claimed the method has been tried out and found successful, yet it must be admitted that the principal of bearing in mind fire dangers in choosing a system of cutting, is an important one where dangerous fire conditions prevail or success- ful protection is doubtful. FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN THE GERMAN COLONIES. By B. E. FEernow. During the last few years a great deal has been written on for- est conditions and the beginnings of forestry in the various Ger- man colonies. In the following pages an attempt has been made to briefly sketch conditions as they appear from this multifarious lit- erature, mostly the result of personal visits and expeditions. Germany entered upon her colonial policy about 1884, and ac- quired most of the territory by treaties and amicable arrange- ments. She possesses the following colonies, over one million square miles of colonial territory, namely, Das Forstwesen in den deutschen Schutzgebieten. By Bader- man. Zeitschrift fir Forst—und Jagdwesen. November, December, 1909. Pp. 719-746; 796-808. Deutsche Holzerzeugung und Forstwirtschaft in den deut- schen Kolonien. Von Dr. Jentsch in Gewerbliche Material Kunde: | 910.) Pp) 16. Was lehren uns die Anfdnge unserer Kolonialen Forstwirt- schaft. Geiseler. Zeitschrift fiir Forst—und Jagdwesen. April, 1912. «Pp: 2224238, Forstwirtschaftliche und forstbotanische Expedition nach Kamerun und Togo. Von Dr. Jentsch und Dr. Biisgen. 1909. Der Kameruner Kiistenwald. Zeitschrift fiir Forst—und Jagdwesen. May, 1910. P. 264. Beitrdge zur Kenniniss der Pflanzenwelt und der Holzer des Kameruner Waldlandes. By Busgen. Review in Zeitschrift fur Forst und Jagdwesen. April, 1911. Pp. 380-386. Die Forstwirtschaft im Schutzgebiet Togo. By Metzger. 1911. Nutzholzbaume Deutsch-Suedwest-Afrikas. By Pagge. Zeit- schrift fur Forst—und Jagdwesen. July, 1910. Pp. 400-426. Aufforstungs arbeiten am Haho (Togo.) Deutsches Colonial- blatt; berichtet in Zeitschrift fiir Forst—und Jagdwesen. August, 1910. Pp. 510-512. Die Forstschritte in Kiautschou. Allgemeine Forst—und Jagd Zeitung. January, 1911. Pp. 35-37. ———- > Forestry in German Colonies. 633 In Africa German East Africa (1885) 366,000 square miles German Southwest Africa 324,000 Cameroons (1884) 192,500 Togoland (1884) 34,000 In the South Sea Kaiser-Wilhelmland (New Guinea) 70,000 Bismarck Archipelago (New Guinea) 23,800 Samoa 925 In Asia Kiautschou 195 1,011,420 square miles Of all these possessions only East Africa, Kamerun and the South Sea Islands have available supplies of timber, and the Kamerun is perhaps the only one that has enough for export. So far, the exports of forest products from all the colonies com- bined have hardly amounted to $500,000 in any one year. The extent and value of the forest area in the timbered colonies is still uncertain; it is only certain that they exist. In Togo, only remnants of once extensive forests remain, and Southwest Africa exhibits only a sparse brushforest. Samoa and the Salo- mons Islands have luxuriant forest growth in the Interior, while the Carolinas, Marianas and Marshall Islands contain only cocoa palms and camphor trees. The rented territory of Kiautschou is _forestless, but successful plantations have been begun here. Kamerun (or the Cameroons, as it is called in English) is the most densely forested of the African colonies. It is as yet impos- sible to state with precision the extent of the forest area, especially as it is still doubtful what to call forest and what is simply wood- land. Estimates vary between 15 and 25 million acres. Some 15 million acres is tropical, evergreen rainforest, with trees of enor- mous size; Some 250,000 acres are mangrove and bog forest; and in the higher altitudes “fog” forests are found along the west and south coast in a belt of 60 to 100 miles; the northeast and middle of the colony being plains country. The description of the Kamerun forest, as given by Dr. Jentsch, 634 Forestry Quarterly. resembles very much the conditions known to us in Cuba, Porto Rico, or Jamaica. Here, as there, the Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia nitida form the mangrove forest, and other familiar names occur, like the parasitic Ficus and Ceiba, and Diptero- carpaceae with various species. This forest knows only broadleaf trees, mostly of hard, heavy wood, several hundred species and mostly even botanically undetermined. Dr. Jentsch collected 600 woody plants. He enumerates by common names some 150, and describes in more detail some 40 species, only half of which could be botanically placed; and as technically recognized and used, only 14 species are named. As to the value of most of these species there is as yet no certainty. So far, only two species are being exploited for export, namely Kick.via elastica, for rubber, and Diospyros dendo (together with other Diospyros species, of which 12 are cited) for ebony. For home consumption some I0 to 15 species are utilized. Several mahogany woods (Mimusops djave, the magnificent Terminaha superba and the botanically undetermined Bope ba mbale, and the teak-like Chlorophora excelsa, several cedar woods, yellow woods and other dyewoods promise to come into the market. The most widely represented family in the dominant stand are Leguminosae with 43, Apocynaceae with 25, Euphorbiaceae with 22, Moraceae with 20, and Annonaceae with Io species. In the underwood, Rubiaceae and Acanthaceae are most frequent. Busgen gives a very complete list and description of this flora with illustrations of wood sections. Four groups of woods are distinguished which make it easier to classify for technical pur- poses, namely a. wood parenchyma not distinguishable with magnifying glass, but vessels and pithrays visible. b. parenchymatous tissues very fine, lines crossing pithrays prominent ; c. wood parenchyma forming striking figures, namely c. 7. more or less coherent lines, or c. 2. more or less isolated fields surrounding vessels ; d. grain figures not visible to naked eye, and only very fine struc- tures differentiated under magnifying glass. The important woods are mahogany-like, rosewood-like, ebony- like, cedar-like, oak-like, pitch pine-like, a number of species as a Forestry in German Colonies. 635 rule furnishing wood of the same description. The most promis- ing, Jentsch thinks, are the oak-like or teak-like, and pitch pine- like, Chlorophora, Milletia, Bongongi, Jrwingia Barteri. If these could be laid down in Hamburg in large dimensions for 40 to 50 cents, which is not impossible, they would successfully compete with American oak, which brings now 40 to 60 cents, and in large dimensions up to $2 and more, or with teak worth 65 cents to $2 per cubic foot. In mahogany woods, the African, although lower for com- mon run, is for the best, now higher than the American of the genuine Swietenia. While common African brings only 28 cents and American around $1, the maximum pecs are near $2 for African as against $1.30 for American. Several cedar-like species also are promising. Here Dr. Jentsch makes the curious mistake of mixing up pencil-cedar (Juniper- us) and the cigar box cedar (Cedrela odorata), which is not a conifer. In the original woods, the average height is around 150 feet, and diameters run from 3 to 10 feet. On one sample area of I I-4 acres not less than 93 species over 3 inch diameter were found. The largest volume out of 12 sample areas showed 14,- 270 cubic feet, of which a little over 5,000 feet were sawtimber ; in another case, the total volume was 12,700 cubic feet with 6,000 feet available. One of the largest trees had a diameter of 7 feet and a height of nearly 200 feet with a timberwood con~ tent of 2,577 cubic feet. Lack of knowledge of technical and com- mercial values precludes an estimate of merchantable quantities, which is, however, estimated at 50 per cent. The forest of the coastbelt which so far alone is needful to con- sider can be divided into three types: the mangrove forest, the primary and the secondary forest. The primary or virgin forest is particularly rich in species. After the virgin woods have been exploited and, as usual, burned, a secondary forest growth comes in, as with us. The secondary forest which results from the practice of burning and agricultural use is entirely different from the virgin: rapid, light- needing species, with soft wood predominate here, with a luxuri- ant undergrowth of climbers and lianas and weedgrowth forming impenetrable thickets. The most common species which, like our 636 Forestry Quarterly. aspen and birch, takes possession of these openings is Musanga Smithi, Umbrella tree. This is shady enough to keep weeds out and at the same time light enough to permit some better species to thrive in its shade, like our species, hence it is a good nurse tree. Its proposed use for wood pulp completes the resemblance. Ceiba pentandra also belongs to this class of nursetrees of little technical value. As everywhere in the tropics, the lack of gregariousness of spe- cies makes logging expensive, unless the many species can be marketed together. The really (at present) marketable woods occur only sparingly scattered through the forest. Thus a sample plot containing 369 trees belonging to 41 species had only 4 merchantable trees of one and 6 of another species, and this was rather an exceptionally good proportion. Other difficulties in the exploitation are the form of trees; the boles are often strongly buttressed with salient root-ridges which adds to the labor of felling and working up. A stem 30 inches in diameter at 65 feet had a basal diameter of 50 feet. Felled trees fre- quently prove worthless and the logging waste runs up 60 and 75 per cent. Labor conditions add to the difficulties. Woodswork is heavy and unhealthy and must be interrupted during the wet season. Transportation is rendered difficult by the rough or swampy country and hand power alone is commonly used. Horses or oxen cannot be kept (Tsetse fly!). Built roads are few, and but very few light railways have been run into the country. The na- ture of the streams and the density of the woods to be floated alike conspire to render river driving almost out of the question. Present prices of wood are very low and the margin of profit in the industry is very small. Attempts have been made to ac- quaint German wood-using industries with the possibilities of the woods from Kamerun, but so far with poor success. We may quote here at once the verdict of a forester, who has studied the situation on the ground officially. Gieseler writes: “The experiences gained in exploiting tropical woods, where large capital is required for securing means of transportation, are by no means encouraging. The English in British Africa and Ameri- cans in Central and South America have experienced this—it is a jump in the dark!” Forestry in German Colonies. 637 This colony is to a considerable extent settled, and railroad construction to open it up has progressed so that presently the forest wealth will become available. Climate, labor conditions, political uncertainties, besides the causes mentioned before, which make forest exploitation in the tropics dubious, and limited means of transportation contribute to the difficulties. Only large enter- prises hold out hopes for success. So far, only two operators were at work, the government leasing large territories to them; but instead of charging by measure, the government participates in the profits of the opera- tion, if any. One of the enterprises is prima facie a railroad construction with the timber exploitation as a side show; the other one has already abandoned the undertaking. Rubber seems to be the most profitable product, and regula- tion in regard to its conservative exploitation is needful. Experi- mental plantings of rubber producing plants have been inaugurat- ed. Other so-called by-products, tannin, quinine, perfumeries, resins and oil may also become important forest products for export. Besides the rubber plantations, the various experimental sta- tions have started a number of cinchona, teak, oil palm and other plantations, details of which are given in Baderman’s article. Dr, Jentsch’s monograph discusses in great detail not only the conditions but the requirements for a sane forest policy and management. He cites the propositions of the late Prof. Mayr, who wants, before any exploitation begins, a thorough investiga- tion, a land classification and segregation of agricultural and pure forestsoils, a scientific investigation of the value of woods, etc., then reserving what is necessary for protective purposes and be- ginning at once a real forestmanagement on strict forestry prin- ciples. To this program Jentsch objects on practical grounds :—it would take too much time to secure all the information, and only by trials on a large scale can most of the knowledge be secured. All that can and should be done in the present stage of develop- ment is to utilize the utilizable values in such a manner as not to destroy the future, avoiding rapine, and giving up soil for settle- ment wherever the need appears; private enterprises to be en- couraged in such exploitation without inducing wild speculation. Above all, the forest must remain State property and all reser- 638 Forestry Quarterly. vations for special reasons can then be made from time to time. In silvicultural direction there is also difference of opinion. The tropical forest, according to Mayr, if only the most valuable species are exploited continuously deteriorates in composition and value (so does the mixed forest everywhere!), while the pure forest is easily reproduced, hence Mayr recommends this form, but, according to his well-known theory, in small areas of not over 25 acres for the single stand, to avoid the dangers of pure stands generally (mixture by stands). Jentsch pleads for the retention of the natural mixed forest in selection form. The difficulty in the absence of annual rings to determine the admissible felling budget, based on increment, Jentsch proposes to overcome by confining (as Brandis did originally in India) the exploitation to a diameter limit. This, tentatively upon the basis of a few sample areas, merely to illustrate the calculation, he places at 24 inches, when, finding that about two thirds of the total volume is formed by trees above that size, he formulates the volume increment per cent. for m years (In): OP OW ei 7 eee ie CO aay = fe 100 The question of the length of nm, the period of return, needed to replace the 2/3 V, or the J for a given u, can be found only by experience after the first m has passed. If m were placed at 10 years the annual increment per cent. would have to be 6.7%, which the author does not think out of the way, corresponding to a production of 540 to 960, average 758 cubic feet per acre. By lengthening the period of return, say to 20 years the increment needs to be only 370 cubic feet, a very reasonable expectation. Applying to the sample areas the proposition to remove two thirds of the volume, it is found that in the virgin timber of the 361 to 668 trees present (per hectare) only 29 to 48 or 4.6 to 9.2% are removed, hence from 90.8 to 95.4% remain. In the secondary forest areas similar results appear. It would, therefore, be safe, even to cut into the second size class. The author advocates the exploitation by private enterprise under concessions. .The time for which such concessions are to run must be determined not by silvicultural considerations alone, which would make 10 to 20 years sufficient, but by business con- siderations, especially the size of the capital required for the Forestry in German Colonies. 639 enterprise, for which an amortization of at least 10% must be calculated. After pointing to the experiences in Bosnia, and bringing in various arguments, the author concludes that Io years would be the lowest and 30 years the highest time limit, for which to grant timber licenses. In Java, where since 1864 such licenses have been in vogue, the time limit varies between 10 and 75 years, the latter, however, only for concessions which contemplate change into agricultural use and colonization. To impose any cultural work on the timber limit holders the author considers impractical, since all personal interest is excluded in such work, and therefore it will be poorly done. Such work, if necessary, should be done by the forest administration. Such cultural work may become necessary to check the tendency of the natural regeneration in increasing the number of species and especially the less desirable ones. As to what can be expected from planting is exemplified by citing the dimensions of 3-year planted Kola trees, namely 25 feet in height and 6 to 8 inch in diameter. From other parts of the very interesting and throughout sane discussion by Jentsch we can afford to note only here and there points of interest: Fire does not seem to be troublesome; no forest destroyed by fire was seen. Elephants are destructive; apes pull out plants; but these are only annoying, hardly notice- able damages. Insects, especially borers, are not infrequent. River transportation is not promising without much outlay; only the natives bringing one or a few logs tied together with lianas at a time can do it cheaply. Most of the valuable species do not float. Land logging is impracticable so far in the absence of roads and animals, (Tsetse fly danger!), and the difficult topo- graphy. Railroads are, therefore, the main reliance, permanent and moveable in combination. Whether a railroad could develop as much as 6 miles on each side, as first supposed by the author, has become doubtful on account of the cut up topography, and half that distance seems more likely the limit. The waste per cent. in logging with which the operator will have to figure, the author places at 66 to 75, even 80%, based on various calculations. This should be reduced by turning it into 640 Forestry Quarterly. charcoal, and possibly its by-products, alcohol and acetate of lime, of which Germany imports, mostly from the United States, in the average over 1.5 million dollars. A calculation based on a $50,000 investment for plant figures out 22% profits. As regards labor conditions Dr. Jentsch is more hopeful than other writers, although he does not expect it to be cheap, and he gives data to show that the negros may do satisfactory work, 50 men for a season to produce 350,000 cubic feet. For power at mills, water with electrical installation is ad- vocated, but only on a large scale, since small installations are shown not to be profitable. All statements on this and other discussions of cost are based on statistical detail and practical calculations. Finally, the question of ocean freight is touched upon. At present, the freight rate per ton from Kamerun to Hamburg by regular liner is $6 to $11, making 28 to 35 cents per cubic foot, which is prohibitive for many or most woods. ‘The use of sailing boats is warned against, as the wood suffers from rot and insects in the long voyage. But lower freights by steamer are possible, as from East Africa and Australia they are now more moderate. A plea for reduction in import tariffs of the mother country is based on the argument that the woods are not in competition with those of the home country, which imports anyhow around 525 million cubic feet, and the Kamerun is the only colony from which importations of this nature can be expected. The small colony of Togo, to the west of Kamerun, the most prosperous of the German colonies, is a fertile country which does not any more require expenditures from home. Formerly prob- ably heavily wooded, it exhibits at present only remnants of forest on the mountain range running north and south, and river forest, about 1% of the land area. The larger part of the territory is occupied by pampas. Here plantings have been begun, in a rather ineffective manner, largely with native species. All the wood is used for home consumption. ‘The most important species are Chlorophora excelsa, the African Teak, Diospyros mespili- formis, Khaya Kieinit and senegalensis (African mahogany), Erythrophloeum guineense (furniture wood), Borassus flabel- Forestry in German Colomes. 641 liformis (building timber), as well as a large number of Legumi- nosae. Not until 20 years after the occupation by Germany was a systematic beginning made with forestry, the troubles with the natives preventing any kind of management. In 1Igo6, the systematic exploration of the forest conditions was begun by Metzger and the first attempt at organizing a service made. In his book Metzger describes the vegetation, the origin of the savannahs, the forest influences in the tropics, especially in Togo, the necessity of forest preservation and the measures needful for it, with plan for the future exploitations. ‘The more important tree species are discussed and propositions for the re-forestation of the savannahs made. He himself started systematic re-fores- tation of the watershed of the Haho river, with a view of improv- ing water flow, some 75,000 acres having been set aside for the purpose on a territory bounded at one end by a 7,500 acres river forest, at the other end by savannah. By I9g10 some 50 acres had been sowed and some 95 acres planted, and nurseries established. The cost has been excessive owing to lack of skill of the black labor, namely about $45 per acre; results are not yet quite satis- factory; drouthy conditions seem to prevail. The detail of the plantation is given by Metzger in the articles on the re-forestation work at the Haho. German Southwest Africa, lying 20° south of Kamerun, with a dry continental climate and dry, sandy soil, is practically forest- less, except for clumps of Acacia brushforest, and riverforest. Only in the North are found some remnants of forest with Adan- sonia, Cassia, Eugenia, Combretum, and other tropical forms. The forest administration here is engaged in trying to find suitable species for planting in the plains, the species used being mainly exotics: Pinus halepensis, canariensis, pinea, pinaster, Fucalypts, Casuarina, Prosopis, Cupressineae, Morus, Schirus, Ailantus, Robinia, Cork oak, Camphor tree and Bamboo. In the six or eight experiment gardens Casuarina thrives especially well. In a forest plantation, in two and one half years it attained a height of nearly 30 feet and circumferences of 12 inches at 3 feet height. Eucalyptus, Prosopis, Cupressus, Schinus.and Ash ap- pear promising, but the pines seem a total failure. Lack of water 642 Forestry Quarterly. and frosts are the enemies. Even in the best situated location (Okahandja) irrigation for at least the first two or three years is necessary. In German East Africa conditions are only slightly better. The forest area is estimated as covering 4% of the territory, say 15,000 square miles, most of which is brushforest of xerophytic character composed of small deciduous trees. This condition pre- vails over the entire south coast from Kilwa Kiwindje south to Niassa Lake, and on the central high plateau from New Langen- burg and Bismarckburg north to Victoria Lake. ‘The species are mostly Leguminosae without commercial value. The country may be divided into five zones: namely, (1) the treeless strip along seashore, rising from the shore 700 m, about 80 km wide, with rarely more than 15mm rainfall; (2) the bush- forest of Hereroland, rising to 1,500 m with 100-600 mm rainfall, in which only rarely trees of size occur; (3) another low brush- forest, Namaland, rising to the same altitude, but with less rain, 60-230 mm; (4) the park-like forest of the eastern portion, Kalahari and Omaheke, with higher tree growth in the river bottoms, up to 1,200-1,400 m elevation, with unknown rainfall condition; and (5) the northern region, north of 20° lat., which bears almost dense forest growth without thorn trees in contrast to the other four zones, up to I1,000-1,400 m and with up to 1,000 mm rainfall. Pagge describes with more or less detail, giving characteristics and use value, only species of the dry forest, namely six Acacias, two Combretaceae, a Ficus, a Zizyphus, a Rhus, a Euclea and a Tamarix. Only one and that a botanically unnamed species, Tambuti, from the true forest country, possibly Ximenia ameri- cana, is cited. The rainforest is, as stated, found on the east slopes of moun- tains at 1500 to 5000 feet elevation, and is described by Baderman. The forest here is composed of many evergreen broadleaf species in two tiers, the upper story reaching up to 150 feet and more, with diameters to 6 feet, the lower story 60 feet, with a dense undergrowth of lianas, epiphytes, etc. Most of this forest has been turned into farms or has been burned over, and has re- produced mostly in xerophytic forms. Only small remnants Forestry in German Colonies. 643 remain in Usambara, Kilimandscharo and Meru, in the Uguru mountains, and Uluguru, and west of Victoria Lake. Another type of hygrophytic forest is found under the in- fluence of the fogs, in the alpine locations at 3500 to 10,000 feet, also evergreen but of different species and smaller sizes. The river forests, following the rivers in the plains as with us, and the mangrove forests at the seashore add little of value. Only the rain—and fogforest furnishes the basis for a wood-trade. The mountain forests of Usambara and Pare are estimated to contain, besides 85,000 acres Alpine forest, 50,000 acres of cedar (Juniperus procera), 75,000 acres of Podocarpus usambar- ensis, 1000 acres of mixed broadleaf forest, in which only Chloro- phora excelsa (Morac of Meoule, the African “oak’’) furnishes at present commercial timber, in addition to the two mentioned conifers, and Khaya senegalensis, a mahogany. Other giant trees are Piptadenia buchananiit, (Legum.) and P. hildebrandtii, Albizzia fastigiata (Legum.) Parinarium goet- zenianum (Rosac.) Chrysophyllum msolo (Sapot.), Sizygium guineense (Myrt.) In the Uluguru mountains the valleys are filled with rainforests up to 7000 feet elevation. Here, besides Podocarpus, Stearoden- dron, Ocotea (usambarensis), Serindeia (obtusifoliata), Chrys- ophyllum (ulugurense) are the leading species. In the district of Kilimandscharo and Meru, some 300,000 acres of such rainforest is found, with Juniperus, Podocarpus and Chlorophora the leading species, besides an unknown, Ash- like tree (Ljondo). The forest department of East Africa was, after several expert reports, organized in 1904, under a German forester, Eckert, who had gained experience in Java. The country was districted into 6, later 7 districts; a protective service was organized. Sys- tematic reforestation, especially at sources of streams; control of utilization ; a real forest management on some of the crownlands— this was the program. All forests, not yet in private hands (about 50,000 acres), were declared fiscal forests (about 3.5 million acres) and placed under control of the forest department (1 million acres organized), 644 Forestry Quarterly. while private owners were obliged to submit felling plans to be approved. (These acreage figures do not coincide with other figures in the various reports!) A service consisting of three administrators and twelve for- esters, with a number of native guards was organized, and a be- ginning made at least in regulating exploitation and securing protection against fire. The annual burnings for grass are being stopped; and even private forest property is already under restriction, in so far as not more than three quarters of forest property may be cleared, and in brushforests clearing and burning-over is altogether for- bidden; indeed, cutting and peeling of bark may only be done by permit, and the permit may require reforestation. Penalties, money and imprisonment, are threatened for transgressions and especially for incendiarism. The forest administration itself exploits only for small home consumption except the mangrove forests at Rufidgi (35,000 acres ),in which some eight mangrove species are enumerated,some fit for small sawtimber (Rhizophora mucronata, and Bruguiera gymnorhiza), with very hard, brown to red wood, teredo proof; some for wagonstock (Carapa molluccensis and obavatus) ; some for other small uses and fuel. The bark (up to 45 per cent. tannin) promises to become an object of trade. Otherwise the exploitation for export mainly is carried on by private operators under a timberlicense system or under special contracts, several such licenses and contracts having been entered upon. This exploitation has so far failed to be lucrative; the expecta- tions of a large income from the start were not realized (as could have been foretold), and a reduction in the operations has been the result. Only one larger operation in cedar forest and two small ones in mangrove bark, besides one large one on private territory, have maintained themselves. Large investments in costly railroad construction have been made, and it cannot yet be foreseen whether these will secure adequate returns. Besides, a number of small sawmills are at work for home consumption. The greatest activity seems to have been developed in the direc- tion of plantations, in the mountains at headwaters as well as in the dry plains. ‘These plantations are in part experimental, in Forestry in German Colonies. 645 part horticultural (cocoa palms, rubber trees), and only in small part for forest purposes. The species most frequently used and successfully, are, besides Teak, Chlorophora excelsa, Caya senegalensis, Cassia florida in the valleys, and Eucalypts, Acacia, Cedar, Grevillea robusta, Cam- phor trees, Olives, etc., in the mountains. The South Sea Islands, are in part well wooded, and perhaps the best wooded possessions of Germany, with mangroves at the shore and dense rainforest in the interior mountains. Giant Eucalypts, like Jarrah, Karri, and mahogany-like woods of Bar- ringtonia and Cordia abound in Kaiser-Wilhelmland, and es- pecially the highprized Cedrela australis (which Jentsch curiously and mistakenly calls a needle tree!) appears in real stands. Afzelia bijuga, Inophyllum, and Calophyllum are other promis- ing woods, but occur only sparingly. All these islands are still largely unexplored and unexploited. There are some 35,000 acres planted with cocoa palms, some 2,800 acres of Ficus elastica, 1300 acres of Castilloa alba and several hundred acres of Hevea brasiliensis, Prosopis juliflora, Casuarina muricata. Plants are given away to private would-be planters from the government nurseries. A personnel of four German forest guards and 74 natives, 9 gardeners with 61 col- ored assistants to carry on the work. In the small colony of Kiautschou (China), a persistent policy of planting has been pursued from the start and effective work has been done in changing an inhospitable sandwaste, hills and slopes, into a green oasis, pleasant to look upon. These hills around Tsingtau had been absolutely denuded by the Chinese and turned into desert, furrowed, eroded, without vegetable cover. Immediately upon taking possession under a 99-year lease, in 1898, a nursery was established and plantations were begun mostly with European species. Some 250 acres have been plant- ed, after many failures due to climate, insects, and Chinese depre- dations. Such depredations sometimes assumed wholesale dimen- sions, 36 thieves being captured in one raid, in which specially trained police dogs do good service. Fires have been reduced by 646 Forestry Quarterly. building of roads and forcing the Chinese to use them instead of wandering through the plantations and also by the removal of graves, excluding thereby the religious rites accompanied by fireworks—a frequent source of forest fires. Next to man, insects of a great variety did the greatest damage but are now suc- cessfully combated. The first thinnings can already be sold at good prices, the dearth of wood making the small brush and poles desirable ma- terial. The success through persistent effort and repair planting even- tually has been such that the Chinese themselves, as well as Chinese and English companies, have undertaken similar work, securing their plant material, and, in part, superintendence from the German forest department; and the influence has extended to the forest policy of the village corporations in placing their remnants of forest property under surveillance of the depart- ment. Land values have risen in consequence to two and three times their former value. The Chinese cement works, the Ching-Ching mines, the Dutch Heiho conservancy, the government of Schantung and many Chinese villages, corporations and private land owners are among the beneficiaries. Many European and Japanese species have been used in the plantations, among them Robinia, Larch, Scotch and Maritime Pine, Alder, Poplar. Some 4 million plants have been distributed. Altogether, it cannot be said that colonial forestry has so far developed much to the advantage of Germany, at least not as much as has sometimes been expected. There is, however, a rational effort made to prevent deterioration of the forest resources, to ascertain their value and marketability, and to prepare for a sane management and exploitation when the time comes, not forgetting the needs of reforestation. ‘a . vow, arr PMID IPUOY 2 At mae hig 8 i : I girls FORESTS AND TIMBER TRADE OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. By R. Rosensiutu, M. F., Director or Forest Investigations, New York State Conservation Commission. [This report was written in the winter of 1909-10, based on extensive studies made for the Philippine Government, with the purpose of ascertain- ing conditions in China, and of developing there a market for Philip- pine timbers. In some respects, especially market prices, it may be behind the times. ] “Tt is the duty of the sovereign to protect the forests !’’ Mencius, the great Chinese lawgiver and philosopher, 300 years before Christ, wrote this; and perhaps, therefore, the Chinese may have been the first people to recognize the duty of the State in © junction has been observed mainly in the breach. Just when the connection with its forests. But for some centuries past the in- wholesale destruction of forests in China began is hard to say. Marco Polo, in his wonderful, and truthful description of his travels about the year 1300 A. D., notes great forests on moun- tains now barren and deeply eroded. There is some evidence to show that the most serious and widely spread destruction and annihilation of the mountain forests took place in the troubled times of the 17th century, when finally the Manchu conquerors seized control of the government. This, however, I have in no way verified. At the present the destruction of forests is for the most part completed and the effects have been most disastrous. There is no other country which teaches so thoroughly the lesson of the influence of forests on soil and waterflow; for here, for thousands of years the many extensive mountain ranges in the South, and plains and mountains in the North have been deforested; desert conditions and appalling floods in the rivers are the result.* The rivers run always muddy with the yellow “loess” soil, carrying enormous masses of fertile earth to the sea, assisted by (ULE A ALE AAS GS 9 BSE PEREZ RE RI ads a ER a OE Ae RY *For a brief but graphic description of these conditions, see H. Mayr, “Fremdlandische Wald- und Parkbaume,” 1906. 648 Forestry Quarterly. the notorious sandstorms in the northern plain. The Yellow River, Hwang Ho, “China’s Sorrow,” once, records show, flow- ing through a rich fertile valley, its tributary hills well wooded, is to-day a broad moving quicksand with a small amount of water for most of the year, but when the floodtide comes the whole face of the landscape may be changed. In 1886, some 20,000 square miles of the most densely populated, most intensively cultivated lands were flooded, thousands of villages and towns were wiped out and not less than two million (according to other seven mil- lion) people were drowned. Moisture conditions are so uncer- tain that seven years out of ten are said to be more or less famine years. While the needs of a protective soil cover impress themselves most forcibly, the lack of wood is a no less serious trouble, and one wonders why with a population so dense, with labor so cheap and efficient (15 to 30 cents a day), with a market for everything in the wood line at the door (to-day roots of grass and bushes serve for fuel), and prices for all forest products higher than with us, the wastelands are not being re-forested. General Conditions. In dealing with such a vast empire as China, the study of any one phase of her economic conditions cannot but be fragmentary unless years can be devoted to such study; and even then, owing to lack of facilities of communication and the impossibility of travel in many districts, the results could hardly be considered accurate. Most of the data in the following pages, especially those on the timber trade of China was obtained in a three months’ tour through the principal commercial centers of China, made from September to December, 1909, by personal obser- vations amplified by interviews with men who were thoroughly acquainted with conditions in various parts of the empire—such men being mostly missionaries resident in the district, engineers, and so on. The Chinese Empire stretches from 10° to 53° north latitude, and from 74° to 134° longitude east of Greenwich. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Siberia, on the west by Russian Turkestan, on the southwest by Hindustan, on the south and east by Tongking and the Pacific Ocean, and on the northeast by Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 649 Korea. Within these boundaries lies an area of 4,278,352 square miles of the most varied country in the world; mountain, plateau, valley, and plain giving place to each other in rapid succession, and on this area lives and thrives a population officially estimated at around 430,000,000 souls, namely: Area m Population. square miles. China proper (the 18 provinces), 400,000,000 1,532,800 Manchuria, 8,500,000 363,700 Mongolia, 2,580,000 —1,367,953 Chinese Turkestan, 1,200,000 550,579 Thibet, 6,430,000 463,320 There can be little question that this is an overestimate, and in 1904, Mr. Rockhill, U. S. Minister to China, came to the con- clusion that the population might be only 270,000,000. A very casual glance at these figures will show that the density of population varies greatly. Thus in China proper there are roughly 400 people to the square mile, whilst in Mongolia there are only 2 people to the same area, and in Thibet 14. The provinces which will figure most largely in foreign trade will be those commonly known as The Eighteen Provinces, or as the Chinese themselves have it “The Middle Kingdom,” as fol- lows: | Area in Population People per square miles square mile PWC ate ks Sai en etka ealgaiaks s,s 54,286 23,672,300 432 IAN rn eate ele WO Fu gina gare the 36,680 11,580,000 310 BERNER Wee te ha Aiea a ds wae abies 115,830 20,930,000 180 PRUE DEE says Sse Ue aerate 46,332 22,870,000 492 PES ARS ba EPR rR ge nomi ae 67,954. 25,317,820 373 PMI ols yn bias 1a -& alc Bae Sale eeke'y eas 83,308 22,169,000 265 PME ICON yy care OA bees wl « Salers 71,428 35,280,000 495 POMEL are her ai) Nall ww ee Kham Kins 8a 125,483 10,386,000 82 Pw ge RRS MSAD RS I au eS le RE 69,498 26,532,000 382 RRRNTRL. Fi oa Maite) Saleh a divinrd a wae deta Cas 38,610 23,980,230 620 PEMMMRESD ge tec Sd ctaiin Aig bre Sial alas 77,220 5,142,000 66 POEUN oe. ag ticna ic kv he waiclavw ae 8;s 100,000 31,865,200 318 LIAO DSC a Stee wicca ead ees « 67,182 7,650,000 114 SO cee aw eee als te wanes & 81,853 12,200,000 140 PAPRTICUIMEY es ae taubehacgs ah wie ated Skis 55,984 38,247,900 683 IS RISE loge ce nA Oar RS OS 75,290 8,450,000 112 PEO ATS Wels hue) Manic berg Wield See 218,533 68,724,800 314 PUPMTANEA EE: Ts ci dh yeas ated alte wala Weo's don 146,718 12,721,500 86 650 Forestry Quarterly. Mongolia will probably play no part whatsoever in the timber trade either in importing foreign material, except possibly from across the Siberian border, or as a source of supply for China Proper. ‘The same will be true of Thibet and Chinese Turkestan. Manchuria is reputed to contain large amounts of timber, but so far has supplied its timber needs by importing from Japan, the United States, and Siberia; and it is quite likely that the timber is confined to the eastern portion—in the Yalu River drainage basin, and in the far north in the Upper Amur basin—and that it will probably not be a very large factor in supplying anything but its own needs, as even if that timber becomes open to lumbering the development within the province itself will probably be more rapid and will consume all the timber produced. If timber is to be imported from foreign countries into Manchuria, it will be Japanese and Korean timber, so that it will have but little interest to any other countries. Coming down then to The Eighteen Provinces proper, a brief survey of the conditions is found below. This description, as also the above, is taken from a book entitled-“The Provinces of China,” by Polikon. China proper stretches from Nainan and Canton in the torrid south to Peking and the Great Wall in the frigid north. Longi- tudinally China proper stretches from the high western borders of Thibet to the delta of the mighty Yangtse Kiang. This area of over a million and a third square miles is most conveniently divided up for us by nature into three parts, each the basin of a river. The northern portion consists of all the country in the basin of the Huang Ho (Ho River), with an estimated area of 390,000 square miles and a population of ninety-five million souls. This region is one of loess and alluvial lands, and therefore very fertile when there is abundant rain, but liable to famine in case of drought. The region is dominated by the “Yellow River,” or “China’s Sorrow.” The provinces in this basin are Kansu, Shensi, Shansi, Honan, Chihli and Shantung. The second region is that of the basin of the Yangtse, the great central waterway of China. In this region lie the provinces of Szechw’an, Hunan, Hupeh, Kiangsi, Anhwei, and Kiangsu. This basin is the richest, the largest, the most populous, the most favored, of the three great divisions of China; and the great central artery of com- Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 651 munication, the Yangtse, has attached to it a vast network of navigable streams. The loess of the north is much less in evi- dence here, the chief formations being alluvium, limestone and sandstone. The great lakes of China are found in this valley, which is also the region of the Great Treaty Ports. The third region is the basin of the Sikiang, with which are included the coast provinces south of the Yangtse delta. This region is highly diversified in character, abounding in mineral wealth and in semi- tropical productions; stocked with a variety of races, amongst whom the Chinese race is poorly represented—except in the two northerly coastal provinces. The provinces included in this basin are Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Kwantung, Fokien, and Che- kiang, and of these six three are maritime. It is thus seen that the Eighteen Provinces divide themselves naturally into three groups of six. The Dependencies, commonly so called, are four in number—Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, and Thibet. These four Dependencies lie, in the order named, on the northern and western boundaries of China Proper, and are all that remain to China of a peripheral chain of such Dependencies forming the complete landward boundary of the Middle Kingdom. The other four, Korea, Burma, Siam, and Annam, have fallen out of China’s grasp and will in all proba- bility never again be hers. The internal communications of China present a remarkable contrast. On the one hand China is traversed by numberless. roads (from our standpoint, they are more nearly paths or tracks: than roads) and, though few are paved or metalled and alt are: badly kept, a vast amount of domestic traffic passes over them. At the same time an enormous volume of trade passes along the: great waterways of China. There is probably no country in the world so well supplied with water communication—certainly none other in which the waterways are so fully used. The center of the whole system is the Yangtse Kiang, with its many tributaries, and numerous canals or canalized streams, the greatest artery of this kind being the Grand Canal itself. Contrasted with these ancient lines of communication and tedious means of travel are the rapid and rapidly extending railways in the extension of There are over 5,000 miles of the line opened or under construc- 652 Forestry Quarterly. tion; and there are projected some 2,000 more miles—Chinese, British, Japanese, Belgian, German, French and Russian enter- prises. Undoubtedly development in railroad building will take place as soon as political affairs become more settled. Character of Forest. It is difficult to reconstruct from the remnants of forest and from the single specimens of trees that are still to be found the forest types-and zones as they must have been originally. It is tolerably certain, however, as Mayr infers, that at one time forest types largely similar to those of eastern North America covered the land area from the shore into the interior of Mongolia and to the rocky mountains of Thibet, although at present this county is partly prairie, partly devoid of all vegetation. According to Mayr,* the Chinese forest represents both hori- zontally and vertically all zones of vegetation from the tropical forest to the last representatives of spruce and larch in their short alpine form. The tropical zone, to be sure, occupies only a small area. Along the Coast it is represented by the Mangrove (Rhizophora Mangle), in the equatorial region a mighty tree, gradually reduced in size, until at Swatow, precisely on the Tropic of Cancer, it is only an evergreen shrub. The rest of the flora belongs to the Indo-Malayan type; Diospyros and Pterocarpus, with the cocoa palm and banana, find here their northern limit. North from the Tropic of Cancer to the Kuen-Luen mountain range, with its east extension of the Tsinglingshan and Funiushan mountains—the most remarkable continuous mountain range in the world—a sub-tropic forest type, the richest in species, occupies three-quarters of the most densely populated and most intensely cultivated portion of the empire, running in the south to altitudes of 10,000 feet, in the north on the south slopes of the mountains to between 500 and 1,000 feet. Many of the species are still unnamed. ‘The large number of Laurineae is striking, among which Machilus, Litzaea, and the much prized camphor tree, Dryobalanus cambphora. Evergreen oaks are characteristic of the cooler portions of the sub-tropic forest, with species of Indian, See “Fremdlandische Wald- u. Parkbaume fiir Europa,” H. Mayr, 1906. Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 653 Malayan, Japanese and indigenous sources, among them Quercus seme—carpifolia, glauca, thessalica, as well as Pasania cuspidata, formosana, and the truly Chinese brevicaudata. Besides these, buxus, magnolia, ilex, ternstrémia, largerstrémia, Olea, Camel- lia species are found. ‘Two valuable conifers of paleontological times have survived: Cryptomeria japonica is found in the middle provinces ; Cunninghamia sinensis, resembling Araucaria, is found frequently in the south-east. Keteleeria Fortunci, the genus in- digenous only in China, resembling fir, and Torreya are also fre- quently found. Glyptostrobus heterophylla is the cypress in the river swamps. One pine, Pimus sinensis, which occurs on poor mountain slopes and reaches into the sub-tropic zone, is treated in a kind of coppice management. North of the Kuen-Luen and along the coast from Shantung north to the frontier of Mangolia and into Mandschuria the deciduous forest flora prevails with chestnut (2 or 3 species) characteristic of the southern, and beech (Fagus longipes and chinensis) characteristic of the northern por- tion. Some 58 species of oaks are enumerated by Hemsley, the most important Quercus variabilis or Bungeana, a cork oak. Quercus dentata, a magnificent tree and another cork oak Q. serrata are quite frequent. With these associated are Zelkowa, specifically Chinese besides the Japanese species, three species of Celtis, several Juglans, and Paulownia, besides the familiar genera of Carpinus, Tilia, Acer, Ulmus, Gleditsia, Catalpa, Magnolia, Ailanthus, Sophora, Rhus, Alnus, Bethula, Populus, Sorbus. A Ljiriodendron so close to the American as to be hardly distinguishable is also found. A host of shrubs and halftrees occupies the understory. Of conifers, there are Pinus Bungeana and Henryi, on the poor sands, Pinus Ar- mandia and Koreensis on better soils, with Libocedrus macro- lepis, Juniperus chinensis, Biota orientalis, and Cupressus. Abies firma (?) and Pseudolarix Fortunei with several Piceas lead into the northern coniferous forest type. Of the spruces, Picea Ajaneusis, bicolor, Mastersti, Schrenkiana, besides four others un- named, occupy the spruce zone on the mountain slopes, while Tsuga, dumosa and Sieboldii, descend into the broadleaf forest; several other Tsugas are doubtfully identified. Abies are doubt- ful as to their occurrence, except possibly Abies Veitchii; but a number of larches reach into Mandschuria and Mongolia, like Larix dahurica, Griffithi, Sibirica and several others. 654 Forestry Quarterly. In the Alpine creeping forest type a specific pine, Pinus pumila is found. Among the trees most frequently planted in northern China we find the Mulberry as food for silkworms. Further south the bamboo is the principal cultivated “forest crop.” Other trees which might be mentioned are Dryandra cordata a favorite for ornamental use and prized for its hardwood and the oil from its seed; Stillingia sebifera (Tallow tree); Rhus vernictfera (Var- nish tree), the important wood-oil tree, Aleurites cordata; and the Vegetable Wax tree, Fraxvinus chinensis. Forest Areas and Forestry. Of actual forest areas very little is known. An attempt has been made to indicate on the accompanying map in merely rough approximation the location of existing forests, of which there is, indeed, a very small proportion. In many parts there is such a dearth of fuel that even grass roots are dug, and the fruit trees and roadside trees are not safe from depredations for their wood. The forest still existing is far up on the headwaters of rivers and in quite out-of-the-way places; and the forest districts are inhabited by a different people from the Chinese proper. The largest is probably that in southern Hunan, where the people are called “Miaotze,’ and the Chinese call them “wild people” although the testimony of missionaries who have traveled through the district is to the effect that they are a rather peaceful and pleasant people. However, the Chinese still have great tales to tell of the wildness of this people, and it may be on account of that that this forest is still preserved. For these wild people have a crude system of forestry. It is largely based on religious superstition,* as they think that the wood gods become greatly angered by the cutting down of trees, and the way to appease them is to replant. Although this basis may be doubtful, it is a fact that a more or less clear cutting by groups and aiding natural re- production by planting is practiced; this being about the only case of forestry development in a country where on all sides forest de- struction has been absolute. In a patch of forest in Kansu Province there is also a rough *Mayr reports, that the small remnants of forests, now and then found in the distant mountains are as a rule of the nature of cloister groves preserved by the Buddhist hermits. Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 655 system of forestry practised by the Thibetans, under which they sell stumpage to the Chinese contractors, marking the trees to be cut by the contractor; in other words, a rough selection system. Another forest region is on the steep headwaters of the streams running to the coast in Fukien Province. Here, too, there is some attempt at forest culture, practising clear cutting and planting. I am reliably informed that this forest area is also decreasing—that is, planting is not keeping pace with cutting. The rotation used is a Short one—generally 15 years and spruce is the most common tree planted, according to my information. Outside of these sporadic attempts to keep the native woods in producing condition, there are here and there plantations found on waste lands. Especially the successful example of the Germans at Kiautschou has found imitators in the neighborhood, several mining and other companies and municipalities having begun the work of reclamation. Near Mukden, where also a forest school exists, the government has set aside some 25,000 acres for forest planting and some 600 acres had been planted by 1910. The Shantung Railway Company plants along its right of way, etc. The general government some years ago instituted a Com- mission of three to investigate the cause of river floods and this Commission recommended forest planting as one of the needs to reduce the floods; but nothing resulted. Forestry courses—mostly very poor in charge of poorly adapted Japanese—have been started in some of the agricultural colleges. For the awakening of general interest in the subject of forestry a Mr. Howard L. Richardson, Jr., deserves special mention for giv- ing illustrated lectures, free of charge, under the auspices of the Young Men’s Christian Association in many parts of China. The first trained Chinese forester, Ngan Han, secured his education in Cornell and Michigan, and has lately published the first elemen- tary book on forestry. Considered from every point of view, the requirements of wood and the cultural influence, including the profitable employment of the unemployed—a serious problem in China,—a rational forest policy will be of ever-increasing importance in the new China, and, since the title to the wastelands is said to be vested in the government, energetic efforts for their reclamation may be readily begun. 656 Forestry Quarterly. Wood Consumption. The following tables will give a fair idea of the timber trade of the Empire. Native Timbers. Fa image: PPO vane i fii ayer aa pee $10,000,000 gold Kiangsi Pe SUIS NAN i RC AIL A Ke La RR 1,000,000 “ Fulkien REM ETA ALARCON AR PAE SG EON 2,000,00 “ Kwangsi POR A el has ako RUAN aug a RN 5,000,000“ PTD GURUS ay CP ORS USM UR HE 10,000,000 =“ $28,000,000 Foreign Timbers United States of America Softwood (Oregon pine), 71,575,000 bd. ft. 1,330,000 Canada (Oregon pine) SOktwhod Oi eae 3,392,000 bd. ft. 77,000 Japan (and Formosa) Softwood (mainly pines and spruces) 142,218,000 bd. ft., $2,255,500 Hardwood (mainly oak, , chestnut and ash) 737,000 cu. ft- 209,000 2,464,500 Russia (Pacific Ports) Softwood (mainly pines, spruces, ietc.) 6.0.0.4 2,592,000 bd. ft. 39,500 Hongkong Softwood (probably Ameritan) (9. ../.44. 697,000 bd. ft., 14,000 Hardwood (undoubtedly Malayan) cio. 1,092,000 cu. ft. 504,000 ——— 518,000 Singapore Hardwood cn cua 1,219,000 cu. ft. 368,000 Miscellaneous Malay Ports Hardwoad) j.niigiss biscidienk 95,000 cu. ft. 30,000 Australia, etc. Tardwooa vs ee cee 10,000 cu. ft. 3,100 $32,830,100 Grouped a little differently, these would result, approximately, as in the following figures: Softwoods Native (Mostly pines, firs, and cedars) 2,000,000,000 bd. Japan (and Formosa) and Siberian Ports. os) cts aera giioketnie wie eae 144,810,000 “ U. S. A. and Canada (nearly all Oregon pine) see die dae o Virewind 75,800,000 “ 2,220,610,000 “ Hardwoods Native. (very vafied)) iuisin son enes 14,000,000 cu. Indo-Malay Region (mainly Dipterocarp woods of the most common kinds, and Teak).... 2,400,000 “ Japan (and Formosa) {.)). 20.20 737,000 “ vi 2,295,000 1,420,000 “$24,715,000 ft $7,000,000 * 916,000 “ 209,000 a Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 657 Naturally, the figures for native timber are more or less guesses, as no information worthy of the name could be had. For the foreign timbers, the reports of the Imperial Mari- time Customs, while accurate, are not so grouped as to make one sure of the species, etc., but are quite valuable in connection with a study on the ground. The results of their table elaborated a little by such local studies are given above. Roughly, this would correspond to an annual consumption of about 2,400,000,000 board feet of lumber, worth $32,800,000 gold. For a population of 400,000,000, based on the industrial organi- zation of such an economical wood using country as Germany, there would be needed at least 30,000,000,000 board feet of lumber a year. Assuming that by extra economies and a development of substitutes, China, after developing along modern industrial lines, could get along with half that amount, or 15,000,000,000 board feet, even this, at an average value of $17 per thousand, would amount to $265,000,000; and. of this, about 13,000,000,000 board feet, worth $221,000,000, would have to be imported. Without any extraordinary development, it may be figured con- servatively that by 1915 China will require imports in forest pro- ducts of not less than $10,000,000 gold per year, and that by 1925 the demand will be for $25 to $50,000,000 (gold) worth of forest products imported each year. In connection with the growth in demand for wood in China the most important feature is entirely new development in railroads, mines, and modern industrial establishments; and another factor is the change from the old-type one-story building, the prevailing type all over China in the past, to the building of modern three-story and higher buildings. The building of houses of more than one story conflicted with the old religious belief,.and so very few many-storied houses were built. In the one-story house the floor was of tile, walls of brick, and roofs of mud or tile, hence very little wood was used. This type of building is now very commonly displaced by large and many-storied buildings requiring very considerable amounts of wood for flooring, window- sashes, etc.—at least this is true for all the principal ports, and undoubtedly will spread rapidly elsewhere. Just how much dif- ference it will make is hard to estimate. In figuring, however, on the needs of the Chinese Empire for 658 Forestry Quarterly. wood supplies there are two limiting factors which must not be lost sight of. First the bamboo cultivation. | Bamboo grows naturally, and is cultivated all over China south of the Yangtse basin; and the bamboo supplies many needs for which we use wood. The second limiting factor is the poverty of the nation. Although we might think that wood would be almost indispen- sable in many cases and would be the wise thing to use, the lack of money often compels the Chinese to do without it; and cheap labor, which must get work in some way or another, often makes substitutes like bricks, tiles, etc., cheap enough. But even with these limiting factors there is hardly any question as to the enormous growth in the demand for wood which will take place in China with the new development along modern industrial lines which is now everywhere taking place. Sources of Supply. As will have apeared from previous statements, the home supply, although still furnishing two-thirds of the present con- sumption is becoming more and more limited and difficult to secure. From the forest in southern Hunan Province it takes from fourteen months to three years to float down the rafts of logs to the markets on the Yangtse River; and it takes but slightly less time from the forest of southwest Kiangsi to the main markets on the Yangtse River. From the forests on the south slope of these mountains to the markets at Canton and in Kwang-tung and Kiangsi Provinces it takes from five months to fifteen months to bring down the rafts. These rafts are made up nearly alto- gether of long timbers or poles, very few being over 18 inches at the butt and 6 inches at the top; they are generally from 20 to 40 feet long, thus being very tapering—and to our notion rather ill-suited to building purposes. The most common kinds of wood are Sahmung (“mung” or “mo,” meaning wood, is always ap- pended to the Chinese name for the wood itself), and Sung-mung. The first is probably a cedar, and the latter a pine; and these two are by far the most generally used for building purposes in the Yangtse basin. For furniture woods the most common are Buh- mung and ‘T'’sao-mung. The largest source of supply in the past has been the United States and Canada, and the wood from these places has been Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 659 nearly altogether the Douglas Fir—or “Oregon pine” as it is generally called in China. The Oregon pine shipped to China has been called “China quality,” and includes much that is not merchantable at home and is sold very cheaply in the principal ports of China, at present (1909) selling for from $16 to $18.50 gold per thousand board feet on board ship at the principal ports of China for large square logs. This price, however, is largely due to the financial depression which has existed for the past two years, forcing the Pacific coast lumbermen to sell almost regard- less of price, and as the stuff included much of poor quality which was encumbering the yards they were still further pleased to dis- pose of it. This price then is a rather temporary one, and it is said that within three months the price would advance $1.00 gold per thousand board feet. Looking forward for about five years —when the Panama Canal will be opened—it can be safely pre- dicted that the much higher-priced markets of eastern United States, eastern South America, and even Europe, which will then be thrown open to the Pacific Coast timber, will cause a very rapid rise in the price of Oregon pine. So with an increase in price, and considering the fact that Oregon pine rots rather badly in China south of the Yangtse basin, it will probably be less used after five years than it has been in past. One reason that Oregon pine has been sold even in North China in competition with the much cheaper Japanese woods is because of the long lengths and large sizes of that wood which can be supplied, as there is considerable demand all over for large timbers and the Japanese and local woods can be supplied only in short lengths and rather small sizes. The second great source of imported woods is Japan. The im- portation of Japanese woods has been increasing. Japanese wood —mainly oak, chestnut, ash, etc.— is used more largely than any others for railroad ties, and the Japanese pines and cedars are entering largely into building purposes. The present price (1909) on board ship at Shanghai for the various kinds of Japanese woods is about as follows: 12082 [oth RPO ORES ea $11.00 gold per thousand board feet. REARS WN Ue is 15.00 gold per thousand board feet. >| TA ee 12.50 gold per thousand board feet. PANO cep seek 12.00 gold per thousand board feet. [es a Ga 14.50 gold per thousand board feet. 660 Forestry Quarterly. Japanese woods come as rough square-hewn logs. ‘These woods have a very bad reputation because of the common practice of the Japanese of working in as much poor stuff in a shipment as they possibly can; it being stated that they often resort to “fixing” the inspector so that very poor stuff will be accepted. Also in the Yangtse valley itself and in the whole of China south of that, the Japanese wood is practically worthless on account of the rapidity with which it decays; and in the southern parts also be- cause of the partiality which the white ants show for a diet of Japanese wood. ‘Thus in Hong-Kong, Japanese wood is practi- cally not found on the market, although within the past few years Mitsui Bussan Kaisha has started to sell small quantities of japanese oaks at about 22 cents gold per cubic foot to introduce them into the market. In the Yangtse valley, Japanese oaks used as railroad ties, treated with copper sulphate at a cost of about 16 cents gold per tie, have not proved satisfactory, rotting in from three to five years in the valley land. Experiments will be made after this year with Japanese oaks treated with creosote. Con- siderable amounts of Japanese oak and ash are now being used for furniture, and there is a great demand for them in the vehicle trade. With more strict inspection and a very largely increased de- mand taken in connection with more strict ruling and higher stumpage charges for timber by the Japanese Bureau of Forestry, the price of Japanese woods in the Chinese Empire will also largely increase. Woods of very much the same quality, sizes, etc., as the woods from Japan are now being supplied from the Yalu River district along the Chinese-Korean frontier, although the lumbering is carried on by Japanese almost entirely. What has been said concerning Japanese wood will apply largely to the Yalu River timbers, although there is a rather good grade of white and red pine coming from there which is not supplied from Japan. The present prices in Tientsin are, for white pine, about 23 cents gold per cubic foot; for red pine about 25 cents per cubic foot. The next largest source of supply is from the Indo-Malayan district, and nearly altogether in that district in the portion from Siam, Burma, and the Malay Archipelago. ‘The most commonly Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 661 used of these woods fall in the following trade names; Redwoods and Hardwoods, generally distinguished by some place-name such as Singapore redwood, Borneo hardwood, Manila hardwood, etc. At present, under these crude names, a very great variety of wood is supplied, there being apparently no standard. Thus under the name of Singapore hardwood, woods varying in quality from rather soft and not durable to very hard and extremely durable woods may be furnished. So that in one wood, if wanted for some special purpose, the consumer is very apt to get a wood entirely unfitted for that purpose unless he is personally ac- quainted with the timbers and personally selects them. As a result of many cases where these woods were stipulated in con- tracts because of the belief in their special qualities and the fact that woods of other qualities were supplied in their stead, these woods do not have a very high reputation. The average price on board ship at Shanghai for Singapore redwood is $17.00 gold per thousand; for Singapore hardwood, $21.00 gold per thousand. This comes commonly in sizes sawn 16’ in length and 1” to 4” by 4” to 8”. Borneo hardwood comes commonly as rough square- hewn logs 12” to 30” square, averaging 16’ long, and sells for $20.00 gold per thousand feet on board ship at Shanghai. Teak, which is most commonly used for ship-building, for fine foreign furniture, fine interior finishing, etc., comes ordinarily in logs 10” to 24" square with an average length of 18’, and sells at an aver- age price of $60.00 to $70.00 gold per thousand feet on board ship at Shanghai. This teak is also called “China quality,’ and is much inferior to the qualities used in Europe and America. For the fanciest native furniture, called blackwood furniture, the wood most commonly used is called Bangkok redwood. This ~ is sold by the picul (133 1/3 pounds), first quality selling for about $2.10 gold per picul, and common quality for about $1.30 gold per picul. As there are vast stores of forests eminently suited for lumber- ing in the Malay Archipelago, and as the woods found in those forests are adapted for every kind of purpose, and as the forests are so much closer to China than the United States or Canada, it must be evident that it will be these places on which China will have to depend for her great supply of wood. Especially will this be true in the region south of the Yangtse River, where the 662 Forestry Quarterly. Japanese woods are unsatisfactory. There is no reason why these woods, properly graded, should not prove eminently satis- factory for all purposes and that manufacturers located through- out the various islands should not be able to undersell Oregon pine in any sizes and still make a good profit. Very likely the Philippine Islands will prove another large factor in supplying the Chinese markets, as they are the closest to China of any islands in the district. At present, however, there are practically no large sawmilling enterprises in this whole district, the largest being one in the Philippines with a capacity of about 30,000 board feet per day. There is promise of a considerable development in modern lumbering enterprise in the Philippines, but at present almost none throughout the rest of the district. This is probably due to the fact that the forests of the district can be economically handled only by using the modern logging machinery, such as is used in northwestern United States and Canada, and to the fact that the Americans who are more familiar with such work are the only ones who have developed the use of modern logging machinery in the forests of the district. But it is only a question of a very short time until modern logging will be found widely in practice over this entire district. The fourth source of supply for imported woods at present is Australia and New Zealand. The amounts from there are rather small and are made up nearly altogether of railroad ties, etc., where the durability of the Australian eucalypts gave them an advantage over most other woods. It is not likely that the Aus- tralian source of supply will ever be a very prominent factor in the Chinese markets. The Australian ties (Jarrah wood) have ' sold for as high as $1.75 gold each; but that was an extraordi- narily high price—about $1.30 being a more representative value. The Tasmanian woods, said to be very good for ties, have sold for about $1.15 gold each. Trade Notes. For most of my information concerning Chinese woods and wood trade, I am indebted to Mr. Sun Hwah Ting, the largest dealer in these woods at Hang Kow. He was very kind in explaining the elaborate system of measurements and prices which governs the selling of the raft timber ; and as he has been a dealer in these woods for over thirty years he is very well acquainted Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 663 with the whole trade. He says that there is a much greater demand for wood now than ever before, but he believes that the supply is sufficient (this, however, is probably contrary to the true facts of the case). As to prices, it is very difficult to get a true comparison in China on account of the enormous fluctuation in value of the currency and the difficulty of making due allowance for the amount of change which the variation in value of the coin based on the gold standard would make in the selling value of a product produced wholly in China by Chinese labor; for certainly it would not make so much difference as in the trade in articles imported from abroad. The present price (1909) is only about 80% of the price six years before, but this is largely due to the great depression in trade which existed in the year when this was written not only in China but apparently all over the world now. The present price is about double what it was twenty years ago. As will be shown later, the price for larger sizes of native woods mounts up very rapidly, and since with the growth in demand for all kinds of native woods for building purposes it is likely that the supply of native wood will fall far short of the demand and the price soon will probably be too high to compete with imported woods. The sale of wood, like practically all other business in China, is controlled by a guild. Members of the Wood Merchants’ Guild act really as commission agents for the raft merchants who buy from the Miaotze cutters. The raft merchants make as close a bargain as possible—generally getting the wood very cheap from the “wild people,” and bring it down to the market but do not sell direct ; the members of the Wood Merchants’ Guild do the selling, and charge about a 3% commission. Like everything else in China, there is no fixed price, the price always being settled by bargaining ; and to prevent people outside of the guild from learn- ing the trade the system of measurements is very complicated. Thus, for each different kind of wood the circumference is measured at different points and for a given measure of circum- ference a certain length is guaranteed; then for each kind of wood a pole of a given circumference is considered as being so many taels of wood, and for each tael of wood there is a different price quoted in taels of money; for example; if Sah-mung is involved, the circumference is taken 5’ from the butt, and one of I’ 5" in circumference is considered as being 9/1o of a tael of wood, and a member of the guild would know that it would be guaranteed at least 30’ long. One tael of the best Sah wood is worth about thirteen taels in money, so that its value would be 9/10 x 13 or 11.7 taels in money. (The present value of the Hangkow tael is about 58 cents gold, making this piece worth $6.78 gold). In the case of Sung-mung, the circumference in the middle would be measured, then 15” deducted from that, and the 664 Forestry Quarterly. remainder multiplied by the length. Thus if the wood is 3’ in circumference in the middle, deduct 15” and the remainder will be 15” (there are ten Chinese inches to the foot). If the length is 40’, multiplying 40 x 15 makes 600. They call this 6 fangs, and it is worth at present I tael 2 mace of money per fang; so in this case the piece of wood quoted would be worth 7.2 taels of money ($4.18 gold). From the above it can be seen how complicated is the system of measurements. The Chinese Import and Export Lumber Company, which buys large quantities of these poles, has given me the following figures for the ordinary native poles: Length. Top Measure. Price (gold.) F. O. B. at Hankow, ...... AE EG RTE As vane ees $0.78 Tae aie eee 1.01 ea Urra ee 4) 1.40 BOR islajdtacntnin atin dhe axe: 5 Sao 1.29 a ok a 1.90 Or See 2.63 Be eR ene ils eee 3.86 "6 0 dk eS 4.59 PF ica ae 5-32 With freight and insurance, they cost at Shanghai each about 22 cents gold more. These poles are mainly pine and cedar; pine used for interior work, and cedar for posts, telegraph poles, etc., etc. In the south—Canton, etc.—the guilds are even stronger. Prices quoted there for ordinary “China Fir’ poles, according to information given me by Kwong Fong Yuen, a very large dealer, average as follows: 14’ long and 4” top, average cost about 40 cents gold. For one about 20’ long and 4” top, about $1.12 gold. There is also some forest furnishing raft timber in the hills of Fukien Province at the headwaters of the short mountain streams which run down to the coast. ‘These Foo-chow poles, as they are called—from the name of the principal seaport of that province— generally come in much shorter lengths than the others and are also of smaller diameters; they are mainly pine, fir, etc., and sell for a lower price than the Hankow poles, their principal market being in the coast provinces from Swatow to Shanghai. Prices are... ,° 7 7Aeeneter, (9G OMe CO a aaa $0.61 gold Se diameter, To JOOE jinn eeu 1.00 These two comprise the great bulk of the timbers. 64" diameter; 16 longi i7e) 1.28 8h" diameter; 16 longa. atau 2.44 Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 665 It is of special interest to note the rapid increase in price, with size, of these native poles; and that there are practically no large sized native woods. As to the handling of the import business, one again encounters the complex organization of Chinese business methods. In the past, manufacturers abroad almost never sold direct to native merchants. There would be some large European business house in China to whom they would sell. This house would very seldom sell direct to the user in China, but generally to other native mer- chants, the foreign house figuring more as a commission house or merchant, depending for his business on his knowledge of the native merchant and the distrust of native merchants by the for- eign manufacturers, who did not know them. In dealing with the native merchant, the foreign house generally depended on its compradore, who is always a Chinese of good standing and who would make all the deals for the house. It was really quite sur- prising to see how completely these compradores were trusted by their employers, and it is a surprising tribute to the honesty of the Chinese that the houses are not cheated more by the compra- dores than is the case. Many seem to think that this is the only satisfactory way to deal with the Chinese, even to-day; but that, I think, is hardly correct. ‘There are now arising in every line of business in China Chinese merchants whose credit is good, whose name is well established for honesty, and who are importing directly from abroad. So that undoubtedly as time goes on more and more of the foreign house commission will be elimi- nated and about the only representative a manufacturer would need in China would be simply an agent to look after his general interests—much as our commercial travelers at home. In general, no very large stocks are kept in the yards, as the dealers try to keep just as little ahead of the orders as possible. The only large yards are at Shanghai, Tientsin, Hankow, and Hongkong; and even these are hardly to be called large yards. Most of the wood is imported in the form of square or round logs, and sawn up according to order, by hand. There is some import- ing of manufactured stuff, especially tongue-and-groove Oregon pine, flooring, and Japanese railroad ties; but compared to the total amount of wood, the amount sawn in advance is very limited. The sawmills which are at all worthy of the name are but two in number—the Kow kee Timber and Sawmill Company, of Shanghai, and the China-Borneo Company of Hongkong—and both of these are small and are used only for rush orders, as the Chinese claim that they can saw the logs by hand cheaper than can be done by machinery and that there is less waste. The cost of sawing by hand is small due to the very low wages paid. The sawyers are paid at a rate per superficial foot sawed. It would seem that there would be quite an advantage in shipping stuff at 666 Forestry Quarterly. least a little more fully manufactured than at present, that is in- stead of shipping 12x12” pieces, that inch boards might be shipped in large quantities. Especially would this be true in cases where freight rates are high. On the other hand, the consensus of present opinion among dealers in China seems to be to the con- trary, namely, that for the bulk of the stuff it is better to depend on local sawing. A lumber company would do well to keep on hand about the following amounts and sizes of lumber: 2,000,000 bd. ft. in sizes 12”x12" square, 20’ to 40’ long; 1,000,000 bd. ft. in sizes over 40’; and small amounts of tongue-and-groove flooring, inch boards, dimension stuff, lath, etc. (The use of lath is a rather new thing in China but is seemingly growing in favor.) For a yard in North China, should it be decided to have one there, Tientsin would be the most available point, as that is the metropolis of North China. The Manchurian ports New Chwang and especially Dairen (Dalny), have been growing rapidly; but as mentioned above, the trade here will be dominated entirely by Japanese and there is very little opportunity for any other nations. For trade in North China, for any but the Japanese, one yard in Tientsin should be ample; and it would be better to confine the stock largely to lengths over 24’, in order to avoid competition with the much cheaper Japanese woods. The Japanese woods are not only cheaper here, but serve about as well; as the climate is very dry, and rot is not a very serious menace to wood. In the Yangtse basin, Shanghai, of course, would be the main depot. In fact, it might be made a central supply depot for the whole of China, as it is so centrally located. A stock of the amounts previously indicated would have to be kept on hand here, based on its taking about one month to six weeks to replenish the same from the mills upon receipt of orders. Should the mills be closer—such as would be the case in the Philippine Islands —the stock might be considerably reduced. And in the case of a yard at Manila, the main depot might even be made in Manila with very little stock at all in any place in China. However, a yard such as indicated would not be very large, in consideration of the territory which is subject to the city of Shanghai, embracing a population of 100,000,000 and at least half a dozen large and flourishing ports, all of which are putting up a great many new buildings, etc. Hankow might also be made a depot for lumber for the upper Yangtse and interior points. Hankow, with its sister cities of Wuchang and Houyang, is undoubtedly destined to become the greatest industrial center in China. Situated as it is at the head of navigation for large ocean-going vessels, with three rivers for small boat traffic opening a vast interior country—the cross- road of the great transcontinental lines from north to south and — Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 667 from west to east—with immense agricultural and mineral terri- tories back of it, and a vast tributary population, its future is assured. Already one finds there large iron works, engineering works, and so on; and it was one of the few places in China which went ahead even during these last two years of great financial depression. So that here, too, the desirability of estab- lishing a yard appears good. For South China, apparently, at present, it would be better to establish a lumber yard in Kow-loon, in the British concession opposite Hongkong, as land itself in Hongkong is a little too ex- pensive for a lumber yard. This, however, is very apt to be sub- ject to change, as, if the Chinese.government does, as is expected, make some provision whereby goods imported into one Chinese port and paying tariff there will not have to pay tariff again upon entering another Chinese port, as is now the case, Canton would be an ever so much more desirable place for a supply depot for South China. It is rather strange that the Chinese thus discrimi- nate at present against their own ports; and so long as that is the case one would perhaps be forced to keep the yard in Hongkong and ship lumber as ordered to various points in the delta of the West river and to interior and coast points. The new railroad development in South China will open a large amount of country and will prove a big stimulus to the lum- ber trade. It is rather curious that South China and especially Canton, which has always been considered the most progressive city in China, should be about the furthest behind in the develop- ment of railroads and modern industrial works, mining, etc. This is probably due to the stronger opposition to foreigners’ partici- pation in industrial activities there and the incapacity, so far, of the Chinese themselves to successfully manage them. This in- capacity, however, is rapidly being overcome by experience, so that now even railroads are being successfully built entirely under the direction of Chinese engineers with Chinese capital. How- ever, political disturbances and the extraordinary power of the old guilds in this district will probably result in this district falling behind, relatively, in its development along modern industrial lines as compared to the other districts (the Yangtse basin and North China). ‘Thus for example, railroad building and mining is much further developed in the other two districts than in the South, although the opportunities are reputed to be as good in the South. From a lumber standpoint, this district, it must be remembered, has a semi-tropical to tropical climate, at least in the lower elevations. It has therefore many great menaces to woods, es- pecially rots and the white ant; and therefore wood to be satis- factory here must be fairly resistant to these destructive agencies to be successfully used. That precludes practically all the Japanese woods and American woods; and especially, when it is 7 668 Forestry Quarterly. considered that the Malay district is closer than any other source of supply, it can readily be predicted that South China will be sup- plied almost entirely from the Malay district. At present the native woods are used far more commonly than any other, with an exception, possibly, in the case of Hongkong itself. Woop-Usine INDUSTRIES. Turning now to the many classes of wood-using industries in China we note the following kinds of material used: General Building Purposes. For the ordinary Chinese houses, etc., native woods still lead, but in the ports the growth in the use of imported woods for flooring, interior finish, etc., is rapid, and the use of imported woods for such purposes is bound to spread even more rapidly with the change from the old-type one-story building to modern structures. For North China the great bulk of such imported woods will be supplied by Japan, followed in turn by the Yalu River district and Siberian points, and there will be on!y a limited use for other woods, such, for example, as long lengths and sizes which cannot be supplied by the Japanese. For the Yangtse basin there will be more competition. In the near future probably the proportion of Japanese wood will increase, but in about five years —or after the Panama Canal is open—very likely the Oregon pine will be very little used there, Malay woods taking its place. And in a comparatively short time these Malay woods will become the most commonly used woods in the district. As mentioned before, this is bound to come, as they are ever so much more satisfactory than the Japanese woods for the climatic conditions there; and there will not be a great difference in price such as now exists between the two. For South China, for general building purposes, the Malay dis- trict will probably supply practically all of the imported wood used. For Railroads. At present and probably for a long time to come, the entire supply of railroad ties, etc., will have to be imported into China. For North China, Japan will undoubtedly continue to have, as at present, a practical monopoly in supplying railroad ties—as Japan is closer than any other source of supply and their oaks, chestnuts, and some other woods, last very well in the climate there. For the Yangtse basin in the valley land itself, Japanese oaks, so far, even when treated with copper sulphate, have not proved very satisfactory. Experiments will now be made with Japanese woods creosoted, and much will depend upon the success of these in proportion to their cost as to whether or not they will be on eae ee eee Bs Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 669 the best and most satisfactory railroad tie there. Experiments are also being made in creosoted Oregon pine at $1.15 gold per tie; but at best I do not believe the future of this supply to be very great. Australian woods have been used, and undoubtedly will last very well; but it is a question whether the cost—from $1.15 up per tie—will not operate against their common use. The Malay district woods of the grade of the Philippine Yacal (Hopea and Shorea species) most certainly would prove satis- factory, and ought to be sold there at a price sufficiently low to control the market for railroad ties, at least in the more unfavor- able situations. There would also be a likelihood that the soft Malay woods, such as the grades of the Philippine White Lauaan (Pentacame species), treated with creosote, should prove very satisfactory and might compete in cost with the Japanese woods. In this connection, the presence of city gas supply works in Shanghai and other points might prove of great value. At present, to the best of my knowledge, the creosote is not saved in the process of manufacture of gas. There are also large coke works near Hankow, which might supply creosote cheaply. So far as I know, however, all creosote used at present has been im- ported, and nothing done towards creating a local source of supply. There would be a chance for someone to make quite a profitable contract by inducing these coal dealers to produce creosote for local use. In South China the railroad ties will probably have to be of more durable woods such as Australian woods or woods of the grade of the Philippine Yacal unless the softer Malay woods, when treated with creosote, would prove satisfactory. Japanese woods have been used in the past, but are not very satisfactory. For Telegraph and Telephone #oles For these, native poles are now used practically altogether and probably will continue to be so used as they will be cheaper than others and their size and form are well adapted for that purpose. For Piling. For piles for the foundations of houses, etc., where the piles are completely buried, native poles are used entirely, and being quite satisfactory and the cheapest available, will probab!y continue to be so used. For piling for wharves, etc., imported woods are used nearly altogether. Some Oregon pine has been used in the north and elsewhere, simply because of the ease with which large sizes could be secured, but the Malay woods such as the Borneo billian and Philippine aranga, molave, and yacal are much preferred and are indeed very superior woods for that purpose; and could the supply of the timbers be secured at reasonable prices they would 670 Forestry Quarterly. be used exclusively. The prices paid for piling in Hongkong run to about 50 cents a cubic foot for the best grades. For Mine Timbers. For these, so far, a rather large share of the timbers used has been Japanese wood, but this is largely because most of the mining development has been in North China away from any local supply of wood. The Japanese timbers will probably continue to control the market for mine timbers in North China, as they are cheap and their sizes adapt them well for that purpose. For Central and South China, probably native poles will be must used. In connection with the supply of mine timbers, it might be noted that the largest mining company at present—the Chinese Engi- neering and Mining Company—always stipulates in their contract for the supply of timbers that the timber contractor shall in turn buy so much of their coal. For Shipbuilding. At present the woods most commonly used are Oregon pine for decking, and teak for finish, railings, etc., and of course a little lignum vitae for special purposes. These woods are very satis- factory, and whether or not they can be replaced by others is a question. Undoubtedly the Oregon pine decking might be re- placed by ordinary Malay woods, such as the grade of the Philip- pine lauaans, provided these Malay woods were well seasoned. Teak apparently, will be very difficult to replace, as it is so fine in quality that hardly any other wood can equal it. However, when the price rises higher than at present—and there is every indication that the price of teak will rise rapidly—it is quite likely that some of the better Malay woods will be found to replace it; especially when better knowledge is had concerning the methods of seasoning these Malay woods so that they will stand without excessive warping or shrinking and expanding after being put in place. Likely substitutes for teak would be woods of the grade of Philippine yacal, where strength is desired, and of the grade of the Philippine red lauaans or tanguile for finish. For lignum vitae, there is a possibility that a wood similar to the Philippine mancono may partly replace it. There should be a very large development in the shipbuilding trade in China in the near future when the Chinese produce their own iron and steel, taken in connection with the skill and ability of Chinese mechanics and the wages they receive in comparison with wages elsewhere. For Furniture. For the native furniture by far the greatest amount is made of native woods. The finest native furniture, generally called a eS eee eee Timber Trade of Chinese Empire. 671 “blackwood furniture,” is made from the Malay wood known as Bangkok rosewood, which is a very dark red, growing darker as it ages, and which the Chinese color black in making their furni- ture. It is a very fine furniture wood. For the foreign style furniture, teak is almost universally used and its fine properties fit it eminently for such use. Of late years, there has been an increasing amount of use of Japanese woods, especially oak and ash, and their use will probably develop more and more. There has been almost no use made of the common Malay woods such as the grade of the red lauaan. As these woods are so well suited for furniture in every way—color, figure, and ease in working— their use will probably develop very considerably, especially as the native woods become poorer and poorer in quality and less able to supply the increasing demand for modern office furniture which will of course accompany the development of modern business houses and methods. So far, there is practically no use made of veneers. There should be a good opportunity for a development of veneers of the many very fancy Malay woods, using as a base either native woods or some other soft woods, in order to supply attractive furniture at a reasonable price. The use of veneer could also be made in piano manufacturing, and even for fine coffins. Coffins. Strange to say, the manufacture of coffins is one of the principal uses of wood in China. The Chinese coffins are not like ours—a rather thin piece of wood—but generally the sides are curving and about 2” or more in thickness, so that really a rather large-size piece of wood is necessary to make each side of the coffin. Of course the ordinary coffin is of native wood—in fact, practically all the coffins in China are made of native wood because of more or less superstition entering into the question. Very fancy prices have been paid for fine coffins, as it is one of the ambitions of the Chinese, apparently, to be buried in a fine coffin. Very frequently a man invests in a fine coffin long before his death, and keeps it in his home to feast his eyes on during the remainder of his life. Could the superstition of the Chinese be overcome regarding the use of foreign woods for coffins, there ought to be a considerable development in the use of such woods as the western American cedar, on account of its odor, and of the ordinary Malay woods; and for the finest coffins for the fine Malay woods, used either solid or as veneers. In connection with the coffin industry might be noted the fact that occasionally there is a demand for extraordinarily large single pieces of wood for pillars in temples, as much as $1,000 having been paid for single pieces of very large size of hardwood; so 672 Forestry Quarterly. that lumber manufacturers in the Malay districts might take ad- vantage of that also. For Vehicles. Chinese woods (mainly scattered trees, fruit trees, etc.) are most used. The native vehicle on the whole is an extremely clumsy one, designed to carry heavy loads over the roughest imaginable roads. In recent years some Japanese wood has been used in vehicle making. The importation of vehicle woods should increase very rapidly, as in many cities, and even some country districts, roads are being made where before were none worthy the name, and with such roads comes the modern vehicle. For Minor Wood Industries. Mulberry wood is burned for the lampblack used in making ink. It is also used in paper making. ‘The wood oil industry is very im- portant in places. -Perhaps mose interesting is the bamboo, which is used for almost everything the mind could conceive. Chinese Timber Tariff. On practically all soft wood and railroad ties there is a tariff of 69 cents per thousand board feet, except in shipments which have tongue-and-groove flooring in excess of 10 %, and on masts and spars, on which there is a tariff of 5% of the value. Hardwood beams and planks pay about 1 2/10 cents per cubic foot; hard wood masts and spars pay 5% of the value. Teak wood of all sizes pays about 4 9/Io cents per cubic foot. Lath pays at the rate of 12 6/10 cents per thousand. Some idea of the costs of unloading ships, etc., may be had from the following table showing such costs at Tientsin: River dues, 1/5 of 1%. Charge for lighters for wharfage, about $1.80 per lighter holding about 300,000 board feet. For the French Municipality, about 34 cents per thousand. For donkey engines, etc., on lighter to discharge same, about $6.00 per day. For stevedoring, about 42 cents per thousand. Or a total of about $2.85 per thousand to get the lumber to the yards. For delivering lumber in town, the costs vary from about 30 cents to 70 cents a thousand. To load railway cars costs about 20 cents per M feet. In Hong Kong, the cost from ship to yard is a little under 1.8 cents a cubic foot, which would include one month’s storage. Generally, sales are made on one month’s sight. Looking out from Cuban Pine lands howard the flat treeless ae elades, southwest of the head of Miami River. THE TROPICAL OR ANTILLEAN REGION OF FLORIDA. By NeEtson C. Brown. It has been estimated that 77 per cent. of the total land area of Florida is timbered. This means that Florida probably has a greater percentage under forest cover than any other state in the Union. Besides having such a wealth of forest growth, 47 per cent. of all the tree species found in the United States occur in Florida. A particularly large number of northern species find their southern limit within the borders of the state, including, White, Post, Cow, Live, Spanish, Water, and Yellow oaks, Ash, Hickory, Yellow Poplar, Red Gum, Elm, Persimmon, Willow, Black Gum, Red Maple, Holly and Magnolia. Of the other woods that are not found in any other part of the country, there is an almost numberless variety of tropical or Antillean species, many of which have still to be identified and classified. Between the hardwoods of the temperate zone and the tropical zone occud the transitional forms of tree growth such as Cuban pine, longleaf pine, short leaf pine and cypress. The distinctively tropical region of Florida is found only on the southern end of the penin- sula and extends much farther north on the Atlantic coast than on the Gulf Coast. This is undoubtedly caused by the warming influence of the gulf stream which skirts the coast of southern Florida very closely. It is somewhat difficult to locate exactly -the definitive line between the tropical zone and the transitional belt just north of it, but the following description will suffice. From Mosquito inlet on the Atlantic Coast in eastern Volusia County, the line skirts the coast in a narrow belt to lower Osceola County about 20 miles north of Lake Okeechobee. From here the line runs across lower DeSoto County and turns northeast across Manatee County to lower Tampa Bay. Approximately one-fourth of the peninsula proper is included within the tropical zone. Up to the present date comparatively little has been known of this region. It has been traversed occasionally by botanists and explorers but little has been known of the swampy interior before the extension of the Florida East Coast Railroad to Key 674 Forestry Quarterly. West. The more accessible portions have been exploited for mahogany and lignum vitae. Besides these two trees there is a considerable number of species of commercial size and import- ance. Many of these are exceedingly valuable for their hard, heavy, and highly colored wood. Others are not of sufficient size or amount to be of any considerable commercial importance. The species that are most abundant and highly prized for their lumber are as follows: Mahogany, Sztetenia mahagoni—Jacq., Lignum vitae or iron- wood, Guaiacum sanctum—Linn., Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle,—Linn., Buttonwood, Conocarpus erecta—Linn., White Mangrove, Leguncularia racemosa,—Linn., Black Mangrove, Avicennia nitida,—Jacq., Seagrape, Coccolobis uvifera,—Jacq., Jamaica Dogwood, Ichthyomethia piscipula,—Linn., Mastic, Sid- eroxylon mastichodendron,—Jacq., Satinwobd, Xanthoxrylum fagara,—Linn. As far as possible these have been listed in the order of their importance. All are found on the keys and hammocks of the southern peninsula where they grow in dense tropical thickets. The mangroves only grow in the salt water swamps and along stream courses where their chief use is of protective value to the shores. ‘Their bark contains a high percentage of tannin and the wood is now being used for flooring and cabinet manufac- ture. ‘Trees up to 23 inches in diameter and 50 feet in height are very common. Mahogany and lignum vitae have been largely cut but there are still considerable quantities in the remote sec- tions of the keys and hammock lands. Buttonwood, Mastic, Jamaica Dogwood, and Satinwood produce heavy, durable, highly colored woods which are particularly esteemed for high grade cabinet work and furniture. Besides the presence of a large num- ber of tropical varieties, the Antillean region is characterized by extensive pure stands of Cuban Pine. The topography is almost universally flat and this species is commonly found growing direct- ly from the limestone formation which outcrops at the surface of the ground throughout this region. The following types of forest may be distinguished in the tro- pical region of Florida: 1. Cuban Pine; 2. Mangrove swamps; 3. Hardwood ham- mocks; 4. Fresh water swamps. The Antillean Region of Florida. 675 In the first type, Cuban Pine grows usually in pure stands on the dry flat stretches along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts. On the sandy border of the latter coast there is a narrow strip of Sand Pine (Pinus clausa) and the palmetto is occasionally as- sociated with it. Trees up to 24 feet in diameter and 80 feet in height are common but the average is not over 16 to 20 inches in diameter and 50 to 70 feet in total height. Along the Gulf Coast flats the pine is inclined to be short, scrubby, and open grown. Here trees frequently do not average over 10 inches in diameter and 50 feet in height and occur usually about 45 to the acre. Frequent overflowing is the chief cause of the stunted growth. Cuban Pine includes about 40 per cent. of the forest area of this region. The chief trees found in the mangrove swamp type are the following: Red Mangrove, White Mangrove, Black Mangrove, Buttonwood, and Seagrape. The mangroves often attain a size of 24 inches in diameter and from 40 to 50 feet in height. Their principal economic value lies in their ability to build up the shores and hold the mud together by their long, complex, root systems. The type is only found along the tidal shores where there is an abundance of salt water. Evidences are commonly present to show how this type has pushed its way into the water by its remarkable soil forming qualities. North of Cape Romano it forms immense bodies of thousands of acres, in dense, crowded stands. The cocoanut and royal palm are distinctive trees of this type and are usually found fringing the shores on the border of -the dense forest. The hardwood hammocks consist of isolated groups of tropical hardwoods, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants scattered about in the pine lands and on the keys. ‘This type is also found on the higher lands just above the mangrove shore type which probably built up many of these areas by its remarkable soil forming qualities. The stands are dense and frequently almost impene- trable. This type represents the climax forest of this region. That is, if the fires were excluded on the pine lands, it would occupy all the dry flats eventually. Evidences of this are every- where apparent on the borders of these hammocks where repro- duction is continually reaching out and securing a foothoid in the adjacent pine timber. The principal trees of this type are 676 Forestry Quarterly. Jamaica dogwood and mahogany. Other common trees are the Ironwood, Satinwood, Paradise tree, Torchwood, Gumbo limbo, Ficus and Manchineel. All are exceedingly valuable for furni- ture, and cabinet work on account of their highly colored, heavy, close grained wood. The well known fertility of these hammock lands is due to the accumulation of humus from the forest. In decomposing it yields acids which cause the surface limestone rocks to crumble and render available whatever plant foods it contains. The fourth type of this region is the fresh-water swamp. ‘The characteristic tree is Bald Cypress, (Tavodium distichum) which occurs chiefly on the banks of streams, along the borders of the Everglades and in a single large body of unknown extent in Lee County. Other trees of this type are the Live Oak, Magnolia, and Red Bay. The wooded islands of the Everglades are in- cluded in this type, but tree growth on them is usually very scrubby and poor. The chief species are Cocoa-palm, Custard Apple, Sweet Bay, Wild Lemon, Lime and Live Oak. On ac- count of their small sizes they have no commercial importance. Throughout the southern end of the peninsula, the State, Gov- ernment and the railroads are the largest owners of timber lands. The region is very sparsely settled as yet and with the excep- tion of the Cuban Pine and Cypress in Lee County and the man- grove swamps along the shores, there are no large lumber com- panies interested in this region. A few small mills have been operated on the Gulf and east coasts to supply the local demands, but the pine is of such a hard and brittle character that it can- not be used in building or construction work after it has seasoned, on account of its extreme hardness. ‘Two companies have pur- chased State lands in the mangrove swamps and are now engaged in cutting them for tannin, which they extract from the bark and for a high grade flooring. As regards the silvicultural phases of this region, repro- duction of the pine is excellent wherever fires are not too severe, especially on the east soast. There is always a luxuriant under- growth in the hardwood hammocks and the reproduction is con- stantly encroaching on the adjacent pine lands. The forest conditions in these hammocks are ideal for tree growth. The floor is always kept so damp and moist by vegetable accumulation and a The Antillean Region of Florida. 677 dense crown cover, that fires seldom burn over them. The growth of Cuban Pine is exceedingly slow. It is found on drier situa- tions than in the northern part of its range and repeated annual fires slow down its growth to a great extent. Some of the tropical hardwoods grow very raipdly but their form is usually so crooked and gnarled that but little lumber can be cut from the individual trees. None of these Antillean species are found in pure stands. Cuban Pine is remarkably free from any tree disease or injury besides fire damage. The cypress is badly affected by peckiness, certainly much more so than in northern Florida, and the trees are usually short and scrubby. On account of the dense dark forest cover on the tropical hammocks, their moist atmosphere is very conducive to a great variety of fungous growths, but otherwise they are entirely free from windthrow, ground fires and insect attacks. A special feature of this region is the vast tract of 3,404,000 acres in Dane, Monroe and Lee Counties, known as the Ever- glades. They consist of a flat, practically treeless expanse of fresh-water marsh stretching from the narrow low sandy ridge along the East coast to Lake Okechobee and the western part of Lee County, and extending in an irregular form from North- ern Dade County, to the mangrove swamps of the southern capes. The surface is covered by saw-grass and several species of marsh grasses. Isolated patches of hardwood and occasionally Cuban Pine hammocks are found scattered over it. They vary in area from one-eighth acre up to several acres. A thick muck of de- cayed vegetable matter from a few inches to 15 feet in depth supports the grasses which grow usually in a foot or two of water. Underneath the muck is found a limestone of indefinite depth. On the eastern and part of the southern boundaries of the Ever- glades the water is retained by a limestone core or rim. The State now has in progress an extensive scheme of dredging deep canals through this core and into the heart of the Everglades from both Fort Lauderdale and Miami on the East Coast. This will open up an immense tract of agricultural land. The ham- mocks are usually composed of a dense stand of cocoa plum, red bay, sweet bay, custard apple, wild plum, wild orange, lime, live oak and a great variety of tropical shrubs and herbaceous plants. 678 Forestry Quarterly. With the exception of some of the pine land which will be cleared for fruit and farm crops, the present wooded area of the Antillean region will remain almost indefinitely under forest cover. There is an excellent opportunity to cultivate the tropical hardwoods for furniture wood on account of their comparatively rapid growth, ease of reproduction, and the exceedingly valuable quality of their wood. Much can also be done along the line of introducing foreign species in this region particularly such trees as eucalyptus which are adapted to this soil and climate. Most of the Cuban Pine is still in virgin forest and as soon as it is cut, there will be a good opportunity to renew it on these lands which would otherwise grow up to brush, weeds and inferior species. THE DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS AND VALUES IN A LOGGING OPERATION By R. CyurrFrorp Hatt AND D&an W. MartTIN. An important element that enters into the determination of stumpage value in a region which includes many species of mer- chantable timber varying widely in value, is the distribution of costs and values between the different species and products so as to secure equitable results. This problem appears especially important in reference to apportioning the construction cost of a logging railroad which must be built to operate a tract in an undeveloped region. It is customary to estimate the total cost of building the rail- road and then to divide this figure by the number of thousand board feet of timber that will be taken out in the entire operation. The quotent obtained is the cost of railroad construction per thousand board feet and this figure is added to the other operating costs per thousand. This method is very satisfactory when only one species is involved in the operation, or when there are several species or products of nearly the same value. It is not satisfactory when there is a great variation in the value of the species and products under consideration. In the latter case it may often happen that the cost of railroad construction per thousand plus the other operating costs per thousand may equal or exceed the f. o. b. mill value of an inferior species. Calculated on this basis, the stumpage value of the species would appear to be zero or negative, indicating that there would be no profit in handling it. Such is the situation in the case of black oak in the illustration given later (See table 1,) Although no stumpage value is given for this species, the net returns on the entire opera- tion are $20,000 greater if black oak is cut than if it is left in the woods. If it is cut, the operating cost is increased by $220,000 (20,000M. feet at $11 per M), but the total receipts of the opera- tion are increased by $240,000 (20,000 M. feet at $12 per M), while the cost of the railroad remains the same whether black oak is handled or not. It can be readily seen that any low grade 680 Forestry Quarterly. product can be profitably handled as long as the other operating costs, exclusive of railroad construction cost, are less than the f. o. b. mill value, and in an actual operation will certainly not be left in the woods. The railroad construction cost or, in fact, any absolutely fixed charge is in reality disregarded in deter- mining the merchantability of a single species, because if there is enough valuable timber on the tract under consideration to more than cover the railroad and other fixed costs, any species that will yield a profit over other operating costs will be taken out even if it cannot bear an equal share per M. of the entire cost. More- over, every additional carload of timber that is handled at a profit in reality helps to pay for the railroad. It is evident, then, that the distribution of construction cost on a per thousand basis is not logical and does not fit actual conditions where there is a considerable variation in the value of the species to be handled. It does not, moreover, give equitable stumpage values, as it unduly reduces the stumpage values of inferior species in favor of the more valuable, and may even indicate that a certain species has no stumpage value at all when as a matter of fact it can be handled at a profit. ; These features are illustrated in an ideal example. The as- sumptions in this example follow closely, but in a simplified form, the conditions of a case met with in actual practice by the writers. The stumpage values are worked out by two different formulae, which will be briefly explained. (1) What we may call the direct percentage formula is based on the principle of crediting to the stumpage an assumed per- centage (P) of the gross profit (the difference between the f. o. b. mill value of the final product (v) and the total operating cost (c-++r) and allowing the remainder to cover the operator’s profit and risk. Calling the stumpage value, x, x=P (v—c—r) In this case P is assumed at 25 per cent. for lumber and 30 per cent. for other products, as there is less risk in handling the latter. (2) The Forest Service formula, so called because it is given in the National Forest Manual, is based on the principle of al- lowing as operator’s profit an assumed percentage of the operat- ing costs plus the stumpage value (c+r+ x), adding this to the Costs and Values in a Logging Operation. 681 operating costs, and subtracting the total from the f. o. b. mill price to get the stumpage value. Thus:: x=Vv—p (C--r---x if te paca ans 2 a ees — (c+r re eet When the value for (v—c—r) has already been obtained for use in the direct percentage formula, the Forest Service formula can be used most easily in the following form, obtained by add- P Vv ing the expression v [EP to TP and then subtracting, thus: x= (v—c—r) —v TP i In this case P is assumed to be 25 per cent., and the two form- ulae become: x=4/5v— (c+r) x= (v—c—r) —1/5v The following are the conditions of the illustration: It is assumed that the area to be logged is 50,000 acres requiring railroad construction amounting to $150,000 or $3 per acre. The average stand per acre is 2,000 board feet while the products (extract wood, tanbark, and ties,) are equivalent to 1,000 board feet. Although the location is in the southern Appalachians only a few species are used in the illustration to avoid confusion. The capacity of the mill is 50,000 board feet a day. The costs of the operation are as follows: Mme aiiee eer Sacre i elk we $4.50 per M. Loading and R. R. haul to mill ........... ¥. OOK Kore Sawing, handling, and loading lumber ...... cf S a RePRPPR GRRTORR Po eee io a lek aleas cs es Tey 0s a ot © SSG ae ae RRR Bs RE PEL OOS ae R. R. construction per A, $3, per M ........ DOO) a LSS LORNA INOS SRS A NOUR Gt NER a Rage aS BI9.00) a8 Cost of products, f. o. b., excluding railroad construction: MEME WON oa bie oe a a Sales bP erate $3.00 per cord PEP OM MMR ee Ft es hn C eRe Wa wiho cen e © 8s Ls Cea PAO a OAC sd as EA a halal win Wea aeis's « .20 per piece 682 Forestry Quarterly. Table 1.—Distribution of construction costs per M. bd. ft. and stumpage values Direct Forest Service percentage formula formula Value Stumpage f.o. b. Total Gross Stump- 4 . mill costs profit age oe ieee Species 4 and products Vv c+r v—(c+r) x et a Poplar lumber $27.00 $12.00 $15.00 $3.75 $21.60 $9.60 Chestnut lumber 17.00 12.00": 5:00). 1.25 Ta aees Chestnut oak lumber 16.00 | /I2.00 .' AlLOO. 1.00-, Tia .80 Black oak lumber 12.00 I2.00 .00 .00 9.60 —2.40 Extract wood (cords) 4:00. - 3.60 .40 12° 3.20 — .40 Tanbark (cords) 8.50 5.60 2.90 87.) aS 7 ie aa Ties (pieces) 45 24 21 .06 . 36 uke If railroad construction cost is not to be distributed per thous- and board feet, what, then, is the proper method? If not quan- tity, then value must be the basis. Value is an important element in rate making by common carrier railroad, as indicated by the higher freight rates on manufactured articles of high value in comparison to those on coal and ores of relatively low value in proportion to weight. It is believed that both the elements of value and quantity should be given a place in rate making on the books of a logging railroad, apportioning the construction costs according to value and the operating costs by the thousand board feet. The same principle could be applied in operations where a railroad is not used, by distributing the expense of building a wagon road, flume, or other improvement of fixed cost, no mat- ter how much material is taken out, on the basis of value. The following plan for the distribution of fixed construction charges on a value basis is suggested. The data required is as follows: The f. o. b. mill value of the species involved=v The total operating and manufacturing costs including interest and depreciation per M==c The average stand per acre for each species and product=s Then for each species the index value (=i) (or value to be Costs and Values in a Logging Operation. 683 used in apportioning the construction cost) is the f. o. b. mill value minus the other costs. i=v—c The index value per acre (1) is the sum of the average stand per acre of each species multiplied by the index value of that species. I=s x i (chestnut) +s x i (poplar) +s xi (oak) + etc. The total railroad construction cost divided by the number of acres is the railroad construction cost per acre—R The railroad construction cost per acre should be distributed among the different species and products in order to obtain the railroad construction cost per unit quantity (thousand feet, cord, or piece) of each product (=r) The first step is to divide the construction cost per acre by the index value per acre thus obtaining the construction cost per R dollar of index Licth cea Baa Then the construction cost per unit of quantity for each product (r) is the index value of that pro- duct multiplied by the construction cost per dollar of index value R I Having obtained the construction cost per unit quantity (thousand feet, cord, or piece) of each product, this can be added to the other costs in order to obtain the total costs of operation. Then the stumpage value can be obtained by any of the usual methods. The following table shows the application of this plan to the same set of conditions assumed for the first example, using both the direct percentage formula and the Forest Service formula. By using the first formula, the operator’s profit is distributed on a value basis, since it is taken as a direct percentage of the gross value. In the Forest Service formula it is a percentage of log- ging cost plus stumpage, and is affected by the value of the pro- duct only to the extent that the construction cost is apportioned on this basis. t—1 684 Forestry Quarterly. Table 2.—(a) Distribution of construction costs on a value basis Constr’n costs per M Stand Value R per acre f.o.b. Costs w—c i xT Species and products S Vv Cc 1 ixs r Poplar lumber (bd. ft.) 400 $27.00 $11.00 $16.00 $6.40 $2.80 Chestnut lumber (900. T7007. TT 00; ) (G.GO Tin am enmamiae Chestnut oak lumber “ “ ' 300° 16:00'° 200) 5200" fJ5e 87 Black oak lumber Eh MOO 3 I OG mak any 1.00 .40 17 Extract wood (cords) . 4.00. 3.00 - 1:00 1.00 17 Tanbark : 2. eae 5.00 3.50 .70 61 Ties (pieces) 7 45 .20 257. ae 04 J=e$r7.15 Re i> Shasta (b) Stumpage values based on distribution of costs shown in (a) Direct percentage Forest Service formula formula Gross profits Stump- Stumpage per M age : (v—c—r)——.v 5 Species v—c—tr CA and products (i—r) x 5 x Poplar lumber $r3-20 $3.30 Sous eee Chestnut lumber 4.95 1.24 3.40 1.55 Chestnut oak lumber 4.13 1.03 3.20 1.93 Black oak lumber .83 Me by 2.40 —I.57 Extract wood (cords) .83 .25 .80 .03 Tanbark os 2.89 .87 1.70 1.19 Ties (pieces) 21 .06 .09 .12 While the foregoing discussion has referred especially to the distribution of the cost of railroad or other construction charges, it applies equally well to any fixed charge which must be incurred in developing a given tract, whether all of the timber or only the best of it is cut. Many of the overhead charges, such as depre- ciation on sawmill equipment, rolling stock, and other machinery are of this nature. On the other hand, the charges for mainten- ance and cost of supervision seem to depend on the length of the Costs and Values in a Logging Operation. 685 operation, which is in turn conditioned by the amount of timber cut, and apparently should be apportioned on a quantity basis. The smaller items may be distributed one way or the other with- out affecting the results very much, but it is important that a charge which constitutes a high proportion of the cost of logging, such as the cost of constructing a railroad, be apportioned be- tween the species on a proper basis. The same idea of apportionment on a value basis may be ap- plied in the use of the Forest Service formula for obtaining stumpage values. It seems that this formula applied directly to each species and product exaggerates the differences in value be- tween the low grade and high grade products by assuming that the operator must make an equal percentage of profit on each. What the operator is primarily interested in is the profit on the entire operation. If there is enough high grade products to yield a profit sufficient to warrant the operation, in all prob- ability the operator will be willing to increase his total profit by handling at the same time low grade products, even if he cannot make nearly as large a percentage of profit on these as on those of greater value. Therefore it is easy to see that the unmodified Forest Service formula may show a negative stump- age value for a product which would actually be handled with profit both to the operator -and to the stumpage owner. This difficulty has in some cases been corrected by assigning arbitrary stumpage values to the low grade products and reduc- ing the stumpage values on high grade products so as to give the operator the same profit on the operation. A similar result can be obtained by a logical mathematical process as long as the products can really be handled without loss, that is, as long as the f. o. b. mill value of the lowest grade product included is more than the operating costs exclusive of railroad construction (or other equally fixed charges) and of operator’s profit. Of course there must be enough high grade products to make the operation profitable as a whole. The method is to distribute the railroad construction costs on the value basis as already ex- plained, and then to apportion the stumpage value of the aver- age acre as a whole between the different products in proportion to the gross profit on each. This has the effect of distributing the operator’s profit in the same proportion, since the gross profit is divided between the operator and the stumpage owner. The stumpage value for the average acre, X, may be obtained by the 686 Forestry Quarterly. following formula, in which V is the f. o. b. mill value per acre (the sum of the f. o. b. mill values of each product multiplied by the average stand) and C is the operating cost per acre, ex- clusive of railroad construction (the product of the stand per acre in board feet and the operating cost per thousand) X = (V—C—R) —1/5V Since V—C=I=index value per acre } Gham (I—R) —I1/5 V Then the stumpage value per dollar of gross profit can be ob- tained by dividing the stumpage value per acre by the gross profit per acre, and the stumpage value per unit quantity by each product can be obtained by multiplying the gross profit on that species by the stumpage value per dollar of gross profit. The formula is: : x= Rp (v—c—r ) Using the same set of conditions as in the previous computa- tions, table 3 shows the application of this modified form of the Forest Service formula. It should be mentioned in this connection that another method of distributing the stumpage values as given by the Forest Serv- ice formula between species of different value has already been worked out on the same principle and arriving at the same re- sults, but by a different arithmetical process. However, this method seems preferable to the authors, and is especially appli- cable when the fixed charges have been apportioned by the similar method already described. Table 3.—Stumpage value by modified Forest Service formula Construction cost, operator’s profit, and stumpage distribution on value basis. . Stumpage SES Stand Value Gross X ard promis per acre f.o.b. bein Ba as Wa S V vxs (Table 2) x Poplar lumber (bd. ft.) 400 $27.00 $10.80 $13.20 $4.88 Chestnut lumber “ « “ 900°! 17760, 7.15. 20 4.95 1.83 Chestnut oak lumber 300 16.00 4.80 4.13 1.53 Black oak lumber 400 12.00 4.80 .83 31 Extract wood (cords) : 4.00 4.00 .83 (at Tanbark “ Re pane P| 1.90) 2.80 1.07 Ties (pieces) 7 45 3.15 21 .08 O@,4 we fut? \ Costs and Values in a Logging Operation. 687 1/5V=$8.91 I—R (Table 2 (a) )=$17.15—$3=$14.15 X = (I—R)—1/5V = $5.24 (Stumpage value per acre) X habe ee See -370 = = 37 The same plan of apportioning costs and operator’s profit may be applied to the method for arriving at stumpage values worked out by Wm. B. Hunter of the Bureau of Corporations. This method is based on the principle of allowing as the operator’s profit a fixed percentage of the capital at risk in the operation and charging this against the returns each year. Since this capital is diminished annually by the amount allowed for depreciation, the amount of profit also diminishes, but the total amount available each year for profit and depreciation is the same. Therefore the amount available for depreciation increases, as the sum of the annual depreciation and annual operator’s profit is a con- stant. This constant, K, which is charged against each year’s returns, is obtained by the following formula: B in which: A = original cost of plant plus working capital B = A—wrecking value of the plant P = rate of profit 4 ti--p) n-—I Pp n = number of years of operation The sturnpage value is then found by subtracting from the selling price the other operating costs including maintenance, plus the constant allowed for depreciation and profit. This constant can either be reduced to the basis of thousand board feet, disre- garding the value of the different species, or the distribution between depreciation and profit and the stumpage can be made in proportion to the difference in value between the f. o. b. price of the species and the operating costs. This latter plan can be effected by several methods, but the one illustrated in table 4, 688 Forestry Quarterly. in which selling price, costs, and stumpage are figured on an acre basis and the stumpage then pro-rated, seems most satisfactory. The assumptions of the problem are here modified as follows: The overhead charge in the cost of saw timber (see page 5) is assumed to be $1 instead of $2, since in this case it covers only maintenance and cost of supervision and selling. ‘This makes the operating cost $10 per M. The sum of the working capital and the original investment in cost of the plant including the railroad is taken as $350,000. The plant is assumed to have a wrecking value at the end of a ten- year operation of $50,000, making the amount to be written off $300,000. The profit to be allowed the operator is 15 per cent. of the capital at risk. Table 4.—Stumpage values by Hunter’s formula. Construction cost, depreciation on equipment and operator’s profit distributed on a value basis. Stand Value Opera- Stump- Species and products, per f.o. ting age acre, costs. Value. S Vv Cc v-c_ s (v-c) .297 (v-c) Poplar lumber, 400 $27.00 $10.00 $17.00 $680 $4.06 Chestnut lumber, g00 17.00 10.00 7.00 6.30 2.08 Chestnut oak lumber, 300 16.00 10.00 6.00 1.80 1.78 Black Oak lumber, 400 12.00 10.00 2.00 80 59 Extract wood (cords), : 4.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 .30 Tanbark (cords), 72 8.50 5.00 3.50 70 1.04 Ties (pieces), 45 .20 25 1.75 07 $19-15 Operating cost per acre 2M feet lonsber'(@)/S10,00)0. 00s ates nee $20.00 I cord extract WOpd1(@ '$3.00..0 cows. see 3.00 2: cord tatabargerten 255900, (ss cae mie tens 1.00 7 ties (aaaee isi) 0 soe intern ate inten ee 1.40 Costs and Values in a Logging Operation. 689 Depreciation and operator’s profit pA=$350,000x =. I5 =52,500.00 = = 300,000+20.304 =14,775.41 LOCAL DOT VAT) owe chs Wien m5 pe . eT ont | Sirk $ ; oa VR kt eine - *S, os ee =) > rat 4 & - . y La) = La 7 * ? Sie Pia ; aN oo -. = [ Ls & oH : _ i 7 4 * ae Ay ”~ S a “yg ~~ a ai u v EB i mn . a 7 j a ; (128873) ate ait i +.) wir i i Ri BALI hier 4, Ht ; i i , HY Ki} } Ms es si i Bie ; Na " ls 4 : in R Mii Weg He ea nit : ' , \ 1 rT eee il ae * ML on be «| ere Cig ae i Arh ' eas toa 3 es a: vie > “ ites : ee : ' Pe yi HOV ay Ay | ee iar A he 4g Pan | HP Hi Hi : ' , ‘ ae Nt ee 7 +? ae nH le iat Hh \M VP gin thy : ph an” ; we } { ' val’, : H Me . i“ eer oi ea Wap Ah \ Wee th Ht ea DEA he ane rel i mitt NS sash ey, i iy ' - F a aa 1 (ro ida ny “i ETL A a “is | hale PALI | a A tel the tates a een , aa i : A) ala eat Pn) MEY (elisha at ae t i - . Way ' Be ate Eye ig fH : il et si! aa ta Jogi « $ » rae! Bat tay fe lent afal, fing A Jona! Gh as r itty LO ere ‘ en (ae nes ¢ Sw ' o5 ws toont. ste dong os By i ' ' ‘ ce i! f f « * ws be \ ‘ : : ‘ * ' p, 2" : ity ’ ba i Py \ \ \ : | a, | : - y | } ‘hu f a) Loe : 7 ‘ é ce — , OF ni , A ats is ‘ y a J . 5 4 A weal . ¥ ~~ \ ? li ' ‘ ‘ ‘. ; > ' 4 = ' . ‘ i . ” i? ' bei. 5 A Raia ‘ ‘ z eft ae ate ye fee . rt ne { ’ ” 7 , * , ‘ whe 4 i ; § hi , ’ 7 5 - : ree et 4) ie pea) 7; id hey fost u Be’ La 3 a iy ee a, | Hh yt ae Vie k : F ‘, “ hie yt) Seitaine iilbee Pe a %., ) Li ae * : : fh ; ai le bi Restate ee rte W, ; 2 gh at ie lw ey ail a : \ i Wil rh ea a pA daa. 5 Ang 7 7 i f is 4 i a teh, av ii My eh | ‘ i Ue oy taal Me lb 7 4 We fi i : . ih hiv Y } i! } } x " i ‘, _ Ma ee nN ay ‘ 5 Hi ‘ vb fi AAC alt Ea ‘iD fs. ' ” " - t Wil) ny Behe? My MET 4) i * hin ; - WH hited Vive Lira aT t ! UA Vn bats the: i! iH | ay H pay ‘ily vey Mal 7) 4 pi diet ae : yey id NT } Na ‘ wi Uypeliget | iii or) 4 Bi {\ ' i ; ii} 1 if i “4 Uae hy ih i 4 ity ‘ > ie