SS ny EO oe ar a? EP “ eA gah rent ee etn wri aiaideid A Ne OR Aoi itor he PLE Se! Tp ee SVE a a . dyer ee FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME III Published under the Direction of a Board of Editors A WITH TWO PLATES AND TWO DIAGRAMS be ae ae ayer 4 qi 4A | ITHACA, N. Y. 1905 ie Ve ar ih: , Lon AA wit i +4 a; : (ely ie. y ‘* rt ied Mare Ah Re ret at A> | p ia io he a BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. FERNow, LUL.D., Adztor-in-Chief HENRY S. GRAVES, M.A., Yale Forest School RICHARD T. FISHER, A.B.,. Harvard University ERNEST A. STERLING, F.E., Forest Service FREDERICK DUNLAP, F.E., Forest Service FILIBERT ROTH, B.S., University of Michigan HucGH P. BAKER, M.F., lowa State College of Agricul- ture and Mechanie Arts RAPHAEL ZON, F.E., Forest Service CLYDE LEAVITT, M.S.F., Forest Service Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto _ - http://www.archive.org/details/forestryquartérl03newy CONTENTS. Page Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania__________- John Bentley, Jr. I The Movement of Wood Prices and Its Influence on Forest Treatment B.E. Fernow 18 An Expert Opinion on the Cornell College Forest Experiment__._____ 32 An Adaptation of Methods in Forest Work__.__. William F. Hubbard 91 The Minnesota Experiment___.._...___............-.__S. B. Elliolé 99 Comments on ‘‘ The Minnesota Experiment ’’_________- B. E. Fernow 105 Deeb cits 146 O00) 0°: fReaege ie nee MRED SAUTE LAURE TRON NACA pL MBM 2S Ses Sylph 114 Damages for Iujuries to Forest Property____--------Hrnest Bruncken 116 Considerations in Appraising Damage to Forest Property. B. Z. Fernow 119 WoO lermieh alesse AUve Lr e si aes ee Ag a Ge, 2 Re 2 __Henry S. Graves 227 Methodsiof Scaling Lopes... 52 ea a Henry S. Graves 245 OGeESE) trian logy 2 2 ee ee Oe B. E. Fernow 255 Borest legislation in ‘California 2.2225 U2 E.. A. Sterling 269 A Practical Xylometer for Cross-Ties._________ --_- Frederick Dunlap 335 The Measurement of Sawlogs and Round Timber______ A.L. Daniels 339 Note on Increment of Spruce in West Virginia and Fire Losses B.E. Fernow 346 Notes on the Growth of Red Cedar, Red Oak and Chestnut Hi. S. Graves 349 Methods of Making Discounts for Defects in Scaling Logs HT. D. Tiemann 354 CURIE 5 Cie a ge DA Lee TEN gOS hee ES 2223. 358 Notes on’ Forest Terminology —. 220.222 ee E Bruncken 360 CURRENT LITHRATURE (REVIBWS) 2202 22s eee ees 39, 143, 275, 362 For titles see Index. OTHER ‘(RECENT LITERATURE, Titles__2-.__- -.--_.____=— 43, 160, 289, 381 PE RTO DLC ATA Uy TIS RUAN UU) ewe ee nee te ae i eee EL 46, 165, 290, 388 Borest, Geopraphy and Description. 202 oe 165, 290 Horestwbotany ane AOOlO RY se Uitte er 46, 166, 297, 388 Sols water vamae Cumate oi i ees 2.) 59, 160) 290) 24g ROAMS) AN GSU very pees Oe A YS oa eee ways kek 55 Silviculture, Protection, and Extension _____________- 56, 172, 302, 393 Mensuration, Finance, and Management____-_--__------- 65, 195, 313 Utilization, Market, and Technology_____-_-_-------- 66, 202, 319, 405 Statistiesian@ilistony2.iue ork ak te ees ee 71, 203, 323, 405 IPolibicramthalserisratiotn: sc: Surat A ee 78, 2c9, 326 AVASCELLANEOTS uses sees bse shea 2 8 Ee 79, 210 INIA) AUNTDD PIN ISIN crete esky Les hs ld ae Ae es 82, 213, 328, 412 INDEX TO VOLUME III. ACCLIMATIZATION of N., A. species in Germany, 389. Accretion, value in Beech, 197. Adirondacks, planting, 218, 41g. Algeria, Forest Law, 408. Alps, planting practice, 394. Alsace-Lorraine, statistics of forest administration, 74. planting plan, 75. Altitude influencing light require- ment, 388. Artificial vs. natural regeneration, 57. Austria, Forest school, 421, exhibits, 402. history, review 152. exotics in, 303. irrigation experiments, 299. pruning, cost, 304, silviculture, 302. statistics, 79 wood prices, 27, 303- BADEN, thinnings, results, 183, wood prices, 26 Bavaria, shelterwood system, 173. statistics, 204, 325. wood prices, 26. Beech, value accretion, 197. _ Belgium, lumber trade. 323. BENTLEY, JR., JOHN, article, I. Black Forest, shelterwood system, 17p-% Biology, Lophyrus pint, 169. range of species indicating, 305. heredity, 306. races, 307. Boarmia crepuscularia and conso- naria, notes, 169. Bohemia, forest practices, 290. Bosnia-Hercegovina, forest tions, review, 143. . Botanical Congress, rulings, 2. Borggreve method of thinning, 184. BRUNCKEN, ERNEST, articles, 116, 360. Brush forests, treatment in Bosnia, 149. condi- CALIFORNIA, forest legislation, 269 a4 3 forest planting, 40§.4 lumber shipments, 208, reasons for forest planting, 193. state forester, 332. Canada, cut in Igor, 76, fire losses, 211. forestry report, review, 376. lumber exports, 209. Carency phenomena (Moller), 57.2 Catalpa Craze, article, 358. note, 378. Cedar, Red, growth rate, 349. Champlain log rule, construction, 342. Chestnut, growth rate, 352. volume tables, 231, 232, 238, 242. Cimex on White Pine, 51. Clearing System, variations, 393. Climate, influence on growth rate, 167, 306. influence on light requirements, 2070 Coal companies, interests, 413. Connecticut, forest laws, reference, 289. forestry association, 220, Cooperage, statistics, 206. Cooperative forest management, 326. Coppice, loss of sprouting vigor, Igr. suitable standards, 180, Cornell Forest Experiment, by Dr. Jentsch, 32-38. Cotton from pine, 319. Crown classes in Sweden, 62. Cruising vs. strip survey, 96. Cull tables, 253, 356. Cultivation, influence, 402. Cup and Gutter system, review, 288. Current Literature, 39, 43, 143, 160, 275, 289, 362, 382. DAMAGE by game, evaluation, 197. Damage to forest property, assessing, 116, I19. DANIELS, A. L,., article, 339. Defects, methods of discounting, 251, 354- Dendrology, Manual of Trees of North America, review, I5I. Density, see spacing. | Dulichium spathaceum. review, 379. Dunes, fixation in France, 364. DUNLAP, F’, article, 335. Durability influenced by position, 405. of telegraph poles, 203. . Dwarf growth, recuperated, 398. Dwarf trees, 50. ae Index EcoLoGy, Flathead Valley, refer- ence, 289. Economie foresticre, Huffel, review, 49, 159 Kisenach, Festschrift, review, 287, ELLiot, S. B., article, 99. England, American trees in, 29%. forest conditions, 292. wood trade, 203. Exotics in Germany, 389. in Austria, 303. Farm and Forest crop combination, Farm forestry in Pennsylvania, 312. in Hungary, 402. management and forest planting, review, 284. FERNOw, B. E., articles and notes, 18, 105, 119, 255, 346, 361. Fertilizer, cost of, 400. applicable in forest use, 193. effects on seedlings (Moller), 57, for forest crops, 39I. recuperating dwarf growth, 398. Finance, damage assessment, 116, 142, 197. determining a rotation, 318 forest rent vs. soil rent, 65. influence of planting cost, 314. interest rates, 65, 198. practicability of management, 200. profitableness of methods, 59. profitableness of White Pine, 195. See also Prices. Fir, Red, in Germany, 297. value accretion, 196. Fires, attitude of lumbermen, review, 285. burning tops, note, 114. insurance, rates, 311. losses in spruce, 346. protection in France, 403. in Prussia, 309. Fireproofing wood, objections to, 70. Flathead Valley, forest ecology, 192. Forest Congress, American, 158, 280. Forest Economy, by Huffel, review, 49, 159: Forest Influence on ground waters, 370. on snow cover, 54. Forest Litter, fixing nitrogen, 169. influence of removal, 302. water absorbing capacity, 170. Forest protection, relation to fish and game, 211. regeneration Forest rangers in Forest Service, 412. Forest rent vs. soil rent, 65. Forest Reserves in Idaho, review, 375. Regulations and _ Instructions, review, 275. Forest schools in United States, 332, 416, 417. Forest Service established, 82. regulations in reserves, 275. Forest Survey, methods in Yellow Pine and Red Fir, 92. Forestry Literature, Jahresbericht, review, 349 286. primer of, review, 158. France, fire protection, 403. forest conditions, 362. instructive forest areas, 367. prices of oak, 196. reboisement cost and effect, 405. shelter wood system, 174. Freight rates and tariff in Germany, 78. in United States GAME, damage, 197 protection, 211. Germany, Colonial Policy, 77. exotics in, 389. forest types, forest.ownership, 72. Forstwirtshaftsrat, 333. freight rates on wood, 78. tariff arrangements, 2Io. Gipsy Moth, suppression, 51. Graded volume tables, review, 374. GRAVES, H. S., articles, 227, 245, 349. Greece, forestry movement, 90. Ground water, forest influence on, 370. Group system, 172. Growth in relation to weather, 167. Growth, rate influenced by climate, 306. Red Cedar, Red Oak, Chestnut, 349. Gum, Red, by Chittenden, reference, 289. ‘‘ HAUBERG’’ practice, 398. Hawaii, Forester’s report, review, 157. Heredity, of form, 306, Hesse, oak prices, 201. HUBBARD, Wo. F., article, gr. Hungary, Experiment Station, 402. farm forestry, 402. Robinia in, 369. fe, 4oe Sequoia gigantea, growth table, 402. Hunting in Prussia, Statistics, 76. | Hypsometer, new, 195. Index IDAHO forest reserves, review, 375. Impregnation by Riiping process, 321. works in United States, 323. Improvement Thinning, review, 282. Increment autograph, ? Increment, influenced by irrigation, 172. Increment influenced by light, 168. Insect injuries to forest products, re view, 282. Insects, gipsy moth suppression, 51. Lophyrus pint, 169. nomenclature uniform, 168. protection by traps, experiments, 404. the nut weevils, review, 283. Interest rates for different forest types, 198. variations, 65. Interglacial flora, review, 379. Irrigation experimentsin Austria, 299. Irrigation influence on increment, 172. JACK PINE regeneration, 108. Jahresbericht fiir das Jahr 1903 and 1904, reviews, 3Y 286, JenTscH, Dr., on Cornell Forest Ex periment, 32. LarcH forest near St. Petersburg, 308. Light, effect on soil and preduction, 167. influence on increment, +72 /68 Light requirements and climate, 307. in relation to altitude, 388. Litter, see Forest litter. Locust, note, 378. Log rules compared, 343. construction, 339. Log scale, discounting defects, 354. Lophyrus pint, biology, 169. Lumber cut in Lake States in 1904, 77: Lumbermen, attitude towards fires, 285. MANURE, see Fertilizer. Maple Sugar Industry, review, 281. Marchet, Holzproduktion, review, 287. Match wood, requirements, value of species, 66. Mensuration, construction of volume tables, 227, 244. cull tables, 253, 356, 357. discount for defects, 249, 254. xi Mensuration, instruments for scaling logs, 245, 246. log rules construction, 339. compared, 343. measuring Cross-Ties, 335. measuring saw logs and timber, 339- scaling logs, 245, 254. Meteorology at Eberswalde, 301. Mine Timbers supplanted by steel, 320. Minnesota Experiment, forest reserve, 99, FER Mixed forest, practice in Alps, 397. Montana, park planting at Helena, 328. Mutation, de Vries theory, review, 380. NAVAL STORES in Germany, revival, 69. New Hampshire forest conditions, review, 150. New Zealand forestry, 296. News and Notes, 82, 213, 328, 412. Nitrogen in forest litter, 169. Nomenclature of Insects, uniform, 168. | North Carolina, examination of forest tract, review, 288. Norway, ancient oak forest, 80. OAK, ancient forest in Nerway, 80. prices in France, 196. Red, growthgate. 358.9. rise of price, “29, 201. Ontario Forest Reserves, 410. Ontario. Oregon lumber industry, 207. Organization simplified, 316. PALM, Royal, note on identity, 51. Papaw for paper, 320. Paper from papaw, 320. Pennsylvania forestry movement, ge, 67 farm forestry, 312. Pentatoma baccarum and prasinum, 51. Periodical Literature, 46, 165, 290, 388. Philippines, forestry conditions, 87. forestry report, review, 279. Physiology of resin flow, 48. Pine, carency phenomena, 5%. 4 Longleaf, range, new station, 166. natural regeneration in Sweden, 294. ; Pitch, in Pennsylvania, I. xil Pine, Red, regeneration, 105, Red Rot in (Moller), 47. root development, effect of soil, | 53. cy Western Yellow, yield tabies it White, Cimex on, 51. ! decline of, 77. lumber price, 29. rate of production, 195. | reproduction, 100, 108. profitableness, 195. stumpage prices, 21. supplies, 208. wood turned into cotton, | 319. Yellow, rise of price, 29.36 Pinus rigida, growth in Penna., I. Pitch Pine, growth tables, 16. in Pike County, Penna., I. Plantations in Russian Steppe; 63. Plantings in Adirondacks, 218. Planting, cost influencing profits, 314. in California, 193. plan, sample from Alsace, 75. practice in Alps, 395. by railroads and coal companies, 413, 414. spacing, 3II. spruce with ball, 312. spruce and thinning, 185. vs. natural regeneration, 103, 109. Pure vs. mixed forest, 303. Preservation, by Ruping process, 321. | plauts ia United States, 323. Preservatives for building materials, 70. Prices, method of averaging, 24. Wood, Movement, article, 18. oak in Hesse, 201. influenced by diameter, 196. use, 29. stumpage in Bosnia, 146. in Sweden, 295. in Switzerland, 202. of wood in Austria, 303. in Prussia, 72. in Switzerland, 2}. 8 in United States, 28. Profitableness of regeneration meth- | ods, 59: | Protection against locomotive fires, | 309. | against sunscald, 64. | Pruning cost in Austria, 304. method and cost, 202. review, 378. Prussia, fire protection, 309. forest department, budget, 203. | forest types, forest ownership, 71. | | | Index Prussia, hunting statistics, 76. movement of wood prices, 25. wood prices, 72. RABBIT BUSH, source of rubber, 50. Reboisement, cost and effect in France, 364, 405. Red Cedar, growth rate, 349. Red Fir (Douglas) in Germany, 297. Red Oak, growth rate, 351. | Red Pine regeneration, 108. Red Rot in Pine, (Mdller), 47. Regeneration, methods, value of dif- ferent, 56. terminology, 57. natural systemsin Bavaria, Black Forest and France, 172,-17f.4 of Jack Pine, 108. natural vs. artificial, 57, 103, III. of Red Pine, io8. Resin flow, physiology, 48. “ Resurrection '’ cuttings, 149. Reviews: Akerman’s Improvement Thin- ning, 282. Anderlind’s Verhutung der Hoch- wasser, 42. Beauverie’s Le Bois, 287. Braniff’s Determining Timber Values, 374. Canada Forestry Report, 1904, Chittenden’s New Hampshire Conditions, 150. Chittenden’s Nut Weevils, 283. Clothier’s Farm Forestry, 284. Davey’s Tree Doctor, 378. Dengler’s Verbreitung der Kiefer, 42. Dimitz’s Verhaltnisse Bosnien’s, 143. Eckstein’s Forstschutz, 42. Forest Congress Proceedings, 280. Forest Reserve Regulations, 275. Fox and Hubbard’s Maple Sugar Industry, 281. Gershel’s Terminology, 160, 267. Green and Waid’s Trees suitable for posts, 378. Hartz’s Dulichium in interglacia moors, 379. : Hawaii Report, 157. Heck’s Durchforstung, 4o. Herty’s Cup and Gutter System, 288. Hopkins’ Insect Injuries to Forest Products, 282. Huffel’s Economie forestiére, 40, 159, 362. Index Reviews, continued, Idaho Forest Reserves, 375- Johnson’s Guide to Government Lands, 375. Kirchner’s Spezielle Oecologie,42- Marchet’s Holzproduktion und Handel, 287. McMurray’s Type Studies, 377. Oesterreich. Forstwesen Ge- schichte, 152. Oppokov’s Swamps regulating waterflow, 370. Philippine Report 1904, 279. Pinchot’s Primer, 158. Reed’s North Carolina Forest | Tract, 288. Reynard’s L,’Arbre, 38. Riebel’s Waldwertrechnung, 4I. Sargent’s Manual of Trees, I51. Schenck’s Lectures on Silvicult- | ure, 372. Sterling’s Forest Fires and Lum- bermen, 285. Tolsky and Henry’s Eaux souter- raines, 369. deVries’ Species by mutation, 380. Wimmenauer’s Jahresbericht, 38, 286. Woodruff’s Forest Laws, 159. Roads, economy of, 55. profitableness in Wurtemberg, | 304. Robinia pseudacaciain Hungary, 390, 402. insect enemies, 414. Root development of pine, effect of soil, 53. Root growth, studies in Switzerland, 46. Rot, Red in Pine, 47. Rotation, methods of determining, 318. Roystonea floridana, identity, 51. Rubber, derived from rabbit bush, 50. | Riiping process of impregnation, 321. Russia, plantationsdn Steppe, 63. statistics, 325. wood supplies, 28. SAFETY strips in Prussia, 310. Saw, crosscut by compressed air, 331. Saw mill on wheels, 79. Saxony, budget, 325. wood prices, 27. Scaling logs, met! ods, 245, 254. Schiller, relations to forestry, 328. Schools, forest, notes, 332, 416, 417. Seaside, plant succession, 391. . Seedlings, effects of fertilizers, 5N% Xili Seeds, prices, 90. vitality, 390. Selection forest undesirable, 397. yield table, 147. Sequoia, Fossil, new species, 50. Sequoia gigantea, growth in Hun- gary, 402. Servia Forest Conditions, 407. ‘‘ Shade-coefficient,’? new term, 168. Shade. leaves, transpiration, 49. Shelterwood system in groups, i172 Silviculture, notes from Austria, 302. Biltmore lectures, review, 372. biological basis, 305. in Bohemia, 290. coppice with standards, 180. methods described, 172. biology relation, new attitude, 60 open questions, 192. open stand management, 303. pure vs. mixed forest, 303, 304. Sizes of small trees, 390. Snow cover in field and forest, 54. | Soil, effect of light, 167. Soil rent vs. forest rent, 65. Sowing, broadcast, results, 412. Spacing in Alpine regions, 396. in relation to spreading habit, 181, 31I- Species by mutation, review, 380. Spreading habit of species, 182. | Spruce, Douglas, in Germany, 297. planting and thinning, 135. rate of growth, 346. seeding, 415. Stande«rds, suitable in coppice, 18o. Statistics, Alsace-Lorraine adminis- tration, 74. Austria, 76. Bavaria, 204, 32%. Le Belgium, imports and exports of wood, 323. Canada, cut in Igor, 76. export in 1903, 209. fire losses in 1903, 211. cooperage, 203. & Prussia, hunting, 76. Russia, 325. Saxony, 325. | Stem analysis, improved method, 219. Stem classes by Heck, 41. | STERLING, E, A., article, 269. Strip survey vs. cruising, 96. Stumpage prices, 21, 146, 202, 295. 'Sun-leaves, transpiration, 49. Sunscald, protection against, 64. Swamps regulating water flow, 370. Xiv Sweden, export regulations, 69. forest conditions, 292, 296 forest experiment station, 67.2 Switzerland, education, 205. studies of root growth, 46. shelter wood system, 174. stumpage prices, 202. White Pine in, 195. wood prices, 27. # TANBARK, oak, industry declining, Tariff revision in Germany, 78. Taxation, principle of, 209. Taxodiumimbricarium, new species, 166. Terminology, by Gers el, review, 160. article by B. E. Fernow, 255, 268. Notes on, 360. of regeneration methods, 56. Tharand Forest Academy, history, 410. Thinning, degrees in Sweden, 63. effect of early, on spruce, 185. Freie Durchforstung by Heck, review, 40. results in Baden, 183. Wagener method, 188. in Zurich City forest, 400. TIEMANN, H. D., article, 356. Timbers of commerce and their identification, review, 51. Timber values, by Braniff, reference, 289. Timbering in mines supplanted by steel, 320. Torrents, cost of fixing in France, 405. Torreya, physiology of reproduction, 6 164. Trametes pint (Moller), 47. Transpiration in relation to water supply, 167. by sun- and shade-leaves, 49. Turpentining, cup and gutter system, review, 288. Type Studies, review, 377. UNDERPLANTING, experience in Sweden, 294. United States, California, lumber shipments, 208. forestry methods compared with German, 8o. forest schools, 332, 416, az Index Forest Service established, 82. movement of lumber prices, 28. Oregon lumber industry, 207. Puget Sound exports, 207. Vermont forest laws, 289. VALUATION of forest damage, 135. Valuation, Waldwertrechnung by Riebel, review, 41. Value accretion, exemplified in fir and beech, 196. of timber by grades, review, 374. Vermont, forest laws, reference, 289. Volume, simple determination, 313. tables,, Chestnut, 231, 232, 238, 242. graded, review, 374. method of construction, 227, 244. WAGENER method of thinning, 188. Water flow influence of forest and swamp, 370. Water supply, relation to transpira- tion, 167. West Virginia Spruce, rate of growth, 346. White Pine, see Pine. Wind mantle, species for, 191. Wood Commerce, Marchet, review, 287. Le bois, review, 287. Movement of Prices, 18-31. prices in Prussia, 72. quality influenced by density, 187. Red Fir vs. Blue Gum, 2I0. strength of mine timbers, 321. Woodlot in Pennsylvania, 312. and farm management, review, 284. Woody plants of Ohio, Key, 391. Working plans methods, adaptation, 91, 9% : Wurtemberg, wood prices, 26, YIELD TABLES, selection forest, 147. Western Yellow Pine, 97. XYLOMETER for Cross-Ties, 335. precision, ZURICH City forest, practice in thin- ning, 400. E : PITCH PINS IN THE OPEN q FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vor. III.] FEBRUARY, 1905. [No. 1. PITCH PINE IN PIKE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. Among our native pines in the northeast, perhaps none has been less studied than the common Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida Mill.), which is so familiar to all who are acquainted with the forests of our eastern States, from Maine to Georgia. The reason for this neglect is evident; the Pitch Pine has never been thought of as possessing any great economic value, and lumber- men of the east have been concerned chiefly with the White Pine (in earlier days) and, in these later times, with the Yellow Pine and the Longleaf Pine. But with the growing scarcity of more valuable timber, the Pitch Pine may yet assume an important position in the list of timber trees, in the east; already, it is locally used for bridge-timbers, piles, beams, and other construction timbers, and for the manufacture of excelsior; it has even been used for paper pulp of an inferior grade, and during the last sum- mer was bringing $14 per thousand in Milford, Pike County, Pennsylvania, where it grows in great abundance, and is relatively cheap. Furthermore, with the advance of forestry and its prob- lems it has become evident that a species may have a value other than a purely economic one; it may, on account of its peculiar silvicultural characteristics, be of great service to the forester in assisting him to produce a good crop of some more valuable species. It may have some obscure but important function to perform which contributes materially to the welfare of the forest as a whole. With a view to obtaining more reliable figures and data con- cerning the life history and growth of the Pitch Pine, it was made the subject of a careful study by Professor H. S. Graves, Director of the Yale Forest School, assisted by members of the Junior I 2 Forestry Quarterly. Class. The work was conducted during the summer of 1904, in Pike County, Pa., near Milford, and the results of the study are herewith presented to the readers of the Forestry Quar- TERLY. A brief description of the physiographic features of the region under consideration will not be out of place, and may assist in the correct understanding of the problem. Pike County occupies the northeastern part of the State of Pennsylvania, and is bounded on the northeast and southeast by the Delaware River, and on the west by Wayne and Monroe counties. In general, the region may be described as a plateau 1,000 to 1,400 feet above the sea, which has been dissected by the streams into numerous ridges, benches, and valleys, the lat- ter frequently becoming steep-sided enough to be termed ra- vines. The streams of the county, which are abundant, though not of great size, all empty into the Delaware River, and afford waterpower for many sawmills.. The county, as a whole, is pre- eminently adapted, both as to soil and climate, for forest growth, and with the exception of a few fertile valleys into which the agri- culturalist has had the courage to penetrate, and those tracts (un- fortunately large) where forest fires have raged, the territory is covered with a thrifty forest of mixed hardwoods and pines, which reaches its finest development in the ravines, where rich soil, plenty of moisture, and protection from high winds all unite to make ideal conditions for forest growth. The soil of the higher ridges is of a much inierior grade; consequently, in those situa- tions there is a poorer forest, both as to development and as to the species composing it. But in general, soil, rainfall and climate all conspire to make Pike County a natural home for for- ests, as is evinced by the large number of native species there, and the luxuriance with which they grow. We are now ready to consider the Pitch Pine in detail, and shall notice, in order, the following points: . Local Distribution. . Form and Development. . Silvicultural Characteristics. . Reproduction. . Growth in Volume, Diameter, etc., as shown by Tables. wf WD & Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 3 I. Loca, DISTRIBUTION. Among the silvicultural characteristics of the Pitch Pine, two stand forth prominently as determining, in a large measure, its limits of local distribution. These two characteristics are: (1) its extreme intolerance of shade, and (2) its ability to withstand adverse conditions, such as poor soil, exposure to wind, fire, etc. As a result of the first of these two qualities, the Pitch Pine is forced to retire from the more favorable situations, and put up with the poorer ones, not because of its inability to grow on good soil, but because the hardwoods, being more tolerant, crowd it out; and Pitch Pine of any size or value is extremely rare in the forests of the lower slopes and ravines, where the conditions are the best. As a result of the second of the two qualities men- tioned, the Pitch Pine is able to grow and thrive where many another tree would find the conditions of life too severe. Con- sequently, as we ascend the slopes, and the fertility of the soil decreases, the Pitch Pine becomes more abundant because the hardwoods with which it has to contend find a less congenial sit- uation, and cannot grow so luxuriantly. On some of the lower slopes and benches we find the Pitch Pine in its best develop- ment, because the conditions are so balanced that both the Pine and the hardwoods can exist in mixture, and the latter tend to force the Pitch Pine to grow straight and tall. (This point will be more fully discussed in the next section). It is on the tops of the ridges, however, that the Pitch Pines occur in greatest numbers. Here the rocky glacial soil and the exposure to wind and fire, make life too hard for almost every- thing but the Pitch Pine, Scrub Oak, Sweet-fern, and Huckle- berry bushes. The pines which grow here are quite apt to be of small size and much misshapen, but nevertheless they per- sist, are extremely prolific, and scatter the seeds for other generations which may find better conditions. In a word, the Pitch Pine is a “left-over” tree; wherever the conditions of life are too severe for other trees, there it manages to exist and reproduce its kind. 2. ForM AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PitcH PINE. This question may best be considered by observing the trees of all ages, from seedlings to veterans, in relation to their sur- 4 Forestry Quarterly. roundings: hence I shall discuss, in succession, typical trees growing in the open, in pure stands, and in mixtures. (a) Pitch Pine Growing in the Open. As the tree requires plenty of light for its best development, we find good specimens for study growing in the open. Aban- doned fields form a splendid place for the seedlings to grow in, and many of the old pastures about Milford are dotted with the young trees, which are generally vigorous, thrifty and straight, unless trodden upon or otherwise injured when in the seedling stage. The crown is full and bushy, and soon assumes a broadly conical shape, the top often becoming somewhat flattened as the lateral branches develop strongly. The growth in height proceeds but slowly; observations upon a great number of seed- lings from 1 to 10 years old showed the average increase in height to be only 6 inches per year. This is due to the vigor with which the lateral branches grow; indeed, one of the lateral branches may become even stronger than the leader, and over- top it, thus giving rise to a crooked bole and causing the tree to look very irregular. As the tree advances in age the same gen- eral shape is maintained, but the lower limbs are quite likely to die because they are deprived of sufficient light; and these dead branches, remaining attached to the bole, give the tree an untidy appearance. ‘The percentage of clear bole in trees growing in the open is scarcely worth mentioning. Mature trees in the open are almost invariably irregular, and rarely exceed 50 feet in height. The bole is seldom straight, and never clean, and has a rapid taper; the crown is fullest at the top, where the stem branches profusely, but becomes thinner as we descend until, near the ground, there remains only a few straggling branches. The limbs which leave the trunk about half way up are frequently large, awkward, and cumbersome, so that they droop at the tips, while little patches of foliage spring- ing from adventitious buds on the trunk and branches add still another touch of irregularity; altogether, the impression left upon the mind is that of a tree which is far from neat or con- ventional, but often quite picturesque. Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 5 (b) Pitch Pine in Pure Stands. Pure stands of Pitch Pine are comparatively rare; a few such stands were studied during the summer, and in all but one instance the trees composing them were young and of about the same age. The first of these, covering perhaps an acre, consisted of trees about 18 years old, and ranging in height from 10 to 16 feet. All of these trees had been seeded from one old tree situated in the center of the stand. The young trees stood very close to- gether; a sample square rod at a distance of 12 yards from the parent tree showed 27 young trees, of which 11 were dominant. As a result of this crowding, the crowns were thin and spare, narrowly cylindrical in shape, and occupied only the upper quar- ter of the stem; the crowding also caused a more rapid growth in height than is usually the case with trees in the open, and the stems were in general straight, with only a moderate taper, but covered with a mass of dead and dying twigs and branches. The dominant trees were naturally the most vigorous of the lot, and there were trees in all the intermediate stages from dominance to suppression. It was interesting to note how many trees were thriving, notwithstanding the fact that they were growing so close together; it would have been impossible for them to grow so crowded, had they been surrounded by hardwoods instead of growing pure.. But the foliage of the Pitch Pine growing pure is not so heavy but that plenty of light filters through to the ground, a fact which accounts for the density of the stand, and attested by the presence of several seedlings of Gray Birch and Red Maple in the thickest part of the stand. The second pure stand observed was a little larger (2 acres or more) and the trees averaged a little older (25 to 28 years) ; but the height was noticeably smaller for the age, being only from 14 to 16 feet. This was undoubtedly due to the fact that the soil was extremely poor. As before, the thin, scraggly crown occupied only the upper fourth of the moderately straight, but poorly pruned stem. The light conditions were about the same as in the previous case, but the whole stand presented a more un- healthy and untidy appearance, due, as stated above, to the poor quality of the soil. A third pure stand, consisting of older trees and occupying an 6 Forestry Quarterly. area of from fifteen to twenty acres, was observed by Prof. H. S. Graves and Mr. W. O. Filley, and to them I am indebted for the use of the figures which follow. The stand was located in New Jersey, about one mile south of Port Jervis, and a short distance east of the Delaware River, upon a loose, moderately fine, fresh, sandy soil, covered to the depth of an inch with a litter of pine needles and leaves from the hardwood undergrowth. The half-inch of humus present was not very well decomposed, but was thoroughly mixed with the soil. The stand, which had undoubtedly sprung up in an old field, was practically even-aged (about fifty years), and was for the most part fully stocked, that is, it had a density of 1.0. The dominant trees were apparently perfectly sound, and many of them were bearing cones; but all the trees of the stand were very poorly pruned. In some places, an undergrowth consisting of young Chestnut, White Oak, Black Oak, Soft Maple, and Gray Birch, formed a “second story” twelve to fifteen feet in height, while in other places a sparse growth of tolerant herbs and shrubs occupied the ground. Occasional seedlings of White Pine and hardwoods were also noted. A sample plot of one-sixteenth acre was laid out, and the following figures obtained. Pure STAND oF PitcH Pine In NEw Jersey, NEAR Port Jervis, NEw York. Diameter =—————Number of trees on 7% acre——— breasthigh Dominant Crowded Oppressed Suppressed inches 3 , G : I 4 : ‘ : 5 5 : 5 6 2 6 é 3 ; I 7 5 4 . . 8 8 é 9 3 10 I II 5 12 I : : F Total 18 12 6 9 Average diameter 82” 5.9” 5.0” Beas Average age, 50(?)years. Density, 1.0. Height: average, 44 feet; maximum, 52 feet. Crown length: average, 15 feet; maximum, 21 feet. Crown width: average, 12 feet; maximum, 15 feet. Diameter growth: average, I inch in 10 years; maximum, I inch in 6 years. Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. NI (c) Pitch Pine m Mixed Stands. The trees with which Pitch Pine is oitenest associated are the Oaks, Chestnut and White Pine; and this mixture occurs quite frequently on the gentle slopes and the numerous benches of the region. Wherever this mixture is found the woods are either rather open at present, or have recently been so; or else the Pitch “Pines are the dominant trees. In other words, Pitch Pine is so intolerant that I do not believe that any seedlings which might chance to start life in an even-aged mixed stand would ever reach maturity unless something occurred to open up the woods enough to permit the entrance of plenty of sunlight. In those mixtures where the Pitch Pine is the dominant tree, I believe that it is because it is older than the other trees of the mixture. This could happen in either of three ways: (1) the Pitch Pine with- stood a fire which killed the other species; (2) the other species were cut down or severely thinned, allowing the pines to remain; (3) the Pitch Pine occupied an abandoned field first as a pure stand, the hardwoods coming in later. So intolerant is Pitch Pine, that I believe it impossible for the tree to hold a dominant position among hardwoods unless it has had some advantage in early life. More than likely, it is the remnant of some former growth, and does not belong to the same generation as do the trees that at present surround it. Pitch Pine, to persist in mix- tures, must get the start, be a dominant tree when young, and al- ways remain a dominant tree, for as soon as its neighbors over- top it it weakens and dies. Much evidence is at hand to testify to the truth of the statement regarding it ability to resist fires. In many cases, Pitch Pines persist with scorched and blackened boles, while all around them the charred remains of hardwood stumps are putting forth new shoots; thus showing, beyond question, what has been the history of the stand. Having shown that it is possible for a tree so intolerant as the Pitch Pine to exist as the dominant species in a mixed stand, let us turn to the consideration of its typical form and develop- ment under such conditions. Measurements of more than sixty typical trees of this class were taken, and showed the fol- lowing average results: 8 Forestry Quarterly. The trees grow to be from sixty to seventy feet in height (ex- ceptional trees measured 80 feet), with a slow-tapering bole suf- ficiently straight to yield two or three good sawlogs, ten inches or more in diameter inside the bark. The percentage of clear bole ranges from fifteen to thirty-five, twenty per cent. being an average figure. Most of the trees possess a slight excentricity of bole (1 to 1$ inches), which seems to increase with the steep- ness of the slope on which the trees grow. ‘The crown occupies about one-third of the total height of the tree, and varies in width from twelve to twenty feet. It is almost invariably one- sided, the result of wind or of crowding, and branches profusely towards the top, where it is fullest. It rapidly thins out to- ward the bottom, where it is succeeded by a number of dead branches adhering to the tree, greatly reducing the amount of clear lumber. The shape of the crown in all instances seems to be the direct result of the light relations as they may be affected by the surrounding trees. If the pine has plenty of room, its crown will be full and thrifty; if it is crowded by the hardwoods, the crown will show the effect, and become irregular. It is this type of Pitch Pine—dominant among hardwoods— that is of the greatest economic value. The hardwoods have stimulated its height growth enough to make the bole grow fairly straight, and to maintain its fullness well up into the crown. Many a square mile of Pike County is covered with a growth of Pitch Pine which has withstood all adverse factors, and which is dominant among the hardwood sprouts which belong to a later generation. As an illustration of this type of forest growth, I submit an enumeration of the Pitch Pine on five sample acres, chosen from a number made in the vicinity of Milford. Together with the forest description which follows, these figures may serve to give the reader some idea of the conditions under which Pitch Pine most frequently grows. In this enumeration, only dominant trees are included; that is, trees which are, or will be, merchantable; all suppressed and dying trees are excluded from the count. Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 9 Pitcu Pine In MIxtTuRE witH HaArpDwoop. MILFORD, PIKE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. Diameter ——Number of dominant trees per acre——— breasthigh Acre I Acre 2 Acre 3 Acre 4 Acre § Inches 6 7! 8 35 24 5 - 7 2 9 23 9 2 8 I 5 10 4 2 9 3 5 5 4 3 10 2 2 I 4 3 II 2 a é 2 3 12 I I I 2 3 13 2 : 2 I 3 14 3 I ; I I 15 3 I I I : 16 2 3 : I 17 : I 2 1 s 18 : I 19 ; : ; I 3 20 ; E : : I Total 28-_ 36 81 54 27 Average diameter 10.35” 8.53” 7.54” 8.13” 10.18” These five sample acres were situated on a ridge which ran north and south, with gentle slopes toward the east and west. The absolute altitude was somewhat over one thousand feet, the relative altitude about two hundred. (Above the Sawkill). The soil was an extremely stony sandy loam, of little depth and covered by a good litter of leaves. The humus was from $ to I inch in thickness, and rapidly disintegrading. A dense under- growth of Scrub Oak and Huckleberries make it impossible for the Pitch Pine to reproduce itself, but there were numerous seed- lings of White Pine, and many hardwood sprouts. The trees in the mixture were Pitch Pine, Chestnut, Black, Red, and Scarlet oaks, and some scattered young hickories. Silviculturally, the place looked almost hopeless, as is the case with miles of Pike County, where the fires have left desolation in their track. The Pines were the only merchantable trees on the tract. 3. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS. As mentioned in preeeding paragraphs, the most striking char- acteristics of Pitch Pine are its intolerance and its ability to withstand adverse conditions. It seems to be most intolerant in 10 lorestry Quarterly. youth, for in many cases, where older trees occur in mix- tures, there may be seen beautiful reproduction of White Pine and hardwoods, but not a single seedling of Pitch Pine, notwith- standing the fact that old trees bearing cones are in the imme- diate neighborhood. This would seem to indicate that unless an abundance of light is present, it is impossible for Pitch Pine seeds to germinate. A series of observations were made on trees varying in age from twelve to twenty-five years, and it was found that when growing singly, the minimum amount of growing space with which a Pitch Pine must be supplied in order to develop into a thrifty tree was a circle whose radius was from eight to ten feet. In proportion to their height, seedlings require even more growing space, and it seems safe to say that they will not thrive unless there is suffi- cient light for the growth of grass. When growing in groups, however, which they frequently do, the individual trees get along with less space, and are mutually protective. It is a common sight to see a group of young Pitch Pines entirely surrounded by hardwoods, which gradually encroach upon the group, suppress- ing the outermost Pines at first, and at length reducing the num- ber. The trees in the center usually survive, if they can attain a height which will enable them to get light from above. The Pitch Pine will grow on almost any kind of soil, but pre- fers a sandy, loamy, or even a stony soil to the heavy clay soils. It can get along on comparatively small amounts of moisture, hence we find it growing on the most exposed ridges where the soil is often very dry and stony. One of the most valuable characteristics of the tree is its abil- ity to resist the attacks of fire; to this fact it owes its very exis- tence to-day in many parts of Pike County, where there have been extensive forest fires which have destroyed almost every- thing excepting Pitch Pine. The reason why it can still live while other trees perish, is because of its heavy bark, which in mature trees is often as much as one and one-half inches thick. Even if the bark be burned through, the tree seems to be able to resist the attacks of fungi and insects, and if badly burned, will develop sprouts from the dormant buds in the root-collar. Pitch Pine is useful silviculturally because it acts as a nurse to more valuable species, especially White Pine. The shade cast Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. Li by Pitch Pine is never dense, and as the tree requires consider- able growing space, we often find light conditions similar to those aimed at by the forester when he makes reproduction thinnings. Some of the finest reproduction of White Pine in all Pike County occurs in the woods where Pitch Pines are common in the mixture. For instance, one of the types of forest most frequently ‘met with is the ‘“Oak-Chestnut-Pine” type, consisting oi hard- wood sprouts 30 to 40 years old, with old Pitch Pines scattered through as the dominant trees, while Scrub Oak, Sweet-fern, and Huckleberry bushes cover the forest floor. Here and there are little groups of mature White Pines which have escaped the axe and fire, and these scatter their seed to good purpose, for in many of the more favorable spots great numbers of White Pine seedlings may be discovered. Further study will doubtless re- veal the fact that Pitch Pine is a valuable silvicultural agent, and one with which the forester could ill afford to part. 4. REPRODUCTION OF THE PITCH PINE. We have observed that Pitch Pine is quite likely to be crowded out of the more favorable positions, and forced to endure many hardships during its existence. One would naturally think that in order that the species may be perpetuated vast quantities of seed must be produced to offset the great losses which must inevitably result from the vicissitudes of life. Such we find to be the case. Cones have been discovered on little Pitch Pines only eight years old, showing how early in life the tree makes an effort to continue the species. But in almost every case, the cones from such very young trees were observed to be sterile. Trees from twenty to thirty years of age seem to be capable of producing some fertile seeds, but do so at the partial expense of their vitality. A great many of the cone-bearing trees of about this age were observed to have thin, spare crowns, although en- joying a reasonable amount of light. It is only when a tree has a superabundance of energy—more than enough to carry on the process of assimilation and growth—that it produces an abundance of fertile seeds and at the same time maintains its health and vigor. Hence we look to the middle-aged and ma- ture trees, situated either in the open or in thin woods, for an example of the typical seed-tree. I2 Forestry Quarterly. The seed-tree in the open has a full bole with a fairly rapid ta- per, and a widely spreading, well developed crown, which usually occupies somewhat more than half the total height of the tree, and is rather orbicular than conical in shape. One excellent tree observed had a breasthigh diameter of twenty inches and a height of 53 feet. Seed-trees in mixed stands present nearly the maxi- mum height growth of the species; the best ones have well de- veloped but flattened crowns, which occupy erie se one-third of the total height of the tree. The power of bearing seed continues into old age, for the greatest amount of reproduction can be traced to the old trees, even making allowances for the superior advantages of dissemi- nation which they enjoy by reason of their height. An old tree in the open, with its greater crown, has more room for produc- ing cones, and bears more seeds than does the smaller-crowned tree of the mixed stands. Opinions as to the frequency of seed years differ. From ob- servations of cones on the trees, it would appear that seed-years occur at intervals of from three to five years. But when the seed- lings about a parent tree are observed it is found that they can be grouped roughly into age-classes, and the results of this method indicate that seed-years are not of such frequent occurrence. This last method is of doubtful accuracy, however. The cones of Pitch Pine are very persistent, for which reason the seeds frequently ripen and fall from the cone while it is still upon the tree. The number of cones falling to the ground be- fore opening is inconsiderable. When the cones are dry, the scales open, and the seeds, being winged, are easily scattered by a warm, dry wind. In moist weather, the scales swell, and the cones are tightly closed. As to the distribution of the seed, wind seems to be in most cases the important agent. The seeds do not form an article of diet for birds, hence they cannot be made responsible for the distribution. The light winged seeds may be blown by the winds a considerable distance, especially if there is a crust of snow or ice upon the ground; shifting their position from day to day they may at length come to rest and germinate a long dis- tance from the parent tree. Areas of Pitch Pine reproduction have been seen where the seeds had been blown to-a distance Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 13 of 110 yards, and scattered seedlings have been found on open tracts, which indicate that under favorable circumstances the seeds may be carried to a much greater distance. It is evident that seeds will be scattered farther upon open ground than where other trees interfere. Seed-trees at the edge of a wood border- ing some old pasture are in a favorable position to scatter their seeds over a wide area. Whatever else the young Pitch Pine seedling has or does not have, there is one thing that is absolutely indispensable to its existence, and that is light. It must have light, and have it abundantly, if it is ever to arrive at maturity. Even in woods of small density, there is very little reproduction of the Pine, and what there is, is usually dwarfed or creeping. It is unnecessary to say that heat is required in proper amounts for germination and subsequent development, but comparatively little moisture is needed. Old fields and abandoned pastures seem to form a very favorable seed-bed for Pitch Pine in the open, while in the woods open spots where grass is beginning to creep in or where the leaf litter is not deep, form good places for the introduction of the seed. A single tree in the open has been observed to scatter its seed to a distance of over 100 yards, while trees at the edge of a piece of woods are responsible for seedlings nearly 200 yards away. Old roadways and open places in the woods are quite likely to present their share of young Pitch Pines, and many ex- amples of this are to be found in the woods about Milford. As to the density of seeding, the following illustration may be pre- sented,— An even-aged pure stand of seedlings, all of which came from the seed of a single tree in the open, showed a density which decreased from the tree outward; but that part of the stand which displayed the best developed trees was in the form of a ring of several yards width, and about twelve yards distant from the old tree. Plots of one square rod each were selected, at different distances from the seed-tree, and showed the following results from the figures of Mr. S. L. Moore: Distance Average from Number Number of Average Average diameter Plot seed-tree of dominant age height breasthigh No. Feet trees ° trees Years Feet Inches I 8 70 19 17 15 175 2 35 27 II 17 18 2.50 3 150 18 6 20 20 2.50 14 Forest Quarterly. The figures show that the close to the parent tree a proportion- ately small number of dominant trees are found, and that they do not develop as well, for the average diameter of the trees in Plot 1 is smaller by 25 per cent. than the diameter of the trees in Plot 2. The height growth of trees in Plots 2 and 3 is also better than in Plot 1. The percentage of first class dominant trees resulting from natural seeding, averaged from the above figures, is 34 per cent. Pitch Pine is one of the few conifers that will send up sprouts from an old stump. Sprouting takes place from dominant buds in the bark, especially in the region of the “root-collar,’ and occurs most frequently after a change in the environment or life of the tree has happened, as after fire, cutting, thinning, or mechanical injury; stumps cut off, or burned to the ground, will send up abundant sprouts, and trees suddenly exposed to in- creased light by thinning will sprout from the bole in order to supply more foliage. In one case noticed, a tree which had been injured sent up from the stump sixty-four sprouts. Another young tree, cut close to the ground, began to develop most of its dominant buds within ten days. But the sprouts very seldom attain any merchantable size, and their chief function is to enable the tree to survive injury and to withstand adverse conditions. 5. TABLES OF VOLUME AND GROWTH. The following tables are based upon figures averaged from stem analyses of sixty-seven Pitch Pines cut during the summer of 1904 near Milford, Pa. Most of these trees were dominant among the hardwoods, and ranged in age from 49 to 185 years; they were situated partly on a gentle eastward slope, and partly on a nearly level bench. The soil was a fresh sandy loam of good depth, and the humus well disintegrated and mixed with the soil. Most of the hardwoods among which these Pines grew were not above 40 or 50 years old, and were sprouts from old stumps, so that the Pitch Pine had enjoyed the advantages of a dominant position for some years. At the time of cutting some of the younger Pines were being crowded by the hardwoods, how- ever, and the crowns already showed the effects. The under- growth consisted of Scrub Oak, Huckleberry bushes, etc., with occasional seedlings of White Pine. f Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 15 In all cases where cordwood is mentioned in the following tables, it includes timber down to three inches in diameter in- side the bark. No logs were cut which measured less than six inches in diameter inside of the bark at the small end. Where board feet are given, Scribner’s Rule has been used. Diameter breasthigh is always taken outside the bark. - (1 will take this opportunity to say that with these tables it was hoped that some definite figures could be given out with regard to the number of trees to the acre which, at different ages, would constitute a fully stocked stand, but owing to the in- completeness of the figures, this cannot at present be done. The method pursued was this: the crown of each tree cut was accur- ately measured, and compared with the height of the tree and its general development, etc. By computing the amount of growing space required by each tree, the number per acre could be found. But the results showed such wide differences that it was decided to wait until more figures, based upon trees which had been growing under known conditions, could be collected. With proper data to work from this method ought to afford some interesting and valuable result. ) Joun BENTLEY, JR 16 Forestry Quarterly. TABLE I—VOLUME OF PITCH PINE. FUELWOOD Diameter breasthigh 45'-54/ 55/-64/ Trees trees trees of all heights Inches Oubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet 9 9.6 sans 9.6 Io 1I.9 15.7 12.3 II 14.6 17.8 15.5 I2 18.0 20.5 19.2 13 22.1 23.9 23.4 14 27.0 28.1 28.3 T5 33-4 34-0 16 39.8 40.1 17 47.8 47-3 TABLE I]1—VOLUME OF PITCH PINE. Diameter LUMBER AND FUELWOOD breast- high One-log trees Two-log trees Three-log trees Inches | Bad. ft. Cords. Bad. ft. Cords Ba. ft. Cords 9 99 0.045 28 0.023 ert =a 10 22 +059 33 -028 43 0.017 II 27 .075 41 .033 52 021 12 aa .095 51 .039 63 .026 13 41 .120 64 .047 76 .031 14 52 Bae 79 -057 93 .038 15 5S Tes 97 .069 114 .046 16 ae AOC ayy Ben I4I .056 17 Bie meat eibte LAGE 177 .070 TABLE III—BARK AND SAPWOOD IN PITCH PINE. Diameter breasthigh Percentage of the total | Percentage of the wood volume that is bark volume that is sapwood Inches Per eent. Per cent. 9 25.6 84.8 Io 24.9 83.4 IT 24.2 82.0 12 2207 80.3 13 23.2 78.4 14 22.6 76.5 15 22.0 74.5 16 21.5 72-5 17 : 21.0 70.5 al Pitch Pine in Pike County, Pennsylvania. 17 TABLE IV.—RATE OF GROWTH IN DIAMETER OF PITCH PINE. DIAMETERS INSIDE THE BARK yl Diameter J |\breasthigh| 1’ 13 aye 1/ 4i’ 51/ high high high high high high Years Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches fe) DE 2.1 aoe An sa jas Wee 20 4.6 4.0 0.6 Ap one aac Shee 30 6.4 5.8 Qi, 0.8 site nie : 40 8.0 7.4 4.6 ZT) 0.2 a Sar 50 9.4 8.8 6.2 4-3 2.0 es Se 60 10.5 9.9 7.4 5.6 3.6 0.7 Bee 70 11.2 10.6 8.4 6.7 4.9 2.5 cee 80 11.6 II.o 9.1 7a) 6.0 ar 0.6 90 11,9 3 9.6 8.3 6.8 4.8 2.0 100 12.1 11.5 10.0 9.2 7-4 5. 302 TABLE V.—RATE OF GROWTH IN VOLUME OF PITCH PINE. FUELWOOD | LUMBER Age O ne-log ‘Two-log Three-log Whole trees trees trees trees Years Cu. ft.. | ‘Cords Bad. ft. he fi Bad. ft. 40 6.5 0.073 Hgete aap 50 10.6 -1I9 20.0 29.7 Bet ~60 13.4 161 24.3 36.9 47.2 7O 16.3 .182 28.0 42.9 53.8 tele) iG PG, -198 30.5 47.1 58.4 go 18.8 -210 32.3 50.3 61.9 100 19.6 219 33.8 52.6 64.4 THE MOVEMENT OF WOOD PRICES AND ITS INFLU- ENCE ON FOREST TREATMENT.* A PRELIMINARY STUDY. One of the best known and most widely quoted of English statisticans, Mulhall, in his History of Prices (1885), after giving what he considers pertinent statistics, states the following con- clusions: “The supply of timber being practically inexhaustible, there has been a fall of 36% in price (during the period from 1850 to 1851), notwithstanding the rapid increase in consumption.” And again: “The area annually felled by woodcutters is only 19,000,000 acres and may be increased to 40,000,000 before reach- ing the annual average increase of forest trees.”...... “There is, therefore, no ground for the alarm that our posterity in the next century may have to pay famine prices for timbers; on the con- trary, we may look for a continued fall in prices as facilities in- crease for conveying timber cheaply to the seaports of the world.” If we believe Mulhall’s statistics and deductions, the efforts to induce private forest owners as well as governments to en- gage in forestry—i. e., to treat forest properties with care for the future instead of exploiting them roughly—would be futile, at least with regard to private owners, for their proper policy would certainly be to go on exploiting for the best present ad- vantage since a constant decline in wood prices would surely make the holding of forest properties for the future unprofitable, let alone spending money on their care. For, whatever incentive governments may have for entering the forestry business, private owners can be expected only to consider the financial gain; and, if the price of forest products is bound to decline continually under methods of exploitation—1. e., more harvesting of Nature’s bounty, it is not likely that forest production, which involves expenditure, either direct or indirect, to secure a new crop— a financial sacrifice for a benefit in the future—will prove at- tractive. Fortunately for the advocates of forestry methods the in- *Read before Section 1 of the Anierican Association for the Advance- ment of Science, Dec., 1904. a The Movement of Wood Prices. 19 sufficiency of the data as well as the impropriety of the deduc- tions by the English statistician can be readily proved. In- deed, anyone familiar with the subject, studying Mr. Mulhall’s statements, will realize at once the slipshod and mistaken use of irrelevant data which characterize the work of the authority quoted. Especially the conclusions as to the supplies for the future lack a proper basis, but the determination of the move- ment of prices is no less unsatisfactory. We need not analyze the method by which the data have been combined, the price-level method, regarding the value of which opinions differ, but can content ourselves with the proof that the data themselves are useless and irrelevant to the discus- sion for which they have been used. In passing we may, however, state that nearly all other authorities discussing price changes during the same period show for all commodities combined, increase rather than decrease in prices. The prices which Mulhall uséd are deducted from the Govern- ment Trade and Navigation tables which give the quantities and values of the annual imports into Great Britain of lumber and other wood materials. Apparently no better data could be thought of for getting a true expression of the world’s valuation of timber supplies, since Great Britain imports practically all her wood consumption and draws from all parts of the world to an amount which now exceeds $125,000,000 annually. But, unfor- tunately, there is serious doubt whether these figures represent what they pretend to represent, namely, real value, for as Pal- grave (Dictionary of Political Economy) points out, the values up to the year 1854 were founded on a valuation settled in 1694 (!) so that at the end of the period it was found that the real values exceeded the official ones by 223%. Nor is there more confidence to be placed in the valuations since that time, for they now are merely declarations by the importers and, according to Palgrave, are “only estimates of what they ought to be worth,” with a tendency to adopt some average price for whole periods. Confirmation of this lack of reality in the figures comes from the discovery that not only prices remain remarkably uniform, neither rising nor falling as Mulhall predicts, but that for 25 years, at least, the prices at which hewn timber is listed are practically the same which are applied for manufactured lumber. 20 Forestry Quarterly. Only since 1899 does a change in this method seem to have taken place, for since that time the difference between the two classes becomes considerably greater and the prices are rising. Under these circumstances the figures which lead Mulhall to such sweeping, but to our mind erroneous, deductions must be con- sidered quite useless for the purpose of discussing the move- ment of prices and of making predictions for the future. There are still statisticians employed who “count hogs, dogs, and logs alike,’ and as a consequence the material furnished by them is rarely satisfactory for the use of the economist. It is not yet generally recognized that the schedule for the collection of data at least must be devised by an expert in each field, and the analysis and discussion of the data promises also full value only when in similar hands. While for everyday business in the single case, random per- sonal judgment may still be placed ahead of statistical and mathematical methods, for the large and more complicated en- terprises, especially those which contemplate a long future and in- volve millions of capital, and for determining tendencies of na- tional economy, correct statistics and correct mathematical meth- ods in their use should alone satisfy us as a basis for the judg- ment which is to determine whether and at what sacrifice to embark in new undertakings. And the most indispensable basis for argument to enter upon them is a forecasting of the tend- ency of prices in the given business. There is probably no other business which requires ‘such probability or expectancy calculations more than the forestry business, since it deals with the production of a crop which ma- tures only in many decades or centuries; he who sows is not likely to reap the fruit of his labor except in special cases. The forester works for a long future and another generation. He must therefore proceed in the faith that the usefulness of his crop of 50 or 100 years hence will be at least what it is sup- posed to be at the present and that the expenditure in its pro- duction tied up for such a long period will be returned with interest and profit in due time. This faith of the forester in the future, this willingness of making present expenditures or foregoing present revenue for the sake of a future revenue, un- certain in amount, must be based upon the experience of the The Movement of Prices. 21 past and upon the general considerations of the character and usefulness of his material which will make it continuously de- sirable to mankind. Hence to him a study of the tendency of wood prices becomes paramount. It is not, however, so much the prices from year to year or from period to period of short range which are influenced by multifarious local conditions of trade and which are very variable, as it is the long range survey that concerns him, in which the inequalities, the ups and downs, are evened out and the few-deep-seated secular causes and the constant, abiding, economic conditions find expression. In the price curves accompanying this paper it will be seen that any position—rise, fall, or equality of prices—can be proved from them according to the selection of the shorter periods for consideration. Only the long period tells the truth. Unfortunately data of sufficient accuracy and value for long periods are scarce. Moreover, the true change in value of any commodity is obscured by the ‘fact that other values included in the value of the commodity, especially that of money and labor, which cannot be discounted in values of products change also. In case of wood, we must not overlook that /umber prices do not really represent wood prices, for the price of a manu- factured product like lumber at places of consumption includes the cost of manufacture, the cost of transportation, of broker- age, etc., and finally is influenced by the competition of manu- facturer; the changes in all of which conditions are reflected in the price. Thus it has happened that, owing to improvements in machinery, cheapening of transportation, change in methods of trade and active competition, lumber prices (which in a way are continental) have for quite long periods remained station- ary, while stumpage prices, i. e., wood prices pure and simple (which are local) have risen. For instance, the stumpage of White «Pine in Michigan rose during the 20 years from 1866 to 1887 from $1.00 per thousand feet, by constant steps without a break, to between $4.50 and $6.50, while White Pine lumber (log run) fluctuated during the whole period only between $11.50 at the beginning and $13.00 at the end, being never higher than $14.00 and for five years of that period sinking as low as $9.00 and $10.00.* From this example alone we see *Report of Saginaw Board of Trade. 22 Forest Quarterly. that lumber prices do not move proportionately to wood prices and cannot by themselves be used for the discussion of the latter. For our purpose, namely, to find a financial incentive for forestry practice, 7. ¢., wood production, it is, of course, the stumpage prices that we must rely upon. The same difficulties which beset all inquiries into changes of prices and their interpretation are, of course, present in the inquiry into the changes of wood prices, namely, changes of money value, the variation in quality of material, the proper de- termination of average prices, the method of comparison of pe- riodic changes, and finally the difficulty of delimiting the terri- tory for which the calculations apply. In regard to the influence of change in money values, we readily perceive that an increase in the value of money would have a tendency of depressing the value of commodities rela- tively, while the opposite would be true with a decrease in the value of money; only if this value has remained the same would the apparent rise or fall of prices of a commodity be a true ex- pression of its changed value? Actually all economists are agreed, I believe, that money values have sunk, some figuring the decrease for 50 years up to 1885 at the rate of 14%, others at less than 1%. If, as some contend, the rise in wages repre- sents a fall in value of money, unquestionably such fall is at- tested by the change in the scale of wages. For our inquiry we may be satisfied to state that if we find any increase in prices of wood it would have been greater than the apparent one, if no depreciation of money value had taken place. With regard to the variation of quality we must keep in mind that wood is a material which serves two very different classes of purposes, namely, such in which the substance is consumed or destroyed in its coherence, namely, as fuel, paper pulp, ex- celsior, etc., and such in which the substance is used as a whole for shapes, lumber, construction. While in the first class of uses, quality of material and especially size, although a requisite, may vary within wide limits, for the second class of uses, more definite qualities and especially certain size which in wood is itself a quality, are requisite. Size is a function of age and the other qualities which make satisfactory logs for lumber manu- facture, namely, clear material,“free from loose knots and small The Movement of Wood Prices. 23 taper, are also in part results of age. Hence this use of wood and this portion of the forest growth, the log timber, is the more important one; and here the time element enters prominently, which makes wood from the economic point of view a material sut generis different from any other product, owing to the long time which its production requires. As a consequence we may find for a given region, as for in- stance Massachusetts, that the price for fuelwood has not changed or, if anything, has decreased while that for saw timber has increased, the reason being that the local supply of material only fit for firewood has become relatively greater since the cut- over lands were robbed of the old timber and young or inferior growth has become a general feature. Similarly we will find the prices of the best quality lumber varying in a different manner from those for inferior grades, the latter as a rule being in over- supply and sagging in price. Again the importance and hence the quantity of consump- tion of different kinds of wood varies. The soft woods and especially the conifers, answering the greatest variety of pur- poses, are the largest and most important requirement of our civilization, the hardwoods being less prominent in our consump- tion in the proportion of three to one. Hence, although prices of the latter may be higher, their economic importance is, gen- erally speaking, inferior to that of conifers. Especially when we survey the world’s sources of wood supply we must not class the large amount of hard, beautiful, tropical wood, which are mainly fit for ornamental purposes with our structural timber supply of the temperate zone. The value of ornamental and structural woods differs in economic importance as does the value of diamonds and iron in the mineral field; we can much more readily dispense with the former than. with the latter. This difference in the uses of wood introduces also a difference of position of the different classes with reference to substitutes; the ~ possibility of substitution influencing both the employment and the price of wood. Coal, for instance, is the great competitor of fuelwood alone, while iron and stone compete with structural wood, and ornamental woods find little competition except among themselves. Regarding the territorial limits for which a comparative study 24 Forestry Quarterly. may be made with the hope of a more general application of the result, it must be kept in view that the constant development of means of transportation tends to obliterate local markets and to establish continental and world markets and prices, even for wood. Nevertheless, wood being a bulky material, is less read- ily shipped for long distances than, for instance, grain or other produce; especially with the inferior wood materials, because of their relative abundance and low price, the limits of profit- able shipments is soon reached. Hence we shall find greater fluctuations in local prices for certain classes of woods than for others, and greater fluctuations for wood in general than for other commodities. Local supply plays in wood a more im- portant role in price making than with materials which can be more readily transported and hence in order to arrive at con- clusions which may not be tinged by local influences beyond measure, a large territory must be taken into consideration, which presents either a singularity of position, as for instance Eng- land, which imports practically all her wood supplies, or one which presents a great variety of economic and timber supply conditions such as the United States, or at least some large State like Prussia. The methods of averaging and comparing prices from period to period and over long periods with their many ups and downs have been discussed with much detail by a number of econo- mists. Among them the method devised by Lehr (Statistik der Preise by Julius Lehr, 1885) may perhaps claim greatest mathe- matical accuracy. He determines by the use of least squares the proper values of the initial and the final price, and with these values determines the percentic progress of the average curve, which equalizes all the rises and falls. Where no mathematical accuracy is demanded and annual prices are available, the mere graphical method leads to sufficiently close results, especially if the relation of the scales for the ordinates of price and time are so chosen as to secure a tolerably flat curve of price nota- tions, when with some judgment the eye can approximate initial and final average values; then by dividing the initial into the final value, the price change per unit is found and from a com- pound interest table the annual rate of progress can be read. Lehr’s calculations of the initialeand final value are, however, The Movement of Wood Prices. 25 simple enough to make the method preferable wherever greater accuracy is desired, and have been employed in the following dis- cussion. The rate thus established is the average annual com- pound rate of increase (or decrease) and, if established for long periods, may be considered a safe guide for future expec- tations as long as no radical changes in conditions take place. - To come now to a concrete inquiry as to what has occurred in the matter of wood prices, we are fortunate in having data at hand which are exceptionally valuable for the purpose of ex- hibiting tendencies. The Prussian government is the owner of somewhat over 6,000,000 acres of woodland distributed over all parts of the kingdom, representing about one-third of the total forest area of Prussia and one-sixth of the forest area of Germany. ‘This large forest property has been carefully managed for 100 years or more and we have a record of the results of the annual sales of all the wood cut on this area. The cut regulated so as to represent the average annual growth comprises from year to year very nearly like or very gradually increasing amounts. Before 1868, 7. e., before the aggrandizement of Prussia to its present size, the annual cut was only 140,000,000 cubic feet, since that time it amounted to between 250,000,000 and 300,- 000,000 cubic feet, including wood of all descriptions, the total sales at present representing annually from $13,000,000 to $15,- 000,000. This wood is sold, at least the great bulk of it, in the forest, not on the stump but cut into log lengths and set up in cords, so that the price contains that much labor cost. This cost has amounted in the average for the last 20 years between 2/3 and 4/5 of a cent per cubic foot. The character of the ma- terial has changed somewhat, the proportion of the more valu- able workwood having increased over the firewood, that is to say, out of the same annual cut a larger proportion of log and bolt material has been secured. This charge has been specially pronounced in the last twenty years when the so-called tim- berwood per cent., 7. e., wood over 3 in. in diameter rose from 29% to over 50%, while before that time the proportion of fire- wood to log wood varied but little. Yet, strange as it may ap- pear, this change is not appreciably reflected in the price, probably because the influence of importations has tended to keep prices of log timber down. 26 Forestry Quarterly. Market conditions have, of course, also changed, especially through increase of importations, which have trebled in the last 30 years, and railroad development by which some of the wood supplies of the eastern provinces have become available; but since the total cut has varied only slightly, this latter cheapening influence of accessibility of new supplies may be left out of consideration. On the other hand, industrial de- velopment generally has increased the demand to such an ex- tent as to overcome whatever other cheapening influences were at work. At any rate, the fact that prices for wood under these conditions have increased with remarkable steadiness during the last 72 years is beyond question. An inspection of the price curve shows that during the period from 1830 to 1863 variations from year to year were only small, probably on ac- count of the easy adjustment of local supply to local demand. After that period when active railroad building and modern in- dustrial development changed methods, violent disturbances are more frequent, but withal the average rise of prices proceeded at about the same or an only slightly accelerated rate. This rise was figured by Lehr for the first 52 years to have been at the rate of 1.36% per annum. For the years 1885 to 1888 the data were not at hand, but assuming equality of price during those three years, we find that since 1865, when Germany be- gan to import large quantities, in spite of the ever increasing im- ports which have proceeded at a rate of about 24% per annum, prices increased for that period at a rate of over 1%. Figured for the last 15 years the rate was not less than 2% and for the last ten years more nearly 34%. Or, taking the entire period of 73 years the progress was at the rate of 14%. ‘That is to say, the prices now for the home-grown wood of all descriptions are double what they were 50 years ago and nearly treble what they were at the beginning of the period. Lehr, who discusses with great care and detail the data fur- nished by the Prussian Statistical Bureau for the period to 1882, figures also from similar data the changes for other of is Ger- man States but for shorter periods, and finds: For Wurtemberg, 1850-1882, a rise at the rate of 1.75% Saxony, 1850-1859, 2.01% Bavaria, 1850-1859, _- 2.94% Baden, 1850-1859, wily Zia Te The Movement of Wood Prices. 27 These are, to be sure, much smaller, more densely populated, and industrially more highly developed territories. A number of local price fluctuations and for different species of wood show invariably the same tendencies. For instance during the period from 1800 to 1879 for different districts in Prussia, the price for oak increased by 1.16% to 4.33%; for pine by 1.1% to 4%; for spruce by 1.09% to 1.95%; for beech by 1.08% to 2.38%. The influence which development of means of transportation exercises is interestingly exhibited in a comparison of the price prevailing in the district of lowest: and that of highest price. This relation changed in the years from 1860 to 1890 from the proportion of 100 to 600, gradually to the proportion of 100 to 220, or one quarter of the original difference. Lehr’s conclusion from a careful survey of prices generally, contrary to Mulhall’s position, is that forest products have risen more rapidly than agricultural products and more than wages. Another investigator, Dr. Jentsch, investigating the same records, comes to the same conclusions, namely: 1) The tendency of prices for agricultural products as well as wood has been toward a rise. .2) Prices for wood have increased more rapidly than those of these staples (imports!), less rapidly than of potatoes, beef and butter. 3) Prices for wood have risen more steadily than those for agricultural products. 4) The relations between prices for wood and for wheat and rye shows a tendency in favor of greater rise in profits from forestry than from grain production. 5) Prices for wood promise to rise further for an indeter- minable time.* Other indications from the same field may be adduced. In Saxony, from 1850 to 1893, the average price of wood per cubic foot in the State forests (similarly ascertained as in Prussia) was from 5.6 cents to 9.9 cents, i. ¢., at a rate of somewhat less than 14% per annum. In Austria, still one of the surplus and export countries,.a painstaking investigation by Guttenberg develops that in the *Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und-Jagdwesen, 1887. > 2% Forestry Quarterly. 50 years from 1848 to 1898 the rate of increase in prices has been for workwood at a rate between 1.6% and 2%, for fuel- wood between 1% and 14%, the prices having doubled or nearly so. For Switzerland in the State forests of the Canton of Zurich, carefully collated statistics for the period of 1871 to 1899 start with a minimum price for workwood of 11.5 cents in 1871, rising steadily with small fluctuations to 15.5 cents in 1889, corresponding to a rate of just 1% per annum, while the aver- age price for all classes of wood without distinction rose from g.2 to 12.4 cents with a maximum of 13 cents in 1897, correspond- ing to an annual rise of just the same rate. At present good stumpage for workwood is worth in the neighborhood of 17 cents per cubic foot for coniferous kinds. Switzerland seems to pay as high prices as England if the prices in the English import tables, 15 to 16 cents for “hewn fir,” can be trusted to at least approximate the truth. Comparing prices in different localities of Prussia Dr. Jentsch finds that in the eastern well-forested districts the workwood prices during 1895 to 1899 averaged 7.4 cents as against 9.5 cents in the Rhenish provinces, that is 13% higher in the western territory, while lumber prices averaged 45% higher. In passing we may note the position of Europe with regard to wood supplies. The three great industrial nations, Germany, France, and England, have long ago ceased to secure their needed supply from home sources, and rely on imports to an extent of 15%, 80%, and 90%, respectively, of their consump- tion. The so-called surplus countries on which they draw are Russia, Sweden and Norway, Austria, and the small Slavonian States, with Canada and the United States to a limited extent. With the exception of Russia, the Slavonian States, and Canada, the others have undoubtedly overstepped the limit of that forest exploitation when new growth is replacing what is being cut. In the case of Sweden at least the danger has been recognized and restrictive legislation has been passed within the year. Russia undoubtedly has still large supplies, but the Siberian forest area, according to all accounts, is not as promising as it had been credited. 2 Turning to the United States, everybody who has to do with The Movement of Wood Prices. 29 timberlands in this country knows from experience of the rise of stumpage prices in a general way, but definite data are mostly private and inaccessible. We have, however, at our command, a valuable series of lumber prices compiled for the period of 1840 to 1891 for the Aldrich Senate Committee and from 1890 to 1903 by the Department of Commerce and Labor. - We have pointed out that the price of lumber does not go parallel with stumpage prices, the tendency being to more uni- form and relatively cheaper lumber prices owing to the conti- nental competition in the market as well as to the cheapening of processes of manufacture, trade, and transportation. More- over, the different grades of lumber vary considerably in price and fluctuate differently, so that it is difficult to get at an average price. Nevertheless, when prices of lumber of all grades rise steadily, the ultimate cause may be sought in the increased cost of the raw material. In the reports referred to we have a short and probably val- ueless series of prices for White Pine in the log which came as near as possible to stumpage prices, and we find that from 1859 to 1890 the price rose from $8 to $12 with prices of $15 to-$16 during the war years. Leaving these latter excessive rates out of consideration the rise during the 32 years appears to be at a rate of not much more than $%. Hemlock logs rose during the same period from $6 to $8 or at the rate of about 1%. White Pine lumber (1 inch clear) on the other hand rose from about $30 in 1840 to $50 in 1891, or at the rate of 1%, but from 1890 to 1goo the rate of rise in Uppers was from $44 to $57.50, or 24%, while from 1900 to 1903 the phenomenal rise to $80, or at a rate of over 6% has taken place. At the same time the price of No. 2 1-inch boards rose from $16.80 to $24, or at the rate of 24%. ‘The change in quality appears in the two converging curves of the earlier period, the quality Uppers combining the two after 1890. It is now well known that the end of White Pine as the great lumber staple is near at hand and hence this sudden rise. But the price of other woods also has risen, if not quite so rap- idly. For Hemlock inch boards the rate during the last 25 years has been 24% and during the last 10 years 33%, namely, 30 Forestry Quarterly. from $12 to $16.80, and if we go back 45 years and leave out of consideration the influence of the war years, the increase has been at the rate of 13%. Oak has steadily risen from 1868 at a rate of 14% (from $30 to $44.80) and of 14% during the last decade, being now about 50% higher in price than at the beginning of the period, 35 years ago. Yellow Pine, of which still large supplies are in sight, has shown little change, having in the last 14 years hardly moved upward, although fluctuating $4 and more within that period. This evenness of price is due probably to the rapidly increas- ing competition among mill men in the southern section of the country, for it is well known that stumpage prices have espe- cially in the last 10 years grown at an almost incredible rate, stumpage of pine being held now at $2 to $3 per M, which 10 years ago was bought for 50 cents to $1. We may then conclude that as far as lumber prices reflect stumpage prices these, even in the United States, in spite of the apparently large home supplies, have steadily risen and are now rising much faster than in the period before 1890. In fact, we have reason to believe that stumpage prices are rising relatively faster than lumber prices for the latter have a ten- dency to be depressed, as we have stated before, by trade com- petition and by new supplies becoming available and being thrown on the market; the necessities of the case forcing mill men, especially in times of industrial retrogression, to accept inadequate pay, while timberland owners can afford much bet- ter to await for improvement in market conditions. It is the writer’s belief that as knowledge of the conditions of timber supply in the world grows the prices will everywhere rise at an accelerated rate until that level has been reached which forces reduction of consumption. That practical business men share this belief may be in- ferred from the policy of some of the lumber barons. It is known to the writer that in Mississippi some half a million acres of the best pine land are held by three owners for the future rise of prices, these owners refusing to-day-$3 per M when elsewhere in accessible situations $2 is considered a fair price. P It is easy to see that when our supplies have been reduced so that their limits are recognized generally, when our so- The Movement of Wood Prices. Agee: called “surplus” is gone, prices will be higher than those at present prevailing in the European “no-surplus” countries, like Germany, France, England, which now supply a large propor- tion (England practically all) of their consumption by impor- tations, thereby keeping the value of home-grown materials lower than it would otherwise be. The statistics of Germany furnish a most satisfactory basis for making a forecast of these future prices, being not only carefully collated but coming from a country where for more than a century earnest efforts have been made to secure the largest continuous forest product at- tainable from the home area. I believe we shall be quite below the truth if we figure the pres- ent average stumpage price in Europe for workwood at 6 cents per cubic foot, which would be equivalent roughly to 1 cent per foot board measure or $10 per M. This is the stumpage price now paid for the best located White Pine. It is to the credit of some.of those who have urged reform in the treatment of our woodlands to have pointed out, in spite of the ridicule by trade journals and pseudostatisticians, that our timber resources instead of being “practically inexhaustible” as Mulhall has it, are really quite limited, considering the rapid growth of our population and still more rapid growth of our civilization which induces increase in the use of wood. Two years ago I exhibited before this section statistics to show that the per capita consumption of wood had during the last 40 years risen in every industrial nation at a rate of prob- ably not less than 3% in value. Now, making allowance for the rise in price at say 14% of the consumption in quantity would be not less than at the rate of 14%. Substitutes and surro- gates for wood, then have not been able so far to reduce wood consumption. The only thing that will do so effectively is a rise in lumber prices to the proper value of the wood, based either on the quantity available or capable of production. And this rise in prices to a proper level will come about when actual knowledge of supplies in sight exist. At present we have little more than surmises and guesses, opinions and sham opinions. Nevertheless all the evidence seems to lead to the conclusion that knowledge of available supplies is increasing and exercis- ing its influence and that a more rapid rise of wood prices than in the past is to be anticipated. B. E. Fernow. AN EXPERT OPINION ON THE CORNELL COLLEGE FOREST EXPERIMENT. In the fall of 1904, two officers of the Prussian Forest Sery- ice sent by their Government, made an extended tour of inspec- tion through some parts of the United States. They were Oberforstmeister Riebel, director of the Forest Academy of Eberswalde and Forstmeister Dr. Jentsch, professor at the For- est Academy at Miinden. These two competent experts visited the demonstration forest of the New York State College of Forestry in the Adirondacks with a view to finding an explana- tion of the sudden collapse of this first institution of the kind in the United States. As a result Prof. Jentsch publishes in “Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen,”’ for February, 1905, a review of the case and an opinion regarding the methods pursued. This latter at least, coming from an entirely unbiased and certainly competent source, must be of general interest to every student of forest history in the United States and of professional interest as well. We therefore give, leaving out unnecessary personal allusions, a ver- batim (as nearly as possible) translation of the passages in point, words in parenthesis being additions by the translator for the sake of explanation. “When the State College of Forestry at Cornell University was founded, a forest area in the Adirondacks, round 30,000 acres, was turned over to it for thirty years. The forest was intended to serve, besides introducing students to practical for- est work, for experiments in forestry methods according to the judgment of the director of the institution. The territory was located about 2,000 feet above sea level in a mountain range of granite, with a minerally strong sand soil and considerable humus cover. The stand was formed mainly of hardwoods, Sugar Maple, Birch and Beech, and originally mixed to a large degree with conifers, White Pine, Hemlock, Spruce and Balsam. The former owner, the Santa Clara Lumber Company, had, how- ever removed all the mature spruce and pine down to 10” diam- eter, only the smaller trees of that description remaining. The stand at present showed about "I6 trees and 20 cords of hard- The Cornell College Forest Experiment. 33 wood per acre. Fernow saw before him the question as to the method by which this natural forest, depleted of conifers, could be transformed into an economic forest. The aim would have to be to replace the poorly marketable broad-leaved forest by a coniferous growth, especially of White Pine, which, valuable now, is expected to be still more so in the future, and occurs and suc- ceeds well in the Adirondacks. This species, here as well as in entire North America is approaching extinction, because being the most serviceable conifer it is in general demand and is re- gardlessly slaughtered. The re-establishment of this most valu- able and at the same time rapidly growing species was, there- fore, a consideration of first importance. Fernow chose the method of clearing and the artificial reforestation with conifers, the hardwoods to be reproduced by natural regeneration, but these were in the future forest to play mainly the secondary role of nurse crop and soil cover. In the felling the exposed slopes and hilltops were to be left untouched or only picked over by selection, and on the felling areas a number of seed trees were to be left. The natural regeneration by the selection method would, to be sure, have also given rise to a new forest as is to be seen in the Adirondacks everywhere; the old burns, of which there are many, grow up mostly first with White Birch and Aspen and other softwoods, but gradually coniferous trees find an entrance, especially Hemlock and Balsam, and with proper use of the axe finally, it would have been possible to secure a conifer forest. Under such a method, however, the most valuable species, White Pine, would, if at all represented, have come in only sparingly. As a third alternative there could have been in question regeneration by groups, with planting and sowing on failplaces. But from such a method Fernow did not expect as good results as could be secured by the clearing system, especially as that method presupposes a more intensive management and an organized forest service, both of which were here entirely absent. “This really correct principle met, however, difficulties in its execution. At the time of the beginning of Fernow’s admin- istration, the hardwoods could not be marketed; it was, therefore, necessary first to find a sure method of disposal for the annual felling budgets, and that not so much for the logs 3 34 . Forestry Quarterly which could perhaps be sold as for the fuelwood which in volume was the larger part. Fernow secured a large, financially capable firm which contracted to take the entire cut of fuelwood down to 3” diameter for 15 years at $2.04 per cord, together with all the log timber that would fall with it; with the condition, how- ever, that annually at least 10,000 cords of fuelwood would be delivered, for only. under that condition would it pay to erect at Tupper Lake a wood alcohol plant and a stave factory. Ac- cording to the estimates the entire available stock on hand on the property was about 25 cords per acre. To furnish the contracted quantity of fuelwood, since in the fellings about equal amounts of workwood and serviceable fuelwood were secured, a round 600 acres had to be cut over yearly; hence within thirty years, the whole forest would have to be cut over and regenerated. Fernow intended to locate the annual fell- ing area in numerous smaller areas distributed over the whole forest and, therefore, asked for a working capital of $50,000, in order to construct a logging railroad and necessary roads so as to be able to reach the more distant portions of the prop- erty. He was, however, allowed only $20,000, a sum too small to establish these means of transportation. ‘Thereby a further trouble of much consequence arose: The felling areas could not be distributed, but had to be located in some part near Tupper Lake. In this way large contiguous areas were de- nuded at one time, and the regeneration of the broad-leaved woods made more difficult, the danger from fire increased, and the seed trees of hardwood and spruce which had been left on the shallow soil (in the first year’s cut) were thrown by the winds. The planting could not be done at once after the fell- ing, for the large masses of brushwood had to be got rid of first. This could be done only by bringing it together in heaps and burning it in installments. In the first year, naturally, plant material was lacking. Fernow secured this from Ger- many (and from home sources) and planted first an old burn with three- to four-year-old White Pine, Scotch Pine, Norway Spruce, Douglas Fir (and other species), spacing them so that about 1,200 to 1,500 plants came to the acre. In the same man- ner other blanks, run-out pastures, and the like, were planted up. These plantations were done cheaply (about $6 per acre), and are decidedly a success. The large felling areas Fernow The Cornell College Forest Experiment. 35 could not plant up himself, on account of discontinuance of the experiment, and they were planted during the last two years by the officers of the University. “Tt cannot be doubted that from the standpoint of rational forestry the clearing system was justified, and was suited to secure the desired aim, namely, to establish, under the existing conditions quickly, surely, and cheaply, a conifer forest with an admixture of broad-leaved trees. ‘The practical execution, however, showed defects and naturally aroused doubts. The better plan would perhaps have been first to survey, map, subdivide, and describe the tract; then, or if the existing survey was sufficient, based on it, to make a working plan, even if only a superficial one, and thereby determine the felling area and the area for plant- ing. If, as the transfer of this tract to the University had con- templated, experiments were to be made and special object les- sons for teaching purposes were to be secured, smaller par- cels could have been segregated. To the German forester ac- customed to an old fashioned, well regulated forest organiza- tion, it must appear as a defect that Fernow began a management without an area or volume allotment, and that he did not first on small, properly distributed areas experi- mentally try the principle of clearing and artificial planting whith he had recognized as the proper one, but contracted right from the start to treat in this manner every year 600 acres. The reasons necessitating this procedure, which really had not been desired by him, are, to be sure, readily explained. In this I follow his own testimony mainly, but also that of others fa- miliar with country and conditions. One reason has already been mentioned: the need of finding a market for the hitherto unsaleable hardwood, especially the portion which was fit only for firewood. This could be done only by assuring to the con- tracting firm an annual minimum of considerable amount. Another consideration was that the execution of a survey and working plan had, to be sure, been contemplated by Fernow, but this was not to delay the beginning of operations and was to be done while operations progressed. This work of survey and of making working plans was an especially desirable field for his teaching purposes. At any rate, for such work, as well as for the technical carrying out of the ideas and plans of Fernow, there was at first no personnel available. This, too, 36 Forestry Quarterly was first to be educated in the new institution. Fernow himself was entirely unable to personally superintend the execution of details. He had undertaken such other duties as would absorb fully the powers of even such a capable and ready man. Moreover, the forest was distant from Ithaca, being a railroad journey of 12 hours. Even if Fernow took the night from Saturday to Sunday for the journey, and the following night for return, which he did as often as possible, he had only one day for the woods, and that the one on which in America no work is done. Hence it happened that many of his perfectly practical orders were not executed by his only partially quali- fied, if ever so willing, representatives, or at least not as desired. The most trouble, however, according to Fernow’s statements, was deficiency of funds. Lastly, there was a de- ficiency of personnel for protection against fire dangers, etc. By the combination of all these circumstances, which are in- dependent of the sound intentions and the good will of the manager and proved insuperable, a forest condition was cre- ated which appeared dubious and undesirable for the present and future, not so much to the eye of the forester, as to that of the unenlightened layman. A felling area in the virgin woods always looks horrid, especially when the young growth is still small and invisible. The danger from fire is indeed increased by clearings when no organized forest protection ex- ists, since a large amount of small brush remains in the fell- ings, and the humus cover becomes dry. The complaints of influential adjoiners regarding this so-called forest devasta- tion, the illegal use of state forests, and the damage to their hunting interests increased. Appreciation of rational forest treatment and of the slow growth of values which is character- istic of all forest management, calling for sacrifices in the pres- ent in favor of a future, is altogether but little developed in the United States. A lawsuit, as yet not decided, as to viola- tion of the Constitution, and a veto of the appropriation for the school at Ithaca, which came most unexpectedly to all con- cerned, including Fernow, was the final result....... “The defects cannot be charged to the principles, only to the practical execution, for which, from what has been said, the director can be made only partially responsible. But, even if the opponents of Fernow could have shown him egregiously The Cornell College Forest Experiment. 37 wrong, it still is inconceivable to the unbiased observer that one failure after all the long years of useful work, should wipe out in the eyes of his compatriots the unquestionable service which he has rendered to his country through a lifetime...... #4 For the sake of correcting a few misconceptions or inaccu- racies and explaining some of the professional points, Dr. Fernow has added a few words: The annual felling areas so far had not by any means been clearings of 600 acres; but the cut had extended over that acreage, leaving balsam swamps, steep wooded slopes and strips of uncut wood to interrupt and make the actual clearing (with some nursetrees left) about 50 per cent. of the worked-over area, reducing therefore so much the admitted objections to large clearings. A careful survey, and even a relief map, of the whole tract had actually been made, and a _ subdivision into 40-acre lots of the part in which~work was begun as well, together with a rough estimate, sufficient to form a basis for proceeding with operations, of the stock on hand. Some other facts are incorrect, but their correction is not essential. As for making a working plan upon the basis of area or volume allotment, such as are customary in Germany, strange as it may sound to professional ears, except for educational purposes, there was no need or call. Practical rather than theoretical and ideal considerations were at the base of the proceedings. If there had been an established market for the wood, permitting the determination of a felling budget based on the so-called sustained yield, or if there had been the task of organizing a large forest domain, as for instance that of the State of New York, sustained yield ideas and regulations of the yield according to the recognized methods of forest or- ganization would have been indicated. As it was the main object of the whole enterprise was to demonstrate silvicultural methods; others than the one actually employed would also have been used as soon as the business was in running order. Moreover the felling budget was by the necessities of the market predetermined. All that needed to be done, therefore, or could have been done, was to find out precisely how long this budget could be supplied; for this purpose, the rough estimates and calculations were 38 Forestry Quarterly sufficient for a beginning. If later it had been the desire of the State to secure a forest area organized for sustained yield, all that was necessary would have been to add enough ter- ritory so as to make the actual felling budget, which was forced by market requirements, appear as the sustained yield. It may perhaps be of interest to recall in this connection a curious historical fact, which seems to have repeated itself in the collapse of the College, ostensibly on account of its choice of silvicultural methods: The first school of forestry in France, founded in 1824 at Nancy, was organized by Lorentz, who having studied with Hartig tried to introduce the advanced ideas of German foresters and especially the shelterwood sys- tem, to supplant the selection system and the methode a tireaire. On account of this heresy (!) he was disgracefully dismissed in 1839. His successor, Parade, having studied under Cotta in Tharandt, also preached the acknowledged superiority of the shelterwood system, and as a consequence the school came near being abolished in 1847, after a sav- age attack in the legislature against this “German heresy” and its propounder. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. GRAVES, im Charge. -_L?Arbe. Par J. Reynard, 214 pp. Clermont-Ferrand, Paris, 1904. This booklet is made up of several articles originally published in Les Nouvelles in Algeria and in Paris in the organ of the fourierists, La Renovation. It is more of a general than a technical character, having in view principally the gen- eral public and teachers. The book consists of three parts. The first is devoted to the tree-cult, its origin, present and ancient cult, Arbor Day, and similar topics; in the second the tree is considered in its relation to the rest of nature and to human societies, covering.such subjects as Tree and Climate, Tree, Water, and Mountains, and Tree and Human So- cieties; in the third, the smallest part, are considered the nationalization of forest soil in France and the laws neces- sary for making reforestation certain. The author treats all the questions in the vein of a moralist and publicist, the whole book being a strong appeal to the mind and heart of the reader for the urgent need of reforestation and education of the people toward respecting and appreciating trees. Rez, Supplement Zur Allgemeinen Forst-und-Jagdzeitung, Jahresbericht, etc., fiir das Jahr 1903. Herausgegeben von Karl Wimmenauer, J. D. Sauerlander, Frankfurt am Main, 1904. This most useful résumé of the more important forestry literature, mostly German, but also foreign, has been published for a number of years. It enables the reader to review rapidly what of interest to the profession has been discussed during the year in over 100 journals. The more important subjects are briefed, others given by title only. The subject matter is divided into nine sections, each with several subsections and reported on by some well known forester or specialist, as for instance: Silvi- culture and Utilization by Dr. H. Mayr; Forest Mensuration, Regulation, Finance and Statistics by Dr. U. Miller; Forest Ad- 40 Forestry Quarterly. ministration, History, Politics, Statistics, etc., by Dr. Borgman; Zodlogy by Dr. Eckstein; Soil Knowledge by Dr. Bleuel; Forest Botany by Dr. Beck. The absence of an index, as in so many German publications, reduces the value of this otherwise excel- lent work for reference use. B. E. FE. Economie Forestiére. Par G. Huffel. Tome premier. (L’Utilité des foréts, propriété et legislation forestiére, politique forestiére, la France forestiére statistique.) Lucien Laveur, Edi- teur, 13 Rue des Saints-Peres, Paris. 1904. Price, $2.30. This is the first volume of an encyclopedic work, written by one of the professors of the forest school at Nancy, the first of its kind in the French language, planned somewhat after Lorey’s Handbuch in German. As appears from the headings of the different sections given above, the first volume forms a kind of introduction and a discussion of forest political subjects. New in its form and completeness is the historical and statistical part, which for the first time, so far as we know, brings together data of the historical development of forestry in France and a clear statement of present conditions. The make-up of the book is first-class. B. EB. F: Freie Durchforstung. Von Dr. K. R. Heck. Berlin, 1904. Price, 75 cents. The subject of thinnings, which occupies so much space in modern literature and has become so prominent in experimenta- tion, is even in its fundamental principles not yet fully estab- lished. Upon the basis of extensive experiments and observa- tions at the forest experiment station of Tubingen and elsewhere, Dr. Heck announces the principles he wishes to lay stress upon as follows: “Tt does not suffice any more that we engage in a soil manage- nent under which no ray of sun reaches the soil cover; it does not suffice any more that we bury the dead, or utilize the op- pressed, reduce the worst ‘Protzen’ and heal or kill the sick. We must rather seek (1) to utilize the soil to the full by an even distribution of the best main stems, (2) to utilize the limited air space also by the best stems, and (8) to protect at the same time the boles of this most important and so favored portion of the Current Literature. 4a stand against sun-scald, water sprout formation, malformation, disease, interference of less desirable dominant or co-dominant neighbors, etc.” In other words the author accentuates what the French school, and independently the reviewer, urged about twenty years ago (Report of Forestry Division, 1887) namely, that the “final harvest crop,” the elite of the French, was to have special consideration from the beginning. This final harvest stand needs attention all along to give it the best chance of developing rapidly into good form and accretion by permitting it a full and regular crown. The author does not consider that any of the existing methods of thinning sufficiently recognize these prin- ciples, especially because they either do not interfere enough with the dominant or else do not maintain enough density in the sub- dominant, the ‘nurse crop.’ In the experiment areas on which Dr. Heck applies his.ideas, he groups the trees into “crown classes” according to the well known classification of Krafft, and into seven “stem classes :” a. straight, fine, long-boled timber ; b. medium, short-boled timber ; c. crooked, rough, branchy ; d. double leader ; e. much branched (if in Cl. I or II: Protzen) ; f. stool shoots. g. sickly. In case preference in removal is to be given, the higher stem classes should be favored, the general program being “uncon- ditioned favor and care of those trees which within the rotation of ninety to one hundred years are sure to furnish timber, while as much as possible securing uniform distribution of the timber trees and preserving as far as possible a close crown cover in general and especially in the class V a.” The results of the ex- periments made under this plan are elaborated in detail and in tabular form. | Oe Waldwertrechnung und Schatzung von Liegenschaften. Von: Franz Riebel. Leipzig, 1905. Pp. 465. Price, $3.15. This is the most complete work on forest valuation that has so far appeared with a well selected collection of practical prob- 42 Forestry Quarterly. lems elucidated in masterly fashion. ‘The theory of this branch of forestry was once for all laid down by Gustav Heyer, whom the author follows in the theoretical part, although adding new ideas to the methods of calculation. In general the author stands on the platform of the soil rent theory but pays attention also to other methods of forest finance. By assuming for large owners an interest rate of 2.5 per cent. and for small owners 3 per cent., the latter requiring no outlay for administration, etc., rotations over eighty years appear hardly profitable. The special value of the book lies in the simplified calculation which it develops. B. Boon. Untersuchungen tiber die Naturlichen und Kunstlichen Ver- breitungsgebiete emiger forstlich und phanzengeographisch wich- tigen Holzarten in Nord- und Mitteldeutschland. I Die Hori- gontalverbreitung der Kiefer (Pinus silvestris L.). By Dr. A. Dengler. Neudamm, 1904. The first instalment of a very comprehensive co-operative work on the geographical distribution of the more important forest trees under the auspices of the International Association of Forest Experiment Stations. For us this work has perhaps interest mainly in the manner of handling the subject, which is more thorough and exhaustive than has ever before been attempted. B. Hoa Lebensgeschichte der Blutenpflanzen Mitteleuropas. Specielle Oecologie, etc. Band I, Lieferung 1 and 2. Von Dr. O. Kirch- ner, Dr. E. Low, Dr. C. Schréter. Stuttgart, 1904. Price go cents each Lieferung. The first and second parts of this handbook of ecology discuss Yew, Fir, Spruce, Larch, and Pine, their physiology and phe- nology, relations to soil conditions, plant associates and geo- graphical distribution, manner of germination, and the ecologic phenomena of young and old plants and their parts. B. E. F. Die Technik des Forstschutzes gegen Thiere. Von Dr. Karl Eckstein. Berlin, 1904. Price, $1.10. An exhaustive treatise on the methods of preventing damage from animals, especially insects. -It is written with full knowledge of the needs of the practitioner and with a critical discernment Other Recent Literature. 43 by a most competent man, the professor of zoology at the forest academy of Eberswalde and director of the zodlogical section of the forest experiment stations of Prussia. 1B yg cree al Ein System von Mitteln sur Verhiitung schadlicher Hochwasser. Von. O. V. Leo Anderlind. Leipzig, 1904. ~The employment of horizontal ditches and other mechanical means for catching the rushing waters on bare and openly for- ested mountian slopes, and in the lowlands a system of dikes subdividing the forested area into squares of two or three acres extent is advocated in this book, which contains nothing that is new. Most of the propositions were ventilated years ago by Ludloff. The expense of practical application will probably be prohibitive in most cases, although the philosophy as to the effectiveness of the proposition cannot be denied. Bet ae OTHER RECENT LITERATURE. Trees: a handbook of forest botany for the woodlands and the laboratory. By H. Marshali Ward. University Press, Cam- bridge, England, 1904. 2 Vol. 619 pp. 12°. IIl. Incendies en foréts. Evalution des dommages. Par A. Jac- quot. QOuvrage couronné par la société nationale d’agriculture de France. 400 pp. 8 francs. Forest Conditions in the Absaroka Division of the Yellowstone Forest Reserve, Montana. By J. B. Leiberg. Professional paper No. 29, U. S. Geological Survey. Washington, 1904. 148 ppg! Pl.) Map. Forest Conditions in the Little Bell Forest Reserve, Montana. By J. B. Leiberg. Professional paper No. 30, U. S. Geological Survey. Washington, 1904. 75 pp. 4°. Forest Conditions in the Lincoln Forest Reserve, New Mexico. By F. G. Plummer. Professional paper No. 33, U. S. Geologi- cal Survey. Washington, 1904. 47 pp. 4° (including map and diagram). ; The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico. By J. C. Gifford. Bulletin No. 54, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Washington, 1904. 52 pp. 8°. Pl. Map. 44 Forestry Quarterly. The adaptation of land for afforestation. ‘Two prize essays. By A. C. Forbes and W. R. Fisher. Loughton & Co., Ltd., Es- sex st., Strand, London. 104 pp. 10 figs. Forests, wild and cultivated. By Augustine Henry. Royal Dublin Society. Economic proceedings. Vol. I., part 5, No. Hi.) Pls. ix-xx. Prieetrs 6d. Einiges tiber die Rolle des Lichtes im Walde. Von Dr. Adolf Cieslar. XXX Heft der Mittheilungen aus dem forstl. Ver- suchswesen Oesterreichs. Wien, 1904. 105 pp. — Indiana Board of Forestry, Fourth Annual Report. Indian- apolis, Indiana, 1904. 111 pp. 8°. Pls. Maps. Maine Forest Commission, Fifth Annual Report. Augusta, Maine, 1904. 144 pp. Michigan State Board of Agriculture, Forty-third Annual Re- port. Contains second annual report of forestry department. pp. 76-77. Minnesota State Forestry Board, Report. St. Paul, Minne- sota, 1904. II pp. Forestry Problems of the United States. By B. E. Fernow. Pearson’s Magazine, April, 1904, pp. 364-76. Die Begrundung naturgemdsser Hochwaldbestinde. Von R. Jankowsky. 107 pp. Price, 2.50 mark. Massregeln zur Verhiitung von Waldbranden. Von Dr. M. Kienitz. Julius Spruger, Publisher. Berlin, 1904. 17 pp. Price, 50 pig. Wuchsgesetze normaler Fichtenbestinde. Von A. Schiffel. William Frick, Wein, 1904. 106 pp. Forest Utilization. By C. A. Schenck. Biltmore, N. C., 1904. 118 pp. 8°. Report on the condition of treated timbers laid in Texas, Feb- ruary, 1902. By Herman von Schrenk. Bulletin No. 51, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1904. 45° pp. 82) EL Imports and exports of wood and manufacturers of wood, 1902-1904. From monthly summary of commerce and finance, December, 1904. Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Commerce and Labor, Washington. P. 2170 and pp. 2204-24. Literaturnachweise zur -Gesdischte der Waldungen, Forst- wirtschaft und Forstwissenschaft. Giessen, 1904. ~15 pp. Other Recent Literature. 45 Federal and State forest laws. Compiled by G. W. Woodrufi. Bulletin No. 57. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Washington, 1904. 259 pp. Die forstlichen Verhdltnisse und Einrichtungen Bosniens und der Herzegovina. Von Ludwig Dimitz. Wilhelm Frick. Wein, 1904. Preis, 16 Fr. English Estate Forestry. By A. C. Forbes, F. H. A. S. Edward Arnold, 41 and 43 Maddux street, W., London, Eng- land. 8°. 12s. 6d. Forestry as a Profession. By H. P. Baker. Iowa Agricultur- ist, October, 1904. pp. 125-30. Yale Summer School of Forestry. By J. W. Pinchot. World’s Work, October, 1904. Webster's Forester’s Diary and Pocketbook. William Rider & Son, 164 Aldersgate street, London, 1905. Price 2s. 6d. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. In Charge: Botanical Journals, ......cceceuees R. T. FisHer. Poreten Journals, cee eies, Bow seas B. E. Fernow Anp R. Zon. Propagandist Journals, ..........-+: H. P. BAKER. PPARE SOUTHELS, ic Ree ome 2 . FILIBERT ROTH. FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. At the Forestry Research Station of The Growth Switzerland studies of the growth of tree of Tree Roots. roots have been carried on for three years, with such species as Silver Fir, White and Scotch pines, Beech, Oak, Birch, and Maple. Two methods of making observations are employed: the first is to periodically take up and examine the young plants; the second to plant them in elass-covered boxes, sunk in the soil in such a way that the roots can be kept under observation. It has been found that the development and production of roots are not continuous throughout the year. They are inter- rupted by periods of repose, which in addition, do not corre- spond exactly to those when the erial parts are at rest. Among resinous trees vegetation of roots is entirely suspended from November to March or April, while among the deciduous trees, on the contrary, this vegetation does not undergo any complete interruption in the winter. February and the beginning of March are the least favorable seasons for the growth of roots. The deterrent effect on vegetation in winter is a consequence of the lowered temperature of the soil. It is established that in general roots begin the process of development in the spring before zrial development starts. The beginning of their growth may precede by several weeks the opening of the first buds, but sometimes this period is reduced to only a few days. Besides the winter rest, the growth of roots undergoes another interruption due to the dryness of soil during summer. This interruption may last 3-8 weeks, according to its beginning more Periodical Literature. 47 or less early. In October a new period of activity, more in- tense and more prolonged among the deciduous than among the coniferous trees, succeeds the summer rest. General observations in reference to the best time of the year for planting are drawn and it appears to be correctly settled that spruce and pine should be planted in the spring, while deciduous trees may just as well be planted in the autumn. ‘The article concludes by saying that the results of these root studies may not be of any considerable importance to Canadian tree planters. From Revue des Eaux ct Foréts, in Rod and Gun in Canada, Novem- ber, 1904, pp. 297-290. Dr. A. Moller, director of the pathological Red Rot in Pine. experiment station at Eberswalde, has concluded an investigation of five years’ duration on the necessity and possibility of an effective warfare against Trametes pint, Fries, the red rot which affects pine trees over 50 years old. Reference is made to Hartig’s work on this fungus and to the lack of attention to its eradication. By means of circular letters the extent of the damage was ascertained, which is stated in detailed tabular form to amount conservatively in the Prus- sian State forests, to $300,000 annually on a cut of about 80,000,- ooo cubic feet; by virtue of the reduced price of the defective wood marketed, the probability is that this loss may be doubled and, if private and other forest properties are included, much more. The method of calculating the damage (on the basis of an essay by Geralein, Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1899, p. 210) is detailed in an interesting manner. In the worst cases, 60, 80, and even 100 per cent. of the trees in some coun- tries were affected; and the average depreciation for the districts concerned figured 8.34 per cent. or about 4 cents per cubic foot. In regard to the distribution of the fungus it is observed that it occurs much less frequently in the southern part and is best de- veloped in the northeast, the natural home of the pine. Relation to soil conditions in its development could not be established ; but the preponderance of fruit bodies on the west and the north sides of trees, especially the west, was observed; also the fre- - quency of distribution in spots from which the disease spreads, and on exposed forest boundaries. The west and north positions 48 Forestry Quarterly. are explained by the frequency of the winds which carry the spores from those quarters and the greater humidity on those sides, which keeps the branch stubs moist. With age the danger and the losses grow. The idea of curing trees or arresting the progress of the rot in them or to render the trees immune “belongs to the realm of dreams.” That Trametes pini is the only fungus causing the disease was perfectly proved by Hartig. By inoculation it was possible to infect trees and study the progress of the disease, and thus it was proved that entirely healthy trees can be affected ; but the infection must be able to reach the heartwood, the sap- wood protecting itself by resin flow. The infection comes, of course, from the spores of the fruit bodies, locating on broken branch stubs that have exposed heartwood, and on such only can the fungus start. Being a strictly parasitic fungus, the only place to find it is in this situation, and not in out-of-the-way places, like the soil or the root or any other wood as with the pine root rot and other fungi, which have saprophytic existence. This rot starts always at the top or at a branch (not from bark injuries), and although it may eat its way down to the roots, it is not, at least in nature, saprophytic. A study of its development in cultures is described at length, as well as of its progress in nature. The breaking off and destroying of fruit bodies and the closing of the wound with raupenleim (or probably some other antiseptic) prevents their reappearance and reduces the chances for spread of the disease. Continued energetic removal of the infected trees before spores have escaped is, however, the only efficient and desirable means of eradicating the disease. The possibility of reducing it by growing the pine mixed with broad- leaf trees is admitted; but pure pine forest is favored for other considerations. Uber die Notwendigkeit und Méglichkeit wirksamer Bekimpfung des Kiefernbaumschwammes, Trametes Pini Fries. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, November, 1904, pp. 677-715. From a very exhaustive series of obser- Resin Flow. vations and experiments on resin flow car- ried on for six years, A. Tschirch feels war- ranted in considering these excretions pathological rather than merely physiological. He argues that if in scarifying a tree all Periodical Literature. 49 the resin ducts were opened and discharged, the secretion could not be very large—certainly not many pounds if there were no new production of it. Moreover, some plants which do not have any resin ducts, like Styrax benzoin, when wounded have a resin flow, which can be only of pathological character. Besides the ex- periments in Germany, a parallel series was conducted by Prof. Treub in Buitenzorg on tropical plants. The investigations de- velop that the secretion follows the same law in both Angiosperms and Gymnosperms; that it is partly of primary, partly of second- ary nature; that the primary excretion, absent in plants without resin ducts, is small and of short duration (mastix sandarae, Strassburg turpentine) ; that the secondary, constant flow begins some time after the incision and is dependent as to quantity on the size of the wound. The stimulus of the wound produces the formation of pathological woundwood in which resin ducts de- velop in large numbers in a network of anastomose vessels, by cell division (chizogen) and enlarged by cell fusion (lysigen). The stimulating effect of the incision is felt for only a few centi- ' meters more upwards and sideways than downwards (as in cal- lus?) outside of which zone the tissues remain normal. Hence new scarification is necessary, and the methods of bleeding are rational from that point of view. The flowing resin then must be considered like pus in animals, as a pathological excretion with the function of assisting in healing a wound. An unfortunate reference is made to Pinus taeda as the tree mainly subjected to bleeding in the United States. Its resin flow is so sluggish that it is rather avoided in the turpentine orchard. Uber den sogenannten Harzfluss. Flora, 1904, V. 94, pt. I, pp. 179-198. An interesting article by Joseph Y. Bergen Transpiration deals with the result of a study of the rela- by Sun and amd by tive transpiration by sun leaves and shade Shade Leaves. leaves of Olea europea and other broad- leaved evergreens. After comparing the color, size, shape, and structure of sun leaves and shade leaves, the author gives the following general conclusions from his ex- periments: “Under conditions normal for each class, the sun- leaves transpire from three to ten times as much as the shade 4 50 Forestry Quarterly. leaves of the same species. With both classes under abnormally equal conditions the sun leaves of the species studied transpire one and one-half times as much as the shade leaves.” This latter result is interesting as reversing published statements in regard to transpiration. Transpiration of Sun Leaves and Shade Leaves of Olea europea and other Broadleaved Evergreens. Botanical Gazette, October, 1904, pp. 285-296. (11 figs.) Professor E. C. Jeffrey has described and Fossil Sequoias. named a new species of fossil Sequoia, which he calls Sequoia penhallowii. The wood on which the description is based was taken from the line of the Central Pacific Railway, under 60 feet of conglomerate. Although the species most nearly resembles Sequoia gigantea of living sequoias, it has features which strongly suggest the Abietinez. E. W. Berry calls attention to the fact that Otto Kuntze in his ‘Lexicon Generum Phanerogamarum’ (Stuttgart, 1904) refers our two species of Sequoia to the fossil genus “Stein- hanera.” If Sequoia sempervirens should ever be found to be identical with the fossil species which it closely resembles, the name Sequoia will—if priority be the rule followed—have to be given up. (We doubt the correctness of this inference.—Ed. ) A Fossil Sequoia from the Sierra Nevada. Botanical Gazette, Novem- ber, 1904, pp. 321-332. (2 pl.) Otta Kuntze on Sequoia. ‘Torreya, October, 1904, pp. 153-4. In the Botanical Gazette for November, 1904, Prof. Conway MacMillan offers a curious instance of the dwarfing of Picea sitchensis, Tsuga heterophylla and Thuja gigantea or plicata, specimens of which he found upon windswept rocks on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The largest of the trees observed, which was also the youngest, was sixty-eight years old and less than two feet high. Of interest to western foresters is the discovery referred to by T. D. A. Cockerell in a revision of the genus Hymeno.rys, in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, for September, 1904. It has been found that the roots of the plant known as rabbit bush will yield a fair quality of-rubber, and arrangements are being made for its extraction on a large scale. — - Periodical Literature. 51 Prof. N. L. Britton records, in Torreya for October, 1904, some observations on the identity of the Royal Palm of Florida. After studying the Florida palms and comparing their character with those of the Royal Palm of Cuba, asserted by O. F. Cook to be distinct, Prof. Britton concludes that the two palms are one and the same species. In other words, Roystonea floridana and Roystonea regia are synonyms. Among the book notices in the Journal of Botany icr Novem- ber, 1904, is one on “The timbers of Commerce and their Identt- fication,’ by Herbert Stone, F. L. S., F. R. C. L, published at William Rider and Sons, London, 1904. This should be a valu- able reference book, especially since the familiar aspect of the woods are dealt with, as well as their structure and properties. War against the gypsy and brown-tail Gypsy Moth. moths is absolutely necessary if the for- est and shade trees in Eastern Massachu- setts are to succeed. Woodland and Roadside, for December, 1904, says: “There is no more important phase of forestry in this State than is presented by this problem of how to suppress the-terrible ravages of these pests...... Unless they both are checked real estate values will be seriously affected.” It also gives in full the system of organization for fighting these pests and an extended review of a report upon both moths by Dr. C. L. Marlatt, of the United States Department of Agriculture, with a call for contributions to be sent the State Forester. Record is made of two species of Cimex Cimex. feeding on White Pine, namely Penta- toma baccarum L,. and Pentatoma prasi- num 1, The shoots of young plants are sucked and a resin flow is the result, injuring even to killing the plant. Wansenschaden an Weymouthskiefern, Dr. Hess. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, October, 1904, p. 379. 52 Forestry Quarterly. SOIL AND CLIMATE. Dr. A. Moller, director of the patholog- Effects of Fertilizers. ical station at Eberswalde, comprises under the name of Karenz (English, carency) all phenomena in plants which are produced in consequence of the withdrawal or insufficiency of important nutrients, as for in- stance the well known chlorosis. He proposes to use the obser- vations made by him on the carency phenomena of, the pine as an argument for employing manures in nursery and forestry practice. In a longer article he describes a series of investiga- tions to determine the influence of withdrawal of nitrogen, phos- phorus, sulphur, magnesia, potash, and lime on one- and two- year old Scotch Pines. The results are briefly as follows: De- ficiency in nitrogen produces light yellow green, short, and rela- tively slim needles, a phenomenon often experienced in sandy soils without humus; which by additions of humus, green man- uring, or otherwise, can be overcome, but according to Moller and others not by the use of saltpetre, which has been recom- mended for use in nurseries. Although there is no practical in- terest in the result of withdrawal of sulphur, it is interesting to state that the deficiency of no other nutrient has such decided result, rapidly causing death. The carency phenomena under deficiency of phosphorus were signalized by blue red to violet discoloration of the cotyledons and lowest leaves long before frost, which may produce a similar color, had set in. A colored plate exhibits this as well as the color change due to withdrawal of magnesia. The influence of the latter does not appear in diminution of size, but in a vari- colored display: the tips orange yellow, shading towards the base into brilliant red, with normal green at the base, the leaves drying and browning gradually. By applying a solution con- taining sulphate of magnesia recovery of color and turgescence could be secured. By analysis of plants from a seedbed, some of which showed the orange tips, and of neighbors normally green, a difference in the contents of magnesia prove the relation, show- ing also that the contents of assimilable magnesia must vary greatly in the same ground. Fertilizing with kainit is recom- mended in such soils. - The absence of potash was characterized by diminution of Periodic Literature. 53 size, as observed under absence of phosphorus, and somewhat by discoloration, as in the case of sulphur, but a decided describable carency phenomenon could not be stated. Here, too, recovery could be secured in the second year by watering with potash solu- tion, Karenzerscheinungen bei der Kiefer. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagd- wesen, December, 1904, pp. 745-750. A series of most interesting observations as Effect of Soil to the relative effects of sandy and black on the Root Develop- soils upon the structure of the root system ment of Pine. in Scotch Pine has been conducted by A. P. Tolsky. His observations covered sev- enteen trees ranging in age from three to thirty-seven years seven of them having grown on a black soil with a clayey sub- soil and ten on sand. The measurements included the total lengths of all the roots of each individual tree, the total length of the horizontal and the vertical roots, the length of the longest horizontal and the longest vertical root, and, finally, the length of the tap root. There has been established an interesting rela- tion between the total length of the superficial roots to that of the vertical ones. This relation is 1.5 on black soil and 5.8 on sand, i. é., on black soil pine develops principally vertical roots, while on sandy soils superficial roots predominate. This difference in the character of the root system of pine grown on black soil and on sand the author explains by the tendency of the roots to de- velop and spread in those layers which contain in greatest quan- tities the substances most needed by the plant. Sandy soils are as a rule richest in their upper layers containing the humus; therefore the bulk of the roots are found in these layers. In rich, black soil, where there is no lack of nutritive substances in any of the layers, roots are guided in their development mostly by moisture, and go deep into the ground after the water. The amount of nutritive substances in the soil influences the total length of roots; on pine grown in black soil the total length of all roots is almost half of what is found in pine on sandy soil. This was only natural to expect. The activity of the roots is directed mainly toward extracting nutrition from the soil; there- fore wherever there is an abundance of nutritive substances in the soil, there is no need for a great development of roots; on poor 54 Forestry Quarterly. soils, however, the nutrition is spread over a large area, and in order to get it in sufficient quantity trees need numerous roots. Not without interest also are the observations regarding the de- velopment of the tap and lateral roots. ‘Till the fifteenth year the tap root has the greatest length in black soil; after this age the lateral roots begin to develop, and at the age of twenty-five years the longest root is one of the lateral roots, being from two to three times as large as the tap root. In sandy soil the super- ficial root remains at all times the longest, and at the age of twenty-five years the same relation exists between the lateral and the tap roots as on pine grown in black soil. Work of the Forest Experiment Stations in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1903. Daily and weekly observations made by A. Snow Cover in P. Tolsky during the winter of 1901-1902 the Forest and on on the grounds of the Parfinsky Forest the Field. School, near the town of Staraya Russa, Russia, have enabled him to arrive at the following very interesting conclusions: I. The depth of snow cover. (a) On the field snow forms an even layer, becoming slightly deeper inlandward from the river. Young growth, shrubs, fences, and similar obstacles possess the greatest capacity for accumulat- ing snow. (b) In the forest snow lies in less even layers, depending on the composition, density, and age of the stands and on the topo- graphy. In stands with a thin upper story and a dense under- growth more snow accumulates than in dense stands without any undergrowth; on low situations and slopes the accumulations of snow is greater than on more elevated places. II. The specific volume of snow. (a) In the forest snow is less compact and the variations in specific volume are greater than in the open, as can be seen from the following table: Specific Volume Forest Field PVA Suara 15 yie.d su ea ote Peapale eceateles Genus te 4.7 3.7 PVE SUTAUITET) 0-5 kn aha Ce cles 8 OP Team bee Eee Gn 3.4 ce! Watiationy,:) {i052 tune ante Amat s elelanye te eterno 1.3 0.6 Periodical Literature. 55 (b) The compactness of snow in the forest increases from its surface toward the surface of the earth; on the field the most compact snow is found in the middle of the snow cover, whence its compactness decreases in both directions. III. The length of time for which the snow lasted and the rate of its settling were as follows: Snow lasted Snow settled daily days Centimeters 153216 VAs UPR RE EIA ets reg 139-141 3.9 dee. Or Honest ii ieos an.) a ues 164-167 oe WERT SORESE,: Os) Js kt 28 176-179 1.6 These figures prove better than words that thawing proceeds more slowly in the forest than in the open. They show that the snow remained in the forest thirty-seven days longer than it did on the field and that it also settled faster on the latter. Transactions of the Imperial Forest Institute, Vol. X, St. Petersburg, 1903. = ROADS AND SURVEY. The economy resulting from a properly Value of constructed system of roads is the subject Good Roads. of a note by the designer and builder of such a system in the demonstration forest of the forest academy at Mtinden, Forstrath Muhlhausen. The district in question was somewhat over 11,000 acres. The system was designed in 1872 and its execution had proceeded more or less rapidly from year to year with varying appropria- tions. The total expenditure and the miles of road of different classes are not stated, but a calculation is made to show differ- ence in price obtained due to improved transportation in compari- son with a similarly situated adjoining district not so favored. Comparing the average prices obtained per festmeter of work- wood alone for the period 1890-95 with those for the period 1896-1901, the price difference in the undeveloped district was 0.67 Mark, the difference in the district developed by the road 56 Forestry Quarterly. system was 2.60 Mark, hence the value of the roads is 1.93 Mark per festmeter (1.3 cents per cubic foot). This corres- ponds to a rise in value of 21 per cent. in six years, due to better transportation. Die finanzielle Wirkung des Wegebaues in der Oberférsterei Gahren- berg. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 655-658. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. The new spirit of testing all the old Silvicul- theories and practices of silviculture by tural Characteristics. scrutiny on scientific basis and by careful experiment has given rise to a series of articles in the Centralblatt, which we may consider together, as they are dependent on each other, and being on principles, are therefore useful to our readers. The cause for these articles was furnished by a report on the sessions of the Bohemian Forest Association by A. Schiffel, ap- pearing in the April number, in which the reporter expressed dis- agreement with some of the statements made regarding the silvi- cultural methods employed in one of the visited districts, the keynote of it being found in the sentence: “By the methods pursued, namely, giving up as far as possible the clear cutting method and favoring as far as possible natural regeneration, it is hoped that bye and bye there will be re-established the original forest type of the Bohemian Mountains, unique as regards volume and value production and resistance.” The speaker at the meet- ing (Neumann) praised the beech as an improver and conserver of soil vigor and as nurse for many other valuable species, which “nowhere grow so quickly and surely to such perfection as under its protecting cover,” and “in proportion as the beech participates in the mixture with conifers...... the pine is not at all adapted to the situation.” Various other such generalizations and gen- eralities, especially his preference for the Bavarian Femelschlag (group system), lead Schiffel to take exceptions, both in the first mentioned report and later in an extended article in which also the position of Wapples, stated in the following paragraphs, is discussed. In refutation of the stricturés raised by Schiffel, Dr. L. Periodical Literature. 57 Wapples, a high authority from Bavaria, discusses the principles and applicability of a method of regeneration under nurses (Femelschlag) practiced in Bavaria. A few historic remarks as introduction are of interest to us at the present time, when terms and definitions are under discussion. The term Femelschlag was originated by C. Heyer simply in juxtaposition to Femelbetrieb (selection forest) and Kahlschlag (clearing method). Gayer in- troduced finer distinctions of the high forest forms, reserving the name Femelschiag for regeneration in groups (Lécher or Gruppenwirthschaft), and the regeneration which worked with a uniform opening up of the stand he called Schirmschlagform (shelterwood), and this distinction has now been generally ac- cepted. In a foot note the author proposes further systematic distinc- tions, namely, according to the manner of cutting (Hiebsform— well amended by Schiffel to Hiebsart), and according to the lo- cation, area, and sequence of procedure (Schlagform). A. Man- ner of cutting: Plenterhieb, cutting single trees or groups with- out enlargement—selection forest; Femelhieb, cutting single trees and groups, enlarging these openings, now called Femel- schlag—successive fellings in groups; Schirmhieb, uniform open- ing 1p—shelter wood system; Ldécherhieb, checkerboard distri- bution of small clearings—group system; and Kajdlhieb, clearing. B. Manner of Location: Platgsweise, irregular at any place; Kulissenweise, in echelons; Saumweise, in strips; Zonenweise, in wider strips; Schlagweise, by compartments. By combining these two designations the different methods can be described, and the regeneration can proceed by one or by a combination of several methods. Speaking of the need of con- sidering the profitableness of different methods, which Schiffel finds better satisfied by artificial reforestation than by natural regeneration, it is pointed out that in exposed situations it is dangerous to deviate from the natural forest types (Waldform) : “Nature is still more obstinate than foresters and usually remains in the right; the cost of the quarrel falls to the loser.” The Bavarian practice relies, therefore, on a mixture of 0.6 spruce, 0.2 fir, 0.2 beech, the proportion of the latter (less than in nature), although apparently less profitable, having been found necessary and also sufficient to protect the spruce against windfall, etc. 58 Forestry Quarterly. In the end, indirectly at least, the value production of these mix- tures proves equal to pure spruce forest. The perfect practicability of the natural regeneration method applied to such a mixture with differences of light requirement, height, growth and adaptation and its superiority over artifi- cial reforestation is claimed. The procedure in this method is to take first in suitable places the stoutest trees (especially those with poor accretion, poor form, undesirable, or more than needed species) in order to in- duce seeding; 1. ¢., to create conditions which the character of the respective species requires for such seeding. This Femel- schlag method does not prescribe the schematic progress of fell- ings—preparatory for seed, for light, and final removal—over the whole area evenly, but the fellings follow in every part of the worked area the development of the seedling growth, and if several species have come up consider that which is to be favored, opening up around the reproduction and enlarging the openings as needed. The result is a local separation or groupwise colloca- tion of the species, which insures the permanence of the mix- ture. On soils liable to weed growth careful judgment of the manager as to the effects of the fellings is, of course, necessary. Where such weed growth has come in, it may be cut out once or twice at a cost of 30 to 40 cents per acre (probably three times as much with us.—Ed.). In this method all stages of regeneration are found side by side in the stand as in selection forest, while in the shelter- wood system they are found uniformly throughout the whole stand. In the former method the felling does not necessarily follow the regeneration, but, if there is no young growth, it is induced by the fellings, and since these fellings occur only on limited area, the risk of failure is not great. That this method leads toward a selection forest is denied, but it is admitted that if the regeneration fails, strip system or clearing becomes nec- essary. This last claim, Schiffel thinks, could come true only if strip system and clearing with artificial reforestation were systemati- cally combined with the Bavarian regeneration method. He does not deny the propriety of the method under the special con- ditions, especially the need of the protective influence of forest cover, which prevails in the Bavarian different from the Bo- : Periodical Literature. 59 hemian Mountains. But it either leads, if the progress of the felllings is very slow, as in the long regeneration period of 40 years practiced in the Black Forest, to a selection forest, or else if the regeneration is rapid, to the regular, more systematic, cheaper, and in every way preferable shelterwood system, judic- iously applied with reference to the needs of the young growth. The most interesting and highly suggestive part of Schiffel’s article to us, however, is not this controversy regarding a special method of regeneration, but the discussions of the general prin- ciples of silviculture, in which he exhibits the ignorance of for- esters in general on important questions—‘that we still do not know much that we need to know’—by pointing out problems which are still waiting for solution, regarding choice of species, form of mixtures, choice of method of regeneration. He starts with the very sound, modern, truly American general principle: Where the choice between several species and their mixture is free, only the comparative profitableness (Renta- bilitat) has to decide these matters, as well as the method of re- generation. How much do even the German foresters know of the profitableness of different species? Generally speaking that species or mixture is most profitable, which with the same cost of production in the same time produces the highest yield. To de- termine this the yield tables, although much improved, are still insufficient, for they combine and average too many differently located stands, if only height and volume at a certain age, 1. ¢., site class agrees, and they do not distinguish between artifi- ficially and naturally regenerated stands, sowed and planted stands, or stands regenerated in longer or shorter regeneration periods, or by different methods of regeneration, all of which factors influence very greatly the rate of growth and final yield. Little is therefore known regarding the progress of stands on different sites differently treated. Even if knowledge exists per- haps locally regarding existing forest types and treatment, there is no measure for calculating profitableness of new introduc- tions. Indeed, the “silvics,” the adaptation and requirements of species regarding the site, are most imperfectly known—their re- quirements as to maximum, minimum, and average temperature, the duration of their vegetative period, their need of humidity on different exposures, altitudes, longitudes, their mineral, physical, and mechanical requirements in the soil. 60 Forestry Quarterly. What we do know is perhaps sufficient to guard against the crudest mistakes, but not to make any sure judgment of choice. Exact comparative experiments based on better knowledge of physiology and biology must supplant the onesided experience. We know that thinnings produce accelerated increment, but we do not yet know how far in this the different factors, light, change of soil, competition of roots, etc., participate, nor do we know that this increment is distributed to height and diameter with different species at different ages and in different forest types (Waldform): we do not know how the vegetation under the trees—grass, undergrowth, and intermediate stand—influence the accretion of the stand, nor when to avoid or when to favor this vegetation; nor is it sure that a woody vegetation, called protective cover, is really more useful than a vegetation of weeds or grass; nor how far continued use of one species or a change to another, different in moisture, different in treatment, will influence the soil. As soon as it comes to new introduction of mixtures we stand before unsolved problems. Schiffel asserts that each species grows best with itself. We know that, but not to what degree soil conditions influence the height growth of different species variously, and how to use such knowledge in the choice of mix- tures. We do not yet know how manner of starting the crop, spacing, and thinning influence development of stand and soil conditions: We even formulate general rules of thinning when undoubtedly each species makes special demands. We know that spruce is a pronounced light-needing species in the Alps at tree limit and becomes tolerant in the lowlands; but we do not know where the limits lie nor how admixture might be utilized to secure the best financial results. A number of recommended and practiced mixtures are shown up as deterring examples, fol- lowed by some assertions: “No species needs a nurse (Tretb- holz) if the stand is of a density adequate to its characteristics and to the site.” In Schiffel’s opinion to grow beech and fir as soil cover in oak, pine, and larch stands in a costly measure, unless it is intended that after the harvest of the latter the former are to take their place. From the growing practice of groupwise mixture, the deduction is.made#that “every species prospers best in its own company,” which may then lead to pure forest. Periodical Literature. 61 Finally as to a choice of a regeneration method, the argument that it should be a natural one is met with the question, whether “planting or sowing is unnatural; nature does not permit any- thing unnatural.” Wherever it is easier, less costly, possible in shorter time without other disadvantages to soil and stand, than with natural regeneration, to secure a new stand, artificial re- forestation is indicated. Even for given sites the question cannot yet be answered with dogmatic certainty, although for beech and fir (tolerant) the author thinks the natural method the rational one. The advantages of the artificial method are stated as saving in time, avoiding difficulties, damage in the harvest and its re- moval, greater ease in tending regular even-aged stands, inde- pendence of the harvest from the course of the regeneration both as to quantity and value. “That naturally regenerated stands on the same sites require longer rotations to furnish the same values as planted ones, is hardly any more in doubt; nor do I doubt that the felling and transportation in the selection forest requires more care, labor, and is more costly than in clearing.” Moreover, the natural methods require more skill and labor. Since the practitioners cannot very well wait to have all these questions settled by actual experiment, they have to help them- selves_as best they can’ by local experiences against absolute failure. But whether they secure the best results we shall not know, until silviculture is based not on a sum of rules gathered from unrelated empiric data, but on biology, physiology, meteor- ology, climatology—in other words, on real science; that sil- vicultural methods are the important factors in determining profitableness, and not formulas and working plans, we may know. Until a better scientific basis is furnished the exchange of opinion can hardly claim to be scientific or to be above the level of a chat. (If this severe arraignment of ignorance can be made against the German foresters by one of their leading lights, it certainly must teach modesty to us and it must postpone the desire to have a “‘silviculture on biological basis.”—Ed. ) Die 55. Generalversamlung und Exkursion des béhmischen Forst- vereines in Pilsen. Uber das Prinzip und die Anwendbarkeit des Femelschlagverfahrens. Waldbauliche Kontroversen. ° Centralblatt fiir das gasammte Forstwesen, April, 1904, pp. 163- 174; October, 1904, pp. 387-394; November, 1904, pp. 435-451. 62 Forestry Quarterly. Dr. Metzger, the expert attaché to the Ger- Forest Experi- man legation at Copenhagen, reports that ments in Sweden. forest meteorological stations, to study forest influences, were started in Sweden in 1876 and that results were published in 1884, 1887, and 1895. After seven years of discussion a forest experiment station was established in 1902 at Stockholm/ independent of any other insti- tution, with the object of studying all forest-biological and purely forest-technical questions, which are basic for Swedish forest management, with a very miserly annual appropriation of $4,300. The two divisions, botanical and forestal, are under the direction of two experts, with an assistant to each. The institution is under the Department of Agriculture, and its working plans are deter- mined every three years by a commission of at least five, besides the two directors. The director of the forest school, the professor concerned, and three outsiders complete the commission” The first plan is for the botanical division to make biological investi- gations of forest types (Waldformen) ; to investigate the differ- ent races of spruce and pine in Sweden; to study a typic ex- ample of bog formation; and to inspect and determine upon a method of control for Swedish seed/ The attention of the/forestal division is to be diverted to experiments in thinnings on com- parative areas; to construction of yield tables; and to establish- ing experiment areas for different methods of natural regenera- tion in the selection forest of Norrland and Darlekarlien. In the latter direction the influence of leaving or removing the brush, of burning over, of harrowing or plowing the ground, of assisting natural regeneration by sowing spruce and pine, will be deter- mined, all on small areas not over one to three acres in extent. For the experiments in thinning a classification of stems is made, slightly different from the usual. A. Trees participating in upper crown cover. 1. Dominant with normal crown and well formed shaft. 2. Dominant with abnormal crown or poor shaft form. (a) Compressed sidewise; (b) wolf trees; (c) double leaders or other malformations; (d) whips; (e) damaged. B. Trees not participating in upper crown cover. 3. Laggards, with crown still free at the top. Periodical Literature 63 4. Oppressed, but still growing. 5. Dying and dead, also damaged by snow. The degrees of thinning also vary somewhat from the German program. Grade A, “cleaning,” removes only class V, the area serving merely for comparison with the original stand. The other grades are_called “help thinnings,” since they are made to help the main stand. Grade B, corresponding to the German “moderate,” takes classes IV, V, and II b, d, e, so far as these cannot be improved by trimming. Grade C, the German “severe,” leaves only class I, except that part of class III required to fill blanks. Grades D and E, called “crown thinning,” take all trees of class V, as well as II b, c, d, e, besides trees to open up too dense groups of trees of even value, leaving class III and IV, grade E, confined to older stands, taking also whatever impedes the development of class I. In addition, two grades of openings (Lichtungen) are differen- tiated, the moderate taking 20 per cent., the severe 40 per cent. of the cress section area of a stand after a C grade thinning. The experimental areas are to be not less than half an acre, isolated by openings ten to fifteen yards wide, a complete series requiring nine areas. The inspection is to be made every five years. The referee is skeptical regarding these latter experiments, because they are too complicated and follow too closely German ideas. He believes that the Danish practice would form a better basis for these plans. This is questionable, since climatic and forest conditions on the small insular territory of Denmark can in no way furnish indications for the extensive (50 million acres) forests of Sweden, which are mainly coniferous. Das forstliche Versuchswesen in Schweden. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, November, 1904, pp. 721-722. A note based on a report by Borchardt, at- Forest Planta- _taché to the German legation at St. Peters- tions on the burg, is of interest in giving a rather dis- Russian Steppes. couraging account of the result of the planting begun on the Russian plains by German colonists at the end of the 18th century. By the middle ~ of the 19th century, when the government began operations, these plantations aggregated over 25,000 acres. “The problem of 64 Forestry Quarterly. afforesting the plains is still unsolved. Whether and to what ex- tent an influence upon the climate, especially upon the devasta- ting winds, which cover fields with shifting sands, exists cannot yet be answered. The practitioners think a forest management with 40 to 50-year rotation possible; science considers it impos- sible to establish and maintain compact forests on the open steppe, mainly because the roots find sufficient moisture only at a depth of 10 to 12 feet, and hence mostly die early.”” Nevertheless the interest of the population is great, because they hope for protec- tion to their farms from the plantings, and the State distributes plant material free of charge. Besides rabbits, the insect damage is great. Ash, and more or less elm, maple, and oak plantations have been destroyed entirely by Cassus aesculi. The State plan- tations are executed by Mennonites under military discipline, six companies of 100 each being employed. Oak, ash, elm, maple, basswood, and basswood and Juniperus virgimana are being planted; also pines on the shifting sands, the Scotch Pine being a success. The method in general is to plow up to sixteen inches deep and plant with heavy hoes; the cost is said to be $10 per acre. While formerly only willows were used on the sand dunes, now pine, aspen, birch and Black Locust also are employed. The last decade seems to have seen new impetus to this move- ment. Aus den Steppenforsteien Stidrusslands. Zeitschrift ftir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 652-653. To prevent the disadvantages of the group Group System. system, which consists in the drying out of the soil of the stand surrounding the group and in the sunscald of the trees of the stand exposed on the south and southwest, it is proposed by Forstmeister Kullman, of Darrmstadt, to cover the exposed area with brush, which also keeps the game from the young growth and the grass down, at an expense of $1.00 to $1.30 per acre, and to tie brush to the trees with flower wire, at a cost of about 2 cents per yard. Satisfactory protection was secured at $1.50 to $2.00 per group. Beitrag sur Boden-und Bestandspflege, insbesondere fiir die Gruppen- wirtschaft. Allegemeine Forst-- und Faedzeitung, October, oS gt PP. (379; 380. - 4 Periodical Literature. 65 MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT. The quarrel between the two schools of Forest Rent forest finance, that of the forest rent and V ersus that of the soil rent, continues, although it Soil Rent. ought to be easy to agree that the latter has theoretically the only correct principle. But practically its application is largely impossible, owing to lack of data with which to make a sure calculation, namely, a tenable in- terest rate and a knowledge of future prices. Forstrath Usener accentuates these difficulties. In 1815 State loans in Germany bore 6%; gradually the interest rate sank to 4% in 1830, and during the next decade still lower, to rise in consequence of the revolution of 1848, and remain for a long time, at 5%. At present Prussian consols are worth 3.5%, English consols 2.8%. Whether in the 60 to 160 years which must elapse until the har- vesting of a forest, the interest rate will have fallen or risen, and how much, nobody can tell; the rate to be used in soil rent calcu- lations can, therefore, be only speculative. The actual soil value varies considerably within small range; in Alsace, for instance, it lies probably between 30 and 170 cubic feet of production per acre, but soil prices vary quite independently of production by foree of location. Knowing that prices for certain woods and dimensions have in the last twenty-five years risen 100% and more—in Alsace during the last fifteen years at an annual rate of 2.35% —that other sortments have fallen in price, and that a whole industry (tanbark) has become entirely unprofitable, it seems untenable to use any present values, interest rates, etc., for deriving from future yield a forest value. The author has there- fore used another method of valuation which he thinks led to practical results; but the method is not revealed. He points out that the determination of increments is expensive in time and money, especially as it has to be made for each territory separ- ately, for he found that to attain a diameter of 24 inches in one locality 75, in another 150, and in third 300 years were required. In a selection forest matters become still more complex, almost impossible of statement, and similarly in mixed forest. Further- more, after the felling budget corresponding to a rotation is de- termined, windfalls are constantly disturbing it and forcing to a 5 66 Forestry Quarterly. different budget. Considering, therefore, the unreliable nature of the soil rent calculations, the value accretion which comes from longer than soil rent rotations, the price accretion, and the fellings which are unforeseen as results of damage, the author thinks there can be little doubt which school to follow for the policy of State or communal property. Waldreinertrags- und Bodenreinertragswirtschaft. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, October, 1904, pp. 345-351. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY. An amusing incident, namely, ignorance on Matchwood the part of German match makers as to the Requirements identity of “Cork Pine” with our common and Species. White Pine, led Dr. Mayr into the investi- gation of its value for matches as well as the value of other species. Dr. Mayr himself does not seem to know that cork pine is a term used to designate pine of a certain quality which is now largely a matter of the past, and proposes to use it as the general name of the pine. The points to be considered in. the qualities of wood for match manufacture are low specific gravity, high degree of elasticity, even structure, a quiet even flame, ease of penetration for paraffin, and cheapness. Light wood saves in freight, is softer and hence easily manufactured, favors ready ignition and continuance of flame, and permits easy penetration of paraffin. So if of sufficient strength and elasticity, wood below 0.4 specific gravity is prefer- able to heavier woods. Dr. Mayr refers to the natural law announced by him fifteen years ago—that in every species the weight diminishes from the optimum or central field of its distribution toward the outskirts, no matter whether the ring width grows (toward warmer cli- mate) or diminishes (toward colder climate), the same law ruling with regard to the change from a certain optimum soil for the species to less favorable ones, change in density of stand, etc. Conditions of the Norway Spruce are adduced to illustrate this law, the alpine and northern limits_of the Spruce furnishing the lightest wood as well as the warmest situations in its field of dis- Periodical Literature. 67 tribution; the absolute best, rich garden soil, forms the lightest porous wood, and so does the open position which gives rise to quickest growth. Dr. Mayr very wisely points out that owing to differences in growth conditions there can be found side by side trees with heavy wood and trees with light wood, hence the insuf- ficiency of state—based in single determinations. Farther on, however, he permits himself to make from entirely insufficient data (a few trees) the deduction that in Germany White Pine makes neither heavier nor lighter wood than in its native habitat; and other deductions also appear, but poorly supported so far as data are concerned. He adduces the weights given for Picea engelmanni (34.5) and Picea pungens (37.4) in the Tenth Census as probably abnormally light, else these species would be better for matches than White Pine. Because they exceed the specific weight of 4o, the genera Juniperus, Thuja, and Cupressus are excluded from consideration. The fact that heartwood formation accompanied by change of color increases the weight (the color bodies being heavier than the plasma bodies from which they are formed) is alluded to. The best matchwood is deciared to be Cunninghamia sinensis, with a specific weight of 26.7 and suffi- cient strength; next all the Chamaecyparis (in spite of weight!), a number of Thuja (in spite of weight!) Taxrodium, Sequoia, Cryptomeria, etc. Dr. Mayrs wonders why Abies are not more used; they should be excellent for matchwood. The yellow pines are excluded. Of broadleaf woods all those with fine, even pith rays and specific weight under 50—under 35 is too soft—Magnolia are at the upper limit. Tilia, Populus, and Salix are especially important, and it is stated that most foursided matches (in Ger- many) are manufactured from veneer sheets of these genera. Besides, Liriodendron, Negundo, and Nyssa (? !) are considered adapted, as well as several Japanese species. As to strength, the conifers are preferable because less liable to cross grain, though they also are subject to this fault, “es- pecially on sunny and shallow sites.’’ Cross grain is rarely found in White Pine. No conifer with “normal” (straight?) grain is insufficiently strong for matchwood. Those which, like the white pine group, do not develop a pronounced summer wood zone are. most serviceable because of the ease of penetration by paraffin. Resin contents, although increasing inflammability, interfere with strength and penetrability, and also smoke and smell. 68 Forestry Quarterly. Finally, experiments on the adaptation of various woods were made with fifty probably useful species, by using foursided matches and noting the time they needed, when placed horizon- tally, to burn down, to 3 cm. (a little over 1 inch), either with or without paraffin impregnation. Without paraffin the duration was longer in broadleaf woods than in conifers, the flame more even and less spluttering, which in conifers makes it necessary to turn the match to prevent its extinguishment. Cunninghamia and the white pines, and the Cupressus species behaved the best. Impregnation with paraffin hastens the progress and illuminating power of the flame by 4-6 seconds in the average. With such impregnation the following scale gauged by duration, luminosity, and size and regularity of flame, 7. e., quality, was obtained: Tilia, Populus, Salix, Lirtodendron, Alnus, Juglans, and then the coni- fers with Cunninghamia and the white pines first, which also throw less sparks and splutter less than the rest of the conifers. A discussion of price follows, in which the statement of interest is that White Pine from Canada, delivered loco Reinach in Baden, in the shape of prisms, sells at 40 to 50 cents per cubic foot ($34- 42 per M board feet), a price which it is claimed is attained in the German forest only by the best ash or oak—hardly by the finest spruce resonance wood. (We are inclined to think that there is some error in the comparisons, and that the investigations lack in precision.—Ed. ) Uber Holzer fur die Ziindholzindustrie, insbesondere iiber die “Korkkie- fer.’ Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, October, 1904, pp. 351-350. How a forest industry may decline owing Oak Tanbark. to the competition of substitutes is showr in an article on the market for oak tanbark by Dr. Hess. This industry, which relies on oak coppice with short (12- to 16-year) rotations, has been very lucrative in the Rhenish provinces until 1876, when the price per 100 pounds was nearly $2.50; but the price then gradually declined to 45 per cent. of that rate in 1903, while labor wages rose, and an import duty directed against quebracho and other substitutes did not have any effect. The necessity of conversion to timber forest, oak on-the better, conifer on the poorer sites, is suggested, Ergebnisse des. Eichenrinden-Marktes su Hirschhorn. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, September, 1904, p. 313. o Periodical Literature. | 69 A note based upon a report by Dr. Metzger Lumber speaks of the efforts of some mill owners Monopoly in in Scandinavia to regulate the output in Scandinavia order to control prices, the cut in 1900 being reduced 4o per cent. and in 1902 20 per cent. Nevertheless, the exports increased again in 1902 to the extent of 100,000 Petersburg stan- dards (165 cubic feet each). The bulk of the exports goes to England, with 75 million cubic feet, France taking 26 million, Germany 16 million, the total being about 165 million cubic feet. “A general increase in prices on the russo-finnish-scandinavian market was to be expected, in which the reports from America had an influence to the effect that the increase in consumption by home industries has reduced American competition more and more.” The formation of a trust among the millmen to control the Swedish wood market is under consideration; and the forest owners are trying to combine in order to counterbalance the effects of monopolistic organization among the millmen; while the Swedish forestry association formed in 1902 has the objects of combating the excessive exploitation and of introducing rational working, protective legislation, etc. A similar movement goes on in Norway. Waldbenutzung und Holzexport in Skandinavien. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 653-555. Under the title “A Neglected Industry” Naval Stores Mr. Grunwald points out that Germany in Germany. could and should revise the naval store in- dustry in its forests, using as it does about 50 million pounds of spirits of turpentine and 175 million pounds of camphor, etc., or about 8 million dollars’ worth of naval stores, most of which comes from the United States, which furnish four- fifths of the world’s consumption, the rest being produced by France and Austria. The Naval Store Trust of the United States gives rise to these discussions, having in the years from 1897 to 1904 raised prices for spirits 100 per cent., and the French producers also found it necessary to combine into a syndicate. Substitutes are being used as far as practicable, but they are mostly not satisfactory. Under reference to the fact, that during 70 Forestry Quarterly. the war of secession a naval industry was established in Corsica, which collapsed when the prices sank again after the war, it is pointed out that the industry abandoned in the middle of the last century might be profitably re-established, now, especially to prevent an outflow of German capital to the United States. Eine vernachlaissigte Industrie. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 640-643. The Technical Bureau of the Austrian army Preservatives _ has made tests of various preservatives for for Building building materials. It is stated that not Materials. the depth of penetration, but the concen- tration of the preservative is essential: Painting with sufficiently strong and concentrated antiseptics protects against rot even when fungi are already established in the interior; the stronger the antiseptic the more superficial may be its application; the weaker the antiseptic the deeper it must pene- trate to secure resuls. Fluoric acid (50% concentration) and fluorine compounds are specially recommended, besides the phenols, which for building materials can be used by painting and dipping; the former being not only more effective but cheaper. A mixture of ferric fluor or zinc fluor with fluoric acid is recommended. Antinonnin, anti- germin, and antipolypin were found satisfactory materials. Uber Holzkonservierung im Hochbaue. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, October, 1904, pp. 398-403. The United States Navy Department favors Fire-proof the discontinuance of the use of “fire- Wood. proofed” wood in naval construction. The following are the main reasons ad- vanced for this discontinuance: (1) The cost; extra expense in working, due to the fact that the salts contained in the wood in- jure the tools; extra cost and repairs due to the lessening of the strength of the wood by the process and that the salts contained have an injurious effect on the paint used for its protection; ‘also the deterioration of metal fittings upon contact with the wood, due to the corroding effect of the contained salts. (2) There is a reduction of the fire-resisting qualities in time, especially in the case of exposed timbers. ~ - Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair. Re- viewed in the St. Louis Lumberman, January 15, 1905, p. 102. Periodical Literature. 7s STATISTICS AND HISTORY: The Royal Statistical Bureau of Prussia has Prussia. issued its first yearbook, for 1903. The total forest area of Prussia in 1900 was 20,426,000 acres, of which just about one-half was in private ownership, the State owning 6,318,000 acres, and communal or corporation forests occupying somewhat over 3,500,000 acres. The different methods of forest management were distributed as follows in their rounded off proportions: Percentage of total forest area. State. Others. MECIMUOUS Macaca Ss Cass Berga 25 30 ele DWHOTest,} iiss ofa scl alee go 56 Selection, forest) 2.8360). 3 ite) SiNple /cOppice \.)94/4).)5,2/52 8 6 25 Coppice with Standards .... I 9 100 100 Ganiterous a ieee uk 75 70 PRISE LORESB UO is Sah 99.2 87 ROClEGHOMLTOTESbs ./ 5.4) 664 8 13 I0O 100.00 100 100 The age class distribution in high forest exhibits the near approach to sustained yield management, especially in the State forests and the failure to approach it in private forests for rota- tions over 60 years, corporation forests holding middle ground. Age Class—Years. Clearings and blanks. Ownership. Over 81 61 4I 21 I to to to to to 100 = 100 80 60 40 20 Area—Thousand Hectar. EMEC a eco MCN 386 310 375 489 464 465 67 Corporation 9) Ua ac. SRG LOT | REG) 2EIn aay hoe 29 abe Va hiss Ny ote g ELE), LG0) ) 320% 569) 763), 770 126 72 Forestry Quarterly. The total cut produced in the Kingdom during the year 1900, in addition to 230,000,000 cubic feet of brush, stumpwood, and the like, was workwood to the amount of 340,000,000 cubic feet and fuelwood over three inches in diameter, 296,000,000, or only 31 cubic feet per acre. The price of wood in 1900, somewhat higher than in the fol- lowing two years, was a little less than 10 cents per cubic foot for workwood (stumpage with logging cost added) and for fuelwood 34 cents per cubic feet, which may be roughly translated into $17.00 per M feet and $3.00 per cord. Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir den Preussischen Staat. Price, one mark. Reviewed in Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen. November, 1904, pp. 727-730. The above statistics for Prussia are German Empire. supplemented for the entire German Empire in the Quarterly of the Sta- tistical Bureau, 1903, II, which contains the census of 1900. The total area of forest has grown slightly (0.9 per cent.) during the last twenty years, and is now (1900) 34,526,000 acres, or 25.89 per cent. of the total land area; in addition there are 1,580,000 acres fit for reforestation, mostly in Prussia. For larger districts or states the percentage of forest cover varies between 18 and 38 per cent. The ownership conditions also have changed slightly, private and corporation forests having grown less by 2 per cent., so that now the following proportions obtain: Forest. Per cent. CLO WAR Ra BAe helo 0 evans casrewidse Sma eed ee Se 1.8 BREE) | em Aaa up sess ates nance VN tase ok Ace ai S17 SSEaLe PALE WOWAIEL ets oes ys wai sc Risscielctaicce © agis RA he ayo Comiininal pags ste abet e ies d a stelecctive wee oe Ser ea 16.1 LA MSEHOUEN Oe ah Cmte Bie Bier ie ohh toy o's ae ee 1.5 Corporation \...4)...'.5 Penh ee Rie. 2 nik lgh ule. Soe eal ese ee eteane 2.2 PURVES We as Slut eRe ERO Cas Chale) Sikie welsh eR 46.5 100.0 In Bavaria, however, the State property has been considerably reduced. The distribution of species. and-kind of management shows that conifers have gained ground and deciduous woods have been Periodical Literature. 73 reduced, the reduction taking place mainly in coppice with stand- ards and apparently in selection forest. The distribution is as follows: Forest. 32.59% 67.59% Deciduous. Coniferous. Per cent, 1) Percent pETCE Ne ayaa boats see wo 6.8 PEARGAL 11 COPPMCE es Qs sc.n 2 oe eras 60's « 5.0 me SE RSCTA igs sate ie ate a Se ld 2.3 7.4 MRP Iya oe fille wav aresiale oe eae os 6 - ie 60.1 aie ete EM TN pS Aol aalem SRS ON ea bo wo - 18.4 5 ee [PLT Ska Ah Pa ea Ga AR a ee Aue 68.0 REPEC er Re Be ed it os ti ashorace as 4s eee 30.0 Coniferous forest prevails in Eastern and Middle Germany, especially in Brandenburg, where it represents 83 per cent.; de- ciduous forest in the west-and south. Coppice and coppice with standards are mostly in private hands, as well as coniferous selection forest; the States control the tim- ber-forest area to the extent of go per cent. of their holdings in deciduous and nearly roo per cent. of their own coniferous forest, or nearly 40 per cent. of all coniferous forest. A tolerably good age class gradation appears in 40-year periods, at least in the deciduous forest. Age Class—Years. Forest Over 80 41-80 I-40 Blanks Per Cent, Percent.) Percent. Per ecar BMemmuous .../.... 31.6 36.4 30.8 2 MOUIEETOS) ....... 15.8 Barr 47.6 2.5 The conditions in the State forests alone are better: DWecauOUS, 0226...» : 37.4 34.3 get i:2 Coniferous ........... 24.2 34.0 39.1 2.7 The uncontrolled private forest, which comprises 12.5 million acres, shows a much smaller amount of old timber and a much poorer age class distribution: PICCIAHOUS eh 5.05 o.0, 18.2 34.5 44.8 2.5 oniterous. 2.5.2. 8.4 30.0 56.4 5-2 The difference in yield also is instructive in showing the rela- tively poor results of the uncontrolled private forest, the State forests furnishing the largest amount of workwood, 43.5 per’ 74 Forestry Quarterly. cent., and the largest amount of timberwood generally (over 3 inches) 40.3 per cent., while the uncontrolled private forests fur- nish from a larger area only 25.7 per cent. and 26.2 per cent. of the supply classes of wood. The total cut of workwood is somewhat over 700 million cubic feet (about 4 billion board feet), and of the better class of fuelwood 630 million (about 6 million cords), or altogether not quite 40 cubic feet per acre of wood over three inches in diameter. Further interesting detail is found in this publication in addition to three maps of distribution. Die Forsten und Holzungen im Deutschen Reich. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, December, 1904, pp. 773-780. The results of a well managed smaller Alsace Lorraine. forest administration appear in the statis- tics of Alsace Lorraine. They refer to round 375,000 acres of State forest and 450,000 acres of corpora- tion forest. The cut on the former was in 1902-3 round 23.6 million cubic feet outside of brush, etc., or not quite 60 cubic feet per acre, with 55 per cent. workwood, while in the corporation forests it was 72 cubic feet, with only 33 per cent. workwood. The cost of logging and cordwood in the latter came to 14 cents per cubic foot. The price obtained averaged 7.66 cents. The prices for different species were: Species. Workwood. Fuelwood. Cents per cubic foot. RUMBA aa Kile: acl sg < Sue LW ea NN ee 18.6 5.1 PSPC RGR antl cast iin ohcicreod Se te ane et ite 9.9 6.2 POLUW ODER Da ah. oe scien pie tarhtaae Ue 8.2 4.2 ROCIRECI SI ate she ahs). Sais: picts Sewn hese ele o 9.0 4.5 Wty (ic 2 oak ge Alay OE ge a RMN Ay fc PV 10.2 5.6 In the State forests the total expenditure was $2.12 per acre, the gross income $4.56 in the regular management; but through windfalls and in other ways extraordinary expenditures and in- comes bring the yearly balance to $3.80 per acre, as against the regular result of $2.44 per acre. The expenses per acre dif- ferentiate themselves into management and protection, 65 cents, or 31 per cent. of the total; woodcutting, 81 cents, or 38 per cent. ; planting, 13 cents; roadbuilding, 10 cents; or altogether, $90,000. ut a . The wages during the logging season were 52 cents per day; Periodical Literature. 75 during summer felling, 72 cents; while planting cost 50-53 cents for men and 30-35 cents for women. A man’s average earnings were 54 cents in spring and summer, 48 cents in fall and winter; the logging cost about 2-3 cents per cubic foot and about the same per cord foot. The items of the planting plan may be of interest by the makeup and cost items to justify its reproduction here, with figures somewhat rounded off. Chapter I. Natural regeneration. a. Initiation of same: 118 acres @ $4.26 per acre. b. Repairing imperfect regeneration: 1. By seed: 35 acres deciduous and 18 coniferous, @ $2.30 per acre. 2. By planting: 335 acres deciduous and 425 coniferous, @ $7.65 per acre, or $2.45 per 1,000 plants. Chapter IJ. Artificial reforestation: 1,040 acres new, 730 acres repair. 1. By seed: 278 acres deciduous, 275 coniferous, @ $3.64 per acre. 2. By planting: 630 acres deciduous, 875 acres coniferous, @ $8.00 per acre, or $1.66 per 1,000 plants. Chapter III. Underplanting: 378 acres new, 134 acres repair. I. By seed: 24 acres deciduous, 8 coniferous, @ $3.95 per acre. 2. By planting: 420 acres deciduous, go coniferous, @ $5.85 per acre, or $1.12 per 1,000 plants. Chapter IV. Nurseries: 112 acres with $11,500. Chapter V. Purchase of seed and seedlings: for seed $4,400; for plants, $1,500. Chapter VI. General care of felling areas and trees: 17,100 acres with $10,500. Chapter VII. Care of Soil: For irrigation, $120; for drainage, $380; for care of ditches, $820; for protection ditches and leaf catches, $4.0. Chapter VIII. Planting tools: $870. Chapter IX. Sundries: 26,000 yards of fence, etc., $3,800; other improvements, $2,370. Total expenditure, $60,000, or 16 cents per acre. Forststatistisches aus Elsass-Lothringen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 659-664. 76 Forestry Quarterly. The Statistisches Jahrbuch of the Austrian Austria. Department of Agriculture for 1903 brings the following data of interest referring to conditions for 1900: Total forest area is a round 24 million acres, of which not quite 8 per cent. are State forest, somewhat less than 4 per cent. forests under State administration, 13 per cent. municipal forest, 17 per cent. belonging to various institutions, and 58 per cent. private forest. Coniferous forest covers 60 per cent of the area, deciduous forest a little over 20 per cent., and mixed forest the balance. Coppice and composite forests are found on only 4 per cent., the balance being timber forest. The annual accretion in timber forest is stated to be 45 cubic feet, with 45 per cent. work- wood, in composite forest 35.2 cubic feet, with 20 per cent. work- wood, in coppice 34.5 cubic feet, with 11 per cent. workwood. Since everybody in Prussia who desires to Hunting hunt must pay for a permit, we know from in Prussia. the statement of the forest administration the precise number of hunters for each year. From April, 1903, to March, 1904, there were 180,771, of which, however, 22,550 had only a daily pass. The income from this source was a round $540,000. Nachweisung der im Preussischen Staate ausgegebenen Jagdscheine. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 658-650. From the second volume of the Fourth Canada. Census of Canada we glean the following: During the last census year the square, waney, and flat timber cut amounted to 11,726,914 cubic feet, with a value of $1,480,312. Compared with previous years this shows a great decline. In 1891 the total production was 44,- 711,868 cubic feet; in 1881 it was 111,633,862 cubic feet, and in 1871 it was 65,669,871 cubic feet. In addition to the falling off in these classes of timber, the aggregate production of logs of all kinds diminished by 25 per cent. during the last decade, and the only increase in miscellaneous products was in wood for pulp, of which there were prodticed 261,110 cords in 1891 and 668,034 Periodical Literature. 77 in 1g01. The value of forest products of all kinds in IgoI was $51,082,689, in addition to which furs of wild animals were ob- tained to the value of $899,645. Nine pages of tables in the American Lum- Lake States. berman for January 21, 1905, give detailed information of the different milling districts in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The significant fact which should be noted by every forester is that nearly 600,000,000 board feet less of White Pine and Red Pine were cut in 1904 than in 1903. The decline of the cut in our Lake States is be- coming more rapid every year. The efforts to secure a rational forest policy German in German Africa seem, according to an Colonial Policy. official document, not to have had satisfac- tory results so far, because of lack of per- sonnel and the great variety of economic and site conditions. In Southwest Africa a nursery has been established successfully and next year forest planting is to begin. In East Africa the immediate aim is to preserve the small forest area of the govern- ment and add to it by reserving suitable areas of bushland for af- forestation, and also to extend Government control over the pri- vate forests. The Government forest under management com- prises so far only about 45,000 acres. Yet a cut of nearly five million cubic feet was made in 1903, that with some bark netted $5,400. For reforesting the bushlands the species used, besides bamboo, mangrove, Albizzia Lebbeck, and Cassia florida, are teak, mahogany and a wood similar to it, Erythrophlorum guineuse, and Chlorophora excelsa odum. Private management begins to develop favorably; now all the better woods from clearings are utilized, while formerly they were allowed to rot. Several plant- ers own sawmills and bring lumber to market, especially in Zan- zibar. Forstliches aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika. Zeitschrift fir Forst- und Jagdwesen, December, 1904, pp. 771-780. 78 Forestry Quarterly. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. A long, very well written article on import Differential duties and freight rates for wood, by Prof. Freight Rates. | Jentsch, quotes Bismark as to the necessity of adjusting railroad rates at the same time as revising import duties. ‘The situation in Germany is briefly stated: German forestry needs a protective tariff, because its product is not as that of most of the exporting countries, a free gift of nature roughly exploited; but secured by economic effort with the necessity for capital and labor in its production, 1. e., more expensively. But since Germany cannot produce all the wood needed, the tariff is gauged so that it will not prevent importation, namely, about 5 cents per 200 pounds on raw ma- terials, while manufactured wood pays six times as much, or about 30 cents per 200 pounds. Austria, which sends to Ger- many most of the manufactured lumber imports—a round 25 million dollars’ worth—is most concerned in the tariff, especially since Austrians have engaged on a large scale to exploit the forests of Bosnia, creating thereby a severe competition to their own country and threatening the German mill business as well as the forest administrations. Moreover, Austria has met the Ger- man tariff by reduced freight rates on the State railroads and in- creased export duties on round logs, so that the import duty has become nugatory. Interesting examples and calculations are given. The author suggests meeting this condition by differ- ential and discriminating rates on the German railways. It is shown by statistics that, although importation is necessary, there is need of enabling some of the eastern German provinces to compete with the importers in the western provinces by ship- ping their surplus at lower rates. A calculation of the shipments from these provinces to the western, highly industrial centers of consumption shows that probably 60 per cent. of their cut, or 50 million cubic feet of woodwork, is shipped, while about 120 million are received by the western provinces from foreign sources in competition with the East. The consumption of the territory concerned is about 260 million (35 cubic feet per capita as against 16 cubic feet for the whole empire), of which only 30 million are produced in that-territory, the balance being im- ported by way of the North Sea. : Periodical Literature. 79 It is also believed that by favoring the eastern shipments a better equalization of wood prices may be obtained. During the period of 1895-99 forest prices for workwood were 7 to 8.8 cents, or 13 per cent., higher in the Rhenish provinces, while lumber at the same time was about 45 per cent. higher. A different freight rate for the long and the short haul, against which so much ob- jection is made with us, is advocated. Beitrége zur Festsetzung der Zollsitze und Eisenbahnfrachttarife fir Holz. Zeitschrift fir Forst- und Jagdwesen, October, 1904, pp. 611-6209. MISCELLANEOUS. The increased difficulties of logging in Saw- winter and the desire to minimize the null on Wheels. amount of labor have led Mr. Wm. Cook, a preminent lumberman of Hillsdale, On- tario, Canada, to build a mill that can be transported from place to place as the cutting proceeds. The mill is built in the same manner as the stationary mill, with engine and boiler and lumber, shingle, and wood-cutting machinery in one frame. The lower story is 70 feet by 12 feet, having two bents running lengthwise, built and bolted together like the framework of a bridge. The engine, boiler, shafting, and wood-cutting machinery are on this lower floor. On the upper story, 70 feet by 18 feet, is the sawmill proper. Along each side of the mill are five flanged wheels, through each of which extends a short shaft 24 inches in diameter, with a bearing at each end to support the mill. A space of six inches is left between the bearings and the flange of the wheel, so that the wheel may successfully round a curve. The wheels are placed on an ordinary railroad rail, which is spiked to a 6 by 10-inch timber laid upon ties. The mill is moved by means of a block and tackle, the power being supplied by the engine operating the mill. The daily capacity of the mill is 25,000 feet of lumber, 20,000 shingles, and as much cordwood as is on the ground when the timber is cut. The land is cleared of everything but brush, and when the timber for about 200 feet ahead is cut, the mill is moved along. The longest haul would not be over 300 feet. 80 Forestry Quarterly. This mill has worked well in practice, and by its use the cost of the lumber from the stump to the finished product is said to be but $3.00 per thousand. a Methods of Sawmilling. Canada Lumberman, January, 1905, Pp. 40. An oak forest estimated to date back at least 6,000 years has been found in a turf moor in southern Sweden, 20-25 feet below the surface. The stumps are of enormous size and the wood so well preserved that the minutest detail is recognizable and much of its life history, such as the attacks of parasites and in- sects, now unknown, can be read from it. Several horns of elk found show a very different flatter and broader form than those of the present. The underwood appears to have been mainly birch and pine, also well preserved. Conditions surrounding this interesting find suggest that it represents a landslide into the basin of a lake, similar to a more recent occurrence of that nature in Norway. Notizen. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, November, 1904, Dp. 477. An interesting article in the Forum (January-March, 1905) on German and American forestry methods, by Guenther Thomas, editor of Die New Yorker Staats Zeitung, seems to have been inspired by the forestry exhibits at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, which he declares “has been a revelation to the American visitor.”’ The introduction deals with the fundamental hindrance to the advancement of forestry in this country, viz: the indefinite idea of the masses as to what forestry really means, and the failure to realize that it has a sound economic basis. He points out that the proper time to check reckless use of timber resources is too often missed, while forestry is not resorted to until an actual shortage is felt. The result of inaction is shown in Spain, where the country’s decline dates from the time her timber supply be- came exhausted. ’ The historical sketch of the development of forestry in Ger- many and America is too brief to be satisfactory, and, in com- mon with that of the development of forestry instruction in Ger- many, seems somewhat foreign to the title of the article. Of ee Periodical Literature. 8I greater interest is the outline of study at the present forest acad- emies of Eberswalde and Hain-Mutnden, and the subsequent steps in the foresters’ career until he becomes “Oberforster.” For America there are described the conditions under which the American Forestry Association was founded, the early days of the Bureau of Forestry, the work of Dr. Fernow, and the cre- ation of the New York State College of Forestry. Governor Odell’s action in abolishing the College of Forestry at Cornell is severely criticised. The writer is evidently not intimately acquainted with the policy and field work of the Bureau of Forestry, although it is well brought out that American foresters are dealing with con- ditions peculiar to this country and are carrying on their work regardless of the methods used abroad. The title leads the reader to expect a more comprehensive com- parison between the administrative and silvicultural methods em- ployed in the forests of-Germany and America, but outside of disappointment in this direction, the article is both interesting and instructive. NEWS AND NOTES. E. A. STERLING, in Charge. Of all the much good forestry legislation under consideration during the present legislative session throughout the country, none will be so important a development for the profession of foresters and for the advancement of forestry in the United States as the forest reserve transfer approved by President Roose- velt, February 1. The principles to govern the administration of the Federal forest reserves by a trained Forest Service are outlined in the following letter: “Unitep States DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, “OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, “WasHincton, D. C., February 1, 1905. “The Forester, Forest Service. “Sir: The President has attached his signature to the following Act: “An Act providing for the transfer of forest reserves from the Depart- ment of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture. “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture shall, from and after the passage of this Act, execute or cause to be executed all laws affecting public lands here- tofore or hereafter reserved under the provisions of section twenty-four of the Act entitled, “An Act to repeal the timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and Acts supplemental to and amendatory thereof, after such lands have been so reserved, excepting such laws as affect the surveying, prospecting, lo- cating, appropriating, entering, relinquishing, reconveying, certifying, or patenting of any such lands. “Sec. 2. That pulp wood or wood pulp manufactured from timber in the district of Alaska may be exported therefrom. ““Sec. 3. That forest supervisors and rangers shall be selected, when practicable, from qualified citizens of the State or Territories in which the said reserves, respectively, are situated. “See: 4. That rights of way for the construction and maintenance of dams, reservoirs, water plants, ditches, flumes, pipes, tunnels, and canals, within and across the forest reserves of the United States, are hereby granted to citizens and corporations of the United States for municipal or mining purposes, and for the purposes of the milling and reduction of ores, during the period of their beneficial use, under such rules and regu- lations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Interior and sub- ject to the laws of the State or Territory in which said reserves are respectively situated. “Sec. 5. That all money received from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources of said forest reserves shall be covered into the Treasury of the United States, and for a period of five years from the passage of this Act shall eonstitute a special fund available, until expended, as the Secretary of Agriculture may direct, for the pro- News and Notes. 83 tection, administration, improvement, and extension of Federal forest reserves. “Approved, February I, 1905.’ “By this Act the administration of the Federal forest reserves is trans- ferred to this Department. Its provisions will be carried out through the Forest Service, under your immediate supervision. You have already tentatively negotiated the transfer with the Commissioner of the General Land Office, whose powers and duties thus transferred I assign to you. Until otherwise instructed, you will submit to me for approval all ques- tions of organization, sales, permits, and privileges, except such as are entrusted by the present regulations to field officers on the ground. All officers of the forest reserve service transferred will be subiect to your instructions and will report directly to you. You will at once issue to them the necessary notice to this effect. “In order to facilitate the prompt transaction of business upon the forest reserves and to give effect to the general policy outlined below, you are instructed to recommend at the earliest practicable date whatever changes may be necessary in the rules and regulations governing the reserves, so that I may, in accordance with the provisions of the above Act, dele- gate to you and to forest reserve officers in the field, so much of my authority as may be essential to the prompt transaction of business, and to the administration of the reserves in accordance with locai needs. Until such revision is made, the present rules and regulations will remain in force, except those relating to the receipt and transmittal of moneys, in which case Special Fiscal Agerits of this Department will perform the duties heretofore rendered by the Receivers of Local Land Offices in ac- cordance with existing laws and regulations. The Chief of Records, Forest Service, is hereby designated a Special Fiscal Agent, and you will direct him at once to execute and submit for my approval a bond for Twenty Thousand Dollars. “On December 17, 1904, the President signed the following order: ““Tn the exercise of the power vested in the President by section 1753 of the~Revised Statutes and acts amendatory thereof: “Tt is ordered, That all persons employed in the field and in the Dis- trict of Columbia in the “protection and administration of forestry reserves in or under the General Land Office of the Interior Department” be classified and the civil-service Act and rules applied thereto, and that no person be hereafter appointed, employed, promoted, or transferred in said service until he passes an examination in conformity therewith, unless specifically exempted thereunder. This order shall apply to all officers and employees, except persons employed merely as laborers, and persons whose appointments are confirmed by the Senate.’ “This order classifies the whole Forest Reserve Service, now trans- ferred, and places it under the civil-service law. “In the administration of the forest reserves it must be clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies. All the resources of forest reserves are for use, and this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt and businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will insure the permanence of these resources. The vital importance of forest reserves to the great industries of the Western States will be largely increased in the near future by the con- tinued steady advance in settlkement and development. The permanence of the resources of the reserves is therefore indispensable to continued prosperity, and the policy of this Department for their protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, always bearing in mind that the conservative use of these resources in no way conflicts with their permanent value. You will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the home 84 Forestry Quarterly. builder first of all; upon whom depends the best permanent use of lands and resources alike. The continued prosperity of the agricultural, lum- bering, mining and live-stock interests is directly dependent upon a per- manent and accessible supply of water, wood and forage, as well as upon the present and future use of these resources under business-like regu- lations, enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and common sense. In the management of each reserve local questions will be decided upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered first, but with as little restriction to minor industries as may be possible; sudden changes in industrial conditions will be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice, and where conflicting interests must be reconciled, the question will always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run. “These general principles will govern in the protection and use of the water supply, in the disposal of timber and wood, in the use of the range, and in all other matters connected with the management of the reserves. They can be successfully applied only when the administration of each reserve is left very largely in the hands of the local officers, under the eye of thoroughly trained and competent inspectors. “Very respectfully, “JAMES WILSON, Secretary.” The positions of Forest Superintendent for Southern Califor- nia and for the northern division of the Sierra reserve, formerly held by Col. B. F. Allen and Charles S. Newhall, have been abolished. Former Forest Supervisor Charles A. Taggart of the Stanis- laus and Lake Tahoe reserves has been superseded by S. L. N. Ellis, formerly Forest Ranger-at-Large of the northern division of the Sierra reserve. F. S. Bartlett, formerly Forest Supervisor of the San Jacinto and Trabuco Canyon reserves, has resigned, his place being taken temporarily by Forest Ranger J. B. Bell. The death of Forest Supervisor I. B. Hannah of the Pecos River reserve, occurred on January 14th; his place is filled tem- porarily by Forest Ranger L. F. Kneipp, who was formerly on the Prescott reserve. Forest Inspector Louis A. Barrett is temporarily in charge of the western division of the Santa Barbara reserve. Forest Inspector H. D. Langille has left Washington for Al- turas, Cal., where he will organize the local administration of the Modoc and Warner Mountain reserves. The planting work in the San Gabriel Mountains near Los Angeles will be begun this spring with much promise of success. The recent heavy rains throughout Southern California have made conditions more favorable-for planting on the arid moun- tain slopes of that region than they have been for years. ‘This News and Notes. 85 is very fortunate since the planting experiments, which have been carried on under the direction of T. P. Lukens, have reached a stage where the seedlings now in the nurseries should be planted out upon the mountain slopes. Preparations for planting have been under way for some time by cutting lines through the brush and digging holes for the plants. The wet weather has now made possible the transfer of seedlings to the places prepared for them. If the winter continues rainy, some seventy-five acres will be planted to the various species adapted to the region, and by sev- eral different methods, in order to give the greatest experimental value to the work. If sufficient municipal funds are available, planting will also begin in Griffith Park, a forest tract recently acquired by the City of Los Angeles and which is to be planted according to plans prepared by G. B. Lull. G. W. Peavy, with F. B. H. Brown and E. C. Clifford as as- sistants, has gone to Santa Barbara, California, to begin exten- sive planting on the chaparrel-covered mountains of that region. A forest nursery will be established this spring and the actual work of planting on the mountain slopes begun as soon as seed- lings can be grown. This work meets a popular desire on the part of the people of that region, and is an important step in the enormous task of reforesting the important watersheds of South- ern California. The assistant professorship of forestry recently established in the University of Michigan has been filled by the appointment of Mr. Walter Mulford to the position. Mr. Mulford graduated from Cornell in 1899, with the degree of B. S. A., and then returned to the New York State College of Forestry, from which he graduated in 1901 with the degree of F. E. He was forester to the Connecticut Agricultural Experi- ment Station of New Haven from April, 1901, to July, 1904, and was also State Forester of Connecticut from July, rgo1, to July, 1904. During the summer term of 1902 and the fall term of 1903, he taught forest mensuration and silviculture in the Yale Forest School. Since July, 1904, he has been in charge of com- mercial tree studies in the southern Appalachian region for the Bureau of Forestry. Mr. Mulford has been president of the Connecticut Forestry Association since May, 1903; is an Active Member of The Society of American Foresters; was vice-presi- dent of the American Forestry Association for Connecticut for 86 Forestry Quarterly. 1903 and 1904; and was on the Board of Editors of the For- ESTRY QUARTERLY from its beginning until the present year. As soon as he completes his report on the Appalachian hard- woods, Mr. Mulford will study in Europe for several months, returning next fall to assume his duties at Ann Arbor, where he will lecture and have charge of the field work in silviculture and mensuration. Forestry has increased to such proportions in Massachusetts since the appointment of’ Alfred Akerman, M. F., as State For- ester, in June, 1904, that the position of Assistant State Forester has been created, and Mr. Akerman has selected Ralph Chipman Hawley of the Bureau of Forestry to assist him. Mr. Hawley graduated from Amherst College in 1901 with the degree of B. A. In 1904 he graduated from the Yale Forest School with the degree of M. F. During the summer of 1903 Mr. Hawley assisted in the preparation of working plans by the Bureau of Forestry for tracts in northern New Hampshire. In June, 1904, he was appointed a Forest Assistant in the Bureau of Forestry and assigned to the charge of a party making a working plan for coal and oil lands in West Virginia. Mr. Hawley will leave the service of the Bureau to assume the duties of his new position about April first. The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron and Coal Company has during the last few years inroduced in a tentative way some practical meas- ures upon their extensive holdings of lands in the northern pen- insula of Michigan. S. M. Higgins, of the New York State Col- lege of Forestry, has been in the service of the Company for nearly two years in the capacity of forester, and its professional force has lately been increased by the employment of Thos. B. Wyman, a recent graduate of the Biltmore Forest School. A more elaborate organization of the forest corps is contemplated by the Company in the near future. Willard W. Clark, F. E., Cornell, ’o2, who has been in the Philippines since the spring of 1902, makes many interesting statements regarding the work of the Philippine foresters, in a letter written to a friend here some time ago. He states that the geography, people, and trees are the three things the forester first learns on going into a province, and of these the first is the most simple, the last the most difficult. In connection with the trees the feat of learning to recognize News and Notes. 87 the species is easy compared to finding what to do with them. The really good trees which the market demands are few and scattered, and the methods of exploitation so crude and expensive that inferior species are left untouched. To the logging is added a high cost for sawing, which is done by hand, and for trans- portation. The cost of getting timber from the beach in the province of Masbati to Manila is 17 cents gold per cubic foot. As a result, Red Fir takes the place of the native timbers for many purposes, its retail price in Manila being $40 per M. Mo- lave, one of the most valuable native timbers, sells in Manila for 50 cents per cubic foot. One of the most difficult tasks is to mark the trees that are to be removed and to get the chopper to cut those marked and use the poor stuff. The blazes on a tree grow over so rapidly that they are soon obliterated. The metric system has been in use for about a year, and is said to work very satisfactorily, although confusing at first. Mr. Clark expects to visit the United States the coming sum- mer. The following is but one of the many indications that point out a bright future for forestry and foresters: TRAINED FoRESTERS WANTED.—As showing the practical in- terest which lumbermen are now taking in forestry, Mr. Thomas Southworth, Director of Colonization and Forestry, recently re- ceived a letter from an American owning large limits in Algoma, asking where he could get a trained forester. He wants an expert in that line to make an examination of his limits and lay down a plan for cutting timber in such a way as to conserve the young growth.—Canada Lumberman, January, 1905. It is especially gratifying to note the great interest in the pro- ceedings of the American Forest Congress manifested by all the prominent lumber journals. Almost without exception they gave extensive accounts of the various sessions of the Congress, many of the speeches and papers delivered being reproduced in full. It argues well for the future of forestry in this country when the solid business interests of the lumber trade are ranking themselves on the side of conservative management of forest properties. In the conventions of most all the various lumber manufactur- ers’ associations, held during the past few weeks, considerable 88 Forestry Quarterly. time has been given to forestry as concerning the future of the lumber industry. The following is a portion of the address of President R. H. Van Sant, at the opening of the convention of the Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association of the United States, meeting at Nashville, Tenn., January 21-25, reported in a recent issue of the St. Louis Lumberman: “Therefore, it is timely to suggest that we have reached the period for conservative and economical methods in the handling of our forests, if we are not so entirely selfish as to purpose not to leave for posterity any remnant of the timber wealth. The time for conservation in hardwood timber cutting is certainly at hand. “In this connection, I want to compliment the President of the United States for his interest in the subject of forest conservation and the re- building of American forests, which was manifested by the aid and sup- port he gave the Forest Congress, which convened at Washington on the second of this month. The educational features promulgated at that meeting should be of interest to every hardwood lumberman in the United States, and the carrying out of the practical suggestions there made should contribute very largely to their commercial success in the future.” As reported in the Southern Lumberman, we quote the follow- ing from the address of President R. A. Long, before the South- ern Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, which was in session at New Orleans, La., January 24-25, 1905. “T do not lay the same stress on the consuming of the forest that President Roosevelt does, viz.: ‘That its wiping out means commercial disaster to this country,’ for I am of the belief that should such a condi- tion be reached, viz.: entire consumption of our forests, that some kind of a substitute would be made therefor, yet, as stated previously, I regard the raw material which we are supplying as being so very different to the raw material applying to any of the more important manufactured pro- ducts, that we ought to consider it in a different way, or give more weight to its probable value a few years hence than we now give it, for should this view be taken, I am satisfied we would also give greater consideration to its present value. In determining the value of coal, the metals, and, I might say, all of the products that are covered by mother earth, we can only with safety figure on the matter of immediate supply and) Gemandsesn ea seee “The same applies to all other raw materials that are factors in the prominent industries of to-day, except that of timber. It stands above ground; it is not a difficult proposition to estimate carefully the amount of lumber it will produce. On the one side, we find the population of the country, backed up by its immense wealth; with both a rapid accumula- tion of people and money, growing industries, etc., as set forth in the- figures just related. On the other side, coming up to the same line, we find the timber resources of this country. At the close of each year, timber retreating, men and capital advancing, and in both cases, at a rapid Fatele wee ecceys “T believe, without a single exception, there is not a holder of timber properties of any great consequence in this body to-day that would not be worth more money ten years hence should he burn down his mills and sell his timber at the expiration of that time, than he will be worth by continued operations until his forests are consumed, -provided we con- News and Notes. 89 tinue to credit our timber account with an amount so much less than its real value, as is true to-day. ‘To say the least, I believe there is suffi- cient in this thought for us to relinquish our efforts somewhat in the operation of our mills, cutting out the night running at least, and pos- sibly reducing the day running to an extent. I trust whatever else you may do with the remainder of this address, you will give careful con- sideration to this particular feature.” The above is well worthy of attention, for although the speaker possesses that optimism so characteristic of the history of lum- bering in our country and believes that a substitute is sure to follow upon the destruction of our forest resources, still, despite this exhibition of faith, he is keenly alive to the business end of the matter, and advocates a reduction of the output of our large mills, as assisting in staving off final disaster. There is a general optimism prevalent among all trade journals as to the market for every variety of wood products during the coming year. In the lumber trade this feeling is especially ap- parent. ; : Large building operations planned for the year, the increased popularity of some of the hitherto little recognized species, and the stability of the established grades, all point to a year of un- paralleled prosperity. The agitation in favor of the Red Gum is most marked and the firms disposing of this class of timber have begun an active advertising crusade. The great interest in forestry and the reforestation of waste land existing in Pennsylvania is shown very forcibly by the recommendations in Governor Pennypacker’s address to the State legislature of 1905. He said in part: “I recommend that legis- lation be at once enacted, that the Board of Property dispose of no lands belonging to the State until they have been first ex- amined by the Commissioner of Forestry to ascertain whether they are adapted to forestry purposes, and if found to be so fitted that they may be retained for these purposes ...... IT recommend further as one means of diminishing the loss which comes from fire, that the railroad corporations of the State and those having railroad lines passing through it, be required under a fixed pen- alty and the payment of resultant damages, to put out fires within one hundred feet of the track, except in municipalities Lara It is high time that attention be given to the preservation of our streams, gifts of God to humanity which are essential to 90 Forestry Quarterly. happiness and comfort and even to life. Our streams are losing both beauty and utility and are being encroached upon by filling along their banks and using them as dumps for the refuse and pollution which comes from mills, factories and habitations.” Forestry in Greece is developing only slowly on account of the many laws of olden time (and popular malpractice) which can- not be overcome. Nowhere in the world (?) are forest fires so frequent as in Greece. ‘There are large and excellent forests of fir which the State tries to exploit. | The following prices per lb. are quoted for American and other exotic seeds by the well known firm of Johannes Rafn in Co- penhagen, who reports also a poor crop for Pseudotsuga, but a very good year for Abies concolor, Picea engelmanni and pungens and Pinus maurrayana. Most of the species have, to be sure, small interest for forest planters. Abies concolor $1.50, Picea engelmannia $3.50, Pinus murrayana $7.00, Larix leptolepis $1.60, Abies nordmanniana 30 cents, Picea omonica $10, the latter from Servia with 99 per cent. germination. FORESTRY QUARTERLY VoL. IIT] MAY 1905 [No. 2 AN ADAPTATION OF METHODS IN FOREST WORK The work of applied forestry in the United States is so varied in its practical form that the utmost pliability in methods is necessary to bring about satisfactory results. The following concrete case of adaptation in accepted field methods may be of interest to the profession. Any general line of work being decided on, the next care is to so arrange the details of field work that the best results may be had in the shortest time. In every case the measurement work falls under these heads: 1. The construction of a map. 2. The determination of the number and occurrence of the merchantable species. 3. The measurement of average trees of every age to get the normal growth and volume of the desired species. The construction of the map and the counting of the trees can of course be done at the same time, but a method must be employed which is most expeditious and efficient. Properly, the method selected should vary with every broad type of forest encountered. At McCloud, California, where the methods about to be de- scribed were put into effect in the preparation of a fire plan for a lumber company, the western yellow pine type of forest is generally very open after logging, with six to twelve scattered young poles to the acre. The ground cover is more or less dense chaparral interspersed with excellent reproduction often in large thickets. In many places the young trees occur in dense stands, generally in long, narrow strips. In very broken forest of this kind the usual strip valuation is of little value un- ; 5 92 Forestry Quarterly less a high per cent of surveys are taken and an average acre used for the whole tract. Since an estimate of the present and future yields of timber on each quarter-section separately was needed in the fire plan discussion and it was not feasible to spend time and money ona great number of strip surveys, some variation of that method had to be adopted. After experiment it was decided to run a series of cruisings which would give an actual tally of the trees on the tract. After laying out a base line through the middle of the tract along the township line, stations at ten-chain intervals were laid off in each section and numbered consecutively from the western corner of each section. From these stations the cruis- ings were run north and south. Two men were used in the work, one carrying the chain and compass, the other tallying the trees. The tally unit was an area five chains on each side of the compassman and ten chains long—equal to ten acres. Two such tallys went across a forty, giving eight to the section. A little practice makes the ocular estimate of five chains very exact and in the generally open pine stands it is easy to count and classify the trees above six inches on the area. Separate tally blanks were kept for each section in the following form: FORESTERS’ CRUISING TALLY SECTION 5, TOWNSHIP 89N, RANGE 2W NUMBER OF TREES ON EACH 10 ACRES SPECIES Going S$ Returning N Jrom Station 30 to Station 20 Western Yellow Pine 1| 2| 3| 4] 5| 6| 7 iid 32 W. Y. P. stubs Sugar Pine Red Fir White Fir Incense Cedar In this way it was possible to get a good approximation of the actual count on each forty, quarter-section, or section, as An Adaptation of Methods in Forest Work 93 desired. As shown, the trees six inches and over were thrown into five-inch classes and an attempt made to count the stand below six inches, though the results in the latter case were not to be used, the main idea being merely to get the exact location and area of scattered saplings and sapling thickets. The usual full notes were taken on the backs of the tally sheets. From them, therefore, we have a reasonably good located count of the trees in the given diameter classes, accurate data in a north and south direction for the map, and complete notes on the points necessary for future reference and general checking of results. In order to perfect both the notes and the map and to get the average diameter of the trees in the tally classes from actual caliperings, a five per cent series of regulation strip surveys was run east and west through the middle of each forty in the sec- tions. An average acre for each quarter-section was made from these, and on it average trees were found in diameter classes corres- ponding to those of the cruising. Besides, the average number per acre of young trees under six inches was taken from these surveys as probably more accurate than the ocular tally of dense groves of saplings. The strip surveys, however, were not used to determine the number of trees above six inches. From these joint, right-angled data an accurate map can be made and quite definite figures given for the extent, occurrence, and size of species on each quarter-section. This combined work of cruising and strip valuation survey was carried on simultaneously and engaged seven men. In the same time and with the same number of men it would not have been possible to make a higher strip valuation survey than ten per cent. Yet there is every reason to believe that such a sur- vey in this type would have failed to give equally certain results. A specimen tabulation of final results from the combined meth- ods and a comparison of each method separately are given be- low. In marked distinction to the pine type, the fir type of forest in the locality under consideration is extremely homogeneous in character, even after logging. Therefore it was not tallied by the cruisers, who confined themselves to determining its extent and to making notes on the fire conditions. Such a forest is. 94 Forestry Quarterly particularly liable to fierce fires and its area and location are most important factors in the position of fire lines. The com- position of the type was determined by a number of the usual strip valuation surveys and sample plots. The owners of the tract in question expect to log their entire holdings within 40 years, so it is of importance to forecast what they can get per acre if they commence a second cutting on the logged land as soon as their virgin timber is exhausted. On this account and because trees for analysis were present in every age and the growth seemed uniform throughout the tract, it was de- cided to dispense with the decade measurements in the stem analyses, taking only such measurements as were required to make an estimate of future yield on a forty-year basis. The form was therefore simplified to the following: STUMP Diameter 3 Diameter Dz 2. 6. Growth in breast- Height inside bark \ go years ago | last 40 years Age high Feet Inches Inches Inches Years Inches THe | eNesaher oF Diameter inside bark every 16 feet above stump height | graded logs I 2 3 4 5 6 Feet A B Inches | Inches | Inches \ Inches | Inches | Inches An attempt was made to carefully select every analyzed tree, and all abnormal growth, either great or small, was rigor- ously excluded. The results from these measurements are thor- oughly satisfactory for this particular case. Apart from the analyses, the usual sample plots and analyses of average trees were made in all ages of densely stocked thicket, of pole stand, and of fully stocked young standard forest which have been left standing on certain areas. The results of these sample plots give the history of the dense thicket very satisfac- torily in regard to age, diameter, height, and number per acre. The results from the analyses and sample plot figures were tabu- lated thus: | ‘ 2 An Adaptation of Methods in Forest Work 95 DEVELOPMENT OF A WELL-STOCKED SEEDLING THICKET OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE | DOMINANT TREES Total NVumber of Average | Average | Average | Number number of 6-foot total a. 7. b. age of trees all trees mine props height | on stump \ on stump | per acre per acre per acre Feet Inches Years The average height has been used as a basis to make it easier for the layman to recognize the various stages of the thicket when any one of them is before his eyes. The purpose of the work was to show that there would be a paying yield on logged land within reasonable time and that fire protection was, therefore, a matter of business interest. The forty-year estimates were generally given for each quar- er-section separately. The general form for this quarter-section estimate was as follows: - ESTIMATED STAND AND YIELD IN FORTY YEARS Township..... , Range..... gy ICELZON aia OUATEL ees: AVERAGE DIAMETER Total 2 Average Diameter number Total yield yteld bora class At In of trees es cd ee : in 4O years present | 40 years | on... acres sik OM). 3's ACTES: Inches Inches Inches Board feet | Board feet Soa 4&5 | 6-10 II-I5 16-20 20 & over Total Deducted for thicket, ....... acres; for non-forest,....... acres; for different type, ......... BETES 7 LOGAN) 5 s'ara2- « acres. General notes: As described on page 92, this table is based on cruisings. The count of trees below six inches, however, was taken from the average acre Of the strip surveys on each quarter-section, and . the average diameters in the tally classes also came from that source. The I-3-inch trees were not included in the estimates 96 Forestry Quarterly of yield in forty years if the quarter-section had no large areas of continuous thicket, although there will be excellent yields of mine timber from scattered saplings of this diameter class. Where thickets of unusual size exist, however, their area was deducted from the quarter-section estimate, and the forecast put in a sepa- rate table showing not only the final yield in 40 years, but sev- eral intermediate yields of mine timbers. PUTURE, YIELD (ON. 3 ACRES OF FULLY-STOCKED SEEDLING THICKET OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE Township ..... j§ RANGE sons » SCLRION is wieias PRESENT DOMINANT TREES Vield Vield Average | AZT4e | Aree | sine props | mine props Leight on stump per acre in IO years im 20 years feet Inches IN FORTY YEARS Height Stump Number of \ Average yield | Total yield & a. 2. b. trees per acre | On....acres per acre feet Inches Board feet | Board feet In concluding, it may be of interest to compare an estimate for a quarter-section obtained from the cruising with one based on the average acre of the strip surveys in the same area. The average tree in the tally classes is of course taken from the strip survey in both cases. ESTIMATE OF FUTURE YIELD ON A QUARTER-SECTION FROM CRUISING VALUATION SURVEYS AVERAGE DIAMETER ; Dagar NF ee A hie oe Total yield ot ee oe class At In of trees ot GO J CAES ng ies years present | 40 years | on 160 acres |\°™ 46° 9S | on 766 acres Inches Inches Inches Board feet | Board feet 1-3 4&5 : 6-10 7 19 384 re a ee II-I5 13 26 690 G7 Ze 5 DO oll Lee estates 16-20 18 31 762 1; 970,220 |) orotate 20 & over 2 38 338 LGSBEOR) AAMT be ea Total < 39334,962 21,520 An Adaptation of Methods in Forest Work 97 ESTIMATE OF FUTURE YIELD ON A QUARTER-SECTION FROM STRIP VALUATION SURVEYS AVERAGE DIAMETER Total | : Average Diameter fp Sie eo number rs, a plaid yield per acre class At in of trees |) peed acres| Ut 40 years present | 40 years | on T60 acres on 160 acres Inches Inches Inches Board feet | Board feet I-3 2 14 Sraee’ he Case aaa cya te tl coe tari 4&5 4 16 2h Rn RE CECE tm ager ree 6-10 7 19 502 IGASTEA AY Cee a II-15 13 26 242 ry SY Ya ee 16-20 18 31 562 LO17,220° “| AM ssa 20 & over 25 38 1,165 | Borage) lois ae Total 513955163 33,719 The above quarter-section is one of the best stocked on the tract. For that reason it should be more favorable to the strip method than the usual quarter in the pine type. For the pur- pose of experiment, this area was cruised with more than usual care, and the tally may therefore be taken as nearly correct. It happened that the strip survey ran through two patches of tim- ber rather larger than the average, and, in consequence, the 20- inch-and-over class was unduly exaggerated. The same check was put on several other quarter-sections, and in each case the cruisings ran under the strips, although often not to such an ex- tent. It is quite possible that the estimate for the smaller dia- meters, which were taken from the average strip acre, is also overestimated. As they were not used in the forecasts of yield, however, this is of small importance. They are at least accurate enough to show what may be expected in the way of ties and mine props. It may be well taken that the above comparison between an actual count of trees and a 5 per cent strip survey is unfair to the latter. General criticism is not intended, the comparison being instituted only to show how unable the usual strip method was to cope with a particular problem. The necessities of the case made three points necessary, viz., speed, an estimate of fu- ture yield by quarter-sections, and an especially accurate map to help in the planning of fire lines. In the case of the fir type the strip survey filled all these conditions, but in the open pine type 98 Forestry Quarterly that method seemed impracticable. In the latter the full tally was easy to accomplish by quarter-sections, and the lines north and south and east and west promised to give the best possible data for the map. The strip acre is probably the most widely practical form of forest valuation survey, and covers the vast majority of cases with entire satisfaction. There are instances, however, when the valuation work must be adapted to meet conditions less favor- able to it. In our wide range of forest work a well-considered adaptability of method is at least reasonable. WituiAM F. Hussarp THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT! In accordance with the provisions of an Act of Congress the Forester of the Department of Agriculture is charged with the selection — subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Inte- rior —of 231,400 acres of land from the Chippewa reservation in northern Minnesota. This area is to include 200,000 acres of pine land. According to the report of the Forester, a selection of 104,459 acres has been made. I have never read the act which provides for this reservation but, from statements of the Department concerning it, conclude that it stipulates that the Department, as it should do, is to form- ulate rules and regulations for its management; and that among these there is a provision that five per cent of pine trees shall be left; also that all pine trees under a certain size shall not be molested. Undoubtedly the five per cent of the mature trees are to be left for seed trees, and those under the stipulated size to also serve as seed trees as well as left to grow to maturity— all this with a view to natural reproduction. This must be so, for the American Forestry Association, of which Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, is president, held a meeting at Minneapolis, last August (1903), and its mem- bers were urged to attend for the reason that ‘Great significance is attached to this meeting in connection with the recent estab- lishment of a National Forestry Reserve at the headwaters of the Mississippi, with a stand of pine timber amounting to over I,000,000,000 feet, part of which is to be cut this winter under the direction of the Bureau of Forestry, with a view to repro- ducing the pine.” This scheme embodies two features :—One, the proper harves- ting of timber and the other the reproduction of a pine forest by ? This article, written by one of the Forest Commissioners of Pennsylvania, was received over a year ago, but by various accidents its publication has been delayed, for which an apology is due the author. The Editor is rather pleased with the delay, however, as it enables him to add his own views after ~. a personal visit to the experiment under discussion and to ventilate his ideas on the general questions involved.— EpDIToR. 100 Forestry Quarterly natural seeding, aided by allowing five per cent of the mature trees, and all small trees, to remain for seed trees. I do not propose to consider the first feature. The condition of the stand of pine must determine whether it is advisable to harvest it now in the face of an almost certain advance of its value in the near future. The latter feature, however,—reproduction on a large scale of a White Pine forest by natural seeding—is one that may well be discussed as it has to do directly with forestry methods and practice throughout the remaining White Pine re- gion of our country, and it may well be called the Minnesota Experiment. But in such reports of the proceedings of the Minneapolis meeting as I have seen, the reproduction of a stand of pine, in accordance with the suggestion in the call for the meeting, was not discussed. It may have been and, if so, what will here be said may have been anticipated. However, in the absence of such consideration appearing in the reports published in the newspapers, it cannot be far wrong to discuss that scheme at this time, in a spirit void of criticism and with a high appre- ciation of the efforts of the Bureau of Forestry to avert the im- pending calamity of a timber famine. The reproduction of pine forests in this country has, hereto- fore, been left almost entirely to unaided Nature, and it is well to consider whether such aid as is suggested by the Act of Congress, or the regulations of the Department, can be given whereby it will be as profitable, in the end, as to clear the ground at once and plant trees, as is largely practised abroad where there has been centuries of experience. In deciding this we should first profit by what observation has shown to be the habits of the pine, and the probability of its natural reproduction amidst its chan- ged surroundings; and it may be that by such investigation and consideration we may determine what method is best without depending alone on foreign experience. It is fair to assume that the Minnesota White Pine forests are, in general characteristics, substantially the same as were those that once stood in the eastern states. In the typical pine forests of Pennsylvania a good stand consisted of trees of approx- imately the same age. Some were larger than others because of The Minnesota Experiment IOI different ages, but in the main they were so from more favorable conditions of growth. In practically pure stands, or where min- gled with Hemlock and other large trees, there were no very small pines, seldom any below 10 inches in diameter. Of course they were all tall and well cleaned of limbs, with live ones prin- cipally at the top. No young trees of moment were observed where dense shade was cast, and what few were there were weak and feeble and could never amount to anything. The reason why this was so is too well known to be discussed here. To be sure, there were areas where a comparatively small amount of pine grew and where other trees occupied more or less of the ground, and frequently small pines were found there; when large pine trees were among deciduous trees and were tall and clean, the timber manufactured from them was of excel- lent quality. But there were so few of them and so unevenly distributed that such tracts should not be considered as a model for reforestation. The most profitable pine forest should; when mature, consist of that tree standing so closely as to cause them all to be tall, straight, and well cleaned. It was in such a forest as described that the eastern lumber- man began and carried on his work. As there was a great abundance of sound, straight, full-grown trees, and his profits were small at best, he chose only the good ones, seldom cutting, in the early days, any trees below 14 or 15 inches in diameter. More or less of the uncut timber was injured by the falling trees. A few years’ experience, however, showed that it made but little difference whether a tree which had been left was in- jured in that way or was not touched. About all died from being blown down by strong winds orsuccumbed in consequence of their changed conditions and surroundings.